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. Like all mammals , baleen whales breathe air and must surface periodically to do so . Their nostrils , or blowholes , are situated at the top of the cranium . Baleen whales have two blowholes , as opposed to toothed whales which have one . These paired blowholes are longitudinal slits that converge anteriorly and widen posteriorly , which causes a V @-@ shaped blow . They are surrounded by a fleshy ridge that keeps water away while the whale breathes . The septum that separates the blowholes has two plugs attached to it , making the blowholes water @-@ tight while the whale dives . Like other mammals , the skin of baleen whales has an epidermis , a dermis , a hypodermis , and connective tissue . The epidermis , the pigmented layer , is 0 @.@ 2 inches ( 5 mm ) thick , along with connective tissue . The epidermis itself is only 0 @.@ 04 inches ( 1 mm ) thick . The dermis , the layer underneath the epidermis , is also thin . The hypodermis , containing blubber , is the thickest part of the skin and functions as a means to conserve heat . Right whales have the thickest hypodermis of any cetacean , averaging 20 inches ( 51 cm ) , though , as in all whales , it is thinner around openings ( such as the blowhole ) and limbs . Blubber may also be used to store energy during times of fasting . The connective tissue between the hypodermis and muscles allows only limited movement to occur between them . Unlike in toothed whales , baleen whales have small hairs on the top of their head , stretching from the tip of the rostrum to the blowhole , and , in right whales , on the chin . Like other marine mammals , they lack sebaceous and sweat glands . The baleen of baleen whales are keratinous plates . They are made of a calcified hard α @-@ keratin material , a fiber @-@ reinforced structure made of intermediate filaments ( proteins ) . The degree of calcification varies between species , with the sei whale having 14 @.@ 5 % hydroxyapatite , a mineral that coats teeth and bones , whereas minke whales have 1 – 4 % hydroxyapatite . In most mammals , keratin structures , such as wool , air @-@ dry , but aquatic whales rely on calcium salts to form on the plates to stiffen them . Baleen plates are attached to the upper jaw and are absent in the mid @-@ jaw , forming two separate combs of baleen . The plates decrease in size as they go further back into the jaw ; the largest ones are called the " main baleen plates " and the smallest ones are called the " accessory plates " . Accessory plates taper off into small hairs . Unlike other whales ( and most other mammals ) , the females are larger than the males . Sexual dimorphism is usually reversed , with the males being larger , but the females of all baleen whales are usually five percent larger than males . Sexual dimorphism is also displayed through whale song , notably in humpback whales where the males of the species sing elaborate songs . Male right whales have bigger callosities than female right whales . The males are generally more scarred than females which is thought to be because of aggression during mating season . = = = Internal systems = = = The unique lungs of baleen whales are built to collapse under the pressure instead of resisting the pressure which would damage the lungs , enabling some , like the fin whale , to dive to a depth of − 1 @,@ 540 feet ( − 470 m ) . The whale lungs are very efficient at extracting oxygen from the air , usually 80 % , whereas humans only extract 20 % of oxygen from inhaled air . Lung volume is relatively low compared to terrestrial mammals because of the inability of the respiratory tract to hold gas while diving . Doing so may cause serious complications such as embolism . Unlike other mammals , the lungs of baleen whales lack lobes and are more sacculated . Like in humans , the left lung is smaller than the right to make room for the heart . To conserve oxygen , blood is rerouted from pressure @-@ tolerant @-@ tissue to internal organs , and they have a high concentration of myoglobin which allows them to hold their breath longer . The heart of baleen whales functions similarly to other mammals , with the major difference being the size . The heart can reach 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 454 kg ) , but is still proportional to the whale 's size . The muscular wall of the ventricle , which is responsible for pumping blood out of the heart , can be 3 to 5 inches ( 7 @.@ 6 to 12 @.@ 7 cm ) thick . The aorta , an artery , can be .75 inches ( 1 @.@ 9 cm ) thick . Their resting heart rate is 60 to 140 beats per minute ( bpm ) , as opposed to the 60 to 100 bpm in humans . When diving , their heart rate will drop to 4 to 15 bpm to conserve oxygen . Like toothed whales , they have a dense network of blood vessels ( rete mirabile ) which prevents heat @-@ loss . Like in most mammals , heat is lost in their extremities , so , in baleen whales , warm blood in the arteries is surrounded by veins to prevent heat loss during transport . As well as this , heat inevitably given off by the arteries warms blood in the surrounding veins as it travels back into the core . This is otherwise known as countercurrent exchange . To counteract overheating while in warmer waters , baleen whales reroute blood to the skin to accelerate heat @-@ loss . They have the largest blood corpuscles ( red and white blood cells ) of any mammal , measuring 4 @.@ 1 × 10 − 4 inches ( 10 µm ) in diameter , as opposed to human 's 2 @.@ 8 × 10 − 4 @-@ inch ( 7 @.@ 1 µm ) blood corpuscles . When sieved from the water , food is swallowed and travels through the esophagus where it enters a three @-@ chambered @-@ stomach . The first compartment is known as the fore @-@ stomach ; this is where food gets ground up into an acidic liquid , which is then squirted into the main stomach . Like in humans , the food is mixed with hydrochloric acid and protein @-@ digesting enzymes . Then , the partly digested food is moved into the third stomach , where it meets fat @-@ digesting enzymes , and is then mixed with an alkaline liquid to neutralize the acid from the fore @-@ stomach to prevent damage to the intestinal tract . Their intestinal tract is highly adapted to absorb the most nutrients from food ; the walls are folded and contain copious blood vessels , allowing for a greater surface area over which digested food and water can be absorbed . Baleen whales get the water they need from their food ; however , the salt content of most of their prey ( invertebrates ) are similar to that of seawater , whereas the salt content of a whale 's blood is considerably lower ( three times lower ) than that of seawater . The whale kidney is adapted to excreting excess salt ; however , while producing urine more concentrated than seawater , it wastes a lot of water which must be replaced . Baleen whales have a relatively small brain compared to their body mass . Like other mammals , their brain has a large , folded cerebrum , the part of the brain responsible for memory and processing sensory information . Their cerebrum only makes up about 68 % of their brain 's weight , as opposed to human 's 83 % . The cerebellum , the part of the brain responsible for balance and coordination , makes up 18 % of their brain 's weight , compared to 10 % in humans , which is probably due to the great degree of control necessary for constantly swimming . Necropsies on the brains of gray whales revealed iron oxide particles , which may allow them to find magnetic north like a compass . Unlike most animals , whales are conscious breathers . All mammals sleep , but whales cannot afford to become unconscious for long because they may drown . They are believed to exhibit unihemispheric slow @-@ wave sleep , in which they sleep with half of the brain while the other half remains active . This behavior was only documented in toothed whales until footage of a humpback whale sleeping ( vertically ) was shot in 2014 . It is largely unknown how baleen whales produce sound because of the lack of a melon and vocal cords . In a 2007 study , it was discovered that the larynx had U @-@ shaped folds which are thought to be similar to vocal cords . They are positioned parallel to air flow , as opposed to the perpendicular vocal cords of terrestrial mammals . These may control air flow and cause vibrations . The walls of the larynx are able to contract which may generate sound with support from the arytenoid cartilages . The muscles surrounding the larynx may expel air rapidly or maintain a constant volume while diving . = = = Senses = = = The eyes of baleen whales are relatively small for their size and are positioned near the end of the mouth . This is probably because they feed on slow or immobile prey , combined with the fact that most sunlight does not pass 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , and hence they do not need acute vision . A whale 's eye is adapted for seeing both in the euphotic and aphotic zones by increasing or decreasing the pupil 's size to prevent damage to the eye . As opposed to land mammals which have a flattened lens , whales have a spherical lens . The retina is surrounded by a reflective layer of cells ( tapetum lucidum ) , which bounces light back at the retina , enhancing eyesight in dark areas . However , light is bent more near the surface of the eye when in air as opposed to water ; consequently , they can see much better in the air than in the water . The eyeballs are protected by a thick outer layer to prevent abrasions , and an oily fluid ( instead of tears ) on the surface of the eye . Baleen whales appear to have limited color vision , as they lack S @-@ cones . The mysticete ear is adapted for hearing underwater , where it can hear sound frequencies as low as 7 Hz and as high as 22 kHz , with the exception of the 52 @-@ hertz whale . It is largely unknown how sound is received by baleen whales . Unlike in toothed whales , sound does not pass through the lower jaw . The auditory meatus is blocked by connective tissue and an ear plug , which connects to the eardrum . The inner @-@ ear bones are contained in the tympanic bulla , a bony capsule . However , this is attached to the skull , suggesting that vibrations passing through the bone is important . Sinuses may reflect vibrations towards the cochlea . It is known that when the fluid inside the cochlea is disturbed by vibrations , it triggers sensory hairs which send electrical current to the brain , where vibrations are processed into sound . Baleen whales have a small , yet functional , vomeronasal organ . This allows baleen whales to detect chemicals and pheromones released by their prey . It is thought that ' tasting ' the water is important for finding prey , and track down other whales . They are believed to have an impaired sense of smell due to the lack of the olfactory bulb , but they do have an olfactory tract . Baleen whales have few if any taste buds , suggesting they have lost their sense of taste . They do retain salt @-@ receptor taste @-@ buds suggesting that they can taste saltiness . = = Behavior = = = = = Migration = = = It is thought that plankton blooms dictate where whales migrate . This usually occurs in the polar regions during the sunny spring and summer months , bringing along other plankton such as euphausiids which whales feed on . They also migrate to calving grounds in tropical waters during the winter months when plankton populations are low . As well as this , newborns , with underdeveloped blubber , would likely die of frostbite in the winter temperatures . It is also postulated by a 2008 study that these take place to avoid calves being predated on by killer whales . The migration cycle is repeated annually . The gray whale has the longest recorded migration of any mammal , with one traveling 14 @,@ 000 miles ( 23 @,@ 000 km ) from the Sea of Okhotsk to the Baja Peninsula . = = = Foraging = = = All baleen whales are carnivorous ; however a 2015 study revealed they house gut flora similar to that of terrestrial herbivores . Different kinds of prey are found in different abundances depending on location , and each type of whale is adapted to a specialized way of foraging . There are two types of feeding behaviors : gulp @-@ feeding and lunge @-@ feeding , but some species do both depending on the type and amount of food . For example , Antarctic residents mostly feed on Euphausiids ; however , this is mainly effective for lunge @-@ feeders , whereas gulp @-@ feeders , like the right whales , feed primarily on copepods . They feed alone or in small groups . Baleen whales get the water they need from their food , and their kidneys excrete excess salt . The lunge @-@ feeders are the rorquals and the pygmy right whale . To feed , lunge @-@ feeders expand the volume of their jaw to a volume bigger than the original volume of the whale itself ; to do this , the mouth inflates to expand the mouth . The inflation of the mouth causes the throat pleats to expand , increasing the amount of water that the mouth can store . Just before they ram the baitball , the jaw swings open at almost a 90 ° angle and bends which lets in more water . To prevent stretching the mouth too far , rorquals have a sensory organ located in the middle of the jaw to regulate these functions . Then they must decelerate . This process takes a lot of mechanical work , and is only energy @-@ effective when used against a large baitball . The gulp @-@ feeders , or skim @-@ feeders , are right whales and gray whales . To feed , gulp @-@ feeders swim with an open mouth , filling it with water and prey . Prey must occur in sufficient numbers to trigger the whale 's interest , be within a certain size range so that the baleen plates can filter it , and be slow enough so that it cannot escape . The " skimming " may take place on the surface , underwater , or even at the ocean 's bottom , indicated by mud occasionally observed on right whales ' bodies . Gray whales feed primarily on the ocean 's bottom , feeding on benthic creatures . = = = Predation and parasitism = = = Adult baleen whales , because of their great size , do not have any natural predators . However , calves can be preyed on by the killer whale . It is thought that annual whale migration occurs to protect the calves from the killer whales . There have also been reports of a pod of killer whales attacking and killing an adult bowhead whale , by holding down its flippers , covering the blowhole , and ramming and biting until death . Generally , a mother and calf pair , when faced with the threat of a killer whale pod , will either fight or flee . Fleeing only occurs in species that can swim away quickly , the rorquals . Slower whales must fight the pod alone or with a small family group . There has been one report of a shark attacking and killing a whale calf . This occurred in 2014 during the sardine run when a shiver of dusky sharks attacked a humpback whale calf . Usually , the only shark that will attack a whale is the cookie cutter shark , which leaves a small , non @-@ fatal bite mark . Many parasites latch onto whales , notably whale lice and whale barnacles . Almost all species of whale lice are specialized towards a certain species of whale , and there can be more than one species per whale . Whale lice eat dead skin , resulting in minor wounds in the skin . Whale louse infestations are especially evident in right whales , where colonies propagate on their callosities . Though not a parasite , whale barnacles latch onto the skin of a whale during their larval stage . However , in doing so it does not harm nor benefit the whale , so their relationship is often labeled as an example of commensalism . Some baleen whales will deliberately rub themselves on substrate to dislodge parasites . Some species of barnacle , such as Conchoderma auritum and whale barnacles , attach to the baleen plates , though this seldom occurs . A species of copepod , Balaenophilus unisetus , inhabits baleen plates of whales in tropical waters . A species of Antarctic diatom , Cocconeis ceticola , forms a film on the skin , which takes a month to develop ; this film causes minor damage to the skin . They are also plagued by internal parasites such as stomach worms , cestodes , nematodes , liver flukes , and acanthocephalans . = = = Reproduction and development = = = Before reaching adulthood , baleen whales grow at an extraordinary rate . In the blue whale , the largest species , the fetus grows by some 220 lb ( 100 kg ) per day just before delivery , and by 180 lb ( 80 kg ) per day during suckling . Before weaning , the calf increases its body weight by 17 t ( 17 long tons ; 19 short tons ) and grows from 23 to 26 ft ( 7 to 8 m ) at birth to 43 to 52 ft ( 13 to 16 m ) long . When it reaches sexual maturity after 5 – 10 years , it will be 66 to 79 ft ( 20 to 24 m ) long and possibly live as long as 80 – 90 years . Calves are born precocial , needing to be able to swim to the surface at the moment of their birth . Most rorquals mate in warm waters in winter to give birth almost a year later . A 7 @-@ to @-@ 11 month lactation period is normally followed by a year of rest before mating starts again . Adults normally start reproducing when 5 – 10 years old and reach their full length after 20 – 30 years . In the smallest rorqual , the minke whale , 10 ft ( 3 m ) calves are born after a 10 @-@ month pregnancy and weaning lasts until it has reached about 16 to 18 ft ( 5 to 5 @.@ 5 m ) after 6 – 7 months . Unusual for a baleen whale , female minkes ( and humpbacks ) can become pregnant immediately after giving birth ; in most species , there is a two @-@ to @-@ three @-@ year calving period . In right whales , the calving interval is usually three years . They grow very rapidly during their first year , after which they hardly increase in size for several years . They reach sexual maturity when 43 to 46 ft ( 13 to 14 m ) long . Baleen whales are K @-@ strategists , meaning they raise one calf at a time , have a long life @-@ expectancy , and a low infant mortality rate . Some 19th century harpoons found in harvested bowheads indicate this species can live more than 100 years . Baleen whales are promiscuous , with none showing pair bonds . They are polygynous , in that a male may mate with more than one female . The scars on male whales suggest they fight for the right to mate with females during breeding season , somewhat similar to lek mating . Baleen whales have fibroelastic ( connective tissue ) penises , similar to those of artiodactyls . The tip of the penis , which tapers toward the end , is called the pars intrapraeputialis or terminal cone . The blue whale has the largest penis of any organism on the planet , typically measuring 8 – 10 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 – 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Accurate measurements of the blue whale are difficult to take because the whale 's erect length can only be observed during mating . The penis on a right whale can be up to 2 @.@ 7 m ( 8 @.@ 9 ft ) – the testes , at up to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) in length , 78 cm ( 2 @.@ 56 ft ) in diameter , and weighing up to 525 lb ( 238 kg ) , are also the largest of any animal on Earth . = = = Whale song = = = All baleen whales use sound for communication and are known to " sing " , especially during the breeding season . Blue whales produce the loudest sustained sounds of any animals : their low @-@ frequency ( about 20 Hz ) moans can last for half a minute , reach almost 190 decibels , and be heard hundreds of kilometers away . Adult male humpbacks produce the longest and most complex songs ; sequences of moans , groans , roars , sighs , and chirps sometimes lasting more than ten minutes are repeated for hours . Typically , all humpback males in a population sing the same song over a breeding season , but the songs change slightly between seasons , and males in one population have been observed adapting the song from males of a neighboring population over a few breeding seasons . = = = Intelligence = = = Unlike their toothed whale counterparts , baleen whales are hard to study because of their immense size . Intelligence tests such as the mirror test cannot be done because their bulk and lack of body language makes a reaction impossible to be definitive . However , studies on the brains of humpback whales revealed spindle cells , which , in humans , control theory of mind . Because of this , it is thought that baleen whales , or at least humpback whales , have consciousness . = = Relationship with humans = = = = = History of whaling = = = Whaling by humans has existed since the Stone Age . Ancient whalers used harpoons to spear the bigger animals from boats out at sea . People from Norway started hunting whales around 4 @,@ 000 years ago , and people from Japan began hunting whales in the Pacific at least as early as that . Whales are typically hunted for their meat and blubber by aboriginal groups ; they used baleen for baskets or roofing , and made tools and masks out of bones . The Inuit hunted whales in the Arctic Ocean . The Basques started whaling as early as the 11th century , sailing as far as Newfoundland in the 16th century in search of right whales . 18th and 19th century whalers hunted down whales mainly for their oil , which was used as lamp fuel and a lubricant , and baleen ( or whalebone ) , which was used for items such as corsets and skirt hoops . The most successful whaling nations at this time were the Netherlands , Japan , and the United States . Commercial whaling was historically important as an industry well throughout the 19th and 20th centuries . Whaling was at that time a sizable European industry with ships from Britain , France , Spain , Denmark , the Netherlands , and Germany , sometimes collaborating to hunt whales in the Arctic . By the early 1790s , whalers , namely the British ( Australian ) and Americans , started to focus efforts in the South Pacific ; in the mid 1900s , over 50 @,@ 000 humpback whale were taken from the South Pacific . At its height in the 1880s , U.S. profits turned to USD10,000,000 , equivalent to USD225,000,000 today . Commonly exploited species included arctic whales such as the gray whale , right whale , and bowhead whale because they were close to the main whaling ports , like New Bedford . After those stocks were depleted , rorquals in the South Pacific were targeted by nearly all whaling organizations ; however , they often out @-@ swam whaling vessels . Whaling rorquals was not effective until the harpoon cannon was invented in the late 1860s . Whaling basically stopped when stocks of all species were depleted to a point that they could not be harvested on a commercial scale . Whaling was controlled in 1982 when the International Whaling Commission ( IWC ) placed a moratorium setting catch limits to protect species from dying out from over @-@ exploitation , and eventually banned it : Notwithstanding the other provisions of paragraph 10 , catch limits for the killing for commercial purposes of whales from all stocks for the 1986 coastal and the 1985 / 86 pelagic seasons and thereafter shall be zero . This provision will be kept under review , based upon the best scientific advice , and by 1990 at the latest the Commission will undertake a comprehensive assessment of the effects of this decision on whale stocks and consider modification of this provision and the establishment of other catch limits . – IWC Commission Schedule , paragraph 10 ( e ) = = = Conservation and management issues = = = As of 2013 , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) recognizes 15 mysticete species . One species — the North Atlantic right whale — is Endangered with only around 400 ( ± 50 ) individuals left , and four more are also classified as Endangered ( North Pacific right whale , the blue whale , the fin whale , and the Sei whale ) , and another 5 ranked as Data deficient ( Bryde 's whale , Eden 's whale , Omura 's whale , Southern minke whale , and pygmy right whale ) . Species that live in polar habitats are vulnerable to the effects of ongoing climate change , particularly declines in sea ice , as well as ocean acidification . The whale watching industry and anti @-@ whaling advocates argue that whaling catches " friendly " whales that are curious about boats , as these whales are the easiest to catch . This analysis claims that once the economic benefits of hotels , restaurants and other tourist amenities are considered , hunting whales is a net economic loss . This argument is particularly contentious in Iceland , as it has among the most @-@ developed whale @-@ watching operations in the world and the hunting of minke whales resumed in August 2003 . Brazil , Argentina and South Africa argue that whale watching is a growing billion @-@ dollar industry that provides more revenue than commercial whaling would provide . Peru , Uruguay , Australia , and New Zealand also support proposals to permanently forbid whaling south of the Equator , as Solor ( an island of Indonesia ) is the only place of the Southern Hemisphere that takes whales . Anti @-@ whaling groups claim that developing countries which support a pro @-@ whaling stance are damaging their economies by driving away anti @-@ whaling tourists . Commercial whaling was historically important for the world economy . All species were exploited , and as one type 's stock depleted , another type was targeted . The scale of whale harvesting decreased substantially through the 1960s as all whale stocks had been depleted , and practically stopped in 1988 after the International Whaling Commission placed a moratorium which banned whaling for commercial use . Several species that were commercially exploited have rebounded in numbers ; for example , gray whales may be as numerous as they were prior to whaling , making it the first marine mammal to be taken off the Endangered species list . The Southern right whale was hunted to near extinction in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 20th century , with only a small ( unknown ) population around Antarctica . Because of international protection , the Southern right whale 's population has been growing 7 % annually since 1970 . Conversely , the eastern stock of North Atlantic right whale was extirpated from much of its former range , which stretched from the coast of North Africa to the North Sea and Iceland ; it is thought that the entire stock consists of only ten individuals , making the eastern stock functionally extinct . Baleen whales continue to be harvested . However , only three nations take whales : Iceland , Norway , and Japan . All these nations are part of the IWC , with Norway and Iceland rejecting the moratorium and continuing commercial whaling . Japan , being part of the IWC , whales under the Scientific Permit stated in Article VIII in the Convention for the Regulation of Whaling , which allows the taking of whales for scientific research . Japan has had two main research programs : the Joint Aquatic Resources Permit Application ( JARPA ) and the Japanese Research Program in the North ( JARPN ) . JARPN is focused in the North Pacific and JARPA around the Antarctic . JARPA mainly caught Antarctic minke whales , catching nearly 7 @,@ 000 ; to a far lesser extent , they also caught fin whales . Animal @-@ rights activist groups , such as the Greenpeace , object to Japan 's scientific whaling , with some calling it a substitute for commercial whaling . In 2014 , the International Court of Justice ( the UN judicial branch ) banned the taking of whales for any purpose in the Southern Ocean Whale Sanctuary ; however , Japan refuses to stop whaling and has only promised to cut their annual catches by a third ( around 300 whales per year ) . Baleen whales can also be affected by humans in more indirect ways . For species like the North Atlantic right whale , which migrates through some of the world 's busiest shipping lanes , the biggest threat is from being struck by ships . The Lloyd 's mirror effect results in low frequency propeller sounds not being discernible near the surface , where most accidents occur . Combined with spreading and acoustic shadowing effects , the result is that the whale is unable to hear an approaching vessel before it has been run over or entrapped by the hydrodynamic forces of the vessel 's passage . A 2014 study noted that a lower vessel speed correlated with lower collision rates . The ever @-@ increasing amount of ocean noise , including sonar , drowns out the vocalizations produced by whales , notably in the blue whale which produces the loudest vocalization , which makes it harder for them to communicate . Blue whales stop producing foraging D calls once a mid @-@ frequency sonar is activated , even though the sonar frequency range ( 1 – 8 kHz ) far exceeds their sound production range ( 25 – 100 Hz ) . Poisoning from toxic substances such as Polychlorinated biphenyl ( PCB ) is generally low because of their low trophic level . Some baleen whales can become victims of bycatch , which is especially serious for North Atlantic right whales considering there are only 450 left . Right whales feed with a wide @-@ open mouth , risking entanglement in any rope or net fixed in the water column . Rope wraps around their upper jaw , flippers and tail . Some are able to escape , but others remain entangled . If observers notice , they can be successfully disentangled , but others die over a period of months . Other whales , such as humpback whales , can also be entangled . = = = In captivity = = = Baleen whales have rarely been kept in captivity . Their large size and appetite make them expensive creatures to maintain . Pools of proper size would also be very expensive to build . For example , a single gray whale calf would need to eat 475 pounds ( 215 kg ) of fish per day , and the pool would have to accommodate the 13 @-@ foot ( 4 m ) calf , along with ample room to swim . Only two species have survived being kept in captivity for over a year : gray whales and minke whales . The first gray whale , who was captured in Scammon 's Lagoon , Baja California Sur , in 1965 , was named Gigi and died two months later from an infection . The second gray whale , who was captured in 1972 from the same lagoon , was named Gigi II and was released a year later after becoming too big . The last gray whale , J.J. , beached herself in Marina del Rey , California , where she was rushed to SeaWorld San Diego and , after 14 months , was released because she got too big to take care of . Reaching 19 @,@ 200 pounds ( 8 @,@ 700 kg ) and 31 feet ( 9 @.@ 4 m ) , J.J. was the largest creature to be kept in captivity . The Mito Aquarium in Numazu , Shizuoka , Japan , housed three minke whales in the nearby bay enclosed by nets . One survived for three months , another ( a calf ) survived for two weeks , and another was kept for a year before breaking through the nets . = Louis F. Menage = Louis Francois Menage ( August 3 , 1850 – March 18 , 1924 ) was a real estate speculator and prominent figure in early Minneapolis , Minnesota history . Originally born in Rhode Island , he settled in Minneapolis in 1874 . Characterized as a " tycoon " and " robber baron , " Menage earned a fortune developing land on the city 's borders into residential housing and financing the mortgages to enable people to buy his properties . During the 1870s and 1880s , he developed large areas of South Minneapolis including much of the area around Lake Calhoun and Lake Harriet . He also developed a luxury resort on Lake Calhoun and built a corporate headquarters which was at the time the city 's tallest skyscraper . After a costly legal battle over a real estate deal with William S. King and the financial downturn of the Panic of 1893 , Menage 's real estate empire collapsed and he fled the country to avoid prosecution on charges of embezzlement . The charges against Menage were eventually dropped after several key witnesses had died or become hesitant to testify against him . He spent the later portion of his life working in real estate in the New York City area and never worked in Minnesota again . = = Early life = = Menage was born in Providence , Rhode Island in 1850 . His father , John Menage , was the descendant of French immigrants ; his mother Mary was a descendant of Mayflower passenger John Howland . The family moved to New Bedford , Massachusetts , when Menage was young . While in Menage was high school , his father died of tuberculosis , leaving Louis and his brother to take over the family 's confectionery business . In 1871 , a doctor diagnosed Menage with " weak lungs " and suggested he move west to avoid falling ill with tuberculosis himself . Menage moved to Minnesota shortly thereafter . After a brief time teaching classes in shorthand at a Minneapolis business school , he found work as a business clerk in Northern Minnesota at a logging camp near Pokegama Lake . = = Real estate empire = = In 1874 , Menage returned to Minneapolis and entered the real estate business with partner H. C. Brackett . Menage gradually built an empire by purchasing farmland at the fringes of the city , platting and developing the property into residential neighborhoods , then financing the mortgages for people to purchase the homes . He also worked with Thomas Lowry , head of the city 's streetcar system , to ensure that new lines were built to serve the outlying areas he was developing . Much of the present day Prospect Park neighborhood , and the areas surrounding Lake Harriet and Lake Calhoun , were developed by Menage and his companies . A small inclusion in the title of every property Menage sold was a covenant stating that it would revert to Menage or his descendants if alcohol was ever sold there . Menage would release this covenant in exchange for a small cash payment .. This so @-@ called " Menage forfeiture clause " remained in force on thousands of properties for decades . The cash payments to release it generated a significant side income for Menage and his successors . In 1937 , the Minnesota Legislature passed a law nullifying the clause . On September 13 , 1876 Menage married Amanda A. Bull , daughter of local businessman and Minneapolis pioneer Benjamin S. Bull . They had one daughter , Bessie ( 1877 – 1940 ) . In June 1883 , he opened the luxurious Lyndale Hotel near Lake Calhoun . One of the city 's first luxury resorts , the hotel featured multi @-@ room suites and luxurious common areas including a dining room , music hall and two verandas . The hotel 's opening was celebrated with a gala attended by many of the city 's leaders and elites . A streetcar was specially arranged to take guests back to Minneapolis after the night 's festivities had ended . = = Lyndale Farm = = Menage ran into legal trouble with the purchase of a large plot of land south of Minneapolis known as " Lyndale Farm . " Owned by William S. King , the land had been placed in trust with New York financier Philo Remington in 1875 after King had fallen into financial trouble . Remington ( joined later by a partner , Robert Innes ) advanced King a sum of money in exchange for managing the land and seeing that it was developed or sold for a fair price . When King declared bankruptcy in 1877 , Remington and Innes purchased the Lyndale Farm land from King for a token sum but promised to honor their previous agreement . Remington and Innes later met with Menage and , in 1882 , devised a plan to sell King 's land to Menage for development without telling King . Menage also negotiated a separate deal with Innes ( likely behind Remington 's back ) where he agreed to pay him one @-@ third of the profits made from the land as a finder 's fee and in exchange for Innes ' help keeping Remington and King at bay . Menage proceeded to develop the land into housing and profited handsomely . By 1885 , King became aware of the scheme and retained lawyer John Van Voorhis to sue Menage . Menage claimed ignorance of the first agreement between King , Remington and Innes and asserted that he had purchased the property outright from the two . After a lengthy trial in Minnesota District Court , Menage lost and was ordered to return the land to King along with all proceeds from the development of the land . Menage appealed to the Minnesota Supreme Court in 1886 , however the lower court 's decision was upheld . The total amount Menage paid to King was approximately $ 2 million ( $ 52 @.@ 67 million in 2015 ) . While at the time Menage maintained he was not burdened by the judgment , he later recalled the protracted legal battle and subsequent loss " threatened bankruptcy and ruin . " = = Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company = = In 1889 , Menage founded the Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company to handle the mortgage side of his real estate business . Among the members of the company 's board were : John S. Pillsbury , William D. Washburn , Thomas Lowry , William Henry Eustis , Loren Fletcher , and many other important political and business figures . His real estate business was handled by a separate company called the Menage Realty Company . In 1890 , Menage further cemented his place in the city by building the Northwestern Guaranty Loan Building ( more commonly known as the Metropolitan Building ) , the city 's tallest skyscraper , at a cost of more than $ 1 million ( $ 26 @.@ 34 million in 2015 ) . The building was home to all of Menage 's various companies as well as other offices , a rooftop restaurant , and a private law library . While Minneapolis was the center of Menage 's empire , he also owned land and property elsewhere in the Midwest and western states including Bozeman , Montana , Galveston , Texas , Gary , Indiana , and Madison , Wisconsin . = = Philanthropy = = Menage contributed to various charitable and philanthropic causes in Minneapolis . He donated funds toward the construction of the first Minneapolis Public Library building , provided a temporary home for the Ripley Memorial Hospital , and also sponsored a new bell in the First Baptist Church which he attended . In 1890 , Menage sponsored a scientific expedition to the Philippines in partnership with the Minnesota Academy of Natural Sciences . The expedition , led primarily by Dean Conant Worcester and Frank Swift Bourns , collected thousands of specimens of birds and animals ; some , such as the Philippine slow loris ( Nycticebus menagensis ) and the Sulu bleeding @-@ heart ( Gallicolumba menagei ) , were named in honor of Menage . While many of the specimens from the expedition appear to have been lost or discarded , some remain in the collections of the Bell Museum of Natural History and the Field Museum of Natural History . = = Financial collapse and later life = = In the early 1890s , Menage had begun to purchase land near Puget Sound in Washington , accumulating several thousand acres which he planned to develop into an iron mine , smelter and steel mill , along with housing for the workers . To finance the development he sold an early form of mortgage @-@ backed security to investors in New England and Europe . When the Panic of 1893 occurred , investors found that Menage 's properties were fraudulent . Many of the deeds were held by random names taken from the Minneapolis and Saint Paul telephone books , the properties themselves were unimproved , and the payments to investors were being made out of the bank 's funds . His Northwestern Guaranty Loan Company ( and , by the law of the era , its shareholders ) were liable for the losses . Menage was indicted on charges of embezzlement but fled to Guatemala before a warrant for his arrest was issued . Menage 's assistant , Donald Streeter , was tried twice but both trials ended with a hung jury . In an 1895 letter , Menage protested his innocence , blaming the Lyndale Farm lawsuit for hurting his finances and also noting ( correctly ) that : " the practice of using another 's name on a note or mortgage is not unknown in the business world . " In 1899 , the charges against Menage were dropped after several key witnesses had died and others appeared reluctant to testify . By some accounts Menage was present in the courtroom at the time ; others suggest he never returned to Minneapolis . Menage spent the rest of his life living in New Jersey and working in real estate in the New York City area . He died in 1924 . He is buried in Lakewood Cemetery in Minneapolis . = James Dutton ( Royal Marines officer ) = Lieutenant General Sir James Benjamin " Jim " Dutton , KCB , CBE , ADC ( born 21 February 1954 ) is the former Governor of Gibraltar and a retired Royal Marines officer . He held various staff positions in his early career , before commanding 40 Commando . As a brigadier , he held two high @-@ level staff posts — the first at the Ministry of Defence in London , as Director of NATO policy , and the second as a British liaison to The Pentagon shortly after the September 11 attacks , where he was involved in the planning for the subsequent invasion of Afghanistan . A newspaper later pinpointed this as the moment when Dutton 's career " took off " . After the planning for the invasion , Dutton took command of 3 Commando Brigade , which was already serving in Afghanistan . In 2003 , he led the brigade into the start of Iraq War , supported by units from the British Army as well as the United States Marine Corps , making Dutton the first British officer to command American troops since the Second World War . He commanded his men through heavy resistance from Iraqi forces in the early days of the war . As a general officer , he served as Commandant General Royal Marines , the professional head of the Royal Marines and a dual @-@ hatted appointment with Commander UK Amphibious Forces , for two years . While in this post , Dutton returned to Iraq to command Multi @-@ national Division ( South @-@ East ) in 2005 , where he attracted media attention through outspoken remarks alleging Iranian support for the insurgents in Iraq . His last field post , as a lieutenant general , was as Deputy Commander of the International Security Assistance Force in Afghanistan . He held the position from 2008 to 2009 , during the peak of the Taliban insurgency , and assisted American General Stanley A. McChrystal , then commander of ISAF , in redesigning the military strategy to combat the insurgency . Dutton retired in 2010 but was later appointed Governor of Gibraltar , taking up office on 6 December 2013 , where he retired early , in September 2015 . = = Early and personal life = = Dutton , the son of Edgar and Aileen Dutton , was educated at The King 's School , Chester , before attending City University London , where he gained a Bachelor of Science degree in Systems and Management . He is married to Elizabeth ( née Waddell ) . The couple have one son , who is also an officer in the Royal Marines , and one daughter . Dutton lists his interests as sailing and running . = = Early military career = = Dutton originally applied to join the British Army but failed the selection process . He applied to join , and was commissioned into , the Royal Marines in 1972 . He was promoted to acting lieutenant in 1975 , before being granted the substantive rank in 1976 , with seniority from October 1975 . He served as a signals officer in the Falklands War and , after holding a variety of staff positions in the junior ranks , was promoted to major in 1990 . In 1996 he assumed command of 40 Commando , in which position he served on manoeuvres in Asia and South Africa . As a brigadier , Dutton served at the Ministry of Defence as Director , NATO policy , a senior staff post , prior to attending the Royal College of Defence Studies . He was pulled off the course before completion and seconded to The Pentagon in Washington , DC to act as liaison between the British Chief of the Defence Staff and the American Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in the immediate aftermath of the terrorist attacks on the United States . While seconded to The Pentagon , Dutton was involved in the joint American and British planning for the subsequent " War on Terror " . The Times called this assignment the moment Dutton 's career " took off " . " Keen " to command the Royal Marines in action in Afghanistan , Dutton took command of 3 Commando Brigade in 2002 and deployed to Afghanistan in command of 1700 personnel , succeeding Roger Lane . The replacement was controversial and led to speculation that it was politically motivated by Lane 's criticism of the Ministry of Defence and public contradiction of Geoff Hoon , then Secretary of State for Defence , over the readiness of troops . The brigade had a tour of duty in Iraq in early 2003 , at the very beginning of the Iraq War . Dutton led 3 Commando , as well as supporting units from the Royal Engineers , 7 Armoured Division , 16 Air Assault Brigade along with troops from multiple other nations , including US Marines , the first time American troops had been under the operational command of a British officer since the Second World War . Royal Marines from 40 Commando under Dutton 's overall command , along with United States Navy SEALs , secured oil fields on the Al @-@ Faw Peninsula to prevent them from being burned in the first days of the ground operation , after which 40 Commando and others from 3 Commando Brigade moved up the peninsula and took the port city of Umm Qasr , where they encountered resistance into the fifth day of the ground campaign . Dutton also commanded the brigade through heavy fighting on the outskirts of Basra and commented that the fighting had been more intense there than predicted , saying " the planning assumption had always been that the advancing coalition forces would simply sweep past Basra and it would implode by itself " . Dutton 's calmness during the invasion prompted journalist Tim Butcher , who reported on the war while attached to 3 Commando Brigade , to describe him as " a lean , thinking man with none of the tub @-@ thumping machismo of some officers " and " coldly professional in his job " . While still under Dutton 's command in late 2003 , 3 Commando Brigade conducted the Royal Marines ' first visit to Slovenia , prior to the country 's ascension to the European Union and NATO , for alpine warfare training led by Slovenian troops and culminating in the five @-@ day Exercise Royal Chamois . With the brigade , Dutton also undertook cold @-@ weather training in Norway in 2004 . He was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in October 2003 . In 2002 , Dutton was given the honorary appointment of Aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the Queen . = = High command = = Dutton attained general officer status with promotion to major general on 4 May 2004 , and was appointed to the double @-@ hatted post of Commandant General Royal Marines ( CGRM ) and Commander UK Amphibious Forces ( COMUKAMPHIBFOR ) . He relinquished CGRM / COMUKAMPHIBFOR in June 2006 , succeeded by Major General Garry Robison , taking a staff post as Chief of Staff ( Capability ) , before appointment to Chief of Staff ( Operations ) . He was appointed Honorary Colonel of 131 Independent Commando Squadron Royal Engineers in March 2006 , succeeding Lieutenant General Sir Robert Fry . In 2005 , he deployed to Basra , Iraq , taking command of Multi @-@ national Division ( South @-@ East ) . While there , he was outspoken on the subject of improvised explosive devices , responsible for many coalition casualties , and accusing neighbouring Iran of aiding , or failing to prevent , the smuggling of munitions across the border into Iraq . Dutton added " I simply don 't know whether this is Iranian government policy or whether this is simply groups who are using Iran for their own purposes and not being controlled " . Having been promoted to lieutenant general in November 2008 , Dutton succeeded Army Lieutenant General Jonathon Riley as Deputy Commander of the International Security Assistance Force ( ISAF ) in Afghanistan , a position he occupied until November 2009 . During his tenure , the insurgency in Afghanistan peaked . Dutton helped American General Stanley A. McChrystal , then overall commander of troops in the country , formulate a new strategy to combat the insurgency , which included an increase in the number of troops . Dutton was succeeded in his post at ISAF by Lieutenant General ( later General Sir ) Nick Parker at the end of 2009 . Upon his return from Afghanistan , Dutton wrote an article for The Guardian newspaper , in which he opined that the NATO @-@ led forces in the country were making a difference and the situation was improving , but that the Afghan government still required assistance . He argued that more troops did not necessarily mean more violence , saying that " experience shows that after an initial spike as the insurgents are cleared out , violence reduces to much lower levels " and that " providing a sense of security depends on much more than physical troop presence , but it has to start with that . We need sufficient troops to protect the people and convince them that Afghan government control ( supported by [ ISAF ] for the moment ) is sufficient to prevent the return of the insurgents . He went on to say that " the backbone of the NATO alliance gives the coalition a steadfastness which " coalitions of the willing " cannot match . It also gives unparalleled authority and legitimacy based on the consensus of its members " . Dutton concluded that " given the strength of this unparalleled military coalition , and the political and financial commitment to building the long @-@ term stability of Afghanistan and the region , failure should not be contemplated " . He was awarded the American Legion of Merit ( Degree of Officer ) , and given permission to wear the decoration , " in recognition of meritorious , gallant and distinguished services during coalition operations in Afghanistan " . Dutton retired from active service on 3 May 2010 . He was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) in the 2010 Queen 's Birthday Honours . = = Civilian career = = After retiring from the Royal Marines in 2010 , Dutton joined Bechtel Corporation as an operations manager , dealing with issues in the Middle East , and went on to become the company 's programme director for Gabon in 2011 . After three years with Bechtel , he was appointed governor of the British Overseas Territory of Gibraltar , and took office on 6 December 2013 . On 26 May 2015 it was announced that Dutton would relinquish the post early . Dutton resigned effectively on 28 September 2015 , concluding his civilian career working with the British Foreign Office . Dutton cited that his resignation was due to his frustration over the British Government 's lack of action towards the Spanish aggression in Gibraltar 's sovereign waters , his disenchantment with the largely ceremonial office of Governor ( later denied ) and his personal inability to act on these events . With Dutton 's leaving of office , his Deputy Governor , Alison MacMillan , was sworn in as interim Governor of Gibraltar on the same day as his official departure . Mrs MacMillan had already served as interim Governor , doing so when Sir Adrian Johns resigned in 2013 . It was announced on 1 October 2015 by the Foreign Office that Lieutenant General Ed Davis will be succeeding Dutton as Governor of Gibraltar effective 2016 . = HMS Havock ( H43 ) = HMS Havock was an H @-@ class destroyer built for the British Royal Navy in the mid @-@ 1930s . During the Spanish Civil War of 1936 – 1939 , the ship enforced the arms blockade imposed by Britain and France on both sides as part of the Mediterranean Fleet . During the first few months of the Second World War , Havock searched for German commerce raiders in the Atlantic Ocean and participated in the First Battle of Narvik during the Norwegian Campaign of April – June 1940 before she was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet in May where she escorted a number of convoys to Malta . The ship took part in the Battle of Cape Spada in July 1940 , the Battle of Cape Matapan in March 1941 and the evacuation of Greece in April 1941 . She was damaged during the Battle of Crete the following month , but participated in the Syria – Lebanon Campaign in June . Havock began escorting supply convoys in June to Tobruk , Libya until the ship was damaged in October . She was repaired in time to escort a convoy to Malta during the First Battle of Sirte in December and was badly damaged by the Italian battleship Littorio whilst protecting another convoy during the Second Battle of Sirte in March 1942 . Repairs were attempted in Malta , but the ship was further damaged in an air raid in early April . The Admiralty decided that further attempts to repair her at Malta were pointless and ordered her to Gibraltar for permanent repairs . On 6 April , while on passage to Gibraltar , Havock ran aground near Cape Bon , Tunisia , and her crew was interned by the Vichy French at Laghouat in the Sahara . = = Description and construction = = Havock displaced 1 @,@ 350 long tons ( 1 @,@ 370 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 883 long tons ( 1 @,@ 913 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 5 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Havock carried a maximum of 470 long tons ( 480 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 530 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 240 km ; 6 @,@ 360 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 137 officers and men in peacetime , but this increased to 146 in wartime . The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Havock had two quadruple Mark I mounts for the 0 @.@ 5 inch Vickers Mk III machine gun . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . By mid @-@ 1940 , this had increased to 44 depth charges . Ordered on 13 December 1934 from William Denny & Brothers , Havock was laid down at their shipyard at Dumbarton , Scotland on 15 May 1935 . She was launched on 7 July 1936 and completed on 16 January 1937 . Excluding government @-@ furnished equipment like the armament , the ship cost £ 248 @,@ 470 . = = = Wartime modifications = = = Most ships of Havock 's class had the rear torpedo tubes replaced by a 12 @-@ pounder AA gun after the evacuation of Dunkirk in 1940 , but it is not clear if she received this modification . Other changes may have included exchanging her two quadruple .50 @-@ calibre Vickers machine guns mounted between her funnels for two Oerlikon 20 mm AA guns , the addition of two Oerlikon guns to her searchlight platform and another pair on the wings of the ship 's bridge . = = Service = = Havock was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet upon commissioning . She patrolled Spanish waters during the Spanish Civil War enforcing the policies of the Non @-@ Intervention Committee . On the night of 31 August / 1 September 1937 , she was unsuccessfully attacked by the Italian submarine Iride with torpedoes , between the Gulf of Valencia and the Balearic Islands . The ship was refitted in Gibraltar between 19 October and 13 November and required repairs between 16 April and 6 May 1938 after hitting the stone side of a quay . Havock was given a brief refit at Sheerness Dockyard between 15 and 26 August 1939 before returning to Gibraltar . The ship sailed to Freetown , Sierra Leone on 30 August and arrived on 4 September to search for German commerce raiders . She was transferred back to the UK in November for a more thorough refit at Sheerness between 18 December and 23 March 1940 . In the meantime , the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla had been assigned to the Home Fleet and Havock rejoined them when her refit was finished . On 6 April Havock and the rest of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla escorted the four destroyer minelayers of the 20th Destroyer Flotilla as they sailed to implement Operation Wilfred , an operation to lay mines in the Vestfjord to prevent the transport of Swedish iron ore from Narvik to Germany . The mines were laid on the early morning of 8 April , before the Germans began their invasion , and the destroyers joined the battlecruiser Renown and her escorts . During the First Battle of Narvik on 10 April 1940 , Havock and four other H @-@ class ships of the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla attacked the German destroyers that had transported German troops to occupy Narvik in northern Norway the previous day . The flotilla leader Hardy led four of her half @-@ sisters down Ofotfjord in a surprise dawn attack on Narvik harbour during a blinding snowstorm . Hotspur and Hostile were initially left at the entrance , but Havock was third into the harbour and fired five of her torpedoes into the mass of shipping . One torpedo hit the German destroyer Z22 Anton Schmitt in the stern . In addition , the ship hit Z18 Hans Lüdemann twice with 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 120 mm ) shells . As the British ships were withdrawing , they encountered five German destroyers at close range . Two of the German ships crossed the T of the British ships and quickly set Hardy on fire and forced her to run aground . Havock was next in line and fired torpedoes at the German destroyers , but they all missed . She was hit in return , but not significantly damaged . In the confusion and limited visibility , Havock pulled out of the line to find out what happened to Hardy and to protect the rear of the British formation from the other three German destroyers in pursuit , but then had to then to turn again to allow her rear guns to fire when her forward guns failed . Havock and Hostile turned back to protect their badly damaged sister , Hotspur , and all three continued to withdraw down the Ofotfjord . En route , they encountered the German supply ship Rauenfels , loaded with artillery and ammunition , whose crew ran her aground and abandoned ship after Hostile fired at the ship . A boarding party from Havock found the ship on fire and she blew up after the ship fired two shells into her . The ship remained in Norwegian waters until May , when she escorted the light cruiser Birmingham on an unsuccessful sweep of the North Sea looking for German ships , early in the month . Havock was assigned to the Nore Command shortly afterwards and bombarded German troops occupying Waalhaven Airfield on 10 May together with her sister Hyperion . She rescued survivors from the sunken ferry Prinses Juliana off the Dutch coast and returned them to the Hook of Holland where she recovered a number of British demolition parties . On 16 May , the ship ordered to reinforce the Mediterranean Fleet at Malta and was assigned to the 2nd Destroyer Flotilla . During the Battle of Cape Spada on 19 July , the ship escorted the Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney and rescued some of the 525 survivors from the Italian cruiser Bartolomeo Colleoni together with the other escorting destroyers . Her boiler room was flooded after an attack by Italian aircraft after this battle and she was repaired at Suez from 29 July to 15 September . Havock and her sister Hasty surprised the Italian submarine Berillo on the surface on 2 October off the coast of Egypt and forced her to scuttle herself . The destroyers rescued 47 survivors between them . Havock was engaged on escort duties for the next six months , including escorting the carrier Illustrious during the Battle of Taranto on the night of 11 / 12 November , aside from a refit in Malta from 22 December to 20 February 1941 . During the Battle of Cape Matapan , she torpedoed and sank the Italian destroyer Alfieri on 28 March . The ship evacuated Commonwealth troops from Greece at the end of April and was one of three destroyers escorting the light cruiser Ajax when they bombarded Benghazi on the night of 7 / 8 May . Havock was damaged by dive bombers on 23 May , killing 15 and wounding 10 men , after a patrol off Heraklion , Crete . She was under repair at Alexandria until 16 June . The ship bombarded Vichy French positions in Lebanon in early July and then began escorting ships to Tobruk until October when her propeller shafts and propellers were damaged . Havock was under repair from 21 October to 4 December at Alexandria . In mid @-@ December , the ship escorted the supply ship Breconshire to Malta during the brief engagement known as First Battle of Sirte and then joined Force K in an attempt to intercept an Italian convoy to Tripoli , Libya . On the night of 18 / 19 December , the reinforced Force K ran over an Italian minefield that sank one cruiser and damaged two others . Havock escorted the badly damaged light cruiser Aurora back to Malta . Havock was one of four destroyers that escorted Breconshire back to Alexandria in early January 1942 . Whilst escorting another convoy to Malta , the ship was diverted to escort the damaged freighter Thermoplylae from Benghazi back to Alexandria , but the latter was attacked and sunk by Axis aircraft en route on 19 January . Havock rescued some 350 survivors before Thermoplylae sank . The ship was transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla in February and continued to escort convoys to Malta . On 22 March 1942 , several splinters from a 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) near miss from the Italian battleship Littorio perforated one of her boilers during the Second Battle of Sirte , and Havock was forced to make for Malta for repairs . Whilst in dock , the ship had become a major target for Axis aircraft and sustained some damage on 3 April , so she was ordered to Gibraltar before her repairs were complete . Havock ran aground off Kelibia , Tunisia , in the Strait of Sicily on 6 April and was wrecked . One crewman was killed in the incident . Her crew and passengers were interned by the Vichy French at Laghouat in the Sahara , but were released in November as a result of Operation Torch . Her wreck was later torpedoed by the Italian submarine Aradam . = U.S. Route 25 in Michigan = US Highway 25 ( US 25 ) was a part of the United States Numbered Highway System in the state of Michigan that ran from the Ohio state line near Toledo and ended at the tip of The Thumb in Port Austin . The general routing of this state trunkline highway took it northeasterly from the state line through Monroe and Detroit to Port Huron . Along this southern half , it followed undivided highways and ran concurrently along two freeways , Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) and I @-@ 94 . Near the foot of the Blue Water Bridge in Port Huron , US 25 turned north and northwesterly along the Lake Huron shoreline to Port Austin . Created with the initial US Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 25 replaced several previous state highway designations . Some of the preceding highways followed roadways created in the 19th and the early 20th centuries . It initially was only routed as far north as Port Huron ; the northern extension to Port Austin happened in 1933 . By the end of the 1950s , the entire route was paved . Starting in the early 1960s , segments of I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 94 were built , and US 25 was shifted to follow them south of Detroit to Port Huron . A business loop was created when the main highway bypassed downtown Port Huron , and then in 1973 , the entire designation was removed from the state . The final routing of the highway is still maintained by the state under eight different designations , some unsigned . = = Route description = = = = = State line to Downriver = = = In its final configuration before it was decommissioned in the state , US 25 entered Michigan south of Erie and followed Dixie Highway north @-@ northeasterly away from the state line . The highway ran parallel to US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) about 2 ⁄ 3 mile ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) to the east of that roadway . At LaSalle , the roadway turned more to the northeast toward Monroe . US 25 then turned back to the north @-@ northeast and followed Monroe Street next to Lake Monroe and through downtown Monroe over the River Raisin . North of town , Dixie Highway turned due north and terminated at an intersection with US 24 ; US 25 merged onto Telegraph Road , and the two highways ran concurrently northeasterly through rural Monroe County . At the crossing of the Huron River , US 24 / US 25 entered Flat Rock and Wayne County . The highway followed Telegraph Road through downtown Flat Rock and continued into the suburban area of Downriver . At the intersection with Dix – Toledo Road near Woodhaven , US 25 separated from US 24 and continued northeasterly for about two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) to an interchange with I @-@ 75 where it merged onto the freeway . I @-@ 75 / US 25 continued on the Fisher Freeway through the Downriver suburbs of Taylor , Southgate , Allen Park , Lincoln Park , and Melvindale before entering the city of Detroit . The freeway curved to run east @-@ northeasterly and passed through an industrial area of the city , crossing the River Rouge . At Clark Avenue , US 25 left the freeway to turn a block south and run along Fort Street parallel to I @-@ 75 . The highway continued along Fort Street running under the approaches to the Ambassador Bridge and into downtown . = = = Downtown Detroit to Port Huron = = = In Downtown Detroit , Fort Street ended at Campus Martius Park at M @-@ 1 ( Woodward Avenue ) . US 25 looped around the park and followed the street named Cadillac Square over to Randolph Street , turning north to connect to Gratiot Avenue , a major thoroughfare on the east side of Detroit . The highway followed Gratiot through the east side of Detroit running north @-@ northeasterly . US 25 intersected the eastern end of the there @-@ unnumbered Fisher Freeway . Gratiot Avenue carried the highway through residential neighborhoods and connected it to the Detroit City Airport . East of the airport , the highway intersected the southern end of M @-@ 97 as well . At M @-@ 102 ( 8 Mile Road ) , US 25 exited Detroit and entered East Detroit , a suburb in Macomb County . The highway continued , roughly parallel to I @-@ 94 through Roseville and Mount Clemens . At Hall Road near Selfridge Air National Guard Base , M @-@ 59 merged with US 25 to follow Gratiot Avenue . At 23 Mile Road west of New Baltimore , US 25 / M @-@ 59 turned eastward onto 23 Mile to an interchange with I @-@ 94 . At that interchange , US 25 turned northeasterly onto the I @-@ 94 freeway while M @-@ 59 terminated ; 23 Mile continued eastward as M @-@ 29 into New Baltimore . I @-@ 94 / US 25 ran northeasterly through rural areas of Macomb County , intersecting the southern end of M @-@ 19 near New Haven . The freeway crossed into rural southern St. Clair County south of Richmond and continued northeastward to Marysville , where it turned northward , crossing Gratiot Avenue . A business loop , Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) ran northeasterly from the freeway along Gratiot Avenue to run parallel to the St. Clair River . From Marysville , the freeway skirted the western side of the Port Huron area , intersecting the M @-@ 21 freeway immediately east of the city before turning eastward to curve around the north side of town . After the freeway crossed the Black River , US 25 turned northward to separate from I @-@ 94 . = = = Along Lake Huron = = = North of downtown Port Huron , US 25 followed Pine Grove Avenue to the eastern terminus of M @-@ 136 and then followed 24th Avenue out of town . South of Lakeport , the highway changed names to Lakeshore Road and ran along the Lake Huron shoreline in The Thumb region of the state . US 25 stayed close to the shoreline and passed Lakeport State Park in the town of the same name . North of the park , the highway crossed into southern Sanilac County and followed the shoreline to the community of Lexington where it intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 90 . Further north , the highway intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 46 in Port Sanilac . North of the community of Richmondville , US 25 passed Sanilac State Park , and then north of Forestville , it crossed into Huron County . On the other side of the county line , the highway passed through the community of White Rock and continued along the lake to Harbor Beach . There , US 25 intersected the eastern end of M @-@ 142 and began to curve around to the northwest to follow the northern tip of The Thumb . About 8 miles ( 13 km ) north of Harbor Beach , the highway passed through Port Hope and turned even more to the northwest on Lakeshore Road . US 25 turned due west at Huron City and passed south of Grindstone City on Grindstone Road . The highway was further inland on this east – west segment as it ran south of Pointe Aux Barques to Port Austin . At an intersection with M @-@ 53 ( Van Dyke Road ) , US 25 merged with M @-@ 53 to run five blocks north along Lake Street to the waterfront in Port Austin . At the intersection with Spring Street just south of the marina , US 25 / M @-@ 53 jointly terminated while M @-@ 25 continued westward along Spring Street . = = History = = = = = Before the state highways = = = The chief transportation routes in 1701 were the Indian trails that crossed the future state of Michigan ; the one connecting what are now Detroit and Port Huron was one of these 13 trails at the time . Detroit created 120 @-@ foot ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city , the modern Gratiot Avenue included , in 1805 . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit . Gratiot Avenue , then also called Detroit – Port Huron Road , was authorized by the US Congress on March 2 , 1827 , as a supply road from Detroit to Port Huron for Fort Gratiot . Construction started in Detroit in 1829 , and the roadway was completed in the same year to Mount Clemens . The rest was finished in 1833 . The road was named for the fort near Port Huron , which was in turn named for Colonel Charles Gratiot , the supervising engineer in charge of construction of the structure in the aftermath of the War of 1812 . Telegraph lines were first installed from the Detroit area south to the Monroe area in the mid @-@ 19th century with additional lines north to Pontiac completed around 1868 . As these communication lines were installed , roadways were added as needed to provide access for maintenance . The parallel road from Dearborn south was named for these lines , becoming Telegraph Road . In 1915 , the Dixie Highway , an auto trail that ran south from Detroit to Miami , Florida , was extended to Detroit , and later in 1919 northward to the Straits of Mackinac . = = = Initial state highways to US Highway = = = When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , five separate highways were designated along US 25 's general route from the state line north through Detroit and Port Huron to Port Austin . From the state line north to Monroe , the roadway was given the first M @-@ 56 designation . From there northward , there was no state highway that corresponded to the future US 25 , but the first M @-@ 10 followed the future US 24 into the Detroit area . Near Dearborn , M @-@ 10 ran further inland than the future US 25 and included a concurrency with M @-@ 17 into Detroit . From Detroit northward , Gratiot Avenue was assigned the M @-@ 19 number into the Port Huron area . Through downtown Port Huron , the future US 25 was numbered as the first M @-@ 27 and along the lakeshore north to Harbor Beach , the highway was M @-@ 31 . From Harbor Beach into Port Austin , M @-@ 27 took over the route . When the US Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , US 25 was included in Michigan 's section of the system . The US Highway designation was assigned to run along Dixie Highway replacing that segment of M @-@ 56 . From Monroe northward , US 25 overlapped US 24 on Telegraph Road to the Dearborn area and then followed M @-@ 17 ( Ecorse Road ) to Fort Street and into Downtown Detroit . From there , the highway replaced M @-@ 19 to Marysville and overlapped M @-@ 29 into Port Huron to an intersection with M @-@ 21 ; the remainder of the highway to Port Austin was numbered M @-@ 29 only . The highway was rerouted off Telegraph Road along Dix – Toledo Highway into downtown Detroit in 1929 . By the end of 1932 , US 25 was rerouted from downtown Monroe along Dixie Highway north to US 24 instead of turning westward in the city . The next year , US 25 was extended northward from Port Huron to Port Austin , replacing that section of M @-@ 29 in the process . The remainder of M @-@ 29 westward to Bay City was renumbered M @-@ 25 . In 1936 , US 25 was changed to traffic along a one @-@ way pairing of streets on the southwest side of Port Huron . Northbound traffic remained on Military Avenue while southbound traffic was diverted to Electric Avenue . Two US 25A routings were created in the late 1930s and early 1940s . The first , near Erie , was numbered in 1937 , and renumbered US 24A by 1945 . The second in Port Huron provided access to the Blue Water Bridge from the mainline of the highway starting in 1940 . That last segment of US 25 to be paved was completed near Port Hope at the end of the 1950s . = = = Freeway era = = = With the completion of a segment of I @-@ 94 between Roseville and Marysville in 1963 , US 25 was rerouted to follow I @-@ 94 from the Mount Clemens area north to Marysville . The next year , an additional freeway from the northern end of I @-@ 94 at Marysville to Port Huron was completed . I @-@ 94 / US 25 was extended north and east , replacing part of M @-@ 146 to the Blue Water Bridge . The former route of US 25 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 25 while US 25A became a part of the mainline highway to connect to I @-@ 94 . In 1967 , another segment , this time south of Detroit , was rerouted to follow another freeway , I @-@ 75 . Six years later , the US 25 designation was decommissioned in Michigan , although all sections of it are still state highways . The southern section from the state line northward through Monroe was renumbered M @-@ 125 and the US 25 designation was removed from US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . In the Detroit area , the connection between US 24 and I @-@ 75 in Woodhaven was redesignated as an unsigned connector highway ( now Connector 24 ) . The US 25 designation was removed from I @-@ 75 northward into Detroit , while the routing along Clark Street became an unsigned connector highway ( now Connector 850 ) . The routing along Fort Street and Gratiot Avenue was numbered as M @-@ 3 . The US 25 designation was removed from I @-@ 94 , and the routing through Port Huron and northward to Port Austin became part of an extended M @-@ 25 . One segment of highway near Port Huron became an unsigned highway now designed Connector 25 . = = Major intersections = = All exits are unnumbered . = = Related trunklines = = There were three additional trunkline highways related to US 25 in Michigan , two alternate routes and a business loop . = = = Erie alternate route = = = US Highway 25A ( US 25 ) was an alternate route that started at the Michigan – Ohio state line south of Erie and ran northward along Summit Street to an intersection with US 25 near Erie . The highway was designated in 1937 , and it was replaced by US 24A in 1945 . The southern half of the highway was later designated as part of I @-@ 75 in 1959 , and the northern half is now an unsigned highway designated Connector 75 by MDOT . = = = Port Huron alternate route = = = US Highway 25A ( US 25A ) was an alternate route near Port Huron that provided a connection to the Blue Water Bridge to Canada . The highway split from its parent north of Port Huron and followed 24th Avenue south to connect to M @-@ 51 ( Pine Grove Avenue ) while US 25 followed Lakeshore Road and Gratiot Avenue into Port Huron . The parent highway crossed under the approaches to the Blue Water Bridge , and the alternate route , along with M @-@ 51 , provided a signed path between US 25 and the bridge . The designation was created in early 1940 and was deleted when US 25 was rerouted in 1963 through Port Huron and over the alternate route . = = = Port Huron business loop = = = Business US 25 ( Bus . US 25 ) was an 8 @.@ 4 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 13 @.@ 5 km ) business loop serving the cities of Marysville and Port Huron . It started southwest of Marysville near St. Clair County International Airport at I @-@ 94 / US 25 and ran northeasterly along Gratiot Avenue into Marysville . It then passed through the city 's downtown area and turned northward along Gratiot Boulevard near the St. Clair River . North of Ravenswood Road , Bus . US 25 split into the one @-@ way pairing of Military Street ( northbound ) and Electric Avenue ( southbound ) until the two directions merged on the south side of Port Huron . The business loop continued northward along through downtown Port Huron and across the Black River near its mouth . North of the river. the business loop followed Huron Avenue through the northern side of downtown Port Huron and turned northwesterly onto Pine Grove Avenue . The business loop passed under the approaches to the Blue Water Bridge before terminating at an intersection with US 25 . In 1963 , the route of US 25 through the Port Huron area was realigned . In the process , that highway replaced its alternate route , and the former alignment through downtown was redesignated as a business loop . This arrangement lasted until 1973 when US 25 itself was decommissioned in Michigan . The former routing of Bus . US 25 through downtown Port Huron became part of an extended M @-@ 25 . In 1986 , the former business loop was redesignated Business Loop I @-@ 94 . = Les Chouans = Les Chouans ( French pronunciation : [ le ʃwɑ ̃ ] , The Chouans ) is an 1829 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac ( 1799 – 1850 ) and included in the Scènes de la vie militaire section of his novel sequence La Comédie humaine . Set in the French region of Brittany , the novel combines military history with a love story between the aristocratic Marie de Verneuil and the Chouan royalist Alphonse de Montauran . It takes place during the 1799 post @-@ war uprising in Fougères . Balzac conceived the idea for the novel during a trip to Brittany arranged by a family friend in 1828 . Intrigued by the people and atmosphere of the region , he began collecting notes and descriptions for later use . After publishing an Avertissement for the novel , he released three editions – each of them revised significantly . The first novel Balzac published without a pseudonym , he used many titles as he wrote and published , including Le Gars , Les Chouans ou la Bretagne il y a trente ans , and Le Dernier Chouan ou la Bretagne en 1800 . Following closely in the footsteps of Sir Walter Scott , the novel uses its truthful historical backdrop to tell a fictional story of people who sculpted the past . The novel addresses themes of passionate love , vengeful trickery , and social status . While it is disdained by critics in favor of Balzac 's later work , the novel marks a turning point in his life and artistry . = = Background = = In the wake of the French Revolution , groups of royalists loyal to the House of Bourbon rose up against the new government . One group was the Chouans of Brittany , led by Jean Chouan . They allied themselves with counter @-@ revolutionary forces in Vendée and by 1793 the Revolt in the Vendée had begun . The insurrection was put down by the republic , and within two years the royalist forces had been routed . Royalist sentiment did not evaporate , however , and in Brittany , violence between the two sides – " Blue " Revolutionaries against " White " Chouans – continued as the Chouannerie , even when Napoleon took power in 1799 . The Bonaparte forces responded as the republic had , and the Chouans were defeated – although political divisions and resentment lingered for more than a century . At the start of the nineteenth century , the works of Sir Walter Scott were best @-@ sellers in France . His novels captured the ebb and flow of society , and he demonstrated the far @-@ reaching impact of major historical changes . A slew of authors in France attempted to replicate Scott 's success , but their works were isolated from one another and divorced from their surroundings . Honoré de Balzac was profoundly influenced by Scott ( as well as Irish writer Maria Edgeworth ) , and decided to write novels using France 's turbulent history as a literary backdrop in the same way they had used the history of Scotland and Ireland . Balzac had previously only published potboiler novels under a variety of pseudonyms , books designed to excite readers and sell copies . He had also engaged in a series of ill @-@ fated speculative investments , which left him in considerable debt . Nevertheless , he believed in his skills as a writer , and awaited success around every corner . = = Preparations and publications = = In September 1828 Balzac visited the home of a family friend and retired general , the Baron de Pommereul , in Fougères . He spent several weeks learning about the insurrection ( which Pommereul had fought against ) . He pored over his host 's books and interviewed the townspeople about their experiences during the time of the uprising . Pommereul owned a castle which had been the headquarters of the Comte de Puisaye , a royalist leader involved with a failed invasion of royalist exiles at Quiberon . This incursion had been aided by the Chouans , and Balzac began collecting events and people as inspiration for his novel . While staying with Pommereul , he was given a room with a desk facing the Pellerine Mountain , which Balzac used as the setting for the book 's first scene . He wandered around the city , taking in details to use in his descriptions of the landscape . In researching recent history , Balzac was examining events from his first years on the planet . Biographer Graham Robb notes that the original subtitle of the book was La Bretagne en 1799 – the year of Balzac 's birth . As Robb puts it , " the discovery of contemporary history took Balzac back to his childhood . " As he neared completion of his novel – originally titled Le Gars – Balzac wrote an announcement heralding its imminent publication . Under the pseudonym " Victor Morillon " and writing in the third person , he describes his intent to " place his country 's history in the hands of the man in the street … to illuminate and make the ordinary mind realize the repercussions that entire populations feel of royal discord , feudal dissension and popular uprising … . " In the Avertissement , he praises Scott as " a man of genius " while noting his limitations , especially when writing of romance : " on his lyre the strings are missing that can sing of love … . " Balzac – or , rather , " Morillon " – also declares his intention to write a companion volume entitled Le Capitaine des Boutefeux ( The Captain of the Firebrands ) , about war in fifteenth @-@ century Paris . This later work was never completed . By the time the novel was published in March 1829 , Balzac had changed its title ( in response to complaints from Mme. de Pommereul ) to Le dernier Chouan ou La Bretagne en 1800 , and signed the novel " M. Honoré Balzac " . It was the first book he published without a pseudonym . In 1834 a second edition was published under the name Les Chouans ou La Bretagne en 1799 . It had been heavily revised , as per Balzac 's style of constantly reworking texts , even after their release . He had been corresponding with Ewelina Hańska , who wrote to him anonymously in 1832 . In an attempt to please her , he changed some of the language in Les Chouans for its second edition . " If only you knew , " he wrote to her , " how much there is of you in every altered phrase of Chouans ! " The second edition also demonstrates the author 's maturing political philosophy ( softening his representation of the royalists ) , and the evolved female characters testify to his relationship with Hańska . When the third edition was published in 1845 , Balzac was in love with his own creation . He had written two years earlier to Hańska : " There 's no doubt about it – it is a magnificent poem . I had never really read it before . … The passion is sublime , and I now understand why you have a cherished and special devotion to this book . … All in all , I am very pleased with it . " In a preface to the third edition , he described his plans for a part of La Comédie Humaine called Scènes de la vie militaire ( Scenes from Military Life ) . In addition to Les Chouans with its focus on guerrilla combat , he planned another called Les Vendéans about the earlier full @-@ scale civil war . Although in 1844 he discussed traveling to western France to write the book , it was never written . = = Plot summary = = At the start of the novel , the Republican Commander Hulot is assaulted by Chouan forces , who convert dozens of conscripts . An aristocrat , Marie de Verneuil , is sent by Joseph Fouché to subdue and capture the royalist leader , the Marquis de Montauran , also known as " Le Gars " . She is aided by a detective named Corentin . Eventually , Marie becomes smitten with her target . In defiance of Corentin and the Chouans whom she detests , she devises a plan to marry the Chouan leader . Fooled by Corentin into believing that Montauran loves her mortal enemy Madame du Gua , Marie orders Hulot to destroy the rebels . She discovers her folly too late and tries , unsuccessfully , to save her husband the day after their marriage . = = Style = = Scott 's influence is felt throughout the novel . Lengthy descriptions of the countryside are interrupted constantly by tangents explaining the history of Brittany and its people . The pastoral setting is integrated into the plot , particularly the guerrilla combat of the Chouans . In complementing individual with environs Balzac also shows the influence of James Fenimore Cooper , whose The Last of the Mohicans had impressed the French author . Like the Mahicans of Cooper 's novel , the Chouan insurgents are skilled at using their surroundings , coming out of the woods in more ways than one . Some critics claim that Balzac surpassed Scott in some respects . In his introduction to the 1901 edition , poet and critic George Saintsbury writes that the character of Montauran enjoys " a freedom from the flatness which not infrequently characterizes Sir Walter 's own good young men . " By foregrounding the affair between Montauran and Marie , Balzac indicates passion as the central theme of history . As he writes in the 1842 foreword to La Comédie Humaine : " [ L ] a passion est toute l 'humanité . Sans elle religion , l 'histoire , le roman , l 'art seraient inutiles . " ( " [ P ] assion is all of humanity . Without it religion , history , literature , and art would be useless . " ) Because of its extended conversations , intricate descriptions and lengthy asides , the book is considered " heavy " by some critics . In later editions its chapter breaks were removed ( though some versions now restore them ) , and the work is in three sections – the final of which comprises nearly half the novel . The novel 's feel is compounded by the lack of clarity on some points ; some characters ' motives are unclear even at the end , and the chaotic sequence of events is difficult to track . = = Themes = = = = = Passionate history = = = Although he venerated Scott 's writing skill and use of history as backdrop , Balzac worked to more accurately depict the turbulence of the human heart – and its effect on history . He considered Scott 's view of women unrefined , and believed this led to a stale representation of human behavior as a result . In Les Chouans , Balzac places the romance of Montauran and Marie de Verneuil at the center of the narrative , around which all other elements revolve . For this reason ( and owing to the florid descriptions of romantic elements ) , the novel has been compared to William Shakespeare 's play Romeo and Juliet . Both stories explore love among feuding parties ; both involve vengeful , scheming individuals ; and both end in tragedy for the newly @-@ wed couple . As the translator Marion Ayton Crawford puts it : " Hero and heroine are star @-@ crossed lovers , whose fate is brought about by forces of the times acting on their own internal weaknesses … . " Although Balzac himself did not marry until 1850 , he was fascinated by the subject . Soon after Les Chouans was published in 1829 , he released a treatise about the institution called Physiologie du Mariage . His attention to the details of relationships – failed and successful – are woven into Les Chouans , and Marie herself is based on a woman with whom he had had an affair . = = = Devious ferocity = = = Corentin and Madame du Gua , foils to the happy couple , plot and scheme endlessly to bring about the misery and downfall of those who will not love them . Du Gua is at first a sympathetic character , but by the end of the novel she is presented as sharing a face with a spirit from hell . She represents revenge and hatred chiseled from romantic injury , and has been noted as a rough sketch of the title character in Balzac 's La Cousine Bette . Corentin , meanwhile , stands in contrast to Montauran 's romantic nature as much as to Hulot 's military prowess . Rebuffed by Marie and unable to wield the might of the commandant , Corentin relies on trickery and deception to achieve his ruthless ends . Marie herself begins the operation on a quest to seduce and betray her target . Her reversal ( followed by two subsequent changes of heart , back to the original mission and then in opposition to it ) counterbalance the wickedness of Madame du Gua and Corentin . Her ultimate fidelity to the object of her desire demonstrates the possibility of sincere passion , even as the other pair speak to the venom of the slighted heart . = = = Social hierarchy = = = The allure of class respectability is another constant in Les Chouans , as it is for Balzac 's entire oeuvre . Marie 's birth as an illegitimate child contributes to her position at the start of the novel . The ups and downs of her young adult life land her in Corentin 's hands , yearning for the 300 @,@ 000 @-@ franc reward promised to her on the capture of Montauran . Marie 's focus changes from money to marriage , a sign of hope amid the tragedy of circumstances . When she first considers Montauran , she recognizes that a return of the king would bring privileges ; still , her oscillating actions follow the path of her passions , not rational self @-@ interest . Montauran , on the other hand , is devoted wholly to the royalist cause , and chafes against the ignorant nobles supporting it . He fights for the Chouan cause because he believes in it , not for the personal gain sought by the aristocrats in whose midst he works . He gives up the cause for Marie , but only as a result of an unclear series of events , the product of everyone 's intertwined double @-@ crossing . = = Reception and impact = = Les Chouans is considered Balzac 's first real success as a writer – a milestone for which he was prepared , evidenced by his willingness to sign his own name . Saintsbury proclaims that publishing Les Chouans was how he " first emerged from the purgatory of anonymous hack @-@ writing . " Still , revenues from the book were not sufficient to cover Balzac 's modest living expenses . Although he never finished the other works intended to comprise Scenes from a Military Life , Balzac returned to the people and politics of Les Chouans in later works . Corentin reappears in his 1841 novel Une Ténébreuse Affaire ( A Murky Business ) , and Hulot is featured in 1843 's La Muse du département ( The Provincial Muse ) . Later novels mention additional royalist uprisings , connecting them thematically to Les Chouans . As a literary work , the novel is not singled out by critics from the rest of La Comédie Humaine . Balzac 's emerging style ( some time before he refined his renowned realist idiom ) and unsteady pacing are representative of his early career . Still , critics hail it as a turning point and it has even been called " a strong favorite " among readers . = = Adaptation = = In 1947 the novel was adapted into a French film The Royalists directed by Henri Calef and starring Paul Amiot and Roland Armontel . = Palpatine = Sheev Palpatine ( also known as Darth Sidious or simply The Emperor ) is a fictional character of the Star Wars universe , mainly portrayed by Ian McDiarmid . In the original trilogy , he is depicted as the aged , pale @-@ faced and cloaked Emperor of the Galactic Empire . In the prequel trilogy , he is portrayed as a charismatic Senator from Naboo who uses deception and political manipulation to rise to the position of Supreme Chancellor of the Galactic Republic . Though outwardly appearing to be a well @-@ intentioned public servant and supporter of democracy prior to becoming Emperor , he is in fact Darth Sidious , the Dark Lord of the Sith – a cult of practitioners of the dark side of the Force previously thought to have been extinct in the Star Wars galaxy for a millennium . As Sidious , he instigates the Clone Wars , nearly destroys the Jedi , and transforms the Republic into the Empire . He also corrupts Anakin Skywalker to serve at his side as Darth Vader . Palpatine 's reign is brought to an end by Luke Skywalker and the redeemed Anakin Skywalker . Since the initial theatrical run of Return of the Jedi , Palpatine has become a widely recognized popular culture symbol of evil , sinister deception , tyranny , and the subversion of democracy . = = Appearances in the main saga = = = = = Original trilogy = = = The Emperor first appears in The Empire Strikes Back . In hologram form , he is revealed to be the Sith master of Darth Vader . He tells Vader that Luke Skywalker is becoming a serious threat to the Empire and must not become a Jedi . Vader convinces him that Luke would be a great asset if turned to the dark side . In 1983 's Return of the Jedi , the Emperor appears in person to oversee the last stages of the second Death Star 's construction . He assures Darth Vader that they will together turn Luke , now revealed to be Vader 's son , to the dark side . Unknown to Vader , the Emperor plans to replace his apprentice with Luke . When Vader brings Luke before his master , the Emperor tempts Luke to join the dark side by appealing to the young Jedi 's fear for his friends , whom he has lured into a trap . This leads to a lightsaber duel in which Luke defeats and nearly kills Vader . The Emperor tells Luke to kill Vader and take his place , but Luke refuses and declares himself a Jedi . Enraged , the Emperor attacks Luke with Force lightning . Moved by his son 's cries for help , Vader throws the Emperor into the Death Star 's reactor shaft to his death . = = = Prequel trilogy = = = In the 1999 prequel The Phantom Menace , which is set 32 years before Star Wars , Palpatine is depicted as a middle @-@ aged Galactic Senator from the planet Naboo who is secretly the Sith Lord Darth Sidious . As Sidious , he influences the corrupt Trade Federation to blockade and invade Naboo . Queen Padmé Amidala of Naboo flees to the planet Coruscant to receive counsel from Palpatine , unaware that he actually engineered the invasion . After a plea for help from the senate results in bureaucratic delays , Palpatine persuades the queen to make a motion to have Supreme Chancellor Finis Valorum removed from office . When Padmé attempts to liberate Naboo , Sidious sends his Sith apprentice Darth Maul there to capture her . The invasion is eventually thwarted and Maul is defeated in a lightsaber duel with Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi . Using the crisis to be elected the new Chancellor of the Republic , Palpatine returns to Naboo , where he befriends Anakin Skywalker , telling him that he " will watch [ his ] career with great interest " . In the 2002 sequel Attack of the Clones , Palpatine exploits constitutional loopholes to remain in office even after the official expiration of his term . Meanwhile , as Darth Sidious , he continues to manipulate events from behind the scenes by having his new Sith apprentice Count Dooku lead a movement of planets in seceding from the Republic to form the Confederacy of Independent Systems . Since the Separatists are secretly building a battle droid army , Palpatine uses the situation to have himself granted emergency powers . Palpatine feigns reluctance to accept this authority , promising to return it to the Senate once the crisis has ended . His first act is to allow the creation of Clone Troopers , which were discovered by Obi @-@ Wan , to counter the Separatist threat ; this results in the opening salvo of the Clone Wars . With the galaxy now at war as Sidious planned , Dooku brings him the secret plans for a new superweapon . In the 2005 sequel Revenge of the Sith , Palpatine is captured by Separatist commander General Grievous , as part of a plan created by Sidious . Palpatine is rescued by Anakin and Obi @-@ Wan , but not before the Jedi confront Count Dooku again . A duel ensues in which Dooku gets defeated at the hands of Anakin . Although initially hesitant , the young Jedi follows up with Palpatine 's orders to kill the unarmed Dooku in cold blood . Palpatine then escapes with his Jedi rescuers and returns to Coruscant . By this point , Palpatine has become a virtual dictator , able to take any action in the Senate . The Jedi Council is troubled by Palpatine 's near @-@ absolute power and fears he will not relinquish it when the Clone Wars end . Palpatine tells Anakin the story of Darth Plagueis , a powerful Sith Lord who was able to manipulate life and death but was killed by his own apprentice . Eventually , Palpatine reveals his secret Sith identity to Anakin ; he knows that Anakin has been having prophetic visions of Padmé , his pregnant secret wife , dying in childbirth , and offers to teach him Plagueis ' secrets to save her life . Anakin informs Jedi Master Mace Windu of Palpatine 's treachery . Windu and three other Jedi Masters attempt to arrest Palpatine and haul him before the Senate for trial . Palpatine pulls a lightsaber out of his sleeve and kills everyone but Windu , whom he engages in a fierce duel . Windu eventually subdues the Sith Lord and deflects a blast of Force lightning back into Palpatine 's face with his lightsaber , disfiguring Palpatine 's face into the pale , wizened visage seen in the original trilogy . Anakin appears and intercedes on Palpatine 's behalf by cutting off Windu 's arm , allowing Palpatine to kill the Jedi Master with a blast of Force lightning . Anakin then pledges himself to the dark side as Palpatine 's new Sith apprentice , Darth Vader . Palpatine orders the clone troopers to turn on their Jedi Generals , while dispatching Vader to kill everyone inside the Jedi Temple and then assassinate the Separatist leaders on the planet Mustafar . Palpatine then reorganizes the Republic into the Galactic Empire , with himself as Emperor . Jedi Master Yoda confronts him in his Senate office and engages the Sith Lord in a lightsaber duel that ends in a stalemate . Sensing that his new apprentice is in danger , Palpatine travels to Mustafar and finds Vader near death following a duel with Obi @-@ Wan . After returning to Coruscant , he rebuilds Vader 's ruined body with the black armored suit from the original trilogy . Palpatine then tells Vader that Padmé was killed in the heat of Vader 's anger , breaking what remains of his apprentice 's spirit . Palpatine is last seen watching the original Death Star 's construction , with Vader and Wilhuff Tarkin at his side . = = Appearances in other works = = Palpatine has appeared in other works , outside of the main films , including the Star Wars Expanded Universe . The Expanded Universe ( also known as the EU ) encompasses all of the officially licensed , fictional material of the Star Wars saga , outside of the seven feature films , The Clone Wars film and series , Rebels series produced by Lucasfilm , and the 2015 Marvel Comics . The expanded universe includes books , comic books , video games , toys , and other assorted media . The EU is no longer official canon . = = = Literature = = = Star Wars expanded universe literature elaborates on Palpatine 's role in Star Wars fiction outside of the films . The first appearance of Palpatine in Star Wars literature was in Alan Dean Foster 's ( writing as George Lucas ) novelization of the script of A New Hope , published as Star Wars : From the Adventures of Luke Skywalker ( 1976 ) . Foster characterizes Palpatine as a cunning senator who " caused himself " to be elected president of the Republic , and then declared himself Emperor and isolated himself from his subjects , eventually becoming a pawn of his advisers . Palpatine made his first major appearance in the Expanded Universe in 1991 and 1992 with the Dark Empire series of comic books written by Tom Veitch and illustrated by Cam Kennedy . In the series ( set six years after Return of the Jedi ) , Palpatine is resurrected as the Emperor Reborn or " Palpatine the Undying " . His spirit returns from the netherworld of the Force with the aid of Sith ghosts on Korriban and possesses the body of Jeng Droga , one of Palpatine 's elite spies and assassins known as the Emperor 's Hands . Droga flees to a secret Imperial base on the planet Byss , where the Emperor 's advisor Sate Pestage exorcises Palpatine 's spirit and channels it into one of many clones created by Palpatine before his death . Palpatine attempts to resume control of the galaxy , but Luke Skywalker , now a senior Jedi Knight , sabotages his plans . Luke destroys most of Palpatine 's cloning tanks , but is only able to defeat the Emperor with help from Leia Organa Solo , who has received rudimentary Jedi training from Luke . The two repel a Force storm Palpatine had created and turn it back onto him , once again destroying his physical form . Palpatine 's ultimate fate is further chronicled in the Dark Empire II and Empire 's End series of comics . The Dark Empire II series , published from 1994 to 1995 , details how the Emperor is once again reborn on Byss into a clone body . Palpatine tries to rebuild the Empire as the Rebel Alliance grows weak . In Empire 's End ( 1995 ) , a traitorous Imperial guard bribes Palpatine 's cloning supervisor to tamper with the Emperor 's stored DNA samples . This causes the clones to deteriorate at a rapid rate . Palpatine attempts to possess the body of Anakin Solo , the infant son of Leia Organa and Han Solo , before the clone body dies , but is thwarted once again by Luke Skywalker . Palpatine is killed by a blaster shot fired by Han , and his spirit is captured by wounded Jedi Empatojayos Brand . When Brand dies , he takes Palpatine 's spirit with him , destroying the Sith Lord once and for all . Novels and comics published before 1999 focus on Palpatine 's role as Galactic Emperor . Shadows of the Empire ( 1996 ) by Steve Perry and The Mandalorian Armor ( 1998 ) by K. W. Jeter — all set between The Empire Strikes Back and Return of the Jedi — show how Palpatine uses crime lords such as Prince Xizor and bounty hunters like Boba Fett to fight his enemies . Barbara Hambly 's novel Children of the Jedi ( 1995 ) , set eight years after Return of the Jedi , features a woman named Roganda Ismaren who claims that Palpatine fathered her son Irek . The Jedi Prince series of novels introduces an insane , three @-@ eyed mutant named Triclops who is revealed to be Palpatine 's illegitimate son . Created from DNA extracted from Palpatine and placed into a woman , he was born mutated , cast away and forgotten . Triclops had a son named Ken who became known as the " Jedi Prince " . Beginning in 1999 with Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace , Star Wars writers chronicled the role of Palpatine prior to A New Hope as a politician and Sith Lord . The comic " Marked " by Rob Williams , printed in Star Wars Tales 24 ( 2005 ) , and Michael Reaves ' novel Darth Maul : Shadow Hunter ( 2001 ) explain Darth Sidious ' relationship with his apprentice Darth Maul . Cloak of Deception ( 2001 ) by James Luceno follows Reaves ' novel and details how Darth Sidious encourages the Trade Federation to build an army of battle droids in preparation for the invasion of Naboo . Cloak of Deception also focuses on Palpatine 's early political career , revealing how he becomes a confidante of Chancellor Finis Valorum and acquainted with Padmé Amidala , newly elected queen of Naboo . Palpatine 's role during the Clone Wars as Chancellor of the Republic and Darth Sidious is portrayed in novels such as Matthew Stover 's Shatterpoint ( 2003 ) , Steven Barnes ' The Cestus Deception ( 2004 ) , Sean Stewart 's Yoda : Dark Rendezvous ( 2004 ) , and Luceno 's Labyrinth of Evil ( 2005 ) and Darth Plagueis ( 2012 ) . Following the theatrical release of Revenge of the Sith , Star Wars literature focused on Palpatine 's role after the creation of the Empire . John Ostrander 's comic Star Wars Republic 78 : Loyalties ( 2005 ) chronicles how , shortly after seizing power , Emperor Palpatine sends Darth Vader to assassinate Sagoro Autem , an Imperial captain who plans to defect from the Empire . In Luceno 's novel Dark Lord : The Rise of Darth Vader ( 2005 ) ( set shortly after Revenge of the Sith ) , the Emperor sends Darth Vader to the planet Murkhana to discover why clone troopers there refused to carry out Order 66 against their Jedi generals . Palpatine hopes these early missions will teach Vader what it means to be a Sith and crush any remnants of Anakin Skywalker . With the 2012 acquisition of Lucasfilm by The Walt Disney Company , most of the licensed Star Wars novels and comics produced since the originating 1977 film Star Wars were rebranded as Star Wars Legends and declared non @-@ canon to the franchise in April 2014 . Star Wars : Lords of the Sith was subsequently announced as one of the first four canon novels to be released in 2014 and 2015 . In Lords of the Sith , Vader and Palpatine find themselves hunted by revolutionaries on the Twi 'lek planet Ryloth . = = = Television = = = Palpatine / Darth Sidious is a central character in Genndy Tartakovsky 's Star Wars : Clone Wars micro @-@ series , which is set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith . The character 's likeness in the series is based on that in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones . In the first chapter , Palpatine is informed by Obi @-@ Wan Kenobi that the Jedi have discovered that the InterGalactic Banking Clan has established battle droid factories on the planet Muunilinst . Palpatine agrees to send a strike force that includes Anakin Skywalker , and suggests that Anakin be given " special command " of Obi @-@ Wan 's fighters . Yoda and Obi @-@ Wan initially speak against the idea , but reluctantly concede . In the seventh chapter , a holographic image of Sidious appears shortly after Dooku trains Dark Jedi Asajj Ventress . Sidious orders Ventress to track down and kill Anakin . He remarks to Dooku that Ventress is certain to be defeated , but that the point of her mission is to test Anakin . In the final chapters , a hologram of Sidious again appears and orders General Grievous to begin an assault on the galactic capital . Later , the Separatist invasion of Coruscant begins and Palpatine watches from his apartment in the 500 Republica . Grievous breaks through the Chancellor 's window and attempts to kidnap him , leading to a long chase while Palpatine is protected by Jedi Shaak Ti , Roron Corobb and Foul Moudama . After Grievous apprehends the Jedi , Palpatine is taken on board the Invisible Hand , setting the stage for Revenge of the Sith . In the 2008 animated film Star Wars : The Clone Wars ( also set between Attack of the Clones and Revenge of the Sith ) , Darth Sidious engineers a Separatist plot where Count Dooku turns Jabba the Hutt against the Republic by kidnapping his son Rotta and framing the Jedi for it . Meanwhile , Palpatine suggests that the Republic ally itself with the Hutts . Although Anakin Skywalker and Padawan Ahsoka Tano foil the plot , the outcome suits Palpatine 's ends : Jabba places Hutt hyperspace routes at the Republic 's disposal . In the subsequent animated series , Palpatine continues to serve as Supreme Chancellor while his Sith identity remains behind the scenes via holograms . In the second season , Sidious hires bounty hunter Cad Bane to infiltrate the Jedi Temple and steal a holocron . He then takes a valuable Kyber memory crystal that contains the names of thousands of Force @-@ sensitive younglings - the future of the Jedi Order - from around the galaxy . The final stage of the plot : to bring four Force @-@ sensitive children to Sidious 's secret facility on Mustafar . Anakin and Ahsoka again foil the plot , but Bane escapes and all evidence of Sidious ' involvement is lost . In the fifth season , Sidious personally travels to the planet Mandalore to confront his former apprentice Darth Maul after becoming leader of Death Watch , killing Savage Opress before torturing Maul with the intent to make use of him . In the final season , Sidious goes to lengths to conceal the full nature of his plan from the Jedi by attempting to silence the Clone Trooper Fives when he learns of Order 66 and having Dooku wipe out anything tied to Jedi Master Sifo @-@ Dyas . = = Characteristics = = In Star Wars fiction , Palpatine is a cunning politician , a ruthless emperor , and an evil Sith Lord . The Star Wars Databank describes him as " the supreme ruler of the most powerful tyrannical regime the galaxy had ever witnessed " and Stephen J. Sansweet 's Star Wars Encyclopedia calls him " evil incarnate . " As a senator , Palpatine is " unassuming , yet ambitious " . In Cloak of Deception , James Luceno writes that Palpatine carefully guards his privacy and " others found his reclusiveness intriguing , as if he led a secret life " . Despite this , he has many allies in the government . Luceno writes , " What Palpatine lacked in charisma , he made up for in candor , and it was that directness that had led to his widespread appeal in the senate . ... For in his heart he judged the universe on his own terms , with a clear sense of right and wrong . " In Terry Brooks ' novelization of The Phantom Menace , Palpatine claims to embrace democratic principles . He tells Queen Amidala , " I promise , Your Majesty , if I am elected [ chancellor of the Republic ] , I will restore democracy to the Republic . I will put an end to the corruption that has plagued the Senate . " A Visual Dictionary states that he is a self @-@ proclaimed savior . As Emperor , however , Palpatine abandons any semblance of democracy , as noted in Star Wars , when he abolishes the Imperial Senate . Sansweet states , " His Empire ... is based on tyranny " Revenge of the Sith suggests that Palpatine was the apprentice of Darth Plagueis , while later Expanded Universe materials say explicitly that he was . Palpatine is characterized as " the most powerful practitioner of the Sith ways in modern times . " Palpatine is so powerful that he is able to mask his true identity from the Jedi for decades . In the novel Shatterpoint , Mace Windu remarks to Yoda , " A shame [ Palpatine ] can 't touch the Force . He might have been a fine Jedi . " The Star Wars Databank explains that the Force " granted him inhuman dexterity and speed , agility enough to quickly kill three Jedi Masters " ( as depicted in Revenge of the Sith ) . Stover describes the duel between Yoda and Palpatine in his novelization of Revenge of the Sith thus : " From the shadow of a black wing , a small weapon ... slid into a withered hand and spat a flame @-@ colored blade [ . ] When the blades met it was more than Yoda against Palpatine , more the millennia of Sith against the legions of Jedi ; this was the expression of the fundamental conflict of the universe itself . Light against dark . Winner take all . " During the duel , Yoda realizes that Sidious represents a small but powerful Sith Order that had changed and evolved over the years , while the Jedi had not : " He had lost before he started . " According to the Databank and New Essential Guide to Characters , Palpatine possesses great patience and his maneuverings are as a dejarik grandmaster moves pieces on a board . He is depicted as a diabolical genius . Palpatine was not given a first name in any canonical or " Star Wars Legends " sources until 2014 , when the character 's first name — Sheev — was revealed in the novel Tarkin , written by James Luceno . The Lucasfilm Story Group approached Del Rey Books and asked if they wanted to use the name , which was created by George Lucas , in the Tarkin novel , to which Del Rey agreed . = = = Character creation = = = Lucas ' conceptualization of Palpatine and the role the character plays in Star Wars changed over time . From Return of the Jedi onwards , Palpatine became the ultimate personification of evil in Star Wars , replacing Darth Vader as the central villain . When the original Star Wars trilogy was filmed , the Emperor was unnamed and his throne @-@ world unidentified . The name would not be used in film until the prequel trilogy and the first mention of the name Palpatine came from the prologue of Alan Dean Foster 's 1976 novelization of A New Hope , which detailed the Emperor 's rise to power . Foster writes , Aided and abetted by restless , power @-@ hungry individuals within the government , and the massive organs of commerce , the ambitious Senator Palpatine caused himself to be elected President of the Republic . He promised to reunite the disaffected among the people and to restore the remembered glory of the Republic . Once secure in office he declared himself Emperor , shutting himself away from the populace . Soon he was controlled by the very assistants and boot @-@ lickers he had appointed to high office , and the cries of the people for justice did not reach his ears . However , it is unclear whether Lucas intended Palpatine to be the reigning Emperor or just the first of a succession of Emperors . Michael Kaminski , author of The Secret History of Star Wars , claims that Lucas ' initial notes discuss a line of corrupt Emperors , not just one . If Palpatine was the first , Kaminski infers , he would therefore not be the current . Later Lucas would abandon this idea , opting instead to focus on a sole villainous ruler . During story conferences for The Empire Strikes Back , Lucas and Leigh Brackett decided that " the Emperor and the Force had to be the two main concerns in the [ Empire Strikes Back ] ; the Emperor had barely been dealt with in the first movie , and the intention in the sequel was to deal with him on a more concrete level . " Lucas ultimately decided instead to feature the Emperor in Return of the Jedi . In that film , the initial conception of Palpatine was superseded by his depiction as a dictatorial ruler adept in the dark side of the Force . The Emperor was inspired by the villain Ming the Merciless from the Flash Gordon comic books . The rise of Palpatine involving an ambitious and ruthless politician dismantling a democratic republic to achieve supreme power is in part inspired by the real @-@ world examples of Julius Caesar , Napoleon Bonaparte and Adolf Hitler . Other elements of the character come from historical figures such as Vladimir Lenin and Richard Nixon . Lucas said , " The whole point of the movies , the underlying element that makes the movies work , is that you , whether you go backwards or forwards , you start out in a democracy , and democracy turns into a dictatorship , and then the rebels make it back into a democracy . " Lucas wanted to establish the Emperor as the true source of evil in Star Wars . Screenwriter Lawrence Kasdan noted , " My sense of the relationship [ between Darth Vader and the Emperor ] is that the Emperor is much more powerful ... and that Vader is very much intimidated by him . Vader has dignity , but the Emperor in Jedi really has all the power . " He explained that the climax of the film is a confrontation between Darth Vader and his master . In the first scene that shows the Emperor , he arrives at the Death Star and is greeted by a host of stormtroopers , technicians , and other personnel . Lucas states he wanted it to look like the military parades on " May Day in Russia . " Lucas fleshed out the Emperor in the prequel films . According to Lucas , Palpatine 's role in The Phantom Menace is to explain " how Anakin Skywalker came to be [ Palpatine 's ] apprentice " and the events that lead to his rise to power . The true identity of Darth Sidious — the phantom menace — is left a mystery , and his relationship to Palpatine is not clear , though popular consensus agreed that Darth Sidious and Palpatine were one and the same . Film critic Jonathan L. Bowen remarks , " Debates raged on the Internet concerning the relationship between Darth Sidious and Senator Palpatine . Most fans believed the two characters are actually the same person with logic seeming to support their conclusion . " Bowen notes that the debate was fueled by the fact that " suspiciously Darth Sidious does not appear in the credits . " In Star Wars and History published by Lucasfilm , it describes Palpatine 's consolidation of power as being similar to the Roman political figure Augustus , named Octavian before renaming himself . Both legitimized authoritarian rule by saying that corruption in the Senate was hampering the powers of the head of state ; both pressured the Senate to grant extraordinary powers to deal with a crisis , falsely claiming that they would rescind those powers once the crisis was over ; and both relied on their strong control over military force . = = = Portrayal = = = When the Emperor first appeared in The Empire Strikes Back , he was portrayed by Elaine Baker , the wife of make @-@ up designer Rick Baker . Chimpanzee eyes were superimposed into darkened eye sockets during post @-@ production " in order to create a truly unsettling image " . The character was voiced by Clive Revill . " With Kershner , " Revill said , " you had to keep the reins tight — you couldn 't go overboard . It was the perfect example of the old adage ' less is more ' — the Emperor doesn 't say very much . But when he finally appears , it 's at a point in the saga when everyone 's waiting to see him . It 's the Emperor , the arch villain of all time , and when he says there 's a great disturbance in the Force , I mean , that 's enough oomph ! " Years later , during production of Revenge of the Sith , Lucas decided to shoot new footage for The Empire Strikes Back to create continuity between the prequels and original trilogy . Thus , in the 2004 DVD release of The Empire Strikes Back Special Edition , the original version of the Emperor was replaced by McDiarmid , and the dialogue between the Emperor and Darth Vader was revised . Lucas and director Richard Marquand cast Scottish Shakespearean actor Ian McDiarmid to play Emperor Palpatine for Return of the Jedi . He was in his late 30s and had never played a leading role in a feature film , though he had made minor appearances in films like Dragonslayer ( 1981 ) . After Return of the Jedi , he resumed stage acting in London . In an interview with BackStage , McDiarmid revealed that he " never had his sights set on a film career and never even auditioned for the role of Palpatine . " He elaborated , " I got called in for the interview after a Return of the Jedi casting director saw me perform in the Sam Shepard play Seduced at a studio theatre at the Royal Court . I was playing a dying Howard Hughes . " McDiarmid was surprised when Lucas approached him 16 years after Return of the Jedi to reprise the role of Palpatine . In an interview , he stated , " When we were doing Return of the Jedi there was a rumor that George Lucas had nine films in his head , and he 'd clearly just completed three of them . " McDiarmid added , " Someone said that , ' Oh , I think what he might do next is go back in time , and show how Vader came to be . ' It never occurred to me in a million years that I would be involved in that , because I thought , ' oh well , then he 'll get a much younger actor [ to play Palpatine ] . ' That would be obvious . " However , " I was the right age , ironically , for the first prequel when it was made . ... So I was in the very strange and rather wonderful paradox of playing myself when young at my own age , having played myself previously when 100 @-@ and @-@ I @-@ don 't @-@ know @-@ what . " Palpatine 's role in the prequel films required McDiarmid to play two dimensions of the same character . Recalling the initial days of shooting The Phantom Menace , McDiarmid stated , " Stepping onto the set of Episode I for the first time was like going back in time , due to my experience in Jedi . Palpatine 's an interesting character ; he 's conventional on the outside , but demonic on the inside — he 's on the edge , trying to go beyond what 's possible . " McDiarmid added another layer to the character in Attack of the Clones . He noted , " [ Palpatine ] is a supreme actor . He has to be even more convincing than somebody who isn 't behaving in a schizophrenic fashion , so he 's extra charming , or extra professional — and for those who are looking for clues , that 's almost where you can see them . " McDiarmid illuminated on the scene where Padmé Amidala is almost assassinated : There 's a moment in one scene of the new film where tears almost appear in his eye . These are crocodile tears , but for all those in the movie , and perhaps watching the movie itself , they 'll see he is apparently moved — and of course , he is . He can just do it . He can , as it were , turn it on . And I suppose for him , it 's also a bit of a turn @-@ on — the pure exercise of power is what he 's all about . That 's the only thing he 's interested in and the only thing that can satisfy him — which makes him completely fascinating to play , because it is an evil soul . He is more evil than the devil . At least Satan fell — he has a history , and it 's one of revenge . In Revenge of the Sith , McDiarmid played a darker interpretation of the character . He explained that " [ ... ] when you 're playing a character of solid blackness , that in itself is very interesting , in the sense that you have no other motivation other than the accumulation of power . It 's not so much about not having a moral center , it 's just that the only thing that mattered is increasing power . " He admitted , " I 've been trying to find a redeeming feature to Palpatine , and the only one I 've got so far is that he 's clearly a patron of the arts because he goes to the opera . " McDiarmid compared the character to Iago from William Shakespeare 's Othello : Everything he does is an act of pure hypocrisy , and that 's interesting to play . I suppose it 's rather like playing Iago . All the characters in the play — including Othello until the end — think that " Honest Iago " is a decent guy doing his job , and he 's quite liked . But at the same time there 's a tremendous evil subconscious in operation . McDiarmid noticed that the script for Revenge of the Sith demanded more action from his character than in previous films . Lightsaber combat was a challenge to the 60 @-@ year @-@ old actor , who , like his costars , took fencing lessons . The close @-@ up shots and non @-@ acrobatic sequences of the duel between Palpatine and Mace Windu were performed by McDiarmid . Advanced fencing and acrobatic stunts were executed by McDiarmid 's doubles , Michael Byrne , Sebastian Dickins , and Bob Bowles . McDiarmid 's performance as Palpatine was generally well received by critics . Todd McCarthy of Variety commented , " Entertaining from start to finish and even enthralling at times , ' Sith ' has some acting worth writing home about , specifically McDiarmid 's dominant turn as the mastermind of the evil empire . " A reviewer for The Village Voice wrote that " Ian McDiarmid 's unctuous Emperor turns appropriately vampiric as he attempts to draw Anakin into the Sith fold with promises of eternal life . " Still , his performance was not without detractors ; David Edelstein of Slate critiqued , " McDiarmid isn 't the subtlest of satanic tempters . With his lisp and his clammy little leer , he looks like an old queen keen on trading an aging butt @-@ boy ( Count Dooku ) for fresh meat — which leaves Anakin looking more and more like a 15 @-@ watt bulb . " = = = Make @-@ up and costumes = = = Ian McDiarmid required little make @-@ up in The Phantom Menace and Attack of the Clones . He recalled , " I 'm ... slightly aged [ in Attack of the Clones ] . In the last film , I had a fairly standard make @-@ up on , but now , they 're starting to crinkle my face . " Transforming McDiarmid into Emperor Palpatine in Return of the Jedi and Revenge of the Sith , however , required extensive make @-@ up . McDiarmid remarked in an interview with Star Wars Insider magazine , " Yes — that was a four @-@ hour job , initially , although we got it down to about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half in the end . But this was just a little bit of latex here and there , a little bit of skin @-@ scrunching . " He told the Homing Beacon newsletter , " When my face changes in the film , my mind went back to the early silent movie of The Phantom of the Opera with Lon Chaney , Sr .. " Film critic Roger Ebert wrote that he " looks uncannily like Death in The Seventh Seal " ( 1957 ) and film historian Robin Wood compares him to the hag from Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs ( 1937 ) . Palpatine 's wardrobe , tailored by costume designer Trisha Biggar , played an important part in the development of the character throughout the films . In Attack of the Clones , explained McDiarmid , " The costumes ... have got much more edge to them , I think , than the mere senator had [ in The Phantom Menace ] . So we see the trappings of power . " In the next episode , McDiarmid remarked , " To wear the costumes as the character I play is wonderfully empowering . " McDiarmid 's favorite costume in Revenge of the Sith was a high @-@ collared jacket that resembles snake or lizard skin . He stated that " it just feels reptilian , which is exactly right for [ Palpatine ] . " According to Trisha Biggar , Palpatine 's costumes proved the most daunting challenge . She said , " His six costumes get progressively darker and more ornately decorated throughout the movie . He wears greys and browns , almost going to black , taking him toward the dark side . " = = Popular culture = = With the premiere of Return of the Jedi and the prequel films and the accompanying merchandising campaign , Palpatine became an icon in American popular culture . Kenner / Hasbro produced and marketed a series of action figures of the character from 1983 to 2005 . According to John Shelton Lawrence and Robert Jewett , " These action figures allow children ( ' 4 & up ' ) to handle the symbols of the Force . " Academics have	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
debated the relationship of Palpatine to modern culture . Religion scholars Ross Shepard Kraemer , William Cassidy , and Susan Schwartz compare Palpatine and Star Wars heroes to the theological concept of dualism . They insist , " One can certainly picture the evil emperor in Star Wars as Satan , complete with his infernal powers , leading his faceless minions such as his red @-@ robed Imperial Guards . " Lawrence and Jewett argue that the killing of Palpatine in Return of the Jedi represented " the permanent subduing of evil " . Since Return of the Jedi and the prequel films , Palpatine 's name has been invoked as a caricature in politics . The liberal website BuzzFlash remarked in 2004 , " When we saw ... [ Senator ] Zell Miller [ of Georgia ] giving his invective at the RNC , we knew it reminded us of someone . We just couldn 't place it until we realized it was the hate in Zell 's eyes , his skin and the way it looks like that hate is eating his soul . Then we remembered : he reminded us of the evil Emperor Palpatine from Star Wars . ( We didn 't know the Emperor had a name until this morning . ) " A Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer editorial noted that anti @-@ pork bloggers were caricaturing West Virginia Senator Robert Byrd as " the Emperor Palpatine of pork " with Senator Ted Stevens of Alaska having " clear aspirations to be his Darth Vader . " The charge followed a report that linked a secret hold on the Federal Funding Accountability and Transparency Act of 2006 to the two senators . Politicians have made comparisons as well . In 2005 , Democratic Senator Frank Lautenberg of New Jersey compared Republican Majority Leader Bill Frist of Tennessee to Palpatine in a speech on the Senate floor , complete with a visual aid . A Fox News editorial stated " no cultural icon can exist without someone trying to stuff it into a political ideology . The Star Wars saga , the greatest pop culture icon of the last three decades , is no exception ... Palpatine 's dissolution of the Senate in favor of imperial rule has been compared to Julius Caesar 's marginalization of the Roman Senate , Hitler 's power @-@ grab as chancellor , and FDR 's court @-@ packing scheme and creation of the imperial presidency . " = Greater Manchester = Greater Manchester is a metropolitan county in North West England , with a population of 2 @.@ 8 million . It encompasses one of the largest metropolitan areas in the United Kingdom and comprises ten metropolitan boroughs : Bolton , Bury , Oldham , Rochdale , Stockport , Tameside , Trafford , Wigan , and the cities of Manchester and Salford . Greater Manchester was created on 1 April 1974 as a result of the Local Government Act 1972 ; and designated a City Region on 1 April 2011 . Greater Manchester spans 493 square miles ( 1 @,@ 277 km2 ) , which roughly covers the territory of the Greater Manchester Built @-@ up Area , the second most populous urban area in the UK . It is landlocked and borders Cheshire ( to the south @-@ west and south ) , Derbyshire ( to the south @-@ east ) , West Yorkshire ( to the north @-@ east ) , Lancashire ( to the north ) and Merseyside ( to the west ) . There is a mix of high @-@ density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Greater Manchester , but land use is mostly urban — the product of concentric urbanisation and industrialisation which occurred mostly during the 19th century when the region flourished as the global centre of the cotton industry . It has a focused central business district , formed by Manchester city centre and the adjoining parts of Salford and Trafford , but Greater Manchester is also a polycentric county with ten metropolitan districts , each of which has at least one major town centre and outlying suburbs . For the 12 years following 1974 the county had a two @-@ tier system of local government ; district councils shared power with the Greater Manchester County Council . The county council was abolished in 1986 , and so its districts ( the metropolitan boroughs ) effectively became unitary authority areas . However , the metropolitan county has continued to exist in law and as a geographic frame of reference , and as a ceremonial county , has a Lord Lieutenant and a High Sheriff . Being within the Lancashire county palatine they are appointed by the monarch in their capacity as Duke of Lancaster . Several county @-@ wide services were co @-@ ordinated through the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities until April 2011 , when the Greater Manchester Combined Authority was established as the strategic county @-@ wide authority for Greater Manchester , taking on functions and responsibilities for economic development , regeneration and transport . A further devolution of powers to Greater Manchester is set to take place upon the election of the inaugural Mayor of Greater Manchester scheduled for 2017 . Before the creation of the metropolitan county , the name SELNEC was used for the area , taken from the initials of " South East Lancashire North East Cheshire " . Greater Manchester is an amalgamation of 70 former local government districts from the former administrative counties of Lancashire , Cheshire , the West Riding of Yorkshire and eight independent county boroughs . Since deindustrialisation in the mid @-@ 20th century , Greater Manchester has emerged as an exporter of media and digital content , guitar and dance music , and association football . = = History = = = = = Origins = = = Although the modern county of Greater Manchester was not created until 1974 , the history of its constituent settlements and parts goes back centuries . There is evidence of Iron Age habitation , particularly at Mellor , and Celtic activity in a settlement named Chochion , believed to have been an area of Wigan settled by the Brigantes . Stretford was also part of the land believed to have been occupied by the Celtic Brigantes tribe , and lay on their border with the Cornovii on the southern side of the River Mersey . The remains of 1st @-@ century forts at Castlefield in Manchester , and Castleshaw Roman fort in Saddleworth , are evidence of Roman occupation . The area was settled by Anglo @-@ Saxons , who named it " Mameham " . Much of the region was omitted from the Domesday Book of 1086 ; Redhead states that this was because only a partial survey was taken , rather than sparsity of population . During the Middle Ages , much of what became Greater Manchester lay within the hundred of Salfordshire – an ancient division of the county of Lancashire . Salfordshire encompassed several parishes and townships , some of which , like Rochdale , were important market towns and centres of England 's woollen trade . The development of what became Greater Manchester is attributed to a shared tradition of domestic flannel and fustian cloth production , which encouraged a system of cross @-@ regional trade . In the late @-@ 18th century , the Industrial Revolution transformed the local domestic system ; mechanisation enabled the industrialisation of the region 's textile trade , triggering rapid growth in the cotton industry and expansion in ancillary trades . Infrastructure such as rows of terraced housing , factories and roads were constructed to house labour , transport goods , and produce cotton goods on an industrial scale for a global market . The townships in and around Manchester began expanding " at an astonishing rate " around the turn of the 19th century as part of a process of unplanned urbanisation brought on by a boom in industrial textile production and processing . This population increase resulted in the " vigourous concentric growth " of a conurbation between Manchester and an arc of surrounding mill towns , formed from a steady acretion of houses , factories and transport infrastructure . Places such as Bury , Oldham and Bolton played a central economic role nationally , and by the end of the 19th century had become some of the most important and productive cotton @-@ producing towns in the world . However , it was Manchester that was the most populous settlement , a major city , the world 's largest marketplace for cotton goods , and the natural centre of its region . By 1835 " Manchester was without challenge the first and greatest industrial city in the world " ; and by 1848 urban sprawl had fused the city to its surrounding towns and hinterland to form a single continuous conurbation . In the 1910s , local government reforms to administer this conurbation as a single entity were proposed . In the 18th century , German traders had coined the name Manchesterthum to cover the region in and around Manchester . However , the English term " Greater Manchester " did not appear until the 20th century . One of its first known recorded uses was in a 1914 report put forward in response to what was considered to have been the successful creation of the County of London in 1889 . The report suggested that a county should be set up to recognise the " Manchester known in commerce " , and referred to the areas that formed " a substantial part of South Lancashire and part of Cheshire , comprising all municipal boroughs and minor authorities within a radius of eight or nine miles of Manchester " . In his 1915 book Cities In Evolution , urban planner Sir Patrick Geddes wrote " far more than Lancashire realises , is growing up another Greater London " . Most of Greater Manchester lay within the ancient county boundaries of Lancashire ; those areas south of the Mersey and Tame were in Cheshire . The Saddleworth area and a small part of Mossley are historically part of Yorkshire and in the south @-@ east a small part in Derbyshire . The areas that were incorporated into Greater Manchester in 1974 previously formed parts of the administrative counties of Cheshire , Lancashire , the West Riding of Yorkshire and of eight independent county boroughs . By the early 1970s , this system of demarcation was described as " archaic " and " grossly inadequate to keep pace both with the impact of motor travel , and with the huge increases in local government responsibilities " . The Manchester Evening Chronicle brought to the fore the issue of " regional unity " for the area in April 1935 under the headline " Greater Manchester – The Ratepayers ' Salvation " . It reported on the " increasing demands for the exploration of the possibilities of a greater merger of public services throughout Manchester and the surrounding municipalities " . The issue was frequently discussed by civic leaders in the area at that time , particularly those from Manchester and Salford . The Mayor of Salford pledged his support to the idea , stating that he looked forward to the day when " there would be a merging of the essential services of Manchester , Salford , and the surrounding districts constituting Greater Manchester . " Proposals were halted by the Second World War , though in the decade after it , the pace of proposals for local government reform for the area quickened . In 1947 , Lancashire County Council proposed a three " ridings " system to meet the changing needs of the county of Lancashire , including those for Manchester and surrounding districts . Other proposals included the creation of a Manchester County Council , a directly elected regional body . In 1951 , the census in the UK began reporting on South East Lancashire as a homogeneous conurbation . = = = Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report = = = The Local Government Act 1958 designated the south east Lancashire area ( which , despite its name , included part of north east Cheshire ) , a Special Review Area . The Local Government Commission for England presented draft recommendations , in December 1965 , proposing a new county based on the conurbation surrounding and including Manchester , with nine most @-@ purpose boroughs corresponding to the modern Greater Manchester boroughs ( excluding Wigan ) . The review was abolished in favour of the Royal Commission on Local Government before issuing a final report . The Royal Commission 's 1969 report , known as the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report , proposed the removal of much of the then existing system of local government . The commission described the system of administering urban and rural districts separately as outdated , noting that urban areas provided employment and services for rural dwellers , and open countryside was used by town dwellers for recreation . The commission considered interdependence of areas at many levels , including travel @-@ to @-@ work , provision of services , and which local newspapers were read , before proposing a new administrative metropolitan area . The area had roughly the same northern boundary as today 's Greater Manchester ( though included Rossendale ) , but covered much more territory from Cheshire ( including Macclesfield , Warrington , Alderley Edge , Northwich , Middlewich , Wilmslow and Lymm ) , and Derbyshire ( the towns of New Mills , Whaley Bridge , Glossop and Chapel @-@ en @-@ le @-@ Frith – a minority report suggested that Buxton be included ) . The metropolitan area was to be divided into nine metropolitan districts , based on Wigan , Bolton , Bury / Rochdale , Warrington , Manchester ( including Salford and Old Trafford ) , Oldham , Altrincham , Stockport and Tameside . The report noted " The choice even of a label of convenience for this metropolitan area is difficult " . Seven years earlier , a survey prepared for the British Association intended to define the " South @-@ East Lancashire conurbation " noted that " Greater Manchester it is not ... One of its main characteristics is the marked individuality of its towns , ... all of which have an industrial and commercial history of more than local significance " . The term Selnec ( or SELNEC ) was already in use as an abbreviation for south east Lancashire and north east Cheshire ; Redcliffe @-@ Maud took this as " the most convenient term available " , having modified it to south east Lancashire , north east and central Cheshire . Following the Transport Act 1968 , in 1969 the SELNEC Passenger Transport Executive ( an authority to co @-@ ordinate and operate public transport in the region ) was set up , covering an area smaller than the proposed Selnec , and different again to the eventual Greater Manchester . Compared with the Redcliffe @-@ Maud area , it excluded Macclesfield , Warrington , and Knutsford but included Glossop and Saddleworth in the West Riding of Yorkshire . It excluded Wigan , which was in both the Redcliffe @-@ Maud area and in the eventual Greater Manchester ( but had not been part of the 1958 act 's review area ) . Redcliffe @-@ Maud 's recommendations were accepted by the Labour @-@ controlled government in February 1970 . Although the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report was rejected by the Conservative government after the 1970 general election , there was a commitment to local government reform , and the need for a metropolitan county centred on the conurbation surrounding Manchester was accepted . The new government 's original proposal was much smaller than the Redcliffe @-@ Maud Report 's Selnec , with areas such as Winsford , Northwich , Knutsford , Macclesfield and Glossop retained by their original counties to ensure their county councils had enough revenue to remain competitive ( Cheshire County Council would have ceased to exist ) . Other late changes included the separation of the proposed Bury / Rochdale authority ( retained from the Redcliffe @-@ Maud report ) into the Metropolitan Borough of Bury and the Metropolitan Borough of Rochdale . Bury and Rochdale were originally planned to form a single district ( dubbed " Botchdale " by local MP Michael Fidler ) but were divided into separate boroughs . To re @-@ balance the districts , the borough of Rochdale took Middleton from Oldham . During the passage of the bill , the towns of Whitworth , Wilmslow and Poynton successfully objected to their incorporation in the new county . = = = 1974 – 1997 = = = The Local Government Act 1972 reformed local government in England by creating a system of two @-@ tier metropolitan and non @-@ metropolitan counties and districts throughout the country . The act formally established Greater Manchester on 1April 1974 , although Greater Manchester County Council ( GMCC ) had been running since elections in 1973 . The leading article in The Times on the day the Local Government Act came into effect noted that the " new arrangement is a compromise which seeks to reconcile familiar geography which commands a certain amount of affection and loyalty , with the scale of operations on which modern planning methods can work effectively " . Frangopulo noted that the creation of Greater Manchester " was the official unifying of a region which , through history and tradition , had forged for itself over many centuries bonds ... between the communities of town and village , each of which was the embodiment of the character of this region " . The name Greater Manchester was adopted , having been favoured over Selnec by the local population . By January 1974 , a joint working party representing Greater Manchester had drawn up its county Structure Plan , ready for implementation by the Greater Manchester County Council . The plan set out objectives for the forthcoming metropolitan county . The highest priority was to increase the quality of life for its inhabitants by improving the county 's physical environment and cultural facilities which had suffered following deindustrialisation — much of Greater Manchester 's basic infrastructure dated from its 19th @-@ century growth , and was unsuited to modern lifestyles . Other objectives were to reverse the trend of depopulation in central @-@ Greater Manchester , to invest in country parks to improve the region 's poor reputation on leisure facilities , and to improve the county 's transport infrastructure and patterns . Because of political objection , particularly from Cheshire , Greater Manchester covered only the inner , urban 62 of the 90 former districts that the Royal Commission had outlined as an effective administrative metropolitan area . In this capacity , GMCC found itself " planning for an arbitrary metropolitan area ... abruptly truncated to the south " , and so had to negotiate several land @-@ use , transport and housing projects with its neighbouring county councils . However a " major programme of environmental action " by GMCC broadly succeeded in reversing social deprevation in its inner city slums . Leisure and recreational successes included the Greater Manchester Exhibition Centre ( better known as the G @-@ Mex centre and now branded Manchester Central ) , a converted former railway station in Manchester city centre used for cultural events , and GMCC 's creation of five new country parks within its boundaries . GMCC was , however , criticised for being too Manchester @-@ centric by representatives from the outer suburbs . Unlike most other modern counties ( including Merseyside and Tyne and Wear ) , Greater Manchester was never adopted as a postal county by the Royal Mail . A review in 1973 noted that " Greater Manchester " would be unlikely to be adopted because of confusion with the Manchester post town . The component areas of Greater Manchester held on to their pre @-@ 1974 postal counties until 1996 , when they were abolished . A decade after they were established , the mostly Labour @-@ controlled metropolitan county councils and the Greater London Council ( GLC ) had several high profile clashes with the Conservative government of Margaret Thatcher , with regards overspending and high rates charging . Government policy on the issue was considered throughout 1982 , and the Conservative Party put a " promise to scrap the metropolitan county councils " and the GLC , in their manifesto for the 1983 general election . Greater Manchester County Council was abolished on 31 March 1986 under the Local Government Act 1985 . That the metropolitan county councils were controlled by the Labour Party led to accusations that their abolition was motivated by party politics : the general secretary of the National Association of Local Government Officers described it as a " completely cynical manoeuvre " . Most of the functions of GMCC were devolved to the ten Greater Manchester metropolitan district councils , though functions such as emergency services and public transport were taken over by joint boards and continued to be run on a county @-@ wide basis . The Association of Greater Manchester Authorities ( AGMA ) was established to continue much of the county @-@ wide services of the county council . The metropolitan county continues to exist in law , and as a geographic frame of reference , for example as a NUTS 2 administrative division for statistical purposes within the European Union . Although having been a Lieutenancy area since 1974 , Greater Manchester was included as a ceremonial county by the Lieutenancies Act 1997 on 1 July 1997 . = = = Combined Authority = = = In 1998 , the people of Greater London voted in a referendum in favour of establishing a new Greater London Authority , with mayor and an elected chamber for the county . The New Local Government Network proposed the creation of a new Manchester City Region based on Greater Manchester and other metropolitan counties as part of on @-@ going reform efforts , while a report released by the Institute for Public Policy Research 's Centre for Cities proposed the creation of two administrative city regions based on Manchester and Birmingham . In July 2007 , The Treasury published its Review of sub @-@ national economic development and regeneration , which stated that the government would allow those city regions that wished to work together to form a statutory framework for city regional activity , including powers over transport , skills , planning and economic development . In January 2008 , AGMA suggested that a formal government structure be created to cover Greater Manchester . The issue resurfaced in June 2008 with regards to proposed congestion charging in Greater Manchester ; Sir Richard Leese ( leader of Manchester City Council ) said " I 've come to the conclusion that [ a referendum on congestion charging should be held ] because we don 't have an indirectly or directly elected body for Greater Manchester that has the power to make this decision " . On 14 July 2008 the ten local authorities in Greater Manchester agreed to a strategic and integrated cross @-@ county Multi @-@ Area Agreement ; a voluntary initiative aimed at making district councils " work together to challenge the artificial limits of boundaries " in return for greater autonomy from the central government of the UK . A referendum on the Greater Manchester Transport Innovation Fund was held in December 2008 , in which voters " overwhelmingly rejected " plans for public transport improvements linked to a peak @-@ time weekday @-@ only congestion charge . Following a bid from AGMA highlighting the potential benefits in combatting the late @-@ 2000s financial crisis , it was announced in the 2009 United Kingdom Budget that Greater Manchester and the Leeds City Region would be awarded Statutory City Region Pilot status , allowing ( if they desired ) for their constituent district councils to pool resources and become statutory Combined Authorities with powers comparable to the Greater London Authority . The stated aim of the pilot was to evaluate the contributions to economic growth and sustainable development by Combined Authorities . The Local Democracy , Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 enabled the creation of a Combined Authority for Greater Manchester with devolved powers on public transport , skills , housing , regeneration , waste management , carbon neutrality and planning permission , pending approval from the ten councils . Such strategic matters would be decided on via an enhanced majority rule voting system involving ten members appointed from among the councillors of the metropolitan boroughs ( one representing each borough with each council nominating one substitute ) without the input of central government . The ten district councils of Greater Manchester approved the creation of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority ( GMCA ) on 29 March 2010 , and submitted final recommendations for a constitution to the Department for Communities and Local Government and the Department for Transport . On 31 March 2010 the Communities Secretary John Denham approved the constitution and launched a 15 @-@ week public consultation on the draft bill together with the approved constitution . Following requests by the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities , which was superseded by the GMCA , the new authority came into being on 1 April 2011 . On the same day , the Transport for Greater Manchester Committee was also formed from a pool of 33 councillors allocated by council population ( roughly one councillor per 75 @,@ 000 residents ) to scrutinise the running of Greater Manchester 's transport bodies and their finances , approve the decisions and policies of said bodies and form strategic policy recommendations or projects for the approval of the Combined Authority . On 3 November 2014 , George Osborne , the Chancellor of the Exchequer , announced that there would be an eleventh member of the GMCA — a directly elected Mayor of Greater Manchester , with " powers over transport , housing , planning and policing " from 2017 . This announcement was followed up on 25 February 2015 with news that Greater Manchester would be the first part of England to " get full control of its health spending " with a devolution deal from April 2016 . = = Geography = = Greater Manchester is a landlocked county spanning 493 square miles ( 1 @,@ 277 km2 ) . The South Pennines rise along the northeastern side of the county , through parts of Oldham , Rochdale and Tameside . The West Pennine Moors and several coalfields ( mainly sandstones and shales ) lie in the northwest and west respectively , and the Cheshire Plain fringes the south . The rivers Mersey , Irwell and Tame run through Greater Manchester , all of which rise in the Pennines . Other rivers traverse the region as tributaries to the major rivers , including the Douglas , the Irk , and the Roch . Black Chew Head is the highest point in Greater Manchester which forms part of the Peak District National Park , rising 1 @,@ 778 feet ( 542 m ) above sea @-@ level , within the parish of Saddleworth . Greater Manchester is characterised by dense urban and industrial development , which includes centres of commerce , finance , retail and administration , as well as commuter suburbs and housing , interspersed with transport infrastructure such as light rail , roads and motorway , and canals . There is a mix of high density urban areas , suburbs , semi @-@ rural and rural locations in Greater Manchester , but land use is mostly urban . The built environment of Greater Manchester utilises red brick and sandstone prominently as a building material , alongside structures composed of modern materials , high @-@ rise towers , and landmark 19th- , 20th- and 21st @-@ century buildings in the city and town centres . Manchester city centre is the commercial and geographic heart of Greater Manchester , and with the adjoining parts of Salford and Trafford , is defined as Greater Manchester 's " Regional Centre " for purposes of urban planning and public transport . Political and economic ties between the city centre and neighbouring Salford and Trafford have strengthened with the shift from town and district centres to metropolitan @-@ level centres in England , and this area 's high @-@ rise landmark buildings provide a visual orientation point of reference as a central business district . However , Greater Manchester is also a polycentric county with ten metropolitan districts , each of which has a major town centre – and in some cases more than one – and many smaller settlements . The major towns encircle Manchester city centre , and between them are smaller towns ( such as Denton , Middleton and Failsworth ) which are suburban to both the Regional Centre and the major town centres . Combined , these factors make Greater Manchester the most complex " polycentric functional urban region " in the UK outside London . The Greater Manchester Built @-@ up Area is the conurbation or continuous urban area based around Greater Manchester , as defined by the Office for National Statistics . In 2011 , it had an estimated population of 2 @,@ 553 @,@ 379 , making it the second most populous built @-@ up area in the UK , and occupied an area of 630 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 243 @.@ 4 sq mi ) at the time of the 2011 census . The European Union designate the conurbation as a single homogonous urban city region . The Built @-@ up Area includes most of Greater Manchester , omitting areas of countryside and small villages , as well as noncontiguous urban towns such as Wigan and Marple . Outside the boundary of Greater Manchester it includes several adjacent areas of settlement and a few outliers connected to the urban sprawl by ribbon development , such as Wilmslow and Alderley Edge in Cheshire , Glossop and Hadfield in Derbyshire , and Whitworth in Lancashire . This conurbation forms part of a megalopolis of 9 @.@ 4 million across northern England . = = = Climate = = = Greater Manchester experiences a temperate maritime climate , like most of the British Isles , with relatively cool summers and mild winters . The county 's average annual rainfall is 806 @.@ 6 millimetres ( 31 @.@ 76 in ) compared to the UK average of 1 @,@ 125 @.@ 0 millimetres ( 44 @.@ 29 in ) , and its mean rain days are 140 @.@ 4 mm ( 5 @.@ 53 in ) per annum , compared to the UK average of 154 @.@ 4 mm ( 6 @.@ 08 in ) . The mean temperature is slightly above average for the United Kingdom . Greater Manchester also has a relatively high humidity level , which lent itself to the optimised and breakage @-@ free textile manufacturing which took place around the county . Snowfall is not a common sight in the built up areas , due to the urban warming effect . However , the Pennine and Rossendale Forest hills around the eastern and northern edges of the county receive more snow , and roads leading out of the county can be closed due to heavy snowfall , notably the A62 road via Standedge , the A57 ( Snake Pass ) towards Sheffield , and the M62 over Saddleworth Moor . In the most southern point of Greater Manchester , Woodford 's Met Office weather station recorded a temperature of − 17 @.@ 6 ° C ( 0 @.@ 3 ° F ) on 8 January 2010 , during the Winter of 2009 @-@ 2010 in the United Kingdom . = = = Flora and fauna = = = Contrary to its reputation for urban sprawl , Greater Manchester has a green belt , constraining urban drift , and a " wide and varied range " of wildlife and natural habitats . For instance , the wooded valleys of Bolton , Bury and Stockport , the moorlands north and east of Rochdale , Oldham and Stalybridge , and the reed beds between Wigan and Leigh , harbour flora and fauna of national importance . Mature woodland , scrubland , grassland , high moorland , mossland , agricultural land , lakes , wetlands , river valleys , embankments , urban parks and suburban gardens are habitats found in Greater Manchester which further contribute to biodiversity . The Greater Manchester Ecology Unit classifies Sites of Biological Importance . The 21 Sites of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) in Greater Manchester , and the 12 @.@ 1 square miles ( 31 km2 ) of common land in Greater Manchester are of particular interest to organisations such as the Greater Manchester Local Record Centre , the Greater Manchester Biodiversity Project and the Manchester Field Club , which are dedicated to wildlife conservation and the preservation of the region 's natural history . Among the SSSIs are Astley and Bedford Mosses which form a network of ancient peat bog on the fringe of Chat Moss , which in turn , at 10 @.@ 6 square miles ( 27 km2 ) comprises the largest area of prime farmland in Greater Manchester and contains the largest block of semi @-@ natural woodland in the county . The Wigan Flashes , such as those at Pennington Flash Country Park , are the by @-@ product of coal mining , where subsidence has led to waterbodies collecting in the resulting hollows which form an important reed bed resource in Greater Manchester . Opened in 1979 , Sale Water Park is a 152 @-@ acre ( 62 ha ) area of countryside and parkland in Sale which includes a 52 @-@ acre ( 21 ha ) artificial lake by the River Mersey . Clover , sorrel , nettle and thistle are common , and grow wild in Greater Manchester . Common heather ( Calluna vulgaris ) dominates the uplands , such as Saddleworth Moor , which lies within the South Pennines and Dark Peak area of the Peak District National Park . The Rochdale Canal harbours floating water @-@ plantain ( Luronium ) , an endangered aquatic plant . In 2002 , Plantlife International launched its County Flowers campaign , asking members of the public to nominate and vote for a wild flower emblem for their county . Common cottongrass ( Eriophorum angustifolium ) , a plant with fluffy white plumes native to wet hollows on high moors , was announced as the county flower of Greater Manchester . The house sparrow , common starling , and common blackbird are among the most populous bird species in Greater Manchester ; Eurasian magpie and feral pigeon are common and breed in habitats across the county . The South Pennines support internationally important numbers of European golden plover , curlew , merlin and twite . = = Governance = = The Greater Manchester Combined Authority ( GMCA ) is the top @-@ tier administrative body for the local governance of Greater Manchester . It was established on 1 April 2011 as a pilot combined authority , unique to local government in the United Kingdom . It consists of ten indirectly elected members , each a directly elected councillor from one of the ten metropolitan boroughs that comprise Greater Manchester . The authority derives most of its powers from the Local Government Act 2000 and Local Democracy , Economic Development and Construction Act 2009 , and replaced a range of single @-@ purpose joint boards and quangos in 2011 , to provide a formal administrative authority for Greater Manchester with powers over public transport , skills , housing , regeneration , waste management , carbon neutrality and planning permission . Functional executive bodies , such as Transport for Greater Manchester , are responsible for delivery of services in these areas . On 3 November 2014 , the Devolution to the Greater Manchester Combined Authority agreement was signed to pass further powers and responsibilities , as well as the establishment of an elected Mayor of Greater Manchester with the first election to be held in 2017 . From April 2016 , Greater Manchester will be the first part of England to " get full control of its health spending " with a devolution deal which aims to unite the region 's health and social care systems under one budget under the control of local leaders , including Greater Manchester 's new directly elected mayor . Beneath the GMCA are the ten councils of Greater Manchester 's ten districts , which are Bolton , Bury , the City of Manchester , Oldham , Rochdale , the City of Salford , Stockport , Tameside , Trafford and Wigan . These district councils have the greatest powers over public services , and control matters such as council tax , education provision , social housing , libraries and healthcare . Eight of the ten metropolitan boroughs were named after the eight former county boroughs that now compose the largest centres of population and greater historical and political prominence . As an example , the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport is centred on the town of Stockport , a former county borough , but includes other smaller settlements , such as Cheadle , Gatley , and Bramhall . The names of two of the metropolitan boroughs were given a neutral name because , at the time they were created , there was no agreement on the town to be put forward as the administrative centre and neither had a county borough . These boroughs are Tameside and Trafford , centred on Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Stretford , respectively , and are named with reference to geographical and historical origins . The lowest formal tier of local government in Greater Manchester are the parish councils , which cover the various civil parishes in Greater Manchester , and have limited powers over upkeep , maintenance and small grants . For the first 12 years after the county was created in 1974 , Greater Manchester had a two @-@ tier system of local government , and the metropolitan borough councils shared power with the Greater Manchester County Council . The Greater Manchester County Council , a strategic authority based in what is now Westminster House off Piccadilly Gardens , comprised 106 members drawn from the ten metropolitan boroughs of Greater Manchester . It was a sub @-@ regional body running regional services such as transport , strategic planning , emergency services and waste disposal . In 1986 , along with the five other metropolitan county councils and the Greater London Council , the Greater Manchester County Council was abolished , and most of its powers were devolved to the boroughs . Between 1986 and 2011 , the boroughs were effectively unitary authority areas , but opted to co @-@ operate voluntarily under the Association of Greater Manchester Authorities ( AGMA ) , which served to create a co @-@ ordinated county @-@ wide approach to issues of common interest to Greater Manchester , such as public transport and the shared labour market , as well as making representations to central government and the European Union . Although used as a " successful brand " , Greater Manchester 's politics have been characterised by " entrenched localism and related rivalries " , historically resistant to regionalism . The major towns in Greater Manchester retain a " fierce independence " , meaning Greater Manchester is administered using " inter @-@ municipal coordination " on a broadly voluntary basis . That eight of the ten borough councils have ( for the most part ) been Labour @-@ controlled since 1986 , has helped maintain this informal co @-@ operation between the districts at a county @-@ level . After the abolition of the county council , the ten authorities of Greater Manchester co @-@ operated voluntarily on policy issues like Local Transport Plans as well as funding the Greater Manchester County Record Office , and local services were administered by statutory joint boards . Now under the direction of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority , these joint boards are Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) which is responsible for planning and co @-@ ordinating public transport across the county ; the Greater Manchester Fire and Rescue Service , who are administered by a joint Fire and Rescue Authority ; and the Greater Manchester Waste Disposal Authority . These joint boards are made up of councillors appointed from each of the ten boroughs ( except the Waste Disposal Authority , which does not include the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan ) . Greater Manchester Police was formerly overseen by a joint police authority , but is now overseen by the Greater Manchester Police and Crime Commissioner owing to reforms introduced in 2012 . The ten borough councils are joint @-@ owners of the Manchester Airport Group which controls Manchester Airport and three other UK airports . Other services are directly funded and managed by the local councils . Greater Manchester is a ceremonial county with its own Lord @-@ Lieutenant who is the personal representative of the monarch . The Local Government Act 1972 provided that the whole of the area to be covered by the new metropolitan county of Greater Manchester would also be included in the Duchy of Lancaster – extending the duchy to include areas which were formerly in the counties of Cheshire and the West Riding of Yorkshire . Until 31 March 2005 , Greater Manchester 's Keeper of the Rolls was appointed by the Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster ; they are now appointed by the Lord High Chancellor of Great Britain . The first Lord Lieutenant of Greater Manchester was Sir William Downward who held the title from 1974 to 1988 . The current Lord Lieutenant is Warren James Smith . As a geographic county , Greater Manchester is used by the government ( via the Office for National Statistics ) for the gathering of county @-@ wide statistics , and organising and collating general register and census material . In terms of representation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom , Greater Manchester is divided into 28 parliamentary constituencies – 18 borough constituencies and 10 county constituencies . Most of Greater Manchester is controlled by the Labour party , and is generally considered a Labour stronghold , . At the 2015 UK General Election in Greater Manchester , Labour won 22 seats and the Conservatives won 5 . = = Demography = = Greater Manchester has a population of 2 @,@ 732 @,@ 854 ( 2014 est . , ) , making it the third most populous county in England after Greater London and the West Midlands and the highest ever for the county . It is the sixth most densely populated county of England . The demonym of Greater Manchester is " Greater Mancunian " . The Manchester accent and dialect , native to Manchester , is common in the city and adjacent areas , but gives way to " slower , deeper accents " towards Greater Manchester 's fringes and suburbs . Greater Manchester is home to a diverse population and is a multicultural agglomeration with an ethnic minority population comprising 8 @.@ 5 % of the total population in 2001 . In 2008 , there were over 66 refugee nationalities in the county . At the 2001 UK census , 74 @.@ 2 % of Greater Manchester 's residents were Christian , 5 @.@ 0 % Muslim , 0 @.@ 9 % Jewish , 0 @.@ 7 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Buddhist , and 0 @.@ 1 % Sikh . 11 @.@ 4 % had no religion , 0 @.@ 2 % had an alternative religion and 7 @.@ 4 % did not state their religion . This is similar to the rest of the country , although the proportions of Muslims and Jews are nearly twice the national average . It contains the Heaton Park Hebrew Congregation , a large Ashkenazi Orthodox synagogue located in North Manchester . Greater Manchester is covered by the Roman Catholic Dioceses of Salford and Shrewsbury , and the Archdiocese of Liverpool . Most of Greater Manchester is part of the Anglican Diocese of Manchester , apart from Wigan which lies within the Diocese of Liverpool . Following the deindustrialisation of Greater Manchester in the mid @-@ 20th century , there was a significant economic and population decline in the region , particularly in Manchester and Salford . Vast areas of low @-@ quality squalid terraced housing that were built throughout the Victorian era were found to be in a poor state of repair and unsuited to modern needs ; many inner @-@ city districts suffered from chronic social deprivation and high levels of unemployment . Slum clearance and the increased building of social housing overspill estates by Salford and Manchester City Councils lead to a decrease in population in central Greater Manchester . During the 1970s , 1980s and 1990s , the population of Greater Manchester declined by over 8 @,@ 000 inhabitants a year . While Manchester 's population shrank by about 40 % during this time ( from 766 @,@ 311 in 1931 to 452 @,@ 000 in 2006 ) , the total population of Greater Manchester decreased by only 8 % . Greater Manchester 's housing stock comprises a variety of types . Manchester city centre is noted for its high @-@ rise apartments , while Salford has some of the tallest and most densely populated tower block estates in Europe . Saddleworth has stone @-@ built properties , including farmhouses and converted weavers ' cottages . Throughout Greater Manchester , rows of terraced houses are common , most of them built during the Victorian and Edwardian periods . House prices and labour markets differ in Greater Manchester between north and south , such that in the 2000s , the Housing Market Renewal Initiative identified Manchester , Salford , Rochdale and Oldham as areas with terraced housing unsuited to modern needs . In contrast , towns and villages in southern Greater Manchester , from Bramhall through Woodford to Altrincham constitute an arc of wealthy commuter towns . Altrincham in particular , with its neighbours Bowdon and Hale , forms a " stockbroker belt , with well @-@ appointed dwellings in an area of sylvan opulence " . = = Education = = Greater Manchester has five universities : the Manchester Metropolitan University , the University of Bolton , the University of Law , the University of Manchester and the University of Salford . Together with the Royal Northern College of Music they had a combined population of students of 101 @,@ 165 in 2007 – the third highest number in England behind Greater London ( 360 @,@ 890 ) and the West Midlands ( 140 @,@ 980 ) , and the thirteenth highest in England per head of population . The majority of students are concentrated on Oxford Road in Manchester , Europe 's largest urban higher education precinct . As of 2010 , further education in Greater Manchester is co @-@ ordinated by the Greater Manchester Colleges Group , a joint venture composed of an association of 24 colleges in the region . Primary and secondary education within Greater Manchester are the responsibility of the constituent boroughs which form local education authorities and administer schools . The county has several independent schools such as Bolton School , Bury Grammar School , Manchester Grammar School , Oldham Hulme Grammar School , St Bede 's College and Stockport Grammar School . = = Economy = = Much of Greater Manchester 's wealth was generated during the Industrial Revolution , particularly textile manufacture . The world 's first cotton mill was built in the town of Royton , and the county encompasses several former mill towns . An Association for Industrial Archaeology publication describes Greater Manchester as " one of the classic areas of industrial and urban growth in Britain , the result of a combination of forces that came together in the 18th and 19th centuries : a phenomenal rise in population , the appearance of the specialist industrial town , a transport revolution , and weak local lordship " . Much of the county was at the forefront of textile manufacture during the Industrial Revolution and into the early @-@ 20th century ; Peter Smith , Baron Smith of Leigh , chair of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority said " clearly , all of the Greater Manchester area was once at the heart of a very vibrant [ textiles ] industry " , represented by former textile mills found throughout the county . The territory that makes up Greater Manchester experienced a rapid decline of these traditional sectors , partly during the Lancashire Cotton famine brought on by the American Civil War , but mainly as part of the post @-@ war economic depression and deindustrialization of Britain that occurred during the 20th century . Considerable industrial restructuring has helped the region to recover from deindustrialisation and the demise of the mass production of textiles . Historically , the docks at Salford Quays were an industrial port , though are now ( following a period of disuse ) a commercial and residential area which includes the Imperial War Museum North and The Lowry theatre and exhibition centre . The BBC is now established in their new home at MediaCityUK , at Salford Quays . This is home to BBC North West , several BBC departments , including BBC Sport , Blue Peter and , since April 2012 , BBC Breakfast . Rochdale and Manchester are connected to the history of the cooperative movement ; the Rochdale Society of Equitable Pioneers ( an early consumer co @-@ operative ) was founded in Rochdale in 1844 , and The Co @-@ operative Group , the UK 's largest mutual business and North West England 's biggest company , is headquartered at One Angel Square in central Manchester . Despite this economic diversification , as of November 2012 , government plans are under development to revive textile production in Greater Manchester , and restore it as the national home of British textile manufacture . Today , Greater Manchester is the economic centre of the North West region of England and is the largest sub @-@ regional economy in the UK outside London and South East England . Greater Manchester represents more than £ 42 billion of the UK regional GVA , more than Wales , Northern Ireland or North East England . Manchester city centre , the central business district of Greater Manchester , is a major centre of trade and commerce and provides Greater Manchester with a global identity , specialist activities and employment opportunities ; similarly , the economy of the city centre is dependent upon the rest of the county for its population as an employment pool , skilled workforce and for its collective purchasing power . Manchester today is a centre of the arts , the media , higher education and commerce . In a poll of British business leaders published in 2006 , Manchester was regarded as the best place in the UK to locate a business . A report commissioned by Manchester Partnership , published in 2007 , showed Manchester to be the " fastest @-@ growing city " economically . It is the third most visited city in the United Kingdom by foreign visitors and is now often considered to be the second city of the UK . The Trafford Centre is one of the largest shopping centres in the United Kingdom , and is located within the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford . At the 2001 UK census , there were 1 @,@ 805 @,@ 315 residents of Greater Manchester aged 16 to 74 . The economic activity of these people was 40 @.@ 3 % in full @-@ time employment , 11 @.@ 3 % in part @-@ time employment , 6 @.@ 7 % self @-@ employed , 3 @.@ 5 % unemployed , 5 @.@ 1 % students without jobs , 2 @.@ 6 % students with jobs , 13 @.@ 0 % retired , 6 @.@ 1 % looking after home or family , 7 @.@ 8 % permanently sick or disabled and 3 @.@ 5 % economically inactive for other reasons . The figures follow the national trend , although the percentage of self @-@ employed people is below the national average of 8 @.@ 3 % . The proportion of unemployment in the county varies , with the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport having the lowest at 2 @.@ 0 % and Manchester the highest at 7 @.@ 9 % . In 2001 , of the 1 @,@ 093 @,@ 385 residents of Greater Manchester in employment , the industry of employment was : 18 @.@ 4 % retail and wholesale ; 16 @.@ 7 % manufacturing ; 11 @.@ 8 % property and business services ; 11 @.@ 6 % health and social work ; 8 @.@ 0 % education ; 7 @.@ 3 % transport and communications ; 6 @.@ 7 % construction ; 4 @.@ 9 % public administration and defence ; 4 @.@ 7 % hotels and restaurants ; 4 @.@ 1 % finance ; 0 @.@ 8 % electricity , gas , and water supply ; 0 @.@ 5 % agriculture ; and 4 @.@ 5 % other . This was roughly in line with national figures , except for the proportion of jobs in agriculture which is only about a third of the national average of 1 @.@ 5 % , due to the overwhelmingly urban , built @-@ up land use of Greater Manchester . = = Transport = = Public transport services in Greater Manchester are co @-@ ordinated by Transport for Greater Manchester ( TfGM ) , a public body with powers between those of a passenger transport executive and Transport for London , established as SELNEC PTE in 1969 in accordance with the Transport Act 1968 . The original SELNEC Passenger Transport Executive was renamed as the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive ( GMPTE ) when taken over by the Greater Manchester County Council on 1 April 1974 to co @-@ ordinate public transport modes within the new county . The council had overall responsibility for strategic planning and all policy decisions covering public transport ( such as bus and rail services ) and highways . GMPTE 's purpose was to secure the provision of a completely integrated and efficient system of passenger transport for Greater Manchester on behalf of the county council . In 1977 , it was noted as the largest authority for public transport in the United Kingdom after London Transport . GMPTE was renamed as Transport for Greater Manchester in April 2011 when it became a functional body of the Greater Manchester Combined Authority and obtained powers additional to those of a regular passenger transport executive from central government . Greater Manchester lies at the heart of the North West transport network . Much of the infrastructure converges at Manchester city centre with the Manchester Inner Ring Road , an amalgamation of several major roads , circulating the city centre . The county is the only place in the UK to have a fully orbital motorway , the M60 , which passes through all of the boroughs except Bolton and Wigan . Greater Manchester has a higher percentage of the motorway network than any other county in the country , and according to the Guinness Book of World Records , it has the most traffic lanes side by side ( 17 ) , spread across several parallel carriageways ( M61 at Linnyshaw in Walkden , close to the M60 interchange ) . Greater Manchester 's 85 miles ( 137 km ) of motorway network saw 5 @.@ 8 billion vehicle kilometres in 2002 – about 6 % of the UK 's total , or 89 @,@ 000 vehicles a day . The A580 " East Lancs " road is a primary A road that connects Manchester and Salford with Liverpool . It was the UK 's first purpose @-@ built intercity highway and was officially opened by George V on 18 July 1934 . Throughout 2008 , there were proposals for congestion charging in Greater Manchester . Unlike the London scheme , two cordons would have been used , one covering the main urban core of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and another covering Manchester city centre . Metrolink is Greater Manchester 's light rail system , which began operating in 1992 . Principally used for suburban commuting , as of December 2014 the 57 @-@ mile ( 92 km ) long network consists of seven lines which radiate from Manchester city centre and terminate at Altrincham , Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne , Bury , Didsbury , Eccles , Manchester Airport and Rochdale . The system is owned by TfGM and operated and maintained under contract by RATP Group . Greater Manchester has a heavy rail network of 142 route miles ( 229 km ) with 98 stations , forming a central hub to the North West rail network . Train services are provided by private operators and run on the national rail network which is owned and managed by Network Rail . There is an extensive bus network which radiates from Manchester city centre . The largest providers are First Greater Manchester for the northern parts of the county and Stagecoach Manchester for the southern parts . An extensive canal network also remains from the Industrial Revolution . Manchester Airport , which is the third busiest in the United Kingdom , serves the county and wider region with flights to more worldwide destinations than any other airport in the UK . Since June 2007 it has served 225 routes . The airport handled 21 @.@ 06 million passengers in 2008 . The three modes of public surface transport in the area are heavily used . 19 @.@ 7 million rail journeys were made in the then GMPTE @-@ supported area in the 2005 / 2006 financial year – an increase of 9 @.@ 4 % over 2004 / 2005 ; there were 19 @.@ 9 million journeys on Metrolink ; and the bus system carried 219 @.@ 4 million passengers . = = Sports = = Manchester hosted the 2002 Commonwealth Games which was , at a cost of £ 200M for the sporting facilities and a further £ 470M for local infrastructure , by far the biggest and most expensive sporting event held in the UK and the first to be an integral part of urban regeneration . A mix of new and existing facilities were used . New amenities included the Manchester Aquatics Centre , Bolton Arena , the National Squash Centre , and the City of Manchester Stadium . The Manchester Velodrome was built as part of the Manchester bid for the 2000 Summer Olympics . After the Commonwealth Games the City of Manchester Stadium was converted for football use , and the adjacent warm @-@ up track upgraded to become the Manchester Regional Arena . Other facilities continue to be used by elite athletes . Cambridge Policy Consultants estimate 4 @,@ 500 full @-@ time jobs as a direct consequence , and Grattan points to other long @-@ term benefits accruing from publicity and the improvement of the area 's image . Association football is " woven into the cultural fabric of Greater Manchester " , by way of its numerous football clubs – two of which play in the Premier League - which draw support , visitors and economic benefits to Greater Manchester valued at £ 330 million per year as of 2013 . The Manchester Football Association is the sport 's governing body in Greater Manchester , and is committed to its promotion and development . Manchester United F.C. are one of the world 's best @-@ known football teams , and in April 2008 Forbes estimated that they were the world 's richest club . They have won the League Championship a record twenty times ( most recently in 2012 @-@ 2013 ) , the FA Cup a record twelve times , the Football League Cup four times and have been European Champions three times . Their Old Trafford ground has hosted the FA Cup Final England international matches and the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final between Juventus and A.C. Milan . Manchester City F.C. moved from Maine Road to the City of Manchester Stadium after the 2002 Commonwealth Games . They have won the league championship four times ( most recently in 2013 @-@ 2014 ) and the FA Cup five times . In addition , Wigan Athletic F.C. are one of the county 's younger sides , and won their first major title in 2013 , defeating Manchester City F.C. in the FA Cup final . They currently play in the Championship . There is also Bolton Wanderers F.C. , who also play in the Championship . Oldham Athletic A.F.C. ( founding members of Premier League ) and Bury F.C. ( two FA Cup wins ) who play in League One , Rochdale A.F.C. who play in League One , Stockport County F.C. and F.C. United of Manchester who both play in the National League North . In rugby league , the Wigan Warriors and the Salford Red Devils compete in the Super League , the top @-@ level professional rugby league football club competition in Europe . Wigan have won the Super League / Rugby Football League Championship eighteen times , the Challenge Cup seventeen times , and the World Club Challenge three times . Leigh Centurions and the Swinton Lions take part in the Championship , the sport 's second tier , with 5 times Rugby Football League Championship and 3 times Challenge Cup winners Oldham Roughyeds and local rivals Rochdale Hornets in the third @-@ tier Championship 1 . There is also a large network of junior / community rugby league clubs across the metropolitan area which act as feeder teams to the elite sides . In rugby union , Stockport 's Sale Sharks compete in the Guinness Premiership , and won the league in 2006 . Whitefield based Sedgley Park RUFC compete in National Division One , Manchester RUFC in National Division Two and Wigan side Orrell R.U.F.C. in National Division Three North . Lancashire County Cricket Club began as Manchester Cricket Club and represents the ( ancient ) county of Lancashire . Lancashire contested the original 1890 County Championship . The team has won the County Championship nine times , most recently in 2011 . Their Old Trafford ground , near the football stadium of the same name , regularly hosts test matches . Possibly the most famous took place in 1956 , when Jim Laker took a record nineteen wickets in the fourth test against Australia . Cheshire County Cricket Club are a minor counties club who sometimes play in the south of the county . The Kirkmanshulme Lane stadium in Belle Vue is the home to top @-@ flight speedway team the Belle Vue Aces and regular greyhound racing . Professional ice hockey returned to the area in early 2007 with the opening of a purpose @-@ designed rink in Altrincham , the Altrincham Ice Dome , to host the Manchester Phoenix . Their predecessor , Manchester Storm , went out of business in 2002 because of financial problems that led to them being unable to pay players ' wages or the rent for the Manchester Arena in which they played . Horse racing has taken place at several sites in the county . The two biggest courses were both known as Manchester Racecourse – though neither was within the boundaries of Manchester – and ran from the 17th century until 1963 . Racing was at Kersal Moor until 1847 when the racecourse at Castle Irwell was opened . In 1867 racing was moved to New Barnes , Weaste , until the site was vacated ( for a hefty price ) in 1901 to allow an expansion to Manchester Docks . The land is now home to Dock 9 of the re @-@ branded Salford Quays . Racing then moved back to Castle Irwell which later staged a Classic – the 1941 St. Leger – and was home to the Lancashire Oaks ( nowadays run at Haydock Park ) and the November Handicap , which was traditionally the last major race of the flat season . Through the late 50s and early 60s the track saw Scobie Breasley and Lester Piggott annually battle out the closing acts of the jockey 's title until racing ceased on 7 November 1963 . The Greater Manchester Athletics Association is the governing body of athletics in Greater Manchester , and organises events and competitions within Greater Manchester . The Greater Manchester Marathon is a long @-@ distance running event along a 26 @-@ mile and 385 @-@ yard course throughout the borough of Trafford . Professional athletics takes place at the Regional Athletics Arena in Sportcity , which has hosted numerous national trials , Robin Park in Wigan , Longford Park in Stretford ( home to Trafford Athletic Club ) , Woodbank Stadium in Stockport ( home to Stockport Harriers ) and the Cleavleys Track in Winton ( home to Salford Harriers ) . As of 2008 , new sports facilities including a 10 @,@ 000 capacity stadium and athletics venue are being constructed at Leigh Sports Village . The Greater Manchester Community Basketball Club is an association which represents Greater Manchester in basketball . It supports a variety of teams , including Manchester Magic . The Greater Manchester County Crown Green Bowling Association appoints Junior , Senior and Veteran teams to represent Greater Manchester in the sport of bowls . Founded by Greater Manchester 's ten district councils in 1996 , GreaterSport is the County Sports Partnership for Greater Manchester which works closely with the sports and physical activity sectors and coordinates events such as the Greater Manchester Youth Games . The Greater Manchester Sports Fund aims to ensure that people in Greater Manchester aged 12 – 21 competing in any kind of sport , irrespective of background , are able to obtain grants of up to £ 750 so that they can better fulfil their potential . = = Culture = = Art , tourism , culture and sport provide 16 % of employment in Greater Manchester , with the proportion highest in Manchester . In 2014 , Will Straw remarked that " Greater Manchester is a creative powerhouse " , recognised for its cultural output in areas such as association football , media and digital content , and guitar and dance music . = = = Cuisine = = = There are several delicacies native to Greater Manchester . Savoury dishes include Black pudding , a blood sausage typically associated with Bury and Bury Market ; Pasty barm , a combined pasty @-@ barm cake created in Bolton ; and Rag pudding , a suet pastry pudding from Oldham filled with steak and onion and steamed in a cloth or wrapper to cook ; the Manchester egg was introduced in 2010 . Sweet dishes include Eccles cake — native to Eccles — a small round flaky pastry cake filled with currants , sugar and spice ; Manchester tart , a baked tart which consists of a shortcrust pastry shell spread with raspberry jam , covered with a custard filling and topped with flakes of coconut ; and Uncle Joe 's Mint Balls , traditional sweet mild mints manufactured in Wigan since their inception in 1898 . Vimto and Tizer are soft drinks invented in Manchester in 1908 and 1924 respectively . Boddingtons is a bitter developed in Manchester and promoted as the " Cream of Manchester " in a popular 1990s advertising campaign credited with raising the city 's profile . The Greater Manchester Campaign for Real Ale is a branch of the national Campaign for Real Ale , an advocacy group that supports , promotes and preserves the beer and drinks industry , and recognising outstanding venues with awards ; The Nursery in Heaton Norris was its National Pub of the Year in 2001 , and The Baum in Rochdale was its National Pub Of The Year in 2012 . The Manchester Food and Drink Festival was launched in 1997 as an urban beverage and gastronomy fair , principally held in Manchester city centre with further events throughout Greater Manchester ; smaller separate local events include the Prestwich Food and Drink Festival , the annual World Pie Eating Championship in Wigan , and the annual Ramsbottom Chocolate Festival . As of 2012 , Greater Manchester has no Michelin @-@ starred restaurants , but three eateries in the Bib Gourmand category . = = = Galleries , museums and exhibitions = = = The Greater Manchester Museums Group ( GMMG ) is a partnership of eight of the ten Museum Services in Greater Manchester . Its exhibition centres include : Gallery Oldham , which has in the past featured work by Pablo Picasso ; Salford Museum and Art Gallery , a local museum with a recreated Victorian street ; and Bolton Museum , which houses material from private collectors , including geological specimens from the estate of Caroline Birley . Separate from the GMMG is The Lowry at Salford Quays , which has a changing display of L. S. Lowry 's work alongside travelling exhibitions . Manchester Art Gallery is a major provincial art gallery noted for its collection of Pre @-@ Raphaelite art and housed in a Grade I listed building by Charles Barry . Greater Manchester 's museums showcase the county 's industrial and social heritage . The Hat Works in Stockport is the UK 's only museum dedicated to the hatting industry ; the museum moved in 2000 to a Grade II listed Victorian mill , previously a hat factory . The Museum of Science and Industry in Manchester , amongst other displays , charts the rise of science and industry and especially the part Manchester played in its development ; the Museums , Libraries and Archives Council described the displays as " pre @-@ eminent collections of national and international importance " . Urbis began its life as a museum of the modern city , which attempted to explain the effects and experiences of life in the city . It was then transformed into an exhibition centre , which had its most successful year in 2006 . Urbis entered its third phase since opening in 2012 as the National Football Museum . Stockport Air Raid Shelters uses a mile of underground tunnels , built to accommodate 6 @,@ 500 people , to illustrate life in the Second World War 's air raid shelters . The Imperial War Museum North in Trafford Park is one of the Imperial War Museum 's five branches . Alongside exhibitions of war machinery are displays describing how people 's lives are affected by war . The Museum of Transport in Manchester , which opened in 1979 , has one of the largest collections of vehicles in the country . The People 's History Museum is " the national centre for the collection , conservation , interpretation and study of material relating to the history of working people in Britain " ; the museum is closed for redevelopment and will reopen in 2009 . The Pankhurst Museum is based in the early feminist Emmeline Pankhurst 's former home and includes a parlour laid out in contemporary style . Manchester United , Manchester City , and Lancashire CCC all have dedicated museums illustrating their histories . Wigan Pier , best known from George Orwell 's book The Road to Wigan Pier , was the name of a wharf on the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Wigan . The name has been reused to describe an industrial @-@ based visitor attraction , partly closed for redevelopment as of 2008 . = = = Media , film and television = = = The Greater Manchester Film Festival was launched in 2012 . It is an international film festival designed to capitalise on Greater Manchester 's " huge strengths in film and television , along with its growing media presence " . MediaCityUK , a host venue of the Greater Manchester Film Festival , is a 200 @-@ acre ( 81 ha ) mixed @-@ use property development site at Salford Quays ; its principal tenants are mass media organisations such as ITV Granada and the BBC . One of Greater Manchester 's most lucrative and acclaimed television exports is Coronation Street , which is a televised soap opera set in Weatherfield , a fictional borough of Greater Manchester , inspired by life in Salford . Created by Tony Warren , Coronation Street was first broadcast on 9 December 1960 , making it the world 's longest @-@ running TV soap opera in production . It has been filmed in Manchester at Granada Studios since its inception , but filming is now done at a new set at MediaCityUK . Launched in 2004 by the Guardian Media Group , Channel M is a television station that broadcast local news and content about Greater Manchester . It effectively closed in 2010 . In January 2011 Culture Secretary Jeremy Hunt stated that a new Greater Manchester channel will be available on Freeview by around 2013 . The Manchester Evening News is a regional daily newspaper covering Greater Manchester , published every day except Sunday . It is owned by Trinity Mirror and produced by MEN Media . It sells around 81 @,@ 000 copies a day and gives away nearly 100 @,@ 000 , making it the market leader in Greater Manchester . The paper was first published in 1868 by Mitchell Henry as part of his Parliamentary election campaign for the Manchester constituency . MEN Media " dominates Greater Manchester " , reaching 7 out of 10 adults each week within the region through its portfolio of products which also includes the Oldham Advertiser , the Rochdale Observer , and the Salford Advertiser . = = = Music , theatre and performing arts = = = Greater Manchester has the highest number of theatre seats per head of population outside London . Most , if not all , of the larger theatres are subsidised by local authorities or the North West Regional Arts Board . The Royal Exchange Theatre formed in the 1970s out of a peripatetic group staging plays at venues such as at the University [ of Manchester ] Theatre and the Apollo Theatre . A season in a temporary stage in the former Royal Exchange , Manchester was followed by funding for a theatre in the round , which opened in 1976 . The Lowry — Greater Manchester 's most visited tourist attraction — houses two theatres , used by travelling groups in all the performing arts . The Opera House is a 1 @,@ 900 @-@ seat venue hosting travelling productions , often musicals just out of the West End . Its sister venue , The Palace , hosts generally similar shows . The Oldham Playhouse , one of the older theatres in the region , helped launch the careers of Stan Laurel and Charlie Chaplin . Its productions are described by the 2007 CityLife guide as ' staunchly populist ' – and popular . There are many other venues scattered throughout the county , of all types and sizes . Greater Manchester has four professional orchestras , all based in Manchester . The Hallé Orchestra is the UK 's oldest symphony orchestra ( and the fourth oldest in the world ) , supports a choir and a youth orchestra , and releases its recordings on its own record label . The Hallé is based at the Bridgwater Hall but often tours , typically giving 70 performances " at home " and 40 on tour . The BBC Philharmonic Orchestra , one of five BBC orchestras , can trace its history back to the early days of radio broadcasting in 1926 . As of 2008 it is based at the BBC 's Oxford Road studios , but is expected to move to MediaCityUK in Salford . The Manchester Camerata and the Northern Chamber Orchestra are smaller , though still professional , organisations . The main classical venue is the 2 @,@ 341 @-@ seat Bridgewater Hall in Manchester , opened in 1996 at a cost of £ 42m . Manchester is also a centre for musical education , via the Royal Northern College of Music and Chetham 's School of Music . The Manchester Arena seats over 21 @,@ 000 , and is the largest indoor arena in Europe . It has been voted International Venue of the Year , and for several years was the most popular venue in the world . The sports grounds in the county also host large pop concerts . A new flexible , large @-@ scale cultural , arts , and exhibition space named The Factory is to be built on the former site of Granada Studios in central Manchester . It is named with reference to Factory Records , a Manchester @-@ based independent record label , founded in 1978 by Tony Wilson and Alan Erasmus . Factory Records — which featured acts such as Joy Division , New Order , and the Happy Mondays — and The Haçienda , served as a catalyst in the late @-@ 1980s for a blending of alternative rock , psychedelic rock and electronic dance music known as Madchester . Greater Manchester continues to be associated with guitar and dance music . = Computer City ( song ) = " Computer City " ( コンピューターシティ , Konpyūtā Shiti ) is a song recorded by Japanese girl group Perfume for their first greatest hits compilation , Perfume : Complete Best ( 2006 ) . It was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Perfume " , which appeared on the parent album . It premiered on January 11 , 2006 as the second single from the album in Japan . It was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America . Musically , " Computer City " is a technopop song , influenced by electronic music . Upon its release , the track garnered generally favourable reviews from music critics . Some critics highlighted the song as one of Perfume 's best singles , and commended the composition . It achieved minor success in Japan , peaking at number 45 on the Oricon Singles Chart and 35 on TBS ' Count Down TV chart . An accompanying music video was shot by Kazuaki Seki ; it features the girls performing the song in a black room . With additional promotion through Japanese commercials , the song has been performed on several concert tours by Perfume , including their 2007 Seventh Heaven tour and 2008 Game Tour . = = Background and composition = = " Computer City " was written , composed , arranged , and produced by Japanese musician and Capsule member Yasutaka Nakata . Alongside this , it was recorded , mixed , and mastered by Nakata . The song was recorded in 2005 at Contemode Studios , Shibuya , Tokyo by Nakata . Alongside the album ’ s remaining material , " Computer City " has partial rights by Nakata through Yahama Music Communications . The single also included the B @-@ side track " Perfume " , which also appeared on the parent album . It premiered on January 11 , 2006 as the second single from the groups first greatest hits compilation , Perfume : Complete Best ( 2006 ) . The single was also released on June 19 , 2013 through European and Oceanic regions , and June 25 in North America . The CD single contains both " Computer City " and " Perfume " . The artwork features Perfume , posing for the song 's music video ; Perfume member A @-@ Chan is sitting down , Nocchi is leaning behind A @-@ Chan , and Kashiyuka is standing behind them both . The maxi CD features an extra lyric booklet , printed on plain white paper . Musically , " Computer City " is a technopop song , influenced by electronic music . A staff editor from Amazon Japan noted that the song contained elements of technopop and 8 @-@ bit music . Ian Martin from AllMusic stated that the song , alongside their back catalogue from Tokuma Japan Communications , " adopt [ ed ] a vocoder @-@ heavy production style strongly influenced by European electro and house " . Similarly , a staff editor at CD Journal labelled the songs composition as " addictive technopop " . = = Critical response = = " Computer City " received generally favourable reviews from most music critics . A writer from CD Journal complimented the " tight " composition , and praised the production and songwriting by Yasutaka Nakata . Another reviewer from the same publication reviewed the single release , and highlighted the songs " pop catchy " melody and its lyrical content . A staff editor from Amazon was positive in their review , praising the composition of the track , and highlighted it as one of the best songs on the album . Channel @-@ Ai staff editors awarded the song five stars out of five , stating " ' Computer City ' is a great improvement ; it starts off with vocals only before it dives into a heavy beat . Although some parts turn a little monotone , most of the song remains catchy and melodic . " = = Commercial performance = = In Japan , " Computer City " debuted at number 45 on the Oricon Singles Chart ; it sold 1 @,@ 853 units within its first week of sales . It became the group 's highest charting single and first top 50 charting performance at the time . It lasted five weeks in the top 200 chart , and sold over 4 @,@ 000 units by the end of 2006 . It was the group 's highest charting and selling single until their 2007 effort , " Polyrhythm " . The song debuted at number 35 on the TBS Count Down TV chart , and lasted two weeks there . = = Music video and live performances = = An accompanying music video was shot by Kazuaki Seki ; it features the girls performing the song in a black room . There are several intercut scenes of computer generated imagery ( CGI ) , which include the overlapping of digital circuits and other patterns . The music video also appeared on Perfume 's DVD compilation sets for Perfume : Complete Best , and Perfume Clips ( 2014 ) . " Computer City " was used for a Japanese commercial promoting the television show Tokyo Brigade . The single has been performed on several tours conducted by Perfume . It first appeared on two of the group 's promotional concerts ; the Seventh Heaven tour in 2007 , and the Socks Fix Make tour in 2008 . The song was included on their Game Tour , group 's first nationwide concert tour , and eventually included on the live DVD , released on October 15 , 2008 . Since then , " Computer City " has been performed on their 2009 Budoukan Tour in Japan , 2009 Second Concert tour , and their 2010 Tokyo Dome tour . In 2010 , four years after its original release , the group was invited to perform " Computer City " on the Japanese music television show , Music Station . This marked the only single previous to the release and subsequent breakthrough of their single " Polyrhythm " that has been performed on Japanese television . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Details adapted from the liner notes of the Perfume : Complete Best album . Ayano Ōmoto – vocals Yuka Kashino – vocals Ayaka Nishiwaki – vocals Yasutaka Nakata – producer , composer , arranger , mixing , mastering . Seki Kazuaki – video director = = Charts and sales = = = = Release history = = = Ellen Roberts = Ellen Stuart Roberts ( born August 27 , 1959 ) is an attorney and Republican legislator in the U.S. State of Colorado . From 2006 @-@ 2010 , Roberts served as the State Representative for House District 59 . In 2010 , she was elected to Senate District 6 and is the current Senator for that district , which encompasses Archuleta , Dolores , La Plata , Montezuma , Montrose , Ouray , San Juan , and San Miguel counties . In 2015 , she was elected to serve as the President Pro @-@ Tem for the Colorado State Senate . = = Biography = = Born in Hudson , New York , Roberts was raised in Rhinebeck , where she was elected class president in high school . She earned a self @-@ designed undergraduate degree in environmental policy from Cornell University in 1981 . During college , she spent a semester as an intern in Washington DC , working for her Congressional representative and for the Republican National Committee . She moved to Colorado upon graduation and worked as a ranger in Rocky Mountain National Park until 1984 . In 1982 , Roberts married ; she and her husband , Rick , have two children : Caitlin and Ben , both of whom have attended Fort Lewis College in Durango , Colorado . After being hired by a law firm in Granby , Colorado , Roberts returned to school to earn a J.D. from the University of Colorado in 1986 . She worked as an attorney in private practice in Granby and Hot Sulphur Springs , specializing in estate , probate and business law . A resident of Durango , Colorado since 1989 , she joined the Southwest Colorado Bar Association in 1986 and served as its president , and as president of the Southwest Colorado Women 's Bar Association . As an attorney , Roberts advocated for increased legal services for immigrants and Spanish @-@ speakers in southwestern Colorado Roberts has focused on health care , constitutional reform , judicial , and financial issues in the state legislature , and , despite being in the minority party , has seen almost all legislation she sponsored signed into law . She has also carried legislation to strengthen private property rights surrounding oil and gas drilling , and to create a legislative youth advisory council . = = Early career = = Roberts began to re @-@ enter politics after the death of her father in 1992 , first focusing on hospice and health care issues . As a member ( since 1999 ) and later chairman of the board of Mercy Regional Medical Center , she pushed for the construction of a new hospital in Durango . She chaired Healthy 58 , a rural health care task force , and in 2001 , was appointed to the Task Force to Evaluate Health Care Needs for Colorado , a commission formed by the legislature to study health @-@ care needs in rural Colorado communities . Roberts sat on the Sixth Judicial District Nominating Commission , and co @-@ chaired the Durango Citizens Steering Committee for a New Library , a successful effort to push for a new local public library that was eventually built on the site of Mercy Medical Center , the hospital Roberts had worked to help replace . She was a member of the Citizens Health Advisory Council , the High Noon Rotary Club , and sat on the boards of First National Bank and the Community Foundation Serving Southwest Colorado . In 2004 , she won the Durango Chamber of Commerce 's Athena Award for professional women in business . = = Colorado House of Representatives = = = = = 2006 Election = = = In December 2004 , only a month after Larson was elected to his fourth and final term in the state house , Roberts filed for a 2006 candidacy to seek his seat . She announced her campaign formally in January 2005 . She was endorsed by Larson , and won the Republican nomination unopposed . As Representative Mark Larson neared the end of his term @-@ limited tenure in the Colorado House of Representatives , Roberts began to work with him on learning the legislative process , in preparation for seeking elected office herself . She instigated a bill , introduced by Larson and eventually signed into law , to require that remains be handled in accordance with the wishes of the deceased . She also lobbied the legislature , unsuccessfully , for the creation of an interim committee to study palliative care . During the general election campaign , Roberts emphasized her work on health care issues and her experience working with Representative Larson in the legislature , and criticized the passage of constitutional amendments creating conflicting fiscal obligations . Although both Roberts and her main opponent , Democrat Joe Colgan , signed a clean campaign pledge , controversy arose over advertisements run by outside sources . In particular , Roberts denounced as " misleading " and " unacceptable " a television advertisement criticizing Colgan 's record as mayor of Durango . The ad , which was run by a political group associated with the Colorado Association of Home Builders , was later pulled off the air . Direct mail flyers sent by right @-@ leaning outside groups during the last weeks of the campaign also misrepresented both candidates ' stances on immigration , exaggerating the contrast between their positions . In addition to her Democratic opponent , Roberts faced unaffiliated write @-@ in candidate Christopher Navage . Navage withdrew from the race in October 2006 and endorsed Colgan . Roberts significantly outraised her opponents , donating over $ 8 @,@ 000 to her own campaign , and ultimately winning the November 2006 general election with 52 percent of the vote . = = = 2007 Legislative Session = = = In the 2007 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Roberts was a member of the House Health and Human Services Committee , the Joint Legal Services Committee , and the House Judiciary Committee . Roberts was one of the most successful Republican legislators at passing legislation through the Democrat @-@ controlled legislature , and has been identified by media reports and commentators as a " standout " legislator and a potential candidate for higher office . She also organized bowling outings for legislators during her first year in the legislature . Roberts carried legislation which revised Colorado 's surface rights laws , requiring oil and gas companies to minimize the impacts of drilling . The bill was weakened by lobbying from the Colorado Oil and Gas Association , but represented a breadth of reform that had failed to pass in previous legislative sessions . During her first legislative session , Roberts also sponsored bills to revise the process by which special health care districts are created and to expand eligibility for Korean War special license plates ; she cosponsored legislation to fund study of a methane seep in southwestern Colorado . Her only unsuccessful bill was a measure to tighten the rules under which cigar bars could claim exemptions from Colorado 's indoor smoking ban . After being killed in committee , the measure was revived in the Colorado Senate by Democrats , but was again unsuccessful . Following the 2007 session , Roberts was named by House Republican leadership to the newly formed Criminal and Juvenile Justice Commission . In November 2007 , she was named a Legislator of Merit by the Colorado Behavioral Health Council . She joined with other Republicans to criticize an executive order issued by Governor Bill Ritter allowing collective bargaining with government employee unions as a betrayal of Ritter 's promise of bipartisan cooperation on major issues . = = = 2008 Legislative Session = = = In the 2008 session of the Colorado General Assembly , Roberts sat on the House Health and Human Services Committee and the House Judiciary Committee . She introduced eight bills during the session , all of which were passed by the legislature . During the 2008 legislative session , Roberts introduced a bill , drafted and lobbied for by Colorado students , to create a legislative youth advisory council . The bill stalled in the legislature until its minimal cost was approved by the House Appropriations Committee , after which it cleared both the House and Senate , and Governor Bill Ritter signed it into law . She was later appointed by Minority Leader Mike May to be one of the legislative members of the council . Roberts introduced a bill which would grant advanced practice nurses power to sign off on additional medical forms , in response to shortages of doctors in portions of rural Colorado , a measure which garnered support from both nurses ' and doctors ' associations . In March , she backed a proposal to require that insurance companies offer low @-@ cost health care benefit packages for Coloradoans , as part of a " public @-@ private " plan towards achieving universal coverage . Roberts was the sponsor of a legislative resolution urging the Federal Communications Commission to support including southwestern Colorado , including portions of her district , within the Denver media market , a resolution she introduced again in 2010 . Before the session began , Roberts had expressed interest in sponsoring legislation to revise the process by which the Colorado Constitution is amended through ballot measures , proposing that supermajority popular votes be required to enact amendments . She proposed extending the public hearing process as a means of providing additional input on ballot measures , and , in February 2008 , was appointed to a six @-@ member legislative panel tasked with developing recommendations for constitutional reform . She was ultimately a cosponsor of the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
panel 's proposal to create distinctions in the petition process between constitutional and statutory amendments , ; the proposal which was referred by the legislature to voters and appeared on the November 2008 Colorado ballot as Referendum O. Roberts campaigned in support of Referendum O during the fall campaign . Roberts was one of a few Republicans to back a measure to reform spending requirements in Colorado 's state constitution . The proposal , which would have diverted excess revenues under TABOR to K @-@ 12 education , was regarded as a sweeping revision to competing constitutional mandates ; it was not passed by the General Assembly , but was advanced as a citizens ' initiative . = = = 2008 Election = = = Roberts was nominated by the Republican Party for a second term in the state house ; she faced no challengers either in the Republican primary or in the general election . Roberts stood against some fellow Republicans by opposing Amendment 52 , a ballot measure on the November ballot that would reallocate some severance tax revenue from water projects to transportation . She also backed Republican presidential candidate John McCain and spoke before McCain at an October rally in Durango , Colorado . Following her re @-@ election , Roberts was nominated for the post of House Minority Caucus Chair , but lost the caucus ' vote for the post to Rep. Amy Stephens . After losing the vote , Roberts publicly lamented the lack of rural representation in legislative leadership and alleged that Republican lawmakers were threatened with primaries if they voted for her leadership bid . = = = 2009 Legislative Session = = = For the 2009 legislative session , Roberts was appointed to the House Health and Human Services Committee and the House Judiciary Committee , where she was the ranking Republican member . Roberts was also named to a Republican task force charged with making recommendations on resolving the state 's projected budget shortfall . In 2009 , Roberts also sat on the Colorado Commission on Criminal and Juvenile Justice and co @-@ chaired the Colorado Youth Advisory Council . During the 2009 session , Roberts sponsored several bills relating to juvenile criminal offenders , including legislation to allow more juveniles to have their criminal records expunged , and to allow young adults to serve sentences within the Youth Offender System instead of correctional facilities . Roberts also sponsored legislation to make minor adjustment to the statutes concerning the Colorado Youth Advisory Council , legislation to create a regional self @-@ insurance plan within the San Luis Valley , and legislation revising statutes surrounding end @-@ of @-@ life care . = = = 2010 Legislative Session = = = Following the 2009 legislative session , Roberts sat on an interim committee dealing with hospice and palliative care issues , and carried legislation originating from that committee during the 2010 session , including two bills that clarified policies surrounding end @-@ of @-@ life care and advance directives . Other legislation that Roberts carried in 2010 included a bill to allow voluntary income tax contributions to support 2 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 services , and she fought against cuts to the Native American tuition waiver program at Fort Lewis College . Roberts was one of only three Republican House members to vote in support of Colorado 's 2010 budget , after successfully sponsoring an amendment that removed restrictions on Fort Lewis College 's ability to set its own out @-@ of @-@ state tuition rates . Roberts had planned to introduce legislation to place a one @-@ year moratorium on new Colorado health insurance mandates with independent Rep. Kathleen Curry , as part of a proposal to overhaul the states insurance mandate commission . However , they announced at the start of the session that their proposal would not include an immediate moratorium on insurance mandates , and the legislation was killed on its first hearing in a House committee . Roberts also withdrew one of her proposals to continue a pilot program for training of Certified Nursing Assistants , on account of its cost . Roberts also sponsored a contentious piece of legislation with general election opponent Sen. Bruce Whitehead , negotiated by Governor Ritter 's office , to require utilities to convert some Front Range coal @-@ fired power plants to natural gas . = = Colorado Senate = = = = = 2010 Election = = = In June 2009 , Roberts announced her intention to seek the Colorado State Senate seat held by term @-@ limited Democratic Sen. Jim Isgar in the 2010 legislative elections , Senate District 6 . After Isgar resigned from the legislature in July 2009 to head the U.S. Department of Agriculture 's Rural Development office in Colorado , Democrats appointed civil engineer Bruce Whitehead to the seat ; Whitehead declared his intention to run for a full term in 2010 , setting up a race that Colorado Republicans viewed as one of their best opportunities to pick up a seat in the Democrat @-@ controlled legislature . Roberts ' 2010 campaign for the Senate seat also faced a challenge in the Republican primary from former Norwood , Colorado town marshal Dean Boehler , who campaigns as a self @-@ described " true conservative ; " Boehler received 67 percent of delegate votes at the Republican district assembly to Roberts ' 33 , earning him the top spot on the August primary ballot . Roberts won the primary race with 54 % of the vote and went on to win the general election with 61 % of the vote . = = = 2011 Legislative Session = = = As state senator , Roberts served on several committees , including the Health and Human Services , Judiciary , and Legislative Legal Services Committees and also acted as ranking Republican on the Senate Local Government Committee . She served on two interim committees , the Water Resources Review Committee and the Legislative Health Benefit Exchange Implementation Review Committee until the end of the 2012 legislative session . In addition to her responsibilities at the Colorado legislature , Roberts was appointed to the National Conference of State Legislatures ’ ( NCSL ) Federal Deficit Reduction Task Force and , in August 2011 , was elected to NCSL ’ s Executive Committee . She is the only Colorado legislator to serve on either of these committees . = = = 2012 Legislative Session = = = Senator Roberts proposed legislation at the start of session regarding the surety bond required for towing carriers in rural areas . SB12 @-@ 049 would have lowered the surety bond from $ 50 @,@ 000 to $ 10 @,@ 000 for local entities . The bill was assigned to the Senate Transportation Committee , but was postponed indefinitely after it was introduced . However , after the bill was killed , public upheaval caused Roberts to introduce a new bill , this time in the House , which resolved the same issue . HB12 @-@ 1347 passed the second time around with a resounding 98 @-@ 1 vote . Senator Roberts was appointed to the National Conference of State Legislatures Budgets and Revenue Committee . In addition , she was re @-@ elected to the Executive Committee for NCSL . Senator Roberts was also awarded the Legislator of the Year Award for the 2012 legislative session by the Economic Development Council of Colorado . During the 2012 legislative session , Roberts was award a handful of awards : 2012 Champion of Conservation Award from the Colorado Coalition of Land Trusts , the 2012 Pinnacle Award from the Colorado Farm Bureau , the 2012 Common Sense in the Courtroom Award from the Colorado Civil Justice League , and the 2012 Green Colorado Legislator of the Year Award . She was also honored to win the 2012 Legislator of the Year Award from the Colorado Economic Development Council . Due to the wild fires in the state of Colorado in 2012 , Senator Roberts was elected as Chairwoman of the bipartisan Lower North Fork Fire Commission , which convened during the interim and which proposed four pieces of legislation to address the threat of wildfire risk and damage in Colorado . = = = 2013 Legislative Session = = = Roberts was appointed to serve on the Senate Health and Human Services Committee . = = = 2015 Legislative Session = = = As state senator , Senator Roberts serves on several committees . She serves as Vice Chair of the Agriculture , Natural Resources and Energy Committee as well as Chair of the Judiciary Committee . Senator Roberts also serves on the Committee Legal Services , Water Resources Review Committee , Joint Judiciary Committee and the Joint Agriculture and Natural Resources Committee . = = Legislative Initiatives = = = = = COYAC = = = In 2008 , Senator Roberts sponsored HB08 @-@ 1157 , a bill that sought to create a state legislative youth advisory council in Colorado . Prior to the 2008 legislative session , Senator Roberts had met with a group of high school students from Cortez , Durango , and Pagosa Springs in order to gauge the scope of the soon to be legislation as well as the group that would form after the legislation had been passed . The bill was passed in May 2008 , creating the Colorado Youth Advisory Council also known as COYAC . During the 2012 legislative session , Roberts brought forth legislation that stemmed from her youth council initiative as well : HJR12 @-@ 1004 , a resolution that recognized the struggle Colorado faces surrounding teen suicides . This joint resolution sought to identify teen suicides and focus on suicide prevention as well , particularly via COYAC and through COYAC initiatives . = Maurício Gugelmin = Maurício Gugelmin ( born April 20 , 1963 in Joinville ) is a former racing driver from Brazil . He took part in both Formula One and the Champ Car World Series . He participated in 80 Formula One grands prix , debuting in 1988 for the March team . He achieved one top @-@ three finish and scored a total of ten championship points in the series . He competed in the Champ Car series between 1993 and 2001 , starting 147 races . He won one race , in 1997 in Vancouver , finishing fourth in the championship that year . His best result in the Indianapolis 500 was in 1995 where he started and finished in sixth position , leading 59 laps . For a period , he held the world speed record for a closed race track , set at California Speedway in 1997 at a speed of 240 @.@ 942 mph ( 387 @.@ 759 km / h ) . Gugelmin retired at the end of 2001 after a year that included the death of his son . = = Personal and early life = = Gugelmin was born in Joinville , Brazil on April 20 , 1963 into a wealthy family . His father is a timber merchant and a collector of antique cars . Gugelmin is married to Stella Maris and they have two sons , Bernardo and Gabriel . Their third son , Giuliano , who was Bernardo 's twin , died from cerebral palsy in April 2001 at the age of six . = = Career = = = = = Pre @-@ Formula One = = = Gugelmin started racing go @-@ karts as a child in Brazil in 1971 , winning his local championship nine years in a row from 1971 to 1979 . He progressed to the Brazilian national championship in 1980 , which he also won . He progressed to single @-@ seater racing cars in 1981 , when he won the Brazilian Formula Fiat Championship . In 1982 Gugelmin , like many Brazilian drivers of his generation , moved to the United Kingdom to further his racing career . He was a longtime friend of future Formula One world champion Ayrton Senna , who was already racing in the UK , and the two shared a house from 1982 to 1987 . Senna , having previously been a Formula Ford driver with the Van Diemen team , used his influence within the organisation to secure Gugelmin a race seat with them for 1982 . By the end of the year , Gugelmin was British Formula Ford 1600 cc champion . He followed this up by finishing as runner @-@ up in the British Formula Ford 2000 cc series the following year . He moved to the European Formula Ford series in 1984 , and won the title at his first attempt . A step up to Formula Three followed in 1985 with West Surrey Racing , winning the British championship and the prestigious Macau Grand Prix . Gugelmin then spent two years in Formula 3000 , the final step before Formula One . Gugelmin took one victory in Formula 3000 , at Silverstone in 1986 while driving for the Ralt factory team . = = = Formula One = = = Related Articles : March Engineering , Leyton House Racing , Jordan Grand Prix Gugelmin entered Formula One , the highest category of circuit racing defined by the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , motorsport 's world governing body , with the March team in 1988 , as team @-@ mate to Ivan Capelli . He had previously been in contention for a drive with Lotus in 1986 but was overlooked in favour of Johnny Dumfries . The season started badly as Gugelmin suffered five retirements from the first six races due to mechanical failure , but soon afterwards he took his first points scoring finish with fourth place at the British Grand Prix . Gugelmin scored points in one other race with fifth place at the Hungarian Grand Prix . He finished the season as the highest @-@ scoring newcomer in the Formula One World Championship , ending the year in 13th position overall . 1989 was barren for the March team , and Gugelmin took their only points scoring finish of the year at the Brazilian Grand Prix . He finished in third position ; an excellent result given that March were financially troubled . At the French Grand Prix , Gugelmin was involved in a large accident at the start of the race which resulted in a spectacular barrel roll . A photograph of the accident was later selected for a London Exhibition as one of Formula One 's most striking photographs . The race was stopped as a result ; Gugelmin took the restart from the pit lane and set the race 's fastest lap , the only one of his F1 career . In 1990 the March team was sold , and became known as Leyton House . Gugelmin was once again partnered by Capelli , but the team 's CG901 chassis proved troublesome and between them they failed to qualify six times , including at the Mexican Grand Prix . However , at the next race , the French Grand Prix , modifications had been made to the car which improved the performance . Running the whole race without changing their tyres , Capelli and Gugelmin ran first and second during the race . Gugelmin retired mid @-@ race with engine problems and Capelli was passed by Alain Prost for the lead late in the race . Gugelmin also scored a point for finishing sixth in Belgium . 1991 saw internal turmoil at the team with several key staff leaving . The car lacked pace and both Gugelmin and Capelli struggled ; the team scored just one point all season . Gugelmin 's best result amounted to three seventh @-@ place finishes , although he retired from eight of the season 's sixteen races . In September , the team 's principal , Akira Akagi , was arrested on suspicion of fraud . Money was tight and Gugelmin made the decision to leave the team at the end of the year . A switch to the Jordan team for 1992 did not improve Gugelmin 's fortunes . The team struggled with financial difficulties and scored only one point all year . The team 's Yamaha engine suffered from a lack of power , and the car was unreliable . Gugelmin failed to finish eleven out of the sixteen races , and scored no points . = = = Champ Car = = = Related Articles : Chip Ganassi Racing , PacWest Racing Gugelmin signed with Dick Simon Racing to take part in the North American Champ Car racing series for the last three races of 1993 . Although races at Mid Ohio and Nazareth resulted in non @-@ finishes , Gugelmin finished 13th at Laguna Seca although this was not high enough to receive any points . Despite this , Gugelmin demonstrated promise . In 1994 , Gugelmin signed with Chip Ganassi Racing to partner Michael Andretti who returned to the series after a season in Formula One . Andretti was more successful than Gugelmin , and took two wins , including Reynard 's first win in Champ Car at Surfers Paradise . Gugelmin was hindered by a lack of cooperation between his and Andretti 's crews , and his first full @-@ time year in the Champ Car World Series resulted in seven points finishes and 16th in the points standings . 1995 started promisingly as Gugelmin finished as runner @-@ up to Jacques Villeneuve in the opening round at Miami . He had a strong race at the Indianapolis 500 , finishing in sixth place after leading the most laps of all the drivers . Eight additional points finishes , including a third place at the final round at Laguna Seca , meant he finished tenth in the final points standings , nine places ahead of experienced team mate and former series champion Danny Sullivan . For 1996 , Gugelmin was partnered at PacWest by the British driver , Mark Blundell . He established a reputation for being quick at superspeedway tracks after taking a second and a third place at the two events at Michigan International Speedway . On top of this he took four other points finishes , finishing mid @-@ table in 14th place . For 1997 , the PacWest team switched to using Firestone tyres and Mercedes @-@ Benz engines . The package was competitive throughout the year and Gugelmin and Blundell finished fourth and sixth in the championship respectively . Gugelmin 's notable races of the year include the Detroit Indy Grand Prix , where Gugelmin was leading the race on the last lap when he ran out of fuel , and the Molson Indy Vancouver , where Gugelmin won his first Champ Car race . One of the most popular men in the championship , virtually the entire pit @-@ lane was full of happiness for him . In qualifying for the final race of the season at the California Speedway , Gugelmin set a world record for the fastest ever lap of a closed race track at 240 @.@ 942 mph ( 387 @.@ 759 km / h ) . This record stood until the year 2000 when Gil de Ferran surpassed it with a lap of 241 @.@ 428 mph ( 388 @.@ 541 km / h ) , also at California Speedway . Gugelmin went on to finish the race in fourth place . 1998 proved not to be as successful . Setbacks plagued the team and they struggled to get to grips with the new chassis . Gugelmin showed determination , and scored nine points @-@ scoring finishes . A highlight was Gugelmin leading 40 laps during the final event at California Speedway , en route to fifth place . Gugelmin was unable to reproduce his race @-@ winning form , and finished no higher than 15th position in the final standings over the next three years . In 2000 , Gugelmin was named as the chairman of the Championship Drivers Association , the organisation set up to represent the interests of the drivers in the Champ Car World Series . 2001 proved to be a difficult year for Gugelmin . During the practice session for the race at Texas Motor Speedway , he crashed after he lost control in the second turn and hit the wall with a force of 66 @.@ 2 g , before a second impact with the wall which exerted a force of 113 @.@ 1 g . The event was eventually called off after drivers complained of dizziness , nausea and blurred vision , which were caused by the high g @-@ forces experienced when driving at speed on the track . During the week before the race at Nazareth Speedway , Gugelmin 's son , Giuliano , died from respiratory complications . Giuliano was quadriplegic and a lifelong sufferer from cerebral palsy owing to complications at birth . The PacWest team announced that Gugelmin would not be taking part in the race . Gugelmin 's team mate at PacWest , Scott Dixon , won the race beating Kenny Bräck into second place . At the end of 2001 , Gugelmin decided to retire from the sport , stating " I definitely want to spend more time with my family . After those two big accidents , and Alex [ Zanardi ] ' s deal in Germany , I said , ' That 's it . Forget it . ' " Zanardi lost both legs in a crash during a Champ Car race at the Lausitzring in Germany in September 2001 . = = Post @-@ Champ Car = = In 2003 Gugelmin was announced as a competitor by the organizers of the new Renault Megane Super Cup in his native Brazil . However , the series didn 't launch and since then Gugelmin has made no competitive appearances in motorsport . Following his retirement , Gugelmin put his Florida mansion in Coral Gables up for sale for $ 17 million , and moved back to live in Brazil full @-@ time . He runs the family business along with his brother , Alceu , and has also done consultancy work for Mercedes @-@ Benz subsidiary AMG . Both his surviving sons compete in go @-@ kart events . = = Motorsports career results = = = = = Complete International Formula 3000 results = = = ( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ; races in italics indicate fastest lap . ) = = = Complete Formula One results = = = ( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) = = = American Open @-@ Wheel = = = ( key ) ( Races in bold indicate pole position ) = = = = CART = = = = = In the Hands of the Prophets = " In the Hands of the Prophets " is the twentieth and final episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Written by Robert Hewitt Wolfe and directed by David Livingston , the episode originally aired in broadcast syndication on June 20 , 1993 . Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures on Deep Space Nine , a space station located near a stable wormhole between the Alpha and Gamma quadrants of the Milky Way Galaxy . In this episode , friction escalates when Bajoran cleric Vedek Winn ( Louise Fletcher ) arrives on the station and finds Keiko O 'Brien ( Rosalind Chao ) teaching Bajoran children that their gods are wormhole aliens . The story was originally proposed as a crossover episode with Star Trek : The Next Generation , but this idea was abandoned in favor of ending the season with the same religious theme initially raised in " Emissary " , the series premiere . " In the Hands of the Prophets " first introduces the audience to Bajoran politics and religion and highlights what happens when the values and beliefs of one culture are imposed on another . The episode features the first appearance of Louise Fletcher as Vedek Winn and Philip Anglim as Vedek Bareil . 8 @.@ 8 million people viewed the episode on its first broadcast , the lowest of any first @-@ run episode during season one . Critical reception to the episode was positive with Fletcher and Avery Brooks receiving praise for their performance . = = Plot = = Chief Miles O 'Brien ( Colm Meaney ) walks his wife Keiko ( Rosalind Chao ) along the promenade to the school where she teaches students on the station . They discuss Bajoran culture , a topic Miles learned about from Neela ( Robin Christopher ) , his Bajoran assistant . At the school , Keiko teaches her class about the science of the Bajoran wormhole and the aliens that live inside it . This scientific view is different from the religious approach taken by the Bajorans , who believe the wormhole is the legendary Celestial Temple inhabited by their " Prophets " , whom they worship as gods . Her class is interrupted by one of Bajor 's spiritual leaders , Vedek Winn ( Louise Fletcher ) . Winn questions why Keiko doesn 't teach Bajoran religion in her classroom . Afterwards , Keiko reports the incident to Commander Benjamin Sisko ( Avery Brooks ) . When Sisko asks Winn about the dispute , she says there may be consequences if Keiko refuses to teach religion . Meanwhile , Miles discovers an important engineering tool is missing , but is distracted when he and Neela discover the remains of a Starfleet ensign . Outside the school , Winn and a group of Bajorans protest Keiko 's teaching methods . Winn offers Keiko a solution — all she has to do is simply stop teaching about the wormhole . When Keiko refuses to accept Winn 's proposal , Winn leads the Bajoran parents to take their children out of school . Sisko visits Vedek Bareil ( Philip Anglim ) for advice on the problem . Bareil opposes Winn 's views but he cannot support Sisko as he is attempting to become the next Kai , the leader of the Bajoran religion . Sisko returns to DS9 and asks for help from Major Kira Nerys ( Nana Visitor ) , but she also refuses to help . Meanwhile , Odo ( René Auberjonois ) and Doctor Julian Bashir ( Alexander Siddig ) finish investigating the remains of the Starfleet ensign Miles and Neela found earlier . They discover that the ensign had been murdered by a phaser when he became aware of someone tampering with the Runabout security controls . Later , an explosion occurs inside the empty school , destroying it . Sisko confronts Winn , blaming her actions for increasing the risk of violence on the station . Neela meets with Winn , revealing that the two had been working together . She informs Winn that her escape plan with the Runabout will no longer work . Winn tells Neela to continue with the plan , even if it means Neela must sacrifice herself . Bareil arrives at the station to help , and at the same time , Miles and Lt. Jadzia Dax ( Terry Farrell ) discover a hidden sub @-@ program on the station 's computer created by Neela . The program controls a timed delay of forcefields running from the promenade to the Runabouts . They alert Sisko who is nearby , just as Bareil and Winn begin to address a crowd of Bajorans on the promenade . Sisko searches the crowd just in time to see Neela raising her phaser at Bareil . Sisko tackles Neela to the ground and saves Bareil 's life . Kira suggests that the assassination attempt was planned by Winn to secure her position as the new Kai , but Neela insists she was working alone . Kira later apologises to Sisko , and agrees with his earlier sentiment about Winn 's actions . = = Production = = Prior to the scripting of " In the Hands of the Prophets " , a crossover episode was considered with the crew of the Enterprise from Star Trek : The Next Generation . However , this idea was dropped in favor of an episode which would end the season on a religious note similar to " Emissary " , the series premiere . During the writing of the episode , executive producer Michael Piller was concerned that it was not going to be as good as the previous episode , " Duet " . Ira Steven Behr credited this as setting a challenge for the writing team which improved the episode . " It gave us even more grist for the mill than ' Duet ' did , and together they provided a great one @-@ two punch to the end of the first season " , Behr recalled . The episode marked the debut of Philip Anglim as Vedek Bareil and Louise Fletcher as Vedek Winn . Bareil and Winn became recurring characters throughout the rest of the series . Fletcher , best known for playing the role of Nurse Ratched in One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest ( 1975 ) , received the Academy Award for Best Actress , the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Motion Picture , Drama and the BAFTA Award for Best Actress in a Leading Role in recognition of her work . She did not have to read for the role of Vedek Winn , nor was she familiar with the Star Trek series or its heritage before accepting the role . Robin Christopher makes her appearance in this episode for the second and last time as Neela , first appearing in the previous episode , " Duet " . " In the Hands of the Prophets " is the third episode directed by David Livingston . With a budget larger than most of the other first season episodes , Livingston used more extras which allowed him to create larger crowd scenes . Livingston 's first location shoot took place during Bareil 's sanctuary scene on Bajor . Filmed on location at Fern Dell at Griffith Park , Los Angeles , Livingston found it difficult to shoot the scene due to the density of the foliage and access to the dell . This same location previously appeared in the holodeck scenes used in " Encounter At Farpoint " , the pilot episode of The Next Generation . Filmed in full scale , the school explosion used drywall around the interior of the set to protect it from the fire . Physical effects supervisor Gary Monak oversaw the explosion . The destruction surprised the cast as they were more used to optical effects in the series . Costume designer Robert Blackman created the Vedek costumes . Crew @-@ members suggested that Blackman based his Vedek hats on the form of the Sydney Opera House , but Blackman denied the design was deliberate . = = Themes = = " In the Hands of the Prophets " is the first episode in the series to examine the conflict between elements of the Bajoran religion and the secularism of Starfleet . Writer Robert Hewitt Wolfe says the episode maintains the consistency of Gene Roddenberry 's vision for Star Trek : I have no argument with someone having a fundamentalist belief in Christianity or Islam or Judaism or Buddhism or anything else , but I do have a serious objection to people trying to impose their values on other people . And that 's what this episode is about . No one has the right to force anyone to believe the things that they believe . That 's one of the beautiful things about Gene Roddenberry 's vision of IDIC ( Infinite Diversity in Infinite Combinations ) , and that was one of the things that we really wanted to hammer home here . Sisko does everything he can not to impose his values on the Bajorans , but Vedek Winn is determined to impose her values on everyone . The episode showed the unwillingness of Sisko to accept his position as a religious figure within the Bajoran culture . This theme was first explored in " Emissary " , the pilot of the series . The ongoing theme for Bajoran politics and religion began with " In the Hands of the Prophets " and ran through the rest of the series . Wolfe was raised as a Catholic , and he attributes the religious theme of the episode to this influence , as well as his interest in history . He compares the religious intrigue of the story to the history of Catholicism in the 15th and 16th century , a time when members of various families jostled for power to become Pope . When asked to describe the character of Winn , Louise Fletcher said , " Think the Pope in space , except she 's like an ancient Pope , from the old days when Popes were ruthless and powerful and exerted their powers and fought wars and did all kinds of naughty things . " Matt Rorie in Screened.com said the writers examined the politics of the Bajoran religion by " planting pious but open @-@ minded Bajorans like Kira against the orthodox , intolerant , fundamentalist majority , as represented by Kai Winn , who was willing to bomb schools and attempt assassinations on her political rivals to stay in power . " Zack Handlen in his review for the A.V. Club compared the actions in the episode to the " ideological battles [ which ] are fought over what 's appropriate in the classroom " in the United States . = = Reception and home media release = = " In the Hands of the Prophets " first aired in broadcast syndication on June 20 , 1993 . It received Nielsen ratings of 8 @.@ 8 million , placing it in fifth place in the timeslot . It was the least viewed episode of the first season during its initial broadcast . This rating was a slight decrease from the previous week 's episode " Duet " , which received a rating of 8 @.@ 9 million . Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for the A.V. Club , noting that while the episode wasn 't subtle , it did " a good job expanding the show 's world , and playing off of undercurrents and themes which have been built in throughout DS9 's first season . " He described Winn as the " most unsettling of enemies , a true believer whose faith doesn 't prevent her from manipulation and deceit " . Handlen described the character of Vedek Winn as " terrific " . In her analysis of the episode , Michelle Erica Green of TrekNation said she thought the episode was " pretty fantastic " when she originally watched it . Upon re @-@ watching it years later , she thought it had improved even further . Green described the episode as " a no @-@ holds @-@ barred story about the hypocrisy of religious leaders which seems less influenced by the Scopes Trial than by contemporary creationist politicians . " She described Fletcher as one of her favourite actresses and thought that she portrayed Vedek Winn as the older sister of Nurse Ratched from One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest . Writing for Jammer 's Reviews , Jamahl Epsicokhan said there was a great deal of plot to cover in the episode and that the strands successfully came together . He singled out Avery Brooks for praise , but thought there were a number of stand @-@ out performances by the cast . Epsicokhan gave the episode a score of 3 @.@ 5 / 4 and thought that it demonstrated the direction that the series intended to go in . In his review of the episode for Tor.com , Keith DeCandido praised the performance of Fletcher and called her " deliciously evil " . He thought that Anglim gave one of his better performances as Vedek Bareil and that the speech by Brooks to Fletcher at the end of the episode was particularly well done . " In the Hands of the Prophets " was first released as a two episode VHS cassette alongside " Duet " in the United Kingdom on January 10 , 1994 . A single episode release followed in the United States and Canada on July 8 , 1997 . It was released on DVD as part of the season one box set on June 3 , 2003 . = John W. Stevenson = John White Stevenson ( May 4 , 1812 – August 10 , 1886 ) was the 25th governor of Kentucky and represented the state in both houses of the U.S. Congress . The son of future Speaker of the House and U.S. diplomat Andrew Stevenson , John Stevenson graduated from the University of Virginia in 1832 and studied law under his cousin , future Congressman Willoughby Newton . After briefly practicing law in Mississippi , he relocated to Covington , Kentucky , and was elected county attorney . After serving in the Kentucky legislature , he was chosen as a delegate to the state 's third constitutional convention in 1849 and was one of three commissioners charged with revising its code of laws , a task finished in 1854 . A Democrat , he was elected to two consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives where he supported several proposed compromises to avert the Civil War and blamed the Radical Republicans for their failure . After losing his reelection bid in 1861 , Stevenson , a known Confederate sympathizer , stayed out of public life during the war and was consequently able to avoid being imprisoned , as many other Confederate sympathizers were . In 1867 , just five days after John L. Helm and Stevenson were elected governor and lieutenant governor , respectively , Helm died and Stevenson became acting governor . Stevenson subsequently won a special election in 1868 to finish Helm 's term . As governor , he opposed federal intervention in what he considered state matters but insisted that blacks ' newly granted rights be observed and used the state militia to quell post @-@ war violence in the state . Although a fiscal conservative , he advocated a new tax to benefit education and created the state bureau of education . In 1871 , Stevenson defeated incumbent Thomas C. McCreery for his seat in the U.S. Senate after criticizing McCreery for allegedly supporting the appointment of Stephen G. Burbridge , who was hated by most Kentuckians , to a federal position . In the Senate , he opposed internal improvements and defended a constructionist view of the constitution , resisting efforts to expand the powers expressly granted in that document . Beginning in late 1873 , Stephenson functioned as the first chairman ( later called floor leader ) of the Senate Democratic caucus . He did not seek reelection in 1877 , returning to his law practice and accepting future Kentucky Governor William Goebel as a law partner . He chaired the 1880 Democratic National Convention and was elected president of the American Bar Association in 1884 . He died in Covington on August 10 , 1886 , and was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery at Cincinnati , Ohio . = = Early life and family = = John White Stevenson was born May 4 , 1812 , in Richmond , Virginia . He was the only child of Andrew and Mary Page ( White ) Stevenson . His mother — the granddaughter of Carter Braxton , a signer of the Declaration of Independence — died during childbirth . Stevenson was sent to live with his maternal grandparents , John and Judith White , until he was eleven ; by then , his father had remarried . His father , a prominent Virginia lawyer , rose to political prominence during Stevenson 's childhood . He was elected to Congress , eventually serving as Speaker of the House and was later appointed Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the Court of St. James 's ( now called the United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom ) by President Martin Van Buren , where he engendered much controversy by his pro @-@ slavery practices . Because of his father 's position , young Stevenson had met both Thomas Jefferson and James Madison . Stevenson was educated by private tutors in Virginia and Washington , D.C. , where he frequently lived while his father was in Congress . In 1828 , at the age of 14 , he matriculated from the Hampden – Sydney Academy ( now Hampden – Sydney College ) . Two years later , he transferred to University of Virginia , where he graduated in 1832 . After graduation , he read law with his cousin , Willoughby Newton , who would later serve in the U.S. Congress . In 1839 , Stevenson was admitted to the bar in Virginia . Following Madison 's advice , Stevenson decided to settle in the west . He traveled on horseback through the western frontier until he reached the Mississippi River , settling at Vicksburg , Mississippi . Vicksburg was a small settlement at the time and did not provide enough work to satisfy him , and , in 1840 , he decided to travel to Covington , Kentucky , settling there permanently in 1841 . In Covington , he formed a law partnership with Jefferson Phelps , a respected lawyer in the area ; the partnership lasted until Phelps ' death in 1843 . A devout Episcopalian , Stevenson frequently attended the conventions of that denomination . He was elected as a vestryman of the Trinity Episcopal Church in Covington on November 24 , 1842 . In 1843 , he married Sibella Wilson of Newport , Kentucky . They had five children : Sally C. ( Stevenson ) Colston , Mary W. ( Stevenson ) Colston , Judith W. ( Stevenson ) Winslow , Samuel W. Stevenson , and John W. Stevenson . = = Political career = = Soon after arriving in Covington , Stevenson was elected county attorney for Kenton County . He was chosen as a delegate to the 1844 Democratic National Convention and was elected to represent Kenton County in the Kentucky House of Representatives the following year . He was reelected in 1846 and 1848 . In 1849 , he was chosen as a delegate to the state constitutional convention that produced Kentucky 's third state constitution . In 1850 , he , Madison C. Johnson , and James Harlan were appointed as commissioners to revise Kentucky 's civic and criminal code . Their work , Code of Practise in Civil and Criminal Cases was published in 1854 . He was again one of Kentucky 's delegates to the Democratic National Conventions in 1848 , 1852 , and 1856 , serving as a presidential elector in 1852 and 1856 . = = = U.S. Representative = = = In 1857 , Stevenson was elected to the first of two consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . For the duration of his tenure in that body , he served on the Committee on Elections . He favored admitting Kansas to the Union under the Lecompton Constitution . Like many Kentuckians , Stevenson was sympathetic to the southern states ' position in the lead @-@ up to the Civil War , but he opposed secession as a means of dealing with sectional tensions . In the 1860 presidential election , he supported his close friend , John C. Breckinridge . Desiring to avert the Civil War , he advocated acceptance of the several proposed compromises , including the Crittenden Compromise , authored by fellow Kentuckian John J. Crittenden . He blamed the Radical Republicans ' rigid adherence to their demands for the failure of all such proposed compromises , and on January 30 , 1861 , denounced them in a speech that the Dictionary of American Biography called the most notable of his career in the House . Stevenson was defeated for reelection in 1861 . For the duration of the war , which lasted until April 1865 , he stayed out of public life in order to avoid being arrested as many other Confederate sympathizers were . After the war , he was a delegate to the National Union Party 's convention in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , in 1865 . He was a supporter of the Reconstruction policies of President Andrew Johnson . = = = Governor of Kentucky = = = Ex @-@ Confederates dominated the Kentucky Democratic convention that met in Frankfort on February 22 , 1867 . John L. Helm , father of the late Confederate general Benjamin Hardin Helm , was nominated for governor and Stevenson was nominated for lieutenant governor . The entire Democratic slate of candidates was elected , including Stevenson , who received 88 @,@ 222 votes to R. Tarvin Baker 's 32 @,@ 505 and H. Taylor 's 11 @,@ 473 . The only non @-@ Confederate sympathizer to win election that year was George Madison Adams , congressman for the state 's 8th district who , although a Democrat , was a former federal soldier . Helm took the oath of office on his sick bed at his home in Elizabethtown , Kentucky , on September 3 , 1867 . He died five days later , and Stevenson was sworn in as governor on September 13 . Among his first acts as governor were the appointments of Frank Lane Wolford , a former Union soldier , as adjutant general and Fayette Hewitt , a former Confederate soldier , as state quartermaster general . Because Helm died so soon after taking office , a special election for the remainder of his term was set for August 1868 . Democrats held a convention in Frankfort on February 22 , 1868 and nominated Stevenson to finish out Helm 's term . R. Tarvin Baker , formerly Stevenson 's opponent in the election for lieutenant governor , was the choice of the Republicans . The Republicans faced many disadvantages , including the national party 's persecution of President Johnson and a lack of local organization in many Kentucky counties . Despite Stevenson 's shortcomings as a public speaker , he was elected in a landslide — 115 @,@ 560 to 26 @,@ 605 . At the time , it was the largest majority obtained by any candidate in a Kentucky election . = = = = Civil rights = = = = Post @-@ war Kentucky Democrats had split into two factions — the more conservative Bourbon Democrats and the more progressive New Departure Democrats . Stevenson governed moderately , giving concessions to both sides . He urged the immediate restoration of all rights to ex @-@ Confederates and denounced Congress for failing to seat a portion of the Kentucky delegation because they had sided with the Confederacy . A champion of states ' rights , he resisted federal measures he saw as violating the sovereignty of the states and vehemently denounced the proposed Fifteenth Amendment . Following Stevenson 's lead , the General Assembly refused to pass either the Fourteenth or Fifteenth Amendment , but after their passage by a constitutional majority of the states Stevenson generally insisted that blacks ' newly granted rights not be infringed upon . He was silent , however , when state legislators and officials from various cities used lengthy residency restrictions and redrawn district and municipal boundaries to exclude black voters from specific elections . His 1867 plea for legislators to call a constitutional convention to revise the state 's pro @-@ slavery constitution to better conform to post @-@ war reality was completely ignored . Stevenson opposed almost every effort to expand blacks ' rights beyond the minimums assured by federal amendments and legislation . The Civil Rights Act of 1866 guaranteed that blacks could testify against whites in federal courts , but he opposed New Departure Democrats when they insisted that Kentucky amend its laws to also allow black testimony against whites in state courts , and the measure failed in the 1867 legislative session . Later that year , the Kentucky Court of Appeals declared the Civil Rights Act unconstitutional , but a federal court soon overturned that decision . Stevenson backed Bourbon Democrats ' appeal of that decision to the Supreme Court of the United States . By 1871 , however , he had changed his mind and supported blacks ' right to testify . Despite Stevenson 's support , the measure failed in the General Assembly again in 1871 , but it passed the following year , after Stevenson had left office . In the 1870 election , the first state in which blacks were allowed to vote , Stevenson warned that violence against them would not be tolerated . Although he relied on local authorities to suppress any incidents , he offered rewards for the apprehension of perpetrators of election @-@ related violence . Stevenson also recommended that the carrying of concealed weapons be outlawed . The General Assembly passed the requested legislation on March 22 , 1871 . The law imposed small fines for the first offense , but the amount rapidly increased for subsequent infractions in order to deter repeat offenders . = = = = State matters = = = = In Stevenson 's first message to the legislature , he called on legislators to finally decide whether the state capital would remain at Frankfort or be moved to Lexington or Louisville , as some had wanted . His address made it clear that he favored keeping the capital at Frankfort , but he noted that additional space was needed at the present capitol building because the existing building could not continue to house enough room both the state treasurer and auditor . He laid out a vision for an addition to the capitol that would make it more spacious and more grandiose . To pay for the expansion , the fiscally conservative Stevenson pressed the federal government to pay claims due Kentucky from Civil War expenses . By the end of his term , the state had collected over $ 1 @.@ 5 million in claims . The legislature , however , disregarded his plan for expanding the capitol , instead opting to construct a separate executive office building next to the capitol . Stevenson also advocated careful study of the state 's finances to deal with increasing expenditures . He insisted that the state stop covering its short @-@ term indebtedness using bonds . However , Stevenson was willing to tax to benefit segregation in schools , and helped create the state bureau of education in 1870 . Because most blacks possessed little property of significant value , the new tax yielded little revenue to support their educational institutions . State legislators rejected his 1870 proposal to create a state bureau of immigration and statistics to spur interest in and migration to the state . He did persuade the legislators to make some improvements in the state 's penal and eleemosynary institutions , including establishing a House of Reform for juvenile offenders . Mob violence , much of it perpetrated by vigilantes calling themselves " Regulators " who felt that local authorities had failed in their duties to protect the people , was an ongoing problem during Stevenson 's administration . In September 1867 , Stevenson urged all Kentuckians to defer to local authorities and ordered that all vigilante groups be disbanded . On October 1 , however , a group calling themselves " Rowzee 's band " began perpetrating anti @-@ Regulator violence in Marion County . He dispatched Adjutant General Wolford to Marion County , authorizing him to use the state militia to quell the violence if necessary . Wolford called out three companies of militia who suppressed " Rowzee 's band " and sent another to put down a similar movement in Boyle County . Later in October , Stevenson dispatched the state militia to Mercer County , and militiamen were dispatched to Boyle , Garrard , and Lincoln counties in 1869 . The governor declared that he would never hesitate to send troops " whenever it becomes necessary for the arrest and bringing to justice of all those who combine together , no matter under what pretense , to trample the law under their feet by acts of personal violence . " = = = U.S. Senator = = = Beginning in late 1869 , Stevenson attacked Kentucky Senator Thomas C. McCreery and Representative Thomas Laurens Jones for allegedly supporting President Ulysses S. Grant 's nomination of former Union General Stephen G. Burbridge to a federal position in the revenue service . Although born in northern Kentucky , Burbridge had commanded colored troops during the Civil War , and had also been specifically ordered to suppress Confederate guerillas in his home state . Kentucky 's General Assembly had sought to bring him to trial for war crimes in 1863 and 1864 . Historian E. Merton Coulter wrote of Burbridge : " [ The people of Kentucky ] relentlessly pursued him , the most bitterly hated of all Kentuckians , and so untiring were their efforts , that it finally came to the point where he had not a friend left in the state who would raise his voice to defend him . " Stevenson 's attacks on McCreery and Jones were likely designed to discredit them both in advance of the expiration of McCreery 's Senate term in 1870 . McCreery vigorously denied Stevenson 's charges and eventually challenged him to a duel . Stevenson declined the challenge , citing his Christian beliefs . The General Assembly met to choose McCreery 's successor in December 1869 and , on the fifth ballot , chose Stevenson over McCreery for the six @-@ year Senate term . Stevenson resigned the governorship on February 13 , 1871 , in advance of the March congressional session . In the Senate , Stevenson was a conservative stalwart , steadfastly opposing spending on internal improvements and maintaining a strict constructionist view of the constitution . He urged his fellow senators to oppose the Civil Rights Act of 1871 , claiming that its provision that the president could suspend the right of habeas corpus in cases where he believed violence was imminent amounted to giving the chief executive the powers of a dictator . He also opposed the appropriation of federal money to fund the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , because he did not believe Congress was given the authority to make such an allocation under the Constitution . At the 1872 Democratic National Convention , Stevenson received the votes of Delaware 's six delegates for the Democratic vice @-@ presidential nomination , although Benjamin Gratz Brown was ultimately nominated . In February 1873 , Vice @-@ President Schuyler Colfax named Stevenson as one of five members of the Morrill Commission to investigate New Hampshire Senator James W. Patterson 's involvement in the Crédit Mobilier of America scandal . Stevenson and fellow Senator John P. Stockton of New Jersey both asked to be removed from the commission , but the Senate refused to grant their request . On February 27 , 1873 , the commission recommended Patterson 's expulsion from the Senate , but the chamber adjourned on March 4 without acting on the recommendation . Patterson 's term ended with the end of the session , and he was not re @-@ elected , rendering moot further consideration of the matter . From December 1873 until the expiration of his term in 1877 , Stevenson was generally recognized as the chairman ( later known as the floor leader ) of the minority Democratic caucus in the Senate ; he was the first person to have acted in the capacity . During the Forty @-@ fourth Congress , he chaired the Committee on Revolutionary Claims . He did not seek reelection at the end of his term . In the disputed 1876 presidential election , he was one of the visiting statesmen who went to New Orleans , Louisiana , and concluded that the election had been fairly conducted in that state . = = Later life and death = = After his service in the Senate , Stevenson returned to his law practice in Covington . In addition , he accepted a position teaching criminal law and contracts at the University of Cincinnati College of Law . He remained interested in politics and was chosen chairman of the 1879 Democratic state convention in Louisville and president of the 1880 Democratic National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio . In 1883 , the American Bar Association began exploring the concept of dual federalism . Because of his personal acquaintance with James Madison , whom he characterized as a proponent of dual federalism , Stevenson delivered an address on the subject at the Association 's annual meeting . Stevenson maintained that Madison believed strongly in the rights of the sovereign states and regarded a Supreme Court appeal as " a remedy for trespass on the reserved rights of the states by unconstitutional acts of Congress . " Stevenson was elected its president that year 's and his address published . Association member Richard Vaux characterized Stevenson 's presidential report reviewing state and federal legislation in 1885 as " most interesting and valuable to the profession " . Among the men who studied law under Stevenson in his later years were future U.S. Treasury Secretary John G. Carlisle and future Kentucky Governor William Goebel . Goebel eventually became Stevenson 's law partner and the executor of his will . In early August 1886 , Stevenson traveled to Sewanee , Tennessee , to attend the commencement ceremonies of Sewanee University . While there , he fell ill and was rushed back to his home in Covington , where he died on August 10 , 1886 . He was buried in Spring Grove Cemetery in Cincinnati . = I Do , Adieu = " I Do , Adieu " is the fifth season finale of the American television sitcom Cheers , written by Glen and Les Charles and directed by James Burrows . It originally aired on May 7 , 1987 on NBC at 9 : 00pm ( Eastern ) / 8 : 00pm ( Central ) . During the fifth season , Sam Malone ( Ted Danson ) repeatedly proposes to Diane , and she refuses repeatedly until she accepts engagement in " Chambers vs. Malone " ( 1987 ) . In the previous episode , " A House Is Not a Home " , Sam and Diane bought a house together . Before this episode aired , Ted Danson decided to renew his contract with the show as Sam Malone , while Shelley Long decided to quit the series , which could conclude the on @-@ and @-@ off romance of " Sam and Diane " that went on for the first five years since 1982 . Ideas were attempted to write Diane off and to end the story arc , but some ideas were kept in and others thrown out . In this episode , Diane is offered an opportunity to finish one of her novels . However , she must choose between her talents and her man , Sam . After she becomes persuaded into honing her talents , Diane leaves the job , the bar , the relationship , and the city behind for that . In the 1993 series finale , " One for the Road " , Shelley Long makes her special guest appearance as Diane Chambers and the " Sam and Diane " story line is there resurfaced . Meanwhile , with Long 's departure , producers of the series made plans to reconstruct the show by introducing a new female lead who does not resemble Shelley Long . Highlights of this episode from reception are Diane Chambers 's departure and the end of Sam and Diane 's constant on @-@ and @-@ off romance . = = Plot = = Sumner Sloane ( Michael McGuire ) , Diane 's ex @-@ fiancé who jilted her in the series pilot , returns to Cheers , surprising bar patrons . Alone in the billiard room , Sumner tells Diane that , against her will , he submitted one of her unfinished manuscripts to one of his colleagues , who praised it , and was sent to publishers . At first , she becomes excited . However , Sumner persuades her to leave everyone and everything behind , including Sam , in order to hone her talents . He warns her that finishing the novel is impossible and that her potentials will be wasted if she marries Sam . Diane tells Sumner to leave the bar and never return again . Unbeknownst to them , Sam overhears this conversation under the pool table whose underneath is covered by drapes . At home , in the house they bought together in the previous episode , " A House Is Not a Home " , Sam and Diane discuss her talents and their relationship that are both at stake , which they admit . Then Diane suggests that they be married immediately , but Sam is yet reluctant , so she leaves him alone for a moment . Later , Sam daydreams about their own elderly selves living in what would have been if Diane chooses Sam over her career . In that fantasy , Sam and Diane are happily married elderly couple with children and grandchildren . Moreover , Diane has not finished her novel but assures Sam that she has no regrets and that abandoning her talents does not affect their marriage and her happiness with him . Back into reality , then they decide to set the wedding at the bar , where people know about their relationship . The following day , at the wedding , commissioned by the Justice of the Peace ( William Addison ) , a phone call , picked up by Woody , announces that Diane 's unfinished novel was praised by publishers and , if finished , will likely be published . Unaffected Diane still wants to marry , but Sam convinces her to set her writing talents first before marriage . After failures , like ballet and filmmaking , and becoming convinced to hone and cherish her writing skills , Diane decides to give writing career a chance , putting a wedding to an end . At closing time , Sam and Diane alone embrace each other for the last time together . Diane promises him that she will return to him in six months . Sam tells her to " have a good life , " but Diane attests to her promise and leaves the bar . Now alone in the bar , Sam again tells her to " have a good life , " then he daydreams elderly versions of himself and Diane embracing and dancing to the music . = = Production = = The producers intended Cheers to be a comedy about the bar itself , but , as Burrows claimed , the " Sam and Diane " romance predominated the show for five years and , as he hypothesized , would have made the bar more of a minor role and more irrelevant if Shelley Long had not left the show as Diane Chambers in this episode . With Long leaving the series , the producers made plans to revamp the show with the bar as a central setting , as originally intended , and then they credited Long 's departure for saving the series from cancellation . After years of writing Sam as a " straight man " , especially to Diane , the writers would transform Sam into becoming more " carefree " and a " goof @-@ off " in season six . The creators , in February 1987 , decided to find a female lead replacement whose hair is not blonde and who does not resemble Shelley Long . Brunette @-@ haired Kirstie Alley debuts as Rebecca Howe in the next episode , " Home Is the Sailor " ( 1987 ) . This episode was written by Glen and Les Charles and directed by James Burrows . On December 15 , 1986 , Shelley Long decided to leave Cheers as the regular character Diane Chambers , even though she and Ted " [ had ] done some really terrific work at Cheers " , for her movie career and family , while Ted Danson signed a contract for the next season ( 1987 – 1988 ) , which led producers , the Charles brothers and Burrows , to separate Sam and Diane . An idea to keep Sam in and write Diane out without risk of ruining the quality and losing viewers had been developed . Before Diane was written out by having her leave Boston for a writing career , some ideas were attempted and discarded , like Sam and Diane 's child in the next season , as Sam would have been a single father , and another ideal man for Diane . Three endings were filmed , in part to attempt to keep the actual one a secret , and because it was possible that Long might decide to stay : 1 ) Sam and Diane become married ; 2 ) Diane accepts an offer to finish a novel ; 3 ) not revealed by the producers . The alternate ending in which Sam and Diane get married aired on May 27 , 1998 as part of a 90 @-@ minute Fox special produced by the Paley Center called Behind the Laughs : The Untold Stories of Television 's Favorite Comedies : A Museum of Television and Radio Special . Steve Giannelli is credited for his background appearance in the episode . = = Reception = = This episode originally aired on May 7 , 1987 , on NBC at 9 : 00pm ( Eastern ) / 8 : 00pm ( Central ) and scored a 28 @.@ 4 rating and 45 share , was watched by 24 @.@ 8 million homes , and ranked # 1 in Nielsen ratings . After the episode originally aired , Kathy Carlisle of Los Angeles Times called this episode " hilarious , but somewhat contrived and very disappointing " and felt that Sam and Diane should have been married at the end . Monica Collins from USA Today called Diane a " snitty , selfish snob " and was relieved that the character left the series . According to Collins , she has not made friends with people in Cheers onscreen . More often , she has not befriended women , and she has " [ teased ] men more than [ pleased ] them " . Later reviews analyzed the departure of Diane Chambers and the end of her relationship with Sam Malone . Gillian Flynn from Entertainment Weekly called Sam and Diane 's breakup in this episode one of the " all @-@ time best breakup scenes " in history . David Hofstede in the guide 5000 Episodes and No Commercials and Jeffrey Robinson of DVD Talk found Diane 's departure poorly done . Jane Boursaw from Huffington Post and Amy K. Bredemeyer from The Talking Box blog called the wedding of Sam and Diane one of their favorite " weddings that [ did not ] happen " . IGN placed it as number one of the top ten Cheers episodes . = Something Old , Something New ( The Hills ) = " Something Old , Something New " is the tenth episode of the fifth season of The Hills . It originally aired on MTV on May 31 , 2009 . In the episode , Heidi Montag and Spencer Pratt prepare for their upcoming wedding , while Lauren Conrad and Lo Bosworth move out of their house . After much deliberation , Conrad decides to attend the nuptials , where she reconciles with Montag after being estranged with one another since the third season . It is the final episode in which Conrad appears , and also marks the entrance of her replacement Kristin Cavallari . " Something Old , Something New " was produced by Adam DiVello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . After the season was retroactively divided into Part I and Part II , respectively separating installments featuring Conrad and Cavallari , the episode became the conclusion of Part I. Additionally , it is the second episode in the series ' history with a one @-@ hour running time , the first being " Paris Changes Everything " in the third season . " Something Old , Something New " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , who felt that Cavallari 's introduction overshadowed Conrad 's departure . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 2 @.@ 7 million viewers in its original airing . The episode was released on DVD on October 6 , 2009 , packaged with the remainder of Part I of the fifth season . = = Plot = = Lauren and Lo decide to host a farewell party as they prepare to move out of their house . As wedding preparations continue , Stephanie becomes upset after learning that Heidi has chosen her sister Holly as her maid @-@ of @-@ honor . During the bridal shower , Stephanie assumes the responsibilities after she becomes increasingly displeased with Holly 's poor performance . After she makes amends with Spencer , Darlene gives him her blessing for the nuptials . While out for dinner , Brody tries to convince Lauren to attend the wedding , knowing that Heidi would appreciate her presence . In a later outing , Spencer tells Brody of his couples ' therapy sessions with Heidi , but is displeased that he is not taken seriously . At the fashion public relations firm People 's Revolution , Lauren tells Kelly that she will be leaving the company , which Kelly advocates as a smart decision that will help her to determine her next career endeavors . As an intoxicated Holly displays erratic behavior at Heidi and Spencer 's rehearsal dinner , Stephanie is dismayed by her lack of irresponsibility . After Spencer explains that her behavior was inappropriate , Holly tearfully leaves the restaurant . The next morning , she apologizes to Heidi for her actions , and confirms that an invitation has been sent to a special guest . Charlie later tells Spencer that he invited Stacie , the bartender that Heidi clashed with for flirting with Spencer , to the wedding . Meanwhile , Brody and Stephanie make peace at Lauren and Lo 's farewell party , while Lauren tells Stephanie that she will not be attending the ceremony . The following morning , the day of the wedding , Heidi and Spencer are getting ready , while guests begin entering the church . Lauren surprises Heidi in her dressing room and explains that Heidi 's happiness is important to her . Meanwhile , Kristin Cavallari unexpectedly walks into the church and sits next to Justin , to the surprise of the attendees . After leaving Heidi , Lauren appears displeased after Lo tells her that Kristin is seated across from them . After the wedding has finished , Kristin tells Lo that she needs help finding a boyfriend , and to Audrina 's disapproval , adds that Justin seems to be a " stand up guy " . Lauren makes her final appearance on the series quietly leaving the church , while Kristin catches Heidi 's bouquet . = = Production = = " Something Old , Something New " was produced by Adam Divello , Liz Gateley , Kristofer Lindquist , Sara Mast , and Sean Travis . The episode became the second in the series ' history with a one @-@ hour running time , preceded by " Paris Changes Everything " in the third season . Despite presenting Conrad and Bosworth 's house departure as taking place the evening prior to Montag and Pratt 's nuptials , the former event was filmed in January 2009 , while the latter took place on April 25 , 2009 . Conrad first indicated that she wished to leave The Hills upon the conclusion of its fourth season in December 2008 , looking to pursue other career opportunities . She commented that " five years on TV is a really , really long time " , adding that she was " ready to walk away " . However , per the producers ' requests , Conrad filmed ten episodes for the fifth season , in which she closed her storylines . She added that the season was potentially its last , stating that series personnel felt her presence would " give the show some sort of closure " . In the July 2009 issue of Cosmopolitan , Conrad stated that producers had pressured her into a reconciliation with Montag throughout the season , adding that she was displeased when they would not allow otherwise . " Something Old , Something New " was initially billed as the fifth season finale . However , in April 2009 , MTV announced an extension of the season , and confirmed Cavallari as Conrad 's replacement the following month . Consequentially , the first ten episodes of the season were retroactively labeled Part I , while Cavallari 's forthcoming episodes were titled Part II . = = Reception and release = = " Something Old , Something New " was met with generally mixed reviews from critics , many of whom were ambivalent towards Conrad 's departure and Cavallari 's introduction . Emma Rosenblum from New York was pleased with Conrad 's exit , commenting that she was emotional watching her " moving on and distancing herself from the follies of her overexposed youth " . However , she opined that Cavallari 's appearance at the wedding " does not bode well for the future of The Hills " . A writer for Entertainment Weekly described the reconciliation between Conrad and Montag an " ideal end " to the series , and noted Cavallari 's addition as a " questionable choice " . Furthermore , it was included on the magazine 's list of " 25 TV Shows That Missed Cue for a Graceful Exit " . In contrast , Jim Cantiello of MTV News noted that Conrad " came to the realization that she had been replaced " , and complimented the manner in which Cavallari was integrated into the series . Carrie Bell from People was pleased that " the bitch [ Cavallari ] is back and [ she could ] already tell it ’ s going to make for some great trashy TV " . In its original broadcast in the United States on May 31 , 2009 , " Something Old , Something New " was watched by 2 @.@ 7 million viewers . It experienced a 10 @-@ percent ratings drop from the season premiere " Don 't Cry on Your Birthday " , which garnered 3 million viewers on April 6 , 2009 . In the country , Season 5 , Part I was released as a two @-@ disc DVD set on October 6 , 2009 . = SMS Danzig = SMS Danzig was a light cruiser of the Imperial German Navy . Named for the city of Danzig ( Gdańsk ) , she was the seventh and last ship of the Bremen class . She was begun by the Imperial Dockyard in her namesake city in 1904 , launched on 23 September 1905 and commissioned on 1 December 1907 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , Danzig was capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . Danzig spent the first ten years of her career in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . The ship saw extensive service during the First World War ; she was present at the Battle of Heligoland Bight in August 1914 , but did not engage British warships . She also saw action in the Baltic Sea against Russian forces , and was badly damaged by a Russian mine in November 1915 . Danzig was also involved in Operation Albion , the seizure of the islands at the entrance of the Gulf of Riga , in September 1917 . She was thereafter withdrawn from service , and surrendered to Britain after the end of the war as a war prize . Danzig was dismantled for scrap starting in 1921 . = = Construction = = Danzig was ordered under the contract name Ersatz Alexandrine and was laid down at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig in 1904 and launched on 23 September 1905 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 1 December 1907 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 68 m ( 18 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 783 t ( 3 @,@ 723 long tons ; 4 @,@ 170 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . Danzig carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 690 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men . The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . Danzig was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields . = = Service history = = After her commissioning , Danzig served in the reconnaissance forces of the High Seas Fleet . In 1910 , she was used as a training ship for the fleet 's gunners . She returned to fleet service in August 1914 after the outbreak of World War I. She was moored in Brunsbüttel with her sister @-@ ship München , en route to Kiel via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal on the morning of 28 August 1914 , when the British attacked the German patrol line in the Heligoland Bight . During the ensuing Battle of Heligoland Bight , Danzig and München were recalled and ordered to steam to the mouth of the Elbe and wait for further orders . Danzig reached the stricken cruiser Ariadne shortly before 15 : 00 and lowered boats to rescue survivors . Konteradmiral Franz von Hipper , the commander of the I Scouting Group , issued an order for all cruisers to regroup on the approaching battlecruisers Von der Tann and Moltke , but Fregattenkapitän Reiß , Danzig 's commander , refused , replying that he was " Rescuing people from Ariadne . " On 7 May 1915 , the IV Scouting Group , which by then consisted of Danzig , München , Stettin , and Stuttgart , and twenty @-@ one torpedo boats was sent into the Baltic Sea to support a major operation against Russian positions at Libau . The operation was commanded by Rear Admiral Hopman , the commander of the reconnaissance forces in the Baltic . The IV Scouting Group was tasked with screening to the north to prevent any Russian naval forces from moving out of the Gulf of Finland undetected , while several armored cruisers and other warships bombarded the port . The Russians did attempt to intervene with a force of four cruisers : Admiral Makarov , Bayan , Oleg , and Bogatyr . The Russian ships briefly engaged München , but both sides were unsure of the others ' strength , and so both disengaged . Shortly after the bombardment , Libau was captured by the advancing German army , and Stettin and the rest of the IV Scouting Group were recalled to the High Seas Fleet . On 8 May , Danzig joined the old pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the IV Battle Squadron on a reconnaissance toward Gotland ; the operation lasted until 10 May , but encountered no Russian forces . Danzig ran into a Russian minefield on the evening of 25 November 1915 , and was badly damaged by one of the mines . She was towed back to port , however , and repaired . In early September 1917 , following the German conquest of the Russian port of Riga , the German navy decided to eliminate the Russian naval forces that still held the Gulf of Riga . The Admiralstab ( the Navy High Command ) planned an operation to seize the Baltic island of Ösel , and specifically the Russian gun batteries on the Sworbe Peninsula . On 18 September , the order was issued for a joint operation with the army to capture Ösel and Moon Islands ; the primary naval component was to comprise the flagship , Moltke , along with the III and IV Battle Squadrons of the High Seas Fleet . The invasion force amounted to approximately 24 @,@ 600 officers and enlisted men . Danzig had by this time been transferred to the II Scouting Group , which was tasked with screening for the invasion force . During the operation , Prince Adalbert , Kaiser Wilhelm II 's son , was the ship 's commander . Danzig 's only significant action during the operation came on the 19th , when she and Königsberg and Nürnberg were sent to intercept two Russian torpedo boats reported to be in the area . The Germans could not locate the vessels , and broke off the operation . Danzig was withdrawn from active service in late 1917 . She survived the end of the war , and was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919 . The ship was surrendered to the United Kingdom as the war prize R on 15 September 1920 , and broken up for scrap in Whitby in 1921 – 1922 . = Tamil language = Tamil / ˈtæmɪl / ( தமிழ ் , tamiḻ , [ t ̪ ɐmɨɻ ] ? ) is a Dravidian language predominantly spoken by the Tamil people of India and Sri Lanka , and also by the Tamil diaspora , Sri Lankan Moors , Burghers and Chindians . Tamil is an official language of two countries , Singapore and Sri Lanka . It has official status in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and the Indian Union Territory of Puducherry . It is also used as one of the languages of education in Malaysia , along with English , Malay and Mandarin . In India , outside of Tamil Nadu and Puducherry , Tamil is also spoken in the states of Kerala , Puducherry and Andaman and Nicobar Islands as a secondary language , and by minorities in Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh . It is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India . It was declared as a classical language by the Government of India in 2004 . The language is also spoken by Tamil minorities among the diaspora in Malaysia , the United Arab Emirates , the United States , United Kingdom , Mauritius , Canada , South Africa , Fiji , Germany , the Philippines , the Netherlands , Indonesia and France , as well as smaller emigrant communities elsewhere . Tamil is one of the longest @-@ surviving classical languages in the world . Tamil @-@ Brahmi inscriptions from 500 BC have been found on Adichanallur and 2 @,@ 200 @-@ year @-@ old Tamil @-@ Brahmi inscriptions have been found on Samanamalai . It has been described as " the only language of contemporary India which is recognizably continuous with a classical past . " The variety and quality of classical Tamil literature has led to it being described as " one of the great classical traditions and literatures of the world " . A recorded Tamil literature has been documented for over 2000 years . The earliest period of Tamil literature , Sangam literature , is dated from ca . 300 BC – AD 300 . It has the oldest extant literature among other Dravidian languages . The earliest epigraphic records found on rock edicts and hero stones date from around the 3rd century BC . More than 55 % of the epigraphical inscriptions ( about 55 @,@ 000 ) found by the Archaeological Survey of India are in the Tamil language . Tamil language inscriptions written in Brahmi script have been discovered in Sri Lanka , and on trade goods in Thailand and Egypt . The two earliest manuscripts from India , acknowledged and registered by UNESCO Memory of the World register in 1997 and 2005 , were written in Tamil . In 1578 , Portuguese Christian missionaries published a Tamil prayer book in old Tamil script named ' Thambiraan Vanakkam , ' thus making Tamil the first Indian language to be printed and published . In 2014 Tamil Lexicon , published by the University of Madras , was the first among the dictionaries published in any Indian language . Tamil is used as a sacred language of Ayyavazhi and in Tamil Hindu traditions of Shaivism and Vaishnavism . According to a 2001 survey , there were 1 @,@ 863 newspapers published in Tamil , of which 353 were dailies . = = Classification = = Tamil belongs to the southern branch of the Dravidian languages , a family of around 26 languages native to the Indian subcontinent . It is also classified as being part of a Tamil language family , which alongside Tamil proper , also includes the languages of about 35 ethno @-@ linguistic groups such as the Irula and Yerukula languages ( see SIL Ethnologue ) . The closest major relative of Tamil is Malayalam ; the two began diverging around the 9th century CE . Although many of the differences between Tamil and Malayalam demonstrate a pre @-@ historic split of the western dialect , the process of separation into a distinct language , Malayalam , was not completed until sometime in the 13th or 14th century . = = History = = According to linguists like Bhadriraju Krishnamurti , Tamil , as a Dravidian language , descends from Proto @-@ Dravidian , a Proto @-@ language . Linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto @-@ Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BC , possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India . The material evidence suggests that the speakers of Proto @-@ Dravidian were of the culture associated with the Neolithic complexes of South India . The next phase in the reconstructed proto @-@ history of Tamil is Proto @-@ South Dravidian . The linguistic evidence suggests that Proto @-@ South Dravidian was spoken around the middle of the second millennium BC , and that proto @-@ Tamil emerged around the 3rd century BC . The earliest epigraphic attestations of Tamil are generally taken to have been written shortly thereafter . Among Indian languages , Tamil has the most ancient non @-@ Sanskritised Indian literature . Scholars categorise the attested history of the language into three periods , Old Tamil ( 300 BC – AD 700 ) , Middle Tamil ( 700 – 1600 ) and Modern Tamil ( 1600 – present ) . In November 2007 , an excavation at Quseir @-@ al @-@ Qadim revealed Egyptian pottery dating back to first century BC with ancient Tamil Brahmi inscriptions . John Guy states that Tamil was the lingua franca for early maritime traders from India . = = = Legend = = = According to Hindu legend , Tamil or in personification form Tamil Thāi ( Mother Tamil ) was created by Lord Shiva . Murugan , revered as the Tamil God , along with sage Agastya , brought it to the people . = = = Etymology = = = The earliest extant Tamil literary works and their commentaries celebrate the Pandiyan Kings for the organization of long @-@ termed Tamil Sangams , which researched , developed and made amendments in Tamil language . Even though the name of the language which was developed by these Tamil Sangams is mentioned as Tamil , the exact period when the name " Tamil " came to be applied to the language is unclear , as is the precise etymology of the name . The earliest attested use of the name is found in Tholkappiyam , which is dated as early as 1st century BC . Southworth suggests that the name comes from tam @-@ miḻ > tam @-@ iḻ ' self @-@ speak ' , or ' one 's own speech ' . ( see Southworth 's derivation of Sanskrit term for " others " or Mleccha ) Kamil Zvelebil suggests an etymology of tam @-@ iḻ , with tam meaning " self " or " one 's self " , and " -iḻ " having the connotation of " unfolding sound " . Alternatively , he suggests a derivation of tamiḻ < tam @-@ iḻ < * tav @-@ iḻ < * tak @-@ iḻ , meaning in origin " the proper process ( of speaking ) " . The Tamil Lexicon of University of Madras defines the word ' Tamil ' as ' sweetness ' . S.V Subramanian suggests the meaning ' sweet sound ' from ' tam ' - sweet and ' il ' - ' sound ' . = = = Old Tamil = = = Old Tamil is the period of the Tamil language spanning the 5th century BCE to the 8th century CE . The earliest records in Old Tamil are short inscriptions from between the 5th and 2nd century BCE in caves and on pottery . These inscriptions are written in a variant of the Brahmi script called Tamil Brahmi . The earliest long text in Old Tamil is the Tolkāppiyam , an early work on Tamil grammar and poetics , whose oldest layers could be as old as the 1st century BC . A large number of literary works in Old Tamil have also survived . These include a corpus of 2 @,@ 381 poems collectively known as Sangam literature . These poems are usually dated to between the 1st and 5th centuries AD , = = = Middle Tamil = = = The evolution of Old Tamil into Middle Tamil which is generally taken to have been completed by the 8th century , was characterized by a number of phonological and grammatical changes . In phonological terms , the most important shifts were the virtual disappearance of the aytam ( ஃ ) , an old phoneme , the coalescence of the alveolar and dental nasals , and the transformation of the alveolar plosive into a rhotic . In grammar , the most important change was the emergence of the present tense . The present tense evolved out of the verb kil ( கில ் ) , meaning " to be possible " or " to befall " . In Old Tamil , this verb was used as an aspect marker to indicate that an action was micro @-@ durative , non @-@ sustained or non @-@ lasting , usually in combination with a time marker such as ṉ ( ன ் ) . In Middle Tamil , this usage evolved into a present tense marker – kiṉṟa ( கின ் ற ) – which combined the old aspect and time markers . = = = Modern Tamil = = = The Nannul remains the standard normative grammar for modern literary Tamil , which therefore continues to be based on Middle Tamil of the 13th century rather than on Modern Tamil . Colloquial spoken Tamil , in contrast , shows a number of changes . The negative conjugation of verbs , for example , has fallen out of use in Modern Tamil – negation is , instead , expressed either morphologically or syntactically . Modern spoken Tamil also shows a number of sound changes , in particular , a tendency to lower high vowels in initial and medial positions , and the disappearance of vowels between plosives and between a plosive and rhotic . Contact with European languages also affected both written and spoken Tamil . Changes in written Tamil include the use of European @-@ style punctuation and the use of consonant clusters that were not permitted in Middle Tamil . The syntax of written Tamil has also changed , with the introduction of new aspectual auxiliaries and more complex sentence structures , and with the emergence of a more rigid word order that resembles the syntactic argument structure of English . Simultaneously , a strong strain of linguistic purism emerged in the early 20th century , culminating in the Pure Tamil Movement which called for removal of all Sanskritic and other foreign elements from Tamil . It received some support from Dravidian parties . This led to the replacement of a significant number of Sanskrit loanwords by Tamil equivalents , though many others remain . = = Geographic distribution = = Tamil is the first language of the majority of the people residing in Tamil Nadu , Puducherry , in India and Northern Province , Eastern Province , in Sri Lanka . The language is also spoken among small minority groups in other states of India which include Karnataka , Andhra Pradesh , Kerala , Maharashtra and in certain regions of Sri Lanka such as Colombo and the hill country . Tamil or dialects of it were used widely in the state of Kerala as the major language of administration , literature and common usage until the 12th century AD . Tamil was also used widely in inscriptions found in southern Andhra Pradesh districts of Chittoor and Nellore until the 12th century AD . Tamil was also used for inscriptions from the 10th through 14th centuries in southern Karnataka districts such as Kolar , Mysore , Mandya and Bangalore . There are currently sizeable Tamil @-@ speaking populations descended from colonial @-@ era migrants in Malaysia , Singapore , Philippines , Mauritius , South Africa , Indonesia , Thailand , Burma , and Vietnam . A large community of Pakistani Tamils speakers exists in Karachi , Pakistan , which includes Tamil @-@ speaking Hindus as well as Christians and Muslims – including some Tamil @-@ speaking Muslim refugees from Sri Lanka . Many in Réunion , Guyana , Fiji , Suriname , and Trinidad and Tobago have Tamil origins , but only a small number speak the language . In Reunion where the Tamil language was forbidden to be learnt and used in public space by France it is now being relearnt by students and adults . It is also used by groups of migrants from Sri Lanka and India , Canada ( especially Toronto ) , United States ( especially New Jersey and New York City ) , Australia , many Middle Eastern countries , and some Western European countries . = = Legal status = = Tamil is the official language of the Indian state of Tamil Nadu and one of the 22 languages under schedule 8 of the constitution of India . It is also one of the official languages of the union territory of Puducherry and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands . Tamil is also one of the official languages of Singapore . Tamil is one of the official and national languages of Sri Lanka , along with Sinhala . It was once given nominal official status in the state of Haryana , purportedly as a rebuff to Punjab , though there was no attested Tamil @-@ speaking population in the state , and was later replaced by Punjabi , in 2010 . In Malaysia , 543 primary education government schools are available fully in Tamil medium . The establishments of Tamil medium schools have been currently in process in Myanmar to provide education completely in Tamil language by the Tamils who settled there 200 years ago . Tamil language is taught in Canada and South Africa for the local Tamil minority populations . In Ontario , Canada , the month of January has been declared " Tamil Heritage Month " per legislation . In addition , with the creation in October 2004 of a legal status for classical languages by the Government of India and following a political campaign supported by several Tamil associations , Tamil became the first legally recognised Classical language of India . The recognition was announced by the contemporaneous President of India , Abdul Kalam , in a joint sitting of both houses of the Indian Parliament on 6 June 2004 . = = Dialects = = = = = Region @-@ specific variations = = = The socio @-@ linguistic situation of Tamil is characterised by diglossia : there are two separate registers varying by socioeconomic status , a high register and a low one . Tamil dialects are primarily differentiated from each other by the fact that they have undergone different phonological changes and sound shifts in evolving from Old Tamil . For example , the word for " here " — iṅku in Centamil ( the classic variety ) — has evolved into iṅkū in the Kongu dialect of Coimbatore , inga in the dialect of Thanjavur , and iṅkai in some dialects of Sri Lanka . Old Tamil 's iṅkaṇ ( where kaṇ means place ) is the source of iṅkane in the dialect of Tirunelveli , Old Tamil iṅkaṭṭu is the source of iṅkuṭṭu in the dialect of Madurai , and iṅkaṭe in various northern dialects . Even now , in the Coimbatore area , it is common to hear " akkaṭṭa " meaning " that place " . Although Tamil dialects do not differ significantly in their vocabulary , there are a few exceptions . The dialects spoken in Sri Lanka retain many words and grammatical forms that are not in everyday use in India , and use many other words slightly differently . The various Tamil dialects include Central Tamil dialect , Kongu Tamil , Madras Bashai , Madurai Tamil , Nellai Tamil , kumari Tamil in India and Batticaloa Tamil dialect , Jaffna Tamil dialect , Negombo Tamil dialect in Sri Lanka . Sankethi dialect in Karnataka has been heavily influenced by Kannada . = = = = Loanword variations = = = = The dialect of the district of Palakkad in Kerala has a large number of Malayalam loanwords , has been influenced by Malayalam 's syntax and also has a distinctive Malayalam accent . Similarly , Tamil spoken in Kanyakumari District has more unique words and phonetic style than Tamil spoken at other parts of Tamil Nadu . The words and phonetics are so different that a person from Kanyakumari district is easily identifiable by their spoken Tamil . Hebbar and Mandyam dialects , spoken by groups of Tamil Vaishnavites who migrated to Karnataka in the 11th century , retain many features of the Vaishnava paribasai , a special form of Tamil developed in the 9th and 10th centuries that reflect Vaishnavite religious and spiritual values . Several castes have their own sociolects which most members of that caste traditionally used regardless of where they come from . It is often possible to identify a person 's caste by their speech . Tamil in Sri Lanka incorporates loan words from Portuguese , Dutch , and English . = = Spoken and literary variants = = In addition to its various dialects , Tamil exhibits different forms : a classical literary style modelled on the ancient language ( sankattamiḻ ) , a modern literary and formal style ( centamiḻ ) , and a modern colloquial form ( koṭuntamiḻ ) . These styles shade into each other , forming a stylistic continuum . For example , it is possible to write centamiḻ with a vocabulary drawn from caṅkattamiḻ , or to use forms associated with one of the other variants while speaking koṭuntamiḻ . In modern times , centamiḻ is generally used in formal writing and speech . For instance , it is the language of textbooks , of much of Tamil literature and of public speaking and debate . In recent times , however , koṭuntamiḻ has been making inroads into areas that have traditionally been considered the province of centamiḻ . Most contemporary cinema , theatre and popular entertainment on television and radio , for example , is in koṭuntamiḻ , and many politicians use it to bring themselves closer to their audience . The increasing use of koṭuntamiḻ in modern times has led to the emergence of unofficial ‘ standard ' spoken dialects . In India , the ‘ standard ' koṭuntamiḻ , rather than on any one dialect , but has been significantly influenced by the dialects of Thanjavur and Madurai . In Sri Lanka , the standard is based on the dialect of Jaffna . = = Writing system = = After Tamil Brahmi fell out of use , Tamil was written using a script called the vaṭṭeḻuttu amongst others such as Grantha and Pallava script . The current Tamil script consists of 12 vowels , 18 consonants and one special character , the āytam . The vowels and consonants combine to form 216 compound characters , giving a total of 247 characters ( 12 + 18 + 1 + ( 12 x 18 ) ) . All consonants have an inherent vowel a , as with other Indic scripts . This inherent vowel is removed by adding a tittle called a puḷḷi , to the consonantal sign . For example , ன is ṉa ( with the inherent a ) and ன ் is ṉ ( without a vowel ) . Many Indic scripts have a similar sign , generically called virama , but the Tamil script is somewhat different in that it nearly always uses a visible puḷḷi to indicate a dead consonant ( a consonant without a vowel ) . In other Indic scripts , it is generally preferred to use a ligature or a half form to write a syllable or a cluster containing a dead consonant , although writing it with a visible virama is also possible . The Tamil script does not differentiate voiced and unvoiced plosives . Instead , plosives are articulated with voice depending on their position in a word , in accordance with the rules of Tamil phonology . In addition to the standard characters , six characters taken from the Grantha script , which was used in the Tamil region to write Sanskrit , are sometimes used to represent sounds not native to Tamil , that is , words adopted from Sanskrit , Prakrit and other languages . The traditional system prescribed by classical grammars for writing loan @-@ words , which involves respelling them in accordance with Tamil phonology , remains , but is not always consistently applied . = = Phonology = = Tamil phonology is characterised by the presence of retroflex consonants and multiple rhotics . Tamil does not distinguish phonologically between voiced and unvoiced consonants ; phonetically , voice is assigned depending on a consonant 's position in a word . Tamil phonology permits few consonant clusters , which can never be word initial . Native grammarians classify Tamil phonemes into vowels , consonants , and a " secondary character " , the āytam . = = = Vowels = = = Tamil has five vowel qualities , namely / a / , / e / , / i / , / o / and / u / . Each may be long or short . There are two diphthongs , / aɪ / and / aʊ / . Long vowels are about twice as long as short vowels . The diphthongs are usually pronounced about 1 @.@ 5 times as long as short vowels . Most grammatical texts place them with the long vowels . = = = Consonants = = = Tamil consonants are presented as hard , soft and medial in some grammars which roughly corresponds to plosives , approximants and nasals . Unlike most Indian languages , Tamil does not distinguish aspirated and unaspirated consonants . In addition , the voicing of plosives is governed by strict rules in centamiḻ . Plosives are unvoiced if they occur word @-@ initially or doubled . Elsewhere they are voiced , with a few becoming fricatives intervocalically . Nasals and approximants are always voiced . Tamil is characterised by its use of more than one type of coronal consonants : like many of the other languages of India , it contains a series of retroflex consonants . Notably , the Tamil retroflex series includes the retroflex approximant / ɻ / ( ழ ) ( example Tamil ; often transcribed ' zh ' ) , which is absent in the Indo @-@ Aryan languages . Among the other Dravidian languages , the retroflex approximant also occurs in Malayalam ( for example in ' Kozhikode ' ) , disappeared from spoken Kannada around 1000 AD ( although the character is still written , and exists in Unicode ) , and was never present in Telugu . In many dialects of colloquial Tamil , this consonant is seen as disappearing and shifting to the alveolar lateral approximant / l / . Dental and alveolar consonants also historically contrasted with each other , a typically Dravidian trait not found in the neighbouring Indo @-@ Aryan languages . While this distinction can still be seen in the written language , it has been largely lost in colloquial spoken Tamil , and even in literary usage the letters ந ( dental ) and ன ( alveolar ) may be seen as allophonic . Likewise , the historical alveolar stop has transformed into a trill consonant in many modern dialects . A chart of the Tamil consonant phonemes in the International Phonetic Alphabet follows : The plosives have voiced allophones in predictable contexts . The sounds / f / and / ʂ / are peripheral to the phonology of Tamil , being found only in loanwords and frequently replaced by native sounds . There are well @-@ defined rules for elision in Tamil categorised into classes based on the phoneme which undergoes elision . = = = Āytam = = = Classical Tamil also had a phoneme called the Āytam , written as ‘ ஃ ' . Tamil grammarians of the time classified it as a dependent phoneme ( or restricted phoneme ) ( cārpeḻuttu ) , but it is very rare in modern Tamil . The rules of pronunciation given in the Tolkāppiyam , a text on the grammar of Classical Tamil , suggest that the āytam could have glottalised the sounds it was combined with . It has also been suggested that the āytam was used to represent the voiced implosive ( or closing part or the first half ) of geminated voiced plosives inside a word . The Āytam , in modern Tamil , is also used to convert p to f when writing English words using the Tamil script . = = = Numerals and symbols = = = Apart from the usual numerals , Tamil also has numerals for 10 , 100 and 1000 . Symbols for day , month , year , debit , credit , as above , rupee , and numeral are present as well . Tamil also uses several historical fractional signs . = = Grammar = = Tamil employs agglutinative grammar , where suffixes are used to mark noun class , number , and case , verb tense and other grammatical categories . Tamil 's standard metalinguistic terminology and scholarly vocabulary is itself Tamil , as opposed to the Sanskrit that is standard for most Aryan languages . Much of Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest known grammar book for Tamil , the Tolkāppiyam . Modern Tamil writing is largely based on the 13th century grammar Naṉṉūl which restated and clarified the rules of the Tolkāppiyam , with some modifications . Traditional Tamil grammar consists of five parts , namely eḻuttu , sol , poruḷ , yāppu , aṇi . Of these , the last two are mostly applied in poetry . Tamil words consist of a lexical root to which one or more affixes are attached . Most Tamil affixes are suffixes . Tamil suffixes can be derivational suffixes , which either change the part of speech of the word or its meaning , or inflectional suffixes , which mark categories such as person , number , mood , tense , etc . There is no absolute limit on the length and extent of agglutination , which can lead to long words with a large number of suffixes . = = = Morphology = = = Tamil nouns ( and pronouns ) are classified into two super @-@ classes ( tiṇai ) — the " rational " ( uyartiṇai ) , and the " irrational " ( akṟiṇai ) — which include a total of five classes ( pāl , which literally means ‘ gender ' ) . Humans and deities are classified as " rational " , and all other nouns ( animals , objects , abstract nouns ) are classified as irrational . The " rational " nouns and pronouns belong to one of three classes ( pāl ) — masculine singular , feminine singular , and rational plural . The " irrational " nouns and pronouns belong to one of two classes : irrational singular and irrational plural . The pāl is often indicated through suffixes . The plural form for rational nouns may be used as an honorific , gender @-@ neutral , singular form . Suffixes are used to perform the functions of cases or postpositions . Traditional grammarians tried to group the various suffixes into eight cases corresponding to the cases used in Sanskrit . These were the nominative , accusative , dative , sociative , genitive , instrumental , locative , and ablative . Modern grammarians argue that this classification is artificial , and that Tamil usage is best understood if each suffix or combination of suffixes is seen as marking a separate case . Tamil nouns can take one of four prefixes , i , a , u , and e which are functionally equivalent to the demonstratives in English . Tamil verbs are also inflected through the use of suffixes . A typical Tamil verb form will have a number of suffixes , which show person , number , mood , tense , and voice . Person and number are indicated by suffixing the oblique case of the relevant pronoun . The suffixes to indicate tenses and voice are formed from grammatical particles , which are added to the stem . Tamil has two voices . The first indicates that the subject of the sentence undergoes or is the object of the action named by the verb stem , and the second indicates that the subject of the sentence directs the action referred to by the verb stem . Tamil has three simple tenses — past , present , and future — indicated by the suffixes , as well as a series of perfects indicated by compound suffixes . Mood is implicit in Tamil , and is normally reflected by the same morphemes which mark tense categories . Tamil verbs also mark evidentiality , through the addition of the hearsay clitic ām . Traditional grammars of Tamil do not distinguish between adjectives and adverbs , including both of them under the category uriccol , although modern grammarians tend to distinguish between them on morphological and syntactical grounds . Tamil has a large number of ideophones that act as adverbs indicating the way the object in a given state " says " or " sounds " . Tamil does not have articles . Definiteness and indefiniteness are either indicated by special grammatical devices , such as using the number " one " as an indefinite article , or by the context . In the first person plural , Tamil makes a distinction between inclusive pronouns நாம ் nām ( we ) , நமது namatu ( our ) that include the addressee and exclusive pronouns நாங ் கள ் nāṅkaḷ ( we ) , எமது ematu ( our ) that do not . = = = Syntax = = = Tamil is a consistently head @-@ final language . The verb comes at the end of the clause , with a typical word order of subject – object – verb ( SOV ) . However , word order in Tamil is also flexible , so that surface permutations of the SOV order are possible with different pragmatic effects . Tamil has postpositions rather than prepositions . Demonstratives and modifiers precede the noun within the noun phrase . Subordinate clauses precede the verb of the matrix clause . Tamil is a null @-@ subject language . Not all Tamil sentences have subjects , verbs , and objects . It is possible to construct grammatically valid and meaningful sentences which lack one or more of the three . For example , a sentence may only have a verb — such as muṭintuviṭṭatu ( " completed " ) — or only a subject and object , without a verb such as atu eṉ vīṭu ( " That [ is ] my house " ) . Tamil does not have a copula ( a linking verb equivalent to the word is ) . The word is included in the translations only to convey the meaning more easily . = = Vocabulary = = The vocabulary of Tamil is mainly Dravidian . A strong sense of linguistic purism is found in Modern Tamil , which opposes the use of foreign loanwords . Nonetheless , a number of words used in classical and modern Tamil are loanwords from the languages of neighbouring groups , or with whom the Tamils had trading links , including Munda ( for example , tavaḷai " frog " from Munda tabeg ) , Malay ( e.g. cavvarici " sago " from Malay sāgu ) , Chinese ( for example , campān " skiff " from Chinese san @-@ pan ) and Greek ( for example , ora from Greek ὥρα ) . In more modern times , Tamil has imported words from Urdu and Marathi , reflecting groups that have influenced the Tamil area at various points of time , and from neighbouring languages such as Telugu , Kannada , and Sinhala . During the modern period , words have also been adapted from European languages , such as Portuguese , French , and English . The strongest impact of purism in Tamil has been on words taken from Sanskrit . During its history , Tamil , along with other Dravidian languages like Telugu , Kannada , Malayalam etc . , was influenced by Sanskrit in terms of vocabulary , grammar and literary styles , reflecting the increased trend of Sanskritisation in the Tamil country . Tamil vocabulary never became quite as heavily Sanskritised as that of the other Dravidian languages , and unlike in those languages , it was and remains possible to express complex ideas ( including in science , art , religion and law ) without the use of Sanskrit loan words . In addition , Sanskritisation was actively resisted by a number of authors of the late medieval period , culminating in the 20th century in a movement called taṉit tamiḻ iyakkam ( meaning " pure Tamil movement " ) , led by Parithimaar Kalaignar and Maraimalai Adigal , which sought to remove the accumulated influence of Sanskrit on Tamil . As a result of this , Tamil in formal documents , literature and public speeches has seen a marked decline in the use Sanskrit loan words in the past few decades , under some estimates having fallen from 40 – 50 % to about 20 % . As a result , the Prakrit and Sanskrit loan words used in modern Tamil are , unlike in some other Dravidian languages , restricted mainly to some spiritual terminology and abstract nouns . In the 20th century , institutions and learned bodies have , with government support , generated technical dictionaries for Tamil containing neologisms and words derived from Tamil roots to replace loan words from English and other languages . = = Influence = = Words of Tamil origin occur in other languages . A notable example of a word in worldwide use with Dravidian ( not specifically Tamil ) etymology is orange , via Sanskrit nāraṅga from a Dravidian predecessor of Tamil nartankāy " fragrant fruit " . Anaconda is word of Tamil origin anai @-@ kondra meaning elephant killer Examples in English include cheroot ( churuṭṭu meaning " rolled up " ) , mango ( from mangai ) , mulligatawny ( from miḷaku taṉṉir , " pepper water " ) , pariah ( from paraiyan ) , curry ( from kari ) , and catamaran ( from kaṭṭu maram , " bundled logs " ) . Congee ( from Kanji - rice porridge or gruel ) = Ahimsa = Ahimsa ( Sanskrit : अहिंसा ; IAST : ahimsā , Pāli : avihiṃsā ) is a term meaning ' not to injure ' and ' compassion ' . The word is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike ; hiṃsā is injury or harm , a @-@ hiṃsā is the opposite of this , i.e. cause no injury , do no harm . Ahimsa is also referred to as nonviolence , and it applies to all living beings — including all animals — according to many Indian religions . Ahimsa is one of the cardinal virtues and an important tenet of 3 major religions ( Jainism , Hinduism , and Buddhism ) . Ahimsa is a multidimensional concept , inspired by the premise that all living beings have the spark of the divine spiritual energy ; therefore , to hurt another being is to hurt oneself . Ahimsa has also been related to the notion that any violence has karmic consequences . While ancient scholars of Hinduism pioneered and over time perfected the principles of Ahimsa , the concept reached an extraordinary status in the ethical philosophy of Jainism . Most popularly , Mahatma Gandhi strongly believed in the principle of ahimsa . Ahimsa 's precept of ' cause no injury ' includes one 's deeds , words , and thoughts . Classical literature of Hinduism such as Mahabharata and Ramayana , as well as modern scholars debate principles of Ahimsa when one is faced with war and situations requiring self @-@ defence . The historic literature from India and modern discussions have contributed to theories of Just War , and theories of appropriate self @-@ defence . = = Etymology = = The word Ahimsa — sometimes spelled as Ahinsa — is derived from the Sanskrit root hiṃs – to strike ; hiṃsā is injury or harm , a @-@ hiṃsā is the opposite of this , i.e. non harming or nonviolence . There is a debate on the origins of the word Ahimsa , and how its meaning evolved . Mayrhofer as well as Dumot suggest the root word may be han which means kill , which leads to the interpretation that ahimsa means do not kill . Schmidt as well as Bodewitz explain the proper root word is hiṃs and the Sanskrit verb hinasti , which leads to the interpretation ahimsa means do not injure , or do not hurt . Wackernagel @-@ Debrunner concur with the latter explanation . Ancient texts use ahimsa to mean non @-@ injury , a broader concept than non @-@ violence . Non @-@ injury implies not killing others , as well as not hurting others mentally or verbally ; it includes avoiding all violent means — including physical violence — anything that injures others . In classical Sanskrit literature of Hinduism , another word Adrohi is sometimes used instead of Ahimsa , as one of the cardinal virtues necessary for moral life . One example is in Baudhayana Dharmasutra 2 @.@ 6 @.@ 23 : वाङ ् -मनः @-@ कर ् म @-@ दण ् डैर ् भूतानाम ् अद ् रोही ( One who does not injure others with words , thoughts or acts is named Adrohi ) . = = Hinduism = = = = = Ancient Vedic Texts = = = Ahimsa as an ethical concept evolved in Vedic texts . The oldest scripts , along with discussing ritual animal sacrifices , indirectly mention Ahimsa , but do not emphasise it . Over time , the Hindu scripts revise ritual practices and the concept of Ahimsa is increasingly refined and emphasised , ultimately Ahimsa becomes the concept that describes the highest virtue by the late Vedic era ( about 500 BC ) . For example , hymn 10 @.@ 22 @.@ 13 in the Rig Veda uses the words Satya ( truthfulness ) and Ahimsa in a prayer to deity Indra ; later , the Yajur Veda dated to be between 1000 BC and 600 BC , states , " may all beings look at me with a friendly eye , may I do likewise , and may we look at each other with the eyes of a friend " . The term Ahimsa appears in the text Taittiriya Shakha of the Yajurveda ( TS 5 @.@ 2 @.@ 8 @.@ 7 ) , where it refers to non @-@ injury to the sacrificer himself . It occurs several times in the Shatapatha Brahmana in the sense of " non @-@ injury " . The Ahimsa doctrine is a late Vedic era development in Brahmanical culture . The earliest reference to the idea of non @-@ violence to animals ( " pashu @-@ Ahimsa " ) , apparently in a moral sense , is in the Kapisthala Katha Samhita of the Yajurveda ( KapS 31 @.@ 11 ) , which may have been written in about the 8th century BCE . Bowker states the word appears but is uncommon in the principal Upanishads . Kaneda gives examples of the word Ahimsa in these Upanishads . Other scholars suggest Ahimsa as an ethical concept that started evolving in the Vedas , becoming an increasingly central concept in Upanishads . The Chāndogya Upaniṣad , dated to the 8th or 7th century BCE , one of the oldest Upanishads , has the earliest evidence for the use of the word Ahimsa in the sense familiar in Hinduism ( a code of conduct ) . It bars violence against	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
" all creatures " ( sarvabhuta ) and the practitioner of Ahimsa is said to escape from the cycle of metempsychosis ( CU 8 @.@ 15 @.@ 1 ) . A few scholars are of the opinion that this might have been a concession to the growing influence of Jainism , in Vedic Hinduism . Chāndogya Upaniṣad also names Ahimsa , along with Satyavacanam ( truthfulness ) , Arjavam ( sincerity ) , Danam ( charity ) , Tapo ( penance / meditation ) , as one of five essential virtues ( CU 3 @.@ 17 @.@ 4 ) . The Sandilya Upanishad lists ten forbearances : Ahimsa , Satya , Asteya , Brahmacharya , Daya , Arjava , Kshama , Dhriti , Mitahara and Saucha . According to Kaneda , the term Ahimsa is an important spiritual doctrine shared by Hinduism , Buddhism and Jainism . It literally means ' non @-@ injury ' and ' non @-@ killing ' . It implies the total avoidance of harming of any kind of living creatures not only by deeds , but also by words and in thoughts . = = = The Epics = = = The Mahabharata , one of the epics of Hinduism , has multiple mentions of the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma ( अहिंसा परमॊ धर ् मः ) , which literally means : non @-@ violence is the highest moral virtue . For example , Mahaprasthanika Parva has the verse : The above passage from Mahabharata emphasises the cardinal importance of Ahimsa in Hinduism , and literally means : Ahimsa is the highest virtue , Ahimsa is the highest self @-@ control , Ahimsa is the greatest gift , Ahimsa is the best suffering , Ahimsa is the highest sacrifice , Ahimsa is the finest strength , Ahimsa is the greatest friend , Ahimsa is the greatest happiness , Ahimsa is the highest truth , and Ahimsa is the greatest teaching . Some other examples where the phrase Ahimsa Paramo Dharma are discussed include Adi Parva , Vana Parva and Anushasana Parva . The Bhagavad Gita , among other things , discusses the doubts and questions about appropriate response when one faces systematic violence or war . These verses develop the concepts of lawful violence in self @-@ defence and the theories of just war . However , there is no consensus on this interpretation . Gandhi , for example , considers this debate about non @-@ violence and lawful violence as a mere metaphor for the internal war within each human being , when he or she faces moral questions . = = = Self @-@ defence , criminal law , and war = = = The classical texts of Hinduism devote numerous chapters discussing what people who practice the virtue of Ahimsa , can and must do when they are faced with war , violent threat or need to sentence someone convicted of a crime . These discussions have led to theories of just war , theories of reasonable self @-@ defence and theories of proportionate punishment . Arthashastra discusses , among other things , why and what constitutes proportionate response and punishment . War The precepts of Ahimsa under Hinduism require that war must be avoided , with sincere and truthful dialogue . Force must be the last resort . If war becomes necessary , its cause must be just , its purpose virtuous , its objective to restrain the wicked , its aim peace , its method lawful . War can only be started and stopped by a legitimate authority . Weapons used must be proportionate to the opponent and the aim of war , not indiscriminate tools of destruction . All strategies and weapons used in the war must be to defeat the opponent , not designed to cause misery to the opponent ; for example , use of arrows is allowed , but use of arrows smeared with painful poison is not allowed . Warriors must use judgment in the battlefield . Cruelty to the opponent during war is forbidden . Wounded , unarmed opponent warriors must not be attacked or killed , they must be brought to your realm and given medical treatment . Children , women and civilians must not be injured . While the war is in progress , sincere dialogue for peace must continue . Self @-@ defence In matters of self @-@ defence , different interpretations of ancient Hindu texts have been offered . For example , Tähtinen suggests self @-@ defence is appropriate , criminals are not protected by the rule of Ahimsa , and Hindu scriptures support the use of violence against an armed attacker . Ahimsa is not meant to imply pacifism . Alternate theories of self @-@ defence , inspired by Ahimsa , build principles similar to theories of just war . Aikido , pioneered in Japan , illustrates one such principles of self @-@ defence . Morihei Ueshiba , the founder of Aikido , described his inspiration as Ahimsa . According to this interpretation of Ahimsa in self @-@ defence , one must not assume that the world is free of aggression . One must presume that some people will , out of ignorance , error or fear , attack other persons or intrude into their space , physically or verbally . The aim of self @-@ defence , suggested Ueshiba , must be to neutralise the aggression of the attacker , and avoid the conflict . The best defence is one where the victim is protected , as well as the attacker is respected and not injured if possible . Under Ahimsa and Aikido , there are no enemies , and appropriate self @-@ defence focuses on neutralising the immaturity , assumptions and aggressive strivings of the attacker . Criminal law Tähtinen concludes that Hindus have no misgivings about death penalty ; their position is that evil @-@ doers who deserve death should be killed , and that a king in particular is obliged to punish criminals and should not hesitate to kill them , even if they happen to be his own brothers and sons . Other scholars conclude that the scriptures of Hinduism suggest sentences for any crime must be fair , proportional and not cruel . Pacifism There is no universal consensus on pacifism among Hindu scholars of modern times . The conflict between pacifistic interpretations of Ahimsa and the theories of just war prescribed by the Gita has been resolved by some scholars such as Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi , as being an allegory , wherein the battlefield is the soul and Arjuna , the war is within each human being , where man 's higher impulses struggle against his own evil impulses . = = = Non @-@ human life = = = The Hindu precept of ' cause no injury ' applies to animals and all life forms . This precept isn ’ t found in the oldest verses of Vedas , but increasingly becomes one of the central ideas between 500 BC and 400 AD . In the oldest texts , numerous ritual sacrifices of animals , including cows and horses , are highlighted and hardly any mention is made of Ahimsa to non @-@ human life . Hindu scriptures , dated to between 5th century and 1st century BC , while discussing human diet , initially suggest ‘ ‘ kosher ’ ’ meat may be eaten , evolving it with the suggestion that only meat obtained through ritual sacrifice can be eaten , then that one should eat no meat because it hurts animals , with verses describing the noble life as one that lives on flowers , roots and fruits alone . Later texts of Hinduism declare Ahimsa one of the primary virtues , declare any killing or harming any life as against ‘ ‘ dharma ’ ’ ( moral life ) . Finally , the discussion in Upanishads and Hindu Epics shifts to whether a human being can ever live his or her life without harming animal and plant life in some way ; which and when plants or animal meat may be eaten , whether violence against animals causes human beings to become less compassionate , and if and how one may exert least harm to non @-@ human life consistent with ahimsa precept , given the constraints of life and human needs . The Mahabharata permits hunting by warriors , but opposes it in the case of hermits who must be strictly non @-@ violent . Sushruta Samhita , a Hindu text written in the 3rd or 4th century , in Chapter XLVI suggests proper diet as a means of treating certain illnesses , and recommends various fishes and meats for different ailments and for pregnant women , and the Charaka Samhita describes meat as superior to all other kinds of food for convalescents . Across the texts of Hinduism , there is a profusion of ideas about the virtue of Ahimsa when applied to non @-@ human life , but without a universal consensus . Alsdorf claims the debate and disagreements between supporters of vegetarian lifestyle and meat eaters was significant . Even suggested exceptions – ritual slaughter and hunting – were challenged by advocates of Ahimsa . In the Mahabharata both sides present various arguments to substantiate their viewpoints . Moreover , a hunter defends his profession in a long discourse . Many of the arguments proposed in favor of non @-@ violence to animals refer to the bliss one feels , the rewards it entails before or after death , the danger and harm it prevents , as well as to the karmic consequences of violence . The ancient Hindu texts discuss Ahimsa and non @-@ animal life . They discourage wanton destruction of nature including of wild and cultivated plants . Hermits ( sannyasins ) were urged to live on a fruitarian diet so as to avoid the destruction of plants . Scholars claim the principles of ecological non @-@ violence is innate in the Hindu tradition , and its conceptual fountain has been Ahimsa as their cardinal virtue . The classical literature of Hinduism exists in many Indian languages . For example , Tirukkuṛaḷ written between 200 BC and 400 AD , and sometimes called the Tamil Veda , is one of the most cherished classics on Hinduism written in a South Indian language . Tirukkuṛaḷ dedicates Chapter 32 and 33 of Book 1 to the virtue of Ahimsa . Tirukkuṛaḷ suggests that Ahimsa applies to all life forms . = = = Modern times = = = In the 19th and 20th centuries , prominent figures of Indian spirituality such as Swami Vivekananda , Ramana Maharshi , Swami Sivananda , A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami and in the present time Vijaypal Baghel emphasised the importance of Ahimsa . Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi promoted the principle of Ahimsa , very successful by applying it to all spheres of life , particularly to politics ( Swaraj ) . His non @-@ violent resistance movement satyagraha had an immense impact on India , impressed public opinion in Western countries , and influenced the leaders of various civil and political rights movements such as the American civil rights movement 's Martin Luther King , Jr. and James Bevel . In Gandhi ’ s thought , Ahimsa precludes not only the act of inflicting a physical injury , but also mental states like evil thoughts and hatred , unkind behavior such as harsh words , dishonesty and lying , all of which he saw as manifestations of violence incompatible with Ahimsa . Gandhi believed Ahimsa to be a creative energy force , encompassing all interactions leading one 's self to find satya , " Divine Truth " . Sri Aurobindo criticised the Gandhian concept of Ahimsa as unrealistic and not universally applicable ; he adopted a pragmatic non @-@ pacifist position , saying that the justification of violence depends on the specific circumstances of the given situation . Sri Aurobindo also indicated that Gandhi 's Ahimsa led to partition of India as it blocked the forceful action that the Indian people were engaged in during the 1920s and 30s , which caused delay in independence , allowing other forces to take root , including those who wanted India divided . Gandhi stated that he viewed " Ahimsa is in Hinduism , it is in Christianity as well as in Islam . " He added , " Nonviolence is common to all religions , but it has found the highest expression and application in Hinduism ( I do not regard Jainism or Buddhism as separate from Hinduism ) . " When questioned whether violence and non @-@ violence is both taught in Quran , he stated , " I have heard it from many Muslim friends that the Koran teaches the use of non @-@ violence . ( ... The ) argument about non @-@ violence in the Holy Koran is an interpolation , not necessary for my thesis . " A historical and philosophical study of Ahimsa was instrumental in the shaping of Albert Schweitzer 's principle of " reverence for life " . Schweitzer praised Indian philosophical and religious traditions for ethics of Ahimsa as , " the laying down of the commandment not to kill and not to damage is one of the greatest events in the spiritual history of mankind " , but suggested that " not @-@ killing and not @-@ harming " is not always practically possible as in self @-@ defence , nor ethical as in chronic starving during a famine case . = = = Yoga = = = Ahimsa is imperative for practitioners of Patañjali ’ s eight limb Raja yoga system . It is included in the first limb and is the first of five Yamas ( self restraints ) which , together with the second limb , make up the code of ethical conduct in Yoga philosophy . Ahimsa is also one of the ten Yamas in Hatha Yoga according to verse 1 @.@ 1 @.@ 17 of its classic manual Hatha Yoga Pradipika . The significance of Ahimsa as the very first restraint in the very first limb of Yoga ( Yamas ) , is that it defines the necessary foundation for progress through Yoga . It is a precursor to Asana , implying that success in Yogasana can be had only if the self is purified in thought , word and deed through the self @-@ restraint of Ahimsa . = = Jainism = = In Jainism , the understanding and implementation of Ahimsā is more radical , scrupulous , and comprehensive than in any other religion . Killing any living being out of passions is considered hiṃsā ( to injure ) and abstaining from such an act is ahimsā ( noninjury ) . The vow of ahimsā is considered the foremost among the ' five vows of Jainism ' . Other vows like truth ( satya ) are meant for safeguarding the vow of ahimsā . In the practice of Ahimsa , the requirements are less strict for the lay persons ( sravakas ) who have undertaken anuvrata ( Smaller Vows ) than for the Jain monastics who are bound by the Mahavrata " Great Vows " . The statement ahimsā paramo dharmaḥ is often found inscribed on the walls of the Jain temples . Like in Hinduism , the aim is to prevent the accumulation of harmful karma . When Mahavira revived and reorganised the Jain faith in the 6th or 5th century BCE , Ahimsa was already an established , strictly observed rule . Rishabhanatha ( Ādinātha ) , the first Jain Tirthankara , whom modern Western historians consider to be a historical figure , followed by Parshvanatha ( Pārśvanātha ) the twenty @-@ third Tirthankara lived in about the 8th century BCE . He founded the community to which Mahavira ’ s parents belonged . Ahimsa was already part of the " Fourfold Restraint " ( Caujjama ) , the vows taken by Parshva ’ s followers . In the times of Mahavira and in the following centuries , Jains were at odds with both Buddhists and followers of the Vedic religion or Hindus , whom they accused of negligence and inconsistency in the implementation of Ahimsa . According to the Jain tradition either lacto vegetarianism or veganism is mandatory . The Jain concept of Ahimsa is characterised by several aspects . It does not make any exception for ritual sacrificers and professional warrior @-@ hunters . Killing of animals for food is absolutely ruled out . Jains also make considerable efforts not to injure plants in everyday life as far as possible . Though they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food , they accept such violence only inasmuch as it is indispensable for human survival , and there are special instructions for preventing unnecessary violence against plants . Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other minuscule animals . For example , Jains often do not go out at night , when they are more likely to step upon an insect . In their view , injury caused by carelessness is like injury caused by deliberate action . Eating honey is strictly outlawed , as it would amount to violence against the bees . Some Jains abstain from farming because it inevitably entails unintentional killing or injuring of many small animals , such as worms and insects , but agriculture is not forbidden in general and there are Jain farmers . Theoretically , all life forms are said to deserve full protection from all kinds of injury , Jains recognise a hierarchy of life . Mobile beings are given higher protection than immobile ones . For the mobile beings , they distinguish between one @-@ sensed , two @-@ sensed , three @-@ sensed , four @-@ sensed and five @-@ sensed ones ; a one @-@ sensed animal has touch as its only sensory modality . The more senses a being has , the more they care about non @-@ injuring it . Among the five @-@ sensed beings , the precept of non @-@ injury and non @-@ violence to the rational ones ( humans ) is strongest in Jain Ahimsa . Jains agree with Hindus that violence in self @-@ defence can be justified , and they agree that a soldier who kills enemies in combat is performing a legitimate duty . Jain communities accepted the use of military power for their defence , there were Jain monarchs , military commanders , and soldiers . = = Buddhism = = In Buddhist texts Ahimsa ( or its Pāli cognate avihiṃsā ) is part of the Five Precepts ( Pañcasīla ) , the first of which has been to abstain from killing . This precept of Ahimsa is applicable to both the Buddhist layperson and the monk community . The Ahimsa precept is not a commandment and transgressions did not invite religious sanctions for layperson , but their power has been in the Buddhist belief in karmic consequences and their impact in afterlife during rebirth . Killing , in Buddhist belief , leads to rebirth in the hellish realm , and for a longer time in more severe conditions if the murder victim was a monk . Saving animals from slaughter for meat , is believed to be a way to acquire merit for better rebirth . These moral precepts have been voluntarily self @-@ enforced in lay Buddhist culture through the associated belief in karma and rebirth . The Buddhist texts not only recommended Ahimsa , but suggest avoiding trading goods that contribute to or are a result of violence : These five trades , O monks , should not be taken up by a lay follower : trading with weapons , trading in living beings , trading in meat , trading in intoxicants , trading in poison . Unlike lay Buddhists , transgressions by monks do invite sanctions . Full expulsion of a monk from sangha follows instances of killing , just like any other serious offense against the monastic nikaya code of conduct . = = = War = = = Violent ways of punishing criminals and prisoners of war was not explicitly condemned in Buddhism , but peaceful ways of conflict resolution and punishment with the least amount of injury were encouraged . The early texts condemn the mental states that lead to violent behavior . Nonviolence is an overriding theme within the Pali Canon . While the early texts condemn killing in the strongest terms , and portray the ideal king as a pacifist , such a king is nonetheless flanked by an army . It seems that the Buddha 's teaching on nonviolence was not interpreted or put into practice in an uncompromisingly pacifist or anti @-@ military @-@ service way by early Buddhists . The early texts assume war to be a fact of life , and well @-@ skilled warriors are viewed as necessary for defensive warfare . In Pali texts , injunctions to abstain from violence and involvement with military affairs are directed at members of the sangha ; later Mahayana texts , which often generalise monastic norms to laity , require this of lay people as well . The early texts do not contain just @-@ war ideology as such . Some argue that a sutta in the Gamani Samyuttam rules out all military service . In this passage , a soldier asks the Buddha if it is true that , as he has been told , soldiers slain in battle are reborn in a heavenly realm . The Buddha reluctantly replies that if he is killed in battle while his mind is seized with the intention to kill , he will undergo an unpleasant rebirth . In the early texts , a person 's mental state at the time of death is generally viewed as having a great impact on the next birth . Some Buddhists point to other early texts as justifying defensive war . One example is the Kosala Samyutta , in which King Pasenadi , a righteous king favored by the Buddha , learns of an impending attack on his kingdom . He arms himself in defence , and leads his army into battle to protect his kingdom from attack . He lost this battle but won the war . King Pasenadi eventually defeated King Ajatasattu and captured him alive . He thought that , although this King of Magadha has transgressed against his kingdom , he had not transgressed against him personally , and Ajatasattu was still his nephew . He released Ajatasattu and did not harm him . Upon his return , the Buddha said ( among other things ) that Pasenadi " is a friend of virtue , acquainted with virtue , intimate with virtue " , while the opposite is said of the aggressor , King Ajatasattu . According to Theravada commentaries , there are five requisite factors that must all be fulfilled for an act to be both an act of killing and to be karmically negative . These are : ( 1 ) the presence of a living being , human or animal ; ( 2 ) the knowledge that the being is a living being ; ( 3 ) the intent to kill ; ( 4 ) the act of killing by some means ; and ( 5 ) the resulting death . Some Buddhists have argued on this basis that the act of killing is complicated , and its ethicization is predicated upon intent . Some have argued that in defensive postures , for example , the primary intention of a soldier is not to kill , but to defend against aggression , and the act of killing in that situation would have minimal negative karmic repercussions . According to Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar , there is circumstantial evidence encouraging Ahimsa , from the Buddha 's doctrine , " Love all , so that you may not wish to kill any . " Gautama Buddha distinguished between a principle and a rule . He did not make Ahimsa a matter of rule , but suggested it as a matter of principle . This gives Buddhists freedom to act . = = = Laws = = = The emperors of Sui dynasty , Tang dynasty and early Song dynasty banned killing in Lunar calendar 1st , 5th , and 9th month . Empress Wu Tse @-@ Tien banned killing for more than half a year in 692 . Some also banned fishing for some time each year . There were bans after death of emperors , Buddhist and Taoist prayers , and natural disasters such as after a drought in 1926 summer Shanghai and an 8 days ban from August 12 , 1959 after the August 7 flood ( 八七水災 ) , the last big flood before the 88 Taiwan Flood . People avoid killing during some festivals , like the Taoist Ghost Festival , the Nine Emperor Gods Festival , the Vegetarian Festival and many others . = Canterbury Castle ( Portland , Oregon ) = Canterbury Castle , also known as Arlington Castle , was a private house located in southwest Portland , Oregon and listed on the National Register of Historic Places . Constructed during 1929 – 1931 , the house was designed by Jeter O. Frye to resemble England 's Canterbury Castle on the exterior and to evoke the Art Deco styling of Hollywood of the 1920s on the interior . The house included castle features such as a moat , drawbridge and turret and attracted paying tourists immediately following its completion . Canterbury Castle , Portland 's only castle structure built in the 1930s , was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987 . The property was also designated as a Portland Historic Landmark . The house underwent major renovation efforts in the 2000s , but those efforts were not completed , and the house was demolished in 2009 after failing to meet municipal safety codes . The razing of Canterbury made Piggott 's Castle the city 's only remaining castle . Canterbury Castle was removed from the National Register of Historic Places in October 2010 . = = Description = = Canterbury Castle was a private 6 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 560 m2 ) , three @-@ story house located in Arlington Heights near Washington Park , offering views of downtown Portland . Constructed from basalt stone quarried from Rocky Butte , the house featured characteristics of a castle such as a moat , a drawbridge and a copper @-@ topped turret . The wooden drawbridge covered a moat seven feet wide by more than three feet deep . A single @-@ car garage , built into the hillside , was constructed during the same time as the house . The concrete foundation supported a rectangular ground plan . Canterbury featured " buttressing wing walls , cylindrical corner bays and a crenellated parapet of uncut stone " . Round , arched and straight @-@ topped frameless windows were often fitted with steel sashes . Doorways were also frameless , narrow and round or parabolic in shape . Doors had wrought iron hinges , handles and lock plates . The leaded glass slit window at the stair tower 's top level featured a spiderweb pattern , a signature element of castle designer Jeter O. Frye 's work . Windmill palms surrounding the property added to its exotic appearance . The Art Deco @-@ style interior , meant to evoke a 1920s Hollywood style , featured mahogany woodwork , tile floors and chandeliers . The inside also contained Spanish @-@ style white stucco , spiral staircases and wrought iron features including stair rails , built @-@ in cabinetry door and window hardware and lighting fixtures . The house included a basement pool ( which eventually closed due to water leaks ) , a stone fireplace 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in width , and small square windows . Also in the basement were the furnace , a storage room , and spaces for laundry and billiards . The main floor housed the garage , a kitchen and breakfast bay , the living and dining rooms and a music room . The master bedroom was adjacent to a deck above the dining and music rooms at the southwest corner of the property . Fireplaces and hallway floors featured brown ceramic tile ; black glazed ceramic tile was used in the master bathroom , while black , red and yellow tiles were used in the breakfast bay . One of the castle 's bathrooms was said to be modeled on Charlie Chaplin 's . The interior was arranged around a central stair tower capped with a conical roof clad in copper . Chimneys vented the centrally located furnace and rose from fireplaces in the house 's west hall . = = History = = Canterbury Castle was designed by Jeter O. Frye and constructed between 1929 and 1931 . Immediately following construction , Frye was unable to sell the house and left Portland in bankruptcy to resume his career in California . Visitors immediately showed interest in touring the house . The castle attracted paying tourists and school groups , became a stop on the Washington Park bus tour and hosted Halloween parties for a local radio station . The house became known as Canterbury Castle over time due to the plat and name of the street on which it was situated . The terraced garden was eliminated in the 1950s when a portion of the land was sold . The property was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1987 under the ownership of Dale and Karen Bernards , who had submitted an application for listing one year prior . Sidney Lynne and John Hefferin purchased the house for $ 469 @,@ 900 in 2004 after it had been unoccupied for more than a year . By then , the structure had developed leaks and displayed cracks along the foundation , walls and ceiling . In 2006 , a falling tree caused stones to break away , damaging the house 's main gas line . The couple spent $ 200 @,@ 000 over four years to reinforce the walls . Lynne and Hefferin also constructed exterior stairs and an underground retaining wall . However , the renovation process was not completed , as they were unable to pay for all repairs required by the city , which had issued $ 20 @,@ 000 in fines on the property . The couple also struggled to pay for costly landslide prevention efforts , rising property taxes and high heating bills . Canterbury Castle was listed for sale in the summer of 2008 for $ 2 million . Lynne invited local interior design students and contractors to upgrade the house 's interior , without success . The couple left the house in January 2009 , and ownership was turned over to JPMorgan Chase . Lynne began a " one @-@ woman crusade " to save the castle , seeking assistance from Portland City Commissioner Randy Leonard and from home improvement expert and This Old House host Bob Vila . In February 2009 , the city 's bureau of development services found that unstable soil and the risk of stones separating from sheeting underneath posed a landslide risk . The property had missing stones and thick cracks several feet long , which presented hazards to residents and the street below . Rumors of demolition began to surface in March 2009 . In April 2009 , the house was purchased by Robert Stansel , who had lived next door to the house for several years , at a foreclosure auction for $ 280 @,@ 000 . Demolition began in May 2009 ; the house was considered " structurally unsound " by the local government , a determination that permitted demolition despite the house 's listing on the National Register of Historic Places . Lynne said of the house and its demolition : " It 's totally like a death and completely unnecessary . It 's a magical property that invokes hope and imagination in people . We had a really great time with it . " Residents shared mixed feelings about the demolition . Stansel was able to salvage 21 tiles with neo @-@ Aztec designs . In 2009 , The Oregonian reported that Stansel would wait until the economy and housing market improved before deciding whether to sell the land or build a new structure . Canterbury Castle was removed from the National Register of Historic Places on October 13 , 2010 . The demolition of Canterbury Castle made Piggott 's Castle in southwest Portland the last remaining castle in the city . The property had also been listed as a Portland Historic Landmark and was the city 's only castle structure constructed in the 1930s . Two stones from Canterbury Castle serve as steps in the zen garden of Stansel 's home in East Hampton , New York . = Vikos – Aoös National Park = The Vikos – Aoös National Park ( Greek : Εθνικός Δρυμός Βίκου – Αώου Ethnikós Drymós Víkou – Aóou ) is a national park in the region of Epirus in northwestern Greece . The park , founded in 1973 , is one of ten national parks in mainland Greece and is located 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) north of the city of Ioannina in the northern part of the Pindus mountain range . It is named after the two major gorges of the area and encompasses 12 @,@ 600 hectares ( 31 @,@ 135 acres ) of mountainous terrain , with numerous rivers , lakes , caves , deep canyons , dense coniferous and deciduous forest . The park is part of the Natura 2000 ecological network and one of UNESCO Geoparks and spans an elevation range from 550 to 2 @,@ 497 meters ( 1 @,@ 804 to 8 @,@ 192 ft ) . Over 100 @,@ 000 people visit the park each year and take part in activities including rafting , canoe @-@ kayaking , hiking and mountain biking . The core of the park , an area of 3 @,@ 400 hectares ( 8 @,@ 402 acres ) , comprises the spectacular Vikos Gorge , carved by the Voidomatis river . The gorge 's main part is 12 km ( 7 mi ) long and attains a depth of 1 @,@ 000 meters ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . The Aoös gorge , mount Tymfi ( 2 @,@ 497 meters ( 8 @,@ 192 ft ) at Gamila peak ) , and a number of traditionally preserved settlements form the park 's peripheral zone . The park 's remoteness and relatively small human population , combined with the great variation of biotopes and microclimatic conditions favors the existence of a rich variety of flora ( 1 @,@ 800 species ) in the area . Vikos – Aoös National Park supports a wide diversity of fauna , with a plethora of large mammals such as the brown bear , for which the park is one of the last European strongholds , and a variety of natural habitats and ecosystems that rank it among the most valuable parks for nature conservation in Greece . The first evidence of human presence in the area is dated between 17 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . The area of the park has been sparsely populated throughout historical times , however from the 17th to the 19th century the local communities of Zagori acquired an autonomous status , flourished economically due to increased trade , and became a major center of folk medicine . In recent decades , ecotourism is seen as a remedy to the economic decline of heavily depopulated local settlements , while preserving the natural environment and local architecture . = = Geography and geology = = = = = Vikos Gorge = = = Vikos Gorge is located on the southern slopes of mount Tymfi . Its main part is located between the villages of Vikos and Monodendri and attains a depth of about 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 281 ft ) , with a southeast @-@ northwest direction . The landscape of the 20 km ( 12 mi ) long gorge , 12 km ( 7 mi ) which belongs to the park 's core zone , presents a diverse relief and is characterized by abrupt changes in altitude . At one point the gorge measures 900 m ( 2 @,@ 953 ft ) deep and 1 @,@ 100 m ( 3 @,@ 609 ft ) wide from rim to rim , and as a result is listed by the Guinness Book of Records as the deepest canyon in the world in proportion to its width , though some gorge lobbyists contest that claim . Steep slopes and precipitous rocky cliffs dominate in the middle and higher zones respectively . Numerous gullies dissect both sides of the gorge and the weathering action of water down its walls creates extended screes . The Vikos Gorge has been carved over millions of years by the Voidomatis river , a tributary of the Aoös . The Voidomatis is mostly seasonal , with year @-@ round flow occurring only in the lower part of the gorge . Due to its nature , the area of the gorge is precipitous and impassable most of the year . As the Vikos Gorge is a deep cross section of the mountain , its slopes expose a series of rock formations of various ages . The upper layers , at a depth of 0 – 200 m ( 660 ft ) , consist of relatively young Eocene limestone , at a depth of 200 m ( 660 ft ) – 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) they consist of a stratum from the Campanian era , while below 700 m ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) they consist of Jurassic and Cretaceous limestone . In the deepest layers , grey Jurassic dolomite is dominant . Sedimentary and lithological investigation in the Voidomatis basin revealed that the innermost alluvial deposits consist of limestone @-@ derived material , carried by the Voidomatis river from higher elevations by glacial action about 30 @,@ 000 years ago . The subsequent ( middle ) deposits are the product of de @-@ glaciation and the extended run @-@ off from the uplands about 20 @,@ 000 years ago , while the outer unit is attributed to human activities associated with pastoralism , which caused extended deforestation and soil erosion . The Voidomatis basin contains evidence for three major phases of glaciation , with the two largest and earliest taking place during the Middle Pleistocene . The final phase of glacial activity probably occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum , between 22 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 ago . A special feature of the limestone , resulting from its weathering by water , is its karstic nature . During the large Middle Pleistocene glaciations , surface runoff from glacial meltwaters would have fed directly into the river channel network because much of the upland limestone terrain was covered by ice , and many conduits in the karst would have been choked with sediment or permanently frozen . As a result , the glacier snouts came close to the modern valley bottoms . In contrast , during interglacial and interstadial periods , more effective coupling occurred between the surface drainage network and the internal karst drainage system . Since limestone dissolves as the water percolates through its pores , an extended underground drainage system has developed , with caves and channels that enlarge with time when their roofs collapse , producing rocky exposures and perpendicular slopes , which is also the reason why the water is scarce . Only when an impenetrable stratum is met , does water appear on the surface . = = = Aoös Gorge = = = In the northern part of the Park , and very close to the town of Konitsa , the Aoös river passes through channels formed by the bulges of the nearby mountains of Trapezitsa 2 @,@ 022 m ( 6 @,@ 634 ft ) , Tymfi and Raidovouni 1 @,@ 957 m ( 6 @,@ 421 ft ) , creating another gorge that is 10 km ( 6 mi ) long . The canyon has an east @-@ west direction and features numerous stone single @-@ arched bridges from the 17th to 19th centuries as well as monasteries built in the local architectural style . It is characterized by the great number of secondary gullies and currents , while the southern part of the gorge is steeper than the northern part . Deep and steep ravines within the perpendicular walls bring down to the Aoös large quantities of limestone @-@ weathering material . The compact dolomite rocks that lie on the bottom of the gorge date to the Early Jurassic period and are the oldest rock formations in the Park . Their age has been determined by means of sea fossils found inside them . = = = Tymfi = = = Between the two gorges lies the Tymfi mountain range . Its highest peaks are Gamila 2 @,@ 497 m ( 8 @,@ 192 ft ) , Astraka 2 @,@ 436 m ( 7 @,@ 992 ft ) , Ploskos 2 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 874 ft ) , and Lapatos 2 @,@ 251 m ( 7 @,@ 385 ft ) . A unique feature of this area are the natural pools formed by the erosion of local stream beds . In the high @-@ altitude zone of Tymfi , a number of alpine lakes home to several rare amphibian species are found surrounded by alpine pasture . The biggest lake of the National Park , Drakolimni ( " Dragonlake " ) , a formation that was created after the retreat of the glaciers , is located at a height of 2 @,@ 000 m ( 6 @,@ 562 ft ) on mount Tymfi . Its maximum depth is 4 @.@ 95 m ( 16 ft ) , while its surface covers 1 ha ( 2 acres ) . A number of vertical caves and precipices are found in the area around the village of Papingo , which lies near Gamila and Astraka peaks . Some of them bear names inspired from mythology , such as the Hole of Odysseus and Chasm of Epos . These are being studied and explored by caving enthusiasts . The cave of " Provatina " ( " Ewe 's Cave " ) , with a depth of 408 m ( 1 @,@ 339 ft ) , one of the deepest worldwide , was first discovered in 1965 by British speleologists of the Cambridge University Caving Club , and has since then been surveyed by a large number of expeditions . The nearby Chasm of Epos , with a depth of 451 m ( 1 @,@ 480 ft ) , drains the water coming from the surrounding plateaus . Mount Tymfi represents a series of uplifted fault blocks and faulted escarpments and is largely composed of Palaeocene @-@ Eocene limestone , with some exposures of Campanian @-@ Jurassic dolomite and limestone on the northern scarp . The lower slopes are dominated by younger flysch rocks , which consist of thin beds of graded sandstones intercalated with softer , fissile siltstones . Extended glacial conditions prevailed on the uplands of Mount Tymfi during the Late Quaternary period , ca . 28 @,@ 000 years ago . The glacial landscape is well @-@ developed , especially on the southern slopes of Mount Tymfi , across the Astraka @-@ Gamila plateau , and in the upland terrain above the villages of Skamneli and Tsepelovo , where lateral and terminal moraines form major landscape features . Additional forms of glacial deposits , which extend down to 850 m ( 2 @,@ 789 ft ) above sea level , include rock glaciers and limestone pavements . = = = Settlements = = = There are four villages inside the Vikos – Aoös National Park , and an additional nine near the borders of the peripheral zone . All of these settlements , in the western part of the Zagori region , are sparsely populated with a total population of 1 @,@ 515 people . The villages have a nucleus @-@ like form , with the houses situated around the central square and interconnected by rocky pathways . Historically , all the villages of the Zagori region were connected by a system of paths or small roads and they functioned more like a single entity rather than as separate communities . The economic affluence of Zagori 's past is still reflected in the architecture of the villages , while today the preservation of the local architectural legacy is enshrined in a law which dictates that all buildings in the area must be constructed with local traditional materials and in compliance with local architecture . One of the characteristic features of the National Park are its stone bridges , which were the only connection to the outside world until roads were built in the 1950s . Sixteen of these stone bridges and seven churches in the region have been listed as protected historical monuments . = = Climate = = The climate of the Vikos – Aoös National Park is Mediterranean , transitioning to continental . The Mediterranean character is characterized by the annual distribution of precipitation , high in the winter months and experiencing a drought period of two to three months in summer . The continental climatic element is attributed to the high amplitude of annual temperature variation , to such a degree that the difference between mean maximum and mean minimum annual temperature , exceeds 40 ° C ( 104 ° F ) . The climate of the area is quite unique due to the complex relief , variation in altitude , and the position of the area with regard to the Ionian Sea coastline . The mean annual temperature and annual precipitation are 11 @.@ 9 ° C ( 53 ° F ) and 1 @,@ 100 @.@ 9 mm ( 43 @.@ 34 in ) respectively . Extremely low temperatures occur in the area during the winter months . Compared to Mediterranean bioclimatic divisions , the area belongs to the humid zone with cold winters . = = Wildlife = = The park 's varied geology and topography have resulted in a unique variety of flora and fauna . There are three main habitat zones : Sub @-@ mediterranean woodland which mainly consists of deciduous broadleaf forests and woodlands and extends up to an elevation of about 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 921 ft ) . Combined areas of agricultural land with tree hedges and various woodlots , in addition to semi @-@ open shrublands and rocky sites of the lower and middle slopes near human settlements . Uplands with subalpine grasslands and rocky cliffs . This habitat is found above 1 @,@ 500 m ( 4 @,@ 921 ft ) altitude and hosts important bird species such as the Mediterranean golden eagle . = = = Flora = = = The forests are composed of diverse species of deciduous and coniferous trees and a great variety of wildflowers . An important element of the region 's flora , apart from the rich variety of plant species , is the high degree of endemism in Balkan ( 23 % ) and Greek species ( 5 @.@ 8 % ) . Recent studies on the flora of the National Park counted 873 vascular plants , including more than 250 medicinal , aromatic , and poisonous taxa . The park 's forests are abundant in species associated with the cool local climate , such as Wych Elm , Nettle @-@ leaved Bellflower , Horse @-@ chestnut and Large @-@ leaved Linden . In the valley of the Vikos Gorge , Platanus orientalis form an azonal gallery forest along the banks of the Voidomatis . The woodland in the mountain area around the village of Papingo is characterized by the predominance of different juniper species , such as Juniperus communis , foetidissima , oxycedrus and excelsa . In the upper hills Juniperus foetidissima dominates , with exceptionally high ( more than 10 m ( 33 ft ) ) trees . At higher altitudes , pure conifer forests of either pine or fir are found . Studies on the non @-@ vascular flora recorded the presence of about 150 moss species in the area of the national park , including one newly described taxon . Many herbs of the Vikos Gorge and other areas within the park were regarded to have medicinal properties and were once harvested by local healers , colloquially referred to as " Vikos doctors " ( Greek : Βικογιατροί , " Vikoiatri " ) . These herbal healers used special recipes that were often copies of ancient Greek recipes of Hippocrates or Dioscorides and became famous beyond the borders of Greece . The plants used in these recipes include the lemon balm Melissa officinalis , Tilia tomentosa , the spearmint Mentha spicata , the gas @-@ plant Dictamnus albus , St John ’ s Wort Hypericum perforatum , absinth Artemisia absinthium , the very popular Sideritis raeseri , known colloquially in Greece as “ mountain tea ” , and the elder bush Sambucus nigra . A chemical screening of these native plant species has shown that a high number of them are characterized by biologically active ingredients . A collection of 2 @,@ 500 dried species of local plants and herbs is exhibited in the local natural history museum in the village of Koukouli . = = = Fauna = = = Vikos – Aoös National Park preserves one of the richest mountain and forest ecosystems in terms of wildlife diversity in Greece . Numerous species of large mammals such as wolves , foxes , wild horses , and roe deer are found in the area year @-@ round . Otters and wild cats live around the area of Tymfi , with the latter being quite rare . The Pindus range , of which Vikos – Aoös is part , is home to the endangered brown bear and lynx , and is also the southernmost point of their European habitat . One of the park 's special attractions is the existence of the chamois ( Rupicapra rupicapra ) , a rare species that lives at higher altitudes far from human activity , especially at the rocky cliffs of the gorges , for example in Megas Lakos , a secondary ravine of the Vikos Gorge . A total of 121 bird species have been observed in the park , with twenty @-@ six of them being considered of conservation priority . The area hosts fifteen raptor species and populations of bird species with limited distribution in Greece , such as the hazel grouse , Tengmalm 's owl , wallcreeper and willow tit . The two bird communities that inhabit the subalpine and forest ecosystems are considered among the most complete in Greece : The first community includes species that nest and feed in the subalpine area , like the alpine chough , shore lark , western rock nuthatch and alpine swift , while the second comprises birds of prey like the griffon vulture , Egyptian vulture , peregrine falcon and common kestrel , that search for food in a wider zone . Vikos @-@ Aoös also contains a variety of suitable habitats that support dense populations of amphibians and reptiles . Vipera ursinii lives in the subalpine meadows and is considered a threatened taxon . The amphibian alpine newts ( Triturus alpestris ) , living in the alpine lakes of the Tymfi region , mostly in Drakolimni , are associated with local folktales of dragons and dragon battles . Yellow @-@ bellied toads ( Bombina variegata ) are also common in that same area . Numerous fish , such as brown trout , roach , and barbel are to be found in the park 's rivers . Regarding invertebrate species , due to the structural complexity of the forests and the co @-@ existence of various small biotopes , i.e. streams , ponds , forest openings , rocky sites , dead trees , old pollards , and coppices , a very diverse fauna exists . This occurs especially at the various ecotones , including often very specialized species . = = Human history = = The first evidence of human presence in the area is dated to between 17 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago . During this period , favorable climatic conditions prevailed that permitted the hunting of the ibex and the chamois on a seasonal basis . Important epipaleolithic artifacts have been unearthed from a rock shelter on the banks of the Voidomatis . During the 9th – 4th centuries B.C. , a small Molossian settlement existed between Monodendri and Vitsa , including stone houses and two cemeteries that have yielded important findings . However , for most of the historical period the local population was sparse . The land was mainly used for pastoralism and supplying firewood . In the era of Ottoman rule , and especially from the 17th to the 19th century , the local Greek Orthodox communities were granted special privileges by the Ottoman authorities . At that time the area of Zagori acquired an autonomous status inside the Ottoman Empire , whereby the locals were exempt from the fiscal extortion that crippled the more prosperous lowland communities . During this period large groups of villagers emigrated to metropolitan centers . Many among them became members of successful professional classes before finally returning to their home villages , endowing the region with wealth and building luxurious mansions . In such an environment , the art of herbal healing by the so @-@ called Vikos doctors developed and flourished . This was accompanied by an impressive cultural and intellectual life that produced many renowned scholars and benefactors of Greece . The area is nowadays sparsely populated as the result of urbanization after World War II . Many of the dwellings now remain shut , while abandonment of the traditional rural economy has affected the cultural landscape . Epirus , of which Vikos – Aoös is part , is considered one of the most underdeveloped regions in Greece . Tourism constitutes the principal source of revenue for the local economy , although it has a highly seasonal character . Intense development in terms of accommodation and tourism infrastructure occurred in the 1980s , mainly through state initiatives . = = Park management = = Vikos – Aoös was designated as a National Park in 1973 , in an effort by the Greek Government to conserve the richness of the local fauna and flora and the geological formations of the area . The administration and management of the Vikos – Aoös National Park belongs to two district forest offices , supervised by a forest directorate at the prefecture level . Moreover , the office of World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) in the village of Papingo plays an essential role in management issues . Apart from government efforts , incentives have been given to local management organizations and the local population to participate in the protection of the park . In the park 's core , according to the law , forestry activities , grazing , hunting , and fishing are prohibited . In the peripheral zone there are no such restrictions , but the Forest Service can take any necessary measure for the realization of the aims of the park . Apart from the above @-@ mentioned activities , dangers to the park include land erosion , landslides , and wildfires which threaten the local flora and fauna . Another issue is the impact of tourism in recent decades . On the other hand , extreme geophysical conditions make the construction and maintenance of the necessary infrastructure network , mainly access routes and telecommunications , difficult . The vast area of the National Park and the present lack of road infrastructure make remote sensing the only means for monitoring the human activities in the area and their impact on the ecosystem . An analysis has begun by taking a detailed picture of the territory covering at least the following items : orography and slopes , road networks , land cover and use , human settlements , and tourist sites . The use of remote sensing and geographic information system techniques is of essential value for the park 's management and constitutes the basis for further evaluations and impact analysis . The objective of the present state and regional policy is to carefully combine tourism development in the area with the preservation of its natural and cultural heritage . Ecotourism poses an ideal solution , since it has the potential of bringing about the desired balance between socio @-@ economic development and environmental protection . Specific objectives of ecotourism development include reviving traditional activities such as small @-@ scale farming and stock @-@ raising , as well as establishing a network of communities of chamois biotopes . = = Recreation = = Vikos – Aoös National Park is a natural tourist attraction , with high ecotourism and agrotourism potential . The local tourism industry has been favored by national and European funds and provides modest accommodation and tourism services , with respect to the local tradition and culture . Characteristically , the Federation of Nature and National Parks of Europe ( FNNPE ) stated that " the need for a sustainable form of tourism has never been greater in the area " . The rivers in the Vikos – Aoös area are a destination for rafting and canoe @-@ kayaking . Additional forms of adventure sports include climbing , hiking and mountain biking along local paths in order to observe the area 's natural features and architecture . Popular trails in the region include the crossing of the Vikos Gorge , which lasts approximately six to seven hours and is considered of medium difficulty , as well as hiking around the peaks of Tymfi . Several viewpoint are accessible only on foot , such as the Oxya and Beloe outlooks , and the 15th century Monastery of Saint Paraskevi that offer panoramic views to the Vikos Gorge . = = Gallery = = = Farthest South = Farthest South was the most southerly latitudes reached by explorers before the conquest of the South Pole in 1911 . Significant steps on the road to the pole were the discovery of lands south of Cape Horn in 1619 , Captain James Cook 's crossing of the Antarctic Circle in 1773 , and the earliest confirmed sightings of the Antarctic mainland in 1820 . From the late 19th century onward , the quest for Farthest South latitudes became in effect a race to reach the pole , which culminated in Roald Amundsen 's success in December 1911 . In the years before reaching the pole was a realistic objective , other motives drew adventurers southward . Initially , the driving force was the discovery of new trade routes between Europe and the Far East . After such routes had been established and the main geographical features of the earth had been broadly mapped , the lure for mercantile adventurers was the great fertile continent of " Terra Australis " which , according to myth , lay hidden in the south . Belief in the existence of this supposed land of plenty persisted well into the 18th century ; explorers were reluctant to accept the truth that slowly emerged , of a cold , harsh environment in the lands of the Southern Ocean . James Cook 's voyages of 1771 – 74 demonstrated conclusively the likely hostile nature of any hidden lands . This caused a shift of emphasis in the first half of the 19th century , away from trade and towards exploration and discovery . After the first overwintering on continental Antarctica in 1899 , the prospect of reaching the South Pole appeared realistic , and the race for the pole began . The British were pre @-@ eminent in this endeavour , which was characterised by the rivalry between Robert Falcon Scott and Ernest Shackleton during the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration . Shackleton 's efforts fell short ; Scott reached the pole in January 1912 only to find that he had been beaten by the Norwegian Amundsen . = = Early voyagers = = In 1494 , the principal maritime powers , Portugal and Spain , signed a treaty which drew a line down the middle of the Atlantic Ocean and allocated all trade routes to the east of the line to Portugal . That gave Portugal dominance of the only known route to the east — via the Cape of Good Hope and Indian Ocean , which left Spain , and later other countries , to seek a western route to the Pacific . The exploration of the south began as part of the search for such a route . Unlike the Arctic , there is no evidence of human visitation or habitation in Antarctica or the islands around it prior to European exploration . However , the most southerly parts of South America were already inhabited by tribes such as the Selk 'nam / Ona , the Yagán / Yámana , the Alacaluf and the Haush . The Haush in particular made regular trips to Isla de los Estados , which was 29 kilometres ( 18 mi ) from the main island of Tierra del Fuego , suggesting that some of them may have been capable of reaching the islands near Cape Horn . Fuegian Indian artefacts and canoe remnants have also been discovered on the Falkland Islands , suggesting the capacity for even longer sea journeys . While the natives of Tierra del Fuego were not capable of true oceanic travel , there is some evidence of Polynesian visits to some of the subantarctic islands to the south of New Zealand , although these are further from Antarctica than South America . There are also remains of a Polynesian settlement dating back to the 13th century on Enderby Island in the Auckland Islands . According to ancient legends , around the year 650 the Polynesian traveller Ui @-@ te @-@ Rangiora led a fleet of Waka Tīwai south until they reached " a place of bitter cold where rock @-@ like structures rose from a solid sea " . It is unclear from the legends how far south Ui @-@ te @-@ Rangiora penetrated , but it appears that he observed ice in large quantities . A shard of undated , unidentified pottery , reported as found in 1886 in the Antipodes Islands , has been associated with this expedition . = = = Ferdinand Magellan = = = Although Portuguese by birth , Ferdinand Magellan transferred his allegiance to King Charles I of Spain , on whose behalf he left Seville on 10 August 1519 , with a squadron of five ships , in search of a western route to the Spice Islands in the East Indies . Success depended on finding a strait or passage through the South American land masses , or finding the southern tip of the continent and sailing around it . The South American coast was sighted on 6 December 1519 , and Magellan moved cautiously southward , following the coast to reach latitude 49 ° S on 31 March 1520 . Little if anything was known of the coast south of this point , so Magellan decided to wait out the southern winter here , and established the settlement of Puerto San Julian . In September 1520 , the voyage continued down the uncharted coast , and on 21 October reached 52 ° S. Here Magellan found a deep inlet which proved to be the strait he was seeking , later to be known by his name . Early in November 1520 , as the squadron navigated through the strait , they reached its most southerly point at approximate latitude 54 ° S. This was a record Farthest South for a European navigator , though not the farthest southern penetration by man ; the position was north of the Tierra del Fuego archipelago , where there is evidence of human settlement dating back thousands of years . = = = Francisco de Hoces = = = The first sighting of an ocean passage to the Pacific south of Tierra del Fuego is sometimes attributed to Francisco de Hoces of the Loaisa Expedition . In January 1526 his ship San Lesmes was blown south from the Atlantic entrance of the Magellan Strait to a point where the crew thought they saw a headland , and water beyond it , which indicated the southern extremity of the continent . It is speculation as to which headland they saw ; conceivably it was Cape Horn . In parts of the Spanish @-@ speaking world it is believed that de Hoces may have discovered the strait later known as the Drake Passage more than 50 years before Sir Francis Drake , the British privateer . = = = Sir Francis Drake = = = Sir Francis Drake sailed from Plymouth on 15 November 1577 , in command of a fleet of five ships under his flagship Pelican , later renamed the Golden Hinde . His principal objective was plunder , not exploration ; his initial targets were the unfortified Spanish towns on the Pacific coasts of Chile and Peru . Following Magellan 's route , Drake reached Puerto San Julian on 20 June . After nearly two months in harbour , Drake left the port with a reduced fleet of three ships and a small pinnace . His ships entered the Magellan Strait on 23 August and emerged in the Pacific Ocean on 6 September . Drake set a course to the north @-@ west , but on the following day a gale scattered the ships . The Marigold was sunk by a giant wave ; the Elizabeth managed to return into the Magellan Strait , later sailing eastwards back to England ; the pinnace was lost later . The gales persisted for more than seven weeks . The Golden Hinde was driven far to the west and south , before clawing its way back towards land . On 22 October , the ship anchored off an island which Drake named " Elizabeth Island " , where wood for the galley fires was collected and seals and penguins captured for food . According to Drake 's Portuguese pilot , Nuno da Silva , their position at the anchorage was 57 ° S. However , there is no island at that latitude . The as yet undiscovered Diego Ramírez Islands , at 56 ° 30'S , are treeless and cannot have been the islands where Drake 's crew collected wood . This indicates that the navigational calculation was faulty , and that Drake landed at or near the then unnamed Cape Horn , possibly on Horn Island itself . His final southern latitude can only be speculated as that of Cape Horn , at 55 ° 59'S . In his report , Drake wrote : " The Uttermost Cape or headland of all these islands stands near 56 degrees , without which there is no main island to be seen to the southwards but that the Atlantic Ocean and the South Sea meet . " This open sea south of Cape Horn became known as the Drake Passage even though Drake himself did not traverse it . = = = Willem Schouten = = = On 14 June 1615 , Willem Schouten , with two ships Eendracht and Hoorn , set sail from Texel in the Netherlands in search of a western route to the Pacific . Hoorn was lost in a fire , but Eendracht continued southward . On 29 January 1616 , Schouten reached what he discerned to be the southernmost cape of the South American continent ; he named this point Kaap Hoorn ( Cape Horn ) after his hometown and his lost ship . Schouten 's navigational readings are inaccurate — he placed Cape Horn at 57 ° 48 ' south , when its actual position is 55 ° 58 ' . His claim to have reached 58 ° south is unverified , although he sailed on westward to become the first European navigator to reach the Pacific via the Drake Passage . = = = Garcia de Nodal expedition = = = The next recorded navigation of the Drake Passage was achieved in February 1619 , by the brothers Bartolome and Gonzalo Garcia de Nodal . The Garcia de Nodal expedition discovered a small group of islands about 60 nautical miles ( 100 km ; 70 mi ) south @-@ west of Cape Horn , at latitude 56 ° 30'S . They named these the Diego Ramirez Islands after the expedition 's pilot . The islands remained the most southerly known land on earth until Captain James Cook 's discovery of the South Sandwich Islands in 1775 . = = = Other discoveries = = = Other voyages brought further discoveries in the southern oceans ; in August 1592 , the English seaman John Davis had taken shelter " among certain Isles never before discovered " — presumed to be the Falkland Islands . In 1675 , the English merchant voyager Anthony de la Roché sighted South Georgia ; in 1739 the Frenchman Jean @-@ Baptiste Bouvet de Lozier discovered the remote Bouvet Island , and in 1772 his compatriot , Yves @-@ Joseph de Kerguelen de Trémarec , found the Kerguelen Islands . = = Early Antarctic explorers = = = = = Captain James Cook = = = The second of James Cook 's historic voyages , 1772 – 1775 , was primarily a search for the elusive Terra Australis Incognita that was still believed to lie somewhere in the unexplored latitudes below 40 ° S. Cook left England in September 1772 with two ships , HMS Resolution and HMS Adventure . After pausing at Cape Town , on 22 November the two ships sailed due south , but were driven to the east by heavy gales . They managed to edge further south , encountering their first pack ice on 10 December . This soon became a solid barrier , which tested Cook 's seamanship as he manoeuvered for a passage through . Eventually , he found open water , and was able to continue south ; on 17 January 1773 , the expedition reached the Antarctic Circle at 66 ° 20'S , the first ships to do so . Further progress was barred by ice , and the ships turned north @-@ eastwards and headed for New Zealand , which they reached on 26 March . During the ensuing months , the expedition explored the southern Pacific Ocean before Cook took Resolution south again — Adventure had retired back to South Africa after a fracas with the New Zealand native population . This time Cook was able to penetrate deep beyond the Antarctic Circle , and on 30 January 1774 reached 71 ° 10'S , his Farthest South , but the state of the ice made further southward travel impossible . This southern record would hold for 49 years . In the course of his voyages in Antarctic waters , Cook had encircled the world at latitudes generally above 60 ° S , and saw nothing but bleak inhospitable islands , without a hint of the fertile continent which some still hoped lay in the south . Cook wrote that if any such continent existed it would be " a country doomed by nature " , and that " no man will venture further than I have done , and the land to the South will never be explored " . He concluded : " Should the impossible be achieved and the land attained , it would be wholly useless and of no benefit to the discoverer or his nation " . = = = Searching for land = = = Despite Cook 's prediction , the early 19th century saw numerous attempts to penetrate southward , and to discover new lands . In 1819 , William Smith , in command of the brigantine Williams , discovered the South Shetland Islands , and in the following year Edward Bransfield , in the same ship , sighted the Trinity Peninsula at the northern extremity of Graham Land . A few days before Bransfield 's discovery , on 27 January 1820 , the Russian captain Fabian von Bellingshausen , in another Antarctic sector , had come within sight of the coast of what is now known as Queen Maud Land . He is thus credited as the first person to see the continent 's mainland , although he did not make this claim himself . Bellingshausen made two circumnavigations mainly in latitudes between 60 and 67 ° S , and in January 1821 reached his most southerly point at 70 ° S , in a longitude close to that in which Cook had made his record 47 years earlier . In 1821 the American sealing captain John Davis led a party which landed on an uncharted stretch of land beyond the South Shetlands . " I think this Southern Land to be a Continent " , he wrote in his ship 's log . If his landing was not on an island , his party were the first to set foot on the Antarctic continent . = = = James Weddell = = = James Weddell was an Anglo @-@ Scottish seaman who saw service in both the Royal Navy and the merchant marine before undertaking his first voyages to Antarctic waters . In 1819 , in command of the 160 @-@ ton brigantine Jane which had been adapted for whaling , he set sail for the newly discovered whaling grounds of the South Sandwich Islands . His chief interest on this voyage was in finding the " Aurora Islands " , which had been reported at 53 ° S , 48 ° W by the Spanish ship Aurora in 1762 . He failed to discover this non @-@ existent land , but his sealing activities showed a handsome profit . In 1822 Weddell , again in command of Jane and this time accompanied by the smaller ship Beaufoy , set sail for the south with instructions from his employers that , should the sealing prove barren , he was to " investigate beyond the track of former navigators " . This suited Weddell 's exploring instincts , and he equipped his vessel with chronometers , thermometers , compasses , barometers and charts . In January 1823 he probed the waters between the South Sandwich Islands and the South Orkney Islands , looking for new land . Finding none , he turned southward down the 40 ° W meridian , deep into the sea that now bears his name . The season was unusually calm , and Weddell reported that " not a particle of ice of any description was to be seen " . On 20 February 1823 , he reached a new Farthest South of 74 ° 15'S , three degrees beyond Cook 's former record . Unaware that he was close to land , Weddell decided to return northward from this point , convinced that the sea continued as far as the South Pole . Another two days ' sailing would likely have brought him within sight of Coats Land , which was not discovered until 1904 , by William Speirs Bruce during the Scottish National Antarctic Expedition , 1902 – 04 . On his return to England , Weddell 's claim to have exceeded Cook 's record by such a margin " caused some raised eyebrows " , but was soon accepted . = = = Benjamin Morrell = = = In November 1823 , the American sealing captain Benjamin Morrell reached the South Sandwich Islands in the schooner Wasp . According to his own later account he then sailed south , unconsciously following the track taken by James Weddell a month previously . Morrell claimed to have reached 70 ° 14'S , at which point he turned north because the ship 's stoves were running short of fuel — otherwise , he says , he could have " reached 85 ° without the least doubt . " After turning , he claimed to have encountered land which he described in some detail , and which he named New South Greenland . This land proved not to exist . Morrell 's reputation as a liar and a fraud means that most of his geographical claims have been dismissed by scholars , although attempts have been made to rationalise his assertions . = = = James Clark Ross = = = James Clark Ross 's 1839 – 43 Antarctic expedition in HMS Erebus and HMS Terror was a full @-@ scale Royal Naval enterprise , the principal function of which was to test current theories on magnetism , and to try to locate the South Magnetic Pole . The expedition had first been proposed by leading astronomer Sir John Herschel , and was supported by the Royal Society and the British Association for the Advancement of Science . Ross had considerable past experience in magnetic observation and Arctic exploration ; in May 1831 he had been a member of a party that had reached the location of the North Magnetic Pole , and he was an obvious choice as commander . The expedition left England on 30 September 1839 , and after a voyage that was slowed by the many stops required to carry out work on magnetism , it reached Tasmania in August 1840 . Following a three @-@ month break imposed by the southern winter , they sailed south @-@ east on 12 November 1840 , and crossed the Antarctic Circle on 1 January 1841 . On 11 January a long mountainous coastline that stretched to the south was sighted . Ross named the land Victoria Land , and the mountains the Admiralty Range . He followed the coast southwards and passed Weddell 's Farthest South point of 74 ° 15'S on 23 January . A few days later , as they moved further eastward to avoid shore ice , they were met by the sight of twin volcanoes ( one of them active ) , which were named Mount Erebus and Mount Terror , in honour of the expedition 's ships . The Great Ice Barrier ( later to be called the " Ross Ice Shelf " ) stretched away east of these mountains , forming an impassable obstacle to further southward progress . In his search for a strait or inlet , Ross explored 300 nautical miles ( 560 km ; 350 mi ) along the edge of the barrier , and reached an approximate latitude of 78 ° S on or about 8 February 1841 . He failed to find a suitable anchorage that would have allowed the ships to over @-@ winter , so he returned to Tasmania , arriving there in April 1841 . The following season Ross returned and located an inlet in the Barrier face that enabled him , on 23 January 1842 , to extend his Farthest South to 78 ° 09 ' 30 " S , a record which would remain unchallenged for 58 years . Although Ross had not been able to land on the Antarctic continent , nor approach the location of the South Magnetic Pole , on his return to England in 1843 he was knighted for his achievements in geographical and scientific exploration . = = Explorers of the Heroic Age = = The oceanographic research voyage known as the Challenger Expedition , 1872 – 76 , explored Antarctic waters for several weeks , but did not approach the land itself ; its research , however , proved the existence of an Antarctic continent beyond reasonable doubt . The impetus for what would become known as the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration came in 1893 , when in a lecture to the Royal Geographical Society Professor Sir John Murray called for a resumption of Antarctic exploration : " a steady , continuous , laborious and systematic exploration of the whole southern region " . He followed this call with an appeal to British patriotism : " Is the last great piece of maritime exploration on the surface of our Earth to be undertaken by Britons , or is it to be left to those who may be destined to succeed or supplant us on the Ocean ? " During the following quarter @-@ century , fifteen expeditions from eight different nations rose to this challenge . In the patriotic spirit engendered by Murray 's call , and under the influence of RGS president Sir Clements Markham , British endeavours in the following years gave particular weight to the achievement of new Farthest South records , and began to develop the character of a race for the South Pole . = = = Carsten Borchgrevink = = = The Norwegian @-@ born Carsten Egeberg Borchgrevink had emigrated to Australia in 1888 , where he worked on survey teams in Queensland and New South Wales before accepting a schoolteaching post . In 1894 he joined a sealing and whaling expedition to the Antarctic , led by Henryk Bull . In January 1895 Borchgrevink was one of a group from that expedition that claimed the first confirmed landing on the Antarctic continent , at Cape Adare . Borchgrevink determined to return with his own expedition , which would overwinter and explore inland , with the location of the South Magnetic Pole as an objective . Borchgrevink went to England , where he was able to persuade the publishing magnate Sir George Newnes to finance him to the extent of £ 40 @,@ 000 , equivalent to £ 3 million as of 2008 , with the sole stipulation that , despite the shortage of British participants , the venture be styled the " British Antarctic Expedition " . This was by no means the grand British expedition envisaged by Markham and the geographical establishment , who were hostile and dismissive of Borchgrevink . On 23 August 1898 the expedition ship Southern Cross left London for the Ross Sea , reaching Cape Adare on 17 February 1899 . Here a shore party was landed and was the first to over @-@ winter on the Antarctic mainland , in a prefabricated hut . In January 1900 , Southern Cross returned , picked up the shore party and , following the route which Ross had taken 60 years previously , sailed southward to the Great Ice Barrier , which they discovered had retreated some 30 miles ( 48 km ) south since the days of Ross . A party consisting of Borchgrevink , William Colbeck and a Sami named Per Savio landed with sledges and dogs . This party ascended the Barrier and made the first sledge journey on the barrier surface ; on 16 February 1900 they extended the Farthest South record to 78 ° 50'S . On its return to England later in 1900 , Borchgrevink 's expedition was received without enthusiasm , despite its new southern record . Historian David Crane commented that if Borchgrevink had been a British naval officer , his contribution to Antarctic knowledge might have been better received , but " a Norwegian seaman / schoolmaster was never going to be taken seriously " . = = = Robert Falcon Scott = = = The Discovery Expedition of 1901 – 04 was Captain Scott 's first Antarctic command . Although according to Edward Wilson the intention was to " reach the Pole if possible , or find some new land " , there is nothing in Scott 's writings , nor in the official objectives of the expedition , to indicate that the pole was a definite goal . However , a southern journey towards the pole was within Scott 's formal remit to " explore the ice barrier of Sir James Ross ... and to endeavour to solve the very important physical and geographical questions connected with this remarkable ice formation " . The southern journey was undertaken by Scott , Wilson and Ernest Shackleton . The party set out on 1 November 1902 with various teams in support , and one of these , led by Michael Barne , passed Borchgrevink 's Farthest South mark on 11 November , an event recorded with great high spirits in Wilson 's diary . The march continued , initially in favourable weather conditions , but encountered increasing difficulties caused by the party 's lack of ice travelling experience and the loss of all its dogs through a combination of poor diet and overwork . The 80 ° S mark was passed on 2 December , and four weeks later , on 30 December 1902 , Wilson and Scott took a short ski trip from their southern camp to set a new Farthest South at ( according to their measurements ) 82 ° 17'S . Modern maps , correlated with Shackleton 's photograph and Wilson 's drawing , put their final camp at 82 ° 6'S , and the point reached by Scott and Wilson at 82 ° 11'S , 200 nautical miles ( 370 km ; 230 mi ) beyond Borchgrevink 's mark . = = = Ernest Shackleton = = = After his share in the Farthest South achievement of the Discovery Expedition , Ernest Shackleton suffered a physical collapse on the return journey , and was sent home with the expedition 's relief vessel on orders from Scott ; he bitterly resented it , and the two became rivals . Four years later , Shackleton organised his own polar venture , the Nimrod Expedition , 1907 – 09 . This was the first expedition to set the definite objective of reaching the South Pole , and to have a specific strategy for doing so . To assist his endeavour , Shackleton adopted a mixed transport strategy , involving the use of Manchurian ponies as pack animals , as well as the more traditional dog @-@ sledges . A specially adapted motor car was also taken . Although the dogs and the car were used during the expedition for a number of purposes , the task of assisting the group that would undertake the march to the pole fell to the ponies . The size of Shackleton 's four @-@ man polar party was dictated by the number of surviving ponies ; of the ten that were embarked in New Zealand , only four had survived the 1908 winter . Ernest Shackleton and three companions ( Frank Wild , Eric Marshall and Jameson Adams ) began their march on 29 October 1908 . On 26 November they surpassed the farthest point reached by Scott 's 1902 party . " A day to remember " , wrote Shackleton in his journal , noting that they had reached this point in far less time than on the previous march with Captain Scott . Shackleton 's group continued southward , discovering and ascending the Beardmore Glacier to the polar plateau , and then marching on to reach their Farthest South point at 88 ° 23'S , a mere 97 nautical miles ( 180 km ; 112 mi ) from the pole , on 9 January 1909 . Here they planted the Union Jack presented to them by Queen Alexandra , and took possession of the plateau in the name of King Edward VII , before shortages of food and supplies forced them to turn back north . This was , at the time , the closest convergence on either pole . The increase of more than six degrees south from Scott 's previous record was the greatest extension of Farthest South since Captain Cook 's 1773 mark . Shackleton was treated as a hero on his return to England . His record was to stand for less than three years , being passed by Amundsen on 7 December 1911 . = = Polar conquest = = In the wake of Shackleton 's near miss , Captain Scott organised the Terra Nova Expedition , 1910 – 13 , in which securing the South Pole for the British Empire was an explicitly stated prime objective . As he planned his expedition , Scott saw no reason to believe that his effort would be contested . However , the Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen , who had been developing plans for a North Pole expedition , changed his mind when , in September 1909 , the North Pole was claimed in quick succession by the Americans Frederick Cook and Robert Peary . Amundsen resolved to go south instead . Amundsen concealed his revised intentions until his ship , Fram , was in the Atlantic and beyond communication . Scott was notified by telegram that a rival was in the field , but had little choice other than to continue with his own plans . Meanwhile , Fram arrived at the Ross Ice Shelf on 11 January 1911 , and by 14 January had found the inlet , or " Bay of Whales " , where Borchgrevink had made his landing eleven years earlier . This became the location of Amundsen 's base camp , Framheim . After nine months ' preparation , Amundsen 's polar journey began on 20 October 1911 . Avoiding the known route to the polar plateau via the Beardmore Glacier , Amundsen led his party of five due south , reaching the Transantarctic Mountains on 16 November . They discovered the Axel Heiberg Glacier , which provided them with a direct route to the polar plateau and on to the pole . Shackleton 's Farthest South mark was passed on 7 December , and the South Pole was reached on 14 December 1911 . The Norwegian party 's greater skills with the techniques of ice travel , using ski and dogs , had proved decisive in their success . Captain Scott 's five @-@ man team reached the same point 33 days later , and perished during their return journey . Since Cook 's journeys , every expedition that had held the Farthest South record before Amundsen 's conquest had been British ; however , the final triumph indisputably belonged to the Norwegians . = = Later history = = After Scott 's retreat from the pole in January 1912 , the location remained unvisited for nearly 18 years . On 28 November 1929 , US Navy Commander ( later Rear @-@ Admiral ) Richard E. Byrd and three others completed the first aircraft flight over the South Pole . Twenty @-@ seven years later , Rear @-@ Admiral George J. Dufek became the first person to set foot on the pole since Scott , when on 31 October 1956 he and the crew of R4D @-@ 5 Skytrain " Que Sera Sera " landed at the pole . Between November 1956 and February 1957 , the first permanent South Pole research station was erected and christened the Amundsen – Scott South Pole Station in honour of the pioneer explorers . Since then the station had been substantially extended , and in 2008 was housing up to 150 scientific staff and support personnel . Dufek gave considerable assistance to the Commonwealth Trans @-@ Antarctic Expedition , 1955 – 58 , led by Vivian Fuchs , which on 19 January 1958 became the first party to reach the pole overland since Scott . = = Farthest South records = = Table of Farthest South records , 1521 to 1911 ( letters in " Map key " column relate to adjoining map ) = Occupy ( book ) = Occupy is a short study of the Occupy movement written by the American academic and political activist Noam Chomsky . Initially published in the United States by the Zuccotti Park Press as the first title in their Occupied Media Pamphlet Series in 2012 , it was subsequently republished in the United Kingdom by Penguin Books later that year . An academic linguist at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Chomsky first achieved fame for his work as a political activist during the 1960s and 1970s . A libertarian socialist , Chomsky was a prominent critic of capitalism , the role of western media and the foreign policy of the U.S. government , dealing with such issues in bestsellers like Manufacturing Consent ( 1988 ) , Hegemony or Survival ( 2003 ) and Failed States ( 2006 ) . With the birth of the Occupy Movement – devoted to socio @-@ political change – in 2011 , Chomsky became a vocal supporter for the protesters , writing articles and giving speeches on their behalf , several of which were collected together and published as Occupy . The book opens with an introductory editor 's note by Greg Ruggiero , praising the Occupy movement and its potential for the greater democratization of society . This is followed by the text to Chomsky 's Howard Zinn Memorial Lecture , which he gave at Occupy Boston in Massachusetts . The third part of the book comprises Chomsky 's interview with the New York University student Edward Radzivilovskiy , while the fourth contains the text of the InterOccupy conference call with Chomsky by Mikal Kamil and Ian Escuela . Part five offers an interview with Chomsky undertaken at the University of Maryland , while the book is rounded off by Chomsky 's tribute to the late activist Howard Zinn and the National Lawyers Guild 's legal advice to Occupy protesters . Throughout the book , Chomsky discusses what the Occupy movement is and what it is demanding , as well as advocating ways in which it could gain greater support and achieve governmental reforms , using historical examples as evidence . Press reviews were largely positive , with some noting that Chomsky had taken a more moderate , reformist position than they expected of him . = = Background = = Noam Chomsky ( 1928 – ) was born in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , to Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe . Becoming academically involved in the field of linguistics , Chomsky eventually secured a job as Professor of Department of Linguistics & Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology . In the field of linguistics , he is credited as the creator or co @-@ creator of the Chomsky hierarchy , the universal grammar theory , and the Chomsky – Schützenberger theorem . Politically , Chomsky had held radical leftist views since childhood , identifying himself with anarcho @-@ syndicalism and libertarian socialism . He was particularly known for his critiques of U.S. foreign policy and contemporary capitalism , and he has been described as a prominent cultural figure . First emerging in New York City in 2011 , the Occupy movement was an international protest movement against social and economic inequality , its primary goal being to make the economic structure and power relations in society more favorable to the underclasses . Different local groups have different foci , but among the prime concerns is the claim that large corporations and the global financial system control the world in a way that disproportionately benefits a minority , undermines democracy and is unstable . It was widely seen as a reaction to the 2008 – 2012 global recession , an economic crisis that had led to high unemployment across the western world , and was also inspired by the Arab Spring , in which popular protest movements overthrew the governments of several countries in the Arab world . Chomsky became a supporter for the Occupy movement , joining protesters at some of their camps and advocating their cause in the mainstream press . The book 's original publisher , Zucccotti Park Press , was founded by Adelente Alliance , a Brooklyn @-@ based non profit cultural and advocacy organization devoted to the Spanish @-@ speaking community . Occupy was the first of a series of publications known as the Occupied Media Pamphlet Series . According to the Press , its purpose was to " produce accessible , affordable , pamphlet @-@ size works by well @-@ known and emerging voices who are inspired by a vision for a new society . " Chomsky dedicated his book to " the 6 @,@ 705 people who have been arrested supporting Occupy " between September 24 , 2011 to March 6 , 2012 . = = Synopsis = = The book includes an editor 's note , a brief section providing legal advice for American Occupy activists , and five sections written by Chomsky himself.Occupy opens with an editor 's note written by Greg Ruggiero , in which he explains the basics to Chomsky 's views on the Occupy Movement , drawing quotes from his various public speeches in order to do so . Ruggiero also discusses Occupy 's success in the United States , stating that it has helped to change media discussions by introducing terms like " the 99 % " into popular discourse and also by bringing national attention to the plight of the impoverished . He remarks that the protest movement has not only helped to highlight the " heartlessness and inhumanity " of the socio @-@ political system , but that it has also helped to provide solidarity with those " being crushed " under that system . Suggesting reasons for the movement 's success , he optimistically describes the manner in which " People are waking up and coming out . " The introduction is followed by a transcript of Chomsky 's Howard Zinn Memorial Lecture , originally given to Occupy Boston in Dewey Square on October 22 , 2011 . Contrasting the hope of the working classes in the Great Depression of the 1930s with the pessimism of their contemporaries in the current recession , Chomsky discusses the changes to the U.S. economy that have occurred since the 1970s ; de @-@ industrialization , de @-@ development and the rise of the financial sector at the expense of other parts of the economy . He notes how both Adam Smith and David Ricardo partly foresaw this situation . Highlighting the work of Tom Ferguson , he discusses how the political parties have come under the increasing control of the corporate sector . Proceeding to look at corruption among the 1 % , he makes reference to both Citigroup and Alan Greenspan , before discussing the role that worker sit @-@ ins and industry takeovers could play in democratizing the U.S. economy , as well as the threat posed by both nuclear war and environmental catastrophe , both problems exacerbated by the current capitalist system . Finally , he responds to questions posed by the audience , discussing the concept of corporate personhood , rejecting the idea that the U.S. elite could resort to fascism , and discussing the possibility of a general strike , arguing that that would be " a possible idea at a time when the population is ready for it . " The third section of the book , entitled " After thirty years of class war " , comprises the text of an interview with Chomsky conducted at MIT on January 6 , 2012 by a New York University student , Edward Radzivilovskiy . Responding to Radzivilovskiy 's questions , Chomsky lays out what the Occupy movement represents , and what its demands are , arguing that it is primarily a popular protest against income stagnation for the majority and the increasing concentration of wealth among an elite minority . He contrasts it with the Tea Party movement , which he argues only represents the interests of a small Euro @-@ American minority , being backed by the corporate support that Occupy rejects . He then draws comparisons between Occupy and the Arab Spring , arguing that the latter had been far more successful in bringing down governments because it had the backing of organized labor movements , all of which had been decimated by corporate power in the U.S. , and calls for a renewed revival of the American labor movement . Rejecting the idea that Occupy is an anarchist movement , he notes that its primary demands require reform rather than revolution , advocating governmental support for economic growth over austerity measures . Section four , " InterOccupy " , contains the transcript of a conference call with Chomsky chaired by Mikal Kamil and Ian Escuela on January 31 , 2012 , in which he answered pre @-@ selected questions from the Occupy community . Beginning with a discussion of the media coverage of Occupy , he moves on to discuss the police repression that the movement has faced , arguing that the best way to avoid such repression was to gain " active public support " for their cause . He considers one of the primary achievements of Occupy to have been to bring together communities to discuss and debate in a democratic forum , thereby rejecting the ideologies of selfishness proposed by the likes of Ayn Rand . Chomsky then discusses how to get the corporate sector out of politics and how to introduce greater democracy to the U.S. He rounds off this chapter with a discussion of the nature of the Republican and Democratic parties , the work of Italian Marxist Antonio Gramsci and the role of the U.S. housing bubble in the global depression . Section five is titled " Occupying Foreign Policy " , an question @-@ and @-@ answer session that Chomsky gave at the University of Maryland on January 27 , 2012 . Chomsky discusses how the Occupy movement could hope to influence and control the foreign policy of the United States , directing it away from its support for autocratic regimes and military interventionism . Proceeding to discuss the successes that popular protest have had in influencing government decisions , he argues that the protests of the 1930s led to the formation of the New Deal , and that the protests against the Iraq War – although unable to stop the conflict – helped to moderate the use of weaponry used by U.S. troops . Praising America Beyond Capitalism ( 2004 ) , a book by the political economist Gar Alperovitz , he then discusses ways in which the Occupy movement can influence the public discourse into accepting and understanding their views and arguments . This is followed by " Remembering Howard Zinn " , Chomsky 's reminiscences of his late friend Howard Zinn ( 1922 – 2010 ) , a historian and social activist who authored the influential book , A People 's History of the United States ( 1980 ) . Chomsky 's text is then followed by " Occupy Protest Support " , a set of legal advice for protesters facing arrest and prosecution authored by the National Lawyers Guild . = = Main arguments = = = = = What is the Occupy Movement ? = = = In Occupy , Chomsky explores both the context to the Occupy movement , and highlights its primary aims . He describes it as a reaction by members of the working and middle classes to the " class war " that has been waged against them by the upper class who control the commercial sector since the 1970s . During those 30 years , Chomsky argues , the nation 's wealth has become increasingly concentrated among a tiny percentage of the population , primarily those in control of the financial sector . Chomsky argues that this process has been furthered by government policies implemented by both the Republican and Democrat administrations , with both parties being financed by that same financial and commercial sector . According to Chomsky , while the wealth has been increasingly focused in the socio @-@ economic elite who control the financial sector , the rest of the population have suffered higher workloads , unsustainable debt , a weakening benefits system and stagnating incomes and real wages , causing them to be " angry , frustrated , [ and ] bitter " . It is this inequality – Chomsky argues – that has led to the Occupy movement . Chomsky states that the Occupy movement 's demands are those of the majority of the U.S. population : to solve the problem of social inequality in the country . More specifically , he argues that their precise demands include greater regulation of financial transaction taxes , and reversing the rules of corporate governance that have led to the current situation . Nonetheless , he also argues that many Occupy members would be hesitant to directly state what their objectives are , because " they are essentially crafting a point of view from many disparate sources . " = = = How to spread Occupy and democratize society = = = Chomsky argues that the multi @-@ party , representative , liberal democracy that governs the United States is insufficiently democratic , instead advocating a form of participatory , direct democracy through which the ordinary citizens have a direct say in public policy . As such , he advocates that communities take a different approach to the upcoming primary elections ; instead of simply listening to speeches given by the politicians hoping to be elected , they should get together in democratic councils and discuss what issues they want addressing . That done , Chomsky argues , they should approach the politicians , informing them that they have no interest in their speeches , but that if they want to get elected , they must come and listen to the demands of the people ; alternately , he argues , these communities should select their own representatives whom they could then vote for . Chomsky also argues for economic democratization , with the workers themselves controlling the means of production through worker cooperatives . As an example of how this might be achieved , he highlights the situation in 1977 when U.S. Steel decided to close down its facility in Youngstown , Ohio , leaving the steel workers unemployed ; the local community attempted to purchase the factory from the company , and then run it as a " worker @-@ run , worker @-@ managed facility . " They failed in their attempt , but Chomsky argues that had there been a sufficient amount of public support behind their cause – for instance like the Occupy protesters – then they might have succeeded . He noted a similar situation that occurred in a suburb of Boston in the early 21st century , when a multinational decided to close down a manufacturing facility because it was not producing sufficient profit . When the worker 's trade union attempted to purchase the factory , the multinational refused , for reasons that Chomsky speculated were due to class consciousness . Chomsky also provides other suggestions for reforming the U.S. political system . He advocates health care reform and " reining in our crazed military system . " He also argues that in the time of economic recession , the government should focus on job creation and growth – just as they did in the 1930s with the New Deal – rather than on imposing unpopular austerity measures on the population . He also describes it as important to rebuild an organized labor movement in the United States , in order to more effectively combat the domination of the ruling classes . = = Reception = = = = = Press reviews = = = The Foreign Policy in Focus 's co @-@ director John Feffer reviewed Occupy for the group 's website , asserting that " What makes Chomsky 's perspective so interesting , aside from the wealth of his political experience , is the range of his interests " , evident through the way that he brings in examples from across the world . Ultimately , Feffer described the volume as a " valuable set of remarks and interviews " . Writing in the New Statesman , George Eaton stated that he was surprised by the moderate stance that Chomsky took in Occupy , remarking that the " self @-@ described anarchist sounds very much like a social democrat " , offering the " cautious , provisional response one might expect from a Labour shadow cabinet minister " rather than the words of a radical revolutionary . Arguing that he was exhibiting " passionate sanity " at a time when much of the Left was gripped by conspiracy theories , he also criticized Chomsky for being " maddeningly banal " at points during the book , but ultimately thought that there was " much to commend Chomsky 's radical pessimism . " In a brief review in The Independent , Arifa Akbar highlighted that although Chomsky 's claims regarding class war carried with them " the ring of an old Marxist manifesto " , the notion that we ourselves need to change in order to allow the state to change was " very contemporary " . British Trotskyite publication , the Socialist Review , praised Chomsky 's discussion of the impact of neoliberalism in the US , however they asserted that " when it comes to crucial questions - how do we fight and what are we fighting for - Chomsky 's response is lacking . " They assert that his claims that communities can challenge the Republican and Democrat domination of the electoral system are " somewhat bizarre " given that he has already established how " corrupt and biased " that system is . Criticising him for not looking at the concept of a potential revolution , they also express disagreement with his view that the " solution for the 99 % " can be found within " the framework of capitalism " . In The Coffin Factory literary magazine , Occupy was reviewed by Laura Isaacman , with Ruggiero 's editor 's note being described as a " powerful " introduction . Isaacram asserts that in this booklet , Chomsky " sets the record straight " in his own " tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek tone " , following decades of being marginalized by the establishment . Robert Thickett reviewed the book in August 2013 for the Mortgage Strategy website . He opined that Occupy felt " nostalgic " , largely because the Occupy movement itself " has largely run out of steam . " Nevertheless , he thought much of what Chomsky had to say was " practical " and that it was " difficult to refute much of what he says about the way Western society is set up . " = The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs = " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " is the second episode of the fourteenth season of the American animated television series South Park , and the 197th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 24 , 2010 . In the episode , the South Park boys write a vulgar book with the sole intention of getting it banned . When Stan 's parents discover the manuscript , the boys accuse Butters of writing it , then are enraged when it is hailed as a literary masterpiece . The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ creator Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . It serves as a satire of pop culture criticism , and mocks people who find hidden messages in works where there are none . The episode includes other themes , including the lack of interest in reading among American youths , and mocks the idea that a book alone causes people to commit violent crimes . The novel The Catcher in the Rye by J. D. Salinger plays a major part in the episode , as the South Park boys are inspired to write their own book when they feel Salinger 's book does not live up to its controversial reputation . The episode also mocks actress Sarah Jessica Parker and the Kardashian family from the reality series Keeping Up with the Kardashians . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " received generally positive reviews , with many commentators praising the episode 's themes of the over @-@ analysis into works of culture , although some said the vomiting jokes were too old and grew redundant . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 3 @.@ 24 million viewers . After the episode aired , Kim , Kourtney and Khloé Kardashian praised their portrayal and on @-@ screen deaths . = = Plot = = The students at South Park Elementary are assigned to read The Catcher in the Rye , and grow excited when Mr. Garrison tells them that the book has caused so much controversy , it has been banned from public schools in the past . However , after reading the book , Stan , Kyle , Cartman , and Kenny are angry to find the content completely inoffensive , and feel the school has " tricked " them into reading . They decide to write their own offensive novel , The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs ( which they originally called The Tale of Scrotie McDickinass ) , with the intention of disgusting as many people as possible . Later , Stan 's parents find the first draft and read it . They find it so disgusting that they repeatedly vomit while reading . However , they both consider it the best book they have ever read . Fearful they will get into trouble for the book 's content , Stan and the boys tell Butters he actually wrote the book . Butters believes them because ever since reading The Catcher in the Rye , he has been entering into altered states of consciousness that make him want to kill John Lennon , before he finds out Lennon is already dead . Later on , after learning that The Catcher in the Rye inspired someone to shoot Ronald Reagan , Butters tries to kill him too but is disappointed by the fact he is dead as well . Butters confesses to writing the novel himself . However , Stan and the boys are furious to learn that not only do the South Park adults love the book , a publisher has agreed to sign Butters for a book deal . The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs becomes a huge success , and everybody who reads it vomits profusely , but declares it a masterpiece nonetheless . As Butters becomes a literary icon , the four boys unsuccessfully campaign to have the book banned . They are angered to find readers interpreting passages from the novel as allegories for contentious political issues , even though the boys never intended to convey such messages . Since the book made many references to the unattractiveness of actress Sarah Jessica Parker , Cartman and Kenny plan to get her killed , believing the negative publicity will cause the book to be banned . They dress Parker as a moose ( they just put antlers on her as she already resembles a moose ) , then lead her into the woods during hunting season . Butters soon does , in fact write a novel of his very own , The Poop That Took a Pee , which consists solely of simple descriptions of scatological acts . The four boys are convinced the book will be a disaster and expose Butters as a fraud over the first book . However , much to their surprise , readers actually find it an even deeper , more profound book , and continue reading their own allegorical messages into the text . After finishing the book , one crazed reader storms on to the set of reality television series Keeping Up with the Kardashians and murders the entire Kardashian family with a pump @-@ action shotgun . Both The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs and The Poop That Took a Pee are banned as a result , and Butters is horrified because he considered Kim Kardashian " the most beautiful woman in the world " ( along with her sisters ) . Stan and Kyle suggest that instead of reading books and possibly discovering the wrong message in them , people should simply watch television instead . Cartman also claims Sarah Jessica Parker has also been killed because Butters accidentally dressed her in a moose costume while sleepwalking . Butters is at first horrified , but then decides he does not care because she was ugly . = = Production and theme = = " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA in the United States . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 24 , 2010 . The episode serves primarily as a satire of pop culture criticism . Although the South Park boys wrote The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs simply to shock and offend people , readers delve too deeply into the meaning behind the book , finding hidden allegories and symbolism that the actual authors insist are not present . People with conflicting philosophies , including liberals and conservatives , and pro @-@ choice and pro @-@ life advocates , attempt to claim that the same work conveys and validates their own ideology . The script serves as a criticism of people who take such works of pop culture too seriously . Although this is demonstrated specifically through literary criticism in the episode , the theme can be extended to film criticism and television criticism as well . The episode suggests people are so desperate for inspiration , they are willing to impose their hopes and dreams into works of art , even if they completely lack those qualities . Some commentators thought South Park creators Parker and Matt Stone were implicitly mocking the amount of analysis into deeper meaning South Park itself often receives in its reviews . Others have suggested this over @-@ analysis is a reference to the number of adult themes identified in the Harry Potter and Twilight young adult novel series . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerBalls " portrays young children as almost entirely uninterested in reading . The South Park boys only exhibit excitement for their reading assignment based on the promise of offensive and controversial material in the book . Rather than finding any merit in the book , the boys are angry when they find the material inoffensive , prompting Cartman to declare he has been " tricked " into reading an entire book . Through the rise and fall of Butters ' career as an author , the episode also demonstrates the perils of literary success and hoaxes . The episode also mocks the idea that a book can be identified as the sole causation for a reader to commit violent crimes , particularly through Butters ' reaction to The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs . Butters experiences blackouts after reading The Catcher in the Rye and plans to kill both John Lennon and Ronald Reagan , until he disappointedly learns they are already dead . = = Cultural references = = The Catcher in the Rye , the 1951 novel about teenage confusion and alienation by J.D. Salinger , plays a large part in " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " . The episode references the controversial reception the book has received over the years for its risqué elements and vulgar language . Mr. Garrison tells the students the book has only recently been lifted from the South Park Elementary 's banned books list , a reference to past censorship the book has received in public schools . The episode also refers to the alleged role The Catcher in the Rye played in inspiring Mark David Chapman to shoot and kill musician John Lennon , and John Hinckley , Jr. to attempt to assassinate former U.S. President Ronald Reagan . Lennon , a former member of The Beatles and long @-@ time peace activist , is referred to by Cartman as " the king of hippies " . Butters and the eventual murderer rail against ' phonies ' in the same manner as Holden Caulfield in Salinger 's book . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " aired two months after the death of author J.D. Salinger , and just weeks after letters by J.D. Salinger went on display at The Morgan Library & Museum in New York City . The episode also prominently features the Kardashian family , who are the focus of the E ! reality series Keeping Up with the Kardashians . Sarah Jessica Parker , an actress who has been mocked on South Park before , is also lampooned in the story . During one scene , Butters appears on Today , a morning talk show on NBC ( referred to as HBC in the episode , but with NBC 's peacock logo ) , to promote his book . Television hosts Matt Lauer and Meredith Vieira are featured in the scene , during which both vomit for a particularly long time in response to some of the more vulgar passages in The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs . Morgan Freeman , an actor known for his narration work , conducts a reading in the episode of Butters ' second book , The Poop That Took a Pee . Trey Parker provided the voice of Freeman in " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " . During one scene , Butters ' father can be seen reading a newspaper with a front page story about a historic health care bill passing , a reference to the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , which was passed and signed the same week the South Park episode first aired . = = Release and reception = = In its original American broadcast on March 24 , 2010 , " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " was watched by 3 @.@ 24 million viewers , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most watched cable television show of the night . The episode received an overall 1 @.@ 9 rating / 3 share . Among viewers between ages 18 and 49 , it received a 1 @.@ 8 rating / 5 share , and among male viewers between 18 and 34 , it received a 3 @.@ 5 rating / 12 share . As a result of the episode , the phrase " Scrotie McBoogerballs " was the top trending topic for March 25 on the social networking and microblogging website Twitter . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's fourteenth season , was released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on April 26 , 2011 . " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " received generally positive reviews . Carlos Delgado of iF Magazine called the episode a potential classic and a " phenomenal follow up showing " to the season premiere " Sexual Healing " , which he did not enjoy . Delgado said the script was intelligent and praised the theme of over @-@ analyzing art . He also praised the vomiting jokes , and said he could not remember the last time he laughed so hard during a South Park episode . Entertainment Weekly television columnist Ken Tucker said it was better than the season premiere , which he also praised . Tucker particularly enjoyed the satire of pop culture criticism , and wrote , " I 'd compare the Scrotie episode to the work of Rabelais , Henry Miller , and Dennis Cooper , but then I 'd be part of the boys ' satire , wouldn 't I ? " TV Fanatic said the episode was not as strong as previous seasons , but an improvement over " Sexual Healing " . The site praised the emphasis on Butters and the pop culture references to The Catcher in the Rye , John Lennon , Sarah Jessica Parker and " the useless Kardashian Klan " . The A.V. Club writer Sean O 'Neal said he " chuckled a few times " , but found the vomit jokes acted like a substitute for " actual dialogue " . However , O 'Neal praised the satire of people looking too deeply into the meaning of meaningless art , and how easily that theme can be applied to South Park itself . Not all reviews were entirely positive . Ramsey Isler of IGN said Butters was " awesome , as usual " , and thought the jokes about the Kardashians were funny , but that the positive elements of the episode were " not enough to balance out the failures " . He particularly criticized the Sarah Jessica Parker jokes as " flat and random " , and the constant vomiting as " just one long @-@ running ' joke ' that was just plain awful " . The day after " The Tale of Scrotie McBoogerballs " aired , members of the Kardashian family responded positively to their portrayal and on @-@ screen deaths . On her blog , Kim Kardashian wrote that the family found the episode very funny and were honored to be featured in the episode . She wrote , " We were all dying when we saw this clip from South Park that aired last night ... literally , LOL . They killed us all ! ! ! " She also wrote , " I managed to survive the longest ... of course ! " Kourtney Kardashian joked on her Twitter page , " How rude ! Southpark ! ! " , Khloé Kardashian wrote she did not know about her appearance on the show until she suddenly received numerous messages on her Twitter page . Khloé also said she found the scene funny , and laughed at how unattractively she and her sisters were portrayed , although she said the Bruce Jenner cartoon looked very realistic . She wrote , " Even though we all weren 't portrayed as the most attractive South Park characters , I was still so flattered since I love that show haha . " = The Concert for Bangladesh ( album ) = The Concert for Bangladesh – originally titled The Concert for Bangla Desh – is a live triple album by George Harrison and celebrity friends , released on Apple Records in December 1971 in America and January 1972 in Britain . The album followed the two concerts of the same name , held on 1 August 1971 at New York 's Madison Square Garden , featuring Harrison , Bob Dylan , Ravi Shankar , Ali Akbar Khan , Ringo Starr , Billy Preston , Leon Russell and Eric Clapton . The shows were a pioneering charity event , in aid of the homeless Bengali refugees of the Bangladesh Liberation War , and set the model for future multi @-@ artist rock benefits such as Live Aid ( 1985 ) and the Concert for New York City ( 2001 ) . Co @-@ produced by Phil Spector and featuring the latter 's signature Wall of Sound in a live setting , the fundraiser album was delayed for three months due to protracted negotiations between Harrison and two record companies keen to protect their business interests , Capitol and Columbia / CBS . Besides the main performers , the musicians and singers on the recording include Badfinger , Jim Horn , Klaus Voormann , Alla Rakha , Jim Keltner , Jesse Ed Davis and Claudia Linnear . The box set 's original packaging included a 64 @-@ page book containing photos from the concerts ; the album cover , designed by Tom Wilkes , consisted of an image of a malnourished child sitting beside an empty food bowl . On release , The Concert for Bangladesh was a major critical and commercial success , topping albums charts around the world , and went on to win the Grammy Award for Album of the Year in March 1973 . Together with the 1972 Apple concert film directed by Saul Swimmer , the album gained Indian classical music its largest Western audience up until that time . The album was reissued in 2005 , in remastered form , featuring a new cover . Among the many words of acclaim that have been written about The Concert for Bangladesh since its	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
of Bf 109 fighters circled overhead to protect her from British air attacks , but Flying Officer Michael Suckling managed to fly his Spitfire directly over the German flotilla at a height of 8 @,@ 000 m ( 26 @,@ 000 ft ) and take photos of Bismarck and her escorts . Upon receipt of the information , Admiral John Tovey ordered the battlecruiser HMS Hood , the newly commissioned battleship HMS Prince of Wales , and six destroyers to reinforce the pair of cruisers patrolling the Denmark Strait . The rest of the Home Fleet was placed on high alert in Scapa Flow . Eighteen bombers were dispatched to attack the Germans , but weather over the fjord had worsened and they were unable to find the German warships . Bismarck did not replenish her fuel stores in Norway , as her operational orders did not require her to do so . She had left port 200 t ( 200 long tons ) short of a full load , and had since expended another 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ) on the voyage from Gotenhafen . Prinz Eugen took on 764 t ( 752 long tons ) of fuel . At 19 : 30 on 21 May , Bismarck , Prinz Eugen , and the three escorting destroyers left Bergen . At midnight , when the force was in the open sea , heading towards the Arctic Ocean , Raeder disclosed the operation to Hitler , who reluctantly consented to the raid . The three escorting destroyers were detached at 04 : 14 on 22 May , while the force steamed off Trondheim . At around 12 : 00 , Lütjens ordered his two ships to turn toward the Denmark Strait to attempt the break @-@ out into the open Atlantic . By 04 : 00 on 23 May , Lütjens ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to increase speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) to make the dash through the Denmark Strait . Upon entering the Strait , both ships activated their FuMO radar detection equipment sets . Bismarck led Prinz Eugen by about 700 m ( 770 yd ) ; mist reduced visibility to 3 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 to 4 @,@ 400 yd ) . The Germans encountered some ice at around 10 : 00 , which necessitated a reduction in speed to 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . Two hours later , the pair had reached a point north of Iceland . The ships were forced to zigzag to avoid ice floes . At 19 : 22 , hydrophone and radar operators aboard the German warships detected the cruiser HMS Suffolk at a range of approximately 12 @,@ 500 m ( 13 @,@ 700 yd ) . Prinz Eugen 's radio @-@ intercept team decrypted the radio signals being sent by Suffolk and learned that their location had been reported . Lütjens gave permission for Prinz Eugen to engage Suffolk , but the captain of the German cruiser could not clearly make out his target and so held fire . Suffolk quickly retreated to a safe distance and shadowed the German ships . At 20 : 30 , the heavy cruiser HMS Norfolk joined Suffolk , but approached the German raiders too closely . Lütjens ordered his ships to engage the British cruiser ; Bismarck fired five salvoes , three of which straddled Norfolk and rained shell splinters on her decks . The cruiser laid a smoke screen and fled into a fog bank , ending the brief engagement . The concussion from the 38 cm guns ' firing disabled Bismarck 's FuMO 23 radar set ; this prompted Lütjens to order Prinz Eugen to take station ahead so she could use her functioning radar to scout for the formation . At around 22 : 00 , Lütjens ordered Bismarck to make a 180 @-@ degree turn in an effort to surprise the two heavy cruisers shadowing him . Although Bismarck was visually obscured in a rain squall , Suffolk 's radar quickly detected the manoeuvre , allowing the cruiser to evade . The cruisers remained on station through the night , continually relaying the location and bearing of the German ships . The harsh weather broke on the morning of 24 May , revealing a clear sky . At 05 : 07 , hydrophone operators aboard Prinz Eugen detected a pair of unidentified vessels approaching the German formation at a range of 20 nmi ( 37 km ; 23 mi ) , reporting " Noise of two fast @-@ moving turbine ships at 280 ° relative bearing ! " = = = = Battle of the Denmark Strait = = = = At 05 : 45 , German lookouts spotted smoke on the horizon ; this turned out to be from Hood and Prince of Wales , under the command of Vice Admiral Lancelot Holland . Lütjens ordered his ships ' crews to battle stations . By 05 : 52 , the range had fallen to 26 @,@ 000 m ( 28 @,@ 000 yd ) and Hood opened fire , followed by Prince of Wales a minute later . Hood engaged Prinz Eugen , which the British thought to be Bismarck , while Prince of Wales fired on Bismarck . Adalbert Schneider , the first gunnery officer aboard Bismarck , twice requested permission to return fire , but Lütjens hesitated . Lindemann intervened , muttering " I will not let my ship be shot out from under my ass . " He demanded permission to fire from Lütjens , who relented and at 05 : 55 ordered his ships to engage the British . The British ships approached the German ships head on , which permitted them to use only their forward guns ; Bismarck and Prinz Eugen could fire full broadsides . Several minutes after opening fire , Holland ordered a 20 ° turn to port , which would allow his ships to engage with their rear gun turrets . Both German ships concentrated their fire on Hood . About a minute after opening fire , Prinz Eugen scored a hit with a high @-@ explosive 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) shell ; the explosion detonated unrotated projectile ammunition and started a large fire , which was quickly extinguished . After firing three four @-@ gun salvoes , Schneider had found the range to Hood ; he immediately ordered rapid @-@ fire salvoes from Bismarck 's eight 38 cm guns . He also ordered the ship 's 15 cm secondary guns to engage Prince of Wales . Holland then ordered a second 20 ° turn to port , to bring his ships on a parallel course with Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to shift fire and target Prince of Wales , to keep both of his opponents under fire . Within a few minutes , Prinz Eugen scored a pair of hits on the battleship that started a small fire . Lütjens then ordered Prinz Eugen to drop behind Bismarck , so she could continue to monitor the location of Norfolk and Suffolk , which were still some 10 to 12 nmi ( 19 to 22 km ; 12 to 14 mi ) to the east . At 06 : 00 , Hood was completing the second turn to port when Bismarck 's fifth salvo hit . Two of the shells landed short , striking the water close to the ship , but at least one of the 38 cm armour @-@ piercing shells struck Hood and penetrated her thin deck armour . The shell reached Hood 's rear ammunition magazine and detonated 112 t ( 110 long tons ) of cordite propellant . The massive explosion broke the back of the ship between the main mast and the rear funnel ; the forward section continued to move forward briefly before the in @-@ rushing water caused the bow to rise into the air at a steep angle . The stern also rose as water rushed into the ripped @-@ open compartments . Schneider exclaimed " He is sinking ! " over the ship 's loudspeakers . In only eight minutes of firing , Hood had disappeared , taking all but three of her crew of 1 @,@ 419 men with her . Bismarck then shifted fire to Prince of Wales . The British battleship scored a hit on Bismarck with her sixth salvo , but the German ship found her mark with her first salvo . One of the shells struck the bridge on Prince of Wales , though it did not explode and instead exited the other side , killing everyone in the ship 's command centre , save Captain John Leach , the ship 's commanding officer , and one other . The two German ships continued to fire upon Prince of Wales , causing serious damage . Guns malfunctioned on the recently commissioned British ship , which still had civilian technicians aboard . Despite the technical faults in the main battery , Prince of Wales scored three hits on Bismarck in the engagement . The first struck her in the forecastle above the waterline but low enough to allow the crashing waves to enter the hull . The second shell struck below the armoured belt and exploded on contact with the torpedo bulkhead , inflicting minimal damage . The third shell passed through one of the boats carried aboard the ship and then went through the floatplane catapult without exploding . At 06 : 13 , Leach gave the order to retreat ; only two of his ship 's ten 14 in ( 360 mm ) guns were still firing and his ship had sustained significant damage . Prince of Wales made a 160 ° turn and laid a smoke screen to cover her withdrawal . The Germans ceased fire as the range widened . Though Lindemann strongly advocated chasing Prince of Wales and destroying her , Lütjens obeyed operational orders to shun any avoidable engagement with enemy forces that were not protecting a convoy , firmly rejecting the request , and instead ordered Bismarck and Prinz Eugen to head for the North Atlantic . In the engagement , Bismarck had fired 93 armour @-@ piercing shells and had been hit by three shells in return . The forecastle hit allowed 1 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 t ( 980 to 1 @,@ 970 long tons ) of water to flood into the ship , which contaminated fuel oil stored in the bow . Lütjens refused to reduce speed to allow damage control teams to repair the shell hole which widened and allowed more water into the ship . The second hit caused some additional flooding . Shell @-@ splinters from the second hit also damaged a steam line in the turbo @-@ generator room , but this was not serious , as Bismarck had sufficient other generator reserves . The combined flooding from these two hits caused a 9 @-@ degree list to port and a 3 @-@ degree trim by the bow . = = = = Chase = = = = After the engagement , Lütjens reported , " Battlecruiser , probably Hood , sunk . Another battleship , King George V or Renown , turned away damaged . Two heavy cruisers maintain contact . " At 08 : 01 , he transmitted a damage report and his intentions to OKM , which were to detach Prinz Eugen for commerce raiding and to make for Saint @-@ Nazaire for repairs . Shortly after 10 : 00 , Lütjens ordered Prinz Eugen to fall behind Bismarck to discern the severity of the oil leakage from the bow hit . After confirming " broad streams of oil on both sides of [ Bismarck 's ] wake " , Prinz Eugen returned to the forward position . About an hour later , a British Short Sunderland flying boat reported the oil slick to Suffolk and Norfolk , which had been joined by the damaged Prince of Wales . Rear Admiral Frederic Wake @-@ Walker , the commander of the two cruisers , ordered Prince of Wales to remain behind his ships . The Royal Navy ordered all warships in the area to join the pursuit of Bismarck and Prinz Eugen . Tovey 's Home Fleet was steaming to intercept the German raiders , but on the morning of 24 May was still over 350 nmi ( 650 km ; 400 mi ) away . The Admiralty ordered the light cruisers Manchester , Birmingham , and Arethusa to patrol the Denmark Strait in the event that Lütjens attempted to retrace his route . The battleship Rodney , which had been escorting RMS Britannic and was due for a refit in the Boston Navy Yard , joined Tovey . Two old Revenge @-@ class battleships were ordered into the hunt : Revenge , from Halifax , and Ramillies , which was escorting Convoy HX 127 . In all , six battleships and battlecruisers , two aircraft carriers , thirteen cruisers , and twenty @-@ one destroyers were committed to the chase . By around 17 : 00 , the crew aboard Prince of Wales restored nine of her ten main guns to working order , which permitted Wake @-@ Walker to place her in the front of his formation to attack Bismarck if the opportunity arose . With the weather worsening , Lütjens attempted to detach Prinz Eugen at 16 : 40 . The squall was not heavy enough to cover her withdrawal from Wake @-@ Walker 's cruisers , which continued to maintain radar contact . Prinz Eugen was therefore recalled temporarily . The cruiser was successfully detached at 18 : 14 . Bismarck turned around to face Wake @-@ Walker 's formation , forcing Suffolk to turn away at high speed . Prince of Wales fired twelve salvos at Bismarck , which responded with nine salvos , none of which hit . The action diverted British attention and permitted Prinz Eugen to slip away . After Bismarck resumed her previous heading , Wake @-@ Walker 's three ships took up station on Bismarck 's port side . Although Bismarck had been damaged in the engagement and forced to reduce speed , she was still capable of reaching 27 to 28 knots ( 50 to 52 km / h ; 31 to 32 mph ) , the maximum speed of Tovey 's King George V. Unless Bismarck could be slowed , the British would be unable to prevent her from reaching Saint @-@ Nazaire . Shortly before 16 : 00 on 25 May , Tovey detached the aircraft carrier Victorious and four light cruisers to shape a course that would position her to launch her torpedo bombers . At 22 : 00 , Victorious launched the strike , which comprised six Fairey Fulmar fighters and nine Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers of 825 Naval Air Squadron , led by Lt Cdr Eugene Esmonde . The inexperienced aviators nearly attacked Norfolk on their approach ; the confusion alerted Bismarck 's anti @-@ aircraft gunners . Bismarck also used her main and secondary batteries to fire at maximum depression to create giant splashes in the paths of the incoming torpedo bombers . None of the attacking aircraft were shot down . Bismarck evaded eight of the torpedoes launched at her , but the ninth struck amidships on the main armoured belt , throwing one man into a bulkhead and killing him and injuring five others . The explosion also caused minor damage to electrical equipment . The ship suffered more serious damage from manoeuvres to evade the torpedoes : rapid shifts in speed and course loosened collision mats , which increased the flooding from the forward shell hole and eventually forced abandonment of the port number 2 boiler room . This loss of a second boiler , combined with fuel losses and increasing bow trim , forced the ship to slow to 16 knots ( 30 km / h ; 18 mph ) . Divers repaired the collision mats in the bow , after which speed increased to 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) , the speed that the command staff determined was the most economical for the voyage to occupied France . Shortly after the Swordfish departed the scene , Bismarck and Prince of Wales engaged in a brief artillery duel . Neither scored a hit . Bismarck 's damage control teams resumed work after the short engagement . The sea water that had flooded the number 2 port side boiler threatened to enter the number 4 turbo @-@ generator feedwater system , which would have permitted saltwater to reach the turbines . The saltwater would have destroyed the turbine blades and thus greatly reduced the ship 's speed . By morning on 25 May , the danger had passed . The ship slowed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) to allow divers to pump fuel from the forward compartments to the rear tanks ; two hoses were successfully connected and a few hundred tons of fuel were transferred . As the chase entered open waters , Wake @-@ Walker 's ships were compelled to zig @-@ zag to avoid German U @-@ boats that might be in the area . This required the ships to steam for ten minutes to port , then ten minutes to starboard , to keep the ships on the same base course . For the last few minutes of the turn to port , Bismarck was out of range of Suffolk 's radar . At 03 : 00 on 25 May , Lütjens ordered an increase to maximum speed , which at this point was 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . He then ordered the ship to circle away to the west and then north . This manoeuvre coincided with the period during which his ship was out of radar range ; Bismarck successfully broke radar contact and circled back behind her pursuers . Suffolk 's captain assumed that Bismarck had broken off to the west and attempted to find her by also steaming west . After half an hour , he informed Wake @-@ Walker , who ordered the three ships to disperse at daylight to search visually . The Royal Navy search became frantic , as many of the British ships were low on fuel . Victorious and her escorting cruisers were sent west , Wake @-@ Walker 's ships continued to the south and west , and Tovey continued to steam toward the mid @-@ Atlantic . Force H , with the aircraft carrier Ark Royal and steaming up from Gibraltar , was still at least a day away . Unaware that he had shaken off Wake @-@ Walker , Lütjens sent long radio messages to Naval Group West headquarters in Paris . The signals were intercepted by the British , from which bearings were determined . They were wrongly plotted on board King George V , leading Tovey to believe that Bismarck was heading back to Germany through the Iceland @-@ Faeroe gap , which kept his fleet on the wrong course for seven hours . By the time the mistake had been discovered , Bismarck had put a sizeable gap between herself and the British ships . British code @-@ breakers were able to decrypt some of the German signals , including an order to the Luftwaffe to provide support for Bismarck making for Brest , decrypted by Jane Fawcett on 25 May 1941 . The French Resistance provided the British with confirmation that Luftwaffe units were relocating there . Tovey could now turn his forces toward France to converge in areas through which Bismarck would have to pass . A squadron of Coastal Command PBY Catalinas based in Northern Ireland joined the search , covering areas where Bismarck might be headed in her attempt to reach occupied France . At 10 : 30 on 26 May , a Catalina piloted by Ensign Leonard B. Smith of the US Navy located her , some 690 nmi ( 1 @,@ 280 km ; 790 mi ) northwest of Brest . At her current speed , she would have been close enough to reach the protection of U @-@ boats and the Luftwaffe in less than a day . Most British forces were not close enough to stop her . The only possibility for the Royal Navy was Ark Royal with Force H , under the command of Admiral James Somerville . Victorious , Prince of Wales , Suffolk and Repulse were forced to break off the search due to fuel shortage ; the only heavy ships remaining apart from Force H were King George V and Rodney , but they were too distant . Ark Royal 's Swordfish were already searching nearby when the Catalina found her . Several torpedo bombers also located the battleship , about 60 nmi ( 110 km ; 69 mi ) away from Ark Royal . Somerville ordered an attack as soon as the Swordfish returned and were rearmed with torpedoes . He detached the cruiser Sheffield to shadow Bismarck , though Ark Royal 's aviators were not informed of this . As a result , the Swordfish , which were armed with torpedoes equipped with new magnetic detonators , accidentally attacked Sheffield . The magnetic detonators failed to work properly and Sheffield emerged unscathed . Upon returning to Ark Royal , the Swordfish loaded torpedoes equipped with contact detonators . The second attack comprised fifteen aircraft and was launched at 19 : 10 . At 20 : 47 , the torpedo bombers began their attack descent through the clouds . As the Swordfish approached , Bismarck fired her main battery at Sheffield , straddling the cruiser with her second salvo . Shell fragments rained down on Sheffield , killing three men and wounding several others . Sheffield quickly retreated under cover of a smoke screen . The Swordfish then attacked ; Bismarck began to turn violently as her anti @-@ aircraft batteries engaged the bombers . One torpedo hit amidships on the port side , just below the bottom edge of the main armour belt . The force of the explosion was largely contained by the underwater protection system and the belt armour but some structural damage caused minor flooding . The second torpedo — fired by pilot John Moffat — struck Bismarck in her stern on the port side , near the port rudder shaft . The coupling on the port rudder assembly was badly damaged and the rudder could not be disengaged , locked in a 12 ° turn to port . The explosion also caused much shock damage . The crew eventually managed to repair the starboard rudder but the port rudder remained jammed . A suggestion to sever the port rudder with explosives was dismissed by Lütjens , as damage to the screws would have left the battleship helpless . At 21 : 15 , Lütjens reported that the ship was unmanoeuvrable . = = = = Sinking = = = = With the port rudder jammed , Bismarck was now steaming in a large circle , unable to escape from Tovey 's forces . Though fuel shortages had reduced the number of ships available to the British , the battleships King George V and Rodney were still available , along with the heavy cruisers Dorsetshire and Norfolk . Lütjens signalled headquarters at 21 : 40 on the 26th : " Ship unmanoeuvrable . We will fight to the last shell . Long live the Führer . " The mood of the crew became increasingly depressed , especially as messages from the naval command reached the ship . Intended to boost morale , the messages only highlighted the desperate situation in which the crew found itself . As dark fell , Bismarck briefly fired on Sheffield , though the cruiser quickly fled . Sheffield lost contact in the low visibility and Captain Philip Vian 's group of five destroyers was ordered to keep contact with Bismarck through the night . The ships encountered Bismarck at 22 : 38 ; the battleship quickly engaged them with her main battery . After firing three salvos , she straddled the Polish destroyer ORP Piorun . The destroyer continued to close the range until a near miss at around 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft ) forced her to turn away . Throughout the night and into the morning , Vian 's destroyers harried Bismarck , illuminating her with star shells and firing dozens of torpedoes , none of which hit . Between 05 : 00 and 06 : 00 , Bismarck 's crew attempted to launch one of the Arado 196 float planes to carry away the ship 's war diary , footage of the engagement with Hood , and other important documents . The third shell hit from Prince of Wales had damaged the steam line on the aircraft catapult , rendering it inoperative . As it was not possible to launch the aircraft it had become a fire hazard , and was pushed overboard . After daybreak on 27 May , King George V led the attack . Rodney followed off her port quarter ; Tovey intended to steam directly at Bismarck until he was about 8 nmi ( 15 km ; 9 @.@ 2 mi ) away . At that point , he would turn south to put his ships parallel to his target . At 08 : 43 , lookouts on King George V spotted her , some 23 @,@ 000 m ( 25 @,@ 000 yd ) away . Four minutes later , Rodney 's two forward turrets , comprising six 16 in ( 406 mm ) guns , opened fire , then King George V 's 14 in ( 356 mm ) guns began firing . Bismarck returned fire at 08 : 50 with her forward guns ; with her second salvo , she straddled Rodney . Thereafter , Bismarck 's gunnery became increasingly difficult as the ship moved erratically in the heavy seas , unable to steer , depriving Schneider of a predictable course for range calculations . As the range fell , the ships ' secondary batteries joined the battle . Norfolk and Dorsetshire closed and began firing with their 8 in ( 203 mm ) guns . At 09 : 02 , a 16 @-@ inch shell from Rodney struck Bismarck 's forward superstructure , killing hundreds of men and severely damaging the two forward turrets . According to survivors , this salvo probably killed both Lindemann and Lütjens and the rest of the bridge staff . The main fire control director was also destroyed by this hit , which probably also killed Schneider . A second shell from this salvo struck the forward main battery was disabled , though it would manage to fire one last salvo at 09 : 27 . Lieutenant von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg , in the rear control station , took over firing control for the rear turrets . He managed to fire three salvos before a shell destroyed the gun director , disabling his equipment . He gave the order for the guns to fire independently , but by 09 : 31 , all four main battery turrets had been put out of action . One of Bismarck 's shells exploded 20 feet off Rodney 's bow and damaged her starboard torpedo tube — the closest Bismarck came to a direct hit on her opponents . By 10 : 00 , Tovey 's two battleships had fired over 700 main battery shells , many at very close range ; Bismarck had been reduced to a shambles , aflame from stem to stern . She suffered from a 20 ° list to port and was low in the water by the stern . Rodney closed to 2 @,@ 700 m ( 3 @,@ 000 yd ) , point @-@ blank range for guns of that size , and continued to fire . Tovey could not cease fire until the Germans struck their ensigns or it became clear they were abandoning ship . Rodney fired two torpedoes from her port @-@ side tube and claimed one hit . According to Ludovic Kennedy , " if true , [ this is ] the only instance in history of one battleship torpedoing another " . First Officer Hans Oels ordered the men below decks to abandon ship ; he instructed the engine room crews to open the ship 's watertight doors and prepare scuttling charges . Gerhard Junack , the chief engineering officer , ordered his men to set the demolition charges with a 9 @-@ minute fuse but the intercom system broke down and he sent a messenger to confirm the order to scuttle the ship . The messenger never returned and Junack primed the charges and ordered the crew to abandon the ship . Junack and his comrades heard the demolition charges detonate as they made their way up through the various levels . Oels rushed throughout the ship , ordering men to abandon their posts . After he reached the deck a huge explosion killed him and about a hundred others . The four British ships fired more than 2 @,@ 800 shells at Bismarck , and scored more than 400 hits , but were unable to sink Bismarck by gunfire . At around 10 : 20 , running low on fuel , Tovey ordered the cruiser Dorsetshire to sink Bismarck with torpedoes and sent his battleships back to port . Dorsetshire fired a pair of torpedoes into Bismarck 's starboard side , one of which hit . Dorsetshire then moved around to her port side and fired another torpedo , which also hit . By the time these torpedo attacks took place , the ship was already listing so badly that the deck was partly awash . It appears that the final torpedo may have detonated against Bismarck 's port side superstructure , which was by then already underwater . Around 10 : 35 , Bismarck capsized to port and slowly sank by the stern , disappearing from the surface at 10 : 40 . Some survivors reported they saw Captain Lindemann standing at attention at the stem of the ship as she sank . Junack , who had abandoned ship by the time it capsized , observed no underwater damage to the ship 's starboard side . Von Müllenheim @-@ Rechberg reported the same but assumed that the port side , which was then under water , had been more significantly damaged . Around 400 men were now in the water ; Dorsetshire and the destroyer Maori moved in and lowered ropes to pull the survivors aboard . At 11 : 40 , Dorsetshire 's captain ordered the rescue effort abandoned after lookouts spotted what they thought was a U @-@ boat . Dorsetshire had rescued 85 men and Maori had picked up 25 by the time they left the scene . A U @-@ boat later reached the survivors and found three men , and a German trawler rescued another two . One of the men picked up by the British died of his wounds the following day . Out of a crew of over 2 @,@ 200 men , only 114 survived . Bismarck was mentioned in the Wehrmachtbericht ( armed forces report ) three times during Operation Rheinübung . The first was an account of the Battle of the Denmark Strait ; the second was a brief account of the ship 's destruction , and the third was an exaggerated claim that Bismarck had sunk a British destroyer and shot down five aircraft . In 1959 , C. S. Forester published his novel Last Nine Days of the Bismarck . The book was adapted for the movie Sink the Bismarck ! , released the following year . For dramatic effect the film showed Bismarck sinking a British destroyer and shooting down two aircraft , neither of which happened . That same year , Johnny Horton released the song " Sink the Bismarck " . = = Wreckage = = = = = Discovery by Robert Ballard = = = The wreck of Bismarck was discovered on 8 June 1989 by Dr. Robert Ballard , the oceanographer responsible for finding RMS Titanic . Bismarck was found to be resting upright at a depth of approximately 4 @,@ 791 m ( 15 @,@ 719 ft ) , about 650 km ( 400 mi ) west of Brest . The ship struck an extinct underwater volcano , which rose some 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) above the surrounding abyssal plain , triggering a 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) landslide . Bismarck slid down the mountain , coming to a stop two @-@ thirds down . Ballard 's survey found no underwater penetrations of the ship 's fully armoured citadel . Eight holes were found in the hull , one on the starboard side and seven on the port side , all above the waterline . One of the holes is in the deck , on the bow 's starboard side . The angle and shape indicates the shell that created the hole was fired from Bismarck 's port side and struck the starboard anchor chain . The anchor chain has disappeared down this hole . Six holes are amidships , three shell fragments pierced the upper splinter belt , and one made a hole in the main armour belt . Further aft a huge hole is visible , parallel to the aircraft catapult , on the deck . The submersibles recorded no sign of a shell penetration through the main or side armour here , and it is likely that the shell penetrated the deck armour only . Huge dents showed that many of the 14 inch shells fired by King George V bounced off the German belt armour . Ballard noted that he found no evidence of the internal implosions that occur when a hull that is not fully flooded sinks . The surrounding water , which has much greater pressure than the air in the hull , would crush the ship . Instead , Ballard points out that the hull is in relatively good condition ; he states simply that " Bismarck did not implode . " This suggests that Bismarck 's compartments were flooded when the ship sank , supporting the scuttling theory . Ballard added " we found a hull that appears whole and relatively undamaged by the descent and impact " . They concluded that the direct cause of sinking was scuttling : sabotage of engine @-@ room valves by her crew , as claimed by German survivors . Ballard kept the wreck 's exact location a secret to prevent other divers from taking artefacts from the ship , a practice he considered a form of grave robbing . The whole stern had broken away ; as it was not near the main wreckage and has not yet been found , it can be assumed this did not occur on impact with the sea floor . The missing section came away roughly where the torpedo had hit , raising questions of possible structural failure . The stern area had also received several hits , increasing the torpedo damage . This , coupled with the fact the ship sank " stern first " and had no structural support to hold it in place , suggests the stern detached at the surface . In 1942 Prinz Eugen was also torpedoed in the stern , which collapsed . This prompted a strengthening of the stern structures on all German capital ships . = = = Subsequent expeditions = = = In June 2001 , Deep Ocean Expeditions , partnered with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution , conducted another investigation of the wreck . The researchers used Russian @-@ built mini @-@ subs . William N. Lange , a Woods Hole expert , stated , " You see a large number of shell holes in the superstructure and deck , but not that many along the side , and none below the waterline . " The expedition found no penetrations in the main armoured belt , above or below the waterline . The examiners noted several long gashes in the hull , but attributed these to impact on the sea floor . An Anglo @-@ American expedition in July 2001 was funded by a British TV channel . The team used the volcano — the only one in that area — to locate the wreck . Using ROVs to film the hull , the team concluded that the ship had sunk due to combat damage . Expedition leader David Mearns claimed significant gashes had been found in the hull : " My feeling is that those holes were probably lengthened by the slide , but initiated by torpedoes " . The 2002 documentary Expedition : Bismarck , directed by James Cameron and filmed in May – June 2002 using smaller and more agile Mir submersibles , reconstructed the events leading to the sinking . These provided the first interior shots . His findings were that there was not enough damage below the waterline to confirm that she had been sunk rather than scuttled . Close inspection of the wreckage confirmed that none of the torpedoes or shells had penetrated the second layer of the inner hull . Using small ROVs to examine the interior , Cameron discovered that the torpedo blasts had failed to shatter the torpedo bulkheads . Despite their sometimes differing viewpoints , these experts generally agree that Bismarck would have eventually foundered if the Germans had not scuttled her first . Ballard estimated that Bismarck could still have floated for at least a day when the British vessels ceased fire and could have been captured by the Royal Navy , a position supported by the historian Ludovic Kennedy ( who was serving on the destroyer HMS Tartar at the time ) . Kennedy stated , " That she would have foundered eventually there can be little doubt ; but the scuttling ensured that it was sooner rather than later . " When asked whether Bismarck would have sunk if the Germans had not scuttled the ship , Cameron replied " Sure . But it might have taken half a day . " In Mearns ' subsequent book Hood and Bismarck , he conceded that scuttling " may have hastened the inevitable , but only by a matter of minutes . " Ballard later concluded that " As far as I was concerned , the British had sunk the ship regardless of who delivered the final blow . " = Belle Vue Zoological Gardens = Belle Vue Zoological Gardens was a large zoo , amusement park , exhibition hall complex and speedway stadium in Belle Vue , Manchester , England , opened in 1836 . The brainchild of John Jennison , the gardens were initially intended to be an entertainment for the genteel middle classes , with formal gardens and dancing on open @-@ air platforms during the summer , but they soon became one of the most popular attractions in Northern England . Before moving to Belle Vue , Jennison , a part @-@ time gardener , had run a small aviary at his home , the beginnings of the zoo that over the years grew to become the third @-@ largest in the United Kingdom . Jennison set out a small amusements area in Belle Vue during the 1870s , which was expanded in the early 20th century to become what was advertised as the " showground of the world " . Popular rides included the 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) Bobs roller coaster and the Scenic Railway . Other entertainments included grand firework displays from 1852 and an annual Christmas circus from 1922 . Music and dancing were popular attractions in Belle Vue 's various ballrooms . The Kings Hall , opened in 1910 , housed the Hallé Orchestra for several years and hosted concerts by artists such as Jimi Hendrix , The Who , The Rolling Stones , Leonard Cohen , Johnny Cash and Led Zeppelin . Catering for visitors at Belle Vue was on an industrial scale , ranging from the late 19th century hot water rooms , which accommodated up to 3 @,@ 000 diners each , providing crockery and hot water for those who brought their own picnics , to more upmarket themed restaurants . Belle Vue became a part of the caterer and hotelier Charles Forte 's business empire towards the end of its life in the 1960s . Although he made some improvements to the zoo , Forte 's interests lay in developing the gardens ' dining and exhibition facilities . The Kings Hall was then the largest exhibition space outside London , but competition from the G @-@ Mex exhibition and conference centre in central Manchester led directly to its closure in 1987 . At its peak Belle Vue occupied 165 acres ( 0 @.@ 67 km2 ) and attracted more than two million visitors a year , up to 250 @,@ 000 of whom visited over the Easter weekend . The zoo closed in September 1977 after its owners decided they could no longer afford its losses of £ 100 @,@ 000 a year . The amusement park remained open on summer weekends until 1980 . The land was sold in 1982 , and the site finally cleared in 1987 . All that remains of Belle Vue today is a greyhound racing stadium and a snooker hall built in the stadium 's car park . = = Commercial history = = Belle Vue Zoological Gardens was the brainchild of entrepreneur and part @-@ time gardener John Jennison . He opened the grounds around his home in Adswood , Stockport to the public in 1826 , from where he and his wife Maria sold fruit and vegetables . He called his establishment Strawberry Gardens , later Jennison 's Gardens . Manchester 's increasing urban population encouraged the development of a thriving leisure industry , and public parks were popular . In 1828 or ' 29 Jennison purchased an adjacent 0 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) of land on which he and his wife built an aviary , to which they charged admission ; its first occupant was a captured thrush . Jennison turned his home into a public house , the Adam and Eve , which he and his wife ran together . In 1835 Jennison was approached by businessman George Gill , who suggested that he lease Belle Vue – a public house in 35 @.@ 75 acres ( 14 @.@ 47 ha ) of open land between Kirkmanshulme Lane and Hyde Road – as a more suitable site for his aviary . Jennison took out a mortgage of £ 300 to pay off the £ 80 mortgage on the Strawberry Gardens and spent the remainder on a trial six @-@ month lease of the Belle Vue property , in June 1836 . In December Jennison signed a 99 @-@ year lease at a rent of £ 135 per annum . For an extra £ 100 a year he leased additional land to extend the western boundary to Redgate Lane , close to Stockport Road , where he made a second entrance . To finance further expansion Jennison re @-@ mortgaged the site for £ 800 . Except for their belongings , which fitted on a handcart , all the Jennisons took with them to Belle Vue was two or three birdcages containing parrots and other assorted birds . At its opening in 1836 , Belle Vue contained an Italian Garden , lakes , mazes and hothouses , as well as the aviary . The family decided that their zoological collection had to be expanded as a matter of priority , and by 1839 elephants , lions , and other exotic African animals had been added . Many other attractions were subsequently added , including a racecourse in 1847 . The gardens were an immediate success , but the neighbouring St James 's Church was offended that they were open on Sundays , and asked Jennison to close while services were being conducted ; he " politely but firmly refused " . Admission to the gardens , which were open until 9 pm during the summer , was by subscription ticket priced at 10 shillings for a family and 5 shillings for an individual , beyond the means of most workers . Concerts of " genteel music " were staged , and there was dancing to various bands on a large open @-@ air wooden platform . Initially , the only public transport to Belle Vue was by horse @-@ drawn omnibus from what is now Piccadilly , in central Manchester , but the last departure time of 6 : 00 pm coincided with the end of most workers ' shifts . The first railway station was opened near Belle Vue in 1842 , allowing workers easier access to the gardens and their attractions , and by 1848 complaints began to appear in the press that " roughs " in coarse attire were embarrassing middle @-@ class ladies on the dancing platform by attempting to dance with them . There were also complaints about working @-@ class men dancing together , and increasing resentment from working @-@ class patrons about Belle Vue 's " forbidding dress requirements , its restricted opening hours , [ and ] its unwelcoming admission price " . In the words of historian David Mayer , Jennison was facing a crisis : " either keep Belle Vue Gardens an exclusive , class @-@ specific , genteel preserve for the gentry and the middle class – who would arrive and depart in their own carriages through the Hyde Road gate – or open the gardens to a popular crowd who would arrive by train at the Stockport Road ( Longsight ) gate " . For a time , Jennison sent carriages to the railway station to collect the first @-@ class passengers , but he also abandoned the idea of subscription tickets , settling instead on a general admission price of 4d , rising to 6d in 1851 . = = = Financial difficulties = = = Although the gardens thrived in their early years , by 1842 Jennison was in financial difficulties , and on 13 December bankruptcy proceedings were initiated . Jennison 's problems were caused by his failure to sell the Strawberry Gardens property , competition from the recently opened Manchester Zoological Gardens , and the Manchester and Birmingham Railway track cutting through the land Jennison had leased in December 1836 , restricting access to the gardens . Jennison twice tried unsuccessfully to sell Belle Vue , after which his creditors allowed him time to make a success of the gardens ; by the end of the 1843 season Jennison was able to repay his debts . The railway that had been a thorn in his side eventually proved to be an asset when Longsight railway station was re @-@ sited closer to Belle Vue in 1842 , making it easier for visitors to reach the gardens . = = = Expansion = = = An additional 13 acres ( 5 @.@ 3 ha ) of farmland at the western end of the site was incorporated into the gardens in 1843 . One of the ponds was enlarged to form a boating lake , which later became the Firework Lake . An island was created in the middle of the lake , which housed a natural history museum . In 1858 another 8 acres ( 3 @.@ 2 ha ) were leased , in the triangle between Kirkmanshulme Lane and Hyde Road , from which clay was extracted to make bricks for the gardens ' buildings . The result of the excavations was a large hole that Jennison filled with water , creating the Great Lake in 1858 . Two paddle steamers , the Little Eastern and the Little Britain , each capable of accommodating 100 passengers , offered trips around the lake for 1d ( equivalent to £ 0 @.@ 38 in 2015 ) . By 1905 Belle Vue consisted of 68 acres ( 28 ha ) of walled gardens , with an additional 97 acres ( 39 ha ) outside its walls . = = = War years = = = During the First World War the gardens were used by the Manchester Regiment for drilling , and a munitions factory complete with railway sidings was built . At the start of the Second World War the gardens were closed at noon following Neville Chamberlain 's radio broadcast announcing that Britain was at war with Germany on Sunday , 3 September 1939 , forcing the cancellation of an " open rehearsal " by the Gorton Philharmonic Orchestra . The nation 's armed forces immediately sequestered the Exhibition Hall , the restaurants and most of the top floor of the administrative offices . They also took over the sports ground to use as a barrage balloon base , and dug several air @-@ raid shelters . The gardens were allowed to re @-@ open on 15 September 1939 , and remained open throughout the rest of war , although parts of the site were requisitioned by Manchester Corporation and converted into allotments . Although the Second World War forced the cancellation of many events , and made it difficult to feed all the zoo 's animals , it was nevertheless very lucrative for the gardens . Profits steadily increased , and the company made several compensation claims for the requisitioning of its facilities . It was granted £ 4 @,@ 000 in 1941 ( equivalent to £ 179 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) and £ 7 @,@ 242 in 1942 ( equivalent to £ 304 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) ; in gratitude for the latter , the company presented the Civil Defence Service with a new mobile canteen . = = = Changes in ownership = = = The Jennisons had been considering setting up a limited company to administer the gardens since 1895 . Most were in agreement except for Richard , John Jennison Snr 's youngest son . After his death in 1919 , the remaining family members created John Jennison & Co Ltd with a capital of £ 253 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 10 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , comprising investments and loans totalling £ 63 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 2 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . George Jennison became chairman , secretary , treasurer and joint managing director with John Jennison Jnr , John Jennison Snr 's great @-@ grandson . John , William , Angelo and Richard Jennison Jnr were appointed to the board of directors which was reported to be a " very happy board with few meetings and an entire absence of quarrels " . On 27 November 1924 the Jennisons agreed to sell Belle Vue for £ 250 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 12 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) to Harry George Skipp , but he was acting as an intermediary , and on 6 March 1925 a further contract was signed by the Jennisons , Skipp and a new company called Belle Vue ( Manchester ) Ltd . The agreement was for the new company to take over from 1 January 1925 , but the transfer did not take place until 28 March . Under the new managing director , John Henry Iles , the gardens expanded to include what became a world @-@ famous amusement park . = = = Later years = = = Belle Vue enjoyed a brief post @-@ war boom between the end of the Second World War and the early 1950s . During the early 1960s , it could still attract 150 @,@ 000 visitors on Easter Monday , but by the end of the decade that figure had dropped to about 30 @,@ 000 , as the competition from rival amusement parks increased . Sir Leslie Joseph and Charles Forte bought Belle Vue in 1956 , but by 1963 Forte was in sole control . Although he made some improvements to the zoo , Forte 's interests lay in developing the gardens ' dining and exhibition facilities . Fire became an " ever present hazard " during Belle Vue 's later years . The most devastating occurred in 1958 and destroyed many buildings , including the Coronation Ballroom . Although the zoo was spared , the fire almost reached the lion house , distressing one of the older lionesses so much that she had to be shot . Vandalism and theft also became serious and recurring problems ; intruders killed 38 of the zoo 's birds , including 9 penguins , in 1960 . = = Zoo = = Belle Vue was the first privately financed zoo in England , and grew to become the third @-@ largest in the UK . Jennison 's original idea was that the gardens should be primarily a botanical excursion , but it became clear that the public was interested in the animals as an attraction in their own right . The initial collection had consisted of domestic birds and a few exotic parrots , but Jennison probably also acquired those animals that could not be sold after the Manchester Zoological Gardens closed in 1842 . By 1856 , the Jennisons had added kangaroos , rhinos , lions , bears and gazelles . In 1871 the zoo acquired four giraffes ; the following year an elephant , Maharajah , was bought for £ 680 from Wombwell 's Menagerie No.1 in Edinburgh . The plan to transport Maharajah from Edinburgh to Manchester by train was abandoned after the elephant destroyed the railway compartment in which he was to travel . It was therefore decided that Maharajah and his trainer , Lorenzo Lawrence , should walk to Manchester , a journey they completed in 10 days with little incident . Lorenzo became the zoo 's head elephant keeper , and stayed at Belle Vue for more than 40 years . Maharajah provided elephant rides to the public for ten years , until his death from pneumonia in 1882 . His skeleton was preserved and added to the gardens ' natural history museum . When the museum was decommissioned in 1941 , the skeleton , along with other exhibits , was transferred to the Manchester Museum . In 1893 a chimpanzee was purchased from another of Wombwell 's Travelling Menageries in London . The four @-@ year @-@ old chimpanzee , Consul , was dressed in a smoking jacket and cap and puffed on a cob pipe ; he frequently accompanied James Jennison to business meetings . Consul proved to be exceptionally popular , and after his death on 24 November 1894 , the Jennisons immediately obtained a replacement , Consul II , who played a violin while riding a tricycle around the gardens , later graduating to a bicycle . Food for the animals became difficult to obtain during the First World War , but for the most part the gardens carried on as usual . Following the declaration of peace , several monkeys originally destined for government experiments with poison gas were acquired , as was a hippo , a dromedary and a zebra . In 1921 and 1922 the zoo obtained two animals who became great favourites . Lil , an Indian elephant , arrived in 1921 accompanied by her British Malayan handler , Phil Fernandez . Phil and Lil provided entertainment , advertising , and elephant rides for 35 years . Frank , a brown bear , arrived in 1922 . By the time of his death , 40 years later , he was known as the " Father of the Zoo " . Open @-@ air cages installed in the Monkey House resulted in a dramatic improvement in the life expectancy of its residents , but the potential for expansion and improvement after the First World War was limited by the post @-@ war economy . Rising labour costs and minimal profits resulted in the gardens ' increasing dilapidation . The zoo began to be neglected after the sale of Belle Vue in 1925 , but it was rejuvenated by the appointment of Gerald Iles as zoo superintendent in 1933 . A new Gibbon Cage and Monkey Mountain were created and the Reptile House was extended . On the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , the animal keepers were issued with rifles to deal with any dangerous animals who might escape if the gardens were bombed . A night shift was introduced to watch over the animals 24 hours a day . A list of dangerous animals that was drawn up included 13 lions , 6 tigers , 2 leopards , 1 cheetah , 2 tigons , 3 other small cats and several bears . Although the zoo 's administrators succeeded in convincing the local authorities that any danger from the animals was minimal , primarily because the perimeter walls were so high , the keepers were replaced in their sharp @-@ shooting role by soldiers who patrolled the grounds armed with tommy guns . Stocks were increased by animals transferred from other zoos that had been forced to close . Initially the zoo was given favourable food rationing quotas , but certain foods became unavailable and the price of others increased dramatically . Bananas were impossible to obtain and the supply of fish was problematic . As a result , the keepers were forced to experiment . The sealions became casualties of the food shortage when their keepers attempted to feed them strips of beef soaked in cod liver oil . Although they seemed to thrive on this diet , their digestive systems were unable to cope with the unusual food , and they eventually died of stomach ulcers . The lions ' new diet was green @-@ coloured horsemeat , and the monkeys were fed on boiled potatoes . The birds @-@ of @-@ paradise ( lack of millet ) , and the penguins ( lack of fish ) , were unable to adapt to their make @-@ do diet and also succumbed . Vegetables were not in short supply however , as the garden staff grew lettuce , cabbage and carrots in the kitchen gardens . Wartime interruptions in the supply of gas for heating resulted in the deaths of all the zoo 's tropical fish and several other animals , including a lioness called Pearl and her litter of cubs . Although Manchester was heavily bombed during the Blitz , the gardens sustained only minor damage . The Scenic Railway was hit by an incendiary bomb and the Reptile House was damaged by shell splinters from ack @-@ ack guns , which also caused the death of a bull bison . Iles remained as superintendent until 1957 , and proved to be a good publicist for the zoo , taking part in radio and television programmes such as Children 's Hour . A new attraction was introduced in 1963 , a Chimps ' Tea Party , which proved to be very popular . The zoo 's last superintendent , Peter Grayson , took over in 1971 , but by then the owners of Belle Vue had lost interest in the zoo , and closure seemed imminent . News that Belle Vue Zoological Gardens would close on 11 September 1977 was announced on BBC Radio at 10 : 00 am on 4 August 1977 . The 24 keepers were informed an hour before the news report went on air . The reason given was that the company could no longer afford to cover losses of about £ 100 @,@ 000 per year . Shortly before the closure , a number of non @-@ poisonous reptiles were stolen from the Reptile House , only one of which , a 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) python , was recovered . A 15 @-@ year @-@ old elephant , Ellie May , had acquired an undeserved reputation for being dangerous , which made her extremely difficult to sell . Her food costs became difficult to justify , but Grayson refused to have her put down . Although he left the zoo in January 1978 , Grayson returned frequently to care for Ellie May , the last animal left at the zoo . Eventually Rotterdam Zoo agreed to take her , and plans were made to transport the elephant to the Netherlands . Ellie May refused to budge however , and overnight developed pneumonia and heart failure . Grayson and veterinary surgeon , David Taylor , felt that she would not recover , and decided to call in a marksman to euthanise her . Public reaction to the zoo 's closure was one of " relative indifference " , with only a few minor protests . The doors remained open to visitors at a discounted admission price until early November , a little beyond the official closing date , by which time most of the animals had been sold for an estimated £ 100 @,@ 000 . = = Gardens and amusement park = = Under the Jennisons , the main priorities for Belle Vue were the zoological and botanical gardens ; amusements were provided merely as a distraction . The Jennisons laid out formal gardens in various styles between 1836 and 1898 , including mazes , grottoes , an Italian garden , " billiard @-@ table lawns " and constructed Tropical Plant Houses . There were also exotic constructions like the Indian temple and grotto , designed by George Danson , Belle Vue 's scenic artist . Built to resemble a ruined temple , it housed snakes and crocodiles as well as flowers . At the end of the 19th century , " the resort relied almost entirely for its attraction on its delightful gardens " , but by 1931 the formalism had entirely disappeared . The gardens were also used to stage large political rallies for a wide spectrum of opinion , such as the Great Liberal Demonstration of 1924 , at which Lloyd George addressed a crowd of 50 @,@ 000 , the first political meeting at which loudspeakers were used . The British Union of Fascists , popularly known as the Blackshirts , also held a meeting there , in September 1934 . One contemporary commentator observed that " perhaps the Ku Klux Klan will be found in session there one day , for Belle Vue is nothing if not catholic " . The Jennisons set out a small amusements area near the main entrance to the gardens in Hyde Road during the 1870s. comprising steam @-@ driven attractions such as the Ocean Wave , installed in 1894 , which simulated a storm at sea . John Henry Iles , who took over control of Belle Vue in 1925 , believed that expansion of the rides and the fun aspect of the park was the way forward , and added attractions such as dodgems , the Caterpillar , the Ghost Train , Jack & Jill , and the Flying Sea Planes . The Scenic Railway , purchased in 1925 but not fully operational until two years later , proved to be one of Belle Vue 's most popular rides , and remained in use until 1975 . The Bobs rollercoaster was arguably the most popular ride of all , so named because it cost a bob ( shilling ) for admission . It had an 80 @-@ foot ( 24 m ) drop at a 45 degree angle , down which the cars travelled at 60 miles per hour ( 97 km / h ) . It was built by Harry Traver and designed by Fredrick Church , who had to develop a series of engineering innovations to make the ride possible . The Bobs ' distinctive white @-@ painted wooden superstructure became an imposing element of the Belle Vue skyline . During the 1960s and 70s " Professor " Len Tomlinson operated one of the UK 's last flea circuses in a small booth on the amusement park . The attraction consisted of harnessed human fleas racing chariots at the rate of an inch every few seconds , pulling a garden roller , riding a tricycle and " fencing fleas " scrabbling at pins stuck in pieces of cork in a semblance of a sword fight . The flea circus closed down in the late 1970s as improvements in domestic living conditions made human fleas more difficult to obtain . When the zoo closed in 1977 , it was announced that the gardens and amusement park would be expanded with " new active leisure pursuits " . By 1978 the site had been renamed Belle Vue Leisure Park , and the Tropical River House had been converted to a skateboard arena in an attempt to cash in on the new craze from America . The arena turned out to be poor investment however , as there was virtually no demand after the first few months . The 1977 closure of the London Festival Gardens in Battersea , London , allowed Belle Vue the opportunity to buy their Jetstream ride , which opened the following year . Other attractions that closed at about the same time as the zoo included the boating on Firework Lake , and the miniature railway . In 1979 the amusement park was leased to the main concessionaire , Alf Wadbrooke , although by then it was only open at weekends during the summer season . The long @-@ promised restoration of the Scenic Railway had not happened and the Water Chute had closed . In August 1980 , Wadbrooke was given notice to close down the park by 26 October 1980 and to have all his equipment removed by February 1981 . = = Music and dancing = = In 1853 Belle Vue staged the first British open brass band championships . Attended by a crowd of more than 16 @,@ 000 , it was the first of what became an annual event until 1981 . A revival occurred in the popularity of brass band contests during the 1970s ; competitions between local bands could attract crowds of up to 5 @,@ 000 . Belle Vue contained several ballrooms , the first of which was constructed in 1851 , above a hotel at the Longsight entrance to the gardens . A larger structure , the Music Hall , was built in 1856 , underneath the firework viewing stand , capable of accommodating 10 @,@ 000 people on its 27 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 500 m2 ) of dance floor . A wooden open @-@ air dancing platform was opened in 1852 , and by 1855 had been extended to cover an area of 0 @.@ 5 acres ( 0 @.@ 20 ha ) . Throughout the summer , music was provided by bands such as the Belle Vue Military , the Belle Vue Quadrille and the Cheetham Hill Brass Band . Open @-@ air dancing continued until the 1940s , but by then the attraction had lost its appeal , and the platform was converted to a roller skating rink . It was destroyed by fire in 1958 . The same fire destroyed the Coronation Ballroom , which was replaced by a " huge ballroom complex " known as the New Elizabethan Ballroom in 1959 . With room for 4 @,@ 000 dancers on its two floors , and the largest Wurlitzer organ in Europe ( installed in 1967 ) , it was described as being " unsurpassed in Great Britain for size , comfort and elegance " . Many well @-@ known bands of the time regularly played for the dancers , including Geraldo and his Orchestra and the Joe Loss Orchestra . During the 1960s and ' 70s the ballroom also hosted discothèques , such as Jimmy Savile 's Top Ten Club . = = Kings Hall = = Opened in 1910 the Kings Hall was a converted tea room , enlarged in 1928 and reconstructed as a " saucer like arena " capable of seating 7 @,@ 000 people . The name " Kings " was chosen in reference to the two kings who reigned during the six @-@ week period of its construction : George V and Edward VII . The hall was designed to stage " Demonstrations , Exhibitions , Social Gatherings , etc " , and was a popular concert venue until the 1970s , with appearances by artists such Jimi Hendrix , The Who , The Rolling Stones and Led Zeppelin . The Kings Hall became home to the Hallé Orchestra in 1942 , when its previous base , the Free Trade Hall , was damaged by bombing during the Manchester Blitz ; the orchestra continued to perform concerts at Belle Vue for more than 30 years . From 1961 until 1966 , bingo sessions were held in the hall . Able to accommodate up to 3 @,@ 500 players , it was advertised as the " largest bingo club in the world " . Many exhibitions were also held in the hall , which with its 100 @,@ 000 square feet ( 9 @,@ 300 m2 ) of floor space was one of the largest venues outside London . It was split into three separate halls in 1956 , to allow three exhibitions to be run simultaneously . The last piece of live music played in the hall , on 14 February 1982 , was a performance by the Glossop School Band , who were taking part in the North West Amateur Brass Band Championship in front of a crowd of 1 @,@ 700 . The hall had been sold 18 months earlier to a development company , Espley Tyas Development Group , and was by then scheduled for demolition to allow the site to be redeveloped . News of the sale had triggered the formation of local action groups , who organised a petition signed by 50 @,@ 000 people in an unsuccessful effort to save the hall . The exhibition halls were sold to Mullet Ltd. in 1983 , but competition from the newly opened G @-@ Mex exhibition and conference centre in central Manchester led directly to their closure . The site was sold to the British Car Auction Group in 1987 , and the buildings demolished to make way for a large car auction centre . = = Catering = = The gates were opened to visitors between 10 : 00 am and 10 : 30 pm . Kiosks around the gardens sold snacks and ice cream , made in Belle Vue 's own ice cream factory . Families were catered for at lunchtimes by the hot @-@ water rooms , each of which could accommodate up to 3 @,@ 000 diners , providing hot water for drinks and crockery for visitors who brought their own picnics . The price was 2d per person , according to the 1892 guide book , and cakes and jams made in the gardens ' bakery and on @-@ site kitchens were also available , at extra cost . " One shilling tea rooms " , close to the hot water rooms , offered lunchtime deals such as a pot of tea , bread and butter , green salad and fruit cake for a shilling . The more expensive restaurants tended to open during the evening . Alcohol was available in the many licensed premises in the gardens , including , until its closure in 1928 , beer produced in Belle Vue 's on @-@ site brewery . Many public houses were also opened in the area immediately surrounding the gardens . Licensed hotels were built at each of the three entrances to the gardens . The Longsight Hotel , built in 1851 and demolished in 1985 , was a part of the entrance . The Lake Hotel , built in 1876 , had facilities for the free stabling of horses belonging to Belle Vue 's visitors . It was extended in 1929 and then again in 1960 , when a concert room was added , offering late @-@ night entertainment . After its closure in the 1980s , the hotel was demolished . The Hyde Road Hotel and Restaurant at the main entrance , originally known as Belle Vue House , was renamed the Palm Court Restaurant in 1942 , and then Caesar 's Palace in 1969 . It housed a cabaret bar and a restaurant , which was converted to an amusement arcade in 1976 when it was once again renamed , to Jennison 's Ale House . The building was closed after a partial collapse in 1980 . = = Firework displays = = After a trip to London to visit The Great Exhibition of 1851 , Jennison 's ideas for Belle Vue became more ambitious . He decided to implement large , scheduled " fantastic " firework displays employing a scenic artist , George Danson , to design and create a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 800 m2 ) canvas backdrop . The displays took place on an island in the middle of the Firework Lake , which also housed a small natural history museum . In keeping with Jennison 's desire for self @-@ sufficiency , the fireworks were made on @-@ site at Belle Vue . The first display took place on 2 May 1852 , designed by " Signor Pietro " . The theme for the early displays was " battle enactment " , which proved to be popular with the paying public and resulted in Belle Vue becoming an all @-@ day entertainment venue . The firework displays incorporated real people and real weapons , some of which , 1866 @-@ vintage Snyder rifles , were issued to members of the local Home Guard during the Second World War . The first display , a re @-@ enactment of the Bombardment of Algiers involving 25 men , 300 rockets , 25 " large shells " , and 50 Roman candles , was watched by 18 @,@ 000 spectators . The displays continued throughout the First World War , except that the use of rockets was prohibited under the Defence of the Realm Act . Reflecting contemporary events , the theme for the 1915 display was " The Battle of the Marne " ; in 1916 it was " The War in Flanders " , during which one spectator got so caught up in the action that he waded across the lake to join in with the " fighting " . Anticipating the outbreak of the Second World War , the theme for the 1933 display was " Air Raid on London " . The last grand firework display took place in 1956 , on the theme of Robin Hood and His Merrie Men . = = Circus = = The first Belle Vue Circus took place in 1922 , but it was not considered a success . The next was staged in 1929 , after the company negotiated a deal with the Blackpool Tower Company to provide acts and equipment for what subsequently became a regular Christmas event held in the Kings Hall . One of the first arrivals from Blackpool was ringmaster George Lockhart , known as " the prince of ringmasters " . Lockhart became synonymous with the Belle Vue Circus , and his face was used on many advertising posters . Zoo superintendent Gerald Iles included some of the zoo 's animals in the circus , in a feature called Noah 's Ark . For the 1967 – 68 season , to celebrate his 39th consecutive year , the circus was temporarily renamed the " George Lockhart Celebration Circus " . Lockhart was the ringmaster for 43 years , until his retirement in 1970 at the age of 90 . His replacement , Danish @-@ born Nelly Jane , held the job for two years before being replaced by Norman Barrett , the last ringmaster . Another of the circus stalwarts was resident band leader and Belle Vue 's musical director Fred Bonelli , who started his career as a trumpet player for Barnum and Bailey 's circus band , and led various Belle Vue circus bands for 40 years . Many of the acts featured animals , such as Eugene Weidmann 's mixed group of tigers and bears , Thorson Kohrmann and his Farmyard Friends , Willi Mullen 's Caucasian Cavalry & Ponies , Miss Wendy 's Performing Pigeons and Harry Belli 's Horse Riding Tiger – to say nothing of the Dog ! As well as the animal acts there was the usual collection of acrobats , strongmen and clowns , two of whom , Jacko the Clown and his partner " Little Billy " Merchant , performed at Belle Vue for thirty years . The last circus to take place in the Kings Hall before its sale was in 1981 . For a few years afterwards the circus continued in the car park , then in a marquee on wasteland directly opposite the gardens ' main gates on Hyde Road . = = Sports facilities = = Sporting events became a permanent feature at Belle Vue after an athletics stadium was built in 1887 . = = = Greyhound racing = = = Greyhound racing was introduced to Belle Vue in 1926 , in the UK 's first purpose @-@ built greyhound stadium , constructed at a cost of £ 22 @,@ 000 . It was built on land leased by Belle Vue to the Greyhound Racing Association ( GRA ) , a company chaired by Sir William Gentle , who was also the chairman of Belle Vue ( Manchester ) Ltd . The site was sold to the GRA in 1937 , with the proviso that it had to be used for greyhound racing . = = = Speedway = = = One of the activities that became synonymous with Belle Vue was speedway ( known at the time as dirt track racing ) , which was introduced on 28 July 1928 in the recently built greyhound racing arena . The sport proved to be very popular , and the decision was taken to convert the 1887 athletics ground into a speedway stadium , which opened on 23 March 1929 . It was at the time the largest purpose @-@ built speedway stadium in the country , possibly in the world . Eventually it became the first home of the Belle Vue Aces , but it was also used for many other events , such as football , cricket , rugby league ( Belle Vue Rangers ) , baseball , stock car racing and tennis . The stadium had covered accommodation for 40 @,@ 000 spectators . As the speedway bikes ran on wood alcohol ( known as dope ) , they were unaffected by fuel rationing during the Second World War and racing was able to continue , although many other attractions in the gardens were forced to close . Belle Vue sold the stadium in 1982 , but speedway continued there until 1987 ; the final event was a stock car race , held on 14 November 1987 , shortly before the stadium was demolished after having been sold to the British Car Auction Group . The Belle Vue Aces returned to their first home , the greyhound stadium , where they had begun in 1929 . = = = Boxing and wrestling = = = From the late 1920s until the outbreak of the Second World War , Belle Vue was " the boxing Mecca of Europe " . Bouts were held in the Kings Hall , and although popularity declined in the years following the war , Belle Vue staged a televised world championship fight in 1964 between Terry Downes and Willie Pastrano . The first wrestling contest took place in the Kings Hall on 15 December 1930 , and proved to be a popular attraction . Except for a break during the Second World War , events continued to be held until 1981 , watched by up to 5 @,@ 000 spectators . Popular performers included Jack Pye , Big Daddy , and Giant Haystacks . = = = Rugby league = = = The speedway stadium became the home of rugby league club , Broughton Rangers , who recruited international players including Frank Whitcombe ( who also worked in the zoo as a zookeeper ) , Billy Stott , and James Cumberbatch . When the club was taken over by Belle Vue in 1933 Broughton were given a 21 @-@ year lease for use of the stadium , at a rent to be based on attendances . The first Anglo @-@ Australian Test match of the 1933 – 34 Kangaroo tour of Great Britain was played at Belle Vue , with the home side 's victory attracting approximately 34 @,@ 000 spectators . Games were suspended during the Second World War , and on their resumption in 1945 the club was renamed Belle Vue Rangers . Belle Vue declined to renew the lease when it expired in 1955 as the arrangement was proving to be a " financial burden " , and the team was disbanded . = = = Football = = = After a fire at Manchester City 's Hyde Road ground in 1920 , the club considered a move to the Belle Vue athletics stadium , but it was deemed too small . At the behest of Belle Vue director John Henry Iles and John Ayrton , Manchester Central , was formed , and played its home matches at the speedway stadium . One of Manchester Central 's first matches at Belle Vue was a visit by FA Cup holders Blackburn Rovers in September 1928 . The club attempted unsuccessfully to join The Football League in 1930 and in 1931 ; with momentum lost , the club faded , and folded in 1934 . = = Present day = = In 1963 the Top Lake , formerly known as the Great Lake , was filled in and a 32 @-@ lane ten @-@ pin bowling alley built on its site , just behind the Lake Hotel . Known as the Belle Vue Granada Bowl , it opened in 1965 , advertised as " the north 's leading luxury centre " . In 1983 , after the rest of Belle Vue had closed , it was sold to First Leisure Group , and bowling continued for a time . A snooker club was built in a corner of the car park in 1985 . All that remained of Belle Vue as of 2010 is the greyhound stadium and the snooker club ; the original gardens and amusement park are now an industrial and residential area . A road in the housing estate , Lockhart Close , was named after circus ringmaster George Lockhart . In the aftermath of Manchester 's failed supercasino bid in 2008 , local groups began to lobby for the construction of a " linear park " in the area , building on " the legacy of Belle Vue " . It would have comprised a new zoo , deer park and amusement park . = Walkabout ( Lost ) = " Walkabout " is the fourth episode of the first season of Lost . The episode was directed by Jack Bender and written by David Fury . It first aired on October 13 , 2004 , on ABC . The episode centers on the character of John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , who in flashbacks is revealed , in one of the first plot twists of the show , to be paralyzed from the waist down as he attempts to join a walkabout tour . On the present day events , Locke leads a hunting mission after the wild boar in the jungle as the food supplies of the Oceanic 815 survivors starts to shorten , while other survivors decide to burn the plane 's fuselage . John Locke 's backstory was conceived during the writing of the previous episode , " Tabula Rasa " , and director Jack Bender decided to shoot the flashbacks in a way it enhanced the contrast between Locke 's life before and after the crash . Problems involving the usage of real boar caused the producers to use computer @-@ generated replacements and shots that suggested the animals ' presence . " Walkabout " was watched by 18 @.@ 16 million people and was reviewed positively , later being considered one of the show 's best episodes . = = Plot = = = = = Flashbacks = = = John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) is shown working in an office building for a box company . He has a cruel manager named Randy Nations ( Billy Ray Gallion ) who is constantly taunting and demeaning Locke . At one point Locke tells Randy off and feels great about it . He tells a woman named Helen on the phone about it , but it is revealed that she charges by the hour to talk with Locke , and that they have been conversing for eight months . Locke reveals to Helen that he is going on a walkabout and would like for Helen to go with him ; she tells him that she can 't meet customers in person and that his paid hour on the phone with her is up . In a later flashback , Locke is in Australia talking to one of the leaders of a walkabout . He refuses to let Locke come on the walkabout because of his condition , saying it is too big of a risk for the insurance company . As the man gets up to leave for the trip , Locke is shown to be using a wheelchair . Towards the end of the episode , a unique type of flashback is shown : one on the island . In the aftermath of Oceanic Flight 815 crash 's , Locke wakes up on the beach , and notices that his toes wiggle , making him realize that he is no longer paralyzed . He stands up and is called over by Jack Shephard ( Matthew Fox ) to help with an injured person . = = = On the Island = = = It has been 4 days since the crash , September 25 , 2004 . Locke awakens from Oceanic Flight 815 's crash and wiggles his toes , realizing that he is no longer paralyzed . Boars raid the body @-@ filled fuselage , causing Jack to decide it should be burned . The next day , the survivors discover that their food is exhausted , and wonder what to do . Locke reveals to hold many hunting knives , and suggests to go after the boar in the jungle . On his hunting mission , Locke is accompanied by Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) – who was given by Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) an antenna , which after being set will help triangulate the signal of the French transmission heard two days before – and Michael Dawson ( Harold Perrineau ) . While hunting the boar , Michael is wounded by one of the animals . Kate starts leading Michael back to the beach , while Locke goes on his own into the jungle . As Kate and Michael head back , she climbs up a tree to attach the antenna . However , before she can finish , she hears the sounds of the monster , causing her to drop and break the equipment . The Monster heads straight for Locke , who stares straight at it . Throughout the episode , Jack has been talking to Rose Nadler ( L. Scott Caldwell ) . Rose 's husband , Bernard Nadler ( Sam Anderson ) , was in the tail section of the plane in the bathroom . He , along with the rest of the tail section 's passengers , is believed by the survivors to be dead , but Rose is convinced that he is alive and that the tail section of the plane thinks that the middle section is dead . Michael and Kate return to camp , and when she goes to tell Jack about Locke , Jack sees a man in a suit walk into the jungle . Jack chases after him and Kate follows , but instead of the mysterious figure , they find Locke , who brings with him a dead boar . That night , the fuselage is burned while Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) holds a memorial service for the dead passengers using information she found in their passports , wallets , and luggage . Michael thanks Locke for hunting the boar and then asks Locke about the Monster , but Locke says that he did not see anything . Looking towards the fire , Locke sees his wheelchair against the flame and smiles . = = Production = = While writing " Tabula Rasa " , Damon Lindelof suggested that John Locke was in a wheelchair before going to the island , and while the rest of the writing team initially reacted with shock , they embraced the idea . Lindelof wanted to embrace how " what you think these people are is actually entirely different " , particularly since " Tabula Rasa " did not have many developments on Kate 's backstory or why she was a fugitive , " the Locke thing was a huge , big , reveal " . To enhance the plot twist , all the flashbacks were shot in a way that disguised the presence of a wheelchair . In the scene where Locke is sitting in his bed , the paralysis is alluded by the electromedical nerve stimulation machine on his nightstand . Lindelof also created a title for the episode , " Lord of the Files " , a pun on Lord of the Flies and Locke 's off @-@ island occupation , but the writers had already settled on " Walkabout " . To enhance the contrast between Locke 's pre and post @-@ crash life , director Jack Bender decided to put very little green and blue imagery in the flashbacks since the two colors are the most present in the island – being the jungle and the sea , respectively . The flashbacks were also shot with fixed cameras and wider lenses , " Godfather @-@ style " , to display the bleakness and sterility of Locke 's world , and objects such as vending machines were put to remind of the " things taken for granted " that the castaways lack on the island . The flashback scenes featuring the day of the crash ( see above ' Flashbacks ' section above ) were shot in a way that looked similar to the ones from the pilot episode , with the only shot from the pilot being the one where Jack requests Locke 's assistance . The scenes featuring boar were originally planned to use actual , domesticated animals . Since bringing domesticated boar from continental United States was expensive , and the animals available in Hawaii did not look like wild boar and rarely moved ( the script required them to run in most scenes ) , the producers decided to use computer @-@ generated boar instead , along with reaction shots from the actors and first @-@ person sequences from the animals ' point of view . Instead of having a stunt double for Kate climbing the tree to place the antenna , Evangeline Lilly climbed the tree herself . The Australian office that hosts the travel agency was filmed in an empty retail space in downtown Honolulu . The episode is the first to feature Christian Shephard , but he is not portrayed by John Terry , who had not been cast yet . Late into writing , the producers decided to start setting up Sayid 's backstory by introducing the pictures of Nadia . The scenes where Sayid looks at the photos were reshot when production of " Solitary " began and Andrea Gabriel was selected for the role , as the original pictures depicted a different actress . = = Themes and analysis = = Robert Dougherty writes that the episode possesses similar themes to " Tabula Rasa " – " Walkabout " is about " being able to overcome the past and start over . " It presents the dichotomy seen in much of the series ; while Jack is a man of science , Locke is a man of faith . Lindelof discussed that since Locke 's healing was interpreted by the character as a religious experience , " this character had been presented as this very sort of mystical figure moving forward " . = = Reception = = " Walkabout " received a 6 @.@ 5 in the ages 18 – 49 demographic in the Nielsen ratings . The episode was watched by 18 @.@ 16 million viewers , an improvement of 1 @.@ 6 million over the previous episode , " Tabula Rasa " . Reviews for the episode were positive . Chris Carabott of IGN gave " Walkabout " a 9 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating that " Terry O 'Quinn puts in an exceptional performance " , and commenting that showing Locke , who " seemed like a confident and resourceful man with a mysterious and intriguing past " , to be a " shell of a human being that is trying desperately to find his place in the world " was " a perfect juxtaposition of the differences between Locke off and on the island " . He also praised the supporting stories , claiming that " Matthew Fox does a great job of playing the uneasy leader " as Jack Shephard and that the Shannon @-@ Charlie storyline " does supply a little comic relief " . Ryan Mcgee of Zap2it described the revelation that Locke was a paraplegic as being " one of the show 's signature moments " , and commented that the episode " cemented the show as ' Must @-@ See TV ' " and was " a five @-@ star effort . " Robin Pierson of The TV Critic gave the episode a rating of 86 / 100 , saying that " Walkabout " is an episode " which seems to confirm all the promise of Lost ’ s pilot episodes " , and that the episode " both enhances and completely changes how we perceive both Locke and Lost . " Dan Kawa of Television Without Pity rated the episode as a ' B ' . Todd VanDerWerff of the Los Angeles Times said that ' Walkabout ' is one of the most confident episodes a series has ever unveiled that early in its run " and that the episode " cemented more ' Lost ' fans than just me , maybe more than any other episode . " David Fury was nominated for an Emmy Award for " Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series " for writing this episode . O 'Quinn submitted his work in " Walkabout " and " The Moth " for the Emmy Award for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . = = Significance and legacy = = " Walkabout " comprises a significant chapter in Lost 's history , persuading viewers of the series ' ability to exist in the long term . Viewers learned that the series would be full of surprises and mysteries , and Lindelof even considered it " a litmus test " for viewers , particularly regarding how after a twist like Locke 's past , " the show isn 't going to openly state what the implications of that are . " Entertainment Weekly considered " Walkabout " to be the best episode of Season 1 . IGN ranked " Walkabout " as the fifth best Lost episode ever , behind " The Life and Death of Jeremy Bentham " , the Pilot , " Through the Looking Glass " and " The Constant " . The episode was also featured in similar lists by the Los Angeles Times , TV Guide , National Post , and ABC2 . Jason Snell of The Incomparable thought similarly , saying " Skippable ? Are you kidding ? If you could watch only one first @-@ season episode of “ Lost , ” this might be it . " The episode also shaped how O 'Quinn viewed his character , as he was unaware that Locke would be paralyzed until reading the script . To the actor , " Walkabout and the fifth season episode " The Life and Death of Jeremy Bentham " are the two installments which " sort of ( summarize ) [ Locke 's ] whole trip . " = Credit Suisse = Credit Suisse Group is a Swiss multinational financial services holding company , headquartered in Zürich , that operates the Credit Suisse Bank and other financial services investments . The company is organized as a stock corporation with four divisions : Investment Banking , Private Banking , Asset Management , and a Shared Services Group that provides marketing and support to the other three divisions . Credit Suisse 's stock unsurprisingly hit a new 52 @-@ week low of $ 10 @.@ 01 during trading on July 6 , 2016 while somewhat recent reports have suggested it is yet again being investigated by the U. S. Department of Justice in relation to tax evasion . Credit Suisse is also contending with a valid federal lawsuit filed against it at a New York City court and related litigation filed with the Administrative Review Board of the U.S. Department of Labor pertaining to the Sarbanes @-@ Oxley Act 's whistleblower protections . On July 15 , 2016 , the latest legal brief was filed in that Sarbanes case with the Administrative Review Board at the expense of Credit Suisse , NTT Data , Inc . , and the U.S. Department of Labor . Credit Suisse was founded by Alfred Escher in 1856 under the name Schweizerische Kreditanstalt ( SKA , English : Swiss Credit Institution ) in order to fund the development of Switzerland 's rail system . It issued loans that helped create Switzerland 's electrical grid and the European rail system . It also helped develop the country 's currency system and funded entrepreneurship . In the 1900s Credit Suisse began shifting to retail banking in response to the elevation of the middle @-@ class and the growing popularity of savings accounts . Credit Suisse partnered with First Boston in 1978 . After a large failed loan put First Boston under financial stress , Credit Suisse bought a controlling share of the bank in 1988 . In the 1990s , Credit Suisse acquired the Winterthur Group , Swiss Volksbank , Swiss American Securities Inc . ( SASI ) and Bank Leu among others . In the year 2000 , it added the U.S. investment firm Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette . The company restructured itself in 2002 , 2004 and 2006 . It was one of the least affected banks during the global financial crisis , but afterwards began shrinking its investment business , executing layoffs and cutting costs . During the period between 2008 and 2012 , Germany , Brazil , and the United States began a series of investigations into the use of Credit Suisse accounts for tax evasion . In May 2014 , the company pleaded guilty to decades of conspiring to help US citizens avoid taxes , and agreed to pay $ 2 @.@ 6 billion in fines . In 2014 , Credit Suisse had 888 @.@ 2 USD Bn of assets under management ( AuD ) according to the Scorpio Partnership ( an increase of 9 @.@ 5 % on 2013 ) . = = Corporate structure = = Credit Suisse Group AG is organized as a joint @-@ stock company registered in Zürich that operates as a holding company . It owns the Credit Suisse bank and other interests in the financial services business . Credit Suisse is governed by a board of directors , its shareholders and independent auditors . The Board of Directors organize the Annual General Meeting of Shareholders while investors with large stakes in the company determine the agenda . Shareholders elect auditors for one @-@ year terms , approve the annual report and other financial statements , and have other powers granted by law . Shareholders elect members of the board of directors to serve a three @-@ year term based on candidates nominated by the Chairman 's and Governance committee and the Board of Directors meet six times a year to vote on company resolutions . The Board sets Credit Suisse 's business strategies and approves its compensation principles based on guidance from the compensation committee . It also has the authority to create committees that delegate specific management functions . Credit Suisse has two divisions , Private Banking & Wealth Management and Investment Banking . A Shared Services department provides support functions like risk management , legal , IT and marketing to all areas . Operations are divided into four regions : Switzerland , Europe , the Middle East and Africa , the Americas and the Asian Pacific . Credit Suisse Private Banking has wealth management , corporate and institutional businesses . Credit Suisse Investment Banking handles securities , investment research , trading , prime brokerage and capital procurement . Credit Suisse Asset Management sells investment classes , alternative investments , real @-@ estate , equities , fixed income products and other financial products . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = Credit Suisse 's founder , Alfred Escher , was called , " the spiritual father of the railway law of 1852 , " for his work defeating the idea of a state @-@ run railway system in Switzerland in favor of privatization . Escher founded Credit Suisse ( originally called the Swiss Credit Institution , i.e. , Schweizerische Kreditanstalt ) in 1856 primarily to provide domestic funding to railway projects , avoiding French banks that wanted to exert influence over the railway system . Escher aimed to start the company with three million shares and instead sold 218 million shares in three days . The bank was modeled after Crédit Mobilier , a bank funding railway projects in France that was founded two years prior , except Credit Suisse had a more conservative lending policy focused on short @-@ to @-@ medium term loans . In its first year of operation , 25 percent of the bank 's revenues was from the Swiss Northeastern Railway , which was being built by Escher 's company , Nordostbahn . Credit Suisse played a substantial role in the economic development of Switzerland , helping the country develop its currency system , funding entrepreneurs and investing in the Gotthard railway , which connected Switzerland to the European rail system in 1882 . Credit Suisse helped fund the creation of Switzerland 's electrical grid through its participation with Elektrobank ( now called Elektrowatt ) , a coalition of organizations that co @-@ financed Switzerland 's electrical grid . According to The Handbook on the History of European Banks , " Switzerland 's young electricity industry came to assume the same importance as support for railway construction 40 years earlier . " The bank also helped fund the effort to disarm and imprison French troops that crossed into Swiss borders in the 1870 Franco @-@ Prussian War . By the end of the war , Credit Suisse had become the largest bank in Switzerland . Throughout the late 1800s , Credit Suisse set up banking and insurance companies in Germany , Brussels , Geneva and others ( as SKA International ) with the bank as a shareholder of each company . It created insurance companies like Swiss RE , Swiss Life , Rentenanstalt and Schweiz . Credit Suisse had its first unprofitable year in 1886 , due to losses in agriculture , venture investments , commodities and international trade . The bank created its own sugar beet factory , bought 25 @,@ 000 shares in animal breeding ventures and supported an export business , Schweizerische Exportgesellschaft , that experienced heavy losses for over @-@ speculative investing . In the early 1900s Credit Suisse began catering to consumers and the middle @-@ class with deposit counters , currency exchanges and savings accounts . The first branch outside of Zürich was opened in 1905 in Basel . The bank helped companies affected by World War I restructuring , and extended loans for reconstruction efforts . During the 1920s depression , net profits and dividends were halved and employees took salary cuts . After World War II , a substantial portion of Credit Suisse 's business was in foreign reconstruction efforts . Holocaust survivors had problems trying to retrieve assets from relatives that died in concentration camps without death certificates . This led to a class action lawsuit in 1996 that settled in 2000 for $ 1 @.@ 25 billion . The Agreement on the Swiss Banks ' Code of Conduct with Regard to the Exercise of Due Diligence was created in the 1970s , after a Credit Suisse branch in Chiasso was exposed for illegally funneling $ 900 million in Italian deposits to speculative investments . = = = Acquisitions , growth and First Boston = = = In 1978 , White , Weld & Company dropped its partnership with Credit Suisse after it was bought by Merrill Lynch . To replace the partnership with White , Credit Suisse partnered with First Boston to create Credit Suisse First Boston in Europe and bought a 44 percent stake in First Boston 's US operations . In 1987 , the Group acquired the blue chip London stockbrokers Buckmaster & Moore . Originally established by Irish aristocrat Charles Armytage @-@ Moore and sportsman Walter Buckmaster , who had met at Repton School . As stockbrokers they were very well connected , had developed a good private client business , which at one time included John Maynard Keynes . Other Credit Suisse First Boston brands were later created in Switzerland , Asia , London , New York and Tokyo . According to an article in The New York Times , First Boston became " the superstar of the Euromarkets " by buying stakes in American companies that wanted to issue bonds . In 1988 First Boston loaned $ 487 million to Gibbons and Green for the purchase of the Ohio Mattress Company , which was purchased at twenty times its annual revenue . Gibbons had also borrowed $ 475 million in junk bonds . When the junk bonds market crashed the following year , Gibbons couldn 't repay First Boston . Credit Suisse injected $ 725 million to keep First Boston in business , which ultimately led to the company being taken over by Credit Suisse . This became known as the " burning bed " deal , because the Federal Reserve overlooked the Glass – Steagall Act that requires separation between commercial and investment banks in order to preserve the stability of the financial markets . In the late 1990s Credit Suisse executed an aggressive acquisition strategy . The bank acquired Bank Leu , known as Switzerland 's oldest bank , in 1990 . In 1993 Credit Suisse outbid UBS for a controlling stake in Switzerland 's fifth largest bank , Swiss Volksbank in a $ 1 @.@ 1 billion deal . It also merged with Winterthur Group in 1997 for about $ 9 billion and acquired the asset management division of Warburg , Pincus & Co. in 1999 for $ 650 million . Donaldson , Lufkin & Jenrette was purchased for $ 11 @.@ 5 billion in 2000 . In 1996 Credit Suisse restructured as the Credit Suisse Group with four divisions : Credit Suisse Volksbank ( later called Credit Suisse Bank ) for domestic banking , Credit Suisse Private Banking , Credit Suisse Asset Management and Credit Suisse First Boston for corporate and investment banking . The restructure was expected to cost the company $ 800 million and result in 7 @,@ 000 lost jobs , but save $ 560 million a year . While Credit Suisse First Boston had been struggling , Credit Suisse 's overall profits had grown 20 percent over the prior year , reaching $ 664 million . In 1999 Japan 's Financial Supervisory Agency temporarily suspended the financial @-@ products division 's license to operate in Japan for " window dressing , " the practice of selling derivatives that are often used by bank clients to hide losses . In the 2000s Credit Suisse executed a series of restructures . In 2002 the bank was consolidated into two entities : Credit Suisse First Boston for investments and Credit Suisse Financial Services . A third unit was added in 2004 for insurance . Credit Suisse restructured again in 2004 under what it calls the " one bank " model . Under the restructuring , every board had a mix of executives from all three divisions . It also changed the compensation and commission models to encourage cross @-@ division referrals and created a " solution partners " group that functions between the investment and private banking divisions . Following the restructure Credit Suisse 's private banking division grew 19 percent per year despite the economic crisis . The firm bumped long @-@ time rival UBS off the number one position in Euromoney 's private banking poll . In 2006 , Credit Suisse acknowledged misconduct for helping Iran and other countries hide transactions from US authorities and paid a $ 536 million settlement . The same year it merged Bank Leu AG , Clariden Holding AG , Bank Hofmann AG and BGP Banca di Gestione Patrimoniale into a new company called Clariden Leu . The increasing importance of sustainability and the related commitments and liabilities of international standards such as the UNGC , of which the bank is a member , lead to an increasingly sophisticated and ambitious risk management over the years . Credit Suisse operates a process which since 2007 uses RepRisk , a Swiss provider of ESG Risk analytics and metrics , to screen and evaluate environmental and social risks of risky transactions and due diligence . In 2009 Yellowstone Club founder Tim Blixseth sued Credit Suisse when the bank attempted to collect on $ 286 million in loan debt during Yellowstone 's bankruptcy proceedings . The debtor had borrowed more than $ 300 million for the business , but used a large portion of it for personal use before eventually filing for bankruptcy . Four lawsuits were filed from other resorts seeking $ 24 billion in damages alleging Credit Suisse created loans with the intention of taking over their properties upon default . = = = Post financial crisis = = = According to The Wall Street Journal , " Credit Suisse survived the credit crisis better than many competitors . " Credit Suisse had $ 902 million in writedowns for subprime holdings and the same amount for leveraged loans , but it did not have to borrow from the government . Along with other banks , Credit Suisse was investigated and sued by US authorities for bundling mortgage loans with securities , misrepresenting the risks of underlying mortgages during the housing boom . Following the crisis , Credit Suisse cut more than one @-@ trillion in assets and made plans to cut its investment banking arm 37 percent by 2014 . It reduced emphasis on investment banking and focused on private banking and wealth management . In July 2011 , Credit Suisse cut 2 @,@ 000 jobs in response to a weaker than expected economic recovery and later merged its asset management with the private bank group to cut additional costs . A series of international investigations took place in the early 2000s regarding the use of Credit Suisse accounts for tax evasion . The Brazilian government investigated 13 former and current Credit Suisse employees in 2008 . The investigation led to arrests that year and in 2009 as part of a larger crackdown in Brazil . Four Credit Suissse bankers were accused of fraud by the US Justice Department in 2011 for helping wealthy Americans avoid taxes . German authorities found that citizens were using insurance policies of a Bermuda @-@ based Credit Suisse subsidiary to earn tax @-@ free interest . In November 2012 , Credit Suisse 's asset management division was merged with the private banking arm . In September 2012 , the Swiss government gave banks like Credit Suisse permission to provide information to the US Justice Department for tax evasion probes . In February 2014 it agreed to pay a fine of $ 197 million after one of its businesses served 8 @,@ 500 US clients without registering its activities , leading to suspicion as to whether it was helping Americans evade taxes . It was one of 14 Swiss banks under investigation . Separately , in 2013 , German authorities began to probe Credit Suisse , its private bank subsidiary Clariden Leu , and its regional subsidiary Neue Aargauer Bank for helping German citizens evade taxes . The bank eventually entered into a € 150 million settlement with the government . In March 2014 , Credit Suisse denied claims it had been drawn into a Swiss competition probe investigating potential collusion to manipulate foreign exchange rates by various Swiss and foreign banks . In May 2014 , Credit Suisse pleaded guilty to conspiring to aid tax evasion . It was the most prominent bank to plead guilty in the United States since Drexel Burnham Lambert in 1989 and the largest to do so since the Bankers Trust in 1999 . " Credit Suisse conspired to help U.S. citizens hide assets in offshore accounts in order to evade paying taxes . When a bank engages in misconduct this brazen , it should expect that the Justice Department will pursue criminal prosecution to the fullest extent possible , as has happened here , " Attorney General Eric H. Holder said at the time . Holder also said " This case shows that no financial institution , no matter its size or global reach , is above the law . " Credit Suisse shares rose 1 % on the day the $ 2 @.@ 6 billion penalty was announced . On 10 March 2015 , it was announced that Tidjane Thiam , the CEO of Prudential would leave to become the next CEO of Credit Suisse . = = Financial products = = Credit Suisse endorses a strategy called bancassurance of trying to be a single company that offers every common financial services product . The investment bank is intended for companies and wealthy individuals with more than 50 @,@ 000 euro . Credit Suisse developed the CreditRisk + model of risk assessment in loans , which is focused exclusively on the chance of default based on the exogenous Poisson method . As of 2002 about 20 percent of Credit Suisse 's revenue was from its insurance business it gained through the 1997 acquisition of Winterthur . The investment bank 's insurance products are primarily popular in the domestic market and include auto , fire , property , life , disability , pension and retirement products among others . Historically 20 – 40 percent of the bank 's revenue has been from private banking services , one of its higher profit @-@ margin divisions . Credit Suisse produces one of the six hedge funds following European stock indices that are used to evaluate the performance of the markets . The investment bank also has a 30 percent ownership in hedge fund investment firm York Capital Management . York sells hedge funds independently to its own clients , while Credit Suisse also offers them to private banking clients . Credit Suisse manages the financial instruments of the Dow Jones Credit Suisse long / short equity index ( originally called Credit Suisse / Tremont Hedge Fund Indexes ) . According to a 2011 article in SeekingAlpha , Credit Suisse 's investment managers favor financial , technology and energy sector stocks . The bank 's head of equity investments in Europe said the team focuses on " value with an emphasis on free cashflow . " She also has an interest in companies undergoing management changes that may influence the stock price . According to a story in the Wall Street Journal , the head of Credit Suisse 's International Focus Fund keeps a portfolio of only 40 – 50 stocks , instead of the industry @-@ norm of more than 100 . Credit Suisse publishes its investment advice in four publications : Compass , Viewpoints , Research and the Credit Suisse Investment Committee Report . = = Reputation and rankings = = People should judge for themselves how Credit Suisse should be regarded by taking into account the following statement that appears on the United States Department of Justice 's web site about Credit Suisse : " As part of the plea agreement , Credit Suisse acknowledged that , for decades prior to and through 2009 , it operated an illegal cross @-@ border banking business that knowingly and willfully aided and assisted thousands of U.S. clients in opening and maintaining undeclared accounts and concealing their offshore assets and income from the IRS . " Credit Suisse is a member of Wall Street 's bulge bracket , a list of less than a dozen of the largest and most profitable banks . The company has been identified as one of the world 's most important banks , upon which international financial stability depends . The bank is also one of Fortune Magazine 's most admired companies . Credit Suisse has been recognized as the world 's best private bank by Euromoney 's Global Private Banking Survey and as the best European Equity Manager by Global Investors . In polls by Euromoney , it has been ranked as the top private bank and the best bank in Switzerland . As of 2004 , Credit Suisse was first in volume of high @-@ yield transactions , second for corporate high @-@ yield bond insurance and third for IPO underwriting . The Securities Data Company ranked Credit Suisse as the fourth best place for financial advice for mergers and acquisitions in the US in 1995 and sixth for domestic equity issues . Credit Suisse has been recognized by the Asset Triple A Awards . In 2005 Credit Suisse was ranked as the second best prime broker by Institutional Investor . = = Work environment = = Credit Suisse is more internationally minded than most European banks . According to WetFeet 's Insider Guide , Credit Suisse offers more travel opportunities , greater levels of responsibility and more client interaction than new employees get at competing firms , but is known for long hours . Analysts report 60- to 110 @-@ hour work @-@ weeks . Roles and responsibilities are less stringent and the environment is pleasant despite hours being " the most grueling on Wall Street . " Vault 's Insider 's Guide reached similar conclusions , noting above @-@ average training , executive access and openness matched with reports of 80- to 100 @-@ hour work @-@ weeks . = John Hines ( Australian soldier ) = John " Barney " Hines ( 1873 – 1958 ) was a British @-@ born Australian soldier of World War I , known for his prowess at collecting " souvenirs " from German soldiers . Hines was the subject of a famous photo taken by Frank Hurley that depicted him surrounded by German military equipment and money he had looted during the Battle of Polygon Wood in September 1917 . This image is among the best @-@ known Australian photographs of the war . Born in Liverpool , England , in 1873 , Hines served in the Royal Navy and King 's Liverpool Regiment , and worked in several occupations . He arrived in Australia shortly before World War I began and volunteered for the Australian Imperial Force in August 1915 . Although discharged due to poor health in early 1916 , he rejoined in August that year and served on the Western Front from March 1917 to mid @-@ 1918 , when he was discharged again for health reasons . During his period in France he proved to be an aggressive soldier , and gained fame for the collection of items that he amassed , but was undisciplined when not in combat and frequently punished . Following World War I , Hines lived in poverty on the outskirts of Sydney until his death in 1958 . = = Early life = = Hines was born in Liverpool in 1873 . When he was aged 14 he attempted to join the British Army , but was returned to his mother after she protested . At the age of 16 he successfully enlisted in the Royal Navy but was discharged the next year after contracting malaria . During the following decades Hines drifted between jobs and countries , including spending three years in the King 's Liverpool Regiment and serving as a guide in the Second Boer War , before arriving in Australia in mid @-@ 1914 . He was a large man and much of his body was covered in tattoos . Hines may also have been illiterate , though he was capable of signing his name . = = World War I = = Hines first joined the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) on 24 August 1915 , falsely claiming to be 28 years of age . In the year before he joined the Army he had worked as a seaman , engineer and shearer . He was discharged from the AIF as medically unfit on 20 January 1916 . On 8 May Hines successfully rejoined the AIF , this time giving an age of 36 years and seven months . By this stage of the war medical requirements were less strict due to the need for reinforcements to make good the AIF 's casualties . Hines was assigned to the 45th Battalion and departed Sydney for Europe onboard HMAT A18 Wiltshire on 22 August 1916 . After completing training in England , Hines joined the 45th Battalion on the Western Front in March 1917 . In June that year he captured a force of 60 Germans during the Battle of Messines by throwing hand grenades into their pillbox , and was later wounded . He returned to his battalion in time for the Battle of Polygon Wood in September , where Frank Hurley photographed him on 27 September surrounded by the loot he had captured . Hines was an aggressive soldier and it has been claimed that he killed more Germans than any other member of the AIF . Though brave in battle and admired by his fellow soldiers , his behaviour was erratic at times . The wartime commander of the 45th Battalion , Arthur Samuel Allen , described Hines to a journalist in 1938 as " a tower of strength to the battalion ... while he was in the line " . Hines ' enthusiasm for collecting German military equipment and German soldiers ' personal possessions became well known within and possibly outside of his battalion , and earned him the nickname of " Souvenir King " . Although he collected some items from battlefields at Ypres and the Somme region , most were stolen from German prisoners of war . He kept the items he collected for himself , and there are no records of any being handed over to the Australian War Records Section , the AIF unit responsible for collecting items for later display in Australia . Hines sold some of the items he collected to other soldiers , including for alcohol . The photograph of Hines at the Battle of Polygon Wood was published in late 1917 under the title Wild Eye , the souvenir king and became one of the best @-@ known Australian photographs of the war . Many soldiers identified with Hines and were amused by his collection of souvenirs . The photograph was used as propaganda , and a false story developed that the German Kaiser Wilhelm II had become enraged after seeing it . Away from the front line , Hines developed a record of indiscipline . He was court martialled on nine occasions for drunkenness , impeding military police , forging entries in his pay book and being absent without leave . He also claimed to have been caught robbing the strongroom of a bank in Amiens , though this is not recorded in his Army service record . As a result of these convictions , Hines lost several promotions he had earned for his acts of bravery . He was also fined on several occasions , and the resulting need for money may have been one of the factors that motivated his looting . A member of the 3rd Battalion described Hines as " not normally a weak man but rather one ... uncontrolled " . An officer from the 45th Battalion stated after the war that Hines had been " two pains in the neck " . In mid @-@ 1918 Hines was discharged from the AIF as being medically unfit due to hemorrhoid problems . He arrived back in Australia on 19 October 1918 . While his Army service file records that he was lightly wounded on two occasions , Hines later claimed to have been wounded five times . = = Later years = = Hines was traumatised by his experiences during World War I. For 40 years afterwards he lived in a humpy made of cloth bags near Mount Druitt on the outskirts of Sydney , and never married . The humpy was surrounded by a fence on which he hung helmets taken from German soldiers ; he became well known to locals , though school children were afraid of him . Hines was unable to find consistent work , and lived on his Army pension as well as income from odd jobs and selling his souvenirs . He gained renewed fame when the photo of him at Polygon Wood was displayed at the temporary Australian War Museum in Sydney ( the predecessor of the Australian War Memorial ) from 1933 , and several newspapers and magazines aimed at former servicemen published profiles of him . An article in the Returned Sailors and Soldiers Imperial League of Australia 's magazine Reveille in 1934 highlighted Hines ' desperate living conditions and stated that he had been unemployed for four years . Several former soldiers sent money to him in response to this article . Hines ' pension was also doubled , though this income made him ineligible for relief work during the Great Depression . Despite his poverty , Hines travelled to Concord Repatriation Hospital each week to donate a suitcase of vegetables from his garden to the former soldiers being treated there . Hines told a journalist in June 1939 that he was seeking to join the Militia and hoped to fight in another war . He attempted to enlist in the military during World War II , despite being in his 60s , but was rejected . An article published in The Nepean Times during 1943 claimed that Hines had attempted to stow away on a troop ship in 1940 , but was found and sent ashore before the vessel sailed . On 28 January 1958 , Hines died at Concord Repatriation Hospital aged 84 or 85 . He was buried in Rookwood Cemetery in a grave which was unmarked until 1971 , when the Mount Druitt sub @-@ branch of the Returned Services League of Australia paid for a headstone . The Blacktown City Council also renamed the street on which he lived in the suburb of Minchinbury to John Hines Avenue , and a monument commemorating him was built at the nearby Mount Druitt Waterholes Remembrance Garden in 2002 . A large version of the famous photograph of Hines was accorded a prominent position in the Australian War Memorial 's permanent building in Canberra after it opened in 1941 . The photo was also included in the 2014 redevelopment of the Memorial 's permanent World War I exhibition . In a short biography of Hines published in 2002 , historian Peter Stanley commented that " ' Wild Eye 's ' bravado conceals a deeper pathos " and he " was a man whose skills in fighting were needed and whose knack for souveniring was admired , but he had few gifts that a peaceful society valued " . = Steven the Sword Fighter = " Steven the Sword Fighter " is the sixteenth episode of the first season of the American animated television series Steven Universe . It is written by Joe Johnston and Jeff Liu . In the United States , the episode originally aired on Cartoon Network on April 9 , 2014 , the first new episode to air on the series ' new Wednesday time slot . Pianist Aivi Tran and sound designer Steven Velema of the musical group Aivi & Surasshu composed one of the episode 's soundtracks to resemble the " broken facsimile " nature of Holo @-@ Pearl . The episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 098 million viewers , becoming the thirty @-@ sixth most watched episode aired by the network for the week of April 7 to April 13 , 2014 . It is currently the lowest rated episode of the series . The episode shows Pearl attempting to teach Steven the art of sword @-@ fighting using Holo Pearl , a holographic version of herself . However , during the lessons , Pearl gets injured and retreats into her gem to heal and make a new body to project . = = Plot = = While Steven ( Zach Callison ) , Garnet ( Estelle ) , Amethyst ( Michaela Dietz ) and Pearl ( Deedee Magno ) are watching a fictional Japanese movie titled Lonely Blade , Pearl critiques the film 's sword fighting techniques and offers to take Steven to the Ancient Sky Arena to show him how it is really done . To give him a proper demonstration , Pearl summons " Holo @-@ Pearl " , a holographic version of herself to spar with . After Pearl wins a sparring match with Holo @-@ Pearl , she begins to show Steven the basics of sword @-@ fighting . However , Pearl 's lessons bore Steven , making him clamor for Pearl to teach him the signature move from the Lonely Blade movie , much to Pearl 's chagrin . While Pearl is distracted talking to Steven , Holo @-@ Pearl impales her sword through Pearl 's chest , which causes Pearl to lose her physical form , leaving nothing but her gemstone . Although Steven is distraught at first , Garnet and Amethyst assure him that Pearl has simply retreated into her gem and will return once she has healed . Two weeks pass and Pearl is still inside her gem , healing . Steven decides to use Holo @-@ Pearl as a replacement for the real Pearl . However , Holo @-@ Pearl only knows how to sword fight , seeing everything as a potential opponent . Garnet and Amethyst urge Steven to stop using it and wait for the real Pearl to come back . After Holo @-@ Pearl cuts down the real Pearl 's favourite tree , Steven becomes infuriated and tries to drive Holo @-@ Pearl away . Later that night , Holo @-@ Pearl continues to ask Steven to be challenged in combat , though he repeatedly refuses . Eventually , Steven hits his breaking point and fights back against Holo @-@ Pearl , accidentally activating her " advanced " mode . After an intense fight , Steven is able to destroy Holo @-@ Pearl permanently . Garnet and Amethyst hear the commotion and come to check on Steven , and while he is explaining what he has learned , Pearl finally regains her physical form , having a new outfit variation , and faces the mess left from the recent moment . = = Production = = The episode was written by Joe Johnston and Jeff Liu . Ki @-@ Yong Bae , Seon @-@ Jae Lee and Seo Whan Kim provided animation direction , Elle Michalka served as art director , and Ian Jones @-@ Quartey provided supervising direction . A sneak peek of the episode was shared on io9 on April 7 , 2014 , with Johnston first announcing the episode on the series ' production blog the following day , shortly after the series ' new Wednesday time slot was promoted on April 2 . In addition , several promotional pieces were published by him , Rebecca Sugar and color stylist Tiffany Ford , encouraging followers to watch . A panel from the storyboard was also promoted , before various background art and animation props were released before and after its premiere ; the animation props indicate the episode was produced thirteenth in production order . The episode features the songs " Dance of Swords " and " Holo Pearl " by pianist Aivi Tran and sound designer Steven Velema of the musical group Aivi & Surasshu . The latter track , an instrumental piece , was composed to resemble the " broken facsimile " nature of the Pearl clone who bears the song 's title . The group utilized a " glitchy " piano and " an erratic collection of sounds " for it . The tracks were released onto SoundCloud on April 12 and 13 , respectively . = = Cultural references = = Gergo Vas from Kotaku observed various video game references during Pearl 's lecture on sword fighting , including Pokémon , Final Fantasy , Gitaroo Man and Sonic the Hedgehog . In addition , he identified an homage to Revolutionary Girl Utena upon looking at GIFs of Pearl 's sword @-@ fighting scene with her hologram clone . Writing for Cartoon Brew , Kendra Beltran noted that Lonely Blade imitated the style of anime , stating that " while the Universe team didn 't overdo the animation on the anime , you could tell what they were going for without hearing the accents . " = = Reception = = " Steven the Sword Fighter " was the first episode to premiere outside of Monday , onto its new time slot of Wednesdays , on Cartoon Network . Upon its premiere on April 9 , 2014 , the episode was seen by 1 @.@ 098 million viewers . It received a Nielsen household rating of 0 @.@ 7 , and was ranked as the thirty @-@ sixth most watched episode aired by the network for the week of April 7 to April 13 , 2014 . It is currently the lowest rated episode of the series . Beltran highlighted elements of horror in the episode , noting it to come " in small spurts toward the end " , while writing about the " eerie tone of the rainy night matched with the sword @-@ wielding psychopath hologram . " She found it " weird to see Steven trying to not replace her , " regarding her as the established mother figure in the series . She concluded her review stating that while " not much for characterization , " Amethyst and Garnet 's acts of " sitcom comedy " were " the source of laughter this time around " for the series . Eric Thurm of The A.V. Club graded the episode an A − , calling it , " in many ways , a perfect distillation of what makes Steven Universe special . " He noted Steven 's attempts to learn sword @-@ fighting as a callback to the first episode , " Gem Glow " , which aired alongside " Steven the Sword Fighter " upon its premiere . Finally , he contrasted Steven 's childishness and refusal to completely learn lessons to Adventure Time and Regular Show , where the protagonists of each have taken steps toward maturity . = La Bella Mafia = La Bella Mafia is the third studio album by rapper Lil ' Kim , released March 4 , 2003 on Atlantic Records . It debuted at number five on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , selling 166 @,@ 000 in its first week and reached number four on the Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart . A commercial success , La Bella Mafia was certified platinum by the RIAA , selling over one million copies in the US and over 3 @.@ 5 million worldwide , becoming the highest selling female rap album of 2003 . The album marked Kim 's return after a musical hiatus . La Bella Mafia received positive reviews from music critics upon its release , marking Kim 's lyrical ability as impressive and her presence as formidable . It produced two singles that attained Billboard chart success . The lead single " The Jump Off , " peaked at number 17 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and at 16 on the UK Singles Chart chart . The second single " Magic Stick " , featured 50 Cent , peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 . The singles " Magic Stick " and " Came Back for You " earned Kim a Grammy nomination for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group and Best Female Rap Solo Performance , respectively . = = Background = = In late 2001 , Lil ' Kim left Junior M.A.F.I.A. and severed ties with all members . She also ended her friendship and business relationship with longtime collaborator Sean " Diddy " Combs . Recording sessions for La Bella Mafia began in the spring of 2002 . In April 2002 , Lil ' Kim stated in an interview that she had begun working with Dr. Dre in the recording studio . She told MTV , " I 've been talking to Dre a lot . And Dre and I are talking about possibly doing some collaborations . He 's a cool cat . I love Dre . Our chemistry in the studio was just like , cool . We 've been working , you know , trying to cook up some things " . Kim also stated that she wanted to work with Eminem , Timbaland , and The Neptunes . The original title for the album was Hollyhood ( which was also set to be the name of her clothing line and to her skit ) , but it was changed to La Bella Mafia ( which in Italian means ' Beautiful Mafia ' ) after Lil ' Kim watched a film of the same name about a family of mob widows who seek revenge for the murders of their mobster husbands . She stated , " Any girl who 's strong and very dedicated to what they do and don 't take no mess , they can be a part of La Bella Mafia " . Limited edition collectable cards were included in the first 500 @,@ 000 US CDs that allowed fans to unlock exclusive content , such as photos and video , from the Internet . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = La Bella Mafia received generally positive reviews , as Metacritic reviews scored it at 65 out of 100 . AllMusic critic Jason Birchmeier stated her previous album The Notorious K.I.M. was considered a " disappointment " as a follow @-@ up to her debut album Hard Core and La Bella Mafia reestablished her as an " industry icon " . Nick Catucci , a critic for Spin Magazine , who gave the album 3 stars claimed , " The King is dead - long live the Queen " . Stylus magazine critic Brett Berliner gave the album a B + calling the album " one of the top hip @-@ hop albums of 2003 " and said , " Kim is now in a class of female MCs that includes only Rah Digga and MC Lyte - and she 's more confident , funny , and sexy than any of them " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine gave the album 3 stars stating the album was her " most consistent effort to date , " and added the album " plays like one giant bravado about everything : fame , money , power , sex , clothes , rhymes " . Critics were also impressed with her lyrical ability . Jon Caramanica of Rolling Stone gave the album 3 stars stating , " When she really gets her hands dirty , Kim sounds more forceful and engaged than she 's been in years " . However , some critics felt the album was too long and contained too many fillers . Birchmeier of Allmusic stated the album could use a little " trimming " . Brett Berliner of Stylus Magazine said , " I enjoy about eight songs on this album , but they 're tracks I only feel like listening to from time to time " . = = = Commercial performance = = = La Bella Mafia debuted at number four on the U.S. ' s Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums chart , and at number @-@ five on the Billboard 200 , with a successful first week sales of 160 @,@ 000 copies , and ultimately spent a little over 29 weeks on that chart . The album sold over 3 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , and received a platinum certification by the RIAA , for sales of over 1 @.@ 1 million copies . Outside the States , it debuted at number 81 on the Swiss Albums Chart , at number 105 on the French Albums Chart and at number 82 on the German Albums Chart . = = Singles = = Altogether La Bella Mafia spawned two international singles and a third US only single . The lead album 's first single , " The Jump Off " peaked in the top @-@ twenty on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart with a peak position of number 17 , becoming Kim 's biggest single since her 1997 's " Not Tonight ( Ladies Night Remix ) " . It also reached number 8 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 7 on the Hot Rap Tracks chart , and number 16 on the UK Singles Chart . The second single , " Magic Stick " , featured 50 Cent , peaked in the top @-@ ten on the Hot 100 chart reaching number 2 , without a music video , and it wasn 't even released as a single . It ended up spending 14 weeks on the chart , becoming Kim 's biggest and highest single on that chart . It also reached number 2 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , number 7 on the Pop chart and number 1 on the Hot Rap Songs chart . The song " Thug Luv " , featuring Twista , was serviced to U.S. radios only . It reached number 60 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart and number 14 on the Hot Rap Songs . A CD single was also released in the US . = = Track listing = = = = = Sample credits = = = " Juicytro " contains a sample of The Notorious B.I.G. ' s " Juicy " . " Hold It Now " contains samples of Beastie Boys ' " Paul Revere " and Kurtis Blow 's " Christmas Rappin ' " . " Can 't Fuck with Queen Bee " contains an sample and interpolation from the hit Deniece Williams song " Free " " Shake Ya Bum Bum " contains a sample of Saregama India Ltd 's " Hum " . " The Jump Off " contains an interpolation from The Lost Boyz 's " Jeeps , Lex , Coups , Bimaz , and Benz " . " This Is a Warning " contains a sample and interpolation of R. Kelly 's " A Woman 's Threat " . " Magic Stick " contains a sample of B.B. King 's " The Thrill Is Gone " . " Get In Touch with Us " contains a sample of Saregama India Ltd 's " Zindagi Ban Gaye To Tum " . " Heavenly Father " contains a sample of The O 'Jays 's " A Prayer " . " Came Back for You " contains a sample of Irene Reid 's " Didn 't We " . = = = Leftover tracks = = = " Knock ' Em Out the Box " ( featuring Method Man ) " Back Together Again " ( featuring The Notorious B.I.G. ) " Flow So Sick " ( featuring Ice Drake ) " What 's The Word ? " ( featured bonus track on the Japanese album release ) = = Personnel = = Executive Producers : Kimberly " Lil ' Kim " Jones & The Notorious B.I.G. Associate Producers : Hillary Weston & Jean Nelson Queen Bee A & R : Jean Nelson & Dre Weston Atlantic A & R : Huston " Hutty " Miller Atlantic A & R Administrator : Lanre Gaba Atlantic A & R Coordinator : Chris Wade Queen Bee Project Manager : Jamel " Mann " Jackson Atlantic Project Manager : Joi Brown Album Assistant Engineer : Greg " Gee " Stewart Management : Hillary Weston Legal Affairs : L. Londell McMillan , P.C. Business Affairs : David Berdon LLP & Co . Album Sequencing : DJ 45 & Dan " The " Man Cover Photo & Photos 1 , 2 : Vincent Soyez Hair : Tre Major Makeup : JJ Styling : Derek Lee and Kimberly " Lil ' Kim " Jones Prop Stylist : Linda Keil Jewelry : MiMi So Additional Jewelry : Prestige Diamonds Photos 3 , 4 : David LaChapelle Hair : Cessy Lima Makeup : Scott Barnes Styling : Andrea Leiberman Jewelry : Diamond Quasar Art Direction : Lynn Kowalewski Design : Kevin Wolahan = = Charts and certifications = = = Hurricane Edith ( 1971 ) = Hurricane Edith was the strongest hurricane to form during the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season . It developed from a tropical wave on September 5 and quickly strengthened into a hurricane in the Caribbean Sea . Edith rapidly intensified on September 9 and made landfall on Cape Gracias a Dios as a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . It quickly lost intensity over Central America and after briefly entering the Gulf of Honduras it crossed the Yucatán Peninsula in Mexico . After moving across the Gulf of Mexico a trough turned the storm to the northeast and Edith , after having restrengthened while accelerating towards the coast , made landfall on Louisiana with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) on September 16 . Edith steadily weakened over land and dissipated over Georgia on September 18 . The hurricane killed two people when it passed near Aruba . Striking northeastern Central America as a Category 5 hurricane , Edith destroyed hundreds of homes and killed at least 35 people . In Texas high tides caused coastal flooding but little damage . Edith caused moderate to heavy damage in portions of Louisiana due to flooding and a tornado outbreak from the storm . One tornado , rated F3 on the Fujita Scale , damaged several homes and injured multiple people in Baton Rouge . The tornado outbreak extended eastward into Florida , of which a few destroyed entire buildings . Damage in the United States totaled US $ 25 million ( 1971 dollars , $ 146 million in 2016 dollars ) . Hurricane Edith , along with hurricanes Cleo ( 1958 ) , Ethel ( 1960 ) , and Emily ( 2005 ) are the only Category 5 storms not to have their names retired . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa near Dakar on August 31 . It moved westward into the Intertropical Convergence Zone , and organized into a tropical disturbance on September 2 with a small , circular area of convection . The system moved to the west , and on September 3 , the convection diminished after moving west of 40 ° W. By the next day , the tropical disturbance was barely discernible from the clouds of the Intertropical Convergence Zone . The wave gradually became detached from the ITCZ , and based on a reconnaissance flight that confirmed the existence of a low @-@ level circulation , it is estimated the system developed into a tropical depression on September 5 while located 255 miles ( 415 km ) east of Grenada . The depression moved westward quickly , and moved through the southern Lesser Antilles early on September 6 . The southern portion of the circulation passed over northeastern Venezuela , though after entering the Caribbean Sea , another reconnaissance flight was unable to confirm the existence of a low @-@ level circulation . Shortly thereafter , while moving into an area of light wind shear , it was able to organize and strengthen further , and on September 7 the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Edith near the island of Curaçao . While initially , a cold @-@ core upper @-@ level low persisted about 750 miles ( 1200 km ) northwest of the storm , Edith moved west @-@ northwestward due to the influence of a narrow and persistent ridge of high pressure , which extended from the southwestern Atlantic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico . As the storm continued into open waters of the Caribbean , the upper @-@ level low gradually weakened and was replaced with an anticyclone . This allowed the storm to strengthen further , and on September 8 , Edith became a hurricane in the south @-@ central Caribbean Sea . On September 9 , the storm rapidly intensified , and within 24 hours , Edith strengthened from a minimal hurricane to a powerful 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) Category 5 hurricane just off the coast of Nicaragua . The cause for the explosive deepening is unknown , though it is speculated that the transformation in the upper troposphere from an upper @-@ level low to an anticyclone led to a release of baroclinic energy . Reconnaissance aircraft crews in the peak of the storm reported extreme turbulence , causing concern for the safety of the crews . At its peak intensity , the very well @-@ defined " pinhole " eye was only 5 miles ( 8 km ) in diameter . Late on September 9 , Hurricane Edith made landfall on northeastern Nicaragua at Cabo Gracias a Dios . Hurricane Edith rapidly weakened over the mountainous terrain of northeastern Central America , and 18 hours after it made landfall , it emerged into the Gulf of Honduras as an 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) Category 1 hurricane . It continued to weaken as it moved northwestward , and made landfall near Belize City with tropical storm winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) . Edith weakened further while crossing the Yucatán Peninsula , and emerged into the Gulf of Mexico near Campeche , Mexico late on September 11 as a minimal tropical storm . Edith initially failed to re @-@ intensify as it moved northwestward ,	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
despite low amounts of wind shear and warm waters . This was because an anticyclone over the Gulf was closely connected with Hurricane Fern , which developed and moved over the northwestern portion of the Gulf of Mexico . The anticyclone resulted in an easterly upper @-@ level flow across Edith , creating conditions not conducive for intensification . As Fern moved inland over Texas , the flow became more favorable around Edith , and 36 hours after entering the Gulf of Mexico , the storm began to reintensify slightly . Edith continued moving to the west @-@ northwest , heading towards the coast of Mexico , but early on September 14 , the storm stalled while located just off the coast of Tamaulipas . A mid @-@ latitude trough of low pressure approached the storm , and caused Edith to turn to slowly drift towards the northeast . Located only miles from the Mexican coast , Edith again failed to strengthen until September 15 , when it accelerated northeastward and regained hurricane status . The hurricane turned to the east @-@ northeast as it approached the coast of Louisiana , and made landfall on September 16 in a sparsely populated area 30 miles ( 48 km ) east of Cameron with winds of 105 mph ( 170 km / h ) , equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Edith rapidly weakened over land , degenerating into a tropical storm over Louisiana , and into a tropical depression over Mississippi . It continued to the east @-@ northeast , and dissipated over northwestern Georgia on September 18 . = = Preparations = = Fourteen hours prior to Edith making landfall in Central America , the National Hurricane Center warned citizens about the extreme danger of the approaching hurricane , and asked them to prepare for hurricane conditions . While the storm was located in the Gulf of Mexico , the National Hurricane Center issued a Hurricane Warning from Cameron to Morgan City , Louisiana eighteen hours before the hurricane made landfall . Edith later struck land in the middle portion of the warning area . In Belize , officials ordered the mandatory evacuation of low @-@ lying areas , resulting in hundreds of residents leaving to the United States through the international airport . Officials sent police troops to maintain order and prevent looting . In the Gulf of Mexico , several oil facilities were closed or placed on automatic controls . Drilling rigs as far east as the coastal waters off of Mississippi were prepared to evacuate in the event Edith moved further east than anticipated . Additionally , thousands evacuated coastal areas of Louisiana prior to the arrival of the hurricane . Several shelters opened in coastal cities , and many people prepared for the hurricane by purchasing emergency supplies . Officials closed schools throughout much of southern Louisiana . = = Impact = = = = = Caribbean = = = While passing through the southern Lesser Antilles , the tropical depression produced heavy rainfall and winds of around 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Edith produced tropical storm force winds in Aruba , and gusts reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Two fishermen were reported lost at sea and presumed dead as a result of Edith . Edith produced strong winds across northeastern Nicaragua and eastern Honduras , with Puerto Lempira reporting an unofficial sustained wind of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . Press reports indicated every house in the Cape Gracias area was destroyed or heavily damaged , leaving 7 @,@ 000 homeless . The meteorological service in British Honduras stated there were 100 fatalities near Cape Gracias , though a later report indicated 35 people died in Nicaragua . There , damage was estimated at over US $ 380 @,@ 000 ( 1971 dollars , $ 2 @.@ 22 million in 2016 dollars ) . Three United States Air Force aircraft delivered food , medical supplies , and fuel to the hurricane victims of Nicaragua . In Honduras , the hurricane produced 15 foot ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) tides and strong winds , while strong waves destroyed 40 fishing boats as well . While the hurricane reportedly destroyed entire villages , no deaths occurred in Honduras . Offshore islands in Belize reported winds of up to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Edith produced flooding in a few towns in the southern portion of the country , with some buildings damaged . Heavy damage was reported near Monkey River Town . Impact in Mexico , if any , is unknown . = = = United States = = = Two stations in Texas recorded sustained tropical force winds , and Galveston reported a peak wind gust of 53 mph ( 85 km / h ) . While moving past the state , Edith produced above normal tides of over 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) in locations , which flooded a portion of Highway 87 . The storm dropped light to moderate amounts of rainfall peaking at 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) in Sabine Pass . The passage of Hurricane Edith resulted in downed trees and power lines , and damage totaling US $ 180 @,@ 000 ( 1971 dollars , $ 900 @,@ 000 in 2006 dollars ) . Off the coast of Louisiana , the hurricane wrecked three boats , but all the occupants were safely rescued . While making landfall in Louisiana , Edith resulted in above normal tides of up to 9 @.@ 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 9 m ) above normal at Cypremont Point near Morgan City . The highest winds reported by a land station were 69 mph ( 111 km / h ) at Cameron , where a wind gust of 96 mph ( 155 km / h ) was also reported . However , due to the lack of recording instruments near the hurricane 's landing point , whether higher winds occurred there is not known , although likely . Rainfall was moderate across Louisiana , including amounts of over 8 inches ( 200 mm ) in the southwestern portion of the state . A strong rainband well ahead of the hurricane , combined with the intrusion of dry air into the hurricane 's circulation , produced 16 tornadoes from Louisiana to Alabama . An F3 tornado touched down in the eastern residential suburbs of Baton Rouge , causing heavy property damage totaling $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 1971 dollars , $ 14 @.@ 6 million in 2016 dollars ) along its intermittent 7 mile ( 11 km ) path . The tornado also injured three people . An F2 tornado in Tangipahoa Parish caused $ 250 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1971 dollars , $ 1 @.@ 46 million in 2016 dollars ) along its 4 mile ( 6 km ) path , while an F1 tornado in St. Martin Parish injured 6 people on its 3 mile ( 5 km ) path . The hurricane caused extensive damage to the sugar cane crop in southwestern Louisiana . About a month after Edith struck the United States , President Richard Nixon declared portions of Louisiana as a disaster area , which allocated relief funds to aid the affected citizens . In Mississippi , wind gusts peaked at 70 mph ( 112 km / h ) in Hattiesburg , with multiple locations reporting tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . Additionally , Edith produced moderate rainfall peaking at 6 @.@ 15 inches ( 156 mm ) in Liberty . In Alabama , the storm caused light rains , moderate wind gusts , and a storm tide of 2 @.@ 7 feet ( 0 @.@ 8 m ) in Mobile . Edith spawned four tornadoes in Alabama , three of which were F2 tornadoes . Two touched down in Baldwin County ; one destroyed two homes and damaged several others , and the other destroyed two mobile homes , a few barns , and damaged ten houses . Two tornadoes also touched down in Washington County , one of which destroyed several small buildings and downed a few trees . In Florida , Edith produced slightly above @-@ normal tides and light rain . It spawned a tornado in Pensacola , Florida , injuring one person and inflicting $ 25 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1971 dollars , $ 125 @,@ 000 in 2006 dollars ) . Damage throughout the United States totaled $ 25 million ( 1971 dollars , $ 146 million in 2016 dollars ) , primarily from crop damage in southwest Louisiana . No deaths were reported in the United States . = 1998 – 99 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season = The 1998 – 99 South @-@ West Indian Ocean cyclone season was a quiet season that had the fourth @-@ lowest number of days with tropical storm or tropical cyclone activity . Most of the storms formed either in the Mozambique Channel or in the far eastern portion of the basin , with five storms crossing from the adjacent Australian basin east of 90 ° E. As a result , few storms impacted Madagascar , and none made landfall on the African continent . Throughout most of the season , there was below @-@ normal sea surface temperatures in the Indian Ocean east of Madagascar . In February , typically the peak in activity , Réunion island recorded its highest average monthly pressure since 1953 . Due to generally unfavorable conditions , there were only six tropical storms tracked by the Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion . There were only two tropical cyclones – a storm with winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Activity began late , with the first tropical storm – Alda – forming on January 16 , the third latest ever recorded at the time . Alda formed in the Mozambique Channel , which was one of few favorable areas for tropical cyclogenesis in the season . It brought rainfall to southwestern Madagascar that alleviated previously dry conditions . The next five tropical storms either originated or crossed into the adjacent Australian basin , where storms were monitored by the Bureau of Meteorology ( BoM ) . Both Tropical Storm Chikita and Tropical Cyclone Davina brought beneficial rainfall to the Mascarene Islands . The latter storm caused two drowning deaths on Réunion and caused some crop damage . The strongest storm – Evrina – peaked as a strong cyclone in the Australian but weakened upon crossing 90 ° E , with 10 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) in the basin . The final storm was unnamed , crossing from the Australian basin on April 21 as a minimal tropical storm before quickly dissipating . There were also several tropical disturbances or depressions , many short @-@ lived . The first of these formed on September 3 in the northeastern portion of the basin , and there was a tropical depression in February in the Mozambique Channel that approached tropical storm status . = = Season summary = = The Météo @-@ France office ( MFR ) on Réunion island issued warnings in tropical cyclones within the basin during the season . The agency estimated intensity through the Dvorak technique , and warned on tropical cyclones in the region from the coast of Africa to 90 ° E , south of the equator . The Joint Typhoon Warning Center – a joint United States Navy – United States Air Force task force – also issued tropical cyclone warnings for the region . Wind estimates from Météo @-@ France and most other basins throughout the world are sustained over 10 minutes , while estimates from the United States @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center are sustained over 1 minute . 10 minute winds are about 1 @.@ 14 times the amount of 1 minute winds . Most storms formed and dissipated within the tropics , with the exception of Severe Tropical Storm Alda . During the season , atmospheric conditions shifted from El Niño to La Niña , but despite the shift , the season was similarly inactive as its predecessor . In general , sea surface temperatures were below normal , and atmospheric pressures were above normal , both unfavorable for tropical cyclogenesis . In the month of February , on average the peak time for activity , there was a general lack of convection , or thunderstorms , east of Madagascar . The average monthly pressure on Réunion was the highest since reliable records began in 1953 . The low number of storms occurred despite an otherwise active cyclone year in the southern hemisphere . In its summary of the season , the MFR described the lack of activity as " rare and remarkable " , possibly related to a Walker circulation . The agency monitored 14 tropical disturbances , of which only eight were tropical depressions for at least 24 hours . Six of these intensified into tropical storms , three less than the average of nine , of which only two attained tropical cyclone status , or half the average . There were 28 days in which there was storm or tropical cyclone activity , less than the average of 42 and at the time the fourth lowest since reliable record @-@ keeping began in 1967 with the advent of satellite imagery . The only seasons with a lower number of storm days were 1982 – 83 , 1986 – 87 , and 1997 – 98 . = = Storms = = = = = Severe Tropical Storm Alda = = = After a subtropical depression exited the Mozambique Channel , another area of convection formed in the region on January 8 , which fluctuated in intensity for several days . A passing cold front increased convection further on January 12 , which split off a cutoff low @-@ pressure area . Two days later , a subtropical disturbance formed offshore Beira , Mozambique , classified due to the extratropical origins and lack of centralized convection . The system remained nearly stationary , with the convection extending well to the east . On January 16 , the MFR reclassified the system as a tropical depression after the thunderstorms increased near the center , the increasing organization due to moderate but decreasing wind shear . By that time , the depression had begun an eastward movement , but soon turned to the south in the weakness between two high @-@ pressure areas . Late on January 16 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Alda after the convection organized into a central dense overcast . Also that day , the JTWC began tracking the system as Tropical Cyclone 12S . This marked an unusually late start for the first named storm , at the time the third @-@ latest on record . Neither the MFR nor the JTWC anticipated much strengthening after Alda attained tropical storm status . Around the time of its upgrade , Alda passed about 20 km ( 12 mi ) west of Europa Island in the Mozambique Channel , where sustained winds reached 72 km / h ( 45 mph ) and gusts were as strong as 90 km / h ( 56 mph ) . A building ridge southeast of Madagascar turned the storm to the southwest . After an increase in wind shear diminished the convection , the JTWC discontinued advisories on January 17 , although the thunderstorms redeveloped following an unexpected decrease in wind shear . Alda turned to the southeast ahead of an approaching trough , and developed a ragged eye feature on January 18 . That day , the MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated one @-@ minute winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) , equivalent to a minimal hurricane . The latter agency also reissued one advisory when the storm was at its peak . Alda accelerated to the southeast and gradually lost tropical characteristics , becoming extratropical on January 19 before being absorbed by the approaching cold front . Following rainfall from an earlier subtropical depression , Alda dropped 198 mm ( 7 @.@ 8 in ) of rainfall in Morombe in southwestern Madagascar . The rainfall caused flooding that affected thousands of people . The rainfall was beneficial in alleviating previously dry conditions that had prevented crops to be planted . The passage of the storm also caused temperatures to decrease in Mozambique and Madagascar . = = = Moderate Tropical Storm Damien @-@ Birenda = = = On January 21 , a tropical disturbance formed in the Australian region about 500 kilometres ( 310 mi ) south of the Indonesian island of Java . Moving west @-@ southwestward , the system intensified into Tropical Storm Damien on January 23 , and attained tropical cyclone status two days later while passing 400 km ( 250 mi ) south of the Cocos Islands . Subsequently , an increase in wind shear induced steady weakening , causing the circulation to be briefly exposed from the convection on January 26 . Damien maintained an area of convection nearby the circulation , and exited into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on January 28 as a minimal tropical storm ; at that time , the Mauritius Meteorological Services renamed the storm as Birenda . The storm turned more to the west and west @-@ northwest due to a building ridge to the south . Increasing wind shear weakened Birenda to tropical depression status on January 29 and into a tropical disturbance the next day . Although convection was intermittent , the circulation dissipated on February 3 . = = = Moderate Tropical Storm Chikita = = = Soon after Damien @-@ Birenda exited the Australian region , another tropical disturbance formed north of the Cocos on January 29 , which was initially weak but gradually organized . The disturbance tracked quickly west @-@ westward due to a powerful ridge to the south , remaining in tandem with Tropical Storm Birenda about 1 @,@ 300 km ( 810 mi ) to the east . On January 31 , the system crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean . The fast forward motion caused the effects of wind shear to diminish as well as increase the circulation 's strength , and the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Chikita on January 31 . At that time , the storm attained its peak intensity of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Almost immediately thereafter , the convection began weakening due to lukewarm water temperatures , and Chikita weakened to tropical depression status on February 1 . Continuing rapidly to the west , the circulation became exposed from the convection on February 3 due to increased wind shear . Around that time , Chikita passed about 75 km ( 47 mi ) north of Rodrigues island , and shortly thereafter weakened into a tropical disturbance . On the next day , the circulation passed north of both Mauritius and Réunion , presenting an asymmetric structure with the strongest winds to the south . Chikita dissipated on February 5 off the southeast coast of Madagascar . On Rodrigues , Chikita produced wind gusts of 92 km / h ( 57 mph ) and a rainfall total of 113 mm ( 4 @.@ 4 in ) , the rainfall proving beneficial due to previously dry conditions . Despite only being a tropical disturbance , Chikita produced wind gusts of 89 kilometres per hour ( 55 mph ) on Mauritius and 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) in the mountainous peaks of Réunion . The rainfall rates in both islands varied greatly ; the peak total on Mauritius was 160 mm ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) compared to the peak of 560 mm ( 22 in ) in Bébourg in the heights of Réunion . Also on the latter island , there was a six @-@ hour rainfall total of 132 mm ( 5 @.@ 2 in ) at Piton de la Fournaise . Wet weather persisted after Chikita dissipated , resulting in four @-@ day totals of 953 mm ( 37 @.@ 5 in ) in Bébourg on Réunion , and easing drought conditions on Mauritius . = = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Davina = = = After an extended period with no activity across much of the Indian Ocean , the intertropical convergence zone ( ITCZ ) rebuilt toward the end of February , and spawned an area of convection on March 1 in the extreme eastern portion of the basin . The next day , a circulation was noted on satellite imagery to the northeast of the convection , which indicated that a tropical disturbance had developed . The influence of the monsoon trough steered the disturbance to the southeast into the Australian basin , where moderate wind shear prevented quick development . A building ridge to the south turned the system to the southwest , bringing it back into the south @-@ west Indian on March 3 as a tropical depression . With decreasing wind shear , the depression slowly intensified as convection increased , becoming Tropical Storm Davina on March 4 . An eye developed the next day , signaling Davina had intensified into a tropical cyclone , or reaching 10 @-@ minute winds of at least 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . On March 7 , Davina became an intense tropical cyclone , with sustained 10 @-@ minute winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) . At around the same time , the JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 205 km / h ( 125 mph ) . Continuing quickly to the west @-@ southwest , Davina moved over an area of cooler waters and began weakening . On March 8 , the system passed about 140 km ( 87 mi ) northwest of Rodrigues as a minimal tropical cyclone . The next day , Davina re @-@ intensified slightly to winds of 130 km / h ( 85 mph ) , and while near that intensity its eyewall crossed over Mauritius . After passing the island , the eye increased to a diameter of 50 km ( 31 mi ) before deteriorating . On March 10 , Davina passed about 35 km ( 22 mi ) southeast of Réunion as a severe tropical storm . The next day , the storm slowed its forward motion and rapidly weakened due to increasing wind shear , becoming a tropical depression on March 12 . The circulation turned to the northeast and later to the west in the trade winds . Davina looped off the east coast of Madagascar , eventually dissipating on March 19 . Cyclone Davina affected Rodrigues as a weakening storm , which limited wind gusts to 137 km / h ( 85 mph ) and rainfall to only 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) . After moving toward Mauritius for several days , the cyclone produced a peak wave height of 7 @.@ 73 m ( 25 @.@ 4 ft ) . On the island , the airport at Plaisance recorded a peak gust of 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) , strong enough to cause crop damage and injure 60 people . Rainfall peaked at 227 mm ( 8 @.@ 9 in ) , which failed to break the island 's worst drought since 1904 . On Réunion , wind gusts also peaked at 169 km / h ( 105 mph ) at Piton Sainte @-@ Rose . Davina produced wave heights of 8 @.@ 84 m ( 29 @.@ 0 ft ) at Saint @-@ Pierre . Rainfall on Réunion was highest in the southern portion of the island , mainly through the process of orographic lift ; over a three @-@ hour period , 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation was recorded at Piton de la Fournaise , and the highest total was 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the island 's center . Due to the storm 's slow movement , Davina produced scattered rainfall over Réunion for several days . Two people drowned in the Rivière des Galets , but otherwise the rainfall proved beneficial in alleviating dry conditions . The gusty winds damaged the sugar cane and banana crops , but overall damage was minor . = = = Intense Tropical Cyclone Frederic – Evrina = = = On March 25 , an area of convection formed along the monsoon trough in the Australian basin , gradually organizing into a tropical storm while moving west @-@ southwestward and given the name Frederic . On March 29 , the storm attained tropical cyclone status , and continued to strengthen due to warm waters . At its peak on March 31 , Frederic developed a well @-@ defined 40 km ( 25 mi ) eye within a circular central dense overcast . The MFR estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) , and the JTWC estimated maximum 1 @-@ minute winds of 260 km / h ( 160 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 5 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane wind scale . Subsequently , Frederic encountered the combination of wind shear and cooler , dry air , which caused weakening . On April 1 , the cyclone crossed into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean with 10 @-@ minute winds of 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , at which time it was renamed Evrina . Continuing to the west @-@ southwest upon entering the basin , Evrina gradually weakened as the eye gradually dissipated . It soon encountered the same cooler waters of the southern Indian that affected previous storms Chikita and Davina . By April 2 , Evrina had weakened below tropical cyclone status , just 30 hours after it was at peak intensity . Around that time , the circulation became exposed from the deepest convection , and the track shifted more to the west . On April 5 , Evrina weakened to tropical depression status . Two days later , the system turned toward the south , moving in a circular track around the island of Rodrigues while remaining far enough away not to cause any effects . On April 8 , the circulation turned to the east , dissipating two days later to the south of Rodrigues . = = = Moderate Tropical Storm F1 ( Hamish ) = = = On April 17 , an area of convection persisted near the border of the south @-@ west Indian and the Australian regions . The system moved eastward into the Australian basin , becoming a tropical disturbance on April 19 . Turning to the southeast , the system gradually organized as the convection persisted . On April 20 , the disturbance intensified into a tropical storm and was named Hamish . Shortly thereafter , the ridge to the south turned the storm to the southwest . After the BoM estimated peak winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) , Hamish began quickly weakening due to increasing wind shear . On April 21 , the storm crossed into the south @-@ west Indian basin , still maintaining 10 @-@ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Although the Mauritius Meteorological Services should have classified the system as Tropical Storm Francine , the storm remained unnamed , referred as Tropical Storm F1 . However , the system weakened to tropical depression status within six hours of entering the basin , and dissipating on April 24 . = = = Other storms in 1998 = = = At the time , the MFR 's cyclone season began on August 1 , although the JTWC 's cyclone season for the southern hemisphere began on July 1 . The latter agency tracked a short @-@ lived tropical storm toward the end of July , classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 01S . The MFR named it Tropical Depression H4 , estimating peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 55 km / h ( 35 km / h ) . The first system of the season proper originated out of an area of convection in early September in the northeast portion of the basin . On September 3 , the MFR initiated advisories on Tropical Disturbance A1 about 1435 km ( 890 mi ) east of Diego Garcia . The system tracked westward , and the JTWC issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) on September 4 . Failing to intensify beyond winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) , the disturbance dissipated on September 6 . Later in the month , Tropical Disturbance A2 formed in a similar region within the monsoon trough , with the MFR initiating advisories on September 29 . Also on that day , the JTWC began issuing advisories on Tropical Cyclone 02S . That day , the JTWC upgraded the system to tropical storm status , although strong wind shear prevented intensification . The MFR quickly discontinued advisories , but the JTWC continued tracking it , again upgrading the system to tropical storm status on October 1 . After the shear again increased , the storm weakened , dissipating on October 2 . In November , rapidly weakening Tropical Cyclone Alison moved from the Australian basin and dissipated immediately upon entering the south @-@ west Indian Ocean on November 13 . On December 4 , short @-@ lived Tropical Disturbance A3 was classified by MFR , subsequently drifting into the Australian region . Possibly related to the previous system , Tropical Cyclone Cathy moved from the Australian basin into the basin on December 28 , quickly dissipating . = = = Other storms in 1999 = = = On January 1 , an area of convection persisted in the Mozambique Channel , with an associated circulation located on land in Mozambique . The system drifted to the east and southeast over warmer waters , gradually organizing . On January 3 , the MFR classified the system as Tropical Disturbance A4 near the Mozambique coastline . The disturbance accelerated to the southeast , passing southwest of Madagascar with an asymmetric structure ; most of the convection was on the eastern periphery due to strong wind shear . Heavy rainfall occurred along the southwest Madagascar coast , peaking at 322 mm ( 12 @.@ 7 in ) over a 48 ‑ hour period in Morombe . Wind gusts there reached 180 km / h ( 110 mph ) , although the disturbance 's maximum sustained 10 @-@ minute winds were 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . The disturbance transitioned into a subtropical depression on January 5 , but soon after became extratropical while accelerating southeastward . During an extended period of quiet conditions across much of the basin , an area of low pressure persisted along the eastern coast of Mozambique . Convection fluctuated daily but became more persistent on February 11 . That day , the thunderstorms organized into a circulation that had formed less than 200 km ( 120 mi ) southeast of Beira , Mozambique , becoming Tropical Disturbance D1 . After forming , the system moved southward , developing a central dense overcast with northeasterly outflow . Based on the organization , the disturbance intensified into a tropical depression on February 13 . Although there were gale force winds in the southwest periphery , the circulation was located on the northern edge of the convection . The depression neared tropical storm intensity , but an increase in wind shear from a nearby trough prevented further intensification . The JTWC estimated peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) , making the system a tropical storm by their assessment . A building ridge to the south turned the depression to the northeast , bringing the system near Europa Island . A station on the island recorded sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) with gusts to 104 km / h ( 65 mph ) about three hours before and after the closest approach ; the observations suggested that the depression could have become a tropical storm . Soon thereafter , the associated convection dissipated and the circulation turned westward . After crossing over its former path , the depression dissipated on February 17 very close to where it developed . Similar to the previous depression and Tropical Storm Alda , Tropical Disturbance D2 developed in the Mozambique Channel , initially subtropical in nature . On February 20 , a cold front exited the African coast off Mozambique , spawning an area of convection . A weak low pressure area developed on February 23 , which proceeded to move southeastward . Due to unfavorable wind shear , the system failed to organize much , although initially it produced strong wind gusts . On February 28 , much of the convection was removed from the circulation , which looped over southwestern Madagascar to turn back to the west . On March 4 , when Tropical Storm Davina was named , the disturbance was renamed E1 . The next day , the circulation executed a small loop , dissipating on March 6 over eastern Mozambique . A long @-@ lived system developed on February 28 in the Australian region south of February 28 , and moved westward . On March 7 , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 26S , briefly estimating peak 1 @-@ minute winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) the next day . Soon after , the system weakened into a tropical depression , crossing into the south @-@ west Indian Ocean late on March 8 . At that time , it was designated Tropical Disturbance E2 . Continuing westward along the northern edge of a strong ridge , the disturbance failed to intensify due to easterly wind shear . Although the MFR ceased issuing advisories , they noted that a distinct circulation persisted , reaching a location to the north of Mauritius by March 16 . That day , it turned back to the east with a sporadic area of convection , influenced by the larger Tropical Depression E3 . Two days later , the system organized enough for the MFR to reclassify it as a tropical disturbance . The system failed to reorganize much , and dissipated on March 20 . Another tropical disturbance , named E3 , formed on March 11 in the eastern portion of the basin . It initially failed to develop more , but after an increase in convection , the system intensified into a tropical depression on March 14 while moving generally west @-@ northwestward . On the next day , the system began drifting to the southwest due to weak steering currents . On March 16 , the JTWC initiated advisories on the system as Tropical Cyclone 28S , briefly upgrading it to tropical storm status on the next day . On March 18 , the depression began weakening , dissipating three days later . = = Storm names = = A tropical disturbance is named when it reaches moderate tropical storm strength . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status west of 55 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Madagascar assigns the appropriate name to the storm . If a tropical disturbance reaches moderate tropical storm status between 55 ° E and 90 ° E , then the Sub @-@ regional Tropical Cyclone Advisory Centre in Mauritius assigns the appropriate name to the storm . A new annual list is used every year , and this list was provided by the country of Seychelles . = Japanese ironclad Fusō = Fusō ( 扶桑 ) was a central @-@ battery ironclad built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1870s . She was built in the United Kingdom because such ships could not yet be constructed in Japan . The ship participated in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War of 1894 – 95 where she was damaged during the Battle of the Yalu River in 1894 and participated in the Battle of Weihaiwei in early 1895 . She collided with two Japanese ships during a storm and sank in 1897 . She was refloated the following year and repaired . Fusō played a minor role in the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 and was reclassified as a coast defense ship after the war . She was struck from the Navy List in 1908 and sold for scrap the following year . = = Background = = Tensions between Japan and China heightened after the former launched its punitive expedition against Taiwan in May 1874 in retaliation of the murder of a number of shipwrecked sailors by the Paiwan aborigines . China inquired into the possibility of buying ironclad warships from Great Britain and Japan was already negotiating with the Brazilian government about the purchase of the ironclad Independencia then under construction in Britain . The Japanese terminated the negotiations with the Brazilians in October after the ship was badly damaged upon launching and the expeditionary force was about to withdraw from Taiwan . The crisis illustrated the need to reinforce the IJN and a budget request was submitted that same month by Acting Navy Minister Kawamura Sumiyoshi for ¥ 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 2 million to purchase three warships from abroad . No Japanese shipyard was able to build ships of this size so they were ordered from Great Britain . This was rejected as too expensive and a revised request of ¥ 2 @.@ 3 million was approved later that month . Nothing was done until March 1875 when Kawamura proposed to buy one ironclad for half of the money authorized and use the rest for shipbuilding and gun production at the Yokosuka Shipyard . No response was made by the Prime Minister 's office before the proposal was revised to use all of the allocated money to buy three ships , one iron @-@ hulled armored warship and two armored corvettes of composite construction to be designed by the prominent British naval architect Sir Edward Reed , formerly the Chief Constructor of the Royal Navy . Reed would also supervise the construction of the ships for an honorarium of five percent of the construction cost . The Prime Minister 's office approved the revised proposal on 2 May and notified the Japanese consul , Ueno Kagenori , that navy officers would be visiting to negotiate the contract with Reed . Commander Matsumura Junzō arrived in London on 21 July and gave Reed the specifications for the ships . Reed responded on 3 September with an offer , excluding armament , that exceeded the amount allocated in the budget . Ueno signed the contracts for all three ships on 24 September despite this problem because Reed was scheduled to depart for a trip to Russia and the matter had to be concluded before his departure . Ueno had informed the Navy Ministry about the costs before signing , but Kawamura 's response to postpone the order for the armored frigate did not arrive until 8 October . The totals for all three contracts came to £ 433 @,@ 850 or ¥ 2 @,@ 231 @,@ 563 and did not include the armament . These were ordered from Krupp with a 50 percent down payment of £ 24 @,@ 978 . The government struggled to provide the necessary money even though the additional expenses had been approved by the Prime Minister 's office on 5 June 1876 , especially as more money was necessary to fully equip the ships for sea and to provision them for the delivery voyage to Japan . = = Description = = The design of Fusō was based on a scaled @-@ down version of HMS Iron Duke , an Audacious @-@ class central @-@ battery ironclad , familiar to the Japanese as the flagship of the Royal Navy China Station from 1871 – 75 . The ship was 220 feet ( 67 @.@ 1 m ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 48 feet ( 14 @.@ 6 m ) . She had a forward draft of 17 feet 9 inches ( 5 @.@ 4 m ) and drew 18 feet 5 inches ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) aft . She displaced 2 @,@ 248 long tons ( 2 @,@ 284 t ) and had a crew of 26 officers and 269 enlisted men . = = = Propulsion = = = Fusō had a pair of two @-@ cylinder , double @-@ expansion trunk steam engines made by John Penn and Sons , each driving a two @-@ bladed 15 @-@ foot @-@ 6 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 7 m ) propeller . Eight cylindrical boilers provided steam to the engine at a working pressure of 4 @.@ 09 bar ( 409 kPa ; 59 psi ) . The engines were designed to produce 3 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 600 kW ) to give the ships a speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . During her sea trials on 3 January 1878 , she reached a maximum speed of 13 @.@ 16 knots ( 24 @.@ 37 km / h ; 15 @.@ 14 mph ) from 3 @,@ 824 ihp ( 2 @,@ 852 kW ) . The ship carried a maximum of 350 long tons ( 360 t ) of coal , enough to steam 4 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 300 km ; 5 @,@ 200 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The three @-@ masted ironclad was barque @-@ rigged and had a sail area of 17 @,@ 000 square feet ( 1 @,@ 579 m2 ) . To reduce wind resistance while under sail alone , the funnel was semi @-@ retractable . The ship was modernized at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal beginning in 1891 . Her masts were removed and the fore- and mizzenmasts were replaced by two military masts also fitted with fighting tops . Her funnel was fixed in height and she received four new cylindrical boilers . To offset the reduced number of boilers , the new ones were fitted with forced draught which increased their working pressure to 6 @.@ 13 bar ( 613 kPa ; 89 psi ) . The space made available by removal of the boilers was used to increase her coal storage by 36 long tons ( 37 t ) . = = = Armament and armor = = = Fusō was fitted with four 20 @-@ caliber 24 @-@ centimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) Krupp rifled breech @-@ loading ( RBL ) guns and two 22 @-@ caliber RBL 17 @-@ centimeter ( 6 @.@ 7 in ) Krupp guns . The 24 cm guns were mounted at the corners of the armored citadel on the main deck at an angle of 65 degrees to the centerline of the ship . Each gun could traverse 35 degrees to the left and right . Only the 60 @-@ degree arc at the bow and stern could not be fired upon . The two pivot @-@ mounted 17 @-@ centimeter guns were positioned on the sides of the upper deck , each with three gun ports that allowed them to act as chase guns , firing fore and aft , as well as on the broadside . The ship also carried four long and two short 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) guns , the latter intended for use ashore or mounted on the ship 's boats . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 24 @-@ centimeter gun weighed 352 @.@ 7 pounds ( 160 kg ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 560 ft / s ( 475 m / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 15 @.@ 5 inches ( 393 mm ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . The 132 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 60 kg ) 17 @-@ centimeter shell had a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 510 – 1 @,@ 600 ft / s ( 460 – 487 m / s ) and could penetrate 10 @.@ 3 – 11 @.@ 4 inches ( 262 – 290 mm ) of armor . The only data available for the 75 @-@ millimeter guns is their muzzle velocities of 1 @,@ 550 ft / s ( 473 m / s ) and 960 ft / s ( 292 m / s ) for the long and short @-@ barreled guns respectively . During the 1880s the armament of Fusō was augmented several times . In June 1883 seven quadruple @-@ barreled 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 0 in ) Nordenfelt machine guns were added for defense against torpedo boats . Five were positioned on the upper deck and one each in the fighting tops . Three years later two quintuple @-@ barreled 11 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) Nordenfeldt machine guns were mounted in the fighting tops . Slightly earlier , Fusō became the first ship in the IJN to mount 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes for Schwartzkopff torpedoes when two above @-@ water , traverseable tubes , one on each broadside , were added in late 1885 . She first fired these weapons on 14 January 1886 although further testing revealed that the torpedoes were often damaged by the impact with the water . Upon the recommendation of the prominent French naval architect Louis @-@ Émile Bertin , a " spoon " was added to the ends of the tubes to make the torpedoes strike the water horizontally which better distributed the shock of impact . The modifications were made and successful tests were conducted before the end of the year . When the ship was being refitted from 1891 – 94 , her anti @-@ torpedo boat armament was reinforced by the replacement of three 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter Nordenfelt guns by a pair of 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns and a single 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun . Two additional 11 @-@ millimeter Nordenfelt guns in the fighting tops were also added at that time . After the Sino @-@ Japanese War , a small poop deck was added in 1896 and a quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 12 @-@ centimetre ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) gun was mounted there as the stern chase gun . Another such gun was mounted on the forecastle as the forward chase gun and the two 17 @-@ centimeter guns were replaced by another pair of 12 @-@ centimeter quick @-@ firers . In addition twelve 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns were added and the 11 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by 25 @.@ 4 @-@ millimeter Nordenfelts . In March 1900 the 12 @-@ centimeter chase guns were superseded by two QF 15 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns and the former chase guns were shifted to make room for them . The final change to Fusō 's armament was made in July 1906 when her obsolete 24 @-@ centimeter guns were replaced by two QF 15 @-@ centimeter guns and two more 3 @-@ pounders were added . Fusō had a wrought @-@ iron waterline armor belt 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick amidships that tapered to 6 @.@ 4 inches ( 162 mm ) at the ends of the ship . The sides of the central battery were 9 inches thick and the transverse bulkheads were 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick . = = Construction and career = = Given a classical name for Japan , Fusō was built at the Samuda Brothers shipyard in Cubitt Town , London . Japanese sources universally give the date for Kongō 's keel @-@ laying as 24 September 1875 — the same as that for the awarding of the contract — but historian Hans Langerer describes this as improbable , arguing that no shipyard would order enough material to begin construction without cash in hand . Fusō was launched on 14 April 1877 when Ueno Ikuko , wife of the Japanese consul , cut the retaining rope with a hammer and chisel . Completed in January 1878 , the ship sailed for Japan before 22 March under the command of a British captain and with a British crew because the IJN was not yet ready for such a long voyage . While transiting the Suez Canal , she was lightly damaged when she ran aground on 27 April . She received temporary repairs at a local dockyard and arrived in Yokohama on 11 June . She was classified as a second @-@ class warship while still in transit . She was transferred to Yokosuka Naval Arsenal on 17 June for permanent repairs . On 10 July a formal ceremony was held in Yokohama for the receipt of the ship that was attended by the Meiji Emperor and many senior government officials . The ship was then opened for tours by the nobility , their families and invited guests for three days after the ceremony . Beginning on 14 July , the general public was allowed to tour the ship for a week . Fusō was assigned to the Tokai Naval District and the Standing Fleet in 1880 . That same year she transported the Naval Lord , Enomoto Takeaki , on a tour of Hokkaido . On 10 August 1881 she departed with Emperor Meiji on a tour of Aomori Prefecture and Otaru , Hokkaido that lasted until 30 September . The ship was transferred to the Medium Fleet in 1882 and made port visits in Kyushu and Pusan , Korea the following year . Fusō visited Hong Kong and Shanghai , China in 1884 . She hosted Empress Shōken for the launching ceremony of the corvette Musashi on 30 March 1886 and was transferred to the Small Standing Fleet in 1887 . The ship made a lengthy cruise in the Western Pacific in 1888 and visited ports in Korea , Russia and China the following year . Fusō participated in the fleet maneuvers on 25 March 1880 and then hosted Emperor Meiji for his visits to Kure , Sasebo , and Etajima . From November 1891 to July 1894 , Fusō was extensively refitted and partially modernized at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal . During the Battle of the Yalu River on 17 September 1894 , Fusō was assigned to the rear of the Japanese main body and was heavily engaged by the Chinese ships . Although hit many times by 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) shells , not one penetrated her armor ; of her crew only five were killed and nine wounded . During the battle her crew fired twenty @-@ nine 24 cm , thirty @-@ two 17 cm , one hundred thirty @-@ six 75 mm , one hundred sixty @-@ four 2.5- and 3 @-@ pounder shells and over fifteen hundred shells from her machine guns . The ship was present during the Battle of Weihaiwei in January – February 1895 , although she did not see any significant combat . On 29 October 1897 , Fusō 's anchor chain broke during a strong gale off Nagahama , Ehime and she collided with the ram of the protected cruiser Matsushima at 16 : 30 . She then struck Matsushima 's sister ship , Itsukushima , and sank at 16 : 57 . Re @-@ classed as a second @-@ class battleship on 21 March 1898 and refloated on 7 July , Fusō was repaired at Kure Naval Arsenal and ran her trials on 8 April 1900 . Fusō served as the flagship of Rear Admiral Sukeuji Hosoya , Seventh Division , Third Squadron , during the Russo @-@ Japanese War and was held in reserve south of Tsushima Island during the Battle of Tsushima in case the battle drifted her way . On 7 September 1904 , her 15 @-@ centimeter guns were dismounted for use in the Siege of Port Arthur . They were replaced by guns transferred from the damaged Akashi at Maizuru Naval Arsenal on 28 December . She was reclassified as a coast defense ship in December 1905 , and stricken on 1 April 1908 . Relegated to the status of a " miscellaneous service craft " , she was assigned to the Yokosuka Harbor Master until she was ordered to be sold on 15 February 1909 . Yokosuka reported her sale on 30 November , but provided no information on the date of sale or the name of the winning bidder . = SMS München = SMS München ( " His Majesty 's Ship München " ) was the fifth of seven Bremen @-@ class cruisers of the Imperial German Navy , named after the city of Munich . She was built by AG Weser in Bremen , starting in 1903 , launched in April 1904 , and commissioned in January 1905 . Armed with a main battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns and two 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , München was capable of a top speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) . München served with the fleet for the majority of her career , and saw extensive service during World War I , including at the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . There , she engaged British light cruisers on two instances , and was damaged in both ; she contributed to the damaging of the cruiser HMS Southampton during the latter engagement . München was torpedoed by the British submarine HMS E38 on 19 October 1916 , and was subsequently withdrawn from service . She spent the final year of the war as a barracks ship , and was surrendered as a war prize to the British in 1920 . München was later broken up for scrap . = = Construction = = München was ordered under the contract name " M " and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in 1903 and launched on 30 April 1904 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 10 January 1905 . The ship was 111 @.@ 1 meters ( 365 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 3 m ( 44 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 47 m ( 17 @.@ 9 ft ) forward . She displaced 3 @,@ 780 t ( 3 @,@ 720 long tons ; 4 @,@ 170 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two triple @-@ expansion engines , designed to give 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 500 kW ) for a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . The engines were powered by ten coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers . München carried up to 860 tonnes ( 850 long tons ) of coal , which gave her a range of 4 @,@ 690 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 690 km ; 5 @,@ 400 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 14 officers and 274 – 287 enlisted men . The ship was armed with ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 40 guns in single mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , six were located amidships , three on either side , and two were placed side by side aft . The guns could engage targets out to 12 @,@ 200 m ( 40 @,@ 000 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 500 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . She was also equipped with two 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with five torpedoes . They were submerged in the hull on the broadside . München was also fitted to carry fifty naval mines . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 80 mm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the guns were protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick shields . = = Service history = = After her commissioning , München was employed as a torpedo test ship and to conduct experiments with wireless telegraphy . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , the ship was assigned to the High Seas Fleet . She was moored in Brunsbüttel with her sister @-@ ship Danzig , en route to Kiel via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal on the morning of 28 August 1914 . That morning , the British attacked the German patrol line in the Heligoland Bight . During the ensuing Battle of Heligoland Bight , München and Danzig were recalled and ordered to steam to the mouth of the Elbe and wait for further orders . At 12 : 25 , the two cruisers were ordered to move into the Bight and support the cruiser Strassburg , but at 14 : 06 , München was instead ordered to conduct reconnaissance out to the north @-@ east of Heligoland . = = = Battle of Jutland = = = München was assigned to the IV Scouting Group during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The IV Scouting Group , under the command of Commodore Ludwig von Reuter , departed Wilhelmshaven at 03 : 30 on 31 May , along with the rest of the fleet . Tasked with screening for the fleet , München and the torpedo boat S54 were positioned on the starboard side of the fleet , abreast of the III Battle Squadron . Later in the battle , shortly after 21 : 00 , München and the rest of the IV Scouting Group encountered the British 3rd Light Cruiser Squadron ( 3rd LCS ) . Reuter 's ships were leading the High Seas Fleet south , away from the deployed Grand Fleet . Due to the long range and poor visibility , only München and SMS Stettin were able to engage the British cruisers ; München fired 63 shells before she had to cease fire , without scoring any hits . She was hit twice in return , however ; the first hit caused minimal damage , but the second struck her third funnel . The resulting explosion damaged four of her boilers , making it difficult for her to keep steam up in all of her boilers . Reuter turned his ships hard to starboard , in order to draw the British closer to the capital ships of the German fleet , but the 3rd LCS refused to take the bait and disengaged . During the ferocious night fighting that occurred as the High Seas Fleet forced its way through the British rear , the IV Scouting Group encountered the 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron at close range in the darkness . As the two squadrons closed on each other , the Germans illuminated HMS Southampton and HMS Dublin and concentrated their fire on the two ships . The two ships were badly damaged and set on fire and forced to retreat , while the Germans also fell back in an attempt to bring the British closer to the battlecruisers Moltke and Seydlitz . In the melee , the cruiser Frauenlob was hit and sunk by a torpedo launched by Southampton , and München nearly collided with the sinking Frauenlob . She managed to evade the wreck , and she then fired a torpedo at Southampton , but it missed . München was hit another three times during this engagement ; two of the hits exploded in the water , causing minor splinter damage . The third shell went through the second funnel and exploded on a funnel support on the other side ; one of the shell splinters knocked out the starboard rangefinder . The erratic maneuvering bent a wheel shaft in the helm , forcing her crew to steer the ship from the steering gear compartment for about two and a half hours . At 01 : 20 , München and Stettin briefly fired on the German torpedo boats G11 , V1 , and V3 before they discovered their identity . Early on the morning of 1 June , around 05 : 06 , the pre @-@ dreadnought battleships of the II Battle Squadron opened fire on what they thought were British submarines ; the firing was so hysterical that it threatened to damage München and Stettin , as they were steaming up the side of the German line . The fleet commander , Vice Admiral Reinhard Scheer , was forced to give a general " cease @-@ fire " order . München in turn spotted an imaginary submarine off Heligoland at 11 : 40 and opened fire on the empty sea.In the course of the battle , München was hit by a total of five medium @-@ caliber shells , which killed eight men and wounded another twenty . She had fired 161 rounds from her guns . = = = Later operations = = = On 18 – 19 October , Scheer attempted a repeat of the original Jutland plan , which had called for a bombardment of Sunderland . While en route , München was hit by a torpedo launched by the submarine HMS E38 off the Dogger Bank . Scheer became convinced the British knew his location , and so he cancelled the operation and returned to port . München took on some 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ; 550 short tons ) of water , and saltwater got into her boilers , contaminating the freshwater used to produce steam . She had to be taken under tow , first by the torpedo boat V73 , and then by her sister Berlin . By the following day , her engines were back in operation , and she steamed into the Jadebusen under her own power , where she entered the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven . After returning to port , München was decommissioned in November due to the battle damage incurred the previous month . She was later employed as a barracks ship for patrol ships in 1918 . She was stricken from the naval register on 5 November 1919 and ceded to the British as the war prize Q on 6 July 1920 under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles . They subsequently broke her up for scrap . = 1903 – 04 Bradford City A.F.C. season = The 1903 – 04 season was the first season in Bradford City A.F.C. ' s history , having been founded on 29 May 1903 and then elected into the Football League to replace Doncaster Rovers in the Second Division . They finished in 10th position in the league and reached the fourth qualifying round of the FA Cup . Bradford City were formed following a series of meetings during the first half of 1903 and replaced the former rugby league club of Manningham , whose Valley Parade ground they used . The club had already signed six players before they were accepted into the league before the rest of the side were later signed by a five @-@ man committee . The board directors appointed Robert Campbell as the club 's first manager . Bradford City 's first game ended in a 2 – 0 defeat at Grimsby Town and the first home game resulted in another loss to Gainsborough Trinity . Club captain Johnny McMillan finished the top goalscorer with 14 league and two FA Cup goals . = = Background = = Organised league football had been played in the West Riding of Yorkshire since 1894 in the West Yorkshire League , but no side from the county had played in the Football League . So on 30 January 1903 , Scotsman James Whyte , a sub @-@ editor of the Bradford Observer , met with Football Association representative John Brunt at Valley Parade , the home of the city 's rugby league side Manningham Football Club , to discuss establishing a Football League club within Bradford . In May , Manningham 's committee decided to swap codes from rugby to association football and so the Football League decided to invite Bradford City to join their league in a bid to introduce association football to the West Riding , the main sport in which was rugby league . The League voted in favour of replacing Doncaster Rovers , who had finished the 1902 – 03 season in 16th position in the Second Division , with Bradford City even though Bradford had yet to play a single game . = = Review = = = = = Pre @-@ season = = = Even before Bradford City were guaranteed a place in the Football League , the club made its first acquisitions by signing Jack Forrest and Ben Prosser from Stoke on 1 May . These were followed by four more players joining the club ; Sam Bright , George Robinson , Peter O 'Rourke and Jimmy Millar . Despite not having enough players to field a full side , four club representatives travelled to London by the end of May for a league management committee meeting , when the club was elected into the Second Division . Money was raised to fund the club , including at least £ 2 @,@ 000 from sponsors , a balance of £ 500 from Manningham FC and proceeds from a summer archery tournament . Bradford City also took over Manningham 's Valley Parade ground for their home fixtures . The four @-@ strong party which visited London , as well as newly elected Alfred Ayrton made up five members of a 13 @-@ man sub @-@ committee which controlled club affairs . The first five , who also included J. Brunt , J.E. Fattorini , A.J. Foxcroft and J.T. Whyte , were responsible for first team matters . On 20 June , the club directors appointed former Sunderland secretary @-@ manager Robert Campbell as Bradford City 's first manager from a shortlist of 30 applicants . Campbell 's role was to coach the players , helped by trainer George Cutts . Ayrton , who had been president of Manningham FC , became the club 's first chairman . Bradford played no recorded pre @-@ season friendlies . Instead , Campbell and Cutts , decided on the first selection for the opening game of the season with Grimsby Town by playing a series of Whites v Stripes games between professionals already signed by the club and amateur players . The first squad was signed at a cost of £ 917 10s 0d , with the players choosing Johnny McMillan as their own captain . Millar , a defender signed from Middlesbrough , was chosen as vice @-@ captain . = = = September = = = Bradford City 's first league game was at Blundell Park against Grimsby Town on 1 September 1903 , on a sunny Tuesday evening in front of 10 @,@ 000 fans . The pioneering team consisted of Arthur Seymour in goal , defenders Willie Wilson , Fred Halliday , George Robinson , Jimmy Millar and Thomas Farnall with Richard Guy , John Beckram , Jack Forrest , Johnny McMillan and John Graham in attack . Graham , Beckram and Guy all came close to giving City an opening day lead , but Grimsby scored through Archie Dunn . After City were reduced to ten men because of an injury to Guy , Fred Rouse doubled Grimsby 's lead in the second half ; Grimsby finished the victors 2 – 0 . Four days later , City hosted their first home at Valley Parade against Gainsborough Trinity . The game attracted 11 @,@ 000 spectators even though there was no covered accommodation for fans . Among the spectators was Bradford 's Lord Mayor and Lady Mayoress . City lost 3 – 1 with Guy scoring the club 's first ever league goal , but they also had a goal disallowed and missed a penalty . The Bradford Daily Argus reported that the goal was " greeted with a shout which awoke babies on the distant hillsides of Bolton and Eccleshill . The match highlights were shown in Bradford 's St George 's Hall later in the same evening . Bradford won their first game in the league in their third game of the season , with a 2 – 0 victory against Burton United at Peel Croft . A week later , they won their first game at their Valley Parade home by defeating Bristol City 1 – 0 . McMillan scored in each game , with Forrest also scoring against Burton . They finished the month with a 3 – 1 loss at Manchester United . = = = October = = = Bradford played only two league games during October . The first ended in a 5 – 2 defeat to Burslem Port Vale ; the second – on 24 October – finished in a 3 – 1 victory to Bradford against fellow Yorkshire side Barnsley . Instead , City played their first games in the FA Cup in the club 's history . The first qualifying round match and the club 's debut in the competition was a 6 – 1 victory against Rockingham Colliery with six different City players on the scoresheet . City progressed through the following two qualifying rounds against Mirfield United and Worksop Town , with all three games being held at Valley Parade . During October , City also hosted an inter @-@ league game between the English and Irish Leagues at Valley Parade . Although the ground was not up to high standards , the Football League was keen to encourage football in Bradford . An estimated 20 @,@ 000 supporters attended the match which finished with a 2 – 1 victory for the Football League . The club also made their first signing since the start of the season , bringing in forward Thomas Drain from Scottish side Maybole . = = = November and December = = = City went another two weeks before playing again when their FA Cup run came to an end with a 2 – 1 defeat at their fellow Second Division side Chesterfield in the fourth qualifying round . They returned to league action on 21 November against Bolton Wanderers , nearly a month since their win against Barnsley . Drain , who had scored on his debut against Barnsley , scored Bradford 's first ever hat @-@ trick , but the game finished in a 3 – 3 draw . A week later , Drain scored for the third successive league match but City lost 3 – 2 to Burnley . Bradford played six games during December , with the first two ending in draws against Preston North End and Stockport County . On 19 December , City defeated Leicester Fosse 4 – 0 at Valley Parade . It was City 's highest league victory of the season with McMillan scoring his side 's second hat @-@ trick of the campaign . City finished the month with three games in the space of four days . They first lost 4 – 1 to Woolwich Arsenal on Christmas Day , before a 1 – 0 victory at Blackpool . The year finished with a draw against Port Vale . = = = January , February and March = = = At the turn of the new year , City were defeated by Gainsborough Trinity , before they completed their first double by defeating Burton United 3 – 0 . Two draws followed – against Bristol City and Manchester United . City extended their unbeaten run by winning all three matches during February , with victories against Glossop , Barnsley and Lincoln City . Each victory finished 2 – 1 with Beckram , Drain and Robinson all scoring twice during the month . The club 's six @-@ game unbeaten run came to an end in the return fixture at Glossop , with further defeats following against Stockport County and Chesterfield . The three @-@ game losing streak was overturned with a 3 – 0 win over Burnley ; Graham scored twice to become the third player to score more than one goal during a league game . = = = April = = = City packed in eight games during April to complete the league season . On 1 April , they lost to Lincoln City and then the following day they lost to Preston North End . A third game in four days finished in a 1 – 1 draw with Chesterfield . The first victory of the month came in the reverse fixture against the club 's first ever league opponents Grimsby Town . City lost 1 – 0 to Bolton Wanderers before a 2 – 1 victory followed against Leicester Fosse , with McMillan scoring one of the goals . The final two matches both ended in defeats without City scoring ; first to Arsenal , then to Blackpool . City finished 10th at the end of the first season recording 31 points from 34 games . Team captain McMillan finished as the club 's top scorer with 14 goals . He played 32 games , with goalkeeper Seymour , half @-@ back Robinson and forward Graham all being ever @-@ presents . With the advent of league football in Bradford , thousands of people came to home games , resulting in the club 's end @-@ of @-@ season receipts totalling £ 3 @,@ 896 . It resulted in a small operating loss from the first season , but donations helped the club record a profit of £ 39 in their first season in the Football League . Following the end of the season , the club released six players and also sold Guy to Leeds City . = = Match results = = = = = Legend = = = = = = Football League Second Division = = = Source : Frost = = = FA Cup = = = Source : Frost = = League table = = Source : Butler P = Matches played ; W = Matches won ; D = Matches drawn ; L = Matches lost ; F = Goals for ; A = Goals against ; GA = Goal average ; Pts = Points = = Player details = = Source : Frost = = Transfers = = Source : Frost = = = In = = = = = = Out = = = = The Boat Race 1966 = The 112th Boat Race took place on 26 March 1966 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The race was won by Oxford by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter @-@ lengths . Isis won the reserve race while Cambridge won the Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities , followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the previous year 's race by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths . Cambridge , however , held the overall lead with 61 victories to Oxford 's 49 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race . Two days before the main race and in inclement weather , the Cambridge boat began to sink and was pushed into barges and tugs moored below Beverley Brook . The crew were rescued and according to their boat club president Mike Sweeney , the incident would have no impact on the Light Blues : " we shall just get into our other boat and race in that " . It was the first Boat Race vessel to sink since the 1951 race . The Light Blues would row in the same boat in which they won the 1962 and 1964 races , while Oxford 's craft was manufactured by Swiss firm Stämpfli Racing Boats . Both boats were German @-@ rigged , where the number four and five row on the bow side . The inclement weather continued until the day of the race , with further disruption predicted and the threat of postponement a real one . The race was umpired by the former Cambridge University Boat Club president and rower Alan Burrough who took part in Cambridge 's victory in the 1939 race . The Cambridge crew were coached by D. C. Christie ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1958 and 1959 races ) , J. G. P. Crowden ( who won Blues in the 1951 and the 1952 races ) , D. M. Jennens ( who rowed three times between 1949 and 1951 ) and I. W. Welsh ( who participated in the 1956 race ) . Oxford 's coach was Ronnie Howard who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1957 and 1959 races . = = Crews = = The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 7 lb ( 85 @.@ 5 kg ) , 1 @.@ 6 pounds ( 0 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxonians Chris and Richard Freeman became the first brothers to row in the Boat Race since 1935 race . The Oxford crew contained a single former Blue , the boat club president and number two Duncan Clegg , while Cambridge saw Rodney Ward and stroke Mike Sweeeny return . Oxford 's P. G. Tuke was following in the footsteps of his great grandfather F. E. Tuke who had rowed in the 1845 race . There were three non @-@ British participants in the race , the Oxford cox Jim Rogers , and Cambridge rowers J. H. Ashby and P. H. Conze were all American . = = Race = = Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station . Despite the prediction of poor weather and the threat of postponement , the race commenced at the planned time of 4.15pm. Oxford made the better start and were half @-@ a @-@ length up on Cambridge , but with the advantage of the Middlesex bend , the Light Blues were one second behind at the Mile Post . Oxford reacted to a Cambridge push at Harrods Furniture Depository to maintain the lead which they extended to two seconds by Hammersmith Bridge . The Dark Blues continued to contain Cambridge 's attempts to reduce the deficit and by Chiswick Steps had clear water with a three @-@ second advantage . Pushing away once again , and with a two @-@ length lead , Oxford 's cox Jim Rogers steered them across the Cambridge boat to the Middlesex side , and were ten seconds ahead at Barnes Bridge . Oxford won by three @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths in a time of 19 minutes 12 seconds . In the reserve race , and after a false start , Oxford 's Isis beat Cambridge 's Goldie by seventh lengths , their second consecutive victory , in a time of 19 minutes 22 seconds . In the 21st running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge triumphed , their fourth consecutive victory . = SM U @-@ 12 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) = SM U @-@ 12 or U @-@ XII was a U @-@ 5 @-@ class submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) before and during the First World War . = = Introduction = = Built on speculation by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume , the submarine was launched as SS @-@ 3 and featured improvements in the electrical and mechanical systems from the design by the American John Philip Holland , to which her older sister boats , SM U @-@ 5 and U @-@ 6 , had been built . SS @-@ 3 was laid down in 1909 and launched in March 1911 . The double @-@ hulled submarine was just over 105 feet ( 32 m ) long and displaced between 240 and 273 tonnes ( 265 and 301 short tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . Whitehead 's tried selling SS @-@ 3 to several different navies , but she was finally bought by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy after the outbreak of World War I , despite having been rejected by them twice before . She was commissioned as U @-@ 12 in August 1914 . The submarine sank only one ship , a Greek cargo ship in May 1915 , but she had earlier captured six Montenegrin sailing vessels as prizes in March . U @-@ 12 also damaged , but did not sink , the French battleship Jean Bart in December 1914 . While searching for targets in the vicinity of Venice in August 1915 , U @-@ 12 struck a mine that blew her stern off , and sank with all hands , becoming the first Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine sunk in the war . Her wreck was salvaged the next year by the Italians , who interred U @-@ 12 's crewmen in a Venetian cemetery . = = Design and construction = = SS @-@ 3 was built on speculation by Whitehead & Co. of Fiume . Her design was based on the John Philip Holland design licensed by Whitehead for U @-@ 5 and U @-@ 6 , two submarines ordered by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy and built 1907 – 1910 , and featured improvements in the mechanical and electrical systems . SS @-@ 3 was laid down in 1909 and launched at Fiume on 14 March 1911 . SS @-@ 3 's featured a single @-@ hull with a tear @-@ drop shaped body that bore a strong resemblance to modern nuclear submarines . She was 105 feet 4 inches ( 32 @.@ 11 m ) long by 13 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 19 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 10 inches ( 3 @.@ 91 m ) . She displaced 240 tonnes ( 260 short tons ) surfaced , and 273 tonnes ( 301 short tons ) submerged . Her two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) bow torpedo tubes featured unique , cloverleaf @-@ shaped design hatches that rotated on a central axis , and the boat was designed to carry up to four torpedoes . According to one source , SS @-@ 3 was initially propelled by a pair of electric motors for surface running , but had them replaced with twin 6 @-@ cylinder gasoline engines of 300 brake horsepower ( 220 kW ) each when they proved disappointing during trials . It is not specifically reported for U @-@ 12 , but the other U @-@ 5 @-@ class boats both suffered from inadequate ventilation , which resulted in frequent intoxication of the crew from the engine exhaust . SS @-@ 3 's underwater propulsion was by two electric motors that totaled 230 shaft horsepower ( 170 kW ) . = = Career = = After SS @-@ 3 's March 1911 launch , Whitehead 's tried to sell SS @-@ 3 to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy , but because the evaluation of the first two U @-@ 5 @-@ class boats was still underway , they declined to purchase . Over the next three years Whitehead 's attempted to sell the boat to the navies of Peru , Portugal , the Netherlands , Brazil , and Bulgaria , before the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy rejected an offer for the second time . With the outbreak of war , however , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy purchased the unsold submarine to quickly bolster its fleet . Although provisionally assigned the designation U @-@ 7 , the submarine was commissioned as SM U @-@ 12 on 21 August 1914 , with Linienschiffsleutnant Egon Lerch in command . U @-@ 12 's activities over the early part of the war are not reported , but the boat 's armament was augmented by a 3 @.@ 7 cm / 23 ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) quick @-@ firing ( QF ) deck gun in November 1914 . Sister boat U @-@ 5 had her first radio receiver installed at the same time her deck gun was added , but it is not reported whether U @-@ 12 did as well . On 21 December 1914 , Lerch and U @-@ 12 chanced upon the French dreadnought Jean Bart in the Straits of Otranto steaming at a leisurely 9 knots ( 17 km / h ) and unprotected by escort ships . U @-@ 12 hit French Admiral Lapeyrère 's flagship with a single torpedo in the bow , destroying the battleship 's wine storeroom but sparing her forward magazine . Jean Bart 's watertight compartments saved the ship , which made her way to Malta to undergo repairs at the British dockyards there . U @-@ 12 survived an attack from an unknown French Brumaire @-@ class submarine on 27 February 1915 . U @-@ 12 's next success was the capture of two Montenegrin schooners on 22 March 1916 , Fiore Di Dulcigno and Hilussie . Nine days later the U @-@ boat captured another four Montenegrin boats , Buona Forte , Fiore I , Hailie , and Indaverdi . On 29 May , she sank the Greek steamer Virginia , which was the only ship reported sunk by U @-@ 12 . In June , U @-@ 12 underwent a refit that added an additional two torpedo tubes on her forward casing . In early August , Lerch and U @-@ 12 set out from Pola for Venice to look for enemy ships to sink . On 6 August , the Italian destroyer Rosolino Pilo rammed U @-@ 12 , probably by chance , at about 05 : 00 in the Lido inlet of the Venetian Lagoon . Two days later , when Italian workers were dredging to try to determine the object Rosolino Pilo had hit , they heard a heavy explosion . When divers went down in the area , they discovered the wreck of U @-@ 12 with her stern blown off . U @-@ 12 's entire complement of 17 men was lost when she went down . U @-@ 12 was the first Austro @-@ Hungarian submarine sunk during the war . In late 1916 , the Italians salvaged the hulk of U @-@ 12 and transported it to Venice . The bodies of U @-@ 12 's crew were interred at the San Michele cemetery in Venice , and U @-@ 12 's hulk , of no salvage value , was scrapped at the Venice naval arsenal . In her military service , U @-@ 12 sank one ship of 1 @,@ 065 GRT , damaged one warship ( 22 @,@ 189 GRT ) , and captured six ships as prizes . = = Gallery = = = Hudson Valley Rail Trail = The Hudson Valley Rail Trail is a paved 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east – west rail trail in the town of Lloyd in Ulster County , New York , stretching from the Hudson River through the hamlet of Highland . The trail was originally part of the Poughkeepsie Bridge Route , a rail corridor that crossed the Hudson via the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Controlled by a variety of railroads throughout the 19th and 20th centuries , the bridge was damaged and became unusable after a 1974 fire . By the 1980s the corridor 's then @-@ owner , Conrail , had routed all rail traffic in the region north through Selkirk , and was eager to relieve itself of the bridge and adjoining rights @-@ of @-@ way . In 1984 , it sold the entire property for one dollar to a felon who did not maintain it or pay taxes on it . The section of the corridor west of the Hudson was seized by Ulster County in 1991 and transferred to the town of Lloyd . During the 1990s , a broadband utility seeking to lay fiber optic cable paid the town to pass through the former corridor . The town used part of its payment to pave the route and open it as a public rail trail in 1997 . The creation of the trail was supported by a local Rotary club , which built a pavilion along the trail . The pavilion includes a donated antique caboose . While the trail originally ended at Route 44 – 55 , it was extended eastward between 2009 and 2010 , intersecting Route 9W and continuing to the Poughkeepsie Bridge . The extension was paid for by stimulus funding . The bridge , now a pedestrian walkway called Walkway Over the Hudson , connects the trail with the Dutchess Rail Trail to the east , creating a 30 @-@ mile ( 48 km ) rail trail system that spans the Hudson . The trail is expected to be extended west , where it will border Route 299 . As it passes through Highland , the trail is carried by several bridges , connects to four parking areas , and traverses a wetlands complex . = = History = = = = = Declining rail usage = = = The Hudson Valley Rail Trail is part of the former rail corridor that comprised the Poughkeepsie Bridge Route . It ran east through the hamlet of Highland in the town of Lloyd over the Hudson River via the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Highland has historically been Lloyd 's largest population center . The corridor was , throughout its history , operated by the Central New England , Philadelphia and Reading , New Haven , Erie , Ontario and Western , Lehigh and New England and Penn Central railroads . Under the ownership of Penn Central , traffic along the bridge route was discouraged in favor of a northern route through Selkirk ; the use of newer technology at Selkirk Yard to improve efficiency was cited as the primary reason . At one point the Poughkeepsie corridor had been the primary thoroughfare for freight being shipped to New England , and the New Haven yard at nearby Maybrook was once " the largest railroad yard east of the Mississippi River " . Rail traffic over the Poughkeepsie Bridge stopped entirely after the bridge was damaged in a 1974 fire . After Penn Central went bankrupt , Conrail assumed control of the corridor , but opposed renovating it due to budgetary concerns . Rail traffic up to the bridge continued until March 1982 , when Conrail received permission from the Interstate Commerce Commission to completely cease using the corridor ; the tracks were removed the following year . Donald L. Pevsner , a transportation lawyer from Florida , secured a first @-@ refusal option for purchasing the corridor to create restaurants and tourist attractions , but allowed it to expire on November 1 , 1984 , because he could not secure financial backing ; he claims that Conrail expressed a desire to sell the corridor , at that point a potential liability , to the " first warm body " that would buy it . Conrail immediately sold the Poughkeepsie Bridge and adjoining rights @-@ of @-@ way on November 2 , 1984 , for one dollar to Gordon Schreiber Miller , a convicted bank fraudster who " seemed uncertain what he wished to do " with the corridor . Miller did not pay taxes , fines or insurance on the corridor , or maintain it . He went bankrupt in 1990 and sold the corridor for one dollar to his friend Vito Moreno , who also did not pay taxes on it . In 1991 , Ulster County seized the right @-@ of @-@ way west of the Poughkeepsie Bridge and gave over 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the abandoned corridor to the town of Lloyd . = = = Conversion to trail = = = Parcels of the right @-@ of @-@ way between Lloyd and the neighboring town of New Paltz were sold off by the county shortly before ownership of the remaining corridor was transferred to Lloyd and converted to a rail trail . Roughly $ 400 @,@ 000 in funding to convert the corridor to a trail was acquired through an easement from the town of Lloyd to a broadband utility for the laying of fiber optic cable , though only $ 70 @,@ 000 was needed to pave the trail . The trail remains a right @-@ of @-@ way for the fiber optic line . The development of the trail was supported by Highland 's Rotary club , which has since built several utilities for trail users , including a pavilion , garden and parking lot . The corridor was officially opened as a trail in 1997 . Initially 2 @.@ 5 to 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 8 km ) long , it stretched from Riverside Road in the west to Vineyard Avenue in the east ; the removal of an overpass on Vineyard Avenue , as well as a blockage under a bridge on U.S. Route 9W , prevented the trail from continuing east to the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Lloyd received a $ 224 @,@ 000 state and federal grant in the summer of 2000 to create such a connection . Additional funding for the eastern extension was provided in November 2006 , when the state granted $ 1 @.@ 5 million to construct a bridge and a tunnel , and to complete the path . Lloyd received a $ 7 @,@ 500 grant in 2002 to extend the trail west to the Black Creek Wetlands Complex ; the town received an additional grant for $ 20 @,@ 000 in May 2005 to complete the Black Creek extension . In 2006 , a local businessman donated an antique caboose to the trail Association ; this was placed beside the pavilion . Built in 1915 , it was " one of ... the first cabooses made of steel instead of wood " . An October 2007 study of paint chips from the caboose found the paint contained lead . The study was released less than a week before a town supervisor election in Lloyd ; one of the candidates , Ray Costantino , was president of the Hudson Valley Rail Trail Association , and one of the early proponents of the trail . He claimed the timing of the study was politically motivated . Costantino subsequently became town supervisor , and the caboose had its paint replaced and was repaired at a total cost of $ 4 @,@ 500 . A second caboose , dating from 1926 , is located at the trail 's parking lot on Haviland Road . Lloyd 's police department became the first in the county to purchase a Segway , in 2007 , for the express purpose of patrolling the rail trail . The trail has been occasionally vandalized . Lloyd 's Police Chief felt that use of such a vehicle would enable officers to patrol the trail for longer periods of time , and that it could also be used to patrol other areas of the town . Seven officers were expected to use the Segway , which contains an automated external defibrillator , and can go as fast as 12 1 ⁄ 2 miles per hour ( 20 @.@ 1 km / h ) . In March 2009 , Ulster County received almost $ 21 million in stimulus funds . The funding included a $ 3 @.@ 16 million project to complete the trail between Lloyd and the Poughkeepsie Bridge . Some funding for the architectural and engineering aspects of the project came from the reserve fund created after the town 's fiber optic deal . The Rail Trail Association also received a $ 1 @,@ 500 grant from a public @-@ benefit corporation , the Hudson River Valley Greenway , to print brochures . Construction for the 1 @.@ 28 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) section was underway by that September . In March 2010 , a portion of New Paltz Road was closed pending the replacement of a bridge over the trail . The official groundbreaking ceremony took place on May 4 , 2010 , and the trail was expected to be completed by October . The bridge over Vineyard Avenue was opened to pedestrian traffic on July 16 , 2010 . The only remaining obstruction was the placement of a bridge carrying Mile Hill Road over the trail , which was expected to be completed in August . The crossing at US 9W had been remedied ; the new section let " users to cross either over or under " the highway . To celebrate the opening of the Vineyard Avenue bridge , Route 44 – 55 throughout Highland ( which includes Vineyard Avenue ) was shut down for the day . The eastern expansion does not deviate from the original route of the corridor , and officially opened on October 2 , 2010 . Between June 23 and 24 , 2011 , parts of the trail were spray @-@ painted with " dozens of [ ... ] words and images " . Volunteers who removed some of the graffiti believed that different types of paint were used . Lloyd 's highway superintendent noted similar vandalism elsewhere in the town , and Town Supervisor Ray Costantino stated that the incident would cause Lloyd residents to feel a personal connection to the trail and become outraged . Future expansion to the trail includes a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) extension to the west , to State Route 299 . Lloyd has received a $ 1 @.@ 93 million state grant to complete the western expansion , which will reach New Paltz by 2012 . Both Lloyd and New Paltz have received grants to establish a connection between the Hudson Valley Rail Trail and the Wallkill Valley Rail Trail . There has never been a direct link between the Poughkeepsie Bridge and the Wallkill Valley corridor . Other plans include the development of commercial zones along the trail , and a project to connect the trail to Illinois Mountain . = = Route = = The east – west trail begins at the Poughkeepsie Bridge , by Haviland Road . The 1 @.@ 28 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) Poughkeepsie Bridge was opened as a pedestrian walkway in 2009 . The bridge is a National Recreation Trail , and connects to the Dutchess Rail Trail to the east , creating a contiguous 18 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 29 @.@ 3 km ) rail trail system that spans both Ulster and Dutchess counties . The Hudson Valley trail continues 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) west from the Poughkeepsie Bridge to a bridge over Mile Hill Road , then another 0 @.@ 1 miles ( 0 @.@ 16 km ) to a crossing at US 9W . At the 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) mark , the trail reaches a bridge over Vineyard Avenue . About 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) from the bridge , the trail crosses under New Paltz Road . Almost 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) from this road , the trail reaches the Black Creek Wetlands Complex . Black Creek is one of the two " principal streams " to run through Lloyd ; it bisects the town as it flows north and pools in a pond . The wetlands complex itself is important for water drainage . Part of New York State Department of Environmental Conservation region 3 , the complex contains Plutarch Swamp and one of the region 's largest dwarf shrub bogs , hosting a variety of rare species . The complex also includes the Swarte Kill , Lloyd 's second major waterway . The trail continues an additional 0 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) past the beginning of the complex to Tony Williams Park . There are four parking areas along the trail , by Haviland Road , Commercial Avenue , the Rotary pavilion , and at Tony Williams Park . The trail is 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) long ; it is paved with asphalt and suitable for hiking , bicycling , horseback riding , roller blading , and cross country skiing . = Modesta Avila = Modesta Ávila ( 1867 or 1869 – September 1891 ) was a protestor in Orange County , California who became the county 's first convicted felon and first state prisoner . Avila had only received a minor warning in 1889 for placing an obstruction on the tracks to protest against the Santa Fe Railroad being built through her property without adequate compensation , but she continued to taunt the authorities , and was eventually arrested four months later . Although the jury in her first trial was unable to reach agreement , Avila was convicted after a second trial at Orange County Supreme Court and was sentenced to three years in San Quentin State Prison . She died there of pneumonia in September 1891 after serving two years and seven months of her sentence . Today Avila is considered to be a folk heroine of Latino people of the county , and is suggested as the " White Lady " , a ghost said to haunt the area , reported to have been seen walking along the railroad tracks since the 1930s . = = Background = = Avila was born in 1867 , or 1869 according to some sources , in San Juan Capistrano , in Orange County , California , located approximately 23 miles ( 37 km ) southeast of Downtown Santa Ana . Little is known about her childhood and earlier life , but by the age of 20 she had inherited land from her mother just to the north of the Capistrano train station and was occupied in chicken rearing . Physically Avila was described as a " dark @-@ eyed beauty " in appearance and an " extremely proud woman " . The authorities would have considered her a Mexican even though she had been born in San Juan Capistrano and was technically a Mexican @-@ American or Chicana ; Mexicans were unpopular in the county at the time and subject to racism . She had spent 30 days in Los Angeles County Jail in 1888 for " vagrancy " ( often a euphemism for prostitution ) and this , coupled with the fact that she was reportedly unmarried and pregnant at the time of her second trial , led to a belief that she supplemented her income by working as a prostitute . The obituary in the Santa Ana Standard following her death in September 1891 seemed to add weight to this by referring to her as " a well @-@ known favorite of the Santa Ana boys " . = = Protest = = Avila was upset by the construction of the Santa Fe Railroad through her family 's land and only 15 feet away from her home , believing that she had not been properly compensated for the railway which was having a negative impact on her chicken rearing and her quality of life because of the noise . In 1889 , she decided to protest against the railroad 's incursion into her life and property . Local sources say she tied a clothesline hung with her laundry across the track , but other reports say she placed a railroad tie across the tracks and erected a fence post between the rails to which she attached a note of protest that read : " This land belongs to me . And if the railroad wants to run here , they will have to pay me ten thousand dollars " . Max Mendelson , the Southern Pacific 's agent in San Juan Capistrano , reported that he had removed the post , informed Avila that the Southern Pacific were perfectly within their rights in the building of the railroad , and ordered her not to interfere again . There is some doubt over what occurred between Avila and Mendelson . Avila seemed to believe that she would be compensated , and is even documented to have traveled to a bank in Santa Ana to ask how she might receive a $ 10 @,@ 000 payment and organized a party in celebration of her expected payment . She was arrested at the party for disturbing the peace , and annoyed the authorities by boasting at her trial of her victory over the railroad company and government . According to historian Lisbeth Haas in the book Conquests and Historical Identities in California , 1769 – 1936 , it was her actions after her initial protest rather than the act itself which led to her arrest four months later for " attempted obstruction of a train " , and that she was made an example of to demonstrate that protests would be punished under the new state legal system . = = Prosecution and imprisonment = = The first trial of Avila for interfering with the tracks was held at the then newly opened Orange County Superior Court under Edward Eugenes , a " hot shot " legal figure who was also in the state assembly . The first trial ended with a 6 @-@ 6 hung jury . In the week leading up to the retrial , rumors spread that Avila was pregnant out of wedlock , an act considered to be gravely sinful at the time . Her lawyer , George Hayford , " inexperienced and probably crooked " , was forced to confirm that she was pregnant and believed that the real decision to incarcerate her for three years in San Quentin State Prison was largely due to this , writing that " her real crime is that she is a poor girl not having sense enough to have been married " . Hayford appealed to the court on grounds that she had been " convicted on her reputation , not her deed " . He received a hearing at the Supreme Court , but lost the case on a technicality . Avila 's case was perhaps also used as the " vehicle for polishing Orange County ’ s law @-@ and @-@ order image " , as she was the first person to be convicted of a felony in the county . Avila 's boyfriend at the time was fired from his job for refusing to distance himself from her . If she was pregnant , what became of her baby is unknown : no mention of it appears in the penitentiary 's records . Avila died there of pneumonia in September 1891 at the age of 22 or 24 after serving two years and five months of her sentence . Her obituary in the Santa Ana Standard concluded : " Let those who are without sin throw the first stone " . = = Legacy = = Today , Avila is considered to be an important figure in local legend and has been cited as a " folklore heroine " for Latinos in the county . The San Juan Capistrano Historical Society unveiled a plaque in the town commemorating her and her place in history . Mary P. Nolan , executive director of the Central Orange County YWCA , included Avila among 30 prominent " women of courage " in Orange County 's history . As part of the celebrations for the centenary of the building of the Santa Fe railroad in August 1988 , a re @-@ enactment of her protest was performed near the railway station by a local woman , Irma Camarena , and actors playing Mendelson and a sheriff . City manager Steve Julian narrated : " Modesta hated the train . It was noisy , dirty and a bit frightening . It kept her chickens from laying eggs , and its whistle kept her awake at night . Plus , the powerful California Central , parent company to the Santa Fe , had paid a pittance to people for right of way through their property . Something had to be done . In an act of pure frustration , Modesta chose a symbolic act to voice her displeasure . " Numerous writers on Latino oppression and history in the United States cite Avila as one of many Mexican @-@ Americans victimized during this period . Suzanne Oboler , Professor of Latin American Studies at the City University of New York , for instance , considers the imprisonment of Avila and others such as Jimmy Santiago Baca , Ricardo Sánchez , Raúl Salinas , Fred Gómez Carrasco , Judy Lucero and Alvaro Luna Hernandez to be " inextricably linked to colonial domination and the subsequent struggle for material resources in the southwestern United States " . An opera entitled Modesta Avila : An American Folk Opera written by an Orange County biomedical engineer was performed in Westminster in 1986 but was dismissed as " neo @-@ imperialist nostalgia " by B. V. Olguín in La Pinta : Chicana / o Prisoner Literature , Culture , and Politics . The Modesta Avila Coalition , an activist group in the Los Angeles area involved with fighting against firms who transport goods to and from rail yards , named themselves after her in 2005 . Avila is suggested as a possible identity for the ghost , known as the " White Lady " , which has reputedly been seen in San Juan Capistrano 's Los Rios Street Historic District . The ghost was first reported walking on the railway tracks in the 1930s , along the stretch that Avila had walked . = Interstate 235 ( Iowa ) = Interstate 235 ( I @-@ 235 ) in Iowa is an auxiliary Interstate Highway that runs just north of downtown Des Moines through the heart of the Des Moines metropolitan area . I @-@ 235 runs from the junction of Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 in West Des Moines to the separation of the same two interstates in Ankeny . The highway is approximately 14 miles ( 23 km ) long . I @-@ 235 , which had seen little improvement since its construction in the 1960s , was completely rebuilt and widened in a project that spanned most of the 2000s . Prior to the reconstruction , I @-@ 235 had two lanes in each direction with a third lane near downtown ; the entire route now has at least three lanes of traffic in each direction , with an additional one or two lanes closer to the heart of the city . The modernized freeway now handles on average between 75 @,@ 000 – 125 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , making it the busiest highway in the state of Iowa . = = Route description = = Interstate 235 begins at the western intersection of Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 , known locally as the West Mixmaster . Here , eastbound I @-@ 80 exits the highway , which becomes I @-@ 235 and joins northbound I @-@ 35 . From the West Mixmaster , I @-@ 235 heads east . Almost immediately is a half @-@ diamond interchange with 50th Street in West Des Moines . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) later is a partial @-@ cloverleaf interchange with Valley West Drive , which was renamed from 35th Street in 1988 due to its proximity to Valley West Mall and Valley High School . At Windsor Heights at a tight partial @-@ cloverleaf interchange I @-@ 235 meets 73rd Street / 8th Street . The interchange is particularly tight because of an Iowa Interstate Railroad line just to the east . 73rd Street / 8th Street is actually a single road : north of I @-@ 235 , 73rd Street follows the Des Moines street numbering plan , while south of I @-@ 235 , 8th Street follows the older street numbering plan of West Des Moines . At the 63rd Street interchange , I @-@ 235 picks up a fourth lane of eastbound travel and drops a lane westbound . Now within the city limits of Des Moines , it passes the through the heavily wooded Waterbury neighborhood . Near the 42nd Street interchange , I @-@ 235 curves to the south around Theodore Roosevelt High School . One half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) later is an interchange with 31st Street , which provides access to Drake University to the north , and to Terrace Hill , the governor 's mansion , to the south . East of 31st Street , I @-@ 235 briefly picks up a fifth lane and drops a lane westbound , creating a 10 @-@ lane freeway just west of downtown . This stretch of freeway receives , on average , over 125 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , making it the busiest stretch of road in the state . There are three eastbound interchanges connecting I @-@ 235 to downtown Des Moines . Martin Luther King Jr . Parkway and 19th Street , a pair of one @-@ way streets , lead traffic to the west of downtown . Keosauqua Way , known locally as Keo Way , enters downtown from the northwest . These interchanges are combined westbound . Closer to the Des Moines River , a combined interchange in each direction filters off the rest of downtown traffic to two destinations : Seventh Street and Sixth Avenue , and Third Street and Second Avenue , each of which are pairs of one @-@ way streets . The fourth lane of traffic drops off at this combined interchange . At the Des Moines River , I @-@ 235 passes Wells Fargo Arena , the main Iowa Events Center destination , on the western shore and the Des Moines Botanical Center on the eastern shore . On the eastern side of Des Moines , it passes the East Village , the Iowa State Capitol , and East High School before the interchange with U.S. Route 69 . One mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) east is an interchange with East University Avenue , which , up to now had been relatively parallel to I @-@ 235 . East University provides access to the Iowa State Fairgrounds for northbound I @-@ 35 and eastbound I @-@ 80 traffic . At University Avenue , I @-@ 235 begins curving to the north , dividing an industrial district to the west and residential areas to the east . 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the north , it intersects East Euclid Avenue at a partial @-@ cloverleaf interchange . It continues north for another 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) until it meets Interstate 35 and Interstate 80 again at the East Mixmaster . = = History = = The first section of Interstate 235 to open , from Cottage Grove Avenue to Keo Way , opened on December 14 , 1961 . Over the next seven years , sections of I @-@ 235 opened , spreading east and west toward the mixmasters until it was completed on October 30 , 1968 . In October 1963 , the Des Moines city council designated I @-@ 235 the John MacVicar Freeway in honor of two former mayors of Des Moines : John MacVicar , Sr. , ( 1896 – 1900 , 1916 – 1918 , 1928 ) and John MacVicar , Jr . , ( 1942 – 1948 ) . However , this name is seldom used ; most people simply refer to it as I @-@ 235 . In March 2002 , a six @-@ year @-@ long project to completely rebuild I @-@ 235 and the bridges which cross it began . The first two years consisted of rebuilding most of the bridges which cross it , starting with 42nd Street in West Des Moines . The final four years of the project entailed finishing the remaining bridges , widening , regrading , and repaving the entire length of the highway . = = = Pedestrian bridges = = = An additional part of the highway improvement plan were three pedestrian bridges , located at 6th , 40th and 44th Streets . The three bridges were replacements for bridges which were too narrow to accommodate the newly widened highway . These highly visible bridges act as icons , locating the neighborhoods for travelers along the freeway . The design of the I @-@ 235 pedestrian bridges was completed by Boston @-@ based bridge designer Miguel Rosales in collaboration with HNTB Engineering . The three bridges , the Edna M. Griffin Memorial Bridge ( 6th Street ) , the 40th Street Pedestrian Bridge , and the Rider Way Pedestrian Bridge ( 44th Street ) were each completed by 2005 . The new design utilizes basket @-@ handle steel arches with clear spans of approximately 230 feet ( 70 m ) . Inclined cables connect the steel blue arches to the pre @-@ stressed concrete deck . By selecting a tied arch form , the Iowa Department of Transportation was able to keep disruption of traffic to a minimum during construction . An innovative curved screen system is used to enhance security and the appearance of the structure creating a visually appealing experience for pedestrians and bicyclists using the bridge . The resulting series of bridges has created a distinctive form that is unique to the city and the state . The city of Des Moines recently relit the bridges with LED lighting . = = Exit list = = The entire route is in Polk County . = Church of St Nicholas , Sapareva Banya = The Church of St Nicholas ( Bulgarian : църква „ Свети Никола “ , tsarkva „ Sveti Nikola “ ) is a small medieval Eastern Orthodox church in the southwestern Bulgarian town of Sapareva Banya , which is part of Kyustendil Province . Originally either the property of a local notable or attached to a larger church , it was constructed anytime from the 11th to the 14th century . The church was built using red bricks and white mortar . Architecturally , it is of a simple Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design , with a single nave and apse . The frescoes in the interior are only scarcely preserved . It was reconstructed in 1937 after falling into ruin , and it was listed as a monument of culture of national importance in 1968 . = = History = = Scholars disagree on the possible period of the church 's construction ; assessments range from the 11th – 12th , through the 12th – 13th , to the 13th – 14th century . In an article in the Bulgarian Church Review magazine from 1898 , the local priest Mihal Popov was cited as saying that a stone from the church altar was unearthed during excavations . The priest believed that the stone , which reportedly had the date 1160 inscribed on it , was sent to the National Archaeological Museum in the capital Sofia . Due to its diminutive size , the Church of St Nicholas was probably not constructed as an independent church . A legend links the church to the name of an unidentified local feudal lord named Nikola ( Nicholas ) as his final resting place , though archaeologist Nikola Mavrodinov considers it more likely that it was possibly a chapel or a cemetery church attached to a larger place of worship . The larger church was perhaps pulled down during the early Ottoman rule of Bulgaria ( post @-@ 14th century ) . While the Church of St Nicholas was not destroyed , its renovation was prohibited by the Ottomans , thus it gradually fell into ruin . In his 1931 study , Mavrodinov also writes that at the time , the church lacked a roof . He references a story about a group of Circassians that were settled in Sapareva Banya on the order of the Ottoman authorities after the Crimean War ( 1853 – 1856 ) . According to that story , the Circassians sought to pull down the church 's roof . However , one of them fell to his death inside the church , so they fled in horror . The church was thoroughly reconstructed in 1937 by a team under architect Rashenov . = = Architecture = = The Church of St Nicholas lies in the centre of Sapareva Banya . Its architecture is rather simple , with a single nave , a single apse and no narthex present . The church follows the Byzantine cross @-@ in @-@ square design , with unusually short arms of equal size . The dome has twelve sides and is of no particular height , though it is rather large for the church 's size . The apse is situated on the church 's eastern side ; its shape is semicircular and it features a window . The entrance is located on the west wall . The church was constructed out of rows of red bricks stuck together with white mortar . According to scholar Bistra Nikolova , its size is 7 @.@ 20 by 5 @.@ 50 metres ( 23 @.@ 6 ft × 18 @.@ 0 ft ) , while another source measures it as 6 @.@ 60 m × 5 @.@ 40 m ( 21 @.@ 7 ft × 17 @.@ 7 ft ) . Either way , it is square in appearance . In height , it probably reached 6 @.@ 60 m ( 21 @.@ 7 ft ) at the dome and 4 @.@ 20 m ( 13 @.@ 8 ft ) at the cornice . In terms of design and decoration , Mavrodinov likens the church to the Church of St Pantaleon in Gorno Nerezi near Skopje , today in the Republic of Macedonia . It is also compared to the Church of St Theodore in nearby Boboshevo . The Church of St Nicholas features a multitude of two @-@ stepped vaults on its outside walls . The interior was originally entirely covered with frescoes , though only fragments survive . It was enlisted as a monument of culture of national importance in 1968 , with a publication in Bulgaria 's newspaper of record , the State Gazette , issue 77 . = SMS Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm = SMS Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm ( " His Majesty 's Ship Elector Friedrich Wilhelm " ) was one of the first ocean @-@ going battleships of the Imperial German Navy . The ship was named for Prince @-@ elector ( Kurfürst ) Friedrich Wilhelm , 17th @-@ century Duke of Prussia and Margrave of Brandenburg . She was the fourth pre @-@ dreadnought of the Brandenburg class , along with her sister ships Brandenburg , Weissenburg , and Wörth . She was laid down in 1890 in the Imperial Dockyard in Wilhelmshaven , launched in 1891 , and completed in 1893 at a cost of 11 @.@ 23 million marks . The Brandenburg @-@ class battleships carried six large @-@ caliber guns in three twin turrets , as opposed to four guns in two turrets , as was the standard in other navies . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm served as the flagship of the Imperial fleet from her commissioning in 1894 until 1900 . She saw limited active duty during her service career with the German fleet due to the relatively peaceful nature of the late 19th and early 20th centuries . As a result , her career focused on training exercises and goodwill visits to foreign ports . These training maneuvers were nevertheless very important to developing German naval tactical doctrine in the two decades before World War I , especially under the direction of Alfred von Tirpitz . She , along with her three sisters , saw only one major overseas deployment , to China in 1900 – 01 , during the Boxer Rebellion . The ship underwent a major modernization in 1904 – 05 . In 1910 , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was sold to the Ottoman Empire and renamed Barbaros Hayreddin . She saw heavy service during the Balkan Wars , primarily providing artillery support to Ottoman ground forces in Thrace . She also took part in two naval engagements with the Greek Navy — the Battle of Elli in December 1912 , and the Battle of Lemnos the following month . Both battles were defeats for the Ottoman Navy . In a state of severe disrepair , the old battleship was partially disarmed after the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers early in World War I. On 8 August 1915 the ship was torpedoed and sunk off the Dardanelles by the British submarine HMS E11 with heavy loss of life . = = Description = = Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was 115 @.@ 7 meters ( 379 ft 7 in ) long overall , had a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) which was increased to 19 @.@ 74 m ( 64 ft 9 in ) with the addition of torpedo nets , and had a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 24 ft 11 in ) forward and 7 @.@ 9 m ( 25 ft 11 in ) aft . The ship displaced 10 @,@ 013 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 855 long tons ) at its designed weight , and up to 10 @,@ 670 t ( 10 @,@ 500 long tons ) at full combat load . She was equipped with two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion engines that provided 9 @,@ 553 ihp ( 7 @,@ 124 kW ) and had a top speed of 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm had a cruising range of 4 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men . The ship was unusual for her time in that she possessed a broadside of six heavy guns in three twin gun turrets , rather than the four guns typical of contemporary battleships . The forward and aft turrets carried 28 @-@ centimeter ( 11 in ) K L / 40 guns , and the center turret was armed with shorter L / 35 guns . Her secondary armament consisted of eight 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) SK L / 35 and eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) SK L / 30 quick @-@ firing guns mounted in casemates . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm 's armament suite was rounded out with six 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , all in above @-@ water swivel mounts . Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was protected with nickel @-@ steel Krupp armor , a new type of stronger steel . Her main belt armor was 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central section that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The main battery barbettes were protected with 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick armor . = = Service history = = = = = In German service = = = = = = = Construction to 1895 = = = = Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm was the fourth and final ship of	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
the focus of the entire episode , to the point where if you wanted to call it a half @-@ hour commercial for Lady Gaga , you probably wouldn ’ t be wrong . Fortunately for ' Lisa Goes Gaga ' , the celebrity at its heart is entertaining enough that it being her commercial isn ’ t a complete waste of time . " A writer for HLN avouched that The Simpsons managed to culminate its season " with a lot of style " ; David Greenwald of Billboard echoed similar sentiments . Gaga 's performance was frequently mentioned in the critiques . Idolator 's Becky Bain , Tracy Gilchrist of SheWired , and Caroline Westbrook of Metro issued favorable assessments of her acting : the latter affirmed that Gaga had many memorable moments throughout the episode . " The series did make good use of their guest star instead of reducing her role to a small cameo , " opined TV Fanatic 's Teresa L. , who concluded : " The episode ended up turning into one long @-@ running gag about Gaga 's eccentricities and a rehashing of all her most ' shocking ' moments . " Jocelyn W. of TV Equals said , " Lady Gaga helped The Simpsons end its 23rd season on a memorable note . " Some fans appeared to respond particularly unfavorably to the episode . A graph plotting every episode of the series according to each 's Internet Movie Database rating which revealed " Lisa Goes Gaga " to be the poorest received episode received media attention . The episode also received a highly negative response from the podcast Worst Episode Ever . As of July 2016 , " Lisa Goes Gaga " was the fifth lowest rated episode of the 82 reviewed for the show . The AV Club 's user @-@ determined Community Grade for the episode is C- . = SMS Brandenburg = SMS Brandenburg was the lead ship of the Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , which included Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm , Weissenburg , and Wörth built for the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) in the early 1890s . She was the first pre @-@ dreadnought built for the German Navy ; earlier , the Navy had only built coastal defense ships and armored frigates . The ship was laid down at the AG Vulcan dockyard in 1890 , launched on 21 September 1891 , and commissioned into the German Navy on 19 November 1893 . Brandenburg and her three sisters were unique for their time in that they carried six heavy guns instead of the four that were standard in other navies . She was named after the Province of Brandenburg . Brandenburg saw her first major deployment in 1900 , when she and her three sister ships were deployed to China to suppress the Boxer Rebellion . Upon returning to Germany , Brandenburg and her sisters , with the exception of Wörth , took part in extensive fleet maneuvers in 1902 . In the early 1900s , all four ships were heavily rebuilt . However , she was obsolete by the start of World War I , and only served in a limited capacity , initially as a coastal defense ship , but primarily as a barracks ship . Following the end of the war , Brandenburg was scrapped in Danzig in 1920 . = = Design = = Brandenburg was 115 @.@ 7 m ( 379 ft 7 in ) long , with a beam of 19 @.@ 5 m ( 64 ft 0 in ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 6 m ( 24 ft 11 in ) . Brandenburg displaced 10 @,@ 013 t ( 9 @,@ 855 long tons ) as designed , and up to 10 @,@ 670 t ( 10 @,@ 501 long tons ) at full combat load . She was equipped with two sets of 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple expansion steam engines that produced 10 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 7 @,@ 457 kW ) and a top speed of 16 @.@ 9 knots ( 31 @.@ 3 km / h ; 19 @.@ 4 mph ) on trials . Steam was provided by twelve transverse cylindrical water @-@ tube boilers . She had a maximum range of 4 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ; 4 @,@ 900 mi ) at a cruising speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . Her crew numbered 38 officers and 530 enlisted men . Brandenburg was armed with a main battery of six 28 cm ( 11 in ) guns of two types . The forward and rear turret guns were 40 calibers long , while the amidships guns were only 35 calibers ; this was necessary to allow them to train to either side of the ship . Her secondary armament initially consisted of seven 10 @.@ 5 cm ( 4 @.@ 1 in ) guns , though an additional gun was added during the modernization in 1901 . She also carried eight 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 45 in ) guns and six 45 cm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected with compound armor . Her main belt armor was 400 millimeters ( 15 @.@ 7 in ) thick in the central section that protected the ammunition magazines and machinery spaces . The deck was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick . The main battery barbettes were protected with 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) thick armor . = = Service history = = Brandenburg was ordered as battleship A , the first ship of her class . She was laid down at Germaniawerft in Kiel in 1890 . Her hull was completed by September 1891 and launched on 21 September . Fitting out work followed and was finished by later 1893 ; the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 19 November 1893 , less than four weeks after her sister Wörth , the first vessel in the class to join the fleet . On 16 February 1894 , several steam pipes exploded in the ship . The door between the two engine rooms was open , which allowed the steam to enter both of them . Thirty @-@ nine men were killed in the blast and nine were severely injured . Of these , six later died from their injuries . In June 1895 , the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal was completed ; to celebrate , dozens of warships from 14 different countries gathered in Kiel for a celebration hosted by Kaiser Wilhelm II , including Brandenburg and her three sisters . = = = Boxer Rebellion = = = During the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 , Chinese nationalists laid siege to the foreign embassies in Peking and murdered Baron Clemens von Ketteler , the German minister . The widespread violence against Westerners in China led to a creation of an alliance between Germany and seven other Great Powers : the United Kingdom , Italy , Russia , Austria @-@ Hungary , the United States , France , and Japan . Those soldiers who were in China at the time were too few in number to defeat the Boxers ; in Peking there was a force of slightly more than 400 officers and infantry from the armies of the eight European powers . At the time , the primary German military force in China was the East Asia Squadron , which consisted of the protected cruisers Kaiserin Augusta , Hansa , and Hertha , the small cruisers Irene and Gefion , and the gunboats Jaguar and Iltis . Like many other foreign ships , the German squadron was anchored off the Chinese Taku Forts , which guarded access to Peking . To relieve the foreign legations , British Admiral Edward Seymour mounted a multinational force of 2 @,@ 100 men that disembarked and marched toward the Chinese capital . That force included a German 500 @-@ man detachment dispatched from the fleet anchored off the Taku Forts . Due to heavy resistance , however , the Seymour Expedition could not reach Peking and was forced to retreat toward Tientsin . As a result , the Kaiser determined an expeditionary force would be sent to China to reinforce the East Asia Squadron . Hela was part of the naval expedition , which included the four Brandenburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships , sent to China to reinforce the German flotilla there . Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz opposed the plan , which he saw as unnecessary and costly . The force was sent in spite of von Tirpitz 's objections ; it arrived in China in September 1900 . By that time , the siege of Peking had already been lifted . As a result , the task force suppressed local uprisings around the German concession of Kiaochow . In the end , the operation cost the German government more than 100 million marks . The force returned to Germany the following year , in 1901 . = = = Fleet training , 1902 = = = On 31 August 1902 , the annual fleet maneuvers began . The first portion of the exercise positioned Germany in a naval war against a powerful enemy that had superior forces in the North and Baltic Seas . A German squadron , consisting of the coastal defense ships Hagen , Heimdall , and Hildebrand and a division of torpedo boats were trapped in the Kattegat by a superior enemy unit in the North Sea . The " German " squadron was tasked with returning to Kiel in the Baltic , where it would return to Wilhelmshaven via the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal to rejoin the rest of the fleet . Brandenburg , along with Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg and the cruisers Nymphe , Amazone , and Hela , was positioned in one of the three main channels from the Kattegat to Kiel to act as an opposing force . Two other battle squadrons were positioned to block the advance of the isolated " German " squadron . On the morning of 2 September , the operation commenced . At 06 : 00 that morning , the commander of the " German " squadron decided to take his ships through the channel to which Brandenburg was assigned . The " hostile " torpedo @-@ boat screen sighted the German flotilla , but a dense fog precluded effective pursuit by the battleships . The fog was so thick that Brandenburg and her two sisters had to drop anchor to avoid any unnecessary risks . Later that evening , the three " opponent " forces rendezvoused to pursue the " German " ships . However , the cruiser and the torpedo boat screen was detached to engage the " German " torpedo @-@ boat screen . The lighter ships quickly " destroyed " several of the " German " torpedo boats . This prompted the " German " squadron to retreat northward with the cruisers in pursuit . The German squadron was chased back through the Kattegat before the exercise was called off . On the night of 3 September , the entire fleet anchored off Læsø island to give the crews a rest . The following day , 4 September , the exercise resumed . The German squadron was reinforced by several battleships and the armored cruiser Prinz Heinrich . The German flotilla was ordered to sail into the North Sea and attempt to reach the safety of the island fortress of Helgoland . A short engagement between the hostile screen and Prinz Heinrich ensued , during which Prinz Heinrich damaged the protected cruisers Freya and Victoria Louise . A torpedo boat attack on the German squadron followed in the early hours of 5 September . The hostile force was unable to prevent the escape of the German squadron , however , which reached Helgoland by 12 : 00 . The fleet anchored off Helgoland on 8 – 11 September . During the day the ships conducted training with steam tactics . On 11 September the ships returned to Wilhelmshaven where on the following two days the ships replenished their coal supplies . On 14 September the final operation of the annual maneuvers began . The situation specified that the naval war had gone badly for Germany ; only four battleships , including Brandenburg , Baden , Beowulf , and Württemberg , were still in service . This motley force was augmented by a pair of cruisers and a division of torpedo boats . The ships were to be stationed in the mouth of the Elbe river to protect the Kaiser Wilhelm Canal and access to Hamburg . On 15 September , the " hostile " force blockaded the Elbe , along with other rivers and harbors on the North Sea . The hostile battleship squadron steamed to the mouth of the Elbe , where Hela , Freya , and the remaining torpedo boats were stationed as lookouts . Nothing happened during the day of 16 September , but that night several German torpedo boats managed to destroy one of the blockading cruisers and badly damage another . The weather began to storm so the operation was postponed until the following day . That morning , the hostile fleet forced its way into the Elbe , past the fortifications at the mouth of the river . The German flotilla made a desperate attack which resulted in the sinking of two of the hostile battleships . The hostile force , however , ultimately overwhelmed the outnumbered German ships and the exercise ended with their victory . = = = Reconstruction and later service = = = In the early 1900s , the four Brandenburgs were taken into the drydocks at the Kaiserliche Werft Wilhelmshaven for major reconstruction . Wörth was the first vessel of the class to enter drydock in 1901 ; Brandenburg didn 't follow until 1903 . During the modernization , a second conning tower was added in the aft superstructure , along with a gangway . Brandenburg and the other ships had their boilers replaced with newer models , and also had the hamper amidships reduced . After emerging from the dry dock after modernization , Brandenburg and the other battleships of her class were assigned to the II Battle Squadron of the fleet and replaced the old Siegfried @-@ class coastal defense ships and the armored frigates Baden and Württemberg . The Deutschland @-@ class battleships , which began to enter service in 1906 , replaced Brandenburg and her three sister @-@ ships in the battle fleet . Brandenburg and Wörth were put into reserve , joining the Siegfried @-@ class ships . Brandenburg 's other sisters , Kurfürst Friedrich Wilhelm and Weissenburg , were sold to the Ottoman Empire in 1910 . = = = World War I = = = At the outbreak of World War I , Brandenburg was brought out from the " moth ball cemetery " and recommissioned into the fleet . She served with her sister Wörth , but due to the age of the ships , this lasted only until 1915 . They were then withdrawn from active service . That year , both ships were put into service as barracks ships ; Wörth was stationed in Danzig while Brandenburg was placed in Libau . Both Wörth and Brandenburg were struck from the naval register on 13 May 1919 and sold for scrapping . The two ships were purchased by Norddeutsche Tiefbauges , a shipbreaking firm headquartered in Berlin . Wörth was then broken up for scrap in Danzig . = Prionomyrmex = Prionomyrmex is an extinct genus of bulldog ants in the subfamily Myrmeciinae of the family Formicidae . It was first described by Gustav Mayr in 1868 , after he collected a holotype worker of P. longiceps in Baltic amber . Three species are currently described , characterised by their long mandibles , slender bodies and large size . These ants are known from the Eocene and Late Oligocene , with fossil specimens only found around Europe . It is suggested that these ants preferred to live in jungles , with one species assumed to be an arboreal nesting species . These ants had a powerful stinger that was used to subdue prey . In 2000 , it was suggested by Cesare Baroni Urbani that the living species Nothomyrmecia macrops and a species he described both belonged to Prionomyrmex , but this proposal has not been widely accepted by the entomological community . Instead , scientists still classify the two genera distinctive from each other , making Nothomyrmecia a valid genus . = = Discovery and classification = = The holotype worker for P. longiceps was collected by Austrian entomologist Gustav Mayr in 1868 . The fossil , which was preserved in Baltic amber from the Eocene , was formally described in Mayr 's journal article Die Ameisen des baltischen Bernsteins , designating it as the type species by monotypy ( the condition of a taxonomic group having only a single taxon described ) for the newly established genus Prionomyrmex . Originally , the genus was placed in the subfamily Ponerinae by Mayr , but in 1877 , Italian entomologist Carlo Emery classified the genus into the subfamily Myrmeciidae ( now known as Myrmeciinae ) , the same year Emery established the subfamily . In 1915 , the tribe Prionomyrmecini was erected by American entomologist William Morton Wheeler , who had placed Prionomyrmex in it . In that year , Wheeler placed the genus back into Ponerinae without any means of justifying his decision . British myrmecologist Horace Donisthorpe would also retain the genus in Ponerinae without explanation , but William Brown Jr. would return it to Myrmeciinae in 1954 . In 2000 , Baroni Urbani described a new Baltic fossil species , of which he named it Prionomyrmex janzeni . After examining specimens of the new species and Nothomyrmecia macrops , Baroni Urbani stated that the newly described species and Nothomyrmecia macrops belong to the same genus ( Prionomyrmex ) , in which he synonymised Nothomyrmecia as a genus and treated the tribe Prionomyrmecini as a subfamily , known as Prionomyrmecinae . Prior to this , John S. Clark , the original author who described Nothomyrmecia , noted that the genus was similar in appearance to Prionomyrmex ; both the heads and mandibles were identical , but the nodes were different . As the mandibles of Prionomyrmex are similar to that of Nothomyrmecia , this suggests that they are intermediate to each other . This classification was short @-@ lived , as Nothomyrmecia was separated and treated as a valid genus from Prionomyrmex by Dlussky & Perfilieva in 2003 , on the base of the fusion of an abdominal segment . Other studies published in the same year came to the same conclusions of Dlussky & Perfilieva , and the subfamily Prionomyrmecinae would later be treated as a tribe in Myrmeciinae . However , Baroni Urbani would treat the tribe as a subfamily again in both his 2005 and 2008 publications , suggesting additional evidence in favor of his former interpretation as opposed to that of Ward and Brady 's arguments . In 2012 , P. wappleri was described by Gennady M. Dlussky , based on a fossilised worker from the Late Oligocene , Aquitanian stage . This subsequent report that described new fossil myrmecines accepted the classification of Archibald et al. and Ward & Brady without comment on the views of Baroni Urbani . The generic name is a combination of two words ; priono derives from Greek word priōn , meaning " a saw " , and myrmex , another Greek word , means " ant " . The following cladogram generated by Archibald and colleagues shows the possible phylogenetic position of Prionomyrmex among some ants of the subfamily Myrmeciinae ; note that P. wappleri is absent , as the generated cladogram below was created in 2006 while the species itself was described in 2012 . = = Description = = The genus is characterised by large , slender workers with elongated mandibles , which are narrow and triangular in shape . The mesosoma and appendages are also long . These ants are similar in appearance to Nothomyrmecia , but can be distinguished from the shape of their node . They also had a powerful sting located in the abdomen . Two of the three species are from the Eocene while the third species is from the Late Oligocene . = = = P. janzeni = = = P. janzeni was described by Cesare Baroni Urbani of the University of Basel , Switzerland in 2000 , based on two specimens preserved in Baltic amber from Kaliningrad , Russia . The species is from the Eocene , Lutetian to Priabonian stage . Both specimens are preserved very well , with specimen number two being larger and more visible . Specimen number one is presumed to be a worker ; type material includes a holotype worker and a paratype ergatogyne , donated to the Geological @-@ Palaecontological Institute and Museum , the University of Hamburg by palaeoentomologist Jens @-@ Wilhelm Janzen . The ant was named after Janzen by Baroni Urbani . The estimated body length is 13 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) long with an elongated head , and large oval @-@ shaped eyes are present . The antennae are long and consist of 12 segments with a bent scape . The mandibles are very long and curved , being three @-@ quarters the length of the total size of the head . Both the legs and mesosoma are long and slender ; unlike modern ants , P. janzeni has two spurs on the tibae instead of one . The petiole is high and domed shape while postpetiole is bell @-@ shaped . The gaster is long with round sides , divided into five segments . The whole body and some portions of the legs were covered by weakly curved hairs , erect and suberect . The holotype specimen is brown in colour while the paratype is black . While P. janzeni looks similar to P. longiceps , the pubesence on the scapes of P. janzeni is absent . = = = P. longiceps = = = P. longiceps was described by Gustav Mayr in 1868 , based on a holotype worker collected in Baltic amber from the Eocene . The original specimen collected by Mayr , however , has been lost . The estimated body length of P. longiceps is 12 to 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 47 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , with a thick petiole and large propodeal teeth . Unlike P. janzeni , P. longiceps has erect and suberect hairs on the scape . These hairs are also longer and thicker on the legs and on other body parts . The mandibles are very long and curved , and the head is longer than its total width ( 2 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 64 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 087 to 0 @.@ 104 in ) long and 1 @.@ 68 to 2 @.@ 08 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 066 to 0 @.@ 082 in ) wide ) . The legs are very long with strong claws , and a stinger is present in the abdomen . Wheeler ( 1915 ) described a male P. longiceps , commenting that the head is short but broad with very large eyes while the mandibles are small and far apart . The body is dark brown or blackish in colour , and the wings are somewhat yellowish . = = = P. wappleri = = = P. wappleri was described in 2012 by Russian palaeoentomologist Gennady M. Dlussky of the Moscow State University , from a fossilised holotype worker found in Germany from the Aquitanian stage 29 to 30 million years ago . The specimen is currently housed in the Institut für Paläontologie at the University of Bonn , North Rhine @-@ Westphalia . Dlussky coined the specific epithet wappleri from the surname " Wappler " , as he named the ant after German palaeoentomologist Torsten Wappler . The estimated body length of P. wappleri is 14 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 55 in ) long , and the head is 1 @.@ 35 times longer than the total width of it . The eyes are small and oval shaped , located in the upper part of the head , which is four times as long as the eyes . The mandibles are nearly three @-@ quarters the length of the head ; P. wappleri differs from P. longiceps and P. janzeni due to the apex of the clypeal lobe being pointed instead of round , and the first segment of the flagellum is only half the length of the second segment . Before the discovery of P. wappleri , extinct Myrmeciinae ants were only found from Eocene deposits . This suggests that the subfamily was still present in Europe during the Late Oligocene . = = Ecology = = Archibald and colleagues suggested the life habits of extinct Myrmeciinae ants including Prionomyrmex may have been similar to extant ants within the subfamily . These ants foraged on the ground and possibly onto trees and low vegetation while preying on arthropods . These ants may have collected plant nectar , as Myrmecia species use this as a food source . Workers may have not recruited nest mates to food sources or lay down pheromone trails , as these ants were solitary hunters . Workers would have relied on their vision to hunt for prey and help themselves navigate . William Morton Wheeler comments that P. longiceps were possibly an arboreal nesting species . This means the ant did not live in the soil and nested in trees instead . He assumed this due to its long legs , strong claws and long mandibles ; Prionomyrmex was also assumed to be predacious , equipped with a well developed and powerful sting that was most likely used to kill prey . Prionomyrmex may have preferred a jungle habitat at low elevations , and is even more primitive in its body structure than Myrmecia . Female stylopids were known to parasite Prionomyrmex ants . = Sexuality after spinal cord injury = Although spinal cord injury ( SCI ) often causes sexual dysfunction , many people with SCI are able to have satisfying sex lives . Physical limitations acquired from SCI affect sexual function and sexuality in broader areas , which in turn has important effects on quality of life . Damage to the spinal cord impairs its ability to transmit messages between the brain and parts of the body below the level of the lesion . This results in lost or reduced sensation and muscle motion , and affects orgasm , erection , ejaculation , and vaginal lubrication . More indirect causes of sexual dysfunction include pain , weakness , and side effects of medications . Psycho @-@ social causes include depression and altered self @-@ image . However , many people with SCI have satisfying sex lives , and many experience sexual arousal and orgasm . People with SCI employ a variety of adaptations to help carry on their sex lives healthily , by focusing on different areas of the body and types of sexual acts . Neural plasticity may account for increases in sensitivity in parts of the body that have not lost sensation , so people often find newly sensitive erotic areas of the skin in erogenous zones or near borders between areas of preserved and lost sensation . Drugs , devices , surgery , and other interventions exist to help men achieve erection and ejaculation . Although male fertility is reduced , many men with SCI can still father children , particularly with medical interventions . Women 's fertility is not usually affected , although precautions must be taken for safe pregnancy and delivery . People with SCI need to take measures during sexual activity to deal with SCI effects such as weakness and movement limitations , and to avoid injuries such as skin damage in areas of reduced sensation . Education and counseling about sexuality is an important part of SCI rehabilitation but is often missing or insufficient . Rehabilitation for children and adolescents aims to promote healthy development of sexuality and includes education for them and their families . Culturally inherited biases and stereotypes negatively affect people with SCI , particularly when held by professional caregivers . Body image and other insecurities affect sexual function , and have profound repercussions on self @-@ esteem and self @-@ concept . SCI causes difficulties in romantic partnerships , due to problems with sexual function and to other stresses introduced by the injury and disability , but many of those with SCI have fulfilling relationships and marriages . Relationships , self @-@ esteem , and reproductive ability are all aspects of sexuality , which encompasses not just sexual practices but a complex array of factors : cultural , social , psychological , and emotional influences . = = Sexuality and identity = = Sexuality is an important part of each person 's identity , and has not just biological but psychological , emotional , spiritual , social , and cultural aspects . It involves not only sexual behaviors but relationships , self @-@ image , sex drive , reproduction , sexual orientation , and gender expression . Each person 's sexuality is influenced by lifelong socialization , in which factors such as religious and cultural background play a part , and is expressed in self @-@ esteem and the beliefs one holds about oneself ( identifying as a woman , or an attractive person ) . SCI is extremely disruptive to sexuality , and it most frequently happens to young people , who are at a peak in their sexual and reproductive lives . Yet the importance of sexuality as a part of life is not diminished by a disabling injury . Although for years people with SCI were believed to be asexual , research has shown sexuality to be a high priority for people with SCI and an important aspect of quality of life . In fact , of all abilities they would like to have return , most paraplegics rated sexual function as their top priority , and most tetraplegics rated it second , after hand and arm function . Sexual function has a profound impact on self @-@ esteem and adjustment to life post @-@ injury . People who are able to adapt to their changed bodies and to have satisfying sex lives have better overall quality of life . = = Sexual function = = SCI usually causes sexual dysfunction , due to problems with sensation and the body 's arousal responses . The ability to experience sexual pleasure and orgasm are among the top priorities for sexual rehabilitation among injured people . Much research has been done into erection . By two years post @-@ injury , 80 % of men recover at least partial erectile function , though many experience problems with the reliability and duration of their erections if they do not use interventions to enhance them . Studies have found that half or up to 65 % of men with SCI have orgasms , although the experience may feel different than it did before the injury . Most men say it feels weaker , and takes longer and more stimulation to achieve . Common problems women experience post @-@ SCI are pain with intercourse and difficulty achieving orgasm . Around half of women with SCI are able to reach orgasm , usually when their genitals are stimulated . Some women report the sensation of orgasm to be the same as before the injury , and others say the sensation is reduced . = = = Complete and incomplete injury = = = The severity of the injury is an important aspect in determining how much sexual function returns as a person recovers . According to the American Spinal Injury Association grading scale , an incomplete SCI is one in which some amount of sensation or motor function is preserved in the rectum . This indicates that the brain can still send and receive some messages to the lowest parts of the spinal cord , beyond the damaged area . In people with incomplete injury , some or all of the spinal tracts involved in sexual responses remain intact , allowing , for example , orgasms like those of uninjured people . In men , having an incomplete injury improves chances of being able to achieve erections and orgasms over those with complete injuries . Even people with complete SCI , in whom the spinal cord cannot transmit any messages past the level of the lesion , can achieve orgasm . In 1960 , in one of the earliest studies to look at orgasm and SCI , the term phantom orgasm was coined to describe women 's perception of orgasmic sensations despite SCI — but subsequent studies have suggested the experience is not merely psychological . Men with complete SCI report sexual sensations at the time of ejaculation , accompanied by physical signs normally found at orgasm , such as increased blood pressure . Women can experience orgasm with vibration to the cervix regardless of level or completeness of injury ; the sensation is the same as uninjured women experience . The peripheral nerves of the parasympathetic nervous system that carry messages to the brain ( afferent nerve fibers ) may explain why people with complete SCI feel sexual and climactic sensations . One proposed explanation for orgasm in women despite complete SCI is that the vagus nerve bypasses the spinal cord and carries sensory information from the genitals directly to the brain . Women with complete injuries can achieve sexual arousal and orgasm through stimulation of the clitoris , cervix , or vagina , which are each innervated by different nerve pathways , which suggests that even if SCI interferes with one area , function might be preserved in others . In both injured and uninjured people , the brain is responsible for the way sensations of climax are perceived : the qualitative experiences associated with climax are modulated by the brain , rather than a specific area of the body . = = = Level of injury = = = In addition to completeness of injury , the location of damage on the spinal cord influences how much sexual function is retained or regained after injury . Injuries can occur in the cervical ( neck ) , thoracic ( back ) , lumbar ( lower back ) , or sacral ( pelvic ) levels . Between each pair of vertebrae , spinal nerves branch off of the spinal cord and carry information to and from specific parts of the body . The location of injury to the spinal cord maps to the body , and the area of skin innervated by a specific spinal nerve is called a dermatome . All dermatomes below the level of injury to the spinal cord may lose sensation . An injury at a lower point on the spine does not necessarily mean better sexual function ; for example , people with injuries in the sacral region are less likely to be able to orgasm than those with injuries higher on the spine . Women with injuries above the sacral level have a greater likelihood of orgasm in response to stimulation of the clitoris than those with sacral injuries ( 59 % vs 17 % ) . In men , injuries above the sacral level are associated with better function in terms of erections and ejaculation , and fewer and less severe reports of dysfunction . This may be due to reflexes that do not require input from the brain , which sacral injuries might interrupt . = = = Psychogenic and reflexogenic responses = = = The body 's physical arousal response ( vaginal lubrication and engorgement of the clitoris in women and erection in men ) occurs due to two separate pathways which normally work together : psychogenic and reflex . Arousal due to fantasies , visual input , or other mental stimulation is a psychogenic sexual experience , and that resulting from physical contact to the genital area is reflexogenic . In psychogenic arousal , messages travel from the brain via the spinal cord to the nerves in the genital area . The psychogenic pathway is served by the spinal cord at levels T11 – L2 . Thus people injured above the level of the T11 vertebra do not usually experience psychogenic erection or vaginal lubrication , but those with an injury below T12 can . Even without these physical responses , people with SCI often feel aroused , just as uninjured people do . The ability to feel the sensation of a pinprick and light touch in the dermatomes for T11 – L2 predicts how well the ability to have psychogenic arousal is preserved in both sexes . Input from the psychogenic pathway is sympathetic , and most of the time it sends inhibitory signals that prevent the physical arousal response ; however , in response to sexual stimulation , excitatory signals are increased while the inhibition is reduced . Removing the inhibition that is normally present allows the spinal reflexes that trigger the arousal response to take effect . The reflexogenic pathway activates the parasympathetic nervous system in response to the sensation of touch . It is mediated by a reflex arc that goes to the spinal cord ( not to the brain ) and is served by the sacral segments of the spinal cord at S2 – S4 . A woman with a spinal cord lesion above T11 may not be able to experience psychogenic vaginal lubrication , but may still have reflex lubrication if her sacral segments are uninjured . Likewise , although a man 's ability to get a psychogenic erection when mentally aroused may be impaired after a higher @-@ level SCI , he may still be able to get a reflex or " spontaneous " erection . These erections may result in the absence of psychological arousal when the penis is touched or brushed , e.g. by clothing , but they do not last long and are generally lost when the stimulus is removed . Reflex erections may increase in frequency after SCI , due to the loss of inhibitory input from the brain that would suppress the response in an uninjured man . Conversely , an injury below the S1 level impairs reflex erections but not psychogenic erections . People who have some preservation of sensation in the dermatomes at the S4 and S5 levels and display a bulbocavernosus reflex ( contraction of the pelvic floor in response to pressure on the clitoris or glans penis ) are usually able to experience reflex erections or lubrication . Like other reflexes , reflexive sexual responses may be lost immediately after injury but return over time as the individual recovers from spinal shock . = = = Factors in reduced function = = = Most people with SCI have problems with the body 's physical sexual arousal response . Problems that result directly from impaired neural transmission are called primary sexual dysfunction . The function of the genitals is almost always affected by SCI , by alteration , reduction , or complete loss of sensation . Neuropathic pain , in which damaged nerve pathways signal pain in the absence of any noxious stimulus , is common after SCI and interferes with sex . Secondary dysfunction results from factors that follow from the injury , such as loss of bladder and bowel control or impaired movement . The main barrier to sexual activity that people with SCI cite is physical limitation ; e.g. balance problems and muscle weakness cause difficulty with positioning . Spasticity , tightening of muscles due to increased muscle tone , is another complication that interferes with sex . Some medications have side effects that impede sexual pleasure or interfere with sexual function : antidepressants , muscle relaxants , sleeping pills and drugs that treat spasticity . Hormonal changes that alter sexual function may take place after SCI ; levels of prolactin heighten , women temporarily stop menstruating ( amenorrhea ) , and men experience reduced levels of testosterone . Testosterone deficiency causes reduced libido , increased weakness , fatigue , and failure to respond to erection @-@ enhancing drugs . Tertiary sexual dysfunction results from psychological and social factors . Reduced libido , desire , or experience of arousal could be due to psychological or situational factors such as depression , anxiety , and changes in relationships . Both sexes experience reduced sexual desire after SCI , and almost half of men and almost three quarters of women have trouble becoming psychologically aroused . Depression is the most common cause of problems with arousal in people with SCI . People frequently experience grief and despair initially after the injury . Anxiety and drug and alcohol abuse may increase after discharge from a hospital as new challenges occur , which can exacerbate sexual difficulties . Drug and alcohol abuse increase unhealthy behaviors , straining relationships and social functioning . SCI can lead to significant insecurities , which have repercussions for sexuality and self @-@ image . SCI often affects body image , either due to the host of changes in the body that affect appearance ( e.g. unused muscles in the legs become atrophied ) , or due to changes in self @-@ perception not directly from physical changes . People frequently find themselves less attractive and expect others not to be attracted to them after SCI . These insecurities cause fear of rejection and deter people from initiating contact or sexual activity or engaging in sex . Feelings of undesirability or worthlessness even lead some to suggest to their partners that they find someone able bodied . = = Fertility = = = = = Male = = = Men with SCI rank the ability to father children among their highest concerns relating to sexuality . Male fertility is reduced after SCI , due to a combination of problems with erections , ejaculation , and quality of the semen . As with other types of sexual response , ejaculation can be psychogenic or reflexogenic , and the level of injury affects a man 's ability to experience each type . As many as 95 % of men with SCI have problems with ejaculation ( anejaculation ) , possibly due to impaired coordination of input from different parts of the nervous system . Erection , orgasm , and ejaculation can each occur independently , although the ability to ejaculate seems linked to the quality of the erection , and the ability to orgasm is linked to the ejaculation facility . Even men with complete injuries may be able to ejaculate , because other nerves involved in ejaculation can effect the response without input from the spinal cord . In general , the higher the level of injury , the more physical stimulation the man needs to ejaculate . Conversely , premature or spontaneous ejaculation can be a problem for men with injuries at levels T12 – L1 . It can be severe enough that ejaculation is provoked by thinking a sexual thought , or for no reason at all , and is not accompanied by orgasm . Most men have a normal sperm count , but a high proportion of sperm are abnormal ; they are less motile and do not survive as well . The reason for these abnormalities is not known , but research points to dysfunction of the seminal vesicles and prostate , which concentrate substances that are toxic to sperm . Cytokines , immune proteins which promote an inflammatory response , are present at higher concentrations in semen of men with SCI , as is platelet @-@ activating factor acetylhydrolase ; both are harmful to sperm . Another immune @-@ related response to SCI is the presence of a higher number of white blood cells in the semen . = = = Female = = = The numbers of women with SCI giving birth and having healthy babies are increasing . Around a half to two @-@ thirds of women with SCI report they might want to have children , and 14 – 20 % do get pregnant at least once . Although female fertility is not usually permanently reduced by SCI , there is a stress response that can happen immediately post @-@ injury that alters levels of fertility @-@ related hormones in the body . In about half of women , menstruation stops after the injury but then returns within an average of five months — it returns within a year for a large majority . After menstruation returns , women with SCI become pregnant at a rate close to that of the rest of the population . Pregnancy is associated with greater @-@ than @-@ normal risks in women with SCI , among them increased risk of deep vein thrombosis , respiratory infection , and urinary tract infection . Considerations exist such as maintaining proper positioning in a wheelchair , prevention of pressure sores , and increased difficulty moving due to weight gain and changes in center of balance . Assistive devices may need to be altered and medications changed . For women with injuries above T6 , a risk during labor and delivery that threatens both mother and fetus is autonomic dysreflexia , in which the blood pressure increases to dangerous levels high enough to cause potentially deadly stroke . Drugs such as nifedipine and captopril can be used to manage an episode if it occurs , and epidural anesthesia helps although it is not very reliable in women with SCI . Anesthesia is used for labor and delivery even for women without sensation , who may only experience contractions as abdominal discomfort , increased spasticity , and episodes of autonomic dysreflexia . Reduced sensation in the pelvic area means women with SCI usually have less painful delivery ; in fact , they may fail to realize when they go into labor . If there are deformities in the pelvis or spine caesarian section may be necessary . Babies of women with SCI are more likely to be born prematurely , and , premature or not , they are more likely to be small for their gestational time . = = Management = = = = = Erectile problems = = = Although erections are not necessary for satisfying sexual encounters , many men see them as important , and treating erectile dysfunction improves their relationships and quality of life . Whatever treatment is used , it works best in combination with talk @-@ oriented therapy to help integrate it into the sex life . Oral medications and mechanical devices are the first choice in treatment because they are less invasive , are often effective , and are well tolerated . Oral medications include sildenafil ( Viagra ) , tadalafil ( Cialis ) , and vardenafil ( Levitra ) . Penis pumps induce erections without the need for drugs or invasive treatments . To use a pump , the man inserts his penis into a cylinder then pumps it to create a vacuum , which draws blood into the penis making it erect . He then slides a ring from the outside of the cylinder onto the base of the penis to hold the blood in and maintain the erection . A man who is able to get an erection but has trouble maintaining it for long enough can use a ring by itself . The ring cannot be left on for more than 30 minutes and cannot be used at the same time as anticoagulant medications . If oral and mechanical treatments fail , the second choice is local injections : medications such as papaverine and prostaglandin that alter the blood flow and trigger erection are injected into the penis . This method is preferred for its effectiveness , but can cause pain and scarring . Another option is to insert a small pellet of medication into the urethra , but this requires higher doses than injections and may not be as effective . Topical medications to dilate the blood vessels have been used , but are not very effective or well tolerated . Electrical stimulation of efferent nerves at the S2 level can be used to trigger an erection that lasts as long as the stimulation does . Surgical implants , either of flexible rods or inflatable tubes , are reserved for when other methods fail because of the potential for serious complications , which occur in as many as 10 % of cases . They carry the risk of eroding penile tissue ( breaking through the skin ) . Although satisfaction among men who use them is high , if they do need to be removed implants make other methods such as injections and vacuum devices unusable due to tissue damage . It is also possible for erectile dysfunction to exist not as a direct result of SCI but due to factors such as major depression , diabetes , or drugs such as those taken for spasticity . Finding and treating the root cause may alleviate the problem . For example , men who experience erectile problems as the result of a testosterone deficiency can receive androgen replacement therapy . = = = Ejaculation and male fertility = = = Without medical intervention , the male fertility rate after SCI is 5 – 14 % , but the rate increases with treatments . However , even with all available medical interventions , fewer than half of men with SCI can father children . Assisted insemination is usually required . As with erection , therapies used to treat infertility in uninjured men are used for those with SCI . For anejaculation in SCI , the first @-@ line method for sperm retrieval is penile vibratory stimulation ( PVS ) . A high @-@ speed vibrator is applied to the glans penis to trigger a reflex that causes ejaculation , usually within a few minutes . Reports of efficacy with PVS range from 15 – 88 % , possibly due to differences in vibrator settings and experience of clinicians , as well as level and completeness of injury . Complete lesions strictly above Onuf 's nucleus ( S2 – S4 ) are responsive to PVS in 98 % , but complete lesions of the S2 – S4 segments are not . In case of failure with PVS , spermatozoa are sometimes collected by electroejaculation : an electrical probe is inserted into the rectum , where it triggers ejaculation . The success rate is 80 – 100 % , but the technique requires anaesthesia and does not have the potential to be done at home that PVS has . Both PVS and electroejaculation carry a risk of autonomic dysreflexia , so drugs to prevent the condition can be given in advance and blood pressure is monitored throughout the procedures for those who are susceptible . Massage of the prostate gland and seminal vesicles is another method to retrieve stored sperm . If these methods fail to cause ejaculation or do not yield sufficient usable sperm , sperm can be surgically removed by testicular sperm extraction or percutaneous epididymal sperm aspiration . These procedures yield sperm in 86 – 100 % of cases , but nonsurgical treatments are preferred . Premature or spontaneous ejaculation is treated with antidepressants including selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors , which are known to delay ejaculation as a side effect . = = = Women = = = Compared with the options available for treating sexual dysfunction in men ( for whom results are concretely observable ) , those available for women are limited . For example , PDE5 inhibitors , oral medications for treating erectile dysfunction in men , have been tested for their ability to increase sexual responses such as arousal and orgasm in women — but no controlled trials have been done in women with SCI , and trials in other women yielded only inconclusive results . In theory , women 's sexual response could be improved using a vacuum device made to draw blood into the clitoris , but few studies on treatments for sexual function in women with SCI have been carried out . There is a particular paucity of information outside the area of reproduction . = = = Education and counseling = = = Counseling about sex and sexuality by medical professionals , psychologists , social workers , and nurses is a part of most SCI rehabilitation programs . Education is part of the followup treatment for people with SCI , as are psychotherapy , peer mentorship , and social activities ; these are helpful for improving skills needed for socializing and relationships . Rather than addressing sexual dysfunction strictly as a physical problem , appropriate sexual rehabilitation care takes into account the individual as a whole , for example addressing issues with relationships and self @-@ esteem . Sexual counseling includes teaching techniques to manage depression and stress , and to increase attention to preserved sensations during sexual activity . Education includes information about birth control or assistive devices such as those for positioning in sex , or advice and ideas for addressing problems such as incontinence and autonomic dysreflexia . Many SCI patients have received misinformation about the effects of their injury on their sexual function and benefit from education about it . Although sexual education shortly after injury is known to be helpful and desired , it is frequently missing in rehabilitation settings ; a common complaint from those who go through rehabilitation programs is that they offer insufficient information about sexuality . Longer @-@ term education and counseling on sex after discharge from a hospital setting are especially important , yet sexuality is one of the most often neglected areas in long @-@ term SCI rehabilitation , particularly for women . Care providers may refrain from addressing the topic because they feel intimidated or unequipped to handle it . Clinicians must be circumspect in bringing up sexual matters since people may be uncomfortable with or unready for the subject . Many patients wait for providers to broach the topic even if they do want the information . A person 's experience in managing sexuality after the injury relies not only on physical factors like severity and level of the injury , but on aspects of life circumstances and personality such as sexual experience and attitudes about sex . As well as evaluating physical concerns , clinicians must take into account factors that affect each patient 's situation : gender , age , cultural , and social factors . Aspects of patients ' cultural and religious backgrounds , even if unnoticed before the injury caused sexual dysfunction , affect care and treatments — particularly when cultural attitudes and assumptions of patients and care providers conflict . Health professionals must be sensitive to issues of sexual orientation and gender identity , showing respect and acceptance while communicating , listening , and emotionally supporting . Providers who treat SCI have been found to assume their patients are heterosexual or to exclude LGBTQ patients from their awareness , potentially resulting in substandard care . Academic research on sexuality and disability under @-@ represents LGBTQ perspectives as well . As well as the patient , the partner of an injured person frequently needs support and counseling . It can help with adjustment to a new relationship dynamic and self @-@ image ( such as being placed in the role of caretaker ) or with stresses that arise in the sexual relationship . Frequently , partners of injured people must contend with feelings like guilt , anger , anxiety , and exhaustion while dealing with the added financial burden of lost wages and medical expenses . Counseling aims to strengthen the relationship by improving communication and trust . = = = = Children and adolescents = = = = Not only does SCI present children and adolescents with many of the same difficulties adults face , it impacts the development of their sexuality . Although substantial research exists on SCI and sexuality in adults , very little exists on the ways in which it affects development of sexuality in young people . Injured children and adolescents need ongoing , age @-@ appropriate sex education that addresses questions of SCI as it relates to sexuality and sexual function . Very young children become aware of their disabilities before their sexuality , but as they age they become curious just as able @-@ bodied children do , and it is appropriate to provide them with increasing amounts of information . Caregivers help the child and family prepare for transition into adulthood , including in sexuality and social interaction , beginning early and intensifying during adolescence . Parents need education about the effects of SCI on sexual function so that they can answer their children 's questions . Once patients reach their teens , they need more specific information about pregnancy , birth control , self @-@ esteem , and dating . Teenagers with lost or reduced genital sensation benefit from education about alternative ways to experience pleasure and satisfaction from sexual acts . The teen years are often particularly difficult for those with SCI , in terms of body image and relationships . Given the importance they place on sexuality and privacy , adolescents may experience humiliation when parents or caregivers bathe them or take care of bowel and bladder needs . They can benefit from sexuality counseling , support groups , and mentoring by adults with SCI who can share experiences and lead discussions with peers . With the right care and education from family and professionals , injured children and adolescents can develop into sexually healthy adults . = = = Changes in sexual practices = = = People make a variety of sexual adaptations to help adjust to SCI . They often change their sexual practices , moving away from genital stimulation and intercourse and toward greater emphasis on touching above the level of injury and other aspects of intimacy such as kissing and caressing . It is necessary to discover new sexual positions if ones used previously have become too difficult . Other factors that enhance sexual pleasure are positive memories , fantasies , relaxation , meditation , breathing techniques , and most importantly , trust with a partner . People with SCI can make use of visual , auditory , olfactory , and tactile stimuli . It is possible to train oneself to be more mindful of the cerebral aspects of sex and of feeling in areas of the body that have sensation ; this increases chances of orgasm . The importance of desire and comfort is the reasoning behind the quip " the most important sexual organ is the brain . " Adjusting to post @-@ injury changes in the body 's sensation is difficult enough to cause some to give up on the idea of satisfying sex at first . But changes in sensitivity above and at the level of injury occur over time ; people may find erogenous zones like the nipples or ears have become more sensitive , enough to be sexually satisfying . They may discover new erogenous zones that were not erotic before the injury ; care providers can help direct this discovery . These erogenous areas can even lead to orgasm when stimulated . Such changes may result from " remapping " of sensory areas in the brain due to neuroplasticity , particularly when sensation in the genitals is completely lost . Commonly there is an area on the body between the areas where sensation is lost and those where is preserved called a " transition zone " that has increased sensitivity and is often sexually pleasurable when stimulated . Also known as a " border zone " , this area may feel the way the penis or clitoris did before injury , and can even give orgasmic sensation . Due to such changes in sensation , people are encouraged to explore their bodies to discover what areas are pleasurable . Masturbation is a useful way to learn about the body 's new responses . Tests exist to measure how much sensation a person has retained in the genitals after an injury , which are used to tailor treatment or rehabilitation . Sensory testing helps people learn to recognize the sensations associated with arousal and orgasm . Injured people who are able to achieve orgasms from stimulation to the genitals may need stimulation for a longer time or at a greater intensity . Sex toys such as vibrators are available , e.g. to enhance sensation in areas of reduced sensitivity , and these can be modified to accommodate disabilities . For example , a hand strap can be added to a vibrator or dildo to assist someone with poor hand function . = = = Considerations for sexual activity = = = SCI presents extra needs to consider for sexual activity ; for example muscle weakness and movement limitations restrict options for positioning . Pillows or devices such as wedges can be placed to help achieve and maintain a desired position for people affected by weakness or movement limitations . Assistive devices exist to aid in motion , such as sliding chairs to provide pelvic thrust . Spasticity and pain also create barriers to sexual activity ; these changes may require couples to use new positions , such as seated in a wheelchair . A warm bath can be taken prior to sex , and massage and stretching can be incorporated into foreplay to ease spasticity . Another consideration is loss of sensation , which puts people at risk for wounds such as pressure sores and injuries that could become worse before being noticed . Friction from sexual activity may damage the skin , so it is necessary after sex to inspect areas that could have been hurt , particularly the buttocks and genital area . People who already have pressure sores must take care not to make the wounds worse . Irritation to the genitals increases risk for vaginal infections , which get worse if they go unnoticed . Women who do not get sufficient vaginal lubrication on their own can use a commercially available personal lubricant to decrease friction . Another risk is autonomic dysreflexia ( AD ) , a medical emergency involving dangerously high blood pressure . People at risk for AD can take medications to help prevent it before sex , but if it does occur they must stop and seek treatment . However mild signs of AD such as slightly high blood pressure frequently do accompany sexual arousal and are not cause for alarm . In fact , some interpret the symptoms of AD that occur during sexual activity as pleasant or arousing , or even climactic . A concern for sexual activity that is not dangerous but that can be upsetting for both partners is bladder or bowel leakage due to urinary or fecal incontinence . Couples can prepare for sex by draining the bladder using intermittent catheterization or placing towels down in advance . People with indwelling urinary catheters must take special care with them , removing them or taping them out of the way . Birth control is another consideration : women with SCI are usually not prescribed oral contraceptives since the hormones in them increase the risk of blood clots , for which people with SCI are already at elevated risk . Intrauterine devices could have dangerous complications that could go undetected if sensation is reduced . Diaphrams that require something to be inserted into the vagina are not usable by people with poor hand function . An option of choice for women is for partners to use condoms . = = Long @-@ term adjustment = = In the first months after an injury , people commonly prioritize other aspects of rehabilitation over sexual matters , but in the long term , adjustment to life with SCI necessitates addressing sexuality . Although physical , psychological and emotional factors militate to reduce the frequency of sex after injury , it increases after time . As years go by , the odds that a person will become involved in a sexual relationship increase . Difficulties adjusting to a changed appearance and physical limitations contribute to reduced frequency of sexual acts , and improved body image is associated with an increase . Like frequency , sexual desire and sexual satisfaction often decrease after SCI . The reduction in women 's sexual desire and frequency may be in part because they believe they can no longer enjoy sex , or because their independence or social opportunities are reduced . As time goes by people usually adjust sexually , adapting to their changed bodies . Some 80 % of women return to being sexually active , and the numbers who report being sexually satisfied range from 40 – 88 % . Although women 's satisfaction is usually lower than before the injury , it improves as time passes . Women report higher rates of sexual satisfaction than men post @-@ SCI for as many as 10 – 45 years . More than a quarter of men have substantial problems with adjustment to their post @-@ injury sexual functioning . Sexual satisfaction depends on a host of factors , some more important than the physical function of the genitals : intimacy , quality of relationships , satisfaction of partners , willingness to be sexually experimental , and good communication . Genital function is not as important to men 's sexual satisfaction as are their partners ' satisfaction and intimacy in their relationships . For women , quality of relationships , closeness with partners , sexual desire , and positive body image , as well as the physical function of the genitals , contribute sexual satisfaction . For both sexes , long @-@ term relationships are associated with higher sexual satisfaction . = = Relationships = = A catastrophic injury such as SCI puts strain on marriages and other romantic relationships , which in turn has important implications for quality of life . Partners of injured people often feel out of control , overwhelmed , angry , and guilty while having added work related to the injury , less help with responsibilities like parenting , and loss of wages . Relationship stress and excessive dependence in relationships increases risk of depression for the person with SCI , while supportive relationships are protective . Relationships change as partners take on new roles , such as that of caregiver , which may conflict with the role of partner and require substantial sacrifice of time and self @-@ care . These changes in responsibilities may mean a reverse in societally determined gender roles within relationships ; inability to fulfil these roles impacts sexuality in general . Sexual dysfunction is a stressor in relationships . People are often as concerned about failing to keep a partner satisfied as they are about meeting their own sexual needs . In fact , two of the top reasons people with SCI cite for wanting to have sex are for intimacy and to keep a partner . The frequency of sex correlates with the desire of the uninjured partner . Although problems with sexual function that result from SCI play a part in some divorces , they are not as important as emotional maturity in determining the success of a marriage . People with SCI get divorced more often than the rest of the population , and marriages that took place before the injury fail more often than those that took place after ( 33 % vs. 21 % ) . People married before the injury report less happy marriages and worse sexual adjustment than those married after , possibly indicating that spouses had difficulty adjusting to the new circumstances . For those who chose to become involved with someone after an injury , the disability was an accepted part of the relationship from the outset . Understanding and acceptance of the limitations that result from the injury on the part of the uninjured partner is an important factor in a successful marriage . Many divorces have been found to be initiated by the injured partner , sometimes due to the depression and denial that often occurs early after the injury . Thus counseling is important , not just for managing changes in self @-@ perception but in perceptions about relationships . Despite the stresses that SCI places on people and relationships , studies have shown that people with SCI are able to have happy and fulfilling romantic relationships and marriages , and to raise well @-@ adjusted children . People with SCI who wish to be parents may question their ability to raise children and opt not to have them , but studies have shown no difference in parenting outcomes between injured and uninjured groups . Children of women with SCI do not have worse self @-@ esteem , adjustment , or attitudes toward their parents . Women who have children post @-@ SCI have a higher quality of life , even though parenting adds demands and challenges to their lives . For those who are single when injured or who become single , SCI causes difficulties and insecurities with respect to one 's ability to meet new partners and start relationships . In some settings , beauty standards cause people to view disabled bodies as less attractive , limiting the options for sexual and romantic partners of people with disabilities like SCI . Furthermore , physical disabilities are stigmatized , causing people to avoid contact with disabled people , particularly those with highly visible conditions like SCI . The stigma may cause people with SCI to experience self @-@ consciousness and embarrassment in public . However , they can increase their social success by using impression management techniques to change how they are perceived and create a more positive image of themselves in others ' eyes . Physical limitations create difficulties ; with lowered independence comes reduced social interaction and fewer opportunities to find partners . Difficulties with mobility and the lack of disabled accessibility of social spaces ( e.g. lack of wheelchair ramps ) create a further barrier to social activity and limit the ability to meet partners . Isolation and its associated risk of depression can be limited by participating in physical activities , social gatherings , clubs , and online chat and dating . = = Society and culture = = Negative societal attitudes and stereotypes about people with disabilities like SCI affect interpersonal interactions and self @-@ image , with important implications for quality of life . In fact , for women , psychological factors have a more important impact on sexual adjustment and activity than physical ones . Negative attitudes about disability ( along with relationships and social support ) are more predictive of outcome than even the level or completeness of injury . Stereotypes exist that people with SCI ( particularly women ) are uninterested in , unsuitable for , or incapable of sexual relationships or encounters . “ People think we can only date people in wheelchairs , that we ’ re lucky to get any guy , that we can ’ t be picky , ” remarked Mia Schaikewitz , who is profiled in Push Girls , a 2012 reality series about four spinal cord injured women . Not only do they affect injured people 's self @-@ image , these stereotypes are particularly harmful when held by counselors and professionals involved in rehabilitation . Caregivers affected by these culturally transmitted beliefs may treat their patients as asexual , particularly if the injury occurred at a young age and the patient never had sexual experiences . Failure to recognize injured people 's sexual and reproductive capacity restricts their access to birth control , information about sexuality , and sexual health @-@ related medical care such as annual gynecological exams . Another common belief that impacts sexual rehabilitation is that sex is strictly about genital function ; this could cause caregivers to discount the importance of the rest of the body and of the individual . Cultural attitudes toward gender roles have profound effects on people with SCI . The injury can cause insecurities surrounding sexual identity , particularly if the disability precludes fulfilment of societally taught gender norms . Female beauty standards propagated by mass media and culture portray the ideal woman as able bodied : as one fashion model with a SCI commented , " when you have a devastating injury or disability , you ’ re not often thought of as sensual or pretty because you don 't look like the women in the magazines . " Inability to meet these standards can lower self @-@ esteem , even if these ideals are also unattainable for most able @-@ bodied women . Poorer self @-@ esteem is associated with worse sexual adjustment and quality of life , and higher rates of loneliness , stress , and depression . Males are also affected by societal expectations , such as notions about masculinity and sexual prowess . Men from some traditional backgrounds may feel performance pressure that emphasizes the ability to have erections and sexual intercourse . Men who have strong sexual desire but who are not able to perform sexually may be at increased risk for depression , particularly when they believe strongly in traditional masculine gender norms with sexual function as core to the male identity . Men who strongly believe in these traditional roles may feel sexually inadequate , unmanly , insecure , and less satisfied with life . Since sexual dysfunction has this negative impact on self @-@ esteem , treatment of erectile dysfunction can have a psychological benefit even though it does not help with physical sensation . SCI may necessitate reappraisal and rejection of assumptions about gender norms and sexual function in order to adjust healthily to the disability : those who are able to change the way they think about gender roles may have better life satisfaction and outcomes with rehabilitation . Counseling is helpful in this reassessment process . = Architecture of Denmark = The architecture of Denmark has its origins in the Viking period , richly revealed by archaeological finds . It became firmly established in the Middle Ages when first Romanesque , then Gothic churches and cathedrals sprang up throughout the country . It was during this period that , in a country with little access to stone , brick became the construction material of choice , not just for churches but also for fortifications and castles . Under the influence of Frederick II and Christian IV , both of whom had been inspired by the castles of France , Dutch and Flemish designers were brought to Denmark , initially to improve the country 's fortifications , but increasingly to build magnificent royal castles and palaces in the Renaissance style . In parallel , the half @-@ timbered style became popular for ordinary dwellings in towns and villages across the country . Late in his reign , Christian IV also became an early proponent of Baroque which was to continue for a considerable time with many impressive buildings both in the capital and the provinces . Neoclassicism came initially from France but was slowly adopted by native Danish architects who increasingly participated in defining architectural style . A productive period of Historicism ultimately merged into the 19th century National Romantic style . It was not , however , until the 1960s that Danish architects entered the world scene with their highly successful Functionalism . This , in turn , has evolved into more recent world @-@ class masterpieces such as the Sydney Opera House and the Great Belt Bridge paving the way for a number of Danish designers to be rewarded for excellence both at home and abroad . = = Middle Ages = = = = = The Vikings = = = Archaeological excavations in various parts of Denmark have revealed much about the way the Vikings lived . One of the most notable sites is Hedeby . Located some 45 km ( 28 mi ) south of the Danish border near the German town of Schleswig , it probably dates back to the end of the 8th century . The houses are deemed to be among the most sophisticated dwellings of their time . Oak frames were used for the walls , and the roofs were probably thatched . Viking ring houses , such as those at Trelleborg , near Slagelse on the Danish island of Zealand , have a rather different , ship @-@ like shape , the long walls bulging outwards . Each house consisted of a large central hall , 18 m × 8 m ( 59 ft × 26 ft ) and two smaller rooms , one at each end . Those at Fyrkat ( c . 980 ) in the north of Jutland were 28 @.@ 5 metres long , 5 metres wide ( 93 @.@ 5 ft × 16 @.@ 4 ft wide ) at the ends and 7 @.@ 5 m in the middle , the long walls curving slightly outwards . The walls consisted of double rows of posts with planks wedged horizontally between them . A series of outer posts slanted towards the wall were possibly used to support the building like buttresses . = = = Romanesque style = = = Denmark 's first churches from the 9th century were built of timber and have not survived . Hundreds of stone churches in the Romanesque style were built in the 12th and 13th centuries . They had a flat @-@ ceilinged nave and chancel with small rounded windows and round arches . Granite boulders and limestone were initially the preferred building materials , but after brick production reached Denmark in the middle of the 12th century , brick quickly became the material of choice . Among the finest examples of brick Romanesque buildings are St. Bendt 's Church in Ringsted ( c . 1170 ) and the unique Church of Our Lady in Kalundborg ( c . 1200 ) with its five tall towers . The church at Østerlars on the island of Bornholm was built around 1150 . Like three other churches on the island , it is a round church . The three @-@ storeyed building is supported by a circular outer wall and an exceptionally wide , hollow central column . Construction of Lund Cathedral in Scania started in about 1103 when the region was part of the Kingdom of Denmark . It was the first of great Danish Romanesque cathedrals in the shape of a three @-@ aisled basilica with transepts . It seems to have been related to earlier German buildings , though there are also traces of Anglo @-@ Norman and Lombard influences . Ribe , which followed with its great cathedral ( 1150 – 1250 ) , had close trade contacts with the Rhine region of Germany . Both the materials , sandstone and tufa , and the models were taken from there . = = = Gothic style = = = Towards the end of the 13th century and until about 1500 , the Gothic style became the norm with the result that most of the older Romanesque churches were rebuilt or adapted to the Gothic style . The flat ceilings were replaced by high cross vaults , windows were enlarged with pointed arches , chapels and towers were added and the interiors were decorated with murals . Red brick was the material of choice as can be seen in St. Canute 's Cathedral , Odense ( 1300 – 1499 ) , and St. Peter 's Church , Næstved . St. Canute 's presents all the features of Gothic architecture : pointed arch , buttresses , ribbed vaulting , increased light and the spatial combination of nave and chancel . Although most Gothic architecture in Denmark is to be found in churches and monasteries , there are examples in the secular field too . Glimmingehus ( 1499 – 1506 ) , a rectangular castle in Scania , clearly presents Gothic features . It was commissioned by the Danish nobleman Jens Holgersen Ulfstand who called on the services of Adam van Düren , a North German master who also worked on Lund Cathedral . The building contains many defensive features of the times , including parapets , false doors , dead @-@ end corridors , murder @-@ holes for pouring boiling pitch over the attackers , moats , drawbridges and various other death traps to protect the nobles against peasant uprisings . = = = Half @-@ timbered buildings = = = During the late Middle Ages , a slow transition began from the traditional wooden houses in towns and villages towards half @-@ timbered properties . One of the oldest in Denmark is Anne Hvides Gård , a two @-@ storeyed townhouse in Svendborg on the island of Funen , which was constructed in 1560 . The building now forms part of the Svendborg Museum . Ystad in the southern Swedish region of Scania which was formerly part of Denmark still has some 300 half @-@ timbered houses , several of them of historic importance . The oldest surviving half @-@ timbered house in Denmark , built in 1527 , is located in Køge on the east coast of Sealand . The Old Town in Aarhus , Jutland , is an open @-@ air village museum consisting of 75 historical buildings collected from all parts of the country . They include a variety of half @-@ timbered houses , some dating back to the middle of the 16th century . = = Renaissance = = Renaissance architecture thrived during the reigns of Frederick II and especially Christian IV . Inspired by the French castles of the times , Flemish architects designed masterpieces such as Kronborg Castle in Helsingør and Frederiksborg Palace in Hillerød . In Copenhagen , Rosenborg Castle ( 1606 – 24 ) and Børsen or the former stock exchange ( 1640 ) are perhaps the city 's most remarkable Renaissance buildings . During the reign of Frederick II , Kronborg Castle was designed by two Flemish architects , Hans Hendrik van Paesschen who started the work in 1574 and Anthonis van Obbergen who finished it in 1585 . Modelled on a three @-@ winged French castle , it was finally completed as a full four @-@ winged building . The castle burnt down in 1629 but , under orders from Christian IV , was quickly rebuilt under the leadership of Hans van Steenwinckel the Younger , son of the famous Flemish artist . It is widely recognized as one of Europe 's most outstanding Renaissance castles and is a UNESCO World Heritage Site . Frederiksborg Palace ( 1602 – 20 ) in Hillerød is the largest Renaissance palace in Scandinavia . Christian IV had most of Frederick II 's original building pulled down in order to have van Steenwinckel complete a three @-@ winged French @-@ styled castle with a low terrace wing around a courtyard . The architectural expression and the decorative finish clearly reflect Dutch Renaissance preferences as evidenced by the ornamental portals and windows and especially in sweeping Italianate gables . Rosenborg Castle in Copenhagen , also built by Christian IV , is another example of the Dutch Renaissance style . In 1606 , the king first had a two @-@ storey summerhouse built on a site he used as a park for relaxation . He then decided to start work on a much more ambitious building , the castle , which developed in stages until a Dutch Renaissance masterpiece was completed in 1624 . Predating the castle , the Renaissance @-@ style park , is Denmark 's oldest royal garden . Sponsored by Christian IV , Børsen , one of the first commodity exchanges in Europe , was built from 1618 to 1624 . It was designed to emphasize Copenhagen 's position as a commercial metropolis . Although inspired by the Dutch Renaissance style , the distinctive towers and garrets on the roof reflect the taste of Christian IV . The characteristic spire of the building with four intertwinded dragon tails topped by three crowns , symbolises the then Kingdom of Denmark , which included Norway and Sweden . In 1614 , Christian IV began work on the construction of the then Danish Kristianstad in Scania , now in the south of Sweden , completing many of its buildings in the Renaissance style . Particularly impressive is the Church of the Trinity ( 1618 – 28 ) designed by Flemish @-@ Danish architect Lorenz van Steenwinckel . It is said to be Scandinavia 's finest example of a Renaissance church . Christian IV also initiated a number of projects in Norway that were largely based on Renaissance architecture He established mining operations in Kongsberg and Røros , now a World Heritage Site . After a devastating fire in 1624 , the town of Oslo was moved to a new location and rebuilt as a fortified city with an orthogonal layout surrounded by ramparts , and renamed Christiania . King Christian also founded the trading city of Kristiansand , once again naming it after himself . While stone buildings became more and more common as town houses , farms continued to be half @-@ timbered , sometimes in conjunction with a single stone house . Ordinary people continued to live in half @-@ timbered houses . Holbæk in northwestern Sealand began to develop towards the end of the Middle Ages . Prosperity peaked in the 17th century as corn grown locally was traded with Germany and the Netherlands . The half @-@ timbered houses which now form the museum date back to that period , providing an insight into how the town functioned at the time . Danish country vicarages from this period tended to be built in the same style as farmhouses , though usually rather larger . A fine example is Kølstrup Vicarage near Kerteminde in north @-@ eastern Funen . The house itself is a thatched half @-@ timbered building with a large rectangular courtyard flanked by outhouses . = = Baroque = = As during the Renaissance period , it was again principally Dutch influence which predominated in Baroque architecture , although many of the features originated in Italy and France . Symmetry and regularity were primary concerns , often enhanced by a projecting central section on the main façade . Copenhagen 's Round Tower was also one of Christian IV 's projects after he provided funding for an observatory as proposed by the astronomer Tycho Brahe . Under the initial leadership of Hans van Steenwinckel who surprisingly adapted the design to Dutch Baroque , the Tower was completed in 1642 with a height of almost 40 m . The bricks , specially ordered from the Netherlands , were of a hard @-@ burned , slender type , known as muffer or mopper . A 210 @-@ meter @-@ long spiral ramp leads to the top , providing panoramic views over Copenhagen . The Round Tower is the oldest functioning observatory in Europe . Until 1861 it was used by the University of Copenhagen , but today , anyone can observe the night sky through the tower 's astronomical telescope during the winter . Nysø Manor ( 1673 ) near Præstø , Sealand , was built for the local functionary Jens Lauridsen . It was the first Baroque country house in Denmark , replacing the earlier Renaissance style . The inspiration came from Holland and the architect was probably Ewert Janssen . One of the foremost designers of the times was the Danish architect Lambert van Haven whose masterpiece was the Church of Our Saviour , Copenhagen ( 1682 – 96 ) which relies on the Greek cross for its basic layout . The façade is segmented by Tuscan pilasters extending up to the full height of the building . Other features such as the distinctive corkscrew spire were however not undertaken until the reign of Frederick V. It was Lauritz de Thurah who finally completed the building in 1752 . Charlottenborg ( 1672 – 83 ) , on Kongens Nytorv in the centre of Copenhagen , is said to be the most important pure Baroque building remaining in Denmark . Van Haven may have been involved in its design although Ewert Janssen is usually credited with the work . Several other mansion houses in Denmark have been based on its design . It was Henrik Ruse , a Dutch building engineer , who was charged by Frederick III to develop the area around Kongens Nytorv , especially in connection with the Nyhavn Canal which was designed to become Copenhagen 's new harbour . It was not , however , until Christian V became king in 1670 that Niels Rosenkrantz completed the work . Over the next few years , numerous town houses were built along the northern or sunny side of the canal . The oldest , Number 9 , was completed in 1681 , probably by Christen Christensen , the harbour master . Clausholm Castle ( 1693 – 94 ) near Randers was designed by the Danish architect Ernst Brandenburger with assistance of the Swede Nicodemus Tessin who was invited to decorate the facade . The more sophisticated first @-@ floor apartments with their higher ceilings were designed for use by royalty . The first Christiansborg Palace in Copenhagen , designed by Elias David Häusser and completed in the 1740s , was certainly one of the most impressive Baroque buildings of its day . Although the palace itself was destroyed by fire in 1794 , the extensive showgrounds and riding arena completed by Niels Eigtved have survived undamaged and can be visited today . Fredensborg Palace ( 1731 ) , the royal residence on the shore of Sealand 's Lake Esrum , with its exquisite Chancellery House , is the work of Johan Cornelius Krieger who was the court gardener at Rosenborg Castle . The park at Fredensborg is one of Denmark 's largest and best preserved Baroque gardens . After the turn of the 19th century , architecture developed into the late Baroque style . Among the major proponents were Johan Conrad Ernst who built the Chancery Building or Kancellibygningen ( 1721 ) on Slotsholmen and Lauritz de Thurah who designed the Eremitage Palace ( 1734 ) in Dyrehaven , just north of Copenhagen . Even more ambitious was de Thurah 's work at Ledreborg near Roskilde , where he succeeded in working the components into a well @-@ balanced and cohesive Baroque palace . = = = Rococo = = = Following on closely from the Baroque period , Rococo came into fashion in the 1740s under the leadership of Nicolai Eigtved . Originally a gardener , Eigtved spent many years abroad where he became increasingly interested in architecture , especially the French Rococo style . On his return to Denmark , he built Prinsens Palæ ( 1743 – 44 ) in Copenhagen as a residence for Crown Prince Frederick ( later Frederick V ) . It is now the National Museum . Soon afterwards , he was given prestige assignments including the overall architectural design for the Frederiksstaden district of Copenhagen 1749 , planned around the strictly octagonal square containing the four Amalienborg Palaces and considered to be one of Europe 's most important Rococo complexes . Adam Gottlob Moltke who , as Frederick V 's overhofmarskal or lord chamberlain , was in charge of the project gave Eigtved a free hand , not only to design the principal buildings but also to provide the area with straight broad streets and the mansions which lined them . Frederick V had wanted to emulate the grand building achievements of the French monarchs . Not surprisingly , therefore , the palace square is inspired by the Place de la Concorde in Paris from the same period . Although Eigtved died before the work was completed , other architects including Lauritz de Thurah faithfully continued to execute his plans . Perhaps the finest outcomes are the Amalienborg Palace complex , Frederik 's Church in its immediate vicinity and Frederiks Hospital . Philip de Lange , although influenced by Eigtved , developed his own rather strict style during this period . His ornamental facade can be seen on the Kunstforeningen building ( 1750 ) on Gammel Strand in Copenhagen . The top storey with a gable was added later . De Lange also designed the small but well proportioned Damsholte Church on Møn , the only Rococo village church in Denmark . = = Neoclassical = = Neoclassicism which relied on inspiration from ancient Greece and Rome , was brought to Denmark by the French architect Nicolas @-@ Henri Jardin . His countryman , the sculptor Jacques Saly , who was already well established in Denmark , persuaded Frederick V that Jardin could complete Frederik 's Church after Eigtved 's death . Although Jardin did not succeed in this , he was successful in designing several prestige Neoclassical buildings such as Bernstorff Palace ( 1759 – 65 ) in Gentofte and Marienlyst Palace near Helsingør . One of Jardin 's pupils , Caspar Frederik Harsdorff , turned out to be Denmark 's most prominent 18th @-@ century architect and is known as the Father of Danish Classicism . He undertook a considerable amount of redesign work , both for interiors and exteriors , including work on the Royal Theatre ( 1774 ) where he introduced a classical temple style with a wide entrance and large hall . He also carried out work on the Amalienborg complex including the colonnade , with its eight Ionic wooden columns , linking the crown prince 's residence ( Schacks Palæ ) with the king 's ( Moltkes Palæ ) . Another remarkable example of neoclassicism is Liselund on the island of Møn in south @-@ eastern Denmark . This rather small country home built in the French Neoclassical style in the 1790s is exceptional in that it has a thatched roof . Like the surrounding Romantic park , the house was the work of Andreas Kirkerup , one of the foremost landscape architects of the times . It was designed as a summer retreat for Antoine de la Calmette , the island 's governor , and his wife , Lise . The building is T @-@ shaped with the main rooms on the ground floor , the first floor consisting of nine bedrooms . The interior was probably decorated by the leading decorator of the day , Joseph Christian Lillie . = = 19th century = = = = = Classicism = = = After Hardorff 's death , the main proponent of Classicism was Christian Frederik Hansen who developed a more severe style with clean , simple forms and large , unbroken surfaces . From 1800 , he was in charge of all major building projects in Copenhagen where he designed the Copenhagen City Hall & Courthouse ( 1805 – 15 ) on Nytorv . He was also responsible for rebuilding Church of Our Lady ( Vor Frue Kirke ) and designing the surrounding square ( 1811 – 29 ) . In 1800 , Hansen was also charged with rebuilding Christiansborg Palace which had burnt down in 1794 . Unfortunately , it burnt down once again in 1884 . All that remains is the magnificent chapel which , with its Ionic columns , conveys a sense of antiquity . Michael Gottlieb Bindesbøll is remembered above all for designing Thorvaldsens Museum . In 1822 , as a young man , he had experienced Karl Friedrich Schinkel 's classicism in Germany and France and had met the German @-@ born architect and archaeologist Franz Gau who introduced him to the colourful architecture of antiquity . His uncle , Jonas Collin , who was an active art and culture official under Frederick VI , awakened the King 's interest in a museum for Bertel Thorvaldsen , the Danish @-@ Icelandic sculptor , and asked Bindesbøll to make some sketches for the building . As Bindensbøll 's designs stood out from those of other architects , he was given a commission to transform the Royal Carriage Depot and Theatre Scenery Painting Building into a museum . Emulating the construction of the Erechtheion and the Parthenon as freestanding buildings released from the traditional urban plan of closed streets , he completed the work in 1848 . He also incorporated aspects of ancient Egyptian architecture into his design , though " the plan as a whole ... is neither Egyptian nor Greek , but Bindesbøll 's own . " = = = Historicism = = = With the arrival of Historicism in the second half of the century , special importance was attached to high standards of craftsmanship and proper use of materials . This can be seen in Copenhagen 's University Library ( 1861 ) designed by Johan Daniel Herholdt and inspired by St Fermo 's Church in Verona . Vilhelm Dahlerup was one of the most productive 19th @-@ century architects . Perhaps more than anyone else , he contributed to the way Copenhagen appears today . His most important buildings include Copenhagen 's Hotel D ’ Angleterre ( 1875 ) and the Danish National Gallery ( 1891 ) . With the support of the Carlsberg company , he designed the Ny Carlsberg Glyptoteque ( 1897 ) and a number of lavishly decorated buildings at the Carlsberg Brewery site , now under redevelopment as a new district in Copenhagen . Ferdinand Meldahl , also a proponent of Historicism , completed the reconstruction of Frederiksborg Palace after the fire in 1859 and designed the Parliament Building in Reykjavík , Iceland , at that time a Danish colony . His greatest achievement was , however , the completion of Frederik 's Church in Copenhagen . The site had become a ruin after work was stopped on Jardin 's original design in 1770 . Meldahl 's plans differed significantly from Jardin 's in that the lateral towers were eliminated , the dome was lower and the columns were reduced from six to four before the main entrance . Nevertheless , the overall height almost matched Jardin 's , thanks to the lantern and the taller spire . The building , commonly known as the Marble Church , was completed in 1894 , more than 150 years after Eigtved had drawn up his original plans . = = = National Romanticism = = = Martin Nyrop was one of the main proponents of the National Romantic style . The main aim was to use distinctive Nordic motifs from the distant past , as is clearly demonstrated in Copenhagen City Hall which was completed in 1905 . The City Hall is certainly Copenhagen 's most monumental and most original building from the last quarter of the 19th century with its impressive facade , the golden statue of Absalon just above the balcony and its tall , slim clock tower . It was inspired by the Siena City Hall . Another participant in the National Romanticism movement was Hack Kampmann who designed the Aarhus Theatre in the Art Nouveau style at the very end of the century . = = = Urban development = = = The harbour town of Svendborg in the south east of Funen dates back to the 13th century . Real prosperity emerged in the 19th century when shipbuilding and trade became important drivers . The town subsequently underwent a period of renovation with new brick and stone buildings lining its narrow streets . The old town has now become an important tourist attraction . The fine architectural style of Skagen on the northern tip of Jutland is quite distinctive . From the 19th century on , the houses were whitewashed and had red @-@ tiled roofs . Yellow and red tones dominated , backed by white chimneys and roof decorations . These traditions are not only to be found in the town 's old districts but are maintained in the newer residential areas . Several of the town 's more imposing buildings from the beginning of the 20th century were designed by the Ulrik Plesner , others were designed by well @-@ known architects such as Thorvald Bindesbøll . = = 20th century = = = = = Nordic Classicism = = = Neoclassicism or increasingly Nordic Classicism continued to thrive at the beginning of the century until about 1930 as can be seen in Kay Fisker 's Hornbækhus apartment buildings ( 1923 ) and Hack Kampmann 's police headquarters ( 1924 ) . Its development was no isolated phenomenon , drawing on existing classical traditions in the Nordic countries , and from new ideas being pursued in German @-@ speaking cultures . It can thus be characterised as a combination of direct and indirect influences from vernacular architecture ( Nordic , Italian and German ) and Neoclassicism . While the movement had its greatest level of success in Sweden , there were a number of other important Danish proponents including Ivar Bentsen , Kaare Klint , Arne Jacobsen , Carl Petersen and Steen Eiler Rasmussen . Bentsen , with the assistance of Thorkild Henningsen , designed Denmark 's first terraced houses in the Bellahøj district of Copenhagen . Very appropriately Klint , working with Bentsen , adapted the design of Frederiks Hospital to serve as the Danish Museum of Art & Design . Carl Petersen 's main achievement was the Faaborg Museum built for collections of art from Funen . Steen Rasmussen is remembered above all for his town planning activities and for his contributions to the Dansk Byplanlaboratorium ( Danish town planning laboratory ) . = = = Expressionism = = = Grundtvig 's Church in Bispebjerg , Copenhagen , is named after the Danish philosopher and pastor Nikolai Grundtvig , remembered by most Danes for his resounding hymns , now an integral part of the national culture . As a result of its unusual appearance , it is Denmark 's most famous expressionist church . Designed by Peder Vilhelm Jensen @-@ Klint , it relied heavily on Scandinavian brick gothic traditions , especially Danish village churches with stepped gables . Jensen @-@ Klint combined the modern geometric forms of Brick Expressionism with the classical vertical of Gothic architecture . Construction began in 1921 but was only completed by his son Kaare Klint in 1940 after Jensen @-@ Klint 's death . The most striking feature of the building is its west facade , reminiscent of a westwork or of the exterior of a church organ . = = = Functionalism = = = Functionalism , which began in the 1930s , relied on rational architecture making use of concrete , iron and glass , preferably to meet social needs . Its main proponents in Denmark were Frits Schlegel , Mogens Lassen , Vilhelm Lauritzen and , especially Arne Jacobsen with his Bellavista developments north of Copenhagen . Another of Jacobsen 's masterpieces was the Aarhus City Hall which he designed together with Erik Møller in 1937 and completed in 1948 . The tower is 60 meters tall and the tower clock face has a diameter of 7 meters . The building is made of concrete plated with marble from Porsgrunn in Norway . A more traditional approach was taken by Kay Fisker who , together with C. F. Møller , designed buildings for Aarhus University in 1931 . = = = Modernism = = = After World War II , Functionalism drew on trends in American Modernism with its irregular ground plans , flat roofs , open plan interiors and glass facades . Good examples are Jørn Utzon 's own family house ( 1952 ) on the outskirts of Hellebæk near Helsingør where good use is made of reasonably cheap materials for post @-@ war housing ; and the Kingo Houses ( 1956 – 58 ) in Helsingør which consist of 63 L @-@ shaped houses based upon the design of traditional Danish farmhouses . Another project , noted for the synthesis it creates between architecture and landscape , was the Louisiana Museum of Modern Art ( 1958 ) in Humlebæk , designed by Jørgen Bo and Vilhelm Wohlert . During this period , Arne Jacobsen became the country ’ s leading Modernist with the design of the SAS Hotel in Copenhagen ( 1960 ) . Rødovre Town Hall , completed in 1956 , shows how well Jacobsen combined the use of different materials : sandstone , two types of glass , painted metalwork and stainless steel . Following in Jacobsen 's footsteps , Denmark had some outstanding successes in 20th @-@ century architecture . Most notably , Jørn Utzon 's iconic Sydney Opera House earned him the distinction of becoming only the second person to have his work recognized as a World Heritage Site while still alive . His Bagsværd Church ( 1968 – 76 ) in Copenhagen has been considered an outstanding example of critical regionalism , for the synthesis created between universal civilisation and regional culture . Winning the international competition for the Grande Arche at La Défense in Paris with a design based on simple geometrical forms brought Johann Otto von Spreckelsen international fame . Prolific Henning Larsen designed the Foreign Ministry building in Riyadh , as well as a variety of prestige buildings throughout Scandinavia , including the Copenhagen Opera House . From the success of the Strøget 's transformation into a pedestrian zone in Copenhagen in the 1960s and his influential book Life Between Buildings , Jan Gehl earned an international reputation in urban design . He has advised on numerous city planning developments including those for Melbourne , London and New York . His work has often drawn on Copenhagen and its bicycle culture , to improve the quality of public space in city centres . = = Contemporary period = = Since the turn of the millennium , Danish architecture has flourished both at home and abroad . Two important areas of Greater Copenhagen have provided substantial opportunities for architectural developments on the domestic front while a number of firms have gained international recognition , winning important commissions abroad . For some , overseas assignments have become as important as those in Denmark itself . Recent years have also seen the emergence of several new architectural firms operating both in Denmark and internationally . = = = Recent urban developments = = = Ørestad is a contemporary urban development to the south @-@ east of the Copenhagen 's city centre . Its origin is connected with the building of the Øresund Bridge linking Copenhagen to Malmö in Sweden , completed in 2000 . After initial planning stages in the 1990s , the first office building was realised in 2001 . Today the constantly expanding area has more than 3 @,@ 000 apartments and 192 @,@ 100 m ² of office space . Copenhagen itself has also been undergoing significant transformations in recent years with the encouragement of various projects along the waterfront . Based on initial planning work in the 1980s , the area has already seen the appearance of several prestige buildings including the Black Diamond national library extension ( 1999 ) , the Opera House ( 2000 ) and the Royal Danish Playhouse ( 2004 ) . = = = International presence = = = Henning Larsen Architects , well established in the Nordic countries , are now active outside Denmark , particularly in the Middle East . They have a number of projects in Saudi Arabia and Syria , including the Massar Discovery Centre in Damascus . Another interesting project is a new building for Der Spiegel on the waterfront in Hamburg . 3XN have designed the award @-@ winning Muziekgebouw Concert Hall in Amsterdam and the new Museum of Liverpool . In 2007 , they won a competition for the design of a new headquarters for Deutsche Bahn in Berlin ahead of firms such as Foster + Partners of the UK and Dominique Perrault of France . Schmidt Hammer Lassen have opened offices in London and Oslo . In addition to numerous projects in the Nordic countries , their international work includes Westminster College in London and a new library for the University of Aberdeen . Among the most notable international projects of C. F. Møller Architects are extensions to the Natural History and the National Maritime museums in London ( 2009 – 11 ) . They were also successful in being commissioned to build the Akershus University Hospital in Oslo . Dissing + Weitling are widely recognized as bridge architects after completing some 220 such projects worldwide . These include the Great Belt Bridge between Sealand and Funen , the Queensferry Crossing in Scotland , the Nelson Mandela Bridge in South Africa and the Stonecutters Bridge in Hong Kong . The Great Belt suspension bridge , completed in 1998 , is the world 's third largest . With a length of 6 @,@ 790 metres ( 22 @,@ 277 ft ) and a free span of 1 @,@ 624 metres ( 5 @,@ 328 ft ) , the vertical clearance for ships is 65 metres ( 213 ft ) . Lundgaard & Tranberg are the designers of the Royal Danish Playhouse and the Tietgenkollegiet student housing complex , both considered to be among Copenhagen 's most successful new buildings in recent years . = = = Emerging practices = = = Another trend in contemporary Danish architecture is the emergence of a new generation of successful young practices , inspired more by international trends than by the modernist tradition in Scandinavia . The generation is spearheaded by Bjarke Ingels whose firm BIG ( Bjarke Ingels Group ) founded in 2006 has made an unusually rapid transition into a well @-@ established firm . From the beginning , BIG received international recognition for a number of projects , including Mountain Dwellings in Ørestad . Ideologically and conceptually , the practice is more closely related to Dutch firms such as OMA – where Ingels worked from 1998 to 2001 – and MVRDV than to the work of Danish architects . BIG 's major international breakthrough came in 2009 when the firm won six international competitions and gained several large commissions . These include an art museum on a cliffside overlooking Mexico City , a canalside neighbourhood in Hamburg , a new city hall for Tallinn , Estonia , a new national library for Kazakhstan , a low @-@ energy highrise project in Shenzhen , China , and a World Village for Women 's Sports in Malmö . Four young practices , CEBRA , COBE , Transform and Effekt , contributed to the project CO @-@ EVOLUTION : Danish / Chinese Collaboration on Sustainable Urban Development in China , which was awarded the Golden Lion at the 2006 Venice Biennale of Architecture . The project was commissioned by the Danish Architecture Centre and curated by the Danish architect @-@ urbanist Henrik Valeur and UiD . All four practices later went on to win high @-@ profile competitions in Denmark and abroad . Effekt has won the competition for a new building for the Estonian Art Academy in Tallinn , Transform has a project on the City Hall Square in Copenhagen and COBE has won first prize in a competition for Scandinavia 's largest sustainable district in Nordhavnen , Copenhagen . Other notable emerging Danish architectural practices include Aart , Dorthe Mandrup Architects and NORD Architects . = Southern Rhodesian military involvement in the Malayan Emergency = Southern Rhodesia , then a self @-@ governing colony of the United Kingdom , sent two military units to fight with the Commonwealth armed forces in the Malayan Emergency of 1948 – 60 , which pitted the Commonwealth against the Malayan National Liberation Army ( MNLA ) , the military arm of the Malayan Communist Party . For two years , starting in March 1951 , white Southern Rhodesian volunteers made up " C " Squadron of the Special Air Service ( SAS ) . The Rhodesian African Rifles , in which black rank @-@ and @-@ filers and warrant officers were led by white officers , then served in Malaya from 1956 to 1958 . Of the hundreds of Southern Rhodesians who served in Malaya , eight were killed . " C " Squadron , which was formed especially to serve in Malaya , was the first SAS unit from a British colony or dominion . Several veterans of the conflict , Peter Walls and Ron Reid @-@ Daly among them , subsequently held key positions in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Bush War of the 1970s . = = Background and outbreak of war = = The Malayan Emergency was a guerrilla war between the Federation of Malaya — a protectorate of Britain until August 1957 , and part of the Commonwealth of Nations thereafter — and the Malayan National Liberation Army ( MNLA ) , the armed wing of the Malayan Communist Party ( MCP ) . The MNLA sought to topple the Malayan government and force the British out , while the Commonwealth worked to prevent this . The conflict had its roots in the Second World War , in which groups of local ethnic Chinese fought alongside Britain 's limited forces in the country against the occupying Imperial Japanese ; these Malayan Chinese subscribed to communist political thinking , and called themselves the Malayan Peoples ' Anti @-@ Japanese Army . Soon after Japan was defeated , the communist fighters renamed themselves the Malayan National Liberation Army , and began to agitate against British rule . Using the arms that Britain had given them — which they had cached , and then subsequently retrieved — they formed themselves into eight regiments , and began a campaign of Maoist @-@ style rural subversion , their intent being to politicise the villagers and gain popular support , which they could then use to take control of Malayan cities . In March 1948 , the MCP called on the Malayan people to rise up against the British . Three months later , on 16 June , MNLA guerrillas killed three British rubber plantation managers in Perak province . The British High Commissioner in Malaya , Sir Edward Gent , declared a state of emergency two days afterwards , marking the beginning of the Malayan Emergency . In addition to British and Malayan units and personnel , the Commonwealth forces in Malaya included Australians , New Zealanders , Gurkhas , Fijians , Nyasalanders , and Northern and Southern Rhodesians . Southern Rhodesia had been self @-@ governing since 1923 . It ran its own affairs in most matters , including defence , but it was still constitutionally bound to Whitehall insofar as foreign affairs were concerned . The Southern Rhodesian government was therefore able to exercise a large degree of independence militarily , though diplomatically it came under the British flag . = = " C " Squadron , Special Air Service ( 1951 – 53 ) = = The Special Air Service ( SAS ) commando unit was formed by the British Army in 1941 , during the North African Campaign of the Second World War . Including some Southern Rhodesians in its ranks , it served for the rest of the conflict , also operating in Italy and on the European Western Front . It was disbanded by the British government in October 1945 , and reinstituted in 1950 to serve in the Korean War . The situation in Korea had changed by the end of its three @-@ month training period , however , and it was sent to Malaya instead . There it was placed under the command of a British officer , Major Mike Calvert . Early the following year , Calvert travelled to Southern Rhodesia on a recruitment visit . Roughly 1 @,@ 000 white Southern Rhodesians , SAS veterans among them , volunteered to go to Malaya ; from these , about 100 were chosen to form an all @-@ Southern Rhodesian unit . This was the first SAS squadron from a British colony or dominion . Led by the 24 @-@ year @-@ old Temporary Captain Peter Walls , the volunteers arrived in Malaya in March 1951 . Walls was promoted to major soon after he and his men disembarked at Singapore . The SAS already had two Squadrons , " A " and " B " , so the Southern Rhodesians became " C " Squadron , known more informally as the Rhodesian SAS . Engaged largely in counter @-@ insurgency warfare , the Southern Rhodesians became well @-@ drilled in the relevant principles and doctrines . They noticeably bolstered the hitherto thinly spread ranks of the SAS in Malaya , and performed strongly in the eyes of their superiors , though British Major C L " Dare " Newell believed that their attitude towards " the aborigines " was colder than that of the British soldiers . Barbara Cole , who wrote a history of the Rhodesian SAS , says by contrast that the Rhodesians became close friends with the Fijians they served alongside , and spent far more time socialising with black and mixed @-@ race soldiers off @-@ duty than their British counterparts did . In March 1953 , after serving their required two years in Malaya , the men of " C " Squadron returned home . They were replaced in 1955 by a squadron from New Zealand . Three members of " C " Squadron — Sergeant O H Ernst , and Corporals J B Davies and V E Visagie — were killed while in Malaya . For his services during the emergency , Walls was awarded an MBE . = = Rhodesian African Rifles ( 1956 – 58 ) = = = = = Arrival in Malaya = = = Following the departure of " C " Squadron , Southern Rhodesia was uninvolved in Malaya until early 1956 , when the 1st Battalion , the Rhodesian African Rifles ( RAR ) were tasked to relieve the Northern Rhodesia Regiment ( NRR ) in Johore province . Originally formed in 1916 as the Rhodesian Native Regiment , the RAR were , by Southern Rhodesian standards , an old and well @-@ tried unit ; they fought for Britain in East Africa during the First World War , and contributed to the Burma Campaign during the Second . The regiment 's black soldiers and warrant officers , led by white officers , came from both Mashonaland and Matabeleland , with Mashonas in the majority . The Royal Australian Regiment was also present in Malaya , so to prevent confusion the Rhodesian African Rifles ' acronym was temporarily changed to " RhAR " . The regiment 's advance party , made up of officers , non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) and warrant officers , left the Southern Rhodesian capital Salisbury by air on 13 February 1956 . Their tortuous route took them through Nairobi , Aden , Karachi , and RAF Negombo ( in Ceylon ) . After touching down in Singapore , the RhAR 's advance party travelled to Kluang in Johore , where they spent three weeks in jungle training with the NRR . They then redeployed to Batu Pahat , where they camped with the Fiji Infantry Regiment . A spirit of camaraderie quickly developed between the Fijian and Southern Rhodesian soldiers . The RhAR officers and NCOs continued their acclimatisation with the local environment over the following weeks , assisted by the Fijians . The rest of the battalion travelled by sea aboard SS Empire Clyde , and reached Singapore on 26 April 1956 . Soon after , the RhAR set up headquarters at Chaah , about 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) north @-@ west of the port city . = = = MNLA and RhAR tactics = = = By this stage of the insurgency , the MNLA had largely split into small groups of guerrillas , which existed by basing themselves in a chosen rural area , subverting local villagers and accumulating from them manpower and supplies . The lot of any security forces posted nearby was to play a constant game of hide @-@ and @-@ seek with the communists , whereby the army would indefinitely search for and destroy any base camps and food caches the MNLA set up . The Commonwealth leaders surmised that the MNLA could not possibly resist such a campaign forever , and would , in time , simply give up attempting to regroup . In Malaya , the RhAR comprised A , B , C and D Companies , each of which was split into three 32 @-@ man platoons . The white lieutenant commanding each platoon carried the weapon of his choice , usually a shotgun or an FN FAL battle rifle , and acted with the assistance of a black platoon sergeant and a black warrant officer . Under the lieutenant , three black corporals led a rifle section each . These consisted of the section leader ( generally armed with a shotgun ) , a scout , a Bren gunner , a Patchett @-@ Sterling machine @-@ gunner , and up to seven FN FAL riflemen . When marching through thick jungle , an RhAR patrol moved in single file , with each trooper 5 metres ( 16 ft ) behind the man in front . The warrant officer followed close behind the lieutenant , ready to take over command if necessary , with the radio operator and medic with him . The platoon sergeant made up the rear . According to Second Lieutenant John Essex @-@ Clark , an Australian @-@ born officer who led an RhAR platoon in Malaya , these Southern Rhodesian units moved much faster in jungle conditions than those made up of British men . The black Southern Rhodesian soldiers were reportedly naturals when it came to tracking ; many of them came from rural backgrounds , and had acquired relevant instincts and skills while growing up . = = = RhAR operations in Malaya = = = The RhAR patrolled around Johore from May to September 1956 without major incident . The rain of the Malayan monsoon season seemed endless to many of the battalion 's men , and actual sightings of the communists were rare in the extreme . Even when the guerrillas were spotted , they almost invariably fled after a few shots . " We can but hope that the chaps will get a chance of seeing a CT [ communist terrorist ] for a change , " reported an RhAR officer in August ; " they are all as keen as mustard to come to blows with them . " So determined were the RhAR 's officers and men to come face to face with the enemy that they ambushed around the railway line at Bekok for seven nights in a row , starting on 30 October 1956 . Patrols were led by a different officer each night , but there were no contacts . Around this time the British Royal Lincolnshire Regiment , operating in the Bahau area , about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) north @-@ west of Bekok , reported to the RhAR that they had encountered the communist 32 Independent Platoon , led by Hor Lung , which was then heading south @-@ east towards the Palong River . The RhAR therefore redeployed to intercept Hor Lung 's men . On 9 November , a half @-@ section of Southern Rhodesians led by Corporal Munyameni sighted 16 pack @-@ laden guerrillas , marching east . On his own initiative , Munyameni attacked , catching the communists by surprise ; the insurgents split up and fled , running in all directions . One fighter attempted to hide behind a tree , but was killed by RhAR rifle fire . On 17 November , the RhAR was withdrawn for a period of rest and recuperation ( R & R ) . The battalion 's Transport Platoon was ambushed by communist guerrillas as it was returning to base : a shot through the windscreen of one of the two trucks nearly hit its driver , but the convoy was able to escape the ambush without anybody being injured . On 26 November , the RhAR and the King 's Own Scottish Borderers assisted the local police at Kelapa Sawit in an action called Tartan Rock : the security forces moved into the village and arrested 34 communist sympathisers , most of whom were ethnic Chinese students from the University of Malaya in Singapore . Two days later , the RhAR were back on regular duty . Starting in February 1957 , the RhAR took part in Operations Cobble and Shoe . These were " food denial " operations , whereby efforts to deny supplies to the communists were to be redoubled . Patrols around the rubber plantations and the edges of the jungle were intensified . To prevent guerrilla supplies from north of the Rompin River from reaching the food denial areas to the south , covered by Operation Cobble , an RhAR platoon under Lieutenant David Heppenstall was posted to the area directly south of the river midway through the month . This action lasted from 21 February to 4 April 1957 . There were few contacts , and only one communist was killed by Heppenstall 's men , but a great deal of intelligence was secured regarding guerrilla organisation and supply routes . Over the next few months , RhAR patrols in the Chaah , Labis , Bekok and Sungai Karas areas were stepped up to last between 10 and 18 days each , but contacts with the communist forces remained rare . The constant patrols gradually began to take their toll on the insurgents , and guerrillas began to give themselves up increasingly frequently . A contributing factor here was Britain 's granting of independence to Malaya within the Commonwealth on 31 August 1957 , which dented the motivation of many fighters . Starting in October 1957 , the RhAR were tasked to work alongside former MNLA personnel to wipe out any remaining communist forces in the region . The ex @-@ insurgents were supposed to lead the security forces to MNLA camps and resting places , but this strategy was not successful . The RhAR soon developed a low opinion of these ex @-@ MNLA men . As it approached the end of its two @-@ year commitment in Malaya , the RhAR continued its patrolling in Johore province without major incident until February 1958 , when it returned to Rhodesia . Five of the regiment 's number had been killed over the previous two years : Corporal Tavengwa , and Privates Joseph , Hunyani , Manuel and Mjikijelwa . = = Influence on the Rhodesian Bush War = = Several veterans of Malaya proceeded to hold key positions in the Rhodesian Security Forces during the Rhodesian Bush War of the 1970s , most prominently Walls and another member of " C " Squadron , Ron Reid @-@ Daly . Walls reformed the all @-@ white Rhodesian Light Infantry ( RLI ) into a commando battalion similar to the SAS during the mid @-@ 1960s , with Reid @-@ Daly serving under him as regimental sergeant major . After leaving the RLI in 1967 , Walls became head of the Rhodesian Army in 1972 , and retained this role for the rest of the Bush War . Reid @-@ Daly , meanwhile , formed and commanded the Selous Scouts pseudo @-@ guerrilla regiment from 1973 . The Selous Scouts concept was influenced by similar operations conducted by Special Branch in Malaya . Both the Rhodesian African Rifles and the Rhodesian SAS endured following Malaya , and served in the Bush War . The South African historian Jakkie Cilliers , writing about the Rhodesian Bush War , comments on the gulf between what he calls the " Malaya clique " and those lower @-@ ranking Rhodesian soldiers in the field , the latter of whom underestimated the threat posed by the nationalist campaigns , having not previously encountered an insurgency situation . From the mid @-@ 1970s , officers such as Walls attempted to impress upon their contemporaries the similarity between the Rhodesian situation and the one they had experienced in Malaya . Operations in Malaya had been coordinated nationally , while in Rhodesia the Army , Air Force and Police were sometimes at odds with each other . To resolve this the Rhodesians created a supreme body called Combined Operations in 1977 , influenced by similar posts in Malaya , with Walls at its head . = Beat It = " Beat It " is a song written and performed by American singer Michael Jackson and produced by Quincy Jones ( with co @-@ production by Jackson ) . It is the third single from the singer 's sixth solo album , Thriller ( 1982 ) . Eddie Van Halen played the song 's distinctive overdriven guitar solo . While Van Halen was prevented by his record label from appearing in the music video , he did appear on stage with Jackson in Dallas during the Jackson brothers Victory Tour . Following the successful chart performances of the Thriller singles " The Girl Is Mine " and " Billie Jean " , " Beat It " was released on February 3 , 1983 as the album 's third single . The song was promoted with a short film that featured Jackson bringing two gangs together through the power of music and dance . " Beat It " received the Grammy Awards for Record of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance , as well as two American Music Awards . It was inducted into the Music Video Producers Hall of Fame . The single , along with its music video , propelled Thriller into becoming the best @-@ selling album of all time . The single was certified platinum in the United States in 1989 . Rolling Stone placed " Beat It " on the 344th spot of its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The song was also ranked number 81 on Rolling Stone 's " 100 Greatest Guitar Songs of All Time " . In the decades since its release , " Beat It " has been covered , parodied , and sampled by numerous artists including Pierce the Veil , Fall Out Boy , Pomplamoose , Justin Bieber , Alvin and the Chipmunks , Fergie , John 5 , " Weird Al " Yankovic and Eminem . The song was also featured in the National Highway Safety Commission 's anti @-@ drunk driving campaign . = = Production and composition = = " Beat It " was composed by Michael Jackson for his Thriller album . Producer Quincy Jones had wanted to include a rock and roll song in the vein of the Knack 's " My Sharona " , though Jackson reportedly had never previously shown an interest in the genre . Jackson later said of " Beat It " , " I wanted to write a song , the type of song that I would buy if I were to buy a rock song ... That is how I approached it and I wanted the children to really enjoy it — the school children as well as the college students . " Jermaine Jackson has suggested the inspiration of " Beat It " and its video came from the Jackson family experiencing gang activity in Gary , Indiana . " From our front window , we witnessed , about three bad rumbles between rival gangs . " Upon hearing the first recorded vocals , Jones stated that it was exactly what he was looking for . The song begins with seven distinct synthesizer notes played on the Synclavier digital synthesizer , while Tom Bahler is credited with Synclavier performance on the song . The intro is taken note for note from a demo LP released the year before , called " The Incredible Sounds of Synclavier II " first published in 1981 by Denny Jaeger Creative Services , Inc and sold by New England Digital , makers of the Synclavier . Eddie Van Halen , lead guitarist of hard rock band Van Halen , was asked to add a guitar solo . When initially contacted by Jones , Van Halen thought he was receiving a prank call . Having established that the call was genuine , Van Halen recorded his guitar solo free of any charge . " I did it as a favor " , the musician later said . " I was a complete fool , according to the rest of the band , our manager and everyone else . I was not used . I knew what I was doing – I don 't do something unless I want to do it . " Van Halen recorded his contribution following Jones and Jackson arriving at the guitarist 's house with a " skeleton version " of the song . Fellow guitarist Steve Lukather recalled , " Initially , we rocked it out as Eddie had played a good solo — but Quincy thought it was too tough . So I had to reduce the distorted guitar sound and that is what was released . " The song was among the last four completed for Thriller ; the others were " Human Nature " , " P.Y.T. ( Pretty Young Thing ) " and " The Lady in My Life " . On the record , right before Van Halen 's guitar solo begins , a noise is heard that sounds like somebody knocking at a door . It is reported that the knock was a person walking into Eddie 's recording studio . Another story has claimed that the sound was simply the musician knocking on his own guitar . The sound , however , is that of Jackson knocking on a drum case , as he is credited in the album 's liner notes . The engineers were shocked during the recording of Van Halen 's solo to discover that the sound of his guitar had caused the monitor speaker in the control room to catch fire , causing one to exclaim , " This must be REALLY good ! " The lyrics of " Beat It " are about defeat and courage , and have been described as a " sad commentary on human nature " . The line " don 't be a macho man " is said to express Jackson 's dislike of violence , whilst also referring to the childhood abuse he faced at the hands of his father Joseph . The song is played in the key of D ♯ minor at a moderately fast tempo of 132 beats per minute . In the song , Jackson 's vocal range is B3 to D5 . Drums on the song were played by Toto co @-@ founder Jeff Porcaro . A remix of " 2 Bad " , is featured on Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix containing a sample of " Beat It " as well as a rap by John Forté and guitar solo by Wyclef Jean . = = Release and reception = = " Beat It " was released on February 14 , 1983 , following the successful chart performances of " The Girl Is Mine " and " Billie Jean " . Frank DiLeo , the vice president of Epic Records , convinced Jackson to release " Beat It " whilst " Billie Jean " was heading towards No. 1 . Dileo , who would later become the singer 's manager , predicted that both singles would remain in the Top 10 at the same time . " Billie Jean " remained atop the Billboard Hot 100 for seven weeks , before being toppled by " Come On Eileen " . The Dexys Midnight Runners ' song stayed at No. 1 for a single week , before Jackson reclaimed the position with " Beat It " . " Billie Jean " and " Beat It " occupied Top 5 positions at the same time , a feat matched by very few artists . The single remained at the top of the Hot 100 for a total of three weeks . The song also charted at No. 1 on the US R & B singles chart and No. 14 on the Billboard Top Tracks chart in the US . Billboard ranked it at the No. 5 song for 1983 . " Beat It " also claimed the top spot in Spain and The Netherlands , reached No. 3 in the UK and the Top 20 in Austria , Norway , Italy , Sweden and Switzerland . In a Rolling Stone review , Christopher Connelly describes " Beat It " as the best song on Thriller , adding that it " ain 't no disco AOR track " . He notes of the " nifty dance song " , " Jackson 's voice soars all over the melody , Eddie Van Halen checks in with a blistering guitar solo , you could build a convention center on the backbeat " . AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine states that the song is both " tough " and " scared " . Robert Christgau claimed that the song has Eddie Van Halen " wielding his might in the service of antimacho " . Slant Magazine observed that the song was an " uncharacteristic dalliance with the rock idiom " . The track also won praise from Jackson biographer J. Randy Taraborrelli , who stated that the song was " rambunctious " . " Beat It " has been recognized with several awards . At the 1984 Grammy Awards , the song earned Jackson two of a record @-@ eight awards : Record of the Year and Best Male Rock Vocal Performance . The track won the Billboard Music Award for favorite dance / disco 12 " LP in 1983 . The single was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , a few months after its release , for shipments of at least one million units . In 1989 , the standard format single was re @-@ certified platinum by the RIAA , based on the revised sales level of one million units for platinum singles . The total number of digital sales in the US , as of September 2010 , stands at 1 @,@ 649 @,@ 000 . = = Music video = = The music video for " Beat It " helped establish Jackson as an international pop icon . The video was Jackson 's first treatment of black youth and the streets . Both " Beat It " and " Thriller " are notable for their " mass choreography " of synchronized dancers , a Jackson trademark . The video , which cost Jackson $ 150 @,@ 000 to create after CBS refused to finance it , was filmed on Los Angeles ' Skid Row — mainly on locations on East 5th Street — around March 9 , 1983 . To add authenticity to the production but also to foster peace between them , Jackson had the idea to cast members of rival Los Angeles street gangs Crips and Bloods . In addition to around 80 genuine gang members	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
three sites in close vicinity in the European part of the country in 2006 . Ukraine In 2009 , the possible occurrence of Myotis alcathoe in Ukraine was recorded . In 2011 , the species was definitively recorded there on the basis of two bats caught in the far southwest of the country in 2009 . United Kingdom Myotis alcathoe has been recorded in England since 2003 , and is known from two swarming sites in the south and a third site in the north of the country . The northern England site , in Ryedale , is in a protected area with many old trees , and the southern sites ( in Sussex ) are in woodland . The species is also known from Montenegro and possibly from Bosnia and Herzegovina . Early records of Myotis ikonnikovi — now known to be an eastern Asian species — from Ukraine , Bulgaria , and Romania may also pertain to this species . Because whiskered bats in many cases cannot easily be distinguished from each other without the use of genetic methods , some listings do not differentiate between them ; records of Myotis alcathoe and / or M. mystacinus and / or ( in some cases ) M. brandtii have been reported from Bulgaria , Belgium , and Montenegro . = = Ecology and behavior = = Myotis alcathoe is a rare species with narrow ecological requirements . According to a study in the Czech Republic , the diet of Myotis alcathoe mostly consists of nematoceran flies , but caddisflies , spiders , small lepidopterans , and neuropterans are also taken . The presence of spiders in the diet suggests that the species gleans prey from foliage . It forages mainly high in the canopy and over water , and is often found in dense vegetation . The parasitic mite Spinturnix mystacina has been found on M. alcathoe , and the mites on M. alcathoe , M. brandtii , and M. mystacinus are genetically closely related . The bat fly Basilia mongolensis nudior has been recorded on M. alcathoe in Thuringia and the tick Ixodes vespertilionis in Romania . When caught , individuals of Myotis alcathoe are much calmer than M. mystacinus or M. brandtii . Myotis alcathoe lives in small groups . In Greece , a maternity colony , containing three females and two juveniles , has been found in a plane tree . Additional roosts were found high in oak trees in Baden @-@ Württemberg and Saxony @-@ Anhalt . Twenty @-@ seven roosting sites have been found in the Czech Republic , all but one in trees ( the last was in a concrete pole ) . Most of the tree roosts were in oaks ( Quercus robur ) ; others were in limes ( Tilia cordata ) , birches ( Betula pendula ) , and various other species . Its strong preference for roosting sites in trees is unusual among European bats . Roosts tend to be located high in the canopy , and are often in old trees . In summer , roosts may contain large groups of up to 80 individuals , but autumn roosts in the Czech Republic are occupied by smaller groups . M. alcathoe swarms from late July to mid @-@ September in southern Poland . In Saxony @-@ Anhalt , the species forages deep in valleys when temperatures are above 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) , but on warmer slopes or rocky areas when it is colder . There , Myotis alcathoe is relatively easy to capture in August , because M. brandtii and M. mystacinus already start swarming in late July . Although there are some records of Myotis alcathoe in caves during the winter , it is also possible that animals spend the winter in tree cavities , and whether swarming behavior occurs in Myotis alcathoe is unclear . An animal found in a cave in Saxony @-@ Anhalt in January was not sleeping deeply . Reproduction may also take place in caves , but pregnant females have been found as late as June . Relatively many juveniles are caught between July and September . In England , one individual of M. alcathoe was captured in 2003 ( and identified at the time as M. brandtii ) and again in 2009 . Three individuals that were telemetrically tracked ( in eastern France , Thuringia , and Baden @-@ Württemberg , respectively ) moved only 800 m ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) , 935 m ( 3 @,@ 068 ft ) , and 1 @,@ 440 m ( 4 @,@ 720 ft ) from their night quarters ; M. brandtii and M. mystacinus tend to move over longer distances . A study in Poland suggested frequent hybridization among M. alcathoe , M. brandtii , and M. mystacinus sharing the same swarming sites , probably attributable to male @-@ biased sex ratios ( 1 @.@ 7 : 1 in M. alcathoe ) , a polygynous mating system , and the high number of bats at swarming sites . M. alcathoe showed a particularly high proportion of hybrids , perhaps because it occurs at lower densities than the other two species . = = Conservation status = = Because Myotis alcathoe remains poorly known , it is assessed as " Data Deficient " on the IUCN Red List . However , it may be endangered because of its narrow ecological preferences . Reservoir construction may threaten the species ' habitat in some places ; two Greek sites where it has been recorded have already been destroyed . Forest loss is another possible threat , and the species may be restricted to undisturbed habitats . Because of its patchy distribution and likely small population , it probably does not easily colonize new habitats . The species is protected by national and international measures , but the IUCN Red List recommends further research on various aspects of the species as well as efforts to increase public awareness of the animal . In addition , old forests need to be conserved and the species ' cave roosts need to be protected . In Catalonia , the species is listed as " Endangered " in view of its apparent rarity there . The Red List of Germany 's Endangered Vertebrates lists Myotis alcathoe as " Critically Endangered " as of 2009 . In the Genevan region , the species is also listed as " Critically Endangered " as of 2015 . In Hungary , where the species is probably not uncommon in suitable habitat , it has been protected since 2005 . However , the species is declining there and is threatened by habitat loss and disturbance of caves . = Fire Emblem = Fire Emblem ( ファイアーエムブレム , Faiā Emuburemu ) is a tactical role @-@ playing video game franchise developed by Intelligent Systems and published by Nintendo . First produced and published for the Family Computer ( Famicom ) , the series currently consists of fifteen games , including remakes , across multiple game systems . Described by its creators as an " RPG simulation " , the gameplay revolves around tactical movement of characters across grid @-@ based environments , while incorporating a story and characters similar to those in a more traditional role @-@ playing video game . A noted aspect of gameplay is the permanent death of characters in battle , removing them from the rest of the game should they be defeated . The series title refers to the titular object , the Fire Emblem , usually portrayed as a royally treasured weapon or shield , representing the power of war and dragons , a recurring element in the series . Development of the first game began as a dōjin project by Shouzou Kaga and three other developers . Its success prompted the development of further titles in the series . Kaga headed development of each entry until the release of Thracia 776 , when he left the company and founded his own game studio to develop Tear Ring Saga . No games in the series were released outside of Japan until two characters , Marth and Roy , were included as playable characters in the 2001 fighting game Super Smash Bros. Melee . Their popularity eventually convinced Nintendo to release the next game , The Blazing Sword , in western regions under the title Fire Emblem in 2003 . Many games in the series have sold well , despite a decline during the 2000s which resulted in the series ' near @-@ cancellation . Individual entries have generally been praised , and the series as a whole has been praised for its gameplay , and it is cited as the origin of the tactical role @-@ playing genre . Characters from multiple games have also been included in crossovers with other franchises . On April 27 , 2016 , Nintendo showed off plans for a new mobile game based on the series that is set for release in Fall 2016 . Nintendo also announced that Fire Emblem is now considered as a " Major IP " for the company . = = Titles = = = = = Games = = = According to a developer interview with the developers of Fire Emblem Fates , there are currently fifteen games in the Fire Emblem series , including remakes of earlier titles . The official Fire Emblem World portal lists thirteen games , excluding Fates . Counting only original titles , there have been twelve games in the series including Fates . A game was initially in development for the Nintendo 64 and its peripheral 64DD . Originally codenamed Fire Emblem 64 , it was first revealed by Shigeru Miyamoto in 1997 . Ultimately , due to poor sales for the 64DD and internal structural changes at Intelligent Systems , Fire Emblem 64 was cancelled in 2000 and development shifted to what would become Fire Emblem : The Binding Blade . It was speculated , and later confirmed by staff , that the work done for Fire Emblem 64 was incorporated into Binding Blade . A different title for the Wii was planned , but after some trial and error , in addition to an unfocused development schedule , the project was cancelled . No original Fire Emblem title is currently planned for the Wii U , and Nintendo producer Hitoshi Yamagami said such a game would need to sell 700 @,@ 000 copies to be profitable . = = = = Main series = = = = The first entry in the series , Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , was released in 1990 for the Japanese Family Computer , introducing the basic series mechanics . A second title for the Famicom set during the events of the first game , Fire Emblem Gaiden , released in 1992 . In 1994 , Mystery of the Emblem was released for the Super Famicom , containing both a remake of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light and a sequel continuing the story of the first game . Two more games were released for the Super Famicom in 1996 and 1999 respectively : Genealogy of the Holy War and Thracia 776 . The next entry released was Binding Blade in 2002 for the Game Boy Advance , originally announced as Maiden of the Dark . A prequel to Binding Blade , The Sword of Flame , was released for the Game Boy Advance the following year . This entry was released overseas under the title Fire Emblem . It was released in 2003 in North America and 2004 in Europe . The final entry for the Game Boy Advance , The Sacred Stones , was released in 2004 in Japan , and 2005 in North America and Europe . The next entry in the series , Path of Radiance , was released on the GameCube worldwide in 2005 . It was the first Fire Emblem to feature 3D graphics , voice acting , and full @-@ motion animated cutscenes . A direct sequel to Path of Radiance , Radiant Dawn was released for the Wii in 2007 in Japan and North America , and 2008 in Europe . The next entry in the series , Awakening for the Nintendo 3DS , was released in 2012 in Japan and 2013 in North America and Europe . The second entry for the 3DS , Fates , was released in June 2015 in Japan , February 2016 in North America and in May 2016 for Europe and Australia . It comes in multiple versions : two physical versions titled Birthright and Conquest , and a third route titled Revelation released as downloadable content . = = = = Remakes and spin @-@ offs = = = = An expanded remake of the first game , titled Fire Emblem : Shadow Dragon , was released for the Nintendo DS in 2008 in Japan and Europe , and 2009 in North America . Restoring content cut from the first game when it was remade in Mystery of the Emblem , the game makes use of the DS ' gameplay functions and includes additional story elements . A second remake for the DS was released in 2010 . Titled New Mystery of the Emblem , it was an expanded remake similar to Shadow Dragon , and did not receive a western release . In 1997 , an episodic prequel to Mystery of the Emblem titled BS Fire Emblem were released through Satellaview . The events of Archanea Senki were included in the remake of Mystery of the Emblem . Characters from the Fire Emblem series have been included in multiple entries in the Super Smash Bros. series , beginning with main protagonists Marth and Roy in Super Smash Bros. Melee . Characters from Awakening also appeared in Intelligent System 's strategy game Code Name : S.T.E.A.M. as optional characters . A crossover with the Shin Megami Tensei series , titled Tokyo Mirage Sessions ♯ FE , was released in December 2015 in Japan and worldwide in June 2016 . = = = Related media = = = A short original video animation series based on Mystery of the Emblem was created in 1997 . These anime episodes were released in North America , six years before The Sword of Flame was localized . Amiibo figures based on Fire Emblem characters were produced , which are compatible with Fates , Code Name : S.T.E.A.M. and Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS and Wii U. Manga based on the games have also been produced , including Binding Blade and Awakening . A trading card game based on the series is also available in Japan , featuring character artwork by old and new artists . = = Common elements = = = = = Setting = = = The Fire Emblem games takes place across multiple unrelated settings within a Medieval or Renaissance @-@ themed time period , with the story general focused on the main protagonist , usually a member of royalty , caught in the conflict of two or more countries across a continent and fighting for their cause before having to defeat the game 's final boss , who is either an evil dragon , tyrant or dark god hell @-@ bent on destroying the main character 's homeland if not the world and humanity itself . The continents of Archanea and Valentia are the settings of Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , Gaiden , Mystery of the Emblem and Awakening , with Awakening taking place several millennia after the other games . It was also the planned setting for Fire Emblem 64 . Genealogy of the Holy War and Thracia 776 are set in the land of Jugdral , while Fire Emblem and Binding Blade take place in Elibe . The Sacred Stones is set in the land of Magvel . Path of Radiance and Radiant Dawn are set on the continent of Tellius . A recurring element in the series is the titular Fire Emblem , an object with magical powers . In Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , it is a shield inset with five magical gems . Its name derives from its connection to dragons and weapons of war , being the " emblem of flame " . It also appears as a family crest in the continuity of Genealogy of the Holy War , a family seal in The Binding Blade storyline , a magical gemstone in The Sacred Stones , and and in the Path of Radiance world it takes the form of a bronze medallion holding a goddess of chaos . Other magical elements , including feuding gods and conflict with mystical species such as dragons and shape @-@ shifters are also recurring elements in the series . = = = Gameplay = = = The Fire Emblem series has been described by its developers as an " RPG simulation " , combining tactical simulation gameplay with the plot and character development of a role @-@ playing game , creating a sense of connection with characters in the field not present in previous tactical games . Battles in the Fire Emblem series play out on a grid @-@ based map , with the player controlling a set number of characters across maps tied to both the game 's story and optional side stories . Each character has a specific character class , giving them set abilities and affecting how far they can move across the field . Some character classes have innate skills unique to them , and each character has its own class and stats . Depending on the series entry , a character 's class can be changed or upgraded with or without special items . During battle , each character gains experience points by performing actions , such as attacking an enemy , healing an ally , and slaying a foe ( which typically offers the most experience points ) . When a certain level is reached , the character levels up , and new skill points are awarded randomly to a character 's attributes , be they the character 's maximum health , agility or strength . The more a character is used in battle , the more experience that character gains . A key element in combat since Genealogy of the Holy War is the Weapon Triangle , a system governing the strengths and weaknesses certain weapons and types of magic have against each other in a Scissors , Paper , Rock fashion . For weapons , lances are stronger than swords , swords are stronger than axes , and axes are stronger than lances . In magic , fire is stronger than wind , wind is stronger than thunder , and thunder is stronger than fire . For Fates , the Weapon Triangle relationships add other weapons in the following way : swords and tomes are stronger than axes and bows , axes and bows were stronger than lances and shuriken , lances and shuriken are stronger than swords and tomes , and so on . Several games use a Weapon Durability system : after being used a certain number of times , a character 's weapon will break . Different entries have various systems related to character weapons : in Genealogy of the Holy War , weapons can be repaired at special shops ; in Path of Radiance and future games , weapons can be bought and upgraded , while the durability system is replaced in Fates with a system where more powerful weapons weaken some of a wielder 's stats . Both inside and outside battle , characters ' relationships can be developed through interactions on and off the battlefield . As the strength of their relationships grow , certain abilities in battle are also strengthened . A feature introduced in Genealogy of the Holy War and used in later titles was an aspect of relationships . A man and woman who fall in love will have a child , and that child will inherit certain skills and stats from them . One of the recurring features in the series is permanent death ( more frequently referred to as " permadeath " ) , a function where units defeated in battle are permanently removed from the rest of the game with a very few exceptions ( the main character , a character pivotal to the main story ) . Up until Fire Emblem : New Mystery of the Emblem : Heroes of Light and Shadow , there was no option to disable permanent death . In New Mystery of the Emblem , a new Casual Mode was added , where characters that died were revived at the end of a battle . Fates also added Phoenix Mode , where characters slain during one turn are revived on the player 's next turn . Another inclusion from Fates includes ' My Castle ' , a customisable castle that serves as the player 's base of operations throughout the game . = = Development = = The first Fire Emblem title , Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light , was originally never intended as a commercial game , defined by creator Shouzou Kaga as a dōjin project with three other job @-@ holding students . As it turned out , the game was successful , prompting the development of more games in the series . The game was developed at Intelligent Systems , whose previous notable game was the strategy game Famicom Wars . Kaga would work on the Fire Emblem series until Thracia 776 , when he left Nintendo and began development on Tear Ring Saga for the PlayStation . After Thracia 776 , the Fire Emblem series had several releases on portable devices . At this time , Marth and Roy from Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light and Sword of Seals appeared as playable characters in Super Smash Bros. Melee , prompting western interest in the Fire Emblem series . The positive reception of the characters made Nintendo decide to localize The Sword of Flame under the title Fire Emblem . Due to its overseas success , it was decided to return the series to home consoles for Path of Radiance for the GameCube . Despite it arriving late in the GameCube 's life cycle , it provided a late boost to sales , reaffirming Nintendo 's faith in the series . By 2010 , the series was suffering from declining sales and Nintendo told Intelligent Systems that if their next Fire Emblem failed to sell above 250 @,@ 000 units , the series would be cancelled . This prompted Intelligent Systems to include lots of features new to the series , intending to make it the culmination of the series . The game 's reception and sales ended up saving the series from cancellation , convincing Nintendo to continue production . The series ' original music was composed by Yuka Tsujiyoko . As the only music composer at Intelligent Systems when Shadow Dragon and the Blade of Light was in production , she acted as both composer and sound director , up until Thracia 776 , when she left the company to freelance after completing the score for Paper Mario . She has worked on later Fire Emblem games , alongside other composers including Saki Kasuga , Hiroki Morishita , and Rei Kondoh . The series includes several other notable staff members : Tohru Narihiro , who was involved in every Fire Emblem since the original ; Masahiro Higuchi , who began as a graphics designer for Genealogy of the Holy War ; and Kouhei Maeda , who wrote the scenarios for every game since The Sword of Flame and became a director for Awakening . Multiple artists are associated with the series . The characters for the first game and the remake of Mystery of the Emblem were designed by Daisuke Idzuka . The characters of Mystery of the Emblem and Genealogy of the Holy War were designed by Katsuyoshi Koya , who later worked on designs for the Fire Emblem Trading Card Game . Katsuyoshi , who was unsatisfied with his work on the series , stepped down for Thracia 776 . The designer for Thracia 776 was Mayumi Hirota , whose brief tenure with the series ended when he left Intelligent Systems with Kaga after the game 's completion . Nevertheless , his art for the series was described by Kaga as his favorite up to that point . Other artists involved in later games are Eiji Kaneda ( Binding Blade ) , Sachiko Wada ( The Sacred Stones ) and Senri Kita ( Path of Radiance , Radiant Dawn ) . For Shadow Dragon , the character artwork was redone by Ghost in the Shell artist Masamune Shirow . Awakening 's character designers were Toshiyuki Kusakihara and Yūsuke Kozaki , who were brought on to give a new look to the series . Kozaki returned as character designer for Fates . = = Reception = = The first five Fire Emblem games were highly successful in Japan , selling 329 @,@ 087 , 324 @,@ 699 , 776 @,@ 338 , 498 @,@ 216 and 106 @,@ 108 copies respectively . As of 2002 , total sales had reached over two million copies . Sales of the series went into a decline beginning with Radiant Dawn , but Awakening topped the total sales of both Radiant Dawn and the Mystery of the Emblem remake in its first week . It went on to sell 1 @.@ 79 million copies worldwide and become the best @-@ selling Fire Emblem title in western territories . The Fire Emblem series is highly popular in Japan . In 2007 , a Japanese public poll named Mystery of the Emblem as one of the country 's All Time Top 100 video games . Speaking to USGamer , Massive Chalice creator Brad Muir commented on how Fire Emblem had influenced the game , referring to it as " [ a ] venerable strategy series " , making positive reference to its gameplay and character relationships . In her review of Awakening , IGN 's Audrey Drake said that " Far too few people have played the Fire Emblem series " , calling it " [ a ] darling of the hardcore strategy RPG crowd - and one of the shining gems of the genre " . Several journalistic sites have cited its low notoriety in the west as an effect of Nintendo 's sporadic localization efforts , along with its place in a niche game genre . At the same time , they have praised the series ' gameplay , regularly noting its high difficulty and relationship mechanics . Game Informer and Gamasutra both cited the series as an inspiration for later popular tactical role @-@ playing games , with Gamasutra naming Tactics Ogre : Let Us Cling Together , Final Fantasy Tactics and the Disgaea series as being influenced by its design . Destructoid writer Chris Carter , writing in 2014 , praised the series ' mechanics , at the same time listing the five best games in the series : among those he chose were Mystery of the Emblem , Radiant Dawn , and Awakening . Awakening is generally cited as having brought the series more publicity and player attention . = = = Tear Ring Saga lawsuit = = = After Kaga left Nintendo , he founded a studio called Tirnanog and began development on a game titled Emblem Saga , a strategy role @-@ playing game for the PlayStation . The game bore multiple similarities to the Fire Emblem series , and Nintendo filed a lawsuit against Tirnanog for copyright infringement . The first suit failed , but the court ruled in Tirnanog 's favor . Nintendo filed a second lawsuit , and this time was awarded a cash settlement of ¥ 76 million . Nevertheless , Tirnanog and publisher Enterbrain were still allowed to publish the title , though they changed its name to Tear Ring Saga , and eventually developed a sequel . Nintendo attempted taking a third lawsuit to the Japanese Supreme Court in 2005 , but the second ruling was upheld . = Battle of Winterthur ( 1799 ) = The Battle of Winterthur ( 27 May 1799 ) was an important action between elements of the Army of the Danube and elements of the Habsburg army , commanded by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze , during the War of the Second Coalition , part of the French Revolutionary Wars . The small town of Winterthur lies 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) northeast of Zürich , in Switzerland . Because of its position at the junction of seven cross @-@ roads , the army that held the town controlled access to most of Switzerland and points crossing the Rhine into southern Germany . Although the forces involved were small , the ability of the Austrians to sustain their 11 @-@ hour assault on the French line resulted in the consolidation of three Austrian forces on the plateau north of Zürich , leading to the French defeat a few days later . By mid @-@ May 1799 , the Austrians had wrested control of parts of Switzerland from the French as forces under the command of Hotze and Count Heinrich von Bellegarde pushed them out of the Grisons . After defeating Jean @-@ Baptiste Jourdan 's 25 @,@ 000 @-@ man Army of the Danube at the battles of Ostrach and Stockach , the main Austrian army , under command of Archduke Charles , crossed the Rhine at the Swiss town of Schaffhausen and prepared to unite with the armies of Hotze and Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , on the plains surrounding Zürich . The French Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube , now both under the command of André Masséna , sought to prevent this merger . Masséna sent Michel Ney and a small mixed cavalry and infantry force from Zürich to stop Hotze 's force at Winterthur . Despite a sharp contest , the Austrians succeeded in pushing the French out of the Winterthur highlands , although both sides took high casualties . Once the union of the Habsburg armies took place in early June , Archduke Charles attacked French positions at Zürich and forced the French to withdraw beyond the Limmat . = = Background = = = = = Political and diplomatic situation = = = Initially , the rulers of Europe viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . As revolutionary rhetoric grew more strident , they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family ; this Declaration of Pilnitz threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The French position became increasingly difficult . Compounding problems in international relations , French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1798 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire . Although the Coalition forces achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( 17 October 1797 ) . The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details . Convened at a small town in the mid @-@ Rhineland , Rastatt , the Congress quickly derailed in a mire of intrigue and diplomatic posturing . The French demanded more territory . The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories . Compounding the Congress 's problems , tensions grew between France and most of the First Coalition allies . Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay agreed @-@ upon tribute to France , and his subjects followed this refusal with a rebellion . The French invaded Naples and established the Parthenopaean Republic . Encouraged by the French Republic , a republican uprising in the Swiss cantons led to the overthrow of the Swiss Confederation and the establishment of the Helvetic Republic . The French Directory was convinced that the Austrians were planning to start another war . Indeed , the weaker France seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians , and the English discussed this possibility . In mid @-@ spring , the Austrians reached an agreement with Tsar Paul of Russia by which the legendary Alexander Suvorov would come out of retirement to assist Austria in Italy with another 60 @,@ 000 troops . = = = Outbreak of war in 1799 = = = The French Directory 's military strategy in 1799 called for offensive campaigns on all fronts : central Italy , northern Italy , the Swiss cantons , the upper Rhineland , and Holland . Theoretically , the French had a combined force of 250 @,@ 000 troops , but this was on paper , not in the field . As winter broke in 1799 , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and the Army of the Danube , at a paper strength of 50 @,@ 000 and an actual strength of 25 @,@ 000 , crossed the Rhine between Basel and Kehl on 1 March . This crossing officially violated the Treaty of Campo Formio . The Army of the Danube advanced through the Black Forest and , by mid @-@ March , established an offensive position at the western and northern edge of the Swiss Plateau by the village of Ostrach . André Masséna had already pushed into Switzerland with his force of 30 @,@ 000 , and successfully passed into the Grison Alps , Chur , and Finstermünz on the Inn . Theoretically , his left flank was to link with Jourdan 's right flank , commanded by Pierre Marie Barthélemy Ferino , at the far eastern shore of Lake Constance . The Austrians had arrayed their own army in a line from the Tyrol to the Danube . A force of 46 @,@ 000 under command of Count Heinrich von Bellegarde formed the defence of the Tyrol . Another small Austrian force of 26 @,@ 000 commanded by Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze guarded the Vorarlberg . The main Austrian Army — close to 80 @,@ 000 troops under the command of Archduke Charles — had wintered in the Bavarian , Austrian , and Salzburg territories on the eastern side of the Lech . At the battles of Ostrach ( 21 March ) and Stockach ( 25 March ) , the main Austrian force pushed the Army of the Danube back into the Black Forest . Charles made plans to cross the upper Rhine at the Swiss town of Schaffhausen . Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze brought a portion ( approximately 8 @,@ 000 ) of his force west , leaving the rest to defend the Vorarlberg . At the same time , Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , brought the left wing of the main Austrian force across the Rhine by Eglisau . They planned to unite with the main Austrian army , controlling the northern access points of Zürich and forcing an engagement with Masséna . By mid @-@ May , French morale was low . They had suffered terrible losses at Ostrach and Stockach , although these had been made up by reinforcements . Two senior officers of the Army of the Danube , Charles Mathieu Isidore Decaen and Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul , were facing courts @-@ martial on charges of misconduct , professed by their senior officer , Jourdan . Jean @-@ Baptiste Bernadotte and Laurent de Gouvion Saint @-@ Cyr were sick , or claimed they were , and had left the army 's encampments to recover their health . Masséna 's force had been repelled by Hotze 's army at Feldkirch , and forced to fall back , and LeCourbe 's failure to push through against Bellegarde 's Austrian force in the Tyrol , meant Masséna had to pull his southern wing back as well as his center and northern wing , to maintain communication with the retreating armies on his flanks . At this point , also , the Swiss revolted again , this time against the French , and Zürich became the last defensible position Masséna could take . = = = Locale = = = Winterthur ( / ˈvɪntərtʊər / ; German pronunciation : [ ˈvɪntərˌtuːr ] ) lies in a basin south and east of the Töss approximately 31 kilometres ( 19 mi ) northeast of Zürich . To the north and east of the town lies a ring of hills approximately 687 metres ( 0 @.@ 427 mi ) high . To the west , the Töss runs on its 59 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 37 @.@ 1 mi ) course north toward the Rhine . The locale of a Roman settlement from 200 to 400 , and the site of a medieval battle in 919 , its location at seven crossroads gave it strategic importance in the effort to control north – south and east – west communication in the early days of the War of the Second Coalition . = = = Leadership = = = After the defeats at the battles at Ostrach and Stockach , and the Army of the Danube 's retreat into the Black Forest , the French Directory had sacked Jean Baptiste Jourdan in April 1799 and given command of both the Army of Switzerland and the Army of the Danube to André Masséna . Protecting the northern access to Zürich , Masséna gathered some of the best commanders he had available ; eventually , three of them would become Marshals of France , and Tharreau , a dependable General of Division . The situation for the French was dire . Not only had they been trounced in southwestern Germany , the legendary Alexander Suvorov was on his way to northern Italy with 60 @,@ 000 Russians , to take command of Coalition forces there . Count Heinrich Bellegarde , positioned with 20 @,@ 000 men in the Grisons , effectively isolated Masséna 's force from any assistance out of Italy . Most threatening , Archduke Charles ' main army lay less than a day away ; in size alone , it could overwhelm him , or , if he withdrew to the west , its position cut off his avenue of withdrawal toward France . If Charles ' left wing , commanded by Nauendorf , united with Hotze 's force , approaching from the east , Masséna knew Charles would attack and very likely push him out of Zürich . To prevent this merger of the Austrian forces , Masséna established a forward line centred at Winterthur , and under overall command of the experienced Jean Victor Tharreau . The French forces were arrayed in an uneven semicircle , in which Winterthur formed the central part . The command of the Winterthur brigades was the most important . If the center could not hold its position , the flanks would be isolated and crushed . Masséna sent newly promoted General of Division Michel Ney to Winterthur on 27 May 1799 to take command of the center . Masséna recalled him from his assignment commanding an outpost of Claude Lecourbe 's force in central Switzerland , and gave him a command more fitting with his new rank . Ney arrived with the reputation for boldness considered typical of cavalry officers , but with minimal experience in commanding mixed forces . Anxious to prove himself but aware of protocols , he had hurried to Tharreau 's headquarters , but had to wait for his letters of service before he could take command . These arrived on 25 May . The troops at Winterthur included a brigade of four battalions commanded by Dominique Mansuy Roget , a weak brigade commanded by Théodore Maxime Gazan , and a cavalry brigade commanded by Frédéric Henri Walther . Like Ney , Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze , the Austrian commander , was also a cavalry officer . Unlike Ney , he had broad field experience . The Swiss @-@ born Hotze had entered the military service of the Duke of Württemberg in 1758 and had been promoted to Rittmeister , or captain of cavalry ; he had campaigned briefly in the Seven Years ' War , but saw no combat . Later , he served in the Russian army in the Russo @-@ Turkish War ( 1768 – 74 ) . With an Austrian commission , he joined the Habsburg imperial army , and served in the brief War of the Bavarian Succession ( 1778 – 79 ) . His campaigning in the War of the First Coalition , particularly at the Battle of Würzburg , had earned him the confidence of Archduke Charles and elevation to the ranks of nobility by Charles ' brother , Francis II , Holy Roman Emperor . = = Action = = = = = Preliminaries = = = On 22 May 1799 , Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , led a large column across the Rhine at Constance , Stein and Eglisau . Hotze 's force had already crossed the Rhine further east , where it was still a mountain stream , and passed through the Grisons , into Toggenburg , and moved toward Zürich . To prevent these two forces from joining with Archduke Charles ' 100 @,@ 000 men , on 22 May , Masséna and 23 @,@ 000 troops of the Army of the Danube marched from Zürich in the direction of Winterthur . Once past Winterthur , they made their way another 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) northeast and , on 25 May , the two armies clashed at Frauenfeld . Out @-@ numbered almost four to one , Hotze 's force was badly mauled by the French ; 750 of Hotze 's men were killed or wounded , and 1 @,@ 450 captured ; in addition , Hotze lost two guns , and one color . His second @-@ in @-@ command , Major General Christoph Karl von Piacsek , was wounded in action and died later of his wounds . Despite the superiority of the French numbers , though , Hotze extricated his force from the engagement , manoeuvred around the French position , and escaped in the direction of Winterthur . Meanwhile , by 26 May Nauendorf established camp near Andelfingen and reacquired contact with the main Austrian force . Having united with Nauendorf , Archduke Charles awaited Hotze 's force , coming from the east , before he would attack the French at Zürich . That same night , Hotze camped between Frauenfeld and Hüttwilen , about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) southeast of Nauendorf 's position , and sent his advance posts as far ahead as Islikon and Elgg , only 9 kilometres ( 6 mi ) east of Winterthur . = = = Clash = = = On the morning of 27 May , Hotze assembled his force into three columns and marched toward Winterthur . Opposite him , Michel Ney , newly in command of his division of approximately 3 @,@ 000 men , deployed his force around the heights , the so @-@ called Ober @-@ Winterthur , a ring of low @-@ lying hills some 6 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) north of the city . Given the size of the Austrian force approaching him , Ney planned to withdraw to Winterthur . Before he could implement this action , the over @-@ all commander of the forward line , Jean Victor Tharreau , had galloped to his position and said he would support Ney by sending Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult 's division ; Ney understood this to mean he was to make a stand along the entire outpost line , and that he would not be isolated . His small force would receive reinforcements from Soult 's division . Consequently , Ney directed the weakest brigade , under the command of Gazan , to move up a long valley toward Frauenfeld , and another brigade , under the command of Roget , to take the right , preventing any Austrian flanking manoeuvre . By mid @-@ morning , Hotze 's advanced guard had encountered moderate French resistance first from Roget 's brigade , and then , almost immediately , from Gazan 's . The Austrian advance troops quickly overran Gazan 's weak brigade and took possession of the woods surrounding the village of Islikon . After securing the villages of Gundeschwil , Schottikon , Wiesendangen , and Stogen , further west of Islikon , Hotze deployed two of his columns facing the French front , while a third angled to the French right , as Ney had expected he would . By mid @-@ morning , Ney had moved toward the front with Gazan 's brigade and he could see the enemy advancing toward him ; still expecting Soult 's reinforcements on his flanks , he anticipated an easy victory , like the one three days earlier in which Masséna 's force had pounded Hotze 's column at Frauenfeld . He did not realise , at least not yet , that Hotze had 8 @,@ 000 men with which to secure the crossroads north of Winterthur . Ney brought more of his men to the front , and moved against the Austrian left . In an Austrian volley , he and his horse went down ; the horse was killed and Ney received a knee injury . He had his wound bandaged , called for another horse , and reentered the fight . Ney now had two problems : he expected support columns from Soult 's division on both flanks to arrive momentarily and he did not know that the Austrians had arrived in force , directly in front of his center . Although Roget 's brigade was strong enough to prevent the Austrians from flanking the position , Gazan 's brigade was too weak to resist the superior Austrian force , which was growing visibly stronger as Hotze 's troops continued to arrive at the forward line and throw themselves into the fray . Finally accepting that Soult would not arrive , Ney could not hope to hold his position , much less push the Austrians back . He concluded that he must fall back to Winterthur . To cover the retreat , he instructed Walther and his cavalry to establish a position on the Töss , above the bridge at Stieg . From there , the cavalry could protect an orderly retreat . Amidst a muddy rivulet feeding the Töss , Ney positioned a second detachment guarding the village of Töss and the road leading to a ridge of the hills , where he placed a couple of cannons . From the ridge , his rear guard could fire its artillery on the Austrian advance . For Walther , at the bridge , the position appeared defensible for as long as it would take to remove Ney 's force through Winterthur , yet the shock of the Austrian force , as it hit his defences , was sufficient to break his line after 90 minutes of brisk fighting . But there the Austrian forward momentum stalled . Although Hotze 's men forced Walther 's from the bridge , they themselves could not cross it . From the ridge , Ney 's rear guard maintained a steady stream of cannon fire on any of the Austrians who crossed the bridge and attempted to advance up the hill . Hotze recognised the futility of throwing his men into direct cannon fire and ordered instead a steady musketry barrage . This proved effective , for Ney was again injured , this time in his left hand , and his second horse was killed ; he relinquished command to Gazan , who organised the continued withdrawal from the position . When the Archduke heard of Hotze 's success in taking Winterthur crossroads , he directed his troops to augment Nauendorf 's , and to take the village and the environs of Neftenbach , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) west @-@ northwest of Winterthur . Nicolas Oudinot , whose men had secured Neftenbach as part of the French forward line , held out for most of the day , but was forced to retreat 4 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to Pfungen in the late afternoon ; his position there was not defensible and he was pushed further back to the outskirts of Zürich . By taking Neftenbach , Charles placed a formidable group of troops between Ney 's force and Hotze 's flank and forced an uneven French withdrawal toward Zürich . Tharreau manoeuvred around the Töss , attempting to re @-@ establish his forward line , but Masséna did not want a general engagement between Zürich and Neftenbach , not there and not then . The Armies of Switzerland and the Danube were not ready to take on Charles ; Masséna 's forces were not prepared for a battle on the scale required in facing Charles ' entire army , and he needed the defences offered by Zürich to mount a proper line against the impending Austrian attack . Eventually , Tharreau withdrew the entire forward line to Zürich . The clash took 11 hours . = = Aftermath = = Hotze 's force took relatively high casualties — 1 @,@ 000 men killed , wounded or missing ( 12 @.@ 5 percent ) of his entire force of 8 @,@ 000 — although his losses were comparable to Ney 's 800 killed wounded or missing , from his 7 @,@ 000 @-@ man force ( 11 @.@ 5 percent ) . More importantly , though , Hotze succeeded not only in pushing the French back from Winterthur , but also in uniting his force with Nauendorf 's and Charles ' . The unified Austrian force completed the semicircle around Masséna 's positions at Zürich . For the French , despite their success earlier at Frauenfeld , the action was considerably less successful . In the clash , Ney was sufficiently wounded that he took immediate leave , and remained out of action and command until 22 July . The conduct of the battle also demonstrated the weakness of the French command system in which personal animosity and competition between high @-@ ranking officers , in this case , Soult and Tharreau , undermined French military objectives . Tharreau eventually charged Soult with insubordination ; Soult had outright refused to go to Ney 's assistance , despite specific , and direct , orders to move his division to Ney 's flanks . Furthermore , the French dangerously underestimated Austrian tenacity and military skill . The white coats , as the French called the Austrians , were far better soldiers than the French assumed , and despite such demonstrations as that at Ostrach , Stockach and Winterthur , the French continued to hold this prejudice . This did not change until 1809 when the Battle of Aspern @-@ Essling and the Battle of Wagram a few weeks later caused Napoleon to revise his opinion of the Austrian military . Finally , the battle at Winterthur made possible the victory at Zürich . Once the Austrian armies united west , north and east of Zürich , Charles decided he had a sufficiently superior force to attack Masséna 's positions in Zürich . His strategy , to develop a converging attack , was not entirely possible without another Austria corps , which was commanded by Suvorov , and positioned in the mountains in Italy ; this would have made possible the near encirclement of Masséna 's command at Zürich , making the French position untenable . Even so , at the First Battle of Zürich ( 4 – 7 June 1799 ) , the Austrian army forced the French to abandon Zürich ; Masséna withdrew across the Limmat , where he set up a defensive position on the low @-@ lying hills overlooking the city and awaited his opportunity to reacquire the city . = = Order of battle = = = = = Austrian = = = Lt. Field Marshal Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze 12 . Infantry Regiment Manfredini ( 3 battalions ) 21 . Infantry Regiment Gemmingen ( 2 companies ) 41 . Infantry Regiment Bender ( 3 battalions ) 1 . Light Infantry Regiment Strozzi ( 1 battalion ) 7 . Dragoon Regiment Waldeck ( 6 squadrons ) First Battalion , Hungarian @-@ Banat Border Regiment Total : ~ 8000 men = = = French = = = General of Division Michel Ney Honoré Théodore Maxime Gazan de la Peyrière 's column ( 4 battalions ) Dominique Mansuy Roget 's column ( 2 battalions ) Frédéric Henri Walther 's cavalry ( 3 squadrons ) Total : 7 @,@ 000 men = Herdwick = The Herdwick is a breed of domestic sheep native to the Lake District of Cumbria in North West England . The name " Herdwick " is derived from the Old Norse herdvyck , meaning sheep pasture . Though low in lambing capacity and perceived wool quality when compared to more common commercial breeds such as Merino sheep , Herdwicks are prized for their robust health , their ability to live solely on forage , and their tendency to be territorial and not to stray over the difficult upland terrain of the Lake District . It is considered that up to 99 % of all Herdwick sheep are commercially farmed in the central and western Lake District . The wool quality of a Herdwick has unique qualities relating to durability . Thick bristle type fibres will often protrude from garments forming a protective barrier layer in blizzards — most likely the same qualities that protect the sheep in similar conditions . They have been known to survive under a blanket of snow for three days while eating their own wool . Severely threatened by the 2001 outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in England and Wales , the breed has survived due to the intent to preserve this unique animal as a crucial part of traditional Lakeland agriculture . Still far less in number than most commercial breeds , Herdwicks survive largely due to farming subsidies and the aid of the British National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = The root word of the breed 's name , herdvyck , " sheep pasture " , is recorded in documents dating back to the 12th century . The origin of the breed itself is unknown , but the most common theory is that the ancestors of Herdwick sheep were introduced by early Norse settlers . According to this , it was brought to the region somewhere between the 10th and 11th centuries during the Viking invasions of western England . Alternatively , a piece of local folklore once suggested that it came from a wrecked Spanish Armada ship . In any case , the Herdwick was an important breed in the Lake District by the end of the 12th century . For centuries , the husbandry of Herdwick sheep has been a large factor in shaping the culture and terrain of the Lake District . Topographically , grazing by sheep continues to keep the hillsides of fells largely treeless , and the ubiquitous dry stone walls of the valleys were built to protect grazing land and to confine livestock . Linguistically , many words of Lakeland speech relate to sheep husbandry . The ancient Yan Tan Tethera counting system for sheep is a survival of Brittonic counting systems . = = = = Beatrix Potter = = = = In the latter half of her life , the children 's author Beatrix Potter was involved with keeping and breeding Herdwicks , even acting as president of the breed association for a time . Between 1930 and 1938 she won a number of prizes for Herdwick ewes at shows across Cumbria . Upon her death in 1943 , she bequeathed fifteen farms – approximately a total sum of 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 km ² ) - to the National Trust , and per her instructions all continue to graze Herdwick flocks . = = = Modern history = = = In the modern era , the main industry of the Lake District has shifted from agriculture to tourism . The subsequent influx of tourists to the District has at times conflicted with traditional life , including the raising of Herdwicks . One Lake District farmer summed the problem up as , " We get 100 @,@ 000 visitors across our land every year ... If just one in a thousand forgets to shut a gate or can 't be bothered , that 's a hundred times we have to go out and round up our sheep . " In the late 20th century , the keeping of Herdwicks became economically inviable without outside support ; open market prices for Herdwick fleeces sometimes drop as low as a penny a kilogram ( which is about the weight of wool from a single sheep ) . Without direct monetary guarantees for wool prices from the National Trust , it actually costs farmers a considerably larger amount of money to shear their Herdwicks than they would receive in compensation ; the majority of farmers once burned their fleeces as waste products . The Trust now acts as a wool merchant itself , thus being able to bargain for better prices directly with the British Wool Marketing Board and operate a Herdwick wool trademark . Most farmers survive through the sale of lambs , as well as both National Trust and European Union farm subsidies . Lake District farmers in particular receive subsidies for operating in a designated Less Favored Area from the England Rural Development Programme . Those who agree to maintain their land in accordance with sustainable farming practices also receive additional subsidies . 95 % of all 50 @,@ 000 or so Herdwicks live within 14 miles of Coniston , Cumbria , and this makes them particularly vulnerable to outbreaks of disease . The outbreak of foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease in 2001 led to the destruction of many flocks , and to fears for the survival both of the breed and of the typical Lakeland sheep farming industry . Of the estimated 100 @,@ 000 Herdwick sheep present before the outbreak , a full 25 % were lost . They were not easily replaceable because long @-@ standing herds are hefted so the introduction of new stock to the fells would have required extensive fencing . The call for vaccination rather than culling to preserve what is considered a part of the traditional identity of the fells and moors was led by parties – such as the Duke of Westminster , Earl Peel , Lord Barnard and Lord Lonsdale – who wished to save the hill sheep on their lands . Many Lake District residents saw the breed as an indispensable icon of the region . Longtime resident and writer for The Guardian A. Harry Griffin expressed this feeling : There are other mountain sheep on the Lakeland fells , notably Swaledales and Rough @-@ Fells , but the hardy Herdwick is the sheep most likely to be seen in and around the Duddon valley , the Coniston fells , the Buttermere fells and , through Borrowdale or Wasdale , up to the highest land in England , the Scafells . More than the old drystone walls that quarter the fells , the packhorse bridges or the whitewashed farmsteads , the little grey Herdwick sheep typify the Lakeland . If they and their shepherds go , that is the end of the Lakeland where I have climbed , walked , skied and skated for nearly 80 years ; of the Lakeland I have written about nearly all my life . The destruction of entire flocks meant that the shepherds were forced to undergo the process of again heafing ( the local term for hefting ) their new sheep to the hills . Normally , ewes teach this behaviour to their lambs , but with no more ewes left acquainted with a particular heaf the behavior had to be taught all over again to new ewes , inevitably involving much rounding up of flocks that had strayed over the often inaccessible fells . Unheafed sheep might also cause overgrazing by wandering if they replaced the original Herdwicks . The Cumbria Hill Sheep Initiative was set up to " reassess the position and circumstances " in the aftermath of the disease ; tough government restrictions in order to prevent another outbreak are still in place . In 2008 , an Oregon sheep farmer began importing semen from Herdwick rams in to the United States to begin a breeding program using artificial insemination and designed to bring the breed to the country for the first time . In 2013 , Lakeland Herdwick meat received a Protected Designation of Origin from the European Union . = = Characteristics = = Herdwicks are a dual @-@ purpose breed , producing strongly flavoured lamb and mutton and a coarse , grey wool . This slowly maturing breed is one of the most hardy of all the British hill sheep breeds , withstanding the cold and relentless rain of the Lake District at heights upwards of 3 @,@ 000 feet ( about 1 @,@ 000 metres ) . Most Herdwicks spend winter on the fells , from approximately December to April . They are normally left to graze freely on the hillsides ( without any additional feed ) , but each ewe tends to stay in her heaf ( the local term for heft ) , the same small area of fell . Due to the rough conditions on fells , lambing losses can be as high as 25 % . This ability to thrive unassisted is part of the reason fell farmers so highly value Herdwicks over much higher @-@ producing lowland breeds . A Herdwick 's grey fleece is not easily dyed , and is coarse , and so is best suited to use as carpet wool . The wool is also an excellent natural insulator ; it is possible to buy sheets of fireproofed wool to fit as loft insulation . Herdwick lamb and mutton has a very distinct taste , and was even eaten at Queen Elizabeth II 's 1953 coronation banquet . Herdwick ewes also commonly produce desirable market lambs and mules by cross @-@ breeding with Suffolk , Cheviot , Charollais and Texel sheep . Herdwick lambs are born black , and after a year they lighten to a dark brown colour ( the sheep are called hoggs or hoggets at this stage ) . After the first shearing , their fleece lightens further to grey . Rams are horned , and ewes polled . For shows and auctions , Herdwicks traditionally have their wool ruddied up ( the local term for raddled ) with dye . Rams are also ruddied when put out with the ewes to show which have been mated , and the dye is also one method ( called a smit ) of marking sheep for ownership . Before chemical dyes became available , this dye was made from either iron ore or graphite mixed with grease . For many years the legal method of identifying a particular shepherd 's sheep were notches cut out of a sheep 's ear , called lug marks – now replaced by ear tags . = Project 86 = Project 86 is an American Christian rock band from Orange County , California , formed in 1996 . The band has released eight albums , which have collectively sold nearly 500 @,@ 000 units worldwide , two EPs , two DVDs , and one live album . Their music is characterized by a rock / post @-@ hardcore / alternative style . Frontman Andrew Schwab 's poetic and introspective lyrics have addressed a wide variety of topics such as conformity and emptiness . The band was started by Schwab as a way to inspire people to live their lives with hope . In 1998 , BEC Recordings released a self @-@ titled debut album that was well received by critics and consumers . Their second release , Drawing Black Lines , garnered attention from mainstream record labels ; Atlantic licensed the album from Tooth & Nail Records , the parent company of BEC . The band 's third release , Truthless Heroes , was released exclusively by Atlantic , after the band was bought @-@ out of their original deal with Tooth & Nail . The band parted ways with Atlantic shortly after their third release , upon which they had a short stint as an independent . The band then negotiated a new contract with Tooth & Nail , and subsequently released three more albums , the last one being Picket Fence Cartel in summer 2009 . After fulfilling their last agreement with T & N , in December 2011 the band announced a Kickstarter campaign via their official website and Facebook page , stating that " the fans are now our record label . " Their eighth studio release , Wait for the Siren , was released on August 21 , 2012 . Their ninth album , Knives to the Future , was independently released by Team Black Recordings on November 11 , 2014 . = = History = = = = = 1996 – 1999 : Formation and self @-@ titled debut = = = According to the official Project 86 documentary " XV , " Project 86 was formed in mid 1996 by vocalist Andrew Schwab in Orange County , California . Guitarist Randy Torres , who was a sophomore in high school , was the first member recruited . The original lineup included Schwab , Torres , Ethan Luck ( Demon Hunter , Relient K ) , and bassist Matt Hernandez ( Unashamed , The Dingees ) . Drummer Alex Albert was added when Hernandez left the band after a few rehearsals , then Luck moved to bass from drums . Luck left the band to join The Dingees in Summer 1997 , after which high school senior Steven Dail joined in late 1997 . Schwab comments in a 2004 interview regarding the number 86 in the band name : " The generation before us used that phrase to describe when they would reject or remove something ... Project 86 is like the whole idea of being rejected , or separate , or not going along with the current . " The group did not travel much initially ; they decided to hone their sound and live performances before embarking on tours . In 1997 , Project 86 was voted one of the top independent acts of the year by HM magazine readers . At Tomfest the same year , their performance was a big hit and Tooth & Nail Records , became interested and subsequently signed them . Bryan Carlstrom produced their self @-@ titled debut . He had engineered albums by multi @-@ platinum outfits The Offspring and Alice in Chains as well as producing labelmates Stavesacre . Schwab drew upon personal struggles he was experiencing at the time to write meaningful lyrics . Sonny Sandoval , lead singer of nu metal group P.O.D. , appeared as a guest performer . The album was released in June 1998 and was well received . It sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies to date and gained mainstream exposure on MTV shows Road Rules and The Real World . Project 86 was observed by Allmusic to be the " most daring album at the time for its genre " . The success of their debut made Project 86 a top seller for BEC / Tooth and Nail . The band embarked on a pioneering tour called " The Warriors Come Out and Play Tour " in May 1999 with friends P.O.D. and Blindside as the middle slot , which drew crowds of 600 @-@ 1000 across the nation . = = = 2000 – 2003 : Drawing Black Lines and Truthless Heroes = = = The group worked on their sophomore record with producer Garth " GGGarth " Richardson. in Vancouver , BC . Schwab wrote lyrics about a wider variety of issues , rather than just focusing on personal expression with their sophomore release : " The new album deals a lot less with me , and more with the world around us ; Issues in people , society , culture " . The sound was heavier and more progressive , with more hints of melody as well . As soon as the album was finished it garnered interest from several major labels , and Atlantic records licensed the album for co @-@ release with Tooth and Nail / BEC in March 2000 . Drawing Black Lines peaked at No. 37 on Heatseekers , and was well received by critics . By this time , listeners in the band had begun to amass a sizable fanbase . Despite heavy reliance on tour dates and word of mouth to inform people of its release , the album experienced some commercial success when it eventually sold nearly 120 @,@ 000 copies . The band added Cory Edelmann , previously of No Innocent Victim , after the album was finished . Project 86 traveled nationwide with P.O.D. , Hed PE , and Linkin Park on the " Kings of the Game " tour in October 2000 . They also played a string of shows with Queensrÿche . In 2002 , Project 86 teamed with Slayer producer Matt Hyde to record their next album . The record was envisioned as a critique of post @-@ 9 / 11 America and the music industry . Formatted as a concept album , it told the story of a character attempting to find fulfillment in modern culture . " Songs were written and assembled with a certain ebb and flow in mind , " said Schwab , " I approached the album like writing chapters in a book . " The group spent over 14 months recording demos for Atlantic , which invested nearly $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in the project when it was all said and done . . Because of the pressure to produce radio singles , the sound of the album was quite different from its previous releases , as was Schwab 's cryptic lyrics , which represented the frustrations of being stifled creatively and feeling powerless in the process . Truthless Heroes was released in September 2002 and peaked at No. 146 on the Billboard 200 . Their first and only single , " Hollow Again " , peaked at No. 35 on Mainstream Rock Tracks . Atlantic refused to release the second single because they claimed the lyrics conflicted with the Iraq War effort . While lauded by critics for its pounding criticism of the media and entertainment industry , the album proved to be controversial , particularly the promotional website . Additionally , many Christians felt alienated by its dark material ; one young fan deemed the album " too depressing " . Fans also complained that the record was " overproduced " and lacked the raw energy present in Drawing Black Lines . In a later interview , Schwab expressed disappointment about the record , stating he had " different aspirations for [ it ] than what came out . " The group performed with Taproot on their self @-@ titled tour in fall 2002 . In addition , they played shows with Thirty Seconds to Mars , Trapt , Blindside , Trust Company , Sevendust , and Finger Eleven . During this time , Project 86 distanced themselves from the Christian market to a certain extent , due to having more general market opportunities for touring , as well as a natural shift in marketing emphasis from the label . According to Andree Farias of Christianity Today , " Their commitment with Atlantic required them to give precedence to their newfound mainstream audience . " While their first single , " Hollow Again , " gained respectable traction at rock radio , Atlantic did not release their second single , " Your Heroes are Dead " to alternative radio due to concerns about the lyrics in light of 9 / 11 . After moderate sales of nearly 75 @,@ 000 copies , the band parted ways with Atlantic in early 2003 . = = = 2003 – 2006 : Songs to Burn Your Bridges By and ... And the Rest Will Follow = = = The departure from Atlantic was a big disappointment for the band . " All of the hype about our future successes turned out to be just that – hype , " said Schwab in an interview , " We did not go platinum [ ... ] the record fell short of expectations and did not come close to the impact of our previous effort . " The band parted with their management company and did not tour for several months . Project 86 then started an independent label called " Team Black Recordings " . Work began on a new album after Hyde was convinced to produce again . Their fourth album , Songs to Burn Your Bridges By , was made available exclusively on their website in Fall 2003 . The following year , Project 86 re @-@ signed with their previous label , Tooth and Nail . Songs to Burn Your Bridges By was re @-@ released in June 2004 . The new version included 3 new tracks produced by Aaron Sprinkle and mixed by J.R. McNeely , several new mixes , and featured new artwork . The release peaked at No. 36 on Heatseekers , and was met with positive reviews by critics . According to Schwab , the album was a return to the bands heavier roots , and a means to express the frustrations the band went through during Truthless Heroes . The group performed at Purple Door , a Christian music festival , later that year . When Project 86 played their set , moshers threw mud everywhere and covered the stage and musical equipment . Thousands of dollars worth of musical equipment was damaged . In Spring 2005 , Project 86 reunited with Drawing Black Lines producer Garth Richardson to record their fifth album , ... And the Rest Will Follow . After spending several days recording demos , the band flew to Vancouver , British Columbia , to record at The Farm Studios Compound . The band filmed the entire production and later released a DVD documentary entitled Subject to Change : The Making of ... And the Rest Will Follow . The album marked a spiritual change for the group who felt humbled by their past experiences . " The record is about growing up and becoming a man ( or woman ) and taking responsibility for your past mistakes , " stated Schwab , " [ We are ] refocusing our goals back to what they were when we started , reaching kids and inspiring them to live lives with hope and purpose . " To promote the album , Project 86 released a new song on PureVolume every Monday until the release date . ... And the Rest Will Follow was released in September 2005 and debuted at No. 131 on the Billboard 200 . Critics were positive about the release . The band began a fall release tour and traveled with Spoken , Number One Gun , The Fold , and Mourning September . In January 2006 , a live performance of the single " My Will Be A Dead Man " was broadcast on Attack of the Show ! . A collaboration with synthpop group The Echoing Green resulted in a remix of the song " Something We Can 't Be " . The song appeared on MySpace alongside a remix of " From December " later that year . = = = 2007 – 2008 : Rival Factions , The Kane Mutiny EP , and This Time of Year EP = = = In March 2007 , Project 86 announced that Alex Albert had parted with the band on friendly terms to pursue other interests . Instead of searching for a full @-@ time replacement , the band recruited Jason Gerken , formerly of Shiner , to play drums on tour . Production of their sixth album , entitled Rival Factions , followed suit with Deftones producer Ulrich Wild . The album proved to be a large departure from their edgier material by sporting a distinct 1980s sound influenced by goth rock . The majority of writing took place while the band took a break ; Dail got married in the Netherlands , while Schwab and Torres worked in Southern California and Seattle respectively . The men collaborated by emailing MP3s they recorded . In the end , 40 songs were amassed for the new record , but only ten were used . According to Schwab , the album 's title was chosen to represent " the tension that exists in everybody [ ... ] the flesh and the spirit . " It was also representative of their new musical direction , an attempt to polarize themselves from other heavy rock acts . Similarly to their last record , a documentary was filmed that detailed the recording process , entitled I Want Something You Have : Rival Factions The DVD . Rival Factions was released in June 2007 and peaked at No. 124 on the Billboard 200 , the band 's highest debut to date . The record sold 6 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and was well received by critics , who made favorable comparisons to Duran Duran , Billy Idol , and the Killers . The band proceeded to tour with labelmates MXPX , Showbread , and Sullivan on the summer Tooth & Nail Tour . A performance also took place at the annual Christmas Rock Night event in Ennepetal , Germany that December . Several tracks were recorded and mixed that were not included on Rival Factions . These songs were compiled with their previous remixes to form an EP . A cover of " Lucretia , My Reflection " by the Sisters of Mercy was also included . The Kane Mutiny EP was released exclusively on iTunes in November 2007 . Shortly after its release , the band uploaded a cover of " This Time of the Year " by Brenda Lee on iTunes . " Our version was a little bit more like A Nightmare Before Christmas [ sic ] , " declared Schwab . The single was well received and led Project 86 to build an entire album around the Christmas concept . This Time of Year EP was released in November 2008 . Unlike the previous EP , This Time of Year was made available in digital and physical formats . Jason Martin of indie rock outfit Starflyer 59 helped produce both albums . = = = 2009 – 2012 : Picket Fence Cartel and XV Live = = = In early 2009 , the band returned to the studio with Martin and Ulrich Wild to record their seventh album , Picket Fence Cartel . Time was spent leisurely crafting the album ; previous endeavors had been limited by deadlines . " This time around , we said , ' Look , let 's not just put out another record , ' " said Schwab , " ' Let 's make sure we get the record to a place that we 're happy with it . ' " The band focused on a heavy metal sound . However , they did not entirely jettison their 1980s influences as synthesizers percolated several songs . Schwab 's lyrics focused on his belief that power and corruption often " run hand @-@ in @-@ hand when it comes to human souls . " " The world is teaching us that fame is to be sought after ; that recognition will equal success , fortune and , ultimately , peace , " he said , " But the search for and attainment of fame and wealth usually destroy us in the end . " The record was released in July 2009 and peaked at No. 137 on the Billboard 200 . Critics praised the title for its barrage of heavy rock and spiritually minded lyrics . Later that summer , Project 86 traveled nationwide on the Scream the Prayer Tour with metalcore outfits The Chariot , Haste the Day , and Gwen Stacy . Coming mid @-@ October , Project 86 started the Picket Fence Cartel Tour with Children 18 : 3 , Showbread , The Wedding , and Yearling , and added a second part in spring 2010 with Flatfoot 56 and Wavorly . The band released their first live album , entitled XV Live , in December 2010 to commemorate their 15th anniversary . The album 's songs spanned every studio album with the exception of the first . In February 2011 , Project 8	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
embrance retained its name as it had been the LBSCR 's designated memorial to employees lost in the First World War . However the original LBSCR nameplates were straight for water tank mounting , necessitating new rounded plates to fit over the central wheel splashers ( see colour plate in infobox above ) . = = Operational details = = The rebuilding caused a certain amount of controversy among footplate crews , with some maintaining that one could not make so many changes and have a reliable locomotive at the end of the process . The class suffered on the South Western section from the expectation that they were an improved version of the N15 " King Arthur " class . Once this misconception was overcome , the class came into their own on the Basingstoke services , where their ability to accelerate well was put to good use . However , the rebuilds gained a reputation for rough – riding and relatively poor efficiency when compared to the N15s , and were dissimilar in performance to the original L class locomotives , making them unpopular with crews . Because of this , the class was used on secondary duties , cross – country and inter – regional trains around Basingstoke rather than the heavy London to Exeter expresses for which they were intended . Several of the class were loaned to the Great Western Railway between 1942 and 1944 to assist in bolstering freight power , of which there was an acute shortage on that railway during the Second World War . The class saw use after nationalisation in 1948 , though with increasing numbers of Bulleid Pacifics able to take over their duties , the Remembrance class began to be withdrawn from service during the mid @-@ 1950s , starting with Hackworth in 1955 , and finally Beattie in 1957 . The early withdrawal of the class ensured that none were preserved . No. 2332 Stroudley featured in the opening shots of the 1945 film Waterloo Road . = = Accidents and incidents = = On 23 December 1955 , locomotive No. 32327 Trevithick was hauling a passenger train that ran into the rear of another at Woking , Surrey . The locomotive was deemed beyond economic repair and was scrapped at Eastleigh Works , Hampshire . = = Livery and numbering = = = = = Southern = = = Under Southern ownership , the " Remembrances " were originally painted in Maunsell 's Olive Green livery as seen above , with " Southern " and the locomotive 's number on the tender tank . Wartime service under the Southern saw the locomotives painted in black livery with " Sunshine Yellow " lettering . Numbers allocated to the locomotives were 2327 to 2333 . After the war , the locomotives were turned out in Bulleid 's Southern Railway Malachite Green livery with " Sunshine Yellow " lettering . = = = British Railways = = = After nationalisation in 1948 , the locomotives ' initial livery was a slightly modified Southern Malachite Green livery , where " British Railways " replaced " Southern " in " Sunshine Yellow " lettering on the tender sides . From 1949 , the class was turned out in British Railways mixed @-@ traffic black livery with red and cream lining . The British Railways crest was placed on the tender water tank sides . Numbering was in the 32xxx series , as numbers 32327 to 32333 . = Gabriel Slaughter = Gabriel Slaughter ( December 12 , 1767 – September 19 , 1830 ) was the seventh Governor of Kentucky and was the first person to ascend to that office upon the death of the sitting governor . His family moved to Kentucky from Virginia when he was very young . He became a member of the Kentucky militia , serving throughout his political career . He received a citation from the state legislature in recognition of his service at the Battle of New Orleans . After spending a decade in the state legislature , Slaughter was elected the fourth Lieutenant Governor , serving under Charles Scott . With the War of 1812 looming at the end of his tenure , Slaughter ran for governor against Isaac Shelby , the state 's first governor and a noted military leader . Shelby beat Slaughter soundly . Four years later , Slaughter was again elected as lieutenant governor , serving under George Madison . Madison died a short time into his term , whereupon Slaughter became acting governor . He sought to be sworn in as governor , but public sentiment turned against him when he replaced Shelby 's son @-@ in @-@ law with John Pope as Secretary of State . Pope was an unpopular figure in Kentucky and , after his appointment , some in the General Assembly began to call for a special election to replace Slaughter . The measure did not pass , but Slaughter was never able to shed the title of " acting governor . " Following his term as governor , Slaughter became a Baptist lay minister and served on the first board of trustees of Georgetown College . He died September 19 , 1830 and was buried in his family 's cemetery . = = Early life = = Gabriel Slaughter was born in Culpeper County , Virginia on December 12 , 1767 , the son of Robert and Susannah ( Harrison ) Slaughter . He was educated in the county 's public schools and worked as a farmer . In 1786 , Slaughter married a cousin , Sarah Slaughter , and the couple had two daughters – Mary Buckner Slaughter and Susan Harrison Slaughter . Slaughter 's father visited Kentucky as early as 1776 , and moved to Mercer County permanently in 1789 . In September 1791 , Gabriel Slaughter sold his land in Virginia , and he and his family followed his father to Kentucky . He became known for his generosity , and his large mansion on the turnpike to Lexington was nicknamed " Wayfarer 's Rest " because of the vast number of travelers that he allowed to stay there . Among his guests was future lieutenant governor Robert B. McAfee . Soon after his arrival in Kentucky , however , his wife Sarah died , leaving Slaughter to care for his two daughters alone . In 1795 , Slaughter was appointed justice of the peace in Mercer County by Governor Isaac Shelby . The same year , he was also named a tax commissioner for a district of Mercer County . On a return trip to Virginia in 1797 , Slaughter married his second wife , Sara Hord . The couple returned to Slaughter 's home in Mercer County , where they had three children : John Hord Slaughter , Frances Ann Hord Slaughter , and Felix Grundy Slaughter . = = Service in the Kentucky General Assembly = = Slaughter 's political career began in earnest with his 1797 election to the Kentucky House of Representatives representing Mercer County . He was named to the Committee on Enrollments , and probably served as chair , since he delivered the committee 's reports to the Assembly . It is unclear whether he did not seek re @-@ election in 1798 , or whether he was defeated in that year 's canvass . Whatever the case , he filled the space of his legislative hiatus by serving as trustee of the newly incorporated Harrodsburg Academy . He was re @-@ elected to the state House in 1799 . In addition to the Committee on Enrollments , he served on the Committee on Privileges and Elections and a joint committee that reported on the state of the Auditor 's , Treasurer 's , and Registrar 's offices . Records show that he also served as chairman when the House sat as a committee of the whole on November 25 , 1799 . Slaughter was re @-@ elected to the state House in 1800 , and from 1801 to 1808 he served in the Kentucky Senate . In 1801 , he was chosen as one of three commissioners from Mercer County charged with selling stock shares in the Kentucky River Company , which was chartered to clear obstructions in the Kentucky River from its mouth to the mouth of its south fork . In 1804 , he was a candidate for President Pro Tempore of the Kentucky Senate following the death of the Senate 's presiding officer , Lieutenant Governor John Caldwell . Ultimately , however , Thomas Posey proved the more popular choice . From 1807 to 1808 , he served as chair of the Senate Committee of Propositions and Grievances . Slaughter was elected lieutenant governor in 1808 . In a four @-@ man race , he received more than three times the number of votes as his nearest opponent . His four @-@ year term under Governor Charles Scott was largely undistinguished . Although the exact date is unknown , it is likely that the death of Slaughter 's second wife preceded his election as lieutenant governor . On October 3 , 1811 , he married his third wife , Elizabeth ( Thompson ) Rodes , a widow from Scott County . Prohibited by the Kentucky Constitution from succeeding himself as lieutenant governor , Slaughter ran for governor of Kentucky in 1812 . The impending war with England , however , drew military hero and former governor Isaac Shelby into the race . Despite Shelby 's immense popularity , Slaughter refused to withdraw from the race and was soundly beaten by more than a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . Following his defeat , Slaughter took a two @-@ year hiatus from public life , and engaged in farming at his estate in Mercer County . = = Service in the state militia = = Slaughter had been commissioned as a lieutenant colonel in the Fifth Regiment of the Kentucky militia on December 24 , 1803 . He was promoted to the rank of major in 1802 and colonel in 1803 . In 1814 , he answered Governor Shelby 's call for volunteers to serve in the army of the Southwest under General Andrew Jackson . When the Quartermaster general did not deliver promised supplies to Slaughter 's regiment , private funds had to be used to purchase boats for their travel down the Mississippi River . They also ran short of weapons . Upon their arrival at New Orleans on January 4 , 1815 , General Jackson noted in his official report that " Not one man in ten was well armed , and only one man in three had any arms at all . " The citizens of New Orleans provided enough firearms to equip the rest of Slaughter 's men and another Kentucky battalion . Despite being vastly outnumbered , Jackson 's forces were victorious . Units from Kentucky and Tennessee , including Slaughter 's regiment , bore the brunt of the British attack . Slaughter was later recognized by the state legislature for his service . Following their service together , Jackson asked Slaughter to preside over a court martial . When the verdict was not satisfactory to Jackson , he ordered Slaughter to reconsider and reverse the decision . Slaughter declined , replying " I know my duty , and have performed it . " This decision was respected by Jackson , and apparently did no harm to the mutual respect between him and Slaughter . = = Ascension to the governorship = = In 1816 , Slaughter was again elected to the post of lieutenant governor over Richard Hickman and James Garrard . George Madison was elected governor without opposition . Madison died October 14 , 1816 , and Slaughter ascended to the governorship . This was the first time a sitting governor had died in office in Kentucky , and some questioned the legality of Slaughter 's status in the position . Following Governor Madison 's death , Secretary of State Charles Stewart Todd offered to step down if Slaughter preferred to appoint someone else to the post . The letter was not an explicit resignation , as Todd emphatically declared his intention to work with Slaughter should the governor choose to retain him . Slaughter did replace Todd with former Senator John Pope , however , apparently as a political favor . This move proved disastrous for Slaughter 's political career . Todd was very popular by virtue of being the son @-@ in @-@ law of twice @-@ governor Shelby . By contrast , Pope was extremely unpopular for his vote in the U.S. Senate against declaring war in the War of 1812 . The move was panned in the state 's newspapers , and by prominent citizens such as future governor James Turner Morehead . Yet Slaughter followed up with another unpopular decision , appointing Martin D. Hardin , a member of the hated Federalist Party , to fill the Senate seat of William T. Barry . Despite this , the General Assembly made the appointment permanent when it convened in December 1816 . However , the administration candidate for a full senatorial term , John Adair was defeated in the General Assembly , which opted for John J. Crittenden . On January 27 , 1817 , a faction in the Kentucky House of Representatives led by Joseph Cabell Breckinridge proposed a bill calling for the election of " a governor to fill the vacancy occasioned by the death of " Governor Madison . The measure failed , but the legislative elections of 1817 showed a popular mandate for a special gubernatorial election . The Kentucky House passed a bill calling for such elections by a vote of 56 – 30 , but the measure died in the state senate . Nevertheless , Slaughter was never officially given the title of governor and was referred to as " lieutenant governor " or " acting governor " throughout his administration . The General Assembly censured both Slaughter and Pope for failing to require the proper security and oath of office for the state treasurer . Slaughter 's unpopularity led to the demise of many of his proposals , regardless of their merits . He suggested a comprehensive system of public schools and , though the idea had been proposed by previous governors , Slaughter devised a means of funding it . The hostile legislature refused the plan and overrode Slaughter 's vetoes of bills that allowed individual schools to be supported by lotteries . Slaughter further proposed a reform of the penal system and recommended internal improvements , including the creation of a state library . These measures were also rejected . Slaughter 's governorship was further complicated by the financial panic of 1819 , and he spent the majority of his term working to stabilize that state 's economy . Politicians of the day generally divided into those who favored measures favorable to debtors – called the " relief " position or party – and those who insisted that creditors be paid in a timely manner – called the " anti @-@ relief " position or party . On December 16 , 1819 , the General Assembly passed a law requiring a six @-@ month moratorium on the collection of debts . Slaughter , an anti @-@ relief partisan , vetoed the bill , but relief party legislators held a large majority in the General Assembly thanks to the previous fall 's elections , and overrode the veto . The following February , the General Assembly passed an even more liberal stay law , preventing the collection of debts for one year if the creditor would accept payments in the devalued notes of the Bank of Kentucky and two years if they demanded payment in specie or specie @-@ backed notes . These actions were a precursor to the Old Court @-@ New Court controversy . While Slaughter clashed with the General Assembly over potential solutions to the crisis at the state level , he adopted a strong states ' rights policy at the national level . He challenged the constitutionality of the Bank of the United States and the Supreme Court 's ruling that individual states could not tax branches of the Bank . = = Religious leadership and later life = = Following his term as governor , Slaughter failed in a bid to return to the state senate in 1821 , but was re @-@ elected to the state House of Representatives in 1823 , serving a single term . During this term , he continued to support measures to improve education . He voted to ask Congress for aid for the Deaf and Dumb School in the state , and opposed redirecting fines and forfeitures earmarked for the state 's " Seminaries of Learning " into the state treasury . He was also named to a joint committee to investigate the use of state appropriations to Transylvania University . Concurrent with his political career , Slaughter took a leading role in the affairs of his church . He was born into the tradition of the Church of England , but soon became associated with the Baptist congregation at Shawnee Run . He served as a messenger from this congregation to the various associations with which it was connected for over thirty years . One such association was the South District Association ; Slaughter served as clerk at that body 's annual meeting in 1808 and 1809 , and later served as its moderator for nine years . In 1813 , he helped found the Kentucky Bible Society . Following his term in the state House , Slaughter retired from politics and became an active lay minister of the Baptist faith . In 1829 , he was appointed to the first board of trustees of Georgetown College , a Baptist college in Georgetown , Kentucky . He died on September 19 , 1830 , and was interred in his family 's cemetery in Mercer County . = Northrop YF @-@ 23 = The Northrop / McDonnell Douglas YF @-@ 23 was an American single @-@ seat , twin @-@ engine stealth fighter aircraft technology demonstrator designed for the United States Air Force ( USAF ) . The design was a finalist in the USAF 's Advanced Tactical Fighter ( ATF ) competition , battling the Lockheed YF @-@ 22 for a production contract . Two YF @-@ 23 prototypes were built with the nicknames " Black Widow II " and " Gray Ghost " . In the 1980s , the USAF began looking for a replacement for its fighter aircraft , especially to counter the USSR 's advanced Sukhoi Su @-@ 27 and Mikoyan MiG @-@ 29 . Several companies submitted design proposals ; the USAF selected proposals from Northrop and Lockheed . Northrop teamed with McDonnell Douglas to develop the YF @-@ 23 , while Lockheed , Boeing and General Dynamics developed the YF @-@ 22 . The YF @-@ 23 was stealthier and faster , but less agile than its competitor . After a four @-@ year development and evaluation process , the YF @-@ 22 was announced the winner in 1991 and entered production as the Lockheed Martin F @-@ 22 Raptor . The U.S. Navy considered using the production version of the ATF as the basis for a replacement to the F @-@ 14 , but these plans were later canceled . The two YF @-@ 23 prototypes were museum exhibits as of 2010 . = = Development = = American reconnaissance satellites first spotted the advanced Soviet Su @-@ 27 and MiG @-@ 29 fighter prototypes in 1978 , which caused concern in the U.S. Both Soviet models were expected to reduce the maneuverability advantage of contemporary US fighter aircraft . In 1981 , the USAF requested information from several aerospace companies on possible features for an Advanced Tactical Fighter ( ATF ) to replace the F @-@ 15 Eagle . After discussions with aerospace companies , the USAF made air @-@ to @-@ air combat the primary role for the ATF . The ATF was to take advantage of emerging technologies , including composite materials , lightweight alloys , advanced flight @-@ control systems , more powerful propulsion systems , and stealth technology . In October 1985 , the USAF issued a request for proposal ( RFP ) to several aircraft manufacturers . The RFP was modified in May 1986 to include evaluation of prototype air vehicles from the two finalists . At the same time , the U.S. Navy , under the Navalized Advanced Tactical Fighter ( NATF ) program , announced that it would use a derivative of the ATF winner to replace its F @-@ 14 Tomcat . The NATF program called for procurement of 546 aircraft along with the USAF 's planned procurement of 750 aircraft . In July 1986 , proposals were submitted by Lockheed , Boeing , General Dynamics , McDonnell Douglas , Northrop , Grumman and Rockwell . The latter two dropped out of competition shortly thereafter . Following proposal submissions , Lockheed , Boeing , and General Dynamics formed a team to develop whichever of their proposed designs was selected , if any . Northrop and McDonnell Douglas formed a team with a similar agreement . The Lockheed and Northrop proposals were selected as finalists on 31 October 1986 . Both teams were given 50 months to build and flight @-@ test their prototypes , and they were successful , producing the Lockheed YF @-@ 22 and the Northrop YF @-@ 23 . The YF @-@ 23 was designed to meet USAF requirements for survivability , supercruise , stealth , and ease of maintenance . Supercruise requirements called for prolonged supersonic flight without the use of afterburners . Northrop drew on its experience with the B @-@ 2 Spirit and F / A @-@ 18 Hornet to reduce the model 's susceptibility to radar and infrared detection . The USAF initially required the aircraft to land and stop within 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 610 m ) , which meant the use of thrust reversers on their engines . In 1987 , the USAF changed the runway length requirement to 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 914 m ) , so thrust reversers were no longer needed . This allowed the aircraft to have smaller engine nacelle housings . The nacelles were not downsized on the prototypes . The first YF @-@ 23 ( serial number 87 @-@ 0800 ) , Prototype Air Vehicle 1 ( PAV @-@ 1 ) , was rolled out on 22 June 1990 ; PAV @-@ 1 took its 50 @-@ minute maiden flight on 27 August with Alfred " Paul " Metz at the controls . The second YF @-@ 23 ( serial number 87 @-@ 0801 , PAV @-@ 2 ) made its first flight on 26 October , piloted by Jim Sandberg . The first YF @-@ 23 was painted charcoal gray and was nicknamed " Spider " and " Black Widow II " , the latter after the Northrop P @-@ 61 Black Widow of World War II . It briefly had a red hourglass marking resembling the marking on the underside of the black widow spider before Northrop management had it removed . The second prototype was painted in two shades of gray and nicknamed " Gray Ghost " . = = Design = = The YF @-@ 23 was an unconventional @-@ looking aircraft , with diamond @-@ shaped wings , a profile with substantial area @-@ ruling to reduce aerodynamic drag at transonic speeds , and an all @-@ moving V @-@ tail . The cockpit was placed high , near the nose of the aircraft for good visibility for the pilot . The aircraft featured a tricycle landing gear configuration with a nose landing gear leg and two main landing gear legs . The weapons bay was placed on the underside of the fuselage between the nose and main landing gear . The cockpit has a center stick and side throttle . It was powered by two turbofan engines with each in a separate engine nacelle with S @-@ ducts , to shield engine axial compressors from radar waves , on either side of the aircraft 's spine . Of the two aircraft built , the first YF @-@ 23 ( PAV @-@ 1 ) was fitted with Pratt & Whitney YF119 engines , while the second ( PAV @-@ 2 ) was powered by General Electric YF120 engines . The aircraft featured fixed engine nozzles , instead of thrust vectoring nozzles as on the YF @-@ 22 . As on the B @-@ 2 , the exhaust from the YF @-@ 23 's engines flowed through troughs lined with heat @-@ ablating tiles to dissipate heat and shield the engines from infrared homing ( IR ) missile detection from below . The flight control surfaces were controlled by a central management computer system . Raising the wing flaps and ailerons on one side and lowering them on the other provided roll . The V @-@ tail fins were angled 50 degrees from the vertical . Pitch was mainly provided by rotating these V @-@ tail fins in opposite directions so their front edges moved together or apart . Yaw was primarily supplied by rotating the tail fins in the same direction . Test pilot Paul Metz stated that the YF @-@ 23 had superior high angle of attack ( AoA ) performance compared to legacy aircraft . Deflecting the wing flaps down and ailerons up on both sides simultaneously provided for aerodynamic braking . To keep costs low despite the novel design , a number of " commercial off @-@ the @-@ shelf " components were used , including an F @-@ 15 nose wheel , F / A @-@ 18 main landing gear parts , and the forward cockpit components of the F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle . = = Operational history = = = = = Evaluation = = = The first YF @-@ 23 , with Pratt & Whitney engines , supercruised at Mach 1 @.@ 43 on 18 September 1990 , while the second , with General Electric engines , reached Mach 1 @.@ 6 on 29 November 1990 . By comparison , the YF @-@ 22 achieved Mach 1 @.@ 58 in supercruise . The YF @-@ 23 was tested to a top speed of Mach 1 @.@ 8 with afterburners and achieved a maximum angle @-@ of @-@ attack of 25 ° . The maximum speed is classified , though sources state a maximum speed greater than Mach 2 at altitude and a supercruise speed greater than Mach 1 @.@ 6 . The aircraft 's weapons bay was configured for weapons launch , and used for testing weapons bay acoustics , but no missiles were fired ; Lockheed fired AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder and AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM missiles successfully from its YF @-@ 22 demonstration aircraft . PAV @-@ 1 performed a fast @-@ paced combat demonstration with six flights over a 10 @-@ hour period on 30 November 1990 . Flight testing continued into December . The two YF @-@ 23s flew 50 times for a total of 65 @.@ 2 hours . The tests demonstrated Northrop 's predicted performance values for the YF @-@ 23 . The YF @-@ 23 was stealthier and faster , but the YF @-@ 22 was more agile . The two contractor teams submitted evaluation results with their proposals in December 1990 , and on 23 April 1991 , Secretary of the Air Force Donald Rice announced that the YF @-@ 22 was the winner . The Air Force selected the YF119 engine to power the F @-@ 22 production version . The Lockheed and Pratt & Whitney designs were rated higher on technical aspects , were considered lower risks , and were considered to have more effective program management . It has been speculated in the aviation press that the YF @-@ 22 was also seen as more adaptable to the Navy 's NATF , but by 1992 the U.S. Navy had abandoned NATF . Following the competition , both YF @-@ 23s were transferred to NASA 's Dryden Flight Research Center at Edwards AFB , California , without their engines . NASA planned to use one of the aircraft to study techniques for the calibration of predicted loads to measured flight results , but this did not take place . = = = Possible revival = = = In 2004 , Northrop Grumman proposed a YF @-@ 23 @-@ based bomber to meet a USAF need for an interim bomber , for which the FB @-@ 22 and B @-@ 1R were also competing . Northrop modified aircraft PAV @-@ 2 to serve as a display model for its proposed interim bomber . The possibility of a YF @-@ 23 @-@ based interim bomber ended with the 2006 Quadrennial Defense Review , which favored a long @-@ range bomber with much greater range . The USAF has since begun the Next @-@ Generation Bomber program . = = Aircraft on display = = Both YF @-@ 23 airframes remained in storage until mid @-@ 1996 , when the aircraft were transferred to museums . YF @-@ 23A PAV @-@ 1 , Air Force serial number 87 @-@ 0800 , registration number N231YF , was on display as of 2015 in the Research and Development hangar of the National Museum of the United States Air Force near Dayton , Ohio . YF @-@ 23A PAV @-@ 2 , AF ser. no . 87 @-@ 0801 , registration number N232YF , was on exhibit at the Western Museum of Flight until 2004 , when it was reclaimed by Northrop Grumman and used as a display model for a YF @-@ 23 @-@ based bomber . PAV @-@ 2 was returned to the Western Museum of Flight and was on display as of 2010 at the museum 's new location at Torrance Airport , Torrance , California . = = Specifications ( YF @-@ 23 ) = = Data from Pace , Sweetman , Winchester , Aronstein , General characteristics Crew : 1 ( pilot ) Length : 67 ft 5 in ( 20 @.@ 60 m ) Wingspan : 43 ft 7 in ( 13 @.@ 30 m ) Height : 13 ft 11 in ( 4 @.@ 30 m ) Wing area : 900 ft2 ( 88 m2 ) Empty weight : 29 @,@ 000 lb ( 13 @,@ 100 kg ) Loaded weight : 51 @,@ 320 lb ( 23 @,@ 327 kg ) Max. takeoff weight : 62 @,@ 000 lb ( 29 @,@ 000 kg ) Powerplant : 2 × Pratt & Whitney YF119 or General Electric YF120 afterburning turbofan , 35 @,@ 000 lbf ( 156 kN ) each Performance Maximum speed : At altitude : Mach 2 @.@ 2 + ( 1 @,@ 450 + mph , 2 @,@ 335 + km / h ) Supercruise : Mach 1 @.@ 6 + ( 1 @,@ 060 + mph , 1 @,@ 706 + km / h ) Range : over 2 @,@ 790 mi ( over 4 @,@ 500 km ) Combat radius : 750 – 800 nmi ( 865 – 920 mi , 1 @,@ 380 – 1480 km ) Service ceiling : 65 @,@ 000 ft ( 19 @,@ 800 m ) Wing loading : 54 lb / ft2 ( 265 kg / m2 ) Thrust / weight : 1 @.@ 36 Armament None as tested but provisions made for : 1 × 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) M61 Vulcan cannon 4 × AIM @-@ 120 AMRAAM or AIM @-@ 7 Sparrow medium @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles 2 × AIM @-@ 9 Sidewinder short @-@ range air @-@ to @-@ air missiles = Techno Cumbia = " Techno Cumbia " is a song recorded by American recording artist Selena for her fourth studio album , Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) . It was posthumously released as the b @-@ side track to " Dreaming of You " through EMI Latin on August 14 , 1995 . " Techno Cumbia " was written by Pete Astudillo and co @-@ written and produced by Selena 's brother @-@ producer A.B. Quintanilla . The song is a techno @-@ pop cumbia recording with influences of dancehall , rap , Latin dance , and club music . Lyrically , Selena calls on people to dance her new style the " techno cumbia " and calls out those who can 't dance . " Techno Cumbia " garnered acclaim from music critics , who believed it to be one of the better recordings found on Amor Prohibido . Musicologists believed " Techno Cumbia " predated the Latin urban music market and found that Selena spearheaded a new style of music . The song posthumously peaked at number four on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Regional Mexican Airplay charts . The recording received the Tejano Music Award for Tejano Crossover Song of the Year in 1995 and received nominations for Single of the Year at the Broadcast Music Inc . ' s pop awards and Music Video of the Year at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards . = = Background and release = = " Techno Cumbia " was written by Selena y Los Dinos backup dancer and vocalist Pete Astudillo . The song was co @-@ written by Selena 's brother @-@ producer A.B. Quintanilla who arranged the piece and served as producer . In 2002 , A.B. spoke on how Amor Prohibido ( 1994 ) was experimental music @-@ heavy and commented on how " Techno Cumbia " was an example of his ideas of keeping the band 's image modern . During the recording sessions , Selena added rap verses to the song ; A.B. believed it to be first of its kind for the genre . Selena was shot and killed by Yolanda Saldívar , her friend and former manager of the singer 's Selena Etc. clothing boutiques , on March 31 , 1995 . The song was included on the track listing of the posthumously released album Dreaming of You ( 1995 ) . A.B. flew to Manhattan to meet up with R & B group Full Force who remixed " Techno Cumbia " along with updating their remix version of Selena 's 1992 song " Missing My Baby " . San Antonio Express @-@ News writer and Billboard Latin music correspondent , Ramiro Burr believed the addition of " Techno Cumbia " were " remastered , injecting extra percussions to spice them up . " The album 's remix version and radio edit of " Techno Cumbia " was released as the b @-@ side track to the lead single " Dreaming of You " . = = Composition = = " Techno Cumbia " is a Spanish @-@ language uptempo techno @-@ pop cumbia song . It draws influences from Latin dance , dancehall , rap , and club music . Musicologists Ilan Stavans and Harold Augenbraum called it a hip @-@ hop fusion song . Billboard magazine Latin music correspondent , John Lannert wrote the liner notes of Dreaming of You and called " Techno Cumbia " a " dancehall thumper " . Musicologist James Perone found the recording to be the " richest track " off of Amor Prohibido because of its " rhythmic and textural contrast " . Perone compared it to the ' 90s American dance music scene and commented on how the " techno aspect of the piece is muted ; however , Selena 's voice is electronically processed for part of the recording . " " Techno Cumbia " incorporates " rhythmic shifts from accentuation on off @-@ beats to accentuation on the beat " . The " hey , ho " is a reference to American soul singer Ray Charles ' call and response 1950s single " What 'd I Say " , used under a " Latin @-@ style drumbeat " . Texas Monthly editor , Joe Nick Patoski believed " Techno Cumbia " contained the " most popular rhythm [ at the time ] coursing through the Latin music world " . Patoski further wrote that the track " honored " it by " updating it with vocal samples , second line drumming from New Orleans , and horn charts inspired by soca from the Caribbean . " This was echoed by word for word from author Deborah Paredez on her book on Selena 's fandom . Patoski further wrote that the remix version " may have been laced with such exotica as a reggae toastmaster talking over a teeth @-@ rattling bass line " , and called it a " electronic mishmash " , and a " pan @-@ Caribbean attack that included soca and Hi Life from the Trinidad " . Written in the key of G minor , the beat is set in common time and moves at a moderate 91 beats per minute . The remix version on Dreaming of You has a key signature set in C minor and moves at a moderate 90 bpms . The remix employs a piano , güira , tambourine , French horn and drums . Lyrically , Selena calls on people to dance her new style the " techno cumbia " dance and " humorously " calls out people who can 't dance cumbia . Italian essayists Gaetano Prampolini and Annamaria Pinazzi described the lyrics of " Techno Cumbia " that " summons everyone to the dance floor " . Patoski found it to resemble the " nonsensical novelty " song by Shirley Ellis ' 1964 single " The Name Game " . = = Critical reception and chart performance = = Because of its mixture of different cultural music genres , " Techno Cumbia " reminded authors Sara Misemer and Walter Clark of Chicano performance artist Guillermo Gómez @-@ Peña 's suggestion that " cultures are being superimposed " . According to Ed Morales who wrote in his book The Latin Beat , " Techno Cumbia " is easily " forgettable throwaways " among the average listener , but found the recording " catchy " and " sticks in your gut " . Author Michael Corcoran wrote in his music guide on Texan music that " Techno Cumbia " has " Michael Jackson @-@ like trills " . Patoski believed " Techno Cumbia " was aimed towards the Spanish international market , calling it " the most compelling tune " . Author Norma Elia Cantú called " Techno Cumbia " , " La Tracalera " ( 1990 ) , and " La Carcacha " ( 1992 ) the " auditory of Tejano music " . Morales believed the song " may have been an indirect influence on the fin de siècle collective of disc jockeys from the borderlands around Tijuana called Nortec " . Stavans and Augenbraum called " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , " No Me Queda Más " , and " Techno Cumbia " to have been the " key hits of [ Amor Prohibido ] " . Lannert wrote in the Dreaming of You liner notes that Selena " amazingly and quickly reverses field [ from the previous track " Tú Sólo Tú " ] to reveal a playful cooing growl " . " Techno Cumbia " debuted at number 13 on the United States Billboard Hot Latin Tracks chart on October 7 , 1995 . In its second week the song rose to number nine , receiving airplay honors that week . On October 21 , 1995 , " Techno Cumbia " jumped to number five and subsequently debuted at number seven on the U.S. Regional Mexican Airplay chart . The following week the recording gained more airplay spins at radios , however it remained at number five on the Hot Latin Tracks chart while the song moved to number six on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart . On November 4 , 1995 , " Techno Cumbia " reached its peak at number four on the Hot Latin Tracks chart . In the issue dated November 11 , 1995 , " Techno Cumbia " received increased airplay spins from the previous tracking week and peaked at number four on the Regional Mexican Airplay chart . = = Cultural impact and legacy = = " Techno Cumbia " is believed by musicologist to have predated the Latin urban music genre — which became one of the most popular subgenres of Latin music in the 2000s decade — and to have spearheaded a new style of music . During a 2002 interview , Astudillo spoke on how the success of " Techno Cumbia " and its cultural impact on Latin music " has set a new trend " . He further said that at the time of recording the song , he didn 't envision the track to be as successful or impactful as it has been . Following Selena 's death , A.B. formed his own group the Kumbia Kings and released " Boom Boom " from his album Shhh ! ( 2001 ) ; believed by Billboard to be the direct " descendants of Techno Cumbia " . Author Charles Tatum , found " Techno Cumbia " along with Selena 's 1992 single " La Caracaha " and " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " to have revolutionized the Tejano cumbia music scene . Music analyst Guadalupe San Miguel wrote that " Techno Cumbia " , " Como la Flor " ( 1992 ) , and " La Carcacha " were Selena 's " biggest cumbia hits " . Selena popularized the technocumbia genre during her career . Vibe magazine reported that Full Force was awarded gold and platinum discs for Selena 's 1992 song " Missing My Baby " and " Techno Cumbia " . The music video of " Techno Cumbia " was released posthumously and used the remix version found on Dreaming of You . The video was choreographed by Kenny Ortega , who later choreographed the music video of Selena 's posthumously released " A Boy Like That " single in 1996 . The music video featured live performances of Selena singing the song at the Houston Astrodome concert on February 26 , 1995 , outtakes from her music video for " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , and performances of the singer during her tour for Amor Prohibido ( 1994 – 95 ) . Cecilia Miniucchi served as the director of the video and found the project to be rather challenging to do . " Techno Cumbia " was awarded the Tejano Music Award for Tejano Crossover Song of the Year in 1995 . During the awards ceremony , presenter Raul Yzaguirre mistakenly read the Tejano Crossover Song of the Year award as being Shelly Lares . The mistake was corrected during the awards " lengthy break " and Lares gave the award to Selena who was seen in tears and refused to accept the award from Lares , despite Jose Behar ( president of EMI Latin ) urging the singer to do so . The song was nominated for Music Video of the Year at the 1996 Tejano Music Awards , and Song of the Year at the 1997 Broadcast Music Inc . ' s pop awards . Mexican group Liberación recorded the song for the tribute album Mexico Recuerda a Selena ( 2005 ) . AllMusic 's Alex Henderson commented on how Liberación gave " Techno Cumbia " a " grupero treatment " . Mexican group Banda El Recodo performed and recorded the track for the live televised tribute concert Selena ¡ VIVE ! in April 2005 . " = = Charts = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from Dreaming of You liner notes . = Jaki Byard = John Arthur " Jaki " Byard ( June 15 , 1922 – February 11 , 1999 ) was an American jazz pianist , composer and arranger who also played tenor and alto saxophones , among several other instruments . He was known for his eclectic style , incorporating everything from ragtime and stride to free jazz . Byard played with Maynard Ferguson in the late 1950s and early 1960s , and was a member of bands led by Charles Mingus for several years , including on several studio and concert recordings . The first of his recordings as a leader was in 1960 , but , despite being praised by critics , his albums and performances did not gain him much wider attention . In his 60 @-@ year career , Byard recorded at least 35 albums as leader , and more than 50 as a sideman . Byard 's influence on the music comes from his combining of musical styles during performance , and his parallel career in teaching . From 1969 Byard was heavily involved in jazz education : he began teaching at the New England Conservatory and went on to work at several other music institutions , as well as having private students . He continued performing and recording , mainly in solo and small group settings , but he also led two big bands – one made up of some of his students , and the other of professional musicians . His death , from a single gunshot while in his home , remains an unsolved mystery . = = Early life = = Byard was born in Worcester , Massachusetts . At that time , his parents – John Sr and Geraldine Garr – were living at 47 Clayton Street . Both of his parents played musical instruments ; his mother played the piano , as did his uncles and grandmother , the last playing in cinemas during the silent film era . He began piano lessons at the age of six , but they ended when his family was affected by the Great Depression . He was also given a trumpet that belonged to his father , and attempted to copy the popular players of the time , Roy Eldridge and Walter Fuller . As a boy he often walked to Lake Quinsigamond to listen to bands performing there . He heard Benny Goodman , Lucky Millinder , Fats Waller , and Chick Webb , and listened to other bands of the era on the radio . " Those were the things that inspired me – I guess it stuck with me " , he commented decades later . Byard began playing professionally on piano at the age of 16 , in bands led by Doc Kentross and Freddy Bates . His early lessons had involved mostly playing by rote , so his development of knowledge of theory and further piano technique occurred from the late 1930s until 1941 , including studying harmony at Commerce High School . In that year he was drafted into the army , where he continued with piano lessons and was influenced by pianist Ernie Washington , with whom he was barracked , although Byard also took up trombone at this time . He also studied Stravinsky and Chopin , and continued studying classical composers into the 1960s . Part of his military service was in Florida , where he was a mentor to the young saxophonist Cannonball Adderley and his brother , Nat . After leaving the army in 1946 , Byard 's musical education continued , through discussions with others , and using library materials combined with music school syllabuses . = = Career as musician = = Byard played with bands from the Boston area , including for two years with violinist Ray Perry , who encouraged Byard to add tenor saxophone to his array of instruments . He then joined Earl Bostic 's band as pianist in 1947 and they toured for around a year . Byard then formed a bebop band with Joe Gordon and Sam Rivers in Boston , before touring for a year with a stage show band . Back once more in Boston , he had a regular job for three years with Charlie Mariano in a club in nearby Lynn . They recorded together in 1953 . Byard was a member of Herb Pomeroy 's band as a tenor saxophonist from 1952 to 1955 , and recorded with him in 1957 . Byard also played solo piano in Boston in the early to mid @-@ 1950s and freelanced in that area later in the same decade . He joined Maynard Ferguson in 1959 , and stayed until 1962 . As one of Ferguson 's players and arrangers , Byard found that his own preference for experimentation in time signatures , harmony and freer improvisation was restricted by the preferences of other band members . Byard moved to New York in the early 1960s . His first recording as a leader , the solo piano Blues for Smoke , was recorded there on December 16 , 1960 ( but not released in the United States until 1988 ) Also in 1960 , Byard first played with the bassist Charles Mingus . He recorded extensively with Mingus in the period 1962 – 64 ( including on the important albums on Impulse ! Records – Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus Mingus and The Black Saint and the Sinner Lady ) , and toured Europe with him in 1964 . Byard also made recordings as a sideman between 1960 and 1966 with Eric Dolphy , Booker Ervin , Roland Kirk , and Rivers . His performance on Dolphy 's Outward Bound put Byard at the forefront of modern jazz . As a leader , Byard recorded a string of albums for the Prestige label during the 1960s . Some of these albums included Richard Davis on bass and Alan Dawson on drums , a trio combination described by critic Gary Giddins as " the most commanding rhythm section of the ' 60s , excepting the Hancock @-@ Carter @-@ Williams trio in Miles Davis 's band " , although it existed only for recordings . One such album was Jaki Byard with Strings ! , a sextet recording that featured Byard 's composing and arranging : on " Cat 's Cradle Conference Rag " , each of five musicians " play five standards based on similar harmonies simultaneously " . A further example of Byard 's sometimes unusual approach to composition is the title track from Out Front ! , which he created by thinking of fellow pianist Herbie Nichols ' touch at the keyboard . Popularity with jazz critics did not translate into wider success : a Washington Post review of his final Prestige album , Solo Piano from 1969 , remarked that it was by " a man who has been largely ignored outside the inner circles " . Giddins also commented in the 1970s on the lack of attention that Byard had received , and stated that the pianist 's recordings from 1960 to 1972 " are dazzling in scope , and for his ability to make the most of limited situations " . Byard also continued to play and record with other leaders . While in Europe in 1965 , he joined Art Blakey 's band for a series of concerts there . In 1967 Byard played in a small group with drummer Elvin Jones . Between 1966 and 1969 Byard recorded three albums with the saxophonist Eric Kloss , then , in 1970 , returned to Mingus ' band , including for performances in Europe . Byard occasionally substituted on piano in Duke Ellington 's orchestra in 1974 when the leader was unwell . In 1974 – 75 Byard had a residency at Bradley ’ s in New York . He also fronted a big band , the Apollo Stompers , which was formed in the late 1970s . There were two versions of the band : one made up of musicians in New York , and the other using students from the New England Conservatory , where Byard had taught from 1969 . In 1980 Byard was the subject of a short documentary film , Anything for Jazz , which featured him playing , teaching and with his family . By the 1980s his main instrument remained the piano , and he still played both alto and tenor saxophones , but he had stopped playing the other instruments that he used to use professionally – bass , drums , guitar , trombone , and trumpet , although he still taught all of them . In the same period , he was often heard in New York playing solo , in duos , or in trios . In 1988 he played with a band founded by Mingus ' widow to perform the bassist 's compositions – the Mingus Big Band . Byard played and recorded with a former student of his , Ricky Ford , from 1989 to 1991 , and continued to play and teach during the 1990s . = = Career as teacher = = Byard was a charter faculty member at the New England Conservatory , helping to establish its jazz studies program , initially named ' Afro @-@ American Music ' ; he stayed for more than 15 years . He also taught at the Hartt School of Music from 1975 , the Manhattan School of Music from 1989 to 1999 , the New School for Jazz and Contemporary Music , and lectured for three years at Harvard University . As teacher and player , Byard was renowned for his knowledge of the history of jazz piano . This meant that some aspiring young musicians sought him out as a teacher . One of these was pianist Jason Moran , who described their first meeting , at a performance by the Apollo Stompers : Jaki had all these toys and whistles and bells and things that he was playing from the piano , and also screaming and yelling from the piano in joy . I remember thinking , ' This guy 's out of his mind . ' After the set , I went up to him , introduced myself , and said that I would be studying with him . He said something to the effect of , ' get ready ' . Moran studied with Byard for four years , and credits the older man with developing his skills , building his awareness of jazz history , and creating his willingness to experiment with different styles . Another student , Fred Hersch , reported that Byard was both organized and chaotic as a teacher : giving his students worksheets and having them study early stride piano , but also behaving eccentrically and missing lessons . Jazz flautist Jamie Baum also studied with Byard , and after his death organized a tribute band consisting mainly of his students : Baum , Adam Kolker , Jerome Harris , George Schuller and Ugonna Okegwo , called Yard Byard or The Jaki Byard Project , using compositions Byard had left with Baum but never performed . = = Death = = Byard died in his home in Hollis , Queens , New York City , of a gunshot wound on February 11 , 1999 . He was shot once in the head . The police reported that Byard 's family , with whom he shared the house , last saw him at 6 pm , that he was killed around 10 pm , that there " were no signs of robbery , forced entry or a struggle " , and that no weapon was found . The death was soon declared to be a homicide , but the circumstances surrounding it have not been determined , and the case remains unsolved . Byard was survived by two daughters , a son , four grandchildren , and six greatgrandchildren . His wife of four decades had died five years earlier . = = Playing style and influence = = Giddins described the nature of Byard 's piano playing : " His tone [ ... ] is unfailingly bright . His middle @-@ register improvisations are evenly articulated with a strong touch and rhythmic elan [ ... he ] likes ringing tremolos and portentous fifths [ ... and ] barely articulated keyboard washes that float beyond the harmonic bounds but are ultimately anchored by the blues " . Byard played in a variety of styles , often mixed together in one performance : John S. Wilson commented that Byard " progresses from a basic melodic statement to nimble Art Tatum fingering to Fats Waller stride , to prickly Thelonious Monk phrases , to Cecil Taylor dissonances " . This could have deliberately comic , surrealistic effects . Byard pointed out that the use of humor did not mean that his music was not serious : " I might do it with humor , but it 's still serious because I mean what I 'm doing " . He stated that his choice to play in a variety of styles was not imitatory or superficial : " I can 't play one way all night ; I wouldn 't want to and I wouldn 't want the public to hear me that way " . One obituary writer noted that , " Nobody thinks it odd if a pianist underpins melody with stride patterns or a boogie bass . When Byard did that 30 years ago , distinctions were drawn more tightly " . Music writer Dan Lander also stated that Byard 's playing was ahead of its time , and added that it has influenced 21st @-@ century pianists : Byard 's grasp and integration of historical forms , his ability to embrace tradition and risk taking , was visionary , impacting on a new generation of jazz musicians who understood the history of jazz as a material to build on and work with , at the service of creating something new , rather than as an unmovable weight , fixing them to the past . A 1968 review of a Byard concert reported that his alto saxophone playing was " in a manner rooted in the bop era " , and that he occasionally accompanied himself , " saxophone with his left hand , piano with his right " . His playing on tenor saxophone was influenced by Lester Young ; Byard himself cited Ben Webster as an influence on his tenor ballad playing . = = Discography = = = = = As leader / co @-@ leader = = = Byard plays only piano , unless otherwise noted . = = = As sideman = = = An asterisk ( * ) indicates that the year is that of release . Sources : = Guinea pig = The guinea pig ( Cavia porcellus ) , also called the cavy or domestic guinea pig , is a species of rodent belonging to the family Caviidae and the genus Cavia . Despite their common name , these animals are not in the Suidae , or pig family , nor do they originate from Guinea . They originated in the Andes , and earlier studies based on biochemistry and hybridization suggest they are domesticated descendants of a closely related species of cavy such as Cavia aperea , C. fulgida , or C. tschudii and , therefore , do not exist naturally in the wild . Recent studies applying molecular markers , in addition to studying the skull and skeletal morphology of current and mummified animals , revealed that the ancestor is most likely Cavia tschudii . The domestic guinea pig plays an important role in the folk culture of many Indigenous South American groups , especially as a food source , but also in folk medicine and in community religious ceremonies . Since the 1960s , efforts have been made to increase consumption of the animal outside South America . In Western societies , the domestic guinea pig has enjoyed widespread popularity as a household pet since its introduction by European traders in the 16th century . Their docile nature ; friendly , even affectionate responsiveness to handling and feeding ; and the relative ease of caring for them , continue to make guinea pigs a popular pet . Organizations devoted to competitive breeding of guinea pigs have been formed worldwide , and many specialized breeds of guinea pig , with varying coat colors and compositions , are cultivated by breeders . Biological experimentation on guinea pigs has been carried out since the 17th century . The animals were frequently used as model organisms in the 19th and 20th centuries , resulting in the epithet " guinea pig " for a test subject , but have since been largely replaced by other rodents such as mice and rats . They are still used in research , primarily as models for human medical conditions such as juvenile diabetes , tuberculosis , scurvy , and pregnancy complications . = = History = = The guinea pig was first domesticated as early as 5000 BC for food by tribes in the Andean region of South America ( the present @-@ day southern part of Colombia , Ecuador , Peru , and Bolivia ) , some thousands of years after the domestication of the South American camelids . Statues dating from circa 500 BC to 500 AD that depict guinea pigs have been unearthed in archaeological digs in Peru and Ecuador . The Moche people of ancient Peru worshipped animals and often depicted the guinea pig in their art . From about 1200 AD to the Spanish conquest in 1532 , selective breeding resulted in many varieties of domestic guinea pigs , which form the basis for some of the modern domestic breeds . They continue to be a food source in the region ; many households in the Andean highlands raise the animal , which subsists on the family 's vegetable scraps . Folklore traditions involving guinea pigs are numerous ; they are exchanged as gifts , used in customary social and religious ceremonies , and frequently referenced in spoken metaphors . They also play a role in traditional healing rituals by folk doctors , or curanderos , who use the animals to diagnose diseases such as jaundice , rheumatism , arthritis , and typhus . They are rubbed against the bodies of the sick , and are seen as a supernatural medium . Black guinea pigs are considered especially useful for diagnoses . The animal also may be cut open and its entrails examined to determine whether the cure was effective . These methods are widely accepted in many parts of the Andes , where Western medicine is either unavailable or distrusted . Spanish , Dutch , and English traders brought guinea pigs to Europe , where they quickly became popular as exotic pets among the upper classes and royalty , including Queen Elizabeth I. The earliest known written account of the guinea pig dates from 1547 , in a description of the animal from Santo Domingo ; because cavies are not native to Hispaniola , the animal was earlier believed to have been introduced there by Spanish travelers . However , based on more recent excavations on West Indian islands , the animal must have been introduced by ceramic @-@ making horticulturalists from South America to the Caribbean around 500 BC , and it was present in the Ostionoid period , for example , on Puerto Rico , long before the advent of the Spaniards . The guinea pig was first described in the West in 1554 by the Swiss naturalist Conrad Gessner . Its binomial scientific name was first used by Erxleben in 1777 ; it is an amalgam of Pallas ' generic designation ( 1766 ) and Linnaeus ' specific conferral ( 1758 ) . The earliest known illustration of a domestic guinea pig is a painting ( artist unknown ) in the collection of the National Portrait Gallery in London , dated to 1580 , which shows a girl in typical Elizabethan dress holding a tortoise @-@ shell guinea pig in her hands ; she is flanked by her two brothers , one of whom holds a pet bird . The picture dates from the same period as the oldest recorded guinea pig remains in England , which are a partial cavy skeleton found at Hill Hall ( Essex ) , an Elizabethan manor house , and dated to around 1575 . = = Name = = The scientific name of the common species is Cavia porcellus , with porcellus being Latin for " little pig " . Cavia is New Latin ; it is derived from cabiai , the animal 's name in the language of the Galibi tribes once native to French Guiana . Cabiai may be an adaptation of the Portuguese çavia ( now savia ) , which is itself derived from the Tupi word saujá , meaning rat . Guinea pigs are called quwi or jaca in Quechua and cuy or cuyo ( plural cuyes , cuyos ) in the Spanish of Ecuador , Peru , and Bolivia . Ironically , breeders tend to use the more formal " cavy " to describe the animal , while in scientific and laboratory contexts , it is far more commonly referred to by the more colloquial " guinea pig " . How the animals came to be called " pigs " is not clear . They are built somewhat like pigs , with large heads relative to their bodies , stout necks , and rounded rumps with no tail of any consequence ; some of the sounds they emit are very similar to those made by pigs , and they also spend a large amount of time eating . They can survive for long periods in small quarters , like a ' pig pen ' , and were thus easily transported on ships to Europe . The animal 's name alludes to pigs in many European languages . The German word for them is Meerschweinchen , literally " little sea pig " , which has been translated into Polish as świnka morska , into Hungarian as tengerimalac , and into Russian as морская свинка . This derives from the Middle High German name merswin . This originally meant " dolphin " and was used because of the animals ' grunting sounds ( which were thought to be similar ) . Many other , possibly less scientifically based explanations of the German name exist . For example , sailing ships stopping to reprovision in the New World would pick up stores of guinea pigs , which provided an easily transportable source of fresh meat . The French term is cochon d 'Inde ( Indian pig ) or cobaye ; the Dutch call it Guinees biggetje ( Guinean piglet ) or cavia ( while in some Dutch dialects it is called Spaanse rat ) ; and in Portuguese , the guinea pig is variously referred to as cobaia , from the Tupi word via its Latinization , or as porquinho da Índia ( little Indian pig ) . This is not universal ; for example , the common word in Spanish is conejillo de Indias ( little rabbit of the Indies ) . The Chinese refer to them as 豚鼠 ( túnshǔ , ' pig mouse ' ) , and sometimes as Netherlands pig ( 荷蘭豬 , hélánzhū ) or Indian mouse ( 天竺鼠 , tiānzhúshǔ ) . The Japanese word for guinea pig is " モルモット " ( morumotto ) , which derives from the name of another mountain @-@ dwelling rodent , the marmot ; this is what guinea pigs were called by the Dutch traders who first brought them to Nagasaki in 1843 . The origin of " guinea " in " guinea pig " is harder to explain . One proposed explanation is that the animals were brought to Europe by way of Guinea , leading people to think they had originated there . " Guinea " was also frequently used in English to refer generally to any far @-@ off , unknown country , so the name may simply be a colorful reference to the animal 's exotic appeal . Another hypothesis suggests the " guinea " in the name is a corruption of " Guiana " , an area in South America , though the animals are not native to that region . A common misconception is that they were so named because they were sold for the price of a guinea coin ; this hypothesis is untenable , because the guinea was first struck in England in 1663 , and William Harvey used the term " Ginny @-@ pig " as early as 1653 . Others believe " guinea " may be an alteration of the word coney ( rabbit ) ; guinea pigs were referred to as " pig coneys " in Edward Topsell 's 1607 treatise on quadrupeds . = = Traits and environment = = Guinea pigs are large for rodents , weighing between 700 and 1 @,@ 200 g ( 1 @.@ 5 and 2 @.@ 6 lb ) , and measuring between 20 and 25 cm ( 8 and 10 in ) in length . They typically live an average of four to five years , but may live as long as eight years . According to the 2006 Guinness World Records , the longest living guinea pig survived 14 years , 10 @.@ 5 months . In the 1990s , a minority scientific opinion emerged proposing that caviomorphs , such as guinea pigs , chinchillas , and degus , are not rodents and should be reclassified as a separate order of mammals ( similar to lagomorphs ) . Subsequent research using wider sampling has restored consensus among mammalian biologists that the current classification of rodents as monophyletic is justified . = = = Natural habitat = = = C. porcellus is not found naturally in the wild ; it is likely descended from some closely related species of cavies , such as C. aperea , C. fulgida , and C. tschudii , which are still commonly found in various regions of South America . Some species of cavy identified in the 20th century , such as C. anolaimae and C. guianae , may be domestic guinea pigs that have become feral by reintroduction into the wild . Wild cavies are found on grassy plains and occupy an ecological niche similar to that of cattle . They are social , living in the wild in small groups which consist of several females ( sows ) , a male ( boar ) , and the young ( which in a break with the preceding porcine nomenclature are called pups ) . They move together in groups ( herds ) eating grass or other vegetation , and do not store food . While they do not burrow or build nests , they frequently seek shelter in the burrows of other animals , as well as in crevices and tunnels formed by vegetation . They tend to be most active during dawn and dusk , when it is harder for predators to spot them . = = = Domestic habitat = = = Domesticated guinea pigs thrive in groups of two or more ; groups of sows , or groups of one or more sows and a neutered boar are common combinations . Guinea pigs learn to recognize and bond with other individual guinea pigs , and testing of boars shows their neuroendocrine stress response is significantly lowered in the presence of a bonded female when compared to the presence of unfamiliar females . Groups of boars may also get along , provided their cage has enough space , they are introduced at an early age , and no females are present . Domestic guinea pigs have developed a different biological rhythm from their wild counterparts , and have longer periods of activity followed by short periods of sleep in between . Activity is scattered randomly over the day ; aside from avoidance of intense light , no regular circadian patterns are apparent . Domestic guinea pigs generally live in cages , although some owners of large numbers of guinea pigs dedicate entire rooms to their pets . Cages with solid or wire mesh floors are used , although wire mesh floors can cause injury and may be associated with an infection commonly known as bumblefoot ( ulcerative pododermatitis ) . " Cubes and Coroplast " ( or C & C ) style cages are now a common choice . Cages are often lined with wood shavings or a similar material . Bedding made from red cedar ( Eastern or Western ) and pine , both softwoods , were commonly used in the past , but these materials are now believed to contain harmful phenols ( aromatic hydrocarbons ) and oils . Safer beddings made from hardwoods ( such as aspen ) , paper products , and corn cob materials are other alternatives . Guinea pigs tend to be messy within their cages ; they often jump into their food bowls or kick bedding and feces into them , and their urine sometimes crystallizes on cage surfaces , making it difficult to remove . After its cage has been cleaned , a guinea pig typically urinates and drags its lower body across the floor of the cage to mark its territory . Male guinea pigs may also mark their territory in this way when they are taken out of their cages . Guinea pigs do not generally thrive when housed with other species . Housing of guinea pigs with other rodents such as gerbils and hamsters may increase instances of respiratory and other infections , and such rodents may act aggressively toward the guinea pig . Larger animals may regard guinea pigs as prey , though some ( such as dogs ) can be trained to accept them . Opinion is divided over the cohousing of guinea pigs and domestic rabbits . Some published sources say that guinea pigs and rabbits complement each other well when sharing a cage . However , as lagomorphs , rabbits have different nutritional requirements , so the two species cannot be fed the same food . Rabbits may also harbor diseases ( such as respiratory infections from Bordetella and Pasteurella ) , to which guinea pigs are susceptible . Even the dwarf rabbit is much stronger than the guinea pig and may cause intentional or inadvertent injury . = = = Behavior = = = Guinea pigs can learn complex paths to food , and can accurately remember a learned path for months . Their strongest problem @-@ solving strategy is motion . While guinea pigs can jump small obstacles , they are poor climbers , and are not particularly agile . They startle extremely easily , and either freeze in place for long periods or run for cover with rapid , darting motions when they sense danger . Larger groups of startled guinea pigs " stampede " , running in haphazard directions as a means of confusing predators . When excited , guinea pigs may repeatedly perform little hops in the air ( known as " popcorning " ) , a movement analogous to the ferret 's war dance . They are also very good swimmers . Like many rodents , guinea pigs sometimes participate in social grooming , and they regularly self @-@ groom . A milky @-@ white substance is secreted from their eyes and rubbed into the hair during the grooming process . Groups of boars often chew each other 's hair , but this is a method of establishing hierarchy within a group , rather than a social gesture . Dominance is also established through biting ( especially of the ears ) , piloerection , aggressive noises , head thrusts , and leaping attacks . Non @-@ sexual simulated mounting for dominance is also common among same @-@ sex groups . Guinea pig sight is not as good as that of a human , but they have a wider angle of vision ( about 340 ° ) and see in partial color ( dichromacy ) . They have well @-@ developed senses of hearing , smell , and touch . Vocalization is the primary means of communication between members of the species . These are the most common sounds made by the guinea pig : A " wheek " is a loud noise , the name of which is onomatopoeic , also known as a whistle . An expression of general excitement , it may occur in response to the presence of its owner or to feeding . It is sometimes used to find other guinea pigs if they are running . If a guinea pig is lost , it may wheek for assistance. listen A bubbling or purring sound is made when the guinea pig is enjoying itself , such as when being petted or held . It may also make this sound when grooming , crawling around to investigate a new place , or when given food. listen A rumbling sound is normally related to dominance within a group , though it can also come as a response to being scared or angry . In these cases , the rumble often sounds higher and the body vibrates shortly . While courting , a male usually purrs deeply , swaying and circling the female in a behavior called " rumblestrutting " . A low rumble while walking away reluctantly shows passive resistance. listen Chutting and whining are sounds made in pursuit situations , by the pursuer and pursuee , respectively. listen A chattering sound is made by rapidly gnashing the teeth , and is generally a sign of warning . Guinea pigs tend to raise their heads when making this sound . Squealing or shrieking is a high @-@ pitched sound of discontent , in response to pain or danger. listen Chirping , a less @-@ common sound , likened to bird song , seems to be related to stress , or when a baby guinea pig wants to be fed . Very rarely , the chirping will last for several minutes. listen = = Breeding = = The guinea pig is able to breed year @-@ round , with birth peaks usually coming in the spring ; as many as five litters can be produced per year . The gestation period lasts from 59 – 72 days , with an average of 63 – 68 days . Because of the long gestation period and the large size of the pups , pregnant females may become large and eggplant @-@ shaped , although the change in size and shape varies . Unlike the offspring of most other rodents , which are altricial at birth , newborn pups are well @-@ developed with hair , teeth , claws , and partial eyesight ; they are immediately mobile , and begin eating solid food immediately , though they continue to suckle . Litters yield one to six pups , with an average of three ; the largest recorded litter size is 17 . In smaller litters , difficulties may occur during labour due to oversized pups . Large litters result in higher incidences of stillbirth , but because the pups are delivered at an advanced stage of development , lack of access to the mother 's milk has little effect on the mortality rate of newborns . Cohabitating females assist in mothering duties if lactating . Guinea pigs also practice alloparental care , in which a female may adopt the pup or pups of another . This might take place if the original parents die or are for some reason separated from them . This behavior is common , and is seen in many other animal species such as the elephant . Male and female guinea pigs do not differ in external appearance apart from general size . The position of the anus is very close to the genitals in both sexes . Female genitals are distinguished by a Y @-@ shaped configuration formed from a vulvar flap , while the male genitals may look similar , with the penis and anus forming a like shape , the penis will protrude if pressure is applied to the surrounding hair . The male 's testes may also be visible externally	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
destruct sequence begins , which Samus narrowly escapes . If the player rescues the Dachora and the Etecoons — the creatures Samus encountered earlier in the game — during the escape , they are shown leaving the planet in the distance . = = Development = = Super Metroid was developed by Nintendo R & D1 with a staff of 15 people managed by Gunpei Yokoi . The game was directed and written by Yoshio Sakamoto , and produced by Makoto Kano . Intelligent Systems , who co @-@ developed the original Metroid with R & D1 , handled the programming for Super Metroid . The game , which was released almost a decade after the original Metroid game , took half a year to gain approval for the initial idea , and actual development of the game took two more years to complete . When asked why the game took so long to make , Sakamoto responded , " We wanted to wait until a true action game was needed . [ ... ] And also to set the stage for the reappearance of Samus Aran . " Previously visited areas were added to Super Metroid to add a sense of familiarity that would satisfy players of previous Metroid games . The developers ' primary goal was to make the game a " good action game " . They wanted the game to have a large map , but found it difficult to organize the amount of graphic data involved . Coming up with several ideas , the developers decided to break the game up into many mini @-@ adventures . New weapons are introduced to the Metroid series in Super Metroid , including the Grapple Beam , used to latch a laser beam onto the ceiling . The game is the first in the series to let Samus fire in all directions while moving , and it is among the first open world games to offer the player a mapping facility . The feature shows the outlines of rooms , locations of important rooms , and dots for special items . Shortly before the game 's release , the Entertainment Software Rating Board , a self @-@ regulating organization , was formed in response to the increasing violence found in games such as 1992 's Mortal Kombat . When asked whether he thought that recent game violence controversy would cause any negative backlash for Super Metroid , Sakamoto stated , " We don 't think there 's too much violence in the game . " Using Samus as an example , he explained that her purpose is to maintain peace in the galaxy , claiming , " It 's not violence for the sake of violence . " The game was demonstrated at the Winter 1994 Consumer Electronics Show , and was named the best SNES game at the show by GamePro . Super Metroid was distributed on a 24 @-@ megabit cartridge , making it the largest SNES game at the time of its release . The game 's opening dialogue was voiced by Dan Owsen . = = = Music = = = The music for Super Metroid was composed by Kenji Yamamoto and Minako Hamano , and uses 16 @-@ bit versions of music from previous games . According to Yamamoto , he came up with the game 's theme by humming it to himself while riding his motorcycle from work . In addition to composing music , Yamamoto served as a sound programmer and created sound effects for the game . These simultaneous roles allowed him " to produce distinct Metroid music with a sound programmer ’ s ear , with a sound effect creator ’ s ear , and with the approach methodology and theory of a composer . " The arrangements and remixes of the game 's themes were used in Metroid Prime and its sequels , because Yamamoto wanted " to satisfy old Metroid fans . It 's like a present for them . " Most of the tracks from Super Metroid were released in an album , Super Metroid : Sound in Action , on June 22 , 1994 . Published by Sony Records under the catalog number SRCL @-@ 2920 , it contained 38 tracks and covers a duration of 58 : 49 . The album also include the original Metroid tracks composed by Hirokazu Tanaka , and additional tracks arranged by Yoshiyuki Ito and Masumi Ito . = = = Release = = = Super Metroid was released by Nintendo in Japan on March 19 , 1994 ; in North America on April 18 , 1994 ; and in Europe on July 28 , 1994 . It was re @-@ released in Japan on September 30 , 1997 , as a downloadable game for the Nintendo Power flash memory cartridge . It became available as a Wii Virtual Console title in North America on August 20 , 2007 , in Japan on September 20 , 2007 , and in Europe on October 12 , 2007 . In Super Smash Bros. Brawl , Super Metroid is also one of the trial games available in the " Masterpieces " section , which uses Virtual Console technology to emulate older hardware and have time constraints . Super Metroid was released for the Wii U Virtual Console on May 15 , 2013 ; it was initially available during the trial campaign for a cheaper price , and it was reverted to its regular price on June 13 , 2013 . Users who own the Wii Virtual Console version of the game will be able to get the Wii U Virtual Console version for a reduced price . The New Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console version was released on April 14 , 2016 . = = Reception = = Super Metroid was met with widespread critical acclaim . Chris Slate of the Game Players video game magazine thoroughly enjoyed Super Metroid , claiming that it " easily lives up to everyone 's high expectations " . He was satisfied with how Nintendo mixed complex gameplay with " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " graphics and sound . Slate found the newly added auto @-@ mapping feature something that players really needed , saying that it was the only feature in Super Metroid that the original Metroid should have had . Concluding his review , Slate stated , " Action fans can 't afford to miss Super Metroid . [ ... ] You 'll want to play through again and again even after you 've beaten it . " Nintendo Power mentioned that the game " may well be the best action adventure game ever " , calling it the " wave of the future " . They praised the game 's graphics , sound , and controls , while their only negative comment was , " Even 100 megabits of Metroid wouldn 't be enough . " Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Super Metroid their " Game of the Month " award , comparing it favorably to the original Metroid and applauding the graphics , the many weapons and items available , and the music . Each of the four reviewers gave it scores of nine out of ten . GamePro criticized that the controls are often awkward or difficult and that many of the power @-@ ups are either lifted from other SNES games or simple upgrades of other power @-@ ups in the game , but praised the game 's massive size along with the auto @-@ mapping feature , saying it " makes a potentially frustrating game accessible to a far wider audience . " GamesRadar was pleased with the game 's " phenomenal " soundtrack , complimenting it as " one of the best videogame scores of all time " . The former British video game publication Super Play , which had three editors review the game , also enjoyed it . The magazine 's Zy Nicholson noted that the game was better than his favorite game , Mega Man X , describing Super Metroid as " more of an experience than a game " . Comparing the game to the 1986 film Aliens , Nicholson felt that the game was best experienced when played in the dark with the volume turned up . He found the game so compulsive that he was tempted to play " without eating or sleeping " . The publication 's Tony Mott named the game 's atmosphere its best aspect , calling the game a mix of Turrican ( 1990 ) , Aliens , Exile ( 1989 ) , and Nodes of Yesod ( 1985 ) . Appreciating the game 's controls , Mott applauded Nintendo 's ability to create a refined gameplay . He concluded his review by calling Super Metroid " undoubtedly the best game I 've played this year so far " , predicting that anyone who plays the game would be " playing a game destined for classic status " . The third reviewer , James Leach , agreed with Nicholson and Mott that Super Metroid was what Mega Man X should have been . Concluding his review , Leach wrote that Super Metroid contained everything he looked for in a video game : " playability , hidden tricks , powerful weapons and steamingly evil baddies " . After summarizing the reviews , the magazine 's verdict was , " We all love this game . Super Metroid is absolutely marvelous and you should own it . " IGN called Super Metroid 's Virtual Console version a " must @-@ own " , commenting that although the game was released nine months after the Wii launched , they felt that it was worth the wait . For players who have never played Super Metroid , IGN claims that they owe themselves as gamers to " finally find out about what you 've been missing all these years " . In his review for GameSpot , Frank Provo found it " absolutely astonishing that Nintendo let 13 years go by before making Super Metroid readily available again " , but considered the most important thing was that players " can now play this masterpiece without having to track down the original Super Nintendo Entertainment System cartridge or fumble with legally questionable emulators " . Despite admitting that the Virtual Console version was essentially " nothing more than a no @-@ frills , emulated version of a 13 @-@ year @-@ old SNES game " that was no longer cutting @-@ edge , he was still pleased with it and reiterated his belief that Super Metroid is " one of the best 2D action adventure games ever produced " . When Super Metroid launched in Japan , GamesRadar 's Andy Robinson noted that it was released " at the wrong place , at the wrong time " . Struggling against more commercially popular games , such as Donkey Kong Country in 1994 , along with the launch of the PlayStation and Sega Saturn video game consoles , Super Metroid sold poorly in Japan . With the help of strong marketing from Nintendo , Super Metroid sold better in North America and Europe , and a year after its release , Nintendo placed it on their Player 's Choice marketing label . = = = Awards and accolades = = = Super Metroid received several awards and honors . Electronic Gaming Monthly named it Game of the Month for May 1994 , gave it an Editors ' Choice award , awarded it as the Best Action Game of 1994 , and named it the Best Game of All Time in 2003 . In IGN 's yearly Top 100 Games of All Time lists , Super Metroid was ranked 3rd ( 2003 ) , 10th ( 2005 ) , 4th ( 2006 ) , and 7th ( 2007 ) . GamePro listed Super Metroid as one of the 15 Retro Games for the Wii You Must Play . Super Metroid was placed 1st on GamesRadar 's list of the Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time , beating out Chrono Trigger ( 2nd ) and The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past ( 3rd ) . Super Metroid was also named the best Super NES game of all time by ScrewAttack , beating out The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past ( 2nd ) and Final Fantasy VI ( 3rd ) . Classic Game Room 's CGR Undertow series named Super Metroid the best Super NES game of all time as well , beating out The Legend of Zelda : A Link to the Past ( 2nd ) and Super Mario World ( 3rd ) . Nintendo Power named Super Metroid the best game in the Metroid series , beating out Metroid Prime ( 2nd ) and Metroid : Zero Mission ( 3rd ) . = = Legacy = = After Super Metroid 's release , there would not be another sequel for eight years , as none of the games in the Metroid series up to this point had enjoyed the level of success that the Mario and The Legend of Zelda franchises had . Yokoi , who had involved in producing the first two Metroid games , left Nintendo after the commercial failure of the Virtual Boy , and died in 1997 in a car accident . During the series ' hiatus , fans eagerly awaited a Metroid title for the Nintendo 64 . Sakamoto considered creating an N64 title , but was not interested in being part of its development , mainly because of the console 's controller . Nintendo approached another company to make an N64 Metroid , but the offer was declined because the developers thought they could not make a game that could equal Super Metroid 's standards . Mario and The Legend of Zelda series creator Shigeru Miyamoto said that Nintendo " couldn 't come up with any concrete ideas " on the N64 game . Super Metroid 's co @-@ developer Intelligent Systems considered continuing the series on the Game Boy Color , but the idea was dropped due to the handheld 's technical limitations . In 2002 , two new Metroid games were released by Nintendo , marking the return of the series after an eight @-@ year hiatus . The games were Metroid Fusion , a 2D side @-@ scroller developed for the Game Boy Advance by Nintendo R & D1 , the same team that developed Super Metroid ; and Metroid Prime , a first @-@ person action @-@ adventure game developed for the GameCube by Retro Studios — Nintendo 's first @-@ party developer based in Austin , Texas , and the first Metroid game to feature 3D computer graphics . Both Fusion and Prime garnered critical acclaim , with the latter winning several Game of the Year awards . After Metroid Prime , three more games in the first @-@ person perspective and a pinball spin @-@ off were released , including its sequel , Metroid Prime 2 : Echoes . As Super Metroid gave players awards based on how long it took them to complete the game , it has become a popular choice for speedruns , a style of play in which the player intends to complete the game as quickly as possible for the purpose of competition . With the releases of Super Metroid and Konami 's 1997 game Castlevania : Symphony of the Night , the formula on exploration and weapon upgrading elements these games presented would form the foundations of the " Metroidvania " genre . The gameplay and design of Super Metroid influenced other games , such as Chair Entertainment 's Shadow Complex , and Tom Happ 's Axiom Verge . Marty Sliva of IGN writes that The Swapper , a puzzle @-@ platform game developed by Facepalm Games , is " just might be the closest thing to Super Metroid 's atmosphere that I ’ ve ever played . " Several ROM hacks of Super Metroid have been released by fans , which added new features that are not included in the original game . Super Metroid : Redesign , created by " drewseph " in 2006 , features new items , expanded areas and modified physics . In 2011 , a Japanese hacker " SB " released a ROM hack titled Metroid : Super Zero Mission , which intends to combine elements from Super Metroid and the later @-@ released Metroid : Zero Mission . = Al @-@ Talaba SC = Al @-@ Talaba Sport Club ( Students Sport Club , Arabic : نادي الطلبة الرياضي ) is an Iraqi sports club based in Al @-@ Rusafa , Baghdad . Its football team competes in the Iraqi Premier League , the top flight of Iraqi football . Founded as Al @-@ Jameaa Football Club in 1969 , the club changed its name to Al @-@ Talaba in 1977 . The club 's home stadium is Al @-@ Talaba Stadium . Al @-@ Talaba have won five league titles , with the most recent being in the 2001 – 02 season . They also achieved two FA Cups and three Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cups , one of the four clubs that won it the most of any Iraqi club . The club also became the runners @-@ up of the 1995 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup . Al @-@ Talaba have won two international club competitions : the 1984 Bangalore Championship and the 2005 Damascus International Championship . Since it was first established , Al @-@ Talaba was owned by the University of Baghdad . From 1975 to 1993 , Al @-@ Talaba became owned by the National Union of Iraqi Students . Since 1993 , the club is owned by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research and the minister is the honorary president of the club . = = History = = = = = Early years ( 1964 – 1980 ) = = = In 1964 , the University of Baghdad formed a football club made of the best football @-@ playing students in the university , under the name of Montakhab Jameaat Baghdad , to compete in the Universities of Iraq League . The first president of the club was Hassan Kanah and the first technical staff consisted of the manager , Ghani Askar , and his two assistants , Moayad Al @-@ Badri and Sami Al @-@ Saffar . The first competition that the team played in was the 1964 Republic Championship . The sports club was founded on 17 December 1969 under the name of Al @-@ Jameaa , which translates to The University , to represent the University of Baghdad in official Iraqi competitions . By a special resolution from the Iraq Football Association , the team 's first participation was in Iraq Division One ( second level ) without needing to compete in either the second or third divisions . In their first season , 1970 – 71 , the team under the management of Thamir Muhsin finished top of Division One and were promoted to the League of the Institutes . However , in the 1971 – 72 League of the Institutes season , they finished in last place and were relegated back to Division One . After three seasons , Muhsin left the club and Jamal Salih became the new manager , leading the team to promotion in the 1974 – 75 season . He introduced some players from Montakhab Jameaat Baghdad , who won the 1975 Universities League , to strengthen the team . After finishing eighth in 1976 , Al @-@ Talaba were the runners @-@ up in the 1976 – 77 season , five points behind the league leaders , Al @-@ Zawra 'a . Halfway through the 1977 – 78 season , on 27 December 1977 , the club changed its name from Al @-@ Jameaa to Al @-@ Talaba , which translates to The Students . They finished eighth in that season . In 1978 , Jamal Salih was sacked by the board and was replaced with Abdul Wahab Abdul Qadir , who led the team through the 1978 – 79 season , their first as Al @-@ Talaba , in which they finished third in the league behind Al @-@ Shorta and Al @-@ Zawra 'a . For the first time , an Al @-@ Talaba player was among the league 's top three goalscorers with Hussein Saeed scoring six goals and Haris Mohammed scoring five . In 1979 , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the University Games , but failed to win the competition . In the 1979 – 80 Iraqi National League , under the management of Khalaf Hassan , Al @-@ Talaba finished in third place again with 27 points . Two of their most significant wins that season were beating the eventual league champions , Al @-@ Shorta , 2 – 0 in the second round of matches on 26 September 1979 and beating Al @-@ Tayaran 1 – 0 in the 20th round on 24 April 1980 . In the 1979 – 80 Iraq FA Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the final for the first time but they were defeated on 8 February 1980 by Al @-@ Jaish 4 – 2 on penalties after drawing 1 – 1 . = = = Golden years ( 1980 – 1986 ) = = = Under the management of Ammo Baba , known as the " Sheikh of Coaches " , Al @-@ Talaba won their first Premier League title in the 1980 – 81 season ( while it was known as the National League ) . They finished the season as the league leaders with 17 points and had the goal difference of + 14 , the same amount of points and goal difference as Al @-@ Shorta , but Al @-@ Talaba were awarded the title on number of wins as they eight wins and Al @-@ Shorta had six . Hussein Saeed was the top goalscorer of the league with eleven goals . Before the last round of matches , Al @-@ Talaba had 17 points and Al @-@ Shorta had 15 . Al @-@ Talaba winning in the last round and Al @-@ Shorta losing or drawing would secure the title for Al @-@ Talaba but , in the last match , they lost 1 – 2 against Al @-@ Tayaran and Al @-@ Shorta won 3 – 0 against Al @-@ Zawra 'a to create a tie on points and goal difference , Al @-@ Shorta had scored more goals than Al @-@ Talaba and therefore were expected to be crowned champions , but the Iraq FA ruled that the greater number of wins should take precedence and declared Al @-@ Talaba as champions . This was a controversial decision at the time as it was the first time such a phenomenon had happened in Iraqi football . After achieving their first league title , Al @-@ Talaba succeeded in winning it again in the 1981 – 82 season under Jamal Salih in his second term as team manager . They finished the season as the league leaders with 34 points , two points ahead of second @-@ placed Al @-@ Tayaran . Hussein Saeed was the second top goalscorer with eleven goals behind Al @-@ Zawra 'a's Thamir Yousif , who scored fourteen . In the 1982 – 83 season , Akram Salman was appointed as the team 's new manager . Al @-@ Talaba started the season with confidence having won the league in the last two seasons , but finished in second place , only one point behind the league leaders , Salahaddin . Salahaddin were undefeated in the league while Al @-@ Talaba had a single loss , by 2 – 0 loss to Al @-@ Sinaa in the second round of matches . The championship was decided in the last match of the season when Al @-@ Talaba met Salahaddin with only one point between them , so Salahaddin needed a win or a draw to secure the title . Al @-@ Talaba scored first and dominated the match until , in the last thirty minutes , Salahaddin managed to equalise . The score remained 1 – 1 , which won Salahaddin the championship for the first time in their history . Hussein Saeed was the top goalscorer with 17 goals , eight goals ahead of another Al @-@ Talaba player , Rahim Hameed . Al @-@ Talaba again finished second in the 1983 – 84 , with 36 points , three behind league leaders , Al @-@ Jaish . In 1984 , Al @-@ Talaba won its first international club competition , the 1984 Bangalore Championship , winning four games and drawing one out of the five games they played in the tournament , which was hosted in Bangalore , India . The 1984 – 85 Iraqi National League was abandoned halfway through due to a perceived decline in public interest , described as becoming " non @-@ existent " , after the performances of the Iraq national football team in the 1986 FIFA World Cup qualification ( AFC ) and winning the 1985 Arab Nations Cup and the 1985 Pan Arab Games . Al @-@ Talaba were in third place with 21 points before the stoppage . They then participated in the Al @-@ Rasheed Cup which was set up by Al @-@ Rasheed after the abandonment of the league . The Al @-@ Rasheed Cup contained twelve of the fourteen top division clubs as well as four lower division clubs . Al @-@ Talaba reached the quarterfinals of the tournament but were knocked out by the eventual winners Al @-@ Rasheed . After Al @-@ Rasheed was promoted to the top division , most of Iraq 's national team players signed for them , which made it difficult for the other teams to compete . Even so , in the 1985 – 86 Iraqi National League and under the management of Yahya Alwan , Al @-@ Talaba won their third league title against all expectations . They finished the season with 25 points , two points ahead of the favourites Al @-@ Rasheed . On 27 December 1985 , one of the most important matches of the season , which could have decided the championship , was played between Al @-@ Talaba and Al @-@ Rasheed in front of 50 @,@ 000 spectators at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . The match ended in a 1 – 0 win for Al @-@ Talaba with the goal being from a penalty taken by Hussein Saeed in the 63rd minute . Saeed was the season 's joint top goalscorer along with Ahmed Radhi and Rahim Hameed . Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 1986 Asian Club Championship after 14 years of stoppage , where they reached the final round but finished last in the table with a single point . Al @-@ Talaba also participated in the Saddam International Tournament in 1986 , hosted in Baghdad , but finished third in their group and failed to reach the semi @-@ finals . By winning the league , Al @-@ Talaba qualified for the 1986 Al @-@ Muthabara Cup but were defeated 2 – 1 by Al @-@ Rasheed . = = = Ups and downs ( 1986 – 1992 ) = = = Due to managerial changes and instability , the 1986 – 87 Iraqi National League ended with Al @-@ Talaba in sixth place , having totaled 49 points , under the consecutive management of Ahmed Subhi , Yahya Alwan and Jamal Salih . The season after , Al @-@ Talaba under the management of Yousif Abdul @-@ Ameer finished in eighth place with only 30 points . This was their worst National League performance since 1975 – 76 . Al @-@ Talaba returned to winning ways under the management of Jamal Ali in the 1988 – 89 season , which was played in a different format to previous seasons . They finished fourth in the Baghdad Group , just ahead of Al @-@ Shorta , to qualify for the final tournament , where they finished second in Group 1 , behind Al @-@ Zawraa , to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba defeated Al @-@ Tayaran 6 – 5 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw . In the final , Al @-@ Talaba faced their rivals , Al @-@ Rasheed , at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . The match ended 1 – 1 at full time with their goal scored by Ali Hussein . It went to penalties where Hussein Saeed missed his penalty and enabled Al @-@ Rasheed to win 5 – 4 . That season , Al @-@ Talaba also finished as runners @-@ up in the Al @-@ Intisar Cup , behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya . In the 1989 – 90 Iraqi National League , which returned to the normal league format , Al @-@ Talaba finished in sixth place with 31 points , having won twelve matches , drawn seven and lost seven . In the cup , they reached the fifth round when they won at home to Al @-@ Sulaikh 1 – 0 and lost 3 – 1 away . This was Hussein Saeed 's final season with Al @-@ Talaba before he retired . In the next season , under the management of the club 's first and only foreign coach , Eddie Firmani , and Yahya Alwan , they finished second with 41 points . In the 1991 – 92 season , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fourth place with 55 points . The vice @-@ president of Al @-@ Talaba , Salim Rasheed , organised a competition called the Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup in which only the top six teams in the league could participate with all the matches being played at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . Al @-@ Talaba won their first match against Al @-@ Shorta 1 – 0 and lost their second match against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya 1 – 0 , qualifying them for the semi @-@ finals where they lost to Al @-@ Zawra 'a 1 – 0 after an early goal by Mohammed Jassim Mahdi . In the third @-@ place match , Al @-@ Talaba faced Al @-@ Karkh whom they defeated 4 – 3 on penalties after a 2 – 2 draw . The 1991 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup ended with Al @-@ Zawra 'a as winners . = = = Stability and Asian prominence ( 1992 – 2001 ) = = = During the longest season in Iraqi football , the 1992 – 93 season , when every club played 69 matches , Al @-@ Talaba had Yahya Alwan as their manager in the first stage of the league , in which they won 14 matches , drawn seven and lost two , 1 – 0 against Kirkuk and the same score against Samarra . They completed the stage in third place with 35 points . Before the start of the second stage , Al @-@ Talaba signed Ayoub Odisho as their new manager , and he led them through the second stage to have exactly the same statistics as the first one , finishing with 70 points and in second place . In the third stage , the team won 18 matches , drew four and lost only once against Al @-@ Khutoot . After 69 matches , Al @-@ Talaba finished top of the league with 110 points , having scored 130 goals and conceded 34 . In the 1992 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup which was organised by the Iraq FA , Al @-@ Talaba finished the group stage as the Group Two leaders with four points . In the semi @-@ finals , they had to face Al @-@ Zawra 'a in a match which was considered a replay of the 1991 semi @-@ final which Al @-@ Zawra 'a won 1 – 0 . In this match , Al @-@ Talaba won 3 – 2 with a golden goal in the 100th minute during extra time . In the final against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya , the match ended in a 0 – 0 draw which led to extra time when Alaa Kadhim scored the winning goal in the 104th minute . In the 1992 – 93 Iraq FA Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the final after defeating Haifa , Salahaddin , Salam and Samarra . In the final , they lost to Al @-@ Zawra 'a 2 – 1 . After almost achieving a treble in the 1992 – 93 season , Al @-@ Talaba were managed by Hussein Saeed in the first half of the 1993 – 94 season and Ayoub Odisho in the second ; they finished in third place with 75 points . In the 1993 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , they came second in the Group One table behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba met Al @-@ Zawra 'a for the third time in a row and won 3 – 1 . In the final , they faced Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya for the second time and defeated them 2 – 1 at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium , winning their second successive Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup under the management of Saeed . In the 1993 – 94 Iraq FA Cup , Al @-@ Talaba again faced Al @-@ Zawra 'a in the final but lost by the same score as in the previous season , 2 – 1 . In the 1994 – 95 Iraqi National League , Al @-@ Talaba finished fourth with 105 points , two points behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya in second place and Najaf in third . In the last round , Al @-@ Talaba faced Al @-@ Zawra 'a needing a win to finish second , but they lost 2 – 1 . In the fourth edition of the Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the final against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya but lost 4 – 3 on penalties after a 0 – 0 draw . In the 1995 – 96 season , Al @-@ Talaba finished in sixth place with 31 points , having won eight matches , drawn seven and lost seven . They reached the final of the 1995 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , coming up against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya for the fourth time in a row in this competition , and Al @-@ Talaba won with a single goal scored by Abdul @-@ Wahab Abu Al @-@ Hail , achieving their third Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup success . After Al @-@ Zawra 'a achieved a double in the 1993 – 94 season , the Iraq FA chose the FA Cup runners @-@ up , Al @-@ Talaba , as Iraq 's representative in the 1995 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup . Under the management of Ayoub Odisho , they defeated Al @-@ Gharafa in the first leg in Doha 5 – 3 and lost in the second leg 1 – 0 at the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . In the second round , they came up against Yangiyer and lost 2 – 1 in Tashkent before they turned it around to win 2 – 0 in Baghdad with goals from Muhannad Mohammed and Qahtan Chathir . In the quarter @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba won their first leg against Bahman in Tehran 1 – 0 with a goal by Sabah Jeayer . At the Al @-@ Shaab Stadium , Bahman won 1 – 0 for a 1 – 1 draw on aggregate . The match went to a golden goal decider which was scored by Chathir . Al @-@ Talaba had now qualified for the semi @-@ finals where they were drawn to meet Kazma SC of Kuwait but Kazma withdrew from the tournament , refusing to play against Al @-@ Talaba because of political tensions between Iraq and other Persian Gulf countries , including Saudi Arabia and Kuwait , in the aftermath of the 1991 Gulf War . The AFC directed Al @-@ Talaba to play against Al @-@ Riyadh of Saudi @-@ Arabia but they too withdrew for the same reason , and that meant Al @-@ Talaba had a walkover through the semi @-@ finals . In the final , Al @-@ Talaba faced Bellmare Hiratsuka in Kanagawa where they were beaten 2 – 1 after the winning goal was scored in the 81st minute by Hidetoshi Nakata . In 1996 , the league was renamed to the Iraqi Premier League , and Al @-@ Talaba finished third in the 1996 – 97 Iraqi Premier League , winning 17 matches , drawing nine and losing four . They reached the round of 16 in the 1996 – 97 Iraq FA Cup and didn 't get past the group stage in the 1996 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup . Under the management of Ayoub Odisho , in the 1997 – 98 season , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fifth place with 61 points , one point behind fourth placed Najaf FC . In the 1997 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , they reached the semi @-@ finals but were defeated by Najaf 3 – 1 on penalties . In the third place match against Al @-@ Zawra 'a , Al @-@ Talaba were beaten 7 – 0 which is the most goals ever conceded in a match by Al @-@ Talaba . In the 1998 – 99 season , now under the management of Akram Salman , Al @-@ Talaba finished in second place , only one point behind the league leaders , Al @-@ Zawra 'a , with 75 points . In the 1998 – 99 Iraq FA Cup , they reached the final after beating Al @-@ Shorta in the semi @-@ finals . They were defeated by Al @-@ Zawra 'a in the final 1 – 0 . Because of Al @-@ Zawra 'a achieving the double , the 1999 Al @-@ Muthabara Cup was played between Al @-@ Zawra 'a and the league and cup runners @-@ up , Al @-@ Talaba , where they were defeated for the third time that season by Al @-@ Zawra 'a , who won 5 – 4 on penalties after a 2 – 2 draw . In the 1998 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , Al @-@ Talaba reached the semi @-@ finals where they were beaten by Al @-@ Naft . In the third @-@ place match , Al @-@ Talaba defeated Al @-@ Mina 'a 3 – 1 . In the 1998 – 99 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup , they managed to reach the semi @-@ finals where they lost to Al @-@ Ittihad and they then lost the third @-@ place play @-@ off to Kashima Antlers . Al @-@ Talaba finished fourth in the 1999 – 2000 season with 100 points . They also finished in the same position in the 2000 – 01 season with 60 points . They finished in fourth place in the 1999 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup after a 3 – 0 loss against Al @-@ Karkh in the third @-@ place play @-@ off . They qualified for the 2000 – 01 Asian Cup Winners ' Cup but were knocked out in the first round by Al @-@ Sadd on away goals . In addition , they reached the final of the 2000 Al @-@ Quds International Championship , but lost to Al @-@ Zawra 'a by 4 – 3 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw . = = = Thair Ahmed era ( 2001 – 2007 ) = = = Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2001 Al @-@ Wehdat Arabian Championship before the start of the 2001 – 02 season ; they played four games , winning one , drawing two and losing one , finishing third in the tournament . After eight years without winning the league and six years without any trophy , Thair Ahmed led Al @-@ Talaba to the 2001 – 02 championship with 91 points from 29 wins , four draws and five losses . They started the season by defeating Kirkuk FC 8 – 0 at Al Karkh Stadium , which is one of the biggest wins by Al @-@ Talaba , and ended it with a 6 – 0 win over Duhok at Al @-@ Shaab Stadium . They reached the final of the 2001 – 02 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , after defeating Al @-@ Karkh 1 – 0 in the semi @-@ finals , against Al @-@ Shorta where they lost with a single goal after extra time . Younis Mahmoud was the top goalscorer of the tournament . Al @-@ Talaba also won their first @-@ ever Iraq FA Cup that season , after meeting Al @-@ Shorta again in the final and defeating them with Qusay Hashim 's late 85th @-@ minute goal . Al @-@ Talaba also won the 2001 Baghdad Cup by defeating Al @-@ Zawra 'a 2 – 1 and won the 2002 Al @-@ Muthabara Cup against the league runners @-@ up , Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya , 2 – 1 after extra time . Al @-@ Talaba finished as runners @-@ up in the 2002 – 03 season , finishing two points behind champions Al @-@ Shorta . In the 2002 – 03 Umm Al @-@ Ma 'arik Cup , they reached the final but were defeated 1 – 0 by Al @-@ Shorta . Al @-@ Talaba 's Ahmad Salah was named the best player of the tournament . They retained the Iraq FA Cup by defeating Al @-@ Mina 'a 1 – 0 with Alaa Kadhim 's goal in the closing minutes and then defeating Al @-@ Shorta in the final 1 – 0 at the Franso Hariri Stadium with Ahmad Salah 's goal in the 26th minute . In the wake of the 2003 invasion of Iraq , all of Al @-@ Talaba 's matches in the 2003 – 04 season were postponed and then cancelled , except two games which they won against Al @-@ Sinaa before the league was abandoned for the season . Al @-@ Talaba were the runners @-@ up of the 2003 Baghdad Championship , defeating Al @-@ Shorta 2 – 1 in the semi @-@ finals and losing to Al @-@ Zawra 'a 5 – 4 on penalties after a 2 – 2 draw in the final , a match that saw three red cards in total . In the 2002 – 03 AFC Champions League , Al @-@ Talaba finished third in Group D with three points from three games after one win and two losses . Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2003 – 04 Arab Champions League , reaching the proper group stage where they finished in third place with three points . Before the start of the 2004 – 05 season , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2004 Damascus International Championship . They played three games in the tournament , winning two and losing one , being knocked out in the group stage . They also participated in the 2004 Tishreen Cup , one week after they were knocked out of the Damascus International Championship . In the Tishreen Cup , they finished top of their group to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . They defeated Tishreen SC 1 – 0 to reach the final , which they lost by 3 – 2 to fellow Iraqi club Al @-@ Zawra 'a . In the 2004 – 05 Iraqi Premier League , Al @-@ Talaba finished the first phase as leaders of Group Three with 28 points , having won eight matches , drawn four and lost four . They also became leaders of Group Two in the second phase with eight points , ahead of Al @-@ Naft who had seven points , after winning two matches and drawing two . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba came up against Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya ; they were beaten in the first leg 1 – 0 and drew the second leg 2 – 2 . Al @-@ Talaba won the third @-@ place play @-@ off against Al @-@ Zawra 'a 4 – 2 on penalties after a 1 – 1 draw . Al @-@ Talaba maintained their performance in the 2005 – 06 Iraqi Premier League by finishing the first phase as the leaders of Group Four with 24 points from seven wins , three draws and two losses . In the second phase , they finished in second place with seven points behind Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya , who had the same number of points but a better goal difference of + 4 against Al @-@ Talaba 's + 1 . In the last match of the second phase , Al @-@ Talaba faced Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya with a chance to retain the league leadership , but they lost 3 – 1 . From 2 – 9 September 2005 , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2005 Damascus International Championship , reaching the final against fellow Iraqi club Al @-@ Zawra 'a . Al @-@ Talaba won 5 – 4 on penalties . In the 2005 – 06 Arab Champions League , Al @-@ Talaba won their first round tie against Al @-@ Shabab by 3 – 1 in the first leg and 4 – 1 in the second leg . They faced Al @-@ Qadisiyah in the second round and were defeated 1 – 0 in the first leg and 2 – 1 in the second leg to be eliminated the competition . On 30 November 2006 , the club 's president , Hadeeb Majhoul , was kidnapped by an unknown terrorist group in Baghdad and , after three days , his body was found in the morgue . The administrative board elected the team 's striker at the time , Alaa Kadhim , as the new interim president until the club 's elections in which he won with 93 votes out of 97 existing on 15 March 2007 . Alaa Khadim was the club 's player @-@ president through 2006 – 07 . Aged 35 at the end of the season , he retired from playing in order to focus on administrating the club . Before the start of the 2006 – 07 season , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2006 Shabab Al @-@ Ordon Arab Championship , a tournament organised by Shabab Al @-@ Ordon Club . Al @-@ Talaba played three matches in the tournament and drew all three of them , being knocked out in the group stage . In the 2006 – 07 Iraqi Premier League , Al @-@ Talaba finished the first phase in second place with 13 points , behind Al @-@ Zawra 'a with 14 points , with three wins , four draws , and one loss . Al @-@ Talaba managed to finish second in the elite stage with eight points from two wins , two draws and one loss , just ahead of Karbalaa with seven points . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba lost to Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya 2 – 0 and then lost 2 – 1 to Najaf FC in the third @-@ place play @-@ off . = = = Instability and crisis ( 2007 – 2013 ) = = = Before the start of the 2007 – 08 season , Al @-@ Talaba participated in the 2007 Press Club Championship , hosted in Syria . Al @-@ Talaba drew both of their group stage matches , finishing second in their group to qualify for the semi @-@ finals . In the semi @-@ final , they lost 3 – 1 against Nawair SC and were knocked out . Al @-@ Talaba considered withdrawing from the 2007 – 08 Iraqi Premier League due to a financial crisis that led to their players not being paid all their salaries on time , but eventually decided not to withdraw . Under the management of Karim Saddam , Nabil Zaki and Karim Salman , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fifth place in the first phase of the league with 36 points , having won nine matches , drew nine , and lost four . They played poorly in the second phase , ending the phase in third place in their group with seven points with only one win , four draws , and three losses . They were knocked out in the round of 32 in the 2007 – 08 Arab Champions League , losing 4 – 0 on aggregate to USM Alger . In the 2008 – 09 Iraqi Premier League , with Abdul Ghani Shahad as Al @-@ Talaba 's manager , they finished in third place in their group with 47 points , only three points behind Najaf FC , with 14 wins , five draws , and five losses . In the 2009 – 10 Iraqi Premier League , under the management of Radhi Shenaishil , Al @-@ Talaba finished as the leaders of Group B in the first stage with 68 points , having won 19 matches , drew 11 , and lost four . They withdrew in the twelfth round due to a ruling from the Iraqi Olympic Committee where they were set to face Baghdad that awarded the win . In the elite stage , Al @-@ Talaba ended up in second place of Group One as the best runners @-@ up of the three groups where they had ten points , the same amount of points as the first place , Al @-@ Zawra 'a , but they had the goals difference of + 2 and Al @-@ Talaba the goals difference of + 1 . If either Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya had beaten Naft Al @-@ Janoob or Al @-@ Shorta had beaten Najaf FC , Al @-@ Talaba would not have qualified for the semi @-@ finals , but Jawiya drew 0 – 0 and Al @-@ Shorta drew 2 – 2 . In the semi @-@ finals , Al @-@ Talaba won 1 – 0 to Erbil in the first leg and drew with no goals in the second leg . They lost in the final to Duhok SC with a late goal in the 82nd minute . With Yahya Alwan as their manager , Al @-@ Talaba had one of the worst seasons in their history in the 2010 – 11 Iraqi Premier League , finishing the season in eighth place of the Southern group with 38 points , only one point away from relegation , with nine wins , eleven draws , and six losses . In the 2011 AFC Cup , Al @-@ Talaba finished in third place in their group with five points , having won one match , drew two , and lost three , therefore they were knocked out at the group stage . In the 2011 – 12 Iraqi Premier League , Al @-@ Talaba with Jamal Ali , Khalaf Hassan , and Karim Salman as their consecutive managers , finished the season in fourth place with 68 points , winning in 19 matches , drawing in 11 , and losing in eight . In the 2012 – 13 Iraqi Premier League , under the management of Nazar Ashraf , Al @-@ Talaba returned to their poor performance of the 2010 – 11 season , finishing in the 14th place with 35 points , only one point away from relegation , with only nine wins , eight draws , and 17 losses . They saved the club from being relegated in the 33rd round against Al @-@ Naft where they won 2 – 1 and also because of Al @-@ Kahraba 's loss to Zakho in the last round . Al @-@ Talaba passed the round of 32 of the 2012 – 13 Iraq FA Cup where they were up against Al @-@ Zawra 'a , drawing 0 – 0 in the first leg and winning 3 – 1 in the second leg before it was abandoned . = = = Recent history ( 2013 – ) = = = Al @-@ Talaba finished the 2013 – 14 Iraqi Premier League , under the management of Abdul @-@ Wahab Abu Al @-@ Hail , in eighth place with 31 points from 22 matches . The season after , Al @-@ Talaba finished in fifth place of Group Two with four wins , five draws , and seven losses before Abu Al @-@ Hail was sacked . In that season , they also participated in a friendly cup , the 2015 Baghdad Cup , which was played between the big four clubs of Baghdad . The mini @-@ tournament started at the semi @-@ final stage and each match was only 30 minutes long . Al @-@ Talaba were knocked out in the semi @-@ final by Al @-@ Zawra 'a , 4 – 2 on penalties after a 0 – 0 draw . In June 2015 , the board signed Ayoub Odisho as the team 's new manager , 18 years after he first held the post in 1998 . The team also signed Younis Mahmoud , an Al @-@ Talaba Hall of Famer and the captain of the Iraq national team , twelve years after he left the club in 2004 , with a free contract to get ready for the 2015 – 16 season . The team finished the group stage in fourth place of Group One with 27 points with seven wins , six draws and four losses , getting qualified to the final stage , where they finished in third place with three wins , three draws and a loss . = = Stadiums = = In the 1980s , a stadium to hold 8 @,@ 000 spectators was built at Hai Al @-@ Qahira in Baghdad to host Al @-@ Talaba 's home matches . Al @-@ Talaba currently hold their training sessions at the University of Baghdad Stadium in Jadraya , Baghdad , 15 km away from their main stadium . In early 2014 , the owner of the club , the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research gave the project of building a new sports city to the Spanish company TriArena . They are constructing a main football stadium with a capacity of 16 @,@ 000 spectators and an area of 71 @,@ 150 m ² . The project also includes two tennis courts , a basketball court , a volleyball court , a fustal pitch , a handball court , a hotel , restaurants , and a covered swimming pool . Al @-@ Talaba is defined as a sports club , not just a football one , and it has supported other sports at minor level only in the past . The foundation stone was laid by the former minister of higher education and scientific research , Ali al @-@ Adeeb , in February 2014 . The cost of the project is estimated to be $ 84 million and the duration of construction was expected to be 30 months , meaning that by 2017 the Al @-@ Talaba Sports City should be open . Due to the financial crisis in Iraq , the the project was scratched after spending $ 4 million on designs . = = Rivalries = = Al @-@ Talaba is one of the four " Popular Teams " in Baghdad , the others being Al @-@ Zawra 'a , Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya and Al @-@ Shorta . All the four Popular Teams have rivalries with each other . Al @-@ Talaba 's arch rivals are Al @-@ Zawra 'a and Al @-@ Quwa Al @-@ Jawiya because of their constant battles to win the Iraqi Premier League over the years . = = Statistics = = = = = Recent seasons = = = The season @-@ by @-@ season performance of the club over the recent years : As of 21 May 2016 . Rank = Rank in the league ; P = Played ; W = Win ; D = Draw ; L = Loss ; F = Goals for ; A = Goals against ; GD = Goal difference ; Pts = Points ; Cup = Iraq FA Cup.in = Still in competition ; — = Not attended ; 1R = 1st round ; 2R = 2nd round ; 3R = 3rd round ; R16 = Round of sixteen ; QF = Quarterfinals ; SF = Semifinals . = Homer 's Phobia = " Homer 's Phobia " is the fifteenth episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 16 , 1997 . In the episode , Homer dissociates himself from new family friend John after discovering that John is gay . Homer fears that John will have a negative influence on his son Bart and decides to ensure Bart 's heterosexuality by taking him hunting . It was the first episode written by Ron Hauge and was directed by Mike B. Anderson . George Meyer pitched " Bart the homo " as an initial idea for an episode while show runners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were planning an episode involving Lisa " discovering the joys of campy things " . Oakley and Weinstein combined the two ideas and they eventually became " Homer 's Phobia " . Fox censors originally found the episode unsuitable for broadcast because of its controversial subject matter , but this decision was reversed after a turnover in the Fox staff . Filmmaker John Waters guest @-@ starred , providing the voice of the new character , John . " Homer 's Phobia " was the show 's first episode to revolve entirely around gay themes and received a positive critical response both for its humor and anti @-@ homophobia message . It won four awards , including an Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or Less ) and a GLAAD Media Award for " Outstanding TV – Individual Episode " . = = Plot = = Needing money to pay for a repair after Bart damages the gas line , the Simpson family visits " Cockamamie 's " , an offbeat collectibles shop , hoping that it will purchase one of the family 's heirlooms ( an " authentic " civil war doll which turns out to be a decorative liquor bottle ) . Homer meets John , the antiques dealer , who explains that much of the merchandise is there because of its camp value . Bart and Lisa take an instant liking to John , and Homer invites him to the Simpsons ' house to see the campy items that the family owns . The next morning , Homer tells Marge that he likes John and suggests they invite him and " his wife " over for a drink some time . Marge tries to hint repeatedly to an oblivious Homer that John is gay , and when she eventually can 't she tells him face to face and Homer is horrified . Homer 's attitude towards John changes completely , and he turns against him , refusing to join his tour of Springfield . The rest of the family joins John and has a good time , but Homer is upset with the family upon their return . The rest of the Simpson family continue to enjoy John 's company , especially Bart , who starts wearing Hawaiian shirts and dancing in a woman 's wig . This makes Homer uneasy , and he begins to fear Bart is gay . Homer endeavors to make Bart more masculine by forcing him to look at a cigarette billboard featuring scantily clad women in hopes Bart will be attracted to girls , but instead Bart gets the urge to smoke " anything slim . " Homer then escorts him to see a steel mill to show Bart a manly environment ; however , much to his surprise and dismay , the entire workforce is gay , and during their breaks they turn the mill into " The Anvil " , a gay disco . A desperate Homer insists on taking Bart deer hunting with Moe and Barney . When they cannot find any deer , they decide instead to go to " Santa 's Village " and shoot the reindeer in the corral , despite a tearful Bart being reluctant to do so . This backfires when the reindeer attack them . John , with the help of Lisa and Marge , uses a Japanese Santa Claus robot to scare off the reindeer and save the hunting party . Homer accepts John , more or less , and tells Bart , who is still unaware of his father 's concerns , that any way he lives his life is fine with him . After Lisa informs Bart that Homer thinks he is gay , Bart is stunned . The episode ends with everyone driving off in John 's car . Just before the end credits a dedication to the steelworkers of America is shown , reading " Keep reaching for that rainbow ! " = = Production = = The original concept for the episode came from a few lines of show ideas written by George Meyer . One of them read " Bart the homo " , and Ron Hauge was selected to write the episode , with the story stemming from that line . The idea of using filmmaker John Waters as a guest star had been around for a while . Many of the staff were fans of his work , and showrunners Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein had planned to use him in an episode called " Lisa and Camp " , which revolved around Lisa " discovering the joys of campy things " . Their idea was combined with Meyer 's and it became this episode . The episode was originally titled " Bart Goes to Camp " , but was renamed because the joke was too oblique . Mike B. Anderson directed the episode , telling The Gold Coast Bulletin : " When I read the script I was enthralled , not only because of the visual possibilities , but also because the story felt very solid . It was engaging and surprising and I really put heart into that episode . " Waters accepted his invitation to be a guest star instantly , stating that if it was good enough for the actress Elizabeth Taylor , who appeared in the season four episodes " Lisa 's First Word " and " Krusty Gets Kancelled " , it was good enough for him . He joked , however , about a negative reaction if his character would be made to look like fitness personality Richard Simmons . John 's design was based largely on Waters ' own appearance ; for animation reasons , Waters moustache was changed from straight to curvy , so that it did not look like a mistake . As thanks for his performance , the show 's staff sent Waters an animation cel from the episode , which he now has hanging in his office . According to Oakley , the Fox censor objected to " Homer 's Phobia " being aired . The normal procedure is for an episode 's script to be sent to the censor and then faxed back with a list of lines and words that should be substituted . However this episode came back with two pages of notes about almost every single line in the show . The censors stated that they did not like the use of the word " gay " , or the discussion of homosexuality at all , and closed with a paragraph which stated that " the topic and substance of this episode are unacceptable for broadcast " . Usually the censor notes are ignored as the offending lines and problems are dealt with after the episode has been animated . In this case the entire episode was deemed a problem , so it could not be solved in this way . The staff asked Waters if he thought the gay community would find the episode offensive . Homer 's use of the word " fag " to insult John was his only problem , so the writers changed it to " queer " . The censor problems ultimately came to nothing as when the episode came back from animation in South Korea , the then @-@ Fox president had just been fired and replaced , with the censors being replaced as well . The new censors sent back merely one line : " acceptable for broadcast " . The " gay steel mill " scene was written by Steve Tompkins . He first pitched that Homer and Bart would encounter longshoremen , but it was too much work to animate the lading of ships , so a steel mill was used instead . Tompkins also wrote a different third act for the episode , which was never produced . Instead of Homer , Bart , Barney and Moe going deer hunting and ending up at " Santa 's Village " they would go back to the steel mill . There , Homer would attempt to prove his heterosexuality by having a human tractor pulling contest with some of the steel mill workers . It was decided that it " didn 't really service the story " and was dropped . = = Cultural references = = The episode features numerous cultural references . The song " Gonna Make You Sweat ( Everybody Dance Now ) " by C + C Music Factory is played twice during the episode : first as the steel mill transforms into a disco , and second over the closing credits . Homer 's record collection includes music by The New Christy Minstrels and The Wedding of Lynda Bird Johnson , the albums Loony Luau and Ballad of the Green Berets by Staff Sgt. Barry Sadler . The song that John picks out and he and Homer dance to is " I Love the Nightlife " by Alicia Bridges , and the song that Bart dances to is " The Shoop Shoop Song ( It 's in His Kiss ) " by Betty Everett . When John is introduced there is a plastic pink flamingo lying in the background , a reference to John Waters 's film Pink Flamingos . Items in John 's store include several buttons endorsing political campaigns of Richard Nixon , Dan Quayle and Bob Dole as well as an issue of TV Guide owned by Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis which features the title characters from the sitcom Laverne & Shirley on the cover . When John takes the Simpson family on a driving tour of Springfield 's shopping district , he points out a store where he claims that the Mexican film actress Lupe Vélez bought the toilet she drowned in . This is a reference to the urban legend that Velez was found dead with her head in the toilet the night of her suicide in 1944 . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings and awards = = = In its original American broadcast , " Homer 's Phobia " finished tied for 47th place in the weekly ratings for the week of February 10 – 16 , 1997 with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 . It was the fourth @-@ highest @-@ rated show on the Fox Network that week . The episode won the Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming One Hour or Less ) in 1997 . Mike Anderson won the Annie Award for Best Individual Achievement : Directing in a TV Production , and the WAC Award for Best Director for Primetime Series at the 1998 World Animation Celebration . Gay and Lesbian Alliance Against Defamation called it " a shining example of how to bring intelligent , fair and funny representations of our community onto television " and awarded it the GLAAD Media Award for Outstanding TV – Individual Episode . Several of the episode 's animation cels were selected for display at the Silver K Gallery in Melbourne , Australia in 2001 . = = = Critical reviews and analysis = = = " Homer 's Phobia " has been cited as a significant part of The Simpsons ' exploration of lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender ( LGBT ) themes . The series made several references to homosexuality before the episode aired . In the 1990 episode " Simpson and Delilah " , the character Karl ( voiced by Harvey Fierstein ) kisses Homer , while the recurring character Waylon Smithers is often shown to be in love with his boss , Montgomery Burns , initially suggestively and since then more overtly . However , " Homer 's Phobia " was the first episode to revolve entirely around homosexual themes . Two later episodes that explored LGBT issues were " Three Gays of the Condo " and " There 's Something About Marrying " . When the episode aired , the production team received " very few " complaints about its content , with most of the response being positive . Alan Frutkin gave the episode a positive write @-@ up in the LGBT @-@ interest magazine The Advocate , calling it " vintage Simpsons . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood stated in their book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , that : " Only The Simpsons could do this so tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek that nobody could get in a tizzy about it . Very good indeed . " In the book Leaving Springfield , Matthew Henry praised the episode 's critiquing of " the most common misconception about homosexuality : namely that gayness is somehow contagious " , as well as its other themes . Catharine Lumby of the University of Sydney cited the episode as an example of good satire as it " managed to explore a lot of [ homosexual ] issues in quite a deep way [ ... ] without being overtly political " , which she claimed , along with the episode 's humor , made its anti @-@ homophobia message more successful than that of other gay @-@ themed shows like Queer as Folk . In his review of The Simpsons – The Complete Eighth Season DVD , Todd Gilchrist said that " Homer 's Phobia " " certainly qualifies as one of the all @-@ time greatest episodes . " It was placed fifth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list . In 2003 , USA Today published a top 10 chosen by the webmaster of The Simpsons Archive , which had this episode listed in tenth place , and it was again placed tenth on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list . IGN.com ranked John Waters 's performance as the ninth @-@ best guest appearance in the show 's history , with TV Guide naming him the third @-@ best film related guest star . In a 2008 article , Entertainment Weekly named Waters as one of the 16 best Simpsons guest stars . John Patterson of The Guardian wrote that Waters ' appearance " felt to me like a summit meeting between the most influential pop @-@ culture figures of the last 25 years . " In 2002 , Off the Telly writers Steve Williams and Ian Jones named " Homer 's Phobia " one of the five worst episodes of The Simpsons , stating that it " leaves such a nasty taste in the mouth " , as Homer is " quite simply a bastard " throughout the course of the episode . The pair concluded by saying " this is a side of the show we 'd not seen before , nor particularly wanted to see . " In June 2003 , Igor Smykov sued the Russian television channel REN TV on claims that The Simpsons , along with Family Guy , were " morally degenerate and promoted drugs , violence and homosexuality . " As evidence , " Homer 's Phobia " was shown to the judge to prove that The Simpsons promoted homosexuality , and thus should not be aired again on the channel . The case was thrown out after one day . = April 23 , 1998 Albanian – Yugoslav border ambush = On the morning of April 23 , 1998 a band of Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) fighters was ambushed by a much smaller group of Yugoslav Army ( VJ ) border guards near the Košare outpost , just west of Dečani . The fighters had been trying to smuggle weapons and supplies into Kosovo via northern Albania . Nineteen were killed in the ensuing attack , and a further two were captured . The VJ did not sustain any casualties . Some of the militants retreated back to Albania , while others managed to break through the ambush and make it past the Yugoslav border , into Kosovo . Following the clash , the VJ confiscated a large quantity of arms that the militants had been transporting . Villagers in northern Albania and western Kosovo reported hearing explosions in the vicinity of the ambush and seeing helicopters flying overhead for much of the following day . Albanian officials later alleged that two of these helicopters had violated the country 's airspace , and Albania moved elite army units to the Yugoslav border in response . Yugoslav authorities accused Albania of backing the KLA . In response to the ambush , U.S. officials indicated that they would push for sanctions to be re @-@ implemented against Yugoslavia , and said they would look to freeze the country 's assets overseas . Some Albanian sources alleged that the men had not been ambushed , rather they were abducted and killed by Yugoslav security forces . Such claims could not be verified by Western journalists , and later that year , Amnesty International affirmed that the men were killed in an ambush while smuggling weapons across the border . = = Background = = Following World War II , Kosovo was given the status of an autonomous province within the Socialist Republic of Serbia , one of six constitutional republics of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . After the death of Yugoslavia 's long @-@ time leader Josip Broz Tito in 1980 , Yugoslavia 's political system began to unravel . In 1989 , Belgrade revoked Kosovo 's autonomy . Kosovo , a province inhabited predominantly by ethnic Albanians , was of great historical and cultural significance to Serbs , who had formed a majority there before the mid @-@ 19th century , but by 1990 represented only about 10 percent of the population . Alarmed by their dwindling numbers , the province 's Serbs began to fear that they were being " squeezed out " by the Albanians , and ethnic tensions worsened . As soon as Kosovo 's autonomy was abolished , a minority government run by Serbs and Montenegrins was appointed by Serbian President Slobodan Milošević to oversee the province , enforced by thousands of heavily armed paramilitaries from Serbia @-@ proper . Albanian culture was systematically repressed and hundreds of thousands of Albanians working in state @-@ owned companies lost their jobs . In 1996 , a ragtag group of Albanian nationalists calling themselves the Kosovo Liberation Army ( KLA ) began attacking the Yugoslav Army ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Vojska Jugoslavije ; VJ ) and the Serbian Ministry of Internal Affairs ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Ministarstvo unutrašnjih poslova ; MUP ) in Kosovo . Their goal was to separate the province from the rest of Yugoslavia , which following the secession of Slovenia , Croatia , Macedonia and Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina in 1991 – 92 , was just a rump federation consisting of Serbia and Montenegro . At first , the KLA carried out hit @-@ and @-@ run attacks ( 31 in 1996 , 55 in 1997 , and 66 in January and February 1998 alone ) . It quickly gained popularity among young Kosovo Albanians , many of whom rejected the non @-@ violent resistance to Yugoslav authorities advocated by the politician Ibrahim Rugova and favoured a more aggressive approach . The organization received a significant boost in 1997 , when an armed uprising in neighbouring Albania led to thousands of weapons from the Albanian Army 's depots being looted . Many of these weapons ended up in the hands of the KLA , which already had substantial resources due its involvement in the trafficking of drugs , weapons and people , as well as through donations from the Albanian diaspora . Cross @-@ border arms smuggling flourished ; the unit charged with securing the Yugoslav border was the 549th Motorized Brigade , under the command of General Božidar Delić . The KLA 's popularity skyrocketed after the VJ and MUP attacked the compound of KLA leader Adem Jashari in March 1998 , killing him , his closest associates and most of his family . The attack motivated thousands of young Kosovo Albanians to join the ranks of the KLA , fueling the Kosovar uprising that eventually erupted in the spring of 1998 . = = Timeline = = = = = Clash = = = According to Delić , at 05 : 45 on the morning of April 23 , soldiers of the 53rd Border Battalion of the 549th Motorized Brigade encountered a group of 150 – 200 militants near the Košare outpost attempting to illegally enter Kosovo via northern Albania , just west of Dečani . Rebels had been massing at the Albanian – Yugoslav border for some time in anticipation of a renewed VJ offensive . Yugoslav authorities stated that the militants were " armed infiltrators " who had been undergoing training in military camps in Albania , and were attempting to smuggle weapons into Kosovo . According to Delić , the border patrol was greatly outnumbered by the militants . Armed with howitzers and rocket launchers , the patrol ambushed the armed group , sparking an intense exchange of fire . Clashes reportedly lasted all night , and the Kosovo Albanian residents of the border village of Batuša reported artillery fire and helicopters flying overhead the following day . The VJ reported suffering no casualties in the clash . Nineteen militants were killed , one was wounded and a further two were captured . It was the single deadliest war @-@ related incident in Kosovo since the attack against Jashari 's compound the previous month . Initial reports suggested that anywhere between 16 and 23 militants had been killed . Nine of the fallen militants were from the village of Erec , near Dečani , about 9 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 0 mi ) from the Albanian border . Delić identified the captured militants as Gazmend Tahiraj ( an English professor from Erec ; b . 1970 ) and Ibër Metaj ( an agricultural technician from Erec ; b . 1961 ) . The remaining militants either managed to break through the ambush and reach Kosovo , or fled back to Albania , according to Delić . Footage taken by the military , and later broadcast on Yugoslav television , showed a field strewn with guns , ammunition and the bodies of three militants . The VJ reported seizing 4 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 9 long tons ; 4 @.@ 4 short tons ) of weapons and ammunition , including 120 cases of landmines . = = = Aftermath = = = During Milošević 's trial at the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia , Delić testified that an investigative judge from Niš visited the Košare outpost shortly after fighting had ceased , and conducted an on @-@ site investigation . Journalists were not allowed to visit the site due to " security concerns " . On April 24 , Western reporters saw VJ personnel digging mortar positions south of Dečani , about 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the Albanian border . The troops said they had been exchanging gunfire with the rebels over the previous two days . The U.S. State Department acknowledged that it had received reports of " myriad deaths " along the Albanian border . State Department spokesman James Rubin called the situation in Kosovo " quite troubling , extremely dangerous . " U.S. officials said they would push for a freeze on Yugoslavia 's overseas assets and an international ban on foreign trade with the country in response to the violence . In turn , the Yugoslav military issued a statement requesting that the West put pressure on Kosovo Albanian leaders " to give up and denounce terrorism if they truly wanted a peaceful and political solution to Kosovo 's problems . " The statement	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
also accused Albania of " training , infiltrating and illegally arming the terrorists , " and demanded that the West pressure the country to desist from such activities . Albania denied supporting the KLA insurgency , and alleged that two Yugoslav helicopters had violated its airspace . Yugoslavia denied that there had been any violations . Consequently , the Albanian Army and police were placed on high alert , and the country stationed elite troops along its border . On April 27 , nine of the fallen militants were buried in Erec . Some 400 ethnic Albanians attended their funerals . The dead ranged in age from seventeen to forty @-@ five years old . Villagers claimed that some of the dead had been arrested days before their deaths and thus could not have been ambushed , as the Yugoslav authorities claimed . Such claims could not be independently verified by Western reporters . In a 1998 report , Amnesty International affirmed that the 19 men had been killed in an ambush while trying to smuggle weapons into Kosovo . = Ryan Gosling = Ryan Thomas Gosling ( born November 12 , 1980 ) is a Canadian actor , musician , and producer . He began his career as a child star on the Disney Channel 's Mickey Mouse Club ( 1993 – 95 ) and went on to appear in other family entertainment programs including Are You Afraid of the Dark ? ( 1995 ) and Goosebumps ( 1996 ) . He starred in the television series Breaker High ( 1997 – 98 ) as Sean Hanlon and Young Hercules ( 1998 – 99 ) as the title role . His first starring role was as a Jewish neo @-@ Nazi in The Believer ( 2001 ) , and he then built a reputation for starring in independent films such as Murder by Numbers ( 2002 ) , The Slaughter Rule ( 2002 ) , and The United States of Leland ( 2003 ) . Gosling came to the attention of a wider audience in 2004 with a leading role in the romantic drama The Notebook , for which he won four Teen Choice Awards and an MTV Movie Award . His performance as a drug @-@ addicted teacher in Half Nelson ( 2006 ) was nominated for an Academy Award and his performance as a socially inept loner in Lars and the Real Girl ( 2007 ) was nominated for a Golden Globe Award . Also in 2007 , he starred in the courtroom thriller Fracture . After a three @-@ year acting hiatus , Gosling starred in Blue Valentine , earning him a second Golden Globe nomination . 2011 proved to be a landmark year for Gosling as he co @-@ starred in three mainstream films – the romantic comedy @-@ drama Crazy , Stupid , Love , the political drama The Ides of March and the action thriller Drive – and received two Golden Globe nominations . In 2013 , he starred in the crime thriller Gangster Squad , the generational drama The Place Beyond the Pines , and the violent revenge film Only God Forgives . His directorial debut Lost River was released in 2014 . In 2015 , he joined an ensemble cast for the financial drama The Big Short . Gosling 's band , Dead Man 's Bones , released their self @-@ titled debut album and toured North America in 2009 . He is a co @-@ owner of Tagine , a Moroccan restaurant in Beverly Hills , California . He is a supporter of PETA , Invisible Children and the Enough Project and has travelled to Chad , Uganda and eastern Congo to raise awareness about conflicts in the regions . = = Early life = = Ryan Thomas Gosling was born in London , Ontario , to Thomas Ray Gosling , a travelling salesman for a paper mill , and Donna , a secretary who qualified as a high school teacher in 2011 . His father is of English , Scottish , and French Canadian descent ; Ryan 's great @-@ great grandfather , George Edward Gosling , was born in Paddington , London , England . Gosling 's parents were Mormons , and Gosling has said that the religion influenced every aspect of their lives . Because of his father 's work , they " moved around a lot " and Gosling lived in both Cornwall , Ontario , and Burlington , Ontario . His parents divorced when he was 13 , and he and his older sister Mandi lived with their mother , an experience Gosling has credited with programming him " to think like a girl " . Gosling was educated at Gladstone Public School , Cornwall Collegiate and Vocational School and Lester B. Pearson High School . As a child , he watched Dick Tracy and was inspired to become an actor . He " hated " being a child , was bullied in elementary school and had no friends until he was " 14 or 15 " . In the first grade , having been heavily influenced by the action film First Blood , he took steak knives to school and threw them at other children during recess . This incident led to a suspension . He was unable to read and was diagnosed with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , prescribed Ritalin , and placed in a class for special @-@ needs students . Consequently , his mother quit her job and homeschooled him for a year . Gosling has said that homeschooling gave him " a sense of autonomy that I 've never really lost " . Gosling performed from an early age . He showed interest in performing when his sister was a performer . He and his sister sang together at weddings ; he performed with Elvis Perry , his uncle 's Elvis Presley tribute act , and was involved with a local ballet company . Performing boosted his self @-@ confidence as it was the only thing he received praise for . He developed an idiosyncratic accent because , as a child , he thought having a Canadian accent did not sound " tough " . He began to model his accent on that of Marlon Brando . He dropped out of high school at the age of seventeen to focus on his acting career . = = Acting career = = = = = Child actor ( 1993 – 1999 ) = = = In 1993 , at the age of 12 , Gosling attended an open audition in Montreal for a revival of Disney Channel 's Mickey Mouse Club . He was given a two @-@ year contract as a mouseketeer and moved to Orlando , Florida . He appeared on @-@ screen infrequently because other children were considered more talented . Nonetheless , he has described the job as the greatest two years of his life . Fellow cast members included Justin Timberlake , Britney Spears , and Christina Aguilera . Gosling has credited the experience with instilling in them " this great sense of focus . " He became particularly close friends with Timberlake and they lived together for six months during the second year of the show . Timberlake 's mother became Gosling 's legal guardian after his mother returned to Canada for work reasons . Gosling has said that , even though he and Timberlake are no longer in touch , they are still supportive of each other . Following the show 's cancellation in 1995 , Gosling returned to Canada and continued to appear in family entertainment television series including Are You Afraid of the Dark ? ( 1995 ) , Goosebumps ( 1996 ) and starred in Breaker High ( 1997 – 98 ) as Sean Hanlon . At the age of 18 , he moved to New Zealand to film the Fox Kids adventure series Young Hercules ( 1998 – 99 ) as the title character . In 2002 , he told the Vancouver Sun that he initially enjoyed working on the show , but began to care too much about the series , so it was no longer fun for him . He wanted to spend more time sitting with and devising a character as well as play a variety of roles , so he chose to enter film and not accept any more television work . = = = Move to independent film ( 2000 – 2003 ) = = = At the age of nineteen , Gosling decided to move into " serious acting " . He was dropped by his agent and initially found it difficult to secure work because of the " stigma " attached to children 's television . After a supporting role in the football drama Remember the Titans , Gosling secured a lead role as a young Jewish neo @-@ Nazi in 2001 's The Believer . Director Henry Bean said he cast Gosling because his Mormon upbringing helped him understand the isolation of Judaism . Kevin Thomas of the Los Angeles Times praised an " electrifying and terrifyingly convincing " performance while Todd McCarthy of Variety felt his " dynamite performance " could " scarcely have been better " . The film won the Grand Jury Prize at the Sundance Film Festival and Gosling has described it as " the film that kind of gift @-@ wrapped for me the career that I have now . " Because of the controversial nature of the film , it was difficult to secure financial backing for a full theatrical release and the film was instead broadcast on Showtime . The film was a commercial failure , grossing just $ 416 @,@ 925 worldwide from a production budget of $ 1 @.@ 5 million . In 2002 , Gosling co @-@ starred in the psychological thriller Murder by Numbers with Sandra Bullock and Michael Pitt , where Gosling and Pitt portrayed a pair of high school seniors who believe they can commit the perfect murder . Bullock played the detective tasked with investigating the crime . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly described him as " a phenomenal talent even in junk like this " while Todd McCarthy of Variety felt that the " strong and " charismatic " young actors were " let down by the screenplay " . The film was a minor commercial success , grossing $ 56 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 50 million . His second screen appearance of 2002 was in The Slaughter Rule with David Morse which explores the relationship between a high school football player and his troubled coach in rural Montana . Gosling has said that the opportunity to work with Morse made him " a better actor " . Stephen Holden of The New York Times described Gosling as " major star material " with a " rawness and an intensity that recall the young Matt Dillon " while Manohla Dargis of the Los Angeles Times was won over by his " raw talent " . The film was released in just three US theatres and grossed $ 13 @,@ 411 . In 2003 , Gosling starred in The United States of Leland as a teenager imprisoned for the murder of a disabled boy . He was drawn to the role because it was unusual to find a character that was " emotionally disconnected for the whole film . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times felt that the " gifted actor does everything that can be done with Leland , but the character comes from a writer 's conceits , not from life . " A.O. Scott of The New York Times noted that he " struggles to rescue Leland from the clutches of cliché " while David Rooney of Variety felt that his " one @-@ note , blankly disturbed act has none of the magnetic edge of his breakthrough work in The Believer " . The film grossed $ 343 @,@ 847 in the United States and was not released overseas . = = = The Notebook and Half Nelson ( 2004 – 2009 ) = = = Gosling came to the attention of a mainstream audience in 2004 after starring opposite fellow Canadian Rachel McAdams in the romantic drama film The Notebook , a film adaptation of Nicholas Sparks ' novel of the same name , directed by Nick Cassavetes . Gosling portrayed Noah Calhoun and commented on the role : " It gave me an opportunity to play a character over a period of time – from 1940 to 1946 – that was quite profound and formative . " Gosling sought to imbue his character with " quiet strength " and was inspired by the performance of Sam Shepard in Days of Heaven . Shepard co @-@ starred in The Notebook . Filming took place in Charleston , South Carolina , in late 2002 and early 2003 . Although Gosling and McAdams became romantically involved in 2005 , they had a combative relationship on the set . " We inspired the worst in each other , " Gosling has said . " It was a strange experience , making a love story and not getting along with your co @-@ star in any way . " At one point , Gosling asked Cassavetes to " bring somebody else in for my off @-@ camera shot " because he felt McAdams was uncooperative . The New York Times praised the " spontaneous and combustible " performances of the two leads and noted that , " against your better judgment , you root for the pair to beat the odds against them . " Desson Thomson of The Washington Post praised Gosling 's " beguiling unaffectedness " and noted that " it 's hard not to like these two or begrudge them a great love together " . The film grossed over $ 115 million worldwide and , with adjustments for inflation , it remains the most commercially successful film of Gosling 's career as of 2012 . Gosling won four Teen Choice Awards and an MTV Movie Award . Entertainment Weekly has said that the movie contains the All @-@ Time Best Movie Kiss while the Los Angeles Times has included a scene from the film in a list of the 50 Classic Movie Kisses . The Notebook has appeared on many Most Romantic Movies lists . In 2005 , Gosling appeared as a disturbed young art student in Stay , a psychological thriller film co @-@ starring Naomi Watts and Ewan McGregor . In an uncomplimentary review of the film , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said that Gosling " like his fans , deserves better . " Todd McCarthy of Variety felt that the " capable " McGregor and Gosling " deliver nothing new from what they 've shown before " . The film grossed $ 8 million worldwide . Gosling was unfazed by the negative reaction : " I had a kid come up to me on the street , 10 years old , and he says , ' Are you that guy from Stay ? What the f--- was that movie about ? ' I think that 's great . I 'm just as proud if someone says , ' Hey , you made me sick in that movie , ' as if they say I made them cry . ” Gosling next starred in 2006 's Half Nelson as a drug @-@ addicted junior high school teacher who forms a bond with a young student . To prepare for the role , Gosling moved to New York for one month before shooting began . He lived in a small apartment in Brooklyn and spent time shadowing an eighth grade teacher . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times described " a mesmerizing performance ... that shows the kind of deep understanding of character few actors manage . " Ruthe Stein of the San Francisco Chronicle drew comparisons with Marlon Brando and declared that " nobody who cares about great acting will want to miss his performance " . Roger Ebert felt the performance " proves he 's one of the finest actors working in contemporary movies . " He was nominated for an Academy Award . The film grossed $ 4 million at the worldwide box office . In 2007 , he was invited to join the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences . Gosling played an introvert who falls in love with a sex doll in the 2007 film Lars and the Real Girl . He drew inspiration from James Stewart 's performance in Harvey . Roger Ebert felt " a film about a life @-@ sized love doll " had been turned into " a life @-@ affirming statement of hope " because of " a performance by Ryan Gosling that says things that cannot be said " . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post described his performance as " a small miracle ... because he changes and grows so imperceptibly before our eyes . " However , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt " the performance is a rare miscalculation in a mostly brilliant career . " He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was a box office failure , failing to recoup its $ 12 million production budget . Gosling starred opposite Anthony Hopkins in the 2007 courtroom thriller Fracture . He originally turned down the role , but changed his mind when Hopkins signed on . Gosling noted that he was drawn to his character , Willie , because he had flaws and seemed like a real person . He spent time shadowing lawyers and observing courtroom proceedings in preparation for the role . Claudia Puig of USA Today declared that " watching a veteran like Hopkins verbally joust with one of the best young actors in Hollywood is worth the price of admission " . Manohla Dargis of The New York Times felt it was a treat to watch " the spectacle of that crafty scene stealer Anthony Hopkins mixing it up with that equally cunning screen nibbler Ryan Gosling ... Each actor is playing a pulp type rather than a fully formed individual , but both fill in the blanks with an alchemical mix of professional and personal charisma . " The film grossed over $ 91 million worldwide . Gosling was scheduled to begin filming The Lovely Bones in 2007 . However , he left the production two days before filming began because of " creative differences " and was replaced by Mark Wahlberg . Gosling had been cast as the father of the murdered teenage girl and initially felt he was too young for the role . The director Peter Jackson and the producer Fran Walsh persuaded him that he could be aged with hair and make @-@ up changes . Before shooting began , Gosling gained 60 pounds in weight and grew a beard to appear older . Walsh then " began to feel he was not right . It was our blindness , the desire to make it work no matter what . " Gosling later said , " We didn 't talk very much during the preproduction process , which was the problem ... I just showed up on set , and I had gotten it wrong . Then I was fat and unemployed . " He has said the experience was " an important realisation for me : not to let your ego get involved . It 's OK to be too young for a role . " = = = Widespread recognition ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = = Following a three @-@ year absence from the big screen , Gosling starred in five movies in 2010 and 2011 . " I ’ ve never had more energy , ” Gosling has said . “ I ’ m more excited to make films than I used to be . I used to kind of dread it . It was so emotional and taxing . But I ’ ve found a way to have fun while doing it . And I think that translates into the films . ” He has also spoken of feeling depressed when not working . In 2010 , he co @-@ starred with Michelle Williams in Derek Cianfrance 's directorial debut , the marital drama Blue Valentine . The low @-@ budget film was mainly improvised and Gosling has said " you had to remind yourself you were making a film " . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt he " brings a preternatural understanding of people to his performance " while A.O. Scott of The New York Times found him " convincing as the run @-@ down , desperate , older Dean , and maybe a bit less so as the younger version " . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly noted that he " plays Dean as a snarky working @-@ class hipster , but when his anger is unleashed , the performance turns powerful . " However , Wesley Morris of The Boston Globe felt the performance was an example of " hipsterism misdirected " . He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama . The film was a box office success , grossing over $ 12 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 1 million . Gosling 's second on @-@ screen appearance of 2010 was in the mystery film All Good Things with Kirsten Dunst , based on a true story . He played the role of New York real @-@ estate heir Robert Durst , who was investigated for the disappearance of his wife ( played by Dunst ) . Gosling found the filming process to be a " dark experience " and did not undertake any promotional duties for the film . When asked if he was proud of the film , he replied , " I 'm proud of what Kirsten does in the movie . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone felt he " gets so deep into character you can feel his nerve endings . " Mick La Salle of the San Francisco Chronicle found the " chameleonic Gosling is completely convincing as this empty shell of a man " . Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times felt that the film belonged to Dunst , but noted that Gosling " is good too " . The film grossed $ 644 @,@ 535 worldwide . Also in 2010 , Gosling narrated and produced ReGeneration , a documentary that explores the cynicism in today ’ s youth towards social and political causes . 2011 saw Gosling expand his horizons by appearing in three diverse , high @-@ profile roles . He co @-@ starred in his first comedic role in the romantic comedy @-@ drama Crazy , Stupid , Love , with Steve Carell and Emma Stone . Gosling took cocktail @-@ making classes at a Los Angeles bar in preparation for his role as a smooth @-@ talking ladies ' man . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post said his " seductive command presence suggests we may have found our next George Clooney " . Peter Travers declared him " a comic knockout " while Claudia Puig of USA Today felt he reveals a " surprising " " knack for comedy . " He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor - Motion Picture Musical or Comedy . The film was a box office success , grossing over $ 142 million worldwide . With adjustments for inflation , it is the second most successful of Gosling 's career . Gosling 's first action role was in Drive , based on a novel by James Sallis . Gosling portrayed a Hollywood stunt performer who moonlights as a getaway driver and he has described the film as a " violent John Hughes movie " : " I always thought if Pretty in Pink had head @-@ smashing it would be perfect " . Roger Ebert compared Gosling to Steve McQueen and stated that he " embodies presence and sincerity ... he has shown a gift for finding arresting , powerful characters [ and ] can achieve just about anything . Joe Morgenstern of the Wall Street Journal pondered " the ongoing mystery of how he manages to have so much impact with so little apparent effort . It 's irresistible to liken his economical style to that of Marlon Brando . " The film was a box office success , grossing $ 70 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 15 million . In his final appearance of 2011 , Gosling co @-@ starred with Philip Seymour Hoffman in the political drama The Ides of March directed by George Clooney , in which he played an ambitious press secretary . Gosling partly decided to do the film to become more politically aware : " I 'm Canadian and so American politics aren 't really in my wheelhouse . " Joe Morganstern of the Wall Street Journal said that Gosling and Hoffman " are eminently well equipped to play variations on their characters ' main themes . Yet neither actor has great material to conjure with in the script . " In a generally tepid review , Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times asserted that it was " certainly involving to see the charismatic Gosling verbally spar with superb character actors like Hoffman and [ Paul ] Giamatti . " Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt there was " one aspect to the character that Gosling can 't quite nail down , that might simply be outside his sphere , which is idealism . " He was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor – Motion Picture Drama . The film grossed $ 66 million worldwide . = = = Mixed critical notices and directorial debut ( 2013 – present ) = = = In 2013 's Gangster Squad , a crime thriller , Gosling portrayed Sgt. Jerry Wooters , a 1940s LAPD officer who attempts to outsmart mob boss Mickey Cohen ( played by Sean Penn ) . He was reunited with Emma Stone as his love interest , after their earlier pairing in Crazy , Stupid Love . Stone has said she hopes they will find more projects to work together on . A.O. Scott of The New York Times described the film as an excuse for the cast " to earn some money trying out funny voices and suppressing whatever sense of nuance they might possess . " Christy Lemire of the Boston Globe criticized Gosling 's " weird , whispery voice " and his " barely developed , one @-@ note " character . However , Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times felt that there was " a seductive power " in the scenes shared by Gosling and Stone : " But like too much else in the film , it 's a scenario that is only half played out . " In The Place Beyond the Pines , a generational drama directed by Blue Valentine 's Derek Cianfrance , Gosling portrayed Luke , a motorcycle stunt rider who robs banks to provide for his family . The shoot was described by Gosling as " the best experience I have ever had making a film . " A. O. Scott of the New York Times praised the performance : " Mr. Gosling ’ s cool self @-@ possession — the only thing he was allowed to display in “ Drive ” — is complicated , made interesting , by hints of childlike innocence and vulnerability . " Scott Foundas of The Village Voice was unimpressed : " Gosling 's character verges on parody ... Gosling uses a soft , wounded half @-@ whisper that tells us this is all some kind of put @-@ on ... It 's a close variation on the role Gosling played to stronger effect in Nicolas Winding Refn 's existential Hollywood thriller , Drive , where it was clear the character was meant to be an abstraction . " David Denby of The New Yorker remarked that he " reprises his inexorable @-@ loner routine " . The film has grossed $ 35 million worldwide from a production budget of $ 15 million . Later that year , Gosling starred in the violent revenge drama Only God Forgives , directed by Drive 's Nicolas Winding Refn . Gosling undertook Muay Thai training in preparation for the role and has described the script as " the strangest thing I ’ ve ever read " . David Edelstein of New York Magazine stated : " Gosling looked like a major actor as a skinhead in The Believer and a star in Half Nelson . Then he stopped acting and started posing . His performance in Only God Forgives ( would God forgive that title ? ) is one long , moist stare " . Peter Debruge of Variety remarked that " the wallpaper emotes more than Ryan Gosling . " Stephen Holden of the New York Times criticized Gosling 's inability " to give his automaton any suggestion of an inner life " . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone commented that Gosling , while " meant to be a blank page for us to write on , often looks merely blank " . Betsy Sharkey of the Los Angeles Times was disappointed by Gosling 's performance : " Gosling moves through " Only God Forgives " like a mannequin waiting to be brought to life ... has never been less dimensional " . Sara Stewart of the New York Post was unimpressed : " Gosling reprises his man @-@ of @-@ few @-@ words persona ... Enough already . " In early 2013 , Gosling announced that he was taking a break from acting , stating , “ I ’ ve lost perspective on what I ’ m doing . I think it ’ s good for me to take a break and reassess why I ’ m doing it and how I ’ m doing it . And I think this is probably a good way to learn about that . ” Gosling 's directorial debut Lost River competed in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2014 Cannes Film Festival . The " fantasy noir " , written by Gosling , stars Christina Hendricks , Ben Mendelsohn , and Matt Smith . The film received largely unfavorable reviews . Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian found it " insufferably conceited " and remarked that Gosling had lost " any sense of proportion or humility . " Robbie Collin of The Telegraph described Lost River as " mind @-@ bogglingly pleased with itself " while Variety 's Justin Chang dismissed the " derivative " film as a " train @-@ wreck . " In 2015 , he played a bond salesman in the financial drama The Big Short , a Best Picture nominee at the 2016 Academy Awards . David Sims of The Atlantic felt he was " smarmily funny , somehow simultaneously magnetic and repulsive ; after years wandering the halls of mediocre art cinema , it ’ s wonderful to see him cut loose again . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone said : " Gosling , a virtuoso of verbal sleaze , talks directly to the camera , and he 's volcanically fierce and funny . " Chris Nashawaty of Entertainment Weekly felt he " oozes smarm and smartass charm . " However , Peter Keogh of the Boston Globe said he was merely " doing a fair imitation of Bradley Cooper . " In 2016 , Gosling co @-@ starred in the dark detective comedy The Nice Guys , opposite Russell Crowe , and will star in the musical comedy La La Land , opposite Emma Stone . Gosling also filmed an appearance in the upcoming Terrence Malick film Weightless . The film 's co @-@ stars Christian Bale , Cate Blanchett , Rooney Mara , Haley Bennett , Val Kilmer and Michael Fassbender . When asked to provide details of the film or his role , Gosling replied , " I can 't comment . A ' Chatty Cathy ' that one . " Gosling had previously signed on to work with Malick in 2004 on the biographical film Che . However , Malick left the project to direct The New World and Gosling later dropped out with scheduling conflicts . It has been announced that Gosling will play an undisclosed role in the sequel to Blade Runner , which began filming in early July 2016 . = = Music career = = In 2007 , Gosling made a solo recording called " Put Me in the Car " available for download on the Internet . Also that year , Gosling and his friend Zach Shields formed the indie rock band Dead Man 's Bones . The two first met in 2005 when Gosling was dating Rachel McAdams and Shields was dating her sister , Kayleen . They initially conceived of the project as a monster @-@ themed musical but settled on forming a band when they realized putting on a stage production would be too expensive . They recorded their self @-@ titled debut album with the Silverlake Conservatory 's Children 's Choir and learned to play all the instruments themselves . Gosling contributed vocals , piano , guitar , bass guitar and cello to the record . The album was released through ANTI- Records on October 6 , 2009 . Pitchfork Media was won over by the " unique , catchy and lovably weird record " while Prefix felt the album was " rarely kitschy and never inappropriate " . However , Spin felt the album " doesn 't reverse the rule that actors make dubious pop musicians " and Entertainment Weekly criticized its " cloying , gothic preciousness " . In September 2009 , Gosling and Shields had a three @-@ night residency at LA 's Bob Baker Marionette Theater where they performed alongside dancing neon skeletons and glowing ghosts . They then conducted a thirteen @-@ date tour of North America in October 2009 , using a local children 's choir at every show . Instead of an opening act , a talent show was held each night . In September 2010 , they performed at Los Angeles ' FYF Festival . In 2011 , the actor spoke of his intentions to record a second Dead Man 's Bones album . No children 's choir will be featured on the follow @-@ up album because " it 's not very rock ' n ' roll " . = = Charity work = = Gosling is supportive of various social causes . He has worked with PETA on a campaign to encourage KFC and McDonald 's to use improved methods of chicken slaughter in their factories , and on a campaign encouraging dairy farmers to stop de @-@ horning cows . Gosling volunteered in Biloxi , Mississippi in 2005 , as part of the clean @-@ up effort following Hurricane Katrina . He is a supporter of Invisible Children Inc , a group that raises awareness about the LRA in Central Africa . In 2005 , Gosling travelled to Darfur refugee camps in Chad . He was a speaker at Campus Progress 's National Conference in 2008 where he discussed Darfur . As part of his work with the Enough Project , he visited Uganda in 2007 and eastern Congo in 2010 . = = Personal life = = Gosling previously resided in New York City with his mixed @-@ breed dog , George . He co @-@ owns Tagine , a Moroccan restaurant in Beverly Hills , California . He bought the restaurant on an impulse ; he has said that he spent " all [ his ] money " on it , spent a year doing the renovation work himself , and now oversees the restaurant 's menus . = = = Relationships = = = Gosling dated his Murder by Numbers co @-@ star Sandra Bullock for a year from 2002 to 2003 . He also dated his The Notebook co @-@ star Rachel McAdams from mid @-@ 2005 to mid @-@ 2007 , and they briefly reunited in mid @-@ 2008 . In September 2011 , Gosling began dating his The Place Beyond the Pines co @-@ star Eva Mendes . He has two daughters with Mendes , born in September , 2014 and April , 2016 . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = Discography = = With Dead Man 's Bones 2009 : Dead Man 's Bones Solo 2011 : " You Always Hurt the Ones You Love " – Blue Valentine : Original Motion Picture Soundtrack = = Awards and nominations = = = Neville Page = Neville Page is a British @-@ American film and television creature and concept designer . Born in England , he was raised in Manchester , and Chicago , Illinois . He was inspired by science fiction , including Star Wars , and makeup artist Rick Baker 's work in An American Werewolf in London . Page moved to Hollywood at the age of 17 , and gained roles as an actor . He graduated with honors in 1990 from the Art Center College of Design with a degree in industrial design , and went on to teach students in Switzerland . He focused his work on design consulting along with business partner Scott Robertson . Page has worked as a concept designer on films , including Super 8 , Watchmen , Star Trek , TRON : Legacy , Cloverfield , and Avatar . In 2010 his works were featured in an exhibit titled " From Page to Screen : Character and Creature Design of Neville Page " at the Oceanside Museum of Art . He joined the panel of judges on the SyFy television series Face Off for its third season alongside Ve Neill and Glenn Hetrick . His works were again featured at the Oceanside Museum of Art in 2012 in an exhibit titled " The Beauty in the Beast : Crafting Creatures by Neville Page " , which highlighted his designs in films , including Green Lantern , Prometheus , and TRON : Legacy . = = Early life = = Neville was born in England , and grew up in Manchester , England . He was later raised in Chicago , Illinois . He grew up around artistic influences ; his parents worked as performers in the circus . From an early age he was motivated to pursue a career in science fiction due to his appreciation for Star Wars . Page was inspired by makeup artist Rick Baker and his film work , including An American Werewolf in London . At the age of 17 , Page moved to Hollywood to further employment in acting . He gained minor roles on soap operas , including General Hospital . He took coursework at the Art Center College of Design , and in 1989 for a class on product @-@ design he created a machine apparatus similar to that used by the character portrayed by Sigourney Weaver in the film Aliens . He received his degree in industrial design from that institution with honors in 1990 . Following his graduation , Page instructed students at the Switzerland location of the Art Center College of Design . Along with his studio partner Scott Robertson , he began work in the field of design consulting . = = Career = = Neville instructs students at the Gnomon School of Visual Effects in Hollywood , in addition to the Art Center College of Design , in Pasadena , California . He has worked as a concept designer on films , including Watchmen , Star Trek , TRON : Legacy , Cloverfield , and Avatar . Cloverfield director Matt Reeves noted they hired Page to design the " creature " that appears in the film , commenting , " We would go into his office and he would have what I affectionately referred to as his ' Wall of Terror . ' On the wall were all sorts of bits of color , and as you got closer suddenly your interest turned to revulsion because those pictures were like pictures of intestines and eyeballs and pieces of animals . What he was doing was having a biological , evolutionary basis for every aspect of the creature . " From July through August 2010 , the Oceanside Museum of Art held an exhibition on Page . Titled : " From Page to Screen : Character and Creature Design of Neville Page " , featuring works by Page , including pencil drawings , three @-@ dimensional models , and digital creations . Page said he hoped the exhibit would educate the public about a different facet to filmmaking , " The general public tends to associate films with actors versus people who conceive and design and make the films . What is on display is one small facet of what it takes to make a movie , one of the many gears involved in the mechanism , neither more important nor less ... simply as important . " Neville has served as a judge on the SyFy television series Face Off . He joined the judging panel on Face Off in season three , which launched in August 2012 . His fellow judges included Ve Neill and Glenn Hetrick . Page returned for the fourth season in 2013 . In October 2012 , Page returned to the Oceanside Museum of Art , with an exhibition titled , " The Beauty in the Beast : Crafting Creatures by Neville Page " . The exhibit which ran for ten weeks featured 45 works by Page from films , including Green Lantern , Prometheus , and TRON : Legacy . He was the creature designer for the 2013 American science fiction action film Star Trek Into Darkness . = = Reception = = In the 2011 book Star Wars vs. Star Trek : Could the Empire kick the Federation 's ass ? And other galaxy @-@ shaking enigmas , author Matt Forbeck characterized Neville Page as a " creature guru " . Cloverfield director Matt Reeves spoke highly of his work with Page , " ... he is a genius . " Reeves characterized Page 's work on the " creature " in the film , " It developed in many different ways , and it came down to what Neville was doing , which was amazing . " The North County Times referred to him observing , " Page is one of the most recognizable artists in the entertainment industry for his iconic designs . " Director of exhibitions and collections at the Oceanside Museum of Art , Teri Sowell , reflected of the exhibition featuring Page 's work to The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , " These creatures are so embedded in our minds , we take them for granted . It 's really handcrafted art . " Film director J. J. Abrams commented on Page 's work on his film Super 8 , " the designer of the creature , Neville Page , did an amazing job and I think he gave us something that took a ton of iterations but he really nailed it " . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = Awards and nominations = = = Joaquim José Inácio , Viscount of Inhaúma = Joaquim José Inácio , Viscount of Inhaúma ( 1 August 1808 – 8 March 1869 ) was a naval officer , politician and monarchist of the Empire of Brazil . He was born in the Kingdom of Portugal , and his family moved to Brazil two years later . After Brazilian independence in 1822 , Inhaúma enlisted in the armada ( navy ) of Brazil . Early in his career during the latter half of the 1820s , he participated in the subduing of secessionist rebellions : first the Confederation of the Equator , and then the Cisplatine War , which precipitated a long international armed conflict with the United Provinces of the River Plate . Throughout the chaos that characterized the years when Emperor Dom Pedro II was a minor , Inhaúma remained loyal to the government . He helped quell a military mutiny in 1831 and was involved in suppressing some of the other rebellions that erupted during that troubled period . He saw action in the Sabinada between 1837 and 1838 , followed by the Ragamuffin War from 1840 until 1844 . In 1849 , after spending two years in Great Britain , Inhaúma was given command of the fleet that was instrumental in subduing the Praieira revolt , the last rebellion in imperial Brazil . During the 1850s , Inhaúma held a series of bureaucratic positions . He entered politics in 1861 as a member of the Conservative Party . He became a cabinet member and was given the position of navy minister . Inhaúma also became the first person to hold the Ministry of Agriculture portfolio , albeit briefly . The first professional firefighter corps in Brazil was formed during his tenure as agriculture minister . In late 1866 , Inhaúma was appointed commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the fleet engaged in the Paraguayan War . During the fighting , he achieved the rank of admiral , the highest in the Brazilian armada . He was also awarded a noble title , eventually being raised from baron to viscount . In 1868 , he was elected to the national legislature 's lower house , but never assumed office . Although he successfully prosecuted his operations in the war against Paraguay , Inhaúma 's leadership was encumbered by his hesitating and procrastinating behavior . While in command in the war zone , he became mentally exhausted and contracted an unknown disease . Seriously ill , Inhaúma returned to the national capital in early 1869 and died shortly thereafter . Although historical works have not given much coverage to Inhaúma , some historians regard him among the greatest of the Brazilian navy officers . = = Early life = = = = = Birth and education = = = Joaquim José Inácio was born in Lisbon , Kingdom of Portugal . Although the date on his birth certificate was 30 July 1808 , his mother claimed that the correct birthdate was two days later , on 1 August . He personally affirmed that the later date was accurate , as did his younger brother , who was his biographer . Regardless , some biographers , including Joaquim Manuel de Macedo and Carlos Guilherme Haring , have persisted in citing the date mistakenly entered on the birth certificate . Joaquim Inácio 's parents were José Vitorino de Barros and Maria Isabel de Barros . In 1808 , the Portuguese Royal family moved to Brazil , then the largest and wealthiest colony of Portugal . Two years later , on 10 July 1810 , José de Barros arrived in the Brazilian capital , Rio de Janeiro . As a crew member of the frigate D. Carlota , he was charged with transporting what remained of the personal property of Prince Regent Dom João , later King Dom João VI to Brazil . José de Barros also brought his family on the voyage , including Joaquim Inácio , who was then one year and eight months old . Joaquim Inácio had an older sister named Maria and six younger siblings ( who were born after the arrival in Brazil ) , among them Bento José de Carvalho and Antônio José Vitorino de Barros . As was common at the time , Joaquim Inácio began his education at home and was later enrolled in Seminário de São José ( Saint Joseph School ) and after that , in Seminário São Joaquim ( Saint Joachim School ) , which became Pedro II School in 1837 . His teachers included Januário da Cunha Barbosa , who later became one of the leading figures in the Brazilian independence movement . Joaquim Inácio chose to follow his father , a naval officer who achieved the rank of second lieutenant , in his choice of a career . On 20 November 1822 at age 14 , Joaquim Inácio was admitted as aspirante a guarda @-@ marinha ( aspiring midshipman or naval cadet ) at the Navy Academy . On 11 December 1823 , he graduated from the academy , majoring in mathematics , with the rank of guarda @-@ marinha ( midshipman ) . As he had in previous studies at other schools , Joaquim Inácio proved to be a brilliant student . Among his colleagues at the academy was Francisco Manuel Barroso da Silva ( later Baron of Amazonas ) whom he befriended . = = = Rebellions in north and south = = = When Prince Dom Pedro ( later Emperor Dom Pedro I ) , son and heir of King João VI , led the movement for the independence of Brazil , Joaquim Inácio was one of several Portuguese @-@ born residents who sided with the Brazilian cause and joined the armada ( as the Brazilian Navy was called in the imperial era ) . On 16 January 1824 , he began his service aboard the D. Pedro I , a ship of the line and flagship of First Admiral Thomas Cochrane , Marquis of Maranhão . Joaquim Inácio did not fight in any battles , as the Portuguese enemy forces had surrendered by that time . His baptism of fire came a few months later with the advent of the Confederation of the Equator , a secessionist rebellion in Brazil 's northeastern provinces . He was given the command of the cutter Independente and aided in the suppression of rebels in Rosário do Itapecuru , a village in the province of Maranhão . The rebellion was over by early 1825 , and on 25 February Joaquim Inácio was promoted to second lieutenant . In June 1825 , Joaquim Inácio traveled to Brazil 's far south to quell a secessionist rebellion in the province of Cisplatina . The insurgents were aided by the United Provinces of the River Plate ( later Argentina ) , which led to the Cisplatine War . Joaquim Inácio served as first officer aboard the patache Pará , which was stationed in Colônia de Sacramento ( present @-@ day Colonia del Sacramento ) , the second most important town in Cisplatina . By late February 1826 , Sacramento was besieged by enemy forces . Joaquim Inácio was sent ashore and placed in charge of the Santa Rita battery , composed of sailors and cannons from the Brazilian ships . He took an active part in successfully repelling enemy attacks upon Sacramento on 7 February , 26 February and 14 March . On the night of 10 March 1826 and in the midst of the siege of Sacramento , Joaquim Inácio boarded a small , unarmed boat accompanied by a single army officer and passed unnoticed through a line of nineteen enemy ships under cover of darkness . He reached the main Brazilian fleet on the morning of the next day and requested assistance from Vice @-@ Admiral Rodrigo José Ferreira Lobo , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the naval forces operating in the war . Joaquim Inácio returned to Sacramento two days later under heavy enemy fire along with three boats carrying supplies and arms . Although welcomed as a hero in the besieged town , he was passed over for a promotion . Disregard for this achievement was due to his lack of wealth and family connections , a burden which continued to thwart his career for years to come . = = = Loss of Cisplatina = = = In February 1827 , Joaquim Inácio was transferred to the crew of the corvette Duquesa de Goiás , in which he was to take part in the invasion of Carmen de Patagones , a village in the northeast of the United Provinces that served as a port for corsairs . The Duquesa de Goiás sank during the expedition , killing several crew members . Joaquim Inácio insisted on being the last officer to leave the vessel . He was next given the command of the schooner Constança . The invasion of Carmen was a complete failure , and the Brazilian land forces were defeated and taken prisoner . On 7 March , while Joaquim Inácio awaited news of the invasion , the Constança and another schooner were surrounded by enemy vessels . After a desperate battle , he was taken captive after refusing to surrender . The Brazilian prisoners were placed together aboard a brig bound for Buenos Aires , capital of the United Provinces . They suffered severe hardship , starving and almost naked . Under the leadership of Joaquim Inácio , the Brazilians staged an uprising , took control of the ship and made prisoners of their captors . The ship successfully eluded two corvettes and one schooner @-@ brig that had pursued them , and sailed on to Montevideo , capital of Cisplatina , which they reached in safety on 29 August 1827 . Despite Joaquim Inácio 's daring rescue of Brazilian prisoners of war from both the invasion 's land @-@ based forces and from the two schooners , he was reprimanded by the commander @-@ in @-@ chief Vice @-@ Admiral Rodrigo Pinto Guedes , Baron of Rio da Prata ( who had replaced Rodrigo Lobo ) for the loss of the Constança . Joaquim Inácio returned to Rio de Janeiro in October , his tour of duty having lasted three years . He was then sent back to Cisplatina aboard the frigate Niterói and in December he became the first officer of the barque Grenfell . On 17 February 1828 , he fought in the Battle of Quilmes . During the engagement , the Brazilian barque @-@ brig ( three @-@ masted barque ) Vinte e nove de agosto ran aground and was about to be boarded . Seeing this , Joaquim Inácio positioned the Grenfell near the threatened vessel and protected her until she could be freed by the rising tide . Both ships returned to the battle , which resulted in a Brazilian victory . Brazil 's efforts in the war were ultimately in vain , as it eventually relinquished Cisplatina , which became the independent nation of Uruguay . In July 1829 , Joaquim Inácio again returned to Rio de Janeiro , and on 17 October he was promoted to first lieutenant . = = Rebellions = = = = = Further uprisings = = = On 17 March 1831 , Joaquim Inácio married Maria José de Mariz Sarmento . Her father was an officer in the Portuguese navy whose own father and paternal grandfather had also been military officers . Joaquim Inácio and his wife had several children : Ana Elisa de Mariz e Barros , Joaquim José Inácio , Antônio Carlos de Mariz e Barros and Carlota Adelaide de Mariz e Barros . The couple also had a girl and a boy , named Constança and Manuel respectively , both of whom died in infancy . A month and a half after Joaquim Inácio 's marriage , Emperor Pedro I abdicated and sailed to Europe . Since the former emperor 's son and heir Dom Pedro II was a minor , a regency was formed , and more than a decade of instability and turmoil ensued . On 6 October 1831 , navy artillerymen , held under suspicion of plotting a mutiny , escaped the presiganga ( prison ship ) in which they had been confined . Joaquim Inácio commanded the schooner Jaguaripe which , along with other vessels , had been guarding the prison ship . Seeing that the artillerymen had set sail for Rio de Janeiro , Joaquim Inácio and a few men took a boat to warn the city . They encountered musket fire from the artillerymen , who then changed course for the nearby Ilha das Cobras ( Island of the Snakes ) in the face of strong opposition from the mainland . They were defeated the next day when three columns of men from the Volunteer Soldier @-@ Officers Battalion and Permanent Municipal Guard Corps invaded the island . In January 1833 , strong winds forced the old and poorly built Jaguaripe aground off Santa Marta beach in the southern province of Santa Catarina , where it sank . Joaquim Inácio was again the last to abandon ship . The entire crew was rescued , though he himself barely survived . Joaquim Inácio and his younger brother Bento José ( who was also a navy officer ) stayed afloat by holding onto a leather basket until reaching the shore . Afterward , Joaquim Inácio was court martialed and absolved of any wrongdoing . On 5 April 1833 , he was given command of the barque @-@ brig Vinte e nove de agosto ( the same ship he had saved in 1828 ) and sailed to the province of Maranhão . The last time he had been in the province was in 1825 . He remained stationed in the provincial capital ( São Luís ) as chief of the port until his return to Rio de Janeiro on 30 December 1836 . He was transferred to the steam barque Urânia in 1837 and later , on 19 July of the same year , to the brig Constança ( a different vessel than the schooner he lost in 1827 ) . Joaquim Inácio departed Rio de Janeiro on 11 August 1837 for Salvador , capital of the province of Bahia . He had been charged with delivering the prisoner Bento Gonçalves ( leader of the rebellion known as the Ragamuffin War that had ravaged Rio Grande do Sul since 1835 ) to a military fortress . On 7 September 1837 , Joaquim Inácio was promoted to captain lieutenant . A couple of months later , the Sabinada rebellion erupted in Salvador . The rebels freed Bento Gonçalves , who escaped back to Rio Grande do Sul . Joaquim Inácio took part in the blockade of that city until the end of the rebellion in March 1838 . His lack of family connections and political influence again stymied his career in 1839 , when he was passed over for a well @-@ deserved promotion . = = = Restoration of order = = = On 23 July 1840 , Pedro II was declared of age and Joaquim Inácio was among the naval officers representing the armada in the delegation that greeted the young emperor . The rise of Pedro II to head the central government resulted in a slow , but steady , restoration of order in the country . On 17 December , Joaquim Inácio was named inspetor do arsenal de marinha ( inspector of the navy shipyard ) in Rio Grande , the second most important town in Rio Grande do Sul . The province was still troubled by the Ragamuffin rebellion . He led the sailors manning the trenches surrounding Rio Grande and fought the Ragamuffins when they attacked the town in July 1841 . The Ragamuffin menace was halted when the government dispatched field marshal ( present @-@ day divisional general ) Luís Alves de Lima e Silva ( then Baron , later Duke of Caxias ) in 1842 . The Baron of Caxias had been the second in command of the Volunteer Soldier @-@ Officers Battalion when it put down the mutiny of navy artillerymen in 1831 . He and Joaquim Inácio established a close , lifelong friendship . Joaquim Inácio was promoted to frigate captain on 15 March 1844 . Soon afterward , Joaquim Inácio was relieved of command , at his own request , after becoming ever more at odds with his superior . On 2 April 1845 , he was assigned command of the frigate Constituição and in October returned to Rio Grande do Sul , which by that time had been pacified . He escorted the Emperor during his tour of the Brazilian southern provinces . Pedro II was favorably impressed with the character of the ship 's captain . Dark @-@ haired and of average height , Joaquim Inácio was joyful and pleasant . He was also hard @-@ working , intelligent and well @-@ learned . In addition to his native Portuguese , he could also speak and write in Latin , English and French . In August 1846 , Joaquim Inácio sailed the Constituição to Devonport ( then @-@ known as Plymouth Dock ) in the United Kingdom , where the ship was to undergo repairs . He paid a visit there to the elderly Thomas Cochrane , Marquis of Maranhão , who queried him regarding Brazil 's state of affairs . Joaquim Inácio returned to Brazil in May 1847 and was assigned to bureaucratic tasks . In April 1848 , he was stationed , again at the helm of the Constituição , in Bahia province . Later that year , the Praieira revolt erupted in the nearby province of Pernambuco . In early November , Joaquim Inácio assumed the command of the fleet protecting Recife , capital of Pernambuco . He sent many of his sailors ashore to aid in the town 's defense . Recife was attacked by rebels on 2 February 1849 . The insurgent attackers were defeated , and soon afterward the last rebellion of Brazil 's imperial era came to an end . Joaquim Inácio , who fought in the streets with his men , later remarked : " It was not a battle , but a diabolical hunt from which I have escaped by miracle . " He was awarded with a promotion to captain of sea and war on 14 March . = = Bureaucratic positions and politics = = = = = Navy commissions = = = On 26 May 1850 , Joaquim Inácio was appointed inspector of the naval shipyard at Rio de Janeiro . He played no role in the Platine War that pitted the Empire against the Argentine Confederation ( the successor state of the United Provinces of the River Plate ) , which lasted from late 1851 until early 1852 . He spent that period in the capital overseeing the construction and repair of several sailing vessels and steamships for the Brazilian armada . He was promoted to chief of division ( modern @-@ day rear admiral ) on 3 March 1852 . Throughout the 1850s , Joaquim Inácio was assigned to a succession of mostly bureaucratic positions . After being removed from the office of inspector on 8 November 1854 , eleven days later he was named captain of the port of Rio de Janeiro ( for both the city and province ) . From 1854 until 1860 , he was appointed a member of various navy boards that dealt with matters ranging from promotions and equipment purchases to war spoils and standardization of naval uniforms . On 2 November 1855 , Joaquim Inácio was named adjutant ( equivalent to adjutant general ) to the navy minister . On 2 December 1856 , he was promoted to chief of fleet ( modern vice admiral ) and made a Fidalgo Cavaleiro da Casa Imperial ( Knight Nobleman of the Imperial Household ) , which raised him to a position ranking above the members of chivalry orders and below the titled nobles ( barons , counts , etc . ) . Joaquim Inácio also became a member and vice @-@ president of the naval council ( an advisory board ) on 24 July 1858 . As had also been the case with his predecessors , the rank of adjutant was seen by Joaquim Inácio as an embarrassment . Inside the armada administration , it denoted the most important office , as it was filled by an officer who acted as the navy minister 's direct representative in the armada . Even so , the title of " adjutant " was itself perceived as demeaning . Joaquim Inácio later complained : " In what part of the world ... does the navy minister have a general officer as an adjutant ? What is an adjutant , other than a young officer who transmits orders , and even messages , he receives from his chief ? " He concluded : " Thus the title of adjutant cannot encumber an officer who supervises the armada 's discipline and answers for it " . His request to have the designation for the position changed to a more appropriate title was ignored . He also felt slighted that many of his proposals to the navy boards regarding improvements were not acted on , and on 21 November 1860 , he asked to be removed from all positions . = = = Conservative politician = = = Freed from the demands of his former commissions , Joaquim Inácio spent his time translating Jean @-@ Félicité @-@ Théodore Ortolan 's Et Diplomatie De La Mer ( The Diplomacy of the Sea ) from French into Portuguese . He was a cultured person whose penchants included poetry . He was also interested in plays and he was an elected member of the Dramatic Conservatory ( which sponsored the national theater ) from 8 June 1856 . Joaquim Inácio was very religious and he often mentioned God and Catholic saints in his letters . During the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s , upon learning that he was being mocked and criticized by the Paraguayans for his religious devotion , Joaquim Inácio merely replied : " Leave me my beliefs and let them call me whatever they want . " He was an enthusiastic member of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia ( Holy House of Mercy ) , a charitable organization in Rio de Janeiro . When the national capital was ravaged by yellow fever in 1854 , he went from door to door asking for donations to help the sick . Despite his staunch Catholicism , Joaquim Inácio became a freemason , joining the Loja Integridade Maçônica ( Freemasonry Integrity Lodge ) in 1828 . He eventually rose to the highest ranks of that lodge , becoming Deputy Grand Master in 1863 . He was also accorded membership in other Brazilian lodges , became an honorary member of Portuguese Freemasonry and was a representative of the Grand Orient de France in Brazil . Freemasonry opened new venues for Joaquim Inácio , providing him with connections and influence he had previously lacked and which were essential to advancing his political career . On 2 March 1861 , his friend Caxias , also a freemason and staunch Catholic , became prime minister . He invited Joaquim Inácio , who became a member of the Conservative Party , to assume the naval ministry 's portfolio . It was commonplace in Brazil for high @-@ ranking military officers to engage in politics . He served as the first head of the newly created Ministry of Agriculture , Commerce and Public Works from 2 March 1861 until 21 April . Although created by a decree of 1856 ( following a suggestion made by Joaquim Inácio in 1851 ) , the first professional firefighter corps in Brazil was effectively formed under his tenure at the head of the Ministry of Agriculture . The cabinet resigned on 24 May 1862 after losing its majority in the Chamber of Deputies ( the national legislature 's lower house ) . Joaquim Inácio returned to his position on the naval council on 2 July and left that post when he became a member of the Supreme Military and Justice Council on 2 October 1864 . = = Paraguayan War = = = = = Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief = = = In December 1864 , the dictator of Paraguay , Francisco Solano López , ordered an invasion of the Brazilian province of Mato Grosso ( currently the state of Mato Grosso do Sul ) , triggering the Paraguayan War . Four months later , Paraguayan troops invaded Argentine territory in preparation for an attack on Rio Grande do Sul . The invasions resulted in an alliance between Brazil , Argentina and Uruguay . Following the resignation of Caxias 's government in 1862 , successor cabinets were headed by the Progressive League , the rival of the Conservative Party . As a Conservative , Joaquim Inácio found himself largely sidelined . He humorously commented that the Progressives " have not lifted my excommunication by giving me a better ration of soup [ i.e. , any command of importance ] , thus I shall remain on a diet . " In October 1865 , Joaquim Inácio was sent to the north of Brazil , charged with recruiting volunteers , but soon resigned that commission and opted to devote his time to the Holy House of Mercy . The allies invaded Paraguay in April 1866 , but their advance by land was blocked by fortifications at Humaitá and naval forces faced the obstacle of entrenched defenses along the Paraguay River . The Progressive cabinet decided to create a unified command over Brazilian land and naval forces operating in Paraguay . It entrusted the command to Caxias , who in turn requested that Joaquim Inácio head the Brazilian fleet in Paraguay . On 22 December , Joaquim Inácio replaced his close friend Vice @-@ Admiral Joaquim Marques Lisboa ( then @-@ Baron and later Marquis of Tamandaré ) as fleet commander . For the sake of appearances , the new position was nominally pro tempore , since Tamandaré had virtually been forced to resign . On 5 February 1867 , Joaquim Inácio was promoted to vice @-@ admiral ( equivalent to present @-@ day squadron vice @-@ admiral ) , and sixteen days later he was made permanent commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The allied objective was to encircle Humaitá and force its capitulation by siege . On 15 August 1867 , under heavy fire , Brazilian warships forced the passage of Curupayty , an outer line of defense of Humaitá . Joaquim Inácio commanded from the bridge of the ironclad Brasil , which engaged in the operation . Joaquim Inácio was afterwards awarded the noble title of Barão de Inhaúma ( Baron of Inhaúma ) on 27 September . The name came from Inhaúma , a region ( now a neighborhood ) near the city of Rio de Janeiro . His wife had grown up there , and he himself owned a coffee farm in the area . Those landowners , including the Baron of Inhaúma , who produced coffee ( the most valuable Brazilian export commodity ) were the wealthiest and most influential people in Brazil 's southeast . They were owners of slaves , and many of them formed the core of the Conservative Party ( the ultraconservative wing called saquarema ) and were connected to each other through family and political ties . = = = Operations on the Paraguay River = = = After Inhaúma had punched through the defenses at Curupayty , he encountered three large chains stretched across the river at Humaitá that prevented further progress upriver beyond the fortress . He anchored his ships in a cove that became known as Porto Elisiário ( Elisiário Port ) . For six months , the Brazilian warships remained stationed between Curupayty and Humaitá , bombarding both strongholds without causing any serious damage . The encirclement of Humaitá could not be completed until the Allies gained full control of the river . The Allied commander @-@ in @-@ chief , Argentine president Bartolomé Mitre , had pressed Inhaúma for months to execute that goal . The Brazilian had , however , developed second thoughts about the enterprise and procrastinated . He believed — unfairly — that Mitre would welcome the destruction of Brazil 's warships , severely weakening the Empire militarily and geopolitically . There were other factors that prompted Inhaúma to have second thoughts . The level of the river had fallen and as the encirclement on land had not been completed , even " if the Brazilian ships did manage to get past the batteries they could well become stranded , with little or no fuel and possibly no supporting Allied troops on the banks " . Inhaúma also argued that the ironclads were too large and had limited manoeuvrability in the narrow channel at Humaitá , being better suited to seagoing operations than on a river . He preferred to wait for the shallow @-@ draft monitors that were under construction in Rio de Janeiro . After a year in Paraguay , Inhaúma had also become ill with a lingering disease ( not positively identified , although malaria is suspected ) and had fallen into depression , becoming what historian Francisco Doratioto themed " no more than a ghost of an admiral " . By January 1868 Humaitá had been completely cut off from land reinforcement and the shallow @-@ draft monitors had arrived . Both Inhaúma and his officers balked at putting the new vessels into action . It was Inhaúma 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Captain of Sea and War Delfim Carlos de Carvalho ( soon Baron of Passagem ) who volunteered to lead a squadron . On 19 February , the Brazilian ironclads successfully made a passage up the Paraguay River under heavy fire , gaining full control of the river and thus isolating Humaitá from resupply by water . On 2 March 1868 , parties of Paraguayans in canoes camouflaged by foliage and brush boarded Brazilian ironclads anchored in Tayí . The imperiled vessels dispatched a boat to warn Inhaúma , who was aboard the flagship Brasil downriver at Elisiário Port . By the time he arrived , the Brazilians had locked themselves inside their ships and the Paraguayans had taken control of the decks . Inhaúma ordered the Brasil and two other vessels to open fire , decimating the Paraguayans and saving the ironclads . A day later he was raised from baron to viscount by Pedro II . On 25 July , the allies occupied Humaitá after the Paraguayans had abandoned it and retreated further upriver . = = = Illness and death = = = Unknown to Inhaúma and only a few days before the fall of Humaitá , the Progressive cabinet in Rio de Janeiro had resigned following a political crisis . The Emperor called the Conservatives , under the leadership of Joaquim Rodrigues Torres , Viscount of Itaboraí , back into power on 16 July 1868 . During the Progressive administration , Inhaúma had developed a trusting friendship with the able , young Navy Minister Afonso Celso de Assis Figueiredo ( later Viscount of Ouro Preto ) . The return of the Conservatives resulted in Inhaúma 's election to the Chamber of Deputies as a representative for the province of Amazonas , although he would never assume office . In the new political climate , Inhaúma was also considered a contender for a senatorial chair representing the province of Rio de Janeiro . Meanwhile , Caxias had organized an assault on the new Paraguayan defenses which López had thrown up along the Pikysyry , south of Asunción ( Paraguay 's capital ) . This stream afforded a strong defensive position which was anchored by the Paraguay River and by the swampy jungle of the Chaco region . Caxias had a road cut through the supposedly impenetrable Chaco , located on the other side of the Paraguayan River where the Allied army was camped . The Brazilian ships carried the Allied troops across the river , where they moved over the road which had been finished in December . The Allied forces outflanked the Paraguayan lines and attacked from the rear . The combined allied forces annihilated the Paraguayan army and on 1 January 1869 Asunción was occupied . Inhaúma reached the Paraguayan national capital on 3 January 1869 , increasingly sick and depressed . He lamented in his private journal that the conflict " cannot be called a war but a killing of people , extermination of the Paraguayan nation . " Inhaúma temporarily transferred his command to his son @-@ in @-@ law , the Baron of Passagem , on 16 January . On 28 January , Inhaúma was officially discharged from that post and promoted to admiral , the highest rank in the armada . Having received permission from the Conservative cabinet to depart , he left for Rio de Janeiro on 8 February , arriving ten days later . Although welcomed " with the greatest demonstrations of enthusiasm " , Inhaúma was so weak that he had to be carried from the docks to his carriage . Alfredo d 'Escragnolle Taunay , Viscount of Taunay in his memoirs said that Pedro II , upon learning of Inhaúma 's arrival , refused to pay a visit to him . It had become common for officers to claim sickness so that they could withdraw from the war . The Emperor soon realized that Inhaúma was indeed very ill and asked for daily updates on his condition . Inhaúma 's health steadily deteriorated , and he died on 8 March at around 04 : 30 in the morning . According to historian Eugênio Vilhena de Morais , malaria was the cause of death . His coffin was placed in a carriage reserved for the funerals of members of the imperial family . It was escorted by three cavalry squadrons and followed by three hundred carriages , while onlookers crowded both sides of the streets along the procession 's route . Tamandaré and the future Viscount of Ouro Preto were among the pallbearers . He was buried in the São Francisco Xavier cemetery ( popularly known as Caju Cemetery ) in Rio de Janeiro . = = Legacy = = Soon after his death , the Viscount of Inhaúma was hailed as " one of the greatest figures of the Brazilian armada " in the Brazilian Senate . He was extremely popular in the armada and was fondly called " Uncle Joaquim " by his subordinates . The Brazilian navy 's slang phrase , " andar na Inácia " , which meant to behave correctly , was derived from his name . Since 1870 , no comprehensive biography of Inhaúma has been published , even though he , according to Francisco Eduardo Alves de Almeira , " is , and always will be , important to the navy of Brazil for his example as a modest and dedicated chief . " The Inhaúma @-@ class corvette , built in the 1980s and 1990s , was named after him . Despite the scant attention paid him in historical literature , there are some historians who share a highly positive view of Inhaúma . Américo Jacobina Lacombe said that he was " one of the greatest names in our [ Brazilian ] military history " . Max Justo Guedes regarded him among the greatest imperial navy officers , and Adolfo Lumans considered him one of the greatest navy officers in Brazilian history . = = Titles and honors = = = = = Titles of nobility = = = Fidalgo Cavaleiro da Casa Imperial ( Knight Nobleman of the Imperial Household ) on 2 December 1856 . Baron of Inhaúma ( without Greatness ) on 27 September 1867 . Viscount of Inhaúma ( Grandee ) on 3 March 1868 . = = = Other titles = = = Member of the Brazilian Historic and Geographic Institute . Member of the Supreme Military and Justice Council . Provedor interino ( interim steward ) of the Santa Casa de Misericórdia ( Holy House of Mercy ) in Rio de Janeiro city . = = = Honors = = = Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of the Rose . Grand Cross of the Brazilian Order of Saint Benedict of Aviz . Commander of the Brazilian Order of Christ . Grand Cross of the Portuguese Order of the Immaculate Conception of Vila Viçosa . Grand Officer of the French Légion d 'honneur . = = Endnotes = = = So God Made a Farmer = " So God Made a Farmer " was a speech given by radio broadcaster Paul Harvey at the 1978 Future Farmers of America convention . The speech was first published in 1986 in Harvey 's syndicated column . The speech borrowed a few phrases from a 1975 article written by Harvey in the Gadsden Times , which was itself inspired by parts of a 1940 definition of a dirt farmer published in The Farmer @-@ Stockman . The 1940 article was copied verbatim by Tex Smith in a letter to the editor in the Ellensburg Daily Record in 1949 . The speech was given as an extension of the Genesis creation narrative referring to God 's actions on the 8th day of creation . Harvey described the characteristics of a farmer in each phrase , ending them with the recurring " So God Made a Farmer " . The speech was used in a commercial by Ram Trucks during the fourth quarter of Super Bowl XLVII . The ad featured photographs of rural America set to a narration of a portion of Harvey 's speech . In a collaboration with the FFA , Dodge agreed to donate $ 100 @,@ 000 for every 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views that the YouTube video of the ad received up to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . This goal was reached in less than five days . = = The speech = = Paul Harvey , a radio host who died in 2009 , delivered the speech at an FFA convention in 1978 . His speech began as a continuation of the Genesis creation narrative referring to the actions God took on the 8th day . In it , Harvey stated that God needed a caretaker for the land he created . The speech continues with God expressing the characteristics needed by the person he is creating : " I need somebody with arms strong enough to wrestle a calf and yet gentle enough to deliver his own grandchild ; somebody to call hogs , tame cantankerous machinery , come home hungry , have to await lunch until his wife 's done feeding visiting ladies , then tell the ladies to be sure and come back real soon , and mean it . " Multiple passages setting out characteristics of the sort end with the same refrain , by which the speech is now known : " So God made a farmer . " Harvey 's " So God Made a Farmer " speech was characterized , according to The Atlantic , by its " folksy timbre " . The New York Times spoke further on elements of his speaking style in its 2009 obituary : " his style was stop @-@ and @-@ go , with superb pacing and silences that rivaled Jack Benny ’ s . He spoke directly to the listener , with punchy sentences , occasional exclamations of “ Good heavens ! ” or “ Oh , my goodness ! ” and pauses that squeezed out the last drop of suspense : the radio broadcaster ’ s equivalent of the raised eyebrow or the knowing grin . " Bob Greene described the opening phrase of the speech as " seemingly simple , and devastatingly direct " . The speech also ran in Paul Harvey 's syndicated newspaper column in 1986 . Both the sound recording of the speech and the text of the article have been federally registered with the U.S. Copyright Office by Paulynne , Inc . , Paul Harvey 's company that is now owned by his son . In an introduction , Harvey claimed , in a typical rhetorical flourish , that he had found the essay in his mailbag . : " This next arrived unsigned in my mailbag . I 've tried but cannot trace its source . A farmer , perhaps ; more likely a farmer 's wife . I 've embellished the essay in places and cropped it in others but I hope the sense of it remains intact . " = = = Prior versions = = = Paul Harvey ran a similar article in the column " A Point of View " for the Gadsden Times on August 26 , 1975 . Entitled " What it is to be a farmer " , the article did not contain the concept of God creating the farmer seen in his 1978 speech , but he still described the characteristics of a farmer . Many of the same phrases made their way into his 1978 speech . The 1975 column was largely similar to a definition of a dirt farmer given by Boston B. Blackwood from Hartshorne , Oklahoma in a 1940 copy of The Farmer @-@ Stockman . This was copied verbatim in a September 10 , 1949 letter to the editor of the Ellensburg Daily Record written by Tex Smith from Ellensburg , Washington . Both the 1940 and 1975 columns share elements not included in the speech such as the statement that a farmer 's wife won 't let him starve . In the " So God Made a Farmer " speech and Harvey 's 1986 column , only two phrases and a few words remain from Blackwood 's 1940 piece including the phrase , " can shape an axe handle from a persimmon sprout " . = = Super Bowl XLVII commercial = = The speech was used in a two @-@ minute Ram Trucks Super Bowl commercial entitled " Farmer " in Super Bowl XLVII . The ad featured a voiceover of Harvey 's speech set to still photographs taken by ten photographers including William Albert Allard and Kurt Markus . Created by The Richards Group , the ad ran during the fourth quarter . It was noted for its religious imagery . The ad , like another Chrysler Super Bowl XLVII ad featuring Oprah Winfrey , advertised the brand without focusing on the vehicle . This was similar to ads run by Chrysler in Super Bowl XLVI and Super Bowl XLV . The ad was made in collaboration with the National FFA Organization and the National FFA Foundation and with permission from Harvey 's company , Paulynne , Inc . , and Ram agreed to donate up to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to the foundation based on the views received by the YouTube video . The goal , which was based on $ 100 @,@ 000 for every 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 views , was reached in less than 5 days . = = = Reception = = = The ad received mostly positive reviews . Slate called it the " most striking Super Bowl ad " but also criticized it for being similar in concept to a 2011 YouTube video by Farms.com. While the Slate review was criticizing its originality , Farms.com released a statement reflecting their approval of the ad . While liveblogging the Super Bowl commercials for the Wall Street Journal , Cindy Gallop referred to it as the " Great American Super Bowl Commercial " . Dale Buss , of Forbes , wrote " Chrysler managed to insert just enough of its vehicles and brands in each spot so as to make their inclusion seem part of the fabric of the paean , not at all intrusive , thereby lending the kind of authenticity to Ram and Jeep that fuels long @-@ term brand success " . The ad ranked third in the USA Today Super Bowl Ad Meter . Critics noted that the ad focused on the family farm despite the industrialization of agriculture in America . A Latino nonprofit organization called Cuéntame uploaded a remake to its Facebook page that featured more Latinos . Country music singer James Wesley 's 2013 single " Thank a Farmer " was inspired by the ad . = Ohio State Route 228 = State Route 228 ( SR 228 ) is a short north – south state highway in the U.S. state of Ohio . The southern terminus of the state route is at State Route 19 ( SR 19 ) nearly five and a half miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) north of Republic . Its northern terminus is at SR 101 approximately 5 @.@ 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) southwest of Clyde . The state highway was established in 1924 . It serves as a connector between SR 19 and SR 101 east and northeast of where the two routes intersect . SR 19 jogs west from SR 228 's southern terminus , and SR 101 traverses in a southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast fashion , creating a tight angle between the two routes . SR 778 serves a similar purpose to SR 228 to the west and southwest of the junction of SR 19 and SR 101 . = = Route description = = SR 228 is located entirely within Adams Township in Seneca County . It is not included in the National Highway System . SR 228 has a AADT of 320 . The short connector route begins where SR 19 and County Road 32 ( CR 32 ) meet , an intersection in which SR 19 forms the southern and western legs and CR 32 approaches from the east . The route passes through mostly farmland . After that , SR 228 arrives at its endpoint at the intersection of SR 101 , where it crosses southwest @-@ to @-@ northeast , and Township Road 180 ( Rowe Road ) continues to the northwest after SR 228 terminates . = = History = = SR 228 came into being in 1924 along the routing that it occupies to this day . No significant changes have taken place to the route since its designation . The route was repaved in 1969 , 1983 , and 1995 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Adams Township , Seneca County . = New Guinea Volunteer Rifles = The New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( NGVR ) was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . It was initially raised as a unit of the Militia from white Australian and European expatriates in New Guinea upon the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939 , before being activated for full @-@ time service following the Japanese landings in early 1942 . NGVR personnel then helped rescue survivors of Lark Force from Rabaul in February and March 1942 . Between March and May , the NGVR monitored the Japanese bases which had been established in the Huon Gulf region , being the only Allied force in the area until the arrival of Kanga Force at Wau in May . The battalion subsequently established observation posts overlooking the main approaches and reported on Japanese movements . Later , it inflicted significant casualties on the Japanese in a series of raids , and led them to believe that they faced a much larger opposing force . On 29 June , the NGVR and the newly arrived 2 / 5th Independent Company carried out a highly successful attack on the Japanese garrison in Salamaua , killing at least 113 men . When the focus shifted to the Milne Bay and Kokoda Track battles of August and September , the NGVR continued to man its posts overlooking the Japanese base areas . The Japanese were subsequently defeated in the Battle of Wau in January and February 1943 , relieving the pressure on the NGVR . The battalion was disbanded in April 1943 due to attrition . In the years immediately following the war the Australian Army considered re @-@ establishing a military presence in Papua New Guinea ( PNG ) , although there was some opposition among white settlers to the raising of native units . As an interim measure , the re @-@ establishment of the NGVR was approved in July 1949 . The unit reformed as the Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( PNGVR ) on 16 March 1951 , initially as a whites @-@ only reserve unit of the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . In March 1951 a PNGVR detachment assisted in relief operations following the eruption of Mount Lamington , which killed 3 @,@ 466 people and left more than 5 @,@ 000 homeless . Between 1951 and 1953 PNGVR elements were established in all the main centres of Papua New Guinea . Meanwhile , in addition to its other responsibilities the PNGVR fostered the raising of the regular Pacific Islands Regiment ( PIR ) and Headquarters Area Command Papua New Guinea . During the mid @-@ 1960s the enlistment of Papua New Guinean and Chinese personnel had finally been authorised , with the unit evolving into a multi @-@ racial battalion . By 1969 only one @-@ fifth of PNGVR members were Europeans . Yet amid concerns about the ability of the fledgling nation of PNG to finance a large military capability on its own , and with the need to maintain a CMF @-@ type unit in the army of an independent PNG being questionable , the PNGVR was ultimately disbanded in 1973 , shortly before independence , leaving the PIR as the only infantry unit in the new Papua New Guinea Defence Force . = = History = = = = = Second World War = = = = = = = Formation = = = = By 1939 the eastern half of the island of New Guinea was divided into the territories of Papua in the south , and the former German colony of New Guinea in the north , both of which were administered by Australia . Due to the provisions of the League of Nations mandate under which German New Guinea had been entrusted to Australia in 1920 following its capture during the First World War , little in the way of defensive preparations had been made in the mandated territory , even as global conflict became more likely . Following the outbreak of war in Europe the raising of a Militia battalion in New Guinea , known as the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( NGVR ) , was authorised on 4 September 1939 . Early arrangements for the raising of the unit were undertaken by Lieutenant Colonel John Walstab , with the unit 's initial establishment limited to just 21 officers and 400 other ranks . As Superintendent of Police , Walstab 's influence ensured a close link between the police and the NGVR , with the police stores organisation controlling the issue of arms and equipment and police guards manning the NGVR 's store and parade ground . The men were all white Australian or European expatriates and were drawn from a wide range of civilian occupations , although the majority were longtime residents and included gold miners , planters , traders and government officials . Most had lived in the territory for years , and many were quite old , with men between the ages of 18 and 50 accepted . Yet they were familiar with the terrain and the local inhabitants , even if they were poorly armed and equipped . Due to the paternalistic concerns of the civilian administration regarding native welfare and unease about providing the indigenous population with arms and military training they were not recruited into the NGVR , although they did serve in the Papuan Infantry Battalion ( PIB ) from June 1940 . Enlistment was for a period of two years and was unpaid except for a one pound annual allowance , unless called up for active service . Uniforms consisted of khaki shirts and trousers made from material sent from Australia , while felt hats , bandoliers , leather belts , boots , puttees and brass NGVR shoulder badges were also worn . Weapons included First World War @-@ era .303 rifles and some Vickers and Lewis machine @-@ guns . = = = = Initial preparations = = = = On 21 December 1939 , Major Ross Field , a former officer in the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) and Director of Public Works at Rabaul , took over command of the unit . A headquarters was subsequently established at Rabaul , while sub @-@ units were located at Wau , Salamaua , Lae and Madang . In the event of war the NGVR would be dispersed at strategic points on the mainland and the islands of the territory . If mobilised , the NGVR would come under the operational command of the 8th Military District which was in the process of being raised under the command of Major General Basil Morris . One of the unit 's first tasks was to provide an armed escort for enemy aliens , mostly Germans and Austrians , who were being deported to Australia by ship to be interned . Contingents departed on 29 September 1939 , 9 November 1939 and 31 May 1940 , with each escort party consisting of a non @-@ commissioned officer and six private soldiers . Meanwhile , on 12 December the compulsory evacuation of all European women and children in Papua and New Guinea was ordered . In June 1940 the NGVR 's establishment was increased to 23 officers and 482 other ranks , although this proved difficult to achieve due to the demands of recruitment for overseas service with the Second Australian Imperial Force , which resulted in a large turn @-@ over of men . At this time contingency plans for the defence of Papua and New Guinea envisioned the deployment of Australian forces to Rabaul and Port Moresby , while the defence of Lae and Salamaua would be left to the NGVR . The atmosphere in the battalion in the early days was one of enthusiasm , with many of the older members taking a leading role . In April and June two regular instructors from the Australian Instructional Corps were sent to Rabaul in order to improve the standard of training in the unit . By July 1940 it was spread thin , with an authorized strength of 226 men based at Rabaul , 151 at Wau , 85 at Bulolo , 39 at Salamaua and 19 at Madang , for a total establishment of 520 . As the war with Germany and Italy continued in Europe , North Africa and the Middle East , Australian fears of Japanese intentions in Pacific grew . Yet with the bulk of Australian military and naval forces in the Middle East , defensive preparations remained limited . Two brigades from the 8th Division were subsequently dispatched to Singapore and then Malaya in February 1941 , while a Militia battalion would be stationed between Port Moresby and Thursday Island , an AIF battalion would garrison Rabaul on New Britain , and the 8th Division 's third brigade – less the battalion at Rabaul – would be dispersed piecemeal in Timor and Ambon . In July 1941 the 1st Independent Company was deployed to Kavieng on New Ireland in order to protect the airfield , while sections were sent to Namatanai in central New Ireland , Vila in the New Hebrides , Tulagi on Guadalcanal , Buka Passage in Bougainville , and Lorengau on Manus Island to act as observers . In early 1941 volcanic activity in the Rabaul area forced the government to move its administration to Lae , and NGVR 's headquarters also moved at this time . = = = = Rabaul = = = = The 2 / 22nd Battalion subsequently began arriving in Rabaul in March and April 1941 , while additional units added to the force . Designated Lark Force , it was directed to garrison the town . Tasks included protecting the airfields at Lakunai and Vunakanau and the seaplane base in Simpson Harbour , as well as forming " an advanced observation line " to provide early warning of Japanese movements . Following its arrival the role of the NGVR in Rabaul became a secondary one , and as a consequence the 80 men stationed there were not mobilised and the detachment was largely subsumed by the AIF battalion instead . Occupying defensive positions around Simpson Harbour the Australians were widely dispersed , with companies at Praed Point , Talili Bay , Lakunai airfield , and another inland at Vunakanau airfield , while other elements covered the coastal approaches , near Vulcan crater . Meanwhile , the NGVR spent the following months preparing defensive positions around Lakunai airfield . Lieutenant Colonel John Scanlan subsequently took over command of Lark Force in October . Yet with the position increasingly viewed as untenable , the garrison was reinforced with four Lockheed Hudson bombers and ten obsolete CAC Wirraway reconnaissance aircraft from No. 24 Squadron RAAF , and by December had grown to 1 @,@ 400 men . Despite Lark Force being considered too weak to repel the expected Japanese attack , no plans were made for its withdrawal and instead the Japanese were to be made to fight for the island . In September the Administrator of the Mandated Territory , Sir Walter McNicoll , and his staff transferred to Lae . The Japanese began aerial reconnaissance over Rabaul soon after the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December , while the compulsory evacuation of all remaining European women and children to relative safety in Australia was ordered on 12 December . Meanwhile , scattered across the islands to the north , the 270 men of the 1st Independent Company were all that lay between Rabaul and the large Japanese base at Truk in the Caroline Islands . On the mainland the NGVR formed independent detachments at Wau , Salamaua , Bulolo and Lae . By mid @-@ 1941 it had lost many of its youngest and most dedicated members , many of whom had left to join the AIF instead . Those that remained found the difficulties of making the journey from their remote home locations to the training centres increasingly onerous , while many were disappointed by the lack of ammunition and equipment for training . In September NGVR 's headquarters was transferred to Bulolo on the mainland , while Field relinquished command and was replaced by Major ( later Colonel ) Bill Edwards . One of more enthusiastic of the early volunteers , Edwards revitalized the unit on the goldfields and many new recruits came in . By December , with war against Japan seemingly imminent the strength of the NGVR was 12 officers and 284 other ranks in total , with just 170 to 180 men on the mainland . On 8 December 1941 , the day after war began in the Pacific , Morris was authorised to place the battalion on full @-@ time duty , although only a small number were ultimately called up at this time . Meanwhile , Australian defences in Papua remained limited and were centred on Port Moresby , consisting of approximately 1 @,@ 000 only partially trained Militia from the 49th Battalion , two six @-@ inch coastal guns , a 3 @.@ 7 @-@ inch anti @-@ aircraft battery and a few Consolidated PBY Catalina flying boats , in addition to the locally recruited PIB which was still forming . However , with the Japanese soon expected to attempt to seize Rabaul and Port Moresby the remainder of the 30th Brigade was brought forward , with the 39th and 53rd Battalions arriving in Port Moresby on 3 January . Yet despite such measures , Australian unpreparedness and the speed of the coming Japanese advance meant that the NGVR was destined to provide the only armed resistance in New Guinea until the middle of 1942 . The first air attacks on Rabaul began on 4 January 1942 . Within days the Japanese had succeeded in destroying the bulk of the defending aircraft , while further attacks targeted shipping in the harbour and shore installations . Scanlan considered he would need an entire brigade to defend Rabaul , yet with an invasion imminent all he could do was redeploy some of his limited force , while the remaining aircraft were withdrawn to Lae and the airfields cratered . The Japanese South Seas Force of approximately 5 @,@ 300 men under the command of Major General Tomitarō Horii landed at Rabaul in the early hours of 23 January 1942 . Attached to Lark Force , the NGVR detachment was positioned on the northern flank of the defensive line around Simpson Harbour with A Company , 2 / 22nd Battalion , manning medium machine @-@ gun and mortar positions at Vulcan Island . Defending a 1 @,@ 600 @-@ metre ( 1 @,@ 700 yd ) section of beach , one of the detachments subsequently engaged a Japanese force after dawn as they came ashore by barge , inflicting a number of casualties on them before being forced to withdraw . Outnumbered , Lark Force was quickly overrun in the ensuing fighting , with the Japanese completing the capture of the town within 24 hours . Australian losses were heavy , with 28 men killed and most of the defenders captured . The survivors withdrew into the interior , moving south across New Britain to the Open Bay and Wide Bay areas , and west , for eventual evacuation . In total more than 400 servicemen and civilians escaped . Only 11 NGVR soldiers were among them . Many were less fortunate . 160 wounded and sick Australian soldiers , including a number of NGVR personnel , were captured and subsequently murdered by the Japanese at Tol Plantation in Wide Bay . Later , the Japanese naval prison ship Montevideo Maru was sunk off the west coast of Luzon in the South China Sea on 1 July 1942 after she was hit by three torpedoes fired by the submarine USS Sturgeon , resulting in the loss of 1 @,@ 035 lives , most of them Australian civilians and prisoners of war from Rabaul . Among those killed were 36 men from the NGVR . = = = = Salamaua – Lae – Wau = = = = The battalion was finally mobilised on 21 January 1942 . The same day 60 Japanese aircraft simultaneously attacked Lae , Salamaua and Bulolo . Realising the Japanese occupation of the north coast settlements of the Huon Gulf was imminent , McNicoll declared a state of emergency , handing over control to the NGVR second @-@ in @-@ command , Major Edmund Jenyns . With a Japanese landing at Lae expected and with the NGVR on full @-@ time duty , all civilians departed on 24 January . Four days later McNicoll returned to Australia , effectively ending civil administration in New Guinea . Only six RAAF signallers and five or six soldiers from the NGVR remained to report Japanese movements . Meanwhile , other NGVR groups defended strategic points in the area , and from mid @-@ February the NGVR detachment from Wau joined the Salamaua platoon , with the company concentrating at Mubo under Captain Douglas Umphelby . Ill @-@ equipped and wearing an assortment of clothing and uniforms , their webbing was mostly of First World War vintage leather . Lacking helmets and entrenching tools , they carried packs and haversacks weighing in excess of 40 to 50 pounds ( 18 to 23 kg ) . With an average age of 35 years , most of the men had lived New Guinea for a considerable period of time . Highly individualistic and with limited military training , they lacked the coherence of a formed unit , while many brought their native labour lines with them to share the burden . The men readied themselves to fight a guerrilla war from the hinterland against the expected invasion , as well as preparing to destroy key infrastructure to deny it to the Japanese . Meanwhile , another company formed at Lae under Captain Hugh Lyon for the same purpose . Both companies were ordered to commence a demolition campaign in the event of a Japanese landing , although Wau airfield was to be left intact for the time being . NGVR personnel also helped rescue 217 survivors of Lark Force from Rabaul in February and March 1942 . On 8 March 1942 approximately 3 @,@ 000 Japanese naval troops landed unopposed at Lae forcing the NGVR detachment to withdraw west towards Nadzab , while another battalion from the South Sea 's Force landed further south at Salamaua the same day . After observing the landings the NGVR detachment skirmished with the Japanese and attempted to demolish the airfield before withdrawing across the Francisco River , destroying the bridge across the river mouth as they went . The Japanese subsequently occupied Salamaua , and after leaving a section at the river the NGVR detachment moved south to Mubo . Although in the panic which followed Morris had initially ordered Edwards to prevent the Japanese from crossing the mountains , this failed to recognise the reality of the situation and subsequently proved unrealistic . Unable to be resupplied and lacking modern weapons and equipment , and with relatively few men and no prospect of reinforcement , the NVGR lacked the strength to block any Japanese movement inland . Although Morris was concerned about the possible loss of the Bulolo Valley , with Port Moresby threatened he was unable to reinforce the NGVR at Wau . Yet the Japanese chose to consolidate their position instead . Meanwhile , the NGVR was ordered to destroy the airfield at Wau and carry out a demolition campaign in the Bulolo Valley . Edwards rashly authorised the destruction of the two power stations in the valley and bridges at Bulolo and Wau , and despite there being no indication of a Japanese move towards Wau , the order was completed nonetheless . At Lae the primary concern of the Japanese was to get the airfield operational . From its position at Mubo Umphelby 's company was subsequently ordered to maintain observation over the town and to block any Japanese movement towards Wau . A number of supply dumps and observation posts had been prepositioned in the hinterland and these were utilised for the task , while two Vickers machine @-@ guns were subsequently set up to cover the narrow approach up the Bitoi River valley to Mubo . The company included a number of men who possessed an intimate knowledge of the difficult terrain in the area , and despite limited equipment and supply deficiencies , they were subsequently able to provide invaluable intelligence to the Australian high command . Meanwhile , after the fall of Lae Lyon 's company had been stationed in the Markham Valley to the west , and was tasked with observing Japanese movements from that direction . Although the Japanese were slow to move inland , a party of 60 soldiers subsequently destroyed the NGVR stores dump at Komiatum on 18 March before returning to Salamaua . Around Lae the Japanese remained confined to the township over the following weeks , focusing on making the airfield operational and establishing workshops and supply dumps in the area . Between March and May , with a strength of just 500 men , the NGVR monitored the Japanese bases which had been established in the Huon Gulf region , being the only Allied force in the area until the arrival of Kanga Force at Wau in May 1942 . The battalion then established observation posts and camps overlooking the main approaches and reported on Japanese movements and shipping , and called in airstrikes , while planning their own offensive . Later , it inflicted significant casualties on the Japanese in a series of raids , and led them to believe that they faced a much larger opposing force . Following the bombing of Port Moresby in early February the civil administration in Papua had also been replaced by military control , with the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ( ANGAU ) formed to administer both Papua and New Guinea in a unified military government , following their hurried amalgamation . Regardless , the NGVR remained the only Allied unit operating on the north coast and goldfields over this period . It subsequently assisted the evacuation of many European civilians from the war @-@ zone , with many being flown out , while others moved by ship or overland to Port Moresby . As the sole representative of government authority , the NGVR also assumed responsibility for several thousand indentured native labourers recruited from the outlying districts who had been left without support and were unable to return to their homes . The NGVR subsequently established camps and fed them , and they became the first of many carriers and labourers enlisted to support the Allies during the fighting that followed . Meanwhile , the Japanese took Finschhafen on 10 March and occupied Bougainville later that month . Yet Morris was now finally in a position to begin reinforcing the NGVR . A platoon of reinforcements intended for the 2 / 1st Independent Company subsequently reached Port Moresby in late March following the loss of New Britain and New Ireland and they were sent over the Bulldog Track to support the NGVR instead . Edwards next sent an NGVR scout section to find out what the Japanese were doing in Salamaua in late March . Although they were subsequently detected the Japanese failed to find them ; however , with the local inhabitants facing reprisals for assisting the Australians , the NGVR withdrew to avoid further consequences for them . Similar posts were subsequently established along the Markham Valley and at Heath 's Plantation , closer to Lae to observe Japanese movements . Elsewhere , Lorengau on Manus Island was subsequently captured by the Japanese on 8 April . Meanwhile , minor skirmishing occurred in April and May in the Markham Valley as the Japanese attempted to challenge the NGVR presence in the area . The NGVR continued its role of observing the Japanese , with Port Moresby instructing that no operations were to be undertaken against Lae or Salamua without orders , and that reinforcements were soon be sent to the area . On 23 April a Japanese fighting patrol of approximately 65 men from Salamaua moved on Komiatum , challenging NGVR control of the area . The Japanese subsequently discovered the NGVR stores there and ejected a small group of Australians guarding the village . Although the fighting continued for most of the day and resulted in three Japanese killed and several others wounded , the village was subsequently destroyed along with the NGVR stores . The NGVR detachment was then forced to withdraw to Mubo , while the Japanese returned to Salamaua . Following the capture of Madang on 1 May by the Japanese , the inland towns of Wau and Bulolo in the Morobe District were the only major centres in New Guinea still in Allied hands . The Battle of the Coral Sea between 4 and 8 May effectively removed the threat of a Japanese invasion of Port Moresby . Meanwhile , a force consisting of the 2 / 5th Independent Company under Major Paul Kneen and supporting units had been tasked with undertaking a limited guerrilla offensive to harass and destroy Japanese personnel and equipment in the Lae and Salamaua area and the Markham Valley . Designated Kanga Force under the command of Major Norman Fleay , the first elements flew into Wau from Port Moresby on 23 May to reinforce the NGVR . Kanga force consisted of two companies of the NGVR split between the Markham Valley and Mubo , a platoon from the 2 / 1st Independent Company , and the 2 / 5th Independent Company with the force subsequently in position nine days later . Kanga force 's main problem was one of logistics . Supplies for Kanga Force were either flown in , depending on aircraft availability , or shipped to the mouth of the Lakekamu River in small craft , transported up the river to Bulldog in canoes and then carried over the Bulldog Track by native porters . By early June , Kanga Force was largely concentrated at Wau , although there were elements of the 2 / 1st and 2 / 5th spread out as far as Bulwa , and elements of the NGVR at Mapos . The NGVR was still watching the Salamaua sector from Mubo , whilst other elements were covering the inland routes from the Markham and Wampit Rivers . As Fleay attempted to juggle his forces and relieve the exhausted NGVR detachments , his orders were clarified and work began on planning a number of raids in the area . Fleay considered there were 2 @,@ 000 Japanese in Lae and 250 in Salamaua . In comparison , he had just 700 men , of whom only 450 were fit for operations , with the force too small to meet the many possible Japanese threats . The threat of an overland advance required him to defend the numerous tracks through the Bulolo Valley , while the threat of an air invasion required him to defend likely landing zones at Wau , Bulolo , Bulwa and Otibanda , meaning that Fleay had even less resources to achieve his mission . He assessed that the only course of action available was to maintain a large force in the Bulolo Valley to defend the overland route to Papua , while conducting a number of raids in the area in order to inflict casualties on the Japanese and forestall any advance . These would be concentrated in three areas : on the Japanese force at Heath 's Plantation , where they formed an obstacle to any large @-@ scale movement against Lae ; on the Lae area to destroy the aircraft , dumps and installations located there , and to test the defences with a view to larger scale operations in the future ; and on the Salamaua area to destroy the wireless station , aerodrome and dumps . Initial raids would subsequently be undertaken at Salamaua and Heath 's Plantation , led by Major Paul Kneen and Captain Norman Winning from the 2 / 5th Independent Company . Targeting the aerodrome and 300 @-@ strong Japanese garrison Winning planned the assault on Salamaua with Umphelby from the NGVR , following careful reconnaissance by NGVR scouts under Sergeant Jim McAdam . Early in the morning of 29 June 1942 , 71 members of the NGVR and the 2 / 5th Independent Company carried out a highly successful attack , killing at least 113 men and destroying a number of installations including the radio station and supply dumps for the loss of only three men slightly wounded . In addition , the Australians captured a small amount of enemy equipment and a number of documents , including marked maps , sketches , and Japanese orders . The simultaneous raid on Heath 's Plantation at Lae was carried out by 58 men , mainly from the 2 / 5th Independent Company . Although also successful , surprise was lost after watchdogs warned the Japanese of their approach , and Kneen was subsequently killed and two men were wounded , while Japanese losses included 42 killed . Following the raids , the Japanese sent patrols of up to 90 men into the foothills in the hinterland around Salamaua , destroying the camp at Butu and reinforcements were moved from the garrison at Lae to Kela village . Meanwhile , reconnaissance reports indicated that the Japanese had been forced to draw on their garrison at Lae to reinforce their perimeter at Salamaua during early July in an attempt to prevent further raids . In retaliation Japanese aircraft subsequently bombed Wau , Bulolo and Skindiwai on 2 July , killing a number of Australians , destroying some houses and buildings , and driving many native carriers into the bush . Meanwhile , the Japanese garrison at Salamaua continued to be reinforced , with NGVR scouts estimating that another 200 soldiers had arrived since the raid , with the force there growing to between 400 and 500 men . Strong patrols were subsequently observed searching the tracks around the town for the Australians . Although the morale of the NGVR remained high , the effect of continuous operations in the harsh terrain with only limited logistic and medical support took their toll , with many falling ill to fever and tropical disease . The number of fit men decreased steadily . On 5 July Fleay restricted Kanga force activities to patrolling and observation . Finally the Japanese moved on Mubo , defended by just 64 men from the NGVR and 2 / 5th Independent Company occupying the high ground overlooking the village and the airstrip , with a lightly equipped force of 136 Japanese marines from the Sasebo 5th Special Naval Landing Party crossing the Francisco River on the morning 21 July . Approaching Mubo around 17 : 00 the Japanese clashed with the Australians and were scattered . With the Japanese trapped in the river valley , the Australians opened fire with four Vickers machine @-@ guns , three Lewis guns and three Brens , inflicting between 50 and 60 casualties , including 12 killed , without loss . The Japanese were subsequently forced to withdraw towards Salamaua , carrying their dead and wounded . The same day the Japanese launched a simultaneous thrust up the Markham Valley against the 2 / 5th Independent Company . With a seaborne movement blocked , the Japanese again attempted to move against Port Moresby overland in July . Following a landing near Gona , on the north coast of New Guinea , on the night of 21 / 22 July , Japanese forces attempted to advance south overland through the mountains of the Owen Stanley Range to seize Port Moresby as part of a strategy of isolating Australia from the United States , resulting in a series of battles during the Kokoda Track campaign . From that point the importance of Kanga Force 's operations around Salamaua and Wau declined , with the direct threat posed by the landings dictating that the limited forces and supplies available to the Australians be concentrated on Port Moresby . Lieutenant General Sydney Rowell took over command of New Guinea Force from Morris on 12 August at the height of the fighting . The 2 / 6th Independent Company had arrived in Port Moresby on 7 August and it had been planned to send them forward to Wau to reinforce Kanga Force . However , with the Japanese threat against Port Moresby growing increasingly serious they were held in reserve there instead , while Kanga Force would be required to continue to hold on with the limited resources available to them . Meanwhile , as food was not getting through to Kanga Force , the soldiers of the NGVR became increasingly dependent on local supplies . Japanese air raids against their supply dumps , intimidation of the local inhabitants , large scale desertions of native carriers , and the inherent difficulty of getting supplies forward to feed those carriers that remained combined to threaten to stop their operations altogether . The Japanese subsequently staged a landing at Milne Bay on the eastern tip of New Guinea on the evening of 25 August 1942 to reduce the Allied airfields that had been established there , further straining the limited resources available to Rowell and preventing him from reinforcing Kanga Force . Yet despite some success the landing force was subsequently destroyed by the Australians with the survivors forced to evacuate by sea on 4 – 5 September . During this time Horii 's South Seas Detachment had continued to make strong progress along the Kokoda Track , although the outnumbered Australian opposition was becoming increasingly effective . By 16 September the Japanese had reached Ioribaiwa , in sight of Port Moresby itself . However , following a heavy defeat at Guadalcanal , Horrii was ordered onto the defensive . The Japanese subsequently began to withdraw from Kokoda on 24 September to establish a defensive position on the north coast , but were closely followed by the Australians who recaptured Kokoda on 2 November . Further fighting continued into November and December as Australian and United States forces assaulted the Japanese beachheads , in what later became known as the Battle of Buna – Gona . Gona was captured on 9 December 1942 and Buna on 3 January 1943 . The Japanese subsequently began to abandon Sanananda on 13 January following an unsuccessful Australian assault the day before . Mopping up operations were completed on 22 January . Meanwhile , the privations of operating around Mubo and in the Markham Valley continued to take their toll on the Australians , and by early August the bulk of the men forward of Bulolu and Wau were commandos . The NGVR had been exhausted by their exertions during the fighting and few now remained , with a small group from the 2 / 5th Independent Company relieving the NGVR scouts for their observation role . Indeed , by September 1942 the NGVR was no longer recognisable as a unit . As the first phase of irregular warfare in the Salamaua – Lae – Wau region came to a close by the end of August , the Japanese occupied Mubo from where they were positioned to seize Wau and the Bulolo Valley , but had not yet moved up the Markham Valley in strength . The Australians were subsequently forced to abandon Wau and the Bulolo Valley , and were preparing to hold a position at the head of the Bulldog Track . While the focus of the campaign in New Guinea shifted to the Milne Bay and Kokoda Track battles in August and September 1942 the NGVR continued to man its posts overlooking the Japanese base areas , patrolling extensively . The Allies remained concerned about the defence of the important air installation at Wau and were keen to secure the crest of the Owen Stanleys in that area . Consequently , the 2 / 7th Independent Company was flown into Wau in October 1942 to reinforce Wau . Anticipating an attack by the Japanese , General Thomas Blamey ordered the 17th Brigade from Milne Bay to reinforce Wau and relieve Kanga Force , and on 16 January 1943 the Japanese launched an offensive against Wau , known as the Battle of Wau . = = = = Disbandment = = = = The Japanese were subsequently defeated at Wau in January and February 1943 , relieving the pressure on the NGVR . Following this , as problems with supply and sickness reduced Fleay 's effectiveness , Kanga Force was broken up on 23 April 1943 with its individual units becoming part of the 3rd Division , which left Wau to begin the Salamaua @-@ Lae campaign to drive the Japanese from Salamaua . Meanwhile , ANGAU had expanded its activities on the goldfields , restoring military administration and the organisation of the supply and supervision of native carriers supporting Allied forces . By this time NGVR was believed to contain 300 men ; however , most were suffering ill health following months of guerrilla fighting , and many were experiencing ill affects due to their age . Having suffered heavy attrition , and with no further reinforcements available in New Guinea , the unit was finally disbanded in April 1943 . As a part @-@ time volunteer unit , the NGVR was unique in the history of PNG , yet due to their military training , their knowledge of New Guinea and its people , and their experiences in the early days of the war , many of its surviving members became part of ANGAU , while others remained as coastwatchers or in other capacities attached to AIF divisions and Z and M Special Units , continuing to serve until the end of hostilities in 1945 . As the Allies moved onto the offensive in New Guinea they planned to neutralise and bypass the Japanese base at Rabaul as part of their advance . During the Admiralty Islands campaign a small number of Australians from the NGVR and ANGAU were assigned to the US @-@ led Brewer Force during a reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force on the Japanese @-@ held island of Los Negros between 29 February and 4 March 1944 . For their actions the unit was awarded a Distinguished Unit Citation by the United States . Due to the nature of the early campaign in New Guinea the NGVR never fought as a formed unit , with it sub @-@ units scattered and forced to fight independently instead . Its men had come from many walks of life , and while some were too old to join the AIF , or were medically unfit or employed in restricted occupations , they acquitted themselves well in the harsh terrain , with only limited equipment and support , often developing their own tactics . The battalion played an important role in the period to late May 1942 by maintaining contact with the Japanese , as well as demonstrating to the native population in the Salamaua – Wau – Lae region that the Australians had not been forced out of the area . They provided early warning of Japanese troop and aircraft movements , and succeeded in preventing the Japanese from utilising the Bulldog Track as an avenue of approach to Port Moresby . The NGVR also aided the deployment of Kanga Force and later supported US forces on Manus . As part of Kanga Force they also denied the Japanese the vital airfields at Wau and Bulolo , which would have brought Port Moresby within the effective range of Japanese bombers . They also initiated the organisation of New Guinean labour which was to provide a vital contribution to the success of the Allied campaign in New Guinea . While records are incomplete , approximately 600 to 850 men are believed to have served with the unit . A roll of honour in the Shrine of Memories in ANZAC Square , Brisbane lists the names of 95 men who were killed or died serving with the unit during the war . = = = Post war = = = = = = = Re @-@ establishment = = = = In the years immediately following the war the Australian Army considered re @-@ establishing a military presence in PNG , although there was some opposition among the colonial administration and white settlers to the raising of native units , echoing previous concerns . As an interim measure , the re @-@ establishment of the NGVR was approved in July 1949 , re @-@ forming as a whites @-@ only reserve unit of the Citizen Military Forces ( CMF ) . Volunteers were first called for in September 1950 , with initial arrangements for the new unit begun by Lieutenant Colonel N.R. McLeod . Later , two non @-@ commissioned officers arrived from Northern Command in October 1950 , forming part of a small regular cadre which would support the administration of the unit and assist with its training . In February 1951 a small group of Australian officers and non @-@ commissioned officers arrived to assist with raising the unit , and the re @-@ raising of the Pacific Islands Regiment ( PIR ) . The unit was subsequently raised as the Papua New Guinea Volunteer Rifles ( PNGVR ) on 16 March 1951 , with the enlistment of the first recruits beginning in Port Moresby soon after . The PNGVR was intended to maintain sub @-@ units capable of providing advice on topography , native customs and personalities , provision of guides and interpreters , and assistance in the organisation and training of irregular native forces . The unit would also form the basis for the future expansion of forces in PNG if required , and be of limited assistance to civic action projects . It would also provide detachments to protect vulnerable points and counter small @-@ scale raids , and be capable of being used in border @-@ type or counter @-@ insurgency operations in support of regular forces following further training . The initial recruits were Australians , most of whom had served as officers or non @-@ commissioned officers during the war . The first resident commanding officer was Lieutenant Colonel E.F. Madden . Conditions of service were the same as for CMF units in Australia , while PNGVR members were paid the same as their Australian Regular Army ( ARA ) counterparts . Recruits were required to complete 12 days home training and a camp of 14 days each year , but could also undertake additional training periods if they wished . = = = = Peace @-@ time service = = = = In March 1951 a small PNGVR detachment assisted in relief operations following the eruption of Mount Lamington which killed 3 @,@ 466 people and left more than 5 @,@ 000 homeless . By the end of 1951 detachments had been raised at Port Moresby , Lae , Wau and Rabaul . Initially the battalion included a headquarters company and two under strength rifle companies , with A Company based in Lae and B Company in Rabaul . Meanwhile , the raising of a locally recruited regular battalion manned by indigenous personnel and trained and commanded by Australian officers and non @-@ commissioned officers had been authorised in November 1950 , and in March 1951 the PIR was reformed with an initial strength of one battalion . In addition to its other responsibilities the PNGVR fostered the raising of the PIR and HQ Area Command Papua New Guinea . The PNGVR would augment the PIR in wartime , and the two units would later regularly train together . However , due to the terms of the UN trusteeship under which the territory had been entrusted to Australia it was decided from the outset that neither unit would serve outside PNG . Yet the PNGVR did not live up to initial expectations , and it remained significantly under strength . By May 1952 it numbered just eight officers and 140 other ranks , yet Rowell , by then the Chief of the General Staff , decided against disbanding the battalion " ... when there is the nucleus of a unit there " . In assessing the unit 's achievements , while only 0 @.@ 24 per cent of the population of Brisbane belonged to the CMF at the time , the PNGVR had succeeded in recruiting 2 @.@ 14 percent of the white population of the territories . The problem of raising a CMF unit in PNG was largely one of scale due to the small number of eligible men to recruit from , the absence of National Service intakes to swell its numbers , and the lack of suitable accommodation and training facilities . The role initially envisioned for the PNGVR proved overly ambitious , and it was subsequently redefined to being one of the provision of officers and non @-@ commissioned officers for an expanded PIR during wartime . Between 1951 and 1953 PNGVR elements were established in all the main centres in PNG . A platoon was subsequently formed at Samarai in December 1953 , while further detachments were later established at Madang , Wewak , Goroka , Mount Hagen , Banz , Kainantu and Kavieng . A third rifle company was later raised , with C Company being formed at Goroka in 1957 . In May 1958 , for the first time since the Second World War soldiers of the unit participated in joint exercises with the PIR in the Goldie River – Kokoda Track area . Such exercises subsequently became a regular activity between the two units , while PNGVR detachments regularly marched with the PIR on Anzac Day and Queen 's Birthday celebrations . As part of the annual training program soldiers of the unit undertook two weeks in concentrated exercises and training every year , initially at Goldie River . Meanwhile , the arms and equipment issued to the unit progressively improved . Unlike the rest of the CMF , the PNGVR was not reorganised along pentropic lines in 1960 and remained relatively unchanged . The unit expanded in the early 1960s with additional resources becoming available and increased recruitment , and by 1962 Administration Company and D Company had been added to the establishment , both of which were based in Port Moresby . Yet the small European population and the rapid turnover of staff in local industries continued to limit the manpower available , while the Army preferred to recruit permanent residents such as planters and traders , who represented an even smaller minority . In order to increase the number of personnel available arrangements were made to allow CMF members who started their training in Australia and then transferred their civilian employment to PNG to continue to serve with the PNGVR , while those who completed their time in PNG were similarly able to complete their training upon their return to Australia . In 1962 the battle honours won by the NGVR during Second World War were awarded to the PNGVR so that the history of the former unit could be perpetuated . As the fighting in West New Guinea between Indonesia and the Dutch reached its height , concerns about the security of the border grew . By January 1963 the unit had grown to 550 men , all of them white . However , in 1964 the enlistment of Papua New Guinean and Chinese personnel had finally been authorised , with the unit evolving into a multi @-@ racial battalion . A large number of Papua New Guineans subsequently applied to join the unit . The strength of the unit increased rapidly as a result , and an additional platoon was subsequently raised at Kainantu the same year . A camp was subsequently built at Ambra , near Mount Hagen , and the first integrated camp was held there in November 1964 . Yet the cost of flying men to Ambra proved prohibitive and from 1966 annual camps were held at Lae , initially at a wartime facility on the Bumbu River , and later at Igam Barracks . Papua New Guinea Command was formed in 1965 , ending the link with Headquarters Northern Command in Brisbane . During this time CMF officers from Australia began visiting PNG to gain experience in operating in tropical conditions with the PNGVR and PIR , with the first group arriving in October 1965 . The Cold War and growing Australian concern about Indonesian intentions during the Indonesia – Malaysia confrontation saw increasing defence resources allocated to PNG during the 1960s , including the raising of a second PIR battalion in 1965 . As part of this process in March 1966 it was announced that the PNGVR would be reorganised as a full battalion on the Tropical Warfare Establishment , with its strength expanded to 750 men of all ranks , while it would also receive a range of new weapons and equipment , including new heavy barrelled 7 @.@ 62 mm L1A1 Self @-@ Loading Rifles , M60 machine @-@ guns and 81 mm mortars . Support Company was subsequently raised in Port Moresby to replace the infantry company there , and included a mortar platoon , anti @-@ tank platoon , signals platoon and an assault pioneer platoon . Meanwhile , the Wewak detachment was redesignated D Company , and took over control of the Madang platoon . In 1968 the construction of the new Ingam Barracks was completed at Lae , and Headquarters PNGVR was subsequently moved there from Murray Barracks in Port Moresby . By 1969 only one @-@ fifth of PNGVR members were Europeans . On 17 May 1969 , PNGVR was presented with the Queen 's and Regimental Colours at Igam Barracks in Lae by the Administrator , Sir David Osborne Hay . A platoon was later raised at the University of Papua New Guinea ( UPNG ) in April 1970 . In July 1971 Second Lieutenant Pascal Idok of the UPNG detachment subsequently became the first Papua New Guinean to be commissioned into the PNGVR . = = = = Disbandment = = = = Yet as relations with Indonesia improved and the Vietnam War came to an end , the changing strategic circumstances in the Asia @-@ Pacific saw the unit establishment reduced to 440 all ranks during the early 1970s , while in the lead up to Papua New Guinean independence in 1975 consideration was given to disbanding the unit . Although unknown to the unit at the time , the PNGVR held its last annual training camp in August 1973 at Finschhafen , with	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
. The next day , the group makes their way towards the shoreline , but are surrounded by the raptors once again . The eggs are surrendered to the raptors , while Grant uses the replicated raptor larynx to confuse the pack , who run off with the eggs . The group flees to the coast and find that Sattler had called in the U.S. Marine Corps and the U.S. Navy to rescue them . They discover that Billy , while seriously injured , is still alive . As they leave the island , they see the Pteranodons flying free , and Grant muses they are looking for new nesting grounds . = = Cast = = Sam Neill as Dr. Alan Grant , the world @-@ famous paleontologist who survived the incident on Isla Nublar and has since developed an apathetic attitude towards the creatures he once admired . William H. Macy as Paul Kirby , the owner of a hardware store who poses as a wealthy businessman in order to lure Grant into helping search for his son . Téa Leoni as Amanda Kirby , Paul 's former wife who accompanies the group to Isla Sorna to search for her son . Alessandro Nivola as Billy Brennan , a young and over @-@ enthusiastic graduate student from Grant 's dig site at Fort Peck Lake . Trevor Morgan as Eric Kirby , Paul and Amanda 's 12 @-@ year @-@ old son , stranded on Isla Sorna . Michael Jeter as Udesky , one of the mercenaries . John Diehl as Cooper , a mercenary and weapons specialist . Bruce A. Young as Nash , another of the mercenaries who serves as the group 's pilot . Laura Dern as Ellie , a paleobotanist who also survived Isla Nublar . Taylor Nichols as Mark , Ellie 's husband . Mark Harelik as Ben Hildebrand , Amanda 's boyfriend . Julio Oscar Mechoso as Enrique Cardoso , the owner and operator of the " Dino @-@ Soar " parasailing service . Blake Michael Bryan as Charlie , Ellie and Mark 's son . Sarah Danielle Madison as Cheryl Logan , one of Grant 's graduate students at the dig site . Linda Park as Hannah , Ellie 's secretary . = = = Creatures on screen = = = In a deviation from the previous films , the Spinosaurus is considered the primary antagonist : Johnston stated , " A lot of dinosaurs have a very similar silhouette to the T @-@ Rex ... and we wanted the audience to instantly recognize this as something else . " The silhouette of the Spinosaurus is also on the poster behind the Pteranodon , taking the place of the Tyrannosaurus which had been used in the previous films ' posters . Baryonyx was originally considered to be the " big bad " before Spinosaurus was chosen , and early concept posters reflected this . Within film dialogue , Billy interprets the animal encountered as a Baryonyx or Suchomimus , but Dr. Grant corrects his analysis based on its size and its sail . Due to new discoveries and theories in the field of paleontology , the portrayal of several dinosaurs differed from that of the previous films . Discoveries suggesting that Velociraptor were feathered prompted the addition of quill @-@ like structures on the head and neck of the males in the film . " We 've found evidence that Velociraptors had feathers , or feather @-@ like structures , and we 've incorporated that into the new look of the raptor " , said paleontologist Jack Horner , the film 's technical adviser . Spielberg insisted to Johnston that he include Pteranodons in the film , after they had been cut from the previous films for budget reasons . An aquatic reptile was featured in the first draft , but was ultimately removed from the final script . The special effects used for the creatures were a mixture of animatronics and CGI . The following creatures appear in the film : Ankylosaurus Brachiosaurus Ceratosaurus Compsognathus Corythosaurus Parasaurolophus Pteranodon Spinosaurus Stegosaurus Triceratops Tyrannosaurus Velociraptor = = Production = = = = = Early development = = = Joe Johnston had been interested in directing the sequel to Jurassic Park and approached Spielberg , a friend of his , about the project . While Spielberg wanted to direct the first sequel , he agreed that if there was ever a third film , Johnston could direct . The second film , entitled The Lost World : Jurassic Park , included the scene of the Tyrannosaurus rampaging through San Diego . Spielberg had initially wanted the scene to be saved for a third film , but later decided to add it into the second film after realizing that he would probably not direct another film in the series . After the release of the second film in May 1997 , Spielberg was busy with other projects and was asked about the possibility of a third Jurassic Park film ; he responded , " It would give me a tremendous Advil headache just to think about it . " = = = Pre @-@ production = = = Universal Pictures announced the film on June 29 , 1998 , with Spielberg acting as a producer . Michael Crichton was reportedly going to collaborate with Spielberg to create a storyline and write a script . The film was set for release in summer 2000 . Spielberg initially devised a story idea that involved Dr. Alan Grant , who was discovered to have been living on one of InGen 's islands . According to Johnston , " He 'd snuck in , after not being allowed in to research the dinosaurs , and was living in a tree like Robinson Crusoe . But I couldn 't imagine this guy wanting to get back on any island that had dinosaurs in it after the first movie . " In June 1999 , Craig Rosenberg began writing the first draft of the script , which involved teenagers who get marooned on Isla Sorna . Johnston was announced as the film 's director in August 1999 , with Rosenberg still attached . Production was expected to begin in early 2000 . Rosenberg 's draft about teenagers on Isla Sorna was rejected in September 1999 . Although Johnston felt that it was " not a badly written script , " he also said , " It read like a bad episode of Friends " . By December 1999 , new writers had been hired to devise a better story for the film . The film 's second script involved Pteranodon escaping from Isla Sorna and causing a spate of mysterious killings on the mainland , which was to be investigated by Alan Grant and a number of other characters including Billy Brennan , a naturalist named Simone , a tough military attaché , wealthy Paul Roby , and Roby 's teenage son Miles . Grant 's group crash @-@ lands on the island , while a parallel investigation is being carried out on the mainland . The aviary sequence and laboratory set piece were initially much longer and more complex , including Velociraptor stealthily entering the hatchery as the team spends the night there . Sets , costumes , and props were built for this version . In February 2000 , filming was reportedly set to begin in Fiordland , New Zealand around the end of the month . Scenes were originally planned to be filmed there for The Lost World : Jurassic Park . In March 2000 , Maui , Hawaii was reportedly chosen instead of New Zealand . Sam Neill signed on to the project in June 2000 , with 18 weeks of filming expected to begin by August 2000 , for a release in July 2001 . Macy originally turned down his role due to scheduling conflicts . Trevor Morgan and Téa Leoni were cast in August 2000 , with Utah 's Dinosaur National Monument and an Oahu military base being considered as possible filming locations . During the pre @-@ production phase , concept artists created advertising for the film using a number of working titles including Jurassic Park : Extinction and Jurassic Park : Breakout . Five weeks before filming began , Johnston and Spielberg rejected the entire script as they were dissatisfied with it ; $ 18 million had already been spent on the film at that time . Johnston felt that the script 's story was too complicated . The simpler " rescue mission " plot , which had been suggested by David Koepp , was used for the film instead . Alexander Payne and Jim Taylor began rewriting the script in July 2000 . = = = Filming = = = Johnston said that the script was never finished during production : " We shot pages that eventually went into the final script but we didn 't have a document " . Principal photography began on August 30 , 2000 , at Dillingham Airfield in Mokulēia , Hawaii . Macy , commenting on the slow pace of filming the script , said " we would do a quarter @-@ page--some days , an eighth of a page . And that would be a full 12 @-@ hour day . " Filming continued on Oahu until September 9 . Aerial footage of Molokai 's North Shore cliffs was then shot over the next two days , followed by a week of filming in Kauai . Filming concluded in Hawaii on September 20 , 2000 . Production then moved to California . John August was hired to do uncredited work on the script in September 2000 . Scenes were filmed at Occidental College in Los Angeles on October 10 , 2000 . Scenes were filmed at Center Bay Studios in Los Angeles at the end of October . Other filming locations in California included South Pasadena and a rock quarry in Irwindale . Filming also took place at Universal Studios ' backlot in Los Angeles . Production returned to Hawaii in January 2001 , to film the movie 's ending , which had yet to be written during the previous Hawaiian shoot . The ending was filmed on Kauai 's Pila 'a Beach . The storyline contains minor scenes from Crichton 's Jurassic Park and The Lost World novels that were ultimately not featured in the film versions , such as the Pteranodon aviary and the use of the boat . Laura Dern 's cameo was shot in a day . In an earlier draft , Neill and Dern 's characters were a couple in the process of splitting up . Johnston said , " I didn 't want to see them as a couple anymore . For one thing , I don 't think they look like a couple . It would be uncomfortable to still see them together . And Laura Dern doesn 't look like she 's aged for the past fifteen years ! " The film 's longest rough cut was approximately 96 minutes , without credits . According to Johnston , " We lost maybe 8 minutes , so it was never really that long . " = = = Music = = = Given John Williams was busy writing the music for Spielberg 's own A.I. Artificial Intelligence , he recommended Don Davis to write the Jurassic Park III score . Williams ' original themes were integrated into the score as well as several new ones , such as one for the Spinosaurus that focused on low sounds , with tubas , trombones and timpani . The fight between the Spinosaurus and the Tyrannosaurus , compared by Davis to King Kong fighting a dinosaur in the 1933 film , had a juxtaposition of the Spinosaurus theme with the one Williams wrote for the T. rex . In addition , " Big Hat , No Cattle " , a song by Randy Newman , was used in a restaurant scene . = = Release = = Jurassic Park III premiered at the Universal Amphitheater in Los Angeles , California , on July 18 , 2001 , followed two days later by a release in the United States and other countries . The film earned $ 181 @,@ 171 @,@ 875 in the United States and $ 368 @,@ 780 @,@ 809 worldwide , making it the eighth @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of the year worldwide but it is the lowest grossing Jurassic Park film in the entire series . The film was released on VHS and DVD in December 2001 . It was re @-@ released with both sequels in December 2001 as the Jurassic Park Trilogy , and as the Jurassic Park Adventure Pack in November 2005 . The film has also been released as a two @-@ disc DVD set alongside Hulk . In 2011 , the film was released on Blu @-@ ray as part of the Jurassic Park Ultimate Trilogy . The soundtrack was released in July 2001 . = = Reception = = Jurassic Park III has received a mostly mixed to negative response from critics and fans alike . Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 50 % rating based on 163 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 2 / 10 . The site 's consensus states : " Jurassic Park III is darker and faster than its predecessors , but that doesn 't quite compensate for the franchise 's continuing creative decline . " It also has a 42 out of 100 on Metacritic , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . On both sites , it is the lowest rated film out of the Jurassic Park franchise . Entertainment Weekly 's Owen Gleiberman , who praised both the previous Jurassic Park films , awarded the third film only a C grade , writing " Jurassic Park III has no pretensions to be anything more than a goose @-@ bumpy fantasy theme @-@ park ride for kids , but it 's such a routine ride . Spielberg 's wizardry is gone , and his balletic light touch as well , and that gives too much of this 90 @-@ minute movie over to the duller @-@ than @-@ dull characters . " Derek Elley of Variety Reviews felt likewise , calling the film " an all @-@ action , helter @-@ skelter , don 't @-@ forget @-@ to @-@ buy @-@ the @-@ computer @-@ game ride that makes the two previous installments look like models of classic filmmaking " . Ben Varkontine of PopMatters called it " not as good a ride as the first " , but " better than the second . " Much of the criticism was leveled at the plot as simply a chase movie with no character development ; Apollo Movie Guide panned the film as being " almost the same as the first movie " with " no need for new ideas or even a script " . Empire magazine gave the film 3 stars out of 5 , commenting that it was " Short , scrappy and intermittently scary " and that the film ultimately " skews young " . On Ebert and Roeper , Richard Roeper gave it a Thumbs Down , while Roger Ebert awarded a Thumbs Up . In a subsequent review , Ebert called it " the best blockbuster of the Summer " . In his written review , Ebert gave the film three stars and wrote that while the film was not as awe @-@ inspiring as the first film or as elaborate as the second , " it 's a nice little thrill machine . [ ... ] I can 't praise it for its art , but I must not neglect its craft ... " Early pioneer of the dinosaur @-@ bird connection Robert T. Bakker has quipped that the feathery quills added to the Velociraptor for Jurassic Park III " looked like a roadrunner 's toupee . " However , he conceded that feathers are difficult subjects for computer animation and speculated that Jurassic Park IV 's raptors would have more realistic thorough plumage . As of 2002 , Crichton said he had not seen the film . = = = Awards and nominations = = = = = Marketing and merchandise = = A teaser trailer was released online in September 2000 . Universal avoided excessive early marketing to prevent possible backlash , as it believed that awareness of the film was high enough . Marketing began in April 2001 , three months before the film 's release . The first footage from the film was aired during the second @-@ season finale of Survivor in May 2001 . Promotional partners included Kodak and The Coca @-@ Cola Company . No fast @-@ food promotions took place in the United States , although kids ' meal toys based on the film were offered in Canadian Burger Kings . Seven video games were released to coincide with the film , as well as a novelization by Scott Ciencin that was aimed at young children . Ciencin also wrote three children 's books to tie in with the film 's events : Jurassic Park Adventures : Survivor , the first book , detailed the eight weeks Eric spent alone on Isla Sorna ; Jurassic Park Adventures : Prey had Eric and Alan returning to Isla Sorna to rescue a group of teenage filmmakers ; Jurassic Park Adventures : Flyers involved Eric and Alan leading the Pteranodon home after they nest in a Universal Studios theme park . Hasbro released a line of 3 @.@ 75 " action figures in the spring of 2001 to coincide with the release , including electronic dinosaurs , humans , and vehicles . The figures were scaled down from the original Kenner action figures from the pre @-@ Jurassic Park III toy lines . A line of toys were also released through the Lego Studios brand . Playskool released a line of toys aimed at younger children , called Jurassic Park Junior . A smaller die @-@ cast line of toys was also produced , along with clothes . In November 2001 , to promote the film 's upcoming home media release , Universal launched a viral marketing website for Isla Travel , a fictional Isla Sorna travel agency . = = = Cell phone promotion = = = For the film 's home media release , Universal and cell @-@ phone company Hop @-@ On partnered to produce " the world 's first @-@ disposable cell phone " , available through an in @-@ package offer upon purchase of the film . The phones were to be delivered for free to customers who responded to a winning promotional card that came with select copies of the film . Approximately 5 @,@ 000 copies of the film contained a winning promotional card ; approximately 1 @,@ 000 of them were redeemed . However , the promotion was cancelled when the cell phones could not be finished on time . An investigation by the San Francisco Chronicle revealed that sample versions of Hop @-@ On 's cell phones were actually modified Nokia cell phones , as Hop @-@ On was having problems with its own design . Customers who were to receive the cell phones instead received a $ 30 check and a free DVD . = Mau Piailug = Pius " Mau " Piailug ( pronounced / ˈpaɪəs ˈmaʊ piːˈaɪləɡ / ; 1932 – July 12 , 2010 ) was a Micronesian navigator from the Carolinian island of Satawal , best known as a teacher of traditional , non @-@ instrument wayfinding methods for open @-@ ocean voyaging . Mau 's Carolinian navigation system — which relies on navigational clues using the sun and stars , winds and clouds , seas and swells , and birds and fish — was acquired through rote learning passed down through teachings in the oral tradition . He earned the title of master navigator ( palu ) by the age of eighteen , around the time the first American missionaries arrived in Satawal . As he neared middle age , Mau grew concerned that the practice of navigation in Satawal would disappear as his people became acculturated to Western values . In the hope that the navigational tradition would be preserved for future generations , Mau shared his knowledge with the Polynesian Voyaging Society ( PVS ) . With Mau 's help , PVS used experimental archaeology to recreate and test lost Hawaiian navigational techniques on the Hōkūle ‘ a , a modern reconstruction of a double @-@ hulled Hawaiian voyaging canoe . The successful , non @-@ instrument sailing of Hōkūle ‘ a to Tahiti in 1976 , proved the efficacy of Mau 's navigational system to the world . To academia , Mau 's achievement provided evidence for intentional two @-@ way voyaging throughout Oceania , supporting a hypothesis that explained the Asiatic origin of Polynesians . The success of the Micronesian @-@ Polynesian cultural exchange , symbolized by Hōkūle ‘ a , had an impact throughout the Pacific . It contributed to the emergence of the second Hawaiian cultural renaissance and to a revival of Polynesian navigation and canoe building in Hawaii , New Zealand , Rarotonga and Tahiti . It also sparked interest in traditional wayfinding on Mau 's home island of Satawal . Later in life , Mau was respectfully known as a grandmaster navigator , and he was called " Papa Mau " by his friends with great reverence and affection . He received an honorary degree from the University of Hawaii , and he was honored by the Smithsonian Institution and the Bishop Museum for his contributions to maritime history . Mau 's life and work was explored in several books and documentary films , and his legacy continues to be remembered and celebrated by the indigenous peoples of Oceania . = = Early life ( 1932 – 1974 ) = = = = = Satawal , Micronesia = = = Mau was born Pius Piailug in 1932 , in the village of Weiso on the small coral island of Satawal , in Yap State of the Caroline Islands , a part of the Federated States of Micronesia . Satawal is a wooded island with an area of 1 @.@ 3 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) , located in the Western Pacific Ocean about 800 kilometres ( 500 mi ) south of Guam . Mau 's personal connection to the sea began early in his life , when he was placed in tide pools in his infancy so he could feel the pull of the ocean . At the age of four or five , Mau was chosen by his grandfather Raangipi to study as an apprentice navigator . Mau initially protested his grandfather 's teaching , preferring to spend his time playing on the beach with children his own age . Raangipi trained Mau as a young navigator for many years . Their day would begin at sunrise , when they would eat breakfast together and afterwards , take care of chores before going fishing . During the evening , Mau would join the men in the canoe house as they drank , listening to their stories about navigation and sailing . Raangipi told the young boy that if he chose to become a navigator , Mau could gain respect from his community , eat well , and maintain a position in Satawalese society higher than that of a chief . Encouraged , Mau learned basic navigational clues regarding the " stars , swells , and birds " from Raangipi , but his grandfather died sometime before Mau was fourteen . After his grandfather died , Mau began training with his father , Orranipui . Mau learned more about navigating by stars ( wofanu ) from his father , and how to fish and build canoes . When his father died before he turned fifteen , Mau was adopted by his aunt and uncle . Sometime around the age of eighteen , Mau 's aunt and uncle sent him to study with Angora , an acclaimed navigator . His studies culminated in his initiation as a master navigator ( palu ) in the Weriyeng school of navigation during the revered pwo ceremony presided over by Angora . It was to be the last pwo held on Satawal for the next fifty years . After the ceremony , Mau lived for a month in the canoe house where he received rigorous lessons from three navigators . When the final training was complete , Mau made his first solo voyage of about 92 kilometres ( 57 mi ) . Because he had a tendency to sail in all weather conditions , he was given the nickname " Mau " , from the Satawalese word maumau , meaning " strong " . After becoming a navigator , Mau married Nemwaeito with whom he raised ten boys and six girls . Daily life in Mau 's village on Satawal involved harvesting taro and gathering breadfruit and coconut . The Satawalese people also raised chicken and pork and caught fish , their primary source of protein . A freshwater pond served as bathing facilities . Local materials were used to construct outrigger canoes called proa . The island 's isolation helped preserve the lifestyle of the Satawalese people and Mau 's role as a navigator . Even with the arrival of the Germans ( 1890 ) and the Japanese ( 1914 ) in Micronesia , Satawalese culture remained intact . American missionaries who arrived after World War II built the first church and school on Satawal . In the late 1960s , Mau attempted to verify his navigational knowledge of the wider Pacific by working as a seaman on an inter @-@ island ship run by the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands . From 1969 – 1973 , Mau became friends with Mike McCoy , a Peace Corps volunteer stationed on Satawal . As well as marrying Mau 's niece , McCoy sailed with Mau and they worked together on a project tagging turtles . McCoy became interested in Satawalese navigation , published several articles on the topic and kept in touch with the anthropologist Ben Finney , who was researching Polynesian navigation . When McCoy 's assignment on Satawal ended , he asked Pialug if he wanted to come to Hawaii with him . = = = Honolulu , Hawaii = = = Mau first visited Hawaii in 1973 , and McCoy introduced him to Ben Finney . Later , Finney suggested to the Polynesian Voyaging Society that they should try to recruit Mau for their Hōkūle ‘ a project , since no Hawaiian traditional navigators remained . The project goal was to test the hypothesis that Polynesians made intentional non @-@ instrument voyages across the Pacific . Tevake , a renowned Polynesian navigator , had died in 1970 and only six others were known . Navigators were reluctant to release their sacred knowledge to " outsiders . " At the time , Mau was just forty @-@ one years old , and the youngest navigator out of the group . Mau feared that traditional navigation would die in his own culture , just as it had in Hawaii . He had tried to teach the young men of Satawal the skills passed on to him , but he was not optimistic . The members of the younger generation were too busy with school and too attracted to Western culture to undertake the rigorous course of study and apprenticeship . Further , Mau 's people did not seem to care that traditional navigation was dying , and could be lost forever . = = Later life ( 1975 – 2010 ) = = = = = Hōkūle ‘ a = = = With Finney 's help , Mau was awarded a special fellowship at the East @-@ West Center . Mau returned to Honolulu in April 1975 to begin work with the Hawaii @-@ based Polynesian Voyaging Society , eventually navigating the double @-@ hulled canoe , Hōkūle ‘ a , from Hawaii to Tahiti on its maiden voyage in 1976 . Mau trained and mentored Native Hawaiian navigator Nainoa Thompson , who later would become a master navigator . David Henry Lewis , a scholar of Polynesian navigation , documented Mau 's work . Mau 's first @-@ hand knowledge of traditional navigation had been accumulated in Northern Hemisphere study and sailings , but the voyage to Tahiti required Mau to familiarize himself with the geography and night sky of the Southern Hemisphere . Of this preparation , Finney writes , ... To prepare Mau Piailug for the voyage , David Lewis briefed him on the geography of the islands in this part of the Pacific and the winds and currents that could be expected along the way , all information that an early Polynesian navigator acquainted with this route would have carried in his head . In addition , to alert Mau of how the elevation of stars above the northern and southern horizons would change as the canoe sailed farther and farther south , we held training sessions in Honolulu 's Bishop Museum planetarium to graphically show how , for example , as one sailed toward Tahiti [ , ] Polaris sank lower and lower on the northern horizon until it disappeared at the equator while the Southern Cross curved higher and higher in the sky . During his first few days of the voyage , Mau received further coaching on the pattern of winds and currents from Rodo Williams , a veteran Tahitian seaman on the crew who the year before had sailed a yacht from Tahiti to Hawaii and could therefore provide Mau with a firsthand account of what he could expect to encounter . Their collaboration proved successful when , on the thirtieth day at sea on the 1976 voyage , Mau stated soon they would see land , and the next day , Tahiti . A few hours later , they spotted land @-@ based white terns ( Gygis alba ) followed by a diminution of the trade @-@ wind swell . That night they spotted Mataiva . After a brief stopover , with little more than another day 's sailing they made landfall at Tahiti where they were welcomed by 17 @,@ 000 people — half the population of Tahiti . Nainoa 's ambition was to sail Hōkūle ‘ a to Tahiti as navigator using recreated traditional techniques . He spent years training on his own and with Mau . Mau 's training and mentoring helped Nainoa achieve that goal in the 1980 Tahiti voyage . It marked the first time in over 500 years that a Native Hawaiian had mastered the stars , the seas , the birds , and the winds to guide a sailing canoe from Hawaii to Tahiti and back . The two men joined again for the 1985 – 1987 Voyage of Rediscovery to New Zealand , again with Nainoa as principal navigator and Mau as mentor . The voyage to New Zealand stoked Māori interest in cultural history , navigation techniques , and canoe building . It also brought to life for Māori the stories in their folklore of the great canoe voyages of migration and settlement in Aotearoa ( New Zealand ) . Describing a ceremony held at Waitangi to commemorate the Hawaii – New Zealand voyage of Hōkūle ‘ a , Nainoa writes : Sir James Henare , the most revered of the elders of Tai Tokerau , got up and said , " You 've proven that it could be done . And you 've also proven that our ancestors did it . ... because the five tribes of Tai Tokerau trace their ancestry from the names of the canoes they arrived in , and because you people from Hawai 'i came by canoe , therefore by our traditions , you must be the sixth tribe of Tai Tokerau . In 1995 , Mau took part in the Nā ʻOhana Holo Moana voyage of Hōkūle ‘ a to Ra ‘ iātea . Sailing with his son Sesario Sewralur , and Nainoa as sailing master , Mau watched as Nainoa 's students Kaʻau McKenney and Keahi Omai served as navigators . Mau had seen Nainoa succeed in the 1980 and 1985 – 1987 voyages ; finally , in this 1995 voyage , Mau saw proof that the knowledge was carried forward to the next generation . The canoe not only landed successfully at Rarotonga , but the voyage resulted in the lifting of a six @-@ centuries @-@ old taboo on voyaging from Ra ‘ iātea . Hōkūle ‘ a had sailed from Hawaii with sisterships Hawai ‘ iloa and Makali ‘ i ; these canoes rendezvoused at Taputapuatea with other voyaging canoes from across Oceania . = = = Makali ‘ i = = = To help preserve Hawaiian culture , Milton " Shorty " Bertelmann and his brother Clay established the nonprofit organization , Nā Kalai Wa ‘ a Moku o Hawai ‘ i on the island of Hawaii in 1992 . Beginning in 1994 , the two brothers helped construct Makali ‘ i , a 54 @-@ foot voyaging canoe , launching it in 1995 . From February to May 1999 , " Shorty " Bertelmann navigated Makali ‘ i to Satawal in a voyage known as “ E Mau – Sailing the Master Home . ” This voyage was to pay homage to master navigator Mau Piailug and to thank him for his teachings . Mau sailed home aboard Makali ‘ i as their honored guest . Makali ‘ i continued her 1999 voyage through half the length of Micronesia . She was the first Hawaiian voyaging canoe to visit the far reaches of Micronesia and her appearance stimulated interest amongst Micronesians in their own cultural history . = = = Alingano Maisu = = = On March 18 , 2007 Mau presided over the first pwo ceremony for navigators in fifty @-@ six years on the island of Satawal . Five Native Hawaiians and eleven other people were inducted into pwo as master navigators , including Nainoa Thompson and Mau 's son Sesario Sewralur . The Polynesian Voyaging Society , as part of the 2007 Hōkūle ‘ a " One Ocean , One People " voyage named " Kū Holo Mau , " presented Mau with a canoe named the Alingano Maisu — a gift for his key role in reviving traditional wayfinding navigation in Hawaii . The canoe was built in Kawaihae , Hawaii under the nonprofit organization Nā Kalai Wa ‘ a Moku O Hawai ‘ i . The commitment to build this " gift " for Mau was made by Clay Bertelmann , captain of Makali ‘ i and Hōkūle ‘ a . Maisu was given to Mau on behalf of all the voyaging families and organizations that actively continue to sail and practice the traditions taught by Mau Piailug . = = = Death = = = After a long struggle with diabetes , Mau died on his home island of Satawal at 18 : 30 Micronesia time , Monday , July 12 , 2010 . As is the tradition on Satawal , travel between the islands was temporarily suspended in Mau 's honor . Because there is no morgue on the island Mau was buried the following day , and a nightly rosary was held until the memorial service on July 21 at Santa Soledad Church . Mau 's son Henry Yarofalpiy will continue teaching students about their culture , preserving the legacy of his father . = = Awards = = Mau was awarded an honorary Doctor of Humane Letters in 1987 by the University of Hawaii . On May 9 , 2000 , he was honored by the Smithsonian Institution at the National Museum of Natural History . At the ceremony , then @-@ secretary Lawrence Small said , " The rebirth of non @-@ instrument navigation came about largely due to this man , Mau Piailug . " The Bishop Museum presented Mau with the Robert J. Pfeiffer Medal on July 12 , 2008 , honoring him for " exceptional dedication to the advancement of maritime affairs and the perpetuation of maritime heritage in Hawaii and the Pacific . " Mau also was honored for his " devotion and outstanding civic leadership " and for exemplifying " the spirit and purpose of the Museum 's founder Charles Reed Bishop " . = = Legacy = = The success of Mau 's navigational feats sparked cultural pride in Tahitians , Māori and Hawaiians and connected all Polynesians to stories their forebears told of similar voyages of generations past . The voyage of Hōkūle ‘ a attracted the interest of young students such as Milton " Shorty " Bertelmann and later Nainoa Thompson . Mau not only led Hōkūle ‘ a to Tahiti , but reconnected the people of the Pacific to their cultural roots . Revived interest in preserving traditional culture and navigation methods reinvigorated the art of canoe building and cultural studies in Hawaii , New Zealand , Rarotonga , and Tahiti , as well as Mau 's homeland of Satawal . Two centuries before Mau and the Hōkūle ‘ a , Captain James Cook , with the help of Tupaia , gained knowledge that otherwise would have been closely held . Before his death in 1779 , Cook hypothesized that Polynesians shared common ancestry ; he even pinned their origin to Asia . However , Cook 's theory did not prevent debate among scholars . Before the Hōkūle ‘ a voyage in 1976 , academic debate about the settlement of Polynesia was divided between several schools of thought . Norwegian ethnographer Thor Heyerdahl hypothesized that the Pacific was settled by voyages from South America and set out to prove this with his Kon @-@ Tiki expedition . Scholars did not take Heyerdahl 's hypothesis seriously . New Zealander Andrew Sharp proposed the accidental voyaging hypothesis in 1957 which ( erroneously ) argued that Oceania was too vast to have been settled by intentional voyaging , so migrations must have happened by accidental drift voyages . Sharp granted that Polynesians did likely settle the Pacific from Asia , but held the opinion that their crude vessels and navigational tools were not reliable for intentional sailing from Tahiti to Hawaii or New Zealand . He stated that voyages of more than three hundred miles were likely accidental voyages , with landfall at the mercy of wind and current . A 1973 study and computer simulation by Levison , Ward , and Web investigated the probability of Sharp 's hypothesis , but found it improbable . Finney disagreed with the accidental voyaging portion of Sharp 's hypothesis . To investigate the problem he founded the Polynesian Voyaging Society with Herb Kane and Tommy Holmes in 1973 , intent on building a voyaging canoe to sail from Hawaii to Tahiti to test whether intentional two @-@ way voyaging throughout Oceania could be replicated . With the help of Mau 's navigational knowledge guiding Hōkūle ‘ a , the Polynesian Voyaging Society demonstrated that intentional voyaging was not only possible , but that the ancestors of the Polynesians could have settled the Pacific on similar voyages using non @-@ instrument wayfinding techniques such as Mau 's . Finally , linguistic and archaeological evidence suggests that the history of the Polynesian people does not originate in the east Pacific , but in the west . Recent developments in the field of DNA analysis have unequivocally settled the debate of Polynesian origin . They prove Polynesians share common ancestry with indigenous Taiwanese and East Asians . = = Wayfinding and navigation = = = = = Training = = = Navigator training was historically interwoven with culture and ritual . Great discretion had to be shown in candidate selection so that the knowledge preserved through oral tradition would have the greatest chance of survival . A master navigator 's rank was equal or superior to a village chief 's rank . Prudent navigation relies on no single technique , but instead synthesizes position from multiple inputs . Underway , this constant synthesis makes it easy to spot the navigator — he 's the one with red eyes from sleep deprivation . For a traditionally trained navigator , these inputs include physical signals from the sea , skies , and stars , memory signals from his knowledge of star , swell , and wind compasses ; and cultural knowledge recorded in chants , dances , and stories . Examples of physical signals include the color , temperature , and taste ( salinity ) of seawater ; floating plant debris ; sightings of land @-@ based seabirds flying out to fish ; cloud type , color , and movement ; wind direction , speed , and temperature ; the direction and nature of ocean swells and waves ; the position of stars in the sky , and his estimation of the speed , current set , and leeway of his sailing craft . The " compass " he carried was not magnetic , but a mental model of where islands are located , and the star points which one could use to navigate between them . This mental model would have taken years of study to build ; dances , chants ( rong ) , and stories help him to recall complex relationships of geography and location . The stars give him highly reliable position information when visible , but navigators such as Mau managed to keep their position and tracks in mind even when blocked by clouds , using other references such as wind and swell as proxies . Mau 's Carolinian star compass ( pictured ) is the basis for Nainoa 's modern Hawaiian star compass . Apart from the bulk of training which happens at sea , historically boys were taught in the men 's house with pebbles , shells , or pieces of coral , representing stars , laid on the sand in a circular pattern . Which bits of shell or coral are chosen to represent which star or constellation is arbitrary , but generally , larger pieces are used for points of the compass while smaller pieces represent important stars between those points . In Mau 's star compass , these points are not necessarily equidistant . The outer circular formation represents the horizon , with the canoe its center point . The eastern half of the circle depicts reference stars ' rising points on the horizon ( tan ) while the western half depicts their setting points ( tupul ) . Swell patterns of prevailing trade winds are represented by sticks ( not depicted here ) overlaying the star compass in the form of a square . All knowledge is retained by memory with the help of dances , chants , and stories , wherein the stars are enumerated as people or characters in the stories . = = = Technique = = = One aspect of the Carolinian method of estimating longitude on inter @-@ island sailings is to visualize the target island relative to a second reference island 's alignment with a succession of selected stars , points of the star compass . This is a refined system of dead reckoning whereby the navigator constantly synthesizes his position relative to the reference island 's location in his mental model . The most remarkable thing about this is that the reference island ( lu pongank ) may be over the horizon , unseen , even imaginary . In its simplest form the star compass describes thirty @-@ two points at which key stars rise on the eastern horizon and set on the western horizon . North latitude is fairly easy to determine because the North Pole has a zenith star easily seen with the naked eye , called Polaris ( Wuliwulifasmughet ) . Polaris ' height above the horizon ( declination ) indicates the viewer 's southward displacement from Polaris ' nadir — the North Pole . Traveling further north , Polaris appears higher in the sky . Only at the true north pole is Polaris directly overhead at nearly 90 degrees declination . Traveling south toward the equator , Polaris appears to descend toward the northern horizon . At 45 degrees north latitude , Polaris is 45 degrees above the northern horizon . Near the equator , Polaris ' declination approaches zero degrees , but for the viewer just farther south , Polaris will have disappeared below the northern horizon . Continuing south from the equator , though Polaris is no longer visible , Crux ( Luubw ) , the " Southern Cross , " will have risen above the southern horizon . Traveling further southward , Crux rises higher in the sky . Through Crux 's longest axis , an imaginary line bisecting Gacrux and Acrux points southward toward the southern celestial pole . But the South Pole has no true zenith star from which direct readings of south latitude may be taken . As a proxy , the southern celestial pole lies at the end of that imaginary line extended southward through Gacrux and Acrux , at a distance about 4 @.@ 5 times the distance between them . Nainoa Thompson notes that at Hawaiʻi 's latitude , the distance between Gacrux and the southerly Acrux is equal to Acrux 's declination above the southern horizon . To steer the canoe in mid @-@ ocean on a consistent course , the navigator selects a star and keeps the canoe pointed toward it . Should it become cloud @-@ blocked , or rise too high in the sky , he selects another star but offsets his reference to remain true to the first , or steers at the same relative angle to the swell as when steering toward the star . = Torpedo ... Los ! = Torpedo ... Los ! ( sometimes Torpedo ... LOS ! ) is a 1963 pop art oil on canvas painting by Roy Lichtenstein . When it was last sold in 1989 , The New York Times described the work as " a comic @-@ strip image of sea warfare " . It formerly held the record for the highest auction price for a Lichtenstein work . Its 1989 sale helped finance the construction of the current home of the Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago in 1991 . Like many of Lichtenstein 's works its title comes from the speech balloon in the painting . The work was included in Lichtenstein 's second solo exhibition . The source of the image is a comic book from DC Comics . Lichtenstein has made significant alterations to the original image to change the focus and perspective in addition to significant alteration of the narrative element of the work . The work plays on the background @-@ foreground relationship and the theme of vision that appears in many of Lichtenstein 's works . = = Background = = The source of the image is " Battle of the Ghost Ships ? " in DC Comics ' Our Fighting Forces ( October 1962 ) , although the content of the speech balloon is different ( this is edition number 72 according to some sources and 71 ( a ) according to others ) . According to the Lichtenstein Foundation website , Torpedo ... Los ! was part of Lichtenstein 's second solo exhibition at Leo Castelli Gallery of September 28 – October 24 , 1963 , that included Drowning Girl , Baseball Manager , In the Car , Conversation , and Whaam ! . Marketing materials for the show included the lithograph artwork , Crak ! . On November 7 , 1989 , Torpedo ... Los ! sold at Christie 's for $ 5 @.@ 5 million ( US $ 10 @.@ 5 million in 2016 dollars ) to Zurich dealer Thomas Ammann , which was a record for a work of art by Lichtenstein . The sale was described as the " highpoint " of a night in which Christie 's achieved more than double the total sales prices of any other contemporary art auction up to that date . The seller of the work was Beatrice C. Mayer , the widow of Museum of Contemporary Art , Chicago founder and board member Robert B. Mayer as well as daughter of Sara Lee Corporation founder Nathan Cummings . Prior to the sale the work was part of the Robert B. Mayer Memorial Loan Program and was exhibited at colleges and museums . Torpedo ... Los ! was expected to sell for $ 3 to 4 million at the time . In 1991 , Mayer became one of the key benefactors of the new Museum of Contemporary Art Building . = = Description = = Measuring 68 by 80 inches ( 172 @.@ 7 cm × 203 @.@ 2 cm ) , Torpedo ... Los ! is an oil on canvas painting . By enlarging the face of the captain relative to the entire field , Lichtenstein makes him more prominent than in the source . He retained the source 's " clumsiness " in how the secondary figure is presented and replaced the dialogue with a much shorter " cryptic command " . The original source had dialog related to the repeated torpedoing of the same ship , but Lichtenstein cut the entire speech balloon down to two words . He moved the captain 's scar from his nose to his cheek and he made the captain appear more aggressive by depicting him with his mouth wide open , also opting to leave the eye which was not looking through the periscope open . He also made the ship appear to be more technologically sophisticated with a variety of changes . The scar was actually most readily apparent in panels other than the source from the same story . This work exemplifies Lichtenstein 's theme relating to vision . Lichtenstein uses a " mechanical viewing device " to present his depiction of technically aided vision . The depicted mechanical device , a periscope in this case , forces the vision into a monocular format . In some of his works such as this , monocularity is a strong theme that is directly embodied although only by allusion . Michael Lobel notes that " ... his work proposes a dialectical tension between monocular and binocular modes of vision , a tension that operates on the level of gender as well . " The work is regarded as one in which Lichtenstein exaggerated comic book sound effects in common pop art style . = = Reception = = This painting exemplifies Lichtenstein 's use of the background / foreground shift and ironic colloquialisms in critical commands . Although most of Lichtenstein 's war imagery depicts American war themes , this depicts " a scarred German submarine captain at a battle station " . The manner of depiction with the commander 's face pressed against the periscope reflects fusions of industrial art of the 1920s and 1930s . The ironic aspect of this in 1963 is in part due to its temporal displacement referring back to World War II during the much later period of the Cold War . The styling of the balloon content , especially that of the large font characters , is complemented by or complementary to the other traditional visual content of the painting . Lichtenstein 's alterations heightened the sense of urgency in the image , however , they also offset that menace by forming a detached work . A November 1963 Art Magazine review stated that this was one of the " broad and powerful paintings " of the 1963 exhibition at Castelli 's Gallery . = Dobroslav Jevđević = Dobroslav Jevđević ( Serbian Cyrillic : Доброслав Јевђевић , pronounced [ dobroslaʋ jêʋdʑevitɕ ] ; 28 December 1895 – October 1962 ) was a Bosnian Serb politician and self @-@ appointed Chetnik commander ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : vojvoda , вoјвода ) in the Herzegovina region of the Axis @-@ occupied Kingdom of Yugoslavia during World War II . He was a member of the interwar Chetnik Association and the Organisation of Yugoslav Nationalists , a Yugoslav National Party member of the National Assembly , and a leader of the opposition to King Alexander between 1929 and 1934 . The following year , he became the propaganda chief for the Yugoslav government . Following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 , he became a Chetnik leader in Herzegovina and joined the Chetnik movement of Draža Mihailović . Jevđević collaborated with the Italians and later the Germans in actions against the Yugoslav Partisans . Although Jevđević recognised the authority of Mihailović , who was aware of and approved of his collaboration with Axis forces , a number of factors effectively rendered him independent of Mihailović 's command , except when he worked closely with Ilija Trifunović @-@ Birčanin , Mihailović 's designated commander in Dalmatia , Herzegovina , western Bosnia and southwestern Croatia . During the joint Italian – Chetnik Operation Alfa , Jevđević 's Chetniks , along with other Chetnik forces , were responsible for killing between 543 and 2 @,@ 500 Bosnian Muslim and Catholic civilians in the Prozor region in October 1942 . They also participated in one of the largest Axis anti @-@ Partisan operations of the war , Case White , in the winter of 1943 . His Chetniks later merged with other collaborationist forces that had withdrawn towards the west , and were put under the command of the SS General Odilo Globocnik of the Operational Zone of the Adriatic Littoral . Jevđević fled to Italy in the spring of 1945 , where he was arrested by Allied military authorities and detained at a camp in Grottaglie . He was eventually set free , having received considerable Allied support . Yugoslavia 's requests for extradition were ignored . Jevđević moved to Rome and lived under an assumed name . In the years following the war , he collected reports for various western intelligence services and printed anti @-@ communist publications . He resided in Rome until his death in October 1962 . = = Early life and political career = = Dobroslav Jevđević was born in the hamlet of Miloševac in Prača , near the town of Rogatica on 28 December 1895 to Dimitrije and Angela Jevđević ( née Kosorić ) . Jevđević 's father was a Serbian Orthodox priest , and the family was of Montenegrin Serb origin . Jevđević was raised in the Christian faith and attended secondary school in Sarajevo . There , he joined the revolutionary organisation known as Young Bosnia and became a friend of Gavrilo Princip , the assassin who killed Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria on 28 June 1914 . The day of the assassination , Jevđević 's father was arrested by the Austro @-@ Hungarian police for his connections with the Serb revolutionary organisation National Defence ( Narodna Odbrana ) . He was charged with high treason , sentenced to death by hanging in April 1916 and executed in Banja Luka . Jevđević was a successful writer and poet in his youth . He studied law at the universities of Zagreb , Belgrade , and Vienna and spoke Serbian , Italian , German and French . Jevđević 's political career began in 1918 . During the interwar period , he was one of the most influential Serb politicians in Bosnia . He was a member of the Chetnik Association , an aggressively Serb @-@ chauvinist political movement of over 500 @,@ 000 members led by Kosta Pećanac . He was also one of the leaders of the Independent Democratic Party of Yugoslavia ( Samostalna demokratska stranka ; NDS ) and headed the movement 's military wing , the Organisation of Yugoslav Nationalists ( Organizacija Jugoslovenskih Nacionalista ; ORJUNA ) , which terrorised those Serbs in Bosnia , Herzegovina and Croatia who refused to join the party . Jevđević later became a parliamentary candidate of the opposition Yugoslav National Party ( Jugoslovenska nacionalna stranka ; JNS ) in the Kingdom of Yugoslavia . He was elected to the Yugoslav Parliament a total of four times , representing the district of Rogatica then Novi Sad , and was an opposition leader during King Alexander 's dictatorship of 1929 – 34 . His tendency to cooperate with various Yugoslav political factions earned him the reputation of " being willing to sell himself to any political group in return for personal favours or advancement " . In 1935 , he was appointed as the Yugoslav government 's propaganda chief by Prime Minister Bogoljub Jevtić . Jevđević approved of the creation of the Banovina of Croatia in 1939 and advocated a large Serb counterpart that would include most of Bosnia and Herzegovina . In 1941 , his cousin , Colonel Dušan Radović , left Yugoslavia and joined the Royal Air Force . = = World War II = = Jevđević fled to Budva following the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . That month , the Germans and Italians created a puppet state known as the Independent State of Croatia ( Nezavisna Država Hrvatska ; NDH ) , which implemented genocidal policies against Serbs , Jews and Romanis . The Serb population began to resist , and Jevđević became a prominent leader of the Chetnik uprising against NDH authorities in Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1941 . He was known for his pro @-@ Italian sympathies prior to the war , and Chetnik leader Draža Mihailović jokingly described him as " an Italian who likes Serbs " . Jevđević and pre @-@ war Chetnik leader Ilija Trifunović @-@ Birčanin sought to work with the Italians in the belief that an Italian occupation of both Bosnia and Herzegovina would limit the ability of the NDH to carry out its anti @-@ Serb policies . Jevđević reportedly hoped that the Italians would allow the formation of a Serbian state of Bosnia and Herzegovina under their protection , but they were more interested in obtaining the practical assistance of his Chetniks in fighting the Partisans than helping him achieve his political aims . In the summer of 1941 , Jevđević established links with the Italians . On 20 October 1941 , Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin met and agreed to collaborate with the head of the information division of the Italian 6th Army Corps . In late January 1942 , Jevđević offered to assist the Italians if they occupied Bosnia , and to organise Chetnik detachments to work alongside Italian units in their fight against the communist Partisans . These contacts involved General Lorenzo Dalmazzo , commander of the Italian 6th Corps , and Chetnik leaders Stevo Radjenović , Trifunović @-@ Birčanin , Jezdimir Dangić and Jevđević . In the spring and summer of 1942 , Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin regularly toured villages in Goražde , Kalinovik and Foča , encouraging the local civilians and Chetnik detachments to behave loyally towards the Italians . In May 1942 , Jevđević met with German intelligence officers in Dubrovnik and was asked whether he would cooperate in the pacification of Bosnia . Mihailović was aware of and condoned the collaborationist arrangements entered into by Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin . Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin frequently met with Chetnik commander Momčilo Đujić in Split , and the three men quarreled over how to divide the financial assistance they were receiving from the Italians . In an internal Chetnik report of June 1942 , Jevđević claimed that the Partisan proletarian brigades contained many " Jews , Gypsies and Muslims " . In July 1942 , he issued a proclamation to the " Serbs of eastern Bosnia and Herzegovina " claiming that : Tito , the supreme military chief of the Partisans , is a Croat from Zagreb . Pijade , the supreme political chief of the Partisans , is a Jew . Four @-@ fifths of all armed Partisans were supplied to them by Pavelić 's Croatian Army . Two @-@ thirds of their officers are former Croatian officers . The financing of their movement is carried out by the powerful Croatian capitalists of Zagreb , Split , Sarajevo and Dubrovnik . Fifty percent of the Ustaše responsible for the massacres of Serbs are now in their ranks . Jevđević charged the Partisans with having " destroyed Serb churches and established mosques , synagogues and Catholic temples " . In mid @-@ 1942 , the Chetniks became aware that the Italians were planning to largely withdraw from significant parts of the NDH that they had been occupying in force up to that time . Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin told the Italians that in response to this , Mihailović was considering evacuating Serb civilians from Herzegovina to Montenegro and moving Montenegrin Chetniks north to meet the Ustaše , who were expected to unleash a new wave of violence on Serb civilians . Over 22 – 23 July 1942 , Mihailović chaired a conference with Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin in Avtovac , Herzegovina . On the second day of the conference , Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin traveled to nearby Trebinje where they conferred with Herzegovinian Chetnik leaders Radmilo Grđić and Milan Šantić . The German consulate in Sarajevo reported that this meeting established the ultimate goals and immediate strategy of the Herzegovinian Chetniks as : ( 1 ) the creation of Greater Serbia ; ( 2 ) the destruction of the Partisans ; ( 3 ) the removal of the Catholics and Muslims ; ( 4 ) non @-@ recognition of Croatia ; ( 5 ) no collaboration with the Germans ; and ( 6 ) temporary collaboration with the Italians for weapons , ammunition and food . Under the auspices of the Italians , the Chetniks thoroughly ethnically cleansed eastern Herzegovina of its Croats and Muslims in July and August 1942 . In response to a massacre of non @-@ Serbs in Foča in August , Jevđević issued a proclamation to the Muslims in eastern Herzegovina demanding that they join the Chetniks in their struggle against the Ustaše . He stated : " I personally believe that in a future state the Muslims have no other choice but to finally and definitely accept Serb nationality and renounce their speculative maneuvering between the Serb and Croat nations , above all because all the lands in which the Muslims live will indisputably and inviolably become part of the Serb state entity . " That month , General Mario Roatta , commander of the Italian 2nd Army , contacted Jevđević and " legalised " 3 @,@ 000 of his Chetniks , formally authorising them to operate in eastern Herzegovina . In the autumn of 1942 , Jevđević took a radically different approach than other Chetnik leaders and spoke in favour of collaborating with the Muslims to form Muslim Chetnik units in the fight against the Ustaše and the Partisans . He favoured such tolerance in areas where the Muslims were protected by the Germans , and considered it a tactical necessity while stressing that " there can be no true unity with them " . In late September or early October 1942 , Jevđević and Chetnik commander Petar Baćović held talks with Muslim leader Ismet Popovac and agreed to form a Muslim Chetnik organisation . Jevđević then urged the Italian military to occupy all of Bosnia and Herzegovina in order to end Ustaše rule and claimed the support of 80 percent of the population , consisting of Serbs and Muslims . At the same time , he requested that the Germans grant autonomy to Bosnia and Herzegovina until the end of the war , citing that the Muslims were " tested friends of the Germans both in the earlier and in the present era " . Although Jevđević attempted to recruit Muslims while making use of the Bosnian desire for autonomy to support his alliance with the occupying Axis powers , nothing developed from these requests . = = = Operation Alfa = = = Towards the end of August 1942 , Mihailović issued directives to Chetnik units , including those operating in the NDH such as Jevđević 's forces , ordering them to prepare for a large scale anti @-@ Partisan operation alongside Italian and NDH troops . In September 1942 , aware that they were unable to defeat the Partisans alone , the Chetniks tried to persuade the Italians to undertake a large operation against the Partisans in western Bosnia . Trifunović @-@ Birčanin met with Roatta on 10 and 21 September and urged him to undertake this operation as soon as possible to clear the Partisans from the Prozor – Livno area and offered 7 @,@ 500 Chetniks as aid on the condition they be given the necessary arms and supplies . He was successful in obtaining some arms and promises of action . The proposed operation , faced with opposition from Ustaše leader Ante Pavelić and a cautious Italian high command , was nearly cancelled , but after Jevđević and Trifunović @-@ Birčanin promised to cooperate with Croat and Muslim anti @-@ Partisan units , it went ahead , with less Chetnik involvement . In early October 1942 , Jevđević and Baćović , with 3 @,@ 000 Chetniks from Herzegovina and southeast Bosnia , participated in the Italian @-@ led Operation Alfa . This involved a two @-@ pronged thrust towards the town of Prozor . German and NDH troops drove from the north , and Italian and Chetnik forces pushed from the Neretva River . Prozor and some smaller towns were captured by the combined Italian – Chetnik force . Individual Chetnik bands , acting on their own , proceeded to burn a number of Muslim and Catholic villages , and killed between 543 and 2 @,@ 500 non @-@ Serbs in the Prozor area . Their behaviour angered the NDH government and the Italians had to order the Chetniks to withdraw . Some were discharged altogether while others were sent to northern Dalmatia to aid Đujić 's forces . A month after the massacre , Jevđević and Baćović wrote a self @-@ critical report on Prozor to Mihailović , hoping to distance themselves from the actions of the troops . = = = Case White = = = In a meeting with Roatta in November 1942 , Jevđević obtained Italian agreement to " legalise " another 3 @,@ 000 Chetniks and recognition of almost all of eastern Herzegovina as a " Chetnik zone " . In return , the Chetniks had to promise not to attack Muslim and Croat civilians and agreed to having an Italian liaison officer embedded in all their formations of regiment strength or more . On 15 November 1942 , Jevđević agreed to support the Italian decision to start arming Muslim anti @-@ Partisan groups . This support almost cost him his life when several Chetniks , who strongly opposed the arming of Croat and Muslim anti @-@ Partisan groups by the Italians , visited Mostar with the intention of assassinating him . By the end of 1942 , Chetnik – Italian collaboration was routine . Chetnik forces were included in the Italian planning for Case White , a major Axis anti @-@ Partisan offensive which was to be launched on 20 January 1943 . On 3 January , Jevđević participated in an Axis planning conference for Case White in Rome , along with senior German , Italian and NDH commanders . The plans included the 12 @,@ 000 Chetniks under Jevđević 's command , and on 23 February 1943 he concluded an agreement with the Germans that they would not cross the Neretva River and that contact between German and Chetnik troops would be avoided . Early in the operation , Jevđević concluded an agreement for cooperation with the commander of NDH troops in Mostar . Later in the operation Jevđević requested , through the Italians , the assistance of the 7th SS Volunteer Mountain Division Prinz Eugen in defending Nevesinje , which faced severe pressure from Partisan forces that had broken through the Chetnik lines at the Battle of the Neretva River . Although the Italians also made this request themselves , the Germans declined , stating that the division was reserved for other tasks . After the death of Trifunović @-@ Birčanin in February 1943 , Jevđević , along with Đujić , Baćović , and Radovan Ivanišević , vowed to the Italians to carry on Trifunović @-@ Birčanin 's policies of closely collaborating with them against the Partisans . The Italians were able to exert pressure on Jevđević , as his brother and fiancée were interned in Italy . Mihailović apparently felt that Jevđević had exceeded his authority by attending the Case White planning conference in Rome , and indeed , when the Yugoslav government @-@ in @-@ exile awarded Jevđević the Order of Karađorđe 's Star in early 1943 for his services to the Serb population during the Ustaše massacres of 1941 , Mihailović suppressed the announcement of the award because of the nature of Jevđević 's agreement with the Italians , although the reason may also have been because he was aware of Chetnik revenge killings of Herzegovinian Catholics and Muslims in response to atrocities committed by the Ustaše in Croatia . Tensions between Mihailović and Jevđević became so apparent that Mihailović reportedly threatened to " string [ him ] up from the nearest tree " . In March , Jevđević publicly demanded an end to the Chetnik killing of Croats in Herzegovina . In June 1943 , Mihailović sent Jevđević to Slovenia to report on the state of Chetnik forces there . Jevđević began developing contacts with the Germans prior to the Italian capitulation in September 1943 . On 3 September , he travelled to Rome via Rijeka and made contact with German intelligence services . This marked the beginning of his collaboration with the Germans . Following the German occupation of NDH territory that had previously been held by the Italians , Jevđević moved to Trieste and stayed at the Hotel Continental . There , he helped organise displaced Chetniks and arranged for them to be returned to the town of Opatija . He stayed in Trieste until January 1944 , when he relocated to Opatija with Chetniks from Trieste who had been placed under his command . He then moved his Chetniks to Ilirska Bistrica , and collaborated with the Germans until the end of the war . = = = Withdrawal = = = In December 1944 , Jevđević 's 3 @,@ 000 remaining fighters joined Đujić 's Chetniks , Dimitrije Ljotić 's Serbian Volunteer Corps , and the remnants of Milan Nedić 's Serbian Shock Corps , which were under the command of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer und General der Waffen @-@ SS ( SS General ) Odilo Globocnik , the Higher SS and Police Leader of the Adriatic Littoral . Despite this , they attempted to contact the western Allies in Italy in an effort to secure foreign aid for a proposed anti @-@ communist offensive to restore royalist Yugoslavia . They were all blessed by Serbian Orthodox bishop Nikolaj Velimirović upon his arrival in Slovenia . On 11 April 1945 , a detachment of Jevđević 's Chetniks , along with three regiments of the Serbian Volunteer Corps , marched into south @-@ western Croatia with the aim of linking up with the Montenegrin Volunteer Corps of Pavle Đurišić , which was marching across Bosnia in an attempt to reach Slovenia . The relief effort came too late , because the Montenegrin Volunteer Corps had already been defeated by NDH forces at the Battle of Lijevče Field near Banja Luka , after which Đurišić was captured and killed . The relief force then marched north to Slovenia , where it fought the Partisans before retreating into Austria . These Chetniks were subsequently captured by the Allies and repatriated to Yugoslavia , where they were summarily executed by the Partisans . Jevđević remained highly influential among the Chetniks until the end of the war . = = Exile and death = = = = = Release from captivity = = = In the spring of 1945 , Jevđević fled to Italy , where he was arrested by Allied forces and detained at a camp in Grottaglie . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 Chetniks reportedly followed him and Đujić into the country . Jevđević was interned in Grottaglie for some time along with others , including the former Ustaše commissioner for Banja Luka , Viktor Gutić . During this time , an indictment was issued against him in Sarajevo . It charged that under his command in " the first half of October 1942 in and around Prozor [ the Italians and Chetniks ] butchered and killed 1 @,@ 716 persons of both sexes , of the Croatian and Muslim nations , and plundered and burnt about 500 households " . Jevđević received considerable Allied support in Italy despite being wanted by British authorities in connection with these allegations . On paper , the Chetniks in Italy were listed as " surrendered enemy personnel " , but were largely viewed with sympathy by the Allies , who considered them anti @-@ German . Hence , many Chetnik prisoners were handed British Army uniforms and given non @-@ combatant duties throughout Italy , such as guarding munitions and supplies . In August 1945 , Jevđević became the commander of a camp for disarmed Chetniks in Cesena . He was eventually set free and Yugoslavia 's requests for extradition were ignored . = = = Intelligence @-@ gathering activities = = = According to the Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) , Jevđević lived in Rome under the aliases " Giovanni St. Angelo " and " Enrico Serrao " . He spent most of his time and money quarrelling with émigré Yugoslav politicians , trying to prove that his collaboration with the Italians was necessary in order to protect the population of Bosnia and Herzegovina from the Partisans and Germans . He became a member of the Association of Free Journalists of Central @-@ Eastern Europe , and served as an informant for the Italian intelligence services between 1946 and 1947 . During this period , he published a confidential periodical called the Royal Yugoslav Intelligence Bulletin which he shared with the Italians . Jevđević also contributed to a number of newspapers , including the Serb nationalist Srbobran . In 1946 , he helped form the Serbian National Committee in Rome and , with help from Achille Marazza , published a pan @-@ Serb and anti @-@ Croat newspaper , Srpske Novine , in Eboli . He also established contacts with Italian neo @-@ fascist groups and with an anti @-@ communist group called the Committee of Nations Oppressed by Russia . Disagreement over who would lead the 10 @,@ 000 Chetnik exiles in Italy escalated into a feud between Jevđević , Đujić and General Miodrag Damjanović in mid @-@ 1947 . Damjanović had been appointed by Mihailović in March 1945 to lead the Chetniks into northwestern Italy . Jevđević and Đujić refused to accept this and claimed that they were Mihailović 's only successors as leaders of the Chetnik movement . By 1949 , the CIA claimed that Jevđević 's intelligence material was being used by the Italian Ministry of Interior , the United States Counterintelligence Corps , British Forensic Science Service in Trieste , and French intelligence services in Rome and Paris . His intelligence correspondents included Đujić , who disseminated his intelligence reports to the CIA , Konstantin Fotić , the former Yugoslav ambassador to the United States , and Miro Didek , Croat politician Vladko Maček 's self @-@ styled intelligence representative in Rome . The intelligence reports were mostly collected from refugees fleeing Yugoslavia and arriving in Italy via Trieste and from émigré groups in Italy and Greece . By 1949 , Jevđević claimed to have formed a large network of anti @-@ communist propagandists in Italy and intelligence collection centres in Albania , Bulgaria and Greece . The CIA believed that these claims were exaggerated , if not entirely fictitious . In 1951 , Jevđević began printing an anti @-@ communist , pro @-@ Chetnik publication from an unidentified religious institution in Italy . Issues were regularly mailed to Yugoslav exiles and former Chetniks living in the United States , Canada , Australia and various European countries . In May and June 1952 , Jevđević visited Canada and addressed the Congress of the Serbian National Defense ( Srpska Narodna Odbrana ) in Niagara Falls regarding developments within Italy 's Serb émigré community . The following year , he and Đujić issued a proclamation in Chicago declaring their intention to organize Chetnik groups against Damjanović , who had since emigrated to Germany . Jevđević later received threatening letters warning him not to go through with such a plan for fear of disuniting the Yugoslav diaspora . Little is known of his activities after 1953 . He continued to live in Rome until his death in October 1962 . = First World = The concept of the First World originated during the Cold War and included countries that were generally aligned with or on friendly terms with the United States ( including all NATO countries ) and were generally identified as non @-@ theocratic democracies with primarily market @-@ based economies . While there is no current consensus on an exact definition of the term , in modern usage , " First World country " generally implies a relatively wealthy , stable and functional non @-@ theocratic democracy with a reasonably well educated population , or just any developed country . During the Cold War , relationships between the First World and the Second World of Communist states were typically competitive , ideological , and occasionally hostile . Relationships of both these " Worlds " with " Third World " countries ( i.e. all the rest ) were normally positive in theory , while some were quite negative in practice ( such as proxy war between client states ) . Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union and advances in communication technology , relations amongst the " Worlds " are not as rigid , although there are still marked disparities , with the First World generally having more influence , wealth , and access to information and technological innovations than the Second and Third Worlds . = = Definition = = After World War II , the world split into two large geopolitical blocs , separating into spheres of communism and capitalism . This led to the Cold War , during which the term First World was often used because of its political , social , and economic relevance . The term itself was first introduced in the late 1940s by the United Nations . Today , the First World is slightly outdated and has no official definition , however , it is generally thought of as the capitalist , industrial , wealthy and developed countries . This definition included Australia , South Korea , Japan , and most of the countries of North America and Western Europe . In contemporary society , the First World is viewed as countries that have the most advanced economies , the greatest influence , the highest standards of living , and the greatest technology . After the Cold War , these countries of the First World included member states of NATO , U.S.- aligned states , neutral countries that were developed and industrialized , and the former British Colonies that were considered developed . It can be defined succinctly as Europe , plus the richer countries of the former British Empire ( USA , Canada , Australia , Singapore , New Zealand , South Africa ) , Japan , and South Korea . Countries were also placed into the First World based on how civilized the country was considered . According to Nations Online , the member countries of NATO after the Cold War included : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , France , West Germany , Greece , Iceland , Italy , Luxembourg , the Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Spain , Turkey , the United Kingdom and the United States . The U.S.-aligned countries included : Israel , Japan , South Korea and the Philippines The neutral countries included : Austria , Finland , Ireland , Sweden and Switzerland . The former British colonies also included in the First World were : Australia , New Zealand , Canada , Singapore , South Africa , and the United States . = = = Variations in definitions = = = Since the end of the Cold War , the original definition of the term First World is no longer necessarily applicable . There are varying definitions of the First World , however , they follow the same idea . John D. Daniels , past president of the Academy of International Business , defines the First World to be consisting of " high @-@ income industrial countries . " Scholar and Professor George J. Bryjak defines the First World to be the " modern , industrial , capitalist countries of North America and Europe . " L. Robert Kohls , former director of training for the U.S. Information Agency and the Meridian International Center in Washington , D.C. uses First World and " fully developed " as synonyms . = = = Other indicators = = = Varying definitions of the term First World and the uncertainty of the term in today 's world leads to different indicators of First World status . In 1945 , the United Nations used the terms first , second , third , and fourth worlds to define the relative wealth of nations ( although popular use of the term fourth world did not come about until later ) . They were defined in terms of Gross National Product ( GNP ) , measured in U.S. dollars , along with other socio @-@ political factors . The first world included the large industrialized , democratic ( free elections , etc . ) nations . The second world included modern , wealthy , industrialized nations , but they were all under communist control . Most of the rest of the world was deemed part of the third world , while the fourth world was considered to be those nations whose people were living on less than US $ 100 annually . If we use the term to mean high income industrialized economies , then the World Bank classifies countries according to their GNI or gross national income per capita . The World Bank separates countries into four categories : high @-@ income , upper @-@ middle @-@ income , lower @-@ middle @-@ income , and low @-@ income economies . The First World is considered to be countries with high @-@ income economies . The high @-@ income economies are equated to mean developed and industrialized countries . = = Three World Model = = The terms First World , Second World , and Third World were originally used to divide the world 's nations into three categories . The model did not emerge to its end state all at once . The complete overthrow of the pre – World War II status quo , known as the Cold War , left two superpowers ( the United States and the Soviet Union ) vying for ultimate global supremacy . They created two camps , known as blocs . These blocs formed the basis of the concepts of the First and Second Worlds . Early in the Cold War era , NATO and the Warsaw Pact were created by the United States and The Soviet Union , respectively . They were also referred to as the Western Bloc and the Eastern Bloc . The circumstances of these two blocks were so different that they were essentially two worlds , however , they were not numbered first and second . The onset of the Cold War is marked by Winston Churchill 's famous " Iron Curtain " speech . In this speech , Churchill describes the division of the West and East to be so solid that it could be called an iron curtain . In 1952 , the French demographer Alfred Sauvy coined the term Third World in reference to the three estates in pre @-@ revolutionary France . The first two estates being the nobility and clergy and everybody else comprising the third estate . He compared the capitalist world ( i.e. , First World ) to the nobility and the communist world ( i.e. , Second World ) to the clergy . Just as the third estate comprised everybody else , Sauvy called the Third World all the countries that were not in this Cold War division , i.e. , the unaligned and uninvolved states in the " East @-@ West Conflict . " With the coining of the term Third World directly , the first two groups came to be known as the " First World " and " Second World , " respectively . Here the three @-@ world system emerged . However , Shuswap Chief George Manuel believes the Three World Model to be outdated . In his 1974 book The Fourth World : An Indian Reality , he describes the emergence of the Fourth World while coining the term . The fourth world refers to " nations , " e.g. , cultural entities and ethnic groups , of indigenous people who do not compose states in the traditional sense . Rather , they live within or across state boundaries ( see First Nations ) . One example is the Native Americans of North America , Central America , and the Caribbean . = = = Post Cold War = = = With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 , the Eastern Bloc ceased to exist ; with it , so did all applicability of the term Second World . The definitions of the First World and Third World changed slightly , yet generally described the same concepts . = = Relationships with the other worlds = = = = = Historic = = = During the Cold War Era , the relationships between the First World , Second World and the Third World were very rigid . The First World and Second World were at constant odds with one another via the tensions between their two cores , the United States and the Soviet Union , respectively . The Cold War , by virtue of its name , was a primarily ideological struggle between the First and Second Worlds , or more specifically , the U.S. and the Soviet Union . Multiple doctrines and plans dominated Cold War dynamics including the Truman Doctrine , Marshall Plan ( from the U.S ) and the Molotov Plan ( from the Soviet Union ) . The extent of the odds between the two worlds is evident in Berlin — which was then split into East and West . To stop citizens in East Berlin from having too much exposure to the capitalist West , the Soviet Union put up the Berlin Wall within the actual city . The relationship between the First World and the Third World is characterized by the very definition of the Third World . Because countries of the Third World were noncommittal and non @-@ aligned with both the First World and the Second World , they were targets for recruitment . In the quest for expanding their sphere of influence , the United States ( core of the First World ) tried to establish pSuccess lay with the First World if at the end of the war , the country became capitalistic and democratic , and with the Second World , if the country became communist . While Vietnam as a whole was eventually communized , only the northern half of Korea remained communist . The Domino Theory largely governed United States policy regarding the Third World and their rivalry with the Second World . In light of the Domino Theory , the U.S. saw winning the proxy wars in the Third World as a measure of the " credibility of U.S. commitments all over the world . " = = = Present = = = The movement of people and information largely characterizes the inter @-@ world relationships in the present day . A majority of breakthroughs and innovation originate in Western Europe and the U.S. and later their effects permeate globally . As judged by the Wharton School of Business at the University of Pennsylvania , most of the Top 30 Innovations of the Last 30 Years were from former First World countries ( e.g. , the U.S. and countries in Western Europe ) . The disparity between knowledge in the First World as compared to the Third World is evident in healthcare and medical advancements . Deaths from water @-@ related illnesses have largely been eliminated in " wealthier nations , " while they are still a " major concern in the developing world . " Widely treatable diseases in the developed countries of the First World , malaria and tuberculosis needlessly claim many lives in the developing countries of the Third World . 900 @,@ 000 people die from malaria each year and combating malaria accounts for 40 % of health spending in many African countries . The International Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers ( ICANN ) recently announced that the first Internationalized Domain Names ( IDNs ) will be available as soon as the summer of 2010 . These include non @-@ Latin domains such as Chinese , Arabic , and Russian . This is one way that the flow of information between the First and Third Worlds may become more even . The movement of information and technology from the First World to various Third World countries has created a general " aspir ( ation ) to First World living standards . " The Third World has lower living standards as compared to the First World . Information about the comparatively higher living standards of the First World comes through television , commercial advertisements and foreign visitors to their countries . This exposure causes two changes : a ) living standards in some Third World countries rise and b ) this exposure creates hopes and many from Third World countries immigrate - both legally and illegally - to these First World countries in hopes of attaining that living standard and prosperity . In fact , this immigration is the " main contributor to the increasing populations of U.S. and Europe . " While these immigrations have greatly contributed to globalization , they have also precipitated trends like brain drain and problems with repatriation . They have also created immigration and governmental burden problems for the countries ( i.e. , First World ) that people immigrate to . = = = Environmental impact = = = Some have argued that the most important human population problem for the world is not the high rate of population increase in certain Third World countries , but rather the " increase in total human impact . " The per @-@ capita impact - the resources consumed and the wastes created by each person - is varied globally ; the highest in the First World and the lowest in the Third World : inhabitants of the U.S. , Western Europe and Japan consume 32 times as many resources and put out 32 times as much waste as those in the Third World . However , China leads the world in total emissions , but its large population skews its per @-@ capita statistic lower than those of more developed nations . As large consumers of fossil fuels , First World countries drew attention to environmental pollution . The Kyoto Protocol is a treaty that is based on the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change , which was finalized in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio . It proposed to place the burden of protecting the climate on the United States and other First World countries . Countries that were considered to be developing , such as China and India , were not required to approve the treaty because they were more concerned that restricting emissions would further restrain their development . = = = International relations = = = Until the recent past , little attention was paid to the interests of Third World countries . This is because most international relations scholars have come from the industrialized , First World nations . As more countries have continued to become more developed , the interests of the world have slowly started to shift . However , First World nations still have many more universities , professors , journals , and conferences , which has made it very difficult for Third World countries to gain legitimacy and respect with their new ideas and methods of looking at the world . = = = Development theory = = = During the Cold War , the modernization theory and development theory developed in the West as a result of their economic , political , social , and cultural response to the management of former colonial territories . Western scholars and practitioners of international politics hoped to theorize ideas and then create policies based on those ideas that would cause newly independent colonies to change into politically developed sovereign nation @-@ states . However , most of the theorists were from the United States , and they were not interested in Third World countries achieving development by any model . They wanted those countries to develop through liberal processes of politics , economics , and socialization ; that is to say , they wanted them to follow the Western liberal capitalist example of a so @-@ called " First World state . " Therefore , the modernization and development tradition consciously originated as a Western ( mostly U.S. ) alternative to the Marxist and neo @-@ Marxist strategies promoted by the " Second World states " like the Soviet Union . It was used to explain how developing Third World states would naturally evolve into developed First World States , and it was partially grounded in liberal economic theory and a form of Talcott Parsons ' sociological theory . = = Globalization = = The United Nations 's ESCWA has written that globalization " is a widely @-@ used term that can be defined in a number of different ways . " Joyce Osland from San Jose State University wrote , " Globalization has become an increasingly controversial topic , and the growing number of protests around the world has focused more attention on the basic assumptions of globalization and its effects . " " Globalization is not new , though . For thousands of years , people — and , later , corporations — have been buying from and selling to each other in lands at great distances , such as through the famed Silk Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages . Likewise , for centuries , people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries . In fact , many of the features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 . " = = = European Union = = = The most prominent example of globalization in the first world is the European Union ( EU ) . The European Union is an agreement in which countries voluntarily decide to build common governmental institutions to which they delegate some individual national sovereignty so that decisions can be made democratically on a higher level of common interest for Europe as a whole . The result is a union of 28 Member States covering 4 @,@ 324 @,@ 782 square kilometres ( 1 @,@ 669 @,@ 808 sq mi ) with roughly half a billion people . In total , the European Union produces almost a third of the world ’ s gross national product and the member states speak more than 23 languages . All of the European Union countries are joined together by a hope to promote and extend peace , democracy , cooperativeness , stability , prosperity , and the rule of law . In a 2007 speech , Benita Ferrero @-@ Waldner , the European Commissioner for External Relations , said herself , " The future of the EU is linked to globalization ... the EU has a crucial role to play in making globalization work properly ... " . In a 2014 speech at the European Parliament , the Italian PM Matteo Renzi said " we are the ones who can bring civilization to globalization " . With the " Brexit " ( British Exit ) of the EU in 2016 , the fundamental economic and motivational powerhouse of globalization in Europe was placed , once again , in the hands of Germany . Just as the concept of the First World came about as a result of World War II , so did the European Union . In 1951 the beginnings of the EU were founded with the creation of European Coal and Steel Community ( ECSC ) . From the beginning of its inception , countries in the EU were judged by many standards , including economic ones . This is where the relation between globalization , the EU , and First World countries arises . Especially during the 1990s when the EU focused on economic policies such as the creation and circulation of the Euro , the creation of the European Monetary Institute , and the opening of the European Central Bank . In 1993 , at the Copenhagen European Council , the European Union took a decisive step towards expanding the EU , what they called the Fifth Enlargement , agreeing that " the associated countries in Central and Eastern Europe that so desire shall become members of the European Union . " Thus , enlargement was no longer a question of if , but when and how . The European Council stated that accession could occur when the prospective country is able to assume the obligations of membership , that is that all the economic and political conditions required are attained . Furthermore , it defined the membership criteria , which are regarded as the Copenhagen criteria , as follows : stability of institutions guaranteeing democracy , the rule of law , human rights and respect for and protection of minorities the existence of a functioning market economy as well as the capacity to cope with competitive pressure and market forces within the Union the ability to take on the obligations of membership including adherence to the aims of political , economic and monetary union It is clear that all these criteria are characteristics of developed countries . Therefore , there is a direct link between globalization , developed nations , and the European Union . = = = Multinational corporations = = = A majority of multinational corporations find their origins in First World countries . After the fall of communism , multinational corporations proliferated as more countries focused on global trade . The series of General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade ( GATT ) and later the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) essentially ended the protectionist measures that were dissuading global trade . The eradication of these protectionist measures , while creating avenues for economic interconnection , mostly benefited developed countries , who by using their power at GATT summits , forced developing and underdeveloped countries to open their economies to Western goods . As the world starts to globalize , it is accompanied by criticism of the current forms of globalization , which are feared to be overly corporate @-@ led . As corporations become larger and multinational , their influence and interests go further accordingly . Being able to influence and own most media companies , it is hard to be able to publicly debate the notions and ideals that corporations pursue . Some choices that corporations take to make profits can affect people all over the world . Sometimes fatally . The third industrial revolution is spreading from the developed world to some , but not all , parts of the developing world . To participate in this new global economy , developing countries must be seen as attractive offshore production bases for multinational corporations . To be such bases , developing countries must provide relatively well @-@ educated workforces , good infrastructure ( electricity , telecommunications , transportation ) , political stability , and a willingness to play by market rules . If these conditions are in place , multinational corporations will transfer via their offshore subsidiaries or to their offshore suppliers , the specific production technologies and market linkages necessary to participate in the global economy . By themselves , developing countries , even if well @-@ educated , cannot produce at the quality levels demanded in high @-@ value @-@ added industries and cannot market what they produce even in low @-@ value @-@ added industries such as textiles or shoes . Put bluntly , multinational companies possess a variety of factors that developing countries must have if they are to participate in the global economy . = = = Outsourcing = = = Outsourcing , according to Grossman and Helpman , refers to the process of " subcontracting an ever expanding set of activities , ranging from product design to assembly , from research and development to marketing , distribution and after @-@ sales service " . Many companies have moved to outsourcing services in which they no longer specifically need or have the capability of handling themselves . This is due to considerations of what the companies can have more control over . Whatever companies tend to not have much control over or need to have control over will outsource activities to firms that they consider " less competing " . According to SourcingMag.com , the process of outsourcing can take the following four phases . strategic thinking evaluation and selection contract development outsourcing management . Outsourcing is among some of the many reasons for increased competition within developing countries . Aside from being a reason for competition , many First World countries see outsourcing , in particular offshore outsourcing , as an opportunity for increased income . As a consequence , the skill level of production in foreign countries handling the outsourced services increases within the economy ; and the skill level within the domestic developing countries can decrease . It is because of competition ( including outsourcing ) that Robert Feenstra and Gordon Hanson predict that there will be a rise of 15 – 33 percent in inequality amongst these countries . = Spotted hyena = The spotted hyena ( Crocuta crocuta ) , also known as the laughing hyena , is a species of hyena , currently classed as the sole member of the genus Crocuta , native to Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It is listed as being of least concern by the IUCN on account of its widespread range and large numbers estimated between 27 @,@ 000 and 47 @,@ 000 individuals . The species is , however , experiencing declines outside of protected areas due to habitat loss and poaching . The species may have originated in Asia , and once ranged throughout Europe for at least one million years until the end of the Late Pleistocene . The spotted hyena is the largest known member of the Hyaenidae , and is further physically distinguished from other species by its vaguely bear @-@ like build , its rounded ears , its less prominent mane , its spotted pelt , its more dual purposed dentition , its fewer nipples and the presence of a pseudo @-@ penis in the female . It is the only mammalian species to lack an external vaginal opening . The spotted hyena is the most social of the Carnivora in that it has the largest group sizes and most complex social behaviours . Its social organisation is unlike that of any other carnivore , bearing closer resemblance to that of cercopithecine primates ( baboons and macaques ) with respect to group @-@ size , hierarchical structure , and frequency of social interaction among both kin and unrelated group @-@ mates . However , the social system of the spotted hyena is openly competitive rather than cooperative , with access to kills , mating opportunities and the time of dispersal for males depending on the ability to dominate other clan @-@ members . Females provide only for their own cubs rather than assist each other , and males display no paternal care . Spotted hyena society is matriarchal ; females are larger than males , and dominate them . The spotted hyena is a highly successful animal , being the most common large carnivore in Africa . Its success is due in part to its adaptability and opportunism ; it is primarily a hunter but may also scavenge , with the capacity to eat and digest skin , bone and other animal waste . In functional terms , the spotted hyena makes the most efficient use of animal matter of all African carnivores . The spotted hyena displays greater plasticity in its hunting and foraging behaviour than other African carnivores ; it hunts alone , in small parties of 2 – 5 individuals or in large groups . During a hunt , spotted hyenas often run through ungulate herds in order to select an individual to attack . Once selected , their prey is chased over long distance , often several kilometres , at speeds of up to 60 km / h . The spotted hyena has a long history of interaction with humanity ; depictions of the species exist from the Upper Paleolithic period , with carvings and paintings from the Lascaux and Chauvet Caves . The species has a largely negative reputation in both Western culture and African folklore . In the former , the species is mostly regarded as ugly and cowardly , while in the latter , it is viewed as greedy , gluttonous , stupid , and foolish , yet powerful and potentially dangerous . The majority of Western perceptions on the species can be found in the writings of Aristotle and Pliny the Elder , though in relatively unjudgemental form . Explicit , negative judgements occur in the Physiologus , where the animal is depicted as a hermaphrodite and grave robber . The IUCN 's hyena specialist group identifies the spotted hyena 's negative reputation as detrimental to the species ' continued survival , both in captivity and the wild . = = Etymology , discovery and naming = = The spotted hyena 's scientific name Crocuta , was once widely thought to be derived from the Latin loanword crocutus , which translates as " saffron @-@ coloured one " , in reference to the animal 's fur colour . This was proven to be incorrect , as the correct spelling of the loanword would have been Crocāta , and the word was never used in that sense by Graeco @-@ Roman sources . Crocuta actually comes from the Ancient Greek word Κροκόττας ( Krokottas ) , which is derived from the Sanskrit koṭṭhâraka , which in turn originates from kroshṭuka ( both of which were originally meant to signify the golden jackal ) . The earliest recorded mention of Κροκόττας is from Strabo 's Geographica , where the animal is described as a mix of wolf and dog native to Ethiopia . From Classical antiquity until the Renaissance , the spotted and striped hyena were either assumed to be the same species , or distinguished purely on geographical , rather than physical grounds . Hiob Ludolf , in his Historia aethiopica , was the first to clearly distinguish the Crocuta from Hyaena on account of physical , as well as geographical grounds , though he never had any first hand experience of the species , having gotten his accounts from an Ethiopian intermediary . Confusion still persisted over the exact taxonomic nature of the hyena family in general , with most European travelers in Ethiopia referring to hyenas as " wolves " . This partly stems from the Amharic word for hyena , ጅብ ( jɨbb ) , which is linked to the Arabic word ذئب ( dhiʾb ) " wolf " . The first detailed first @-@ hand descriptions of the spotted hyena by Europeans come from Willem Bosman and Peter Kolbe . Bosman , a Dutch tradesman who worked for the Dutch West India Company at the Gold Coast ( modern day Ghana ) from 1688 – 1701 , wrote of " Jakhals , of Boshond " ( jackals or woodland dogs ) whose physical descriptions match the spotted hyena . Kolben , a German mathematician and astronomer who worked for the Dutch East India Company in the Cape of Good Hope from 1705 – 1713 , described the spotted hyena in great detail , but referred to it as a " tigerwolf " , because the settlers in southern Africa did not know of hyenas , and thus labelled them as " wolves " . Bosman and Kolben 's descriptions went largely unnoticed until 1771 , when the Welsh naturalist Thomas Pennant , in his Synopsis of Quadrupeds , used the descriptions , as well as his personal experience with a captive specimen , as a basis for consistently differentiating the spotted hyena from the striped . The description given by Pennant was precise enough to be included by Johann Erxleben in his Systema regni animalis by simply translating Pennant 's text into Latin . Crocuta was finally recognised as a separate genus from Hyaena in 1828 . = = = Local and indigenous names = = = Several languages of Africa lack species specific names for hyenas : for example , the spotted and striped species have identical names in Dyula , Swahili , Mandinka , Mossi , Ngambaye , Wolof and Fulani . In other languages , other species may simply be termed " small spotted hyena " , such as in Swahili , where the spotted hyena is termed fisi and the aardwolf fisi ndogo . = = Taxonomy , origins and evolution = = Unlike the striped hyena , for which a number of subspecies were proposed in light of its extensive modern range , the spotted hyena is a genuinely variable species , both temporally and spatially . Its range once encompassed almost all of Africa and Eurasia , and displayed a large degree of morphological geographic variation , which led to an equally extensive set of specific and subspecific epithets . It was gradually realised that all of this variation could be applied to individual differences in a single subspecies . In 1939 , biologist L. Harrison Matthews demonstrated through comparisons between a large selection of spotted hyena skulls from Tanzania that all the variation seen in the then recognised subspecies could also be found in a single population , with the only set of characters standing out being pelage ( which is subject to a high degree of individual variation ) and size ( which is subject to Bergmann 's Rule ) . When fossils are taken into consideration , the species displayed even greater variation than it does in modern times , and a number of these named fossil species have since been classed as synonymous with Crocuta crocuta , with firm evidence of there being more than one species within the genus Crocuta still lacking . Both Björn Kurtén and Camille Arambourg promoted an Asiatic origin for the species ; Kurtén focussed his arguments on the Plio @-@ Pleistocene taxon Crocuta sivalensis from the Siwaliks , a view defended by Arambourg , who nonetheless allowed the possibility of an Indo @-@ Ethiopian origin . This stance was contested by Ficarelli and Torre , who referred to evidence of the spotted hyena 's presence from African deposists dating from the early Pleistocene , a similar age to the Asian C. sivalensis . Studies on the phylogeographic distribution of mtDNA haplotypes indicates three migration events from Africa to Eurasia , though neither the topology of the phylogenetic tree or the fossil record exclude the possibility of an Asian origin . The earliest migration of spotted hyenas from Africa to Eurasia began less than 3 @.@ 5 million years ago , most probably from the area where the first spotted hyena fossils were discovered , reaching East Asia and most likely also Pakistan . The second migration of spotted hyenas occurred less than 1 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 5 million years ago and resulted in the first arrival of hyenas in Europe and a separation of African spotted hyenas into a southern and a northern population . The third spotted hyena migration took place 0 @.@ 36 million years ago , starting from the northern African population and reaching both Europe and Asia . Unlike other African carnivores , with the exception of the leopard , there is no evidence to suggest that spotted hyenas underwent a genetic bottleneck during the Pleistocene . The ancestors of the genus Crocuta diverged from Hyaena ( the genus of striped and brown hyenas ) 10 million years ago . The ancestors of the spotted hyena probably developed social behaviours in response to increased pressure from other predators on carcasses , which forced them to operate in teams . At one point in their evolution , spotted hyenas developed sharp carnassials behind their crushing premolars ; this rendered waiting for their prey to die no longer a necessity , as is the case for brown and striped hyenas , and thus became pack hunters as well as scavengers . They began forming increasingly larger territories , necessitated by the fact that their prey was often migratory , and long chases in a small territory would have caused them to encroach into another clan 's land . It has been theorised that female dominance in spotted hyena clans could be an adaptation in order to successfully compete with males on kills , and thus ensure that enough milk is produced for their cubs . Another theory is that it is an adaptation to the length of time it takes for cubs to develop their massive skulls and jaws , thus necessitating greater attention and dominating behaviours from females . Its appearance in Europe and China during the Cromerian period coincided with the decline and eventual extinction of Pachycrocuta brevirostris , the giant short @-@ faced hyena . As there is no evidence of environmental change being responsible , it is likely that the giant short @-@ faced hyena became extinct due to competition with the spotted hyena . = = Description = = = = = Anatomy = = = The spotted hyena has a strong and well developed neck and forequarters , but relatively underdeveloped hindquarters . The rump is rounded rather than angular , which prevents attackers coming from behind from getting a firm grip on it . The head is wide and flat with a blunt muzzle and broad rhinarium . In contrast to the striped hyena , the ears of the spotted hyena are rounded rather than pointed . Each foot has four digits , which are webbed and armed with short , stout and blunt claws . The paw @-@ pads are broad and very flat , with the whole undersurface of the foot around them being naked . The tail is relatively short , being 300 – 350 mm ( 12 – 14 in ) long , and resembles a pompom in appearance . Unusually among hyaenids , and mammals in general , the female spotted hyena is considerably larger than the male . Both sexes have a pair of anal glands which open into the rectum just inside the anal opening . These glands produce a white , creamy secretion which is pasted onto grass stalks by everting the rectum . The odour of this secretion is very strong , smelling of boiling cheap soap or burning , and can be detected by humans several metres downwind . The spotted hyena has a proportionately large heart , constituting close to 1 % of its body weight , thus giving it great endurance in long chases . In contrast , a lion 's heart makes up only 0 @.@ 45 – 0 @.@ 57 percent of its body weight . The now extinct Eurasian populations were distinguished from the modern African populations by their shorter distal extremities and longer humerus and femur . The skull of the spotted hyena differs from that of the striped hyena by its much greater size and narrower sagittal crest . For its size , the spotted hyena has one of the most powerfully built skulls among the Carnivora . The dentition is more dual purposed than that of other modern hyena species , which are mostly scavengers ; the upper and lower third premolars are conical bone @-@ crushers , with a third bone @-@ holding cone jutting from the lower fourth premolar . The spotted hyena also has its carnassials situated behind its bone @-@ crushing premolars , the position of which allows it to crush bone with its premolars without blunting the carnassials . Combined with large jaw muscles and a special vaulting to protect the skull against large forces , these characteristics give the spotted hyena a powerful bite which can exert a pressure of 80 kgf / cm2 ( 1140 lbf / in ² ) , which is 40 % more force than a leopard can generate . The jaws of the spotted hyena outmatch those of the brown bear in bonecrushing ability , and free ranging hyenas have been observed to crack open the long bones of giraffes measuring 7 cm in diameter . A 63 @.@ 1 kg ( 139 lb ) spotted hyena is estimated to have a bite force of 565 @.@ 7 newtons at the canine tip and 985 @.@ 5 newtons at the carnassial eocone . = = = Dimensions = = = The spotted hyena is the largest extant member of the Hyaenidae . Adults measure 95 – 165 @.@ 8 cm ( 37 – 65 in ) in body length , and have a shoulder height of 70 – 91 @.@ 5 cm ( 28 – 36 in ) . Adult male spotted hyenas in the Serengeti weigh 40 @.@ 5 – 55 @.@ 0 kg ( 89 – 121 lb ) , while females weigh 44 @.@ 5 – 63 @.@ 9 kg ( 98 – 141 lb ) . Spotted hyenas in Zambia tend to be heavier , with males weighing on average 67 @.@ 6 kg ( 149 lb ) , and females 69 @.@ 2 kg ( 153 lb ) . Exceptionally large weights of 81 @.@ 7 kg ( 180 lb ) and 90 kg ( 198 lb ) are known . It has been estimated that adult members of the now extinct Eurasian populations weighed 102 kg ( 225 lb ) . = = = Fur = = = Fur colour varies greatly and changes with age . Unlike the fur of the striped and brown hyena , that of the spotted hyena consists of spots rather than stripes and is much shorter , lacking the well defined spinal mane of the former two species . The base colour generally is a pale greyish @-@ brown or yellowish @-@ grey on which an irregular pattern of roundish spots is superimposed on the back and hind quarters . The spots , which are of variable distinction , may be reddish , deep brown or almost blackish . The spots vary in size , even on single individuals , but are commonly 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) in diameter . A less distinct spot pattern is present on the legs and belly but not on the throat and chest . A set of five , pale and barely distinct bands replace the spots on the back and sides of the neck . A broad , medial band is present on the back of the neck , and is lengthened into a forward facing crest . The crest is mostly reddish @-@ brown in colour . The crown and upper part of the face is brownish , save for a white band above both eyes , though the front of the eyes , the area around the rhinarium , the lips and the back portion of the chin are all blackish . The limbs are spotted , though the feet vary in colour , from light brown to blackish . The fur is relatively sparse and consists of two hair types ; moderately fine underfur ( measuring 15 – 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) ) and long , stout bristle hairs ( 30 – 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) ) . European Paleolithic rock art depicting the species indicates that the Eurasian populations retained the spots of their modern @-@ day African counterparts . = = = Female genitalia = = = The genitalia of the female closely resembles that of the male ; the clitoris is shaped and positioned like a penis , and is capable of erection . The female also possesses no external vagina ( vaginal opening ) , as the labia are fused to form a pseudo @-@ scrotum . The pseudo @-@ penis is traversed to its tip by a central urogenital canal , through which the female urinates , copulates and gives birth . The pseudo @-@ penis can be distinguished from the males ' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans . In both males and females , the base of the glans is covered with penile spines . The formation of the pseudo @-@ penis appears largely androgen independent , as the pseudo @-@ penis appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland . After parturition , the pseudo @-@ penis is stretched , and loses many of its original aspects ; it becomes a slack @-@ walled and reduced prepuce with an enlarged orifice with split lips . = = Behaviour = = = = = Social behaviour = = = Spotted hyenas are social animals which live in large communities ( referred to as " clans " ) which can consist of at most 80 individuals . Group @-@ size varies geographically ; in the Serengeti , where prey is migratory , clans are smaller than those in the Ngorongoro Crater , where prey is sedentary . Spotted hyena clans are more compact and unified than wolf packs , but are not as closely knit as those of African wild dogs . Females dominate males , with even the lowest ranking females being dominant over the highest ranking males . It is typical for females to remain with their natal clan , thus large clans usually contain several matrilines , whereas males typically disperse from their natal clan at the age of 2 ½ years . The clan is a fission @-@ fusion society , in which clan @-@ members do not often remain together , but may forage alone or in small groups . High @-@ ranking hyenas maintain their position through aggression directed against lower @-@ ranking clan @-@ members . Spotted hyena hierarchy is nepotistic ; the offspring of dominant females automatically outrank adult females subordinate to their mother . However , rank in spotted hyena cubs is greatly dependent on the presence of the mother ; low @-@ ranking adults may act aggressively toward higher @-@ ranking cubs when the mother is absent . Although individual spotted hyenas only care for their own young , and males take no part in raising their young , cubs are able to identify relatives as distantly related as great @-@ aunts . Also , males associate more closely with their own daughters rather than unrelated cubs , and the latter favour their fathers by acting less aggressively toward them . Spotted hyena societies are more complex than those of other carnivorous mammals , and are remarkably similar to those of cercopithecine primates in respect to group size , structure , competition and cooperation . Like cercopithecine primates , spotted hyenas use multiple sensory modalities , recognise individual conspecifics , are conscious that some clan @-@ mates may be more reliable than others , recognise third @-@ party kin and rank relationships among clan @-@ mates , and adaptively use this knowledge during social decision making . Also , like cercopithecine primates , dominance ranks in hyena societies are not correlated with size or aggression , but with ally networks . In this latter trait , the spotted hyena further show parallels with primates by acquiring rank through coalition . However , rank reversals and overthrows in spotted hyena clans are very rare . The social network dynamics of spotted hyenas are determined by multiple factors . Environmental factors include rainfall and prey abundance ; individual factors include preference to bond with females and with kin ; and topological effects include the tendency to close triads in the network . Female hyenas are more flexible than males in their social bonding preferences . The higher ranking adult spotted hyenas tend to have higher telomere length , thus are healthier , naturally live longer , and reproduce more . Territory size is highly variable , ranging from less than 40 km2 in the Ngorongoro Crater to over 1 @,@ 000 km2 in the Kalahari . Home ranges are defended through vocal displays , scent marking and boundary patrols . Clans mark their territories by either pasting or pawing in special latrines located on clan range boundaries . Clan boundaries are usually respected ; hyenas chasing prey have been observed to stop dead in their tracks once their prey crosses into another clan 's range . Hyenas will however ignore clan boundaries in times of food shortage . Males are more likely to enter another clan 's territory than females are , as they are less attached to their natal group and will leave it when in search of a mate . Hyenas travelling in another clan 's home range typically exhibit bodily postures associated with fear , particularly when meeting other hyenas . An intruder can be accepted into another clan after a long period of time if it persists in wandering into the clan 's territory , dens or kills . = = = Mating , reproduction , and development = = = The spotted hyena is a non @-@ seasonal breeder , though a birth peak does occur during the wet season . Females are polyestrus , with an estrus period lasting two weeks . Like many felid species , the spotted hyena is promiscuous , and no enduring pair bonds are formed . Members of both sexes may copulate with several mates over the course of several years . Males will show submissive behaviour when approaching females in heat , even if the male outweighs his partner . Females usually favour younger males born or joined into the clan after they were born . Older females show a similar preference , with the addition of preferring males with whom they have had long and friendly prior relationships . Passive males tend to have greater success in courting females than aggressive ones . Copulation in spotted hyenas is a relatively short affair , lasting 4 – 12 minutes , and typically only occurs at night with no other hyenas present . The mating process is complicated , as the male 's penis enters and exits the female 's reproductive tract through her pseudo @-@ penis rather than directly through the vagina , which is blocked by the false scrotum and testes . These unusual traits make mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals , while also ensuring that rape is physically impossible . Once the female retracts her clitoris , the male enters the female by sliding beneath her , an operation facilitated by the penis 's upward angle . Once this is accomplished , a typical mammalian mating posture is adopted . The length of the gestation period tends to vary greatly , though 110 days is the average length of time . In the final stages of pregnancy , dominant females provide their developing offspring with higher androgen levels than lower @-@ ranking mothers do . The higher androgen levels – the result of high concentrations of ovarian androstenedione – are thought to be responsible for the extreme masculinization of female behavior and morphology . This has the effect of rendering the cubs of dominant females more aggressive and sexually active than those of lower ranking hyenas ; high ranking male cubs will attempt to mount females earlier than lower ranking males . The average litter consists of two cubs , with three occasionally being reported . Males take no part in the raising of young . Giving birth is difficult for female hyenas , as the females give birth through their narrow	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
clitoris , and spotted hyena cubs are the largest carnivoran young relative to their mothers ' weight . During parturition , the clitoris ruptures in order to facilitate the passage of the young , and may take weeks to heal . Cubs are born with soft , brownish black hair , and weigh 1 @.@ 5 kg on average . Unique among carnivorous mammals , spotted hyenas are also born with their eyes open and with 6 – 7 mm long canine teeth and 4 mm long incisors . Also , cubs will attack each other shortly after birth . This is particularly apparent in same sexed litters , and can result in the death of the weaker cub . This neonatal siblicide kills an estimated 25 % of all hyenas in their first month . Male cubs which survive grow faster and are likelier to achieve reproductive dominance , while female survivors eliminate rivals for dominance in their natal clan . Lactating females can carry 3 – 4 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 8 lb ) of milk in their udders . Spotted hyena milk has the highest protein content of any terrestrial carnivore , and its fat content is second only to that of the polar bear and sea otter . Cubs will nurse from their mother for 12 – 16 months , though they can process solid food as early as three months . Mothers do not regurgitate food for their young . Females are very protective of their cubs , and will not tolerate other adults , particularly males , approaching them . Spotted hyenas exhibit adult behaviours very early in life ; cubs have been observed to ritually sniff each other and mark their living space before the age of one month . Within ten days of birth , they are able to move at considerable speed . Cubs begin to lose the black coat and develop the spotted , lighter coloured pelage of the adults at 2 – 3 months . They begin to exhibit hunting behaviours at the age of eight months , and will begin fully participating in group hunts after their first year . Spotted hyenas reach sexual maturity at the age of three years . The average lifespan in zoos is 12 years , with a maximum of 25 years . = = = Denning behaviour = = = The clan 's social life revolves around a communal den . While some clans may use particular den sites for years , others may use several different dens within a year or several den sites simultaneously . Spotted hyena dens can have more than a dozen entrances , and are mostly located on flat ground . The tunnels are usually oval in section , being wider than they are high , and narrow down from an entrance width of ½ – 1 metre ( 1 @.@ 6 – 7 @.@ 7 ft ) to as small as 25 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) . In the rocky areas of East Africa and Congo , spotted hyenas use caves as dens , while those in the Serengeti use kopjes as resting areas in daylight hours . Dens have large bare patches around their entrances , where hyenas move or lie down on . Because of their size , adult hyenas are incapable of using the full extent of their burrows , as most tunnels are dug by cubs or smaller animals . The structure of the den , consisting of small underground channels , is likely an effective anti @-@ predator device which protects cubs from predation during the absence of the mother . Spotted hyenas rarely dig their own dens , having been observed for the most part to use the abandoned burrows of warthogs , springhares and jackals . Faeces are usually deposited 20 metres ( 66 feet ) away from the den , though they urinate wherever they happen to be . Dens are used mostly by several females at once , and it is not uncommon to see up to 20 cubs at a single site . The general form of a spotted hyena den is tunnel @-@ shaped , with a spacious end chamber used for sleeping or breeding . This chamber measures up to 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 feet ) in width , the height being rather less . Females generally give birth at the communal den or a private birth den . The latter is primarily used by low status females in order to maintain continual access to their cubs , as well as ensure that they become acquainted with their cubs before transferral to the communal den . = = = Intelligence = = = Compared to other hyenas , the spotted hyena shows a greater relative amount of frontal cortex which is involved in the mediation of social behavior . Studies strongly suggest convergent evolution in spotted hyena and primate intelligence . A study done by evolutionary anthropologists demonstrated that spotted hyenas outperform chimpanzees on cooperative problem @-@ solving tests ; captive pairs of spotted hyenas were challenged to tug two ropes in unison to earn a food reward , successfully cooperating and learning the maneuvers quickly without prior training . Experienced hyenas even helped inexperienced clan @-@ mates to solve the problem . In contrast , chimps and other primates often require extensive training , and cooperation between individuals is not always as easy for them . The intelligence of the spotted hyena was attested to by Dutch colonists in 19th @-@ century South Africa , who noted that hyenas were exceedingly cunning and suspicious , particularly after successfully escaping from traps . Spotted hyenas seem to plan on hunting specific species in advance ; hyenas have been observed to indulge in activities such as scent marking before setting off to hunt zebras , a behaviour which does not occur when they target other prey species . Also , spotted hyenas have been recorded to utilise deceptive behaviour , including giving alarm calls during feeding when no enemies are present , thus frightening off other hyenas and allowing them to temporarily eat in peace . Similarly , mothers will emit alarm calls in attempting to interrupt attacks on their cubs by other hyenas . = = = Hunting behaviour = = = Unlike other large African carnivores , spotted hyenas do not preferentially prey on any species , and only African buffalo and giraffe are significantly avoided . Spotted hyenas prefer prey with a body mass range of 56 – 182 kg ( 123 – 401 lb ) , with a mode of 102 kg ( 225 lb ) . When hunting medium to large sized prey , spotted hyenas tend to select certain categories of animal ; young animals are frequently targeted , as are old ones , though the latter category is not so significant when hunting zebras , due to their aggressive anti @-@ predator behaviours . The spotted hyena tracks live prey by sight , hearing and smell . Carrion is detected by smell and the sound of other predators feeding . During daylight hours , they watch vultures descending upon carcasses . Their auditory perception is powerful enough to detect sounds of predators killing prey or feeding on carcasses over distances of up to 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) . Unlike the grey wolf , the spotted hyena relies more on sight than smell when hunting , and does not follow its prey 's prints or travel in single file . Small prey is killed by being shaken in the mouth , while large prey is eaten alive . Spotted hyenas usually hunt wildebeest either singly , or in groups of two or three . They catch adult wildebeest usually after 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) chases at speeds of up to 60 km / h ( 37 mi / h ) . Chases are usually initiated by one hyena and , with the exception of cows with calves , there is little active defence from the wildebeest herd . Wildebeest will sometimes attempt to escape hyenas by taking to water although , in such cases , the hyenas almost invariably catch them . Zebras require different hunting methods to those used for wildebeest , due to their habit of running in tight groups and aggressive defence from stallions . Typical zebra hunting groups consist of 10 – 25 hyenas , though there is one record of a hyena killing an adult zebra unaided . During a chase , zebras typically move in tight bunches , with the hyenas pursuing behind in a crescent formation . Chases are usually relatively slow , with an average speed of 15 – 30 km / h . A stallion will attempt to place himself between the hyenas and the herd , though once a zebra falls behind the protective formation it is immediately set upon , usually after a chase of 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) . Though hyenas may harass the stallion , they usually only concentrate on the herd and attempt to dodge the stallion 's assaults . Unlike stallions , mares typically only react aggressively to hyenas when their foals are threatened . Unlike wildebeest , zebras rarely take to water when escaping hyenas . When hunting Thomson 's gazelles , spotted hyenas usually operate alone , and prey primarily on young fawns . Chases against both adult and young gazelles can cover distances of 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) with speeds of 60 km / h ( 37 mi / h ) . Female gazelles do not defend their fawns , though they may attempt to distract hyenas by feigning weakness . = = Ecology = = = = = Diet = = = The spotted hyena is the most carnivorous member of the Hyaenidae . Unlike its brown and striped cousins , the spotted hyena is a predator , not a scavenger ; this has been shown since the 1960s . One of the earliest studies to demonstrate their hunting abilities was done by Hans Kruuk , an African wildlife ecologist , and he showed through a 7 @-@ year study of hyena populations in Africa that spotted hyenas hunt as much as lions , and with later studies this has been shown to be the average in all areas of Africa . However spotted hyenas remain being mislabeled as scavengers , often even by ecologists and wildlife documentary channels . The spotted hyena is very efficient at eating its prey ; not only is it able to splinter and eat the largest ungulate bones , it is also able to digest them completely . Spotted hyenas can digest all organic components in bones , not just the marrow . Any inorganic material is excreted with the faeces , which consist almost entirely of a white powder with few hairs . They react to alighting vultures more readily than other African carnivores , and are more likely to stay in the vicinity of lion kills or human settlements . Wildebeest are the most commonly taken medium @-@ sized ungulate prey item in both Ngorongoro and the Serengeti , with zebra and Thomson 's gazelles coming close behind . Cape buffalo are rarely attacked due to differences in habitat preference , though adult bulls have been recorded to be taken on occasion . In Kruger National Park , blue wildebeest , cape buffalo , Burchell 's zebra , greater kudu and impala are the spotted hyena 's most important prey , while giraffe , impala , wildebeest and zebra are its major food sources in the nearby Timbavati area . Springbok and kudu are the main prey in Namibia 's Etosha National Park , and springbok in the Namib . In the southern Kalahari , gemsbok , wildebeest and springbok are the principal prey . In Chobe , the spotted hyena 's primary prey consists of migratory zebra and resident impala . In Kenya 's Masai Mara , 80 % of the spotted hyena 's prey consists of topi and Thomson 's gazelle , save for during the four @-@ month period when zebra and wildebeest herds migrate to the area . Bushbuck , suni and buffalo are the dominant prey items in the Aberdare Mountains , while Grant 's gazelle , gerenuk , sheep , goats and cattle are likely preyed upon in northern Kenya . In west Africa , it is thought that the spotted hyena is primarily a scavenger , but will occasionally attack domestic stock and medium @-@ size antelopes in some areas . In Cameroon , it is common for spotted hyenas to feed on small antelopes like kob , but may also scavenge on reedbuck , kongoni , buffalo , giraffe , African elephant , topi and roan antelope carcasses . Records indicate that spotted hyenas in Malawi feed on medium to large @-@ sized ungulates such as waterbuck and impala . In Tanzania 's Selous Game Reserve , spotted hyenas primarily prey on wildebeest , followed by buffalo , zebra , impala , giraffe , reedbuck and kongoni . In Uganda , it is thought that the species primarily preys on birds and reptiles , while in Zambia it is primarily a scavenger . Spotted hyenas have also been found to catch fish , tortoises , humans , black rhino , hippo calves , young African elephants , pangolins and pythons . There is at least one record of four hyenas killing an adult hippopotamus in Kruger National Park . The fossil record indicates that the now extinct European spotted hyenas primarily fed on Przewalski 's horses , Irish elk , reindeer , red deer , roe deer , fallow deer , wild boar , ibex , steppe wisent , aurochs , and woolly rhinoceros . Spotted hyenas are thought to be responsible for the dis @-@ articulation and destruction of some cave bear skeletons . Such large carcasses were an optimal food resource for hyenas , especially at the end of winter , when food was scarce . Spotted hyenas may consume leather articles such as boots and belts around campsites . Jane Goodall recorded spotted hyenas attacking or savagely playing with the exterior and interior fittings of cars , and the species is thought to be responsible for eating car tyres . A single spotted hyena can eat at least 14 @.@ 5 kg of meat per meal . Although spotted hyenas act aggressively toward each other when feeding , they compete with each other mostly through speed of eating , rather than by fighting as lions do . When feeding on an intact carcass , spotted hyenas will first consume the meat around the loins and anal region , then open the abdominal cavity and pull out the soft organs . Once the stomach , its wall and contents are consumed , the hyenas will eat the lungs and abdominal and leg muscles . Once the muscles have been eaten , the carcass is disassembled and the hyenas carry off pieces to eat in peace . Spotted hyenas are adept at eating their prey in water : they have been observed to dive under floating carcasses to take bites , then resurface to swallow . A single hyena can take less than two minutes in eating a gazelle fawn , while a group of 35 hyenas can completely consume an adult zebra in 36 minutes . Spotted hyenas do not require much water , and typically only spend 30 seconds drinking . = = = Enemies and competitors = = = In areas where spotted hyenas and lions are sympatric , the two species occupy the same ecological niche , and are thus in direct competition with one another . In some cases , the extent of dietary overlap can be as high as 68 @.@ 8 % . Lions typically ignore spotted hyenas , unless they are on a kill or are being harassed by them . There exists a common misconception that hyenas steal kills from lions , but most often it is the other way around . Lions will readily steal the kills of spotted hyenas ; in the Ngorongoro Crater , it is common for lions to subsist largely on kills stolen from hyenas . Lions are quick to follow the calls of hyenas feeding , a fact demonstrated by field experiments , during which lions repeatedly approached whenever the tape @-@ recorded calls of hyenas feeding were played . When confronted on a kill by lions , spotted hyenas will either leave or wait patiently at a distance of 30 – 100 metres until the lions have finished eating . In some cases , spotted hyenas are bold enough to feed alongside lions , and may occasionally force lions off a kill . This mostly occurs during the nighttime , when hyenas are bolder . Spotted hyenas usually prevail against groups of lionesses unaccompanied by males if they outnumber them 4 : 1 . In some instances they were seen to have taken on and routed two pride males while outnumbering them 5 : 1 . The two species may act aggressively toward one another even when there is no food at stake . Lions may charge at hyenas and maul them for no apparent reason ; one male lion was filmed killing two hyenas on separate occasions without eating them , and lion predation can account for up to 71 % of hyena deaths in Etosha . Spotted hyenas have adapted to this pressure by frequently mobbing lions which enter their territories . Experiments on captive spotted hyenas revealed that specimens with no prior experience with lions act indifferently to the sight of them , but will react fearfully to the scent . Although cheetahs and leopards preferentially prey on smaller animals than those hunted by spotted hyenas , hyenas will steal their kills when the opportunity presents itself . Cheetahs are usually easily intimidated by hyenas , and put up little resistance , while leopards , particularly males , may stand up to hyenas . There are records of some male leopards preying on hyenas . Hyenas are nonetheless dangerous opponents for leopards ; there is at least one record of a young adult male leopard dying from a septicemia infection caused by wounds inflicted by a spotted hyena . There is also a case of two spotted hyenas killing and eating a young leopard in Timbavati Game Reserve , after a young hyena was killed by the leopard . Spotted hyenas will follow packs of African wild dogs in order to appropriate their kills . They will typically inspect areas where wild dogs have rested and eat any food remains they find . When approaching wild dogs at a kill , solitary hyenas will approach cautiously and attempt to take off with a piece of meat unnoticed , though they may be mobbed by the dogs in the attempt . When operating in groups , spotted hyenas are more successful in pirating dog kills , though the dog 's greater tendency to assist each other puts them at an advantage against spotted hyenas , who rarely work in unison . Cases of dogs scavenging from spotted hyenas are rare . Although wild dog packs can easily repel solitary hyenas , on the whole , the relationship between the two species is a one sided benefit for the hyenas , with wild dog densities being negatively correlated with high hyena populations . Spotted hyenas dominate other hyena species wherever their ranges overlap . Brown hyenas encounter spotted hyenas in the Kalahari , where the brown species outnumbers the spotted . The two species typically encounter each other on carcasses , which the larger spotted species usually appropriate . Sometimes , brown hyenas will stand their ground and raise their manes while emitting growls . This usually has the effect of seemingly confusing spotted hyenas , which will act bewildered , though they will occasionally attack and maul their smaller cousins . Similar interactions have been recorded between spotted and striped hyenas in the Serengeti . Black @-@ backed and side @-@ striped jackals , and African golden wolves will feed alongside hyenas , though they will be chased if they approach too closely . Spotted hyenas will sometimes follow jackals and wolves during the gazelle fawning season , as jackals and wolves are effective at tracking and catching young animals . Hyenas do not take to eating wolf flesh readily ; four hyenas were reported to take half an hour in eating a golden wolf . Overall , the two animals typically ignore each other when there is no food or young at stake . Spotted hyenas usually keep a safe distance from Nile crocodiles . Though they readily take to water to catch and store prey , hyenas will avoid crocodile infested waters . = = Communication = = = = = Body language = = = Spotted hyenas have a complex set of postures in communication . When afraid , the ears are folded flat , and are often combined with baring of the teeth and a flattening of the mane . When attacked by other hyenas or by wild dogs , the hyena lowers its hindquarters . Before and during an assertive attack , the head is held high with the ears cocked , mouth closed , mane erect and the hindquarters high . The tail usually hangs down when neutral , though it will change position according to the situation . When a high tendency to flee an attacker is apparent , the tail is curled below the belly . During an attack , or when excited , the tail is carried forward on the back . An erect tail does not always accompany a hostile encounter , as it has also been observed to occur when a harmless social interaction occurs . Although they do not wag their tails , spotted hyenas will flick their tails when approaching dominant animals or when there is a slight tendency to flee . When approaching a dominant animal , subordinate spotted hyenas will walk on the knees of their forelegs in submission . Greeting ceremonies among clan @-@ members consist of two individuals standing parallel to each other and facing opposite directions . Both individuals raise their hind legs and lick each other 's anogenital area . During these greeting ceremonies , the penis or pseudo @-@ penis often becomes erect , in both males and females . Erection is usually a sign of submission , rather than dominance , and is more common in males than in females . = = = Vocalisations = = = It is said that feasting Hyaenas engage in violent fights , and there is such a croaking , shrieking and laughing at such times that a superstitious person might really think all the inhabitants of the infernal regions had been let loose . The spotted hyena has an extensive vocal range , with sounds ranging from whoops , fast whoops , grunts , groans , lows , giggles , yells , growls , soft grunt @-@ laughs , loud grunt @-@ laughs , whines and soft squeals . The loud " who @-@ oop " call , along with the maniacal laughter , are among the most recognisable sounds of Africa . Typically , very high @-@ pitched calls indicate fear or submission , while loud , lower @-@ pitched calls express aggression . The pitch of the laugh indicates the hyena 's age , while variations in the frequency of notes used when hyenas make noises convey information about the animal 's social rank . Dr. Hans Kruuk compiled the following table on spotted hyena calls in 1972 ; = = Diseases and parasites = = Spotted hyenas may contract brucellosis , rinderpest and anaplasmosis . They are vulnerable to Trypanosoma congolense , which is contracted by consuming already infected herbivores , rather than through direct infection from tsetse flies . It is known that adult spotted hyenas in the Serengeti have antibodies against rabies , canine herpes , canine brucella , canine parvovirus , feline calici , leptospirosis , bovine brucella , rinderpest and anaplasmosis . During the canine distemper outbreak of 1993 – 94 , molecular studies indicated that the viruses isolated from hyenas and lions were more closely related to each other than to the closest canine distemper virus in dogs . Evidence of canine distemper in spotted hyenas has also been recorded in the Masai Mara . Exposure to rabies does not cause clinical symptoms or affect individual survival or longevity . Analyses of several hyena saliva samples showed that the species is unlikely to be a rabies vector , thus indicating that the species catches the disease from other animals rather than from intraspecifics . The microfilaria of Dipetalonema dracuneuloides have been recorded in spotted hyenas in northern Kenya . The species is known to carry at least three cestode species of the genus Taenia , none of which are harmful to humans . It also carries protozoan parasites of the genus Hepatozoon in the Serengeti , Kenya and South Africa . Spotted hyenas may act as hosts in the life @-@ cycles of various parasites which start life in herbivores ; Taenia hyaenae and T. olnogojinae occur in hyenas in their adult phase . Trichinella spiralis are found as cysts in hyena muscles . = = Range , habitat and population = = The spotted hyena 's distribution once ranged in Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to the Urals , where it remained for at least one million years . Remains have also been found in the Russian Far East , and it has been theorised that the presence of hyenas there may have delayed the colonisation of North America . The causes of the species ' extinction in Eurasia are still largely unknown . In Western Europe at least , the spotted hyena 's extinction coincided with a decline in grasslands 12 @,@ 500 years ago . Europe experienced a massive loss of lowland habitats favoured by spotted hyenas , and a corresponding increase in mixed woodlands . Spotted hyenas , under these circumstances , would have been outcompeted by wolves and humans which were as much at home in forests as in open lands , and in highlands as in lowlands . Spotted hyena populations began to shrink roughly 20 @,@ 000 years ago , completely disappearing from Western Europe between 14 – 11 @,@ 000 years ago , and earlier in some areas . Historically , the spotted hyena was widespread throughout Sub @-@ Saharan Africa . It is present in all habitats save for the most extreme desert conditions , tropical rainforests and the top of alpine mountains . Its current distribution is patchy in many places , especially in West Africa . Populations are concentrated in protected areas and surrounding land . There is a continuous distribution over large areas of Ethiopia , Kenya , Tanzania , Botswana , Namibia and the Transvaal Lowveld areas of South Africa . The species dwells in semi @-@ deserts , savannah , open woodland , dense dry woodland , and mountainous forests up to 4 @,@ 000 m in altitude . It is scarce or absent in tropical rainforests and coastal areas . Its preferred habitats in west Africa include the Guinea and Sudan savannahs , and is absent in the belt of dense coastal forest . In the Namib Desert , it occurs in riverine growth along seasonal rivers , the sub @-@ desertic pro @-@ Namib and the adjoining inland plateau . In ideal habitats , the spotted hyena outnumbers other large carnivores , including other hyena species . However , the striped and brown hyena occur at greater densities than the spotted species in desert and semi @-@ desert regions . Population densities based on systematic censuses vary substantially , from 0 @.@ 006 to 1 @.@ 7 individuals per km2 . = = Relationships with humans = = = = = Cultural depictions and perceptions = = = = = = = In prehistory = = = = The spotted hyena ( cave hyena subspecies ) is depicted in a few examples of Upper Palaeolithic rock art in France . A painting from the Chauvet Cave depicts a hyena outlined and represented in profile , with two legs , with its head and front part with well distinguishable spotted coloration pattern . Because of the specimen 's steeped profile , it is thought that the painting was originally meant to represent a cave bear , but was modified as a hyena . In Lascaux , a red and black rock painting of a hyena is present in the part of the cave known as the Diverticule axial , and is depicted in profile , with four limbs , showing an animal with a steep back . The body and the long neck have spots , including the flanks . An image on a cave in Ariège shows an incompletely outlined and deeply engraved figure , representing a part of an elongated neck , smoothly passing into part of the animal ’ s forelimb on the proximal side . Its head is in profile , with a possibly re @-@ engraved muzzle . The ear is typical of the spotted hyena , as it is rounded . An image in the Le Gabillou Cave in Dordogne shows a deeply engraved zoomorphic figure with a head in frontal view and an elongated neck with part of the forelimb in profile . It has large round eyes and short , rounded ears which are set far from each other . It has a broad , line @-@ like mouth that evokes a smile . Though originally thought to represent a composite or zoomorphic hybrid , it is probable it is a spotted hyena based on its broad muzzle and long neck . The relative scarcity of hyena depictions in Paleolithic rock art has been theorised to be due to the animal 's lower rank in the animal worship hierarchy ; the spotted hyena 's appearance was likely unappealing to Ice Age hunters , and it was not sought after as prey . Also , it was not a serious rival like the cave lion or cave bear , and it lacked the impressiveness of the mammoth or woolly rhino . = = = = In Africa = = = = In Africa , the spotted hyena is usually portrayed as an abnormal and ambivalent animal , considered to be sly , brutish , necrophagous and dangerous . It further embodies physical power , excessivity , ugliness , stupidity , as well as sacredness . Spotted hyenas vary in their folkloric and mythological depictions , depending on the ethnic group from which the tales originate . It is often difficult to know whether or not spotted hyenas are the specific hyena species featured in such stories , particularly in West Africa , as both spotted and striped hyenas are often given the same names . In west African tales , spotted hyenas symbolise immorality , dirty habits , the reversal of normal activities , and other negative traits , and are sometimes depicted as bad Muslims who challenge the local animism that exists among the Beng in Côte d ’ Ivoire . In East Africa , Tabwa mythology portrays the spotted hyena as a solar animal that first brought the sun to warm the cold earth . In the culture of the Mbugwe in Tanzania , the spotted hyena is linked to witchcraft . According to Mbugwe folklore , every witch possesses one or more hyenas , which are referred to as " night cattle " and are branded with an invisible mark . It is said that all hyenas are owned by witches , and that truly wild hyenas are non @-@ existent . Lactating female spotted hyenas are said to be milked by their owners every night to make hyena butter , and are further used as mounts . When a witch acquires a hyena mount , he rides it to distant lands in order to bewitch victims and return safely home before morning . The Mbugwe consider killing hyenas to be dangerous , as the bond between the hyena and its owner is very strong , and will likely result in the witch seeking retribution . In order to obviate this danger , a killed hyena usually has its ears , tail and front legs cut off and buried , as these are the parts which are supposed to be marked by the witches ' brand . In the Mtwara Region of Tanzania , it is believed that a child born at night while a hyena is crying will likely grow up to be a thief . In the same area , hyena faeces are believed to enable a child to walk at an early age , thus it is not uncommon in that area to see children with hyena dung wrapped in their clothes . The Kaguru of Tanzania and the Kujamaat of Southern Senegal view hyenas as inedible and greedy hermaphrodites . A mythical African tribe called the Bouda is reputed to house members able to transform into hyenas . A similar myth occurs in Mansôa , Guinea @-@ Bissau . These " werehyenas " are executed when discovered , but do not revert to their human form when killed . In Khoikhoi mythology , the spotted hyena is often the butt of the jackal 's tricks . Gogo folklore links the spotted hyena to the origin of death ; in one tale , the hyena prevents humanity from achieving immortality , thus ensuring it can continue to eat corpses . A similar tale is present among the Meru . In their narrative , the supreme god Murungu sent a mole to inform humanity that they would be reborn after death . Fearing this would deprive it of corpses to eat , the hyena prevents the mole from ever delivering the message . Madi and Nuer mythology links the spotted hyena to the separation between heaven and earth ; at one time , humanity kept in contact with the Creator in the sky via a cowhide rope , which was subsequently severed by a hungry hyena . The spotted hyena is a sacred totem animal for some Pedi tribes , with the skin often being used as robes by chieftains and their bones as divining instruments . According to the doctrine of the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church , hyenas are unclean animals which represent sexual deviancy and lawlessness . The Egyptian Saint abba ( Father ) Matewos of Asfoni was associated with hyenas ; one fable tells of how he rescued a cub trapped in a pit , and had his feet licked in gratitude by its mother . In Ethiopian folklore , an albino hyena called the " King of Hyenas " is ascribed great power . Some ethnic groups in Ethiopia associate themselves with hyenas ; the Gurage traditionally believe that their ancestors migrated from Arabia to Ethiopia using hyenas as mounts . In Dorze tradition , the highest Demuṣa @-@ priests have the ability to control hyenas , and will send them to punish defaulting debtors . Spotted hyenas feature prominently in the rituals of certain African cultures . In the Gelede cult of the Yoruba people of Benin and Southwest Nigeria , a spotted hyena mask is used at dawn to signal the end of the èfè ceremony . As the spotted hyena usually finishes the meals of other carnivores , the animal is associated with the conclusion of all things . Among the Korè cult of the Bambara people in Mali , the belief that spotted hyenas are hermaphrodites appears as an ideal in @-@ between in the ritual domain . The role of the spotted hyena mask in their rituals is often to turn the neophyte into a complete moral being by integrating his male principles with femininity . The Beng people believe that upon finding a freshly killed hyena with its anus inverted , one must plug it back in , for fear of being struck down with perpetual laughter . They also view spotted hyena faeces as contaminating , and will evacuate a village if a hyena relieves itself within village boundaries . In Harar , Ethiopia , spotted hyenas are regularly fed by the city 's inhabitants , who believe the hyenas ' presence keeps devils at bay , and associate mystical properties such as fortune telling to them . = = = = In Western culture = = = = Traditional Western beliefs about the spotted hyena can be traced back to Aristotle 's Historia Animalium , which described the species as a necrophagous , cowardly and potentially dangerous animal . He further described how the hyena uses retching noises to attract dogs . In On the Generation of Animals , Aristotle criticised the erroneous belief that the spotted hyena is a hermaphrodite ( which likely originated from the confusion caused by the masculinised genitalia of the female ) , though his physical descriptions are more consistent with the striped hyena . Pliny the Elder supported Aristotle 's depiction , though he further elaborated that the hyena can imitate human voices . Additionally , he wrote how the hyena was held in high regard among the Magi , and that hyena body parts could cure different diseases , give protection and stimulate sexual desire in people . The author of the Physiologus , who infused pagan tales with the spirit of Christian moral and mystical teaching , reactivated the myth that the hyena is a hermaphrodite . The author compared the species to " double @-@ minded men " who are neither " man nor woman , that is , neither faithful nor unfaithful " . He further states that " The sons of Israel are like this animal since in the beginning they served the living God but later , given over to pleasure and lust , they adored idols . " The bestiaries of the Middle Ages embraced the Physiologus 's descriptions , but further elaborated on the animal 's necrophagous habits . These bestiaries almost invariably depict hyenas feeding on human corpses . These illustrations were largely based on the descriptions given by Aristotle and Pliny , though the animals have no spots or other bodily markings , thus making it unlikely that the authors had ever seen hyenas first @-@ hand . During the 15th and 16th centuries , travellers to Africa provided further descriptions of the species . Leo Africanus repeated some of the old concepts on the hyena , with the addition of describing its legs and feet as similar to those of men . In 1551 , Swiss naturalist Conrad Gesner rejected the belief of the hyena 's hermaphroditism , and theorised that it originated from confusion over an androgynous fish bearing the same name . He adds three other animals within the category of hyenas , including an Ethiopian quadruped named " Crocotta " , which was thought to be a hybrid between a hyena and a lioness . Sir Thomas Browne also argued against the hyena 's supposed hermaphroditism , stating that all animals follow their own " Law of Coition " , and that a hermaphrodite would transgress this . Sir Walter Raleigh , in an attempt to rationalise how Noah 's Ark could have fitted all extant species of animal , wrote that hyenas were hybrids between foxes and wolves which originated after the Great Flood . References to the spotted hyena 's vocalisations are referenced in numerous contemporary examples of English literature , including Shakespeare 's As You Like It and George Chapman 's Eastward Ho . John Milton , in his Samson Agonistes , compares the species to Delila . Natural historians of the 18th and 19th centuries rejected stories of hermaphroditism in hyenas , and recognised the differences between the spotted and striped hyena . However , they continued to focus on the species ' scavenging habits , their potential to rob graves and their perceived cowardice . During the 20th century , Western and African stereotypes of the spotted hyena converged ; in both Ernest Hemingway 's Green Hills of Africa and Disney 's The Lion King , the traits of gluttony and comical stupidity , common in African depictions of hyenas , are added to the Western perception of hyenas being cowardly and ugly . After the release of The Lion King , hyena biologists protested against the animal 's portrayal : one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character , and another – who had organized the animators ' visit to the University of California 's Field Station for Behavioural Research , where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas – suggested boycotting the film . = = = Livestock predation = = = When targeting livestock , the spotted hyena primarily preys upon cattle , sheep and goats , though hyenas in the southern parts of Ethiopia 's Tigray region preferentially target donkeys . Reports of livestock damage are often not substantiated , and hyenas observed scavenging on a carcass may be mistaken for having killed the animal . The rate at which the species targets livestock may depend on a number of factors , including stock keeping practices , the availability of wild prey and human @-@ associated sources of organic material , such as rubbish . Surplus killing has been recorded in South Africa 's eastern Cape Province . Attacks on stock tend to be fewer in areas where livestock is coralled by thorn fences and where domestic dogs are present . One study in northern Kenya revealed that 90 % of all cases of livestock predation by hyenas occurred in areas outside the protection of thorn fences . = = = Attacks on humans and grave desecration = = = Like most mammalian predators , the spotted hyena is typically shy in the presence of humans , and has the highest flight distance ( up to 300 metres ) among African carnivores . However , this distance is reduced during the night , when hyenas are known to follow people closely . Although spotted hyenas do prey on humans in modern times , such incidences are rare . However , attacks on humans by spotted hyenas are likely to be underreported . Man @-@ eating spotted hyenas tend to be very large specimens ; a pair of man @-@ eating hyenas , responsible for killing 27 people in Mlanje , Malawi , in 1962 , were weighed at 72 and 77 kg ( 159 and 170 lb ) after being shot . Victims of spotted hyenas tend to be women , children and sick or infirm men , and there are numerous cases of biologists in Africa being forced up trees in order to escape them . Attacks occur most commonly in September , when many people sleep outdoors , and bush fires make the hunting of wild game difficult for hyenas . In 1903 , Hector Duff wrote of how spotted hyenas in the Mzimba district of Angoniland would wait at dawn outside people 's huts and attack them when they opened their doors . In 1908 – 09 in Uganda , spotted hyenas regularly killed sufferers of African sleeping sickness as they slept outside in camps . Spotted hyenas are widely feared in Malawi , where they have been known to occasionally attack people at night , particularly during the hot season when people sleep outside . Hyena attacks were widely reported in Malawi 's Phalombe plain , to the north of Michesi Mountain . Five deaths were recorded in 1956 , five in 1957 and six in 1958 . This pattern continued until 1961 when eight people were killed . During the 1960s , Flying Doctors received over two dozen cases of hyena attacks on humans in Kenya . An anecdotal 2004 news report from the World Wide Fund for Nature indicates that 35 people were killed by spotted hyenas during a 12 @-@ month period in Mozambique along a 20 km stretch of road near the Tanzanian border . Although attacks against living humans are rare , the spotted hyena readily feeds on human corpses . In the tradition of the Maasai and the Hadza , corpses are left in the open for spotted hyenas to eat . A corpse rejected by hyenas is seen as having something wrong with it , and liable to cause social disgrace , therefore it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox . In Ethiopia , hyenas were reported to feed extensively on the corpses of victims of the 1960 attempted coup and the Red Terror . Hyenas habituated to scavenging on human corpses may develop bold behaviours towards living people ; hyena attacks on people in southern Sudan increased during the Second Sudanese Civil War , when human corpses were readily available to them . = = = Urban hyenas = = = In some parts of Africa , spotted hyenas have begun to frequent metropolitan areas , where groups or " clans " of the animals have become a menace . The Ethiopian capital Addis Ababa is estimated to have up to a thousand resident hyenas which survive by scavenging rubbish tips and preying on feral dogs and cats . There have also been attacks on humans who are homeless . In 2013 a baby boy was killed by hyenas after being snatched from his mother as she camped near the Hilton Hotel . Some 40 of the animals were reportedly seen alongside a fence bordering the British Embassy compound . In December 2013 a cull was organised and marksmen killed ten hyenas which had occupied wasteland near the city centre . = = = Hunting and use in traditional medicine = = = The spotted hyena has been hunted for its body parts for use in traditional medicine , for amusement , and for sport , though this is rare , as the species is generally not considered attractive . There is fossil evidence of humans in Middle Pleistocene Europe butchering and presumably consuming spotted hyenas . Such incidences are rare in modern Africa , where most tribes , even those known to eat unusual kinds of meat , generally despise hyena flesh . Several authors during the Scramble for Africa attested that , despite its physical strength , the spotted hyena poses no danger to hunters when captured or cornered . It was often the case that native skinners refused to even touch hyena carcasses , though this was not usually a problem , as hyena skins were not considered attractive . In Burkina Faso , the hyena 's tail is used for medicinal and magical purposes . In Cameroon , Côte d 'Ivoire and Senegal , the animals ' whole body is harvested for bushmeat and medicine . In Malawi and Tanzania , the genitalia , nose tips and tails are used for traditional medicine . In Mozambique , traditional healers use various spotted hyena body parts , particularly the paws . Oromo hunters typically go through ritual purification after killing hyenas . Kujamaat hunters traditionally treat the spotted hyenas they kill with the same respect due to deceased tribal elders , in order to avoid retribution from hyena spirits acting on behalf of the dead animal . During the early years of Dutch colonisation in southern Africa , hyenas ( referred to as " wolves " by the colonists ) were especially susceptible to trapping , as their prediliction for carrion and lack of caution about enclosed spaces worked against them . A feature of many frontier farms was the wolwehok ( hyena trap ) , which was roughly constructed from stone or wood and baited with meat . The trap featured a trap @-@ door , which was designed to shut once the bait was disturbed . In the Cape Colony , spotted hyenas were often hunted by tracking them to their dens and shooting them as they escaped . Another hunting method was to trap them in their dens and dazzle them with torchlight , before stabbing them in the heart with a long knife . When chased by hunting dogs , spotted hyenas often attack back , unless the dogs are of exceptionally large , powerful breeds . James Stevenson @-@ Hamilton wrote that wounded spotted hyenas could be dangerous adversaries for hunting dogs , recording an incident in which a hyena managed to kill a dog with a single bite to the neck without breaking the skin . Further difficulties in killing spotted hyenas with dogs include the species ' thick skin , which prevents dogs from inflicting serious damage to the animal 's muscles . = = = Spotted hyenas in captivity and as pets = = = From a husbandry point of view , hyenas are easily kept , as they have few disease problems and it is not uncommon for captive hyenas to reach 15 – 20 years of age . Nevertheless , the spotted hyena was historically scantily represented in zoos , and was typically obtained in order to fill empty cages until a more prestigious species could be obtained . In subsequent years , animals considered to be more charismatic were allocated larger and better quality facilities , while hyenas were often relegated to inferior exhibits . In modern times , the species faces spatial competition from more popular animals , especially large canids . Also , many captive individuals have not been closely examined to confirm their sexes , thus resulting in non @-@ breeding pairs often turning out to be same @-@ sexed individuals . As a result , many captive hyena populations are facing extinction . During the 19th century , the species was frequently displayed in travelling circuses as oddities . Alfred Brehm wrote that the spotted hyena is harder to tame than the striped hyena , and that performing specimens in circuses were not up to standard . Sir John Barrow described how spotted hyenas in Sneeuberge were trained to hunt game , writing that they were " as faithful and diligent as any of the common domestic dogs " . In Tanzania , spotted hyena cubs may be taken from a communal den by witchdoctors , in order to increase their social status . An April 2004 BBC article described how a shepherd living in the small town of Qabri Bayah about 50 kilometres from Jigjiga , Ethiopia managed to use a male spotted hyena as a livestock guardian dog , suppressing its urge to leave and find a mate by feeding it special herbs . If not raised with adult members of their kind , captive spotted hyenas will exhibit scent marking behaviours much later in life than wild specimens . Although easily tamed , spotted hyenas are exceedingly difficult to house train , and can be very destructive ; a captive , otherwise perfectly tame , specimen in the Tower of London managed to tear an 8 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) long plank nailed to its recently repaired enclosure floor with no apparent effort . During the research leading to the composition of his monograph The Spotted Hyena : A Study of Predation and Social Behavior , Hans Kruuk kept a tame hyena he named Solomon . Kruuk found Solomon 's company so congenial , he would have kept him , but Solomon had an insatiable taste for " cheese in the bar of the tourist lounge and bacon off the Chief Park Warden 's breakfast table " , and no door could hold him back , so Solomon was obliged to live out his days in the Edinburgh Zoo . = Royal Stoa ( Jerusalem ) = The Royal Stoa ( Hebrew : הסטיו המלכותי , also known as the Royal Colonnade , Royal Portico , Royal Cloisters , Royal Basilica or Stoa Basileia ) was an ancient basilica constructed by Herod the Great during his renovation of the Temple Mount at the end of the 1st century BCE . Probably Herod 's most magnificent secular construction , the three @-@ aisled structure was described by Josephus as deserving " to be mentioned better than any other under the sun . " A center of public and commercial activity , the Royal Stoa was the likely location of Jesus ' Cleansing of the Temple . The Royal Stoa overlooked Jerusalem 's residential and commercial quarters , and at its southwestern corner was the place from which a ram 's horn was blown to announce the start of holy days . The Royal Stoa was destroyed by the Roman army during the sack of Jerusalem in 70 CE . Its site on the Temple Mount esplanade is currently inaccessible to archaeologists . However , artifacts from the Stoa have been recovered both from excavations at the foot of the platform and in secondary use in later constructions . This evidence has confirmed details given in the accounts of the historian Josephus , and has also allowed comparison of the Royal Stoa 's decoration with that used in other , contemporaneous monumental buildings . = = History = = = = = Construction = = = Herod 's reconstruction of the Second Temple was one of his principal building projects . Construction began during the last quarter of the 1st century BCE . It was both a monumental architectural feat and an important political achievement . Herod invested a great deal of effort in the expansion of the Temple platform , especially at its southern side where the Temple Mount descends into the Tyropoeon and Kidron valleys . This expansion along the southern edge of the esplanade served as a base upon which the Royal Stoa was erected . The building was basilical in form , but open on one side , which led it to being described as a portico , a stoa or cloisters in various sources . It was likely Herod 's most magnificent secular edifice . The historian Josephus praised the Royal Stoa as " more worthy of mention than any other [ structure ] under the sun " , and described the building in detail : This cloister had pillars that stood in four rows one over against the other all along , for the fourth row was interwoven into the wall , which [ also was built of stone ] ; and the thickness of each pillar was such , that three men might , with their arms extended , fathom it round , and join their hands again , while its length was 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , with a double spiral at its basis ; and the number of all the pillars [ in that court ] was a hundred and sixty @-@ two . Their chapiters were made with sculptures after the Corinthian order [ ... ] These four rows of pillars included three intervals for walking in the middle of this cloister ; two of which walks were made parallel to each other , and were contrived after the same manner ; the breadth of each of them was 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , the length was 1 furlong ( 200 m ; 660 ft ) , and the height 50 feet ( 15 m ) ; but the breadth of the middle part of the cloister was one and a half of the other , and the height was double , for it was much higher than those on each side ; but the roofs were adorned with deep sculptures in wood , representing many sorts of figures . The middle was much higher than the rest , and the wall of the front was adorned with beams , resting upon pillars , that were interwoven into it , and that front was all of polished stone ... A basilica with four rows of columns running lengthwise , each made of 40 columns , the Royal Stoa thus contained three parallel halls , with a central 13 @.@ 5 metres ( 44 ft ) wide hall and two flanking 9 metres ( 30 ft ) wide halls . Each column was approximately 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) in diameter and , according to Josephus , 9 metres ( 30 ft ) tall , though classical proportions would have had it at roughly 17 metres ( 56 ft ) . The central hall was twice as tall as the aisles , probably nearly 33 metres ( 108 ft ) tall . Israeli archaeologist Ehud Netzer estimates the Royal Stoa was roughly 33 metres ( 108 ft ) wide and 240 metres ( 790 ft ) long , though Josephus gives its length as a stade ( approximately 600 ft ) . The central aisle had a higher ceiling than the side @-@ aisles . Light was provided by clerestory windows in the upper part of the central hall . It is also possible that an apse stood at the eastern wall of the Stoa . Josephus describes the columns as Corinthian in style and Corinthian capitals have indeed been found in excavations along the mount 's southern wall , as well as reused in later Roman , Byzantine and Islamic structures . The ceilings were ornamented with deeply cut wood @-@ carvings while other parts of the interior were apparently covered with stucco . The southernmost row of columns was incorporated into the southern wall of the Temple mount , while the northern side opened onto the plaza in the middle of which stood the Temple . From the outside , the southern wall was distinguished from the retaining wall of the platform by a series of pilasters running along the length of the superstructure . The main entry to the Stoa from the city was via a monumental staircase which led up from the Tyropoeon Valley and then across Robinson 's Arch , passing over the street and shops below . The Royal Stoa was built upon the artificially raised portion of the Temple Mount platform . Arches underneath supported the columns of the Stoa , and provided service areas for the structures above . The Huldah Gates at the bottom of the southern wall led through corridors beneath the Stoa , rising to the Temple plaza , and served as the main entrance to the Temple compound for worshipers . Additional passages led to storage areas , and possibly provided secondary access to the Stoa and the Temple beyond . An arched overpass on the eastern side of the Temple Mount led to a gate which opened into the so @-@ called Solomon 's Stables just beneath the eastern end of the Stoa . It is widely assumed that at least part of this area was used as a storage area in conjunction with business conducted in the Stoa . The expansion of the Temple Mount platform and the erection of the Royal Stoa required Herod 's engineers to overcome the difficult topographic conditions . It was thus necessary to build 35 metres ( 115 ft ) tall foundations above the slope of the Tyropoeon valley and equivalent 40 metres ( 130 ft ) tall foundations above the Kidron . The great effort invested in the construction of the Royal Stoa is a testimony of its immense importance to Herod and his status on the Temple Mount . Unlike his predecessors , the Hasmonean kings who had also served as High Priests , Herod was not of the priestly caste and was therefore unable to participate in priestly rituals . A client king appointed by the Romans , lacking legitimacy and unpopular with his subjects , Herod had initiated the Temple reconstruction to win favour among the Jews , but was forbidden from even entering the inner sanctum of his crowning achievement . It was thus the monumental Royal Stoa which gave Herod his rightful status on the Mount , a showcase of his majesty and grandeur . = = = Purpose = = = Every major Roman city had a basilica which was used for banking , law courts , and other commercial transactions . In Jerusalem , the Royal Stoa was the center of this activity . In the forty years prior to the Great Revolt it served as the seat of the Sanhedrin , Judaism 's supreme judicial court , which was moved from the Chamber of Stone to the " Shop " ( Chanuyot in the Talmud ) , referring to the commercial activities conducted in the Stoa . A fragment of a monumental inscription found near the eastern Huldah gates below the Stoa refers to the Zeqenim ( elders ) and may indicate the Sanhedrin 's meeting place near the gates or in the Stoa above . This center of commercial activity within sight of the Temple was considered irreverent to many devout Jews . It was also a site of commerce related to the Temple ritual , where sacrificial doves could be bought and coins bearing prohibited images could be exchanged . It is therefore a likely location for Jesus ' confrontation with the dove sellers and money changers which is related in chapter 21 of the Gospel of Matthew . Special coinage was used for sacred contributions and other purposes . The Israel Antiquities Authority 's numismatist Donald T. Ariel has proposed that the Royal Stoa as the site for a mint , run by the priesthood . During the Great Revolt against Rome , this may have been the site where silver shekels were produced . The stoa 's convenient proximity to the Temple 's silver stores and the area 's use for other commercial purposes argue for identification of the stoa as the location of minting operations . Other " Revolt " coinage was in base metal , and these may have been struck elsewhere in Jerusalem . Above the basilica , either on a parapet or tower , was a place from which a trumpet or ram 's horn would be blown to signal the start of the Sabbath and holy days . On the pavement below the southwest corner of the Royal Stoa complex , a piece of stone coping was excavated which bears a dedicatory inscription which reads " to the Place of Trumpeting " . This location overlooked most of Jerusalem 's neighborhoods , and the recovery of the inscription confirms that the southwest corner is the site where the trumpeting took place . = = = Destruction = = = And now the Romans , judging that it was in vain to spare what was round about the holy house , burnt all those places , as also the remains of the cloisters and the gates , two excepted ; the one on the east side , and the other on the south ; both which , however , they burnt afterward ... The soldiers also came to the rest of the cloisters that were in the outer [ court of the ] temple , whither the women and children , and a great mixed multitude of the people , fled , in number about six thousand . But before Caesar had determined any thing about these people , or given the commanders any orders relating to them , the soldiers were in such a rage , that they set that cloister on fire ; by which means it came to pass that some of these were destroyed by throwing themselves down headlong , and some were burnt in the cloisters themselves . Nor did any one of them escape with his life . The Great Revolt and the subsequent sacking of Jerusalem in 70 CE brought about the destruction of Herod 's Temple , including the Royal Stoa , by members of the Roman X Fretensis , XII Fulminata , XV Apollinaris and V Macedonica legions under the command of emperor Vespasian 's son Titus . It is likely that the stoa was modified during the initial phases of the revolt when the Temple Mount was fortified , first by Simon Bar Giora and then by John of Gischala . The main entry at Robinson 's Arch was destroyed and towers built . Excavated remains of the Stoa provide evidence of its demise in a great fire . Chemical analysis of the remains has shown that some of the materials underwent transformations requiring a minimum temperature of 800 K ( 980 ° F ) — a result of sustained , high @-@ temperature burning consistent with Josephus 's account of destruction in a large conflagration . Some remains also contain the mineral apatite , a component of bone , though its origins , human or animal , are unknown . = = Temple Mount excavations = = The site of the Royal Stoa is currently occupied by the Al @-@ Aqsa Mosque , Islam 's third @-@ holiest shrine , and is therefore unavailable for archaeological exploration . Between 1968 and 1978 , however , professor Benjamin Mazar of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem carried out excavations at the foot of the southern wall . These uncovered over 400 architectural fragments in the destruction debris below the site of the Stoa , some of which were incorporated in secondary use in later Byzantine and Ummayad construction . Despite their fragmentary nature , these provide some of the largest and richest Second @-@ Temple era assemblages ever found , a testament to the splendor described by Josephus . Finds include Corinthian capitals , Doric friezes and modillion cornices . The motifs featured on the fragments found occasionally match patterns witnessed in other Second @-@ Temple era public buildings unearthed in the region , while others reflect unique architectural characteristics . These include floral motifs , rosettes , cable patterns similar to finds in the Hauran region of southern Syria and acanthus leaves featured in Roman architecture . In 1999 , the Muslim Wakf authority controlling the Islamic structures atop the Temple Mount began illegally excavating large amounts of fill from the former site of the Royal Stoa in order to construct a new access to the newly established ( or , as the Waqf would put it , restored and expanded ) Marwani Mosque . Material dug from the site was dumped in the Kidron Valley , so that all the important information which could have been acquired through proper excavation of the material in its archaeological context has been lost forever . Trying to save what could still be saved , an operation to sift through the debris was started by Zachi Zweig and Gabriel Barkay . The ongoing Temple Mount Sifting Project has resulted in the recovery of many architectural fragments from the Second Temple buildings as well as remnants from all other historical periods since the First Temple Period . = Dark Horse ( George Harrison album ) = Dark Horse is the fifth studio album by English musician George Harrison , released on Apple Records in December 1974 as the follow @-@ up to Living in the Material World . Although keenly anticipated on release , Dark Horse is associated with the controversial North American tour that Harrison staged with co @-@ headliner Ravi Shankar in November and December that year . This was the first US tour by a member of the Beatles since 1966 , and the public 's nostalgia for the band , together with Harrison contracting laryngitis during rehearsals and choosing to feature Shankar so heavily in the program , resulted in scathing concert reviews from some influential music critics . The Dark Horse album was written and recorded during an extended period of upheaval in Harrison 's personal life , when he dedicated much of his energies to business issues such as setting up Dark Horse Records . Author Simon Leng refers to the album as " a musical soap opera , cataloguing rock @-@ life antics , marital strife , lost friendships , and self @-@ doubt " , due to its focus on Harrison 's split with first wife Pattie Boyd and his temporary withdrawal from the spiritual certainties of his previous work . The album features an array of guest musicians – including Tom Scott , Billy Preston , Willie Weeks , Andy Newmark , Jim Keltner , Ringo Starr , Gary Wright and Ron Wood – and produced two hit singles , " Dark Horse " and " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " . It showed Harrison moving towards the funk and soul musical genres . The album was not well received by the majority of critics at the time . Dark Horse was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America within days of release , but it became Harrison 's first solo album not to chart in Britain . The cover was designed by Tom Wilkes and consists of a school photograph from Harrison 's time at the Liverpool Institute superimposed onto a Himalayan landscape . The album was reissued in remastered form on 22 September 2014 , as part of the Apple Years 1968 – 75 Harrison box set . = = Background and content = = George Harrison 's third studio album since the Beatles ' break @-@ up came at the end of " a bad domestic year " , as he describes it in his 1980 autobiography . From the middle of 1973 , with his marriage to Pattie Boyd all but over , Harrison had immersed himself in his work , particularly on developing the acts he would eventually sign to his new record label , Dark Horse Records − Ravi Shankar and a hitherto unknown group called Splinter . Business issues related to the Beatles ' company Apple Corps were also coming to a head during 1973 – 74 , as Harrison , John Lennon and Ringo Starr launched legal proceedings against Allen Klein , their former manager and ally against Paul McCartney ( who had served the original lawsuit in December 1970 seeking to dissolve the band 's partnership ) . The simultaneous winding down of Apple Corps ' subsidiaries left a number of music and film projects in jeopardy , which resulted in Harrison having to make regular trips to Los Angeles in order to find a distributor for the Shankar Family & Friends album , most of which was recorded in California in April 1973 , and Splinter 's debut , The Place I Love . Another venture that was affected was the movie Little Malcolm , an Apple Films project for which Harrison was executive producer and working to seal a distribution deal in Europe . Compounding the pressure during what Harrison himself would refer to as " the naughty period , 1973 – 74 " , he was drinking heavily and had returned to his drug @-@ taking ways of the 1960s . Some of Harrison 's biographers suggest that this abandoning of the " semi @-@ ascetic " path espoused on his 1973 album Living in the Material World was Harrison 's reaction to the media 's sniping , particularly in Britain , at the pious content of that album , as well as a reflection of Harrison 's despondency over the failure of his first marriage . These two issues informed the lyrics to a new Harrison song , " Dark Horse " . Friend and confidant Klaus Voormann has described this time as an obvious " step back " on Harrison 's spiritual journey , while Boyd would later write : " That whole period was insane . Friar Park was a madhouse . Our lives were fuelled by alcohol and cocaine , and so it was with everyone who came into our sphere ... George used cocaine excessively and I think it changed him . " Harrison addressed this behaviour in " Simply Shady " and laid out his feelings on the couple 's inevitable split in " So Sad " . Wounded by Harrison 's frequent infidelities , Boyd left him for Eric Clapton in July 1974 , having previously had an affair with another of her husband 's guitar @-@ playing friends , Ron Wood of the Faces . Both of these dalliances would also receive attention on the Dark Horse album , which Harrison 's musical biographer , Simon Leng , has described as " a musical soap opera , cataloguing rock @-@ life antics , marital strife , lost friendships , and self @-@ doubt " . In his rewrite of the Everly Brothers ' " Bye Bye , Love " , Harrison declared : " There goes our lady , with a @-@ you @-@ know @-@ who / I hope she 's happy , old Clapper too " ; while his handwritten liner notes listed one of the guest musicians on " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " as " Ron Would If You Let Him " . For his part , Harrison had taken up with Starr 's wife , Maureen Starkey , and the UK tabloids soon reported him as being romantically involved with model Kathy Simmons ( ex @-@ girlfriend of Rod Stewart ) as well as Krissy Wood ( wife of the Faces guitar player ) . Shortly before Dark Horse 's release , Harrison would dodge reporters ' questions regarding his private life with a suggestion that people wait for the new album , saying , " It 's like Peyton Place . " Adultery was the subject matter of Harrison 's non @-@ album B @-@ side from this period , " I Don 't Care Anymore " , and his musical association with Ron Wood led to the song " Far East Man " . This co @-@ composition was first recorded for Wood 's debut solo album , I 've Got My Own Album to Do , and when released on Dark Horse , it marked the first foray into soul music within Harrison 's solo work . Of more profound consequence , and the inspiration behind the Hindu bhajan " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " , was his trip to India , in January and February 1974 . In Benares , Harrison forged a plan with longtime mentor Shankar to sponsor an Indian classical @-@ music concert tour later in the year , featuring as many as eighteen musicians and an unprecedented ( in the West ) range of traditional Indian instruments . An album would be recorded just beforehand , at Harrison 's home studio at Friar Park , in Oxfordshire . Ravi Shankar 's Music Festival from India was the realisation of a long @-@ held dream for the ex @-@ Beatle , but , as with his dedication to Splinter 's The Place I Love , the project would impact on the quality of his own album . By May , Harrison had agreed distribution terms with A & M Records and was therefore able to formally launch Dark Horse Records , although he would remain contracted to Apple as a solo artist , like the other Beatles , until January 1976 . After announcing the staging of the Music Festival from India in September 1974 , Harrison also confirmed that he planned to tour North America , together with Ravi Shankar 's ensemble , during November and December . Despite his stated aversion to performing live , Harrison would be the first of his former band @-@ mates to undertake a tour of Beatle @-@ hungry America ; the expectations that this created , together with his role as a hands @-@ on record company boss , meant that the pressure on Harrison was immense . = = Production = = = = = November 1973 backing tracks = = = Recording for Dark Horse began in November 1973 , midway through the extended sessions for The Place I Love , at Harrison 's 16 @-@ track home studio , FPSHOT ( short for Friar Park Studios , Henley @-@ on @-@ Thames ) . As on Living in the Material World , Harrison produced the sessions himself and Phil McDonald again served as recording engineer . Using the same line @-@ up of musicians as on Material World – Ringo Starr , Jim Keltner , Klaus Voormann , and Gary Wright and Nicky Hopkins alternating on keyboards – Harrison taped basic tracks for his hoped @-@ for Christmas / New Year " classic " , " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , an early version of " Dark Horse " , and " So Sad " . Harrison had originally given the latter song to near @-@ neighbour Alvin Lee to record , in August , and had guested on the session along with Ron Wood . Harrison , Lee and Wood all subsequently added lead @-@ guitar parts to " Ding Dong " , in the first of Harrison 's attempts to build up the song 's layers of instrumentation , and so re @-@ create his former collaborator Phil Spector 's celebrated Wall of Sound . This overdubbing session took place sometime after Harrison 's return from India in early March 1974 , judging by the pre @-@ overdubbed version of " Ding Dong " that Harrison included on a tape for David Geffen shortly before leaving . " So Sad " would similarly receive a significant amount of overdubbing , creating a " harrowing encounter " , as Harrison stated his " great despair " at the end of his relationship with Boyd . = = = April 1974 with the L.A. Express = = = Simon Leng observes an uncharacteristic spontaneity in Harrison 's work ethic on Dark Horse , now that his home and recording base were one and the same . The discipline of working to a schedule " flew out the ornate windows " , Leng writes , along with his usual painstaking approach to recording . After catching Joni Mitchell 's concert at the New Victoria Theatre in London , in April 1974 , Harrison was much impressed with her jazz @-@ rock backing band , the L.A. Express , led by saxophonist and flautist Tom Scott , and invited them to Friar Park the following day . The ensemble – Harrison , Scott , Robben Ford ( guitar ) , Roger Kellaway ( keyboards ) , Max Bennett ( bass ) and John Guerin ( drums ) – recorded an instrumental track that later became the opening number on the Harrison – Shankar tour , " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " . " Simply Shady " , which Harrison had written while in Bombay , was taped later the same day . Having formed a rapport with Harrison after they had worked together on Shankar Family & Friends the year before , Scott stayed on at Friar Park and overdubbed various horn parts onto " Ding Dong " and the two new tracks . Scott later told journalist Michael Gross that he was the first Western musician that Harrison approached to join him on the upcoming tour . Harrison dedicated the next few months to matters relating to Dark Horse Records , his former band 's business affairs , and Little Malcolm . Although the film was tied up in the Beatles ' " divorce " , as director Stuart Cooper later said of Little Malcolm , it was entered at the Berlin Film Festival in June and won the Silver Bear award . In August , Harrison holidayed in Spain with Kathy Simmons before returning to England at the end of the month for publicity work with Splinter . = = = August – September 1974 at Friar Park = = = Harrison resumed recording for his album in late August , working through to early September with four musicians who had signed on for the upcoming tour : old friend Billy Preston on keyboards ; Scott , who would serve as band leader on the tour ; and the rhythm section of Andy Newmark and Willie Weeks , both of whom Harrison had met while working on Ron Wood 's album in July . Harrison taped " Māya Love " , " Far East Man " and " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " with this all @-@ American group of musicians . They also recorded a song called " His Name Is Legs " , which Harrison decided to hold back until 1975 's Extra Texture album . Around this time , Shankar arrived in London with his handpicked orchestra of Indian classical musicians – an " outstanding " group , writes author Peter Lavezzoli , that included Hariprasad Chaurasia , Shivkumar Sharma , Alla Rakha , T.V. Gopalkrishnan , L. Subramaniam , Sultan Khan and Lakshmi Shankar . According to Shankar 's later recollection , rehearsals for the Music Festival from India concerts and the recording of their eponymous studio album took place simultaneously at Friar Park , over a period of three weeks , with Harrison as producer . On 23 September , Harrison introduced Shankar on stage at London 's Royal Albert Hall for the Indian orchestra 's debut performance , before accompanying them on a short tour of Europe . At this point , Harrison still had the bulk of his album to complete , and rehearsals for his tour were due to begin in Los Angeles in early October . When Harrison arrived in LA , he was apparently already hoarse , but since it would have been " music business heresy " to tour without a new album to promote , he was obligated to complete the recording during rehearsals . = = = October 1974 in Los Angeles = = = Using A & M Studios in Hollywood as his base for the next three weeks , Harrison rehearsed on a sound stage with his tour band , which , along with Scott , Preston , Weeks and Newmark , included L.A. Express guitarist Robben Ford , Harrison 's Concert for Bangladesh horn players Jim Horn and Chuck Findley , and jazz percussionist Emil Richards . Harrison 's drummer of choice , Jim Keltner , also participated , but he would not join the tour until late in November . Aside from the Harrison material , selections by Preston and Scott were also rehearsed for their spots in the show , since , as at the Bangladesh benefits in 1971 , Harrison was keen for other artists to have their moment centre @-@ stage . In a fusion of musical cultures , Harrison , Scott and Richards rehearsed with Shankar 's orchestra for some of the Indian @-@ music pieces , and all the musicians , Western and Indian , came together for the Shankar Family & Friends tracks " I Am Missing You " and " Dispute & Violence " . Outside of the daytime rehearsals , Harrison finished off the songs hastily recorded in England , and mixed the album . Horn and Findley overdubbed flutes , and Richards wobble board onto " It Is ' He ' " . Eight Arms to Hold You authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter suggest that much of the vocals on Dark Horse were taped at this point – a situation that resulted in Harrison overworking and then blowing his voice in the middle of the tour rehearsals . He was diagnosed with laryngitis . According to Scott , Harrison recorded " Bye Bye , Love " alone one night at A & M , adding a variety of instruments to his acoustic guitar track , including Moog synthesizer , drums , electric pianos and various electric @-@ guitar parts . " I Don 't Care Anymore " is another solo track that was most likely recorded in Los Angeles . Although he had intended to finish the version of " Dark Horse " taped at Friar Park with Voormann and Starr , Harrison decided to re @-@ record the song with the tour band , live , on the sound stage at A & M Studios . The session took place on either 30 or 31 October , with Norm Kinney as engineer . Leng writes of this performance of " Dark Horse " : " Anyone wondering what Harrison 's voice sounded like on the Dark Horse Tour need look no further : this track was cut only days before the first date in Vancouver . Although the band sounded good , his voice was in shreds ... " Later , Harrison would admit he was " knackered " by the time he arrived in Los Angeles , having simply taken on too much over the previous year . He also claimed that his business manager , Denis O 'Brien , had to force him out of the studio , to ensure he caught the plane for the opening show of the tour , on 2 November . = = Album artwork = = The Tom Wilkes @-@ designed front cover of Dark Horse features a 1956 Liverpool Institute high @-@ school photograph presented inside a lotus flower , behind which a dream @-@ like Himalayan landscape extends to the horizon , where the " deathless Yogi of the Ancient of Days " , Shiv @-@ Goraksha Babaji , sits . While some observers have seen pointed similarities with the Beatles ' iconic Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band cover image , Harrison 's choice of artwork reflected his enduring admiration for Terry Gilliam 's animation on Monty Python 's Flying Circus . In the photo , a thirteen @-@ year @-@ old Harrison is pictured in the centre of the top row , his face tinted blue ; school teachers appear dressed in long @-@ sleeve tops bearing a superimposed record @-@ company logo or Om symbol . Wilkes and Harrison disagreed over the size of the Babaji image , which the designer apparently disliked and wanted to reduce in size . Inside the gatefold cover , around the edges of a tinted photo of Harrison and comedian Peter Sellers walking beside a Friar Park lake , text asks the " Wanderer through this Garden 's ways " to " Be kindly " and refrain from casting " Revengeful stones " if " perchance an Imperfection thou hast found " , the reason being : " The Gardener toiled to make his Garden fair , Most for thy Pleasure . " A speech balloon over the photograph contains the words " Well , Leo ! What say we promenade through the park ? " This line was taken from the Mel Brooks movie The Producers , a favourite of Sellers and Harrison . On the back cover , Harrison is pictured sitting on a garden bench , the back timbers of which are apparently carved with his name and that of the album . Similar to Harrison 's attire in the outdoor scenes of the " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " video clip , Leng refers to his appearance here as resembling the Jethro Tull character " Aqualung " . Terry Doran 's photo , given the same orange hue as the one inside the gatefold , was also used on some European picture sleeves for the " Ding Dong " and " Dark Horse " singles around this time . Dark Horse 's inner sleeve notes were all the work of Harrison himself , written on a plane at the start of the tour . Along with the first Harrison @-@ album credit for FPSHOT , and the now @-@ familiar " All glories to Sri Krsna " dedication , his purple pen records various in @-@ jokes while listing the many contributing musicians . As well as the confusing inclusion of Boyd and Clapton 's names ( leading to the assumption that they had actually contributed to the track ) , the song title " Bye Bye , Love " is juxtaposed with the words " Hello Los Angeles " , while " OHLIVERE " would appear to be a reference to Harrison 's new lover and future wife , Dark Horse Records secretary Olivia Arias . The latter is also included among the title track 's musician credits – her contribution being " Trinidad Blissed Out " . Under " Ding Dong " , aside from the appearance of " Ron Would If You Let Him " on guitar , Friar Park 's original owner , Sir Frank Crisp , is credited for providing " Spirit " . Arias 's face , in a photo taken by tour photographer Henry Grossman , appeared on the record 's side @-@ two face label , while a corresponding picture of Harrison appeared on side one . = = Release = = Rather than introducing Harrison 's audience to his new , jazz @-@ funk sound , Dark Horse was released two @-@ thirds of the way through a tour that had alienated some of rock music 's most influential critics , notably Ben Fong @-@ Torres of Rolling Stone magazine . Fong @-@ Torres ' radio piece for the Rolling Stone News Service was broadcast across America early in the tour and cemented what has become the " given " view , according to Leng , that the Harrison – Shankar tour was a failure . The majority of critics – or those " without axes to grind " , author Robert Rodriguez writes – reviewed the concerts favourably . Band members Scott , Keltner , Weeks , Horn , Newmark and Richards have each identified " the Dark Horse Tour " as a career highpoint , while some commentators note the groundbreaking nature of the music as a precursor to the world music genre . The negative press Harrison received stemmed from his decision to feature Indian music so heavily in the concert program , and the fact that he was forced to sing with a voice " reduced to a raspy croak " , but most crucially , from his refusal to pander to the Beatles legacy . The 1960s classics " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , " Something " and " In My Life " were all performed throughout the tour , but with lyrics altered to fit Harrison 's personal spiritual transformation – or his failed marriage in the case of the guitarist 's most famous Beatles @-@ era tune , " Something " . Following the release of " Dark Horse " as a lead single , in mid November , the album was issued on 9 December 1974 in the United States ( as Apple SMAS 3418 ) . In Britain , the single was " Ding Dong " , and Dark Horse was delayed until 20 December ( with Apple catalogue number PAS 10008 ) . The UK release coincided with the final show of the tour , at Madison Square Garden in New York , and came the day after Harrison and Paul McCartney had signed legal papers dissolving the Beatles partnership , at the Plaza Hotel . Dark Horse sold well in America initially , earning a gold disc for advance orders and climbing to number 4 on the Billboard 200 , but its chart stay was a relatively brief seventeen weeks . In Canada , it peaked at number 42 at the start of February 1975 before quickly falling out of the RPM Top 100 . Dark Horse failed to place on the UK 's Top 50 Albums Chart . This was not only a poor result for a former Beatle – although Starr 's Beaucoups of Blues had similarly not charted in 1970 – but a dramatic turnaround in Harrison 's commercial fortunes , after his three previous solo releases ( including The Concert for Bangladesh live album ) had all made number 1 or 2 in Britain . = = = Reissue = = = Dark Horse was released on CD in January 1992 . The album was remastered again and reissued in September 2014 , as part of the Harrison box set The Apple Years 1968 – 75 . As bonus tracks , the reissue includes a previously unreleased demo of " Dark Horse " and the long @-@ unavailable " I Don 't Care Anymore " . Author Kevin Howlett supplied a liner note essay in the CD booklet , while the DVD exclusive to the box set contains Harrison 's promotional video for " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and Capitol 's 1974 television ad for the album . = = Critical reception = = = = = Contemporary reviews = = = Dark Horse received some of the most negative reviews of any release by a Beatle up to that point and the worst of Harrison 's career . Released amid the furore surrounding his refusal to play " Beatle George " during a tour that was a " whirlwind of pent @-@ up Beatlemania " , in Leng 's words , it was as if Harrison had already committed " acts of heresy " . Rather than having his new work judged on its own merits , it was " open season " on Harrison ; another biographer , Elliot Huntley , has written of the " tsunami of bile " unleashed on the ex @-@ Beatle in late 1974 . Under the heading " Transcendental Mediocrity " , Jim Miller of Rolling Stone called Dark Horse a " disastrous album " to match the " disastrous tour " , and a " shoddy piece of work " . According to Miller , the musicians were " merely competent studio pros " and Harrison 's guitar playing was " rudimentary " . In contrast with the praise that the same publication had lavished on Harrison for Living in the Material World the year before , Rolling Stone 's reviewer described Dark Horse as a " chronicle of a performer out of his element , working to a deadline , enfeebling his overtaxed talents by a rush to deliver new ' LP product ' " , and stated : " In plain point of fact , George Harrison has never been a great artist ... the question becomes whether he will ever again become a competent entertainer . " The NME 's Bob Woffinden derided Harrison 's songwriting , production and vocals , particularly on two tracks dealing with his troubled personal life , " Simply Shady " and " So Sad " . Woffinden concluded : " I find Dark Horse the product of a complete egoist – no one , you see , is in my tree – someone whose universe is confined to himself . And his guru ... I 'll repeat that this album is totally colourless . Just stuff and nonsense . " Writing in The Village Voice in January 1975 , Robert Christgau bemoaned the album 's " transubstantiations " and particularly derided the lyrics to " Māya Love " , " in which ' window @-@ pane ' becomes ' window brain . ' Can this mean that pain ( pane , get it ? ) is the same as brain ? For all this hoarse dork knows ... " There were a number of positive reviews for Dark Horse , with Billboard magazine deeming it a " Spotlight " release . The reviewer described the album as " an excellent one " and compared it favourably with Harrison 's acclaimed 1970 triple set , All Things Must Pass . Brian Harrigan of Melody Maker credited Harrison with establishing " a new category in music – Country and Eastern " and lauded his " nifty " slide @-@ guitar playing and " tremendous " singing . Although he found some of the tracks overlong , Harrigan declared : " Yep , the Sacred Cowboy has produced a good one . " Combined with his feature on the tour in Circus Raves , in which he questioned the accuracy of the negative reports about the Harrison – Shankar concerts , Michael Gross described Dark Horse as matching All Things Must Pass in quality , and " surpassing " it at times , thanks to the new album 's " clarity of production and lovely songs " . Gross highlighted " So Sad " as a " luxurious track " and described " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " , " Dark Horse " and " Far East Man " as " all , simply , good songs " . Taken as a metaphor for the album itself , the plea for tolerance inside the LP sleeve – " Be kindly Wanderer through this Garden 's ways … " – was ridiculed at the time by some critics . In the 1978 edition of their book The Beatles : An Illustrated Record , Roy Carr and Tony Tyler termed these lines of verse " a self @-@ pitying slab of sub @-@ Desiderata " , while Woffinden described the album cover as " ghastly " . Carr and Tyler conceded that the playing on Dark Horse was " impeccable " , but opined that Harrison 's lyrics were " sanctimonious , repetitive , vituperative and self @-@ satisfied " ; as for the album as a whole : " One wishes it had not come from an ex @-@ Beatle . " Writing in his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner found some justification in reviewers ' sniping at the " shoddy performance " and " preachy , humorless message " on Dark Horse . Schaffner singled out " Bye Bye , Love " and " Ding Dong " for derision , but praised the title track and Harrison 's guitar work on " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " and " So Sad " , with the latter making for " delectable listening " . Like a number of Beatles authors and biographers , Schaffner found that neither the album nor the tour deserved the level of abuse it received in some sections of the press . " It was George 's turn anyway " , Schaffner reflected , " to be inflicted with the poison @-@ pen treatment that the critics had earlier accorded Paul and John . Knocking idols off their pedestals makes for excellent copy . " = = = Retrospective reviews and legacy = = = Having previously championed Harrison 's work since 1970 , Rolling Stone would not change its unfavourable verdict on Dark Horse over the ensuing decades , and Harrison never completely forgave the magazine for the treatment he received during this period . In 2002 , writing in the Rolling Stone Press book Harrison shortly after his death , Greg Kot approved of Dark Horse 's " jazzier backdrops " compared with Material World , but opined that Harrison 's voice turned much of the album into an " unintentionally comic exercise " . In the same publication , Mikal Gilmore identified Dark Horse as " one of Harrison 's most fascinating works – a record about change and loss " . Alan Clayson similarly writes of the interest factor of " a non @-@ Beatle , as well as an ex @-@ Beatle in uncertain transition " , and while classing the album as " an artistic faux pas " , describes " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " as " wonderful " and " startling " . Richard Ginell of AllMusic highlights " Dark Horse " and the " exquisite " Harrison – Wood composition " Far East Man " . Leng , the first author to write purely on Harrison 's career rather than on his standing as a musical celebrity , considers Dark Horse to be a " remarkably revealing album " and writes : " Any voyeur who wanted to know the intimate details of his personal life didn 't need to buy National Enquirer , they just needed to hear this disc . " While bemoaning the state of Harrison 's voice and the " sonic patchwork " nature of the set , Leng notes that both " So Sad " and " Far East Man " were received positively when first released on albums by Alvin Lee & Mylon LeFevre and Ron Wood , respectively . The difference in winter 1974 – 75 , Leng continues , was that , by championing Ravi Shankar 's Indian music segments during the tour and neglecting his duties as an ex @-@ Beatle in America , Harrison had " committed the cardinal counterculture sin – he had rejected ' rock ' n ' roll ' " . Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years reissue , for Uncut magazine , Richard Williams dismisses Dark Horse as an album that " only a devoted Apple Scruff could love " , while Joe Marchese of The Second Disc describes it as " Harrison 's earthiest work to date " , containing " many stellar moments " . Blogcritics ' Chaz Lipp comments on the album 's " world @-@ weariness " yet similarly finds " a lot of rewarding listening here " , with " Bye Bye , Love " , " Far East Man " , " It Is ' He ' " and " Dark Horse " among the highlights . Scott Elingburg of PopMatters opines : " What makes Dark Horse so unique is that , aside from All Things Must Pass , Dark Horse sounds and feels like Harrison is playing music like he has nothing to lose and all the world to gain . " In his review of the Apple Years box set , for Classic Rock magazine , Paul Trynka writes that " The surprise of this set , though , is the albums whose quietness and introspection were out of tune with the mid @-@ 70s . Dark Horse … [ is ] packed with beautiful , small @-@ scale moments . " While identifying " Simply Shady " and the title track among the standouts , Trynka adds : " Only ' Ding Dong , Ding Dong ' embarrasses … " AllMusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine describes Dark Horse as " a mess but … a fascinating one " . = = Track listing = = All songs by George Harrison , except where noted . Side one " Hari 's on Tour ( Express ) " – 4 : 43 " Simply Shady " – 4 : 38 " So Sad " – 5 : 00 " Bye Bye , Love " ( Felice Bryant , Boudleaux Bryant , Harrison ) – 4 : 08 " Māya Love " – 4 : 24 Side two " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " – 3 : 40 " Dark Horse " – 3 : 54 " Far East Man " ( Harrison , Ron Wood ) – 5 : 52 " It Is ' He ' ( Jai Sri Krishna ) " – 4 : 50 2014 reissue bonus tracks " I Don 't Care Anymore " – 2 : 44 " Dark Horse ( Early Take ) " – 4 : 25 = = Personnel = = George Harrison – vocals ( 2 – 9 ) , electric and acoustic guitars ( 1 – 9 ) , Moog synthesizer ( 4 , 9 ) , clavinet ( 3 , 4 ) , organ (	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
ar Paul I making him a Commander of the Order of St John . In 1801 in the Mediterranean , under the command of Admiral Lord Keith , Kent carried Sir Ralph Abercromby and his headquarters for the invasion of Egypt , a successful campaign which forced the surrender of the French occupying force . Hope was not present for the conclusion of the action , returning to Britain with Admiral Duncan after Sir Richard Bickerton raised his flag on Kent . He was awarded the Order of the Crescent by Emperor Selim III for this service . In 1800 , Hope began his second career , gaining the seat of Dumfries Burghs in the House of Commons through family influence . During his time as MP , Hope rarely visited his constituency and equally rarely appeared in parliament . He lost the constituency to his brother in 1802 , but in 1804 was elected to the seat of Dumfriesshire , again through family connections . He retained this post until his retirement from public life in 1830 . = = Retirement = = In 1804 , at the end of the Peace of Amiens , Hope briefly took command of HMS Atlas , but it soon became clear that his health was failing and he could no longer maintain an active naval career . Retiring from the navy on half @-@ pay , Hope was an invalid from 1804 until 1807 , when a return to health permitted him to take a post as a Lord of the Admiralty . Hope changed positions several times in this role , but he held onto the position for twenty years as a political favourite , a status maintained by being almost totally politically inactive . In 1812 , Hope was advanced to rear @-@ admiral and in January 1815 he was appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) on the reorganisation of the order , and was invested later in the year . From 1813 , Hope served as commander @-@ in @-@ chief at Leith until 1818 and in 1819 he was again promoted , this time to vice @-@ admiral . In 1820 he was recalled to the Admiralty and remained there for seven years without participating in any of the important decisions and innovations of the period . He remarried in 1821 to Maria , Countess of Athlone and in 1825 was advanced to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ( GCB ) . In 1827 , in the chaotic aftermath of the collapse of Lord Liverpool 's government , Hope was retired in favour of Sir George Cockburn and given the favourable role of treasurer and later commissioner of the Royal Naval Hospital in Greenwich . Despite his conflicts with Prince William 45 years earlier , when King William IV ascended the throne in 1830 , he made Hope a privy councillor , before Hope entered retirement later in the year . Hope died in May 1831 , a few months after giving up his seat in Parliament . Although he died in Bath , his remains were returned to the family crypt at Johnstone Church , Johnstone , Dumfriesshire . = Battle of Beaufort = The Battle of Beaufort , also known as the Battle of Port Royal Island , was fought on February 3 , 1779 , near Beaufort , South Carolina , during the American Revolutionary War . The inconsequential battle took place not long after British forces consolidated control around Savannah , Georgia , which they had captured in December 1778 . Brigadier General Augustine Prevost sent 200 British regulars to seize Port Royal Island at the mouth of the Broad River in South Carolina in late January 1779 . Major General Benjamin Lincoln , the American commander in the south , sent South Carolina Brigadier General William Moultrie from Purrysburg , South Carolina with a mixed force composed mainly of militia , but with a few Continental Army men , to meet the British advance . The battle was inconclusive , but the British withdrew first and suffered heavier casualties than the Americans . = = Background = = The British began their " southern strategy " by sending expeditions from New York City and Saint Augustine , East Florida to capture Savannah , Georgia late in 1778 . The New York expedition , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Archibald Campbell , arrived first , and successfully captured the town on December 29 , 1778 . Remnants of Savannah 's defenders combined with South Carolina militia under Major General Benjamin Lincoln at an encampment at Purrysburg , South Carolina to oppose the British . When Brigadier General Augustine Prevost arrived from Saint Augustine in mid @-@ January 1779 , he assumed command of the garrison there , and on the 22nd sent a force under Campbell to take control of Augusta and raise Loyalist militia companies . Prevost decided thereafter to send a force to occupy Port Royal Island just up the coast in South Carolina , where he had been led to believe that Loyalist sentiment was strong . On January 29 the HMS Vigilant , an unseaworthy ship of the line that had been converted to a floating battery , was towed by Royal Navy crews in longboats through the channel separating Hilton Head Island from the mainland . She was accompanied by a flotilla of smaller ships that carried 200 infantry from the 16th and 60th Regiments under Major William Gardner , who had orders to take control of Beaufort , the island 's main settlement . The only major defense establishment on Port Royal Island was Fort Lyttelton , which was garrisoned by a company of Continental Army troops under Captain John DeTreville . When he learned that a comparatively large British force was moving in his direction , he spiked the fort 's cannons and blew up its main bastion in order to deny their use to the superior force . When General Lincoln learned that communications with Port Royal Island had been cut off by the British advance , he sent South Carolina Brigadier General William Moultrie , who had distinguished himself in the 1776 Battle of Sullivan 's Island , and 300 men to counter the move . Moultrie 's force was composed mostly of South Carolina militia from the Beaufort area , but it was accompanied by a few Continental Army regulars , and two companies of artillery from Charleston , which were headed by former Congressmen Edward Rutledge and Thomas Heyward , Jr . This force arrived at the main Port Royal ferry on the 31st , not long after DeTreville had finished destroying the fort . They crossed over to the island on February 1 and occupied Beaufort . = = Battle = = Gardner 's men landed on Port Royal Island at the plantation of Andrew Deveaux ( present @-@ day Laurel Bay ) , a Loyalist who may have guided them , on February 2 . Gardner sent a detachment to secure the island side of the ferry . These men retreated when they encountered Patriot troops , and Gardner began to move his main force toward Beaufort to face the Americans . Early on February 3 General Moultrie was alerted to the British presence , and moved his forces out of town . The two forces met near the highest ground on Port Royal Island , a rise called Gray 's Hill that was about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of the ferry and in the middle of the island . Gardner lined his men up at the edge of some woods near the top of the hill and advanced with bayonets fixed . The Americans approached and lined up in an open field outside musket range . General Moultrie positioned two six @-@ pound field cannons in the center of his line , with a smaller two @-@ pounder on the right . The Americans then advanced on the British , Moultrie observing that the action was " reversed from the usual way of fighting between British and Americans ; they taking the bushes and we taking the open ground . " The Americans opened fire first with the artillery , and then with musket volleys . The battle continued for about 45 minutes , at which point the Americans were running low on ammunition . Moultrie had begun a withdrawal when the British were also observed to retreat , leaving the field to the Americans . A company of light horse militia chased after the British , very nearly cutting them off from their boats . They successfully captured 26 men , but were unable to hold all of them due to their small numbers . = = Aftermath = = In addition to the prisoners taken ( sources cite either seven or twelve were retained ) , the British reportedly suffered 40 killed or wounded , although deserters reported that nearly half of Gardner 's men had been hit by American fire . The Americans , in contrast , suffered only 8 killed and 22 wounded . Gardner was criticized by Prevost for the mauling his detachment received because he strayed too far from his boats . It was not Gardner 's fault , however , that he had no Loyalist support . The victory of a largely militia force over British regulars was a boost to the Americans ' morale . However , severe losses incurred in early March at Brier Creek delayed American plans to move against Prevost 's forces in Georgia . When Lincoln began moving troops toward Augusta in April , Prevost moved in force toward Charleston , but was able to do little more than briefly blockade the city before retreating back to Savannah . Port Royal Island was again occupied by the British during this campaign . The battle is commemorated by a highway marker on U. S. Route 21 near the battle site . Fort Lyttelton 's remains are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . = Battle of Kranji = The Battle of Kranji was the second stage of the Empire of Japan 's plan for the invasion of Singapore during the Second World War . On 9 February 1942 the Imperial Japanese Army assaulted the north @-@ western front of the British colony of Singapore . Their primary objective was to secure a second beachhead after their successful assault at Sarimbun Beach on 8 February , in order to breach the Jurong @-@ Kranji defence line as part of their southward thrust towards the heart of Singapore City . Defending the shoreline between the Kranji River and the Johor – Singapore Causeway was the Australian 27th Brigade , led by Brigadier Duncan Maxwell , and one irregular company . On 10 February the Japanese forces suffered their heaviest losses while moving up the Kranji River , which caused them to panic and nearly aborted the operation . However , a series of miscommunications and withdrawals by Allied forces in the ensuing battles allowed the Japanese to swiftly gain strategic footholds , which eventually led to the fall of Singapore on 15 February 1942 . = = Background = = The terrain around Kranji was primarily mangrove swamps and tropical forest intersected by streams and inlets . The shoreline between the Kranji River and the Johor – Singapore Causeway , nearly four kilometers long , was defended by the Australian 27th Brigade , led by Australian Brigadier Duncan Maxwell . The 27th Infantry Brigade consisted of three battalions — the 2 / 30th , 2 / 29th , and 2 / 26th and was supported by the 2 / 10th Field Artillery Regiment , as well as one platoon from the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion . They were supported by one company from Dalforce ( named after its commander , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel John Dalley of the Malayan Police Special Branch ) , a local Chinese militia consisting of Communists , Nationalist supporters , and other volunteers . As the war intensified , the Dalforce volunteers were given only three to four days of training and sent to the war front with elementary weapons . Lacking uniforms , the volunteers improvised by wearing a red triangle on their blue shirts to avoid being mistaken for Japanese by the Australians . The Allied forces at Kranji were to be assaulted by the Imperial Guards Division led by Major General Takuma Nishimura . 400 Imperial Guards had landed and taken Pulau Ubin , an island in the north @-@ east of Singapore , in a feint attack on 7 February , where they encountered minimal resistance . = = Battle = = = = = 9 February 1942 : Japanese landings = = = On 9 February , two divisions of the Japanese Twenty Fifth Army , led by Lieutenant General Tomoyuki Yamashita , landed on the northwestern coast of Singapore , in the Sarimbun area . Yamashita 's headquarters ( HQ ) was in the Sultan of Johor 's palace on Istana Bukit Serene , which offered him and his officers a bird 's eye view of virtually every key target in the northern sector of Singapore Island , only 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( one mile ) across the Straits of Johor . Sultan Ibrahim 's palace was not fired upon by the British because any damage caused would have extensive repercussions for British @-@ Johor ties . The primary objective of the Japanese at Kranji was to capture Kranji village ; this would let them repair the demolished Causeway in order to facilitate easy flow of reinforcements and supplies down the roads of Woodlands and Mandai , and to the rest of the island for their vanguard force . Once the leading wave of Japanese was safely ashore , the massed Japanese artillery switched their fire to the defensive positions at Kranji . Telegraph and telephone communications were destroyed in the bombardment and communications between the front line and command HQ were broken . At 8 : 30pm that night , the men of the Imperial Guards Division began the crossing from Johor in special armoured landing @-@ crafts , collapsible boats and by swimming . = = = 10 February 1942 : Heavy losses = = = In the early hours of 10 February , Japanese forces suffered their heaviest losses during the Battle of Singapore . While moving up the Kranji River , advance landing parties from the 4th Regiment of the Imperial Guard Division found themselves under heavy fire from Australian machine gunners and mortar teams . They also found themselves surrounded by oil slicks , which had been created by Allied personnel emptying the nearby Woodlands oil depot , to prevent its capture . A scenario feared by Yamashita came to pass by accident ; the oil was set alight by Allied small arms fire , causing many Japanese soldiers to be burnt alive . Sustaining heavy losses , Nishimura requested permission to abandon the operation . However , Yamashita denied the request . Maxwell , who had limited communications with his division headquarters , was concerned that his force would be cut off by fierce and chaotic fighting at Sarimbun and Jurong to the south west , involving the Australian 22nd Brigade . Maxwell 's force consequently withdrew from the seafront . This allowed the Japanese to land in increasing strength and take control of Kranji village . They also captured Woodlands , and began repairing the causeway , without encountering any Allied attacks . Japanese light tanks , which had good buoyancy , were towed across the straits to Lim Chu Kang Road where they joined the battle at dusk . With reinforced troops and tanks advancing down Choa Chua Kang Road , the Australian troops were no match for the tanks and fled to the hills of Bukit Panjang . The 5th Division ( Imperial Japanese Army ) captured Bukit Timah village by the evening of 11 February . = = = = Jurong @-@ Kranji defence line = = = = Lieutenant @-@ General Arthur Percival , General Officer Commanding of HQ Malaya Command , drew a defence perimeter covering Kallang Airfield , the MacRitchie and Peirce reservoirs and the Bukit Timah supply depot area to ensure the integrity of the city 's defence . One line of the north @-@ western defence perimeter was the Jurong @-@ Kranji defence line , a narrow ridge connecting the sources of Sungei Jurong and the Kranji River , forming a natural defence line protecting the north @-@ west approach to the Singapore Town . ( Its counterpart was the Serangoon Line , which was sited between Kallang Airfield and Paya Lebar village in the eastern part of Singapore ) . The troops were to defend this Line strongly against the invading Japanese force . The Line was defended by the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade which covered milestone 12 on Jurong Road , the 12th Indian Infantry Brigade and the reinforced 22nd Australian Brigade which guarded the northern part of the Line and maintained contact with the 44th Indian Brigade . The 15th Indian Infantry Brigade was re @-@ positioned near Bukit Timah Road to guard the island 's vital food and petrol supplies . A secret instruction to protect this area was issued to Percival 's generals . = = = = Miscommunication = = = = Percival 's secret orders to withdraw to the last defence line around the city only if necessary were misunderstood by Maxwell , who took this to be an order for an immediate withdrawal to the Line . As a result , the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade , the 12th Indian Infantry Brigade and the 22nd Australian Brigade , reinforced after their withdrawal from Sarimbun beach in the north @-@ west , abandoned the Line on 10 February . Fearing that the large supplies depot would fall into Japanese hands should they make a rush for Bukit Timah too soon , General Archibald Wavell , Allied commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Far East sent an urgent message to Percival : It is certain that our troops in Singapore Island heavily outnumber any Japanese who have crossed the Straits . We must destroy them . Our whole fighting reputation is at stake and the honour of the British Empire . The Americans have held out in the Bataan Peninsula against a far heavier odds , the Russians are turning back the picked strength of the Germans . The Chinese with an almost lack of modern equipment have held the Japanese for four and a half years . It will be disgraceful if we yield our boasted fortress of Singapore to inferior enemy forces . = = Aftermath = = By 11 February , the Jurong @-@ Kranji Defence Line was left undefended which allowed the Japanese forces to sweep through the Line to attack Bukit Timah . On the same day , Percival finally moved his Combined Operations Headquarters in Sime Road to the underground bunker , The Battle Box at Fort Canning . Despite their fighting spirit , the Dalforce fighters suffered from poor training and the lack of equipment . A further blow was delivered when the 27th Australian Brigade withdrew southwards . As a result , the Japanese established a stronghold in the northern Woodlands area and secured a relatively easy passage into the island . General Wavell left Singapore for Java early on 11 February and sent a cable to British Prime Minister Winston Churchill in London on his assessment of the war front in Singapore : Battle for Singapore is not going well ... I ordered Percival to stage counter @-@ attack with all troops possible ... Morale of some troops is not good and none is as high as I should like to see ... The chief troubles are lack of sufficient training in some reinforcing troops and an inferior complex which bold Japanese tactics and their command of the air have caused . Everything possible is being done to produce more offensive spirit and optimistic outlook . But I cannot pretend that these efforts have been entirely successful up to date . I have given the most categorical orders that there is to be no thought of surrender and that all troops are to continue fighting to the end ... By 12 February , the Imperial Guards had captured the reservoirs and Nee Soon village . The defending troops , by this time , were badly shaken . Thousands of exhausted and frightened stragglers left the fighting to seek shelter in large buildings . On the same night , British forces in the east of the island had begun to withdraw towards the city . On 13 February , the Japanese 5th Division continued its advance and reached Adam and Farrer Roads to capture the Sime Road Camp . Yamashita moved his HQ forward to the bomb @-@ damaged Ford Factory in Bukit Timah . Heading southwards , the Japanese 18th Division advanced into Pasir Panjang , where the last major battle of Singapore would be fought with the Malay Regiments at Bukit Chandu . = = = Commemoration = = = In 1995 , the former battle sites of Kranji and the defence line were gazetted by the National Heritage Board as two of the eleven World War II sites of Singapore . = M @-@ 96 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 96 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that runs between Kalamazoo and Marshall . Its termini are both on business loops of Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) ; the eastern one coincides with an intersection with I @-@ 69 . Between Kalamazoo and Marshall it passes through Comstock , Galesburg , Augusta , and Battle Creek intersecting I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 in Battle Creek and I @-@ 94 in Emmett Township . The highway now known as M @-@ 96 was originally part of M @-@ 17 . Parts of M @-@ 17 that were not used for US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) in 1926 were given the M @-@ 96 number . Additional segments of trunkline were added to M @-@ 96 , one of which was an Alternate US 12 in the years afterwards . Later , US 12 was moved after the completion of I @-@ 94 in southern Michigan . Additional US 12 segments were added to M @-@ 96 at that time . The last major changes to M @-@ 96 rerouted the highway through the Battle Creek area in late 1998 . = = Route description = = M @-@ 96 starts at an intersection between King Highway and Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) east of downtown Kalamazoo . From this point , it follows King Highway over and then along the Kalamazoo River through a suburban residential area . The highway then follows Michigan Avenue east through Comstock and north of Morrow Lake . At Galesburg , M @-@ 96 turns northeast along Augusta Drive to Augusta , running through rural farmland . It turns eastward again , skirting the Fort Custer State Recreation Area and the Fort Custer National Cemetery . In Augusta , M @-@ 96 turns to follow Dickman Road to Battle Creek , passing north and east of the W. K. Kellogg Airport on Dickman and Helmer roads . On the north side of the airport , M @-@ 96 runs concurrently with both BL I @-@ 94 and M @-@ 37 . M @-@ 96 turns south on Helmer Road , separating from the other two trunklines , and then turns east crossing along Columbia Avenue . Here the highway runs along the edge of the city of Battle Creek through more residential areas and crosses the I @-@ 194 / M @-@ 66 freeway next to the Riverside County Club . Near Brownlee Park , M @-@ 96 ( Columbia Avenue ) merges with BL I @-@ 94 ( Michigan Avenue ) . Together BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 96 continues along Michigan Avenue to I @-@ 94 where BL I @-@ 94 ends . M @-@ 96 passes the Firekeepers Casino , which is located just east of the ending of BL I @-@ 94 , between 11 and 12 Mile Roads . M @-@ 96 continues along Michigan Avenue through farmland from Emmett to Marshall ending at an interchange with I @-@ 69 / BL I @-@ 94 . M @-@ 96 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 96 were the 22 @,@ 953 vehicles daily between Capitol Avenue and I @-@ 194 in Battle Creek ; the lowest counts were the 5 @,@ 167 vehicles per day at the western terminus in Kalamazoo . The only section of M @-@ 96 that has been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) , is in the Battle Creek area between the western BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 37 junction and the I @-@ 94 interchange . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = M @-@ 96 was formed as a state trunkline in late 1926 from parts of M @-@ 17 . The section of M @-@ 17 between Galesberg and Battle Creek was not utilized for US 12 and became M @-@ 96 . In 1936 , the Alternate US 12 trunkline was designated through the Battle Creek area along a section of highway that had previously been part of US 12 . This highway was added to M @-@ 96 three years later in 1939 . A rerouting of trunklines in 1941 lead to the creation of a Business US 12 ( BUS US 12 ) . M @-@ 96 ran concurrently with BUS US 12 and M @-@ 37 was truncated to end at M @-@ 96 . US 12 was rerouted between Galesburg and Kalamazoo in 1954 , and M @-@ 96 was extended along the former US 12 routing to end in Kalamazoo . M @-@ 96 was rerouted in downtown Battle Creek to one @-@ way streets in 1958 , and BUS US 12 / M @-@ 96 was extended by the end of the decade when the I @-@ 94 / US 12 freeway was completed in the area . BUS US 12 was redesignated as Business Loop I @-@ 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) in 1960 and M @-@ 96 was shortened to end at BL I @-@ 94 / M @-@ 78 running on Capital Avenue . M @-@ 37 was reextended in 1961 in Battle Creek to a concurrent routing with M @-@ 96 in 1961 . M @-@ 89 was extended along the roadway used by M @-@ 96 west of Battle Creek to M @-@ 37 in 1965 , truncating M @-@ 96 in the process . M @-@ 96 was reextended back to Battle Creek along Dickman Road and Fort Custer Highway from Augusta east in 1971 . Several changes in Battle Creek were made to the area trunklines in 1998 . M @-@ 96 was extended along BL I @-@ 94 ( Dickman Road ) to M @-@ 37 ( Helmer Road ) and along M @-@ 37 to Columbia Avenue . At Columbia , M @-@ 96 then turned west and M @-@ 37 turned east . M @-@ 96 rejoined BL I @-@ 94 along Michigan Avenue to I @-@ 94 and on to Marshall . = = Major intersections = = = Andrew Cunningham , 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope = Admiral of the Fleet Andrew Browne Cunningham , 1st Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope , KT , GCB , OM , DSO & Two Bars ( 7 January 1883 – 12 June 1963 ) was a British admiral of the Second World War . He was widely known by his nickname , " ABC " . Cunningham was born in Rathmines in the south side of Dublin on 7 January 1883 . After starting his schooling in Dublin and Edinburgh , he enrolled at Stubbington House School , at the age of ten , beginning his association with the Royal Navy . After passing out of Britannia Royal Naval College , Dartmouth , in 1898 , he progressed rapidly in rank . He commanded a destroyer during the First World War and through most of the interwar period . He was awarded the Distinguished Service Order and two Bars , for his performance during this time , specifically for his actions in the Dardanelles and in the Baltics . In the Second World War , as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean Fleet , Cunningham led British naval forces to victory in several critical Mediterranean naval battles . These included the attack on Taranto in 1940 , the first completely all @-@ aircraft naval attack in history , and the Battle of Cape Matapan in 1941 . Cunningham controlled the defence of the Mediterranean supply lines through Alexandria , Gibraltar , and the key chokepoint of Malta . He also directed naval support for the various major Allied landings in the Western Mediterranean littoral . In 1943 , Cunningham was promoted to First Sea Lord , a position he held until his retirement in 1946 . He was ennobled as Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope in 1945 and made Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope the following year . After his retirement , Cunningham enjoyed several ceremonial positions including Lord High Steward at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in 1953 . He died on 12 June 1963 , aged 80 . = = Childhood = = Cunningham was born at Rathmines , County Dublin , on 7 January 1883 , the third of five children born to Professor Daniel John Cunningham and his wife Elizabeth Cumming Browne , both of Scottish ancestry . General Sir Alan Cunningham was his younger brother . His parents were described as having a " strong intellectual and clerical tradition , " both grandfathers having been in the clergy . His father was a Professor of Anatomy at Trinity College , Dublin , whilst his mother stayed at home . Elizabeth Browne , with the aid of servants and governesses , oversaw much of his upbringing ; as a result he reportedly had a " warm and close " relationship with her . After a short introduction to schooling in Dublin he was sent to Edinburgh Academy , where he stayed with his aunts Doodles and Connie May . At the age of ten he received a telegram from his father asking " would you like to go into the Navy ? " At the time , the family had no maritime connections , and Cunningham only had a vague interest in the sea . Nevertheless , he replied " Yes , I should like to be an Admiral " . He was then sent to a Naval Preparatory School , Stubbington House , which specialised in sending pupils through the Dartmouth entrance examinations . Cunningham passed the exams , showing particular strength in mathematics . = = Early naval career = = Along with 64 other boys Cunningham joined the Royal Navy as a cadet aboard the training ship HMS Britannia in 1897 following preparatory education at Stubbington House School . One of his classmates was future Admiral of the Fleet James Fownes Somerville . Cunningham was known for his lack of enthusiasm for field sports , although he did enjoy golf and spent most of his spare time " messing around in boats " . He said in his memoirs that by the end of his course he was " anxious to seek adventure at sea " . Although he committed numerous minor misdemeanours , he still obtained a very good for conduct . He passed out tenth in April 1898 , with first class marks for mathematics and seamanship . His first service was as a midshipman on HMS Doris in 1899 , serving at the Cape of Good Hope Station when the Second Boer War began . By February 1900 , he had transferred into the Naval Brigade as he believed " this promised opportunities for bravery and distinction in action . " Cunningham then saw action at Pretoria and Diamond Hill as part of the Naval Brigade . He then went back to sea , as midshipman in HMS Hannibal in December 1901 . The following November he joined the protected cruiser HMS Diadem . Beginning in 1902 , Cunningham took sub @-@ lieutenant courses at Portsmouth and Greenwich ; he served as sub @-@ lieutenant on the battleship HMS Implacable , in the Mediterranean , for six months in 1903 . In September 1903 , he was transferred to HMS Locust to serve as second @-@ in @-@ command . He was promoted to lieutenant in 1904 , and served on several vessels during the next four years . In 1908 , he was awarded his first command , HM Torpedo Boat No. 14 . = = First World War = = Cunningham was a highly decorated officer during the First World War , receiving the Distinguished Service Order ( DSO ) and two bars . In 1911 he was given command of the destroyer HMS Scorpion , which he commanded throughout the war . In 1914 , Scorpion was involved in the shadowing of the German battlecruiser and cruiser SMS Goeben and SMS Breslau . This operation was intended to find and destroy the Goeben and the Breslau but the German warships evaded the British fleet , and passed through the Dardanelles to reach Constantinople . Their arrival contributed to the Ottoman Empire joining the Central Powers in November 1914 . Though a bloodless " battle " , the failure of the British pursuit had enormous political and military ramifications — in the words of Winston Churchill , they brought " more slaughter , more misery and more ruin than has ever before been borne within the compass of a ship . " Cunningham stayed on in the Mediterranean and in 1915 Scorpion was involved in the attack on the Dardanelles . For his performance Cunningham was rewarded with promotion to commander and the award of the Distinguished Service Order . Cunningham spent much of 1916 on routine patrols . In late 1916 , he was engaged in convoy protection , a duty he regarded as mundane . He had no contact with German U @-@ boats during this time , on which he commented ; " The immunity of my convoys was probably due to sheer luck " . Convinced that the Mediterranean held few offensive possibilities he requested to sail for home . Scorpion paid off on 21 January 1918 . In his seven years as captain of the Scorpion , Cunningham had developed a reputation for first class seamanship . He was transferred by Vice @-@ Admiral Roger Keyes to HMS Termagant , part of Keyes ' Dover Patrol , in April 1918 @.@ and for his actions with the Dover Patrol , he was awarded a bar to his DSO the following year . = = Interwar years = = = = = Association with Cowan = = = Cunningham saw much action in the interwar years . In 1919 , he commanded the S @-@ class destroyer Seafire , on duty in the Baltic . The Communists , the White Russians , several varieties of Latvian nationalists , Germans , and the Poles were trying to control Latvia ; the British Government had recognised Latvia 's independence after the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk . It was on this voyage that Cunningham first met Admiral Walter Cowan . Cunningham was impressed by Cowan 's methods , specifically his navigation of the potentially dangerous seas , with thick fog and minefields threatening the fleet . Throughout several potentially problematic encounters with German forces trying to undermine the Latvian independence movement , Cunningham exhibited " good self control and judgement " . Cowan was quoted as saying " Commander Cunningham has on one occasion after another acted with unfailing promptitude and decision , and has proved himself an Officer of exceptional valour and unerring resolution . " For his actions in the Baltic , Cunningham was awarded a second bar to his DSO , and promoted to captain in 1920 . On his return from the Baltic in 1922 , he was appointed captain of the British 6th Destroyer Flotilla . Further commands were to follow ; the British 1st Destroyer Flotilla in 1923 , and the destroyer base , HMS Lochinvar , at Port Edgar in the Firth of Forth , from 1927 – 1926 . Cunningham renewed his association with Vice Admiral Cowan between 1926 and 1928 , when Cunningham was flag captain and chief staff officer to Cowan while serving on the North America and West Indies Squadron . In his memoirs Cunningham made clear the " high regard " in which he held Cowan , and the many lessons he learned from him during their two periods of service together . The late 1920s found Cunningham back in the UK participating in courses at the Army 's Senior Officers ' School at Sheerness , as well as at the Imperial Defence College . While Cunningham was at the Imperial Defence College , in 1929 , he married Nona Byatt ( daughter of Horace Byatt , MA ; the couple had no children ) . After a year at the College , Cunningham was given command of his first big ship ; the battleship Rodney . Eighteen months later , he was appointed commodore of HMS Pembroke , the Royal Naval barracks at Chatham . = = = Promoted to flag rank = = = In September 1932 , Cunningham was promoted to flag rank , and aide @-@ de @-@ camp to the King . He was appointed Rear Admiral ( Destroyers ) in the Mediterranean in December 1933 and was made a Companion of the Bath in 1934 . Having hoisted his flag in the light cruiser HMS Coventry , Cunningham used his time to practice fleet handling for which he was to receive much praise in the Second World War . There were also fleet exercises in the Atlantic Ocean in which he learnt the skills and values of night actions that he would also use to great effect in years to come . On his promotion to vice admiral in July 1936 , due to the interwar naval policy , further active employment seemed remote . However , a year later due to the illness of Sir Geoffrey Blake , Cunningham assumed the combined appointment of commander of the Battlecruiser Squadron and second @-@ in @-@ command of the Mediterranean Fleet , with HMS Hood as his flagship . After his long service in small ships , Cunningham considered his accommodation aboard Hood to be almost palatial , even surpassing his previous big ship experience on Rodney . He retained command until September 1938 , when he was appointed to the Admiralty as Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff , although he did not actually take up this post until December 1939 . He accepted this shore job with reluctance since he loathed administration , but the Board of Admiralty 's high regard of him was evident . For six months during an illness of Admiral Sir Roger Backhouse , the then First Sea Lord , he deputised for Backhouse on the Committee of Imperial Defence and on the Admiralty Board . In 1939 he was made a Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath ( KCB ) , becoming known as Sir Andrew Cunningham . = = Second World War = = Cunningham described the command of the Mediterranean Fleet as " The finest command the Royal Navy has to offer " and he remarked in his memoirs that " I probably knew the Mediterranean as well as any Naval Officer of my generation " . Cunningham was made Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean , hoisting his flag in HMS Warspite on 6 June 1939 , one day after arriving in Alexandria on 5 June 1939 . As Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Cunningham 's main concern was for the safety of convoys heading for Egypt and Malta . These convoys were highly significant in that they were desperately needed to keep Malta , a small British colony and naval base , in the war . Malta was a strategic strongpoint and Cunningham fully appreciated this . Cunningham believed that the main threat to British Sea Power in the Mediterranean would come from the Italian Fleet . As such Cunningham had his fleet at a heightened state of readiness , so that when Italy did choose to enter into hostilities , then the British Fleet would be ready . = = = French Surrender ( June 1940 ) = = = In his role as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean , Cunningham had to negotiate with the French Admiral Rene @-@ Emile Godfroy for the demilitarisation and internment of a French squadron at Alexandria , in June 1940 , following the Fall of France . Churchill had ordered Cunningham to prevent the French warships from leaving port , and to ensure that French warships did not pass into enemy hands . Stationed at the time at Alexandria , Cunningham entered into delicate negotiations with Godfroy to ensure his fleet , which consisted of the battleship Lorraine , four cruisers , three destroyers and a submarine , posed no threat . The Admiralty ordered Cunningham to complete the negotiations on 3 July . Just as an agreement seemed imminent Godfroy heard of the British action against the French at Mers el Kebir and , for a while , Cunningham feared a battle between French and British warships in the confines of Alexandria harbour . The deadline was overrun but negotiations ended well , after Cunningham put them on a more personal level and had the British ships appeal to their French opposite numbers . Cunningham 's negotiations succeeded and the French emptied their fuel bunkers and removed the firing mechanisms from their guns . Cunningham in turn promised to repatriate the ships ' crews . = = = Battle of Taranto ( November 1940 ) = = = Although the threat from the French Fleet had been neutralised , Cunningham was still aware of the threat posed by the Italian Fleet to British North African operations , based in Egypt . Although the Royal Navy had won in several actions in the Mediterranean , considerably upsetting the balance of power , the Italians who were following the theory of a fleet in being had left their ships in harbour . This made the threat of a sortie against the British Fleet a serious problem . At the time the harbour at Taranto contained six battleships ( five of them battle @-@ worthy ) , seven heavy cruisers , two light cruisers , and eight destroyers . The Admiralty , concerned with the potential for an attack , had drawn up Operation Judgement ; a surprise attack on Taranto Harbour . To carry out the attack , the Admiralty sent the new aircraft carrier HMS Illustrious , commanded by Lumley Lyster , to join HMS Eagle in Cunningham 's fleet . The attack started at 21 : 00 , 11 November 1940 , when the first of two waves of Fairey Swordfish torpedo bombers took off from Illustrious , followed by the second wave an hour later . The attack was a great success : the Italian fleet lost half its strength in one night . The " fleet @-@ in @-@ being " diminished in importance and the threat to the Royal Navy 's control of the Mediterranean had been considerably reduced . Cunningham said of the victory : " Taranto , and the night of 11 – 12 November 1940 , should be remembered for ever as having shown once and for all that in the Fleet Air Arm the Navy has its most devastating weapon . " The Royal Navy had launched the first all @-@ aircraft naval attack in history , flying a small number of aircraft from an aircraft carrier . This , and other aspects of the raid , were important facts in the planning of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 : the Japanese planning staff were thought to have studied it intensively . Cunningham 's official reaction at the time was memorably terse . After landing the last of the attacking aircraft , Illustrious signalled " Operation Judgement executed " . After seeing aerial reconnaissance photographs the next day which showed several Italian ships sunk or out of action , Cunningham replied with the two @-@ letter code group which signified , " Manoeuvre well executed " . = = = Battle of Cape Matapan ( March 1941 ) = = = At the end of March 1941 , Hitler wanted the convoys supplying the British Expeditionary force in Greece stopped , and the Italian Navy was the only force able to attempt this . Cunningham stated in his biography : " I myself was inclined to think that the Italians would not try anything . I bet Commander Power , the Staff Officer , Operations , the sum of ten shillings that we would see nothing of the enemy . " Under pressure from Germany , the Italian Fleet planned to launch an attack on the British Fleet on 28 March 1941 . The Italian commander , Admiral Angelo Iachino , intended to carry out a surprise attack on the British Cruiser Squadron in the area ( commanded by Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Henry Pridham @-@ Wippell ) , executing a pincer movement with the battleship Vittorio Veneto . Cunningham though , was aware of Italian naval activity through intercepts of Italian Enigma messages . Although Italian intentions were unclear , Cunningham 's staff believed an attack upon British troop convoys was likely and orders were issued to spoil the enemy plan and , if possible , intercept their fleet . Cunningham wished , however , to disguise his own activity and arranged for a game of golf and a fictitious evening gathering to mislead enemy agents ( he was , in fact , overheard by the local Japanese Consul ) . After sunset , he boarded HMS Warspite and left Alexandria . Cunningham , realising that an air attack could weaken the Italians , ordered an attack by the Formidable 's Albacore torpedo @-@ bombers . A hit on the Vittorio Veneto slowed her temporarily and Iachino , realising his fleet was vulnerable without air cover , ordered his forces to retire . Cunningham gave the order to pursue the Italian Fleet . An air attack from the Formidable had disabled the cruiser Pola and Iachino , unaware of Cunningham 's pursuing battlefleet , ordered a squadron of cruisers and destroyers to return and protect the Pola . Cunningham , meanwhile , was joining up with Pridham @-@ Wippell 's cruiser squadron . Throughout the day several chases and sorties occurred with no overall victor . None of the Italian ships were equipped for night fighting , and when night fell , they made to return to Taranto . The British battlefleet equipped with radar detected the Italians shortly after 22 : 00 . In a pivotal moment in naval warfare during the Second World War , the battleships Barham , Valiant and Warspite opened fire on two Italian cruisers at only 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @.@ 5 km ) , destroying them in only five minutes . Although the Vittorio Veneto escaped from the battle by returning to Taranto , there were many accolades given to Cunningham for continuing the pursuit at night , against the advice of his staff . After the previous defeat at Taranto , the defeat at Cape Matapan dealt another strategic blow to the Italian Navy . Five ships – three heavy cruisers and two destroyers – were sunk , and around 2 @,@ 400 Italian sailors were killed , missing or captured . The British lost only three aircrew when one torpedo bomber was shot down . Cunningham had lost his bet with Commander Power but he had won a strategic victory in the war in the Mediterranean . The defeats at Taranto and Cape Matapan meant that the Italian Navy did not intervene in the heavily contested evacuations of Greece and Crete , later in 1941 . It also ensured that , for the remainder of the war , the Regia Marina conceded the Eastern Mediterranean to the Allied Fleet , and did not leave port for the remainder of the war . = = = Battle of Crete ( May 1941 ) = = = On the morning of 20 May 1941 , Nazi Germany launched an airborne invasion of Crete , under the code @-@ name Unternehmen Merkur ( Operation Mercury ) . Despite initial heavy casualties , Maleme airfield in western Crete fell to the Germans and enabled them to fly in heavy reinforcements and overwhelm the Allied forces . After a week of heavy fighting , British commanders decided that the situation was hopeless and ordered a withdrawal from Sfakia . During the next four nights , 16 @,@ 000 troops were evacuated to Egypt by ships ( including HMS Ajax of Battle of the River Plate fame ) . A smaller number of ships were to withdraw troops on a separate mission from Heraklion , but these ships were attacked en route by Luftwaffe dive bombers . Without air cover , Cunningham 's ships suffered serious losses . Cunningham was determined , though , that the " navy must not let the army down " , and when army generals feared he would lose too many ships , Cunningham famously said , The " never say die " attitude of Cunningham and the men under his command meant that of 22 @,@ 000 men on Crete , 16 @,@ 500 were rescued but at the loss of three cruisers and six destroyers . Fifteen other major warships were damaged . = = = Allied Expeditionary Force ( 1943 – 46 ) = = = Cunningham became a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath ( GCB ) , " in recognition of the recent successful combined operations in the Middle East " , in March 1941 and was created a baronet , of Bishop 's Waltham in the County of Southampton , in July 1942 . From late 1942 to early 1943 , he served under General Dwight D. Eisenhower , who made him the Supreme Commander , Allied Expeditionary Force . In this role Cunningham commanded the large fleet that covered the Anglo @-@ American landings in North Africa ( Operation Torch ) . General Eisenhower said of him in his diary : On 21 January 1943 , Cunningham was promoted to Admiral of the Fleet . February 1943 saw him return to his post as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean Fleet . Three months later , when Axis forces in North Africa were on the verge of surrender , he ordered that none should be allowed to escape . Entirely in keeping with his fiery character he signalled the fleet " Sink , burn and destroy : Let nothing pass " . He oversaw the naval forces used in the joint Anglo @-@ American amphibious invasions of Sicily , during Operation Husky , Operation Baytown and Operation Avalanche . On the morning of 11 September 1943 , Cunningham was present at Malta when the Italian Fleet surrendered . Cunningham informed the Admiralty with a telegram ; " Be pleased to inform their Lordships that the Italian battle fleet now lies at anchor under the guns of the fortress of Malta . " In October 1943 , Cunningham became First Sea Lord of the Admiralty and Chief of the Naval Staff , after the death of Dudley Pound . This promotion meant that he had to relinquish his coveted post of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Mediterranean , recommending his namesake Admiral John H. D. Cunningham as his successor . In the position of First Sea Lord , and as a member of the Chiefs of Staff committee , Cunningham was responsible for the overall strategic direction of the navy for the remainder of the war . He attended the major conferences at Cairo , Tehran , Yalta and Potsdam , at which the Allies discussed future strategy , including the invasion of Normandy and the deployment of a British fleet to the Pacific Ocean . = = Retirement = = In 1945 Cunningham was appointed a Knight of the Thistle and raised to the peerage as " Baron Cunningham of Hyndhope " , of Kirkhope in the County of Selkirk . He was entitled to retire at the end of the war in 1945 but he resolved to pilot the Navy through the transition to peace before retiring . With the election of Clement Attlee as British Prime Minister in 1945 , and the implementation of his Post @-@ war consensus , there was a large reduction in the Defence Budget . The extensive reorganisation was a challenge for Cunningham . " We very soon came to realise how much easier it was to make war than to reorganise for peace . " Due to pressures on the budget from all three services , the Navy embarked on a reduction programme that was larger than Cunningham had envisaged . He was made " Viscount Cunningham of Hyndhope " , of Kirkhope in the County of Selkirk , in the 1946 New Year Honours , and appointed to the Order of Merit in June of that year . At the end of May 1946 , after overseeing the transition through to peacetime , Cunningham retired from his post as First Sea Lord . Cunningham retreated to the " little house in the country " , ' Palace House ' , at Bishop 's Waltham in Hampshire , which he and Lady Cunningham had acquired before the war . They both had a busy retirement . He attended the House of Lords irregularly and occasionally lent his name to press statements about the Royal Navy , particularly those relating to Admiral Dudley North , who had been relieved of his command of Gibraltar in 1940 . Cunningham , and several of the surviving admirals of the fleet , set about securing justice for North , and they succeeded with a partial vindication in 1957 . He also busied himself with various appointments ; he was Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1950 and 1952 , and in 1953 he acted as Lord High Steward – the most recent one to date – at the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II . Throughout this time Cunningham and his wife entertained family and friends , including his own great nephew , Jock Slater , in their extensive gardens . Cunningham died in London on 12 June 1963 , and was buried at sea off Portsmouth . There were no children from his marriage and his titles consequently became extinct on his death . A bust of Cunningham by Franta Belsky was unveiled in Trafalgar Square in London on 2 April 1967 by Prince Philip , Duke of Edinburgh . The April 2010 UK naval operation to ship British military personnel and air passengers stranded in continental Europe by the air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption back to the UK was named Operation Cunningham after him . = = Honours = = Below is a list of Awards and titles awarded to Andrew Browne Cunningham during his lifetime . = = = United Kingdom = = = = = = Awards from other countries = = = = 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division = The 38th ( Welsh ) Division ( initially the 43rd Division , later the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division and then the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division ) of the British Army was active during both the First and Second World Wars . In 1914 , the division was raised as the 43rd Division of Herbert Kitchener 's New Army , and was originally meant to form part of a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Welsh Army Corps that had been championed by David Lloyd George . However , the assignment of Welsh recruits to other formations meant that this concept was never realised . On 29 April 1915 , the formation was renamed the 38th ( Welsh ) Division and shipped to France later that year . The division arrived in France with a poor reputation , seen as a political formation that was ill trained and led . The division 's baptism by fire came during the opening days of the Battle of the Somme where it had to capture Mametz Wood . Despite securing the wood , needed as a jumping @-@ off point for the Battle of Bazentin Ridge , the reputation of the division was further effected by miscommunication among its senior officers and by the loss of nearly 4 @,@ 000 men during the next phase of the Somme offensive . The division 's next large @-@ scale operation came a year later when it made a highly successful attack in the Battle of Pilckem Ridge , the first attack of the Third Battle of Ypres . This redeemed the division in the eyes of the upper hierarchy of the British military and it came to be considered one of the elite . During the German Spring Offensive in 1918 and the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , the division attacked several fortified German positions . It crossed the Ancre river , smashed through the Hindenburg Line , broke through German positions on the River Selle and ended the war on the Belgian frontier . Not chosen to be part of the Occupation of the Rhineland following the war , the division was demobilised over several months , ceasing to exist by March 1919 . In March 1939 , following the rise of Nazi Germany and the German occupation of Czechoslovakia , the British army increased the number of divisions within the Territorial Army by duplicating existing units . On paper , the division was recreated as the 38th ( Welsh ) Infantry Division , a duplicate of the 53rd ( Welsh ) Infantry Division , although it did not form until September . Transferred around the United Kingdom and assigned home defence duties , it was never deployed overseas as a division . In 1944 , it was disbanded and its units were either dispatched or broken up to reinforce the 21st Army Group fighting in Normandy during Operation Overlord . The 38th Division was recreated on 1 September 1944 as the 38th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division , a training formation that took over the role previously occupied by the 80th Infantry ( Reserve ) Division . In this form , the division completed the training of recruits , who were then dispatched overseas as reinforcements . At the end of the war , the division was again stood down . = = First World War = = = = = Formation and training = = = On 28 July 1914 , the First World War began and on 4 August , following the German invasion of Belgium , the United Kingdom entered the war to uphold the Treaty of London ( 1839 ) . Britain found itself facing a continental war it was not prepared to fight ; the Expeditionary Force ( EF ) was dispatched but the country lacked the forces required for the protracted war envisioned by the military leadership ( the Expeditionary Force was prefaced with British when the Indian Expeditionary Force arrived in France ) . On 5 August , Herbert Kitchener was appointed Secretary of State for War . This vital position , allowed Kitchener a largely independent role within the war cabinet . His first act , the following day , was to request parliamentary approval to increase the strength of the British Army by 500 @,@ 000 men . Over the coming days , following approval , the Army Council laid out plans for Kitchener 's proposed expansion : traditional recruiting would be used to expand the regular army , bypassing the county associations and thus avoiding expanding the Territorial Force . The first wave , originally termed the New Expeditionary Force , became the First New Army . In 2007 , Simkins wrote that Kitchener held the Territorial Force in disdain , calling it an ill @-@ trained " Town Clerk 's Army " and this was partially why he set up a parallel recruitment system . Simkins noted that it would be a " gross oversimplification to ascribe Kitchener 's decision merely to prejudice and ignorance " . Had the Territorial Force been used as the basis for expansion it would have been " swamped " and " rendered temporarily incapable of carrying out any function at all " , when a " viable home defence force " was needed due to the threat of a German invasion . On 19 September 1914 , Chancellor of the Exchequer David Lloyd George stated publicly that he " should like to see a Welsh Army in the field " . This thought quickly picked up support from politicians and from Kitchener ; a Welsh Army Corps of two divisions totalling 50 @,@ 000 men was approved on 10 October . The recruits were to be drawn not just from Wales but from Monmouthshire and from Welshmen living in Liverpool , London and Manchester . The creation of the corps soon became a source of heated dispute between Lloyd George and Kitchener and was never realised . In addition to the disagreements , there was a shortage of recruits ; by the end of 1914 only 10 @,@ 000 men had joined the Welsh Corps . During December , having scaled back the ambitious plan for a whole corps , the recruited men were formed into the 43rd Division of Kitchener 's Fifth New Army . Despite steady recruitment , by June 1915 , 20 per cent of recruits had been removed , having been discharged primarily for medical reasons or transferred to other units . On Saint David 's Day ( 1 March 1915 ) , the new division was inspected by Lloyd George . During April , the Fourth New Army was broken up to provide reinforcements for deployed combat units . The Fifth New Army , in turn , was renamed the Fourth New Army . As part of this re @-@ organisation , the 38th Division became the 31st Division . On 29 April , the 43rd was renamed the 38th ( Welsh ) Division . The division spent most of 1915 dispersed , with the majority located across North Wales with units training at Pwllheli , Colwyn Bay , Llandudno and Rhyl , although some units were based in the south at Abergavenny . At these locations , the men undertook basic training , were drilled and trained for open warfare . On 19 August , the division moved to Winchester , England , where it assembled for the first time as a division . Final training took place and limited instruction was given on tactics to employ during trench warfare ( the assumption being that practical experience would be easier to gain in France ) . Despite the training , it was not until November that the division had been fully equipped with rifles . To be declared fit for overseas service , the division 's soldiers had to fire 24 rounds on a rifle range . On 29 November , the division was inspected for the final time before being deployed ; Queen Mary and Princess Mary reviewed the troops at Crawley Down . The division , comprising the 113th , 114th and 115th Brigades made up of battalions from the Royal Welsh Fusiliers ( RWF ) , the South Wales Borderers ( SWB ) and the Welsh Regiment ( Welsh ) , was roughly 18 @,@ 500 men strong when it was deployed to France . During November , the division departed from Southampton and by 5 December it arrived in France at Le Havre . Although the division 's artillery initially remained behind to conduct live fire exercises at Larkhill , they had re @-@ joined the division by the end of December . The initial reaction by the regular army to the division was one of hostility . The division was seen as lacking experience and training , the latter being a criticism levelled at all New Army divisions . Questions were also raised about the divisional leadership and about securing officer commissions through influence peddling . Clive Hughes wrote " regulars professed disgust at the blatantly political character " of the division . While the division was made up predominately of Welshmen , the rest of the United Kingdom was also represented within its ranks as well as several other nations . = = = Initial actions and the Battle of the Somme = = = Once in France , the division joined XI Corps and was placed in reserve , relieving the 46th ( North Midland ) Division . The first casualties were soon suffered due to training accidents with grenades . The division was then temporarily split up and spent time attached to the Guards Division and 19th ( Western ) Division , to gain experience in trench warfare . It relieved the 19th ( Western ) Division and until the summer manned the front in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . It was rotated along the XI Corps sector , spending time in Festubert , Givenchy , La Gorgue , Laventie and Neuve Chapelle . Units of the division took turns on the front line , maintained positions , conducted trench raids and were subjected to German bombardments , all of which allowed the men to gain experience of active service conditions . The most notable action during this period was a trench raid carried out by Captain Goronwy Owen of the 15th RWF . Owen led a raid into no man 's land , where he located a party of German soldiers who had just finished laying barbed wire . Owen followed the Germans back to their trench and ambushed them . The divisional history comments that " the greater portion [ of the German party ] were killed " and the raid was considered by the Army to be " the third best ... carried out so far " in the war . For his actions , Owen was mentioned in dispatches . During 10 – 11 June 1916 , the division was relieved by the 61st ( 2nd South Midland ) Division and moved into reserve . It then moved south and joined XVII Corps of the Third Army to train for the Battle of the Somme . New trenches were dug and the division made practice attacks on them using novel tactics : attacking in waves in conjunction with artillery and machine gun fire . Towards the end of the month , the division moved further south to the Somme valley . They then joined II Corps and were placed in reserve . The role of the division was as a second wave to exploit the expected success . Following the breach of the German lines , the Reserve Army cavalry divisions would capture Bapaume . The 38th ( Welsh ) Division would then move forward to relieve the cavalry and secure the town , to allow the cavalry to advance north towards Arras . 1 July was the first day on the Somme and despite being behind the lines in reserve , the division suffered its first casualty of the battle due to German artillery fire . The 1 July attack was a disaster on the Fourth Army front and 57 @,@ 470 casualties were suffered , most north of the Albert – Bapaume road . In particular , XV Corps attacked the villages of Fricourt and Mametz . Throughout the day , the 7th Division assaulted and captured Mametz . The 21st Division pushed into the German lines and flanked Fricourt to the north . Due to this move and the capture of Mametz , the Germans abandoned Fricourt ; the two divisions advanced up to 2 @,@ 500 yards ( 2 @,@ 300 m ) and suffered 7 @,@ 500 casualties . Between these two villages were the entrenched German positions in Mametz Wood . These needed to be captured to allow XV Corps to advance further into German territory . While additional ground was gained in subsequent attacks , German defences and rain hindered moves to clear Mametz Wood . Following additional casualties within the 7th Division , the 38th ( Welsh ) Division was attached to XV Corps to relieve the division and clear the wood . Mametz Wood was defended by elements of the German Lehr Infantry Regiment and 163rd Infantry Regiment . While these units were entrenched within the wood , the German second line was only 300 yards ( 270 m ) behind , allowing the position to be reinforced easily . From 6 – 9 July , the 38th Division conducted reconnaissance and probing attacks , to determine the strength of the German position . On 7 July , the division launched two battalions upon the wood following a brief preliminary bombardment . At 08 : 00 , the 16th Welsh and 10th SWB attacked . As soon as the advance began it became obvious that the preliminary bombardment had failed to silence the German machine gun positions and German shells started to fall upon the attacking troops and the trenches they had left , resulting in a temporary communication breakdown . Caught between machine gun fire from their front and their flanks , the attack bogged down within 200 yards ( 180 m ) of the wood . Unable to move further , the troops were ordered to dig in to await a renewed British bombardment . At 11 : 00 a second attempt was made but the troops were unable to push further forward . A proposed third attack in the afternoon was eventually called off . The 16th Welsh Battalion historian wrote that " ' [ c ] ut to Ribbons ' would be an apt description " as casualties amounted to 276 men . The 10th SWB suffered 180 casualties . During the evening , the 14th RWF launched a minor trench raid . On 8 July , this was supposed to develop into an attack on the southern tip of the wood . While the division prepared to launch a battalion @-@ sized attack , XV Corps commander Lieutenant @-@ General Henry Horne ordered a smaller attack by a platoon . The day was spent in confusion , with conflicting orders issued and Horne travelling to the division to clarify his intentions . In the end , no attack was launched . When Horne found out that the 14th RWF had not moved and that their attack had been pushed back to 8 July , he summoned the commanding officer , Major @-@ General Ivor Philipps , to Corps headquarters and sacked him . General Douglas Haig , commander of the BEF , noted this event in his diary . He wrote : " visited HQ XV Corps and saw General Horne . He was very disappointed with the work of the ... 38th Welsh Div " . Haig further commented that Philipps was relieved of his command as the majority of the division had " never entered " the woods despite the " most adequate [ ] ... bombard [ ment ] " , had suffered " under 150 casualties " during their attack and that : " a few bold men [ who had ] entered the Wood found little opposition " . Don Farr wrote that Haig 's entries are at odds with the facts and that he relied heavily on what Horne had told him . Farr states Horne 's account to Haig was self @-@ serving and did no justice " to the difficulties confronting the troops on the ground " and did not acknowledge the failure of the bombardment . He also suggests that the sacking of Philipps may have been political , by a distrusting officer corps towards a perceived political appointee . Hughes quoted a regular officer who was attached to the division who described Philipps as " an excellent administrator " who was " valued [ for ] his service with the division " . Travers wrote that " perhaps Philipps was a poor commander " but the opening attacks on Mametz Wood demonstrated the faults of the entire command structure , not just of Philipps , as there was pressure from the top down to get results . Farr wrote that " there is evidence that ... Philipps ... balked at sending waves of [ his ] men unprotected against machine guns " and Travers wrote that Philipps had shown moral courage in cancelling unprepared attacks and for giving his troops " instructions not to press the attack if machine @-@ gun fire was met " . Horne had intended to replace Philipps with Major @-@ General Charles Blackader but was overruled by Haig who ordered that Herbert Watts , commander of the 7th Division , was to take temporary command . During 9 July , the decision was made that the division would launch a full @-@ scale attack the following day . At 03 : 30 on 10 July , the preliminary bombardment began . The initial bombardment lasted for 45 minutes , striking the German front line positions , with the shelling halted temporarily to attempt to lure the German defenders back into the front line , when the barrage resumed . At 04 : 15 , the division launched its attack . Advancing behind a creeping barrage were the 13th Welsh ( on the right flank ) , the 14th Welsh ( in the centre ) and the 16th RWF ( on the left flank ) . A smoke screen had been laid down on either flank , which succeeded in drawing German fire away from the assault . The divisional history called this attack " one of the most magnificent sights of the war ... wave after wave of men were seen advancing without hesitation and without a break over a distance which in some places was nearly 500 yards " . The 14th Welsh rapidly entered the wood and cleared the German positions with bayonets and rifle fire . In the face of determined German resistance and flanking machine gun fire , the 13th Welsh suffered many casualties and their attack stalled . The division reinforced the right flank by committing the 15th Welsh who were able to push through into the wood . Before they could link up and aid the 13th , German troops infiltrated the gap between the two battalions , got behind the 15th Welsh and almost wiped out a company . These troops had to fight their way out " cut their way back out " and returned with just seven men . Despite the losses , the three battalions of the Welsh regiment were able to form a cohesive line defending the edge of the wood and repulsed strong German counter @-@ attacks . The 16th RWF , which had fallen behind the creeping barrage , were met with determined German resistance who repulsed two assaults . The 15th RWF was sent to reinforce and both battalions were then able to push their way into the wood , although German resistance and a machine gun prevented a further advance . The 10th Welsh moved up to cover the gap between the five battalions already engaged and the 13th RWF were deployed to clear the German position in front of their sister battalions ; divisional engineers arrived to dig trenches and lay wire . During the afternoon , the 10th SWB and 17th RWF were committed to the wood . At 16 : 00 , another attack began and met with little resistance . The 10th SWB captured the eastern stretches of the wood and inflicted many casualties on the Germans . The 15th Welsh , along with the 15th and 17th RWF , fought north through the wood and made it to within 40 yards ( 37 m ) of the northern edge when they were thrown back by German fire . A further attack during the evening was called off and the troops were pulled back up to 300 yards ( 270 m ) and ordered to dig in for the night . During the night , the 113th and 114th Infantry Brigades were ordered out of the wood and the 115th Brigade assembled in their place . The next day , the 115th Brigade prepared a final assault to clear out the Germans . The 115th Brigade 's commanding officer , Brigadier @-@ General H. J. Evans , wanted to launch a surprise attack but was overruled . The subsequent bombardment to support the attack fell short in places , hitting the British troops and provoking German artillery fire . Despite the friendly fire , the barrage also caught German troops in the open as they fled from the wood . The remaining Germans offered determined resistance and the 16th Welsh were held up by machine gun fire and the use of a flamethrower . Despite this , the brigade was able to clear Mametz Wood by the end of the day . The German second line position was on higher ground , which dominated the edge of wood and , coupled with artillery fire , resulted in the brigade pulling back to its start line to avoid further casualties . That evening , the 21st Division relieved the 38th Division who moved near Gommecourt and relieved the 48th ( South Midland ) Division . On 12 July , Watts returned to the 7th Division and Blackader assumed command of the 38th . The division had suffered 3 @,@ 993 casualties during the six days it had fought on the Somme , with over 600 men killed . Despite capturing 400 prisoners as well as Mametz Wood ( the largest wood on the Somme ) , which paved the way for the assault on Bazentin Ridge , the reputation of the division had been sullied by inaccuracies . The failure of the first attack did much harm to the division 's reputation , as the comparably few casualties were seen as evidence of a lack of determination by the men . The 113th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier @-@ General Price @-@ Davies , made things worse by reporting panic among the men and refusals of orders . Price @-@ Davies later wrote : " I may not have given my brigade full credit for what they did " but the damage had been done . The difficulty of wood fighting was not appreciated at the time and Farr wrote that the reputation of the division suffered due to the repeated interference by Horne in matters best left to the divisional or brigade staff and his " inexperience of battlefield command at this level " . = = = Ypres Salient = = = At the end of August 1916 , the division was deployed to the Ypres Salient where it remained for the following ten months seeing	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
the U.S. in March 1941 . Kinkaid now faced the prospect of selection to rear admiral . He knew that captains normally required a certain amount of seagoing command experience to be considered , but because his tour of duty on Indianapolis had been cut short in order to take up the post in Rome , he did not have enough months , and it was unlikely that a billet as captain of a battleship or cruiser would come up in sufficient time before the next round of selections . He discussed the matter with head of the Officers ' Detail Section at the Bureau of Navigation , Captain Arthur S. Carpender , an Annapolis classmate who had himself recently been selected for flag rank . Carpender came up with a solution : he recommended Kinkaid for command of a destroyer squadron . This was a seagoing command , although Kinkaid was somewhat senior for it . Good fitness reports as commander of Destroyer Squadron 8 , based in Philadelphia , resulted in Kinkaid 's promotion to rear admiral in August 1941 , despite having no more than two years ' worth of total command experience . He became the last of his class to be promoted to flag rank before the United States entered the war . No one ranking lower in the class was promoted to flag rank before retirement . = = = Coral Sea and Midway = = = Kinkaid was ordered to relieve Rear Admiral Frank J. Fletcher as commander of Cruiser Division 6 , consisting of the heavy cruisers USS Astoria , Minneapolis and San Francisco . This was part of the U.S. Pacific Fleet , based at Pearl Harbor . He did not reach his new command until after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor , which brought the U.S. into the war . When he reached Hawaii , Kinkaid stayed with his brother @-@ in @-@ law , the Commander in Chief , U.S. Fleet , Admiral Husband E. Kimmel , who was married to Kinkaid 's sister Dorothy . Kinkaid accompanied Fletcher as an observer during the attempt to relieve Wake Island , and did not formally assume command of the division until 29 December 1941 . The traditional job of cruisers was scouting and screening , but with the loss of most of the battleships at Pearl Harbor these roles largely passed to the aircraft carriers , while the cruisers ' main mission became defending the carriers against air attack . Kinkaid 's cruisers formed part of Rear Admiral Aubrey W. Fitch 's Task Force 11 , which was built around the carrier USS Lexington . Task Force 11 rendezvoused with Fletcher 's Task Force 17 , built around the carrier USS Yorktown , on 1 May 1942 . Kinkaid then became commander of the Task Group 17 @.@ 2 , the screening cruisers and destroyers of both carriers . Carrier warfare was in its infancy , and at this stage American carriers neither embarked adequate numbers of fighters , nor skillfully employed what they had . When Task Force 17 was attacked three days later in the Battle of the Coral Sea , the burden of defending the Task Force fell on Kinkaid 's gunners . Their task was complicated by the radical maneuvering of the carriers under attack , which made it impossible for the screen to keep station . Despite the gunners ' best efforts , both carriers were hit , and Lexington caught fire and sank . For his part in the battle , Kinkaid was awarded the Navy Distinguished Service Medal . Kinkaid was detached with the cruisers Astoria , Minneapolis and New Orleans , and four destroyers on 11 May 1942 and sailed for Nouméa , while Fletcher took the rest of Task Force 17 to Tongatapu . Kinkaid then headed north to join the Vice Admiral William F. Halsey 's Task Force 16 . Kinkaid 's force became part of its screen which was under the command of Rear Admiral Raymond A. Spruance . Shortly after Task Force 16 returned to Pearl Harbor , Halsey was hospitalized with a severe case of dermatitis and , on his recommendation , was replaced as commander of Task Force 16 by Spruance . Kinkaid then became commander of the screen , also known as Task Group 16 @.@ 2 . He was one of only four American flag officers present during the subsequent Battle of Midway . However , he saw little action , as Task Force 16 did not come under attack . = = = Solomon Islands = = = After the battle , Spruance became chief of staff to Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , the Commander in Chief , U.S. Pacific Fleet ( CINCPAC ) and Pacific Ocean Areas ( CINCPOA ) . In Halsey 's continued absence , Kinkaid became commander of Task Force 16 , built around the carrier USS Enterprise , although he was not an aviator , and his experience with carriers had been restricted to commanding their screens at the Battle of the Coral Sea and the Battle of Midway . In early July Kinkaid was briefed by Nimitz about plans for a landing in the Solomon Islands , codenamed Operation Watchtower . For this operation , Kinkaid 's Task Force 16 would be one of three carrier task forces under Fletcher 's overall command . To protect his flagship , the Enterprise , Kinkaid had the battleship USS North Carolina , heavy cruiser USS Portland , antiaircraft cruiser USS Atlanta , and five destroyers . The addition of the new battleship and its twenty 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 38 caliber dual @-@ purpose guns greatly strengthened Task Force 16 's antiaircraft defenses . The American landing on Guadalcanal evoked a furious reaction from the Japanese , who sent their fleet to reinforce the Japanese garrison on Guadalcanal . Fletcher 's carriers had the mission of protecting the sea lanes to the Solomons.The two carrier forces clashed in the Battle of the Eastern Solomons . Kinkaid disposed his carrier task force in a circular formation , with Enterprise at the center , the cruisers at 10 and 2 o 'clock and the battleship aft at 6 o 'clock . This proved to be a mistake . With a top speed of 27 kn ( 31 mph ; 50 km / h ) , the battleship fell behind the carrier when the latter accelerated to 30 kn ( 35 mph ; 56 km / h ) while under attack , depriving itself of the protection of the battleship 's guns.Enterprise came under direct attack by Japanese fighters , taking three bomb hits that killed 74 of its crew . Extraordinary efforts permitted the carrier to continue operating aircraft , but it was forced to return to Pearl Harbor for repairs . In his report after the battle , Kinkaid recommended that the number of fighters carried by each carrier be further increased . For his part in the battle , he was awarded his second Distinguished Service Medal . Task Force 16 returned to the South Pacific in October 1942 , just in time to take part in the decisive action of the campaign , the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands , when the Japanese Army and Navy made an all @-@ out effort to recapture the airfield of Guadalcanal . In addition to Enterprise , Kinkaid 's force included the battleship South Dakota , heavy cruiser Portland , anti @-@ aircraft cruiser San Juan , and eight destroyers . Fortunately , both Enterprise and South Dakota had been fitted with the new Bofors 40 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns . In the three early carrier battles , Kinkaid had been a subordinate commander . This time he was in overall command , in charge of Task Force 61 , which included both his own Task Force 16 and Rear Admiral George D. Murray 's Task Force 17 , built around the aircraft carrier USS Hornet . The battle unfolded badly . Hornet was sunk , and Enterprise , South Dakota and San Juan were severely damaged . Aviators like Murray and John H. Towers blamed Kinkaid , as a non @-@ aviator , for the loss of the Hornet . It became a black mark on Kinkaid 's record . The Japanese had won another tactical victory , but Kinkaid 's carriers had gained the Americans precious time to prepare and reinforce . = = = Aleutian Islands = = = On 4 January 1943 , Kinkaid became Commander of the North Pacific Force ( COMNORPACFOR ) following the failure of his predecessor , Rear Admiral Robert A. Theobald , to work harmoniously with the U.S. Army . Command relationships in the North Pacific were complicated . Naval forces came under Fletcher 's Northwestern Sea Frontier . The troops in Alaska , including Brigadier General William O. Butler 's Eleventh Air Force , were commanded by Major General Simon B. Buckner , Jr . , who was answerable to the head of the Western Defense Command , Lieutenant General John L. DeWitt . Kinkaid 's command was responsible for coordinating these forces and retaking the Aleutian Islands captured by the Japanese . He found the Army eager to cooperate , but encountered more difficulty with Rear Admiral Francis W. Rockwell , the commander of the Amphibious Force , Pacific Fleet , and later the IX Amphibious Force . Rockwell was an Academy classmate of Kinkaid 's , who was senior to him in rank , and convinced that he would both plan and command the amphibious phase of the operation rather than Kinkaid . Kinkaid 's first major decision was to bypass Kiska in favor of an assault on the less heavily defended Attu Island . He moved his headquarters to Adak to be with those of Buckner and Butler , and at Buckner 's suggestion established a joint mess where their two staffs ate meals together . However , the amphibious planning was done in San Diego by Rockwell and his U.S. Marine Corps advisor , Brigadier General Holland M. Smith . The Battle of Attu was only the third American amphibious operation of the war , and was carried through to a costly success under difficult conditions . The slow rate of progress ashore caused Kinkaid to relieve the Army commander , Major General Albert E. Brown and replace him with Major General Eugene M. Landrum . In June 1943 Kinkaid was promoted to vice admiral , thereby removing any lingering doubts about who was in charge , and awarded his third Distinguished Service Medal . He now prepared Operation Cottage , the much larger invasion of Kiska . This was carried out as planned , but the invaders found that the Japanese had already evacuated the islands . In September 1943 , Kinkaid was replaced by Vice Admiral Frank Fletcher . = = = Southwest Pacific = = = In November 1943 , Kinkaid replaced Carpender as Commander Allied Naval Forces , Southwest Pacific Area , and the Seventh Fleet , known as " MacArthur 's Navy " . General Douglas MacArthur had twice requested Carpender 's relief , and Kinkaid 's record working with the Army in Alaska made him a logical choice . Australian newspapers hailed the appointment of a " fighting admiral " , but neither MacArthur nor the Australian government had been consulted about the appointment , which was made by the Commander in Chief , United States Fleet , Admiral Ernest King . This was a violation of the international agreement that had established the Southwest Pacific Area . The Navy Department then announced that the replacement of Carpender with Kinkaid was merely a proposal , and MacArthur and the Prime Minister of Australia , John Curtin , were asked if Kinkaid was acceptable . They agreed that he was . In his new role , Kinkaid had two masters . As commander of the Seventh Fleet , he was answerable to King , but as Commander Allied Naval Forces , Kinkaid was answerable to MacArthur . Operations were conducted on the basis of " mutual cooperation " rather than " unity of command " , and relations between the Army and Navy were not good . Kinkaid was not the most senior naval officer in the theater , for the Royal Australian Navy 's Admiral Sir Guy Royle and the Royal Netherlands Navy 's Admiral Conrad Helfrich were both senior to him . Despite the unpromising relationship with the army , Kinkaid 's most troublesome subordinate was a U.S. Navy officer , as had been the case with Rockwell in the Aleutians . This time , the subordinate was Rear Admiral Ralph W. Christie , the commander of Task Force 71 , the Seventh Fleet 's submarines . Christie commonly greeted a returning submarine at the pier and awarded decorations on the spot . This practice bypassed military and naval award boards , and annoyed Kinkaid because confirmation of sinkings was accomplished by Ultra , and news of awards given so quickly could constitute a security breach . Kinkaid gave Christie and his other subordinates orders forbidding pierside awards , and the award of army medals to navy personnel . In June 1944 , Christie accompanied a war patrol on Commander Samuel D. Dealey 's submarine USS Harder . Afterward , Christie met with MacArthur and related the events of the war patrol to the general , who decided to award Dealey the Distinguished Service Cross and Christie the Silver Star . When Harder was lost with Dealey and all hands on its next patrol , Christie recommended Dealey for the Medal of Honor . Kinkaid turned down the recommendation on the grounds that Dealey had already received the Distinguished Service Cross for the same patrol . Angered , Christie sent a dispatch to Kinkaid in an easily decipherable low @-@ order code that criticized him and urged him to reconsider . Upset by both Christie 's attitude and his losses , which included Dealey and Kinkaid 's nephew , Lieutenant Commander Manning Kimmel on USS Robalo in July 1944 , Kinkaid requested Christie 's relief . On 30 December 1944 , Christie was replaced by Captain James Fife . Other forces under Kinkaid 's command included the cruisers of Task Force 74 under Rear Admiral Victor Crutchley , Task Force 75 under Russell S. Berkey , and Task Force 76 , the VII Amphibious Force , under Rear Admiral Daniel E. Barbey . The main role of the Seventh Fleet was supporting MacArthur 's drive along the northern coast of New Guinea with a series of 38 amphibious operations , usually directed by Barbey . Kinkaid accompanied MacArthur for the landing in the Admiralty Islands , where the two men came ashore a few hours after the assault troops . With 215 vessels involved , Operations Reckless and Persecution in April 1944 together constituted the largest operation in New Guinea waters . It was followed in quick succession by four more operations , at Wakde , Biak , Noemfor and Sansapor . For MacArthur 's long @-@ awaited return to the Philippines in October 1944 , the Seventh Fleet was massively reinforced by Nimitz 's Pacific Fleet . Kinkaid commanded the assault personally , with Barbey 's VII Amphibious Force as Task Force 78 , joined by Vice Admiral Theodore S. Wilkinson 's III Amphibious Force from the Pacific Fleet as Task Force 79 . Kinkaid was also given Rear Admiral Jesse B. Oldendorf 's Task Force 77 @.@ 2 , a bombardment force built around six old battleships that had survived the attack on Pearl Harbor , and Rear Admiral Thomas L. Sprague 's Task Force 77 @.@ 4 , a force of escort carriers . However , Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher 's Task Force 38 , the covering force of the fast carriers and battleships , remained part of Admiral Halsey 's Third Fleet , which was not under MacArthur or Kinkaid 's command . Halsey 's orders , which gave priority to the destruction of the Japanese fleet , led to the most controversial episode of the Battle of Leyte Gulf . Four Japanese task forces converged on Kinkaid 's forces in Leyte Gulf : a carrier task force under Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa , from the north ; a force under Vice Admiral Takeo Kurita through the Sibuyan Sea ; and two task forces commanded by Vice Admirals Shōji Nishimura and Kiyohide Shima , which approached via the Surigao Strait . Carrier aircraft from Task Force 38 engaged Kurita in the Battle of the Sibuyan Sea , and forced him to withdraw . In a controversial decision , Halsey concluded that Kurita was no longer a threat and headed north after Ozawa 's force but , due to a misunderstanding , Kinkaid believed that Halsey was still guarding the San Bernardino Strait . Kinkaid deployed all available Seventh Fleet vessels in the Surigao Strait under Oldendorf facing Nishimura and Shima . In the Battle of the Surigao Strait that night , Kinkaid engaged the Japanese with his PT boats and Oldendorf 's destroyers , cruisers and battleships . Oldendorf was able to " cross the T " of the enemy fleet . It was the last occasion in history where battleships fought each other . Of Nishimura 's two battleships and five lesser ships , only the destroyer Shigure survived ; Kinkaid 's PT force lost only PT @-@ 493 , with 3 killed and 20 wounded . In Oldendorf 's task force , only the destroyer Albert W. Grant was hit , mostly by friendly fire . Total Allied casualties were 39 men killed and 114 wounded . However , the victory was marred when Kurita 's force doubled back and engaged Sprague 's escort carriers in the Battle off Samar the next day . Oldendorf 's force headed back but Kurita withdrew after sinking an escort carrier , two destroyers and a destroyer escort . After the war , Halsey defended his actions in his memoirs . Kinkaid 's position was that : Of course it would have been sound practice and better to have an overall commander of naval forces .... However , the Third Fleet and the Seventh Fleet each had an assigned mission which , if fulfilled , would have resulted in the destruction of the Japanese fleet then and there . The question of an overall commander at the scene of action would have been purely academic . Most surely Nimitz 's orders to Halsey did not contemplate the withdrawal of covering forces at the height of battle . " Divided Command " is not the key to what happened at Leyte . " Mission " is the key . Following the demise of Japanese naval power in the region , Kinkaid 's Seventh Fleet supported the land campaigns in the Philippines and the Borneo . Kinkaid was promoted to admiral on 3 April 1945 . After the Pacific War ended in August 1945 , the Seventh Fleet assisted in landing troops in Korea and northern China to occupy these areas and repatriate Allied prisoners of war . Kinkaid elected not to land troops at Chefoo as originally instructed because the city was in the hands of the Communist Eighth Route Army ; Tsingtao was substituted instead . He was awarded the Legion of Merit by the theater commander in China , Lieutenant General Albert C. Wedemeyer , and the Grand Cordon of the Order of Precious Tripod by the Chinese government . = = Later life = = Kinkaid returned to the United States to replace Vice Admiral Herbert F. Leary as Commander Eastern Sea Frontier and Commander Sixteenth Fleet , making his home in the historic Quarters A , Brooklyn Navy Yard . He served on a board chaired by Fleet Admiral Halsey which also included Admirals Spruance , Towers and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher , whose task was to nominate 50 of the 215 serving rear admirals for early retirement . Kinkaid was soon facing this fate himself , when the House Armed Services Committee sought to reduce the number of four @-@ star rank officers in 1947 . Kinkaid was one of three admirals , the others being Spruance and Hewitt , who would have to retire or be reduced in rank to rear admiral . After some lobbying , this was averted , and they were permitted to remain in the grade until 1 July 1950 , past Kinkaid 's retirement age . Retirement ceremonies , including a parade through New York City , were held on 28 April 1950 and Kinkaid formally retired two days later . In December 1946 , it was announced that Halsey , Spruance and Turner had been awarded the Army Distinguished Service Medal . A message soon arrived from MacArthur stating that he could not see why Kinkaid should not merit the same award , which had been recommended by Krueger during the war . The medal was duly presented by General Courtney Hodges in a ceremony on Governors Island on 10 April 1947 . The Australian government chose to honor Kinkaid with an honorary Companion of the Order of the Bath , which was presented by the ambassador at a ceremony at the embassy in Washington on Australia Day , 26 January 1948 . Kinkaid had already been created Grand Officer of the Order of Orange @-@ Nassau by Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands in 1944 . In March 1948 , he was made a Grand Officer of the Order of Leopold and presented with the Croix de guerre with Palm in a ceremony at the Belgian embassy in Washington , D.C. He served as the naval representative with the National Security Training Commission from 1951 until it was abolished in 1957 , and with the American Battle Monuments Commission for fifteen years , beginning in 1953 . In this capacity , he attended the dedication of the Cambridge American Cemetery and Memorial , Brittany American Cemetery and Memorial , Rhone American Cemetery and Memorial , Manila American Cemetery and Memorial and the East Coast Memorial . He also paid a visit to Australia and New Zealand in 1951 . Until 1961 , he attended the annual reunions held to celebrate General MacArthur 's birthday , 26 January , joining MacArthur and his old colleagues , including Krueger and Kenney . Kinkaid died at Bethesda Naval Hospital on 17 November 1972 and was buried with military honors at Arlington National Cemetery on 21 November . The Navy named a Spruance @-@ class destroyer after him . The USS Kinkaid was launched by his widow Helen at the Ingalls Shipbuilding Division of Litton Industries at Pascagoula , Mississippi on 1 June 1974 . = Palau at the 2008 Summer Olympics = Palau competed at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , China . Palau 's Olympic delegation was led by Frank Kyota , the President of the Palau National Olympic Committee , and consisted of five athletes , three team officials and four coaches . This was an increase from the nation 's two previous appearances at the Summer Olympic Games ; four athletes had been sent to both the Sydney and Athens Games . Palau 's Olympic team was one of the 117 that won no medals at the Games . = = Opening & closing ceremonies = = Palau was the 119th national team to enter the Beijing National Stadium in the parade of nations during the Opening Ceremony . The country 's flag bearer was freestyle wrestler Elgin Loren Elwais , the first Palauan athlete to have qualified for a Games based on his own performances . At the Closing Ceremony athletes entered in a less formal style , led by the flag bearers of all the competing nations . The Palauan flag was carried by swimmer Amber Yobech . = = Athletics = = Palau had two competitors in the sport of athletics , one in each of the men 's and women 's 100 m sprints . Jesse Tamangrow finished seventh out of eight competitors in a heat which included eventual bronze medallist Walter Dix . Despite setting a new personal best time of 11 @.@ 38 seconds he did not advance to the quarterfinals of the competition . In the women 's event Peoria Koshiba finished eighth out of nine athletes in the first heat and did not advance to the next round . Key Note – Ranks given for track events are within the athlete 's heat only Q = Qualified for the next round q = Qualified for the next round as a fastest loser or , in field events , by position without achieving the qualifying target NR = National record N / A = Round not applicable for the event Bye = Athlete not required to compete in round Men Women = = Swimming = = Amber Yobech , the youngest member of the team at age 17 , was the sole Palauan representative in the swimming events . She finished 3rd in her heat and 71st out of the 92 competitors overall . Women Qualifiers for the latter rounds of all swimming events at the Games were decided on a time only basis between competitors from all heats , therefore the rank shown is an overall position against every swimmer in the round . = = Wrestling = = Two wrestlers represented Palau in Beijing . Both athletes received byes in the first round but were defeated in their respective round of 16 matches . Elgin Loren Elwais , the reigning Oceanic champion , was beaten on points by three times world champion Hamid Soryan in the Greco @-@ Roman 55 kg . After the bout he announced his hope of competing at the 2012 Olympics in London , saying , " It is my first Olympics and I am looking forward to my next because I 'm young . " The other wrestler Florian Skilang Temengil was beaten by Hungarian Ottó Aubéli in the Freestyle 120 kg . Key : VT - Victory by Fall . PP - Decision by Points - the loser with technical points . PO - Decision by Points - the loser without technical points . Men 's freestyle Men 's Greco @-@ Roman = = Media coverage = = The 2008 Summer Olympics marked the first time that Palauans were able to watch complete Olympic television coverage of all events in their own country . Palau 's in @-@ depth television coverage was due to a special agreement between TV New Zealand and the Palau National Communications Corporation . = Operation Aquatint = Operation Aquatint was the codename for a failed raid by British Commandos on the coast of occupied France during the Second World War . The raid was undertaken in September 1942 on part of what later became Omaha Beach by No. 62 Commando , also known as the Small Scale Raiding Force . Prior to the operation , a raid on the French coastal town of Dieppe had placed the German occupying forces on a high state of alert , and this ultimately contributed to Aquatint 's failure . The commandos were also unable to identify their correct landing place due to the darkness . Within minutes of landing , the raiding party was ambushed by a German patrol and forced to try to reach their Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB ) transport . The MTB was located and engaged by the German shore batteries , which damaged one of its engines . It was forced to withdraw , leaving the commandos behind . At the end of the raid those commandos who had not been killed all became prisoners of war . Only five of the raiding force would survive the war ; one was killed in captivity and the fate of the other two is uncertain . = = Background = = Following a request from the Chief of Combined Operations Admiral Louis Mountbatten for probes of German coastal defences , No. 62 Commando , also known as the Small Scale Raiding Force ( SSRF ) , mounted a number of operations in 1942 . The first three missions were complete successes : Operation Barricade ( 14 / 15 August 1942 ) , Operation Dryad , ( 2 / 3 September 1942 ) , and Operation Pound ( 7 / 8 September 1942 ) . Aquatint was planned for a night in mid September 1942 as a reconnaissance mission near Sainte @-@ Honorine @-@ des @-@ Pertes , a small coastal town near Port en Bessin in Normandy . The mission was to collect information about the surrounding area , and take a German guard prisoner . Aerial reconnaissance had identified a small group of houses on the seafront thought to be occupied by Germans . The size of the SSRF landing party was limited to how many could be carried aboard a Motor Torpedo Boat ( MTB ) , and comprised five officers , one warrant officer , one senior non @-@ commissioned officer , three other ranks , and a member of the Free French forces . The commander of the SSRF , Major ' Gus ' March @-@ Phillipps , would lead the raid . His second in command , Captain Geoffrey Appleyard , would remain on board the MTB due to an injury acquired on a previous mission . The other men on the raid were Captain Graham Hayes , Captain John Burton , Captain Lord Francis Howard , Lieutenant Anthony Hall , Company Sergeant Major Thomas Winter , Sergeant Allen Michael Williams , Private Jan Hollings ( Jan Helling ) from the Netherlands , Private Adam Orr ( Abraham Opoczynski ) from Poland , Private Richard Leonard ( Richard Lehniger ) a Jewish Sudeten German from Czechoslovakia , and Maître Andre Desgranges of the Free French Forces . The Dieppe raid in August 1942 had changed the German fortification plans ; the success of the German defences in repelling the raid reinforced the importance of the Atlantic wall . The Organization Todt had now started to reinforce gun emplacements with infantry strong points along the French coastline . The older gun emplacements based on First World War designs were being replaced by stronger designs with overhead cover to offer protection from air attack . The area of Normandy targeted by Operation Aquatint had yet to receive any concrete gun emplacements but there was a network of coastal artillery batteries able to provide interlocking arcs of fire . German infantry carried out foot patrols in the areas between the batteries . = = Battle = = The mission had previously been attempted over the night of 11 / 12 September 1942 , but had to be cancelled after the MTB arrived off the coast of France . The raiding party had been unable to locate their target because of the dark and foggy conditions . On 12 September 1942 , their MTB left Portsmouth at 20 : 12 and reached the coast off Barfleur at about 22 : 00 . Moving at a reduced speed to avoid detection and avoid the offshore mine fields , they reached their intended position offshore just after midnight on 13 September 1942 . Observing the coastline , in the dark they incorrectly identified a valley which they believed was St Honorine , but was actually Saint @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer , about one mile to the right of their intended target . At around 00 : 20 hours the landing party headed toward the beach in a small collapsible flat bottomed boat known as a Goatley boat . After reaching the shore they realised they were too close to some houses to leave their boat where it was . They dragged the boat 200 yards ( 180 m ) east away from the houses and above the high water mark . Captain Lord Howard guarded the boat while the rest of the SSRF checked to area to ensure it was safe and they had not been observed landing . On their way back to the beach they sighted a German patrol of about seven or eight men coming from the direction of the houses so they took cover . They were discovered by the patrol 's guard dog at about 00 : 50 . The patrol opened fire on them with machine guns and hand grenades . The SSRF managed to disperse the German patrol with return fire and reach the Goatley boat . Captain Lord Howard , who had been left to guard the boat , was wounded trying to re @-@ float the boat , and the others managed to get him aboard . The fight lasted for about 30 minutes . When the German patrol moved forward onto the beach , Lieutenant Hall tried to capture one of the Germans but was himself hit over the head and captured . The SSRF left him behind , presuming he was dead . The men in the Goatley boat had managed to get about 100 yards ( 91 m ) out to sea when it was located and engaged by three machine gun posts above the beach . A gun emplacement to the west also starting firing towards them with heavier calibre guns . The combined fire from four positions damaged the boat , which began to sink . The commandos attempted to swim out to the MTB , which by now had also been discovered and was under fire . Unable to locate it in the darkness , they were forced to swim back to the beach . Winter was fired on again when he reached the beach and was captured . He was taken to the German headquarters where he was put into a room with Captain Lord Howard and Desgranges , who had also been captured . The MTB had withdrawn out of range at about 01 : 30 , but not before it had suffered engine damage ; a bullet had disabled the starboard engine . After 10 minutes it moved back inshore hoping to pick up any survivors . It was again located by the Germans at about 02 : 30 . The MTB was forced to withdraw once again under increasingly heavy mortar and machine gun fire . Unable to locate any survivors , it recrossed the German minefield and arrived back in Portsmouth at 10 : 00 . = = Aftermath = = Later on the morning of 13 September 1942 Winter and Desranges were ordered to collect the bodies of the men who had been killed on the beach . Of the 11 men who went ashore , three were killed : Major March @-@ Phillips , Sergeant Williams , and Private Leonard ; four were captured ( the seriously wounded pair Captain Lord Howard and Lieutenant Hall , with Winter and Desgranges ) ; and four others had escaped . Later on 13 September 1942 Captain Lord Howard and Lieutenant Hall were hospitalised because of their injuries , while Winter and Desgranges were taken to Caen for interrogation . At the time , the Germans were unaware that four commandos — Captain Burton , Privates Hollings and Orr , and Captain Hayes — had managed to evade capture and made it off the beach . On 14 September 1942 , the Germans issued a communiqué : A second communiqué on 15 September 1942 read : The bodies of the dead were buried in the St @-@ Laurent @-@ sur @-@ Mer cemetery on 15 September 1942 . The funeral was only attended by the local German and the French Gendarmarie commanders . To prevent anyone else from attending , the Germans had a machine gun set up covering the cemetery . After 10 days of questioning Winter was taken to Rennes , where he was joined three days later by Captain Burton , Hollings , and Orr . These three had managed to stay together when the boat was sunk , and were captured by a German parachute unit carrying out manoeuvres . Burton was sent to a prisoner of war camp in Germany , Winter , Hollings and Orr were taken to Frankfurt and handed over to the Gestapo for further questioning , after which Winter was sent to a prisoner of war camp at Memmingen . The fate of Hollings and Orr has never been established . Winter and a Special Air Service officer escaped from the camp in April 1945 , disguised as French soldiers . Desgranges was also able to escape from captivity , travelling via Spain to Britain , where he joined the Special Operations Executive ( SOE ) . Captain Hayes , unable to reach the MTB , had started swimming away from the shooting , and came ashore beside Asnieres @-@ en @-@ Bessin . He managed to evade capture and made contact with a local French family who provided him with civilian clothing and contacted the French resistance . Hayes was taken by train to Lisieux and after several weeks reached Paris . Hayes was moved along an escape line to the Spanish border , arriving in October 1942 . After crossing into Spain he was stopped by Spanish border guards who handed him over to the Germans . Hayes was returned to Paris and imprisoned in Fresnes prison . He was kept in solitary confinement for nine months before being executed by firing squad on 13 July 1943 . Hayes had landed in uniform and should have been considered a prisoner of war , but he was executed following the issue of the commando order which called for the execution of all commandos upon capture . It was discovered after the war that Hayes had been betrayed to the Germans , who were aware of all his movements from Normandy to the Spanish border . The persons believed responsible for Hayes ' betrayal were never punished , as they convinced the authorities they were acting as double agents . Despite the results of the operation , the SOE and Combined Operations Headquarters believed that the SSRF could still be of use , and ensured that it was not dissolved . Command of the unit was given to the newly promoted Major Appleyard . At the end of 1942 , most of SSRF were moved to Algeria and absorbed into the 2nd Special Air Service Regiment . Appleyard did not survive the war . He was returning from a Special Air Service mission when his plane was reported missing . It was the same day that Captain Hayes was executed in Paris . = M @-@ 55 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 55 is a state trunkline highway in the northern part of the US state of Michigan . M @-@ 55 is one of only three state highways that extend across the Lower Peninsula from Lake Huron to Lake Michigan ; the others are M @-@ 46 and M @-@ 72 . The highway crosses through rural forest and farmlands to connect Manistee with Tawas City . M @-@ 55 crosses two of the major rivers in the state . Two sections of the highway follow along freeways near Cadillac and West Branch . Running for 150 @.@ 944 miles ( 242 @.@ 921 km ) through the state , M @-@ 55 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . The highway was first designated by July 1 , 1919 along a portion of the current roadway . In a series of extensions , M @-@ 55 was lengthened to connect its current endpoints by the early 1930s . The trunkline has been rerouted in sections since that time resulting in the modern roadway alignment . One set of changes produced a business loop in the Houghton Lake area . = = Route description = = M @-@ 55 starts at a three @-@ way intersection with US 31 north of Manistee . The trunkline runs southeast on Caberfae Highway over the Manistee River and through the Peters and Highpoint bayous . The highway passes near the community of Eastlake before turning eastward through forest land . In eastern Manistee County , the roadway crosses the Pine River south of the Tippy Dam Pond in Wellston . M @-@ 55 intersects M @-@ 37 in western Wexford County southwest of the Caberfae Peaks Ski & Golf Resort . The roadway turns northeasterly along the south shore of Lake Mitchell where it then curves southeasterly to run concurrently along M @-@ 115 along the south shore of Lake Cadillac and through the south side of Cadillac . At the interchange with the US 131 freeway , M @-@ 55 merges north along the freeway , bypassing downtown Cadillac . On the east side of town , M @-@ 55 leaves the freeway and turns east again running through the Pere Marquette State Forest along Watergate Road . When the highway meets M @-@ 66 , M @-@ 55 joins M @-@ 66 and runs north through farmland . As the two highways approach Lake City , they run along the shore of Lake Missaukee and through downtown . M @-@ 55 turns east again along Houghton Lake Road , separating from M @-@ 66 north of the central business district . This section of trunkline passes through mixed farm and wood lands that transitions to mostly forests near Merritt . The road crosses the Muskegon River and follows Lake City Road into the outskirts of Houghton Lake . M @-@ 55 passes over the US 127 freeway and enters Houghton Lake Heights . There the highway runs southeasterly along the shores of Houghton Lake into downtown Houghton Lake . M @-@ 18 briefly joins M @-@ 55 through Prudenville on the east side of the lake , and M @-@ 55 follows West Branch Road as it continues east toward Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) . M @-@ 55 follows I @-@ 75 between exits 227 and 215 , a distance of about 12 miles ( 19 km ) . This section is the only part of M @-@ 55 that has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . From the end of the freeway concurrency , M @-@ 55 follows Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 ) into downtown West Branch . After leaving town , the highway runs through farm lands in rural Ogemaw and Iosco counties . The highway curves southeast into Tawas City . The eastern end of M @-@ 55 is at an intersection with US 23 along the shores of the Tawas Bay of Lake Huron . = = History = = M @-@ 55 had its beginning by July 1 , 1919 when it was designated from Cadillac to Merritt . In 1926 , M @-@ 55 was extended eastward to Houghton Lake over a section of the former M @-@ 14 that was not used for the then @-@ new US 27 . At the same time , another segment of the highway was designated between M @-@ 76 at West Branch and US 23 at Whittemore . The next year , M @-@ 55 was routed along sections of US 27 and M @-@ 76 between the two communities . A western extension was added from Cadillac to US 31 near Manistee in 1932 while the eastern end was shifted from Whittemore to Tawas City when US 23 was rerouted through the area . Segments of M @-@ 55 have been relocated in the years since the basic routing was completed in the early 1930s . A more direct route from West Branch eastward was created in 1938 . Prior to the construction of present @-@ day Hemlock Road through Tawas City , M @-@ 55 entered Tawas City via present @-@ day Plank Road , Second Street , Fifth Avenue , and Mathews Street , ending at the present @-@ day intersection of US 23 and Mathews Street . In 1949 , US 27 was moved to run to the west of Houghton and Higgins lakes . M @-@ 55 was shifted to run concurrently southward along the former M @-@ 169 which was replaced by US 27 . At the intersection with the former US 27 , M @-@ 55 was routed east , and the former route of M @-@ 55 was designated as a new M @-@ 169 . In 1950 , this M @-@ 169 was redesignated Business M @-@ 55 ( Bus . M @-@ 55 ) . M @-@ 55 was rerouted off US 27 when the US 27 freeway was completed in the area . In rerouting M @-@ 55 , it was shifted back to its former routing through Houghton Lake Heights , replacing Bus . M @-@ 55 in late 1961 . The last gravel segments were paved in Iosco County in the late 1950s . Another segment east of Cadillac to M @-@ 66 south of Lake City was realigned in 1973 . At the same time , M @-@ 55 was co @-@ signed with a portion of the newly opened stretch of I @-@ 75 between M @-@ 157 and West Branch . The last routing change was made in November 2000 when the southern segment of the Cadillac bypass was opened . M @-@ 55 was moved out of downtown Cadillac and along the freeway and M @-@ 115 . US 131 joined M @-@ 55 on the bypass the next October when the northern half of the bypass was completed in 2001 . = = Major intersections = = = = Business loop = = Business M @-@ 55 ( Bus . M @-@ 55 ) was a business loop designated for just over a decade in Houghton Lake Heights . Bus . M @-@ 55 ran for 2 @.@ 898 miles ( 4 @.@ 664 km ) along Houghton Lake Drive between US 27 and Federal Drive next to the Houghton Lake . M @-@ 55 was shifted off the road when several highways in the Houghton Lake area were rerouted . US 27 was moved to the west side of the lakes in the area , and M @-@ 55 was moved follow US 27 , replace the original M @-@ 169 in the area and replace a section of the former routing of US 27 in Houghton Lake in 1949 . By early 1950 , the former route of M @-@ 55 through Houghton Lake Heights was designated Bus . M @-@ 55 . This business loop existed until the US 27 freeway was built in the area in late 1961 . At that time , M @-@ 55 was moved back to its pre @-@ 1949 routing , replacing Bus . M @-@ 55 . = The Who = The Who are an English rock band that formed in 1964 . Their classic line @-@ up consisted of lead singer Roger Daltrey , guitarist Pete Townshend , bass guitarist John Entwistle , and drummer Keith Moon . They are considered one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century , selling over 100 million records worldwide and holding a reputation for their live shows and studio work . The Who developed from an earlier group , the Detours , and established themselves as part of the pop art and mod movements , featuring auto @-@ destructive art by destroying guitars and drums on stage . Their first single as the Who , " I Can 't Explain " , reached the UK top ten , followed by a string of singles including " My Generation " , " Substitute " and " Happy Jack " . In 1967 , they performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and released the US top ten single " I Can See for Miles " , while touring extensively . The group 's fourth album , 1969 's rock opera Tommy , included the single " Pinball Wizard " and was a critical and commercial success . Live appearances at Woodstock and the Isle of Wight Festival , along with the live album Live at Leeds , cemented their reputation as a respected rock act . With their success came increased pressure on lead songwriter and visionary Townshend , and the follow @-@ up to Tommy , Lifehouse , was abandoned . Songs from the project made up 1971 's Who 's Next , which included the hit " Won 't Get Fooled Again " . The group released the album Quadrophenia in 1973 as a celebration of their mod roots , and oversaw the film adaptation of Tommy in 1975 . They continued to tour to large audiences before semi @-@ retiring from live performances at the end of 1976 . The release of Who Are You in 1978 was overshadowed by the death of Moon shortly after . Kenney Jones replaced Moon and the group resumed activity , releasing a film adaptation of Quadrophenia and the retrospective documentary The Kids Are Alright . After Townshend became weary of touring , the group split in 1982 . The Who occasionally re @-@ formed for live appearances such as Live Aid in 1985 , a 25th anniversary tour in 1989 and a tour of Quadrophenia in 1996 – 97 . They resumed regular touring in 1999 , with drummer Zak Starkey . After Entwistle 's death in 2002 , plans for a new album were delayed . Townshend and Daltrey continued as the Who , releasing Endless Wire in 2006 , and continued to play live regularly . The Who 's major contributions to rock music include the development of the Marshall stack , large PA systems , use of the synthesizer , Entwistle and Moon 's lead playing styles , Townshend 's feedback and power chord guitar technique , and the development of the rock opera . They are cited as an influence by hard rock , punk rock and mod bands , and their songs still receive regular exposure . = = History = = = = = Background = = = The founding members of the Who , Roger Daltrey , Pete Townshend and John Entwistle , grew up in Acton , London and went to Acton County Grammar School . Townshend 's father , Cliff , played saxophone and his mother , Betty , had sung in the entertainment division of the Royal Air Force during World War II , and both supported their son 's interest in rock and roll . Townshend and Entwistle became friends in their second year of Acton County , and formed a trad jazz group ; Entwistle also played French horn in the Middlesex Schools ' Symphony Orchestra . Both were interested in rock , and Townshend particularly admired Cliff Richard 's début single , " Move It " . Entwistle moved to guitar , but struggled with it due to his large fingers , and moved to bass on hearing the guitar work of Duane Eddy . He was unable to afford a bass and built one at home . After Acton County , Townshend attended Ealing Art College , a move he later described as profoundly influential on the course of the Who . Daltrey , who was in the year above , had moved to Acton from Shepherd 's Bush , a more working @-@ class area . He had trouble fitting in at the school , and discovered gangs and rock and roll . He was expelled at 15 and found work on a building site . In 1959 he started the Detours , the band that was to evolve into the Who . The band played professional gigs , such as corporate and wedding functions , and Daltrey kept a close eye on the finances as well as the music . Daltrey spotted Entwistle by chance on the street carrying a bass and recruited him into the Detours . In mid @-@ 1961 , Entwistle suggested Townshend as a guitarist , Daltrey on lead guitar , Entwistle on bass , Harry Wilson on drums , and Colin Dawson on vocals . The band played instrumentals by the Shadows and the Ventures , and a variety of pop and trad jazz covers . Daltrey was considered the leader and , according to Townshend , " ran things the way he wanted them " . Wilson was fired in mid @-@ 1962 and replaced by Doug Sandom , though he was older than the rest of the band , married , and a more proficient musician , having been playing semi @-@ professionally for two years . Dawson left after frequently arguing with Daltrey and after being briefly replaced by Gabby Connolly , Daltrey moved to lead vocals . Townshend , with Entwistle 's encouragement , became the sole guitarist . Through Townshend 's mother , the group obtained a management contract with local promoter Robert Druce , who started booking the band as a support act . The Detours were influenced by the bands they supported , including Screaming Lord Sutch , Cliff Bennett and the Rebel Rousers , Shane Fenton and the Fentones , and Johnny Kidd and the Pirates . The Detours were particularly interested in the Pirates as they also only had one guitarist , Mick Green , who inspired Townshend to combine rhythm and lead guitar in his style . Entwistle 's bass became more of a lead instrument , playing melodies . In February 1964 , the Detours became aware of the group Johnny Devlin and the Detours and changed their name . Townshend and his room @-@ mate Richard Barnes spent a night considering names , focusing on a theme of joke announcements , including " No One " and " the Group " . Townshend preferred " the Hair " , and Barnes liked " the Who " because it " had a pop punch " . Daltrey chose " the Who " the next morning . = = = 1964 – 78 = = = = = = = Early career = = = = By the time the Detours had become the Who , they had already found regular gigs , including at the Oldfield Hotel in Greenford , the White Hart Hotel in Acton , the Goldhawk Social Club in Shepherd 's Bush , and the Notre Dame Hall in Leicester Square . They had also replaced Druce as manager with Helmut Gorden , with whom they secured an audition with Chris Parmeinter for Fontana Records . Parmeinter found problems with the drumming and , according to Sandom , Townshend immediately turned on him and threatened to fire him if his playing did not immediately improve . Sandom left in disgust , but was persuaded to lend his kit to any potential stand @-@ ins or replacements . Sandom and Townshend did not speak to each other again for 14 years . During a gig with a stand @-@ in drummer in late April at the Oldfield , the band first met Keith Moon . Moon grew up in Wembley , and had been drumming in bands since 1961 . He was performing with a semi @-@ professional band called the Beachcombers , and wanted to play full @-@ time . Moon played a few songs with the group , breaking a bass drum pedal and tearing a drum skin . The band were impressed with his energy and enthusiasm , and offered him the job . Moon performed with the Beachcombers a few more times , but dates clashed and he chose to devote himself to the Who . The Beachcombers auditioned Sandom , but were unimpressed and did not ask him to join . The Who changed managers to Peter Meaden . He decided that the group would be ideal to represent the growing mod movement in Britain which involved fashion , scooters and music genres such as rhythm and blues , soul and beat . He renamed the group the High Numbers , dressed them up in mod clothes , secured a second , more favourable audition with Fontana and wrote the lyrics for both sides of their single " Zoot Suit " / " I 'm the Face " to appeal to mods . The tune for " Zoot Suit " was " Misery " by the Dynamics , and " I 'm the Face " borrowed from Slim Harpo 's " I Got Love If You Want It " . Although Meaden tried to promote the single , it failed to reach the top 50 and the band reverted to calling themselves the Who . The group began to improve their stage image ; Daltrey started using his microphone cable as a whip on stage , and occasionally leapt into the crowd ; Moon threw drumsticks into the air mid @-@ beat ; Townshend mimed machine gunning the crowd with his guitar while jumping on stage and playing guitar with a fast arm @-@ windmilling motion , or stood with his arms aloft allowing his guitar to produce feedback in a posture dubbed " the Bird Man " . Meaden was replaced as manager by two filmmakers , Kit Lambert and Chris Stamp . They were looking for a young , unsigned rock group that they could make a film about , and had seen the band at the Railway Hotel in Wealdstone , which had become a regular venue for them . Lambert related to Townshend and his art school background , and encouraged him to write songs . In August , Lambert and Stamp made a promotional film featuring the group and their audience at the Railway . The band changed their set towards soul , rhythm and blues and Motown covers , and created the slogan " Maximum R & B " . In June 1964 , during a performance at the Railway , Townshend accidentally broke the head of his guitar on the low ceiling of the stage . Angered by the audience 's laughter , he smashed the instrument on the stage , then picked up another guitar and continued the show . The following week , the audience were keen to see a repeat of the event . Moon obliged by kicking his drum kit over , and auto @-@ destructive art became a feature of the Who 's live set . = = = = First singles and My Generation = = = = By late 1964 , the Who were becoming popular in London 's Marquee club , and a rave review of their live act appeared in Melody Maker . Lambert and Stamp attracted the attention of the American producer Shel Talmy , who had produced the Kinks . Townshend had written a song , " I Can 't Explain " , that deliberately sounded like the Kinks to attract Talmy 's attention . Talmy saw the group in rehearsals and was impressed . He signed them to his production company , and sold the recording to the US arm of Decca Records , which meant that the group 's early singles were released in Britain on Brunswick Records , one of UK Decca 's labels for US artists . " I Can 't Explain " was recorded in early November 1964 at Pye Studios in Marble Arch with the Ivy League on backing vocals , and Jimmy Page played fuzz guitar on the B @-@ side , " Bald Headed Woman " . " I Can 't Explain " became popular with pirate radio stations such as Radio Caroline . Pirate radio was important for bands as there were no commercial radio stations in the UK and BBC Radio played little pop music . The group gained further exposure when they appeared on the television programme Ready Steady Go ! Lambert and Stamp were tasked with finding " typical teens " , and invited the group 's regular audience from the Goldhawk Social Club . Enthusiastic reception on television and regular airplay on pirate radio helped the single slowly climb the charts in early 1965 until it reached the top 10 . The follow @-@ up single , " Anyway , Anyhow , Anywhere " , by Townshend and Daltrey , features guitar noises such as pick sliding , toggle switching and feedback , which was so unconventional that it was initially rejected by the US arm of Decca . The single reached the top 10 in the UK and was used as the theme song to Ready Steady Go ! The transition to a hit @-@ making band with original material , encouraged by Lambert , did not sit well with Daltrey , and a recording session of R & B covers went unreleased . The Who were not close friends either , apart from Moon and Entwistle , who enjoyed visiting nightclubs together in the West End of London . The group experienced a difficult time when touring Denmark in September , which culminated in Daltrey throwing Moon 's amphetamines down the toilet and assaulting him . Immediately on returning to Britain , Daltrey was sacked , but was reinstated on the condition that the group became a democracy without his dominant leadership . At this time , the group enlisted Richard Cole as a roadie . The next single , " My Generation " , followed in October . Townshend had written it as a slow blues , but after several abortive attempts , it was turned into a more powerful song with a bass solo from Entwistle . The song used gimmicks such as a vocal stutter to simulate the speech of a mod on amphetamines , and two key changes . Townshend insisted in interviews that the lyrics " Hope I die before I get old " were not meant to be taken literally . Peaking at No. 2 , " My Generation " is the group 's highest @-@ charting single in the UK . The début album My Generation was released in late 1965 . Among original material by Townshend , including the title track and " The Kids Are Alright " , the album has several James Brown covers from the session earlier that year that Daltrey favoured . After My Generation , the Who fell out with Talmy , which meant an abrupt end to their recording contract . The resulting legal acrimony resulted in Talmy holding the rights to the master tapes , which prevented the album from being reissued until 2002 . The Who were signed to Robert Stigwood 's label , Reaction , and released " Substitute " . Townshend said he wrote the song about identity crisis , and as a parody of the Rolling Stones 's " 19th Nervous Breakdown " . It was the first single to feature him playing an acoustic twelve @-@ string guitar . Talmy took legal action over the B @-@ side , " Instant Party " , and the single was withdrawn . A new B @-@ side , " Waltz for a Pig " , was recorded by the Graham Bond Organisation under the pseudonym " the Who Orchestra " . In 1966 the Who released " I 'm a Boy " , about a boy dressed as a girl , taken from an abortive collection of songs called Quads ; " Happy Jack " ; and an EP , Ready Steady Who , that tied in with their regular appearances on Ready Steady Go ! The group continued to have conflict ; on 20 May , Moon and Entwistle were late to a gig having been on the Ready Steady Go ! set with The Beach Boys ' Bruce Johnston . During " My Generation " , Townshend attacked Moon with his guitar ; Moon suffered a black eye and bruises , and he and Entwistle left the band , but changed their minds and rejoined a week later . Moon kept looking for other work , and Jeff Beck had him to play drums on his song " Beck 's Bolero " ( with Page , John Paul Jones and Nicky Hopkins ) because he was " trying to get Keith out of the Who " . = = = = A Quick One and The Who Sell Out = = = = To alleviate financial pressure on the band , Lambert arranged a song @-@ writing deal which required each member to write two songs for the next album . Entwistle contributed " Boris the Spider " and " Whiskey Man " and found a niche role as second songwriter . The band found they needed to fill an extra ten minutes , and Lambert encouraged Townshend to write a longer piece , " A Quick One , While He 's Away " . The suite of song fragments is about a girl who has an affair while her lover is away , but is ultimately forgiven . The album was titled A Quick One ( Happy Jack in the US ) , and reached No. 4 in the UK charts . It was followed in 1967 by the UK Top 5 single " Pictures of Lily " . By 1966 , Ready Steady Go ! had ended , the mod movement was becoming unfashionable , and the Who found themselves in competition on the London circuit with groups including Cream and the Jimi Hendrix Experience . Lambert and Stamp realised that commercial success in the US was paramount to the group 's future , and arranged a deal with promoter Frank Barsalona for a short package tour in New York . The group 's performances , which still involved smashing guitars and kicking over drums , were well received , and led to their first major US appearance at the Monterey Pop Festival . The group , especially Moon , were not fond of the hippie movement , and thought their violent stage act would stand in sharp contrast to the peaceful atmosphere of the festival . Hendrix was also on the bill , and was also going to smash his guitar on stage . Townshend verbally abused Hendrix and accused him of stealing his act , and the pair argued about who should go on stage first , with the Who winning the argument . The Who brought hired equipment to the festival ; Hendrix shipped over his regular touring gear from Britain , including a full Marshall stack . According to biographer Tony Fletcher , Hendrix sounded " so much better than the Who it was embarrassing " . The Who 's appearance at Monterey gave them recognition in the US , and " Happy Jack " reached the top 30 . The group followed Monterey with a US tour supporting Herman 's Hermits . The Hermits were a straightforward pop band and enjoyed drugs and practical jokes . They bonded with Moon , who was excited to learn that cherry bombs were legal to purchase in Alabama . Moon acquired a reputation of destroying hotel rooms while on tour , with a particular interest in blowing up toilets . Entwistle said the first cherry bomb they tried " blew a hole in the suitcase and the chair " . Moon recalled his first attempt to flush one down the toilet : " [ A ] ll that porcelain flying through the air was quite unforgettable . I never realised dynamite was so powerful . " After a gig in Flint , Michigan on Moon 's 21st birthday on 23 August 1967 , the entourage caused $ 24 @,@ 000 of damage at the hotel , and Moon knocked out one of his front teeth . Daltrey later said that the tour brought the band closer , and as the support act , they could turn up and perform a short show without any major responsibilities . After the Hermits tour , the Who recorded their next single , " I Can See for Miles " , which Townshend had written in 1966 but had avoided recording until he was sure it could be produced well . Townshend called it " the ultimate Who record " , and was disappointed it reached only No. 10 in the UK . It became their best selling single in the US , reaching No. 9 . The group toured the US again with Eric Burdon and the Animals , including an appearance on The Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour , miming to " I Can See For Miles " and " My Generation " . Moon bribed a stage hand to put explosives in his drum kit , who loaded it with ten times the expected quantity . The resulting detonation threw Moon off his drum riser and his arm was cut by flying cymbal shrapnel . Townshend 's hair was singed and his left ear left ringing , and a camera and studio monitor were destroyed . The next album was The Who Sell Out — a concept album paying tribute to pirate radio , which had been outlawed in August 1967 by the Marine , & c . , Broadcasting ( Offences ) Act 1967 . It included humorous jingles and mock commercials between songs , a mini rock opera called " Rael " , and " I Can See For Miles " . The Who declared themselves a pop art group and thus viewed advertising as an artform ; they recorded a wide variety of radio advertisements , such as for canned milkshakes and the American Cancer Society , in defiance of the rising anti @-@ consumerist ethos of the hippie counterculture . Townshend stated , " We don 't change offstage . We live pop art . " Later that year , Lambert and Stamp formed a record label , Track Records , with distribution by Polydor . As well as signing Hendrix , Track became the imprint for all the Who 's UK output until the mid @-@ 1970s . The group started 1968 by touring Australia and New Zealand with the Small Faces . The groups had trouble with the local authorities and the New Zealand Truth called them " unwashed , foul @-@ smelling , booze @-@ swilling no @-@ hopers " . They continued to tour across the US and Canada during the first half of the year . = = = = Tommy , Woodstock and Live at Leeds = = = = By 1968 the Who had started to attract attention in the underground press . Townshend had stopped using drugs and became interested in the teachings of Meher Baba . In August , he gave an interview to Rolling Stone editor Jann Wenner describing in detail the plot of a new album project and its relationship to Baba 's teachings . The album went through several names during recording , including Deaf Dumb and Blind Boy and Amazing Journey ; Townshend settled on Tommy for the album about the life of a deaf , dumb and blind boy , and his attempt to communicate with others . Some songs , such as " Welcome " and " Amazing Journey " were inspired by Baba 's teaching , and others came from observations within the band . " Sally Simpson " is about a fan who tried to climb on stage at a gig by the Doors that they attended and " Pinball Wizard " was written so that New York Times journalist Nik Cohn , a pinball enthusiast , would give the album a good review . Townshend later said , " I wanted the story of Tommy to have several levels ... a rock singles level and a bigger concept level " , containing the spiritual message he wanted as well as being entertaining . The album was projected for a Christmas 1968 release but recording stalled after Townshend decided to make a double album to cover the story in sufficient depth . By the end of the year , 18 months of touring had led to a well @-@ rehearsed and tight live band , which was evident when they performed " A Quick One While He 's Away " at The Rolling Stones Rock and Roll Circus television special . The Stones considered their own performance lacklustre , and the project was never broadcast . The Who had not released an album in over a year , and had not completed the recording of Tommy , which continued well into 1969 , interspersed with gigs at weekends . Lambert was a key figure in keeping the group focused and getting the album completed , and typed up a script to help them understand the story and how the songs fitted together . The album was released in May with the accompanying single , " Pinball Wizard " , a début performance at Ronnie Scott 's , and a tour , playing most of the new album live . Tommy sold 200 @,@ 000 copies in the US in its first two weeks , and was a critical smash , Life saying , " ... for sheer power , invention and brilliance of performance , Tommy outstrips anything which has ever come out of a recording studio " . Melody Maker declared : " Surely the Who are now the band against which all others are to be judged . " Daltrey had significantly improved as a singer , and set a template for rock singers in the 1970s by growing his hair long and wearing open shirts on stage . Townshend had taken to wearing a boiler suit and Doctor Martens shoes . In August , the Who performed at the Woodstock Festival , despite being reluctant and demanding $ 13 @,@ 000 up front . The group were scheduled to appear on Saturday night , 16 August , but the festival ran late and they did not take to the stage until 5am on Sunday ; they played most of Tommy . During their performance , Yippie leader Abbie Hoffman interrupted the set to give a political speech about the arrest of John Sinclair ; Townshend kicked him off stage , shouting : " Fuck off my fucking stage ! " During " See Me , Feel Me " , the sun rose almost as if on cue ; Entwistle later said , " God was our lighting man " . At the end , Townshend threw his guitar into the audience . The set was professionally recorded and filmed , and portions appear on the Woodstock film , The Old Grey Whistle Test and The Kids Are Alright . Woodstock has been regarded as culturally significant , but the Who were critical of the event . Roadie John " Wiggie " Wolff , who arranged the band 's payment , described it as " a shambles " . Daltrey declared it as " the worst gig [ they ] ever played " and Townshend said , " I thought the whole of America had gone mad . " A more enjoyable appearance came a few weeks later at the second Isle of Wight Festival , which Townshend described as " a great concert for " the band . By 1970 , the Who were widely considered one of the best and most popular live rock bands ; Chris Charlesworth described their concerts as " leading to a kind of rock nirvana that most bands can only dream about " . They decided a live album would help demonstrate how different the sound at their gigs was to Tommy , and set about listening to the hours of recordings they had accumulated . Townshend baulked at the prospect of doing so , and demanded that all the tapes be burned . Instead , they booked two shows , one in Leeds on 14 February , and one in Hull the following day , with the intention of recording a live album . Technical problems from the Hull gig resulted in the Leeds gig being used , which became Live at Leeds . The album is viewed by several critics including The Independent , The Telegraph and the BBC , as one of the best live rock albums of all time . The Tommy tour included shows in European opera houses and saw the Who become the first rock act to play at the Metropolitan Opera House in New York City . In March the Who released the UK top 20 hit " The Seeker " , continuing a theme of issuing singles separate to albums . Townshend wrote the song to commemorate the common man , as a contrast to the themes on Tommy . = = = = Lifehouse and Who 's Next = = = = Tommy secured the Who 's future , and made them millionaires . The group reacted in different ways — Daltrey and Entwistle lived comfortably , Townshend was embarrassed at his wealth , which he felt was at odds with Meher Baba 's ideals , and Moon spent frivolously . During the latter part of 1970 , Townshend plotted a follow up Tommy : Lifehouse , which was to be a multi @-@ media project symbolising the relationship between an artist and his audience . He developed ideas in his home studio , creating layers of synthesizers , and the Young Vic theatre in London was booked for a series of experimental concerts . Townshend approached the gigs with optimism ; the rest of the band were just happy to be gigging again . Eventually , the others complained to Townshend that the project was too complicated and they should simply record another album . Things deteriorated until Townshend had a nervous breakdown and abandoned Lifehouse . Entwistle was the first member of the group to release a solo album , Smash Your Head Against the Wall , in May 1971 . Recording at the Record Plant in New York City in March 1971 was abandoned when Lambert 's addiction to hard drugs interfered with his ability to produce . The group restarted with Glyn Johns in April . The album was mostly Lifehouse material , with one unrelated song by Entwistle , " My Wife " , and was released as Who 's Next in August . The album reached No. 1 in the UK and the US . " Baba O 'Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " are early examples of synthesizer use in rock , featuring keyboard sounds generated in real time by a Lowrey organ ; on " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , it was further processed through a VCS3 synthesizer . The synthesizer intro to " Baba O 'Riley " was programmed based on Meher Baba 's vital stats , and the track featured a violin solo by Dave Arbus . The album was a critical and commercial success , and has been certified 3x platinum by the RIAA . The Who continued to issue Lifehouse @-@ related material over the next few years , including the singles " Let 's See Action " , " Join Together " and " Relay " . The band went back on tour , and " Baba O ' Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " became live favourites . In November they performed at the newly opened Rainbow Theatre in London for three nights , continuing in the US later that month , where Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times described the Who as " the Greatest Show on Earth " . The tour was slightly disrupted at the Civic Auditorium in San Francisco on 12 December when Moon passed out over his kit after overdosing on brandy and barbiturates . He recovered and completed the gig , playing to his usual strength . = = = = Quadrophenia , Tommy film and The Who by Numbers = = = = After touring Who 's Next , and needing time to write a follow @-@ up , Townshend insisted that the Who take a lengthy break , as they had not stopped touring since the band started . There was no group activity until May 1972 , when they started working on a proposed new album , Rock Is Dead — Long Live Rock ! , but , unhappy with the recordings , abandoned the sessions . Tensions began to emerge as Townshend believed Daltrey just wanted a money @-@ making band and Daltrey thought Townshend 's projects were getting pretentious . Moon 's behaviour was becoming increasingly destructive and problematic through excessive drinking and drugs use , and a desire to party and tour . Daltrey performed an audit of the group 's finances and discovered that Lambert and Stamp had not kept sufficient records . He believed them to be no longer effective managers , which Townshend and Moon disputed . The painful dissolution of the managerial and personal relationships are recounted in James D. Cooper 's 2014 retrospective documentary , Lambert & Stamp . Following a short European tour , the remainder of 1972 was spent working on an orchestral version of Tommy with Lou Reizner . By 1973 , the Who turned to recording the album Quadrophenia about mod and its subculture , set against clashes with Rockers in early 1960s Britain . The story is about a boy named Jimmy , who undergoes a personality crisis , and his relationship with his family , friends and mod culture . The music features four themes , reflecting the four personalities of the Who . Townshend played multi @-@ tracked synthesizers , and Entwistle played several overdubbed horn parts . By the time the album was being recorded , relationships between the band and Lambert and Stamp had broken down irreparably , and Bill Curbishley replaced them . The album was the Who 's highest charting , peaking at No. 2 in both the UK and US . The Quadrophenia tour started in Stoke on Trent in October and was immediately beset with problems . Daltrey resisted Townshend 's wish to add Joe Cocker 's keyboardist Chris Stainton ( who played on the album ) to the touring band . As a compromise , Townshend assembled the keyboard and synthesizer parts on backing tapes , as such a strategy had been successful with " Baba O 'Riley " and " Won 't Get Fooled Again " . Unfortunately , the technology was not sophisticated enough to deal with the demands of the music ; added to this issue , tour rehearsals had been interrupted due to an argument that culminated in Daltrey punching Townshend and knocking him out cold . At a gig in Newcastle , the tapes completely malfunctioned , and an enraged Townshend dragged sound @-@ man Bob Pridden on @-@ stage , screamed at him , kicked all the amps over and partially destroyed the backing tapes . The show was abandoned for an " oldies " set , at the end of which Townshend smashed his guitar and Moon kicked over his drumkit . The Independent described this gig as one of the worst of all time . The US tour started on 20 November at the Cow Palace in Daly City , California ; Moon passed out during " Won 't Get Fooled Again " and during " Magic Bus " . Townshend asked the audience , " Can anyone play the drums ? — I mean somebody good . " An audience member , Scot Halpin , filled in for the rest of the show . After a show in Montreal , the band ( except for Daltrey , who retired to bed early ) caused so much damage to their hotel room , including destroying an antique painting and ramming a marble table through a wall , that federal law enforcement arrested them . By 1974 , work had begun in earnest on a Tommy film . Stigwood suggested Ken Russell as director , whose previous work Townshend had admired . The film featured a star @-@ studded cast , including the band members . David Essex auditioned for the title role , but the band persuaded Daltrey to take it . The cast included Ann @-@ Margret , Oliver Reed , Eric Clapton , Tina Turner , Elton John and Jack Nicholson . Townshend and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for most of the year , handling the bulk of the instrumentation . Moon had moved to Los Angeles , so they used session drummers , including Kenney Jones . Elton John used his own band for " Pinball Wizard " . Filming was from April until August . 1500 extras appeared in the " Pinball Wizard " sequence . The film premièred on 18 March 1975 to a standing ovation . Townshend was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Score . Tommy was shown at the 1975 Cannes Film Festival , but not in the main competition . It won the award for Rock Movie of the Year in the First Annual Rock Music Awards and generated over $ 2 million in its first month . The soundtrack reached number two on the Billboard charts . Work on Tommy took up most of 1974 , and live performances by the Who were restricted to a show in May at the Valley , the home of Charlton Athletic , in front of 80 @,@ 000 fans , and a few dates at Madison Square Garden in June . Towards the end of the year , the group released the out @-@ takes album Odds & Sods , which featured several songs from the aborted Lifehouse project . In 1975 , Daltrey and Townshend disagreed about the band 's future and criticised each other via interviews in the music paper New Musical Express . Daltrey was grateful that the Who had saved him from a career as a sheet @-@ metal worker and was unhappy at Townshend not playing well ; Townshend felt the commitment of the group prevented him from releasing solo material . The next album , The Who by Numbers , had introspective songs from Townshend that dealt with disillusionment such as " However Much I Booze " and " How Many Friends " ; they resembled his later solo work . Entwistle 's " Success Story " gave a humorous look at the music industry , and " Squeeze Box " was a hit single . The group toured from October , playing little new material and few Quadrophenia numbers , and reintroducing several from Tommy . On 6 December 1975 , the Who set the record for largest indoor concert at the Pontiac Silverdome , attended by 78 @,@ 000 . On 31 May 1976 , they played a second concert at the Valley which was listed in the Guinness Book of Records as the world 's loudest concert at over 120 dB . Townshend had become fed up of touring but Entwistle considered live performance to be at a peak . = = = = Who Are You and Moon 's death = = = = After the 1976 tour , Townshend took most of the following year off to spend time with his family . He discovered that former Beatles and Rolling Stones manager Allen Klein had bought a stake in his publishing company . A settlement was reached , but Townshend was upset and disillusioned that Klein had attempted to take ownership of his songs . Townshend went to the Speakeasy where he met the Sex Pistols ' Steve Jones and Paul Cook , fans of the Who . After leaving , he passed out in a doorway , where a policeman said he would not be arrested if he could stand and walk . The events inspired the title track of the next album , Who Are You . The group reconvened in September 1977 , but Townshend announced there would be no live performances for the immediate future , a decision that Daltrey endorsed . By this point , Moon was so unhealthy that the Who conceded it would be difficult for him to cope with touring . The only gig that year was an informal show on 15 December at the Gaumont State Cinema in Kilburn , London , filmed for the documentary , The Kids Are Alright . The band had not played for 14 months , and their performance was so weak that the footage was unused . Moon 's playing was particularly lacklustre and he had gained a lot of weight , though Daltrey later said , " even at his worst , Keith Moon was amazing . " Recording of Who Are You started in January 1978 . Daltrey clashed with Johns over the production of his vocals , and Moon 's drumming was so poor that Daltrey and Entwistle considered firing him . Moon 's playing improved , but on one track , " Music Must Change " , he was replaced as he could not play in 6 / 8 time . In May , the Who filmed another performance at Shepperton Sound Studios for The Kids Are Alright . This performance was strong , and several tracks were used in the film . It was the last gig Moon performed with the Who . The album was released on 18 August , and became their biggest and fastest seller to date , peaking at No. 6 in the UK and No. 2 in the US . Instead of touring , Daltrey , Townshend and Moon did a series of promotional television interviews , and Entwistle worked on the soundtrack for The Kids Are Alright . On 6 September , Moon attended a party held by Paul McCartney to celebrate Buddy Holly 's birthday . Returning to his flat , Moon took 32 tablets of clomethiazole which had been prescribed to combat his alcohol withdrawal . He passed out the following morning and was discovered dead later that day . = = = 1978 – 83 = = = The day after Moon 's death , Townshend issued the statement : " We are more determined than ever to carry on , and we want the spirit of the group to which Keith contributed so much to go on , although no human being can ever take his place . " Kenney Jones , of the Small Faces and the Faces , replaced Moon in November 1978 . John " Rabbit " Bundrick joined the live band as an unofficial keyboardist . On 2 May 1979 , the Who returned to the stage with a concert at the Rainbow Theatre , followed by the Cannes Film Festival in France and dates at Madison Square Garden in New York . The Quadrophenia film was released that year . It was directed by Franc Roddam in his feature @-@ directing début , and had straightforward acting rather than musical numbers as in Tommy . John Lydon was considered as Jimmy , but the role went to Phil Daniels . Sting played Jimmy 's friend and fellow mod , the Ace Face . The soundtrack was Jones ' first appearance on a Who record , performing on newly written material not on the original album . The film was a critical and box office success in the UK and appealed to the growing mod revival movement . The Jam were influenced by the Who , and critics noticed a similarity between Townshend and the group 's leader , Paul Weller . The Kids Are Alright was also completed in 1979 . It was a retrospective of the band 's career , directed by Jeff Stein . The film included footage of the band at Monterey , Woodstock and Pontiac , and clips from the Smothers Brothers ' show and Russell Harty Plus . Moon had died one week after seeing the rough cut with Daltrey . The film contains the Shepperton concert , and an audio track of him playing over silent footage of himself was the last time he ever played the drums . In December , the Who became the third band , after the Beatles and the Band , to grace the cover of Time . The article , by Jay Cocks , said the band had " outpaced , outlasted , outlived and outclassed " all of their rock band contemporaries . = = = = Cincinnati tragedy = = = = On 3 December 1979 , a crowd crush at a Who gig at the Riverfront Coliseum , Cincinnati killed 11 fans . This was partly due to the festival seating , where the first to enter get the best positions . Some fans waiting outside mistook the band 's sound check for the concert , and attempted to force their way inside . As only a few entrance doors were opened , a bottleneck situation ensued with thousands trying to gain entry , and the crush became deadly . The Who were not told until after the show because civic authorities feared crowd problems if the concert were cancelled . The band were deeply shaken upon learning of it and requested that appropriate safety precautions be taken in the future . The following evening , in Buffalo , New York , Daltrey told the crowd that the band had " lost a lot of family last night and this show 's for them " . = = = = Change and break @-@ up = = = = Daltrey took a break in 1980 to work on the film McVicar , in which he took the lead role of bank robber John McVicar . The soundtrack album is a Daltrey solo album , though all members of the Who are included in the supporting musicians , and was his most successful solo release . The Who released two studio albums with Jones as drummer , Face Dances ( 1981 ) and It 's Hard ( 1982 ) . Face Dances produced a US top 20 and UK top ten hit with the single " You Better You Bet " , whose video was one of the first shown on MTV . Both Face Dances and It 's Hard sold well and the latter received a five @-@ star review in Rolling Stone . The single " Eminence Front " from It 's Hard was a hit , and became a regular at live shows . By this time Townshend had fallen into depression , wondering if he was no longer a visionary . He was again at odds with Daltrey and Entwistle , who merely wanted to tour and play hits and thought Townshend had saved his best songs for his solo album , Empty Glass ( 1980 ) . Jones ' drumming style was very different from Moon 's and this drew criticism within the band . Townshend briefly became addicted to heroin before cleaning up early in 1982 . Townshend wanted the Who to stop touring and become a studio act ; Entwistle threatened to quit , saying , " I don 't intend to get off the road ... there 's not much I can do about it except hope they change their minds . " Townshend did not change his mind , and so the Who embarked on a farewell tour of the US and Canada with the Clash as support , ending in Toronto on 17 December . Townshend spent part of 1983 writing material for a studio album owed to Warner Bros. Records from a contract in 1980 , but Townshend found himself unable and at the end of 1983 paid for himself and Jones to be released from the contract . He focused on solo albums such as White City : A Novel ( 1985 ) , The Iron Man ( 1989 , featuring Daltrey and Entwistle and two songs credited to the Who ) , and Psychoderelict ( 1993 ) . = = = Reunions = = = In July 1985 , the Who performed at Live Aid at Wembley Stadium , London . The BBC transmission truck blew a fuse during the set , temporarily interrupting the broadcast . At the 1988 Brit Awards , at the Royal Albert Hall , the band was given the British Phonographic Industry 's Lifetime Achievement Award . The short set they played there was the last time Jones played with the Who . = = = = 1989 tour = = = = In 1989 , the band embarked on a 25th @-@ anniversary The Kids Are Alright reunion tour with Simon Phillips on drums and Steve " Boltz " Bolton as a second guitarist . Townshend had announced in 1987 that he suffered from tinnitus and alternated acoustic , rhythm , and lead guitar to preserve his hearing . Their two shows at Sullivan Stadium in Foxborough , Massachusetts , sold 100 @,@ 000 tickets in less than eight hours , beating previous records set there by U2 and David Bowie . The tour was briefly marred at a gig in Tacoma , Washington , where Townshend injured his arm on @-@ stage . Some critics disliked the tour 's over @-@ produced and expanded line @-@ up , calling it " The Who on Ice " ; Stephen Thomas Erlewine at AllMusic said the tour " tarnished the reputation of the Who almost irreparably " . The tour included most of Tommy and included such guests as Phil Collins , Billy Idol and Elton John . A 2 @-@ CD live album , Join Together , was released in 1990 . = = = = Partial reunions = = = = In 1990 , the Who were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame . The group have a featured collection in the hall 's museum , including one of Moon 's velvet suits , a Warwick bass of Entwistle 's , and a drumhead from 1968 . In 1991 , the Who recorded a cover of Elton John 's " Saturday Night 's Alright for Fighting " for the tribute album Two Rooms : Celebrating the Songs of Elton John & Bernie Taupin . It was the last studio recording to feature Entwistle . In 1994 , Daltrey turned 50 and celebrated with two concerts at New York 's Carnegie Hall . The shows included guest spots by Entwistle and Townshend . Although all three surviving original members of the Who attended , they appeared on stage together only during the finale , " Join Together " , with the other guests . Daltrey toured that year with Entwistle , Zak Starkey on drums and Simon Townshend filling in for his brother as guitarist . = = = Re @-@ formation = = = = = = = Revival of Quadrophenia = = = = In 1996 , Townshend , Entwistle and Daltrey performed Quadrophenia with guests and Starkey on drums at Hyde Park . The performance was narrated by Daniels , who had played Jimmy in the 1979 film . Despite technical difficulties the show led to a six @-@ night residency at Madison Square Garden and a US and European tour through 1996 and 1997 . Townshend played mostly acoustic guitar , but eventually was persuaded to play some electric . In 1998 , VH1 ranked the Who ninth in their list of the " 100 Greatest Artists of Rock ' n ' Roll " . = = = = Charity shows and Entwistle 's death = = = = In late 1999 , the Who performed as a five @-@ piece for the first time since 1985 , with Bundrick on keyboards and Starkey on drums . The first show in Las Vegas at the MGM Grand Garden Arena was partially broadcast on TV and the Internet and released as the DVD The Vegas Job . They then performed acoustic shows at Neil Young 's Bridge School Benefit at the Shoreline Amphitheatre in Mountain View , California , followed by gigs at the House of Blues in Chicago and two Christmas charity shows at the Shepherds Bush Empire in London . Critics were delighted to see a rejuvenated band with a basic line @-@ up comparable to the tours of the 1960s and 1970s . Andy Greene in Rolling Stone called the 1999 tour better than the final one with Moon in 1976 . The band toured the US and UK from June to October 2000 , to generally favourable reviews , culminating in a charity show at the Royal Albert Hall for the Teenage Cancer trust with guest performances from Paul Weller , Eddie Vedder , Noel Gallagher , Bryan Adams and Nigel Kennedy . Stephen Tomas Erlewine described the gig as " an exceptional reunion concert " . In 2001 the band performed the Concert for New York City at Madison Square Garden for families of firefighters and police who had lost their lives following the September 11 attacks on the World Trade Center , and were honoured with a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . The Who played concerts in the UK in early 2002 in preparation for a full US tour . On 27 June , the day before the first date , Entwistle was found dead of a heart attack at 57 at the Hard Rock Hotel in Las Vegas . Cocaine was a contributing factor . = = = = After Entwistle : Tours and Endless Wire = = = = Entwistle 's son , Christopher , gave a statement supporting the Who 's decision to carry on . The US tour began at the Hollywood Bowl with touring bassist Pino Palladino . Townshend dedicated the show to Entwistle , and ended with a montage of pictures of him . The tour lasted until September . The loss of a founding member of the Who caused Townshend to re @-@ evaluate his relationship with Daltrey , which had been strained over the band 's career . He decided their friendship was important , and this ultimately led to writing and recording new material . To combat bootlegging , the band began to release the Encore Series of official soundboard recordings via themusic.com. An official statement read : " to satisfy this demand they have agreed to release their own official recordings to benefit worthy causes " . In 2004 , the Who released " Old Red Wine " and " Real Good Looking Boy " ( with Palladino and Greg Lake , respectively , on bass ) on a singles anthology , The Who : Then and Now , and went on an 18 @-@ date tour of Japan , Australia , the UK and the US , including a return appearance at the Isle of Wight . Later that year , Rolling Stone ranked the Who No. 29 on their list of the 100 Greatest Artists of All Time . The Who announced in 2005 that they were working on a new album . Townshend posted a novella called The Boy Who Heard Music on his blog , which developed into a mini @-@ opera called Wire & Glass , forming the basis for the album . Endless Wire , released in 2006 , was the first full studio album of new material since 1982 's It 's Hard and contained the band 's first mini @-@ opera since " Rael " in 1967 . The album reached No. 7 in the US and No. 9 in the UK . Starkey was invited to join Oasis in April 2006 and the Who in November 2006 , but he declined and split his time between the two . In November 2007 , the documentary Amazing Journey : The Story of the Who was released , featuring unreleased footage of the 1970 Leeds appearance and a 1964 performance at the Railway Hotel when the group were The High Numbers . Amazing Journey was nominated for a 2009 Grammy Award . The Who toured in support of Endless Wire , including the BBC Electric Proms at the Roundhouse in London in 2006 , headlining the 2007 Glastonbury Festival , a half @-@ time appearance at the Super Bowl XLIV in 2010 and being the final act at the closing ceremony of the London 2012 Olympic Games . In November 2012 , the Who released Live at Hull , an album of the band 's performance night after the Live at Leeds gig . = = = = Quadrophenia and More = = = = In 2010 the Who performed Quadrophenia with parts played by Vedder and Tom Meighan at the Royal Albert Hall as part of the Teenage Cancer Trust series of 10 gigs . A planned tour for early 2010 was jeopardised by the return of Townshend 's tinnitus . He experimented with an in @-@ ear monitoring system that was recommended by Neil Young and his audiologist . The Quadrophenia and More tour started in November 2012 in Ottawa with keyboardists John Corey , Loren Gold and Frank Simes , the latter of whom was also musical director . In February 2013 , Starkey pulled a tendon and was replaced for a gig by Scott Devours who performed with less than four hours ' notice . The tour moved to Europe and the UK , and ended at the Wembley Arena in July 2013 . = = = = The Who Hits 50 ! = = = = In October 2013 , Townshend announced the Who would stage their final tour in 2015 , performing in locations they have never played before . Daltrey clarified that the tour is unrelated to the band 's 50th anniversary — which occurred in 2013 — and indicated that he and Townshend were considering recording new material but would be emphasising their hits in their final stadium tour . Daltrey stated , " We can 't go on touring forever ... it could be open @-@ ended , but it will have a finality to it . " In June 2014 , Jones reunited with the Who at a charity gig for Prostate Cancer UK his Hurtwood Polo Club , alongside Jeff Beck , Procol Harum , and Mike Rutherford . Later that month , the Who announced plans for a world tour with a possible accompanying album . In September , the Who released the song " Be Lucky " , which was included on the compilation The Who Hits 50 ! in October . That November , the group released a virtual reality app co @-@ designed by Daltrey 's son , Jamie , featuring events and images from the band 's history . In June 2015 , the Who headlined that year 's Hyde Park Festival , and two days later , the Glastonbury Festival . Townshend suggested to Mojo that it could be the group 's last UK gig . To coincide with The Who 's 50th anniversary , all studio albums , including the new compilation , The Who Hits 50 ! , were reissued on vinyl . In September 2015 , all remaining US tour dates were cancelled after Daltrey contracted viral meningitis . Then Townshend promised the band would come back " stronger than ever " . = = = = Back to the Who Tour 51 ! = = = = The Who began the Back to the Who Tour 51 ! in 2016 as a continuation of the previous year 's tour . The new tour included a return visit to the Isle of Wight Festival on 11 June . = = Musical style and equipment = = The Who have been regarded primarily as a rock band , yet have taken influence from several other styles of music during their career . The original group played a mixture of trad jazz and contemporary pop hits as the Detours , and R & B in 1963 . The group move to a mod sound the following year , particularly after hearing the Small Faces fuse Motown with a harsher R & B sound . The group 's early work was geared towards singles , though it was not straightforward pop . In 1967 , Townshend coined the term " power pop " to describe the Who 's style . Like their contemporaries , the group were influenced by the arrival of Hendrix , particularly after the Who and the Experience met at Monterey . This and lengthy touring	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
strengthened the band 's sound . In the studio , they began to develop softer pieces , particularly from Tommy onwards , and turned their attention towards albums more than singles . From the early 1970s , the band 's sound included synthesizers , particularly on Who 's Next and Quadrophenia . Although groups had used synthesizers before , the Who were one of the first to integrate the sound into a basic rock structure . In By Numbers the group 's style had scaled back to more standard rock , but synthesisers regained prominence on Face Dances . Townshend and Entwistle were instrumental in making extreme volumes and distortion standard rock practices . The Who were early adopters of Marshall Amplification . Entwistle was the first member to get two 4 × 12 speaker cabinets , quickly followed by Townshend . The group used feedback as part of their guitar sound , both live and in the studio . In 1967 , Townshend changed to using Sound City amplifiers , customised by Dave Reeves , then in 1970 to Hiwatt . The group were the first to use a 1000 watt PA systems for live gigs , which led to competition from bands such as the Rolling Stones and Pink Floyd . Throughout their careers , the members of the Who have said their live sound has never been captured as they wished on record . Live gigs and the audience have always been important to the group . " Irish " Jack Lyons said , " The Who weren 't a joke , they were fucking real , and so were we . " = = = Vocals = = = Daltrey initially based his style on Motown and rock and roll , but from Tommy onwards he tackled a wider range of styles . His trademark sound with the band , as noted in 1983 , has been a characteristic scream , as heard at the end of " Won 't Get Fooled Again " . Group backing vocals are prominent in the Who . After " I Can 't Explain " used session men for backing vocals , Townshend and Entwistle resolved to do better themselves on subsequent releases , producing strong backing harmonies . Daltrey , Townshend and Entwistle sang lead on various songs , and occasionally Moon joined in . Who 's Next featured Daltrey and Townshend sharing the lead vocals on several songs , and biographer Dave Marsh considers the contrast between Daltrey 's strong , guttural baritone and Townshend 's higher and gentler tenor to be one of the album 's highlights . Daltrey 's voice is negatively affected by marijuana smoke , to which he says he is allergic . On 20 May 2015 , during a Who concert at Nassau Coliseum , he smelled a joint burning and told the smoker to put it out or " the show will be over ” . The fan obliged , without taking Pete Townshend 's advice that " the quickest way " to extinguish a joint is " up your fucking arse " . = = = Guitars = = = Townshend considered himself less technical than guitarists such as Eric Clapton and Jeff Beck and wanted to stand out visually instead . His playing style evolved from the banjo , favouring down strokes and using a combination of the plectrum and fingerpicking . His rhythm playing frequently used seventh chords and suspended fourths , and he is associated with the power chord , an easy @-@ to @-@ finger chord built from the root and fifth interval that has since become a fundamental part of the rock guitar vocabulary . Townshend also produced noises by manipulating controls on his guitar and by allowing the instrument to feedback . In the group 's early career , Townshend favoured Rickenbacker guitars as they allowed him to fret rhythm guitar chords easily and move the neck back and forwards to create vibrato . From 1968 to 1973 , he favoured a Gibson SG Special live , and later used customised Les Pauls in different tunings . In the studio for Who 's Next and thereafter , Townshend used a 1959 Gretsch 6120 Chet Atkins hollow @-@ body guitar , a Fender Bandmaster amp and an Edwards volume pedal , all gifts from Joe Walsh . Townshend started his career with an acoustic guitar and has regularly recorded and written with a Gibson J @-@ 200 . = = = Bass = = = A distinctive part of the original band 's sound was Entwistle 's lead bass playing , while Townshend concentrated on rhythm and chords . Entwistle 's was the first popular use of Rotosound strings in 1966 , trying to find a piano @-@ like sound . His bassline on " Pinball Wizard " was described by Who biographer John Atkins as " a contribution of its own without diminishing the guitar lines " ; he described his part on " The Real Me " from Quadrophenia , recorded in one take , as " a bass solo with vocals " . Entwistle 's basses include a " Frankenstein " assembled from five Fender Precision and Jazz basses , and Warwick , Alembic , Gretsch and Guild basses . = = = Drums = = = Moon further strengthened the reversal of traditional rock instrumentation by playing lead parts on his drums . His style was at odds with British rock contemporaries such as The Kinks ' Mick Avory and The Shadows ' Brian Bennett who did not consider tom @-@ toms necessary for rock music . Moon used Premier kits starting in 1966 . He avoided the hi @-@ hat , and concentrated on a mix of tom rolls and cymbals . Jones ' drumming style was in sharp contrast to Moon 's . The Who were initially enthusiastic about working with a completely different drummer , though Townshend later stated , " we 've never really been able to replace Keith . " Starkey knew Moon from childhood and Moon gave him his first drum kit . Starkey has been praised for his playing style which echoes Moon 's without being a copy . = = = Songwriting = = = Townshend focused on writing meaningful lyrics inspired by Bob Dylan , whose words dealt with subjects other than boy – girl relationships that were common in rock music ; in contrast to Dylan 's intellectualism , Townshend believed his lyrics should be about things kids could relate to . Early material focused on the frustration and anxiety shared by mod audiences , which Townshend said was a result of " searching for [ his ] niche " . By The Who Sell Out , he began to work narrative and characters into songs , which he fully developed by Tommy , including spiritual themes influenced by Baba . From the mid @-@ 1970s onwards , his songs tended to be more personal , which influenced his decision to go solo . Entwistle 's songs , by contrast , typically feature black humour and darker themes . His two contributions to Tommy ( " Cousin Kevin " and " Fiddle About " ) appeared because Townshend did not believe he could write songs as " nasty " as Entwistle 's . = = Personal relationships = = The Who are perceived as having had a poor working relationship . In the original band , Sandom had been the peacemaker and settled disputes . Moon , by contrast , was as volatile as Daltrey and Townshend . Entwistle was too passive to become involved in arguments . The group established their live reputation and stage show in part out of insecurity and aggression amongst its members and Townshend recalled that all decisions had to be made democratically " because we always disagreed " . The only genuine friendship in the Who during the 1960s was between Entwistle and Moon . The pair enjoyed each other 's sense of humour and shared a fondness for clubbing . Journalist Richard Green noted a " chemistry of playfullness that would go beyond playfullness " . Their relationship diminished somewhat when Entwistle got married in 1967 , though they still socialised on tour . When Moon was destroying toilets in hotels , Entwistle confessed he " was standing behind him with the matches " . The group regularly argued in the press , though Townshend said disputes were amplified in print and the group simply found it difficult to agree on things . Tommy mutually benefitted Townshend and Daltrey 's standing in the band because of the former 's songwriting and the latter 's stage presence , yet even this did not make them close friends . The pair quarrelled , particularly in the mid @-@ 1970s , over the group 's direction . During his time with the band , Jones was subject to intermittent criticism from Daltrey . Entwistle 's death came as a shock to both Townshend and Daltrey , and caused them to re @-@ evaluate their relationship . Townshend has said that he and Daltrey have since become close friends . In 2015 , Townshend confirmed their friendship was still strong , adding their acceptance of each other 's differences " brought us to a really genuine and compassionate relationship , which can only be described as love . " = = Legacy and influence = = The Who are one of the most influential rock bands of the 20th century . Their appearances at Monterey and Woodstock helped give them a reputation as one of the greatest live rock acts and they have been credited with originating the " rock opera " . As of October 2014 , the group has sold over 100 million records worldwide . The group 's contributions to rock include the power chord , windmill strum and the use of non @-@ musical instrument noise such as feedback . The band had an impact on fashion from their earliest days with their embrace of pop art and the use of the Union Jack for clothing . The guitar @-@ smashing incident at the Railway Hotel in 1964 is one of Rolling Stone magazine 's " 50 Moments That Changed the History of Rock ' n ' Roll " . Pink Floyd began to use feedback from their early shows in 1966 , inspired by the Who , whom they considered a formative influence . Shortly after arriving in London in 1966 , Hendrix visited Marshall 's music shop demanding an amp setup like Townshend 's and manipulated electronic noises in ways that Townshend had pioneered . The Beatles were fans and socialised with Moon in particular during the mid @-@ 1960s . In 1965 , Paul McCartney said the Who " are the most exciting thing around " and was inspired to write " Helter Skelter " in the group 's " heavy " style ; John Lennon borrowed the acoustic guitar style in " Pinball Wizard " for " Polythene Pam " . The loud volume of the band 's live show influenced the approach of hard rock and heavy metal . Proto punk and punk rock bands such as the MC5 , the Stooges , the Ramones the Sex Pistols , the Clash and Green Day cite the Who as an influence . The Who inspired mod revival bands , particularly the Jam , which helped other groups influenced by the Who become popular . In the mid @-@ 1990s , Britpop bands such as Blur and Oasis were influenced by the Who . The Who have also influenced pop punk band Panic ! at the Disco . The Who have inspired many tribute bands ; Daltrey has endorsed the Whodlums , who raise money for the Teenage Cancer Trust . Many bands have covered Who songs ; Elton John 's version of " Pinball Wizard " reached No. 7 in the UK . = = = Media = = = During the Who 's hiatuses in the 1980s and 90s , Townshend developed his skills as a music publisher to be financially successful from the Who without recording or touring . He countered criticism of " selling out " by saying that licensing the songs to other media allows a wider exposure and widens the group 's appeal . The American forensic drama CSI ( CSI : Crime Scene Investigation , CSI : Miami , CSI : NY , and CSI : Cyber ) feature Who songs as theme music , " Who Are You " , " Won 't Get Fooled Again " , " Baba O 'Riley " and " I Can See for Miles " respectively . The group 's songs have featured in other popular TV series such as The Simpsons , and Top Gear , which had an episode where the presenters were tasked with being roadies for the band . Rock @-@ orientated films such as Almost Famous , School of Rock and Tenacious D in the Pick of Destiny refer to the band and feature their songs , and other films have used the band 's material in their soundtracks , including Apollo 13 ( which used " I Can See For Miles " ) and Austin Powers : The Spy Who Shagged Me ( which used a take of " My Generation " recorded for the BBC ) . Several of the band 's tracks have appeared in the video game Rock Band and its sequels . = = = Awards and nominations = = = The Who have received many awards and accolades from the music industry for their recordings and their influence . They received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the British Phonographic Industry in 1988 , and from the Grammy Foundation in 2001 . The group were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 1990 where their display describes them as " prime contenders , in the minds of many , for the title of World 's Greatest Rock Band " , and the UK Music Hall of Fame in 2005 . Seven of the group 's albums appeared on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time in 2003 , more than any act except the Beatles , Bob Dylan , the Rolling Stones and Bruce Springsteen . = = Band members = = Current members Roger Daltrey – vocals , guitar , harmonica , percussion ( 1964 – present ) Pete Townshend – guitar , keyboards , vocals ( 1964 – present ) Past members John Entwistle – bass guitar , horns , keyboards , vocals ( 1964 – 2002 ; his death ) Doug Sandom – drums ( 1964 ) Keith Moon – drums , vocals ( 1964 – 78 ; his death ) Kenney Jones – drums ( 1978 – 88 ) Touring musicians Zak Starkey – drums , percussion ( 1996 – present ) Simon Townshend – guitar , backing vocals ( 1996 – 97 , 2002 – present ) Pino Palladino – bass guitar ( 2002 – present ) John Corey – keyboards , backing vocals ( 2012 – present ) Loren Gold – keyboards , backing vocals ( 2012 – present ) Frank Simes – keyboards , backing vocals , musical director ( 2012 – present ) Former touring musicians John " Rabbit " Bundrick – keyboards , backing vocals ( 1979 – 81 , 1985 – 11 ) Tim Gorman – keyboards , backing vocals ( 1982 ) Simon Philips – drums ( 1989 ) Steve " Boltz " Bolton – guitar ( 1989 ) Jody Linscott – percussion ( 1989 – 97 ) Jon Carin – keyboards , percussion ( 1996 – 97 ) = = Discography = = Studio albums My Generation ( 1965 ) A Quick One ( 1966 ) The Who Sell Out ( 1967 ) Tommy ( 1969 ) Who 's Next ( 1971 ) Quadrophenia ( 1973 ) The Who by Numbers ( 1975 ) Who Are You ( 1978 ) Face Dances ( 1981 ) It 's Hard ( 1982 ) Endless Wire ( 2006 ) = = Tours and performances = = Headlining 1960s – 1990s Headlining 2000s – 2010s = Diabolus in Musica = Diabolus in Musica is the eighth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on June 9 , 1998 , it is the second studio album to feature drummer Paul Bostaph . Although receiving mixed critical reviews , the album sold 46 @,@ 000 copies in its first week to peak at number 31 on the Billboard 200 . Guitarist Jeff Hanneman wrote most of the album 's content which has been described as Slayer 's most experimental album . It is the band 's first studio album to be played mostly in C ♯ tuning . The album 's title is a Latin term for " The Devil in Music " , a musical interval known for its dissonance . Lyrical themes explored on the album include religion , cultural deviance , death , insanity , war , and homicide . = = Writing and recording = = Slayer guitarist Jeff Hanneman described the writing process as , " When we were writing this album I was looking for something to beat ; I wanted something to beat , but nothing impresses me right now . Nothing sounded really aggressive or heavy enough to inspire me to beat it , so I just had to come up with my own shit . " The album was produced by Rick Rubin and was recorded at Oceanway Studios . Adrien Begrand of PopMatters felt Slayer introduced characteristics to its music including tuned down guitars , murky chord structures , and churning beats . He believed these characteristics were adopted in response to the then @-@ burgeoning nu metal scene . Drummer Paul Bostaph claims the album is his favorite as he thought the album was " as experimental as Slayer got " . This included incorporating groove metal elements and strange vocal effects as said by an interview for High Times . Bostaph returned to Slayer after his short @-@ lived side project The Truth About Seafood , and the band entered the recording studio four months later . = = Album title and lyrical themes = = Diabolus in Musica is a Latin term for " The Devil in Music " or tritone . Medieval musical rules did not allow this particular dissonance . According to one mythology , the interval was considered sexual and would bring out the devil ; Slayer vocalist and bassist Tom Araya jokingly said that people were executed for writing and using the interval . Araya held concern about the lyrics that King penned to " In the Name of God " , voicing his opinion to guitarist Hanneman . King 's viewpoint was ; " It 's like , ' C 'mon , man , you 're in Slayer . You 're the antichrist — you said it yourself on the first album ! ' You can 't draw the line like that . Whether he agrees with it or not , he didn 't write it — I wrote it . So you have to say , ' Well , it 's just a part of being in this band . ' Now Jeff and I , we don 't give a fuck . If Jeff wrote something I had a problem with , I would never even raise a fucking finger . I 'd be like , ' Fuck yeah , let 's do it ! Gonna piss someone off ? Alright ! ' " = = Touring and promotion = = Following the release of the album the band commenced the Diabolus in Musica tour . From 1998 to 1999 Slayer toured with Sepultura , System of a Down , Fear Factory , Kilgore , Clutch , Meshuggah and Sick of It All . Slayer released a promotional 3 track album called Diabolus in Musica Tour Sampler . The album features 3 tracks , one from Diabolus in Musica ( " Stain of Mind " ) , " Ship of Gold " off tourmate Clutch 's The Elephant Riders and " Suite @-@ Pee " ( Clean Version ) from the debut album by System of a Down . It was released on CD and Cassette . = = Reception = = Diabolus in Musica was released on June 9 , 1998 by American Recordings . In its first week of release , the album sold 46 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and debuted at number 31 on the Billboard 200 Chart . As of August 16 , 2006 the album has sold 290 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . Reviewing 2003 Slayer box set Soundtrack to the Apocalypse , Adrien Begrand of PopMatters dubbed the album " a unique record [ ... ] It 's as if they 're stepping in to show the young bands how to do it right , as songs like ' Bitter Peace ' , ' Death 's Head ' , and the terrific ' Stain of Mind ' blow away anything that young pretenders have put out . " However , not all reviewers were so positive . Reviewing Slayer 's 2001 album God Hates Us All , Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin described Diabolus in Musica as " a feeble attempt at incorporating updated elements into the group 's sound , the presence of which elevated the band 's efforts somewhat and offered hope that Slayer could refrain from endlessly rehashing their previous material for their future output . " In a 1998 review , The New York Times ' Ben Ratliff complained : " Eight of the 11 songs on Diabolus in Musica , a few of which were played at the show , are in the same gray key , and the band 's rhythmic ideas have a wearying sameness too . " Songs from the album are rarely played live following the return of drummer Dave Lombardo in 2002 , with " Stain of Mind " being the only constant . = = Band members ' views = = In the " Nu Metal " episode of the 2011 VH1 documentary series Metal Evolution , Kerry King said the following in retrospect about the album : = = Track listing = = = = = Japanese edition = = = Australian Edition does not contain track # 8 = = Personnel = = = SMS Budapest = SMS Budapest ( " His Majesty 's Ship Budapest " ) was a Monarch @-@ class coastal defense ship built for the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the 1890s . After their commissioning , Budapest and the two other Monarch @-@ class ships made several training cruises in the Mediterranean Sea in the early 1900s . Budapest and her sisters formed the 1st Capital Ship Division of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy until they were replaced by the newly commissioned Habsburg @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships at the turn of the century . In 1906 the three Monarchs were placed in reserve and only recommissioned during the annual summer training exercises . After the start of World War I , Budapest was recommissioned and assigned to 5th Division together with her sisters . The division was sent to Cattaro in August 1914 to attack Montenegrin and French artillery that was bombarding the port , and they remained there until mid @-@ 1917 . Budapest and her sister Wien were sent to Trieste in August and bombarded Italian fortifications in the Gulf of Trieste . The ship was briefly decommissioned in early 1918 and became an accommodation ship , but she was fitted with a large siege howitzer for shore bombardment shortly afterwards and recommissioned . A shortage of ammunition caused the gun to be removed before it could be used , and Budapest reverted to her previous role . The ship was awarded to Great Britain by the Paris Peace Conference in 1920 . The British sold her for scrap , and she was broken up in Italy beginning in 1921 . = = Description and construction = = At only 5 @,@ 785 tonnes ( 5 @,@ 694 long tons ) maximum displacement , the Monarch class was less than half the size of the battleships of other major navies at the time and were officially designated as coast defense ships . The Austro @-@ Hungarian government believed that the role of its navy was solely to defend her coast . Budapest had an overall length of 99 @.@ 22 meters ( 325 ft 6 in ) , a beam of 17 meters ( 55 ft 9 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 4 meters ( 21 ft 0 in ) . Her two 4 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines produced a total of 9 @,@ 100 indicated horsepower ( 6 @,@ 800 kW ) using steam from 16 Belleville boilers . These gave the ship a maximum speed of 17 @.@ 8 knots ( 33 @.@ 0 km / h ; 20 @.@ 5 mph ) . Budapest 's maximum load of 500 metric tons ( 490 LT ) of coal gave her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ; 4 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . She was manned by 26 officers and 397 enlisted men , a total of 423 personnel . The armament of the Monarch class consisted of four 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) Krupp K / 94 guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The ships carried 80 rounds for each gun . Their secondary armament was six 150 @-@ millimeter ( 6 in ) Škoda guns located in casemates in the superstructure . Defense against torpedo boats was provided by ten quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Škoda guns and four 47 @-@ millimeter QF Hotchkiss guns . The ships also mounted two 450 @-@ millimeter ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside . Each torpedo tube was provided with two torpedoes . The ship 's nickel @-@ steel waterline armor belt was 120 – 270 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 – 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and the gun turrets were protected by 250 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The casemates had 80 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) thick sides while the conning tower had 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) of armor . Budapest 's deck armor was 40 millimeters ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick . The Monarch @-@ class ships were ordered in May 1892 with Budapest and Wien to be built at the Stabilimento Tecnico Triestino shipyard in Trieste . Both ships were laid down on 16 February 1893 , the first ships in the class to be laid down . Budapest was launched on 27 April 1896 by Countess Marie Széchényí @-@ Andrássy , wife of the Governor of Fiume , and commissioned on 12 May 1898 . = = Service history = = = = = Peace time = = = Budapest and her sisters formed the Navy 's 1st Capital Ship Division ( I. Schwere Division ) , and Budapest conducted the first wireless telegraphy trials in the Navy when she was briefly fitted with a Marconi radio in December 1898 . In late 1899 the division made a training cruise to the Eastern Mediterranean where they made port visits in Greece , Lebanon , Turkey and Malta . In early 1902 they made another training cruise to the Western Mediterranean with port visits in Algeria , Spain , France , Italy , Corfu , and Albania . The ship was fitted with a Siemens @-@ Braun radio early the following year . The ships of the division were inspected by Archduke Franz Ferdinand , the heir to the throne , in March 1903 at Gravosa . Shortly afterwards , Budapest , Wien , the battleship Habsburg and the destroyer Magnet made a cruise to the Eastern Mediterranean . In 1904 , the Monarch @-@ class ships formed the 2nd Capital Ship Division , and they took part in the 1904 cruise of the Adriatic and Mediterranean Seas as well as training exercises in which the three Habsburg @-@ class battleships engaged the Budapest and her sisters in simulated combat . Those maneuvers marked the first time two homogeneous squadrons consisting of modern battleships operated in the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy . The Monarchs were relegated to the newly formed Reserve Squadron on 1 January 1906 and were only recommissioned for the annual summer exercises . They participated in a fleet review by Archduke Franz Ferdinand in September conducted in the Kolocepski Channel near Šipan . The ships were briefly recommissioned at the beginning of 1913 as the 4th Division after the start of the Second Balkan War , but were decommissioned again on 10 March . = = = World War I = = = With the beginning of World War I the three Monarchs were recommissioned as the 5th Division . They were sent to the Bay of Kotor in August 1914 to attack Montenegrin artillery batteries on Mount Lovćen bombarding the Austro @-@ Hungarian naval base at Cattaro and the fortifications defending it . Budapest and her sisters arrived on 13 August , but their guns could not elevate enough to engage all of the enemy artillery , which was reinforced by eight French guns on 19 October . The battleship Radetzky was summoned to deal with the guns two days later , and she managed to knock out several French guns and forced the others to withdraw by 27 October . The Monarchs remained at Cattaro until mid @-@ 1917 to deter any further attacks . In August , Budapest and Wien were transferred to Trieste to serve as guard ships against Italian commando raids . Each ship was fitted with a 66 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun after their arrival on 26 August to counter intense Italian air attacks . Wien was damaged by a near miss on 5 September , and both ships withdrew to Pola on 12 September . They returned to Trieste on 30 October and sortied into the Gulf of Trieste on 16 November to attack Italian coastal defenses at Cortellazzo , near the mouth of the Piave River . Budapest and Wien opened fire at 10 : 35 at a range of about 9 – 10 kilometers ( 5 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 2 mi ) and knocked out most of the Italian guns after about a half @-@ hour . Their bombardment was interrupted by several unsuccessful Italian air attacks before a more coordinated attack was made by five MAS torpedo boats and five aircraft around 13 : 30 . This was also unsuccessful , and the last Italian coast defense gun was knocked out an hour later . The ships had sustained only minor damage from several hits and near @-@ misses , and not a single sailor was wounded . Emperor Karl inspected Budapest on 19 November at Trieste . Anxious to revenge themselves against the Austro @-@ Hungarians , the Royal Italian Navy ( Regia Marina ) planned an attack on the two ships in their berths in the Bay of Muggia , near Trieste , by MAS boats . On the night of 9 / 10 December , two MAS boats managed to penetrate the harbor defenses undetected , and fired torpedoes at Wien and Budapest . The torpedoes fired at the Budapest struck the mole of the seaplane station , but Wien was hit twice and capsized in five minutes , killing 46 of the crew . Budapest was scheduled for a shore bombardment on 12 December , but was postponed for a week by bad weather . Escorted by the light cruiser Admiral Spaun , six destroyers , nine torpedo boats and a dozen minesweepers , Budapest and the pre @-@ dreadnought Árpád bombarded the Castellazzo fortifications on 19 December . The ship transferred to Pola two days later , and she was decommissioned on 11 March 1918 . She became the accommodation ship for the submarine staff ( Wohnschiff der U @-@ Bootleitung ) . Just over a week later , Admiral Franz von Keil proposed that a 38 @-@ centimeter siege howitzer be installed to bombard the Castellazzo fortifications . Little time was wasted , and removal of the forward gun turret and its barbette began on 26 March . The installation of the 38 @-@ centimeter ( 15 in ) gun was completed on 4 April although testing did not begin until 5 June when three shots were fired . The ship was recommissioned two days later with a reduced crew , and a practice shoot was conducted with unsatisfactory results on 6 August . Another training exercise scheduled for 20 August had to be cancelled for lack of ammunition . The howitzer was removed on 11 October and sent to the Army on 17 October . Budapest resumed her former role and remained at Pola . She was handed over to Great Britain as war reparations in January 1920 and broken up for scrap in Italy in 1921 . = Eugene Wigner = Eugene Paul " E. P. " Wigner ( Hungarian : Wigner Jenő Pál ; November 17 , 1902 – January 1 , 1995 ) , was a Hungarian @-@ American theoretical physicist and mathematician . He received half of the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 " for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles , particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles " . A graduate of the Technical University of Berlin , Wigner worked as an assistant to Karl Weissenberg and Richard Becker at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin , and David Hilbert at the University of Göttingen . Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into physics , particularly the theory of symmetry in physics . Along the way he performed ground @-@ breaking work in pure mathematics , in which he authored a number of mathematical theorems . In particular , Wigner 's theorem is a cornerstone in the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics . He is also known for his research into the structure of the atomic nucleus . In 1930 , Princeton University recruited Wigner , along with John von Neumann , and he moved to the United States . Wigner participated in a meeting with Leo Szilard and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein @-@ Szilard letter , which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs . Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first . During the Manhattan Project , he led a team whose task was to design nuclear reactors to convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors , not just their construction . He became Director of Research and Development at the Clinton Laboratory ( now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ) in early 1946 , but became frustrated with bureaucratic interference by the Atomic Energy Commission , and returned to Princeton . In the postwar period he served on a number of government bodies , including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951 , the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954 , the physics panel of the National Science Foundation , and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964 . In later life , he became more philosophical , and published The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences , his best @-@ known work outside of technical mathematics and physics . = = Early life = = Wigner Jenő Pál was born in Budapest , Austria @-@ Hungary on November 17 , 1902 , to middle class Jewish parents , Elisabeth ( Einhorn ) and Anthony Wigner , a leather tanner . He had an older sister , Bertha , known as Biri , and a younger sister Margit , known as Manci , who later married British theoretical physicist Paul Dirac . He was home schooled by a professional teacher until the age of 9 , when he started school at the third grade . During this period , Wigner developed an interest in mathematical problems . At the age of 11 , Wigner contracted what his doctors believed to be tuberculosis . His parents sent him to live for six weeks in a sanatorium in the Austrian mountains , before the doctors concluded that the diagnosis was mistaken . Wigner 's family was Jewish , but not religiously observant , and his Bar Mitzvah was a secular one . From 1915 through 1919 , he studied at the secondary grammar school called Fasori Evangélikus Gimnázium , the school his father had attended . Religious education was compulsory , and he attended classes in Judaism taught by a rabbi . A fellow student was János von Neumann , who was a year behind Wigner . They both benefited from the instruction of the noted mathematics teacher László Rátz . In 1919 , to escape the Béla Kun communist regime , the Wigner family briefly fled to Austria , returning to Hungary after Kun 's downfall . Partly as a reaction to the prominence of Jews in the Kun regime , the family converted to Lutheranism . Wigner explained later in his life that his family decision to convert to Lutheranism " was not at heart a religious decision but an anti @-@ communist one " . On religious views , Wigner was an atheist . After graduating from the secondary school in 1920 , Wigner enrolled at the Budapest University of Technical Sciences , known as the Műegyetem . He was not happy with the courses on offer , and in 1921 enrolled at the Technische Hochschule Berlin ( now Technical University of Berlin ) , where he studied chemical engineering . He also attended the Wednesday afternoon colloquia of the German Physical Society . These colloquia featured such luminaries as Max Planck , Max von Laue , Rudolf Ladenburg , Werner Heisenberg , Walther Nernst , Wolfgang Pauli , and Albert Einstein . Wigner also met the physicist Leó Szilárd , who at once became Wigner 's closest friend . A third experience in Berlin was formative . Wigner worked at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Physical Chemistry and Electrochemistry ( now the Fritz Haber Institute ) , and there he met Michael Polanyi , who became , after László Rátz , Wigner 's greatest teacher . Polanyi supervised Wigner 's DSc thesis , Bildung und Zerfall von Molekülen ( " Formation and Decay of Molecules " ) . = = Middle years = = Wigner returned to Budapest , where he went to work at his father 's tannery , but in 1926 , he accepted an offer from Karl Weissenberg at the Kaiser Wilhelm Institute in Berlin . Weissenberg wanted someone to assist him with his work on x @-@ ray crystallography , and Polanyi had recommended Wigner . After six months as Weissenberg 's assistant , Wigner went to work for Richard Becker for two semesters . Wigner explored quantum mechanics , studying the work of Erwin Schrödinger . He also delved into the group theory of Ferdinand Frobenius and Eduard Ritter von Weber . Wigner received a request from Arnold Sommerfeld to work at the University of Göttingen as an assistant to the great mathematician David Hilbert . This proved a disappointment , as the aged Hilbert 's abilities were failing , and his interests had shifted to logic . Wigner nonetheless studied independently . He laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics and in 1927 introduced what is now known as the Wigner D @-@ matrix . Wigner and Hermann Weyl were responsible for introducing group theory into quantum mechanics . The latter had written a standard text , Group Theory and Quantum Mechanics ( 1928 ) , but it was not easy to understand , especially for younger physicists . Wigner 's Group Theory and Its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra ( 1931 ) made group theory accessible to a wider audience . In these works , Wigner laid the foundation for the theory of symmetries in quantum mechanics . Wigner 's theorem proved by Wigner in 1931 , is a cornerstone of the mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics . The theorem specifies how physical symmetries such as rotations , translations , and CPT symmetry are represented on the Hilbert space of states . According to the theorem , any symmetry transformation is represented by a linear and unitary or antilinear and antiunitary transformation of Hilbert space . The representation of a symmetry group on a Hilbert space is either an ordinary representation or a projective representation . In the late 1930s , Wigner extended his research into atomic nuclei . By 1929 , his papers were drawing notice in the world of physics . In 1930 , Princeton University recruited Wigner for a one @-@ year lectureship , at 7 times the salary that he had been drawing in Europe . Princeton recruited von Neumann at the same time . Jenő Pál Wigner and János von Neumann had collaborated on three papers together in 1928 and two in 1929 . They anglicized their first names to " Eugene " and " John " , respectively . When their year was up , Princeton offered a five @-@ year contract as visiting professors for half the year . The Technische Hochschule responded with a teaching assignment for the other half of the year . This was very timely , since the Nazis soon rose to power in Germany . At Princeton in 1934 , Wigner introduced his sister Manci to the physicist Paul Dirac , whom she married . Princeton did not rehire Wigner when his contract ran out in 1936 . Through Gregory Breit , Wigner found new employment at the University of Wisconsin . There he met his first wife , Amelia Frank , who was a physics student there . However she died unexpectedly in 1937 , leaving Wigner distraught . He therefore accepted a 1938 offer from Princeton to return there . Wigner became a naturalized citizen of the United States on January 8 , 1937 , and he brought his parents to the United States . = = Manhattan Project = = Although he was a professed political amateur , on August 2 , 1939 , he participated in a meeting with Leó Szilárd and Albert Einstein that resulted in the Einstein – Szilárd letter , which prompted President Franklin D. Roosevelt to initiate the Manhattan Project to develop atomic bombs . Wigner was afraid that the German nuclear weapon project would develop an atomic bomb first , and even refused to have his fingerprints taken because they could be used to track him down if Germany won . " Thoughts of being murdered , " he later recalled , " focus your mind wonderfully . " On June 4 , 1941 , Wigner married his second wife , Mary Annette Wheeler , a professor of physics at Vassar College , who had completed her Ph.D. at Yale University in 1932 . After the war she taught physics on the faculty of Rutgers University 's Douglass College in New Jersey until her retirement in 1964 . They remained married until her death in November 1977 . They had two children , David Wigner and Martha Wigner Upton . During the Manhattan Project , Wigner led a team that included Alvin M. Weinberg , Katharine Way , Gale Young and Edward Creutz . The group 's task was to design the production nuclear reactors that would convert uranium into weapons grade plutonium . At the time , reactors existed only on paper , and no reactor had yet gone critical . In July 1942 , Wigner chose a conservative 100 MW design , with a graphite neutron moderator and water cooling . Wigner was present at a converted rackets court under the stands at the University of Chicago 's abandoned Stagg Field on December 2 , 1942 , when the world 's first atomic reactor , Chicago Pile One ( CP @-@ 1 ) achieved a controlled nuclear chain reaction . Wigner was disappointed that DuPont was given responsibility for the detailed design of the reactors , not just their construction . He threatened to resign in February 1943 , but was talked out of it by the head of the Metallurgical Laboratory , Arthur Compton , who sent him on vacation instead . As it turned out , a design decision by DuPont to give the reactor additional load tubes for more uranium saved the project when neutron poisoning became a problem . Without the additional tubes , the reactor could have been run at 35 % power until the boron impurities in the graphite were burned up and enough plutonium produced to run the reactor at full power ; but this would have set the project back a year . During the 1950s , he would even work for DuPont on the Savannah River Site . Wigner did not regret working on the Manhattan Project , and sometimes wished the atomic bomb had been ready a year earlier . An important discovery Wigner made during the project was the Wigner effect . This is a swelling of the graphite moderator caused by the displacement of atoms by neutron radiation . The Wigner effect was a serious problem for the reactors at the Hanford Site in the immediate post @-@ war period , and resulted in production cutbacks and a reactor being shut down entirely . It was eventually discovered that it could be overcome by controlled heating and annealing . Through Manhattan project funding , Wigner and Leonard Eisenbud also developed an important general approach to nuclear reactions , the Wigner – Eisenbud R @-@ matrix theory , which was published in 1947 . = = Later years = = Wigner accepted a position as the Director of Research and Development at the Clinton Laboratory ( now the Oak Ridge National Laboratory ) in Oak Ridge , Tennessee in early 1946 . Because he did not want to be involved in administrative duties , he became co @-@ director of the laboratory , with James Lum handling the administrative chores as executive director . When the newly created Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) took charge of the laboratory 's operations at the start of 1947 , Wigner feared that many of the technical decisions would be made in Washington . He also saw the Army 's continuation of wartime security policies at the laboratory as a " meddlesome oversight " , interfering with research . One such incident occurred in March 1947 , when the AEC discovered that Wigner 's scientists were conducting experiments with a critical mass of uranium @-@ 235 when the Director of the Manhattan Project , Major General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , had forbidden such experiments in August 1946 after the death of Louis Slotin at the Los Alamos Laboratory . Wigner argued that Groves 's order had been superseded , but was forced to terminate the experiments , which were completely different from the one that killed Slotin . Feeling unsuited to a managerial role in such an environment , he left Oak Ridge at the end of summer in 1947 and returned to Princeton University , although he maintained a consulting role with the facility for many years . In the postwar period he served on a number of government bodies , including the National Bureau of Standards from 1947 to 1951 , the mathematics panel of the National Research Council from 1951 to 1954 , the physics panel of the National Science Foundation , and the influential General Advisory Committee of the Atomic Energy Commission from 1952 to 1957 and again from 1959 to 1964 . He also contributed to civil defense . Near the end of his life , Wigner 's thoughts turned more philosophical . In 1960 , he published a now classic article on the philosophy of mathematics and of physics , which has become his best @-@ known work outside of technical mathematics and physics , The Unreasonable Effectiveness of Mathematics in the Natural Sciences . He argued that biology and cognition could be the origin of physical concepts , as we humans perceive them , and that the happy coincidence that mathematics and physics were so well matched , seemed to be " unreasonable " and hard to explain . His original paper has provoked and inspired many responses across a wide range of disciplines . These included Richard Hamming in Computer Science , Arthur Lesk in Molecular Biology , Peter Norvig in data mining , Max Tegmark in Physics , Ivor Grattan @-@ Guinness in Mathematics , and Vela Velupillai in Economics . Wigner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1963 " for his contributions to the theory of the atomic nucleus and the elementary particles , particularly through the discovery and application of fundamental symmetry principles " . The prize was shared that year , with the other half of the award divided between Maria Goeppert @-@ Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen . Wigner professed that he had never considered the possibility that this might occur , and added : " I never expected to get my name in the newspapers without doing something wicked . " He also won the Franklin Medal in 1950 , the Enrico Fermi award in 1958 , the Atoms for Peace Award in 1959 , the Max Planck Medal in 1961 , the National Medal of Science in 1969 , the Albert Einstein Award in 1972 , and the eponymous Wigner Medal in 1978 . In 1968 he gave the Josiah Willard Gibbs lecture . Mary died in November 1977 . In 1979 , Wigner married his third wife , Eileen Clare @-@ Patton ( Pat ) Hamilton , the widow of physicist Donald Ross Hamilton , the Dean of the Graduate School at Princeton University , who had died in 1972 . In 1992 , at the age of 90 , he published his memoirs , The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner with Andrew Szanton . In it , Wigner said : " The full meaning of life , the collective meaning of all human desires , is fundamentally a mystery beyond our grasp . As a young man , I chafed at this state of affairs . But by now I have made peace with it . I even feel a certain honor to be associated with such a mystery . " In his collection of essays Symmetries and Reflections – Scientific Essays ( 1995 ) , he commented : " It was not possible to formulate the laws of quantum mechanics in a fully consistent way without reference to consciousness . " Wigner died of pneumonia at the University Medical Center in Princeton , New Jersey on 1 January 1995 . He was survived by his wife Eileen and children Erika , David and Martha , and his sisters Bertha and Margit . = = Publications = = 1958 ( with Alvin M. Weinberg ) . Physical Theory of Neutron Chain Reactors University of Chicago Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 226 @-@ 88517 @-@ 8 1959 . Group Theory and its Application to the Quantum Mechanics of Atomic Spectra . New York : Academic Press . Translation by J. J. Griffin of 1931 , Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendungen auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren , Vieweg Verlag , Braunschweig . 1970 Symmetries and Reflections : Scientific Essays . Indiana University Press , Bloomington ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 73021 @-@ 9 1992 ( as told to Andrew Szanton ) . The Recollections of Eugene P. Wigner . Plenum . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 44326 @-@ 0 1995 ( with Jagdish Mehra and Arthur S. Wightman , eds . ) . Philosophical Reflections and Syntheses . Springer , Berlin ISBN 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 63372 @-@ 3 = Interstate 270 ( Colorado ) = Interstate 270 ( I @-@ 270 ) is a 7 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 11 km ) highway in the northeastern part of the Denver – Aurora Metropolitan Area in the U.S. state of Colorado . It overlaps U.S. Highway 36 ( US 36 ) for its entire length . The western terminus of I @-@ 270 is at the interchange with I @-@ 25 and US 36 . It heads eastward to an interchange with I @-@ 76 , where the mileposts reset because of a previous freeway extension . The freeway heads southeast and comes to meet Vasquez Boulevard , where it enters Commerce City . The road crosses Quebec Street before ending at I @-@ 70 . Ground was broken on the first segment of I @-@ 270 in 1965 , and the freeway was completed three years later , stretching from I @-@ 70 to Vasquez Boulevard . The road was then extended to I @-@ 76 two years later . The section between I @-@ 25 and I @-@ 76 was completed in 1999 . Since completion , this section has undergone much construction to renew bridges over Clear Creek and Washington Street . Because the western end of I @-@ 270 is close to the junction of I @-@ 25 and I @-@ 76 , some traffic movements to I @-@ 25 can only be made by using I @-@ 76 . = = Route description = = I @-@ 270 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 25 in Welby , and is concurrent with US 36 . The speed limit through the first section is 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . The freeway heads southeastward for about one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , crossing over Washington Street and State Highway 224 ( SH 224 ) , but access is not provided to either road . Mileposts along I @-@ 270 reset to zero at the I @-@ 76 interchange because it was the original western end of the Interstate . Since the I @-@ 76 interchange is close to both I @-@ 270 's western end and to the I @-@ 25 / I @-@ 76 interchanges , some movements in the interchange are missing . Eastbound I @-@ 270 traffic cannot access westbound I @-@ 76 , nor can eastbound I @-@ 76 traffic access westbound I @-@ 270 . However , traffic on I @-@ 25 can access both westbound I @-@ 76 and eastbound I @-@ 270 , thus completing the missing movements . The three interchanges work together by eliminating bottlenecks caused by redundant interchanges . Beyond the I @-@ 76 interchange , the speed limit increases to 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) . The freeway heads southeast and comes to a westbound exit and eastbound entrance with York Street , and crosses the South Platte River into a commercial area in Adams County . I @-@ 270 enters the city of Commerce City , running roughly parallel with the nearby Sand Creek and crossing over SH 265 without an exit . Continuing through the city , the route comes to a cloverleaf interchange with Vasquez Boulevard , which carries US 85 , SH 2 , and US 6 . The freeway heads eastward into Denver , where it has an exit at SH 35 , a short highway which continues northward along Quebec Street for one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Quebec Street provides access for traffic heading to westbound I @-@ 70 . The route ends shortly thereafter when it merges into I @-@ 70 . The freeway is maintained by the Colorado Department of Transportation ( CDOT ) , who is responsible for maintaining and constructing transportation infrastructure in Colorado , including highways . As part of this role , CDOT periodically conducts surveys on their highways to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2009 , CDOT calculated that as few as 56 @,@ 500 vehicles used I @-@ 270 daily east of its western terminus at I @-@ 25 , and as many as 89 @,@ 600 vehicles used I @-@ 270 daily southeast of York Street in Commerce City . As part of the Interstate Highway System , the entire route is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = I @-@ 270 was constructed in several phases , beginning with a section from I @-@ 70 to Vasquez Boulevard . Following this section was another part of the freeway from Vasquez Boulevard west to I @-@ 76 , and finally a section from US 36 to I @-@ 76 . This last segment has undergone much more construction , including new bridges and ramps at interchanges . = = = Construction = = = Construction on I @-@ 270 began in 1965 . The first portion cost about $ 2 @.@ 7 million . It opened in 1968 , connecting I @-@ 70 to Vasquez Boulevard . Two years later , another two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) segment connected the portion already in service to I @-@ 80S . I @-@ 80S became I @-@ 76 in 1976 . Construction began on the section between I @-@ 76 and I @-@ 25 in April 1993 and was finished in September 1999 , costing $ 11 @.@ 4 million . The mileposts were already established when construction took place , so the route was not assigned new mileposts . Completion of this portion largely decreased traffic problems in the area . = = = Improvements = = = The bridges along westbound I @-@ 270 over Washington Street were replaced and finished in the late 1990s , costing $ 12 million . By the end of 1998 , the bridges over Clear Creek near the I @-@ 76 interchange were completed . In February 2000 , a connection between westbound I @-@ 270 and westbound US 36 was completed , as was access between I @-@ 76 westbound and I @-@ 270 westbound . The eastbound section between US 36 and I @-@ 76 , including new bridges over Washington Street and Clear Creek , was completed in March 2002 and totaled $ 8 @.@ 5 million . Three years later , a flyover ramp was constructed connecting I @-@ 25 southbound to I @-@ 270 eastbound . However , access between I @-@ 270 eastbound and I @-@ 76 westbound still does not exist . = = Future = = CDOT aims to widen the freeway from four up to six lanes between I @-@ 76 and I @-@ 70 by 2025 . = = Exit list = = = Let 's Kill Hitler = " Let 's Kill Hitler " is the eighth episode of the sixth series of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who , and was first broadcast on BBC One , Space and BBC America on 27 August 2011 . " Let 's Kill Hitler " was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Richard Senior . In the episode , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) and his companions Amy Pond ( Karen Gillan ) and her husband Rory Williams ( Arthur Darvill ) crash land in 1938 Berlin when the TARDIS is hijacked by Amy and Rory 's childhood friend , Mels ( Nina Toussaint @-@ White ) . They accidentally save Adolf Hitler ( Albert Welling ) who was scheduled for torture by the Teselecta , a time @-@ travelling justice department . When shot by Hitler , Mels unexpectedly regenerates into River Song , the grown version of Amy and Rory 's child who had been taken away from them . As River is a criminal herself due to her future execution of the Doctor , the Teselecta pursue her instead , whilst the Doctor faces death from her poisoned lipstick . Moffat intended for " Let 's Kill Hitler " to be more lighthearted than the series opener , and he intended to make fun of Hitler . The episode concludes many elements of River Song 's arc . The episode was filmed around March and April 2011 , although the opening sequence , set in a cornfield , was filmed much later in the final scenes shot for the series as they had to wait for the corn to grow . Much of Berlin was filmed in Swansea , Wales while The Temple of Peace in Cardiff was also used as a location . In the UK , the episode attracted 8 @.@ 10 million viewers , the second most @-@ watched episode of the series . Critical reception was mostly positive , though some were critical of the Teselecta and various aspects of the setting and characters . = = Plot = = = = = Prequel = = = On 15 August 2011 , the BBC released a short " prequel " to " Let 's Kill Hitler " , written by Steven Moffat . In the prequel , Amy calls the Doctor and leaves a message for the Doctor on the TARDIS 's answer phone , begging him to find her child , Melody . Though Amy knows Melody will grow up to be River Song , she does not want to miss seeing her grow up . As she ends her message , it is revealed that a very upset Doctor was listening but did not pick up the phone , even though Amy had pleaded for him to . = = = Synopsis = = = In modern @-@ day Leadworth , Amy and Rory create a crop circle to gain the Doctor 's attention via its newspaper coverage . He arrives with his TARDIS , but they are soon joined by Mels , Amy and Rory 's childhood friend who knows of Amy 's " raggedy Doctor " and was responsible for Amy and Rory 's relationship ; Amy had subsequently named her daughter Melody after Mels . On the run from the police after stealing a car , Mels brandishes a gun and coerces them to escape in the TARDIS and " kill Hitler " . Inside , she fires the gun , hitting the central console which fills the time machine with a poisonous gas and sends it out of control . Back in 1938 Berlin , " Justice Vehicle 6018 " , a Teselecta , a shapechanging , human @-@ looking robot manned by a human crew from the future miniaturised inside it , is seeking to deliver justice on major criminals from the past . They do this by using the Teselecta 's weapons to torture the criminal , near the end of their timeline . Having taken on the appearance of a Wehrmacht officer to meet with Hitler , they are surprised when the TARDIS crashes into Hitler 's office . Hitler , already panicked , fires on the Teselecta , but his aim is poor and strikes Mels . As Rory punches Hitler and locks him in a cupboard , the TARDIS crew finds Mels regenerating , becoming the woman they know as River Song — Melody as a grown woman . River , having been trained by her captors to kill the Doctor , makes several attempts but the Doctor has taken precautions to nullify these . Instead , River kisses him and — before disappearing into the streets of Berlin — reveals that her lipstick is poison ( from the " Judas Tree " ) , which will kill the Doctor within the hour and prevent his regeneration . The Doctor orders Amy and Rory to follow River , passing Amy his sonic screwdriver , while he returns to the TARDIS to try to discover a cure . The Teselecta , aware that the Doctor 's death on 22 April 2011 is a " fixed point in time " ( " The Impossible Astronaut " ) , instead follows Amy and Rory in chasing down River , having identified her as their most wanted war criminal , responsible for the Doctor 's death . Amy and Rory chase River to a café at the Hotel Adlon , but the Teselecta arrives , bringing them aboard as allies , and takes on Amy 's appearance , allowing the robot to get close to River to attack her . Before they can complete the attack , the TARDIS materialises ; the Doctor , spurred on by the TARDIS ' " voice interface " hologram of Amy 's younger self , Amelia , has found time to dress for the period and stops the attack , now aware of the Teselecta 's nature . The captain speaks to the Doctor , informing him that River has been trained to kill him by the Silence , a religious order that believes that when " the oldest question in the universe " is asked , silence will fall across the universe . When the crew refuse to back down from attacking River , Amy uses the sonic screwdriver to turn the robot 's " antibodies " — its security robots — against the crew . The crew abandon the robot by being teleported away by their mothership , leaving Amy and Rory to face the antibodies . The Doctor finds himself too weak from the poison 's effects to pilot the TARDIS to rescue his companions ; River is inspired by the Doctor 's sympathy , and finds herself guided by the TARDIS itself to pilot the ship , and rescues Amy and Rory in time . On returning to the café , the trio finds the Doctor near death ; he asks River to find " River Song " and give her a message , then whispers something in her ear before he passes away . River , who at this point still only knows herself as Melody Pond , asks Amy who River Song is ; Amy uses the Teselecta to show River her form stored in the robot 's database of who she is to become . With this , River sacrifices her remaining regenerations to bring the Doctor back to life , and passes out . The Doctor , Amy , and Rory take her to a hospital in the far future , leaving the TARDIS @-@ shaped diary as a gift by her bedside , and depart . Later , River is shown becoming an archaeologist so she can find the Doctor herself . Aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor has discovered the date of his death from the records aboard the Teselecta , but does not reveal this knowledge to Amy or Rory . = = = Continuity = = = This episode reveals the origins to several facets of the River Song character . Before transforming into River , Mels states that she was the young girl seen regenerating at the end of " Day of the Moon " , becoming " a toddler " who presumably grew up to become Mels . River 's worn TARDIS @-@ coloured diary , which the Doctor and his companions have seen in her relative future , is given to her brand @-@ new by the Doctor . The Doctor introduces her to the concept of " spoilers " , seen originally in the 10th Doctor story " Silence in the Library " / " Forest of the Dead " , and becoming a virtual catchphrase for River . River 's aptitude for flying the TARDIS — having been taught how by the machine itself — is demonstrated in " The Time of Angels " ; River explains she " had lessons from the very best " ( which the Doctor assumes refers to himself ) and that the Doctor was " busy that day " . The Teselecta crew consider River a wanted , dangerous criminal ; River is shown being in prison in her personal future in " The Time of Angels " for killing " the best man I ever knew " . In this episode 's epilogue , River joins the Luna University to become an archaeologist , in order to find the Doctor . Her previous appearances ( events which take place later in River 's personal timeline ) show that she will / has acquired her degrees . When River wakes up in hospital , the Doctor says " Rule One : The Doctor lies " . This rule is ' repeated ' by River herself in " The Big Bang " , a future event in her own personal timeline . While activating the voice interface aboard the TARDIS , the Doctor is shown holograms of his former companions Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) , Martha Jones ( Freema Agyeman ) and Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) . He rejects these , as they all cause him guilt . He eventually settles on the young Amelia ( " The Eleventh Hour " ) , who also appears ( in flashback scenes of Amy 's past ) interacting with a younger Mels and Rory . The young Amelia voice interface brings up " fish fingers and custard " , an allusion to the Doctor 's meal with the real Amelia in " The Eleventh Hour " . The concept of " fixed points in time " has been explored before , such as in " The Fires of Pompeii " . The supposed " state of temporal grace " within the TARDIS was previously asserted by the Fourth Doctor during The Hand of Fear . = = Production = = = = = Writing and casting = = = Serving as the mid @-@ series premiere , it is the opposite of the tone of the opening story " The Impossible Astronaut " / " Day of the Moon " , which was " grim and dark " . Writer Steven Moffat wanted to show Hitler in a comedic light and " take the mickey out of him " instead of making him " an icon of evil " . He compared it to a scene in an Indiana Jones film which made fun of Hitler . Moffat enjoyed writing Mels ' regeneration scene , finding comedy in her checking out her new body . He asserts that the episode is the beginning of River 's story and shows how she became the woman the Doctor met in previous episodes . During the moments after her regeneration , River reenacts the iconic scene between Mrs Robinson ( Anne Bancroft ) and Benjamin ( Dustin Hoffman ) from the movie The Graduate , calling out to the Doctor " Hello , Benjamin " . The camera angle is also a tribute to the film . The Doctor previously likened River to Mrs Robinson in " The Impossible Astronaut " . The cast and crew felt that the costume and make @-@ up artists did a good job with Albert Welling , as he looked so much like Hitler it was a " surreal " experience . Ella Kenion , who plays Harriet in this episode , later appeared in the Fourth Doctor audio drama The Wrath of the Iceni where she played Boudica . Darvill was pleased that his character , Rory , was more of an " action hero " in the episode . Before broadcast , Smith stated that it was " maybe [ his ] favorite episode to date ... it just rockets along " . Smith 's Doctor debuted his secondary jacket , a long dark @-@ green military overcoat , for the first time in this episode . In an interview for the previous series concerning the Eleventh Doctor 's costume , executive producer Piers Wenger said , " I think he 'd really like to evolve it next series . He 's really keen to have a coat . " Smith explained that he wanted a coat because of the cold weather . = = = Filming and effects = = = The read @-@ through for " Let 's Kill Hitler " took place on 21 March 2011 . The opening scene in the cornfield were the last shots filmed of the series on 11 July 2011 . The scene was filmed last because the crew had to wait for the corn to grow ; Moffat had written the scene in February . Much of Berlin was filmed in Swansea . Vintage vehicles from the period were used ; Darvill loved the motorbike , although he was not allowed to ride it as it was the job of the stuntman . The Temple of Peace in Cardiff used in the episode for the German dinner party was also used for Gillan 's first Doctor Who appearance , when she played a Soothsayer in " The Fires of Pompeii " . Smith , Gillan , and Darvill had previously filmed in the Temple of Peace for " Cold Blood " of the previous series . Hitler 's office was one of the biggest sets that had been built for the show . Typically it would have been filmed in a real building , but the TARDIS had to crash through the wall and thus the set had to be destroyed with an air cannon . The Large Hadron Collider in Switzerland was the inspiration for the design of the Teselecta corridors . One scene involving the Teselecta ( disguised as a German soldier ) chasing Amy and Rory on motorcycles through Berlin was cut from filming due to budget issues . AT & T , who wanted to advertise in the United States broadcast of the episode on BBC America as a tie @-@ in to their " Rethink possible " slogan , brought the idea of using a motion comic to create a bridging scene within the advertising break where this scene would have been placed . AT & T and BBC America worked with Moffat and Senior to create the 60 second scene , which was animated by Double Barrel Motion Labs . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Let 's Kill Hitler " was first broadcast on 27 August 2011 on BBC One in the United Kingdom . Internationally , it was broadcast in America on sister station BBC America on 27 August as well as on Space in Canada . Overnight ratings showed that the episode was watched by 6 @.@ 2 million viewers on BBC One , the second most viewed show of the day behind The X Factor . The episode also came in at number one on the BBC iPlayer service the day after it aired as well as topping the requests on the service for the month of August with 0 @.@ 99 million views . The episode also received an Appreciation Index of 85 , considered " excellent " . Final viewing figures came in at 8 @.@ 10 million , the eleventh most watched programme of the week . It was also the second most @-@ watched episode of the sixth series , behind " The Impossible Astronaut " . Some viewers complained to the BBC believing they heard a German guard say the profanity " where the fuck is he ? " However , the BBC stated he said , " Halt , was machen Sie ? " , which means " Stop , what are you doing ? " in German . = = = Critical reception = = = The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . Dan Martin , writing for The Guardian , was more pleased with " Let 's Kill Hitler " as an opener than " A Good Man Goes to War " as a finale , and said it was " an energetic , timey @-@ wimey tour de force with gags and flourishes like the car and the crop circles that still maintained a strong sense of what it was about " . He also commended Alex Kingston 's performance , saying that " she got to steal her every scene even more completely than usual , masterfully swerving the episode into a properly emotional final act " . Martin later rated it the sixth best episode of the series , though the finale was not included in the list . He commented that it may be " divisive " amongst fans as it was criticised for not making sense to casual viewers of the programme , but Martin said he " loved it " . Michael Hogan of The Daily Telegraph gave the episode four out of five stars , praising it for being " jam @-@ packed full of ideas , twists , turns and wibbly @-@ wobbly time @-@ bending stuff " and " giddily thrilling entertainment , albeit rather exhausting " . He also praised the way it allowed Rory to " finally find his niche " . Writing for The Independent , Neela Debnath praised the lighter mood and " great slapstick moments " . Though she thought the identity of Mels was " obvious to everyone but the characters " , she said that Toussaint @-@ White was " excellent " and that " it was shame that she regenerated so early on because she brought a different energy to the character " . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern , unlike Debnath , admitted that Mels ' true identity " took [ him ] completely by surprise " . He thought that a plot hole was generated in terms of what Melody did in between regenerating in 1969 and joining Amy and Rory , still as a child , 20 years later , but said that " the episode moves too fast for such quibbles to stick , and it is hilarious " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly called it " a marvelously energetic , funny , clever , noble mid @-@ season start " and praised the acting of Smith , Gillan , Darvill , and particularly Kingston , as well as the emotion that developed in the episode . IGN 's Matt Risley gave the episode a score of 9 out of 10 , saying that it was " arguably Moffat 's most unashamedly fun Time Lord romp yet " . While he praised the humour , plot , and character development , he was critical of the Teselecta ; though they " score [ ed ] high on the sci @-@ fi kitsch factor " they were " anything but memorable " . SFX magazine critic Richard Edwards gave " Let 's Kill Hitler " five out of five stars , thinking it " has to rank among the cleverest Who episodes Moffat has ever written " . While he praised Kingston 's performance , he wrote that " it 's Matt Smith who steals the show , in one of his finest performances as the Doctor ... he 's utterly magnificent , whether acting the joker , or living out 32 minutes ( ish ) of death scene . The mix of optimism ... and sadness is a tricky thing to pull off , yet Smith does it in a quintessentially Doctor way " . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club graded the episode as a B + , saying that he was " a bit divided " . He praised Moffat 's River Song arc , which made " the mind [ reel ] ... in a good way " , as well as the dialogue and " big concepts " . On the other hand , he did not think the Teselecta 's mission was developed and " as characters they seem kind of bland " . What " really [ troubled ] " him was that it did not have the " impact " of some previous episodes and he thought it unlikely that Amy and Rory were willing to quickly accept that they were meant to raise their daughter as a school friend . Jim Shelley of The Daily Mirror was also negative about the episode , especially towards Alex Kingston , who appeared to be acting while " the rest of the cast play their parts perfectly naturally " . The Daily Telegraph reviewer Gavin Fuller said that Moffat " delivered a pacy romp " and praised the concept of the Teselecta , but was disappointed with the " wasted opportunity " of the setting . He thought that the setting offered " great dramatic potential " but was " little more than window dressing for the story " . He also felt using Hitler as a comic relief " struck a wrong note given the nature of the man and the regime he led " and that it was " an odd way to treat such an historically significant character " . He was also critical of Moffat 's " seeming keenness to kill the regular cast in some way , shape or form " . However , Entertainment Weekly 's Tucker thought that it " didn 't need Hitler to be an excellent [ Doctor Who ] episode " . = 2000 CECAFA Cup = The 2000 CECAFA Cup was the 24th edition of the football tournament , which involves teams from Southern and Central Africa . The matches were played in Uganda , a decision which Tanzania protested , but to no avail . Tanzania were also banned from international football by FIFA , the world football governing body . The matches were played from 18 November to 2 December 2000 . Prior to the tournament , Djibouti withdrew due to monetary difficulties , but re @-@ entered . Sudan and Zanzibar also withdrew , but stayed out . The reasoning behind their withdrawal was unknown . Nine teams entered the tournament , as opposed to the twelve teams competing at the previous tournament in 1999 . However , there were only eight different nations competing in the tournament as Uganda entered two teams : Uganda ( A ) and Uganda ( B ) . Uganda ( A ) was in Group A , and Uganda ( B ) was in Group B , enabling the two the correct set @-@ up to be able to meet each other in the final , as occurred here . Both Ugandas topped their respective groups , and progressed to the knockout stages along with Ethiopia and Rwanda . Uganda ( A ) beat Rwanda , and Uganda ( B ) beat Ethiopia to mean that " the Cranes " ( Uganda [ A ] ) and " the Lions " ( Uganda ( B ) ) would meet in the final . In the final , Uganda ( A ) captained by George Ssimwogerere of Express , won 2 – 0 . Ethiopia finished third after beating Rwanda on penalties 4 – 2 after the match finished 0 – 0 . = = Background = = The CECAFA Cup is considered Africa 's oldest football tournament , and involves teams from Central and Southern Africa . The tournament was originally named the Gossage Cup , contested by the four nations of Kenya , Uganda , Tanganyika ( modern day Tanzania ) , and Zanzibar ; it ran from 1929 until 1965 . In 1967 , this became the East and Central African Senior Challenge Cup , often shortened to simply the Challenge Cup , which was competed for five years , until 1971 , before the CECAFA Cup was introduced in 1973 . The 1999 champions were Rwanda ( B ) , in 2000 they emerged from their group second , after Uganda ( B ) , 5 points behind but 2 points ahead of the next team , Eritrea . They were then knocked out in the semi @-@ finals against Uganda ( A ) . The 2000 champions , Uganda , were knocked out in the 1999 semi @-@ finals by none other than Rwanda . = = Participants = = 9 teams from 8 countries competed , three teams from the original tournament competed ( excluding Tanganyika , which changed names and is currently called Tanzania ) , all 8 nations at this tournament had competed at the 1999 CECAFA Cup . = = Group stage = = The group stage began on 18 November and ended on 27 November with Group A 's final match between Ethiopia and Burundi . At the end of the group stage , the teams who finished bottom of their group were eliminated , along with the two teams above them ( in Group A ) , and the team above them ( in Group B ) , whereas the teams positioned in the top two slots in the groups progressed to the knock @-@ out rounds . Due to there being an odd number of teams , Group A contained more matches and an additional team , with a total of 5 to Group B 's 4 teams . = Smallville = Smallville is an American television series developed by writer @-@ producers Alfred Gough and Miles Millar , based on the DC Comics character Superman created by Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster . The series , initially broadcast by The WB , premiered on October 16 , 2001 . After Smallville 's fifth season , The WB and UPN merged to form The CW , the series ' later United States broadcaster . Smallville , which ended its tenth and final season on May 13 , 2011 , follows Clark Kent ( Tom Welling ) in the fictional town of Smallville , Kansas , before he becomes known as Superman . The first four seasons focus on Clark and his friends in high school . After season five Smallville ventures into adult settings , eventually focusing on his career at the Daily Planet and introducing other DC comic @-@ book superheroes and villains . Before the series ' production Bruce Wayne , chronicling the young protagonist 's journey toward Batman , was proposed ; although that series failed to generate interest , it inspired Smallville . Series developers Gough and Millar pitched their " no tights , no flights " rule to the president of Warner Bros. Television , reducing Superman to the bare essentials and examining what led Clark Kent to become the Man of Steel . After seven seasons with the show , Gough and Millar departed with little explanation . Smallville was primarily filmed in and around Vancouver , British Columbia , with local businesses and buildings substituting for Smallville locations . Most of the music for the first six seasons was composed by Mark Snow , who incorporated elements of John Williams 's musical score from the Superman film series . In season seven , Louis Febre ( who worked with Snow from the beginning ) became the series ' primary composer . Smallville was generally positively received when it began . Former Superman star Christopher Reeve expressed approval for the series , making two guest appearances before his death . The pilot episode set a ratings record for a WB debut , with 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . Over ten seasons the series averaged about 4 @.@ 34 million viewers per episode , with season two the highest @-@ rated at 6 @.@ 3 million . By the end of its run , Smallville passed Stargate SG @-@ 1 as the longest @-@ running North American science @-@ fiction series . Since its first season , the series received accolades ranging from Emmys to Teen Choice Awards . Smallville spawned a series of young @-@ adult novels , a DC Comics bimonthly comic book , soundtrack recordings and series @-@ related merchandise . All ten seasons are available on DVD in regions 1 , 2 and 4 . In April 2012 , it continued in comic @-@ book form with a storyline resuming shortly after the series finale , and ended in November 2014 . = = Series overview = = The regular cast is introduced in season one , with storylines involving a villain deriving power from kryptonite exposure . The one @-@ episode villains were a plot device developed by Gough and Millar . Smallville 's first season primarily dealt with Clark 's coming to terms with his alien origin and the revelation that his arrival on Earth was connected to the death of Lana Lang 's parents . After the first season the series had fewer villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week episodes , focusing instead on individual @-@ character story arcs and exploring Clark 's origins . Major storylines include Clark 's discovery of his Kryptonian heritage and Lex 's escalating conflict with his father , Lionel . The disembodied voice of Clark 's father , Jor @-@ El , is introduced ; he communicates to Clark through his spaceship , setting the stage for plots involving his role in fulfilling Clark 's earthly destiny . In a fourth @-@ season arc Clark , instructed by Jor @-@ El , searches for three Kryptonian stones which contain the knowledge of the universe and form his Fortress of Solitude . Clark battles Brainiac in his attempts to release the Kryptonian criminal General Zod , and must capture ( or destroy ) other escaped Phantom Zone criminals . His cousin Kara arrives , and Lex Luthor discovers Clark 's secret . The eighth season introduces Davis Bloome ( Smallville 's version of Doomsday ) , and Tess Mercer replaces the departing Lex Luthor . Justin Hartley becomes a series regular as Oliver Queen ( Green Arrow ) after being a recurring guest in season six . In the ninth season Major Zod ( Callum Blue ) and other members of Zod 's military group are revived ( without their Kryptonian powers ) by Tess Mercer , and their efforts to regain their powers are the season 's central conflict . The final season revolves around Clark 's attempts to lose his doubts and fears and become the hero he is meant to be , while confronting his biggest challenges : the coming of Darkseid and the return of Lex Luthor . = = Cast = = Tom Welling plays Clark Kent , a young man with superhuman abilities who tries to find his place in life after discovering that he is an alien and uses his powers to help those in danger . Clark 's season @-@ one problems include his inability to share his secret and his desire for a normal life . After months of scouting , Welling was cast as Clark . Although David Nutter had to convince his manager that the role would not hurt the actor 's film career to persuade Welling to read the pilot script , after reading the script Welling agreed to audition . Kristin Kreuk plays Lana Lang , the girl next door . Grieving the loss of her parents , she has empathy for everyone and feels connected to Clark . Kreuk was the first to be cast , after Nutter saw an audition tape the actress had sent . Although she left the series after the seventh season , she returned for five episodes in season eight as a guest star . Michael Rosenbaum plays Lex Luthor , a billionaire 's son sent to Smallville to run the local fertilizer plant . After Clark saves his life , they become fast friends . As the series progresses , Lex 's friendship with Clark crumbles until they consider themselves enemies . The role was difficult to cast ; Michael Rosenbaum auditioned twice and , feeling that he did not take his first audition seriously enough , outlined a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ page scene indicating where to be funny , charismatic or menacing . His second audition went so well that he was hired . Rosenbaum left the show after seven seasons , reprising his role for the series finale . Allison Mack plays Chloe Sullivan , one of Clark 's best friends , who is in love with him ( although her feelings are not reciprocated ) . Editor of the school newspaper , her journalistic curiosity and desire to " expose falsehoods " and " know the truth " create tension with her friends ( especially when she investigates Clark 's past ) . After learning about Smallville from casting director Dee Dee Bradley , Mack considered auditioning for Lana Lang but auditioned twice for Chloe Sullivan . The character was created just for the series , and was intended to have an " ethnic background " before Mack was hired . She has since appeared in the comic book . Sam Jones III plays Pete Ross , another best friend of Clark 's and the first person to whom Clark voluntarily tells his secret . Although he is in love with Chloe , he does not admit it because of the Clark @-@ Lana @-@ Chloe love triangle already in place . Ross was written out of the series at the end of season three , but made a guest appearance in season seven . Jones was the last of the series regulars to be cast , with Gough and Millar seeing him four days before they began filming the pilot . In the comics Ross is Caucasian , but the producers chose to cast Jones ( who is African @-@ American ) . Annette O 'Toole plays Martha Kent , Clark 's adoptive mother . She and her husband , Jonathan , give Clark wise advice about coping with his increasing abilities . In season five Martha takes a state @-@ senate seat , and in season six she leaves the show . Although Cynthia Ettinger was originally cast as Martha Kent , during filming everyone ( including Ettinger ) realized that she was not right for the part . O 'Toole was committed to the television series The Huntress when Ettinger filmed the original pilot . Around the time the creators wanted to recast Martha Kent The Huntress was canceled , allowing O 'Toole to join the cast . The actress had played Lana Lang in Superman III . John Schneider plays Jonathan Kent , Clark 's adoptive father , who goes to great lengths to protect his son 's secret ; according to Schneider , Jonathan is " perfectly willing to go to jail , or worse , to protect his son . " Schneider was written out of the show in the series ' 100th episode , with Jonathan dying of a heart attack the night of his election victory . Millar and Gough wanted a recognizable face for Smallville ; they were happy to cast Schneider as Jonathan because he was known as Bo Duke from The Dukes of Hazzard , which Gough saw as adding to the belief that Schneider could have grown up running a farm . Eric Johnson plays Whitney Fordman , Lana 's boyfriend in season one , who becomes jealous of Clark and Lana 's budding friendship and hazes him . He reconciles with Clark before joining the Marines and going to Afghanistan . Although Whitney was written out of the show in the first @-@ season finale , he made cameo appearances in the season @-@ two episode " Visage " ( where it is disclosed that he was killed in action ) and the season @-@ four episode " Façade " ( during a flashback to Clark 's freshman year of high school ) . Johnson , who auditioned for Lex and Clark before he was cast as Whitney , was pleased that the writers gave his character a hero 's exit . John Glover plays Lionel Luthor , Lex 's father . Lionel is responsible for the Kents ' adoption of Clark without legal ramifications or questions about his origins . Glover tried to make Lionel seem to try to " toughen [ Lex ] up " , and saw the character as a rich , powerful businessman who was disappointed in his son . Lionel was created for Smallville to parallel the Kents and as an " experiment in extreme parenting . " A recurring first @-@ season guest , Glover became a series regular from seasons two to seven until Lionel was murdered by Lex near the end of the seventh season . Lionel returns in a parallel @-@ universe version , also portrayed by Glover , during the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
final season in a recurring role . Jensen Ackles plays Jason Teague , Lana 's love interest , in season four . He follows Lana to Smallville from Paris , taking a job as the school 's assistant football coach , but is fired when their relationship comes to light . By the end of the season , it is disclosed that he was working with his mother to track the three Kryptonian stones of knowledge . Before he was cast as Jason , Ackles was second in line for the role of Clark Kent . Although he received top billing for season four and was contracted for season five , he was written out of the show in the season @-@ four finale because of his commitment to Supernatural . Erica Durance plays Lois Lane , Chloe 's cousin who comes to Smallville to investigate Chloe 's supposed death and stays with the Kents . Durance , a recurring guest in season four , became a series regular . The producers wanted to bring Lois Lane to the series , and Chloe 's supposed death in the season @-@ three finale provided the opportunity . Durance was cast three days before filming began ; although she could initially appear in only four episodes , according to the film division of Warner Bros. , after negotiations her character was cleared for more appearances . Aaron Ashmore plays Jimmy Olsen , Chloe 's photographer boyfriend who works at the Daily Planet . Ashmore , a recurring guest in season six , became a regular cast member in season seven . He called his casting a welcome surprise : " I auditioned for [ the role ] and I put myself on tape . I hadn 't heard anything , and a couple of weeks later , all of the sudden ( sic ) , I got the call saying , ' You 're going to Vancouver to start shooting Smallville . ' It 's a dream come true , really . " After three seasons on the series ( two as a regular ) , Ashmore 's character was killed off . Although Ashmore 's Jimmy Olsen was murdered , he said his character was not the " real " Jimmy Olsen ; Jimmy 's younger brother , who appears briefly in the season @-@ eight finale , is intended to be the Jimmy who works with Clark and Lois . Ashmore returns as the real , younger Jimmy in the series finale . Laura Vandervoort plays Kara , Clark 's Kryptonian cousin . Sent to look after Kal @-@ El ( Clark ) , she was in suspended animation for eighteen years . When the dam confining Kara 's ship broke in the season @-@ six finale , " Phantom " , she was set free . She has Clark 's abilities , including flight . At the end of the seventh season , Kara was trapped in the Phantom Zone . Although Vandervoort did not return regularly for the eighth season , she had guest appearances to wrap up her storyline in season eight 's " Bloodline " and season ten 's " Supergirl " and " Prophecy " . Justin Hartley plays Oliver Queen ( Green Arrow ) , the CEO of Queen Industries and leader of a small group of superheroes . Hartley , a recurring guest in the sixth and seventh seasons , became a series regular in season eight and was the producers ' first choice to play Oliver Queen . He was designed to shake up Clark and Lois in season six and to give Clark an alternate view of how to fight crime . Samuel Witwer plays Davis Bloome in season eight . A " charismatic " paramedic struggling with inner darkness , Davis Bloome is Smallville 's version of Doomsday ( the only character to kill Superman ) . Davis would come to resemble his comic @-@ book counterpart over the course of the season . Brian Peterson said that with Michael Rosenbaum 's departure , the new executive producers were looking for a villain " as great as Lex " and Doomsday fit the bill . Cassidy Freeman plays Tess Mercer , Lex 's handpicked successor as LuthorCorp CEO in season eight . Her name is an homage to two Superman characters , Eve Teschmacher and Mercy Graves . Freeman described her character as " fierce " , " fun " , and " intelligent " , with finding Lex her primary season @-@ eight goal . Tess believes that Clark will be able to help her . In the season @-@ ten episode " Abandoned " , it is disclosed that her birth name is Lutessa Lena Luthor and she is Lionel 's illegitimate daughter . Callum Blue plays Zod , an early version of the criminal from Krypton who was sent to the Phantom Zone prison . His character is first mentioned in season five , when Brainiac uses Lex 's body as a vessel for Zod 's spirit , and he appears in a Kryptonian sphere in the season @-@ eight finale . Smallville 's executive producers called this incarnation " Major Zod " ( as opposed to the typical " General Zod " ) , and in season nine " the venomous side of Zod rises because he experiences a few key betrayals with our beloved characters " . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Tollin / Robbins Productions originally wanted to do a series about a young Bruce Wayne , but the feature @-@ film division of Warner Bros. decided to develop an origin movie for Batman and did not want to compete with a television series . In 2000 Tollin / Robbins approached Peter Roth , president of Warner Bros. Television , about developing a series on a young Superman . That year , Alfred Gough and Miles Millar developed a pilot based on the film Eraser . After watching the pilot , Roth approached Gough and Millar about developing a pilot about a young Superman ; the two made a " no tights , no flights " rule that Clark would not fly or wear the Superman suit during the series . Gough and Millar wanted to strip Superman to his " bare essence " , exploring why Clark Kent became the Man of Steel . They felt that because they were not comic @-@ book fans or familiar with the universe , they would have an unbiased approach to the series . Gough and Millar learned about the characters , researching the comics and choosing what they liked . They pitched their idea to The WB and Fox on the same day . A bidding war between the networks followed , with The WB committing to thirteen episodes . Although Roth , Gough and Millar knew the show would be action @-@ oriented , they wanted to reach 7th Heaven 's " middle America iconography " . To create atmosphere , the team decided the meteor shower bringing Clark to Earth would be the ironic foundation of the show . The primary source of his life on Earth and the super @-@ powered beings Clark must fight , it would take away the parents of the girl he loves and start Lex Luthor down a dark path . Roth appreciated Clark 's conflict in dealing with the fact that his arrival caused so much pain . The creators also had to address why Lex Luthor would socialize with young people . They created a loneliness in the character which they felt would drive him to reach out to the teenagers , a loneliness echoed in Clark and Lana . Gough and Millar wanted a parallel to the Kents and created Lionel Luthor , Lex 's father , whom they saw as conducting an " experiment in extreme parenting . " They wanted a younger Kent couple , to be involved in Clark 's life and help him on his journey . Chloe Sullivan ( another character created for the series ) was considered the " outsider " the show needed to ensure that someone would notice the strange happenings in Smallville rather than a " precursor to Lois Lane " . Smallville has been described by Warner Bros. as a from @-@ the @-@ roots reinterpretation of Superman mythology . Since the November 2004 reacquisition of Superboy by the Siegel family , a copyright infringement dispute has arisen over ownership of the fictional town of Smallville and a claimed similarity between Superboy and Smallville 's Clark Kent . According to the Siegel heirs , " Smallville is part of the Superboy copyright " ( which they hold ) . = = = Crew changes = = = On April 3 , 2008 , after seven seasons with the series , Gough and Millar announced that they were leaving Smallville . The developers thanked the cast and crew for their work , acknowledging that they never stopped fighting for what they saw as " their vision " of the show . A reason for their departure was not provided . Gough and Millar were replaced as showrunners by Todd Slavkin , Darren Swimmer , Kelly Souders and Brian Peterson . All began writing for the series at the start of the second season , and were executive producers by the seventh season . On February 6 , 2009 , after one season , the L.A. Times confirmed that Swimmer and Slavkin would take over the new CW series Melrose Place and not return for Smallville 's ninth season ; Souders and Peterson would continue as showrunners . On July 24 , 2009 , it was reported Tom Welling was a co @-@ executive producer of the series . On March 26 , 2010 , The Hollywood Reporter disclosed that Millar , Gough and co @-@ producer Tollin / Robins Productions filed a lawsuit against Warner Bros. and The CW charging that Hollywood 's " vertical integration " cost Millar and Gough millions of dollars . The suit claimed that Warner Bros. failed to " maximize profits " in marketing Smallville , misrepresented production costs and sold the show to foreign markets at " well below the value of the series " , not specifying the amount of compensation sought by the plaintiffs . In a May 20 , 2010 press release from The CW , Tom Welling was appointed an executive producer for Smallville 's tenth season . = = = Filming = = = The series was produced at BB Studios in Burnaby , British Columbia . Although production was initially planned for Australia , Vancouver had more of a " Middle America landscape " . The city provided a site for the Kent farm , doubled for Metropolis , provided a cheaper shooting location and was in the Los Angeles time zone . Smallville 's Main Street is a combination of two locations in the town of Merritt and Cloverdale . Vancouver Technical School doubled as the exterior for Smallville High , since the school had the " mid @-@ American largess " wanted by the filmmakers and was in keeping with Millar 's idea that Smallville should be the epitome of " Smalltown , USA " . Templeton Secondary School was used for Smallville High 's interior . During season one , the production team repainted most of Templeton in Smallville High 's red and yellow and distributed large Smallville High Crows logos ; so much of the school was painted that it adopted red and yellow as its school colors . The students became accustomed to the film crew ( which had to shoot when school was in session ) , and when a class was dismissed the crew stepped aside so the students could move the equipment to get to their lockers for the next class . The Kent farm is a working farm in Aldergrove . Owned by the Anderlinis , the crew painted their home yellow for the show . Exterior shots of Luthor Mansion were filmed at Hatley Castle in Victoria . The interiors were filmed at Shannon Mews in Vancouver , also the set for the Dark Angel pilot and the film Along Came a Spider . Clova Cinema , in Cloverdale was used for exteriors of the Talon , Smallville 's coffeehouse . The story is told from Clark 's point of view , so color schemes and camera selection illustrate how he interprets his environment . When he is safe at home , the colors are " warm and gentle " earth tones and the camera movement is " very gentle " . When Clark is keeping his secret and not in danger , the lighting is more neutral and the camera more mobile . When danger is present , the lighting becomes colder and the camera is handheld to allow for more " extreme angles " . In Metropolis " clean , hard @-@ lined architecture " predominates , with blues , purples and reflective metals the dominant scheme . The same concept is used for the characters ; Lex usually has a " glass , steel background " , and Lionel has a white or " clinical blue " background . Lex typically wears black , grey and " cool tones " ( purples and blues ) . Clark is represented by red , yellow and blue , similar to the traditional Superman costume , and " All @-@ American " red , white and blue . From season two onward , Entity FX produced all of the visual effects for Smallville , including the view of the Metropolis skyline . = = = Music = = = Composer Mark Snow worked with producer Ken Horton to create Smallville 's score . Snow composed music as he watched the picture , and tweaked his performance when he reviewed his initial recordings . He then sent the music to the producers , who sent it back for recomposition if needed . Individual episodes have their own soundtrack , comprising one ( or more ) songs . Jennifer Pyken and Madonna Wade @-@ Reed of Daisy Music looked for songs for the soundtrack . Their choices were discussed by the producers , who decided which songs they wanted and secured their rights . Although Snow said it initially seemed odd to combine two types of music on a " typical action @-@ adventure " television show , " the producers seem to like the contrast of the modern songs and the traditional , orchestral approach to the score " . The main Smallville theme was not composed by Snow , although he composed opening themes for other shows ( including The X @-@ Files ) . The series ' opening music is " Save Me " by Remy Zero . Snow composed the closing @-@ credits music , which was intended as Smallville 's theme . During the first two seasons , the closing @-@ credits music was a potential theme for the series ( before " Save Me " was selected ) ; it was more " heroic " and " in @-@ your @-@ face " . Snow was told during season two that the closing credits needed new music , since the show had evolved and the existing music was no longer suitable , and he created a new , toned @-@ down score with a more " melodic " sound . Snow has also reworked music from the previous Superman films . John Williams ' musical score for the Krypton sequence in the opening credits of Superman was used in season two 's " Rosetta " ( which featured a guest appearance by Christopher Reeve ) and several times in the season @-@ two finale . To save money Snow recorded his version of Williams ' score , since using the original version would have required the team to pay Williams ' orchestra . In an interview with Randall Larson on May 23 , 2008 Snow said that he would not be returning to Smallville , citing the joint workload of Smallville and Ghost Whisperer , but would return for Ghost Whisperer . Reminiscing about his work on the show , Snow said that much of the music had not changed during the series and agreed with Larson that it was " more [ about ] maintaining the heroic concept and the mythology than progressing through specific changes " . Louis Febre , who worked closely with Snow from the beginning , became the sole composer for Smallville in season seven . Febre said that since he began composing for Smallville there was a shift to " thematic development " in the score , paralleling the characters ' growth : " As Clark grew emotionally and intellectually more complex , I found a need to comment musically on his growth , and as he drew closer to his Superman persona , it became obvious that a ' Superman ' theme would be required . " The creative team had a number of opportunities to try different music to enhance an episode 's storyline . Pyken and Wade @-@ Reed chose and coordinated music on the show when Snow and Febre 's scores were not used . In season three 's " Slumber " , producer Ken Horton wondered if they could get a band to provide music for the entire episode . During a breakfast meeting with the music department of Warner Bros. R.E.M. was suggested , and Pyken and Wade @-@ Reed immediately saw an opportunity to connect the episode 's featured band with its story ( which revolved around REM sleep ) . That season , Al Gough wanted to use Johnny Cash 's cover of the Nine Inch Nails song " Hurt " for the final scene of " Shattered " ( when Lionel Luthor looks at Lex through a one @-@ way mirror at Belle Reve sanitarium ) as soon as he read the episode 's script . Cash died while Wade @-@ Reed was trying to obtain the rights for the song and his heirs , believing that the song 's use in the episode would honor his memory , gave Smallville the rights . For season three 's " Resurrection " and " Memoria " , songs were chosen as symbolism for the characters . In " Resurrection " , The Rapture 's " Infatuation " was used during a scene with Lex and Lana to symbolize the question , " Are we ever going to figure out what these two people think of each other ? " For " Memoria " Gough wanted to use Evanescence 's " My Immortal " for the episode 's final scene , telling Wade @-@ Reed that he saw the song as being about mothers . In that scene Clark tells Martha that his first childhood memory was of his mother , Lara . Season three 's " Velocity " provided the music editors with the opportunity to use hip @-@ hop , rarely used in the series . The episode , similar to The Fast and the Furious , focused on Pete . Wade @-@ Reed heard of British hip @-@ hop artist Dizzee Rascal , and was the first person in the United States to secure the rights to Rascal 's album . Greg Beeman directs episodes , and sometimes scenes , with particular songs in mind . For " Vortex " in season two , he used Coldplay 's " In My Place " for the final scene . In the season @-@ two finale " Exodus " , Beeman directed the scene where Lana shows up at the Kent barn before Lex 's wedding to Matthew Good 's " Weapon " . The lyrics speak of an angel and devil " by my side " , and Beeman timed specific shots to the song 's lyrics . = = Broadcasting = = Smallville premiered at 9 : 00 pm on Tuesday , October 16 , 2001 on The WB . For the next five seasons the series aired on The WB , moving from Tuesday at 9 : 00 pm to Wednesday at 8 : 00 pm and eventually to Thursday at 8 : 00 pm . In 2006 , before the start of Smallville 's sixth season , it was announced The WB and UPN would merge into The CW and the network reported that the series would continue in its lineup . During its seventh season , the series aired in Canada a day earlier than it did in the United States . On May 21 , 2009 it was announced that Smallville 's ninth season would move to Friday at 8 : 00 pm , considered the " death slot " for television programs . By the end of its tenth season it was the longest @-@ running science @-@ fiction TV show in the United States , breaking the record held by Stargate SG @-@ 1 . Syndication rights became available in 2011 , and TNT began airing episodes on October 3 , 2011 . = = = Reception = = = Smallville set a WB record as its highest @-@ rated series debut , with 8 @.@ 4 million viewers tuned in for the pilot . Its premiere set a WB record for adults aged 18 – 34 and finished first among viewers aged 12 – 34 , with Warner Bros. president Jordan Levin crediting the series with invigorating the network 's Tuesday @-@ night lineup . Smallville appeared on the cover of Entertainment Weekly as one of five new shows to watch . After its first season , the series was sixth on the Parents Television Council 's 10 @-@ best list of broadcast programs . Levin , acknowledging early concerns that Smallville had become a villain of the week series , said that season two would introduce " smaller mini @-@ arcs over three to four episodes " and become less of a " serialized show " . According to Gough , although each succeeding season relied more on season @-@ long story arcs , an occasional villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week story was necessary . The villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week stories were more harshly criticized by fans of the Superman mythology , but Gough wanted to please them and The WB 's general audience ( teenagers who preferred villain @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week stories over episodes focusing on the Superman mythology ) . Christopher Reeve , star of the Superman films , expressed his approval of the show : I was a little bit skeptical when I heard about [ Smallville ] at first , but I must say the writing , the acting , and the special effects are quite remarkable . In 1977 , a big stunt scene would have taken us a week to film — it 's pretty impressive what they are able to do with computers and effects technology today on a weekly TV show . It gives it a lot more production value and inventiveness than I thought I was going to see when I first heard about the series . I think the show is doing a really good job following the mythology , and Tom is doing a good job following the tradition . According to MTV 's Karl Heitmueller , Smallville 's Clark Kent was a better representation of the original material and remained " true to the heart of the story " by showing Clark 's selflessness and his struggle between his desires and his obligations . However , Heitmueller wrote that the series would have a difficult time addressing why no one in Smallville ( including Lex Luthor ) recognized Clark when he put on the suit . TV Guide 's Michael Schneider called it one of the best examples of a superhero adaptation for television , but Christopher Hooton of Metro wrote that Smallville was a story which did not need to be told : " No @-@ one bothered to follow Bruce Wayne 's tedious years spent manufacturing microchips before he became Batman , so why must we endure a decade of flannel shirt @-@ wearing Clark Kent bucking hay ? " = = = Nielsen rankings = = = A table of season rankings , based on average total estimated viewers per episode , of Smallville on The WB and The CW follows . " Rank " is the series ' ratings compared to other prime time TV series . = = = Accolades = = = During its ten seasons , Smallville won awards ranging from Emmys to Teen Choice Awards . In 2002 , the series won an Emmy for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series for its pilot episode . Four years later , it received an Emmy for Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series for the fifth @-@ season episode " Arrival " . In 2008 , Smallville again won an Outstanding Sound Editing for a Series Emmy for season seven 's " Bizarro " . Smallville has received a number of Leo Awards . Make @-@ up artist Natalie Cosco won two Leo Awards for Best Make @-@ Up : for her work in the fourth @-@ season episode " Scare " and in the sixth season 's " Hydro " and " Wither " . At the 2006 Leo Awards , Barry Donlevy won Best Cinematography in a Dramatic Series for his work on the fourth @-@ season episode " Spirit " and David Wilson won Best Production Design in a Dramatic Series for " Sacred " . Smallville 's sixth season won a Best Dramatic Series Leo . James Marshall won Best Direction for " Zod " , Caroline Cranstoun won Best Costume Design for her work on " Arrow " and James Philpott won Best Production Design for " Justice " . In 2008 , Smallville won Leos for Best Dramatic Series and Best Cinematography . The visual @-@ effects team was recognized for its work on the pilot with a 2002 Best Visual Effects Leo , and received 2004 VES Awards for Outstanding Compositing in a Televised Program , Music Video or Commercial for the second season 's " Accelerate " and Outstanding Matte Painting in a Televised Program , Music Video , or Commercial for " Insurgence " . In 2002 the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers honored composer Mark Snow and Remy Zero , who provided the opening song " Save Me " , for their contributions to the series ; the award was given to individuals who wrote the theme ( or underscore ) for the highest @-@ rated television series in 2001 for their network . The American Society of Cinematographers awarded David Moxness for the sixth season 's " Arrow " , giving Glen Winter the same award the following year for his work on " Noir " . Series regulars have also won awards ; in 2001 , Michael Rosenbaum won a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor , and Tom Welling won a Teen Choice Award for Choice Breakout TV Star — Male in 2002 . Allison Mack won the Teen Choice Best Sidekick award in 2006 and 2007 , and in 2009 Welling received the Choice TV Actor Action Adventure award . = = Other media = = Smallville has generated other media and spinoffs , from young @-@ adult novels and comic books to Internet @-@ based mini @-@ episodes with characters from the series . It influenced the British TV series , Merlin . = = = Literature = = = Two series of novels have been published since Smallville 's second season . A series of eight young @-@ adult novels was published by Aspect Publishing from October 2002 to March 2004 , and a second series of ten young @-@ adult novels was published by Little , Brown Young Readers from October 2002 to April 2004 . A bimonthly comic @-@ book series , which often tied into the series , was also published . = = = = Young adult novels = = = = Three novels were published on October 1 , 2002 : one by Aspect and two by Little , Brown Young Readers . The Aspect novel ( Smallville : Strange Visitors ) was written by Roger Stern , with Clark and his friends trying to uncover the truth about two religious con men who set up shop in Smallville and use kryptonite in their spiritual seminars to rob the townspeople . Little , Brown Young Readers first published Arrival by Michael Teitelbaum , chronicling the series ' pilot . The second novel ( See No Evil , by series writers Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld ) follows Dawn Mills , a young actress who wants to attend Juilliard . Dawn , who can become invisible , wants to get revenge on the people who have been talking behind her back but is stopped by Clark . See No Evil was one of the original storylines for season one 's " Shimmer " . On November 1 , 2002 Aspect published Alan Grant 's Smallville : Dragon , about an ex @-@ convict who assumes the abilities and appearance of a dragon after he is exposed to kryptonite in a cave ; the mutation drives him to try to kill everyone who testified against him . In the novel , Clark is hypnotized into believing that he is a normal teenager with no special abilities . A month after the publication of Grant 's novel Bennett and Gottesfeld wrote Little , Brown Young Readers ' Flight , about a young girl ( Tia ) who Clark discovers has wings . He and his friends believe that Tia is being abused by her father , and teach her to overcome her fear of flying so she can find her mother . Flight ( like See No Evil ) was a planned episode , but the crew was uncertain that they could get the flying effects right and the idea was scrapped . Nancy Holder wrote the third novel in the Aspect series . Published on January 1 , 2003 , Hauntings follows Clark and his friends as they investigate a ghostly presence in a Smallville house . Little , Brown Young Readers then published Animal Rage by David and Bobby Weiss , about animal @-@ rights activist Heather Fox ( who can change into any animal she touches ) . Heather uses this ability to harm people who hurt animals until Clark discovers it and stops her . Aspect published Dean Wesley Smith 's Whodunit , in which Clark , Chloe , Lana and Pete investigate the murder of a boy and his sister while Lex tries to decide whether to ransom his kidnapped father or try rescuing Lionel himself . Little , Brown Young Readers published the next two books in April and June 2003 . The first , Speed , was written by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld . The second , Buried Secrets , was written by Suzan Colon . In Speed , a boy uses an hourglass his father gave him for his birthday to stop time and commit hate crimes without being caught . Clark stops him before he disrupts a local multicultural festival . In Buried Secrets Clark and Lex fall in love with a mind @-@ reading substitute Spanish teacher , jeopardizing their friendship . On September 9 , 2004 Aspect published Diana G. Gallagher 's Shadows , about a girl and her father who move to Smallville ; the father creates murderous monsters . Jonathan Kent assumes that the deaths are related to LuthorCorp , creating tension with his son . Clark discovers the truth to prove Lex 's innocence , stopping the creatures before they can kill again . Colon returned to write Runaway , in which Clark runs away to the city and lives with other homeless teenagers ; he falls in love with one of the girls before returning home . In Smallville : Silence by Nancy Holder , the characters investigate zombies in town . Little , Brown Young Readers published its eighth book , Greed , by Bennett and Gottesfeld in which Clark and his friends take summer jobs as counselors at a camp for disadvantaged youths . When a boy falls into Crater Lake , he develops the ability to foretell the future and Lionel tries to exploit this . Pete also tries to exploit Clark 's abilities by tricking him into playing in a basketball game and betting on the outcome . Alan Grant returned to write Curse , about a gravedigger who unleashes a 150 @-@ year @-@ old curse onto Smallville and Clark 's attempts to put things right . On February 1 , 2004 Little , Brown Young Readers published Suzan Colon 's Temptation , where Clark uses red kryptonite in an attempt to impress Lana and Chloe when they are infatuated with a French exchange student . Aspect published its final novel on March 1 , 2004 . Written by Devin K. Grayson , City follows Clark and Lex on a trip to Metropolis . In the city , they are caught between the Japanese mafia and a secret agent who thinks he has found an alien . In Little , Brown Young Readers ' final novel , " Sparks " by Cherie Bennett and Jeff Gottesfeld , Chloe is hit by kryptonite sparks from a fireworks display . The sparks make Chloe the desire of every man , but when they wear off an admirer kidnaps her and she is rescued by Clark . = = = = Comic books = = = = Smallville 's first venture into comics was " Elemental " , a one @-@ off story by Gough and Millar which appeared in TV Guide during the series ' first season and set in that period . Before the start of season two , DC Comics published a one @-@ off comic based on the series . Entitled Smallville : The Comic , it has two stories . The first , " Raptor " by Mark Verheiden and Roy Martinez , is about an abused boy who mutates into a raptor ( thanks to kryptonite ) and tries to get revenge on the Luthor family . Michael Green and John Paul Leon wrote " Exile and The Kingdom " , with insight into why Lex remains in Smallville after his father offers him a position in Metropolis at the end of season one . DC Comics then began publishing a bimonthly comic with stories about Smallville characters . Writer and script coordinator Clint Carpenter called the comic @-@ book line a companion to the series rather than a non @-@ canonical version . According to Carpenter , the comic @-@ book line expands on events in the series ( such as season @-@ ending cliffhangers ) and gives " additional depth " to characters with limited screen time on the series or whose storylines needed additional explanation . Carpenter was not the first person asked to oversee the comic ; Mark Verheiden , who co @-@ wrote the one @-@ off comic , was originally intended to be in charge of the bimonthly series . Verheiden 's commitment to the TV series kept him from working on the comic books , so he asked Carpenter if he would take them on . Although the comic @-@ book series was intended to expand on the TV series , there was an occasional continuity overlap because of differences in production schedule between the comic and the series . In one instance , the comic book showed Clark robbing an ATM and the season @-@ three premiere showed him robbing multiple ATMs . The comic @-@ book series tied into the TV series , the Chloe Chronicles webisodes and Smallville @-@ related webpages , with cast and crew interviews and information on the episodes ' production . The comic @-@ book series ended in January 2005 , with no comics published until the Season Eleven series debut . Note : The full title of all volumes listed here start with " Smallville : " . = = = = Smallville Season Eleven = = = = On February 8 , 2012 , it was reported that a Smallville Season Eleven comic book would be published by DC Comics . The series would be released digitally first , and collected into a three @-@ issue print edition once a month . The first digital issue was released on April 13 , 2012 , and the first print issue was published on May 2 , 2012 . In the comic book ( written by Smallville executive story editor Bryan Q. Miller ) , set six months after Darkseid 's attack , Clark no longer fights crime as " The Blur " but as " Superman " . Although Clark is generally accepted by the public , some distrust him ( including Lex Luthor , despite his memory loss after his encounter with Tess Mercer ) . TV Guide reported that " Detective " , a new series of adventures paralleling the TV series and the comic series ' second arc , would be published digitally on the title 's off @-@ week beginning January 4 , 2013 . A new arc , " Effigy " , would feature a team @-@ up of recurring character John Jones and Batman . DC Comics cancelled the series after nineteen issues at the end of the " Olympus " story arc , with the rest of the season @-@ eleven story continuing as miniseries under the Season Eleven banner . On March 11 , 2015 , DC Comics ended the Smallville Season Eleven with story arc " Continuity " , which serves as the finale of the television franchise . = = = = = Main series = = = = = Note : The full title of all volumes listed here start with " Smallville Season 11 : " . = = = = = Interlude series = = = = = Note : The full title of all volumes listed here start with " Smallville Season 11 Specials : " . = = = Chloe Chronicles = = = Allison Mack 's character , Chloe Sullivan , has starred in two promotional tie @-@ in series : Smallville : Chloe Chronicles , and Vengeance Chronicles . Two volumes of Chloe Chronicles totaled eleven mini @-@ episodes . In the first volume Chloe investigated events leading to the death of Earl Jenkins , who held Chloe and her friends hostage at the LuthorCorp plant in the first @-@ season episode " Jitters " . It aired from April 29 to May 20 , 2003 to AOL subscribers . After the first volume received positive responses from viewers , the second volume was created as a continuation with Sam Jones III as Pete Ross . This volume used the Smallville comic books as a secondary tie @-@ in to the series . Viewers could watch Smallville , Chloe 's Chronicles and finish with the Smallville comic book , which would provide an " enhanced backstory to the online segments " . The later series , Vengeance Chronicles , is a spinoff of the fifth @-@ season episode " Vengeance " . In this series Chloe joins a costumed vigilante , whom she calls the " Angel of Vengeance " , to expose Lex Luthor 's Level 33 @.@ 1 experiments on meteor @-@ infected people . The idea for an online show about Chloe originated with Mark Warshaw , who ran the show 's website and was in charge of the DVDs . The series intended to wrap up " unfinished business " from the television show . Although Smallville : Chloe Chronicles began on AOL , it made its way to the United Kingdom 's Channel 4 website . According to Lisa Gregorian , senior vice president for television of Warner Bros. Marketing Services , " Our goal is to create companion programming that offers new and exciting ways to engage the audience , just as music videos did for record promotion . " Allison Mack described the show as " very Nancy Drew and mysterious " : " I think it 's a bit more like The X @-@ Files or NYPD Blue . The Chronicles are like a detective story , with Chloe following clues and interviewing people , going from spot to spot , figuring things out . " The scripts were written by Brice Tidwell ; Mack was given script approval for the series , allowing her to review and make changes to the script . Warshaw communicated with Gough and Millar to expand Smallville stories in Chloe 's Chronicles . = = = Promotional tie @-@ ins = = = For the season @-@ three premiere , the Smallville producers teamed up with Verizon to enable its registered users to view plot updates ( as Daily Planet press releases ) , quizzes and games related to the show with Verizon product placement . Smallville Legends : The Oliver Queen Chronicles , a six @-@ episode CGI series chronicling the early life of Oliver Queen , was released in a promotional tie @-@ in with Sprint . According to Warner Bros. Television Group executive vice @-@ president of worldwide marketing Lisa Gregorian , the promotional tie @-@ ins got fans more connected to the show . On April 19 , 2007 a tie @-@ in with Toyota promoting the Yaris featured an online comic strip , Smallville Legends : Justice & Doom , as an interstitial program during new Smallville episodes . The interactive comic was based on the " Justice " episode , which follows Oliver Queen , Bart Allen , Victor Stone and Arthur Curry ( the initial members of the " Justice League " in Smallville ) as they seek to destroy LuthorCorp 's secret experimental labs . The online series allowed viewers to investigate with the fictional team to win prizes . Stephan Nilson wrote all five episodes , working with a team of artists on the illustrations . Nilson received the plot for each comic episode as Smallville 's production crew was filming its current television episode . Artist Steve Scott drew comic @-@ book panels which were sent to Motherland , a consulting group . Motherland reviewed the drawings , telling Scott which images to draw on a separate overlay ; this allowed objects to be moved in and out of a frame . In 2008 The CW joined the manufacturers of Stride gum to give viewers an opportunity to create their own Smallville digital comic , Smallville : Visions . The writers and producers developed the comic 's beginning and end , allowing viewers to provide the middle . The CW began its tie @-@ in campaign with the March 13 , 2008 episode " Hero " , where Pete develops superhuman elasticity after chewing kryptonite @-@ infused Stride gum . On The CW 's website , viewers voted on one of two options ( each adding four pages to the comic ) every Tuesday and Thursday until the campaign ended on April 7 . In season seven Smallville again worked with Sprint , bringing its customers " mobisodes " entitled Smallville Legends : Kara and the Chronicles of Krypton with Clark 's cousin Kara . = = = Spin @-@ offs = = = Gough and Millar developed an Aquaman pilot for The WB , with Justin Hartley as Aquaman ( Arthur Curry ) . As work progressed on the Smallville season @-@ five episode " Aqua " , although the episode was not intended as a backdoor pilot for an Aquaman spin @-@ off the character was seen as having potential for his own series . Alan Ritchson was not considered for the role in the new series , because Gough and Millar did not consider it a Smallville spin @-@ off . Gough said in November 2005 , " [ The series ] is going to be a different version of the ' Aquaman ' legend " and suggested a crossover with Smallville at some point . Although the pilot was given a good chance of being picked up , when The WB and UPN merged into The CW the new network passed on the show . During the sixth season there was talk of spinning off the Green Arrow into his own series , but Hartley refused to talk about the possibility of a spin @-@ off because of his role on Smallville . The actor felt it his duty to respect what the show had accomplished in five seasons , and not " steal the spotlight " because there was " talk " of a spin @-@ off after his two appearances . According to Hartley , " talking " was as far as the spin @-@ off idea ever got . = = Home video = = Seasons one through ten have been released on DVD in Region 1 , 2 and 4 . Seasons five and six were also released in the now @-@ obsolete HD DVD format on November 28 , 2006 and September 18 , 2007 , respectively . Seasons six , seven , eight , nine and ten have been released for Blu @-@ ray . The DVD releases include deleted scenes , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes and commentary by cast and crew members on selected episodes . The promotional tie @-@ ins Chloe Chronicles and Vengeance Chronicles accompanied the season two , three and five box sets . Other special features include interactive functionality ( such as a tour of Smallville ) , a comic book and DVD @-@ ROM material . = = Merchandise = = Since Smallville began airing , a variety of merchandise connected with the series has been produced . Two soundtrack albums of songs from the show have been released . On February 25 , 2003 Smallville : The Talon Mix , with a group of artists who licensed their music for the show , was issued . Smallville : The Metropolis Mix , with another group of artists , was released on November 8 , 2005 . In addition to the soundtracks , action figures , T @-@ shirts , hats and posters have been produced . In December 2002 autographed Smallville merchandise was listed for auction on eBay , with the proceeds going to charity . In 2003 , Titan Magazines began publishing a monthly Smallville magazine with cast and crew interviews , information on Smallville merchandise and photos . The 34th and final issue was published in November 2009 . Titan Books published companion volumes for each season with cast and crew interviews , episode descriptions and behind @-@ the @-@ scenes photos . On September 1 , 2004 , the company published its first companion for the series . Written by Paul Simpson , the book has sixteen pages of color photos of the cast . On March 1 , 2005 Titan Books published its season @-@ two companion , also written by Simpson , which details the series ' special effects . Titan published the third @-@ season companion on September 1 , the last written by Simpson . He described the episodes ' plots , discussing the neglect of the Martha Kent character and the failure of the Adam Knight storyline . Titan Books released the fourth @-@ season companion by Craig Byrne , who wrote the subsequent companion books , on September 4 , 2007 . It contains interviews with the cast and crew and color photos of the production . Titan published the season @-@ five companion on December 26 , 2007 . The season @-@ six companion , with an introduction by Justin Hartley , was published on March 25 , 2008 . The season @-@ seven companion ( Titan 's last ) has a foreword by Laura Vandervoort , a reflection on the " Smallville phenomenon " and a discussion of Gough and Millar 's departure . In 2010 , the Smallville Roleplaying Game was released by Margaret Weis Productions using its Cortex Plus System . Using the series ' season @-@ nine setting , it includes rules for earlier seasons . Two supplements , the High School Yearbook and the Watchtower Report , were produced . Players can play the characters from Smallville , or create their own spin @-@ off of the series . On May 15 , 2013 Ultimate Smallville Soundtrack , a five @-@ CD box set with 100 songs from the series ' 10 seasons , was released by Vicious Records with all profits benefiting the Christopher and Dana Reeve Foundation . = INS Shivalik ( F47 ) = INS Shivalik ( F47 ) is the lead ship of her class of stealth multi @-@ role frigates built for the Indian Navy . She is the first stealth warship built by India . = = Construction = = INS Shivalik was built at the Mazagon Dock Limited ( MDL ) located in Mumbai . The keel of the ship was laid on 11 July 2001 and the vessel was launched on 18 April 2003 . She was originally planned to be commissioned by 2005 but this was delayed . She started her sea trials in February 2009 and was eventually commissioned on 29 April 2010 . INS Shivalik features improved stealth and land attacking features over the preceding Talwar @-@ class frigates . She is also the first Indian Navy ship to use the CODOG propulsion system . = = Service history = = = = = 2012 = = = In 2012 , INS Shivalik was deployed in the Northwest Pacific for JIMEX 2012 ( Japan @-@ India Maritime Exercise ) with a four @-@ ship group which included INS Rana , INS Shakti and INS Karmuk and took part in India 's first bi @-@ lateral maritime exercise with Japan . The Japanese Maritime Self Defence Force ( JMSDF ) was represented by two destroyers , one maritime patrol aircraft and a helicopter . The four ships entered Tokyo on 5 June 2012 after visiting Singapore , Vietnam , Philippines and Republic of Korea . They stayed in Tokyo for three days . This visit coincided with commemoration of 60 years of diplomatic relations between India and Japan . Vice Admiral Anil Chopra , Flag Officer Commanding @-@ in @-@ Chief Eastern Naval Command , also visited Tokyo to witness the first JIMEX . After the deployment in the north Pacific , the battle group was deployed in the South China Sea . As part of India 's Look East policy , the ships visited the Shanghai port on 13 June 2012 , for a five @-@ day goodwill tour . INS Shakti served as the fuel and logistics tanker to the three destroyers . The ships left the port on 17 June 2012 . Before leaving the port , the ships conducted a routine passage exercise with the People 's Liberation Army Navy ( PLAN ) . After the visits to Singapore , Vietnam , Philippines , Japan , South Korea and China , the ships visited Port Klang , Malaysia . This was the battle group 's last port call during its two @-@ month @-@ long deployment , which had started in May 2012 . After this she returned to the Eastern Fleet of the Indian Navy and since has been docked there . = = = 2014 = = = On 21 @-@ 25 April 2014 , INS Shivalik participated in the PLAN 's 65th anniversary celebrations held in Qingdao , China . She sailed 4 @,@ 500 miles from Port Blair to Qingdao without being assisted by any support vessel . On 17 @-@ 23 July 2014 , she participated in INDRA 2014 a naval and army counter @-@ terrorism exercise , with Russia in the Sea of Japan . INS Ranvijay and INS Shakti were also part of India fleet accompanying her . Russia was represented by the destroyer Admiral Vinogradov and Peresvet in addition to several auxiliary vessels . The exercise was hosted at Vladivostok , Russia . On 24 @-@ 30 July 2014 , she participated in Malabar 2014 naval exercise off the southern coast of Japan , with the navies of Japan and United States . The exercise was hosted at Nagasaki , Japan . On 6 @-@ 9 August 2014 , she visited Hai Phong , Vietnam on a goodwill visit . She was commanded by Captain Puruvir Das . = = = 2015 = = = On 12 @-@ 19 September 2015 , she participated in AUSINDEX 2015 at Visakhapatnam , the first bilateral maritime exercise between India and Australia . Royal Australian Navy deployed HMAS Sirius , HMAS Arunta , HMAS Sheean and an Australian Air Force P3C Orion . India provided INS Shivalik , INS Ranvijay , INS Shakti and an Indian Navy P8I maritime patrol aircraft . = Joust ( video game ) = Joust is an arcade game developed by Williams Electronics and released in 1982 . While not the first game to feature two @-@ player cooperative play , Joust was more successful than its predecessors and popularized the concept . The player uses a button and joystick to control a knight riding a flying ostrich . The object is to progress through levels by defeating groups of enemy knights riding buzzards . John Newcomer led the development team , which included Bill Pfutzenreuter , Jan Hendricks , Python Anghelo , Tim Murphy , and John Kotlarik . Newcomer aimed to create a flying game with cooperative two @-@ player gameplay , but wanted to avoid a space theme , which was popular at the time . Staff worked within the technical limitations of the hardware ( originally developed two years earlier for Williams ' first game , Defender ) , excluding concepts and optimizing the visuals . The game was well received in arcades and by critics , who praised the gameplay , the mechanics of which influenced titles by other developers . Joust was followed by a sequel four years later , and was ported to numerous home and portable platforms . = = Gameplay = = Joust is a platforming game where the player controls a yellow knight riding a flying ostrich or stork , from a third @-@ person perspective . Using the two @-@ way directional joystick and the button for flapping the ostrich 's wings , the player flies the knight amidst the floating rock platforms and above pools of lava ; when maneuvering off the screen to either side , the player will continue its path reappearing from the opposite side . The rate at which the player repeatedly presses the button causes the ostrich to fly upward , hover , or slowly descend . Home console versions use game controllers with directional pads or analog sticks , while computer ports use the keyboard . The objective is to defeat groups of enemy knights riding buzzards that populate each level , referred to as a " wave " . Upon completing a wave , a subsequent , more challenging wave begins . Players navigate the knight to collide with enemies . The elevation of an enemy in relation to the player 's knight determines the outcome of the collision . If the protagonist is higher than the enemy , the villain is defeated and vice versa . A collision of equal elevations results in the two knights bouncing off each other . A defeated enemy will turn into an egg that falls toward the bottom of the screen , which a player can collect for points . An egg that sits on a platform long enough will hatch into a new knight ; if the player does not pick him up , he will gain a new mount and must be defeated again . The game features three types of enemy knights — Bounder , Hunter , and Shadow Lord — that are worth different amounts of points . A pterodactyl will appear after a predetermined time frame to hunt the hero . A second player , controlling a blue knight on a stork , can join the game . The two players can either cooperatively complete the waves or attack each other while competitively defeating enemies . = = Development = = Joust was developed by Williams Electronics , with John Newcomer as the lead designer . Programmer Bill Pfutzenrueter and artists Jan Hendricks and Python Anghelo assisted him . Tim Murphy and John Kotlarik handled the audio design . The game features amplified monaural sound and raster graphics on a 19 inch color CRT monitor . Like other Williams arcade games , Joust was programmed in assembly language . A pack of three AA batteries provide power to save the game 's settings and high scores when the machine is unplugged from an electrical outlet . The cabinet artwork , by Anghelo , is stenciled on a wooden frame . Anghelo also designed artwork for promotional materials ; one such flyer featured archaic English , which was also incorporated into the game 's on @-@ screen instructions . = = = Conception = = = Following the success of the 1981 title Defender , Williams searched for new creative staff . Believing video games to be the future of entertainment , Newcomer left his job as a toy designer to work at the company who hired him to create game ideas as support for development staff . After a few days , he generated a list of ideas that included game ideas for The War of the Worlds and Joust , Newcomer 's top two choices . Technical specifications dictated the selection ; Newcomer 's vision of The War of the Worlds was infeasible , but Joust could be accomplished with Williams ' available hardware . A development team was formed , which decided to create the game using Defender 's hardware . Newcomer conceived Joust as a " flying game " with cooperative two @-@ player gameplay ; however , he did not wish to emulate the popular space theme of previous successful flying games like Asteroids and Defender . To that end , Newcomer made a list of things that could fly : machines , animals , and fictional characters . After evaluating the positive and negative of each idea , he chose birds , believing that they would have a wide appeal . Newcomer also felt that birds were a good fit as he was familiar with fantasy and science fiction media featuring birds . To further increase his understanding , Newcomer went to the library to study mythology . He felt that the primary protagonist should ride a majestic bird . The first choice was an eagle , but the lack of graceful land mobility dissuaded the designer . Instead , Newcomer chose an ostrich because he thought a flying ostrich was more believable than a running eagle . To differentiate between the first and second player characters , the developers picked a stork , believing the proportions were similar to an ostrich while the color difference would avoid confusion among players . Newcomer chose vultures as the main enemies , believing that they would be recognizably evil . Anghelo created concept art of the characters as guidance for further design . = = = Creative and technical design = = = The decision to use birds prompted Newcomer to deviate from the then standard eight @-@ direction joystick . He implemented a " flapping " mechanism to allow players to control the character 's ascent and descent . With the vertical direction controlled via the arcade cabinet 's button , a two @-@ way joystick was added to dictate horizontal direction . Though other Williams employees were concerned over the design , Newcomer believed that a direct control scheme for flight would strengthen the connection between the player and the character . The combat is devised to allow for higher levels of strategy than traditional shooting games . Because flying became an integral gameplay element , he chose to have characters collide as a means of combat . Newcomer felt that the characters ' heights on the screen were the best way to determine a victor . The developers created the game using 96K of memory , which limited the file size of individual graphics and sound effects they could use . The memory limits also prohibited Newcomer from creating more characters . The graphics were created at the pixel level and hand @-@ animated . To animate the birds , Hendricks used Eadweard Muybridge 's book Animals In Motion as a reference . Given the limited memory , she had to balance the number of frames to minimize file size , while maintaining realistic animation . Hendricks originally picked gray for the buzzards , but chose green instead to optimize the color palette as the developers had only 16 colors to create the visuals . Once the colors were decided for the character sprites , Newcomer finalized the look of the platforms . The hardware had limited audio capabilities , and sounds typically required larger amounts of memory than graphics . Working with these restrictions , Newcomer instructed Murphy and Kotlarik to focus on select sounds he deemed important to reinforcing gameplay . He reasoned that the audio would serve as conspicuous hints that players could use to adjust their strategy . Though Newcomer prioritized the wing flap , other sound effects like those related to the pterodactyl , collisions , and hatching eggs were considered important as well . In designing the levels , Newcomer added platforms to the environment after the combat was devised . A static game world was chosen over a scrolling world to showcase visual textures applied to the platforms . The hardware could not easily display the textures while scrolling , and the team felt that displaying the whole environment would aid players . The last game world element was a lava pit and a hand reaching out of it to destroy characters too close to the bottom . Newcomer placed the platforms to optimize Pfutzenrueter 's enemy artificial intelligence ( AI ) , which factors attack patterns based partly on platform placements . The knight enemies were designed to exhibit progressively more aggressive behavior . Bounders fly around the environment randomly , occasionally reacting to the protagonist . Hunters seek the player 's character in an effort to collide . Shadow Lords fly quickly and closer to the top of the screen . Pfutzenrueter designed them to fly higher when close to the protagonist to increase the Shadow Lord 's chances of victory against the player . The pterodactyl was designed to attack idle players and be difficult to defeat . The only vulnerability was attacking the creature in its open mouth during a specific animation frame . Newcomer and Pfutzenrueter designed the pterodactyl to quickly fly upward at the last moment when approaching a player waiting at the edge of a platform . This was done to prevent an easy defeat of the enemy . When processing the graphics , the game gives priority to the player characters over the enemies . As a result , enemies begin to react more slowly when the number of on @-@ screen sprites increases . While playtesting the game , the team discovered an animation bug they described as a " belly flop " . The flaw allows players to force the ostrich or stork sprite through an otherwise impassable small gap between two adjacent platforms of very close elevation . Because it provided an interesting method to perform a sneak attack on an opponent below the gap , the developers decided to keep the defect rather than fix it . Newcomer also attributed the inclusion to excessive playtesting that limited the time available to find a solution . A second bug , which allows the pterodactyl to be easily defeated , was discovered after the game was first distributed . Newcomer designed the game and its AI with each sprite 's dimension in mind . A day before the game was finished , however , the pterodactyl 's sprite was altered to improve the appearance . The new sprite allowed the pterodactyl to be easily defeated an unending number of times . The player could sit on the center ledge , with a single enemy knight caught indefinitely in the hand of the " lava troll " , and kill an unlimited number of pterodactyls simply by turning to face them as they entered the screen in a rapid , never @-@ ending sequence . Using this flaw , the player could quickly accumulate a very high score and a large cache of lives , with no significant skill required . Upon learning of the flaw , Williams shipped a new ROM for the arcade cabinets to assuage distributors ' complaints . = = Reception and legacy = = Given the different control scheme , Williams was concerned that the game would be unsuccessful . Though arcades were hesitant to purchase the game for the same reason , Joust sold well . Williams eventually shipped 26 @,@ 000 units , and Electronic Games in 1983 described it as " tremendously popular " . A cocktail table version was later released , engineered by Leo Ludzia . It differs from other cocktail games in that it features side @-@ by @-@ side seating rather than opposing sides . This setup allowed Williams to use the same ROM chip as in the upright cabinets . The cabinets have since become collector 's items . Though the upright cabinets are common , the cocktail version is a rare , sought after game . Between 250 and 500 units were manufactured . = = Popular culture = = Joust has been parodied in popular culture . References appear in the Robot Chicken episode " Celebutard Mountain " , the Code Monkeys episode " Just One of the Gamers " , and the video games Mortal Kombat 3 and World of Warcraft : Cataclysm . Author Steve Kent considered Joust one of the more memorable games of its time . Author David Ellis agreed , and stated that the game remains enjoyable to this day . In 2008 , Guinness World Records listed it as the number sixty @-@ nine arcade game in technical , creative , and cultural impact . A writer for Video Gaming Illustrated called Joust exotic and praised the animation as lifelike . Kevin Bowen of GameSpy 's Classic Gaming wrote that despite a concept he described as " incredibly stupid " , Joust is an appealing game with good controls and competitive gameplay . Bowen further commented that the multiplayer aspect differentiated the game from others at the time . He described it as " one of the first really fun multiplayer games " and a precursor to the video game deathmatch . Retro Gamer writer Mike Bevan praised the game 's physics , calling them " beautifully realised " , and described Joust as one of Williams ' " most remarkable and well @-@ loved titles " . A Computer and Video Games writer called the game " weird and wonderful " . Author John Sellers praised the competitive two @-@ player gameplay , and attributed the game 's appeal to the flapping mechanism . In 2004 , Ellis described Joust as an example of innovative risk absent in the then @-@ current video game industry . In retrospect , Newcomer commended Williams ' management for taking a risk on him and the game . The game has garnered praise from industry professionals as well . Jeff Peters of GearWorks Games lauded the gameplay , describing it as unique and intuitive . Fusion Learning Systems ' Jeff Johannigman praised the flapping mechanism and Kim Pallister of Microsoft enjoyed the multi @-@ player aspect . Joust features prominently in the book Ready Player One , a 2011 science fiction and dystopian novel by Ernest Cline . The game is one of many games and other cultural artifacts from the 1980s that populate the vast virtual universe called OASIS that is the setting for the story . = = Sequels and remakes = = A pinball version was released in 1983 , designed by Barry Oursler and Constantino Mitchell . The game includes artwork and themes from the arcade version . In addition to single player gameplay , it features competitive two @-@ player gameplay with the players on opposing sides of the machine . Fewer than 500 machines were produced . An arcade sequel , Joust 2 : Survival of the Fittest , was released in 1986 . It features similar gameplay with new elements on a vertical screen . Joust was ported to the Nintendo Entertainment System — programmed by Satoru Iwata — and to several Atari platforms : the Atari 2600 , Atari 5200 , Atari 7800 , and Atari Lynx consoles , as well as Atari 8 @-@ bit and Atari ST home computers . Entertainment Weekly called Joust one of the top ten games for the Atari 2600 in 2013 . Apple II , Macintosh and MS @-@ DOS versions were also released . Tiger Electronics released a small keychain version of Joust in 1998 . A mobile phone version was released in 2005 , but omitted the flapping control scheme . In 2000 , a web @-@ based version of Joust , along with nine other classic arcade games , was published on Shockwave.com. Four years later , Midway Games also launched a website featuring the Shockwave versions . The game was included in several multi @-@ platform compilations : the 1996 Williams Arcade 's Greatest Hits , the 2000 Midway 's Greatest Arcade Hits , and the 2003 Midway Arcade Treasures . Other compilation titles are the 1995 Arcade Classic 4 for the Game Boy and the 2005 Midway Arcade Treasures : Extended Play for the PlayStation Portable . Joust was released via digital distribution on GameTap , Xbox Live Arcade , and the PlayStation Network . In 2012 , Joust was included in the compilation Midway Arcade Origins . Other remakes were in development , but never released . Previously unreleased Atarisoft prototypes of Joust for the ColecoVision surfaced in 2001 at the Classic Gaming Expo in Las Vegas . An adaptation with three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) graphics ( and a port of the original Joust as a bonus ) was in development for the Atari Jaguar CD . Titled Dactyl Joust , it was eventually canceled . Newcomer pitched an updated version of the arcade game for the Game Boy Advance to Midway Games . The company , however , did not sanction it . The prototype featured multi @-@ directional scrolling , more detailed graphics based on 3D renders , and new gameplay mechanics . Midway Games optioned Joust 's movie rights to CP Productions in 2007 . Michael Cerenzie and Christine Peters of CP Productions planned to expand on a game element for the film 's premise . Cerenzie described the script by Marc Gottlieb as " Gladiator meets Mad Max " , set 25 years in the future , and Peters commented that the action oriented film would appeal to a general audience . The movie was planned as a tent @-@ pole movie , with a graphic novel by Steven @-@ Elliot Altman as part of the media franchise 's release . Midway Games also considered a video game adaptation of the film . Joust 's expected release date was set in June 2008 and then later pushed back to 2009 . The video game company , however , filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 2009 . Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment purchased most of Midway 's assets , including Joust , with the intent to develop movie adaptations . = = = Clones = = = Several titles by other developers feature gameplay that either copies or builds upon Joust 's design . The 1983 Jetpac and Mario Bros. feature elements inspired by it , as does the 1984 Balloon Fight . = = External Links = = Joust can be played for free in the browser at the Internet Archive = World Series of Poker bracelet = The World Series of Poker ( WSOP ) bracelet is considered the most coveted non @-@ monetary prize a poker player can win . Since 1976 , a bracelet has been awarded to the winner of every event at the annual WSOP . Even if the victory occurred before 1976 , WSOP championships are now counted as " bracelets " . During the first years of the WSOP only a handful of bracelets were awarded each year . In 1990 , there were only 14 bracelet events . By 2000 , that number increased to 24 . As the popularity of poker has increased during the 2000s , the number of events has likewise increased . In 2011 , 58 bracelets were awarded at the WSOP , seven at the World Series of Poker Europe ( WSOPE ) , and one to the WSOP National Circuit Champion . This brought the total number of bracelets awarded up to 959 . Five additional bracelets were awarded for the first time in April 2013 at the inaugural World Series of Poker Asia @-@ Pacific ( WSOP APAC ) in Melbourne , Australia . After the conclusion of the 2014 WSOP APAC , there have been 1083 bracelets awarded , 500 of which were won by 170 players who have won at least two bracelets , with all of the other bracelets being won by one @-@ time winners . This includes ( up to this point ) 17 Main Event winners : Hal Fowler , Bill Smith , Mansour Matloubi , Brad Daugherty , Jim Bechtel , Russ Hamilton , Noel Furlong , Robert Varkonyi , Chris Moneymaker , Greg Raymer , Joe Hachem , Jamie Gold , Jerry Yang , Peter Eastgate , Pius Heinz , Ryan Riess and Martin Jacobson . Since Chris Moneymaker won the 2003 Main Event , ( through the completion of Event # 58 in 2015 ) only two players have won and followed it up with a win in another bracelet event , Jonathan Duhamel and Joe Cada . = = Bracelet description = = The 1976 bracelet looked " like gold nuggets kind of hammered flat . " The bracelet in 1976 cost approximately $ 500 . In the 1980s , Las Vegas jeweler Mordechai Yerushalmi became the exclusive manufacturer of WSOP bracelets until Harrah 's Entertainment bought the rights to the WSOP in 2004 . According to 2003 WSOP Champion Chris Moneymaker , the design of the bracelet remained relatively unchanged under Yerushalmi . In 2005 , Gold and Diamond International based in Memphis , TN won the bid from Harrah 's Entertainment to manufacture the 2005 WSOP bracelets . The company also manufactures the WSOP circuit rings . In 2006 , Frederick Goldman , Inc. made the WSOP bracelets while luxury watch maker Corum introduced some commemorative watches as part of the prize package . In 2006 , the Champion 's bracelet had 259 stones including 7 @.@ 2 carats ( 1 @.@ 4 g ) of diamonds , 120 grams of white and yellow gold . It also used rubies to represent the heart and diamond suits , a sapphire to represent the spade and three black diamonds to represent the clubs . In 2007 , Corum became the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP . Some of the 2007 WSOP champions received both a watch and a bracelet from Corum . Corum designed four variations for the 2007 World Series of Poker Bracelets . The standard version that is presented to 53 winners features 53 diamonds . The Ladies World Champion receives a bracelet that is adorned with four black diamonds , two rubies and 87 blue sapphires . The $ 50 @,@ 000 HORSE Champion Bracelet has 91 black diamonds and two rubies . The World Series of Poker Main Event Bracelet has 120 diamonds on 136 grams of 18 carat ( 75 percent ) white gold . The value of the 2007 bracelets have not been released , but the typical price of a Corum watch ranges from $ 1 @,@ 500 – $ 30 @,@ 000 + . In 2008 , the Main Event Bracelet had 291 diamonds , totalling 2 @.@ 81 carats set in 168 grams of 18kt white gold . The other 54 event bracelets consisted of 55 diamonds , totalling 0 @.@ 25 carats set in 80 grams of 14kt yellow gold . In 2010 , an Australian @-@ based company OnTilt Designs Pty Ltd won a multi @-@ year contract to become the official bracelet manufacturer for the WSOP . OnTilt jewelers decided that the 2010 bracelet design would return to the tradition of the 70 's and 80 's where the bracelet was a heavy piece of unadorned metal . American jewelry designer Steve Soffa was chosen to design and manufacture the entire set of bracelets . The goal was to create a bracelet that somebody would actually want to wear every day . In 2011 , OnTilt has also been chosen to manufacture the WSOP Circuit rings . In 2012 , Jason Arasheben , famed jewelry designer and owner of Jason of Beverly Hills was chosen as the official bracelet manufacturer of the WSOP . Arasheben had designed the championship rings for the 2009 and 2010 Los Angeles Lakers and the 2011 Green Bay Packers , among others . The Main Event bracelet will feature each suit in the deck in either rubies or black diamonds . In terms of sheer mass , it weighs in at over 160 grams of 14 karat gold and over 35 carats of flawless diamonds . A special platinum bracelet was awarded at the 2012 WSOP to the winner of The Big One for One Drop , Antonio Esfandiari . The event was a $ 1 million buy @-@ in tournament created as a fundraiser for the One Drop Foundation , a charity established by Cirque du Soleil founder Guy Laliberté . = = Prestige = = At first , the bracelets did not have much prestige . Ten @-@ time bracelet winner Doyle Brunson said that his first bracelet " didn 't mean anything " to him and that he did not even pick up two of them . Some professional poker players believe that there are two types of poker players ; those who have won a bracelet and those who have not . Those who have belong to an exclusive club . " It 's impossible to overstate the value of a World Series of Poker gold bracelet to anyone who takes the game seriously , " stated World Series of Poker Commissioner Jeffrey Pollack during the 2006 bracelet unveiling . " It is the equivalent of winning the Stanley Cup in hockey or the Lombardi Trophy in football . " Many professional poker players desire the recognition that is associated with the bracelet . Former Celebrity Poker Showdown host and poker star Phil Gordon said , " I want that bracelet more than anything . " Freddy Deeb said that he did not appreciate his first bracelet because he did not recognize what it meant . He said his 2007 bracelet , however , " means everything to me " . Jennifer Tilly says that winning her 2005 Women 's Championship bracelet was " better than an Oscar " . When the World Poker Tour decided to offer a prize to its event champions , they decided to present them with WPT Bracelets . In so doing , WPT Founder , President and CEO Steve Lipscomb said , " The championship bracelet has become synonymous with poker as a symbol of achievement and respect , and we are honored to continue the tradition that Benny Binion [ the founder of the WSOP ] began over 30 years ago . " = = History = = Bracelets have not always been awarded for winning events . In 1970 , the first WSOP Champion received nothing but a silver cup and whatever cash he won during the event . From 1971 – 1974 , according to Becky Behnen ( the daughter of WSOP founder Benny Binion ) , the winner received an undescribed " corny trophy " . In 1975 , the winners received a sterling plate . The following year , 1976 , the WSOP started the tradition of issuing bracelets to the event winners . In 1980 and 1981 , one did not have to win a WSOP event to win a gold bracelet . In 1980 and 1981 , H.D. " Oklahoma Johny " Hale and Chip Reese received a gold bracelet for being the " Best All Around Player " at the WSOP , respectively . These bracelets , however , are not considered in the count of WSOP championship bracelets . In 2007 , Thomas Bihl became the first person to ever win a WSOP bracelet outside Las Vegas , Nevada . Bihl won the £ 2 @,@ 500 World Championship H.O.R.S.E. at the World Series of Poker Europe in London , England . Days later , Annette Obrestad became the youngest player to ever win a WSOP bracelet at 18 years , 364 days , also becoming the first woman to win a World Series Main Event ( WSOPE ) . Caesars Entertainment ( known until 2010 as Harrah 's Entertainment ) , the owner of the WSOP , considers the WSOP Europe bracelet to be the same in prestige as those awarded every year in Las Vegas . In 2008 , Jesper Hougaard became the first person to have won both a WSOP and WSOPE bracelet . In 2011 , a World Series of Poker bracelet was awarded for the first time to the WSOP Circuit National Championship winner in the 100 @-@ qualifier event from May 27 – 29 . The following year , the Circuit National Championship moved to New Orleans , where it will also be held in 2013 . Starting in 2013 , bracelets are also awarded in Australia at the World Series of Poker Asia @-@ Pacific , held at Crown Melbourne . = = Bracelet legacy = = Of the three top WSOP bracelet winners , only Johnny Chan still has them all . He keeps them locked in a vault because they are worth , according to him , " millions . " Brunson did not pick up two of his . Fourteen @-@ time bracelet winner Phil Hellmuth gave away ten of his . " To me , " Hellmuth said , " the bracelets have always been a really huge deal , to me more than the other guys , because I knew that they represented history . " Three @-@ time WSOP Bracelet winner Hamid Dastmalchi and five @-@ time winner Ted Forrest had been playing for four days non @-@ stop at the Mirage when Hamid started to complain about the 1992 Main Event Championship Bracelet he received . Bitter about a dispute with the Binion 's Horseshoe , the owners of the WSOP at the time , Hamid told the table that the Binion 's " say it 's worth $ 5 @,@ 000 , but I 'd take $ 1 @,@ 500 for it . " To which Forrest responded " Sold " and immediately tossed Hamid $ 1 @,@ 500 in chips . Dastmalchi mailed Forrest his bracelet . Ted Forrest also reported that three of his five bracelets have been stolen over the years , and that he gave his daughter one . In November 2010 , Peter Eastgate put his main event bracelet up for auction on eBay with a starting bid of $ 16 @,@ 000 . It eventually sold for $ 147 @,@ 500 and this money was donated to UNICEF . = = Multiple bracelet winners = = As of the end of the 2013 World Series of Poker , 22 players have earned five or more WSOP bracelets . Of those , the top bracelet winners are as follows : ( bold = won Main Event ) Johnny Moss , with a win at the 1971 WSOP , became the first person to have won multiple lifetime WSOP " bracelets " ( as mentioned above , the first actual bracelet was given in 1976 ) . Moss also was the first person to win five lifetime WSOP bracelets , with a win at the 1975 WSOP . Johnny Chan , with a win in Event No. 25 at the 2005 WSOP , became the first person to win 10 lifetime WSOP bracelets , just a few days before Doyle Brunson won his 10th bracelet in Event No. 31 of that same WSOP . The first person to win two bracelets in the same WSOP was Johnny Moss at the 1971 WSOP . The first person to win three bracelets in the same WSOP was Walter " Puggy " Pearson , at the 1973 WSOP . As of the start of the 2016 WSOP , only five other players have won three bracelets in a single WSOP . Bill Boyd and Doyle Brunson are the only players to have won bracelets in four consecutive years ( Boyd from 1971 to 1974 , and Brunson from 1976 to 1979 ) . = = WSOP rings = = In 2005 , the WSOP started hosting Circuit Events at many of their casinos around the country . In order to differentiate these events and to ensure the prestige of the WSOP Bracelet , the circuit events present a ring to the winners . In 2011 , the WSOP awarded a bracelet to the winner of the Circuit Event National Champion . The Circuit Event National Champion was an invitation only event that used the standings of players from the various circuit events in determining who was invited . = = Circuit National Championship = = Starting with the 2011 WSOP Circuit , the Circuit National Championship was held as a closed event for participants of various circuit events . Starting in 2012 , qualification for the Circuit National Championship was significantly changed . A total of 100 players now receive automatic seats in the National Championship . The winners of each Circuit main event and the highest point earner at each circuit stop receive seats , with the remaining automatic seats filled by the top points earners throughout the Circuit season who are not already qualified . Additionally , the top 100 players in the " WSOP World Rankings " , a points race determined on results in open events of the previous two WSOPs , are eligible to enter . The Circuit qualifiers play the National Championship on a freeroll , while the WSOP World Rankings qualifiers must pay a $ 10 @,@ 000 buy @-@ in . The winner of the Circuit National Championship wins a World Series of Poker bracelet . = Pará @-@ class monitor = The Pará class monitors were a group of six wooden @-@ hulled ironclads named after Brazilian states and built in Brazil for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . The first three ships finished , Pará , Alagoas and Rio Grande , participated in the Passagem de Humaitá in February 1868 . Afterwards the remaining ships joined the first three and they all provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ships were split between the newly formed Upper Uruguay ( Portuguese : Alto Uruguai ) and Mato Grosso Flotillas after the war . Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and participated in the Fleet Revolt of 1893 – 94 . = = Design and description = = The Pará @-@ class river monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armored ships capable of withstanding heavy fire during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . The two foreign @-@ built river monitors already in service drew enough water that they could not operate on the shallower rivers in Paraguay . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the casemate ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men . = = = Propulsion = = = The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming . = = = Armament = = = The first three ships carried a single 70 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in their gun turret , but the last three ships substituted a 120 @-@ pounder Whitworth RML . The 70 @-@ pdr gun had a maximum elevation of 15 ° , but the larger gun 's elevation was reduced because of its longer barrel . Both guns had a similar maximum range of 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 70 @-@ pdr gun weighed 8 @,@ 582 pounds ( 3 @,@ 892 @.@ 7 kg ) and fired a 5 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 140 mm ) shell that weighed 81 pounds ( 36 @.@ 7 kg ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 120 @-@ pdr gun weighed 151 pounds ( 68 @.@ 5 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 16 @,@ 660 pounds ( 7 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 kg ) . Most unusually the guns ' Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter . = = = Armor = = = The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimeters amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron . The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimeters and the rear by 76 millimeters . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimeters of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret . = = Construction = = = = Service = = The first three ships finished , Pará , Alagoas and Rio Grande , participated in the Passagem de Humaitá on 19 February 1868 . For the engagement the three river monitors were lashed to the larger ironclads in case any engines were disabled by the Paraguayan guns . Barroso led with Rio Grande , followed by Bahia with Alagoas and Tamandaré with Pará . Both Alagoas , which had taken an estimated 200 hits , and Pará had to be beached after passing the fortress to prevent them from sinking . Alagoas was under repair at São José do Cerrito until mid @-@ March , although Pará joined a squadron to capture the town of Laureles on 27 February . Rio Grande continued upstream with the other undamaged ships and they bombarded Asunción on 24 February with little effect . On 23 March Rio Grande and Barroso sank the Parguayan steamer Igurey and both ships were boarded by Paraguayan soldiers on the evening of 9 July , although they managed to repel the boarders . For the rest of the war the river monitors bombarded Paraguayan positions and artillery batteries in support of the army , notably at Angostura , Timbó and along the Tebicuary and Manduvirá Rivers . After the war the ships were divided between the newly formed Upper Uruguay and Mato Grosso Flotillas . Alagoas was transferred to Rio de Janeiro in the 1890s and participated in the Fleet Revolt of 1893 – 94 . The ships were disposed of during the last two decades of the 19th century , although Rio Grande was docked for reconstruction in 1899 . However , the work was never completed and she was eventually scrapped in 1907 . = The Head and the Hair = " The Head and The Hair " is the eleventh episode of the first season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock . It was written by series creator Tina Fey and co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . The director of this episode was Gail Mancuso . It originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) in the United States on January 18 , 2007 . Guest stars in this episode include Katrina Bowden , Craig Castaldo , Peter Hermann , Brian McCann , John McEnroe , Maulik Pancholy , Keith Powell , and Lonny Ross . In the episode , two men , one a cerebral nerd ( McCann ) and the other a gorgeous hunk ( Hermann ) , capture the attention of Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) trade places for " Bottom 's Up Day " at the office and at the same time , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) enlists Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Powell ) to write his autobiography in one day . " The Head and the Hair " received generally positive reception from television critics . According to the Nielsen ratings system , the episode was watched by 5 @.@ 0 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic . = = Plot = = Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) and Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) keep running into the same two men in the elevator at the 30 Rock building , and find themselves interested in them . Not knowing their names , Liz and Jenna refer to them as " The Head " ( Brian McCann ) and " The Hair " ( Peter Hermann ) . After talking with Jenna , Liz decides she is going to ask " The Head " out on a date . However , on her way to find him , she runs into " The Hair " , who asks her out , and discovers his name is Gray . She agrees to attend a restaurant opening with him . Feeling uncomfortable with Gray , as she believes that she does not date someone like Gray as it feels wrong , Liz tries to go home , but he convinces her to hang out for a while longer . The next day things end abruptly when Liz finds a picture of her great @-@ aunt in his apartment and they learn that they are related . Meanwhile , Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) panics in the TGS with Tracy Jordan staff office , as his autobiography is due to a publisher the next day but he has not yet begun to write it . He begs Frank Rossitano ( Judah Friedlander ) and James " Toofer " Spurlock ( Keith Powell ) to help him get it done in time , and they agree . They run into a problem when Tracy cannot remember much about his own life , and turn to Wikipedia for the answers . They work non @-@ stop on the project , until Tracy remembers that there never was an actual publisher for the book , thus shutting the project down . Finally , Vice President of East Coast Television and Microwave Oven Programming for General Electric Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) and NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) are participating in " Bottoms Up " day at the office . Jack must work in Kenneth 's job for a day , to help him be a better manager . During their time together , Kenneth tells Jack about an idea he has for a game show called Gold Case , in which contestants must correctly guess which briefcase being modeled contains gold bricks . Jack helps him sell the idea to NBC . The pilot episode of Gold Case is in production , with host John McEnroe . Due to the weight of the gold , contestants can quickly spot which model is straining with the weight of the case . Every contestant wins almost immediately which results in the show being shut down . = = Production = = " The Head and the Hair " was written by series ' creator , executive producer and lead actress Tina Fey and co @-@ executive producer John Riggi . The director of this episode was Don Scardino . This was Fey and Riggi 's first script collaboration , and they later co @-@ wrote the season three episode " The Natural Order " . " The Head and the Hair " originally aired on NBC in the United States on January 18 , 2007 as the eleventh episode of the show 's first season and overall of the series . This episode featured guest appearances from actors Brian McCann and Peter Hermann , in which McCann played " The Head " and Hermann " The Hair " . Former professional tennis player John McEnroe played himself in the episode , in which he hosts the game show Gold Case . McEnroe would later guest star as himself in the November 20 , 2008 , 30 Rock episode " Gavin Volure " . In one scene of this episode , Kenneth runs into a man named " Moonvest " , and tells him that he got an idea for a television game show , but Moonvest tells him " Give me your fingernails " . Moonvest was played by Craig Castaldo , or known as Radio Man . One filmed scene from " The Head and the Hair " was cut out from the airing . Instead , the scene was featured on 30 Rock 's season 1 DVD as part of the deleted scenes in the Bonus feature . In the scene , Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) is visibly upset that someone added paper in the regular garbage and demands to know who did it , as NBC recycles . Jack and Kenneth show up . Jack apologizes for throwing the paper in the regular garbage , which results in Pete telling him to go through the garbage by hand and " fish out anything that 's recyclable " , as Jack is dressed as a page , in which he is participating on " Bottoms Up " day . = = Cultural references = = In one of the scenes of the episode , Kenneth is in news anchor Brian Williams 's dressing room . There , Kenneth is seeing cleaning out a half @-@ cleaned graffiti that reads " Kat Cou Suc " , a reference to fellow news host Katie Couric . Williams ' has been on the series , having appeared in the season three episode " The Ones " , in which Tracy has been giving out Williams 's phone number instead of his . He next appeared in the season four episode " Audition Day " , as he is auditioning to become a cast member on TGS . Williams appeared in " Future Husband " in which he tells the CNBC staff that his news program Nightly News " rules " . There are frequent references to Star Wars in 30 Rock , beginning with the pilot episode in 2006 where Tracy is seen shouting that he is a Jedi . Liz admits to being a huge fan of Star Wars , saying that she had watched it many times with Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) , and dressed up as the Star Wars character Princess Leia during four recent Halloweens . There is also reference to Star Wars when Tracy takes on the identity of the character Chewbacca . In " The Head and the Hair " , Liz tells Jenna that " The Head " asked her out and says " I had to say yes . I mean he looked at me with those handsome guys eyes . It was like the Death Star tractor beam when the Falcon was ... " , until Jenna interrupts her and says " No Liz , do not talk about that stuff on your date . Guys like that do not like Star Trek " , to which Liz corrects " Wars ! " . Fey , a fan of Star Wars herself , said that the weekly Star Wars joke or reference " started happening organically " when the crew realized that they had a Star Wars reference " in almost every show " . Fey said that from then on " it became a thing where [ they ] tried to keep it going " , and that even though they could not include one in every episode , they still had a " pretty high batting average " . Fey attributed most of the references to executive producer and writer Robert Carlock , whom she described as " the resident expert " . = = Reception = = In its original American broadcast , " The Head and the Hair " was watched by 5 @.@ 0 million households , according to the Nielsen ratings system . It earned a 2 @.@ 4 rating / 6 share in the 18 – 49 demographic , meaning that 2 @.@ 4 percent of all people in that group , and 6 percent of all people from that group watching television at the time , watched the episode . This was a decrease from the previous episode , " The Rural Juror " , which was watched by 6 @.@ 1 million American viewers . Since airing , the episode has received generally good reception from television critics . Television columnist Alan Sepinwall for The Star @-@ Ledger said that 30 Rock " feels like a show that 's already made The Leap midway through season one . " He reported that Tracy 's story was " largely a dud " , but said that the two other plots were " so funny " that it would not matter much . Sepinwall said " The Head and the Hair " was " splendid " . Julia Ward of AOL 's TV Squad was complimentary towards Alec Baldwin 's Jack in this episode , citing that he knows " how to squeeze some serious funny out of a simple gesture and a pause . " She added that his " lingering stare " at both Jenna and Liz after taking their drink order " was the funniest moment in a very funny episode " . Ward also enjoyed that it " brought us maximum Kenneth , which is great . He 's turning out to be one of the show 's most endearing characters . " IGN contributor Robert Canning wrote that the pairing of Jack and Kenneth was a " great idea and gave Kenneth his best episode " since " Blind Date " . In regards to Liz 's story , he commented it was " her strongest episodes to date " , and said that it " felt good " to see her " have a little luck for a change " with " The Head " . In conclusion , Canning gave the episode an 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 rating . TV Guide 's Matt Mitovich disliked that NBC " utterly ruined " the outcome of Liz 's plot in the promos , though , said that it was a " very funny resolution to the relationship that was too good , and too well coiffed , to be true . " Mitovich said that it was " fun " to see Liz successfully date " while it lasted " . = Richard Nixon = Richard Milhous Nixon ( January 9 , 1913 – April 22 , 1994 ) was the 37th President of the United States , serving from 1969 to 1974 when he became the only U.S. president to resign the office . Nixon had previously served as a U.S. Representative and Senator from California and as the 36th Vice President of the United States from 1953 to 1961 . Nixon was born in Yorba Linda , California . After completing his undergraduate studies at Whittier College , he graduated from Duke University School of Law in 1937 and returned to California to practice law . He and his wife , Pat Nixon , moved to Washington in 1942 to work for the federal government . He subsequently served on active duty in the U.S. Navy Reserve during World War II . Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946 and to the Senate in 1950 . His pursuit of the Hiss Case established his reputation as a leading anti @-@ communist , and elevated him to national prominence . He was the running mate of Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican Party presidential nominee in the 1952 election . Nixon served for eight years as vice president . He waged an unsuccessful presidential campaign in 1960 , narrowly losing to John F. Kennedy , and lost a race for Governor of California to Pat Brown in 1962 . In 1968 he ran again for the presidency and was elected when he defeated Hubert Humphrey . Nixon ended American involvement in the war in Vietnam in 1973 and brought the American POWs home . At the same time , he ended military draft . Nixon 's visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 opened diplomatic relations between the two nations , and he initiated détente and the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union the same year . His administration generally transferred power from Washington to the states . He imposed wage and price controls for a period of ninety days , enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency . Nixon also presided over the Apollo 11 moon landing , which signaled the end of the moon race . He was reelected by one of the largest landslides in U.S. history in 1972 , when he defeated George McGovern . The year 1973 saw an Arab oil embargo , gasoline rationing , and a continuing series of revelations about the Watergate scandal . The scandal escalated , costing Nixon much of his political support , and on August 9 , 1974 , he resigned in the face of almost certain impeachment and removal from office . After his resignation , he was issued a pardon by his successor , Gerald Ford . In retirement , Nixon 's work writing several books and undertaking of many foreign trips helped to rehabilitate his image . He suffered a debilitating stroke on April 18 , 1994 , and died four days later at the age of 81 . = = Early life = = Richard Milhous Nixon was born on January 9 , 1913 in Yorba Linda , California , in a house his father built . He was the son of Hannah ( Milhous ) Nixon and Francis A. Nixon . His mother was a Quaker and his father converted from Methodism to the Quaker faith ; Nixon 's upbringing was marked by evangelical Quaker observances of the time , such as refraining from alcohol , dancing , and swearing . Nixon had four brothers : Harold ( 1909 – 33 ) , Donald ( 1914 – 87 ) , Arthur ( 1918 – 25 ) , and Edward ( born 1930 ) . Four of the five Nixon boys were named after kings who had ruled in historical or legendary England ; Richard , for example , was named after Richard the Lionheart . Nixon 's early life was marked by hardship , and he later quoted a saying of Eisenhower to describe his boyhood : " We were poor , but the glory of it was we didn 't know it " . The Nixon family ranch failed in 1922 , and the family moved to Whittier , California . In an area with many Quakers , Frank Nixon opened a grocery store and gas station . Richard 's younger brother Arthur died in 1925 after a short illness . At the age of twelve , Richard was found to have a spot on his lung and , with a family history of tuberculosis , he was forbidden to play sports . Eventually , the spot was found to be scar tissue from an early bout of pneumonia . = = = Primary and secondary education = = = Young Richard attended East Whittier Elementary School , where he was president of his eighth @-@ grade class . His parents believed that attendance at Whittier High School had caused Richard 's older brother Harold to live a dissolute lifestyle before the older boy fell ill of tuberculosis ( he died of the disease in 1933 ) . Instead , they sent Richard to the larger Fullerton Union High School . He had to ride a school bus for an hour each way during his freshman year and he	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
tragedy . No words can describe the depth of my regret and pain at the anguish my mistakes over Watergate have caused the nation and the presidency , a nation I so deeply love , and an institution I so greatly respect . In October 1974 , Nixon fell ill with phlebitis , the inflammation of the walls of a vein . Told by his doctors that he could either be operated on or die , a reluctant Nixon chose surgery , and President Ford visited him in the hospital . Nixon was under subpoena for the trial of three of his former aides — Dean , Haldeman , and John Ehrlichman — and The Washington Post , disbelieving his illness , printed a cartoon showing Nixon with a cast on the " wrong foot " . Judge John Sirica excused Nixon 's presence despite the defendants ' objections . Congress instructed Ford to retain Nixon 's presidential papers — beginning a three @-@ decade legal battle over the documents that was eventually won by the former president and his estate . Nixon was in the hospital when the 1974 midterm elections were held , and Watergate and the pardon were contributing factors to the Republican loss of 43 seats in the House and three in the Senate . = = = Return to public life = = = In December 1974 , Nixon began planning his comeback despite the considerable ill @-@ will against him in the country . He wrote in his diary , referring to himself and Pat , So be it . We will see it through . We 've had tough times before and we can take the tougher ones that we will have to go through now . That is perhaps what we were made for — to be able to take punishment beyond what anyone in this office has had before particularly after leaving office . This is a test of character and we must not fail the test . By early 1975 , Nixon 's health was improving . He maintained an office in a Coast Guard station 300 yards from his home , at first taking a golf cart and later walking the route each day ; he mainly worked on his memoirs . He had hoped to wait before writing his memoirs ; the fact that his assets were being eaten away by expenses and lawyer fees compelled him to begin work quickly . He was handicapped in this work by the end of his transition allowance in February , which compelled him to part with many of his staff , including Ziegler . In August of that year , he met with British talk @-@ show host and producer David Frost , who paid him $ 600 @,@ 000 for a series of sit @-@ down interviews , filmed and aired in 1977 . They began on the topic of foreign policy , recounting the leaders he had known , but the most remembered section of the interviews was that on Watergate . Nixon admitted that he had " let down the country " and that " I brought myself down . I gave them a sword and they stuck it in . And they twisted it with relish . And , I guess , if I 'd been in their position , I 'd have done the same thing . " The interviews garnered 45 – 50 million viewers — becoming the most @-@ watched program of their kind in television history . The interviews helped improve Nixon 's financial position — at one point in early 1975 he had only $ 500 in the bank — as did the sale of his Key Biscayne property to a trust set up by wealthy Nixon friends such as Bebe Rebozo . In February 1976 , Nixon visited China at the personal invitation of Mao . Nixon had wanted to return to China , but chose to wait until after Ford 's own visit in 1975 . Nixon remained neutral in the close 1976 primary battle between Ford and Reagan . Ford won , but was defeated by Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter in the general election . The Carter administration had little use for Nixon and blocked his planned trip to Australia , causing the government of Prime Minister Malcolm Fraser to withhold its official invitation . In 1976 , Nixon was disbarred in the state of New York for obstruction of justice in the Watergate affair . Nixon chose not to present any defense . In early 1978 , Nixon went to the United Kingdom . He was shunned by American diplomats and by most ministers of the James Callaghan government . He was welcomed , however , by the Leader of the Opposition , Margaret Thatcher , as well as by former prime ministers Lord Home and Sir Harold Wilson . Two other former prime ministers , Harold Macmillan and Edward Heath declined to meet him . Nixon addressed the Oxford Union regarding Watergate : Some people say I didn 't handle it properly and they 're right . I screwed it up . Mea culpa . But let 's get on to my achievements . You 'll be here in the year 2000 and we 'll see how I 'm regarded then . = = = Author and elder statesman = = = In 1978 , Nixon published his memoirs , RN : The Memoirs of Richard Nixon , the first of ten books he was to author in his retirement . The book was a bestseller and attracted a generally positive critical response . Nixon journeyed to the White House in 1979 , invited by Carter for the state dinner for Chinese Vice Premier Deng Xiaoping . Carter had not wanted to invite Nixon , but Deng had stated he would visit Nixon in California if the former president was not invited . Nixon had a private meeting with Deng and visited Beijing again in mid @-@ 1979 . On August 10 , 1979 , the Nixons purchased a New York City townhouse at 817 Fifth Avenue after being rejected by two Manhattan co @-@ ops . When the former Shah of Iran died in Egypt in July 1980 , Nixon defied the State Department , which intended to send no U.S. representative , by attending the funeral . Though Nixon had no official credentials , as a former president he was seen as the American presence at its former ally 's funeral . Nixon supported Ronald Reagan for president in 1980 , making television appearances portraying himself as , in biographer Stephen Ambrose 's words , " the senior statesman above the fray " . He wrote guest articles for many publications both during the campaign and after Reagan 's victory . After eighteen months in the New York City townhouse , Nixon and his wife moved in 1981 to Saddle River , New Jersey . Throughout the 1980s , Nixon maintained an ambitious schedule of speaking engagements and writing , traveled , and met with many foreign leaders , especially those of Third World countries . He joined former Presidents Ford and Carter as representatives of the United States at the funeral of Egyptian President Anwar Sadat . On a trip to the Middle East , Nixon made his views known regarding Saudi Arabia and Libya , which attracted significant U.S. media attention ; The Washington Post ran stories on Nixon 's " rehabilitation " . Nixon journeyed to the Soviet Union in 1986 and on his return sent President Reagan a lengthy memorandum containing foreign policy suggestions and his personal impressions of Mikhail Gorbachev . Following this trip , Nixon was ranked in a Gallup poll as one of the ten most admired men in the world . In 1986 , Nixon addressed a convention of newspaper publishers , impressing his audience with his tour d 'horizon of the world . At the time , political pundit Elizabeth Drew wrote , " Even when he was wrong , Nixon still showed that he knew a great deal and had a capacious memory , as well as the capacity to speak with apparent authority , enough to impress people who had little regard for him in earlier times . " Newsweek ran a story on " Nixon 's comeback " with the headline " He 's back " . On July 19 , 1990 , the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace in Yorba Linda , California opened as a private institution with the Nixons in attendance . They were joined by a large crowd of people , including Presidents Ford , Reagan , and George H. W. Bush , as well as their wives , Betty , Nancy , and Barbara . In January 1991 , the former president founded the Nixon Center ( today the Center for the National Interest ) , a Washington policy think tank and conference center . Pat Nixon died on June 22 , 1993 , of emphysema and lung cancer . Her funeral services were held on the grounds of the Richard Nixon Library and Birthplace . Former President Nixon was distraught throughout the interment and delivered a moving tribute to her inside the library building . = = = Death and funeral = = = Nixon suffered a severe stroke on April 18 , 1994 , while preparing to eat dinner in his Park Ridge , New Jersey home . A blood clot resulting from the atrial fibrillation he had suffered for many years had formed in his upper heart , broken off , and traveled to his brain . He was taken to New York Hospital – Cornell Medical Center in Manhattan , initially alert but unable to speak or to move his right arm or leg . Damage to the brain caused swelling ( cerebral edema ) , and Nixon slipped into a deep coma . He died at 9 : 08 p.m. on April 22 , 1994 , with his daughters at his bedside . He was 81 years old . Nixon 's funeral took place on April 27 , 1994 in Yorba Linda , California . Eulogists at the Nixon Library ceremony included President Bill Clinton , former Secretary of State Henry Kissinger , Senate Minority Leader Bob Dole , California Governor Pete Wilson , and the Reverend Billy Graham . Also in attendance were former Presidents Ford , Carter , Reagan , George H. W. Bush , and their wives . Richard Nixon is buried beside his wife Pat on the grounds of the Nixon Library . He was survived by his two daughters , Tricia and Julie , and four grandchildren . In keeping with his wishes , his funeral was not a full state funeral , though his body did lie in repose in the Nixon Library lobby from April 26 to the morning of the funeral service . Mourners waited in line for up to eight hours in chilly , wet weather to pay their respects . At its peak , the line to pass by Nixon 's casket was three miles long with an estimated 42 @,@ 000 people waiting to pay their respects . John F. Stacks of Time magazine said of Nixon shortly after his death , An outsize energy and determination drove him on to recover and rebuild after every self @-@ created disaster that he faced . To reclaim a respected place in American public life after his resignation , he kept traveling and thinking and talking to the world 's leaders ... and by the time Bill Clinton came to the White House [ in 1993 ] , Nixon had virtually cemented his role as an elder statesman . Clinton , whose wife served on the staff of the committee that voted to impeach Nixon , met openly with him and regularly sought his advice . Tom Wicker of The New York Times noted that Nixon had been equalled only by Franklin Roosevelt in being five times nominated on a major party ticket and , quoting Nixon 's 1962 farewell speech , wrote , Richard Nixon 's jowly , beard @-@ shadowed face , the ski @-@ jump nose and the widow 's peak , the arms upstretched in the V @-@ sign , had been so often pictured and caricatured , his presence had become such a familiar one in the land , he had been so often in the heat of controversy , that it was hard to realize the nation really would not ' have Nixon to kick around anymore ' . Ambrose said of the reaction to Nixon 's death , " To everyone 's amazement , except his , he 's our beloved elder statesman . " Upon Nixon 's death , almost all of the news coverage mentioned Watergate , but for the most part , the coverage was favorable to the former president . The Dallas Morning News stated , " History ultimately should show that despite his flaws , he was one of our most farsighted chief executives . " This offended some ; columnist Russell Baker complained of " a group conspiracy to grant him absolution " . Cartoonist Jeff Koterba of the Omaha World @-@ Herald depicted History before a blank canvas , his subject Nixon , as America looks on eagerly . The artist urges his audience to sit down ; the work will take some time to complete , as " this portrait is a little more complicated than most " . = = Legacy = = Historian and political scientist James MacGregor Burns observed of Nixon , " How can one evaluate such an idiosyncratic president , so brilliant and so morally lacking ? " Nixon 's biographers disagree on how he will be perceived by history . According to Ambrose , " Nixon wanted to be judged by what he accomplished . What he will be remembered for is the nightmare he put the country through in his second term and for his resignation . " Irwin Gellman , who chronicled Nixon 's congressional career , suggests that " he was remarkable among his congressional peers , a success story in a troubled era , one who steered a sensible anti @-@ Communist course against the excess of McCarthy " . Aitken feels that " Nixon , both as a man and as a statesman , has been excessively maligned for his faults and inadequately recognised for his virtues . Yet even in a spirit of historical revisionism , no simple verdict is possible . " Nixon 's Southern Strategy is credited by some historians as causing the South to become a Republican stronghold , though others deem economic factors more important to the change . Throughout his career , he was instrumental in moving his party away from the control of isolationists , and as a congressman was a persuasive advocate of containing Soviet communism . According to his biographer , Herbert Parmet , " Nixon 's role was to steer the Republican party along a middle course , somewhere between the competitive impulses of the Rockefellers , the Goldwaters , and the Reagans . " Nixon is given credit for his stance on domestic affairs , which resulted in the passage and enforcement of environmental and regulatory legislation . Historian Paul Charles Milazzo in his 2011 paper on Nixon and the environment , points to Nixon 's creation of the EPA and his enforcement of legislation such as the 1973 Endangered Species Act , stating that " though unsought and unacknowledged , Richard Nixon 's environmental legacy is secure . " Nixon saw his policies regarding Vietnam , China , and the Soviets as key to his place in history . George McGovern , Nixon 's onetime opponent , commented in 1983 , " President Nixon probably had a more practical approach to the two superpowers , China and the Soviet Union , than any other president since World War II ... With the exception of his inexcusable continuation of the war in Vietnam , Nixon really will get high marks in history . " Political scientist Jussi M. Hanhimäki disagrees , saying Nixon 's diplomacy was merely a continuation of the Cold War policy of containment , using diplomatic rather than military means . Historian Christopher Andrew concludes that " Nixon was a great statesman on the world stage as well as a shabby practitioner of electoral politics in the domestic arena . While the criminal farce of Watergate was in the making , Nixon 's inspirational statesmanship was establishing new working relationships with both Communist China and the Soviet Union . " Historian Keith W. Olson has written that Nixon left a negative legacy : fundamental mistrust of government with its roots in Vietnam and Watergate . During the impeachment of Bill Clinton in 1998 , both sides tried to use Nixon and Watergate to their advantage : Republicans suggested that Clinton 's misconduct had been comparable to Nixon 's , while Democrats contended that Nixon 's actions had been far more serious than those of the incumbent . Another legacy , for a time , was a decrease in the power of the presidency as Congress passed restrictive legislation in the wake of Watergate . Olson suggests that grants of power to George W. Bush in the aftermath of the 9 / 11 attacks restored the president 's power . = = Personality and public image = = Nixon 's career was frequently dogged by his persona and the public 's perception of it . Editorial cartoonists and comedians often exaggerated his appearance and mannerisms , to the point where the line between the human and the caricature became increasingly blurred . He was often portrayed with unshaven jowls , slumped shoulders , and a furrowed , sweaty brow . Nixon had a complex personality , both very secretive and awkward , yet strikingly reflective about himself . He was inclined to distance himself from people and was formal in all aspects , wearing a coat and tie even when home alone . Nixon biographer Conrad Black described him as being " driven " though also " uneasy with himself in some ways " . According to Black , Nixon thought that he was doomed to be traduced , double @-@ crossed , unjustly harassed , misunderstood , underappreciated , and subjected to the trials of Job , but that by the application of his mighty will , tenacity , and diligence , he would ultimately prevail . Biographer Elizabeth Drew summarized Nixon as a " smart , talented man , but most peculiar and haunted of presidents " . In his account of the Nixon presidency , author Richard Reeves described Nixon as " a strange man of uncomfortable shyness , who functioned best alone with his thoughts " . Nixon 's presidency was doomed by his personality , Reeves argues : He assumed the worst in people and he brought out the worst in them ... He clung to the idea of being ' tough ' . He thought that was what had brought him to the edge of greatness . But that was what betrayed him . He could not open himself to other men and he could not open himself to greatness . Nixon believed that putting distance between himself and other people was necessary for him as he advanced in his political career and became president . Even Bebe Rebozo , by some accounts his closest friend , did not call him by his first name . Nixon stated of this , Even with close friends , I don 't believe in letting your hair down , confiding this and that and the other thing — saying , ' Gee , I couldn 't sleep ' ... I believe you should keep your troubles to yourself . That 's just the way I am . Some people are different . Some people think it 's good therapy to sit with a close friend and , you know , just spill your guts ... [ and ] reveal their inner psyche — whether they were breast @-@ fed or bottle @-@ fed . Not me . No way . When told that most Americans , even at the end of his career , did not feel they knew him , Nixon replied , " Yeah , it 's true . And it 's not necessary for them to know . " = = = Explanatory notes = = = = Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam , BWV 7 = Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam ( Christ our Lord came to the Jordan ) , BWV 7 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Leipzig for the Feast of St. John the Baptist and led its first performance on 24 June 1724 . It is the third cantata Bach composed for his chorale cantata cycle , the second cycle he started after being appointed Thomaskantor in 1723 . The cantata is based on the seven stanzas of Martin Luther 's hymn " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam " , about baptism . The first and last stanza of the chorale were used for the outer movements of the cantata , while an unknown librettist paraphrased the inner stanzas of the hymn into the text for the five other movements . The first movement , a chorale fantasia , is followed by a succession of arias alternating with recitatives , leading to a four @-@ part closing chorale . The cantata is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto , tenor and bass ) , a four @-@ part choir , two oboes d 'amore , two solo violins , strings and basso continuo . = = History and words = = Bach composed this cantata for St John 's Day 24 June 1724 in Leipzig , as the third cantata of his second annual cycle ( the chorale cantata cycle ) , which had begun about two weeks earlier on the first Sunday after Trinity . The cycle was devoted to Lutheran hymns , typically rendered by keeping their text of the first and last stanza , while a contemporary poet reworded the inner stanzas . The prescribed readings for the feast of the birth of John the Baptist were from the Book of Isaiah , " the voice of a preacher in the desert " ( Isaiah 40 : 1 – 5 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , the birth of John the Baptist and the Benedictus of Zechariah ( Luke 1 : 57 – 80 ) . Martin Luther 's hymn " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam " ( To Jordan came our Lord the Christ ) is associated with the feast . Its topic , differing from that of the readings , is baptism , which is treated based on biblical accounts , starting from Christ 's baptism by John the Baptist in the river Jordan . The hymn tune is " Es woll [ t ] uns Gott genädig sein " , Zahn No. 7246 . Bach used the text of the first stanza of Luther 's hymn for the first movement of his cantata , with its chorale melody sung as cantus firmus . The final movement of the cantata is a four @-@ part chorale setting of the seventh stanza , on the hymn tune . The five arias and recitatives between these choral movements are settings of text paraphrased from the hymn 's other stanzas . = = Scoring and structure = = The cantata in seven movements is scored for three vocal soloists ( alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , a four @-@ part choir ( SATB ) , two oboes d 'amore ( Oa ) , two solo violins ( Vs , the second one only introduced in a later performance ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) . = = Music = = The seven @-@ movement cantata begins with a chorale fantasia and ends , after a sequence of alternating arias and recitatives , with a closing chorale as a four @-@ part setting . Bach increased the number of accompanying instruments for the arias , from only continuo in the second movement , over two solo violins in the central movement of the cantata , to two oboes d 'amore and strings in the sixth movement . = = = 1 = = = In the opening chorus , " Christ unser Herr zum Jordan kam " ( Christ our Lord came to the Jordan ) , the tenor has the melody as a cantus firmus , while the other voices sing free counterpoint . In the first cantata of the chorale cantata cycle , O Ewigkeit , du Donnerwort , BWV 20 , Bach had given the cantus firmus of the chorale tune to the soprano , and in the second , Ach Gott , vom Himmel sieh darein , BWV 2 , to the alto . The opening chorus resembles an Italian violin concerto . The musicologist Julian Mincham likens the " solo violin 's persistent , rocking , wave @-@ like idea " to the waves of the Jordan River . Alfred Dürr compares the vocal sections , all with the solo violin , to the solo sections of a violin concerto , as opposed to the tutti sections with the orchestra . John Eliot Gardiner interprets the movement as a French overture , " replete with grandiloquent baroque gestures to suggest both the processional entrance of Jesus and the powerful flooding of the River Jordan " . Klaus Hofmann notes that the movement combines the old style of motet writing with the new type of solo concerto , and observes that " the main violin solo episodes ... are at first linked to the choral entries , but gradually assume larger proportions and greater independence as the movement progresses " . = = = 2 = = = The first aria , " Merkt und hört , ihr Menschenkinder " ( Mark and hear , you humans ) , is accompanied by the continuo alone . Mincham observes that a characteristic fast motif of five notes , repeated abundantly in the cello , always flows downward , while Bach usually also inverses motifs , such as in his Inventions . Mincham concludes that it represents the " pouring of the baptismal waters " . = = = 3 = = = The following recitative is given to the tenor as an Evangelist : " Dies hat Gott klar mit Worten " ( This God has clearly provided with words ) , narrating the biblical command to baptise . = = = 4 = = = The central aria is sung by the tenor , accompanied by two violins , marked " solo " in a later performance , " Des Vaters Stimme ließ sich hören " ( The Father 's voice can be heard ) . Gardiner notes that the music " describes , through its pair of soaring violins , the circling flight of the Holy Spirit as a dove " . Hofmann notes the character of the movement as a gigue , and several appearances of the number 3 as a symbol of the Trinity : it is a trio for voice and two violins , " in triple time – and markedly so : not only is the time signature 3 / 4 , but also the crotchets are each divided into triplets " , and in a form of three solo sections as " all variants of a single model that is presented in the opening and concluding ritornellos " . Hofmann concludes : " The sequence that this creates – three different forms of the same musical substance – is evidently to be understood as a symbol of the Holy Trinity . " = = = 5 = = = A recitative for bass , the vox Christi ( voice of Christ ) , " Als Jesus dort nach seinen Leiden " ( As Jesus there , after His passion ) , speaks of Jesus after his passion and resurrection . It is accompanied by the strings , similar to the words of Jesus in Bach 's St Matthew Passion . = = = 6 = = = The last aria is sung by the alto with rich accompaniment : " Menschen , glaubt doch dieser Gnade " ( People , believe this grace now , ) . The two oboes d 'amore double the first violin when human beings are requested to accept the grace of God to not " perish in the pit of hell " . = = = 7 = = = The closing chorale is the final stanza of the hymn , with the instruments playing colla parte : " Das Aug allein das Wasser sieht " ( The eye sees only water , ) , a summary of Luther 's teaching about baptism . = = Editions = = In 1851 , about a century before the cantata got its BWV number , it was published as No. 7 in the first volume of the Bach @-@ Gesellschaft @-@ Ausgabe . In the New Bach Edition the cantata was included in Series I , Volume 29 , Kantaten zum Johannisfest ( Cantatas for St. John 's Day ) . Calmus and Breitkopf & Härtel published performance scores . The Breitkopf score translates the cantata 's title as Lord Christ of old to Jordan came . = = Selected recordings = = A list of recordings is provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . The type of choir and orchestra is roughly shown as a large group by red background , and as an ensemble with period instruments in historically informed performance by green background . = Paul Gascoigne = Paul John Gascoigne ( born 27 May 1967 ) is a former England international footballer and football manager . He is also known by his nickname , Gazza . He earned 57 caps during his England career and has been described by the National Football Museum as " the most naturally gifted English midfielder of his generation " . Born and raised in Gateshead , the midfielder signed schoolboy terms with Newcastle United , before turning professional with the top tier ( pre @-@ Premier League creation ) club in 1985 . Three years later he was sold on to Tottenham Hotspur for a £ 2 @.@ 2 million fee . He won the FA Cup with Spurs in 1991 , before he was sold to Italian club Lazio for £ 5 @.@ 5 million the following year . In July 1995 , he was transferred to Rangers for £ 4 @.@ 3 million , and helped the club to two league titles and two trophies . He returned to England in a £ 3 @.@ 4 million move to Middlesbrough in March 1998 . He made his debut in the Premier League in the 1998 – 99 season , having already featured in the 1998 Football League Cup Final . He switched to Everton in July 2000 , and later had spells with Burnley , Gansu Tianma ( China ) , and Boston United . He was part of the England squad that reached fourth place in the 1990 FIFA World Cup , where he was reduced to tears after receiving a yellow card in the semi @-@ final with West Germany , which meant he would be suspended for the final itself had England won the game . He also helped the team to the semi @-@ finals of UEFA Euro 1996 , scoring a goal against Scotland which was described as one of the best of the tournament . After retiring from professional football , his life became dominated by his mental and emotional problems , particularly his alcoholism . His personal struggles have received regular coverage in the British press , especially since leaving professional football . He has attempted to live without alcohol on numerous occasions , though rehabilitation programmes have provided only temporary relief . His problems ended his coaching career , and he has not worked since being fired as the manager of Kettering Town in 2005 . = = Early life = = Gascoigne was born in the Dunston area of Gateshead , England on 27 May 1967 . His father , John , was a hod carrier , and his mother , Carol , worked in a factory . He was named Paul John Gascoigne in tribute to The Beatles members Paul McCartney and John Lennon . He attended Breckenbeds Junior High School , then the Heathfield Senior High School , both in the Low Fell area of Gateshead . He was noticed by football scouts while playing for Gateshead Boys , though failed to impress in a trial at Ipswich Town . Further trials at Middlesbrough and Southampton also proved unsuccessful , before the team he supported , Newcastle United , signed him as a schoolboy in 1980 . He was usually overweight whilst signed to Newcastle and frequently got into trouble with his friend Jimmy " Five Bellies " Gardner , particularly when the pair were taken to court and fined over a hit and run incident . Newcastle chairman Stan Seymour described Gascoigne as " George Best without brains " . While Gascoigne was successful on the football field , his childhood was marked by instability and tragedy . Initially his family lived in a single upstairs room in a council house with a shared bathroom , and moved several times during Gascoigne 's early life . When he was ten , Gascoigne witnessed the death of Steven Spraggon , the younger brother of a friend , who was killed in a traffic collision . Around this time , his father began to suffer from seizures . Gascoigne began developing obsessions and twitches , and was taken into therapy at age ten , but soon quit the therapy sessions after his father expressed doubts over the treatment methods . Gascoigne developed an addiction to gaming machines , frequently spending all his money on them , and also began shoplifting to fund his addiction . Gascoigne experienced further tragedy when a friend , whom he had encouraged to join Newcastle United from Middlesbrough , died whilst he was working for Gascoigne 's uncle on a building site . At the age of 15 , he took the decision to provide for his family – his parents and two sisters – financially , as he saw professional football as a way of earning more money than the rest of the family were capable of . He enjoyed football , and later wrote that " I didn 't have twitches or worry about death when I was playing football " . He was signed on as an apprentice at Newcastle on his sixteenth birthday . = = Club career = = = = = Newcastle United = = = Gascoigne captained Newcastle United 's youth team to the FA Youth Cup in the 1984 – 85 season , and scored twice in the 4 – 1 victory over Watford in the final at Vicarage Road . Manager Jack Charlton handed Gascoigne his first team debut as a substitute for George Reilly in a 1 – 0 win over Queens Park Rangers on 13 April 1985 at St James ' Park . At the age of 18 Gascoigne signed a two @-@ year £ 120 a week contract at Newcastle , with the club also having a further two @-@ year option clause . Willie McFaul took over as manager for the 1985 – 86 season , and named Gascoigne in his first eleven from the opening game of the campaign ; he took the place of Chris Waddle , who had been sold to Tottenham Hotspur in the summer . He scored his first goal at home to Oxford United in a 3 – 0 victory on 21 September 1985 , and claimed a further eight goals in the 1985 – 86 campaign . Newcastle finished 11th in the First Division that season and , at the end of it , Gascoigne was featured on the front cover of the Rothmans Football Yearbook . He scored five goals in 24 league games in the 1986 – 87 season , as the " Magpies " slipped to 17th place , just three points above the relegation play @-@ offs . In a 0 – 0 draw with Wimbledon at Plough Lane hard @-@ man Vinnie Jones singled him out for attention , and in an incident that would become a much @-@ publicised photograph , Jones grabbed him by the genitals as Gascoigne screamed in agony . Gascoigne subsequently sent Jones a red rose , and the two became good friends . He was named as the PFA Young Player of the Year and listed on the PFA Team of the Year in the 1987 – 88 season , and was the subject of offers from both Manchester United and Tottenham Hotspur . His first choice was Liverpool but with no offer forthcoming , Gascoigne promised Alex Ferguson that he would sign for Manchester United . Ferguson duly went on holiday to Malta , where he received the news that Gascoigne had signed for Spurs , for a record British fee of £ 2 @.@ 2 million . In his 1999 autobiography , Ferguson claimed that Gascoigne was wooed into signing for Tottenham after they bought a house for his impoverished family . = = = Tottenham Hotspur = = = In his first season at White Hart Lane Gascoigne helped Terry Venables 's Spurs to sixth in the First Division , scoring seven goals in 37 appearances . They rose to third place in 1989 – 90 , but were still 16 points behind champions Liverpool . He was named as BBC Sports Personality of the Year in 1990 , and on accepting the award said that " I haven 't won anything in the game as yet . But the World Cup did help to put England on the map " . He was also named as Tottenham Hotspur 's Player of the Year . Gascoigne was named on the PFA Team of the Year in the 1990 – 91 season as Tottenham reached the FA Cup Final , with victories over Blackpool , Oxford United , Portsmouth , Notts County and North London derby rivals Arsenal . He scored the opening goal of the 3 – 1 victory over Arsenal at Wembley with a free @-@ kick , one of six goals he scored in the competition . Going into the final against Nottingham Forest he had already agreed terms to join Italian club Lazio in an £ 8 @.@ 5 million deal . However just 15 minutes into the game he committed a dangerous knee @-@ high foul on Gary Charles and ruptured his own cruciate ligaments in his right knee . England team mate Stuart Pearce scored from the resultant free kick , and Gascoigne subsequently collapsed after the kick @-@ off , forcing him to leave the match on a stretcher . Tottenham went on to win the Cup in extra @-@ time . He missed the entire 1991 – 92 season while he recovered , suffering a further knee injury in late 1991 , when an incident at a nightclub on Tyneside kept him out for even longer . The saga over Gascoigne 's proposed transfer to Lazio dominated the tabloid press throughout 1991 , often overshadowing the key national news of that time – namely the recession and rise in unemployment that it sparked – although the broadsheet newspapers generally kept stories about Gascoigne confined to their back pages . " I 'm very pleased for Paul but it 's like watching your mother @-@ in @-@ law drive off a cliff in your new car . " = = = Lazio = = = Gascoigne eventually joined Lazio for a fee of £ 5 @.@ 5 million ; he received a £ 2 million signing @-@ on fee and signed a contract worth £ 22 @,@ 000 a week . He made his Serie A debut on 27 September 1992 in a match against Genoa which was televised in Britain as well as Italy . He failed to fully settle in Italy and was beset by negative media interest which was not helped by the numerous occasions he punched reporters and the time when he belched down a microphone on live television . He was well received by the club 's fans , but not by the club 's owner Sergio Cragnotti , who resented him after Gascoigne greeted him by saying " Tua figlia , grande tette " ( roughly translated as " Your daughter , big tits " ) . His form was inconsistent in his first season at the Stadio Olimpico as he had previously spent a year out injured , but he endeared himself to Eagles fans when he scored in the 89th minute to equalise during the Rome derby against A.S. Roma . He broke his cheekbone whilst on international duty in April 1993 , and had to play the remaining games of the season in a mask . Lazio ended the campaign in fifth place , which was considered a success as it meant qualification for European competition for the first time in 16 years . He fell badly out of shape before the 1993 – 94 season and was told by manager Dino Zoff to lose two stone ( 13 kg ) by the start of the campaign else he would lose his first team place . Gascoigne went on an extreme weight loss diet and succeeded in shedding the excess fat . He kept his place in the team and captained the club against US Cremonese when regular captain Roberto Cravero was substituted . However , in April he broke his leg in training whilst attempting to tackle Alessandro Nesta . Upon his recovery he was disgruntled with new head coach Zdeněk Zeman 's stern fitness approach , and both club and player decided to part ways at the end of the 1994 – 95 season . = = = Rangers = = = Gascoigne signed for Rangers in July 1995 , for a club record fee of £ 4 @.@ 3 million , on wages of £ 15 @,@ 000 a week . He made an immediate impact ; in the fifth league game of the season in the Old Firm match at Celtic Park he scored a goal after running almost the full length of the pitch . On 30 December , in a match against Hibernian , Gascoigne was booked by referee Dougie Smith after he picked Smith 's yellow card up from the ground and jokingly ' booked ' the referee . Rangers went on to win the league in the 1995 – 96 season , clinching the title in the penultimate game of the season against Aberdeen at Ibrox Stadium ; Gascoigne scored a hat @-@ trick during the game . Rangers won the double as they also won the Scottish Cup by knocking out Keith , Clyde , Inverness Caledonian Thistle and Celtic , before beating Heart of Midlothian 5 – 1 in the final at Hampden Park . He scored 19 goals in 42 appearances in all competitions , and was named as both PFA Scotland Players ' Player of the Year and SFWA Footballer of the Year . Rangers won the league title again in 1996 – 97 , their ninth in succession . Gascoigne claimed hat @-@ tricks against Kilmarnock and Motherwell , and ended the campaign with 17 goals in 34 games . However manager Walter Smith and assistant Archie Knox became increasingly concerned over Gascoigne 's reliance on alcohol . The " Gers " won another double by winning the League Cup , knocking out Clydebank , Ayr United , Hibernian and Dunfermline Athletic en route to the final . Rangers beat Hearts 4 – 3 in the final at Celtic Park , with Gascoigne scoring two goals and Ally McCoist claiming the other two . In November 1997 , Gascoigne received a five @-@ match ban after being sent off for violent conduct during the Old Firm derby following an incident with Celtic midfielder Morten Wieghorst . In January 1998 , Gascoigne courted serious controversy after he played a mock flute ( symbolic of the flute @-@ playing of Orange Order marchers ) during an Old Firm match at Celtic Park . The gesture infuriated Celtic fans who had been taunting him and Gascoigne was fined £ 20 @,@ 000 by Rangers after the incident . He also received a death threat from an Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) Member following the incident . The 1997 – 98 season was not a success , as Gascoigne scored just three goals in 28 games and Rangers failed to win any trophies , losing the league title to Celtic . = = = Middlesbrough = = = Gascoigne left Scotland to join Middlesbrough for £ 3 @.@ 45 million in March 1998 , where former England teammate Bryan Robson was manager . His first match was the 1998 Football League Cup Final defeat to Chelsea at Wembley , where he came on as a substitute . He played seven games in the First Division , helping " Boro " into the Premier League as runners @-@ up to Nottingham Forest at the end of the 1997 – 98 season . Before the 1998 – 99 campaign began , Gascoigne began suffering from blackouts after blaming himself for the death of a friend , who died after Gascoigne and a group of friends went on a night out drinking . Despite his ongoing personal problems and his spell in rehab , Gascoigne started the season in good form and helped Middlesbrough into fourth place by Christmas . They ended the season in ninth place and having scored three goals in 26 top @-@ flight games Gascoigne was linked with a recall to the England squad , who were now managed by former teammate Kevin Keegan and lacking a creative presence in midfield . His career went into terminal decline during the 1999 – 2000 campaign , with Gascoigne breaking his arm after elbowing opposition midfield player George Boateng in the head during Middlesbrough 's 4 – 0 defeat to Aston Villa at the Riverside Stadium . He subsequently received a three match ban and £ 5 @,@ 000 fine from the Football Association . = = = Everton = = = Gascoigne signed a two @-@ year contract with Everton , managed by former Rangers boss Walter Smith , after joining on a free transfer in July 2000 . He started the 2000 – 01 season well despite not playing every game due to his lack of fitness , but a series of niggling injuries and his ongoing depression took him out of the first team picture by Christmas . After spending time at an alcohol rehabilitation clinic in Arizona , Gascoigne was fit enough to play for the " Toffees " in the 2001 – 02 season , and he scored his first goal for the club – and last in English football – away to Bolton Wanderers on 3 November . However he then suffered a hernia injury , which kept him out of action for three months . Walter Smith left Goodison Park in March , and Gascoigne left the club shortly after his successor , David Moyes , took charge . = = = Later career = = = Gascoigne finished the 2001 – 02 season with Stan Ternent 's Burnley , where he made six First Division appearances . The club narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs , and he left Turf Moor after only two months . In 2002 , he was inducted to the National Football Museum , being described as " the most naturally gifted English midfielder of his generation " . Fellow England midfielder Paul Ince said that Gascoigne was " the best player I 've ever played with ... he had everything . He was amazing . " In summer 2002 , Gascoigne went on trial with American club D.C. United , but rejected a contract . In February 2003 , he signed a nine @-@ month contract with China League One club Gansu Tianma in both a playing and coaching role . Gascoigne scored in his first match in China , and in total scored two goals in four league games but his mental state meant that he had to return to America for treatment against drink and depression in April , and he never returned despite the club ordering him to do so . In July 2004 , Gascoigne was signed as player @-@ coach by League Two side Boston United , and upon signing spoke of his coaching aspirations , saying that " I can become a great coach and a great manager " . Gascoigne left Boston after he made five appearances in a three @-@ month spell , citing professional reasons including his coaching career . = = International career = = Gascoigne was called up to the England under @-@ 21 side in summer 1987 , and scored with a free @-@ kick in his debut in a 2 – 0 win over Morocco . He went on to win 12 caps for the under @-@ 21s under Dave Sexton . Gascoigne was first called up to the full England squad by Bobby Robson for a friendly against Denmark on 14 September 1988 , and came on as a late substitute for Peter Beardsley in a 1 – 0 win . He scored his first goal for England in a 5 – 0 victory over Albania at Wembley on 26 April 1989 . He made his first start in the following game against Chile , and kept his first team place for most matches in the run in to the 1990 FIFA World Cup . He also played four games for the England B team . He secured his place in the World Cup squad in a 4 – 2 win against Czechoslovakia when he scored one goal and was a key component in the other three . He played in all three of the group games in the 1990 World Cup in Italy , and England topped Group F , Gascoigne providing the assist for Mark Wright 's winner against Egypt . In the first knockout game against Belgium he made another assist after chipping a free @-@ kick into the penalty area , where David Platt volleyed the ball into the net . Gascoigne was at the centre of the action again in the quarter @-@ final clash with Cameroon when he gave away a penalty , which Cameroon converted . In extra @-@ time he made a successful through @-@ ball pass from which Gary Lineker won , and subsequently scored a penalty , which proved to be the winning goal . On 4 July 1990 , England played West Germany in a World Cup semi @-@ final match at Juventus 's Stadio delle Alpi in Turin . Gascoigne , having already received a yellow card during England 's 1 – 0 victory over Belgium in the second round , was booked for a foul on Thomas Berthold , which meant that he would be suspended for the final if England won the match . Television cameras showed that he had tears in his eyes following the yellow card and made Gascoigne a highly popular figure with the sympathetic British public . The match culminated in a penalty shoot @-@ out , which the Germans won after Stuart Pearce and Chris Waddle missed their penalties . Robson quit the England job after the tournament , and his successor Graham Taylor dropped Gascoigne in favour of 32 @-@ year @-@ old Gordon Cowans in a Euro ' 92 qualifier against Ireland in November 1990 , citing tactical reasons . He returned to the starting eleven for a friendly against Cameroon the following February , before injury in the FA Cup final three months later caused him to miss the next 21 England fixtures , including all of UEFA Euro 1992 , where England failed to progress beyond the group stages . Gascoigne returned to fitness in time for the opening qualifying game against Norway in October 1992 , and before playing in the 1 – 1 draw he responded to a Norwegian television crew 's request to say ' a few words to Norway ' by saying " fuck off Norway " . His message was broadcast on Norwegian television and he was forced to apologize for the remark . The following month he scored two goals in a 4 – 0 victory over Turkey . Qualification ended badly for England , as they ended in third place behind Norway and the Netherlands and missed out on a place in the 1994 FIFA World Cup . A broken leg in 1994 meant Gascoigne was unable to play for 15 months , but by the time he returned to fitness , Terry Venables – his former manager at Spurs – had been appointed as England manager . As England were hosting UEFA Euro 1996 they did not have to go through the qualification process , so they instead played numerous friendlies , most of which featured Gascoigne in the starting line @-@ up . The final of these games were played in Hong Kong , after which numerous England players were photographed on a night out in which Gascoigne and several others having drinks poured into their mouths whilst sitting in the " dentist 's chair " . The tournament opened with a 1 – 1 draw with Switzerland , during which Gascoigne was substituted . He scored a memorable goal in the second game of the tournament , against Scotland , when he received the ball from Darren Anderton outside the Scotland penalty area , flicked the ball over Colin Hendry with his left foot and changed direction ; Hendry was completely wrong @-@ footed and , as the ball dropped , Gascoigne volleyed it with his right foot past Andy Goram . The goal was followed by the " dentist 's chair " celebration referring to the incident before the Euro 1996 , where Gascoigne lay on the ground as if he were sitting in the dentist 's chair , and teammates sprayed lucozade from bottles into his open mouth . England beat the Netherlands 4 – 1 to make it through to the knock @-@ out stages . They then drew 0 – 0 with Spain before winning 4 – 2 on penalties , the last of which was converted by Gascoigne . England drew 1 – 1 with Germany in the semi @-@ finals , and Gascoigne missed the chance to win the game in extra @-@ time when he came inches away from connecting to an Alan Shearer cross yards in front of an unguarded German net . England lost to Germany in the resulting penalty shoot @-@ out , with Gareth Southgate missing England 's sudden death penalty . Under Glenn Hoddle , Gascoigne was picked regularly and helped England to win the Tournoi de France in 1997 ahead of Brazil , France and Italy . Qualification for the 1998 FIFA World Cup went down to the last group game against Italy at the Stadio Olimpico , and Gascoigne put in a disciplined and mature performance to help England secure the 0 – 0 draw that was enough to take them through to the tournament . However , British tabloid newspapers showed pictures of Gascoigne eating kebabs late at night with DJ friend Chris Evans only a week before the final squad was due to be chosen . Hoddle elected not to pick Gascoigne in the final squad and after hearing the news Gascoigne wrecked Hoddle 's room in a rage before being restrained . Gascoigne was never to play for his country again , having won 57 caps and scored 10 goals . = = Managerial and coaching career = = Having already gained some coaching experience in China , Gascoigne signed for Boston United on 30 July 2004 . After being at the club for 11 games he left ( partly as a result of the club refusing to let him participate in the reality television show I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here ! ) on 5 October , to begin a football coaching course . After leaving Boston , he stated that he was interested in taking over as manager of Scottish side Greenock Morton , but this came to nothing . In mid @-@ 2005 he spent two months as player @-@ coach at the recently founded Portuguese team Algarve United , but he returned to England after a proposed contract never materialised . He was appointed manager of Conference North club Kettering Town on 27 October 2005 , and also planned to put in enough money to own one @-@ third of the club to show his commitment . Previous manager Kevin Wilson was appointed as director of football , and Paul Davis was appointed as the club 's assistant manager . Bookmakers put odds on Gascoigne getting the sack before Christmas , though he insisted that he was at the club " for the long haul " . Attempts to get new sponsors on board were successful , though results on the pitch soon went against Kettering . His tenure lasted just 39 days , and he was dismissed by the club 's board on 5 December . The club 's owner , Imraan Ladak , blamed Gascoigne 's alcohol problems , stating that he drank almost every day he worked . Gascoigne later claimed that the owner had interfered incessantly and harboured ambitions of being a manager himself , despite knowing little about football . He was never on a contract at the club , and was never paid for his six weeks work , nor was he given the chance to invest money in the club as he had first planned . Gascoigne came close to being appointed manager of Garforth Town in October 2010 , and after weeks of talks between his agent and the club he decided to turn down the offer , though reiterated his desire to return to football management . = = Other projects = = At the height of " Gazzamania " following the 1990 World Cup , he reached number 2 in the UK Top 40 with " Fog on the Tyne " , a collaborative cover with Lindisfarne that earned him a gold disc . He established Paul Gascoigne Promotions and hired a number of staff to handle the hundreds of requests from companies wishing to use his likeness and / or endorsement to promote their products . He signed an exclusive deal with The Sun , which did not prevent the newspaper from joining its rivals in sensationalising the various scandals he became embroiled in . He promoted two video games : Gazza 's Superstar Soccer and Gazza II . In August 2006 , he visited Botswana on behalf of the Football Association 's international outreach week and played football with the children from the SOS Children 's Village there . On 25 July 2009 , Gascoigne appeared on a Sporting Heroes edition of the BBC television quiz The Weakest Link , where he engaged in banter with host Anne Robinson . The next day he played in an England versus Germany charity football match to help raise funds for the Sir Bobby Robson cancer fund . He took part in the first edition of Soccer Aid in 2006 , playing for an England team captained by Robbie Williams . In August 2014 , Gascoigne began playing amateur football after signing for Bournemouth Sunday League Division Four team Abbey . In 2015 Paul Gascoigne was the subject of a documentary called Gascoigne . = = Style of play = = A creative , hard @-@ working , and technically gifted attacking midfielder , Gascoigne was capable both of scoring and setting up goals , due to his passing accuracy and his powerful striking ability . Gascoigne was gifted with pace , physical strength , balance , and excellent dribbling skills , which allowed him to protect the ball , beat opponents , and withstand physical challenges . Despite his talent , he was also criticised for his erratic behaviour and aggression on the pitch . His turbulent and often unhealthy lifestyle off the pitch , as well as his tendency to pick up injuries , is thought to have affected his career . = = Personal life = = Gascoigne married his long @-@ term girlfriend Sheryl ( née Failes ) in Ware , Hertfordshire , in July 1996 , after they had been together for around six years . He later admitted to violence towards Sheryl during their marriage . They divorced in early 1999 . In 2009 Sheryl published a tell @-@ all book entitled Stronger : My Life Surviving Gazza . Gascoigne had a son , Regan , with Sheryl and also adopted Sheryl 's two children from her first marriage , Mason and Bianca . Bianca is a glamour model and television personality , and appeared on reality TV show Love Island . During the 1990s Gascoigne , Danny Baker and Chris Evans had a much publicized friendship , and Gascoigne frequently appeared on their radio and television shows on Talksport and TFI Friday . In November 2008 , Gascoigne was faced with a bankruptcy petition over a £ 200 @,@ 000 tax bill , having not filed any tax returns for more than two years . On 25 May 2011 he avoided being declared bankrupt by the High Court in London , despite still owing £ 32 @,@ 000 . Gascoigne has three autobiographies : Gazza : My Story ( with Hunter Davies ) published in 2004 , Being Gazza : Tackling My Demons ( with Hunter Davies and John McKeown ) , published in 2006 , and Glorious : My World , Football and Me , published in 2011 . In Gazza : My Story , and in Being Gazza : Tackling My Demons , he refers to treatment for bulimia , obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder ( OCD ) , bipolar disorder , and alcoholism . The books also describes his addictive personality , which has led him to develop addictions of varying severity on alcohol , cocaine , chain smoking , gambling , high @-@ caffeine energy drinks , exercise , and junk food . = = = Mental illness and alcoholism = = = Gascoigne first entered therapy sessions in October 1998 when he was admitted into Priory Hospital after a drinking session where he drank 32 shots of whisky which left him at " rock bottom " ; then @-@ manager Bryan Robson signed him into the clinic whilst Gascoigne was unconscious . He was released , at his own insistence , two weeks into the suggested minimum stay of 28 days . His subsequent visits to the Priory became more infrequent , and he eventually returned to drinking alcohol . In 2001 Gascoigne 's then @-@ chairman Bill Kenwright contacted Gascoigne 's therapist at the Priory , John McKeown , who organised more treatment to help Gascoigne to control his drinking . As part of the treatment he was sent to the United States where he had a stay at a clinic in Cottonwood , Arizona . He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder . He stayed at the clinic in 2003 after he suffered low points working in China , and again in 2004 after retiring from football . In February 2008 he was sectioned under the Mental Health Act after an incident at the Malmaison Hotel in Newcastle upon Tyne . He was taken into protective custody to prevent self @-@ harm . He was sectioned again in June , and in September he was hospitalised after he overdosed on alcohol and drugs in an apparent suicide attempt . Gascoigne was arrested for a disturbance outside a takeaway in February 2010 . The following month he was charged with drunk driving , driving without a licence , and driving without insurance . On 9 July 2010 Gascoigne appeared at the scene of the tense stand @-@ off between the police and Raoul Moat , claiming to be a friend of Raoul Moat and stating that he had brought him " a can of lager , some chicken , fishing rod , a Newcastle shirt and a dressing gown . " He was denied access to Moat . In August 2011 Gascoigne sued The Sun , claiming that its coverage of him during the Raoul Moat incident interrupted his treatment for alcoholism . In October 2010 , Gascoigne was arrested for drink driving . He subsequently admitted being more than four times over the limit at Newcastle upon Tyne Magistrates Court . One day after being warned he could face a prison sentence for drink driving , Gascoigne was arrested for possession of cocaine . He should have appeared in court on 11 November to be sentenced for the drink driving offence , but instead he went into rehab on the south coast of England . He was given an eight @-@ week suspended sentence on 9 December 2010 . In February 2013 his agent , Terry Baker , told BBC Radio 5 Live that Gascoigne had relapsed again : " He won 't thank me for saying it but he immediately needs to get help ... His life is always in danger because he is an alcoholic . Maybe no one can save him – I don 't know . I really don 't know . " Gascoigne was placed in intensive care in a US hospital while being treated for alcoholism in Arizona in a rehabilitation programme thanks to financial support provided by ex @-@ cricketer Ronnie Irani and Chris Evans . He was arrested for assaulting a railway security guard and being drunk and disorderly at Stevenage railway station on 4 July 2013 ; he was fined £ 1 @,@ 000 after admitting the offence , and ordered to pay £ 100 compensation to the guard . In January 2014 Gascoigne entered rehab for his alcohol addiction for a seventh time at a £ 6 @,@ 000 @-@ a @-@ month clinic in Southampton . In August he was again admitted to hospital in relation to his problems following an incident outside his home . On 23 October 2014 , police were called to his home in Poole after he was in a drink binge ; he was sectioned under the Mental Health Act the next day and taken to a hospital for a three @-@ day detox . = = Career statistics = = = = = International goals = = = Scores and results list England 's goal tally first . = = Honours = = = = = Club = = = Newcastle United FA Youth Cup : 1985 Tottenham Hotspur FA Cup : 1991 Rangers Scottish Premier Division : 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97 Scottish Cup : 1996 Scottish League Cup : 1996 Middlesbrough Football League Cup Runner @-@ up : 1998 = = = International = = = England Rous Cup : 1989 Tournoi de France : 1997 FIFA World Cup Fourth Place : 1990 UEFA European Championship Semi @-@ finalist : 1996 = = = Individual = = = PFA Young Player of the Year : 1987 – 88 PFA Team of the Year : 1987 – 88 , 1990 – 91 BBC Sports Personality of the Year : 1990 FIFA World Cup All @-@ Star Team : 1990 Goal of the Season : 1990 – 91 PFA Scotland Players ' Player of the Year : 1995 – 96 SFWA Footballer of the Year : 1995 – 96 UEFA European Football Championship Teams of the Tournament : 1996 Inducted into the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 Rangers Hall of Fame Inductee : 2006 = = = Specific = = = = = = General = = = = Oregon Iron Company = The Oregon Iron Company was an iron smelting company located in what is now Lake Oswego , Oregon . The company was established in 1865 , and in 1867 became the first company west of the Rocky Mountains in the United States to smelt iron . The company failed after a few years , but was reorganized as the Oswego Iron Company in 1878 , and again as the Oregon Iron and Steel Company in 1883 . With the addition of a larger furnace , the last incarnation of the company prospered , reaching peak production in 1890 . By 1894 , however , pressure from cheaper imported iron combined with the effects of the Panic of 1893 forced the company to close its smelter . The company continued to operate a pipe foundry until 1928 , and until the early 1960s , existed as a land management company , selling its real estate holdings which expanded the city of Lake Oswego . = = Early history = = The discovery of iron ore near the settlement of Oswego in the hills south of Portland is credited to Morton M. McCarver ( who had served as speaker of the Provisional Legislature of Oregon ) in 1862 . McCarver 's brown hematite ore was tested and found to be of excellent quality , containing from 56 to 75 % metal . In addition , the ore lay near the surface and the Oswego bed was estimated to contain 60 @,@ 000 short tons ( 54 @,@ 000 t ) of ore . Since the site also featured vast forests that could be turned into charcoal to feed the smelting furnaces , and ready access to water for power , the potential of a successful mining operation was easily recognized . In 1865 , a group of financiers in Portland , which included former Portland mayors William S. Ladd and Henry Failing , as well as Portland Gas Light Company founders Herman C. Leonard and John Green , incorporated an iron smelting company which they named the Oregon Iron Company . Ladd , who served as President , and the others hoped to make Oswego the " Pittsburgh of the West , " believing that having a local source of iron would help their other businesses , which included the Oregon Central Railroad and the Oregon Steam Navigation Company . = = Construction = = To oversee construction of a charcoal @-@ fired blast furnace , the company recruited George Wilbur . He modeled his design on the Barnum and Richardson Company furnace in Lime Rock , Connecticut . The furnace was designed by British stonemason Richard Martin and was completed in 1867 . Meanwhile , a dam was built on Sucker Creek to harness water for power , forests were cleared to be turned into charcoal to feed the furnace , and limestone , used during iron smelting to remove impurities , was quarried from the San Juan Islands in Washington Territory , and shipped and unloaded at the company docks on the adjacent Willamette River . On August 24 , 1867 , the Oregon Iron Company became the first company in the United States to smelt pig iron west of the Rocky Mountains . The first pigs were given to J. C. Trullinger , who owned the townsite of Oswego . From 1867 to 1869 , the company smelted nearly 2 @,@ 400 short tons ( 2 @,@ 200 t ) of iron . Ladd 's group soon found their business expertise in other areas did not apply as well to the iron industry . Their lack of experience , coupled with a dispute over water rights , caused the company to close in 1869 . After a brief respite in which they filled an order for iron wheels for the Central Pacific Railroad from 1874 to 1876 , the company closed for good in 1878 and the assets were sold off at a sheriff 's auction . = = Oswego Iron Company = = The purchasers were led by Ernest Crichton and L. B. Seeley , experienced furnace managers from Ohio ’ s Hanging Rock iron region . Under the new name of the Oswego Iron Company , the company made a number of significant improvements : they purchased the Oswego townsite along with large tracts of forest , settled the water rights issue , remodeled the furnace , opened several new mines , constructed several homes for its workers , and built a narrow gauge railroad for hauling the ore . From 1877 to 1881 , the Oswego Iron Company produced 18 @,@ 500 short tons ( 16 @,@ 800 t ) of iron . However , to finance these improvements , the company also incurred massive debt , and with the market price for iron remaining low , the company was sold in 1880 to another group of Portland financiers led by Simeon Gannett Reed and railroad baron Henry Villard . = = Oregon Iron and Steel Company = = In 1882 , the company was reincorporated as the Oregon Iron and Steel Company with Reed as its president and William M. Ladd , son of Oregon Iron Company founder William S. Ladd , as its vice president . With the elder Ladd , Villard , and Darius Ogden Mills also providing financing , the company built a new smelter north of the original furnace with five times its capacity , 50 short tons ( 45 t ) . The new iron works opened in 1888 , and production boomed . The company employed 300 men and Oswego 's population soared , as hotels , churches , saloons , and an opera house were built to support the town . A railroad line to Portland was completed in 1886 , making Oswego more accessible . The company reached its peak production in 1890 , smelting 12 @,@ 305 short tons ( 11 @,@ 163 t ) of iron . However , half the company 's resources were dedicated to making charcoal from wood . The availability of cheaper imported coke @-@ fired iron , the overall reduction in demand for iron as railroad expansion slowed , and the economic effects of the Panic of 1893 , all combined to hasten the final closure of the furnace in 1894 . The company continued to operate a pipe foundry on the site of the new furnace until 1928 . = = Land development = = Despite its lack of industry , the company still found itself with thousands of acres of land that could be developed . William M. Ladd , who had succeeded Reed as President of Oregon Iron and Steel and his father as President of Ladd & Tilton Bank , formed the Ladd Estate Company to manage these real estate assets . The newly formed Ladd Estate Company converted the depressed company town into a prestigious suburb complete with country club , golf course , polo field , and even worked to rename the harsh @-@ sounding Sucker Lake to Oswego Lake . The company existed as a shell until 1960 , when in its final act , it deeded its powerhouse and dams to lake shareholders . = = Remnants of infrastructure = = The original blast furnace still stands in Lake Oswego 's George Rogers Park along the Willamette River , the only extant iron furnace west of the Rocky Mountains . It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1974 . In 2010 , a seven @-@ year restoration of the furnace was completed . Of the two first pigs smelted in 1867 , one is displayed in the Oregon Historical Society and one remains in place as a street marker at the northwest corner of Ladd and Durham streets in Lake Oswego . The crucible from the second furnace , which was dismantled and sold for scrap in 1926 , is still intact in Lake Oswego 's Roehr Park . = St Peter 's Church , Sudbury = St Peter 's Church is a redundant Anglican church in the town of Sudbury , Suffolk , England . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and is under the care of the Churches Conservation Trust . The church stands in the centre of the town in a dominating position on Market Hill . A church has been on the site since at least 1180 , but the current structure dates from the 15th century , though there have been several restorations in the intervening period . Formerly a spired church , St. Peter 's now has a bell tower which , like the rest of the building , is mainly covered in flint . The interior of the church features paintings by George Frederick Bodley and Robert Cardinal , and a pipe organ originally made by T. C. Lewis . = = History = = The earliest documentary record of the church is in 1180 , when it was a chapel of ease to St Gregory 's church . The church was built in three stages , beginning with the first two bays of the chancel and the base of the tower in about 1330 – 48 . The later stages of building were in about 1360 , and in about 1425 – 50 . In 1643 , during the Civil War , the iconoclast William Dowsing damaged many of the items in the church . A restoration took place in 1685 , which included some alterations to the nave roof . A clock was installed in 1701 , and during the first half of the 18th century a spire of metal and wood was added ; this was replaced by another spire in 1810 . The church was restored again in 1858 – 59 by William Butterfield ; this included removal of the three galleries and the box pews , re @-@ laying the chancel floor , and replacement of the pulpit . Stained glass made by Hardman & Co. was installed in some of the windows , and more stained glass by Hardman was installed later in the century . In 1898 the chancel was restored and redecorated by George Frederick Bodley . A wooden reredos was installed in the Lady Chapel . The stonework of the exterior was restored in 1911 , when statues were inserted into three niches in the south porch . A further restoration took place in 1968 when the upper part of the tower was replaced , the spire was taken down , and most of Bodley 's paintings were removed from the chancel . The church was declared redundant in 1972 , and in 1976 was vested in the Redundant Churches Fund , the forerunner of the Churches Conservation Trust . A charitable trust , The Friends of St. Peter 's has been established to maintain and improve the church . Since being made redundant , the church has been used occasionally for services , and for a variety of events , including concerts , organ recitals and exhibitions . = = Architecture = = = = = Exterior = = = The church is constructed mainly in flint , with some stone , brick and tiles . Its plan is not quite rectangular , as it had to be confined into a limited space . The northwest corner is cut across , and the chancel is not fully in alignment with the nave . The plan consists of a six @-@ bay nave with a clerestory , north and south aisles , a two @-@ bay chancel with the organ chamber and vestry to the north and the Lady Chapel to the south , and an extended sanctuary to the east , and a west tower incorporated in the body of the church . Its architectural styles are Decorated and Perpendicular . The tower is in three stages with angle buttresses . Its parapet consists of stepped battlements , and at the corners are statues rather than pinnacles . The aisles also have battlemented parapets , and there are more buttresses around the church . The main entrance to the church is through the west door at the base of the tower . Formerly the main entrance was through the south porch . The three statues on the exterior of the porch represent Christ , with Saint Peter on one side and Saint Gregory on the other . = = = Interior = = = The arcades are in six bays , the piers on the north arcade differing from those on the south . The roof is ceiled and divided into panels , with gilt bosses at the intersections . It is the only medieval nave roof in Suffolk to be ceiled and panelled in its original form . Some of Bodley 's painting remains on the chancel arch . In the south aisle is the octagonal 15th @-@ century font . This was removed from the church in the 17th century to be used as a horse trough , but was returned to the church when the horses refused to drink from it . In the chancel the reredos designed by Bodley measures 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) high by 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) wide , and depicts the Crucifixion . On the sides of the chancel are 15th @-@ century screens . In the Lady Chapel the font is carved with a depiction of the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
way everything comes together that really makes it memorable " . = Beckford 's Tower = Beckford 's Tower , originally known as Lansdown Tower , is an architectural folly built in neo @-@ classical style on Lansdown Hill , just outside Bath , Somerset , England . The tower and its attached railings are designated as a Grade I listed building . Along with the adjoining Landsown Cemetery it is Grade II listed on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England . The tower was built for William Thomas Beckford , a rich novelist , art collector and critic , to designs by Henry Goodridge and completed in 1827 . Beckford used it as a library and a retreat , with the cupola at the top acting as a belvedere providing views over the surrounding countryside . The Italianate building at the base of the tower housed drawing rooms and a library . Extensive grounds between Beckford 's house in Lansdown Crescent were landscaped and planted to create Beckford 's Ride . Following Beckford 's death in 1844 , the tower and lands were donated to Walcot parish and a burial ground created , with the Scarlet Drawing Room being converted into a chapel . In 1931 the house and tower were damaged by a fire and a public appeal was made for funds for its restoration . The cemetery closed in 1992 and the next year the site was bought by the Bath Preservation Trust who have carried out extensive renovation . It is now home to a museum collection displaying furniture originally made for the tower and paintings , prints and objects illustrating Beckford ’ s life as a writer , collector and patron of the arts . = = History = = Beckford 's Tower in Lansdown overlooking the city of Bath , was completed in 1827 for wealthy local resident William Beckford , to a design by Bath architect Henry Goodridge . Beckford was an English novelist , an art collector and patron of works of decorative art , a critic , travel writer and sometime politician , reputed at one stage in his life to be the richest commoner in England . In 1822 he sold Fonthill Abbey , and a large part of his art collection , to John Farquhar for £ 330 @,@ 000 , and moved to Bath , where he bought No. 20 Lansdown Crescent and No. 1 Lansdown Place West , joining them with a one @-@ storey arch thrown across a driveway . In 1836 he also bought Nos. 18 and 19 Lansdown Crescent . Located at the end of pleasure gardens called Beckford 's Ride which ran from his house in Lansdown Crescent all the way north to the tower at the top of Lansdown Hill , Beckford used the monument as both a library and a retreat . He also made it his habit to ride up to the tower to view the progress of gardens and works then walk back down to Lansdown Crescent for breakfast . From the top of the tower , with a strong spyglass , Beckford could make out shipping in the Bristol Channel . Beckford wished that he had built the tower forty feet higher and admitted : " such as it is , it is a famous landmark for drunken farmers on their way home from market " . Beckford 's own choice of the best of works of art , virtu , books and prints as well as the rich furnishings from Fonthill Abbey , which he had sold in 1822 , were rehoused in his double adjoining houses in Lansdown Crescent , Bath and at the tower . One long narrow room in the tower was fitted out as an " oratory " , where the paintings were all of devotional subjects and a marble Virgin and Child stood bathed in light from a hidden skylight . In 1841 some of the contents of the tower were sold during a two @-@ day sale and the rooms refurnished . After Beckford 's death on 2 May 1844 his younger daughter Susan Euphemia Beckford , wife of Alexander Hamilton , 10th Duke of Hamilton , removed the books and greatest treasures to Hamilton Palace and the Tower was put up for sale , however it failed to reach its reserve . In 1847 the tower was sold for £ 1 @,@ 000 to a local publican who turned it into a beer garden . Eventually it was re @-@ purchased by Beckford 's daughter , who gave the surrounding land to Walcot parish for consecration as a cemetery in 1848 . This enabled the return of Beckford 's body from his tomb in Bath Abbey Cemetery , Lyncombe Vale ( off Ralph Allen Drive ) for reburial near the tower as he had originally wished . His self @-@ designed tomb — a massive sarcophagus of polished pink granite with bronze armorial plaques — stands on a hillock in the cemetery surrounded by an oval ditch and ha @-@ ha . On one side is a quotation from his Gothic novel Vathek : " Enjoying humbly the most precious gift of heaven to man — Hope " ; and on another these lines from his poem , A Prayer : " Eternal Power ! Grant me , through obvious clouds one transient gleam Of thy bright essence in my dying hour . " The Scarlet Drawing Room was converted into a chapel in 1848 to serve the cemetery . In 1864 the Rector of Walcot gave £ 100 for the repair of tower stonework and in 1884 a similar amount of money for further repairs to the upper part of the tower , however the condition of the stonework was deteriorating by 1898 and described in 1918 as " piteous and dilapidated " . In 1931 an unexplained fire destroyed much of the interior of the house , which had been turned into a cemetery chapel . The local fire brigade managed to stop the fire reaching the wooden stairs to the top of the tower . Prebendary F. E. Murphy , the rector of Walcot , established an appeal for funds of £ 300 for the restoration . By 1954 the stairs up the tower had become unsafe and a further appeal for public funds for the restoration was started . In 1970 the Church Commissioners declared the chapel redundant and plans drawn up by the new owners , Dr & Mrs Hilliard , to renovate the tower and create two flats . The Beckford Tower Trust and the museum were established in 1977 . Since 1993 the tower has been owned by the Bath Preservation Trust and managed by its subsidiary , The Beckford Tower Trust . The tower was restored in 1995 . In 1972 it was designated as a Grade I listed building . The ground floor of the tower is available to rent through the Landmark Trust as a holiday home . = = Architecture = = Standing 154 feet ( 47 m ) high , the tower is in three stages . The first stage of the tower is square with small windows and terminates in a Doric entablature and cornice . The second stage has plain square piers forming three openings with recessed arches . The tower is topped by a gilded lantern ( or belvedere ) , based on the peripteral temple at Tivoli and the Tower of the Winds at Athens . The octagonal belvedere has a cast iron roof supported by eight columns . The stone spiral cantileveed staircase leads to the 53 wooden stairs leading into the cupola at the summit . At the base of the tower was a furnace and pump which sent warm air up through the structure . Below the tower is an Italianate building . On the ground floor was the Scarlet Drawing Room and a vestibule with an annexe which housed a kitchen and offices . The first floor held the Crimson Drawing Room , sanctuary and library . = = Cemetery and grounds = = From Beckford 's house in Lansdown Crescent to the tower a series of interlinked gardens were laid out which became known as Beckford 's Ride . Nearest the crescent was a terraced Italianate garden and then a plantation of conifers . Above the plantation was a quarry garden and dyke garden before entering a grotto tunnel under a track . The tunnel lead into the tower garden . Specialist planting included : Pinus arborea , Royal Fern ( Osmunda regalis ) and Cistus alpina . These were to encourage bird species including nightingales , linnets and thrushes . The old quarry was made into a walled garden with fruit and vegetables . Henry Goodridge designed a Byzantine entrance gateway to the grounds . Bronze railings were later added which had surrounded Beckford 's original tomb in Bath Abbey Cemetery . The railings were removed during World War II and replaced in 2000 . The gardens were surrounding by stone walls around 2 metres ( 6 ft 7 in ) high . Part of the grounds were donated to the local parish after Beckford 's death and consecrated as a cemetery in 1848 . It became known as Lansdown Cemetery and burial plots were laid out in a grid pattern . It was extended in 1947 and again in 1961 . In addition to Beckford 's tomb , the cemetery is also the burial site for several notable people from Bath including : Henry Goodridge , Field Marshall William Rowan , the Holburne family who founded the Holburne Museum , Anne ( the wife of Sir Richard Bickerton , 2nd Baronet ) and the feminist writer Sarah Grand . The cemetery closed in 1992 and since then has been maintained by the local council and the Lansdown Cemetery Trust . = = Museum = = The tower is home to a museum collection displaying furniture originally made for the tower , alongside paintings , prints and objects illustrating William Beckford ’ s life as a writer , collector and patron of the arts . Visitors can climb the spiral staircase to the restored belvedere below the lantern and experience panoramic views of the surrounding countryside . = Russian battleship Gangut ( 1911 ) = Gangut ( Russian : Гангут ) was both the lead ship of the Gangut @-@ class dreadnoughts of the Imperial Russian Navy built before World War I and the last of her class to be completed . She was named after the Russian victory over the Swedish Navy in the Battle of Gangut in 1714 . She was completed during the winter of 1914 – 15 , but was not ready for combat until mid @-@ 1915 . Her role was to defend the mouth of the Gulf of Finland against the Germans , who never tried to enter , so she spent her time training and providing cover for minelaying operations . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet after the February Revolution and joined the Bolsheviks in 1918 . She was laid up in 1918 for lack of manpower and not recommissioned until 1925 , by which time she had been renamed Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya ( Russian : Октябрьская революция : October Revolution ) . She was reconstructed between 1931 and 1934 with new boilers , fire @-@ control systems and greatly enlarged superstructures . During the Winter War she bombarded Finnish coastal artillery positions one time . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly reinforced in early 1941 , just before Operation Barbarossa . She provided gunfire support against the Germans during the Siege of Leningrad despite being bombed three times and under repair for a year . Retained on active duty after the war she became a training ship in 1954 before being struck off the Navy List in 1956 and slowly scrapped . = = Design = = Gangut was 180 meters ( 590 ft ) long at the waterline and 181 @.@ 2 meters ( 594 ft ) long overall . She had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 meters ( 88 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 99 meters ( 29 @.@ 5 ft ) , 49 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 61 ft ) more than designed . Her displacement was 24 @,@ 800 tonnes ( 24 @,@ 400 long tons ; 27 @,@ 300 short tons ) at load , over 1 @,@ 500 t ( 1 @,@ 500 long tons ; 1 @,@ 700 short tons ) more than her designed displacement of 23 @,@ 288 t ( 22 @,@ 920 long tons ; 25 @,@ 671 short tons ) . Gangut 's machinery was built by the Franco @-@ Russian Works . Ten Parsons @-@ type steam turbines drove the four propellers . The engine rooms were located between turrets three and four in three transverse compartments . The outer compartments each had a high @-@ pressure ahead and reverse turbine for each wing propeller shaft . The central engine room had two each low @-@ pressure ahead and astern turbines as well as two cruising turbines driving the two center shafts . The engines had a total designed output of 42 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 31 @,@ 319 kW ) , but they produced 52 @,@ 000 shp ( 38 @,@ 776 kW ) during her sister Poltava 's full @-@ speed trials on 21 November 1915 and gave a top speed of 24 @.@ 1 knots ( 44 @.@ 6 km / h ; 27 @.@ 7 mph ) . Twenty @-@ five Yarrow Admiralty @-@ type small @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines at a designed working pressure of 17 @.@ 5 standard atmospheres ( 1 @,@ 770 kPa ; 257 psi ) . Each boiler was fitted with Thornycroft oil sprayers for mixed oil / coal burning . They were arranged in two groups . The forward group consisted of two boiler rooms in front of the second turret , the foremost of which had three boilers while the second one had six . The rear group was between the second and third turrets and comprised two compartments , each with eight boilers . At full load she carried 1 @,@ 847 @.@ 5 long tons ( 1 @,@ 877 @.@ 1 t ) of coal and 700 long tons ( 710 t ) of fuel oil and that provided her a range of 3 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 500 km ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) . Her main armament consisted of a dozen Obukhovskii 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) Pattern 1907 52 @-@ caliber guns mounted in four triple turrets distributed the length of the ship . The Russians did not believe that superfiring turrets offered any advantage , discounting the value of axial fire and believing that superfiring turrets could not fire while over the lower turret because of muzzle blast problems . They also believed that distributing the turrets , and their associated magazines , over the length of the ship improved the survivability of the ship . Sixteen 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 119 mm ) 50 @-@ caliber Pattern 1905 guns were mounted in casemates as the secondary battery intended to defend the ship against torpedo boats . She completed with only a single 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) 30 @-@ caliber Lender anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) gun mounted on the quarterdeck . Other AA guns were probably added during the course of World War I , but details are lacking . Conway 's says that four 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) were added to the roofs of the end turrets during the war . Four 17 @.@ 7 @-@ inch ( 450 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were mounted with three torpedoes for each tube . = = Service = = Gangut was built by the Admiralty Works in Saint Petersburg . Her keel was laid down on 16 June 1909 and she was launched on 22 September 1911 . At the end of October 1914 , she collided with her sister Poltava which delayed her trials , scheduled for 9 November 1914 , to late December 1914 . She entered service on 11 January 1915 when she reached Helsingfors and was assigned to the First Battleship Brigade of the Baltic Fleet . Gangut and her sister Sevastopol provided distant cover for minelaying operations south of Liepāja on 27 August , the furthest that any Russian dreadnought ventured out of the Gulf of Finland during World War I. She ran aground on 10 September , but suffered only minor damage . A minor mutiny broke out on 1 November when the executive officer refused to feed the crew the traditional meal of meat and macaroni after coaling . The return of the captain and the issue of a dinner of tinned meat restored order on the ship . On 10 – 11 November and 6 December Gangut and her sister Petropavlovsk again provided distant cover for minelaying operations . She saw no action of any kind during 1916 . Her crew joined the general mutiny of the Baltic Fleet on 16 March 1917 , after the idle sailors received word of the February Revolution in Saint Petersburg . The Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk required the Soviets to evacuate their base at Helsinki in March 1918 or have them interned by newly independent Finland even though the Gulf of Finland was still frozen over . Gangut and her sisters led the first group of ships on 12 March and reached Kronstadt five days later in what became known as the ' Ice Voyage ' . Gangut was laid up on 9 November 1918 for lack of manpower and was renamed Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya ( Russian : Октябрьская революция : October Revolution ) on 27 June 1925 while she was being refitted . She was recommissioned on 23 March 1926 and began a partial reconstruction on 12 October 1931 , incorporating the lessons from the earlier modernizations of her sisters Marat and Parizhskaya Kommuna . The tubular tower @-@ mast of Marat was replaced by a larger and sturdier structure with a KDP @-@ 6 fire control director , equipped with two 6 @-@ meter ( 20 ft ) Zeiss rangefinders positioned on top . The aft superstructure was enlarged and a new structure was built just forward of it , with another KDP @-@ 6 director surmounting it , which required the repositioning of the mainmast 9 meters ( 30 ft ) forward . This did not leave enough room for a derrick , as was used on Marat , so two large boat cranes were mounted on each side of the mainmast . Her funnel was curved to the rear rather than angled like Marat . Each turret received Italian 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft ) rangefinders and their roof armor was increased to 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) in thickness . A new forecastle was fitted , much like that Marat 's , to improve seakeeping . Six 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 34 @-@ K anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns were added , three on the roofs of the fore and aft turrets . All twenty @-@ five of her old boilers were replaced by a dozen oil @-@ fired boilers originally intended for the Borodino @-@ class battlecruiser Izmail . The space saved was used to add another inboard longitudinal watertight bulkhead that greatly improved her underwater protection . Her original Pollen Argo Clock mechanical fire @-@ control computer was upgraded with a copy of a Vickers Ltd fire @-@ control computer , designated AKUR by the Soviets , as well as a copy of a Sperry stable vertical gyroscope . These changes increased her displacement to 26 @,@ 690 tonnes ( 26 @,@ 270 long tons ; 29 @,@ 420 short tons ) at full load and her overall length to 184 @.@ 9 meters ( 607 ft ) . Her metacentric height decreased to 1 @.@ 67 meters ( 5 ft 6 in ) from her designed 1 @.@ 76 meters ( 5 ft 9 in ) as a result of her enlarged superstructures . She finished her reconstruction on 4 August 1934 . Her participation in the Winter War was limited to a bombardment of Finnish 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) coast defense guns on 18 December 1939 at Saarenpää in the Beryozovye Islands before the Gulf of Finland iced over . She failed to inflict any permanent damage before she was driven off by near misses . Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya sailed to Tallinn shortly after the Soviets occupied Estonia , but she was refitted in February – March 1941 in Kronstadt and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was reinforced . Two twin 76 @.@ 2 @-@ mm 81 @-@ K mounts were mounted on her quarter deck . The magazines for these guns were probably situated in the rearmost casemates on each beam , which lost their 120 @-@ mm guns and twelve automatic 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns were also added , three guns each on the middle turrets and the other six in the fore and aft superstructures . Four twin and four single 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) DShK machine guns and two AA directors were also fitted . The large cranes were replaced by smaller ones taken from the ex @-@ German heavy cruiser Petropavlovsk to make room for the anti @-@ aircraft guns . On 22 June 1941 Oktyabrskaya Revolutsiya was in Tallinn when the Germans invaded the Soviet Union , but she was forced to sail for Kronstadt by the advancing Germans . She opened fire on troop positions of the German 18th Army on 8 September from the channel between Leningrad and Kronstadt , and probably landed four 120 @-@ millimeter ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) guns on the following day for use ashore . She was badly damaged on 21 September by three bomb hits on her bow that knocked out two turrets and she was sent to the Ordzhonikidze Yard on 23 October for repairs . The Soviets took advantage of this time to add four more 37 @-@ mm 70 @-@ K AA guns and another twin 76 @.@ 2 @-@ mm K @-@ 81 gun mount between February and April 1942 . She was hit again by one heavy and three medium bombs dropped by Heinkel He 111s of KG 4 during the night of 4 – 5 April. and again by three bombs on 24 April . Her repairs were completed in November 1942 , although a quadruple 37 @-@ mm 46 @-@ K gun mount was added in September . She supported Soviet forces during the Siege of Leningrad , the Leningrad – Novgorod Offensive in January 1944 and the Vyborg – Petrozavodsk Offensive in June 1944 . She received a Lend @-@ Lease British Type 279 air @-@ warning radar sometime during 1944 . On 22 July 1944 she was awarded the Order of the Red Banner . She was reclassified as a ' school battleship ' on 24 July 1954 and stricken on 17 February 1956 . She was slowly scrapped and her hulk still survived in May 1958 . = Spanish Civil War = The Spanish Civil War ( Spanish : Guerra Civil Española ) , widely known in Spain simply as The Civil War ( Spanish : Guerra Civil ) or The War ( Spanish : La Guerra ) , took place from 1936 to 1939 and was fought between the Republicans , who were loyal to the democratic , left @-@ leaning Second Spanish Republic , and the Nationalists , a falangist group led by General Francisco Franco . Although often portrayed as a struggle between democracy and fascism , some historians consider it more accurately described as a struggle between leftist revolution and rightist counterrevolution . Ultimately , the Nationalists won , and Franco then ruled Spain for the next 36 years , from April 1939 until his death in November 1975 . The war began after a pronunciamiento ( declaration of opposition ) by a group of generals of the Spanish Republican Armed Forces , originally under the leadership of José Sanjurjo , against the elected , leftist government of the Second Spanish Republic , at the time under the leadership of President Manuel Azaña . The Nationalist group was supported by a number of conservative groups , including the Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right @-@ wing Groups ( Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas , or CEDA ) , monarchists such as the religious conservative ( Catholic ) Carlists , and the Falange Española Tradicionalista y de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional Sindicalista , a fascist group . Sanjurjo was killed in an aircraft accident while attempting to return from exile in Portugal , whereupon Franco emerged as the leader of the Nationalists . The coup was supported by military units in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco , Pamplona , Burgos , Zaragoza , Valladolid , Cádiz , Córdoba , and Seville . However , rebelling units in important cities — such as Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia , Bilbao , and Málaga — were unable to capture their objectives , and those cities remained under the control of the government . Spain was thus left militarily and politically divided . The Nationalists and the Republican government fought for control of the country . The Nationalist forces received munitions and soldiers from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy , while the communist Soviet Union and socialist Mexico offered support to the " Republican " or " Loyalist " side . Other countries , such as the United Kingdom and France , operated an official policy of non @-@ intervention . The Nationalists advanced from their strongholds in the south and west , capturing most of Spain 's northern coastline in 1937 . They also besieged Madrid and the area to its south and west for much of the war . After large parts of Catalonia were captured in 1938 and 1939 , the war ended with the victory of the Nationalists and the exile of thousands of leftist Spaniards , many of whom fled to refugee camps in southern France . Those associated with the losing Republicans were persecuted by the victorious Nationalists . With the establishment of a dictatorship led by General Francisco Franco in the aftermath of the war , all right @-@ wing parties fused into the structure of the Franco regime . The war became notable for the passion and political division it inspired and for the many atrocities . Organized purges occurred in territory captured by Franco 's forces to consolidate the future regime . A significant number of killings took place in areas controlled by the Republicans . The extent to which Republican authorities took part in Republican territory killings varied . = = Background = = The 19th century was a turbulent time for Spain . Those in favour of reforming Spain 's government vied for political power with conservatives , who tried to prevent reforms from taking place . Some liberals , in a tradition that had started with the Spanish Constitution of 1812 , sought to limit the power of the monarchy of Spain and to establish a liberal state . The reforms of 1812 did not last after King Ferdinand VII dissolved the Constitution and ended the Trienio Liberal government . Twelve successful coups were carried out between 1814 and 1874 . Until the 1850s , the economy of Spain was primarily based on agriculture . There was little development of a bourgeois industrial or commercial class . The land @-@ based oligarchy remained powerful ; a small number of people held large estates called latifundia as well as all the important government positions . In 1868 popular uprisings led to the overthrow of Queen Isabella II of the House of Bourbon . Two distinct factors led to the uprisings : a series of urban riots , and a liberal movement within the middle classes and the military ( led by General Joan Prim ) , who were concerned about the ultra @-@ conservatism of the monarchy . In 1873 , Isabella 's replacement , King Amadeo I of the House of Savoy , abdicated due to increasing political pressure , and the short @-@ lived First Spanish Republic was proclaimed . After the restoration of the Bourbons in December 1874 , Carlists and Anarchists emerged in opposition to the monarchy . Alejandro Lerroux , Spanish politician and leader of the Radical Republican Party , helped bring republicanism to the fore in Catalonia , where poverty was particularly acute . Growing resentment of conscription and of the military culminated in the Tragic Week in Barcelona in 1909 . Spain was neutral in World War I. Afterwards the working class , the industrial class , and the military united in hopes of removing the corrupt central government , but were unsuccessful . Fears of communism grew . A military coup brought Miguel Primo de Rivera to power in 1923 , and he ran Spain as a military dictatorship . Support for his regime gradually faded , and he resigned in January 1930 . He was replaced by General Dámaso Berenguer and then Admiral Juan Bautista Aznar @-@ Cabañas , who both continued to rule by decree . There was little support for the monarchy in the major cities , and King Alfonso XIII gave in to popular pressure for the establishment of a republic and called municipal elections for 12 April 1931 . The socialist and liberal republicans won almost all the provincial capitals and with the resignation of Aznar 's government , King Alfonso XIII fled the country . The Second Spanish Republic was formed and would remain in power until the culmination of the Spanish Civil War . The revolutionary committee headed by Niceto Alcalá @-@ Zamora became the provisional government , with Alcalá @-@ Zamora as president and head of state . The republic had broad support from all segments of society . In May , an incident where a taxi driver was attacked outside a monarchist club sparked anti @-@ clerical violence throughout Madrid and south @-@ west Spain ; the government 's slow response disillusioned the right and reinforced their view that the Republic was determined to persecute the church . In June and July the Confederación Nacional del Trabajo ( CNT ) called several strikes , which led to a violent incident between CNT members and the Civil Guard and a brutal crackdown by the Civil Guard and the army against the CNT in Seville ; this led many workers to believe the Spanish Second Republic was just as oppressive as the monarchy and the CNT announced their intention of overthrowing it via revolution . Elections in June 1931 returned a large majority of Republicans and Socialists . With the onset of the Great Depression , the government attempted to assist rural Spain by instituting an eight @-@ hour day and giving land tenure to farm workers . Fascism remained a reactive threat , helped by controversial reforms to the military . In December , a new reformist , liberal , and democratic constitution was declared . It included strong provisions enforcing a broad secularization of the Catholic country , which many moderate committed Catholics opposed . In October 1931 , Republican Manuel Azaña became prime minister of a minority government . In 1933 , the right won the general elections , largely due to the anarchists ' abstention from the vote , increased right wing resentment of the incumbent government caused by a controversial decree implementing land reform , the Casas Viejas incident , and the formation of a right @-@ wing alliance , Spanish Confederation of Autonomous Right @-@ wing Groups ( CEDA ) ; women 's newfound right to vote also contributed to this ( most women voted for centre @-@ right parties ) . Events in the period following November 1933 , called the " black two years " , seemed to make a civil war more likely . Alejandro Lerroux of the Radical Republican Party ( RRP ) formed a government and rolled back changes made under the previous administration and also granted amnesty to the collaborators of the unsuccessful uprising by General José Sanjurjo in August 1932 . Some monarchists joined with the then fascist @-@ nationalist Falange Española y de las JONS ( " Falange " ) to help achieve their aims . Open violence occurred in the streets of Spanish cities , and militancy continued to increase , reflecting a movement towards radical upheaval , rather than peaceful democratic means as solutions . In the last months of 1934 , two government collapses brought members of the CEDA into the government . Farm workers ' wages were cut in half , and the military was purged of Republican members . A popular front alliance was organized , which narrowly won the 1936 elections . Azaña led a weak minority government , but soon replaced Zamora as president in April . Prime Minister Santiago Casares Quiroga ignored warnings of a military conspiracy involving several generals , who decided that the government had to be replaced to prevent the dissolution of Spain . = = Military coup = = = = = Preparations = = = In an attempt to remove suspect generals from their posts , the Republican government sacked Franco as chief of staff and transferred him to command of the Canary Islands . Manuel Goded Llopis was removed as inspector general and was made general of the Balearic Islands . Emilio Mola was moved from head of the Army of Africa to military commander of Pamplona in Navarre . This , however , allowed Mola to direct the mainland uprising . General Jose Sanjurjo became the figurehead of the operation and helped reach an agreement with the Carlists . Mola was chief planner and second in command . José Antonio Primo de Rivera was put in prison in mid @-@ March in order to restrict the Falange . However , government actions were not as thorough as they might have been , and warnings by the Director of Security and other figures were not acted upon . On 12 June , Prime Minister Casares Quiroga met General Juan Yagüe , who managed to falsely convince Casares of his loyalty to the republic . Mola began serious planning in the spring . Franco was a key player because of his prestige as a former director of the military academy and as the man who suppressed the Asturian miners ' strike of 1934 . He was well respected in the Army of Africa , the Spanish Republican Army 's toughest military force . He wrote a cryptic letter to Casares on 23 June , suggesting that the military was disloyal , but could be restrained if he were put in charge . Casares did nothing , failing to arrest or buy off Franco . On 5 July , a ' Dragon Rapide ' aircraft was chartered in GB to take Franco from the Canary Islands to Morocco . It arrived on 14 July . On 12 July 1936 , in Madrid , members of the Falange murdered a police officer who was a Socialist party member , Lieutenant José Castillo of the Guardia de Asalto , who , among other activities , was giving military training to the UGT young . Castillo was leading the unit of Guardia de Asalto that violently suppressed the riots after the funeral of Guardia Civil Lieutenant Anastasio de los Reyes . Los Reyes was shot by anarchists during the 14 April military parade that commemorated the 5 years of the Republic . Fernando Condés , the leader of the Guardia de Asalto , was a close personal friend of Castillo . The next day , his squad had sought to arrest José María Gil @-@ Robles y Quiñones , founder of CEDA , as a reprisal for Castillo 's murder , but he was not at home , so they went to the house of José Calvo Sotelo , a leading Spanish monarchist and a prominent parliamentary conservative . Luis Cuenca , a member of the arresting group and a socialist , summarily executed Calvo Sotelo by shooting him in the back of the neck . Hugh Thomas concludes that Condés intended to arrest Sotelo and that Cuenca acted on his own initiative , although he acknowledges other sources that dispute this finding . Massive reprisals followed . The killing of Sotelo with police involvement aroused suspicions and strong reactions among the government 's opponents on the right . Although the nationalist generals were already in the advanced stages of a planned uprising , the event provided a catalyst and a public justification for their coup . The socialists and communists , led by Indalecio Prieto , demanded that arms be distributed to the people before the military took over . The prime minister was hesitant . = = = Beginning of the coup = = = The uprising 's timing was fixed at 17 July , at 17 : 01 , agreed to by the leader of the Carlists , Manuel Fal Conde . However , the timing was changed — the men in the Spanish protectorate in Morocco were to rise up at 05 : 00 on 18 July and those in Spain proper a day later so that control of Spanish Morocco could be achieved and forces sent back to the Iberian Peninsula to coincide with the risings there . The rising was intended to be a swift coup d 'état , but the government retained control of most of the country . Control over Spanish Morocco was all but certain . The plan was discovered in Morocco on 17 July , which prompted the conspirators to enact it immediately . Little resistance was encountered . In total , the rebels shot 189 people . Goded and Franco immediately took control of the islands to which they were assigned . On 18 July , Casares Quiroga refused an offer of help from the CNT and Unión General de Trabajadores ( UGT ) , leading the groups to proclaim a general strike — in effect , mobilizing . They opened weapons caches , some buried since the 1934 risings . The paramilitary security forces often waited to see the outcome of militia action before either joining or suppressing the rebellion . Quick action by either the rebels or anarchist militias was often enough to decide the fate of a town . General Gonzalo Queipo de Llano managed to secure Seville for the rebels , arresting a number of other officers . = = = Outcome = = = The rebels failed to take any major cities with the critical exception of Seville , which provided a landing point for Franco 's African troops , and the primarily conservative and Catholic areas of Old Castile and León , which fell quickly . Cádiz was taken for the rebels , with the help of the first troops from the Army of Africa . The government retained control of Málaga , Jaén , and Almería . In Madrid , the rebels were hemmed into the Montaña barracks , which fell with considerable bloodshed . Republican leader Casares Quiroga was replaced by José Giral , who ordered the distribution of weapons among the civilian population . This facilitated the defeat of the army insurrection in the main industrial centres , including Madrid , Barcelona , and Valencia , but it allowed anarchists to take control of Barcelona along with large swathes of Aragón and Catalonia . General Goded surrendered in Barcelona and was later condemned to death . The Republican government ended up controlling almost all of the east coast and central area around Madrid , as well as Asturias , Cantabria and part of the Basque Country in the north . The rebels termed themselves Nacionales , normally translated " Nationalists " , although the former implies " true Spaniards " rather than a nationalistic cause . The result of the coup was a nationalist area of control containing 11 million of Spain 's population of 25 million . The Nationalists had secured the support of around half of Spain 's territorial army , some 60 @,@ 000 men , joined by the Army of Africa , made up of 35 @,@ 000 men , and a little under half of Spain 's militaristic police forces , the Assault Guards , the Civil Guards , and the Carabineers . Republicans controlled under half of the rifles and about a third of both machine guns and artillery pieces . The Spanish Republican Army had just 18 tanks of a sufficiently modern design , and the Nationalists took control of 10 . Naval capacity was uneven , with the Republicans retaining a numerical advantage , but with the Navy 's top commanders and two of the most modern ships , heavy cruisers Canarias — captured at the Ferrol shipyard — and Baleares , in Nationalist hands . The Spanish Republican Navy suffered from the same problems as the army — many officers had defected or had been killed after trying to do so . Two @-@ thirds of air capability was retained by the government – however , the whole of the Republican Air Force was very outdated . = = Combatants = = The war was cast by Republican sympathizers as a struggle between tyranny and freedom , and by Nationalist supporters as communist and anarchist " red hordes " versus " Christian civilization " . Nationalists also claimed they were bringing security and direction to an ungoverned and lawless country . Spanish politics , especially on the left , were quite fragmented , since socialists and communists supported the republic . During the republic , anarchists had mixed opinions , but major groups opposed the Nationalists during the Civil War . The Conservatives , in contrast , were united by their fervent opposition to the Republican government and presented a more unified front . = = = Republicans = = = Only two countries openly and fully supported the Republic : Mexico and the USSR . From them , especially the USSR , the Republic received diplomatic support , volunteers , and the ability to purchase weapons . Other countries remained neutral , said neutrality being a great source of distress to the intelligentsia in the United States and United Kingdom , and to a lesser extent in other European countries and to Marxists worldwide . This distress led to the International Brigades , thousands of foreigners of all nationalities who went to Spain to aid the Republic in the fight ; they meant a great deal to morale but militarily were not very significant . The Republic 's supporters within Spain ranged from centrists who supported a moderately @-@ capitalist liberal democracy to revolutionary anarchists who opposed the Republic but sided with it against the coup forces . Their base was primarily secular and urban but also included landless peasants and was particularly strong in industrial regions like Asturias , the Basque country , and Catalonia . This faction was called variously leales " Loyalists " by supporters , " Republicans " , the " Popular Front " , or " the government " by all parties ; and / or los rojos " the Reds " by their opponents . Republicans were supported by urban workers , agricultural labourers , and parts of the middle class . The conservative , strongly Catholic Basque country , along with Galicia and the more left @-@ leaning Catalonia , sought autonomy or independence from the central government of Madrid . The Republican government allowed for the possibility of self @-@ government for the two regions , whose forces were gathered under the People 's Republican Army ( Ejército Popular Republicano , or EPR ) , which was reorganized into mixed brigades after October 1936 . A few well @-@ known people fought on the Republican side , such as English novelist George Orwell ( who wrote Homage to Catalonia ( 1938 ) , an account of his experiences in the war ) and Canadian thoracic surgeon Norman Bethune , who developed a mobile blood @-@ transfusion service for front line operations . Simone Weil added herself for a while to the anarchist columns of Buenaventura Durruti , but was expelled from the front by other fighters , who feared she inadvertently shot them because she was shortsighted . = = = Nationalists = = = The Nacionales or Nationalists — also called " insurgents " , " rebels " , or , by opponents , Franquistas or " fascists " — feared national fragmentation and opposed the separatist movements . They were chiefly defined by their anti @-@ communism , which galvanized diverse or opposed movements like falangists and monarchists . Their leaders had a generally wealthier , more conservative , monarchist , landowning background . The Nationalist side included the Carlists and Alfonsists , Spanish nationalists , the fascist Falange , and most conservatives and monarchist liberals . Virtually all Nationalist groups had strong Catholic convictions and supported the native Spanish clergy . The Nationals included the majority of the Catholic clergy and practitioners ( outside of the Basque region ) , important elements of the army , most large landowners , and many businessmen . One of the rightists ' principal motives was to confront the anti @-@ clericalism of the Republican regime and to defend the Catholic Church , which had been targeted by opponents , including Republicans , who blamed the institution for the country 's ills . The Church was against the Republicans ' liberal principles , which were fortified by the Spanish Constitution of 1931 . Prior to the war , during the Asturian miners ' strike of 1934 , religious buildings were burnt and at least 100 clergy , religious civilians , and pro @-@ Catholic police were killed by revolutionaries . Franco had brought in the mercenaries of Spain 's colonial Army of Africa ( Spanish : Ejército de África or Cuerpo de Ejército Marroquí ) and reduced the miners to submission by heavy artillery attacks and bombing raids . The Spanish Legion committed atrocities — many men , women and children were killed , and the army carried out summary executions of leftists . The repression in the aftermath was brutal . In Asturias , prisoners were tortured . Articles 24 and 26 of the 1931 constitution had banned the Society of Jesus . This proscription deeply offended many within the conservative fold . The revolution in the Republican zone at the outset of the war , in which 7 @,@ 000 clergy and thousands of lay people were killed , deepened Catholic support for the Nationalists . The Moroccan Fuerzas Regulares Indígenas joined the rebellion and played a significant role in the civil war . = = = Other factions = = = Catalan and Basque nationalists were not univocal . Left @-@ wing Catalan nationalists sided with the Republicans , while Conservative Catalan nationalists were far less vocal in supporting the government due to anti @-@ clericalism and confiscations occurring in areas within its control . Basque nationalists , heralded by the conservative Basque Nationalist Party , were mildly supportive of the Republican government , although some in Navarre sided with the uprising for the same reasons influencing conservative Catalans . Notwithstanding religious matters , Basque nationalists , who were for the most part Catholic , generally sided with the Republicans , although the PNV , Basque nationalist party , was reported passing the plans of Bilbao defenses to the nationalists , in an attempt to reduce the duration and casualties of siege . = = Foreign involvement = = The Spanish Civil War exposed political divisions across Europe . The right and the Catholics supported the Nationalists as a way to stop the expansion of Bolshevism . On the left , including labor unions , students and intellectuals , the war represented a necessary battle to stop the spread of fascism . Antiwar and pacifist sentiment was strong in many countries , leading to warnings that the Civil War had the potential of escalating into a second world war . In this respect , the war was an indicator of the growing instability across Europe . The Spanish Civil War involved large numbers of non @-@ Spanish citizens who participated in combat and advisory positions . Britain and France led a political alliance of 27 nations that promised non @-@ intervention in the Spanish Civil War , including an embargo on all arms to Spain . The United States unofficially went along . Germany , Italy and the Soviet Union signed on officially , but ignored the embargo . The attempted suppression of imported materials was largely ineffective , however , and France especially was accused of allowing large shipments to Republican troops . The clandestine actions of the various European powers were , at the time , considered to be risking another world war , alarming antiwar elements across the world . The League of Nations ' reaction to the war was influenced by a fear of communism , and insufficient to contain the massive importation by fighting factions of arms and other war resources . Although a Non @-@ Intervention Committee was formed , its policies accomplished little and its directives were ineffective . = = = Support for the Nationalists = = = = = = = Germany = = = = German involvement began days after fighting broke out in July 1936 . Adolf Hitler quickly sent in powerful air and armored units to assist the Nationalists . The war provided combat experience with the latest technology for the German military . However , the intervention also posed the risk of escalating into a world war for which Hitler was not ready . He therefore limited his aid , and instead encouraged Benito Mussolini to send in large Italian units . Nazi Germany 's actions included the formation of the multitasking Condor Legion , a unit composed of volunteers from the Luftwaffe and the German Army ( Heer ) from July 1936 to March 1939 . The Condor Legion proved to be especially useful in the 1936 Battle of the Toledo . German efforts to move the Army of Africa to mainland Spain proved successful in the war 's early stages . German operations slowly expanded to include strike targets , most notably – and controversially – the bombing of Guernica which , on 26 April 1937 , killed 200 to 300 civilians . Germany also used the war to test out new weapons , such as the Luftwaffe Stukas , hold secret to the nationalists , and Junkers Ju @-@ 52 transport Trimotors used also as Bombers , which showed themselves to be effective . German involvement was further manifested through undertakings such as Operation Ursula , a u @-@ boat undertaking , and contributions from the Kriegsmarine . The Legion spearheaded many Nationalist victories , particularly in aerial combat , while Spain further provided a proving ground for German tank tactics . The training German units provided to Nationalist forces would prove valuable . By the War 's end , perhaps 56 @,@ 000 Nationalist soldiers , encompassing infantry , artillery , aerial and naval forces , had been trained by German detachments . A total of approximately 16 @,@ 000 German citizens fought in the war , including approximately 300 killed , though no more than 10 @,@ 000 participated at any one time . German aid to the Nationalists amounted to approximately £ 43 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( $ 215 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ) in 1939 prices , 15 @.@ 5 percent of which was used for salaries and expenses and 21 @.@ 9 percent for direct delivery of supplies to Spain , while 62 @.@ 6 percent was expended on the Condor Legion . In total , Germany provided the Nationalists with 600 planes and 200 tanks . = = = = Italy = = = = After Francisco Franco 's request and encouragement by Hitler , Benito Mussolini joined the war . While the conquest of Ethiopia in the Second Italo @-@ Ethiopian War made Italy confident in its power , a Spanish ally would nonetheless help secure Italian control of the Mediterranean Theater of Operations . The Royal Italian Navy ( Italian : ' Regia Marina ) played a substantial role in the Mediterranean blockade , and ultimately Italy supplied machine guns , artillery , aircraft , tankettes , the Aviazione Legionaria , and the Corpo Truppe Volontarie ( CTV ) to the Nationalist cause . The Italian CTV would , at its peak , supply the Nationalists with 50 @,@ 000 men . Italian warships took part in breaking the Republican navy 's blockade of Nationalist @-@ held Spanish Morocco and took part in naval bombardment of Republican @-@ held Málaga , Valencia , and Barcelona . In total , Italy provided the Nationalists with 660 planes , 150 tanks , 800 artillery pieces , 10 @,@ 000 machine guns , and 240 @,@ 000 rifles . = = = = Portugal = = = = The Estado Novo regime of Portuguese Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar played an important role in supplying Franco 's forces with ammunition and logistical help . Despite its discreet direct military involvement – restrained to a somewhat " semi @-@ official " endorsement , by its authoritarian regime , of a volunteer force of up to 20 @,@ 000 , so @-@ called " Viriatos " – for the whole duration of the conflict , Portugal was instrumental in providing the Nationalists with organizational skills and reassurance from the Iberian neighbour to Franco and his allies that no interference would hinder the supply traffic directed to the Nationalist cause . = = = = Others = = = = The Conservative government of the UK maintained a position of strong neutrality and was supported by elites and the mainstream media , while the far left mobilized aid to the Republic . The government refused to allow arms shipments and sent warships to try to stop shipments . It became a crime to volunteer to fight in Spain , but about 4 @,@ 000 went anyway . Intellectuals strongly favoured the Republicans . Many visited Spain , hoping to find authentic anti @-@ fascism . They had little impact on the government , and could not shake the strong public mood for peace . The Labour Party was split , with its Catholic element favouring the Nationalists . It officially endorsed the boycott and expelled a faction that demanded support for the Republican cause ; but it finally voiced some support to Loyalists . Romanian volunteers were led by Ion Moța , deputy @-@ leader of the Iron Guard ( " Legion of the Archangel Michael " ) , whose group of Seven Legionaries visited Spain in December 1936 to ally their movement with the Nationalists . Despite the Irish government 's prohibition against participating in the war , around 600 Irishmen , followers of Irish political activist and Irish Republican Army leader Eoin O 'Duffy , known as the " Irish Brigade " , went to Spain to fight alongside Franco . The majority of the volunteers were Catholics , and according to O 'Duffy had volunteered to help the Nationalists fight against communism . = = = Support for the Republicans = = = = = = = International Brigades = = = = Many non @-@ Spaniards , often affiliated with radical communist or socialist entities , joined the International Brigades , believing that the Spanish Republic was a front line in the war against fascism . The units represented the largest foreign contingent of those fighting for the Republicans . Roughly 40 @,@ 000 foreign nationals fought with the Brigades , though no more than 18 @,@ 000 were entered into the conflict at any given time . They claimed to represent 53 nations . Significant numbers of volunteers originated in the French Third Republic ( 10 @,@ 000 ) , Nazi Germany , the Federal State of Austria ( 5 @,@ 000 ) and the Kingdom of Italy ( 3 @,@ 350 ) . More than 1000 each came from the Soviet Union , the United States , the United Kingdom , the Second Polish Republic , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia , the Kingdom of Hungary , and Canada . The Thälmann Battalion , a group of Germans , and the Garibaldi Battalion , a group of Italians , distinguished their units during the Siege of Madrid . Americans fought in units such as the XV International Brigade ( " Abraham Lincoln Brigade " ) , while Canadians joined the Mackenzie – Papineau Battalion . Over 500 Romanians fought on the Republican side , including Romanian Communist Party members Petre Borilă and Valter Roman . About 145 men from Ireland formed the Connolly Column , which was immortalized by Irish folk singer Christy Moore in the song " Viva la Quinta Brigada " . Some Chinese joined the Brigades , and the majority of them eventually returned to China , while some went to prison or French refugee camps , and a handful remained in Spain . = = = = Soviet Union = = = = Though General Secretary Joseph Stalin had signed the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement , the Soviet Union contravened the League of Nations embargo by providing material assistance to the Republican forces , becoming their only source of major weapons . Unlike Hitler and Mussolini , Stalin tried to do this covertly . In total , estimates of material provided by the USSR to the Republicans vary between 634 and 806 planes , 331 and 362 tanks , and 1 @,@ 034 and 1 @,@ 895 artillery pieces . Stalin also created Section X of the Soviet Union military to head the weapons shipment operation , called Operation X. Despite Stalin 's interest in aiding the Republicans , the quality of arms was inconsistent . On one hand , many of the rifles and field guns provided were old , obsolete or otherwise of limited use ( some dated back to the 1860s ) . On the other hand , the T @-@ 26 and BT @-@ 5 tanks were modern and effective in combat . The Soviet Union supplied aircraft that were in current service with their own forces , but the aircraft provided by Germany to the Nationalists proved superior by the end of the war . The process of shipping arms from Russia to Spain was extremely slow . Many shipments were lost or arrived only partially matching what had been authorized . Stalin ordered shipbuilders to include false decks in the original designs of ships and , while at sea , Soviet captains employed deceptive flags and paint schemes to evade detection by the Nationalists . The Republic paid for Soviet arms with official Bank of Spain gold reserves . This would later be the frequent subject of Franquist propaganda , under the term " Moscow Gold " . The cost of the Soviet Union arms was more than the value of Spain 's gold reserves , the fourth @-@ largest in the world , estimated at US $ 500 million ( 1936 prices ) , 176 tonnes of which was transferred through France . The USSR sent a number of military advisers to Spain ( 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 ) , and , while Soviet troops were fewer than 500 men at a time , Soviet volunteers often operated Soviet @-@ made tanks and aircraft , particularly at the beginning of the war . In addition , the Soviet Union directed Communist parties around the world to organize and recruit the International Brigades . Another significant Soviet involvement was the activity of the People 's Commissariat for Internal Affairs ( NKVD ) inside the Republican rearguard . Communist figures including Vittorio Vidali ( " Comandante Contreras " ) , Iosif Grigulevich , Mikhail Koltsov and , most prominently , Aleksandr Mikhailovich Orlov led operations that included the murders of Catalan anti @-@ stalinist Communist politician Andreu Nin and independent left @-@ wing activist José Robles . Also , the shooting down in December 1936 of the French aircraft in which the delegate of the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) , Georges Henny , carried to France extensive documentation on the Paracuellos massacres was a NKVD @-@ led operation . = = = = Mexico = = = = Unlike the United States and major Latin American governments , such as the ABC nations and Peru , Mexico supported the Republicans . Mexico refused to follow the French @-@ British non @-@ intervention proposals , furnishing $ 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in aid and material assistance , which included 20 @,@ 000 rifles and 20 million cartridges . Mexico 's most important contributions to the Spanish Republic was its diplomatic help , as well as the sanctuary the nation arranged for Republican refugees , including Spanish intellectuals and orphaned children from Republican families . Some 50 @,@ 000 took refuge , primarily in Mexico City and Morelia accompanied by $ 300 million in various treasures still owned by the Left . = = = = France = = = = Fearing it might spark a civil war inside France , the leftist " Popular Front " government in France did not send direct support to the Republicans . French Prime Minister Léon Blum was sympathetic to the republic , fearing that the success of Nationalist forces in Spain would result in the creation of an ally state of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy , an alliance that would nearly encircle France . Right @-@ wing politicians opposed any aid and attacked the Blum government . In July 1936 , British officials convinced Blum not to send arms to the Republicans and , on 27 July , the French government declared that it would not send military aid , technology or forces to assist the Republican forces . However , Blum made clear that France reserved the right to provide aid should it wish to the Republic : " We could have delivered arms to the Spanish Government [ Republicans ] , a legitimate government ... We have not done so , in order not to give an excuse to those who would be tempted to send arms to the rebels [ Nationalists ] . " On 1 August 1936 , a pro @-@ Republican rally of 20 @,@ 000 people confronted Blum , demanding that he send aircraft to the Republicans , at the same time as right @-@ wing politicians attacked Blum for supporting the Republic and being responsible for provoking Italian intervention on the side of Franco . Germany informed the French ambassador in Berlin that Germany would hold France responsible if it supported " the manoeuvres of Moscow " by supporting the Republicans . On 21 August 1936 , France signed the Non @-@ Intervention Agreement . However , the Blum government provided aircraft to the Republicans through covert means with Potez 540 bomber aircraft ( nicknamed the " Flying Coffin " ) by Spanish Republican pilots ) , Dewoitine aircraft , and Loire 46 fighter aircraft being sent from 7 August 1936 to December of that year to Republican forces . The French also sent pilots and engineers to the Republicans . Also , until 8 September 1936 , aircraft could freely pass from France into Spain if they were bought in other countries . French novelist André Malraux was a strong supporter of the republican cause ; He tried to organise a volunteer air force ( Escadrile Espana ) on the republican side but as a practical organiser and squadron leader he was somewhat idealistic and inefficient . The Regular Spanish Air force commander Andres Garcia La Calle was openly critical of Malraux 's military efficiency but recognized his usefulness as a propagandist . His novel L 'Espoir and the film version he produced and directed ( Espoir : Sierra de Teruel ) were a great help for the republican cause in France . Even after covert support by France to the Republicans ended in December 1936 , the possibility of French intervention against the Nationalists remained a serious possibility throughout the war . German intelligence reported to Franco and the Nationalists that the French military was engaging in open discussions about intervention in the war through French military intervention in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands . In 1938 , Franco feared an immediate French intervention against a potential Nationalist victory in Spain through French occupation of Catalonia , the Balearic Islands , and Spanish Morocco . Besides the generally Republican @-@ oriented sympathies and support in France , some right wing extremists sided with Franco , most notably the members of La Cagoule who where instrumental in sabotaging ships transporting guns and civil relief equipment to Republican Spain in French ports . = = Course of the war = = = = = 1936 = = = A large air and sealift of Nationalist troops in Spanish Morocco was organized to the southwest of Spain . Coup leader Sanjurjo was killed in a plane crash on 20 July , leaving an effective command split between Mola in the North and Franco in the South . This period also saw the worst actions of the so @-@ called " Red " and " White Terrors " in Spain . On 21 July , the fifth day of the rebellion , the Nationalists captured the central Spanish naval base , located in Ferrol , Galicia . A rebel force under Colonel Alfonso Beorlegui Canet , sent by General Mola and Colonel Esteban García , undertook the Campaign of Gipuzkoa from July to September . The capture of Gipuzkoa isolated the Republican provinces in the north . On 5 September , the Nationalists closed the French border to the Republicans in the battle of Irún . On 15 September , San Sebastián , home to a divided Republican force of anarchists and Basque nationalists , was taken by Nationalist soldiers . The Nationalists then advanced toward their capital , Bilbao , but were halted by Republican militias on the border of Biscay at the end of September . The Republic proved ineffective militarily , relying on disorganized revolutionary militia . The Republican government under Giral resigned on 4 September , unable to cope with the situation , and was replaced by a mostly Socialist organization under Francisco Largo Caballero . The new leadership began to unify central command in the republican zone . On the Nationalist side , Franco was chosen as chief military commander at a meeting of ranking generals at Salamanca on 21 September , now called by the title Generalísimo . Franco won another victory on 27 September when his troops relieved the siege of the Alcázar in Toledo , which had been held by a Nationalist garrison under Colonel José Moscardó Ituarte since the beginning of the rebellion , resisting thousands of Republican troops , who completely surrounded the isolated building . Moroccans and elements of the Spanish Legion came to the rescue . Two days after relieving the siege , Franco proclaimed himself Caudillo ( " chieftain " , the Spanish equivalent of the Italian Duce and the German Führer -meaning : ' director ' ) while forcibly unifying the various and diverse falangist , Royalist and other elements within the Nationalist cause . The diversion to Toledo gave Madrid time to prepare a defense , but was hailed as a major propaganda victory and personal success for Franco . In October 1 , 1936 , general Franco was confirmed head of state and armies in Burgos . A similar dramatic success for the Nationalists occurred on 17 October , when troops coming from Galicia relieved the besieged town of Oviedo , in Northern Spain . In October , the Francoist troops launched a major offensive toward Madrid , reaching it in early November and launching a major assault on the city on 8 November . The Republican government was forced to shift from Madrid to Valencia , outside the combat zone , on 6 November . However , the Nationalists ' attack on the capital was repulsed in fierce fighting between 8 and 23 November . A contributory factor in the successful Republican defense was the effectiveness of the Fifth Regiment and later the arrival of the International Brigades , though only an approximate 3 @,@ 000 foreign volunteers participated in the battle . Having failed to take the capital , Franco bombarded it from the air and , in the following two years , mounted several offensives to try to encircle Madrid , beginning the three @-@ year Siege of Madrid . The Second Battle of the Corunna Road , a Nationalist offensive to the northwest , pushed Republican forces back , but failed to isolate Madrid . The battle lasted into January . = = = 1937 = = = With his ranks swelled by Italian troops and Spanish colonial soldiers from Morocco , Franco made another attempt to capture Madrid in January and February 1937 , but was again unsuccessful . The Battle of Málaga started in mid @-@ January , and this Nationalist offensive in Spain 's southeast would turn into a disaster for the Republicans , who were poorly organised and armed . The city was taken by Franco on 8 February . The consolidation of various militias into the Republican Army had started in December 1936 . The main Nationalist advance to cross the Jarama and cut the supply to Madrid by the Valencia road , termed the Battle of Jarama , led to heavy casualties ( 6 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 ) on both sides . The operation 's main objective was not met , though Nationalists gained a modest amount of territory . A similar Nationalist offensive , the Battle of Guadalajara , was a more significant defeat for Franco and his armies . It proved the only publicised Republican victory of the war . Italian troops and blitzkrieg tactics were used by Franco , and while many strategists blamed the latter for the rightists ' defeat , the Germans believed it was the former at fault for the Nationalists ' 5 @,@ 000 casualties and loss of valuable equipment . The German strategists successfully argued that the Nationalists needed to concentrate on vulnerable areas first . The " War in the North " began in mid @-@ March , with the Biscay Campaign . The Basques suffered most from the lack of a suitable air force . On 26 April , the Condor Legion bombed the town of Guernica , killing 200 – 300 and causing significant damage . The destruction had a significant effect on international opinion . The Basques retreated . April and May saw the May Days , infighting among Republican groups in Catalonia . The dispute was between an ultimately victorious government – Communist forces and the anarchist CNT . The disturbance pleased Nationalist command , but little was done to exploit Republican divisions . After the fall of Guernica , the Republican government began to fight back with increasing effectiveness . In July , it made a move to recapture Segovia , forcing Franco to delay his advance on the Bilbao front , but for only two weeks . A similar Republican attack , the Huesca Offensive , failed similarly . Mola , Franco 's second @-@ in @-@ command , was killed on 3 June , in an airplane accident . In early July , despite the earlier loss at the Battle of Bilbao , the government launched a strong counter @-@ offensive to the west of Madrid , focusing on Brunete . The Battle of Brunete , however , was a significant defeat for the Republic , which lost many of its most accomplished troops . The offensive led to an advance of 50 square kilometres ( 19 sq mi ) , and left 25 @,@ 000 Republican casualties . A Republican offensive against Zaragoza was also a failure . Despite having land and aerial advantages , the Battle of Belchite , a place lacking any military interest , resulted in an advance of only 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) and the loss of much equipment . Franco invaded Aragón in August and took the city of Santander . With the surrender of the Republican army in the Basque territory came the Santoña Agreement . Gijón finally fell in late October in the Asturias Offensive . Franco had effectively won in the north . At November 's end , with Franco 's troops closing in on Valencia , the government had to move again , this time to Barcelona . = = = 1938 = = = The Battle of Teruel was an important confrontation . The city , which had formerly belonged to the Nationalists , was conquered by Republicans in January . The Francoist troops launched an offensive and recovered the city by 22 February , but Franco was forced to rely heavily on German and Italian air support . On 7 March , Nationalists launched the Aragon Offensive and , by 14 April , they had pushed through to the Mediterranean , cutting the Republican @-@ held portion of Spain in two . The Republican government attempted to sue for peace in May , but Franco demanded unconditional surrender , and the war raged on . In July , the Nationalist army pressed southward from Teruel and south along the coast toward the capital of the Republic at Valencia , but was halted in heavy fighting along the XYZ Line , a system of fortifications defending Valencia . The Republican government then launched an all @-@ out campaign to reconnect their territory in the Battle of the Ebro , from 24 July until 26 November , where Franco personally took command . The campaign was unsuccessful , and was undermined by the Franco @-@ British appeasement of Hitler in Munich . The agreement with Britain effectively destroyed Republican morale by ending hope of an anti @-@ fascist alliance with Western powers . The retreat from the Ebro all but determined the final outcome of the war . Eight days before the new year , Franco threw massive forces into an invasion of Catalonia . = = = 1939 = = = Franco 's troops conquered Catalonia in a whirlwind campaign during the first two months of 1939 . Tarragona fell on 15 January , followed by Barcelona on 26 January and Girona on 2 February . On 27 February , the United Kingdom and France recognized the Franco regime . Only Madrid and a few other strongholds remained for the Republican forces . On 5 March 1939 , the Republican army , led by the Colonel Segismundo Casado and the politician Julián Besteiro , rose against the prime minister Juan Negrín and formed the National Defence Council ( Consejo Nacional de Defensa or CND ) to negotiate a peace deal . Negrín fled to France on 6 March , but the Communist troops around Madrid rose against the junta , starting a brief civil war within the civil war . Casado defeated them , and began peace negotiations with the Nationalists , but Franco refused to accept anything less than unconditional surrender . On 26 March , the Nationalists started a general offensive , on 28 March the Nationalists occupied Madrid and , by 31 March , they controlled all Spanish territory . Franco proclaimed victory in a radio speech aired on 1 April , when the last of the Republican forces surrendered . After the end of the war , there were harsh reprisals against Franco 's former enemies . Thousands of Republicans were imprisoned and at least 30 @,@ 000 executed . Other calculations of these deaths range from 50 @,@ 000 to 200 @,@ 000 , depending on which killings are included . Many others were put to forced labour , building railways , drying out swamps , and digging canals . Hundreds of thousands of Republicans fled abroad , with some 500 @,@ 000 fleeing to France . Refugees were confined in internment camps of the French Third Republic , such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet , where 12 @,@ 000 Republicans were housed in squalid conditions . In his capacity as consul in Paris , Chilean poet and politician Pablo Neruda organized the immigration to Chile of 2 @,@ 200 Republican exiles in France using the ship SS Winnipeg . Of the 17 @,@ 000 refugees housed in Gurs , farmers and others who could not find relations in France were encouraged by the Third Republic , in agreement with the Franquist government , to return to Spain . The great majority did so and were turned over to the Franquist authorities in Irún . From there , they were transferred to the Miranda de Ebro camp for " purification " according to the Law of Political Responsibilities . After the proclamation by Marshal Philippe Pétain of the Vichy regime , the refugees became political prisoners , and the French police attempted to round up those who had been liberated from the camp . Along with other " undesirable " people , the Spaniards were sent to the Drancy internment camp before being deported to Nazi Germany . About 5 @,@ 000 Spaniards died in the Mauthausen concentration camp . After the official end of the war , guerrilla warfare was waged on an irregular basis by the Spanish Maquis well into the 1950s , gradually reduced by military defeats and scant support from the exhausted population . In 1944 , a group of republican veterans , who also fought in the French resistance against the Nazis , invaded the Val d 'Aran in northwest Catalonia , but were defeated after 10 days . = = Evacuation of children = = The Republicans oversaw the evacuation of 30 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 children from their zone , starting with Basque areas , from which 20 @,@ 000 were evacuated . Their destinations included the United Kingdom and the USSR , and many other locations in Europe , along with Mexico . On 21 May 1937 , around 4 @,@ 000 Basque children were taken to the UK on the aging steamship SS Habana from the Spanish port of Santurtzi . This was against initial opposition from both the government and charitable groups , who saw the removal of children from their native country as potentially harmful . On arrival two days later in Southampton , the children were dispersed all over England , with over 200 children accommodated in Wales . The upper age limit was initially set at 12 , but raised to 15 . By mid @-@ September , all of los niños , as they became known , had found homes with families . Most were repatriated to Spain after the war , but some 250 still remained in Britain by the end of the Second World War in 1945 . = = Atrocities = = Death totals remain debated . British historian Antony Beevor wrote in his history of the Civil War that Franco 's ensuing " white terror " resulted in the deaths of 200 @,@ 000 people and that the " red terror " killed 38 @,@ 000 . Julius Ruiz contends that , " Although the figures remain disputed , a minimum of 37 @,@ 843 executions were carried out in the Republican zone , with a maximum of 150 @,@ 000 executions ( including 50 @,@ 000 after the war ) in Nationalist Spain " . In 2008 a Spanish judge , Baltasar Garzón , opened an investigation into the executions and disappearances of 114 @,@ 266 people between 17 July 1936 and December 1951 . Among the executions investigated was that of the poet and dramatist Federico García Lorca , whose body has never been found . Mention of García Lorca 's death was forbidden during Franco 's regime . The view of historians , including Helen Graham , Paul Preston , Antony Beevor , Gabriel Jackson and Hugh Thomas , is that the mass executions behind the Nationalists lines were organized and approved by the Nationalists rebel authorities , while the executions behind the Republican lines were the result of the breakdown of the Republican state and anarchy : Though there was much wanton killing in rebel Spain , the idea of the limpieza , the " cleaning up " , of the country from the evils which had overtaken it , was a disciplined policy of the new authorities and a part of their programme of regeneration . In republican Spain , most of the killing was the consequence of anarchy , the outcome of a national breakdown , and not the work of the state , although some political parties in some cities abetted the enormities , and some of those responsible ultimately rose to positions of authority . – Hugh Thomas = = = Nationalists = = = Nationalist atrocities , which authorities frequently ordered to eradicate any trace of " leftism " in Spain , were common . The notion of a limpieza ( cleansing ) formed an essential part of the rebel strategy , and the process began immediately after an area had been captured . According to historian Paul Preston , the minimum number of those executed by the rebels is 130 @,@ 000 , and is likely to have been far higher , with other historians placing the figure at 200 @,@ 000 dead . The violence was carried out in the rebel zone by the military , the Civil Guard and the Falange in the name of the regime . Many such acts were committed by reactionary groups during the first weeks of the war . This included the execution of schoolteachers , because the efforts of the Second Spanish Republic to promote laicism and displace the Church from schools by closing religious educational institutions were considered by the Nationalists as an attack on the Roman Catholic Church . Extensive killings of civilians were carried out in the cities captured by the Nationalists , along with the execution of unwanted individuals . These included non @-@ combatants such as trade @-@ unionists , Popular Front politicians , suspected Freemasons , Basque , Catalan , Andalusian , and Galician Nationalists , Republican intellectuals , relatives of known Republicans , and those suspected of voting for the Popular Front . Nationalist forces massacred civilians in Seville , where some 8 @,@ 000 people were shot ; 10 @,@ 000 were killed in Cordoba ; 6 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 were killed in Badajoz after more than one thousand of landowners and conservatives were killed by the revolutionaries . In Granada , where working @-@ class neighborhoods were hit with artillery and right @-@ wing squads were given free rein to kill government sympathizers , at least 2 @,@ 000 people were murdered . In February 1937 , over 7 @,@ 000 were killed after the capture of Málaga . When Bilbao was conquered , thousands of people were sent to prison . There were fewer executions than usual , however , because of the effect Guernica left on Nationalists ' reputations internationally . The numbers killed as the columns of the Army of Africa devastated and pillaged their way between Seville and Madrid are particularly difficult to calculate . Nationalists also murdered Catholic clerics . In one particular incident , following the capture of Bilbao , they took hundreds of people , including 16 priests who had served as chaplains for the Republican forces , to the countryside or graveyards and murdered them . Franco 's forces also persecuted Protestants , including murdering 20 Protestant ministers . Franco 's forces were determined to remove the " Protestant heresy " from Spain . The Nationalists also persecuted Basques , as they strove to eradicate Basque culture . According to Basque sources , some 22 @,@ 000 Basques were murdered by Nationalists immediately after the Civil War . The Nationalist side conducted aerial bombing of cities in Republican territory , carried out mainly by the Luftwaffe volunteers of the Condor Legion and the Italian air force volunteers of the Corpo Truppe Volontarie : Madrid , Barcelona , Valencia , Guernica , Durango , and other cities were attacked . The Bombing of Guernica was the most controversial . = = = Republicans = = = According to the Nationalists , an estimated 55 @,@ 000 civilians died in Republican @-@ held territories . This is considered excessive by Antony Beevor . However , it was much less than the half a million claimed during the war . The deaths would form the prevailing outside opinion of the republic up until the bombing of Guernica . The Republican government was anticlerical , and supporters attacked and murdered Roman Catholic clergy in reaction to the news of military revolt . In his 1961 book , Spanish archbishop Antonio Montero Moreno , who at the time was director of the journal Ecclesia , wrote that 6 @,@ 832 were killed during the war , including 4 @,@ 184 priests , 2 @,@ 365 monks and friars , and 283 nuns , in addition to 13 bishops , a figure accepted by historians , including Beevor . Some sources claim that by the conflict 's end , 20 percent of the nation 's clergy had been killed , The " Execution " of the Sacred Heart of Jesus by Communist militiamen at Cerro de los Ángeles near Madrid , on 7 August 1936 , was the most infamous of widespread desecration of religious property . In dioceses where the Republicans had general control , a large proportion – often a majority – of secular priests were killed . Like clergy , civilians were executed in Republican territories . Some civilians were executed as suspected Falangists . Others died in acts of revenge after Republicans heard of massacres carried out in the Nationalist zone . Air raids committed against Republican cities were another driving factor . Shopkeepers and industrialists were shot if they did not sympathize with the Republicans , and were usually spared if they did . Fake justice was sought through a commission , known in Russia as checas . As pressure mounted with the increasing success of the Nationalists , many civilians were executed by councils and tribunals controlled by competing Communist and anarchist groups . Some members of the latter were executed by Soviet @-@ advised communist functionaries in Catalonia , as recounted by George Orwell 's description of the purges in Barcelona in 1937 in Homage to Catalonia , which followed a period of increasing tension between competing elements of the Catalan political scene . Some individuals fled to friendly embassies , which would house up to 8 @,@ 500 people during the war . In the Andalusian town of Ronda , 512 suspected Nationalists were executed in the first month of the war . Communist Santiago Carrillo Solares was accused of the killing of Nationalists in the Paracuellos massacre near Paracuellos del Jarama . Pro @-@ Soviet Communists committed numerous atrocities against fellow Republicans , including other Marxists : André Marty , known as the Butcher of Albacete , was responsible for the deaths of some 500 members of the International Brigades . Andreu Nin , leader of the POUM ( Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ) , and many other prominent POUM members , were murdered by the Communists , with the help of the USSR 's NKVD . Thirty @-@ eight thousand people were killed in the Republican zone during the war , 17 @,@ 000 of whom were killed in Madrid or Catalonia within a month of the coup . Whilst the Communists were forthright in their support of extrajudicial killings , much of the Republican side was appalled by the murders . Azaña came close to resigning . He , alongside other members of Parliament and a great number of other local officials , attempted to prevent Nationalist supporters being lynched . Some of those in positions of power intervened personally to stop the killings . = = Social revolution = = In the anarchist @-@ controlled areas , Aragon and Catalonia , in addition to the temporary military success , there was a vast social revolution in which the workers and peasants collectivised land and industry and set up councils parallel to the paralyzed Republican government . This revolution was opposed by the Soviet @-@ supported communists who , perhaps surprisingly , campaigned against the loss of civil property rights . As the war progressed , the government and the communists were able to exploit their access to Soviet arms to restore government control over the war effort , through diplomacy and force . Anarchists and the Workers ' Party of Marxist Unification ( Partido Obrero de Unificación Marxista , POUM ) were integrated into the regular army , albeit with resistance . The POUM Trotskyists were outlawed and falsely denounced as an instrument of the fascists . In the May Days of 1937 , many thousands of anarchist and communist Republican soldiers fought for control of strategic points in Barcelona . The pre @-@ war Falange was a small party of some 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 members . It also called for a social revolution that would have seen Spanish society transformed by National Syndicalism . Following the execution of its leader , José Antonio Primo de Rivera , by the Republicans , the party swelled in size to several hundred thousand members . The leadership of the Falange suffered 60 percent casualties in the early days of the civil war , and the party was transformed by new members and rising new leaders , called camisas nuevas ( " new shirts " ) , who were less interested in the revolutionary aspects of National Syndicalism . Subsequently , Franco united all fighting groups into the Traditionalist Spanish Falange and the National Syndicalist Offensive Juntas ( Spanish : Falange Española Tradicionalista de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional @-@ Sindicalista , FET y de las JONS ) . The 1930s also saw Spain become a focus for pacifist organizations , including the Fellowship of Reconciliation , the War Resisters League , and the War Resisters ' International . Many people including , as they are now called , the " insumisos " ( " defiant ones " , conscientious objectors ) argued and worked for non @-@ violent strategies . Prominent Spanish pacifists , such as Amparo Poch y Gascón and José Brocca , supported the Republicans . Brocca argued that Spanish pacifists had no alternative but to make a stand against fascism . He put this stand into practice by various means , including organizing agricultural workers to maintain food supplies , and through humanitarian work with war refugees . = = Art and propaganda = = Throughout the course of the Spanish Civil War , people all over the world were exposed to the goings @-@ on and effects of it on its people not only through standard art , but also through propaganda . Motion pictures , posters , books , radio programs , and leaflets are a few examples of this media art that was so influential during the war . Produced by both nationalists and republicans , propaganda allowed Spaniards a way to spread awareness about their war all over the world . In a film co @-@ produced by famous early @-@ twentieth century authors such as Ernest Hemingway and Lillian Hellman , video footage was used as a way to advertise Spain ’ s need for military and monetary aid . This film , The Spanish Earth , premiered in America in July 1937 . In 1938 , George Orwell 's Homage to Catalonia , a personal account of his experiences and observations in the war , was published in the United Kingdom . Leading works of sculpture include Alberto Sánchez Pérez 's El pueblo español tiene un camino que conduce a una estrella maqueta ( " The Spanish People Have a Path that Leads to a Star " ) , a 12.5m monolith constructed out of plaster representing the struggle for a socialist utopia ; Julio González 's La Montserrat , an anti @-@ war work which shares its title with a mountain near Barcelona , is created from a sheet of iron which has been hammered and welded to create a peasant mother carrying a small child in one arm and a sickle in the other. and Alexander Calder 's Fuente de mercurio ( Mercury Fountain ) a protest work by the American against the Nationalist forced control of Almade 'n and the mercury mines there . As to other works of art , Pablo Picasso painted Guernica in 1937 , taking inspiration from the bombing of Guernica , and in Leonardo de Vinci 's The Battle of Anghiari . Guernica , like many important Republican masterpieces , was featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris . The work 's size ( 11 ft by 25 @.@ 6 ft ) grabbed much attention and cast the horrors of the mounting Spanish civil unrest into a global spotlight . The painting has since been heralded as an anti @-@ war work and a symbol of peace in the 20th century . Joan Miró created El Segador ( The Reaper ) , formally titled El campesino catalán en rebeldía ( Catalan peasant in revolt ) , which spans some 18 feet by 12 feet and depicted a peasant brandishing a sickle in the air , to which Miró commented that " The sickle is not a communist symbol . It is the reaper ’ s symbol , the tool of his work , and , when his freedom is threatened , his weapon . " This work , also featured at the 1937 International Exhibition in Paris , was shipped back to the Spanish Republic 's capital in Valencia following the Exhibition , but has since gone missing or has been destroyed . = = Timeline = = Spanish Civil War Timeline = = People = = = = Political parties and organizations = = = = = Images and films = = = Spain in Revolt , newsreel documentary ( Video Stream ) ( Part 1 , 2 ) Imperial War Museum Collection of Spanish Civil War Posters hosted online by Visual Arts Data Service ( VADS ) Posters of the Spanish Civil War from UCSD 's Southworth collection Civil War Documentaries made by the CNT Spanish Civil War and Revolution image gallery – photographs and posters from the conflict Aircraft of the Spanish Civil War Battle of Rio Segre Photographs Capa , Robert ( 1938 ) International Center of Photography . = = = Academics and governments = = = A History of the Spanish Civil War , excerpted from a U.S. government country study . Dutch Involvement in the Spanish Civil War . Columbia Historical Review . " The Spanish Civil War – causes and legacy " on BBC Radio 4 's In Our Time featuring Paul Preston , Helen Graham and Dr Mary Vincent = = = Other = = = Original war reports from The Times The Anarcho @-@ Statists of Spain , a different view of the anarchists in the Spanish Civil War , George Mason University Spanish Civil War information from Spartacus Educational American Jews in Spanish Civil War at the Wayback Machine ( archived 8 December 2005 ) , by Martin Sugarman The Spanish Revolution , 1936 – 39 articles and links , from Anarchy Now ! The Revolutionary Institutions : The Central Committee of Anti @-@ Fascist Militias , by Juan García Oliver Warships of the Spanish Civil War ¡ No Pasarán ! Speech Dolores Ibárruri 's famous rousing address for the defense of the Second Republic New Zealand and the Spanish Civil War Full text in translation of the Collective Letter of the Spanish Bishops , 1937 , a pastoral letter of the Spanish bishops which justified Franco 's uprising 11 Songs of the Spanish Civil War = = = Archives = = = Robert E. Burke Collection . 1892 – 1994 . 60 @.@ 43 cubic feet ( 68 boxes plus two oversize folders and one oversize vertical file ) . At the Labor Archives of Washington , University of Washington Libraries Special Collections . Contains materials collected by Burke on the Spanish Civil War . = Wonder Stories = Wonder Stories was an early American science fiction magazine which was published under several titles from 1929 to 1955 . It was founded by Hugo Gernsback in 1929 after he had lost control of his first science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories , when his media company Experimenter Publishing went bankrupt . Within a few months of the bankruptcy , Gernsback launched three new magazines : Air Wonder Stories , Science Wonder Stories and Science Wonder Quarterly . Air Wonder Stories and Science Wonder Stories were merged in 1930 as Wonder Stories , and the quarterly was renamed Wonder Stories Quarterly . The magazines were not financially successful , and in 1936 Gernsback sold Wonder Stories to Ned Pines at Beacon Publications , where , retitled Thrilling Wonder Stories , it continued for nearly 20 years . The last issue was dated Winter 1955 , and the title was then merged with Startling Stories , another of Pines ' science fiction magazines . Startling itself lasted only to the end of 1955 before finally succumbing to the decline of the pulp magazine industry . The editors under Gernsback 's ownership were David Lasser , who worked hard to improve the quality of the fiction , and , from mid @-@ 1933 , Charles Hornig . Both Lasser and Hornig published some well @-@ received fiction , such as Stanley Weinbaum 's " A Martian Odyssey " , but Hornig 's efforts in particular were overshadowed by the success of Astounding Stories , which had become the leading magazine in the new field of science fiction . Under its new title , Thrilling Wonder Stories was initially unable to improve its quality . For a period in the early 1940s it was aimed at younger readers , with a juvenile editorial tone and covers that depicted beautiful women in implausibly revealing spacesuits . Later editors began to improve the fiction , and by the end of the 1940s , in the opinion of science fiction historian Mike Ashley , the magazine briefly rivaled Astounding . = = Publication history = = By the end of the 19th century , stories centered on scientific inventions and set in the future , in the tradition of Jules Verne , were appearing regularly in popular fiction magazines . Magazines such as Munsey 's Magazine and The Argosy , launched in 1889 and 1896 respectively , carried a few science fiction stories each year . Some upmarket " slicks " such as McClure 's , which paid well and were aimed at a more literary audience , also carried scientific stories , but by the early years of the 20th century , science fiction ( though it was not yet called that ) was appearing more often in the pulp magazines than in the slicks . The first science fiction magazine , Amazing Stories , was launched in 1926 by Hugo Gernsback at the height of the pulp magazine era . It helped to form science fiction as a separately marketed genre , and by the end of the 1930s a " Golden Age of Science Fiction " had begun , inaugurated by the efforts of John W. Campbell , the editor of Astounding Science Fiction . Wonder Stories was launched in the pulp era , not long after Amazing Stories , and lasted through the Golden Age and well into the 1950s . = = = Gernsback era = = = Gernsback 's new magazine , Amazing Stories , was successful , but Gernsback lost control of the publisher when it went bankrupt in February 1929 . By April he had formed a new company , Gernsback Publications Incorporated , and created two subsidiaries : Techni @-@ Craft Publishing Corporation and Stellar Publishing Corporation . Gernsback sent out letters advertising his plans for new magazines ; the mailing lists he used almost certainly were compiled from the subscription lists of Amazing Stories . This would have been illegal , as the lists were owned by Irving Trust , the receiver of the bankruptcy . Gernsback denied using the lists under oath , but historians have generally agreed that he must have done so . The letters also asked potential subscribers to decide the name of the new magazine ; they voted for " Science Wonder Stories " , which became the name of one of Gernsback 's new magazines . Gernsback 's recovery from the bankruptcy judgment was remarkably quick . By early June he had launched three new magazines , two of which published science fiction . The June 1929 issue of Science Wonder Stories appeared on newsstands on 5 May 1929 , and was followed on 5 June by the July 1929 issue of Air Wonder Stories . Both magazines were monthly , with Gernsback as editor @-@ in @-@ chief and David Lasser as editor . Lasser had no prior editing experience and knew little about science fiction , but his recently acquired degree from MIT convinced Gernsback to hire him . Gernsback claimed that science fiction was educational . He repeatedly made this assertion in Amazing Stories , and continued to do so in his editorials for the new magazines , stating , for example , that " teachers encourage the reading of this fiction because they know that it gives the pupil a fundamental knowledge of science and aviation . " He also recruited a panel of " nationally known educators [ who ] pass upon the scientific principles of all stories " . Science fiction historian Everett Bleiler describes this as " fakery , pure and simple " , asserting that there is no evidence that the men on the panel — some of whom , such as Lee De Forest , were well @-@ known scientists — had any editorial influence . However , Donald Menzel , the astrophysicist on the panel , has said that Gernsback sent him manuscripts and made changes to stories as a result of Menzel 's commentary . In 1930 , Gernsback decided to merge Science Wonder Stories and Air Wonder Stories into Wonder Stories . The reason for the merger is unknown , although it may have been that he needed the space in the printing schedule for his new Aviation Mechanics magazine . Bleiler has suggested that the merger was caused by poor sales and a consequent need to downsize . In addition , Air Wonder Stories was probably focused on too specialized a niche to succeed . In an editorial just before Science Wonder Stories changed its name , Gernsback commented that the word " Science " in the title " has tended to retard the progress of the magazine , because many people had the impression that it is a sort of scientific periodical rather than a fiction magazine " . Ironically , the inclusion of " science " in the title was the reason that science fiction writer Isaac Asimov began reading the magazine ; when he saw the August 1929 issue he obtained permission to read it from his father on the grounds that it was clearly educational . Concerns about the marketability of titles seem to have surfaced in the last two issues of Science Wonder , which had the word " Science " printed in a color that made it difficult to read . On the top of the cover appeared the words " Mystery @-@ Adventure @-@ Romance " , the last of which was a surprising way to advertise a science fiction magazine . The first issue of the merged magazine appeared in June 1930 , still on a monthly schedule , with Lasser as editor . The volume numbering continued that of Science Wonder Stories , therefore Wonder Stories is sometimes regarded as a retitling of Science Wonder Stories . Gernsback had also produced a companion magazine for Science Wonder Stories , titled Science Wonder Quarterly , the first issue of which was published in the fall of 1929 . Three issues were produced under this title , but after the merger Gernsback changed the companion magazine 's title to Wonder Stories Quarterly , and produced a further eleven issues under that title . In July 1933 , Gernsback dismissed Lasser as editor . Lasser had become active in promoting workers ' rights and was spending less time on his editorial duties . According to Lasser , Gernsback told him " if you like working with the unemployed so much , I suggest you go and join them " . It is likely that cost @-@ cutting was also a consideration , as Lasser was paid $ 65 per week , a substantial salary in those days . Soon after Lasser was let go , Gernsback received a fanzine , The Fantasy Fan , from a reader , Charles Hornig . Gernsback called Hornig to his office to interview him for the position of editor ; Hornig turned out to be only 17 , but Gernsback asked him to proofread a manuscript and decided that the results were satisfactory . Hornig was hired at an initial salary of $ 20 per week . That same year , Gernsback dissolved Stellar Publications and created Continental Publications as the new publisher for Wonder Stories . The schedule stuttered for the first time , missing the July and September 1933 issues ; the recent bankruptcy of the company 's distributor , Eastern Distributing Corporation , may have been partly responsible for this disruption . The first issue with Continental on the masthead , and the first listing Hornig as editor , was November 1933 . Wonder Stories had a circulation of about 25 @,@ 000 in 1934 , comparable to that of Amazing Stories , which had declined from an early peak of about 100 @,@ 000 . Gernsback considered issuing a reprint magazine in 1934 , Wonder Stories Reprint Annual , but it never appeared . That year he experimented with other fiction magazines — Pirate Stories and High Seas Adventures — but neither was successful . Wonder Stories was also failing , and in November 1935 it started publishing bimonthly instead of monthly . Gernsback had a reputation for paying slowly and was therefore unpopular with many authors ; by 1936 he was even failing to pay Laurence Manning , one of his most reliable authors . Staff were sometimes asked to delay cashing their paychecks for weeks at a time . Gernsback felt the blame lay with dealers who were returning magazine covers as unsold copies , and then selling the stripped copies at a reduced rate . To bypass the dealers , he made a plea in the March 1936 issue to his readers , asking them to subscribe , and proposing to distribute Wonder Stories solely by subscription . There was little response , and Gernsback decided to sell . He made a deal with Ned Pines of Beacon Magazines and on 21 February 1936 Wonder Stories was sold . = = = Thrilling Wonder Stories = = = Pines ' magazines included several with " Thrilling " in the title , such as Thrilling Detective and Thrilling Love Stories . These were run by Leo Margulies , who had hired Mort Weisinger ( among others ) as the workload increased in the early 1930s . Weisinger was already an active science fiction fan , and when Wonder Stories was acquired , Margulies involved him in the editorial work . Margulies ' group worked as a team , with Margulies listed as editor @-@ in @-@ chief on the magazines and having final say . However , since Weisinger knew science fiction well , Weisinger was quickly given more leeway , and bibliographers generally list Weisinger as the editor for this period of the magazine 's history . The title was changed to Thrilling Wonder Stories to match the rest of the " Thrilling " line . The first issue appeared in August 1936 — four months after the last Gernsback Wonder Stories appeared . Wonder Stories had been monthly until the last few Gernsback issues ; Thrilling Wonder was launched on a bimonthly schedule . In February 1938 Weisinger asked for reader feedback regarding the idea of a companion magazine ; the response was positive , and in January 1939 the first issue of Startling Stories appeared , alternating months with Thrilling Wonder . A year later Thrilling Wonder went monthly ; this lasted fewer than eighteen months , and the bimonthly schedule resumed after April 1941 . Weisinger left that summer and was replaced at both Startling and Thrilling Wonder by Oscar J. Friend , a pulp writer with more experience in Westerns than science fiction , though he had published a novel , The Kid from Mars , in Startling Stories just the year before . In mid @-@ 1943 both magazines went to a quarterly schedule , and at the end of 1944 Friend was replaced in his turn by Sam Merwin , Jr .. The quarterly schedule lasted until well after World War II ended : Thrilling Wonder returned to a bimonthly schedule with the December 1946 issue and again alternated with Startling which went bimonthly in January 1947 . Merwin left in 1951 in order to become a freelance editor , and was replaced by Samuel Mines , who had worked for Ned Pines since 1942 . The Thrilling Wonder logo , a winged man against the background of a glass mountain was taken from the Noel Loomis story , " The Glass Mountain . " By the summer of 1949 Street & Smith , one of the largest pulp publishers , had shut down every one of their pulps . This format was dying out , though it took several more years before the pulps completely disappeared from the newsstands . Both Thrilling Wonder and Startling went quarterly in 1954 , and at the end of that year Mines left . The magazines did not survive him for long ; only two more issues of Thrilling Wonder appeared , both edited by Alexander Samalman . After the beginning of 1955 , Thrilling Wonder was merged with Startling , which itself ceased publication at the end of 1955 . After the demise of Thrilling Wonder Stories the old Wonder Stories title was revived for two issues , published in 1957 and 1963 . These were both edited by Jim Hendryx Jr . They were numbered vol . 45 , no . 1 and 2 , continuing the volume numbering of Thrilling Wonder . Both were selections from past issues of Thrilling Wonder ; the second one convinced Ned Pines , the publisher who had bought Wonder Stories from Gernsback in 1936 and who still owned the rights to the stories , to start a reprint magazine called Treasury of Great Science Fiction Stories in 1964 ; a companion , Treasury of Great Western Stories , was added the next year . In 2007 , Winston Engle published a new magazine in book format , titled Thrilling Wonder Stories , with a cover date of Summer 2007 . Engle commented that it was " not a pastiche or nostalgia exercise as much as modern SF with the entertainment , inspirational value , and excitement of the golden age " . A second volume appeared in 2009 . = = = If--- ! : a picture feature = = = Six months after the debut of Thrilling Wonder Stories , its June 1937 issue contained a picture feature by Jack Binder entitled If--- ! . Binder 's earlier training as a fine artist helped him create detailed renderings of space ships , lost cities , future cities , landscapes , indigenous peoples , and even ancient Atlantins . If--- ! ' s pen and ink drawings are hand @-@ lettered and rendered in black and white . These one @-@ to @-@ two page studies presented readers with possible outcomes to early 20th @-@ century scientific quandaries . These included : IF Another Ice Age Grips the Earth ! ( June 1937 ) — Binder 's first picture feature is tucked in between " The Chessboard of Mars " by Eando Binder and J. Harvey Haggard 's " Renegade : The Ways of the Ether are Strange When a Spaceman Seeks to Betray . " Ice Age offered renderings of glaciated cities , infra @-@ red ray guns , and a floating city alongside underground habitations — " the safest and most practicable retreat ! " for chilly humans . It ends with the announcement : " Next Issue : If Atomic Power were Harnessed ! " IF the Oceans Dried ! ( April 1938 ) — Sailing vessels are museum pieces enshrined in huge bubble cases since the ocean floor is now home to meandering train tracks . All manner of minerals are mined to the benefit of mankind and the lost city of Atlantis ( if real ) is exposed . All ocean life becomes extinct and the earth 's climate undergoes dramatic , yet positive , change . IF Science Reached the Earth 's Core ( Oct. 1938 ) — Neutronium allows humans to penetrate to the earth 's core , which is not molten , but a gravity @-@ free haven where " vacationers enjoy the thrill of being weightless . " If--- ! is credited with the first use of the phrase " zero @-@ gravity , " a science fiction mainstay , where " Space Travel is solved . Starting at the zero @-@ gravity of Earth 's core , accumulative acceleration is easily built up in a four @-@ thousand @-@ mile tube . The ship 's reach Earth 's surface where gravitation ! \| is strongest with an appreciable velocity that makes the take @-@ off a simple process of continuation ! " IF Earth 's Axis Shifted ( April 1940 ) — An astronomical telescope points towards the night sky revealing that the planets have aligned and caused the earth 's axis to shift . Tidal waves sweep cities away . North America in now a tropic zone , while Siberia is balmy and Antarctica swarms with immigrants wanting to harvest the now accessible coal and metal . " Next Issue : IF the World were Ruled by Intelligent Robots ! " = = Contents and reception = = When Air Wonder Stories was launched in the middle of 1929 there were already pulp magazines such as Sky Birds and Flying Aces which focused on aerial adventures . Gernsback 's first editorial dismissed these as being of the " purely ' Wild West ' -world war adventure @-@ sky busting type " . By contrast , Gernsback said he planned to fill Air Wonder solely with " flying stories of the future , strictly along scientific @-@ mechanical @-@ technical lines , full of adventure , exploration and achievement . " Non @-@ fiction material on aviation was printed , including quizzes , short popular articles , and book reviews . The letters column made it clear that the readership comprised more science fiction fans than aviation fans , and Gernsback later commented that the overlap with Science Wonder readers was 90 % ( a figure that presumably referred only to the subscription base , not to newsstand sales ) . Gernsback frequently ran reader contests , one of which , announced in the February 1930 issue of Air Wonder Stories , asked for a slogan for the magazine . John Wyndham , later to become famous as the author of The Day of the Triffids , won with " Future Flying Fiction " , submitted under his real name of John Beynon Harris . Later that year a contest in Science Wonder Quarterly asked readers for an answer to the question " What I Have Done to Spread Science Fiction " . The winner was Raymond Palmer who later became editor of Gernsback 's original magazine , Amazing Stories . He won the contest for his role in founding a " Science Correspondence Club " . Science Wonder 's first issue included the first part of a serial , The Reign of the Ray , by Fletcher Pratt and Irwin Lester , and short stories by Stanton Coblentz and David H. Keller . Air Wonder began with a reprinted serial , Victor MacClure 's Ark of the Covenant . Writers who first appeared in the pages of these magazines include Neil R. Jones , Ed Earl Repp , Raymond Z. Gallun and Lloyd Eshbach . The quality of published science fiction at the time was generally low , and Lasser was keen to improve it . On 11 May 1931 he wrote to his regular contributors to tell them that their science fiction stories " should deal realistically with the effect upon people , individually and in groups , of a scientific invention or discovery . ... In other words , allow yourself one fundamental assumption — that a certain machine or discovery is possible — and then show what would be its logical and dramatic consequences upon the world ; also what would be the effect upon the group of characters that you pick to carry your theme . " = = = After the merger = = = Lasser provided ideas to his authors and commented on their drafts , attempting to improve both the level of scientific literacy and the quality of the writing . Some of his correspondence has survived , including an exchange with Jack Williamson , whom Lasser commissioned in early 1932 to write a story based on a plot provided by a reader — the winning entry in one of the magazine 's competitions . Lasser emphasized to Williamson the importance of scientific plausibility , citing as an example a moment in the story where the earthmen have to decipher a written Martian language : " You must be sure and make it convincing how they did it ; for they have absolutely no method of approach to a written language of another world . " On one occasion Lasser 's work with his authors extended to collaboration : " The Time Projector " , a story which appeared in the July 1931 issue of Wonder Stories , was credited to David H. Keller and David Lasser . Both Lasser and , later , Hornig , were given almost complete editorial freedom by Gernsback , who reserved only the right to give final approval to the contents . This was in contrast to the more detailed control Gernsback had exerted over the content of Amazing Stories in the first years of its existence . Science fiction historian Sam Moskowitz has suggested that the reason was the poor financial state of Wonder Stories — Gernsback perhaps avoided corresponding with authors as he owed many of them money . Lasser allowed the letter column to become a free discussion of ideas and values , and published stories dealing with topics such as the relationship between the sexes . One such story , Thomas S. Gardner 's " The Last Woman " , portrayed a future in which men , having evolved beyond the need for love , keep the last woman in a museum . In " The Venus Adventurer " , an early story by John Wyndham , a spaceman corrupts the innocent natives of Venus . Lasser avoided printing space opera , and several stories from Wonder in the early 1930s were more realistic than most contemporary space fiction . Examples include Edmond Hamilton 's " A Conquest of Space " , P. Schuyler Miller 's " The Forgotten Man of Space " , and several stories by Frank K. Kelly , including " The Moon Tragedy " . Lasser was one of the founders of the American Rocket Society which , under its initial name of the " Interplanetary Society " , announced its existence in the pages of the June 1930 Wonder Stories . Several of Wonder 's writers were also members of the Interplanetary Society , and perhaps as a consequence of the relationship Wonder Stories Quarterly began to focus increasingly on fiction with interplanetary settings . A survey of the last eight issues of Wonder Stories Quarterly by Bleiler found almost two @	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
office , or any equally oppressive place that only plays adult contemporary schlock . " Barry Walters of Rolling Stone wrote that except " Hot Like Fire " , every other track on Irresistible needed remixing . He concluded by saying , " With so many teen @-@ pop choices , this prom @-@ queen cyborg remains redundant and reactionary . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant called the album a " lackluster sophomore " effort . He commented that there was no " original note " on the album and compared the tracks to those by Spears . Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine graded the album 2 @.@ 5 stars out of 5 , and commented that the album was " filled with frothy , sugary pop tunes . " He said that , apart from the title track and " A Little Bit " , none of the songs " register as songs – they 're just stylish background music . " He concluded by commenting , " it 's a bit of the inverse of Sweet Kisses , which was too heavy on ballads , and , like that record , this is the work of pros , so it sounds fine as it plays but it lacks a song as strong as ' I Think I 'm in Love With You ' to anchor it – so it floats away from memory . " Peter Marsh of the BBC said the album sounded like a mixture of Spears , Aguilera , Carey and Dion , and wrote that it covered all the " bases " . Larry Printz of The Morning Call called the album " pleasant , palatable modern pop . " He wrote that the album was " clearly the best of the lot " , and commended Simpson 's vocals . Chuck Taylor of Billboard described " What 's It Gonna Be " like " another bid for chart domination " . He viewed the album as " a great step forward for youth pop and sure footing for [ this ] glamorous talent . " = = Commercial performance = = In the United States , Irresistible debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 , the week dated June 23 , 2001 . It sold 120 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , a major improvement over Sweet Kisses , which sold just 65 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . However , the album dropped to number twelve the following week , before falling to number twenty @-@ five the week after . The album stayed on the charts for just sixteen weeks , and was ranked at number 171 on the Billboard 200 @-@ year @-@ end albums chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the country , and as of February 2009 , Irresistible had sold 755 @,@ 000 copies in the US . In Canada , Irresistible debuted at number fifteen on the Canadian Albums Chart for the week dated June 23 , 2001 . It ascended to its peak of number thirteen the following week before dropping out of the top twenty the week after . Irresistible was certified gold by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) in April 2005 , for shipments of 50 @,@ 000 units . Overseas , in Australia , the album debuted at number eighty @-@ one on the ARIA Albums Chart , in the issue dated September 17 , 2001 . It dropped out of the chart the next week . Similarly , Irresistible debuted at number seventy @-@ five on the Austrian Albums Chart , the week of August 5 , 2001 . It rose to its peak position of number fifty @-@ eight the next week . In Switzerland , the album debuted at number twenty , the week dated July 8 , 2001 . After attaining its peak position of number fifteen , it dropped to number sixteen . The album stayed on the charts for a total of ten weeks , including one re @-@ entry at number ninety @-@ five on September 16 , 2001 . In Japan , Irresistible debuted at number twenty @-@ five on the Oricon Albums Chart , with sales of 9 @,@ 560 copies . The following week , it ascended to number twenty @-@ four with additional sales of 12 @,@ 430 units . The album stayed in the top 100 for six weeks , and according to Oricon , has sold 44 @,@ 580 copies in Japan . In the United Kingdom , Irresistible peaked at a position of number 103 . The album saw moderate success in Germany , where it peaked at number thirty @-@ four , and stayed on the chart for three weeks . According to The Daytona Beach News @-@ Journal , the album has achieved multiplatinum sales worldwide . = = Promotion = = As a part of promotion , Simpson performed tracks from the album on several televised appearances and occasions , including Macy 's 4th of July Fireworks Spectacular , in celebration of Independence Day , and the 2001 Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve . In July 2001 , she performed the tracks , including " Irresistible " at Wango Tango , an annual all @-@ day concert organized by KIIS @-@ FM , in California . She also toured with Destiny 's Child , Nelly , and Eve on MTV 's first Total Request Live ( TRL ) Tour , which spanned thirty dates in the US . In November , she joined the lineup of United Service Organizations ' ( USO ) Tour , to entertain the US troops fighting in Operation Enduring Freedom . The tour , which started in Arlington , Virginia , ventured through the Middle East , including Afghanistan . The next month , she joined the cast of KBKS @-@ FM 's Jingle Bell Bash in Seattle . At the event , she performed " Irresistible " , " A Little Bit " , " I Wanna Love You Forever " , and " I Think I 'm in Love with You " . Simpson also promoted the album through performance at MTV 's Spring Break program , held in Cancún , Mexico . = = = DreamChaser Tour = = = Apart from the live performances , Simpson went out on a North America only headlining tour titled the DreamChaser Tour . In contrast to her previous co @-@ headlining tour with 98 Degrees , Simpson wanted " DreamChaser " to present her as a singer and a performer , in the mold of Spears . Simpson decided to make the tour risque by adding more backup dancers and wearing skimpier clothing . She took dance lessons for the tour , as she felt that she had to transform herself into a performer . The tour was set up on a portable stage called the " Extreme Mobile Venue " , with a capacity to hold 10 @,@ 000 people , and ran in mall parking lots . The arena featured a 300 feet ( 91 m ) stadium stage , complete with a sound system and lights . Arrangements for concertgoers to bungee jump , climb a rock wall , and go mechanical surfing while the singer was not performing were also provided . The venue featured interactive games and exhibits , and was supported by a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) -high ramp for extreme motorcycle riders . The tour openers included Eden 's Crush , Youngstown , Toya , and Plus One . It was choreographed by Dan Karaty . The tour launched on August 7 , 2001 , at Corpus Christi , Texas , and ran twenty @-@ five dates through mid @-@ September . Tickets price ranged between $ 29 @.@ 99 and $ 39 @.@ 99 . In an interview with Deseret News , Simpson said that it " was a fun tour . That was like a preparation for me . It was one of those things where I just wanted to go out and meet all my fans . " A video tape , titled Dream Chaser , was released on January 22 , 2002 , which included Simpson 's biography , music videos , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes looks at " Irresistible " and " A Little Bit " , and footage from the tour . The tape reached number twenty @-@ five on Billboard Top Music Videos chart , for the issue dated February 9 , 2002 . = = = Singles = = = The lead single from the album , " Irresistible " , was released on April 12 , 2001 , as a CD single . The song received generally negative reviews from music critics . They criticized the sexuality of its lyrics and the over @-@ usage of digital sound manipulators , with Associated Press calling it " unimaginative " . In 2003 , the song won a Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) " Pop Music Award " . " Irresistible " became a moderate commercial success , peaking within the top twenty hit in the United States and the United Kingdom . The song was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The accompanying music video was directed by Simon Brand , and features Simpson dressed as a spy , trying to compromise some evidence in a laboratory . " A Little Bit " was released as the second single , on October 29 , 2001 . The song was used to promote Bally Total Fitness and thus , a limited CD single pressing was made available to people who joined the club . The song only managed to reach number sixty @-@ two on the Australian Singles Chart . A music video , directed by Hype Williams , features Simpson dancing in a futuristic spaceship @-@ like setting , with her backup dancers . " When You Told Me You Loved Me " was planned as the album 's third single but later canceled . The single however charted and peaked at number 192 on the South Korean Download Chart . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from Irresistible liner notes . Musicians Production = = Recording locations = = Adapted from Irresistible liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = Charles Pomeroy Stone = Charles Pomeroy Stone ( September 30 , 1824 – January 24 , 1887 ) was a career United States Army officer , civil engineer , and surveyor . He fought with distinction in the Mexican – American War , earning two brevet promotions for his performance in the conflict . After resigning and surveying for the Mexican Government , he returned to the U.S. Army to fight in the American Civil War . Stone was reportedly the first volunteer to enter the Union Army , and during the war he served as a general officer , noted for his involvement at the Battle of Ball 's Bluff in October 1861 . Held responsible for the Union defeat , Stone was arrested and imprisoned for almost six months , mostly for political reasons . He never received a trial , and after his release he would not hold a significant command during the war again . Stone later served again with distinction as a general in the Egyptian Army , and is also noted for his role in constructing the base of the Statue of Liberty . = = Early life = = Stone was born in Greenfield , Massachusetts , a son of Alpheus Fletcher Stone , the town 's doctor , and his wife Fanny Cushing . In 1841 he entered the United States Military Academy at West Point and graduated four years later , standing seventh out of 41 cadets . He was appointed a brevet second lieutenant of ordnance on July 1 , 1845 . = = Military career = = = = = Ordnance officer = = = Stone stayed at West Point , serving as an assistant professor and teaching geography , history , and also ethics from August 28 , 1845 , to January 13 , 1846 . Afterwards he was posted to the Watervliet Arsenal in New York as Assistant Ordnance Officer , and then to Fortress Monroe at Old Point Comfort , Virginia , both in 1846 . While there Stone worked in the facilities arsenal and was an assistant to Capt. Benjamin Huger , whom he would serve under in the war with Mexico . = = = Mexican war = = = Fighting with Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott 's army in the Mexican – American War , Stone was promoted to second lieutenant on March 3 , 1847 . He first saw action during the Siege of Veracruz from March 9 – 29 , then the skirmishing near Amazoque on May 14 , and the Battle of Contreras on August 19 – 20 . Stone then fought notably during the Battle of Molino del Rey on September 8 , and was appointed a brevet first lieutenant from that date for " gallant and meritorious conduct " in this fight . On September 13 , 1847 , Stone participated in the Battle of Chapultepec , and was appointed a brevet captain for his conduct on that day . He then fought in the Battle for Mexico City until September 15 , and was part of a successful climbing party of the volcano at Popocatepetl , raising an American Flag at its summit . He was an original member of the Aztec Club of 1847 , a military society formed by U.S. Army officers who had served in Mexico . = = = Pacific coast = = = After the war with Mexico ended , Stone returned to the Watervliet Arsenal in 1848 , again taking up his position as Assistant Ordnance Officer . He then was granted a leave of absence from the U.S. Army , and proceeded to Europe to study military practices of the armies there for two years . In 1850 he resumed duty at the Watervliet Arsenal briefly , and then was given command of the Ft . Monroe Arsenal into 1851 . Later that year Stone was appointed Chief of Ordnance for the Pacific Department , a post he held until 1855 , and also began construction of the Benicia Arsenal in California that year . During this time he was promoted to the rank of first lieutenant , effective February 26 , 1853 . Also in 1853 Stone married Maria Louisa Clary , daughter of Esther Philipson and Lt. Robert Emmett Clary , a West Point classmate of Jefferson Davis ; Davis served as best man at Esther 's wedding on March 31 , 1829 . On November 17 , 1856 , he resigned his commission in the U.S. Army , " finding the pay inadequate " for his family . He briefly became a banker in 1856 in San Francisco , but the bank failed the following year due to the " ... absconding of its treasurer . " Stone then went back to Mexico , where he worked in various government jobs . From 1857 to 1860 he surveyed the Mexican state of Sonora , and from 1858 to 1860 he surveyed the lower region of California . Also from 1858 to 1859 Stone served as acting consul at Guaymas , Mexico , the municipal center of Sonora . In 1860 he moved his family back to the U.S. , settling in Washington , D.C. In 1861 he published his survey findings , entitled Notes on the State of Sonora . = = = Civil War = = = At the outbreak of secession , Stone found himself in Washington writing his report on Sonora . After a dinner with his former commander Winfield Scott , Stone was requested to be Inspector General of the District of Columbia Militia at the rank of colonel as of January 1 , 1861 , and was thus reputed to be the first volunteer officer mustered into the Union Army before the Civil War . In this role , he secured the capital for the arrival of President @-@ elect Abraham Lincoln , and was personally responsible for security at the new president 's inaugural . Stone was appointed Colonel of the 14th U.S. Infantry Regiment on May 14 , and then a brigadier general in the Union Army that August , to rank from May 17 . He commanded a brigade in Maj. Gen. Robert Patterson 's Army of the Shenandoah during the First Bull Run campaign in June and July . Stone then was given command of a division , called the Corps of Observation , guarding the fords along the upper Potomac River that fall . In his efforts to carry out his orders and maintain discipline , Stone drew the attention and wrath of his home state 's governor , John A. Andrew , and Charles Sumner , the senior U.S. Senator from Massachusetts , both powerful and influential Radical Republican politicians . In late September Stone issued general orders that required his men " not to incite and encourage insubordination among the coloured servants in the neighbourhood . " When two runaway slaves came into their lines , one of his regiments , the 20th Massachusetts Infantry , promptly caught them and returned them to their owner . This was done in compliance with Stone 's orders as well as both Federal and Maryland law . However , many of the 20th Massachusetts were abolitionists , disagreed with Stone 's insistence on returning runaways back into slavery , and wrote both their families and their representatives about the incident . Governor Andrew strongly reprimanded the colonel of the regiment , who gave the letter to Stone . After reading it Stone wrote back , its contents summarized by military historian Bruce Catton as follows : " this regiment was in United States service now and the governor had no business meddling with discipline , the young lieutenant and the colonel had properly done what they were told to do and were not subject to reprimand from any governor , and would the governor in future please keep his hand off ? " More heated letters passed between Andrew and Stone , and then Andrew involved Sumner , who quickly and strongly denounced Stone to the U.S. Senate . Stone 's written response to this — described as " in terms so bitter that it almost seemed as if he were challenging the senator to duel " — further inflamed the situation . Stone 's dealings with these two men would have tragic consequences in his near future . = = = = Ball 's Bluff = = = = On October 20 , 1861 , Stone was ordered by Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan to conduct a reconnaissance across the Potomac River to report on Confederate activities in Leesburg , Virginia . McClellan also hoped this action , combined with a movement by Brig. Gen. George A. McCall 's division of 13 @,@ 000 men toward Dranesville the day before , would encourage a Confederate withdrawal from the area without an engagement occurring . This message from McClellan 's staff related the situation and outlined Stone 's orders : General McCall occupied Dranesville yesterday , and is still there . Will send out heavy reconnaissances today in all directions from that point . The general desires that you keep a good lookout upon Leesburg , to see if this movement has the effect to drive them away . Perhaps a slight demonstration on your part would have the effect to move them . From this order Stone reasonably believed he had support nearby from McCall if needed ; what he did not know was that McClellan had ordered McCall back to his previous position at Langley on October 21 , putting any help for Stone further away . Stone 's division numbered about 10 @,@ 000 men and was posted around Poolesville , Maryland , about eight miles from Leesburg , with portions of his command at points along the Potomac shore . He moved his artillery to Edward 's Ferry along the Potomac , from which he could shell the woods on the opposite side of the river , held by Confederate forces . Stone then sent three small boats with about 100 men from the 1st Minnesota Infantry across , who returned shortly without incident . Near sunset he sent out a small patrol of 20 soldiers of the 15th Massachusetts Infantry to scout toward Leesburg and see whether the Union movements had the desired effect or not . Crossing at Harrison 's Island on the river , these men scaled Ball 's Bluff and encountered what they believed was a Confederate camp of at least thirty men less than a mile inland . The patrol returned to Harrison 's Island around 10 p.m. and reported by messenger to Stone at Edwards Ferry . In response to this report , Stone thought the Confederate forces were indeed leaving Leesburg , and decided to investigate further . While he led part of his command directly across at Edwards Ferry at 5 p.m. , Stone ordered Col. Charles Devens and 300 men of his 15th Massachusetts to immediately cross over to Ball 's Bluff that night . Stone 's instructions were to " March silently under cover of night to the position of the camp [ and ] attack and destroy it at daybreak ... and return rapidly to the island . " Devens carried out Stone 's orders and made the difficult crossing on three small 10 @-@ man boats , taking him four hours to accomplish . Stone also gave Devens discretion over what to do after the attack ; either hold Leesburg or return to Harrison 's Island . Stone ordered the rest of the 15th Massachusetts over and added the 20th Massachusetts Infantry , under Col. William R. Lee , to this effort as well , and ordered General and U.S. Senator Edward D. Baker to take overall command . Devens found no camp , since an earlier patrol apparently confused corn shocks as tents in the evening shadows ; he halted and asked Stone for instructions , who responded to push closer to Leesburg . Devens determined to hold there , waiting several hours for reinforcements , when skirmishing began at 7 a.m. , before Baker had arrived . Confederate Col. Nathan G. " Shanks " Evans was in charge of the forces opposing Stone , and when he learned of the crossings he split his 2 @,@ 000 @-@ man command . Three of his regiments were ordered to deal with Stone by blocking the road from Edwards Ferry to Leesburg , while the remainder fought and defeated Baker 's force at Ball 's Bluff . Since Baker sent no updates , Stone had no idea a battle was occurring there , and finding his path blocked by Confederates Stone returned to Edwards Ferry . He then moved toward Harrison 's Island , learned of the defeat at Ball 's Bluff , and quickly asked McClellan for help from McCall , whom he thought nearby but was actually more than twenty miles away . Stone lost about 1 @,@ 000 men killed , wounded , captured , and drowned during Ball 's Bluff , while the Confederates lost less than 160 . The Union total included Baker , the only sitting U.S. Senator killed in combat when " Four bullets ripped into him , and he was dead before he hit the ground . " . Baker 's death and the action at Ball 's Bluff would have serious consequences for Stone , and also affect the way the American Civil War would be prosecuted . In his official report about the battle on October 24 , McClellan did not hold Stone personally responsible for the defeat , saying " The disaster was caused by errors committed by the immediate Commander — not General Stone . " = = = = Arrest and imprisonment = = = = Stone bore the brunt of much public criticism ; the U.S. Congress Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War was established in the wake of Baker 's congressional eulogies and anger over the defeat . This seven @-@ man group called Stone as one of their first witnesses about the Ball 's Bluff affair , and all testimony given by him and 38 others was kept secret . Before the end of October 1861 , Stone 's official report about Ball 's Bluff had been leaked to the New York Tribune newspaper , and in it Stone praised Baker 's bravery but made clear his shortcomings as a field commander . Baker 's congressional allies , among them Governor Andrew and Senator Sumner , openly denounced this report and began to point accusing fingers at Stone , not at Baker . Stone 's loyalty to the Union and position on slavery were more in question than his military abilities and decisions . The committee 's questions accused him of improper and frequent communications with the Confederates , of not re @-@ enforcing Baker , of using his men to protect slaveholder property in Maryland , and of returning runaway slaves to their owners — despite the last two of these following Maryland as well as Federal law . Another problem for Stone defending himself was an order from McClellan forbidding him to give testimony " regarding his [ McClellan 's ] plans , his orders for the movement of troops , or his orders concerning the position of troops . " This made it impossible for Stone to explain his movements to the committee , but kept McClellan out of the investigation as well . Under a cloud for suspected disloyalty and treason , Stone was arrested just after midnight on February 8 , 1862 , on orders of Maj. Gen. McClellan , who was acting under orders from Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , dated January 28 . Awaiting Stone near his home in Washington were 18 soldiers led by Brig. Gen. George Sykes . When Stone approached , Sykes stated " I have now the most disagreeable duty to perform that I ever had — it is to arrest you . " When Stone angrily asked why , Sykes said " I don 't know . It 's by order of Maj. Gen. George B. McClellan , general @-@ in @-@ chief of the army ... I may as well tell you that you are to be sent to Fort Lafayette . " This shocked Stone , who stated " That 's where they send secessionists ! I have been as true a soldier to the Government as any in service . " Under guard , Stone was ordered to be sent to the military prison at Fort Lafayette by train . When he reached the rail depot at Philadelphia , confusion as to payment for his ticket caused Stone to buy his own ticket . Upon reaching the facility he was put immediately into solitary confinement , but he managed to hire an attorney and waited for official charges to be filed . According to the Articles of War this had to be done within eight days of an arrest , but was never done in Stone 's case . He sent several inquiries to McClellan , to the army 's adjutant general 's office , and to Stanton himself , who stated " ... the charges were being reviewed prior to being publicized ... " , but received no satisfactory explanation . Contrary to U.S. Army regulations as well , no charges were ever filed against Stone nor did he stand trial . While he was in solitary confinement at Fort Lafayette , he could not exercise , and consequently Stone 's health began to degrade . His physicians protested heavily to Stanton , who ordered him transferred to the military prison at Fort Hamilton . There Stone was allowed to exercise and his condition improved . He stayed at Fort Lafayette for fifty days , and would spend another 139 in Fort Hamilton . Stone was finally released without explanation or apology on August 16 , 1862 . The reason for his release was new legislation written by California Senator James A. McDougall . In a small addition to another bill , McDougall reiterated the Articles of War requirement that official charges be filed within eight days of arrest , but went on to include that any imprisoned officer must be given their trial within thirty days . McDougall also made it clear this legislation applied to those currently under arrest , which covered Stone 's case . It passed the U.S. Congress and was signed into law by President Lincoln on July 17 , 1862 . Stanton then waited the thirty days before releasing Stone . It may , or may not be that President Lincoln ordered the arrest of Stone . In a communication of September 30 , 1862 , General in Chief H. W. Halleck wrote about Stone ’ s arrest : “ I understood that it was made by the orders of the President . ” = = = = Release and reassignment = = = = After his release , Stone returned home to Washington and awaited orders , and also continued to try to clear his name . Despite the arrest and confinement , Stone 's services were still in demand . In September 1862 , as the Maryland Campaign developed , McClellan asked the War Department to re @-@ instate Stone , but Stanton declined . When Maj. Gen Joseph Hooker took over command of the Army of the Potomac in early 1863 , he asked for Stone as his chief of staff , but Stanton denied this request as well . On February 27 , Stone was finally allowed to hear the testimony that caused him to be arrested , and with McClellan no longer his commander Stone could freely answer the accusations . He did this to the Committee 's satisfaction , who soon afterwards published its revised findings , clearing Stone . With the facts now known , the New York Times newspaper editorialized : General Stone has sustained a most flagrant wrong — a wrong which will probably stand as the very worst blot on the National side in the history of the war . Without assignment until May , Stone was ordered to the Department of the Gulf , serving as a member of the surrender commission at Port Hudson and in the Red River Campaign as Maj. Gen. Nathaniel P. Banks 's chief of staff . However , on April 4 , 1864 , Stanton ordered Stone mustered out of his volunteer commission as a brigadier general and he reverted to his rank of colonel within the regular army . He served briefly as a brigade commander in the Army of the Potomac during the Siege of Petersburg , but finally resigned from the Army on September 13 , 1864 , before the end of the war . = = Later life = = After the American Civil War ended in 1865 , Stone worked as an engineer and later superintendent for Virginia 's Dover Mining Company until 1869 . The following year William T. Sherman , by now the U.S. Army 's Commanding General , recommended Stone for service in the Egyptian Army . From 1870 to 1883 he served as chief of staff and general aide @-@ de @-@ camp for the khedive Isma 'il Pasha of Egypt . While there he was given the rank of lieutenant general and the title of Ferik Pasha . Stone 's career in the Egyptian Army has been described as : Stone served the Khedive well , implementing a general staff , expanding Egypt 's boundaries , and establishing schools for the education of Egypt 's soldiers and their children . He remained in the service of Khedive Ismail ( and Ismail 's successor , son Tewfik ) for 13 years . When the British bombarded Alexandria , and Arabi led the revolt of the Egyptian army , Stone stayed with Tewfik in Alexandria , even while his wife and daughters were trapped in Cairo . Stone later returned to the United States , where he worked as an engineer for the Florida Ship Canal Company in 1883 . He also served as the Chief Engineer for the construction of the Statue of Liberty 's pedestal and concrete foundation . He fell ill after the dedication ceremony and died in New York City . Stone is buried in West Point National Cemetery . Stone 's first wife Maria died in Washington , D.C. , shortly after Stone 's release from Fort Hamilton . While serving in New Orleans during 1863 , Stone fell in love with Jeanne Stone and they had two daughters and a son , John Stone Stone , who later became a pioneer in the field of wireless telegraphy . Stone was also an original founding member of the Aztec Club of 1847 , a social organization for officers who served in the Mexican – American War . = = Legacy = = Military historian Ezra J. Warner held Stone 's treatment following Ball 's Bluff in disdain , saying in 1964 : The arrest and imprisonment of Stone is without parallel in the annals of American military and / or civil jurisprudence .... he was victim of a demonstration on the part of the Joint Committee on the Conduct of the War to avenge the death of one of their colleagues and to make it known that this was war to the knife , and a war to end slavery as well as to preserve the Union . = Gangnam Style = " Gangnam Style " ( Korean : 강남스타일 , IPA : [ kaŋnam sʰɯtʰail ] ) is the 18th K @-@ pop single by the South Korean musician Psy . The song was released on July 15 , 2012 , as the lead single of his sixth studio album Psy 6 ( Six Rules ) , Part 1 , and debuted at number one on South Korea 's Gaon Chart . On December 21 , 2012 , " Gangnam Style " became the first YouTube video to reach one billion views . The song 's music video has been viewed over 2 @.@ 61 billion times on YouTube , and has been YouTube 's most watched video since November 24 , 2012 , when it surpassed the music video for " Baby " by Justin Bieber . The phrase " Gangnam Style " is a Korean neologism that refers to a lifestyle associated with the Gangnam District of Seoul . The song and its accompanying music video went viral in August 2012 and have influenced popular culture worldwide since then . " Gangnam Style " received mixed to positive reviews , with praise going to its catchy beat and Psy 's amusing dance moves ( which themselves have become a phenomenon ) in the music video and during live performances in various locations around the world . In September 2012 , " Gangnam Style " was recognized by Guinness World Records as the most " liked " video on YouTube . It subsequently won Best Video at the MTV Europe Music Awards held later that year . It became a source of parodies and reaction videos by many different individuals , groups and organizations . By the end of 2012 , the song had topped the music charts of more than 30 countries including Australia , Canada , France , Germany , Italy , Russia , Spain , and the United Kingdom . As the song continued to rapidly gain popularity and ubiquity , its signature dance moves were attempted by many notable political leaders such as the British Prime Minister David Cameron , U.S. President Barack Obama , and United Nations Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon , who hailed it as a " force for world peace " . On May 7 , 2013 , at a bilateral meeting with South Korea 's President Park Geun @-@ hye at the White House , U.S. President Barack Obama cited the success of " Gangnam Style " as an example of how people around the world are being " swept up " by the Korean Wave of culture . = = Background and release = = " Gangnam Style " is a Korean neologism that refers to a lifestyle associated with the Gangnam District of Seoul , where people are trendy , hip and exude a certain supposed " class " . The term was listed in Time 's weekly vocabulary list as a manner associated with lavish lifestyles in Seoul 's Gangnam district . Psy likened the Gangnam District to Beverly Hills , California , and said in an interview that he intended in a twisted sense of humor by claiming himself to be " Gangnam Style " when everything about the song , dance , looks , and the music video is far from being such a high class : People who are actually from Gangnam never proclaim that they are — it 's only the posers and wannabes that put on these airs and say that they are " Gangnam Style " — so this song is actually poking fun at those kinds of people who are trying very hard to be something that they 're not . The song talks about " the perfect girlfriend who knows when to be refined and when to get wild " . The song 's refrain " 오빤 강남 스타일 ( Oppan Gangnam style ) " has been translated as " Big brother is Gangnam style " , with Psy referring to himself . During an interview with The New York Times , Psy revealed that the Korean fans have huge expectations about his dancing , so he felt a lot of pressure . In order to keep up with expectations , he studied hard to find something new and stayed up late for about 30 nights to come up with the " Gangnam Style " dance . Along the way , he had tested various " cheesy " animal @-@ inspired dance moves with his choreographer , including panda and kangaroo moves , before settling for the horse trot , which involves pretending to ride a horse , alternately holding the reins and spinning a lasso , and moving into a legs @-@ shuffling side gallop . During an interview with Reuters , Psy claimed that " Gangnam Style " was originally produced only for local K @-@ pop fans . On July 11 , Psy and his music label YG Entertainment started releasing several promotional teasers for " Gangnam Style " to their subscribers on YouTube . On July 15 , 2012 , the full music video of " Gangnam Style " was uploaded onto YouTube and was immediately a sensation , receiving about 500 @,@ 000 views on its first day . However , in Germany , an ongoing dispute between YouTube and the GEMA ( the country 's performance rights organization ) regarding copyright issues has led to thousands of music videos including " Gangnam Style " being blocked in the country . = = = K @-@ pop and the Korean Wave = = = According to the news agency Agence France @-@ Presse , the success of " Gangnam Style " could be considered as part of the Korean Wave , a term coined by Chinese journalists to refer to the significant increase in the popularity of South Korean entertainment and culture since the late 1990s . Korean popular music ( K @-@ pop ) , considered by some to be the most important aspect of the Korean Wave , is a music genre that relies on cultural technology to adapt to the tastes of foreign audiences and has now grown into a popular subculture among teenagers and young adults in many places around the world . Although it has spread to the Middle East , Eastern Europe , and parts of South America , its reception in the Western world has so far been lukewarm . However , social media networks such as YouTube , Facebook and Twitter have made it easier for K @-@ pop musicians to reach a wider audience in the West . According to Mark James Russell from Foreign Policy , while the Korean Wave " may not ( yet ) turn heads in Los Angeles or London " , this could soon change because of " Gangnam Style " . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = The song has received mixed to positive ratings from music critics . Billboard K @-@ Town columnist Jeff Benjamin became one of the first music critics to review the song when he published an article and reported that " Gangnam Style " has gone viral on the Internet . In his article , Benjamin introduced the reader to a couple of popular K @-@ pop songs and wrote that " Gangnam Style " in particular , plays all the right moves sonically while " borrowing from LMFAO along the way " . The next day , Hallie Sekoff of The Huffington Post quoted from the video 's official YouTube video description that the song is characterized by its " strongly addictive beats " , and wrote that this is not too far @-@ fetched , considering " how obsessed we 've found ourselves . " London 's mayor Boris Johnson considered the song to be the greatest cultural masterpiece of 2012 . Despite its popularity , a few music critics including Robert Copsey from Digital Spy criticized the song for being monotonous . Cospey wrote that " you could slap an LMFAO tag on the cover and few would know the difference " and Paul Lester of The Guardian similarly labelled it as " generic ravey Euro dance with guitars " . Lester described the song as " Pump Up the Jam meets the Macarena with a dash of Cotton Eye Joe " while Robert Myers of The Village Voice dismissed " Gangnam Style " as an " inspired piece of silliness " . = = = = South Korea and Japan = = = = Cha Woo @-@ jin , a South Korean music critic , told The Chosun Ilbo that " Gangnam Style " ' s sophisticated rendering and arrangement has made it very appealing to the general public . Choe Kwang @-@ shik , the South Korean Minister of Culture , Sports and Tourism , told reporters that " Gangnam Style " had played an important role in introducing the Korean culture , language , and lifestyle to the rest of the world . However , some have criticized the song for failing to accurately represent South Korean culture . Oh Young @-@ Jin , managing editor of The Korea Times , wrote that the dance has more to do with Americans than Koreans . In Japan , the song has met with considerable criticism . When " Gangnam Style " first appeared in Japanese TV shows in July , the reaction from viewers was negative . As a result , Psy 's Japanese record label YGEX cancelled a previously planned Japanese language re @-@ release of " Gangnam Style " . According to The Dong @-@ a Ilbo , a South Korean newspaper , the song 's lukewarm reception in Japan could have been caused by a diplomatic conflict between the two countries and the newspaper accused the Japanese media of keeping its people " in the dark " . However , Jun Takaku of the Japanese daily newspaper Asahi Shimbun explained that " Gangnam Style " had caused " barely a ripple in Japan " because Psy does not conform to the image of other " traditionally polished " K @-@ pop acts popular in Japan such as Girls ' Generation and TVXQ . Erica Ho from Time magazine similarly noted that despite the K @-@ pop musical genre being very popular in Japan , the country seemed to be " immune to PSY Mania " and she advised her readers who dislike the song to " pack your bags for Japan " . Immediately after its release , " Gangnam Style " was mentioned by various English @-@ language websites providing coverage of Korean pop culture for international fans , including Allkpop and Soompi . Simon and Martina Stawski , a Canadian couple living in Seoul who were among the first to parody " Gangnam Style " in late July , wrote that the song has the potential to become " one of the biggest songs of the year " . However , during an interview with Al Jazeera a few weeks later , Martina Stawski claimed that the worldwide popularity of " Gangnam Style " has been viewed negatively by some K @-@ pop fans , because " they [ the fans ] didn 't want K @-@ pop being liked by other people who don 't understand K @-@ Pop " . This view is also supported by the British journalist and K @-@ pop fan Promi Ferdousi , who wrote that the song has managed to " find its way into our clubs " while the best K @-@ pop songs are limited to niche groups on social media websites . = = Live performances = = = = = Asia = = = Following the release of " Gangnam Style " , Psy made several performances on television and at concerts in Korea . Early performances included his appearance on the weekly South Korean music program , The Music Trend . Psy also performed at several concerts prior to his departure to the United States , including during " The Heumbbeok Show " and the Summer Stand Concert in Seoul . After returning to South Korea , Psy performed " Gangnam Style " during a free concert that he held outside the Seoul City Hall . More than 80 @,@ 000 fans attended the event , leading to the closure of part of the city center and an increase in subway operations . While Psy was in the US , it was announced that he , as ambassador of the Formula One Korean Grand Prix , would perform " Gangnam Style " at the event during the 2012 edition . At the event Psy taught Formula One drivers Mark Webber and Sebastian Vettel how to perform the dance . On November 28 , Psy visited Thailand and held his concert " Gangnam Style Thailand Extra Live " at the SCG Stadium in Muang Thong Thani , Bangkok . At the show , a part of celebration for the 85th birthday of Thai 's King Bhumibol Adulyadej , he performed the song along with his other hits . During the 2012 Mnet Asian Music Awards held in Hong Kong on November 30 , he performed the song on stage , joined by the video 's co @-@ star Hyuna and Yoo Jae @-@ Seok look @-@ alikes in yellow suits . The track was one of three @-@ song setlist on Psy 's free showcase , held at the Marina Bay Sands in Singapore on December 1 , 2012 . On February 11 , 2013 , Psy arrived at the Malaysian state of Penang and performed " Gangnam Style " at a concert in front of more than 100 @,@ 000 guests , including the Prime Minister of Malaysia Mohd Najib Abdul Razak as well as other high @-@ ranking politicians from the country 's ruling Barisan Nasional party . = = = Oceania = = = In early October 2012 , Psy travelled to Sydney , Australia and performed " Gangnam Style " on The X Factor , a reality TV music competition , where Melanie Brown joined him in performing the " horse dance " on stage . The following day , he performed on breakfast TV show Sunrise in Martin Place , Sydney . = = = Europe = = = Psy 's first public performance in Europe was on November 5 , 2012 in France , where he and 20 @,@ 000 fans danced " Gangnam Style " in front of the Eiffel Tower in Paris during a flashmob organized by NRJ Radio . Then , he travelled to Oxford and performed a short rendition of " Gangnam Style " with students from the Oxford Union , before moving on to the Yalding House in London where he danced " Gangnam Style " with the BBC 's radio DJ Scott Mills . Shortly afterwards , Psy left for Cologne and met up with the German comedian and television host Stefan Raab during the popular late @-@ night show TV total , where Psy gave an interview and performed " Gangnam Style " for Raab . During the 2012 MTV Europe Music Awards held in Frankfurt on November 11 , Psy delivered a performance of " Gangnam Style " which featured a David Hasselhoff appearance and backup dancing of Psy look @-@ alikes . In early 2013 , Psy returned to France for the 2013 NRJ Music Awards at the Palais des Festivals et des Congrès in Cannes , where he began performing " Gangnam Style " on the red carpet before finishing the rest of the choreography on stage and leaving the ceremony with 3 awards . = = = North America = = = Following the viral success of his music video , Psy left for the United States and performed " Gangnam Style " in various locations . On August 20 , Psy posted on Twitter " Bringing # GangnamStyle to the Dodgers – Giants game this evening " . Dodger Stadium presented a segment called " Psy Dance Cam " where they showed clips of the music video , followed by live shots of baseball fans dancing , and then Psy , who waves and does the dance . Two days later , Psy appeared on VH1 's Big Morning Buzz Live show , and taught television hosts Carrie Keagan and Jason Dundas how to dance " Gangnam Style " . On September 6 , Psy appeared at the 2012 MTV Video Music Awards performing his " Gangnam Style " dance alongside comedian Kevin Hart . After the event , he would make several more appearances on US TV programs . On September 10 , he appeared on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in Burbank , California , introducing himself as " Psy from Korea " , before teaching Britney Spears the dance . He described the dance as " pretending to bounce like riding on an invisible horse " and when Ellen told Britney she would have to remove her high @-@ heeled shoes to perform the dance Psy protested that no , the point was , ' to dress classy , and dance cheesy . ' On September 14 , he appeared on NBC 's morning program Today in New York City for its Toyota Concert Series , where he performed the song and also taught the anchors the dance . The September 15 season premiere episode of Saturday Night Live featured a sketch based on the song and its video . Bobby Moynihan portrayed Psy , but was joined mid @-@ sketch by Psy himself . He also made his second appearance on The Ellen Show 's September 19 episode to perform the song along with his backup dancers . On September 22 , Psy made an appearance at the iHeartRadio Music Festival to perform " Gangnam Style " . Psy , dressed in a black jacket , blue pants , two @-@ tone shoes and his signature shades , appeared on the US national TV show The View on October 25 and performed the song for Barbara Walters and the ladies of the show who donned sunglasses and got out of their seats . On November 13 , he joined the American recording artist Madonna on stage during her concert at Madison Square Garden in New York City and they performed a mashup of the song and her 2008 hit " Give It 2 Me " . Psy later told reporters that his gig with Madonna had " topped his list of accomplishments " . On November 18 , Psy , who rocked out in traditional Hammer pants , closed out the 40th American Music Awards show with a performance of " Gangnam Style " , joined by surprise guest MC Hammer who brought in his own moves and Psy 's horse @-@ riding dance as the song mashed into his 1990s hit " 2 Legit 2 Quit " . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard commented that " Psy 's feverish rendition of ' Gangnam Style ' accomplished what so few award show performances can : a palpable sense of excitement . The combination of the K @-@ pop star and MC Hammer ... was a stroke of genius that very few could have seen coming " , choosing it as the best performance of the night . The Tonight Show with Jay Leno did a special Thanksgiving broadcast with an all @-@ military audience on November 22 , and Psy dropped by as the musical guest . The singer sang the song and danced alongside the soldiers , going into the crowd for part of his performance . Psy performed " Gangnam Style " during the second night of KIIS @-@ FM Jingle Ball concert at Nokia Theatre L.A. Live on December 3 , 2012 . He ― wearing an all @-@ red outfit including a sparkling , sequined top ― sang the song at TNT 's Christmas in Washington special , attended by the US President Barack Obama and his family , and held at the National Building Museum On December 9 . On December 16 , he performed the song at the halftime show of the NFL game between the Buffalo Bills and Seattle Seahawks in Toronto . During the Dick Clark 's New Year 's Rockin ' Eve event at Times Square in Manhattan on December 31 , 2012 , more than one million people witnessed a live " Gangnam Style " performance by Psy as he was joined on stage by characters ( Yoo Jae @-@ Seok , Noh Hong @-@ chul ) from the song 's video for the first part of the performance , before MC Hammer appeared to perform a mash @-@ up of the song and " 2 Legit 2 Quit " . = = = South America = = = During the five @-@ day Carnival in Rio attended by more than 5 million people , Psy performed " Gangnam Style " with singers Claudia Leitte and Gilberto Gil to mark the 50th anniversary of Korean immigration to Brazil . = = Cultural impact = = After the release of " Gangnam Style " , the American talent manager Scooter Braun , who discovered Justin Bieber on YouTube , asked on Twitter " How did I not sign this guy ( Psy ) " . Soon afterwards , it was reported that Psy had left for Los Angeles to meet with representatives of Justin Bieber , to explore collaboration opportunities . On September 3 , Braun made a public announcement that was later uploaded onto YouTube , saying that he and Psy have decided to " make some history together . [ To ] be the first Korean artist to break a big record in the United States . " On September 4 , it was confirmed that Psy was signed to Braun 's School Boy Records . The music video for the song has gone viral and is an Internet meme . Although Psy attributed the song 's popularity to YouTube and his fans while at the same time insisted that he is not responsible for the song 's success , the South Korean Ministry of Culture , Sports and Tourism recognized the singer for " increasing the world 's interest in Korea " and announced its decision to award Psy with a 4th Class Order of Cultural Merit . The phrase " Oppan Gangnam Style " was entered into The Yale Book of Quotations as one of the most famous quotes of 2012 . = = = Social = = = As the song 's popularity continued to rise , it caused the share price of the song 's music label YG Entertainment to gain as much as 50 % on the Korea Exchange . DI Corporation , whose executive Chairman Park Won @-@ Ho is Psy 's father , saw its share price increase by 568 @.@ 8 % within a few months of the song 's release despite making a year @-@ over @-@ year loss . Soon , " Gangnam Style " began to attract the attention of several business and political leaders , including UN Secretary @-@ General Ban Ki @-@ moon who recognized the song as a " force for world peace " . During his meeting with Psy at the United Nations Headquarters , he commented , " We have tough negotiations in the United Nations . In such a case I was also thinking of playing Gangnam Style @-@ dance so that everybody would stop and dance . Maybe you can bring UN style . " Through social networks like Facebook , many small , unofficial fan @-@ organized flash mobs have been held in universities and colleges throughout the world . The earliest flash mobs were held in Pasadena , California , and Sydney , Australia . On September 12 , Times Square in Manhattan was filled with a dance mob dancing to the music of " Gangnam Style " during ABC 's Good Morning America . Major flash mobs ( those with more than 1 @,@ 000 participants ) were also held in Seoul ( South Korea ) , South Sulawesi ( Indonesia ) , Palermo ( Italy ) , Milan ( Italy ) , and Paris ( France ) . The song has been tweeted by the United Nations , the United Nations Children 's Fund , the American space agency NASA , mentioned by a reporter during a U.S. State Department briefing and referenced by the President of the International Criminal Court Song Sang @-@ Hyun during his speech in front of the UN Security Council . On October 9 , the Mayor of London Boris Johnson held a speech at the 2012 Conservative Party Conference where he told the audience that he and the British Prime Minister David Cameron have danced " Gangnam Style " . A few days before the conference , they had performed the dance at Chequers Court in Buckinghamshire . During a Google Earnings call , Larry Page , the CEO and co @-@ founder of Google , hailed the song as a glimpse of the future of worldwide distribution through YouTube . The American Council on Exercise estimated that dancing " Gangnam Style " will burn 150 – 200 calories per half @-@ hour and the song was used by Northampton General Hospital to promote hand washing as part of the 2012 Global Handwashing Day on October 15 . Swype , an input method for Android operating systems , included " Gangnam Style " in its list of recognized words and phrases . U.S. President Barack Obama revealed possible plans to privately perform " Gangnam Style " for his spouse Michelle Obama . In November 2012 , a Maori cultural group from Rotorua performed a version of the Gangnam Style dance mixed with a traditional Maori haka in Seoul , celebrating 50 years of diplomatic relations between South Korea and New Zealand . In Thailand , officials from the Dan Sai municipality in Loei Province shot a video of people wearing masks and performing " Gangnam Style " during the Phi Ta Khon " ghost " festival . According to the Thai newspaper The Nation , villagers and spiritual leaders from Loei province felt " uneasy " and also " greatly offended " about this " Gangnam Style " performance which tarnishes the image of a 400 @-@ year @-@ old tradition . Another controversial incident was sparked by a " Gangnam Style " parody by officers from the Royal Thai Navy , which was not well received by some high @-@ ranking commanders . Although Vice Admiral Tharathorn Kajitsuwan from the Third Naval Area Command insisted that " we had no intention to insult or make fun of navy officers in uniform " , some senior officers have called it " improper " . Kajitsuwan claimed that his subordinates had the right to upload the video to YouTube , although he did not expect them to do so . On October 1 , 2012 , he issued an apology to his colleagues . Commander Surasak Rounroengrom believes an investigation is unnecessary because the video caused no damage to the Navy , but he admits that there was some impropriety about military officers doing their " fancy stepping in uniform " . = = = Popular culture = = = = = = = Music = = = = In mid @-@ September , the Brazilian singer Latino released the song " Despedida de solteiro " ( " The Bachelor 's Party " ) , which is supposed to be a cover of " Gangnam Style " . Many felt offended by his disrespectful lyrics , and some have called it a plagiarized copy of " Gangnam Style " . While Psy 's original lyrics talk about the lifestyle of the Gangnam people , Latino 's version is about a man that is enjoying his bachelor 's party in a club , wanting ( and having ) sex with many women , so drunk that he says he does not know if he 's really going to get married the next day . Latino had stated that it was an authorized version . = = = = Sports = = = = Since September 2012 , the dance has been performed by athletes in international competitions . These people include : Serbian tennis player Novak Djokovic , Jamaican cricketer Chris Gayle , who danced " Gangnam Style " twice during the West Indies ' match against Ireland and then repeated the act during the 2012 ICC World Twenty20 match against England . Bangladesh national cricket team also celebrated their ODI series win against West Indies with " Gangnam Style " dance on December 8 , 2012 . Filipino boxer Manny Pacquiao , Uruguayan footballer Edinson Cavani , = = = = Television = = = = In Fall 2012 , a cover version of the song was performed on the Fox TV show Glee in the episode " Thanksgiving " . The dance was also shown on the Argentine TV series Graduados , performed by the Argentine @-@ Korean actor Chang Kim Sung . District3 and Rylan Clark , finalists of the British music competition The X Factor , lip @-@ synced and danced to " Gangnam Style " in a promotion . = = = = Other = = = = On September 27 , Eric Schmidt , the executive chairman of Google was reported to have danced " Gangnam Style " when he visited the company 's office in Seoul . Nick Carbone from TIME described it as cringe @-@ worthy because " It 's the same reason why you 'd never want to see your dad planking on top of the family car " . = = = Political and environmental activism = = = On September 18 , 2012 , the North Korean government became the first to use " Gangnam Style " for political activism when it uploaded a parody with the title " I 'm Yushin style ! " onto the government website Uriminzokkiri . The parody mocks the South Korean ruling conservative party presidential @-@ elect Park Geun @-@ hye . It shows a Photoshopped image of the presidential candidate performing the dance moves of " Gangnam Style " and labels her as a devoted admirer of the Yushin system of autocratic rule set up by her father , Park Chung @-@ hee . A few weeks later , " 草泥马 style " ( literally , " Grass Mud Horse Style " ) , was uploaded onto YouTube and other Chinese websites by the political activist and dissident Ai Weiwei . In his parody , Ai Weiwei dances " Gangnam Style " with a pair of handcuffs as a symbol of his arrest by Chinese authorities in 2011 . According to the Associated Press , government authorities had removed the video from almost all Chinese websites the next day . South Korean President Park Geun @-@ hye took office on February 25 , 2013 . At her inauguration Psy performed " Gangnam Style " and " Champion " , one of his first hits in his native country . In order to show his solidarity with Ai Weiwei and to advocate the freedom of expression , the British sculptor Anish Kapoor produced the video Gangnam for Freedom , which features other prominent British artists as well as human rights activists from various international organisations including Index on Censorship and Amnesty International . A few days before , the global grassroots network Students for a Free Tibet had uploaded a parody of " Gangnam Style " to show its support for the Tibetan independence movement . According to Max Fisher from The Washington Post , this parody of " Gangnam Style " was likely to be filmed in Dharamshala , the home of Tibet 's government @-@ in @-@ exile in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh . Greenpeace announced that it was " Going Gangnam , Greenpeace Style " in order to raise public awareness about illegal and unsustainable fishing practices off the coast of Mozambique . Activists from Greenpeace had parodied " Gangnam Style " on board the organization 's excursion yacht Rainbow Warrior . Songdo , a ubiquitous city 40 miles ( 65 km ) west of Gangnam , was among five cities vying for the right to host the Green Climate Fund ( GCF ) , a project developed by the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to channel $ 100 billion a year from developed countries to help developing countries combat climate change . During its campaign to win the right to host the GCF , the country 's Presidential Committee on Green Growth produced a promotional video entitled " GCF Songdo Style by Psy " in which Psy recommends Songdo as the host city for the GCF . He announces that a " new paradigm " will begin at Songdo with the GCF and the video heralds " The beginning of Songdo Style " while " Gangnam Style " plays in the background . On October 20 , 2012 , the Board of the GCF announced that Songdo had won the right to host the fund . In December 2012 , the Department of Health in the Philippines launched a " Gangnam Style " dance campaign against the use of firecrackers to celebrate the New Year . Janine Tugonon , 2012 Miss Universe 1st runner @-@ up , joined and danced on one of their campaign at Pandacan , Manila . According to the Department 's Assistant Secretary , Dr. Eric Tayag , the popularity of the song will attract people especially children to use safer means of celebration such as dancing " Gangnam Style " . In contrast , the Philippine National Police was confirming intelligence reports about a firecracker named " Gangnam bomb " , which supposedly produced by illegal firecracker makers in Bocaue , Bulacan and apparently riding on the popularity of the song . According to Chief Superintendent Raul Petrasanta , director of the Firearms and Explosives Office of the Philippine National Police , he did not know what the possibly dangerous " Gangnam bomb " looks like . Muhammad Rahim al Afghani , a close associate of Osama bin Laden currently held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp , had also used the song to demonstrate his ability to gain access to popular cultural trends despite being confined within a top secret prison . In a letter to his lawyer , Muhammad wrote , " I like this new song Gangnam Style . I want to do the dance for you but cannot because of my shackles . " = = = Other parodies and covers = = = Reaction videos and parodies have been made for or with the music respectively . Some of these user generated videos have received international media recognition . " Gangnam Style " -related videos have also been uploaded by the CPDRC Dancing Inmates , Cody Simpson , Seungri , Latino , Fine Brothers , Barely Political , and the Tampa Bay Buccaneers Cheerleaders . College campuses have spawned numerous parodies . The Massachusetts Institute of Technology 's version ( " MIT Gangnam Style " ) featured Donald Sadoway , recognized in Time Magazine as one of 2012 " Top 100 Most Influential People in the World " , Eric Lander , who is co @-@ chairman of President Barack Obama 's Council of Advisors on Science and Technology , and linguistics pioneer Noam Chomsky . In addition , there are parodies from The Ohio University Marching 110 , York University , McMaster University , Cornell University , University of Oregon , University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , Boston University , Dartmouth College , Stanford University Colegio de la Preciosa Sangre de Pichilemu , Eton College , and the University of Michigan . The American space agency NASA uploaded an educational parody shot by its students at its Mission Control Center in Houston , Texas . The video features cameo appearances by astronauts Tracy Caldwell Dyson , Mike Massimino , Michael Coats , Ellen Ochoa , and the International Space Station 's Expedition 15 flight engineer Clayton Anderson , who dances " Gangnam Style " halfway through the video . Shortly after its upload , the parody was re @-@ tweeted by the European Space Agency and the SETI Institute . The song was also parodied by cadets from the United States Military Academy , United States Merchant Marine Academy , United States Naval Academy , United States Air Force Academy , and the Royal Military College of Canada ; soldiers from the 210th Fires Brigade , the 2nd Infantry Division , servicemembers from an undisclosed unit and location in Afghanistan , servicemembers from the China Coast Guard 's Jiangsu division , 150 officers from the People 's Liberation Army Air Force , as well as high @-@ ranking officers from the Royal Thai Navy . CollegeHumor uploaded Mitt Romney Style ; while What 's Trending uploaded Obama Style . During the two weeks before August 7 , nearly 1 @,@ 000 videos with the word " Gangnam " in the title were uploaded onto YouTube . Psy parodied his own video of the song , in an advertisement for pistachio nuts during Super Bowl XLVII . The Portuguese public broadcaster RTP1 spoofed the song in its late @-@ night show 5 Para A Meia @-@ Noite as Gamar com Style , sung by the comedian Pedro " Pacheco " Fernandes , criticizing the Prime Minister Pedro Passos Coelho , the European Union , the IMF and the 2010 – 13 Portuguese financial crisis . There are many " Gangnam Style " parodies used for education , similar to " The Elements " , a humorous song in which a man recites the elements on the periodic table to a well @-@ known tune . One such parody includes " Conjugation Style " , a parody used to teach students about the conjugation of -er verbs in the French language . = = Legacy = = The success of " Gangnam Style " is a result of the build @-@ up of South Korea 's music industry that has been in the works for over 20 years , and it has led to other K @-@ pop artists positioning themselves for a similar breakthrough in the U.S. music industry . Frances Moore , chief executive of the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry , brought up Gangnam Style as an example of how South Korea became one of the " most successful exporters of repertoire " . = = = Increased interest in the Korean Wave = = = According to the news agency Agence France @-@ Presse , the success of " Gangnam Style " has led to the further rise and spread of the Korean Wave to other countries . As the song continued to attract worldwide media attention , it also led to various broadcasting networks and national newspapers focusing its attention on K @-@ pop and other aspects of Korean culture . For example , The Daily Telegraph published an article recommending its readers to try out everything from K @-@ Pop to " K @-@ Cars " , " K @-@ Phones " and " K @-@ Cuisine " . The British multinational grocery and retailer Tesco reported that its total sales of Korean food had more than doubled as a result of the popularity of " Gangnam Style " . Kim Byoung @-@ gi , the Korean Ambassador to Lebanon , wrote that " Gangnam Style " has helped bridge Lebanese and Korean cultures . The French @-@ born political commentator Tim Soutphommasane , a Research fellow at Monash University , agrees that the Gangnam phenomenon is " something worth studying " . According to Soutphommasane , the world is only beginning to appreciate Gangnam Style as " part of a broader hallyu cultural wave coming out of the country [ South Korea ] " . = = = South Korea = = = In 2012 , the South Korean government announced that " Gangnam Style " had brought in $ 13 @.@ 4 million to the country ’ s audio sector , and it subsequently launched a campaign to further expand the K @-@ Pop music industry overseas . According to the Bank of Korea , the country 's services account recorded a surplus of USD 2 @.@ 3 billion in the first nine months of this year , compared to a deficit of USD 4 @.@ 5 billion last year . This was mainly due to the growing influence and popularity of K @-@ pop songs such as " Gangnam Style " . However , the American journalist John Seabrook noted that by " satirizing standard K @-@ pop tropes in Gangnam Style " , Psy may have subverted the music genre 's chances of making it big in the West . = = = Music industry = = = Record executives in the music industry believe that music charts will increasingly be filled with YouTube @-@ driven globalised acts from foreign countries . Sean Carey , a research fellow in the School of Social Sciences at the University of Roehampton , wrote that the flow of popular music will no longer be a single traffic route from North America and Europe to other parts of the globe , but will also move the other way as well . According to Adam Sherwin from The Independent , the global web demand for Gangnam Style had short @-@ circuited the " traditional reluctance " of radio stations to play foreign @-@ language songs . The song is also underlining a shift in how money is being made in the music business . Although Psy earned more than US $ 60 @,@ 000 from music sales of " Gangnam Style " in South Korea alone , he and his music label YG Entertainment have raked in almost US $ 1 million from advertisements which appear on YouTube videos identified for using " Gangnam Style " in its content . The Harvard Business Review published an article written by Kevin Evers , who explained how " Gangnam Style " had changed Billboard 's ranking methodology of its music charts . Instead of relying solely on radio plays and paid purchases , Billboard started to place a heavier emphasis on digital sales and YouTube views . As a result of the change , Gangnam Style moved up to the top position of Billboard 's Hot Rap Songs music chart . According to the British Phonographic Industry 's report based on Official Charts Company sales data , thanks to Psy 's song and Carly Rae Jepsen ’ s " Call Me Maybe , " pop became the UK ’ s favourite musical genre of the year , taking the lion ’ s share of the singles market ( 38 @.@ 5 % ) in 2012 . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Psy – vocals , producer , songwriter ( lyrics and music ) Yoo Gun @-@ hyung – producer , songwriter ( music ) , arrangement Credits adapted from Psy 6 ( Six Rules ) , Part 1 EP liner notes and YG Entertainment official website . = = Accolades and records = = = = = Awards and nominations = = = = = = Records attained = = = The song and its accompanying music video currently hold , or have attained , the following records : Most viewed K @-@ pop video on YouTube – On September 1 , 2012 , it overtook " Gee " by the 9 @-@ member K @-@ Pop idol @-@ group Girls ' Generation with 89 million views . Most liked video on YouTube – On September 13 , 2012 , it overtook " Party Rock Anthem " by the American electro recording duo LMFAO upon receiving 1 @.@ 57 million " likes " , and subsequently won its first Guinness World Record one week later . First K @-@ pop song to top the UK Singles Chart – On October 6 , 2012 , the song reached number one of the UK singles chart and Psy became the first South Korean musician to achieve that feat . Most viewed video on YouTube – On November 24 , 2012 , it overtook " Baby " by the Canadian singer @-@ songwriter Justin Bieber after receiving more than 803 million views . First video in Internet history to be viewed more than a billion times – On December 21 , 2012 , it acquired its billionth view at around 15 : 50 UTC . First video in Internet history to be viewed more than two billion times – On May 31 , 2014 , it acquired its 2 billionth view . = = = Year @-@ end media picks = = = = = = = Song = = = = " Gangnam Style " was ranked No. 25 on the Rolling Stone 's 50 best songs of 2012 list and No. 8 on SPIN 's 40 best songs of the year . The song also took the No. 8 spot on the 2012 Billboard 20 best K @-@ Pop songs list by Jeff Benjamin and Jessica Oak , who commented " [ the song ] stands out not only for its slick , electronic production but also for its deeper critique on high @-@ class society . " According to MTV 's list of the 2012 best songs , the song was ranked No. 8 with MTV news staff James Montgomery 's comment : " ' Gangnam ' is either the track we , as a culture needed right now , or the track we , as a culture , deserved " . TIME magazine chose it as the second best song of 2012 after Usher 's " Climax " , writing " The YouTube meme , a good @-@ natured , mind @-@ bendingly catchy lampoon [ ... ] turned into a global obsession " . The song was one of the best songs of the year on The New York Times pop critics ' list and E ! Online 's No. 1 pick on the top 10 pop songs of 2012 list . Digital Spy ranked the song No. 20 among the 20 best singles of the year . It was voted the 12th best single of 2012 by The Village Voice 's 40th annual Pazz & Jop critics ' poll . Music critic Robert Christgau placed " Gangnam Style " as the No. 2 single on his 2012 Dean 's List . = = = = Video = = = = The music video for " Gangnam Style " was chosen as the best music video of 2012 by TIME . Melissa Locker of the magazine wrote " The catchy song paired with social satire and tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek vibe has spread so quickly it reminds us why videos are called viral . The video has sparked an International dance craze and catapulted Psy to international super stardom . " Rolling Stone also ranked the video No. 1 on its " The Best Music Videos of 2012 " list , saying " The Korean auteur [ Psy ] conquered the world with his ' dress classy , dance cheesy ' aesthetic , blurring the line between parody and celebration . " The video took No. 4 position on the Digital Spy 's list of 10 top pop music videos of the year . = = = Miscellaneous = = = The music video came in first with 21 % rating in the 2012 Billboard.com 's readers poll , beating " Where Have You Been " by Rihanna ( 19 % ) and " Beauty and a Beat " by Justin Bieber featuring Nicki Minaj ( 11 % ) . The song was the most popular song played on New Year 's Eve and the most sung song on the day , leaving " Auld Lang Syne " in second place for the first time since 2005 , on karaoke company Lucky Voice 's online service in the United Kingdom . CNN readers picked " Gangnam Style " as the eighth best song of 2012 . The Week ( US edition ) ranked the song 's global popularity at No. 6 with the strapline " ' Gangnam Style ' takes over the world " on the 13 biggest pop culture moments of the year list . The phenomenon of the song and the video was also picked as one of the 2012 's most viral moments in music by Wendy Geller of Yahoo ! Music , and No. 2 on the 2012 top 20 music moments list after Whitney Houston 's passing by Billboard , being written " If there 's one meme , song and face that has been truly inescapable in the second half of 2012 , it 's South Korean rapper Psy and his outrageous ' Gangnam Style ' . " On December 1 , 2014 YouTube announced that " Gangnam Style " had exceeded the number of views that are possible to store using a 32 @-@ bit signed integer , that being 2 @,@ 147 @,@ 483 @,@ 647 ( 231 − 1 , or two billion ) . As a result , YouTube was forced to upgrade to using 64 @-@ bit integers to store view numbers , with a maximum value of 9 @,@ 223 @,@ 372 @,@ 036 @,@ 854 @,@ 775 @,@ 807 ( 263 − 1 , or nine quintillion ) . " We never thought a video would be watched in numbers greater than a 32 @-@ bit integer , but that was before we met Psy , " stated a YouTube spokesman . = = Chart performance = = = = = South Korea = = = Upon its release , " Gangnam Style " was an enormous hit . The song went straight to number one on the Gaon Singles Chart on the fourth week of July , 2012 , with 816 @,@ 868 digital downloads , and spent five consecutive weeks at the top position of the chart , tying it with IU 's " Good Day " for the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
00 clubs to regional or district associations . The FA , founded in 1863 , and the Football League , founded in 1888 , were both the first of their kind in the world . In Scotland there are 78 full and associate clubs and nearly 6 @,@ 000 registered clubs under the jurisdiction of the Scottish Football Association . Two Welsh clubs play in England 's Football League , one in the Premier league , and others at non @-@ league level , whilst the Welsh Football League contains 20 semi @-@ professional clubs . In Northern Ireland , 12 semi @-@ professional clubs play in the IFA Premiership , the second oldest league in the world . Recreational fishing , particularly angling , is one of the most popular participation activities in the United Kingdom , with an estimated 3 — 4 million anglers in the country . The most widely practised form of angling in England and Wales is for coarse fish while in Scotland angling is usually for salmon and trout . = = = Visual art and architecture = = = For centuries , artists and architects in Britain were overwhelmingly influenced by Western art history . Amongst the first visual artists credited for developing a distinctly British aesthetic and artistic style is William Hogarth . The experience of military , political and economic power from the rise of the British Empire , led to a very specific drive in artistic technique , taste and sensibility in the United Kingdom . Britons used their art " to illustrate their knowledge and command of the natural world " , whilst the permanent settlers in British North America , Australasia , and South Africa " embarked upon a search for distinctive artistic expression appropriate to their sense of national identity " . The empire has been " at the centre , rather than in the margins , of the history of British art " , and imperial British visual arts have been fundamental to the construction , celebration and expression of Britishness . British attitudes to modern art were " polarised " at the end of the 19th century . Modernist movements were both cherished and vilified by artists and critics ; Impressionism was initially regarded by " many conservative critics " as a " subversive foreign influence " , but became " fully assimilated " into British art during the early @-@ 20th century . Representational art was described by Herbert Read during the interwar period as " necessarily ... revolutionary " , and was studied and produced to such an extent that by the 1950s , Classicism was effectively void in British visual art . Post @-@ modern , contemporary British art , particularly that of the Young British Artists , has been pre @-@ occupied with postcolonialism , and " characterised by a fundamental concern with material culture ... perceived as a post @-@ imperial cultural anxiety " . Architecture of the United Kingdom is diverse ; most influential developments have usually taken place in England , but Ireland , Scotland , and Wales have at various times played leading roles in architectural history . Although there are prehistoric and classical structures in the British Isles , British architecture effectively begins with the first Anglo @-@ Saxon Christian churches , built soon after Augustine of Canterbury arrived in Great Britain in 597 . Norman architecture was built on a vast scale from the 11th century onwards in the form of castles and churches to help impose Norman authority upon their dominion . English Gothic architecture , which flourished between 1180 until around 1520 , was initially imported from France , but quickly developed its own unique qualities . Secular medieval architecture throughout Britain has left a legacy of large stone castles , with the " finest examples " being found lining both sides of the Anglo @-@ Scottish border , dating from the Wars of Scottish Independence of the 14th century . The invention of gunpowder and canons made castles redundant , and the English Renaissance which followed facilitiated the development of new artistic styles for domestic architecture : Tudor style , English Baroque , The Queen Anne Style and Palladian . Georgian and Neoclassical architecture advanced after the Scottish Enlightenment . Outwith the United Kingdom , the influence of British architecture is particularly strong in South India , the result of British rule in India in the 19th century . The Indian cities of Bangalore , Chennai , and Mumbai each have courts , hotels and train stations designed in British architectural styles of Gothic Revivalism and neoclassicism . = = = Political culture = = = British political culture is tied closely with its institutions and civics , and a " subtle fusion of new and old values " . The principle of constitutional monarchy , with its notions of stable parliamentary government and political liberalism , " have come to dominate British culture " . These views have been reinforced by Sir Bernard Crick who said : To be British seems to us to mean that we respect the laws , the elected parliamentary and democratic political structures , traditional values of mutual tolerance , respect for equal rights and mutual concern ; that we give our allegiance to the state ( as commonly symbolised by the Crown ) in return for its protection . British political institutions include the Westminster system , the Commonwealth of Nations and Privy Council of the United Kingdom . Although the Privy Council is primarily a British institution , officials from other Commonwealth realms are also appointed to the body . The most notable continuing instance is the Prime Minister of New Zealand , its senior politicians , Chief Justice and Court of Appeal judges are conventionally made Privy Counsellors , as the prime ministers and chief justices of Canada and Australia used to be . Prime Ministers of Commonwealth countries which retain the British monarch as their sovereign continue to be sworn as Privy Counsellors . Universal suffrage for all males over 21 was granted in 1918 and for adult women in 1928 after the Suffragette movement . Politics in the United Kingdom is multi @-@ party , with three dominant political parties : the Conservative Party , the Labour Party and the Scottish National Party . The social structure of Britain , specifically social class , has " long been pre @-@ eminent among the factors used to explain party allegiance " , and still persists as " the dominant basis " of party political allegiance for Britons . The Conservative Party is descended from the historic Tory Party ( founded in England in 1678 ) , and is a centre @-@ right conservative political party , which traditionally draws support from the middle classes . The Labour Party ( founded by Scotsman Keir Hardie ) grew out of the trade union movement and socialist political parties of the 19th century , and continues to describe itself as a " democratic socialist party " . Labour states that it stands for the representation of the low @-@ paid working class , who have traditionally been its members and voters . The Scottish National Party is the third largest political party in the UK in terms of both party membership and representation in parliament , having won 56 out of 59 Scottish seats at the 2015 General Election . The Liberal Democrats are a liberal political party , and third largest in England in terms of membership and MPs elected . It is descended from the Liberal Party , a major ruling party of 19th century Britain through to the First World War , when it was supplanted by the Labour Party . The Liberal Democrats have historically drawn support from wide and " differing social backgrounds " . There are over 300 other , smaller political parties in the United Kingdom registered to the Electoral Commission . = = Classification = = According to the British Social Attitudes Survey , there are broadly two interpretations of British identity , with ethnic and civic dimensions : The first group , which we term the ethnic dimension , contained the items about birthplace , ancestry , living in Britain , and sharing British customs and traditions . The second , or civic group , contained the items about feeling British , respecting laws and institutions , speaking English , and having British citizenship . Of the two perspectives of British identity , the civic definition has become " the dominant idea ... by far " , and in this capacity , Britishness is sometimes considered an institutional or overarching state identity . This has been used to explain why first- , second- and third @-@ generation immigrants are more likely to describe themselves as British , rather than English , Scottish or Welsh , because it is an " institutional , inclusive " identity , that can be acquired through naturalisation and British nationality law ; the vast majority of people in the United Kingdom who are from an ethnic minority feel British . However , this attitude is more common in England than in Scotland or Wales ; " white English people perceived themselves as English first and as British second , and most people from ethnic minority backgrounds perceived themselves as British , but none identified as English , a label they associated exclusively with white people " . Contrawise , in Scotland and Wales , White British and ethnic minority people both identified more strongly with Scotland and Wales than with Britain . Studies and surveys have " reported that the majority of the Scots and Welsh see themselves as both Scottish / Welsh and British though with some differences in emphasis " . The Commission for Racial Equality found that with respect to notions of nationality in Britain , " the most basic , objective and uncontroversial conception of the British people is one that includes the English , the Scots and the Welsh " . However , " English participants tended to think of themselves as indistinguishably English or British , while both Scottish and Welsh participants identified themselves much more readily as Scottish or Welsh than as British " . Some persons opted " to combine both identities " as " they felt Scottish or Welsh , but held a British passport and were therefore British " , whereas others saw themselves as exclusively Scottish or exclusively Welsh and " felt quite divorced from the British , whom they saw as the English " . Commentators have described this latter phenomenon as " nationalism " , a rejection of British identity because some Scots and Welsh interpret it as " cultural imperialism imposed " upon the United Kingdom by " English ruling elites " , or else a response to a historical misappropriation of equating the word " English " with " British " , which has " brought about a desire among Scots , Welsh and Irish to learn more about their heritage and distinguish themselves from the broader British identity " . = The King of Limbs = The King of Limbs is the eighth studio album by the English rock band Radiohead , produced by Nigel Godrich . It was self @-@ released on 18 February 2011 as a download in MP3 and WAV formats , followed by physical CD and 12 " vinyl releases on 28 March and a special " newspaper " edition on 9 May 2011 . The physical editions were released through the band 's Ticker Tape imprint on XL in the United Kingdom , TBD in the United States , and Hostess Entertainment in Japan . Following the protracted recording and more conventional rock instrumentation of In Rainbows ( 2007 ) , Radiohead developed The King of Limbs by sampling and looping their recordings . Singer Thom Yorke described the album as an expression of " wildness " and " mutation " . Radiohead released no singles from the album , but released a music video for " Lotus Flower " that spawned an internet meme . The King of Limbs was named one of the best albums of 2011 by publications including the Wire , the NME , and PopMatters , and was nominated for five categories in the 54th Grammy Awards , including Best Alternative Music Album . It sold an estimated 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 download copies in the first two months of release and became a bestseller on vinyl . The album was followed in the same year by a remix album , TKOL RMX 1234567 , and a live video , The King of Limbs : Live from the Basement . = = Recording = = Radiohead worked on The King of Limbs with longtime producer Nigel Godrich intermittently from May 2009 to January 2011 . Like their sixth album , Hail to the Thief ( 2003 ) , it was recorded in Los Angeles , possibly at the home of actress Drew Barrymore , who is thanked in the album 's liner notes . The band wanted to avoid repeating the protracted recording process of their previous album In Rainbows ( 2007 ) . Cover artist Stanley Donwood said : " In Rainbows was very much a definitive statement , and that isn 't where the band are at the moment . Where they are now is more transitory ... this album shows where Radiohead are at the moment the record was released . The music is a continuing thing . And we wanted to make the album representative of that . " Singer Thom Yorke said the band had felt that " if we are gonna carry on , we need to do it for a new set of reasons . " Multi @-@ instrumentalist Jonny Greenwood told Rolling Stone that the band had not wanted to " pick up guitars and write chord sequences . We didn 't want to sit in front of a computer either . We wanted a third thing , which involved playing and programming . " Whereas Radiohead developed In Rainbows from their live performances , they developed The King of Limbs from studio experimentation . Much of the album is constructed from samples of drum , bass and guitar parts individually played by the band members , then looped , manipulated and edited with turntables , vinyl emulation software and sampling software written by Greenwood . Yorke likened the process to editing a film . Guitarist Ed O 'Brien said : " Music came first , then the lyrics , and the melody came after . So we had blocks of music and then Thom would write a lead vocal line melody and lyrics to it . " He told Rolling Stone : " The brick walls we tended to hit were when we knew something was great , like ' Bloom ' , but not finished . We knew the song was nearly something . Then [ bassist Colin Greenwood ] had that bassline , and Thom started singing . Those things suddenly made it a hundred times better . " = = Music and lyrics = = The King of Limbs emphasises drummer Phil Selway and bassist Colin Greenwood 's rhythm section . According to O 'Brien : " Rhythm is the king of limbs ! The rhythm dictates the record . It 's very important . " The album makes prominent use of sampling , looping , and ambient sounds , including samples of natural sounds such as birdsong and wind . Pitchfork described its music as " aggressive rhythms made out of dainty bits of digital detritus , robotically repetitive yet humanly off @-@ kilter , parched thickets of drumming graced with fleeting moments of melodic relief . " Several critics noted dubstep influences . The first track , " Bloom " , opens with a repeating piano loop and features complex rhythms and a flugelhorn arrangement by Jonny Greenwood . " Morning Mr Magpie " , debuted as a solo acoustic performance by Yorke in a webcast in 2002 , appears with a repeating electric guitar riff and a looping hi @-@ hat pattern . " Little by Little " features intricate guitar playing over busy , syncopated percussion . " Feral " is an instrumental with wordless , processed vocals , cut @-@ up drum loops , and a distorted synth bassline . " Lotus Flower " features a driving synth bassline and Yorke 's falsetto vocals . " Codex " is a downtempo piano ballad with flugelhorns and strings . " Give Up the Ghost " is an acoustic guitar ballad with call @-@ and @-@ response vocal harmonies . The final track , " Separator " , features a looped drum pattern and a " Neil Young @-@ inspired " electric guitar riff . Yorke told NPR that he felt The King of Limbs was a " visual " album , with lyrics and artwork about " wildness " and " mutating " inspired by his environmental concerns . The album title is thought to refer to the King of Limbs , an ancient oak tree in Wiltshire 's Savernake Forest , close to Tottenham House , where Radiohead recorded In Rainbows . At eight tracks and 37 minutes in length , The King of Limbs is Radiohead 's shortest album . Appearing on a BBC radio show in April 2011 , O 'Brien explained that Radiohead felt the ideal album was around 40 minutes long , and cited Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On ( 1971 ) as a classic record shorter than The King of Limbs . = = Packaging and artwork = = The King of Limbs artwork was created by Yorke and Stanley Donwood , who has worked with Radiohead since their second album , The Bends ( 1995 ) . Donwood originally intended to paint oil portraits of the Radiohead members in the style of Gerhard Richter , but abandoned the idea as " I 'd never painted with oils before and I 'm not Gerhard Richter so it was just a series of painted disasters . " The final artwork was influenced by Northern European fairy tales and their association with nature and woods . As with previous Radiohead albums , Donwood worked on the artwork as the band recorded nearby ; the music made Donwood think of " immense multicoloured cathedrals of trees , with music echoing from the branches whilst strange fauna lurked in the fog . " He and Yorke drew trees with eyes , limbs , mouths and familiars , creating " strange , multi @-@ limbed creatures that are neither malevolent or benevolent , they 're simply there , part of the living spirit of the forest . " For the special " newspaper " edition of The King of Limbs , Donwood wanted to create something " in a state of flux . " He chose newspaper for " its ephemeral nature " , admiring how paper fades in sunlight ; this reflected the album 's nature themes , mirroring the natural decay of living things . Donwood took inspiration from real publications , including weekend broadsheets and a stack of radical 1960s newspapers and magazines left at bassist Colin Greenwood 's house by an unknown person . The " newspaper " edition of The King of Limbs was nominated for the Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package in the 54th Grammy Awards . = = Release = = Radiohead announced The King of Limbs on their website on 14 February 2011 with a release date of 19 February . It was released one day earlier , on 18 February . The download of The King of Limbs is DRM @-@ free . The MP3 download costs £ 6 , US $ 9 , or € 7 ; the WAV download costs £ 9 , US $ 14 , or € 11 . Customers could also order a special " newspaper edition " of the album , released 9 May 2011 , for £ 30 , US $ 48 or € 36 with the MP3 download , and £ 33 , US $ 53 or € 39 with the WAV download ( shipping included ) . The " newspaper " edition contains " two 10 @-@ inch vinyl records in a special record sleeve , many large sheets of artwork , 625 tiny pieces of artwork , a compact disc , and a colour piece of oxo @-@ degradable plastic package " . The retail CD and vinyl editions of The King of Limbs were released through the band 's Ticker Tape imprint on XL in the United Kingdom , TBD in the United States , and Hostess Entertainment in Japan . On 16 April 2011 , Radiohead released two tracks not included on The King of Limbs but worked on during the same sessions , " Supercollider " and " The Butcher " , as a double single for Record Store Day . They later released the tracks as free downloads to those who had purchased The King of Limbs from the Radiohead website . In June 2011 , Radiohead announced a series of King of Limbs remix singles by various artists . These remixes and others are compiled on the remix album TKOL RMX 1234567 , released in September 2011 . Radiohead performed The King of Limbs in its entirety for The King of Limbs : Live from the Basement , broadcast in July 2011 and released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in December 2011 . On February 11 , 2014 , Radiohead released the Polyfauna app for Android and iOS ; it is an " experimental collaboration " between the band and the British digital arts studio Universal Everything , and uses musical elements and imagery from The King of Limbs . = = Promotion and tour = = Radiohead released a music video for " Lotus Flower " on their YouTube channel on February 16 , 2011 , featuring black @-@ and @-@ white footage of Yorke dancing . It was directed by Hammer & Tongs member Garth Jennings and choreographed by Wayne McGregor . The video sparked the " Dancing Thom Yorke " internet meme , whereby fans replaced the video 's audio or edited the visuals , and " # thomdance " became a trending hashtag on Twitter . To promote the retail release of The King of Limbs , Radiohead distributed a free single @-@ issue newspaper , the Universal Sigh , at independent record shops across the world on 28 March 2011 . Influenced by free newspapers such as LA Weekly or London Lite , the Universal Sigh is a 12 @-@ page tabloid printed using web @-@ offset lithography on newsprint paper and features artwork , poetry , and lyrics along with short stories by Donwood , Jay Griffiths and Robert Macfarlane . Donwood and Yorke distributed copies of the Universal Sigh in person at a record shop in east London . Radiohead did not support The King of Limbs with a tour until 2012 , as Yorke wanted to continue studio work , and as it took the band some time to arrange the album for live performance . They enlisted drummer Clive Deamer , best known for his work with Portishead and Get the Blessing , to help perform the complex rhythms . Selway said of the two @-@ drummer setup : " That was fascinating . One played in the traditional way , the other almost mimicked a drum machine . It was push @-@ and @-@ pull , like kids at play , really interesting . " On 24 June 2011 , Radiohead played a surprise performance on the Park stage at the 2011 Glastonbury Festival , performing songs from The King of Limbs before an audience for the first time . [ 106 ] In September , they played two dates at New York City 's Roseland Ballroom and made American TV appearances including a one @-@ hour special episode of The Colbert Report and the season première of Saturday Night Live . In February 2012 , Radiohead began their first extended North American tour in four years , including dates in the United States , Canada and Mexico . = = Commercial performance = = The retail edition of The King of Limbs debuted at number six on the Billboard 200 in the United States , with first @-@ week sales of 69 @,@ 000 copies . The following week , it peaked at number three , selling 67 @,@ 000 copies . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart , selling 33 @,@ 469 copies in its first week . By April 2012 , The King of Limbs had sold 307 @,@ 000 retail copies in the US , making it Radiohead 's first album to fail to achieve gold certification there . The retail vinyl edition , excluding " newspaper album " sales , sold more than 20 @,@ 000 copies in the UK in the first half of 2011 , 12 % of all vinyl sold in that period , and became the best @-@ selling vinyl album of 2011 ; as of April 2015 , it was the UK 's second best @-@ selling vinyl of the decade thus far . These figures describe retail sales after 28 March 2011 and do not include " newspaper album " or download sales through Radiohead 's website , where The King of Limbs was exclusively available for nearly two months prior to retail release , selling an estimated 300 @,@ 000 to 400 @,@ 000 copies . Radiohead 's co @-@ manager Chris Hufford estimated that Radiohead made more money from The King of Limbs than any of their previous albums , as most sales were made through the band 's website without a record company . = = Critical reception = = At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , The King of Limbs has an average score of 80 based on 40 reviews , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . BBC Music 's Mike Diver described the album as " a fans @-@ pleasing eighth album from Britain 's most consistently brilliant band . " Michael Brodeur of The Boston Globe praised " the tense calm these eight songs maintain — a composure that feels constantly ready to crack " , commenting that " where In Rainbows was mellow but brisk — an album that felt on its way somewhere — these songs are eerie and insidious , creeping like shadows — and , often because of the haunting voice of Thom Yorke , the occasional chill . " PopMatters wrote : " The King of Limbs is a beautiful record , one that begs more of a conscious listen than its predecessor , but one that provides equal – if different – thrills in doing so . " François Marchand of The Vancouver Sun said that the album " bridges Radiohead 's many different styles " and is " worth embracing " . Mark Pytlik of Pitchfork Media called the album " well @-@ worn terrain for Radiohead , and while it continues to yield rewarding results , the band 's signature game @-@ changing ambition is missed . " Pitchfork later named " Give Up the Ghost " as " Best New Music " , describing it as " a highlight " and " life @-@ affirming . " Robert Christgau awarded the album a two @-@ star " honourable mention " and recommended the songs " Little by Little " and " Bloom " . Los Angeles Times writer Ann Powers wrote that the album " can be heard from several different angles ... fans and critics have already been registering wildly divergent reactions : some think it 's one of the band 's best efforts ; others find it too low @-@ key or similar to previous work ; a few consider it awfully doomy , and a few others wish it were less abstract . " In a retrospective 2015 article for Stereogum , Ryan Leas wrote that The King of Limbs is " very good , occasionally great music by a pivotal band that nevertheless felt like something of a letdown because it wasn 't , ultimately , some genius stroke none of us expected . " The album was named one of the best of 2011 by several publications : The Wire and the Guardian both named it the 27th best of the year , Mojo the 47th , NME the 20th , PopMatters the 10th , Uncut the 7th and Rolling Stone the 5th , the latter describing it as " a record that grew all year – in your room , and onstage " . The King of Limbs was nominated for five categories in the 54th Grammy Awards : Best Alternative Music Album , Best Boxed or Special Limited Edition Package , Best Short Form Music Video ( for " Lotus Flower " ) , Best Rock Performance ( " Lotus Flower " ) and Best Rock Song ( " Lotus Flower " ) . = = Track listing = = All tracks written by Radiohead and produced by Radiohead and Nigel Godrich . " Bloom " – 5 : 15 " Morning Mr Magpie " – 4 : 41 " Little by Little " – 4 : 27 " Feral " – 3 : 13 " Lotus Flower " – 5 : 01 " Codex " – 4 : 47 " Give Up the Ghost " – 4 : 50 " Separator " – 5 : 20 = = Personnel = = Radiohead Colin Greenwood Jonny Greenwood Ed O 'Brien Phil Selway Thom Yorke ( also credited as " Zachariah Wildwood " for cover art and packaging ) Additional personnel Yazz Ahmed – flugelhorn on " Bloom " and " Codex " Drew Brown – additional engineering Bryan Cooke – additional assistance Stanley Donwood – cover art and packaging ( credited as " Donald Twain " ) Nigel Godrich – production , engineering Noel Langley – flugelhorn on " Bloom " and " Codex " Bob Ludwig – mastering Darrell Thorp – additional assistance The London Telefilmonic Orchestra , led by Levine Andrade and conducted by Robert Ziegler – strings on " Codex " = = Charts = = = Precipice ( Battlestar Galactica ) = " Precipice " is the second part of the third season premiere and 35th episode of the re @-@ imagined American science fiction drama television series Battlestar Galactica . The episode was written by re @-@ imagined creator Ronald D. Moore , and directed by Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan . It first aired on October 6 , 2006 on the Sci @-@ Fi Channel along with the preceding episode " Occupation " . In " Precipice " , the Cylons respond to the suicide attack in the previous episode by rounding up several civilians believed to be affiliated with the resistance , and later decide to have them executed . Meanwhile , Galactica is to send a squadron to meet with the resistance on New Caprica . Unlike most episodes , it does not include a survivor count . Since " Occupation " revolved around the resistance , " Precipice " focused more on the New Caprica Police and Jammer 's role in it . The producers also decided to release the Sharon model imprisoned on Galactica . During the writing process , Moore included references to Seinfeld and The Great Escape . The episode was seen by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers and received universal acclaim from critics . In addition , Moore 's writing of the episode was nominated for an Emmy and Writers Guild of America awards . = = Plot = = In response to the suicide bombing of a New Caprica Police ( NCP ) ceremony , the Cylons order a crackdown against the insurgency . Many resistance members start to disagree about the legitimacy of the suicide bombings , but leader Colonel Saul Tigh ( Michael Hogan ) continues to orchestrate them . Meanwhile , in an attempt to get Kara " Starbuck " Thrace ( Katee Sackhoff ) to love him , Leoben Conoy ( Callum Keith Rennie ) presents her with a toddler named Kacey ( Madeline Parker ) , of whom Leoben claims Starbuck is the mother , as a result of her time on Caprica in " The Farm " . Leoben leaves her alone with the toddler , but Starbuck refuses to play with her . When she leaves Kacey unattended , however , Kacey injures herself falling down the stairs . As Kacey is recovering , Starbuck has a change of heart and prays to the Lords of Kobol not to let her die . In a move against the insurgency , the Cylons decide to have the NCP arrest 200 civilians they believe to be affiliated with the resistance . Headed by Jammer ( Dominic Zamprogna ) , most of the arrests take place during the night . Those being arrested include Laura Roslin ( Mary McDonnell ) , Tom Zarek ( Richard Hatch ) and Cally Henderson Tyrol ( Nicki Clyne ) . After another suicide bombing at a power station , the Cylons decide to have the prisoners executed , but require President Gaius Baltar 's ( James Callis ) signature . When he refuses to sign , an Aaron Doral ( Matthew Bennett ) copy forces him to at gunpoint . Caprica @-@ Six ( Tricia Helfer ) attempts to stop him , but Doral shoots her in the head . Baltar signs the document . Meanwhile , Ellen Tigh ( Kate Vernon ) learns from Cavil ( Dean Stockwell ) that he only released her husband Saul ( Michael Hogan ) because the Cylons know he is leading the resistance . He informs Ellen that unless she tells the Cylons where the resistance leaders will be meeting next , he will imprison Saul once more . Reluctantly , Ellen discovers where the resistance plans to meet with members from the colonial fleet . On board Galactica , Admiral William Adama ( Edward James Olmos ) appoints their Cylon prisoner Sharon Agathon ( Grace Park ) a Colonial officer and sends her to the planet to liaise with the resistance . When she arrives to meet with resistance members , Centurions attack , having learned of the meeting place from the intelligence Ellen provided . Simultaneously , the 200 human prisoners are being transported to a location by the Cylons and NCP . A masked Jammer , realizing they are to be executed , saves Cally by releasing her in secret and telling her to run . As she runs away , the sound of gunfire is heard . = = Production = = Since the previous episode " Occupation " focused on the resistance , writer Ronald D. Moore wanted the second part to focus more on Jammer 's role within the NCP , as he wanted to personalize somebody working for the police force . He also wanted to make Tigh know he 's wrong with launching suicide bombers , but has to do so if he believes doing so will defeat the Cylons . This is also Tigh 's principal trait and role in the series . Moore stated " why is Colonel Tigh on Galactica ? Why does Adama keep him around ? Because when the chips are down , and they are way down , baby , in this situation , when you are in a foxhole , who do you want next to you ? You want Colonel Tigh ' cause he is gonna get your ass out of there . " The scene where Baltar speaks to an imprisoned Roslin about the suicide bombings was one of Moore 's favourite scenes , as he wanted the audience to be unsure who to " root for , " since Baltar is the biggest Cylon collaborator among the humans , but Roslin seemingly supports the bombings . After a Number Eight ( Sharon ) Cylon model was imprisoned onboard Galactica for the majority of the second season , the producers decided they needed to have her released , as they believed the storyline ran its course , and make her worthy for Adama 's trust . " The swirl " , a sex position Ellen Tigh uses , was a reference to Seinfeld , a comedy series Moore was a fan of . The sequence leading up to the Cylon Centurions lining up to execute the prisoners was an homage to The Great Escape , particularly the scene featuring the death of Richard Attenborough 's character from the Nazis after stopping the truck he was in , and telling him to take a break , at which point he was executed . Madeline Parker was cast as Kacey Brynn . Parker 's performance impressed the producers , as they believed she was " one of the better child actors " they ever worked with , since casting them , especially at a younger age , was not easy . The one problem they had with Parker however , was filming her lying injured on the stairs . In the scene where the NCP arrest civilians at night , the idea of using night vision , which did not come from the original script , came from director Sergio Mimica @-@ Gezzan . Real night scopes were used to ensure the authenticity of the effect . One of the main visual effects of the episode was another suicide bombing which was caught on camera . Moore stated to have " tortured the visual effects guys about [ it ] quite a bit , " because the camera footage was in black and white and the visual quality of the explosion had to be degraded to match the footage . Much like " Occupation " , " Precipice " also features scenes filmed on the Colonial One set featuring several copies of the same Cylon models . Furthermore Mimica Gezzan decided to shoot a 360 degree angle around the set , requiring additional digital duplication . The actors had to change their clothes between every take , which normally took as long as 30 minutes , after including time for touch ups on hair and makeup . The countryside of New Caprica was featured more towards the end of the episode . The producers found it a challenge to differentiate New Caprica from Caprica , the name of the planet New Caprica was named after following the holocaust from the miniseries , and featured extensively again during the first season , and both planets were filmed on location in temperate British Columbia forests . = = Reception = = " Occupation " and " Precipice " were originally meant to be released as two separate episodes , however the producers decided to merge them together to be released as a two @-@ hour broadcast . The reasoning was partly due to the third episode " Exodus " , which became too long and split to a two @-@ part episode , and the producers did not wish to stretch the New Caprica storyline to several weeks . The two @-@ hour season @-@ three premiere was first broadcast on the Sci Fi Channel in the United States on Friday , October 6 , 2006 between 9 pm and 11 pm . After its original broadcast , the two @-@ hour episode attracted a household rating of 1 @.@ 8 , equaling a total of 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . Ratings were an increase of two per cent in total viewing from the average of the second half of the second season . " Precipice " received positive reviews from critics . Keith McDuffee of TV Squad felt that Sharon Agathon coming to the fleet was a " surprising development " and the cliffhanger was " unbelievable " , adding " are the writers actually crazy enough to mass kill so many main characters to the series ? Is it possible at all that they can actually get out of this ? " Eric Goldman of IGN rated the episode a " masterful " 10 out of 10 , stating " watching the season premiere of Battlestar Galactica is a great reminder that this is truly still the best show on television . " Ian Berriman of SFX reacted positively towards the episode , stating " Although there are a couple of great surprises in this episode – Casey , the Great Escape @-@ homaging finale – the highlights are a fistful of fabulous face @-@ offs : Baltar discussing the bombing with Roslin ; Roslin questioning Tigh 's methods ; Apollo telling Adama that his plan is madness . James Callis 's performance as the haggard , tortured Baltar is outstanding . " Berriman rated the episode five stars out of five . Patrick Sauriol of UGO felt that although it was set a year since " Lay Down Your Burdens " , it " hasn 't lost a thing by jumping ahead , " and that the episode , along with " Occupation " , " confirm that it 's still the best show on television . " Sauriol graded both episodes an A- . Television Without Pity gave the episode an A + , a higher grade than the previous episode . In 2007 , the episode was nominated for a 59th Primetime Emmy Awards for " Outstanding Writing in a Drama Series " , but lost to HBO 's The Sopranos series finale " Made in America " . " Precipice " was also nominated for a Writers Guild of America Award for best Episodic Drama . However , the episode lost out to the pilot episode of Big Love . = Rihanna ( book ) = Rihanna ( originally titled and alternatively known as Rihanna : The Last Girl on Earth ) is a coffee table photo @-@ book by Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and British artist Simon Henwood . Henwood envisioned the project as the depiction of a " journey " , as it includes professional and candid photos by him , that show the singer 's fourth studio album , Rated R 's ( 2009 ) promotional campaign , alongside pictures from other live appearances . The publication features a preface written by French designer Alexandre Vauthier . It was first issued in the United States as a hardcover edition including a CD , on October 15 , 2010 ; also being released in paperback formats and a deluxe hardcover edition including a crystal monogrammed clamshell and a signed image print . To promote the book , Rihanna appeared at a Barnes & Noble store where she signed copies of it . Editors commented on the book positively , favoring Rihanna 's looks and Henwood 's photography . = = Background and concept = = In November 2009 , Rihanna released her fourth studio album Rated R through Def Jam Recordings , to critical and commercial success . Following was a year @-@ long world tour , titled Last Girl On Earth . On January 2010 , details about a Rihanna photo book were revealed , including its initial title — Rihanna : The Last Girl On Earth — and a tentative date , on June 29 of that year . During an interview with website MuuMuse , the book 's photographer and British artist Simon Henwood , who also served as the creative director during the promotional campaign for Rated R , spoke on the concept and purpose of the publication . He revealed that the book was created in order to show the events of that promotional era , and while he did not envision the project as a " diary " , he described it as a " picture book of everything that happens when you 're building [ something ] like this , so things people had not seen of her . " Having spent a long period of time with Rihanna on diverse locations , such as " fashion shows , on set , hotel rooms " amongst others , Henwood told MuuMuse that it depicted the " journey from the initial design of the logo and concept of the album to the singer embarking on the Last Girl on Earth Tour . As a result , Rihanna includes photos of the singer taken during the Paris Fashion Week ; during the Rated R photoshoot done by Ellen von Unwerth in Berlin ; candid pictures and pictures of her American Music Awards live performance . The last photos of the publication were taken by Henwood during the European leg of the Last Girl on Earth Tour in April 2010 . Aside from the pictures , the book also includes a preface written by French designer Alexandre Vauthier , in which he praises the singer and describes their encounter . The date was then rescheduled from June 2010 to September of that year , and Rihanna revealed to Daily Mail some details about the book : " It 's gonna be a book with all of these images that people have never seen before . It 's like a backstage pass , like a fashion book . " To MTV , she reiterated those comments : I think it was really special to have behind @-@ the @-@ scenes photos , you know , pictures that the fans haven 't seen before , all together of a very specific moment of my life , an album of my life . They just get to see all the things that they hadn 't seen that were going on behind the scenes ; really cool stuff , not typical . They 're really fun photos . And even for me , when I look at them , they say so much . Photos really tell a thousand words . = = Release and reception = = A 144 @-@ page book , Rihanna was released on October 15 , 2010 in the United States under Rizzoli Publications , on hardcover format , including a CD with a song from Rated R ; four days later , the paperback format was issued in the United States , Germany , and France . Both editions were released in the United Kingdom on October 20 , 2010 , under the original title Rihanna : The Last Girl on Earth . Four days later , the paperback format was issued in the United States . On October 26 , 2010 , a deluxe edition of the photo @-@ book was released , including the hardcover edition " encased in a Swarovski crystal monogrammed clamshell " alongside a print with an image from " Rude Boy " ' s music video shoot , signed by Rihanna . Imported versions of the book were sold in Portugal starting February 2012 . Rihanna appeared at the Fifth Avenue store of Barnes & Noble , in which she signed copies of the photo @-@ book , dressed in a " floral @-@ print " dress . Editors who commented on the book were positive about it . At E ! , Marc Malkin praised Henwood 's professional photography , which he deemed " absolutely gorgeous " . At Rap @-@ Up , editors favored Rihanna 's looks , writing that in the pictures , she was " at the height of her beauty and ferocity " . Rebecca Thomas of MTV had a similar opinion , stating : " The 22 @-@ year @-@ old stunner [ Rihanna ] shines in front of the camera and perhaps never more so than in the images that capture [ her ] " . = = Release history = = = Fraser Mansion = The Fraser Mansion is a building at 1701 20th Street NW , at the intersection of Connecticut Avenue , 20th Street , and R Street in the Dupont Circle neighborhood of Washington , D.C. Since its construction in 1890 , the mansion has served as a private residence , a restaurant , a boarding house , and most recently as home to the Founding Church of Scientology . The building is currently the location of Scientology 's National Affairs office . The mansion was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1975 . = = Design , construction , and early use = = The mansion was designed by the architectural firm of Hornblower and Marshall in an early eclectic beaux arts style to serve as the home of New York merchant George S. Fraser . The building is three stories tall with two basement levels and an attic . It is constructed of red brick and pink granite with a colonnaded entrance porch with balustraded deck , and a tiled , hipped roof . The interior was planned around a central open stair , with large , central halls on each floor . It was constructed in 1890 at a cost of $ 75 @,@ 000 , more than ten times the cost of a typical Washington home at that time . The building served as Fraser 's residence until his death in 1896 . In 1901 , Fraser 's widow sold the mansion to Pennsylvania Congressman Joseph Earlston Thropp , where he took up residence beginning on March 3 , 1901 . The Thropps made exterior alterations , enlarging dormer windows and adding an oriel window in 1901 . In 1905 , architects Totten and Rogers designed a terrace with an entrance to the house near the oriel window , and also redesigned the garden wall . The mansion remained in the ownership of Thropp and his wife , Miriam Scott @-@ Thropp , until Scott @-@ Thropp 's death in 1930 . = = Restaurant = = In 1932 , the lower floor of the mansion began operation as the Parrot Tea Room , a tea house , with a boarding house located on the upper levels . In 1950 , upon leasing to John Goldstein , the facility was converted to a restaurant and renamed the Golden Parrot . The mansion was sold in 1974 , and the restaurant was renamed the Golden Booeymonger . Later , the mansion became home to nightclubs Larry Brown 's and Sagittarius . The mansion was again sold in 1981 to Walter Sommer for $ 2 million . In 1982 , following a $ 3 million restoration / renovation , the Fourways fine dining restaurant on the first floor and the Bermuda Bar and Grill below it were opened . The Fourways served Continental European and American dishes under the leadership of chef Jacques Barre . By 1988 , Sommer opened the Bermuda Bar and Grill patio @-@ cafe alongside the Fourways . According to the Nation 's Restaurant News , the restaurant seated 40 people inside and 60 outside , and was modeled after the Fourways Restaurant and Inn of Bermuda . Among other things , the restaurant featured an all @-@ you @-@ can @-@ eat salad bar , an unlimited Sunday brunch , and " traditional Bermuda drink , Dark & Stormy , made with Bermuda 's Goslings Black Seal rum and Ginger Beer . Another Bermudian tradition , Bermuda Fish Chowder with Outerbridge 's Sherry Peppers Sauce was always on the menu . = = Proposed apartment building = = In 1987 , Sommer proposed to construct a seven @-@ story , 29 @-@ unit apartment building in its parking lot behind the mansion . At the time , the property was zoned residential , with variances permitting a restaurant on the property . Then @-@ owner Walter Sommer claimed that the variances restricted him unfairly , requiring him to go to the zoning board multiple times for changes to his business , in a process that he considered costly and time consuming . Additionally , Sommer claimed that without commercial zoning , he was unable to obtain a " realistic commercial loan " to fund maintenance costs . Between 1982 and 1987 , the D.C. Board of Zoning Appeals granted Sommer variances to expand the commercial use of the building above the first floor permitting a private business club on the second floor . The club never opened . The third floor was an apartment for the General Manager . While the proposed design for the building was approved by the D.C. Office of Planning and the Historic Preservation Review Board , and the Department of Public Works had determined that the plans , which would have included underground parking for both the apartments and the restaurant , would not cause an increase in parking or traffic problems in the area , the community opposed the building 's construction . Nearby resident Duff Gilfont described the proposed apartment building as " such a blight to this area , " and that " there would have been so many people inconvenienced by it . " Several neighborhood associations opposed rezoning the building , expressing concern that the new building would be used as a hotel . Sommer denied that there were plans to use the building as a hotel or an office building . Several covenants were proposed . One would require that the new building only be used for residential purposes . A second would have required that any future owners of the Fraser Mansion would be required to submit their plans for the building for review by the D.C. Historic Preservation Review Board . A third proposed covenant would have split the zoning of the property , allowing only residential use of the building , but requiring variances for any changes in the parking for the restaurant or the apartment building . Despite the proposed covenants , however , community groups vowed to continue to fight the proposal . = = Bankruptcy and attempted sale = = During the fight over the building 's zoning , Sommer claimed that he would go bankrupt if he was unable to develop the property . Fourways filed for Chapter 11 bankruptcy in 1989 , and by October 1989 , the Fourways restaurant had closed . Trying to pay creditors , Sommer attempted to sell the mansion . Sommer 's initial asking price was $ 7 million , which he later reduced to $ 3 million . A number of embassies and chanceries looked at the mansion , but none purchased . According to real estate broker Stanley Holland , Sommer " thought it was worth more than it was . " = = Church of Scientology = = In 1994 , the Church of Scientology purchased the property with the intention of using the building as a church facility . In purchasing the building , Scientology first purchased mortgages on the building in 1993 from the FDIC , which had assumed the loans after the 1990 failure of the National Bank of Washington . Following the purchase of the loans , Scientology foreclosed on the building . In the subsequent foreclosure auction , Scientology purchased the building for $ 2 @.@ 7 million . Following $ 1 million in renovations , the building was dedicated as the new Founding Church of Scientology on October 21 , 1995 by Religious Technology Center chairman David Miscavige . The Founding Church of Scientology relocated from the Fraser Mansion to the nearby Embassy Building on 16th Street NW on October 31 , 2009 . Fraser Mansion now serves as the National Affairs office for the Church of Scientology . = Unbreakable ( Fireflight song ) = " Unbreakable " is a song by Christian rock band Fireflight from their second album , Unbreakable . It was released in November 2007 as the album 's lead single , receiving television promotion on the NBC network that month . The song soon became popular on Christian rock radio , charting at number one in February 2008 . It was 2008 's 14th most played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio . The song is about having triumph and victory over past circumstances and has been described as " anthemic " . The theme of " Unbreakable " was partially inspired by a fan 's question asked on MySpace . It received generally positive reviews from critics and was GMA Dove Award @-@ nominated in 2009 for Rock / Contemporary Song of the Year . = = Background = = The band 's style and theme changed between their debut album , The Healing of Harms ( 2006 ) , and Unbreakable . The first album was thematically based on " trying to fight your way through circumstances " , while Fireflight 's second project has a theme of triumph and being " [ victorious ] over the things that used to control you " . According to the band members , the song " Unbreakable " represents that change between the two albums : " now it 's about finding power in your life " , said bassist Wendy Drennen . = = Music and lyrics = = The song is carried by an " anthemic " sound and the " riveting vocals " of lead vocalist Dawn Michele . Bassist Wendy Drennen said that " Unbreakable " was about " overcoming a defeated mentality and finding the power to remain strong amid the landscape , not allowing fear to hold us back from having victory over the things that used to control us " . It is also lyrically based on the Biblical account of Jesus and the woman taken in adultery ; the song 's first line states , " Where are the people that accused me ? " Richardson said , " The people in charge were ready to kill her , and Jesus speaks up for her , changes their minds and makes them feel ashamed for accusing her ... She knows she ’ s guilty , and yet she ’ s suddenly free and given a second chance . " = = Release and promotion = = " Unbreakable " was featured on the promotional soundtrack for NBC 's television show Bionic Woman during November 2007 . On November 6 , the song was officially released as the lead single from Fireflight 's second album , Unbreakable . In the beginning of February 2008 , it placed at number one on R & R 's Christian rock format , becoming the band 's third number one single on Christian rock radio . It held the position for at least three weeks , and also charted at number 14 on R & R 's Christian contemporary hit radio ( CHR ) chart ; it was the most @-@ added song of the week on the CHR format in mid February . It reached a peak position on the Billboard Hot Christian Songs chart of number 20 in early April . At the end of 2008 " Unbreakable " was the 14th most @-@ played song of the year on Christian contemporary hit radio . In February 2009 , it received a GMA Dove Award nomination for Rock / Contemporary Song of the Year . = = = Reception = = = The song was generally received well by critics . Jesus Freak Hideout editor John DiBiase called it a " powerful anthem " and said that the opening track was " merely the tip of the iceberg " for the album 's quality among the other tracks . Bob Felberg of The Phantom Tollbooth was favorable towards the song , saying , " ' Unbreakable ' ... is one of the strongest Christian rock songs in a long time , both in music and lyrics " , and that it featured " a slinky @-@ like guitar and strings interacting before slamming rhythms blow your hair straight back " . In response to " Unbreakable " being featured on NBC 's Bionic Woman , The Phantom Tollbooth 's second reviewer Bert Saraco said , " Mainstream attention is a wonderful thing , of course , but often signals a necessarily generic element to a project that sometimes sends out danger signals as to its artistic or creative potential . " Tony Cummings of Cross Rhythms magazine said that the song was " excellent " . = = Music video = = The song 's music video premiered on the Gospel Music Channel on March 29 , 2008 . The video primarily shows the band performing in a building with dark lighting , but also depicts three people in their separate difficulties . The first is a man who was involved in a car wreck . Next shown is a woman who has suffered hair loss from chemotherapy cancer treatment , and the third individual is a teenage girl who struggles with bulimia nervosa . At the end of the song , all three have a more relaxed countenance . = = Charts = = = = Awards = = The song was nominated for a Dove Award for Rock / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year at the 40th GMA Dove Awards . = Mustafizur Rahman = Mustafizur Rahman ( born 6 September 1995 ) is a Bangladeshi international cricketer . He is specialized as a left @-@ arm Fast bowler . He has taken the most wickets ( 13 ) in a debut One Day International series . He is the first player to win the ‘ Man of the Match ’ award on both Test as well as ODI debuts . He trained at the prestigious MRF PACE ACADEMY Rahman made his international cricket debut against Pakistan in the Twenty20 format in April 2015 . Later that year , he played his first One Day International and Test matches against India and South Africa , respectively . Before his international career , Rahman played in the 2014 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup . He also represented Dhaka Dynamites in the 2015 Bangladesh Premier League and representing Sunrisers Hyderabad in 2016 Indian Premier League , taking the award of Emerging Player for his debut season . = = Early life = = Mustafizur Rahman grew up in the small town of Shatkhira in Khulna Division , Bangladesh . He is the youngest of Abul Qasem Gazi and Mahmuda Khatun 's six children . His father is an enthusiastic fan of cricket . Rahman 's interest in cricket rose when he started practicing the game 40 kilometers away from home every morning , with his brother Mokhlesur Rahman . This affected his education as he occasionally skipped study to play cricket . Prior to discovering his bowling talents , Rahman played as a batsman with a tennis ball . According to him , he took inspiration from Pakistani pacer Mohammad Amir , who is his idol . = = Youth career = = In 2012 , Rahman came to the capital Dhaka to try out for a fast @-@ bowlers camp . Prior to that , scouters first encountered him in an Under @-@ 17 tournament in his hometown . He was admitted to the Bangladesh Cricket Board 's foundation of fast bowling . Soon he was selected to the Bangladesh Under @-@ 19 side for the 2014 Under @-@ 19 Cricket World Cup in UAE , where he took a total of eight wickets . Rahman started both his First @-@ class cricket and List @-@ A cricket from 2014 , representing Khulna Division and Abahani Limited , respectively . He was picked for Bangladesh A 's tour of West Indies . = = Domestic career = = = = = Indian Premier League = = = In the Indian Premier League auction of the 2016 season , Rahman was drafted by Sunrisers Hyderabad . He took 17 wickets in 16 matches in that tournament where Sunrisers Hyderabad won the title . He was named as " Emerging Player of the Tournament " , being the first overseas player to receive this award . = = = Bangladesh Premier League = = = Rahman 's professional Twenty20 career outside international cricket was the Bangladesh Premier League , where he played for Dhaka Dynamites in its 2015 season . He took 14 wickets in 10 matches in that tournament . = = = NatWest T20 Blast = = = In March 2016 , English side Sussex announced that they had signed Rahman as their second overseas player for the T20 Blast competition . He picked up 4 wickets while giving away only 23 runs in his debut match against Essex County Cricket Club . He bowled a brilliant 4 overs with 15 dot balls out of 24 balls in the match which helped Sussex County Cricket Club to win by 24 runs . = = = Pakistan Super League = = = Mustafizur was selected by Lahore Qalandars in the Pakistan Super League . The BCB was reluctant to let him play there . However , the issue was resolved when Rahman got a shoulder injury in early 2016 , thus preventing him from playing in the PSL . = = International career = = = = = Emergence = = = Mustafizur began his international career in a twenty overs match against Pakistan on 24 April 2015 , where he took the wickets of Shahid Afridi and Mohammad Hafeez , two veteran Pakistani batsmen . In June , India toured Bangladesh for one Test and three One Day Internationals . Rahman was picked in the ODI squad . In his first match of the series , Rahman gave signs of his potential against the strong Indian batting line @-@ up by taking a five @-@ wicket haul off 9 @.@ 2 overs in the first match . Bangladesh won the match and Rahman became the tenth bowler in the history of ODIs to take five wickets on debut . In the second ODI , Rahman took another six wickets . This helped him to earn the record of most wickets of any bowler after two ODIs , surpassing the record previously held by Zimbabwe 's Brian Vitori . He completed the last ODI with 2 wickets and made history by taking 13 wickets in a three @-@ match ODI series . The following month , Rahman took 5 wickets in three ODIs to help Bangladesh win the series against South Africa by 2 – 1 . He made his Test debut in the same series versus South Africa where he picked up 4 wickets . In the month of November , Bangladesh hosted Zimbabwe for three ODIs and two T20s . Rahman played a salient role in the ODI matches , taking a total of 8 wickets . He captured his third five @-@ wicket haul in the last game . He could not contribute much in the T20 series , though he bowled economically , which resulted both sides sharing a win . The next year in January , Bangladesh again played with Zimbabwe in four T20s . Rahman played in the first two matches , which they won . Shoulder injury prevented him playing the entire series . Mustafizur made his return in the 2016 Asia Cup held in Bangladesh . In the first match against India , he conceded forty runs in four overs without taking a wicket . He took three wickets in the next two games against UAE and Sri Lanka , which resulted in his team winning both the games . Then he was ruled out from rest of the series due to side strain . During the 2016 World Twenty20 held in India in March , he missed the Group Stage matches and the match against Pakistan in main round . In the three matches he played , he took nine wickets including a five wicket haul against New Zealand . = = = Injury problems = = = While bowling in the second T20I against Zimbabwe in January 2016 , Mustafizur injured his shoulder . Following that , he was dropped from the squad for the first time since debut . During the Asia Cup held in the next month , he was again sidelined from the team due to his side strain . = = Playing style = = Rahman achieved success in the beginning of his international career by bowling off cutters , a type of bowling which swings the ball away . Rahman stated that he first discovered the technique after his fellow cricketer , Anamul Haque insisted him to bowl a slower delivery.This is very useful to right handed batsmen but he has a difficulty to do the same thing to the left handed batsman . = = Personal and disciplinary issues = = Rahman was assisted by captain Mashrafe Mortaza to talk on post @-@ match interview twice , and on a press conference once . Normally , he struggles to speak to the media and public . In his first ODI match , Rahman collided with the Indian batsman MS Dhoni on two occasions while Dhoni was taking runs . The incident cost both men to be fined post @-@ match . = = Records and milestones = = Mustafizur Rahman became the tenth bowler to take a five @-@ wicket haul on ODI debut . He achieved the records of taking the most wickets ( 11 ) as well as the fourth player to be awarded Man of the match in the first two starting ODI matches . Rahman took 13 wickets in a three @-@ match bilateral ODI series , which is the highest as of 2016 . He is the first player to win Man of the Match awards on both Test and ODI debuts . The governing body of cricket , the International Cricket Council , included Rahman on the ICC ODI Team of the Year in 2015 , recognizing him as one of the top cricketers of that year . He is the first Bangladeshi cricketer to achieve this and the second to be selected for any ICC team after Shakib Al Hasan . = = International performances = = = = = One Day International five @-@ wicket hauls = = = = = = Twenty20 International five @-@ wicket hauls = = = = = International awards = = = = = Test cricket = = = = = = = Man of the match awards = = = = = = = One @-@ Day International cricket = = = = = = = Man of the match awards = = = = = = = = Man of the series awards = = = = = My Gym Partner 's a Monkey = My Gym Partner 's a Monkey is an American animated television series that was created by Tim Cahill and Julie McNally Cahill and produced by Cartoon Network Studios . It premiered on Cartoon Network on December 26 , 2005 . The story revolves around Adam Lyon , a human who , after a clerical error listed his surname as " Lion , " is forced to transfer to Charles Darwin Middle School , a school for local anthropomorphic zoo animals , where he is partnered with Jake Spidermonkey in gym , and quickly becomes best friends with him . The series aired 96 episodes , a special , and a feature film during its run . The series ended its 4 @-@ season run on November 27 , 2008 . On April 27 , 2012 , this series returned to Cartoon Network to show reruns on the revived block , Cartoon Planet . Two DVD volumes have been released in 2007 and 2008 . The first season was recently put on Netflix , along with other Cartoon Network shows , where it is in its original widescreen format , while the second season is cropped to full screen format . My Gym Partner 's a Monkey was a ratings success for Cartoon Network , gaining millions of viewers . The series was met with generally positive reviews from critics . It was nominated for four Annie Awards and won an Emmy Award . = = Overview = = A boy named Adam is transferred to a middle school established for anthropomorphic zoo animals due to a spelling error making his surname " Lion " . There , he is befriended by a mischievous , eccentric spider monkey named Jake , hence the title of the series , along with a sassy toucan named Lupe , a giraffe named Ingrid , who is infatuated with Adam , the intelligent , wise gorilla Windsor , and Slips the easygoing python . In spite of his usual kindness and fondness for his friends , Adam despises being banished to Charles Darwin Middle School because of something beyond his control and longs for his previous human middle school . Usually , the episodes are focused on Adam 's experiences at Charles Darwin Middle School due to his inability to fit in with his anthropomorphic schoolmates , the challenges that he must face ( such as the presumed stupidity of his peers , being schooled in subjects of use only to animals , the introductions of new students of odd , dangerous , or fictional species to the school or the misadventures that Adam stumbles into with them , or the common effects of adolescence as they are experienced by zoo animals ) . = = Characters = = Adam Lyon ( voiced by Nika Futterman ) is a 12 @-@ year @-@ old human boy who was transferred from Chester Arthur Middle School to Charles Darwin Middle School ( CDMS ) by an accidental misspelling of his last name from " Lyon " to " Lion " . As the series title suggests , in gym class , Adam was paired up with Jake Spidermonkey and the two become best friends . Jake 's plans have them getting involved in situations which end up with him and Adam in trouble . Adam , being physically weak , is often preyed upon by the other animal students . His personality is downtrodden , due to being in an animal school and he also has a reputation of complaining about his daily experiences at the school . Adam can be arrogant and strong @-@ willed at times . Outside of school , he is often seen with a human girl named Kerry , with whom he has a secret crush . His efforts to impress her end up with Adam 's embarrassment . Towards the middle of the series , Adam seems to be on the borderline of sanity . Throughout the series , he is a big fan of his favorite superhero , Captain Clowny , despite the time he didn 't get a Captain Clowny action figure for his birthday after making a wish on a star that he would when he was little . He eagerly hopes to attend a clown @-@ based summer day @-@ camp and his college of choice is Clown College , as seen on his resume in the episode " My Feral Lyon " . Jacob P. " Jake " Spidermonkey ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) , as his last name implies , is a spider monkey who quickly became Adam 's best friend . He is often very possessive of Adam and hates not having him around regularly . Jake is emotional and goofy , who takes to heart some of Adam 's comments and actions , leading to some overly @-@ dramatic and exaggerated reactions . He can be lazy and selfish , but at the same time , he is also fairly sensible . A running gag in the series is his obsession with the well @-@ being of his butt , which he made grow so large that it blocked out the sun in one episode . Along with the majority of the other animal students , Jake lives close enough to the school that he can see it from where he lives . Jake is often depicted as unintelligent . Jake has an older brother who looks like a taller , more stretched @-@ out version of Jake . Windsor Gorilla ( voiced by Rick Gomez ) is a highly intelligent Western lowland gorilla , who serves as the anti @-@ bully at the school and often gives confusing wisdom to people . He speaks in a soft @-@ spoken and nearly monotonous manner , often stringing together technical words as a matter of his normal speech . When he talks , only the side of his mouth closest to the camera moves and the rest of his mouth remains closed . He is usually seen with Slips and is generally shown to be the leader of the two . Windsor tends to relate with Adam 's troubles better than the rest of the school , having a good grasp of both human and animal worlds , although he occasionally gives in to his animal instincts as well . Windsor has an older brother in high school who plays for his school 's football team . Slips Python ( voiced by Rick Gomez ) is an easy @-@ going , street @-@ talking green tree python . He is an underachiever and excessive daydreamer whose gullibility allows him to believe anything he hears , which makes him a constant source of misinformation . As a snake , he has no limbs , yet wears a T @-@ shirt ( why is never explained ) . Slips has an older sister in high school who , despite being a girl , looks like an older version of Slips with a deep voice . He is usually seen with his best friend Windsor . Guadalupe " Lupe " Toucan ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is a female Keel @-@ billed toucan , who is loud @-@ mouthed , acerbic , dominating and materialistic , although she considers herself to be mild @-@ tempered and low maintenance . Her best friend is Ingrid , who she dominates more than anyone else . Lupe loves popular culture , such as celebrities and fashion , though not being fond of clumsy toucan celebrity Kiki BonBeaky ( despite this , she said later on that she was one of Kiki 's biggest fans ) . She does not like milk . She speaks with a somewhat exaggerated , but fake , Chicano dialect and is known to have some issues involving what she sees as her overly large beak . Lupe has an elder sister who is in high school . She has a boyfriend named Corey Vulture , who is seen in the episode " Lupe in Love " . Ingrid Giraffe ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is a female Masai giraffe and the tallest student in CDMS . Her towering height only adds to her feelings of insecurity , as she tries desperately to blend into the background . She is often seen with her neck going up then heading down on the screen in an exaggerated hunch , since it is very long and is often seen from the neck down . Lupe , Ingrid 's best friend , often hushes her when she gives advice and basically runs the whole " friendship " . Ingrid has a crush on Adam Lyon , of which he is mostly unaware , or is actively frightened by her advances . She is also considered to be the weakest in the group . Principal Poncherello Pegone Pixiefrog ( voiced by Maurice LaMarche ) , as his last name implies , is a Pixie Frog and the CDMS principal . As a strict , but fair , administrator , he runs a tight ship , which is somewhat remarkable , considering he could easily be squashed underfoot by most of his students and the rest of the faculty ; for instance , when he was forced to watch the cheerleading practice , he ended up being crushed under LaTanya Hippo 's foot with the weight of the entire team . Principal Pixiefrog always dodges lawsuits , is terrified of lawyers and is scared when anyone in the school could get sued ( he is shown to have Liticaphobia ) . He talks similarly to Windsor , only moving part of his mouth , but his voice is much louder . Adam always asks him if anything bothers him , this frog principal will always help him to see . It is also revealed that Principal Pixiefrog has a mother , who bothers him . Mrs. Geraldine Sharon Warthog ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is Principal Pixiefrog 's assistant ; she does all of the filing and is a warthog . Ironically , she never works . Completely fed up with her job and her employer , she always has an air of complete exasperation about her . Her voice is identical to that of Nurse Gazelle . Nurse Gazelle ( voiced by Grey DeLisle ) is a female gazelle who serves as the school nurse of CDMS . She has blond hair and blue eyes . She also claims to have a brain the size of a soy nut , and that it 's really tiny and dry . An interesting note is that she can 't tell between a mirror 's reflection and the animal looking into the mirror or the difference between two slightly similar but not identical animals . Surprisingly , when Adam and Jake created nasty clones of themselves , she was able to differentiate them just before Principal Pixiefrog , who was with her , did . She is a nurse who specializes in injection . She 's also a cosmetologist . Virgil " Bull " Sharkowski ( voiced by Phil LaMarr ) is a bull shark who enjoys beating up smaller kids and stealing their lunches . His intimidating presence , however , is offset by a high @-@ pitched , squeaky voice that sometimes lessens the impact of his verbal threats . Despite being a bully , he also has a soft humane side that he does not usually realize he is revealing . Due to Bull being a water creature , he wears water @-@ filled headphones over his gills to help him breathe ; when he talks , he will stop as his gills suck up the water with a loud noise . Bull has a big sister , Euripedes , who graduated CDMS prior to the beginning of the show and left a lasting impression in the school , a fact that has caused Bull to develop an inferiority complex at the mere mention of her name ( despite the fact she is not only half Bull 's size , but bullies via feminine taunts instead of physical abuse ) . Henry Armadillo ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) is an armadillo who speaks in a thick southern drawl . Coach Tiffany Gills ( voiced by Brian Doyle @-@ Murray ) is a female goldfish . Coach Gills is the school 's tiny , deep @-@ voiced PE and health teacher who instructs her students from inside her fishbowl . She often pesters Adam when he does not perform as well as his fellow students . In " Le Switcheroo " , she and Adam trade roles for a day . After experiencing some trouble , they later reconciled . She has mentioned several times in the series that she has no friends . She once had a crush on Mr. Cheetah , an athletic individual who plans to succeed her and Principal Pixiefrog in their careers . Ironically , though she is a fish , she apparently cannot swim . Miss Chameleon ( voiced by Nika Futterman ) is a female chameleon who is the drama instructor and art teacher . As expected from a drama teacher , she is a drama queen , who speaks overly melodramatically and will often have stereotypical horror music playing when on @-@ scene . She can blend into her surroundings and turn invisible , although in reality , that is a popular misconception about chameleons . She holds class while perched on a twig located under a warming lamp . Dickie Sugarjumper ( voiced by Tom Kenny ) is an Australian @-@ American sugar glider . He made a successful career as a writer for the school 's greatest class clowns . His catch phrase is " Hello ! How 's your trousers ? " Endugu Elephant ( voiced by Phil LaMarr ) is a Jamaican @-@ American African elephant . Kerry ( voiced by Cree Summer ) An African @-@ American girl attending Chester Arthur Middle School who Adam has a secret crush on . = = Broadcast history = = After a pilot airing on December 26 , 2005 , the series began its regular run with a two @-@ episode premiere on Cartoon Network 's " Fridays " block on February 24 , 2006 . The My Gym Partner 's a Monkey @-@ based television film The Big Field Trip aired on January 14 , 2007 , as part of season 3 . A special episode , " That Darn Platypus " , aired on Cartoon Network on May 18 , 2007 , as part of Cartoon Network Invaded , a mini @-@ series that aired 5 specials of different series from May 4 to May 28 , 2007 . The series ended its 4 season @-@ run on November 27 , 2008 , with the episode " A Thanksgiving Carol " . Reruns of the series are shown on the revived block Cartoon Planet since April 27 , 2012 . In Latin America currently airs on Tooncast since 2013 . = = Reception = = My Gym Partner 's a Monkey was a ratings success for Cartoon Network . On the series ' Cartoon Network " Fridays " block two @-@ episode premiere at 9 : 00 and 9 : 30 P.M. EST , the first episode was seen by 1 @.@ 2 million and the second by 1 @.@ 3 million children ages 2 – 11 , according to preliminary data from Nielsen Media Research . The 9 : 30 P.M. telecast ranked as the # 1 telecast on all television , broadcast and cable , with both boys 6 – 11 and boys 2 – 11 in the time period . The series went on top the Fridays block ratings , gaining millions of viewers . My Gym Partner 's a Monkey received generally positive reviews from critics . William Barker of Web Wombat gave the King of the Jungle DVD a positive review , awarding it with a score of 70 % , saying : " With an original – dare I say unique ? – premise , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey makes for a somewhat refreshing change from super heroes and mutants , and the cut @-@ out animation style is captivating , though far from novel . It 's not the most impressive cartoon show I 've ever seen , but it 's quite cute and fairly amusing – even for the older primates among us . " Larisa Wiseman of Common Sense Media awarded the series three out of five stars , saying : " It 's difficult to tell what age group the show 's producers were aiming at – the animation style and slapstick by themselves would seem to appeal mainly to grade @-@ schoolers , while the jokes and life lessons are definitely aimed at the tween set . The sly humor may even give some adults the occasional laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moment . Overall , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey is commendable for its effort to include a subtle message in each episode . Younger viewers will probably find Jake 's sometimes @-@ annoying goofiness amusing , and will definitely find the story lines entertaining . " = = = Awards and nominations = = = = = DVD releases = = Two DVD volumes of the series have been released in Region 4 . The first , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey – King of the Jungle ( featuring 6 episodes , a total of 150 minutes ) , was released on April 4 , 2007 , and the second , My Gym Partner 's a Monkey – Monkey Business ( featuring 7 episodes , a total of 154 minutes ) , on January 23 , 2008 . Both are available for purchase on Amazon.com. There have been no further volumes released . All the seasons are available for purchase on the iTunes Store . = = Rerun = = The show reruns in India on channel Cartoon Network by the name " Samsher Sikandar Chuddie Buddie " . = Walter Peeler = Walter " Wally " Peeler , VC , BEM ( 9 August 1887 – 23 May 1968 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " that can be awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . He was decorated following his actions during the Battle of Broodseinde in October 1917 . Then a lance corporal in the Australian Imperial Force , he repeatedly took the lead in the 37th Battalion 's advance on well @-@ defended German positions , destroying four machine gun posts and killing more than 30 German soldiers during the battle . Born in Castlemaine , Victoria , Peeler worked at various jobs in his home town and in the Melbourne area before enlisting in the Australian Imperial Force in February 1916 . Posted to the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , he arrived on the Western Front during November . In June 1917 , his battalion participated in the assault on Messines ridge , where he was lightly wounded . Eight days after his Victoria Cross action , Peeler was severely wounded in his right arm and spent the next seven months recuperating in the United Kingdom . Following the armistice with Germany , he was discharged from service with the rank of sergeant in December 1918 . Peeler re @-@ settled with his family in Victoria , and was appointed the inaugural custodian of Melbourne 's Shrine of Remembrance in 1934 . In May 1940 , Peeler enlisted for service in the Second World War , understating his age by fourteen years to avoid the upper age limit imposed on volunteers . He was posted to the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion and initially saw action in the Syria @-@ Lebanon Campaign . However , with the entry of Japan into the war , his unit was one of the first sent to the Netherlands East Indies in early 1942 . Originally destined for Sumatra it was diverted to Java and after disembarking assisted in the Dutch defence of the island . When Dutch resistance collapsed in March , allied forces in Java signed a formal surrender with British , Australian and American troops becoming prisoners of war . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years as prisoner of war , Peeler was freed in August 1945 and returned to Australia in October , resuming his duties at the Shrine of Remembrance . He retired in 1964 and , aged 80 , died at his home in South Caulfield on 23 May 1968 . = = Early life = = Walter " Wally " Peeler was born at Barker 's Creek , near Castlemaine , Victoria , on 9 August 1887 . He was the eighth child of William Peeler , a farmer and miner , and his English @-@ born wife Mary Ellen ( née Scott ) . As a youth Peeler worked in his parent 's orchard , before gaining employment with Thompson 's Foundry in Castlemaine . On 10 July 1907 , he wed Kathleen Emma Hewitt ; the couple were to have five children . An active sportsman , Peeler was a member of the Castlemaine Cricket Club and , briefly , secretary of the Wesley Hill Football Club . = = First World War = = By 1916 , Peeler was living in the Melbourne suburb of Richmond with his wife and three daughters . On 17 February , he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force for service in the First World War . Posted as a private soldier to the machine gun section of the 3rd Pioneer Battalion , Peeler underwent his initial training in Victoria , before departing from Melbourne headed for England aboard HMAT Wandilla on 6 June . The battalion arrived in Plymouth seven weeks later . During the three months Peeler 's unit spent in England undergoing additional training , he was charged with being absent without leave for six hours on 3 July , and fined a day 's pay . He was nevertheless promoted to lance corporal on 6 November . Two weeks later , the 3rd Pioneer Battalion was posted to the Western Front . Sent to the Armentières sector , the battalion spent several months working on trench and railway construction . In mid @-@ December , Peeler attended a week @-@ long course at the Machine Gun School in Le Touquet , and in early 1917 , accompanied the battalion north in preparation for the upcoming Messines offensive . However , on 8 May 1917 , one month before the offensive , Peeler found himself the subject of a court @-@ martial in the field . Following an incident that occurred during a training session on 26 April , he was charged with " careless and negligent handling of a Lewis Gun whilst instructing " that led to " grievous bodily injury " to Private John Martin Fife . Found guilty of the charge , Peeler was stripped of his lance corporal stripe . On 7 June 1917 , Peeler participated in the initial assault on Messines Ridge . Manning a Lewis Gun during the action , he was injured twice , suffering shrapnel wounds to his face and eye from an artillery shell , and a gunshot wound to his right cheek . He spent three days in hospital before returning to his battalion . On 22 June , he was once again promoted to lance corporal . The 3rd Pioneer Battalion spent the next four months in a quieter section of the front . = = = Victoria Cross = = = As part of the third stage of General Sir Herbert Plumer 's Passchendaele offensive , an attack against Broodseinde was scheduled for 4 October 1917 . The 3rd Australian Division 's 10th Australian Infantry Brigade was one of the assault formations charged with delivering the main blow , and ultimately with seizing the heavily defended Broodseinde Ridge . To provide defence against low @-@ flying German aircraft during the attack , a group of 24 men , including Peeler , from the 3rd Pioneer Battalion 's machine gun section were attached to the 10th Brigade 's 37th Battalion . The attack on Broodseinde began at 06 : 00 under the cover of an artillery barrage . Armed with a Lewis Gun , Peeler advanced with the initial wave . The Australians rapidly crossed the first 100 metres ( 110 yd ) before becoming pinned down by a party of nine German soldiers , who were situated in a shellhole and sniping at the advancing troops . Firing his machine gun from the hip , Peeler dashed forward across the exposed ground and shot the group of Germans , " clearing the way for the advance " . He performed similar feats on two subsequent occasions , killing several German soldiers and emerging unscathed . The Australian force continued to press their assault , encountering pillboxes and machine gun positions as they pushed forward . One such machine gun position , situated in the open , held up the advance . Firing a single burst from his Lewis Gun , Peeler killed the gunner and caused the remainder of the gun 's defenders to seek cover in a nearby dugout . One of the Australians then lobbed a " well aimed " grenade into the dugout , driving out ten soldiers whom Peeler then shot . Described as being " particularly prominent in the advance " by historian Charles Bean , Peeler " almost single @-@ handedly " destroyed four German posts in an hour , accounting for more than 30 soldiers . By 07 : 15 the following morning , the 37th Battalion had captured its objective , having seized eight pillboxes , several concrete dugouts , 20 machine guns and 420 prisoners . Two hours later , the Australians were in possession of Broodseinde Ridge . For his actions during the battle , Peeler was awarded the Victoria Cross ; one of two Australians to be so decorated that day . On 12 October , eight days after Peeler 's actions , the men of the 10th Brigade returned to the front line in an effort to exploit the success of the previous week . The ground in front of their position was dominated by a series of German pillboxes and had been turned into a quagmire by heavy rain . The brigade 's attack was soon subject to a " torrent of machine gun fire " , and Peeler was severely wounded in his right arm . Initially evacuated to the 11th Australian Field Ambulance casualty station , it was decided that his wound necessitated treatment in England so he embarked for the Northampton War Hospital on 15 October , arriving the following day . While recuperating in England , the announcement and accompanying citation for Peeler 's Victoria Cross was promulgated in a supplement to the London Gazette on 26 November 1917 , reading : War Office , 26th November , 1917 . His Majesty the KING has been graciously pleased to approve of the award of the Victoria Cross to the undermentioned Officer , Non @-@ commissioned Officers and Men : — No. 114 L. / Cpl. Walter Peeler , Aus . Imp . Force . For most conspicuous bravery when with a Lewis gun accompanying the first wave of the assault he encountered an enemy party sniping the advancing troops from a shell @-@ hole . L. / Cpl. Peeler immediately rushed the position and accounted for nine of the enemy , and cleared the way for the advance . On two subsequent occasions he performed similar acts of valour , and each time accounted for a number of the enemy . During operations he was directed to a position from which an enemy machine gun was being fired on our troops . He located and killed the gunner , and the remainder of the enemy party ran into a dugout close by . From this shelter they were dislodged by a bomb , and ten of the enemy ran out . These he disposed of . This non @-@ commissioned officer actually accounted for over thirty of the enemy . He displayed an absolute fearlessness in making his way ahead of the first wave of the assault , and the fine example which he set ensured the success of the attack against most determined opposition . = = = Recuperation and repatriation = = = As news of Peeler 's decoration spread , it prompted a " wave of celebrations " in his hometown of Castlemaine ; flags flew in his honour , and one of his daughters was cheered by fellow pupils at her school . On 8 January 1918 , Peeler was formally conferred with his Victoria Cross by King George V in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace . Having sufficiently recovered from his wound , Peeler rejoined the 3rd Pioneer Battalion in France on 17 May ; he was promoted to temporary corporal two weeks later . On 22 June 1918 , Peeler was posted to the Corps Gas School for eight days . He was promoted to sergeant on 30 July . Around this time , Australian Prime Minister Billy Hughes invited Australia 's Victoria Cross recipients of the war to return to Australia and assist in a recruiting drive . Among the group who accepted the offer , Peeler was one of ten who embarked for Melbourne aboard HMAT Medic on 24 August , arriving in Melbourne seven weeks later . He would not return to France ; on 11 November 1918 an armistice with Germany was declared , effectively ending the war . Peeler was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 10 December . = = Inter @-@ war years = = Following his discharge , Peeler gained employment with the soldier @-@ settler branch of the Victorian Department of Lands . He remained with the department for six years , before acquiring an orchard in the Castlemaine district . However , this venture proved short @-@ lived and he soon returned with his family to Melbourne , joining the H.V. McKay Sunshine Harvester Works at Sunshine . Also on the company 's staff was a fellow Victoria Cross recipient , Dominic McCarthy . When Melbourne 's Shrine of Remembrance was completed in 1934 , Peeler was appointed as the memorial 's first custodian . He occupied this post for next 30 years , coming to regard the Shrine as " his second home " . = = Second World War = = = = = Enlistment and Syrian Campaign = = = On 27 May 1940 , Peeler enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force for service in the Second World War , giving his date of birth on his enlistment forms as 9 August 1901 , thus understating his age by fourteen years . At 52 , Peeler was twelve years over the maximum age limit , although he later claimed he was not the " oldest fellow in my unit " . Granted the acting rank of sergeant , he was allotted to the newly raised 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion . The battalion completed its initial training at Puckapunyal , during which time Peeler was made acting staff sergeant and Company Quartermaster Sergeant of D Company on 1 August . On 7 April 1941 , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion embarked aboard HMT Queen Mary at Sydney , bound for the Middle East ; Peeler 's rank of staff sergeant was confirmed as substantive on the same day . After just under four weeks at sea , the troopship disembarked at Port Tewfik in Suez , where the battalion entrained for Palestine . There it was attached to the 7th Division in support of the Syrian campaign against Vichy French forces . The 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion was initially divided up , with each company attached to a different brigade of the 7th Division . Peeler 's D Company — assigned to the 25th Brigade — was originally tasked with the maintenance and general repair of the road network in its locality . However , when the Vichy French launched a counter @-@ attack on 15 June , the battalion was concentrated in the Merdjayoun area in an effort to prevent any further French gains . On the night of 27 June , after a costly assault against the Vichy French at Merdjayoun earlier that day , Peeler led out a patrol to recover the wounded . Four soldiers were discovered and brought back to the Australian lines . Despite suffering heavy casualties in Syria , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion served throughout the campaign , including participation in the decisive Battle of Damour in July . After the Vichy French defeat in Syria , the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion was relocated to Tripoli , Lebanon where it headquartered itself in an olive grove while carrying out training and garrison duties over the next four months . During November , the battalion was moved to Qatana in Syria , but with the entry of Japan into the war in late 1941 , the 1st Australian Corps including the 6th and 7th Divisions were directed to move to the Netherlands East Indies for service in the Pacific theatre . In January 1942 , Peeler was among the men of the 2 / 2nd Pioneer Battalion who embarked aboard HMT Orcades for Sumatra but later diverted to Java . He was promoted to Warrant Officer Class II during this time . = = = Defence of Java and prisoner of war = = = With the rapid Japanese advance through the Pacific and the fall of Singapore in February 1942 , the 3 @,@ 400 troops aboard Orcades were diverted from Sumatra to Java in the Dutch East Indies . Disembarking at Batavia on 18 February , Peeler 's battalion was combined with the other units aboard Orcades to form Blackforce . This ad hoc grouping , under the command of fellow Victoria Cross holder Brigadier Arthur Blackburn , was tasked with defending a series of airfields and supporting the Dutch . Blackburn organised his men into a brigade formation , consisting of a headquarters and three infantry battalions — the men of the 2 / 2nd Pioneers made up the bulk of Blackforce 's 2nd Battalion . On 28 February 1942 , elements of the Imperial Japanese Army landed on Java . Blackforce was stationed at Buitenzorg , poised to advance west to confront the invaders . However , rapid Japanese progress pushed the defending Dutch forces in the opposite direction , and Blackforce was assigned the defence of Buitenzorg and Leuwiliang . As the situation deteriorated further , Blackburn was forced to withdraw his men east on the night of 4 / 5 March , and again on 7 / 8 March . On 8 March , the Dutch surrendered , ordering all men to lay down their arms . With supplies running low and unable to contact the Australian Government , Brigadier Blackburn announced the surrender of Blackforce four days later . Peeler and his fellow soldiers thus became prisoners of war . At the time , he was one of three Australian Victoria Cross recipients of the First World War serving overseas , all of whom were " swept up in the Japanese advance " ; Blackburn surrendered with Peeler at Java , while Walter Brown was caught up in the fall of Singapore , where he is believed to have been killed attempting to evade capture . Peeler was among a contingent of Australian captives transported to work on the Burma Railway . Despite the " harsh treatment " meted out by the Japanese , he later played down his ordeal , stating : " I wasn 't treated too badly , apart from nearly starving ... But what the Japs did to the others on the railway was pretty horrifying " . After three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years incarceration , he was freed following the Japanese capitulation in August 1945 and the subsequent liberation of prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camps in the Pacific . On 6 October , Peeler embarked for Australia aboard HMS Highland Brigade ; he arrived in Melbourne fifteen days later . Back in Australia , he learned that his son , Donald , had been killed in action on the island of Bougainville on 31 December 1944 , while serving with the 15th Battalion . Donald Peeler was posthumously Mentioned in Despatches for his " distinguished service in the South @-@ West Pacific Area " . Warrant Officer Class II Walter Peeler was discharged from the Second Australian Imperial Force on 12 December 1945 . = = Later life and legacy = = Peeler resumed his duties as custodian of the Shrine of Remembrance on his discharge , guiding visitors around the memorial . In the 1961 Queen 's Birthday Honours , his " long and dedicated service " at the Shrine was recognised with the award of the British Empire Medal . He retired three years later at the age of 76 , stating : " It 's time I had a rest . " In 1966 , Peeler was interviewed for a newspaper article ; when queried on his Victoria Cross exploit , he recalled : My wartime experiences are nothing to make a splash about ... I 'm just an ex @-@ soldier who did his job . I never saw the faces of those I killed . They were just men in an enemy uniform . It was simply them or me . I don 't think I was brave — not any more than the other Aussies who were with me . I simply had a job to do and I did it ... Only afterwards did I realise how lucky I 'd been not to get killed myself . On 23 May 1968 , Peeler died at his home in South Caulfield , Victoria . Survived by his wife , Kathleen , and their four remaining children , he was buried in Brighton Cemetery . Kathleen died the following year . Peeler is commemorated in the Victorian Garden of Remembrance , and a soldiers ' club in Casula , New South Wales , bears his name . His Victoria Cross and other medals are on display in the Hall of Valour at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra . = Astatine = Astatine is a radioactive chemical element with the chemical symbol At and atomic number 85 , and is the rarest naturally occurring element on the Earth 's crust . It occurs on Earth as the decay product of various heavier elements . All its isotopes are short @-@ lived ; the most stable is astatine @-@ 210 , with a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 1 hours . Elemental astatine has never been viewed because any macroscopic sample would be immediately vaporized by its radioactive heating . It has yet to be determined if this obstacle could be overcome with sufficient cooling . The bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty . Many of these have been estimated based on its periodic table position as a heavier analog of iodine , and a member of the halogens – the group of elements including fluorine , chlorine and bromine . It is likely to have a dark or lustrous appearance and may be a semiconductor or possibly a metal ; it probably has a higher melting point than that of iodine . Chemically , several anionic species of astatine are known and most of its compounds resemble those of iodine . It also shows some metallic behavior , including being able to form a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution ( unlike the lighter halogens ) . Dale R. Corson , Kenneth Ross MacKenzie , and Emilio G. Segrè synthesized the element at the University of California , Berkeley in 1940 , naming it after the Greek astatos ( ἄστατος ) , " unstable " . Four isotopes of astatine were subsequently found in nature , although it is the least abundant of all the naturally occurring elements , with much less than one gram being present at any given time in the Earth 's crust . Neither the most stable isotope astatine @-@ 210 nor the medically useful astatine @-@ 211 occurs naturally . They can only be produced synthetically , usually by bombarding bismuth @-@ 209 with alpha particles . = = Characteristics = = Astatine is an extremely radioactive element ; all its isotopes have short half @-@ lives of 8 @.@ 1 hours or less , decaying into bismuth , polonium , radon , or other astatine isotopes . Most of its isotopes are very unstable with half @-@ lives of one second or less . Of the first 101 elements in the periodic table , only francium is less stable . The bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty . Research is limited by its short half @-@ life , which prevents the creation of weighable quantities . A visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity . It remains to be seen if , with sufficient cooling , a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film . Astatine is usually classified as either a nonmetal or a metalloid ; metal formation has also been predicted . = = = Physical = = = Most of the physical properties of astatine have been estimated ( by interpolation or extrapolation ) , using theoretically or empirically derived methods . For example , halogens get darker with increasing atomic weight – fluorine is nearly colorless , chlorine is yellow @-@ green , bromine is red @-@ brown , and iodine is dark gray / violet . Astatine is sometimes described as probably being a black solid ( assuming it follows this trend ) , or as having a metallic appearance ( if it is a metalloid or a metal ) . The melting and boiling points of astatine are also expected to follow the trend seen in the halogen series , increasing with atomic number . On this basis they are estimated to be 575 and 610 K ( 302 and 337 ° C ; 575 and 638 ° F ) , respectively . Some experimental evidence suggests astatine may have lower melting and boiling points than those implied by the halogen trend . Astatine sublimes less readily than does iodine , having a lower vapor pressure . Even so , half of a given quantity of astatine will vaporize in approximately an hour if put on a clean glass surface at room temperature . The absorption spectrum of astatine in the middle ultraviolet region has lines at 224 @.@ 401 and 216 @.@ 225 nm , suggestive of 6p to 7s transitions . The structure of solid astatine is unknown . As an analogue of iodine it may have an orthorhombic crystalline structure composed of diatomic astatine molecules , and be a semiconductor ( with a band gap of 0 @.@ 7 eV ) . Alternatively , if condensed astatine forms a metallic phase , as has been predicted , it may have a monatomic face @-@ centered cubic structure . Evidence for ( or against ) the existence of diatomic astatine ( At2 ) is sparse and inconclusive . Some sources state that it does not exist , or at least has never been observed , while other sources assert or imply its existence . Despite this controversy , many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted ; for example , its bond length would be 300 ± 10 pm , dissociation energy 83 @.@ 7 ± 12 @.@ 5 kJ · mol − 1 , and heat of vaporization ( ∆ Hvap ) 54 @.@ 39 kJ · mol − 1 . The latter figure means that astatine may ( at least ) be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with a heat of vaporization greater than ~ 42 kJ · mol − 1 are metallic when liquid ; diatomic iodine , with a value of 41 @.@ 71 kJ · mol − 1 , falls just short of the threshold figure . = = = Chemical = = = The chemistry of astatine is " clouded by the extremely low concentrations at which astatine experiments have been conducted , and the possibility of reactions with impurities , walls and filters , or radioactivity by @-@ products , and other unwanted nano @-@ scale interactions . " Many of its apparent chemical properties have been observed using tracer studies on extremely dilute astatine solutions , typically less than 10 − 10 mol · L − 1 . Some properties – such as anion formation – align with other halogens . Astatine has some metallic characteristics as well , such as plating onto a cathode , coprecipitating with metal sulfides in hydrochloric acid , and forming a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution . It forms complexes with EDTA , a metal chelating agent , and is capable of acting as a metal in antibody radiolabeling ; in some respects astatine in the + 1 state is akin to silver in the same state . Most of the organic chemistry of astatine is , however , analogous to that of iodine . Astatine has an electronegativity of 2 @.@ 2 on the revised Pauling scale – lower than that of iodine ( 2 @.@ 66 ) and the same as hydrogen . In hydrogen astatide ( HAt ) the negative charge is predicted to be on the hydrogen atom , implying that this compound should instead be referred to as astatine hydride . That would be consistent with the electronegativity of astatine on the Allred – Rochow scale ( 1 @.@ 9 ) being less than that of hydrogen ( 2 @.@ 2 ) . The electron affinity of astatine is predicted to be reduced by one @-@ third because of spin @-@ orbit interactions . = = Compounds = = Less reactive than iodine , astatine is the least reactive of the halogens , although its compounds have been synthesized in microscopic amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their radioactive disintegration . The reactions involved have been typically tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine . Acting as a carrier , the iodine ensures there is sufficient material for laboratory techniques ( such as filtration and precipitation ) to work . Like iodine , astatine has been shown to adopt odd @-@ numbered oxidation states ranging from − 1 to + 7 . Only a few compounds with metals have been reported , in the form of astatides of sodium , palladium , silver , thallium , and lead . Some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide , and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides , have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides . The formation of an astatine compound with hydrogen – usually referred to as hydrogen astatide – was noted by the pioneers of astatine chemistry . As mentioned , there are grounds for instead referring to this compound as astatine hydride . It is easily oxidized ; acidification by dilute nitric acid gives the At0 or At + forms , and the subsequent addition of silver ( I ) may only partially , at best , precipitate astatine as silver ( I ) astatide ( AgAt ) . Iodine , in contrast , is not oxidized , and precipitates readily as silver ( I ) iodide . Astatine is known to bind to boron , carbon , and nitrogen . Various boron cage compounds have been prepared with At – B bonds , these being more stable than At – C bonds . Carbon tetraastatide ( CAt4 ) has been synthesized . Astatine can replace a hydrogen atom in benzene to form astatobenzene C6H5At ; this may be oxidized to C6H5AtCl2 by chlorine . By treating this compound with an alkaline solution of hypochlorite , C6H5AtO2 can be produced . In the molecules dipyridine @-@ astatine ( I ) perchlorate [ At ( C5H5N ) 2 ] [ ClO4 ] and the analogous nitrate , the astatine atom is bonded to each nitrogen atom in the two pyridine rings . With oxygen , there is evidence of the species AtO − , AtO − 2 , and AtO + in aqueous solution , formed by the reaction of astatine with an oxidant such as elemental bromine or ( in the last case ) by sodium persulfate in a solution of perchloric acid . The well characterized AtO − 3 anion can be obtained by , for example , the oxidation of astatine with potassium hypochlorite in a solution of potassium hydroxide . Preparation of lanthanum triastatinate La ( AtO3 ) 3 , following the oxidation of astatine by a hot Na2S2O8 solution , has been reported . Further oxidation of AtO − 3 , such as by xenon difluoride ( in a hot alkaline solution ) or periodate ( in a neutral or alkaline solution ) , yields the perastatate ion AtO − 4 ; this is only stable in neutral or alkaline solutions . Astatine is also thought to be capable of forming cations in salts with oxyanions such as iodate or dichromate ; this is based on the observation that , in acidic solutions , monovalent or intermediate positive states of astatine coprecipitate with the insoluble salts of metal cations such as silver ( I ) iodate or thallium ( I ) dichromate . Astatine may form bonds to the other chalcogens ; these include S7At + and At ( CSN ) − 2 with sulfur , a coordination selenourea compound with selenium , and an astatine – tellurium colloid with tellurium . Astatine is known to react with its lighter homologs iodine , bromine , and chlorine in the vapor state ; these reactions produce diatomic interhalogen compounds with formulas AtI , AtBr , and AtCl . The first two compounds may also be produced in water – astatine reacts with iodine / iodide solution to form AtI , whereas AtBr requires ( aside from astatine ) an iodine / iodine monobromide / bromide solution . The excess of iodides or bromides may lead to AtBr − 2 and AtI − 2 ions , or in a chloride solution , they may produce species like AtCl − 2 or AtBrCl − via equilibrium reactions with the chlorides . Oxidation of the element with dichromate ( in nitric acid solution ) showed that adding chloride turned the astatine into a molecule likely to be either AtCl or AtOCl . Similarly , AtOCl − 2 or AtCl − 2 may be produced . Polyhalides PdAtI2 , CsAtI2 , TlAtI2 , and PbAtI are known or presumed to have been precipitated . In a plasma ion source mass spectrometer , the ions [ AtI ] + , [ AtBr ] + , and [ AtCl ] + have been formed by introducing lighter halogen vapors into a helium @-@ filled cell containing astatine , supporting the existence of stable neutral molecules in the plasma ion state . No astatine fluorides have been discovered yet . Their absence has been speculatively attributed to the extreme reactivity of such compounds , including the reaction of an initially formed fluoride with the walls of the glass container to form a non @-@ volatile product . Thus , although the synthesis of an astatine fluoride is thought to be possible , it may require a liquid halogen fluoride solvent , as has already been used for the characterization of radon fluoride . = = History = = In 1869 , when Dmitri Mendeleev published his periodic table , the space under iodine was empty ; after Niels Bohr established the physical basis of the classification of chemical elements , it was suggested that the fifth halogen belonged there . Before its officially recognized discovery , it was called " eka @-@ iodine " ( from Sanskrit eka – " one " ) to imply it was one space under iodine ( in the same manner as eka @-@ silicon , eka @-@ boron , and others ) . Scientists tried to find it in nature ; given its rarity , these attempts resulted in several false discoveries . The first claimed discovery of eka @-@ iodine was made by Fred Allison and his associates at the Alabama Polytechnic Institute ( now Auburn University ) in 1931 . The discoverers named element 85 " alabamine " , and assigned it the symbol Ab , designations that were used for a few years . In 1934 , H. G. MacPherson of University of California , Berkeley disproved Allison 's method and the validity of his discovery . There was another claim in 1937 , by the chemist Rajendralal De . Working in Dacca in British India ( now Dhaka in Bangladesh ) , he chose the name " dakin " for element 85 , which he claimed to have isolated as the thorium series equivalent of radium F ( polonium @-@ 210 ) in the radium series . The properties he reported for dakin do not correspond to those of astatine ; moreover , astatine is not found in the thorium series , and the true identity of dakin is not known . In 1936 , a team of Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and French physicist Yvette Cauchois claimed to have discovered element 85 via X @-@ ray analysis . In 1939 they published another paper which supported and extended previous data . In 1944 , Hulubei published a summary of data he had obtained up to that time , claiming it was supported by the work of other researchers . He chose the name " dor " , presumably from the Romanian for " longing " [ for peace ] , as World War II had started five years earlier . As Hulubei was writing in French , a language which does not accommodate the " ine " suffix , dor would likely have been rendered in English as " dorine " , had it been adopted . In 1947 , Hulubei 's claim was effectively rejected by the Austrian chemist Friedrich Paneth , who would later chair the IUPAC committee responsible for recognition of new elements . Even though Hulubei 's samples did contain astatine , his means to detect it were too weak , by current standards , to enable correct identification . He had also been involved in an earlier false claim as to the discovery of element 87 ( francium ) and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work . In 1940 , the Swiss chemist Walter Minder announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta decay product of radium A ( polonium @-@ 218 ) , choosing the name " helvetium " ( from Helvetia , " Switzerland " ) . Karlik and Bernert were unsuccessful in reproducing his experiments , and subsequently attributed Minder 's results to contamination of his radon stream ( radon @-@ 222 is the parent isotope of polonium @-@ 218 ) . In 1942 , Minder , in collaboration with the English scientist Alice Leigh @-@ Smith , announced the discovery of another isotope of element 85 , presumed to be the product of thorium A ( polonium @-@ 216 ) beta decay . They named this substance " anglo @-@ helvetium " , but Karlik and Bernert were again unable to reproduce these results . Later in 1940 , Dale R. Corson , Kenneth Ross MacKenzie , and Emilio Segrè isolated the element at the University of California , Berkeley . Instead of searching for the element in nature , the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth @-@ 209 with alpha particles in a cyclotron ( particle accelerator ) to produce , after emission of two neutrons , astatine @-@ 211 . The name " astatine " comes from the Greek astatos ( αστατος ) meaning " unstable " , because of its propensity for radioactive decay , with the ending " -ine " , found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens . Three years later , astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring decay chains by Berta Karlik and Traude Bernert , first in the so @-@ called uranium series , and then in the actinium series . Since then , astatine has been determined in a third decay chain , the neptunium series . Corson and his colleagues classified astatine as a metal on the basis of its analytical chemistry . Subsequent investigators reported iodine @-@ like , cationic , or amphoteric behavior . In a 2003 retrospective , Corson wrote that " some of the properties [ of astatine ] are similar to iodine … it also exhibits metallic properties , more like its metallic neighbors Po and Bi . " = = Isotopes = = There are 39 known isotopes of astatine , with atomic masses ( mass numbers ) of 191 – 229 . Theoretical modeling suggests that 37 more isotopes could exist . No stable or long @-@ lived astatine isotope has been observed nor is one expected to exist . Astatine 's alpha decay energies follow the same trend as for other heavy elements . Lighter astatine isotopes have quite high energies of alpha decay , which become lower as the nuclei become heavier . Astatine @-@ 211 has a significantly higher energy than the previous isotope , because it has a nucleus with 126 neutrons , and 126 is a magic number corresponding to a filled neutron shell . Despite having a similar half @-@ life to the previous isotope ( 8 @.@ 1 hours for astatine @-@ 210 and 7 @.@ 2 hours for astatine @-@ 211 ) , the alpha decay probability is much higher for the latter : 41 @.@ 81 % against only 0 @.@ 18 % . The two following isotopes release even more energy , with astatine @-@ 213 releasing the most energy . For this reason , it is the shortest @-@ lived astatine isotope . Even though heavier astatine isotopes release less energy , no long @-@ lived astatine isotope exists , because of the increasing role of beta decay ( electron emission ) . This decay mode is especially important for astatine ; as early as 1950 it was postulated that all isotopes of the element undergo beta decay . Beta decay modes have been found for all astatine isotopes except astatine @-@ 213 , -214 , -215 , and -216m . Astatine @-@ 210 and lighter isotopes exhibit beta plus decay ( positron emission ) , astatine @-@ 216 and heavier isotopes exhibit beta ( minus ) decay , and astatine @-@ 212 decays via both modes , while astatine @-@ 211 undergoes electron capture . The most stable isotope is astatine @-@ 210 , which has a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 1 hours . The primary decay mode is beta plus , to the relatively long @-@ lived ( in comparison to astatine isotopes ) alpha emitter polonium @-@ 210 . In total , only five isotopes have half @-@ lives exceeding one hour ( astatine @-@ 207 to -211 ) . The least stable ground state isotope is astatine @-@ 213 , with a half @-@ life of 125 nanoseconds . It undergoes alpha decay to the extremely long @-@ lived bismuth @-@ 209 . Astatine has 24 known nuclear isomers , which are nuclei with one or more nucleons ( protons or neutrons ) in an excited state . A nuclear isomer may also be called a " meta @-@ state " , meaning the system has more internal energy than the " ground state " ( the state with the lowest possible internal energy ) , making the former likely to decay into the latter . There may be more than one isomer for each isotope . The most stable of these nuclear isomers is astatine @-@ 202m1 , which has a half @-@ life of about 3 minutes , longer than those of all the ground states bar those of isotopes 203 – 211 and 220 . The least stable is astatine @-@ 214m1 ; its half @-@ life of 265 nanoseconds is shorter than those of all ground states except that of astatine @-@ 213 . = = Natural occurrence = = Astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element . The total amount of astatine in the Earth 's crust ( quoted mass 2 @.@ 36 × 1025 grams ) is estimated to be less than one gram at any given time . Any astatine present at the formation of the Earth has long since disappeared ; the four naturally occurring isotopes ( astatine @-@ 215 , -217 , -218 and -219 ) are instead continuously produced as a result of the decay of radioactive thorium and uranium ores , and trace quantities of neptunium @-@ 237 . The landmass of North and South America combined , to a depth of 16 kilometers ( 10 miles ) , contains only about one trillion astatine @-@ 215 atoms at any given time ( around 3 @.@ 5 × 10 − 10 grams ) . Astatine @-@ 217 is produced via the radioactive decay of neptunium @-@ 237 . Primordial remnants of the latter isotope — due to its relatively short half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 14 million years — are no longer present on Earth . However trace amounts occur naturally as a product of transmutation reactions in uranium ores . Astatine @-@ 218 was the first astatine isotope discovered in nature . Astatine @-@ 219 , with a half @-@ life of 56 seconds , is the longest lived of the naturally occurring isotopes . Isotopes of astatine are sometimes not listed as naturally occurring because of misconceptions that there are no such isotopes , or discrepancies in the literature . Astatine @-@ 216 has been counted as a naturally occurring isotope but reports of its observation ( which were described as doubtful ) have not been confirmed . = = Synthesis = = = = = Formation = = = Astatine was first produced by bombarding bismuth @-@ 209 with energetic alpha particles , and this is still the major route used to create the relatively long @-@ lived isotopes astatine @-@ 209 through astatine @-@ 211 . Astatine is only produced in minuscule quantities , with modern techniques allowing production runs of up to 6 @.@ 6 gigabecquerels ( about 86 nanograms or 2 @.@ 47 × 1014 atoms ) . Synthesis of greater quantities of astatine using this method is constrained by the limited availability of suitable cyclotrons and the prospect of melting the target . Solvent radiolysis due to the cumulative effect of astatine decay is a related problem . With cryogenic technology , microgram quantities of astatine might be able to be generated via proton irradiation of thorium or uranium to yield radon @-@ 211 , in turn decaying to astatine @-@ 211 . Contamination with astatine @-@ 210 is expected to be a drawback of this method . The most important isotope is astatine @-@ 211 , the only one in commercial use . To produce the bismuth target , the metal is sputtered onto a gold , copper , or aluminium surface at 50 to 100 milligrams per square centimeter . Bismuth oxide can be used instead ; this is forcibly fused with a copper plate . The target is kept under a chemically neutral nitrogen atmosphere , and is cooled with water to prevent premature astatine vaporization . In a particle accelerator , such as a cyclotron , alpha particles are collided with the bismuth . Even though only one bismuth isotope is used ( bismuth @-@ 209 ) , the reaction may occur in three possible ways , producing astatine @-@ 209 , astatine @-@ 210 , or astatine @-@ 211 . In order to eliminate undesired nuclides , the maximum energy of the particle accelerator is set to a value ( optimally 29 @.@ 17 MeV ) above that for the reaction producing astatine @-@ 211 ( to produce the desired isotope ) and below the one producing astatine @-@ 210 ( to avoid producing other astatine isotopes ) . = = = Separation methods = = = Since astatine is the main product of the synthesis , after its formation it must only be separated from the target and any significant contaminants . Several methods are available , " but they generally follow one of two approaches — dry distillation or [ wet ] acid treatment of the target followed by solvent extraction . " The methods summarized below are modern adaptations of older procedures , as reviewed by Kugler and Keller . Pre @-@ 1985 techniques more often addressed the elimination of co @-@ produced toxic polonium ; this requirement is now mitigated by capping the energy of the cyclotron irradiation beam . = = = = Dry = = = = The astatine @-@ containing cyclotron target is heated to a temperature of around 650 ° C. The astatine volatilizes and is condensed in ( typically ) a cold trap . Higher temperatures of up to around 850 ° C may increase the yield , at the risk of bismuth contamination from concurrent volatilization . Redistilling the condensate may be required to minimize the presence of bismuth ( as bismuth can interfere with astatine labeling reactions ) . The astatine is recovered from the trap using one or more low concentration solvents such as sodium hydroxide , methanol or chloroform . Astatine yields of up to around 80 % may be achieved . Dry separation is the method most commonly used to produce a chemically useful form of astatine . = = = = Wet = = = = The bismuth ( or sometimes bismuth trioxide ) target is dissolved in , for example , concentrated nitric or perchloric acid . Astatine is extracted using an organic solvent such as butyl or isopropyl ether , or thiosemicarbazide . A separation yield of 93 % using nitric acid has been reported , falling to 72 % by the time purification procedures were completed ( distillation of nitric acid , purging residual nitrogen oxides , and redissolving bismuth nitrate to enable liquid @-@ liquid extraction ) . Wet methods involve " multiple radioactivity handling steps " and are not well suited for isolating larger quantities of astatine . They can enable the production of astatine in a specific oxidation state and may have greater applicability in experimental radiochemistry . = = Uses and precautions = = Newly formed astatine @-@ 211 is the subject of ongoing research in nuclear medicine . It must be used quickly as it decays with a half @-@ life of 7 @.@ 2 hours ; this is long enough to permit multistep labeling strategies . Astatine @-@ 211 has potential for targeted alpha particle radiotherapy , since it decays either via emission of an alpha particle ( to bismuth @-@ 207 ) , or via electron capture ( to an extremely short @-@ lived nuclide , polonium @-@ 211 , which undergoes further alpha decay ) . Polonium X @-@ rays emitted as a result of the electron capture branch , in the range of 77 – 92 keV , enable the tracking of astatine in animals and patients . The principal medicinal difference between astatine @-@ 211 and iodine @-@ 131 ( a radioactive iodine isotope also used in medicine ) is that iodine @-@ 131 emits high energy beta particles , and astatine does not . Beta particles have much greater penetrating power through tissues than do the much heavier alpha particles . An average alpha particle released by astatine @-@ 211 can travel up to 70 µm through surrounding tissues ; an average energy beta particle emitted by iodine @-@ 131 can travel nearly 30 times as far , to about 2 mm . The short half @-@ life and limited penetrating power of alpha radiation through tissues offers advantages in	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
situations where the " tumor burden is low and / or malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues . " Significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine @-@ 211 atoms bound per cell . Several obstacles have been encountered in the development of astatine @-@ based radiopharmaceuticals for cancer treatment . World War II delayed research for close to a decade . Results of early experiments indicated that a cancer @-@ selective carrier would need to be developed and it was not until the 1970s that monoclonal antibodies became available for this purpose . Unlike iodine , astatine shows a tendency to dehalogenate from molecular carriers such as these , particularly at sp3 carbon sites ( less so from sp2 sites ) . Given the toxicity of astatine accumulated and retained in the body , this emphasized the need to ensure it remained attached to its host molecule . While astatine carriers that are slowly metabolized can be assessed for their efficacy , more rapidly metabolized carriers remain a significant obstacle to the evaluation of astatine in nuclear medicine . Mitigating the effects of astatine induced radiolysis of labeling chemistry and carrier molecules is another area requiring further development . A practical application for astatine as a cancer treatment would potentially be suitable for a " staggering " number of patients ; production of astatine in the quantities that would be required remains an issue . Animal studies show that astatine , similarly to iodine , although to a lesser extent , is preferentially concentrated in the thyroid gland . Unlike iodine , astatine also shows a tendency to be taken up by the lungs and spleen , possibly because of in body oxidation of At – to At + . If administered in the form of a radiocolloid it tends to concentrate in the liver . Experiments in rats and monkeys suggest that astatine @-@ 211 causes much greater damage to the thyroid gland than does iodine @-@ 131 , with repetitive injection of the nuclide resulting in necrosis and cell dysplasia within the gland . Early research suggested that injection of astatine into female rodents caused morphological changes in breast tissue ; this conclusion remained controversial for many years . General agreement was later reached that this was likely caused by the effect of breast tissue irradiation combined with hormonal changes due to irradiation of the ovaries . = Osborne Reef = Osborne Reef is an artificial reef off the coast of Fort Lauderdale , Florida , constructed of concrete jacks in a 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter circle . In the 1970s , the reef was the subject of an ambitious expansion project utilizing old and discarded tires . The project ultimately failed , and the " reef " has come to be considered an environmental disaster — ultimately doing more harm than good in the coastal Florida waters . In 2007 , after several false starts , cleanup efforts began when the United States military took on the project . This cleanup exercise provides the military with a real @-@ world training environment for their diving and recovery personnel , coupled with the benefit of helping the Florida coast without incurring significant costs to the state . = = Construction = = In 1972 , Broward Artificial Reef Inc . ( BARINC ) proposed the construction of an enlarged artificial reef to Broward County as a way to both dispose of old tires as well as lure more game fish to the area . Similarly designed reefs had already been constructed in the Northeastern United States , the neighboring Gulf of Mexico , Indonesia , Malaysia , Australia , and Africa . Gregory McIntosh , an employee of BARINC , lauded the project to the attendees of a 1974 conference on artificial reefs : " Tires , which were an esthetic pollutant ashore , could be recycled , so to speak , to build a fishing reef at sea . " With endorsement of the project by the US Army Corps of Engineers , the Broward County government approved the project : that spring more than 100 privately owned boats enthusiastically volunteered to assist with the project ; accompanied by the USS Thrush thousands of tire bundles were simultaneously dropped onto the reef . The Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company provided equipment for the auspicious undertaking ; even supporting the project so far as to drop a gold @-@ painted tire from a Goodyear Blimp to christen the site . The culmination of the project was the deposit of over two million tires bound with steel clips over 36 acres ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) of the ocean floor , approximately 7 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) offshore and at a depth of 65 feet ( 20 m ) . Multiple concrete jacks were spread in a circle of 50 feet ( 15 m ) diameter . = = Failure = = Ultimately , little marine life has been successful in latching onto the man @-@ made reef and the majority never even had the opportunity to do so . When deposited , while a few tires were individual loose entities , the majority were bound together with nylon or steel clips ( or bands ) . As there were no exceptional efforts made to ensure the non @-@ corrosivity of the steel restraints , they summarily failed — resulting in the loosing of over two million individual , lightweight tires . This newfound mobility destroyed any marine life that had thus far grown on the tires , and effectively prevented the growth of any new organisms . Furthermore , the tires were now easily subject to the tropical winds and storms that frequent the east coast of Florida and continue to collide ( at times with tremendous force ) with other natural coral reefs only 70 feet ( 21 m ) away : compounding their uselessness with environmentally damaging side @-@ effects . Lastly , the concern of adjacent coastal areas is that the tires are not remaining within the boundaries of Osborne Reef . In 1995 , Hurricane Opal managed to spread over 1 @,@ 000 tires onto the Florida Panhandle , west of Pensacola ; and in 1998 , Hurricane Bonnie deposited thousands of the tires onto North Carolina beaches . This project is not the only one of its nature to fail ; Indonesia and Malaysia mounted enormous tire @-@ reef programs in the 1980s and are now seeing the ramifications of the failure of tire reefs , from littered beaches to reef destruction . Jack Sobel , The Ocean Conservancy 's director of strategic conservation said in a 2002 interview that " I don 't know of any cases where there 's been a success with tire reefs . " That year , The Ocean Conservancy 's International Coastal Cleanup removed 11 @,@ 956 tires from beaches all over the world . = = Cleanup = = In 2001 , Dr. Robin Sherman of Nova Southeastern University was awarded a US $ 30 @,@ 000 grant by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) to begin a tire removal program . She was able to coordinate the removal of only 1 @,@ 600 tires from the reef , and at a cost estimated at $ 17 a tire . In 2002 , Florida and Broward County environmental officials began the long and arduous process of setting into motion a plan to remove the tires . An original estimate of between $ 40 and $ 100 million led the Florida Department of Environmental Protection ( DEP ) to plan to arrange a deal with those companies whose construction damages the seabed and reefs . Where they would previously mitigate their destructive construction with replacement constructs for reefs , the state would require them to make their amends by removing tires from the Osborne Reef . This plan faced criticism by environmental groups who felt that this would only hasten the destruction of more marine habitats . Florida did not follow through on these plans . In May 2015 , a two @-@ year project to clear 90 @,@ 000 tires from the site was commenced by the Florida Department of Environmental Protection . = = = US military involvement = = = In 2007 , Broward County contacted the United States Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs about their Innovative Readiness Training ( IRT ) program , which looks for civil @-@ military projects that improve military readiness and address the needs of the American public . CWO Donovan Motley said that the cleanup of Osborne Reef easily met those requirements : " This project allows these military divers and Army LCU crew members ' real @-@ world training in ' wartime ' salvage ops . And perhaps , more importantly , it exercises interoperability with federal , state and county agencies and these skill sets could have the most significance in the aftermath of a Katrina @-@ type natural disaster . " Beginning in June 2007 , the United States military and Coast Guard began “ DiveExEast 07 " to ascertain the best and most efficient processes for the cleanup effort . Barring unforeseen operational commitments and engagements , military divers hope to use this project as a training platform for several years and " recover the maximum number of tires possible from day one . " Coastal America , an office of the United States federal government was tasked with coordinating the cleanup of the reef ; they were instrumental in finalizing the deal wherein the Florida government would allocate $ 2 million to cover transport and recycling of the tires . Ken Banks with the Florida DEP estimated the project to take three to five years , and while that timeline won 't allow for the removal of all two million tires , it should mitigate the majority of the damage they 're causing to the corals and coastline , though Banks predicted it could take decades for the reefs to rebuild . Summer 2007 saw US Navy , Army , and Coast Guard divers based out of a Coast Guard base in Dania Beach , Florida working to clean the reef . The joint team first worked to remove the tires from where they were doing the most damage , abutting against natural reefs in the area . In 2007 , the recovery effort brought approximately 10 @,@ 000 tires ashore . In 2008 , recovery stopped after 26 days on May 24 after retrieving 43 @,@ 900 tires . That year , Florida spent approximately $ 140 @,@ 000 on the cleanup , some of which constituted transport for the tires to a shredding facility in neighboring Georgia whereafter they were burnt as fuel at a paper mill . Key members of the 2008 cleanup effort were US Army Captain Russell Destremps and his 86th Engineer Dive Team ; on August 10 , 2009 , they were presented with the 2008 Coastal America Partnership Award and a letter from President Obama for their participation in the reef cleanup effort . The award recognizes " outstanding partnerships that make a significant contribution toward the restoration and protection of our Nation 's coastal and marine environment " and is the only environmental award of its kind given by the White House . Two days later in Hollywood , California , Coastal America and Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense for Reserve Affairs David L. McGinnis awarded the partner cleanup team from the Florida Department of Environmental Protection the same award . The 86th Engineer Dive Team deployed to the AOR in March 2009 for a one @-@ year stint , and was unable to participate in that year 's cleanup term . I am particularly proud of the many Sailors and Soldiers who have found a way to enhance their training on skills important to our Nation 's readiness for war while also making a significant contribution to the health of our living ocean resources , [ ... ] Just as you protect our Nation when serving overseas , at home you have found another way to protect our Nation 's wellbeing . In 2009 , recovery began on July 24 with thirty Army and Navy divers at Hugh Taylor Birch State Park , where it was thought about 300 @,@ 000 tires were caught against a natural reef . Loading the caught tires onto the Army craft Brandy Station , the first day 's haul brought approximately 1 @,@ 400 tires ashore . Wrapping up for the year in mid @-@ August , Coastal America 's William Nuckols told the Associated Press that cleanup efforts have thus far recovered approximately 73 @,@ 000 tires from the reef . = Prehistoric art in Scotland = Prehistoric art in Scotland is visual art created or found within the modern borders of Scotland , before the departure of the Romans from southern and central Britain in the early fifth century CE , which is usually seen as the beginning of the early historic or Medieval era . There is no clear definition of prehistoric art among scholars and objects that may involve creativity often lack a context that would allow them to be understood . The earliest examples of portable art from what is now Scotland are highly decorated carved stone balls from the Neolithic period , which share patterns with Irish and Scottish stone carvings . Other items from this period include elaborate carved maceheads and figurines from Links of Noltland , including the Westray Wife , which is the earliest known depiction of a human face from Scotland . From the Bronze Age there are examples of carvings , including the first representations of objects , and cup and ring marks . Representations of an axe and a boat at the Ri Cruin Cairn in Kilmartin , and a boat pecked into Wemyss Cave , are probably the oldest two @-@ dimensional representations of real objects that survive in Scotland . Elaborate carved stone battle @-@ axes may be symbolic representations of power . Surviving metalwork includes gold lunula or neckplates , jet beaded necklaces and elaborate weaponry , such as leaf swords and ceremonial shields of sheet bronze . From the Iron Age there are more extensive examples of patterned objects and gold work . Evidence of the wider La Tène culture includes the Torrs Pony @-@ cap and Horns . The Stirling torcs demonstrate common styles found in Scotland and Ireland and continental workmanship . One of the most impressive items from this period is the boar 's head fragment of the Deskford carnyx . From the first century CE , as Rome carried out a series of occupations , there are Roman artifacts like the Cramond Lioness and Roman influence on material culture can be seen in local stone carvings . = = Definitions and meanings = = The ability to study prehistoric art is dependent on surviving artifacts . Art created in mediums such as sand , bark , hides and textiles has not normally endured , while less @-@ perishable materials , such as rock , stone , bone , ivory ( and to a lesser extent wood ) , later pottery and metal , are more likely to be extant . Whether all these artifacts can be defined as works of art is contested between scholars . Alexander Marshack argued that the earliest , non @-@ representational incisions on rock mark the beginnings of human art . More cautiously , Paul Mellars suggests that the relative rarity of these works means they cannot be seen as integral to early human society and evidence of an artistic culture . Colin Renfrew has pointed out the dangers of applying modern values of art to past societies and cultures . Günter Berghaus argues that these works have often been approached with a set of post @-@ Renaissance aesthetic values that distinguish between artists and craftsman and art and artifact , although these categories are not universal and may be inappropriate for understanding prehistoric society . Duncan Garrow has pointed to the difficulties of the modern distinction drawn between form and decoration . The emphasis in studies of prehistoric art tend to be placed on decoration in objects such as ceramics and ignores the importance of form , found in objects such as weapons . Many meanings have been suggested for the advent and nature of prehistoric art . It may have helped develop human solidarity in its early stages . Open air rock art may have acted as signposts for the route of animal migrations . Cave art may have had a ritual role in rites of initiation , vision quests or totemic ceremonies . Portable objects may have acted as notation systems and anthropomorphic figures may have had a role in religious rituals . However , most artifacts can only be understood in their context , which is often lost or poorly understood . = = Stone Age = = Scotland was occupied by Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherers from around 8500 BCE , who were highly mobile boat @-@ using people making tools from bone , stone and antlers . Neolithic farming brought permanent settlements , like the stone house at Knap of Howar on Papa Westray , dating from around 3500 BCE . The settlers also introduced chambered cairn tombs , as at Maeshowe , and the many standing stones and circles such as those at Stenness on the mainland of Orkney , which dates from about 3100 BCE , and similar stones to which are found across Europe from about the same time . There is no surviving art from the Mesolithic period in Scotland , probably because the mobile peoples of the period would have made this on perishable organic items . Probably the oldest surviving portable visual art from Scotland are carved stone balls , or petrospheres , that date from the late Neolithic era . They are a uniquely Scottish phenomenon , with over 425 known examples . Most are from modern Aberdeenshire , but a handful of examples are known from Iona , Skye , Harris , Uist , Lewis , Arran , Hawick , Wigtownshire and fifteen from Orkney , five of which were found at the Neolithic village of Skara Brae . Many functions have been suggested for these objects , most indicating that they were prestigious and powerful possessions . Their production may have continued into the Iron Age . The complex carved circles and spirals on these balls can be seen mirrored in the carving on what was probably a lintel from a chambered cairn at Pierowall on Westray , Orkney , which seem to be part of the same culture that produced carvings at Newgrange in Ireland . Similarly , elaborately carved maceheads are often found in burial sites , like that found at Airdens in Sutherland , which has a pattern of interlocking diamond @-@ shaped facets , similar to those found across Neolithic Britain and Europe . Pottery appeared in the Neolithic period once hunters and gatherers transitioned to a sedentary lifestyle , until then they needed to use lightweight , mobile containers . Finely made and decorated Unstan ware , survives from the fourth and third millennia BCE and is named after the Unstan Chambered Cairn on the Mainland of the Orkney Islands . Typical are elegant and distinctive shallow bowls with a band of grooved patterning below the rim , using a technique known as " stab @-@ and @-@ drag " . A second variation consists of undecorated , round @-@ bottomed bowls . Unstan ware is mostly found in tombs , specifically tombs of the Orkney @-@ Cromarty type , that include the so @-@ called Tomb of the Eagles at Isbister on South Ronaldsay , and Taversoe Tuick and Midhowe on Rousay , but has occasionally been found outside of tombs , as at the farmstead of Knap of Howar on Papa Westray . There are scattered occurrences of Unstan ware on the Scottish Mainland , as at Balbridie , and in the Western Isles , as at Eilean Domhnuill . Unstan ware may have evolved into the later grooved ware style , associated with the builders of the Maeshowe class of chambered tomb , which began on Orkney early in the third millennium BCE , and was soon adopted throughout Britain and Ireland . Grooved ware vessels are often highly decorated and flat bottomed , often with patterns similar to those on petrospheres and carved maceheads . In 2009 the Westray Wife , a lozenge @-@ shaped figurine that is believed to be the earliest representation of a human face found in Scotland , was discovered at the site of a Neolithic village at Links of Noltland near Grobust Bay on the north coast of Westray . The figurine 's face has two dots for eyes , heavy brows and an oblong nose and a pattern of hatches on the body could represent clothing . Two figurines were subsequently found at the site in 2010 and 2012 . = = Bronze Age = = The Bronze Age began in Scotland about 2000 BCE as new techniques of metalworking began to reach northern Britain . The creation of cairns and Megalithic monuments continued . There was probably a fall in population in this period . There is evidence of cellular round houses of stone on Shetland and wooden crannogs , roundhouses partially or entirely built on artificial islands . As elsewhere in Europe , hill forts were first introduced in this period . From this period there are extensive examples of rock art . These include cup and ring marks , a central depression carved into stone , surrounded by rings , sometimes not completed . These are common elsewhere in Atlantic Europe and have been found on natural rocks and isolated stones across Scotland . The most elaborate sets of markings are in western Scotland , particularly in the Kilmartin district . The representations of an axe and a boat at the Ri Cruin Cairn in Kilmartin , and a boat pecked into Wemyss Cave , are probably the oldest two @-@ dimensional representations of real objects that survive in Scotland . Similar carved spirals have also been found on the cover stones of burial cists in Lanarkshire and Kincardine . There are also elaborate carved stone battle @-@ axes found in East Lothian , Aberdenshire and Lanarkshire . These show little sign of use or wear , and so , rather than being practical objects , may be symbolic representations of power . Similarly , the site at Forteviot , in Perthshire , produced a unique warrior burial under a giant sandstone slab . The slab is engraved with a spiral and has an axehead pecked into the underside , and underneath there are grave goods of a copper dagger with leather scabbard and a carved wooden bowl . Surviving metalwork includes personal items like the gold lunula or neckplates found at Auchentaggart in Dumfriesshire and Southside , Lanarkshire , which date from about 2000 BCE and are similar to those found in relatively large numbers in Ireland , but also with examples across Great Britain and in Portugal . Jet beaded necklaces strung in a crescent shape have been found at sites including Poltalloch and Melfort in Argyll and Aberlemno in Angus . Sophisticated pottery with impressed designs was found in Scotland during the Bronze Age . One example is a decorated grave food vessel dated from about 1000 BCE that was found at a Kincardineshire grave group . Two bronze armlets were also found at the site . Elaborate weaponry includes bronze leaf swords and ceremonial shields of sheet bronze made in Scotland between 900 and 600 BCE . The Migdale Hoard is an early Bronze Age find at Skibo Castle that includes two bronze axes ; several pairs of armlets and anklets , a necklace of forty bronze beads , ear pendants and bosses of bronze and jet buttons . The " Ballachulish Goddess " is a life @-@ sized female figure from 700 – 500 BCE in oak with quartz pebbles for eyes , found at Ballachulish , Argyll . = = Iron Age = = The Iron Age began in Scotland from about the seventh century BCE . From this point there are the first finds of iron artifacts in hoards that are consistent containing other items that are consistent with Bronze Age practice. there is also evidence of smithing and smelting on some settlement sites . Iron Age society in Scotland shared many traits with Southern Britain , Ireland and in some cases continental Europe . These included roundhouses and enclosed and fortified settlements , but it also contained elements of independent development . From the early part of the period there is relatively little metalwork and a larger amount of ceramics . The assemblage of early Iron Age ceramics from Atlantic Scotland is large compared with the rest of Britain . There are a wide variety of forms and styles , some which resemble those of southern Britain , particularly those with incised geometric ornament . By this period Scotland had been penetrated by the wider La Tène culture , which is named after the archaeological site of La Tène on the north side of Lake Neuchâtel in Switzerland . The Torrs Pony @-@ cap and Horns are perhaps the most impressive of the relatively few finds of La Tène decoration from Scotland , and indicate links with Ireland and southern Britain . The Stirling torcs , found in 2009 , are a group of four gold torcs in different styles , dating from 300 BCE and 100 BCE . Two demonstrate common styles found in Scotland and Ireland , but the other two indicate workmanship from what is now southern France , and the Greek and Roman worlds . There are surviving ring @-@ headed pins , which were probably made locally and not imported , and appear to be part of a British and Irish type that was not part of the La Tène culture . There are also spiral finger rings , glass beads and long @-@ handled combs , which are found across Britain , but have local characteristics . The bronze Stichill collar is a large engraved necklace , fastened at the back with a pin . The Mortonhall scabbard , probably from the first century CE , is elaborately decorated with trumpet curves and " S " -scrolls . Further north there are finds of massive bronze armlets , often with enamelled decoration , like the ones found at Culbin Sands , Moray . One of the most impressive items from this period is the boars head fragment of the Deskford carnyx , a war @-@ trumpet from Deskford in Banffshire , probably dating from the first century CE . Similar instruments are mentioned in Roman sources and depicted on the Gundestrup Cauldron found in Denmark . In stone carving there are a number of simple stone heads from Scotland , like that found at Coupar Angus in Perthshire , that may date from the Iron Age . They are similar to those found across Great Britain and Ireland , although they are difficult to date and may have been made much later . = = Roman influence = = The Romans began military expeditions into what is now Scotland from about 71 CE , building a series of forts , but by 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the first century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . The Romans eventually withdrew to a line in what is now northern England , building the fortification known as Hadrian 's Wall from coast to coast . Around 141 CE they undertook a reoccupation of southern Scotland , moving up to construct a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde , where they built the fortification known as the Antonine Wall . The wall was overrun and abandoned soon after 160 and the Romans withdrew back to the line of Hadrian 's Wall , until Roman authority collapsed in the early fifth century . The Antonine Wall and its associated forts left a direct sculptural legacy in Scotland . There are 19 distance slabs along the wall that depict graphically the victories and marches of the legions involved in its construction . There are also surviving sculptures , including an altar to Diana and Apollo . There is a fountainhead from a bath @-@ house in the shape of a man 's head with a gaping mouth , and the head from a bust or statue , perhaps the goddess Fortuna , both found at Bearsden Roman Fort , East Dunbartonshire , both showing a local Celtic influence in their style . Away from the wall , Roman sculptures include the marble head of a Roman emperor or general , broken from a larger statue , which was found at Hawkshaw , Peebleshire in the late eighteenth century . It dates to the second century CE and may have been looted from a Roman monument further to the south . The Cramond Lioness is a sculpture , probably imported , of a lioness devouring a bound prisoner , found near the Roman base of Cramond Roman Fort near Edinburgh . A relief of the goddess Brigantia found near Birrens in Dumfriesshire , combines elements of native and classical art . The Newstead Helmet , found at the Roman fort in Newstead , near Melrose in Roxburghshire , is one of the most impressive of many finds of Roman arms and armour . The Staffordshire Moorlands Pan is a second @-@ century Romano @-@ British trulla apparently decorated as a souvenir for a soldier who had served on Hadrian 's Wall , and probably made locally . A number of items were also found in the Sculptor 's Cave , Coversea in Morayshire , including Roman pottery , rings , bracelets , needles and coins , some of which had been re @-@ used for ornaments . = 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season = The 1970 North Indian Ocean cyclone season had no bounds , but tropical cyclones in the North Indian Ocean tend to form between April and December , with peaks in May and November . The 1970 season saw a total of seven cyclonic storms , of which three developed into severe cyclonic storms . The Bay of Bengal was more active than the Arabian Sea during 1970 , with all of the three severe cyclonic storms in the season forming there . Unusually , none of the storms in the Arabian Sea made landfall this year . The most significant storm of the season was the Bhola cyclone , which formed in the Bay of Bengal and hit Bangladesh on November 12 . The storm killed at least 300 @,@ 000 and possibly even over half a million people , making it the deadliest tropical cyclone in recorded history . = = Storms = = = = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm One = = = A low pressure area that developed over the southern Andaman Sea late in April moved north into the Bay of Bengal becoming the first depression of the year on May 2 . The depression intensified under the influence of a high @-@ level anticyclone and became a cyclonic storm the next day . The storm then turned to the northeast and strengthened into a severe cyclonic storm on May 4 . Soon after this , it peaked with winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) and a well @-@ defined eye formed . The storm made its landfall near Cox 's Bazar in easternmost East Pakistan ( now Bangladesh ) early in the morning of May 7 and dissipated over western Burma that evening . The cyclone brought widespread rain to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands before it moved clear of them on May 3 . Effects in East Pakistan are unknown , but Akyab in western Burma reported winds of 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) as the cyclone approached land . = = = Depression Two = = = A depression formed in the northeast of the Bay of Bengal on during the morning of May 23 near the East Pakistan coast . It moved towards the coast and made landfall to the south of Cox 's Bazar that night , before dissipating over southern Assam the next day . Any effects on land are unknown . = = = Severe Cyclonic Storm Three = = = A low pressure area developed off the Karnataka @-@ Goa coastline in the Arabian Sea on May 27 and developed into a depression the next day . The system developed further into a cyclonic storm on May 29 as it moved to the north . The storm reached its peak with 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) soon after this as it turned to the west , but soon degenerated into a deep depression over the northern Arabian Sea on May 31 . The depression continued to move west , weakening to a remnant low shortly as it made landfall on the Arabian Peninsula on June 2 . The remnant low dissipated over southern Saudi Arabia the next day . The cyclone itself had minimal effects on land , but the monsoon advanced into western India in late May in association with the system . As the cyclone moved to the west away from the subcontinent , the incursion of moist air from the Arabian Sea persisted over northwestern India for the first three days of June . This brought moderate rainfall to regions of Gujarat , Rajasthan and western Madhya Pradesh . = = = Cyclonic Storm Four = = = A low pressure area developed in the northern Bay of Bengal on June 6 and developed into a depression the next day as it drifted to the north , moving over south of the Ganges Delta . The depression reversed its course overland , reemerging into the Bay of Bengal on June 8 . Once over water , the depression intensified into a cyclonic storm on the morning of June 9 . The cyclone 's motion shifted to the northwest and it made a second landfall near Balasore in northern Orissa that night . The cyclone quickly weakened to a deep depression overland and tracked to the west over central India , where it degenerated into a broad area of low pressure on June 11 . Sustained winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) were recorded at Sandheads on June 9 , while the cyclone was at its peak offshore . High levels of rain affected much of Orissa and West Bengal , with over 100 mm ( 4 inches ) falling over large areas of both states . As the storm dissipated overland , it brought severe rain to Vidarbha and southern Madhya Pradesh . The highest recorded rainfall was at Khandwa were 280 mm ( 11 inches ) fell on June 13 alone . The rains led to localised flooding in parts of Vidarbha and disrupted road transport in the region . = = = Deep Depression Five = = = A low pressure area that had developed over the northern Bay of Bengal the previous day concentrated into a depression early on June 29 . The depression intensified as it moved to the northwest , becoming a deep depression shortly before it crossed the Orissa coast . After landfall the storm continued to move to the northwest , weakening to a depression again on July 2 over northeast Madhya Pradesh . It degenerated into a remnant low over central Uttar Pradesh during the evening on July 3 . The depression brought intense monsoon conditions to Orissa , Madhya Pradesh and Vidarbha during its life . Over 210 mm ( 8 inches ) of rain and winds of 85 km / h ( 50 mph ) were recorded in Paradip as the depression made landfall on June 30 . Inland , the heavy rains caused some rivers in Orissa to overflow and flooded rice paddies in Cuttack District . Further west , the Wainganga River overflowed its banks in places . Road transport in Madhya Pradesh was disrupted and there was damage to crops in the Raipur area . Raipur recorded the highest 24 @-@ hour rains associated with the depression , with 230 mm ( 9 inches ) falling there on July 2 . = = = Deep Depression Six = = = A low pressure area moved to the west off the Burmese coast on July 5 and developed into a depression the next day in the north central Bay of Bengal . The depression intensified as it moved to the northwest , becoming a deep depression on July 7 . The system made landfall on the Orissa coast during the morning of July 8 and rapidly degenerated into a broad area of low pressure overland . The remnant low moved north over western Bihar and it persisted there until July 12 when it was absorbed by the monsoon trough . Winds of 55 km / h ( 30 mph ) were recorded offshore at Sandheads when the system was at its peak . The depression brought isolated heavy rains to many places throughout East India , with rains in excess of 100 mm ( 4 inches ) falling every day from the depression 's landfall until the absorption of the remnant low . = = = Depression Seven = = = A low pressure area that lay over Burma on August 15 , moved to the west across the Bay of Bengal and developed into a depression on the evening of August 17 when it was 100 km ( 62 mi ) southeast of Gopalpur @-@ on @-@ Sea . The depression moved to the northwest and made landfall near Gopalpur @-@ on @-@ Sea and turned to the west overland . The depression had weakened into a remnant low by August 20 , when it was over western Madhya Pradesh . The depression and associated weather brought widespread rain to much of south and central India , with heavy rain falling in some locations . The heavy rain in Maharashtra disrupted road transport in many areas , especially in the east of the state . The Godavari River inundated parts of Bhadrachalam and many villages in regions of Andhra Pradesh . The rains also damaged rice paddies and disrupted transport in Telangana . Rains associated with the depression reached as far west as Bombay with 200 mm ( 8 inches ) falling there on August 19 . = = = Cyclonic Storm Eight = = = A low pressure area that was centred over West Bengal on August 31 concentrated into a depression on September 2 when it was 50 km ( 31 mi ) to the east of Midnapore . It intensified as it moved to the west , becoming a deep depression the next day , about 50 km ( 31 mi ) east of Ranchi . The system continued move west across India , before weakening into a depression on September 7 near Ahmedabad , Gujarat . The depression then turned north and entered southwest Rajasthan . On September 8 , the system turned to the southwest and emerged into the Arabian Sea the following evening . Over water it intensified again , becoming a cyclonic storm by the evening of September 10 . The cyclone developed a short @-@ lived eye on September 11 as it drifted slowly to the west , before degenerating into a broad area of low pressure as it neared the Oman coast on September 14 . This system brought widespread rains to a wide swathe of India during its existence . Some heavy rains in West Bengal flooded vast areas of many districts and resulted in some fatalities , whilst in parts of neighbouring Orissa the floodwaters damaged fields . 390 mm ( 15 inches ) of rain fell on Bardhaman over two days as the depression passed overhead . Several thousand people were made homeless in West Bengal . Both the Narmada and Tapti Rivers inundated parts of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat . The floods in Gujarat took many lives and caused severe damage to crops and other properties . Between 300 and 400 people were washed away in two villages in Bharuch district . 260 mm ( 10 inches ) of rain fell on Surat on July 7 and a further 80 mm ( 3 inches ) on Kutch District as the cyclone moved out to sea . = = = Deep Depression Nine = = = A low pressure area moved from Burma to the Bay of Bengal on September 8 where it developed into a depression . The depression strengthened as it moved to the northwest and became a deep depression the next day , when it was 150 km ( 93 mi ) southeast of Calcutta . The system crossed the West Bengal coast later and moved to the northwest across the Chota Nagpur Plateau . The depression stalled over Uttar Pradesh on September 12 and remained near Lucknow until September 14 . The depression then turned to the east and weakened to a remnant low over northern Bihar on September 18 . The depression brought widespread rain to West Bengal , Orissa , Bihar , Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh during its lifespan , with rains of 140 mm ( 5 @.@ 5 inches ) as far west as Lucknow . The rains in Uttar Pradesh caused severe property damage and flooding , with some 150 people losing their lives in the state . The Ganges flooded in northern Bihar , inundating parts of Munger District , whilst the Gandaki River flooded parts of Motihari . The rains worsened floods in south Bengal , increasing the death toll from the floods there to 80 and affecting 8 million people , with considerable damage done to crops and housing . Jaleswar in Orissa was entirely flooded . = = = Depression Ten = = = A well @-@ defined low pressure area formed over the west central Bay of Bengal on September 20 and developed into a depression the next morning about 100 km ( 62 mi ) south @-@ east of Visakhapatnam . The depression then moved overland and after crossing Vidarbha weakened into a remnant low over Gujarat on September 23 . The depression brought widespread rain to northern South India as it passed over the country and its remnants brought scattered rain to Gujarat over the following week . Over a period of four hours , heavy rain fell on Hyderabad and Secunderabad , destroying many houses in the two cities . About 130 mm ( 5 inches ) of rain fell on Bombay as the system dissipated . The heavy rains claimed about 75 lives . = = = Depression Eleven = = = A low pressure area that developed in the Bay of Bengal passed over the southern Indian subcontinent and developed into a depression in the Arabian Sea off the southern Maharashtra coast on October 11 . The depression did not develop as it drifted west , and it degenerated into an area of low pressure as it was approaching the Arabian Peninsula . The depression brought widespread rains to southern Maharashtra and Karnataka states , with 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) of rain recorded in Karwar . Scattered heavy rain was also reported in the Laccadives . = = = Very Severe Cyclonic Storm Twelve = = = A depression formed on October 18 in the central Bay of Bengal and moved to the north . It gradually intensified and turned to the northeast , becoming a cyclonic storm on October 20 . The storm became the second severe cyclonic storm of the season the following day , and turned onto a more northerly track towards the Ganges Delta . The storm peaked with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) before it made landfall near the West Bengal @-@ East Pakistan border during the morning of October 23 . The storm then crossed over East Pakistan , before dissipating over southern Assam on October 24 . This cyclone brought widespread rain to Tamil Nadu as it formed and to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands as it moved over the Bay of Bengal . After its landfall it brought severe rains to West Bengal , Assam and East Pakistan . The highest recorded rainfall in India was at Shillong where 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 6 inches ) fell on October 24 . A gust of 105 km / h ( 65 mph ) was recorded in Calcutta as the storm passed by to the east , where it caused the failure of the power supply . The cyclone claimed between 200 and 300 lives in East Pakistan , with the worst of the damage occurring in Khulna District . Over 200 villages were destroyed in the district leaving several thousand people homeless , and there was extensive damage to crops . = = = Extremely Severe Cyclonic Storm Thirteen = = = On the morning of November 8 a depression formed in the south @-@ central Bay of Bengal . It moved very slowly to the north , becoming a cyclonic storm the next day . It continued to intensify as it approached the head of the Bay , becoming the third severe cyclonic storm of the season on November 11 . That evening it reached its peak with winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) with a well @-@ developed eye and became the strongest storm of the season . It then made landfall on the coast of East Pakistan during the night of November 12 . The cyclone weakened rapidly as it moved inland and dissipated the next day over south Assam . This cyclone brought a devastating storm surge of up to 10 metres ( 33 ft ) high to the Ganges Delta . Largely as a result of this surge somewhere between 300 @,@ 000 and 500 @,@ 000 people lost their lives , making this storm the deadliest tropical cyclone ever recorded and one of the deadliest natural disasters of modern times . The total damage from the storm exceeded $ 85 million ( 1970 USD , $ 480 million 2008 USD ) and much of the agricultural and fishing capacity of the region was wiped out . In total some 3 @.@ 6 million people suffered direct effects from this cyclone . The Pakistani government was severely criticised for its handling of the relief operations following the storm , both by local political leaders in East Pakistan and in the international media . In the December national elections , the opposition Awami League gained a landslide victory , gaining 160 of the 162 East Pakistani seats . Continuing unrest between East Pakistanis and the central government trigged the Bangladesh Liberation War , which concluded with the creation of the state of Bangladesh . This is one of the first times that a natural event helped to trigger a civil war . = = = Deep Depression Fourteen = = = A low pressure that had developed over the south Andaman Sea moved west across the southern Bay of Bengal and concentrated into a depression on the morning of November 19 , when it was about 600 km ( 370 mi ) southeast of Madras . The system intensified further into a deep depression as it moved west @-@ northwest and hit the Tamil Nadu the following day . The depression weakened into a remnant low over Tamil Nadu . The depression brought widespread rain to much of Tamil Nadu , with heavy rain hitting the coastal regions . Low @-@ lying coastal regions from Pondicherry to Atirampattinam . There was damage to crops and housing in Thanjavur District and the rains left thousands homeless in Madras . Cuddalore experienced exceptionally heavy rains with over 440 mm ( 17 inches ) falling there , of which 310 mm ( 12 inches ) fell on November 20 alone . = = = Cyclonic Storm Fifteen = = = The remnant low of a depression emerged into the Arabian Sea off Kerala late on November 21 and developed into a new depression the next day as it moved west . The depression moved further west , and gradually turned toward the southwest , intensifying as it did so . It became a cyclonic storm on November 28 to the southeast of Socotra and reached its peak with 75 km / h ( 25 mph ) winds soon after . The cyclone continued to move west @-@ southwestwards and rapidly weakened into a remnant low pressure area off the Somalia coast the next day , ending the season . The cyclone brought widespread rain to the Laccadives from November 22 to November 24 , with 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 inches ) recorded on Amini on November 23 . = Upper West Side Story = " Upper West Side Story " is the 12th episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series White Collar , and the 42nd episode overall . It was first broadcast on USA Network in the United States on January 24 , 2012 . The episode was directed by Russell Lee Fine and written by Alexandra McNally and Jim Campolongo . The episode features many themes of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet , and contains various allusions to Shakespearean and Victorian @-@ era literature . After a student ( Graham Phillips ) at a prestigious prep school approaches Peter Burke and Neal Caffrey about missing scholarship funds , they begin investigating the father ( Dylan Baker ) of the boy 's crush ( Elizabeth Gillies ) . According to the Nielsen ratings system , an estimated 3 @.@ 472 million household viewers watched the original broadcast of the episode , with 1 @.@ 1 million in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Upper West Side Story " received mostly positive reviews . = = Plot = = Neal ( Matt Bomer ) and Peter ( Tim DeKay ) are approached by Evan Leary ( Graham Phillips ) , a student at the prestigious Manhattan Preparatory Academy . Evan explains that he believes the money from his scholarship fund was embezzled by a rich investor by the name of Andy Woods ( Dylan Baker ) . Peter quickly takes the case , realizing that Woods is already believed to be associated with a major cartel . Peter visits the school under the guise of the parent of a potential student . Neal is to pose as his assistant , but he instead takes on the role of a substitute English teacher after learning that both Evan and Woods ' daughter , Chloe ( Elizabeth Gillies ) , are in the class . Woods soon discovers that Peter may not be who he says he is after learning that he lied about his hotel arrangements ; Peter covers for this by admitting that he spent the night with his mistress . Later , Neal tells Mozzie ( Willie Garson ) about Evan 's silent attraction to Chloe , and that he plans to set them up using a sonnet . Peter discovers that Woods may be working with Graham Slater ( John Rothman ) , the school 's headmaster , in order to embezzle the funds . The following day , at the school , Neal sees Slater drop an envelope into Chloe 's locker . In order to check the contents of the envelope , Peter pulls the fire alarm . Neal finds the school 's quarterly finance report inside . Chloe later asks Neal to tutor her at home ; he accepts and invites Evan to come as well . Woods invites Peter to dinner the same night , and asks that he bring his mistress along as well . Diana ( Marsha Thomason ) , posing as Peter 's mistress , accompanies Peter , and , while there , stages a quarrel . Peter , feigning frustration , opens a door to exit , setting off an alarm in the process . Woods turns the alarm off ; this allows Neal to easily break into his office and clone Woods ' hard drive . Chloe follows Neal into her father 's office and accidentally pocket dials Woods . Realizing something is wrong , Woods goes downstairs to his office and discovers Neal with Chloe . Evan quickly enters , taking the blame for the mistake . The next day , Evan lets Neal know that Woods suspects something . Peter is taken hostage by Woods and held in the shop classroom , where Woods quickly discovers that Peter is with the FBI . Neal takes Chloe 's phone and calls Woods , forcing him to step out of the room . Neal and Mozzie create a smokescreen out of lab chemicals and free Peter ; Diana meanwhile arrests Woods . Neal explains to Chloe that her life will not be easy , and she begins a relationship with Evan after discovering roses and the sonnet left by Neal and Mozzie . Later , Peter must give a statement to the commutation committee about Neal 's involvement with the Keller case . Although Neal 's actions had caused the kidnapping of Elizabeth ( Tiffani Thiessen ) , Peter opts to omit the details surrounding Neal 's theft of the art . = = Production = = The episode was written by Alexandra McNally and Jim Campolongo . It was McNally 's fifth episode since joining the series during the second season , and Campolongo 's sixth overall . It was their first time to collaborate on an episode . " Upper West Side Story " was directed by Russell Lee Fine , his third directing credit for the series after the episodes " Payback " and " On Guard " . Working titles for the episode included " Well Endowed " and " Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper " . It was first reported on July 11 , 2011 that Dylan Baker and Elizabeth Gillies would appear in an episode of White Collar as Andy Woods and his daughter . Other guest stars to appear in the episode include Graham Phillips . Series star Tim DeKay stated that he enjoyed working on the episode , in part because it was primarily a standalone . Bomer said , speaking of " Upper West Side Story " , that he enjoys portraying different aspects of Neal 's undercover roles . Bomer stated that he received a phone call from Campolongo requesting that he memorize a Byron poem by the next morning . The poem was ultimately included in a scene in which Neal is teaching an English class . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club pointed out that the episode contained various references to Shakespearian and Victorian @-@ era literature , specifically mentioning Romeo and Juliet . He stated that these metaphors helped move the plot forward . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = The initial broadcast of the episode drew 3 @.@ 472 million viewers , and earned a 1 @.@ 1 rating in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Upper West Side Story " ranked seventh place among cable series for the night in the 18 – 49 demographic and fourth in its timeslot , surpassed by Teen Mom 2 , Storage Wars , and The Game . The original broadcast of the episode overlapped with the 2012 State of the Union Address for the first 17 minutes ; however , viewership for the episode increased slightly from the previous week . = = = Reviews = = = " Upper West Side Story " received mostly positive reviews from critics , with many praising the mostly standalone format and the rebuilding of Neal and Peter 's relationship . Morgan Glennon of the Huffington Post called the episode " a really fun undercover romp that still deals with the fallout between Neal and Peter . " Michelle Carlbert stated that she " felt like it put Neal and Peter back on track " and that she enjoyed the standalone case . Brittany Frederick of Starpulse.com said that " this is an episode that reminds me why I fell in love with White Collar . " Frederick compared the episode to " Mr. Monk Goes Back to School " , an episode of USA Network 's Monk ; she likened Baker 's character to that of Andrew McCarthy 's in Monk , stating that as a villain , McCarthy was evil yet endearing , while Baker appeared genuinely evil . She also praised the series for utilizing comedy rather than drama . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club gave the episode a more mixed review , stating that while the series was " at its caper @-@ hatching best , " it was " also its most excessively ludicrous . " Like Frederick , Herzog praised the use of comedy , though he felt that Baker appeared to be more like " a cartoon bully . " He ultimately gave the episode a B- . = Southeast Asia Treaty Organization = The Southeast Asia Treaty Organization ( SEATO ) was an international organization for collective defense in Southeast Asia created by the Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty , or Manila Pact , signed in September 1954 in Manila , Philippines . The formal institution of SEATO was established on 19 February 1955 at a meeting of treaty partners in Bangkok , Thailand The organization 's headquarters were also in Bangkok . Eight members joined the organization . Primarily created to block further communist gains in Southeast Asia , SEATO is generally considered a failure because internal conflict and dispute hindered general use of the SEATO military ; however , SEATO @-@ funded cultural and educational programs left long @-@ standing effects in Southeast Asia . SEATO was dissolved on 30 June 1977 after many members lost interest and withdrew . The United States still considers the mutual defense aspects of its treaty active for Australia , France , New Zealand , Philippines , Thailand , and the United Kingdom . = = Origins and structure = = The Southeast Asia Collective Defense Treaty , or Manila Pact , was signed on 8 September 1954 in Manila , as part of the American Truman Doctrine of creating anti @-@ communist bilateral and collective defense treaties . These treaties and agreements were intended to create alliances that would contain communist powers ( Communist China , in SEATO 's case ) . This policy was considered to have been largely developed by American diplomat and Soviet expert George F. Kennan . President Dwight D. Eisenhower 's Secretary of State John Foster Dulles ( 1953 – 1959 ) is considered to be the primary force behind the creation of SEATO , which expanded the concept of anti @-@ communist collective defense to Southeast Asia , and then @-@ Vice President Richard Nixon advocated an Asian equivalent of NATO upon returning from his late @-@ 1953 Asia trip . The organization , headquartered in Bangkok , was created in 1955 at the first meeting of the Council of Ministers set up by the treaty , contrary to Dulles 's preference to call the organization " ManPac " . SEATO was intended to be a Southeast Asian version of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) , in which the military forces of each member would be coordinated to provide for the collective defense of the members ' country . Organizationally , SEATO was headed by the Secretary General , whose office was created in 1957 at a meeting in Canberra , with a council of representatives from member nations and an international staff . Also present were committees for economics , security , and information . SEATO 's first Secretary General was Pote Sarasin , a Thai diplomat and politician who had served as Thailand 's ambassador to the U.S. between 1952 and 1957 , and as Prime Minister of Thailand from September 1957 to 1 January 1958 . Unlike the NATO alliance , SEATO had no joint commands with standing forces . In addition , SEATO 's response protocol in the event of communism presenting a " common danger " to the member nations was vague and ineffective , though membership in the SEATO alliance did provide a rationale for a large @-@ scale U.S. military intervention in the region during the Vietnam War ( 1955 – 1975 ) . = = Membership = = Despite its name , SEATO mostly included countries located outside of the region but with an interest either in the region or the organization itself . They were Australia , France , New Zealand , Pakistan ( including East Pakistan , now Bangladesh ) , the Philippines , Thailand , the United Kingdom and the United States . The Philippines and Thailand were the only Southeast Asian countries that actually participated in the organization . Both shared close ties with the United States , particularly the Philippines , and both faced incipient communist insurgencies against their own governments . Thailand became a member upon the discovery of the newly founded " Thai Autonomous Region " ( the Xishuangbanna Dai Autonomous Prefecture ) in Yunnan ( in South West China ) - apparently feeling threatened by potential Chinese communist subversion on its land . Other regional countries like Burma and Indonesia were far more minded with domestic internal stability rather than concern of communist threat , and thus rejected joining it . Malaya ( including Singapore ) also chose to not participate formally , though it was kept updated with key developments due to its close relationship with the United Kingdom . The rest of Southeast Asian countries : Vietnam , Cambodia and Laos were prevented from taking part in any international military alliance as a result of the Geneva Agreements signed 20 July of the same year concluding the end of the First Indochina War . However , with the lingering threat coming from communist North Vietnam and the possibility of the domino theory with Indochina turning into a communist frontier , SEATO got these countries under its protection - an act that would be considered to be one of the main justifications for the U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War . Cambodia , however rejected the protection in 1956 . The majority of SEATO members were not located in Southeast Asia . To Australia and New Zealand , SEATO was seen as a more satisfying organization than ANZUS – a collective defense organization with the U.S. Great Britain and France joined partly due to having long maintained colonies in the region , and partly due to concerns over developments in Indochina . Pakistan , however , was simply interested in joining over the appeal of potential support for its long struggle against India . Last but not least , the U.S. upon perceiving Southeast Asia to be a pivotal frontier for Cold War geopolitics saw the establishment of SEATO as essential to its Cold War containment policy . All in all , the membership reflected a mid @-@ 1950s combination of anti @-@ communist Western nations and such nations in Southeast Asia . The United Kingdom , France and the United States , the latter of which joined after the U.S. Senate ratified the treaty by an 82 – 1 vote , represented the strongest Western powers . Canada also considered joining , but decided against it in order to concentrate on its NATO responsibilities . = = = Secretaries @-@ General = = = Secretaries @-@ General of SEATO : = = Military aspects = = After its creation , SEATO quickly became insignificant militarily , as most of its member nations contributed very little to the alliance . While SEATO military forces held joint military training , they were never employed because of internal disagreements . SEATO was unable to intervene in conflicts in Laos because France and Britain rejected use of military action . As a result , the U.S. provided unilateral support for Laos after 1962 . Though sought by the U.S. , involvement of SEATO in the Vietnam War was denied because of lack of British and French cooperation . Both the United States and Australia cited the alliance as justification for involvement in Vietnam . American membership in SEATO provided the United States with a rationale for a large @-@ scale U.S. military intervention in Southeast Asia . Other countries , such as Great Britain and key nations in Asia , accepted the rationale . In 1962 , as part of its commitment to SEATO , the Royal Australian Air Force deployed CAC Sabres of its No. 79 Squadron to Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base , Thailand . The Sabres began to play a role in the Vietnam War in 1965 , when their air defence responsibilities expanded to include protection of USAF aircraft using Ubon as a base for strikes against North Vietnam . = = Cultural effects = = In addition to joint military training , SEATO member states worked on improving mutual social and economic issues . Such activities were overseen by SEATO 's Committee of Information , Culture , Education , and Labor Activities , and proved to be some of SEATO 's greatest successes . In 1959 , SEATO 's first Secretary General , Pote Sarasin , created the SEATO Graduate School of Engineering ( currently the Asian Institute of Technology ) in Thailand to train engineers . SEATO also sponsored the creation of the Teacher Development Center in Bangkok , as well as the Thai Military Technical Training School , which offered technical programs for supervisors and workmen . SEATO 's Skilled Labor Project ( SLP ) created artisan training facilities , especially in Thailand , where ninety @-@ one training workshops were established . SEATO also provided research funding and grants in agriculture and medical fields . In 1959 , SEATO set up the Cholera Research Laboratory in Bangkok , later establishing a second Cholera Research Laboratory in Dhaka , Bangladesh . The Dhaka laboratory soon became the world 's leading cholera research facility and was later renamed the International Centre for Diarrhoeal Disease Research , Bangladesh . SEATO was also interested in literature , and a SEATO Literature Award was created and given to writers from member states . = = Criticism and dissolution = = Though Secretary of State Dulles considered SEATO an essential element in American foreign policy in Asia , historians have considered the Manila Pact a failure and the pact is rarely mentioned in history books . In The Geneva Conference of 1954 on Indochina , Sir James Cable , a diplomat and naval strategist , described SEATO as " a fig leaf for the nakedness of American policy " , citing the Manila Pact as a " zoo of paper tigers " . Consequently , questions of dissolving the organization arose . Pakistan withdrew in 1972 after East Pakistan seceded and became Bangladesh in 26th March 1971 . France withdrew financial support in 1975 , and the SEATO council agreed to the phasing out of the organization . After a final exercise on 20 February 1976 , the organization was formally dissolved on 30 June 1977 . = Hurricane Iris ( 1995 ) = Hurricane Iris was the ninth named storm and fifth hurricane of the 1995 Atlantic hurricane season . Iris was the first of three tropical cyclones to affect the Lesser Antilles in a three @-@ week period , preceding the more destructive hurricanes Luis and Marilyn . It developed from a tropical wave to the east of the Lesser Antilles on August 22 and attained hurricane status within 30 hours . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm before crossing the islands of the eastern Caribbean from August 26 through August 28 . During that time , Iris became one of four active tropical storms in the Atlantic basin . Earlier it had interacted with Hurricane Humberto , and beginning on August 30 , Iris interacted with Tropical Storm Karen . Iris re @-@ intensified into a hurricane and attained peak sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) while moving slowly across the central Atlantic . The hurricane accelerated to the north and absorbed a dissipating Tropical Depression Karen on September 3 . Iris weakened to a tropical storm and became extratropical on September 4 , though its remnants reattained hurricane @-@ force winds before affecting western Europe on September 7 . As a tropical storm , Iris produced heavy rainfall across much of the Leeward Islands . In the southern Lesser Antilles , high waves caused coastal flooding in Trinidad , while in Martinique further north , significant amounts of precipitation led to flooding and landslides . The threat from the hurricane halted airplane evacuations on Montserrat , which was being threatened by the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano . There were five deaths in association with Iris — four in Martinique , and one in Guadeloupe . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave exited western Africa on August 16 , with a circulation emerging just south of Dakar , Senegal . It was the first of four consecutive waves that would later develop into tropical cyclones . As the system moved westward , thunderstorms diminished on August 18 , before they gradually redeveloped . At around 1200 UTC , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression Ten about 690 mi ( 1 @,@ 110 km ) east of the Lesser Antilles . Around that time , the depression had a well @-@ organized area of convection and evident circulation , as confirmed by a nearby ship . Within six hours of developing , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm . Initially , tropical cyclone forecast models had difficulty predicting the future of the storm , due to uncertain interaction between it and Tropical Storm Humberto to its northeast . In real @-@ time , the NHC upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Iris at 1500 UTC on August 23 , or about 21 hours later than assessed in post @-@ analysis . The intensity was based on satellite intensity estimates . At that time , the storm had a ragged central dense overcast — a uniformly circular area of thunderstorms — as well as rainbands to the north and south . A hurricane hunters flight late on August 23 indicated that Iris was significantly stronger , reporting 10 – second sustained winds of 106 mph ( 170 km / h ) at flight @-@ level . Based on the reading , it is estimated Iris attained hurricane status around 1800 UTC that day , or about three hours after it was named . After Iris strengthened into a hurricane , it turned to the west @-@ southwest due to interaction with Hurricane Humberto . An upper @-@ level low north of Puerto Rico increased wind shear over the hurricane , which dislocated the center from the deep convection . As a result , Iris weakened to tropical storm status on August 24 after being a hurricane for about 24 hours . As the storm approached the Lesser Antilles , the thunderstorms decreased markedly and the cloud pattern became disorganized . As late as August 25 , there was uncertainty whether Iris would continue toward the islands or turn to the north . A new circulation became the dominant center as the storm continued westward , and Iris brushed Saint Lucia early on August 26 . An approaching trough turned the storm to the northwest , bringing it near most of the Lesser Antilles . Early on August 27 , Iris weakened to an intensity of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , although it immediately began restrengthening . Later that day , the center made landfall on Montserrat , Anguilla , and Barbuda with winds of over 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . By that time , an eye began reforming , and the structure became better organized as wind shear decreased . On August 28 , Iris moved away from the Lesser Antilles , and at 1800 UTC re @-@ attained hurricane status as it began a steady motion to the north @-@ northwest . By that time , there was uncertainty in its future track due to the possible interactions among Iris , Humberto to the northeast , Tropical Storm Karen to the southeast , and the remnants of Tropical Storm Jerry to the west . In addition , after Tropical Storm Luis formed on August 27 , there were four active tropical cyclones in the Atlantic . A few days later , there were three simultaneous hurricanes , which is a rare event , when Luis attained hurricane status . On August 30 , Iris turned to the northeast while it began interacting directly with Tropical Storm Karen . Over the next few days , the smaller tropical storm moved around the larger circulation of Iris , potentially causing the hurricane to move erratically . Iris ' intensity did not change significantly during that time , and it maintained strong outflow but a weak eyewall . An eastward @-@ moving trough bypassed the storm to the north , causing the motion to become nearly stationary . A building ridge to the northeast caused Iris to turn to a northwest drift on September 1 . By that time , the eye had become distinct and well @-@ organized , and at 0600 UTC that day , Iris attained peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) to the southeast of Bermuda . After reaching peak intensity , the hurricane began weakening due to increasing shear and cooler waters . An approaching trough turned Iris to the north , and early on September 3 the hurricane passed about 350 mi ( 560 km ) east of Bermuda . That day , Iris absorbed the dissipating Tropical Depression Karen . It accelerated to the northeast as it lost tropical characteristics , and after weakening to a tropical storm , Iris transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 4 to the southeast of Newfoundland . The remnants turned to the east , moving in tandem with an extratropical storm to its north . On September 5 , the barometric pressure dropped by more than 24 millibars ( 0 @.@ 71 inHg ) , which qualified as being classified as a meteorological bomb . The next day , the winds strengthened to hurricane @-@ status , and the storm maintained a track to the east due to a ridge weakening to the north . The pressure reached a minimum of 957 mb ( 28 @.@ 3 inHg ) early on September 7 , lower than while Iris was tropical . That day , the storm weakened as it entered the English Channel , and the extratropical remnants continued across western Europe . = = Preparations and impact = = Before Iris moved through the Lesser Antilles , tropical storm watches , and later warnings , were issued from Barbados through the British Virgin Islands . The storm produced tropical storm force winds across the eastern Caribbean , although the primary meteorological event occurred from heavy rainfall . Flooding prompted evacuations in communities in Saint Lucia , Dominica , and Saint Vincent and the Grenadines . Iris was the first of three storms in a three @-@ week period to affect the region , preceding the more destructive hurricanes Luis and Marilyn . In western Trinidad , a feeder produced winds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) along the Gulf of Paria . The winds increased waves that caused coastal flooding and some damage to boats . On Martinique , Iris produced gusts of 56 mph ( 90 km / h ) , with torrential rainfall occurring on the island . A station in Les Trois @-@ Îlets recorded 1 @.@ 89 in ( 48 mm ) in a 30 minute period , and the highest total on the island was 17 @.@ 72 in ( 450 mm ) at Ducos . The rains caused mudslides that killed four people , including two after a house was swept off a cliff in Le Vauclin . Flooding was reported across coastal areas of Martinique , and heavy damage was reported in the southern city of Le Vauclin . To the north of Martinique , winds reached 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) on Dominica . While the storm passed Guadeloupe , it produced sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) , with gusts to 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) on La Désirade . There was one death on the island after a person drowned in a storm @-@ flooded river . To the northwest , the hurricane moved over Montserrat , causing additional problems on the island just weeks after the Soufrière Hills volcano began erupting . Officials on the island closed the primary airport due to the storm , which prevented residents from evacuating from the island from the volcano threat . Further north , Iris dropped 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain on Antigua , which destroyed banana trees and caused flooding in low @-@ lying areas . Due to uncertainties in Iris ' track , the government of Bermuda issued a tropical storm watch on September 1 . This was downgraded on September 3 after the hurricane bypassed the island . Later , after Iris became extratropical , the storm produced winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) at La Rochelle on the Atlantic coast of France . = Further Instructions = " Further Instructions " is the third episode of the third season of the American science fiction television series Lost . It first aired on October 18 , 2006 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , making it the 52nd episode of the series . The episode was written by showrunner Carlton Cuse and supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff and was directed by Stephen Williams . The series follows the survivors of the crash of a commercial passenger jet flying between Sydney and Los Angeles , on a mysterious tropical island somewhere in the South Pacific Ocean . In this episode , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) recovers from the Hatch implosion and rescues Mr. Eko ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) from a polar bear . Locke is featured in the episode 's flashbacks . The episode featured the return of previous main cast member Ian Somerhalder . It also introduced the characters of Nikki and Paulo ( Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro ) , who were added in the wake of some criticism that the series focused too much on the same fifteen survivors . An estimated 16 @.@ 31 million Americans watched the episode upon its original broadcast . " Further Instructions " received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . = = Plot = = = = = Flashbacks = = = Locke is a member of a commune in Humboldt County , California . He considers its members his new family . One day Locke picks up a young hitchhiker , named Eddie Colburn ( Justin Chatwin ) , who tells him he is leaving home . Eddie joins the commune , but after six weeks , he asks Locke why he is never allowed to know what is going on in a greenhouse ( into which he sees an exceptional amount of fertilizer going ) . Eddie expresses his discontent with being kept out of the secret and affirms to Locke his desire to be in on " whatever you guys are trying to blow up " . Locke laughs and says he will talk to the commune leaders , Mike ( Chris Mulkey ) and Jan ( Virginia Morris ) . Upon entering the greenhouse some time later , in which marijuana is grown , Locke finds Mike and Jan in the midst of a frantic preparation to flee . They blame Locke for bringing Eddie , who they have discovered is an undercover police officer . Locke promises to fix the situation . He takes Eddie hunting and holds Eddie at gunpoint . Eddie says that Locke was chosen because his psych profile said he would be " amenable for coercion " . Eddie walks away , stating that Locke will not shoot him because he is " a good man , " though Locke insists that he is a hunter , not a farmer . = = = On the Island = = = John Locke , calling himself Marvin Candle , wakes up in the jungle and sees a naked Desmond Hume ( Henry Ian Cusick ) run by , but Locke cannot speak . Mr. Eko 's ( Adewale Akinnuoye @-@ Agbaje ) stick falls from above nearly hitting him . In the frame of Eko 's church , he builds a sweat lodge and convinces Charlie Pace ( Dominic Monaghan ) to stand guard . Locke takes a hallucinogenic drug and enters the lodge in order to " speak with the Island " . There , Boone Carlyle ( Ian Somerhalder ) appears to help him " find [ his ] way again , so that [ he ] can bring the family back together " . Locke ( mutely ) apologizes for the day Boone died , and he accepts the apology , however , in a taunting and seemingly sarcastic manner . Locke 's hallucination takes him to Sydney airport . Boone wheels Locke through the airport where he tells him someone is " in serious danger " . Locke sees his fellow survivors , and is told by Boone that he must " clean up [ his ] own mess " . Locke finds Eko 's stick covered in blood and Boone tells him " they have him , you don 't have much time " . Upon exiting the sweat lodge he sees a flash of a polar bear . He recovers his ability to speak and tells Charlie that he is going to save Eko . Locke and Charlie track Eko , who Locke believes has been captured by a polar bear . They pause at a large pit in the ground where the hatch imploded . They encounter Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) , who tells them that Jack , Kate , and Sawyer were kidnapped by the Others , and that " Henry Gale " is their leader . While continuing back to the camp alone , Hurley finds Desmond naked and lends him a tie @-@ dyed t @-@ shirt . Desmond says the electromagnetic anomaly may have been destroyed , and Hurley questions why Desmond was not destroyed . Desmond mentions Locke 's speech and his plan to save Jack Shephard , Kate Austen , and James " Sawyer " Ford . However , Hurley responds , " What speech ? " , as Locke has yet to give any such speech . Desmond seems confused , and drops the whole matter . Locke finds the polar bear 's cave and rescues Eko from the polar bear . While Charlie fetches water from a stream , Locke apologizes to an unconscious Eko for his lack of faith . Eko appears to briefly awaken and tells Locke that he must rescue Jack , Kate and Sawyer . Upon arriving at camp , Hurley informs the camp that Jack and the others have been captured . As an explanation , Locke announces to the survivors that he plans to rescue Jack , Kate , and Sawyer , as Desmond indicated to Hurley earlier . Hurley mentions to Charlie a sense of déjà vu . = = Production = = " Further Instructions " was written by showrunner Carlton Cuse and supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff ; Stephen Williams served as the director . As the third episode of the season , " Further Instructions " was the first episode to feature the fate of the main cast camped on the beach , as well as the first to begin resolving the Hatch storyline from the season two finale . Leading up to the third season 's broadcast , ABC attempted to reveal as few details as possible to the public . Ian Somerhalder 's return was one piece of information that press releases included . Somerhalder , a former series regular , was credited as a guest actor to play his character Boone Carlyle in Locke 's hallucinations , as his character died during the first season . Guest star Justin Chatwin made his first and only appearance in the episode . Other guest stars included Virginia Morris and Chris Mulkey as the commune leaders Jan and Milke , and Dion Donahue as Kim . The polar bear was mostly depicted by having stuntman Jonathan Arthur inside a bear suit . Kiele Sanchez and Rodrigo Santoro make their first appearances as Nikki and Paulo in this episode . Prior to the third season , the producers of the show were often asked what the rest of the plane @-@ crash survivors were doing because the show only focused on approximately fifteen of the survivors , and the characters of Nikki and Paulo were created in response . Reaction to the characters was generally negative because of their abrupt introduction onto the show . Nikki and Paulo 's original introduction onto the show was deleted for time from the final cut of the episode . They were supposed to be accidentally found by Claire Littleton in Jack 's tent having sex in the middle of the episode . They were instead introduced at the end of the episode when Locke makes a speech . The deleted scene was included on the third season DVD . The DVD also contained another deleted scene of Locke returning to the commune and seeing Mike and Jan getting arrested . = = Cultural references = = Hurley worries that the Hatch implosion turned Desmond into the Hulk , a Marvel Comics character who turned large and green upon being exposed to Gamma rays . The Bible verses seen on Mr. Eko 's stick include Romans 6 : 12 , which says " Do not obey the lusts of sin " and John 3 : 5 , which says " Jesus answered , ' I tell you the truth , no one can enter the kingdom of God unless he is born of water and the Spirit ' . " Hurley 's numbers are also visible . Dominic Monaghan as his character Charlie , says , while trying to figure out who Locke needs to speak to : " Trees ? Yea I heard they are wonderful conversationalists " , a reference to Monaghan 's work in The Lord of the Rings , in which he talks to trees . = = Reception = = " Further Instructions " was originally scheduled to air October 11 , 2006 as the second episode of the show 's third season , but swapped with another Lost episode , " The Glass Ballerina " . Upon its original broadcast on October 18 , 2006 in the United States on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) , " Further Instructions " was watched live by an estimated 16 @.@ 31 million viewers . In the 18 @-@ 49 demographic , Lost received a 6 @.@ 5 / 16 ratings share , helping ABC place first for the night when compared to the other major networks . The episode has received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Chris Carabott of IGN wrote that " Further Instructions " was " an entertaining hour of television . The episode certainly offers its fair share of excitement , but as with any typical Lost episode we are presented with more questions than answers " . Carabott also called it an improvement over the preceding episode , " The Glass Ballerina . " Andrew Dignan of Slant Magazine expressed relief in having Locke " back to the way we fondly remember him--as a wide @-@ eyed , knife @-@ wielding , face @-@ smeared madman " , but disliked his flashbacks , calling them a " largely under @-@ developed affair " . Dignan was also pleased to have Hurley back at the camp and referred to him as " someone [ who ] will keep the show grounded " , but concluded his review by unhappily noting the sudden emergence of Nikki and Paulo as " a colossal misjudgment on the producers ' part " and " a dangerous precedent that bears keeping an eye on . " Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Christine Fenno believed the episode had " false starts " but still " enjoyed the trippy places the writers took us . " While disliking the initial scenes with Charlie and Locke , Fenno thought the episode " found its groove " after Locke entered into the trance , and called the final scene between Eddie and Locke the episode 's " strongest moment . " The Record gave a negative review , noting that " Unfortunately , ' Instructions ' seemed devoid of everything that made ' The Glass Ballerina ' hum . It was disjointed , it was graceless , and it seemed filled with gaping holes and not terribly helpful information . " In a 2008 review , Ryan McGee of Zap2It gave the episode another negative review and considered it the weakest of the season 's first three episodes . He explained that after watching it for a second time , it " just feels off to me in hindsight . Maybe it 's the lack of forward movement , maybe it 's the lackluster flashback , maybe because the central plot is rendered moot in just two more episodes ... I can 't quite say . " = Death ( South Park ) = " Death " is the sixth episode in the first season of the American animated television series South Park . It originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on September 17 , 1997 . In the episode , Grandpa Marvin tries to convince Stan to kill him , while the parents of South Park protest the foul @-@ mouthed cartoon Terrance and Phillip . Death himself arrives to kill Kenny , and presents a warning to Grandpa Marvin against forcing others to help him commit suicide . " Death " was written and directed by series co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . The episode , along with the Terrance and Phillip show , were inspired by early criticism that South Park was little more than flatulence jokes and primitive animation . The script portrays the parents as so invested in protesting television programs , they fail to pay any attention to what is actually going on in their children 's lives . They seem to want to make television clean and wholesome so the entertainment industry can raise their kids so they themselves don 't have to make the time and effort to be full @-@ time parents . The episode also advocates against censorship and addresses the morality and ethics of euthanasia . " Death " was the last of the original six South Park episodes ordered by Comedy Central before the network committed to a full season . The episode 's plot heavily influenced the screenplay of the 1999 film South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut , which also involves South Park parents protesting Terrance and Phillip . In addition to Terrance and Phillip , the episode introduced recurring characters Grandpa Marsh and Sheila ( then known as Carol ) , Kyle 's mother . = = Plot = = The Marsh family celebrates Grandpa Marvin Marsh 's 102nd birthday , but he is tired of living and tries unsuccessfully to commit suicide . He tries to convince Stan to kill him , but Stan refuses because he fears he might get in trouble . Meanwhile , Kyle watches the cartoon Terrance and Phillip , which revolves largely around fart jokes . Kyle 's mother gets outraged by the foul language and crude humor , and contacts other South Park parents to organize a boycott at the Cartoon Central headquarters in New York City . Later at school , Stan asks Mr. Garrison , Chef and Jesus whether he should help his grandpa kill himself , but they avoid discussing the issue as they can 't put it in terms that Stan might understand , much to Stan 's anger . Meanwhile , Kenny suffers from a bout of " explosive diarrhea " , which spreads to others in the town , including the adults protesting Terrance and Phillip . Despite objecting to the show , the adults themselves laugh and make jokes at their own real @-@ life toilet humor . Carol proclaims that if Cartoon Central does not take the show off the air , the protesters will kill themselves , and they start using a slingshot to send themselves flying into the building . With the adults out of town for the protest , the boys are free to watch Terrance and Phillip at their leisure . Grandpa Marvin continues asking Stan to kill him , and demonstrates how terrible his life is by locking Stan in a room and forcing him to listen to a song in the style of Enya 's " Orinoco Flow " . Now convinced that his life is excruciating , Stan finally agrees to kill his grandpa , and tries to do so by rigging a cow on a pulley and dropping it on him . Just as the boys are about to do it , Death himself arrives , but starts chasing after the boys instead of Grandpa Marvin . While fleeing , Stan calls his mother , who is too busy protesting Terrance and Phillip to listen to his problems . More than a dozen people have killed themselves against the headquarters building . Eventually , the network agrees to take the show off the air , not because of the deaths but because of the stench of the protesters ' explosive diarrhea . Meanwhile , Death continues chasing the boys , but stops in front of a television playing Terrance and Phillip . Death and the boys start laughing together , but after it is taken off the air , Death angrily touches and kills Kenny . Angered , Grandpa Marvin demands that Death kill him , but Death refuses . Death then brings in the spirit of Stan 's great great grandfather ( Marvin 's grandfather ) , who was killed by Marvin when he was Stan 's age ; the ghost warns Marvin that he must die of natural causes and not place the burden of his suicide on anybody else 's shoulders or else he will spend his eternity after death in limbo . Terrence and Phillip is replaced by the Suzanne Sommers show She 's the Sheriff which also contains obscenities . Furious about all this , the parents go back to the Cartoon Central network building to protest again . Grandpa Marvin decides to visit Africa , where over 400 people are " naturally " eaten by lions every year . The episode ends with the boys laughing , and then laughing harder when Kyle farts . = = Production = = " Death " was written and directed by series co @-@ creators Trey Parker and Matt Stone . It was the last of the original six South Park episodes ordered by Comedy Central before the network committed to a full season of 13 episodes . Parker long wanted to feature a Grim Reaper @-@ like death character in South Park because since his childhood , Parker enjoyed drawing cartoon images of Death riding on a tricycle . This was the inspiration behind a scene in which Death inexplicably rides a tricycle while chasing the South Park boys through the streets . The subplot of Kenny 's diarrhea problems came from a real @-@ life high school experience from Stone , who said students used to offer each other $ 20 if they would pass a note to the teacher explaining they had " explosive diarrhea " , like Kenny did in the episode . The image of Kenny sitting on a toilet in " Death " became a popular South Park poster . " Death " included a consistency error in that Mr. Garrison 's classroom had its own separate bathroom , which was never again seen in future South Park episodes . During one scene , Cartman moons Kyle while making fun of Kyle 's mother . Comedy Central censors forced Parker and Stone to remove the image of Cartman 's bare bottom , although such images would be allowed in future episodes . A man named Mr. McCormick was killed in " Death " after he was flung via slingshot into the Cartoon Central building . The character 's name led many to mistakenly believe it was Kenny 's father , Stuart McCormick , but Parker denied this and said the similar character names were just a coincidence . = = Themes = = During the first few weeks of South Park 's run , Parker and Stone received criticism from some commentators and media outlets that the series was little more than flatulence jokes and primitive animation , and thus must be a simple show to produce . " Death " was written in response to that criticism . The episode introduced Terrance and Phillip , a comedy duo with a popular cartoon series within the South Park universe , whose show is literally nothing but a series of flatulence jokes , with even cruder animation than South Park itself . The episode 's script parodied parents who voiced strong opposition to South Park , portraying them as so invested in fighting the television program that they fail to pay attention to what is actually going on in their children 's lives . This is illustrated in the episode when Stan calls his mother seeking help because Death is chasing him , only for his mother to ignore him because she is too busy protesting the Terrance and Phillip show . This is also demonstrated by the line Kyle says , " I think that parents only get so offended by television because they rely on it as a babysitter and the sole educator of their kids . " " Death " warns against such misplaced values and condemns the practice of censorship , as well as demonstrating there can be value in a show often dismissed as juvenile and immature , like South Park or Terrance and Phillip . The episode also takes the position that parents who blame their children 's behavior entirely on television are evading true responsibility for problems that likely have roots elsewhere . The plot of " Death " heavily influenced the screenplay Parker and Stone wrote for their 1999 film , South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut . The plot and theme of both scripts revolves heavily around the parents of South Park protesting Terrance and Phillip due to the perceived negative influence it has over their children . Parker said , " After about the first year of South Park , Paramount already wanted to make a South Park movie , and we sort of thought this episode would make the best model just because we liked the sort of pointing at ourselves kind of thing . " " Death " also touches upon the issue of euthanasia , and whether it is morally or ethically wrong to commit suicide . The episode 's script indicates it is wrong for someone wishing to kill oneself to place the burden of that decision on a loved one : in this case , Grandpa Marvin demanding that Stan kill him , without considering how traumatizing an experience it would be for Stan . This is most strongly illustrated at the end of the episode , in which the ghost of Marvin 's grandfather ( who had Marvin kill him long ago ) tells Marvin he must not force Stan to commit such a traumatizing act . Although the ghost tells Grandpa Marvin he must die of " natural causes " , Marvin nevertheless continues seeking ways to kill himself , but without involving other people . Parker said this reflects his opinion that , " Basically , it is OK to kill yourself , but you shouldn 't ask someone else to do it and put someone else through the trip . " = = Cultural references and impact = = " Death " introduced several characters who would maintain important recurring roles throughout the rest of the series . Among them were Sheila Broflovski and Grandpa Marvin Marsh . Sheila and Gerald Broflovski , Kyle 's parents , were named after Stone 's parents , although he insists the characters are nothing like his real parents . Marvin Marsh was not based on any real @-@ life person , but Parker and Stone wanted to create a rude and unlikeable grandfather character because they felt most elderly people were portrayed as sweet and lovable on television . Originally , they wanted Marvin Marsh to be known as the " molesting grandpa " who kept making sexual comments to Stan and attempting to play inappropriate games with him , but Comedy Central refused to allow it , which Parker said was " probably the right call " . Terrance and Phillip are loosely based on Parker and Stone themselves , and were also inspired by the Itchy & Scratchy characters from The Simpsons , as well as the protagonists from the MTV cartoon Beavis and Butt @-@ Head . Although " Death " marked the first appearance of Terrance and Phillip , Parker said the duo " took on a life of their own " . They made frequent appearances throughout the rest of the series , and played a major role in South Park : Bigger , Longer & Uncut . The episode refers to Jack Kevorkian , the right @-@ to @-@ die activist best known for his advocacy of physician @-@ assisted suicide , although Kyle mistakenly refers to him as " Jack Leborkian " . When Terrance and Phillip is cancelled in " Death " , it is replaced by She 's the Sheriff , a sitcom starring actress Suzanne Somers . The Cartoon Central network in " Death " is based on Comedy Central , the real @-@ life television network that broadcasts South Park . John Warsog , the man who runs Cartoon Central in " Death " , is based on Doug Herzog , the Comedy Central executive who was responsible for bringing South Park to the network . Herzog was excited to be featured in the episode and enjoyed the portrayal . During one scene , Stan 's grandfather locks him in a room and plays music by the Irish vocalist Enya as a form of torture to show Stan what it 's like to be his age , and convince Stan to kill him . The parody of Enya 's Orinoco Flow used in " Death " was sung by Toddy Walters , who played protagonist Polly Pry in Trey Parker 's 1996 film , Cannibal ! The Musical . " Death " marked the first appearance of Snacky Cakes , one of Cartman 's favorite snack foods . = = Reception = = In the book Leaving Springfield , author William J. Savage , Jr. said the episode " reveals a fine edged attack on censors and a thoughtful and subtle consideration of issues regarding assisted suicide . " In the book The Deep End of South Park , Anne Gossage complimented the ambition of episode 's themes of censorship and the morality of assisted suicide , which she called " a great deal of ground to cover in 20 minutes " . Gossage also said the episode shared many of the same characteristics of William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet , comparing Stan 's contemplation of killing his grandfather to Hamlet 's dilemmas after encountering his father 's ghost . = = Home video release = = " Death " was released alongside five other episodes in a three @-@ VHS set on May 5 , 1998 , marking the first time South Park was made available on video . The episode was released on the " Volume III " video along with " An Elephant Makes Love to a Pig " ; other featured episodes included " Cartman Gets an Anal Probe " , " Volcano " , " Weight Gain 4000 " , and " Big Gay Al 's Big Gay Boat Ride " . " Death " , along with the other twelve episodes from the first season , was also included in the DVD release " South Park : The Complete First Season " , which was released on November 12 , 2002 . Parker and Stone recorded commentary tracks for each episode , but they were not included with the DVDs due to " standards " issues with some of the statements ; Parker and Stone refused to allow the tracks to be edited and censored , so they were released in a CD separate from the DVDs . In 2008 , Parker and Stone made " Death " and all South Park episodes available to watch for free on the show 's official website , " South Park Studios " . = Raging Bully = " Raging Bully " is the sixth broadcast episode of the animated television series Phineas and Ferb . In the episode , Phineas Flynn is challenged to a thumb wrestling competition at the mall with the local bully , Buford , after he accidentally embarrasses him in the food court . Meanwhile , the evil Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz tries using a hypnotic contraption to force everyone to celebrate his birthday and clean up their mess after the party . " Raging Bully " was written by series co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh and directed by Povenmire . Heavyweight boxing champion Evander Holyfield guest starred as himself , training Phineas for the big thumb @-@ wrestling match . The episode originally broadcast on Disney Channel on February 6 , 2008 , as part of the month @-@ long special event , " Phineas and Ferb @-@ urary . " It received generally positive reviews from television critics and the featured musical number , " He 's a Bully , " became available on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack in 2009 . = = Plot summary = = While at the food court in the mall , Phineas accidentally drops his ice cream cone on bully Buford 's pants , causing the whole food court to laugh at Buford . Enraged , he challenges Phineas to a fight right there , but boxing champion Evander Holyfield arrives and convinces them to instead fight in an organized thumb wrestling match later that day , which Buford accepts . Despite being cautioned by Phineas 's friends Baljeet and Isabella , Holyfield trains Phineas through simple tasks , including punching a chain of sausages and playing Dance Dance Revolution . Meanwhile , Perry the Platypus arrives at an abandoned cake factory , where he is trapped in a vat of cake mix . His nemesis , Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz , appears and explains that today is his birthday . All throughout his life , his parents never showed up to his birthday parties ( even his own birth ) ; now , he plans on using a hypnotic device to force everyone to celebrate his birthday . He then rides off with the invention on a flying machine . Perry escapes from the mix and follows after him . In the air , Perry and Doofenshmirtz fight and the machine is activated , but while trying to get Perry to let go of the wall of the flying machine he accidentally makes the machine malfunction , causing the people below to still not want to celebrate his birthday . Doofenshmirtz , defeated , drops the ice cream cone he is eating in the fight and it falls to the ground below . Finally , the big match commences and Phineas is vigorously beaten by Buford in each round . When the final round begins , Buford overpowers Phineas and pulls him up through the air . Just then , Doofenshmirtz 's ice cream cone falls and lands on Phineas 's head . Buford is satisfied now that Phineas is embarrassed and calls off the match . The audience who was watching cleans up the mess ( due to Doofenshmirtz 's machine accidentally telling them to ) . At the parking lot a few minutes later , Phineas thanks Holyfield for his help and Holyfield walks off . Ferb makes a comment which accidentally offends Buford and he is about to be beaten up , but he knocks Buford out with a Vulcan nerve pinch , to Phineas 's surprise . When Phineas asks him why he did it he responds , " Well , he was all up in my face . " = = Production = = " Raging Bully " was written by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh . It was storyboarded by artists Wendy Grieb and Kent Osbourne and was directed by Povenmire , who manages the bulk of animation direction in the series along with Zac Moncrief . It was originally broadcast in the United States on February 4 , 2008 , on Disney Channel with a TV @-@ G parental rating . It was part of the network 's marathon event " Phineas and Ferb @-@ urary , " which debuted new episodes of the series every night for the entire month . Heavyweight boxing champion Evander Holyfield guest starred in the episode as himself , appearing at the mall to help train Phineas for the big thumb wrestling match against Buford . Holyfield 's guest performance was heavily expected since the original announcement of guest stars lined up for the series released in September 2007 . Cast members response to working with Holyfield was highly positive ; Vincent Martella and Alyson Stoner , who portray Phineas and Isabella respectively , cited working along guest stars like him as a benefit of working on the show . In 2008 , " Raging Bully " became available on the DVD compilation Phineas and Ferb : The Fast and the Phineas , along with fellow first season episodes of the series " One Good Scare Ought to Do It ! " " Lawn Gnome Beach Party of Terror , " " The Fast and the Phineas , " " Are You My Mummy ? " " Flop Starz , " " Lights , Candace , Action ! " and " It 's About Time ! " In 2009 , the episode 's song , " He 's a Bully , " became available on the official Phineas and Ferb soundtrack . = = Reception = = " Raging Bully " received generally positive reviews from television critics . DVD Talk 's David Cornelius stated that he enjoyed Holyfield 's guest appearance . Ed Liu , of Toon Zone , wrote that the episode and others included on the DVD The Fast and the Phineas were " way too manic for their own good , never giving a gag enough time to develop a proper laugh before ripping off to the next one , " but considered Phineas 's " He 's a Bully " training montage to be one of the series ' " amusing video sequences . " A Wired magazine review for the soundtrack said that the " He 's a Bully " was " butt @-@ rock , " but blended nicely with other melodies of completely different genres . = Hygrocybe appalachianensis = Hygrocybe appalachianensis , commonly known as the Appalachian waxy cap , is a gilled fungus of the waxcap family . It is found in the eastern United States , where it fruits singly , in groups , or clusters on the ground in deciduous and mixed forests . The species , described in 1963 from collections made in the Appalachian Mountains , was originally classified in the related genus Hygrophorus . It was transferred to Hygrocybe in 1998 , in which it has been proposed as the type species of section Pseudofirmae . Fruit bodies of the Appalachian waxy cap are bright purplish @-@ red to reddish @-@ orange . They have convex to somewhat funnel @-@ shaped caps that are 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , held up by a cylindrical stipe up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) long . The gills are thick and widely spaced , with a color similar to that of the cap or paler , and a whitish @-@ yellow edge . Microscopically , the spores and spore @-@ bearing cells are dimorphic — of two different sizes . = = Systematics = = The fungus was described as new to science in 1963 by mycologists Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their monograph on North American species of Hygrophorus . Hesler collected the type on July 28 , 1958 in Cades Cove , Great Smoky Mountains National Park ( Tennessee ) . The fungus was recorded from the same location in a fungal survey conducted about 50 years later . It was transferred to the genus Hygrocybe in a 1998 paper by Ingeborg Kronawitter and Andreas Bresinsky . In this publication , the basionym was given as " appalachiensis " instead of the original spelling appalachianensis , and so Hygrocybe appalachiensis is an orthographic variant spelling . A reference to the type locality – the Appalachian Mountains – appears in both the specific epithet and in the common name , Appalachian waxy cap . Because of its color and habit , Hesler and Smith originally thought the unknown agaric was H. coccinea or perhaps a large form of H. miniata , but study of its microscopic characteristics revealed that it was distinct from these . They noted that the fibrillose @-@ squamulose texture of the cap ( i.e. that it appears to be made of thin fibers , or covered with small scales ) and the large spores suggested a relationship with H. turundus . The type of Hygrocybe appalachianensis is of an immature specimen , and the description of the basidia only accounted for microbasidia ( i.e. , the smaller of the two forms of basidia in the hymenium ) . The immature macrobasidia were described as pleurocystidia ( i.e. , cystidia arising from the side , or face , of the gill ) , which Hesler and Smith described as " more or less embedded in the hymenium " . Microspores ( the smaller of the two spore types produced by the fungus ) were not accounted for in their original description , although they are present in the type . Deborah Jean Lodge and colleagues , in a reorganization of the family Hygrophoraceae based on molecular phylogenetics , proposed that H. appalachianensis should be the type species of the new section Pseudofirmae in genus Hygrocybe . Species in this section , which include Hygrocybe chloochlora , H. rosea , and H. trinitensis , have sticky or glutinous caps that often have perforations in the center . Their spores and basidia are dimorphic ( of two sizes ) , and the development of the microbasidia and macrobasidia is often staggered . The macrobasidia are club shaped and appear as if they have a stalk . = = Description = = Fruitbodies of H. appalachianensis have convex caps that are 2 – 7 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter . As the mushroom matures , the cap margins curl upward , and the central depression in the cap deepens , becoming more or less funnel shaped . Its color is bright red to purplish @-@ red , which fades in age . The cap margin is often whitish . The well @-@ spaced gills are initially adnate @-@ decurrent , becoming more decurrent in age . Their color is that of the cap or paler ; the gill edges are sometimes whitish @-@ yellow . The cylindrical stipe , which measures 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) long by 0 @.@ 4 – 1 @.@ 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 5 in ) , is more or less the same width throughout its length . Its surface texture is smooth to slightly scurfy , and it is often whitish at its base . The flesh of the mushroom lacks any distinctive taste or odor . It is yellowish with orange tinges , with reddish color near the cap cuticle . Alan Bessette and colleagues , in their 2012 monograph on eastern North American waxcap mushrooms , note that the mushroom is " reported to be edible " . Hygrocybe appalachianensis mushrooms produce a white spore print . Both the spores and the basidia are dimorphic . The larger spores ( macrospores ) are smooth , ellipsoid , and measure 11 – 17 @.@ 5 by 7 – 10 µm . They are hyaline ( translucent ) , and inamyloid . The macrobasidia are club shaped , measuring 38 – 57 by 8 – 14 µm , and can be one- two- , three- or four @-@ spored . The ratio of macrobasidia length to macrospore length is usually less than five to one . Clamp connections are present on the hyphae of several tissues of the mushroom . The hyphae of the gills ( the lamellar trama ) are arranged in a parallel fashion . The colors of Hygrocybe mushrooms originate from betalains , a class of red and yellow indole @-@ derived pigments . Specific betalains found in H. appalachianensis include muscaflavin , and a group of compounds called hygroaurins , which are derived from muscaflavin by conjugation with amino acids . = = = Similar species = = = There are several lookalike species found in North American with which the Appalachian waxy cap might be confused . Hygrocybe cantharellus is a bright red mushroom that has smaller fruit bodies and a more slender stipe than H. appalachianensis . It also has smaller spores , measuring 7 – 12 by 4 – 8 µm . Hygrocybe reidii , found in Europe and northeastern North America , has flesh with a sweet odor that reminiscent of honey . This smell is sometimes weak and only noticeable when the tissue is rubbed , or when it is drying . Its scarlet cap initially has a narrow yellow @-@ orange margin . Widespread and common in the Northern Hemisphere , the scarlet waxcap ( Hygrocybe coccinea ) is most reliably distinguished from H. appalachianensis by its smaller spores , measuring 7 – 11 by 4 – 5 µm . The sphagnum waxcap , H. coccineocrenata , also has colors that are similar to H. appalachianensis . In addition to its smaller spores ( 8 – 12 by 5 @.@ 5 – 8 µm ) , its fruit bodies have smaller caps , measuring 0 @.@ 6 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , and it is typically found fruiting in mosses . = = Habitat and distribution = = Fruit bodies of Hygrocybe appalachianensis grow singly , in groups , or clusters on the ground . Like all Hygrocybe species , the fungus is believed to be saprophytic , meaning it obtains nutrients by breaking down organic matter . It fruits in deciduous or mixed forest , typically appearing between the months of July and December . Its range covers a region extending from the states Ohio and West Virginia south to South Carolina and Tennessee . Its occurrence is occasional to locally common . = = = Cited literature = = = Bessette AE , Roody WC , Sturgeon WE , Bessette AR ( 2012 ) . Waxcap Mushrooms of Eastern North America . Syracuse , New York : Syracuse University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8156 @-@ 3268 @-@ 9 . Lodge DJ , Padamsee M , Matheny PB , Aime MC , Cantrell SA , Boertmann D , Kovalenko A , Vizzini A , Dentinger BT , Kirk PM , Ainsworth AM , Moncalvo JM , Vilgalys R , Larsson E , Lücking R , Griffith GW , Smith ME , Norvell LL , Desjardin DE , Redhead SA , Ovrebo CL , Lickey EB , Ercole E , Hughes KW , Courtecuisse R , Young A , Binder M , Minnis AM , Lindner DL , Ortiz @-@ Santana B , Haight J , Læssøe T , Baroni TJ , Geml J , Hattori T ( 2014 ) . " Molecular phylogeny , morphology , pigment chemistry and ecology in Hygrophoraceae ( Agaricales ) " . Fungal Diversity 64 ( 1 ) : 1 – 99 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1007 / s13225 @-@ 013 @-@ 0259 @-@ 0 . = Estuary stingray = The estuary stingray ( Dasyatis fluviorum ) , also called the estuary stingaree or brown stingray , is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . Endemic to eastern Australia , it typically inhabits shallow , mangrove @-@ lined tidal rivers , estuaries , and bays in southern Queensland and New South Wales . This yellow @-@ brown to olive ray grows to at least 93 cm ( 37 in ) across . It has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc and a mostly smooth , whip @-@ like tail bearing both dorsal and ventral fin folds . It can additionally be identified by its long , narrow nostrils and the row of thorns along the midline of its back . While the estuary stingray has gained infamy for consuming farmed shellfish such as oysters , it mainly feeds on crustaceans and polychaete worms . It is aplacental viviparous , with the unborn young sustained to term by maternal histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . Once common , this species has apparently declined across much of its range , likely from a combination of habitat degradation , mortality from commercial and recreational fishing , and persecution by shellfish farmers . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Vulnerable . = = Taxonomy = = The first reference to the estuary stingray in scientific literature was probably a record by 19th @-@ century English naturalist William Saville @-@ Kent of a " Trygon pastinaca " feeding on oysters in a Queensland estuary . This species was formally described by Australian ichthyologist James Douglas Ogilby in a 1908 volume of Proceedings of the Royal Society of Queensland , based on a specimen collected from the Brisbane River . The specific epithet fluviorum means " of the rivers " in Latin . = = Description = = The estuary stingray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc about as wide as long , with gently convex anterior margins and broadly rounded outer corners . The snout is wide and triangular , and tapers to a point . The small , widely spaced eyes are immediately followed by the spiracles . Between the long and narrow nostrils , there is a short and broad " skirt " of skin with a weakly fringed posterior margin . The small , bow @-@ shaped mouth is surrounded by deep furrows and contains a row of five papillae across the floor , with the outermost pair tiny and set apart from the others . The teeth are small and arranged into pavement @-@ like surfaces . There are five pairs of gill slits beneath the disc . The pelvic fins are relatively large . The tail measures twice as long as the disc , and is broad and flattened at the base . On its upper surface is at least one , often two serrated stinging spines . Past the spines , the tail quickly tapers to become whip @-@ like and bears a well @-@ developed keel above and a long , low fin fold beneath . There are wide patches of small dermal denticles with flattened crowns between the eyes and over the middle of the back , along with a midline row of enlarged thorns that become progressively longer until they reach the base of the sting . Aside from the thorns at the base , the tail is smooth . This species is yellowish to greenish brown above , lightening towards the disc margins and darkening past the tail spine , and white below . It grows to at least 93 cm ( 37 in ) across , and possibly reaches a width of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) . Its maximum recorded weight is 6 @.@ 1 kg ( 13 lb ) . = = Distribution and habitat = = The range of the estuary stingray spans approximately 1 @,@ 700 km ( 1 @,@ 100 mi ) along Australia 's eastern coast , from Repulse Bay in Queensland to the Hacking River in New South Wales . It is most common in southern Queensland , including in Hervey Bay and Moreton Bay . This species was formerly suspected to have disappeared from Botany Bay and Port Jackson in the 1880s , but recent observations have shown this is not the case . Additional species records from the Cape York Peninsula , Northern Territory , New Guinea , and the South China Sea probably represent misidentifications of other stingrays , primarily the freshwater whipray ( Himantura dalyensis ) and the Merauke stingray ( D. longicauda ) . The habitat requirements of the estuary stingray appear to be rather stringent , as significant numbers are only found at particular locations . It prefers tidal rivers and the intertidal flats of estuaries and bays , which are lined with mangroves and have sandy to muddy bottoms . This species is rarely found outside these sheltered areas , though it has been recorded to a depth of 28 m ( 92 ft ) in offshore waters . It inhabits marine and brackish waters , and may be able to tolerate fresh water as well as it has been known to swim upriver beyond the limit of high tide . Surface water temperatures within its range vary from 24 – 29 ° C ( 75 – 84 ° F ) in the north to 17 – 23 ° C ( 63 – 73 ° F ) in the south . This species seems to segregate by size and sex . = = Biology and ecology = = Despite its reputation for preying voraciously on oysters and other farmed shellfish , the estuary stingray 's diet in fact consists mainly of crustaceans and polychaete worms . In Moreton Bay , an important prey species is the soldier crab ( Mictyris longicarpus ) . This ray has been observed entering mudflats with the rising tide to forage for food . Known parasites of the estuary stingray include the tapeworm Shirleyrhynchus aetobatidis , the nematode Echinocephalus overstreeti and the monogeneans Heterocotyle chin , Empruthotrema dasyatidis and Neoentobdella cribbi . Like other stingrays , the estuary stingray exhibits aplacental viviparity , with the developing embryos sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females probably produce offspring every year . Courtship , in which the male follows the female and bites her disc , has been observed at night in water approximately 80 cm ( 31 in ) deep in Hays Inlet from July to October . The newborns measure around 11 cm ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) across and 35 cm ( 14 in ) long . Young rays have been caught in the Nerang and Macleay Rivers and in Hays Inlet ; such fresh or brackish environments may serve as nurseries . Males mature at around 41 cm ( 16 in ) across and seven years of age , and females mature at around 63 cm ( 25 in ) across and 13 years of age . This disparity in maturation size between the sexes is among the widest known for stingrays . The maximum lifespan is estimated to be 16 years for males and 23 years for females . = = Human interactions = = Historical and anecdotal evidence strongly suggest that the once @-@ abundant estuary stingray has declined substantially across its range . Although it is not commercially utilized , it faces a number of other threats . This species is captured incidentally by commercial bottom trawl and gillnet fisheries ; bycatch mortality is exacerbated by the practice of " spiking " , in which the ray 's cranium is pierced with a metal bar or sharpened stick so as to move it . It is also readily caught , and often killed , by recreational anglers . Surveys in Moreton Bay have found fishing @-@ related effects , such as embedded hooks and mutilated tails , in over 10 % of the population . Habitat degradation is another major threat to the estuary stingray , especially given its habitat specificity . Its range encompasses some of the most urbanized areas in Australia , where there is extensive land reclamation , water pollution , and construction of flood mitigation barriers on rivers . Finally , this ray 's reputation for damaging shellfish has led to persecution by commercial shellfish farmers . The estuary stingray 's diminished population and susceptibility to multiple threats have led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to assess it as Vulnerable . Demographic modelling has shown that it is likely to become Endangered without intervention . Several Marine Protected Areas ( MPAs ) are located within its range , but at present they lack adequate protection from fishing . As this ray remains locally abundant in Hervey Bay and parts of Moreton Bay , these areas may become important centers for preserving the species . The Queensland government has listed the estuary stingray on the Back on Track species prioritisation framework , to facilitate the development of conservation measures . = Bonded by Blood ( band ) = Bonded by Blood is an American thrash metal band , named after Exodus ' debut album Bonded by Blood . Like its labelmates Evile , Gama Bomb , and Municipal Waste , Bonded by Blood is part of the thrash metal revival movement . The band was formed in mid @-@ 2005 by vocalist Jose Barrales , who with the help of friends completed the band 's original lineup with guitarist Alex Lee , drummer Carlos Regalado , and bassist Ruben Dominguez . In 2006 Bonded by Blood won a battle of bands that featured over 250 musical groups . With the contest prize , the band recorded the demo Four Pints of Blood and a year later they self @-@ financed the recording of the EP Extinguish the Weak , releasing the songs through their MySpace page . The band attracted the attention of Earache Records , which signed them in late 2007 . The band released its first full length Feed the Beast in 2008 . While on tour Dominguez left the band and was replaced by bassist Jerry Garcia , who had his debut on Bonded by Blood 's second full length Exiled to Earth , released in 2010 . = = History = = = = = Formation and win at battle of bands = = = Hailing from Pomona , California , the members of Bonded by Blood met through mutual friends . The idea of creating a band was conceived by lead vocalist Jose Barrales , a singer with hardcore punk and crossover thrash backgrounds , influenced by groups like The Blackheads , Cryptic Slaughter , D.R.I. and Black Flag . He always had an appreciation for heavy metal music , but it was not until a friend recommended him to listen to Exodus that Barrales got into the thrash metal subgenre . Exodus ' debut album Bonded by Blood had a profound impact on Barrales , and it was inspiring to the point he idealized the creation of a thrash metal band , as he had noticed that there were few or even no groups in this genre in the music scene . In mid @-@ 2005 Barrales began looking for musicians for the band , asking friends of his to see if they could recommend anyone , which is how he heard of guitarist Alex Lee . When Barrales saw Lee play , he dropped the thought of trying to play rhythm guitar himself because he had a fear of not being able to keep up . There were a few years that Lee was playing guitar , but he was already playing along to music by Steve Vai , John Petrucci , Rusty Cooley , Paul Gilbert and Michael Angelo Batio . Lee decided to join Barrales , and together , they went on searching until they found themselves the drummer Carlos Regalado , who was known locally by playing covers of Megadeth and Metallica . With Regalado in the band , he helped to find bassist Ruben Dominguez . The band was impressed with the skills of Dominguez , who soon joined the band completing its line @-@ up . The band then decided to name themselves after Exodus ' Bonded by Blood , an album they had in common in their collection , even though their music tastes differed . A year later , the band decided to enter into a battle of bands contest , which included over 250 musical ensembles . The music competition 's prize was $ 3 @,@ 000 and two days in a recording studio . The band then decided it was	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
a paradoxical pulse ( a pulse that is weaker during inhalation and stronger during exhalation ) , and over @-@ inflation of the chest . A blue color of the skin and nails may occur from lack of oxygen . In a mild exacerbation the peak expiratory flow rate ( PEFR ) is ≥ 200 L / min or ≥ 50 % of the predicted best . Moderate is defined as between 80 and 200 L / min or 25 % and 50 % of the predicted best while severe is defined as ≤ 80 L / min or ≤ 25 % of the predicted best . Acute severe asthma , previously known as status asthmaticus , is an acute exacerbation of asthma that does not respond to standard treatments of bronchodilators and corticosteroids . Half of cases are due to infections with others caused by allergen , air pollution , or insufficient or inappropriate medication use . Brittle asthma is a kind of asthma distinguishable by recurrent , severe attacks . Type 1 brittle asthma is a disease with wide peak flow variability , despite intense medication . Type 2 brittle asthma is background well @-@ controlled asthma with sudden severe exacerbations . = = = = Exercise @-@ induced = = = = Exercise can trigger bronchoconstriction both in people with or without asthma . It occurs in most people with asthma and up to 20 % of people without asthma . Exercise @-@ induced bronchoconstriction is common in professional athletes . The highest rates are among cyclists ( up to 45 % ) , swimmers , and cross @-@ country skiers . While it may occur with any weather conditions it is more common when it is dry and cold . Inhaled beta2 @-@ agonists do not appear to improve athletic performance among those without asthma however oral doses may improve endurance and strength . = = = = Occupational = = = = Asthma as a result of ( or worsened by ) workplace exposures , is a commonly reported occupational disease . Many cases however are not reported or recognized as such . It is estimated that 5 – 25 % of asthma cases in adults are work – related . A few hundred different agents have been implicated with the most common being : isocyanates , grain and wood dust , colophony , soldering flux , latex , animals , and aldehydes . The employment associated with the highest risk of problems include : those who spray paint , bakers and those who process food , nurses , chemical workers , those who work with animals , welders , hairdressers and timber workers . = = = = Aspirin @-@ induced asthma = = = = Aspirin @-@ exacerbated respiratory disease , also known as aspirin @-@ induced asthma , affects up to 9 % of asthmatics . Reactions may also occur to other NSAIDs . People affected often also have trouble with nasal polyps . In people who are affected low doses paracetamol or COX @-@ 2 inhibitors are generally safe . = = = = Alcohol @-@ induced asthma = = = = Alcohol may worsen asthmatic symptoms in up to a third of people . This may be even more common in some ethnic groups such as the Japanese and those with aspirin @-@ induced asthma . Other studies have found improvement in asthmatic symptoms from alcohol . = = = = Nonallergic asthma = = = = Nonallergic asthma , also known as intrinsic or nonatopic asthma makes up between 10 and 33 % of cases . There is negative skin test to common inhalant allergens and normal serum concentrations of IgE . Often it starts latter and life and women are more commonly affect than men . Usual treatments may not work as well . = = = Differential diagnosis = = = Many other conditions can cause symptoms similar to those of asthma . In children , other upper airway diseases such as allergic rhinitis and sinusitis should be considered as well as other causes of airway obstruction including : foreign body aspiration , tracheal stenosis or laryngotracheomalacia , vascular rings , enlarged lymph nodes or neck masses . Bronchiolitis and other viral infections may also produce wheezing . In adults , COPD , congestive heart failure , airway masses , as well as drug @-@ induced coughing due to ACE inhibitors should be considered . In both populations vocal cord dysfunction may present similarly . Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease can coexist with asthma and can occur as a complication of chronic asthma . After the age of 65 , most people with obstructive airway disease will have asthma and COPD . In this setting , COPD can be differentiated by increased airway neutrophils , abnormally increased wall thickness , and increased smooth muscle in the bronchi . However , this level of investigation is not performed due to COPD and asthma sharing similar principles of management : corticosteroids , long @-@ acting beta @-@ agonists , and smoking cessation . It closely resembles asthma in symptoms , is correlated with more exposure to cigarette smoke , an older age , less symptom reversibility after bronchodilator administration , and decreased likelihood of family history of atopy . = = Prevention = = The evidence for the effectiveness of measures to prevent the development of asthma is weak . Some show promise including : limiting smoke exposure both in utero and after delivery , breastfeeding , and increased exposure to daycare or large families but none are well supported enough to be recommended for this indication . Early pet exposure may be useful . Results from exposure to pets at other times are inconclusive and it is only recommended that pets be removed from the home if a person has allergic symptoms to said pet . Dietary restrictions during pregnancy or when breast feeding have not been found to be effective and thus are not recommended . Reducing or eliminating compounds known to sensitive people from the work place may be effective . It is not clear if annual influenza vaccinations effects the risk of exacerbations . Immunization ; however , is recommended by the World Health Organization . Smoking bans are effective in decreasing exacerbations of asthma . = = Management = = While there is no cure for asthma , symptoms can typically be improved . A specific , customized plan for proactively monitoring and managing symptoms should be created . This plan should include the reduction of exposure to allergens , testing to assess the severity of symptoms , and the usage of medications . The treatment plan should be written down and advise adjustments to treatment according to changes in symptoms . The most effective treatment for asthma is identifying triggers , such as cigarette smoke , pets , or aspirin , and eliminating exposure to them . If trigger avoidance is insufficient , the use of medication is recommended . Pharmaceutical drugs are selected based on , among other things , the severity of illness and the frequency of symptoms . Specific medications for asthma are broadly classified into fast @-@ acting and long @-@ acting categories . Bronchodilators are recommended for short @-@ term relief of symptoms . In those with occasional attacks , no other medication is needed . If mild persistent disease is present ( more than two attacks a week ) , low @-@ dose inhaled corticosteroids or alternatively , an oral leukotriene antagonist or a mast cell stabilizer is recommended . For those who have daily attacks , a higher dose of inhaled corticosteroids is used . In a moderate or severe exacerbation , oral corticosteroids are added to these treatments . = = = Lifestyle modification = = = Avoidance of triggers is a key component of improving control and preventing attacks . The most common triggers include allergens , smoke ( tobacco and other ) , air pollution , non selective beta @-@ blockers , and sulfite @-@ containing foods . Cigarette smoking and second @-@ hand smoke ( passive smoke ) may reduce the effectiveness of medications such as corticosteroids . Laws that limit smoking decrease the number of people hospitalized for asthma . Dust mite control measures , including air filtration , chemicals to kill mites , vacuuming , mattress covers and others methods had no effect on asthma symptoms . Overall , exercise is beneficial in people with stable asthma . Yoga could provide small improvements in quality of life and symptoms in people with asthma . = = = Medications = = = Medications used to treat asthma are divided into two general classes : quick @-@ relief medications used to treat acute symptoms ; and long @-@ term control medications used to prevent further exacerbation . = = = = Fast – acting = = = = Short @-@ acting beta2 @-@ adrenoceptor agonists ( SABA ) , such as salbutamol ( albuterol USAN ) are the first line treatment for asthma symptoms . They are recommended before exercise in those with exercise induced symptoms . Anticholinergic medications , such as ipratropium bromide , provide additional benefit when used in combination with SABA in those with moderate or severe symptoms . Anticholinergic bronchodilators can also be used if a person cannot tolerate a SABA . If a child requires admission to hospital additional ipratropium does not appear to help over a SABA . Older , less selective adrenergic agonists , such as inhaled epinephrine , have similar efficacy to SABAs . They are however not recommended due to concerns regarding excessive cardiac stimulation . = = = = Long – term control = = = = Corticosteroids are generally considered the most effective treatment available for long @-@ term control . Inhaled forms such as beclomethasone are usually used except in the case of severe persistent disease , in which oral corticosteroids may be needed . It is usually recommended that inhaled formulations be used once or twice daily , depending on the severity of symptoms . Long @-@ acting beta @-@ adrenoceptor agonists ( LABA ) such as salmeterol and formoterol can improve asthma control , at least in adults , when given in combination with inhaled corticosteroids . In children this benefit is uncertain . When used without steroids they increase the risk of severe side @-@ effects and even with corticosteroids they may slightly increase the risk . Leukotriene receptor antagonists ( such as montelukast and zafirlukast ) may be used in addition to inhaled corticosteroids , typically also in conjunction with a LABA . Evidence is insufficient to support use in acute exacerbations . In children they appear to be of little benefit when added to inhaled steroids , and the same applies in adolescents and adults . They are useful by themselves . In those under five years of age , they were the preferred add @-@ on therapy after inhaled corticosteroids by the British Thoracic Society in 2009 . A similar class of drugs , 5 @-@ LOX inhibitors , may be used as an alternative in the chronic treatment of mild to moderate asthma among older children and adults . As of 2013 there is one medication in this family known as zileuton . Mast cell stabilizers ( such as cromolyn sodium ) are another non @-@ preferred alternative to corticosteroids . = = = = Delivery methods = = = = Medications are typically provided as metered @-@ dose inhalers ( MDIs ) in combination with an asthma spacer or as a dry powder inhaler . The spacer is a plastic cylinder that mixes the medication with air , making it easier to receive a full dose of the drug . A nebulizer may also be used . Nebulizers and spacers are equally effective in those with mild to moderate symptoms . However , insufficient evidence is available to determine whether a difference exists in those with severe disease . = = = = Adverse effects = = = = Long @-@ term use of inhaled corticosteroids at conventional doses carries a minor risk of adverse effects . Risks include the development of cataracts and a mild regression in stature . = = = Others = = = When asthma is unresponsive to usual medications , other options are available for both emergency management and prevention of flareups . For emergency management other options include : Oxygen to alleviate hypoxia if saturations fall below 92 % . Oral corticosteroid are recommended with five days of prednisone being the same 2 days of dexamethasone . Magnesium sulfate intravenous treatment increases bronchodilation when used in addition to other treatment in moderate severe acute asthma attacks . In adults it results in a reduction of hospital admissions . Heliox , a mixture of helium and oxygen , may also be considered in severe unresponsive cases . Intravenous salbutamol is not supported by available evidence and is thus used only in extreme cases . Methylxanthines ( such as theophylline ) were once widely used , but do not add significantly to the effects of inhaled beta @-@ agonists . Their use in acute exacerbations is controversial . The dissociative anesthetic ketamine is theoretically useful if intubation and mechanical ventilation is needed in people who are approaching respiratory arrest ; however , there is no evidence from clinical trials to support this . For those with severe persistent asthma not controlled by inhaled corticosteroids and LABAs , bronchial thermoplasty may be an option . It involves the delivery of controlled thermal energy to the airway wall during a series of bronchoscopies . While it may increase exacerbation frequency in the first few months it appears to decrease the subsequent rate . Effects beyond one year are unknown . Evidence suggests that sublingual immunotherapy in those with both allergic rhinitis and asthma improve outcomes . = = = Alternative medicine = = = Many people with asthma , like those with other chronic disorders , use alternative treatments ; surveys show that roughly 50 % use some form of unconventional therapy . There is little data to support the effectiveness of most of these therapies . Evidence is insufficient to support the usage of Vitamin C. There is tentative support for its use in exercise induced brochospasm . Acupuncture is not recommended for the treatment as there is insufficient evidence to support its use . Air ionisers show no evidence that they improve asthma symptoms or benefit lung function ; this applied equally to positive and negative ion generators . Manual therapies , including osteopathic , chiropractic , physiotherapeutic and respiratory therapeutic maneuvers , have insufficient evidence to support their use in treating asthma . The Buteyko breathing technique for controlling hyperventilation may result in a reduction in medication use ; however , the technique does not have any effect on lung function . Thus an expert panel felt that evidence was insufficient to support its use . = = Prognosis = = The prognosis for asthma is generally good , especially for children with mild disease . Mortality has decreased over the last few decades due to better recognition and improvement in care . In 2010 the death rate was 170 per million for males and 90 per million for females . Rates very between countries by 100 fold . Globally it causes moderate or severe disability in 19 @.@ 4 million people as of 2004 ( 16 million of which are in low and middle income countries ) . Of asthma diagnosed during childhood , half of cases will no longer carry the diagnosis after a decade . Airway remodeling is observed , but it is unknown whether these represent harmful or beneficial changes . Early treatment with corticosteroids seems to prevent or ameliorates a decline in lung function . Asthma in children also has negative effects on quality of life of their parents . = = Epidemiology = = As of 2011 , 235 – 330 million people worldwide are affected by asthma , and approximately 250 @,@ 000 – 345 @,@ 000 people die per year from the disease . Rates vary between countries with prevalences between 1 and 18 % . It is more common in developed than developing countries . One thus sees lower rates in Asia , Eastern Europe and Africa . Within developed countries it is more common in those who are economically disadvantaged while in contrast in developing countries it is more common in the affluent . The reason for these differences is not well known . Low and middle income countries make up more than 80 % of the mortality . While asthma is twice as common in boys as girls , severe asthma occurs at equal rates . In contrast adult women have a higher rate of asthma than men and it is more common in the young than the old . In children , asthma was the most common reason for admission to the hospital following an emergency department visit in the US in 2011 . Global rates of asthma have increased significantly between the 1960s and 2008 with it being recognized as a major public health problem since the 1970s . Rates of asthma have plateaued in the developed world since the mid @-@ 1990s with recent increases primarily in the developing world . Asthma affects approximately 7 % of the population of the United States and 5 % of people in the United Kingdom . Canada , Australia and New Zealand have rates of about 14 – 15 % . = = Economics = = From 2000 to 2010 , the average cost per asthma @-@ related hospital stay in the United States for children remained relatively stable at about $ 3 @,@ 600 , whereas the average cost per asthma @-@ related hospital stay for adults increased from $ 5 @,@ 200 to $ 6 @,@ 600 . In 2010 , Medicaid was the most frequent primary payer among children and adults aged 18 – 44 years in the United States ; private insurance was the second most frequent payer . Among both children and adults in the lowest income communities in the United States there is a higher rate of hospital stays for asthma in 2010 than those in the highest income communities . = = History = = Asthma was recognized in Ancient Egypt and was treated by drinking an incense mixture known as kyphi . It was officially named as a specific respiratory problem by Hippocrates circa 450 BC , with the Greek word for " panting " forming the basis of our modern name . In 200 BC it was believed to be at least partly related to the emotions . In 1873 , one of the first papers in modern medicine on the subject tried to explain the pathophysiology of the disease while one in 1872 , concluded that asthma can be cured by rubbing the chest with chloroform liniment . Medical treatment in 1880 , included the use of intravenous doses of a drug called pilocarpin . In 1886 , F.H. Bosworth theorized a connection between asthma and hay fever . Epinephrine was first referred to in the treatment of asthma in 1905 . Oral corticosteroids began to be used for this condition in the 1950s while inhaled corticosteroids and selective short acting beta agonist came into wide use in the 1960s . A notable and well @-@ documented case in the 19th century was that of young Theodore Roosevelt ( 1858 – 1919 ) . At that time there was no effective treatment . Roosevelt 's youth was in large part shaped by his poor health partly related to his asthma . He experienced recurring nighttime asthma attacks that caused the experience of being smothered to death , terrifying the boy and his parents . During the 1930s – 1950s , asthma was known as one of the " holy seven " psychosomatic illnesses . Its cause was considered to be psychological , with treatment often based on psychoanalysis and other talking cures . As these psychoanalysts interpreted the asthmatic wheeze as the suppressed cry of the child for its mother , they considered the treatment of depression to be especially important for individuals with asthma . = Tropical Storm Odile ( 2008 ) = Tropical Storm Odile was a late season tropical storm that formed during the 2008 Pacific hurricane season and affected parts of southern Mexico . A tropical depression formed on October 8 , and became Tropical Storm Odile 18 hours later . The storm paralleled the south coast of Mexico , with the center located only several miles offshore . After peaking in intensity , increasing southeasterly vertical wind shear induced a trend of rapid weakening on the storm . Correspondingly , Odile was downgraded to a tropical depression early on 12 October , subsequently degenerating into a remnant low about 55 mi ( 85 km ) south of Manzanillo , Colima . From thereon , the low proceeded slowly south @-@ southwestward before dissipating on October 13 . Since Odile stayed at sea , its effects along coastlines were limited . The most notable damages were caused by flooding along the southern coast of Mexico , mostly in Chiapas , Oaxaca , Guerrero and Michoacán . The exact amount of damage , however , remains unknown , and no fatalities were reported as a result of the storm . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 23 , and merged with the southern end of a decaying frontal system over the Caribbean Sea . The combined disturbance gradually split , with the northernmost section eventually becoming Tropical Storm Marco . The southernmost end moved into the eastern Pacific , which then immediately showed signs of organization . The system stalled just south of El Salvador throughout October 5 , where it came under the influence of strong vertical wind shear . The circulation slowly drifted east @-@ northeastward and became absorbed by a neighboring tropical wave , with the broad resultant low re @-@ curving to the west @-@ northwest . In response to relaxing shear aloft , convection redeveloped around the newly formed center of circulation . It subsequently acquired a sufficiently organized structure and post @-@ analysis found that a tropical depression formed at around 1200 UTC on October 8 . Upon developing , the depression was designated as Sixteen @-@ E about 120 mi ( 195 km ) south @-@ southwest of San Salvador , El Salvador , and operationally , advisories were initiated at 2100 UTC — 9 hours after post @-@ analytic estimates of formation . Despite being in an area with favorable conditions , lack of inner core organization proved difficult for rapid deepening to occur , and initially , model guidance did not forecast any significant strengthening . Contrary to expectations , satellite imagery showed a gradual increase in organization later that evening . Bands of convection deepened in the southern quadrant , indicating that the storm was steadily strengthening . Located just to the south of a large mid @-@ level ridge over Mexico , the system was steered toward the west @-@ northwest , proceeding within a favorable environment . Based on the improved appearance on satellite imagery , it is estimated the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Odile at 0600 UTC on October 9 about 330 mi ( 530 km ) southeast of Puerto Ángel , Mexico . Shortly after attaining tropical storm status , Odile began to develop a small area of central dense overcast , and upper @-@ level cirrus outflow became well @-@ defined within the western semicircle of the storm . Convective banding organized to the south and southwest of the circulation , leading Dvorak T @-@ numbers to estimate an intensity of at least 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . Based on this estimate , the NHC noted a high chance of further intensification into a minimal hurricane . Odile maintained its intensity , as upper @-@ level outflow of the circulation was reduced to the northeast . Although wind shear initially dislocated the circulation from the main convection , a large burst of convection allowed Odile to intensify slightly further to peak winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) at around 0600 UTC on October 10 . Odile closely paralleled the Mexican coastline . The intensification did not last long , in fact , the convection associated with Odile diminished in the afternoon and its rainbands became rather distorted . Another cluster of convection sprung up that evening , this time with cloud tops colder than − 80 ° C ( − 112 ° F ) . The circulation center was well embedded within the convection . As a consequence of the slightly improved organization , Odile had a stronger interaction with the easterlies aloft , therefore increasing forward movement speed . Later that day , an reconnaissance aircraft passed through Odile and observed a rather weak and disorganized tropical cyclone , resulting in meteorologists at the NHC to change its forecasts . Early on October 12 , Odile made its closest approach to coastline of Mexico , only about 50 mi ( 80 km ) offshore of Guerrero , Mexico . Increasing southeasterly vertical wind shear took toll on the system . Furthermore , around 0600 UTC , NHC confirmed that Odile weakened into a tropical depression . The last advisory regarding Odile was issued later that day stating that it has subsequently degenerated into a remnant low @-@ pressure area , a swirl of low @-@ level clouds . The remnants of Odile meandered slowly south @-@ southwestward before completely dissipating on October 13 . = = Preparations and impact = = Throughout Odile 's existence , the National Weather Service of Mexico declared several tropical storm watches and warnings for the Pacific coast of Mexico spanning from Jalisco to Oaxaca . They were extended and discontinued as Odile progressed westward . On October 11 at around 2 AM PDT , a hurricane watch was declared for the Pacific coast of Mexico from Tecpán de Galeana to Punta San Telmo . Six hours later , the hurricane watch was adjusted and in effect for the coast from Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo . They were all discontinued later that day as the chance of Odile becoming a hurricane diminished . On October 8 , blue alerts were declared for 118 municipalities in Chiapas following the minimal threat of tropical storm @-@ force impact . The civil defense system in the state of Chiapas warned that the storm could leave up to 5 @.@ 9 in ( 150 mm ) of rainfall . Shippings were closed in the Port of Chiapas , leaving over 3 @,@ 000 boats stranded ashore on October 9 . Flooding in Acapulco forced officials to close schools on October 10 . Meanwhile , the state government reported that 232 police were ready to provide assistance to citizens in advance of Odile . Civil defense officials in the state of Guerrero ordered about 10 @,@ 000 people to evacuate their homes . On October 11 , a yellow alert were declared for the state of Michoacán , where the civil defense committee also announced that the shelters were opened for schools in the municipality of Lázaro Cárdenas and the towns of Playa Azul and Guacamayas . Ports in Lázaro Cárdenas were also closed later that day . On October 10 , about 4 @.@ 8 in ( 120 mm ) of rainfall were accumulated in the city of Acapulco . The torrential rainfall caused flooding which damaged more than 100 houses , with two of them completely destroyed . Excess floodwater collapsed walls and covered roads with mud that reached as much as 2 @.@ 3 ft ( 0 @.@ 70 m ) . Nearly 150 homes were inundated with 13 ft ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) of water . The flooding is also responsible for causing strong current that had swept away parked vehicles , downing of at least 16 trees and carrying debris to the main streets of the port . Odile also managed to cause damage toward the plumbing and sewage supplies of Acapulco , resulting no clean water access in about fifty communities of the suburban areas of Acapulco for several days . The water levels of Papagayo River reached its maximum capacity , damaging electrical supplies . In Michoacán , strong winds resulted 30 downed trees and the collapse of 5 power poles , leaving 10 minutes without electricity for a large part of the city . = Duncan Edwards = Duncan Edwards ( 1 October 1936 – 21 February 1958 ) was an English footballer who played for Manchester United and the England national team . He was one of the Busby Babes , the young United team formed under manager Matt Busby in the mid @-@ 1950s , and one of eight players who died as a result of the Munich air disaster . Born in Woodside , Dudley , Worcestershire , Edwards signed for Manchester United as a teenager and went on to become the youngest player to play in the Football League First Division and the then youngest England player since the Second World War . In a professional career of less than five years he helped United to win two Football League championships and reach the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup . = = Biography = = = = = Early years = = = Edwards was born on 1 October 1936 at 23 Malvern Crescent in the Woodside district of Dudley , which at the time was part of the county of Worcestershire . He was the first child of Gladstone and Sarah Anne Edwards and their only child to survive to adulthood , his younger sister Carol Anne dying in 1947 at the age of 14 weeks . His cousin , three years his elder , was Dennis Stevens , who also went on to become a professional footballer . The Edwards family later moved to 31 Elm Road on the Priory Estate , also in Dudley . Edwards attended Priory Primary School from 1941 to 1948 , and Wolverhampton Street Secondary School from 1948 to 1952 . He played football for his school as well as for Dudley Schools , Worcestershire and Birmingham and District teams , and also represented his school at morris dancing . He was selected to compete in the National Morris and Sword Dancing Festival , but was also offered a trial for the English Schools Football Association 's under @-@ 14 team , which fell on the same day , and opted to attend the latter . Edwards impressed the selectors and was chosen to play for the English Schools XI , making his debut against the equivalent team from Wales at Wembley Stadium on 1 April 1950 . He was soon appointed captain of the team , a position he held for two seasons . By this stage , he had already attracted the attention of major clubs , with Manchester United scout Jack O 'Brien reporting back to manager Matt Busby in 1948 that he had " today seen a 12 @-@ year @-@ old schoolboy who merits special watching . His name is Duncan Edwards , of Dudley " . Joe Mercer , who was then coaching the England schools team , urged Busby to sign Edwards , who was also attracting interest from Wolverhampton Wanderers and Aston Villa . Edwards signed for United as an amateur on 2 June 1952 , but accounts of when he signed his first professional contract vary . Some reports state that it occurred on his 17th birthday in October 1953 , but others contend that it took place a year earlier . Those accounts that favour the earlier date usually state that a club official , either Busby himself or coach Bert Whalley , arrived at the Edwards family home soon after midnight to secure the youngster 's signature as early as possible , but other reports claim that this occurred when he signed his amateur contract . Wolves manager Stan Cullis was indignant at missing out on a highly touted local youngster and accused United of improperly offering financial inducements to Edwards or his family , but Edwards maintained that he had always wanted to play for the Lancashire team . To guard against the possibility that he might not make a success of his football career , he also began an apprenticeship as a carpenter . = = = Football career = = = Edwards began his Manchester United career in the youth team and made several appearances for the team that won the first ever FA Youth Cup in 1953 , but by the time of the final had already made his debut for the first team . On 4 April 1953 , he played in a Football League First Division match against Cardiff City , which United lost 4 – 1 , aged just 16 years and 185 days , making him the youngest player ever to play in the top division . Mindful of the fact that his team contained a large number of relatively old players , Busby was keen to bring new young players through the ranks , and Edwards , along with the likes of Dennis Viollet and Jackie Blanchflower , was among a number of youngsters introduced to the team during 1953 , who came to be known collectively as the Busby Babes . Reviewing his performance on his first team debut the Manchester Guardian newspaper commented that " he showed promise of fine ability in passing and shooting , but will have to move faster as a wing half " . The 1953 – 54 season saw Edwards emerge as a regular in the United first team . After impressing in a friendly against Kilmarnock he replaced the injured Henry Cockburn for the away match against Huddersfield Town on 31 October 1953 , and went on to appear in 24 league matches as well as United 's FA Cup defeat to Burnley . Nonetheless he was also still an active part of the youth team and played in the team which won the Youth Cup for the second consecutive season . He made his first appearance for the national under @-@ 23 team on 20 January 1954 in Italy , and was considered for inclusion in the full England team , but on the day when the selection committee watched him in action , against Arsenal on 27 March , he gave a poor performance and was not called up . The following season he made 36 first team appearances and scored his first senior goals , finishing the season with six to his name . His performances revived calls for him to be selected for the senior England team , and a member of the selection committee was despatched to watch him play against Huddersfield Town on 18 September 1954 , but nothing came of it in the short term , although he was selected for a Football League XI which played an exhibition match against a Scottish League team . In March , he played for England B against an equivalent team from Germany and , despite being criticised in the press for his " poor showing " , was called up for the full national team a week later . He made his debut in a match against Scotland on 2 April 1955 in the British Home Championship aged 18 years and 183 days , making him England 's youngest debutant since the Second World War , a record which stood , until Michael Owen made his England debut in 1998 . Three weeks later , United took advantage of the fact that he was still eligible for the youth team to select him for the club 's third consecutive FA Youth Cup final . The decision to field an England international player in the youth team was heavily criticised , and Matt Busby was forced to pen a newspaper article defending Edwards ' selection , which paid off for United as the player was instrumental in a third Youth Cup win . In May 1955 , Edwards was selected for the England squad which travelled to mainland Europe for matches against France , Portugal and Spain , starting all three matches . Upon returning from the tour , he began a two @-@ year stint in the British Army with the Royal Army Ordnance Corps . Army service was compulsory at the time for all men of his age under the National Service scheme . He was stationed at Nesscliffe near Shrewsbury along with team @-@ mate Bobby Charlton , but was allowed leave to play for United . He also took part in army matches , and in one season played nearly one hundred matches in total . In the 1955 – 56 season , despite missing nearly two months of action due to a severe bout of influenza , Edwards played 33 times as United won the championship of the Football League by a margin of 11 points from Blackpool . The following season he made 34 league appearances , taking his total past the 100 mark , as United won a second consecutive league title , and was also in the team that contested the 1957 FA Cup Final , in which United missed out on the Double after a 2 – 1 defeat to Aston Villa . He also made seven appearances during United 's first ever foray into the European Cup , including a 10 – 0 win over Anderlecht which remains the club 's biggest ever margin of victory . By now he was also a regular in the England team , featuring in all four of England 's qualifying matches for the 1958 World Cup and scoring two goals in the 5 – 2 win over Denmark on 5 December 1956 . He was expected to be a key player for England in the World Cup finals , and was seen as a likely candidate to replace the veteran Billy Wright as national team captain . Edwards began the 1957 – 58 season in good form and rumours abounded that top Italian clubs were seeking to sign him . His final match in England took place on 1 February 1958 , when he scored the opening goal to help United defeat Arsenal 5 – 4 . The press were critical of his performance , with the Sunday Pictorial 's correspondent writing that he did not " think [ Edwards ' ] display in this thrilling game would impress England team manager Walter Winterbottom , who was watching . He was clearly at fault for Arsenal 's fourth goal when , instead of clearing , he dallied on the ball " . Five days later , he played his last ever match as United drew 3 – 3 away to Red Star Belgrade to progress to the semi @-@ finals of the European Cup by an aggregate score of 5 – 4 . = = = Death = = = Returning home from Belgrade , the aeroplane carrying Edwards and his team mates crashed on takeoff after a refuelling stop in Munich , Germany . Seven players and 14 other passengers died at the scene , and Edwards was taken to the Rechts der Isar Hospital with multiple leg fractures , fractured ribs and severely damaged kidneys . The doctors treating him were confident that he stood some chance of recovery , but were doubtful that he would ever be able to play football again . Doctors had an artificial kidney rushed to the hospital for him , but the artificial organ reduced his blood 's ability to clot and he began to bleed internally . Despite this it is said that he asked assistant manager Jimmy Murphy " What time is the kick off against Wolves , Jimmy ? I mustn 't miss that match " . By 14 February , his condition was reported to have " dramatically improved " . However , on 19 February it was reported that he was " sinking rapidly " , with use of the artificial kidney machine developing into a " vicious circle , gradually sapping his strength " . Doctors were " amazed " at his fight for life , and the next day a " very slight improvement " in his condition was reported , but he died at 2 : 15 a.m. on 21 February 1958 . Hours before his death , by coincidence , a new issue of Charles Buchan 's Football Monthly was published in the United Kingdom , with a photograph of a smiling Edwards on the cover . Edwards was buried at Dudley Cemetery five days later , alongside his sister Carol Anne . More than 5 @,@ 000 people lined the streets of Dudley for his funeral . His tombstone reads : " A day of memory , Sad to recall , Without farewell , He left us all " , and his grave is regularly visited by fans . = = = Legacy = = = Edwards is commemorated in a number of ways in his home town of Dudley . A stained @-@ glass window depicting the player , designed by Francis Skeat , was unveiled in St Francis 's Church , the parish church for the Priory Estate , by Matt Busby in 1961 , and a statue in the town centre was dedicated by his mother and Bobby Charlton in 1999 . In 1993 , a cul @-@ de @-@ sac of housing association homes near to the cemetery in which he is buried was named " Duncan Edwards Close " . The Wren 's Nest pub on the Priory Estate , near where he grew up , was renamed " The Duncan Edwards " in honour of him in 2001 , but it closed within five years and was subsequently destroyed by arsonists . In 2006 , a £ 100 @,@ 000 games facility was opened in Priory Park , where Edwards often played as a boy , in his memory . In 2008 , Dudley 's southern bypass was renamed ' Duncan Edwards Way ' in his memory . Dudley Museum and Art Gallery hosts an exhibition of memorabilia devoted to his career , including his England caps . A housing complex called Duncan Edwards Court exists in Manchester , among a network of streets , named after his fellow Munich victims , including Eddie Colman , Roger Byrne and Tommy Taylor . On 8 July 2011 a Blue Plaque was unveiled by Bobby Charlton at the site of Edwards ' former digs in Stretford , and in 2016 local dignitaries in Dudley launched a fundraising drive with the aim of placing a similar plaque in the town . In 1996 , Edwards was one of five players chosen to appear on British stamps issued as part of a " Football Legends " set issued to commemorate the UEFA Euro 1996 tournament . He was portrayed by Sam Claflin in the 2011 British TV film United based on the Munich disaster . Contemporaries of Edwards have been unstinting in their praise of his abilities . Bobby Charlton described him as " the only player that made me feel inferior " and said his death was " the biggest single tragedy ever to happen to Manchester United and English football " . Terry Venables claimed that , had he lived , it would have been Edwards , not Bobby Moore , who lifted the World Cup trophy as England captain in 1966 . Tommy Docherty stated that " there is no doubt in my mind that Duncan would have become the greatest player ever . Not just in British football , with United and England , but the best in the world . George Best was something special , as was Pelé and Maradona , but in my mind Duncan was much better in terms of all @-@ round ability and skill . " In recognition of his talents Edwards was made an inaugural inductee to the English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 . = = Style of play = = Although he is primarily remembered as a defensive midfielder , Edwards is said to have been able to operate in any outfield position on the field of play . His versatility was such that on one occasion he started the match playing as an emergency striker in place of one injured player before being switched to central defence in place of another . His greatest assets were his physical strength and his level of authority on the pitch , which was said to be remarkable for such a young player , and he was particularly noted for his high level of stamina . Stanley Matthews described him as being " like a rock in a raging sea " , and Bobby Moore likened him to the Rock of Gibraltar when defending but also noted that he was " dynamic coming forward " . His imposing physique earned him the nicknames " Big Dunc " and " The Tank " , and he has been ranked amongst the toughest players of all time . Edwards was noted for the power and timing of his tackles and for his ability to pass and shoot equally well with both feet . He was known for his surging runs up the pitch and was equally skilled at heading the ball and at striking fierce long @-@ range shots . After scoring a goal on 26 May 1956 , in a 3 – 1 friendly win against West Germany , he was given the nickname " Boom Boom " by the local press because of " the Big Bertha shot in his boots " . = = Career statistics = = = = = International goals = = = Scores and results list England 's goal tally first . = = Honours = = = = = Club = = = Manchester United First Division : 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 = = = Individual = = = Football League 100 Legends : 1958 Inducted into the inaugural English Football Hall of Fame in 2002 PFA Team of the Century ( 1907 @-@ 1976 ) : 2007 = = Outside football = = Edwards was a teetotaller and outside football was known as a very private individual , whose interests included fishing , playing cards and visiting the cinema . Although he attended dances with his team @-@ mates he was never confident in social surroundings . He was described by Jimmy Murphy as an " unspoilt boy " and retained a strong Black Country accent which his team @-@ mates would impersonate . He was once stopped by the police for riding his bicycle without lights and fined five shillings by the authorities and two weeks ' wages by his club . At the time of his death Edwards was living in lodgings in Gorse Avenue , Stretford . He was engaged to be married to Molly Leech , who was 22 years old and worked in the offices of a textile machine manufacturer in Altrincham . The couple met at a function at a hotel at Manchester Airport , dated for a year before becoming engaged , and were godparents to the daughter of Leech 's friend Josephine Stott . Edwards appeared in advertisements for Dextrosol glucose tablets and had written a book entitled " Tackle Soccer This Way " , commercial endeavours which supplemented his wage of £ 15 per week during the season and £ 12 per week during the summer . The book was published shortly after his death with the approval of his family and , after being out of print for many years , was re @-@ published in November 2009 . = Education in Iceland = The system of education in Iceland is divided in four levels : playschool , compulsory , upper secondary and higher , and is similar to that of other Nordic countries . Education is mandatory for children aged 6 – 16 . Most institutions are funded by the state ; there are very few private schools in the country . Iceland is a country with gymnasia . = = Background = = The first national education law was the 1907 education law , and the first national curriculum was published in 1926 . Although the curriculum was periodically revised , the overall education system was not significantly modernized until the Compulsory Education Act of 1974 , which mandated special education services for all students with disabilities . According to the Ministry of Education , Science and Culture : The Ministry of Education , Science and Culture has the jurisdiction of educational responsibility . Traditionally , education in Iceland has been run in the public sector ; there is a small , although growing , number of private education institutions in the country . Over the years , the educational system has been decentralised , and responsibility for primary and lower secondary schools lies with the local authorities . The state runs upper secondary schools and higher education institutions . The Ministry issues the National Curriculum Guidelines . The National Centre for Educational Materials publishes educational materials for education institutions , and issues them free of charge . The Educational Testing Institute is the country ’ s sole examination board ; responsible for issuing and grading national assessments . There are 192 institutions catering for compulsory education , 42 schools for upper secondary education and 9 higher education institutions . = = History = = The oldest gymnasiums in the country are Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík and Menntaskólinn á Akureyri . Menntaskólinn í Reykjavík traces its origin to 1056 , when a school was established in Skálholt . The school was moved to Reykjavík in 1786 , but poor housing conditions forced it to move again in 1805 to Bessastaðir near Reykjavík . In 1846 the school was moved to its current location , and a new building was erected for it in Reykjavík . The University of Iceland was the first higher education institution in the country , and was established on 17 June 1911 , uniting three former Icelandic schools : Prestaskólinn , Læknaskólinn and Lagaskólinn , which taught theology , medicine and law , respectively . The university originally had only faculties for these three fields , in addition to a faculty of humanities . The first rector of the university was Björn M. Ólsen , a professor in the faculty of humanities . = = Levels = = The Icelandic education system comprises four levels : playschool , compulsory , upper secondary and higher . = = = Playschool = = = Playschool or leikskóli , is non @-@ compulsory education for those under the age of six , and is the first step in the education system . The current legislation concerning playschools was passed in 2007 . The Ministry of Education , Science and Culture is responsible for the policies and methods that playschools must use , and they issue the National Curriculum Guidelines . They are also responsible for ensuring that the curriculum is suitable so as to make the transition into compulsory education as easy as possible . However , the Ministry does not implement the regulations and guidelines ; instead this is the responsibility of the local authority , who fund and administer playschools . In addition , the local authority employs representatives who supervise the playschools ’ operation . Parents must pay for their children to attend playschools . Around 30 % of the costs of running the institutions are covered by these fees . Private playschools ’ fees can be around 10 – 20 % higher than those of public institutions . Almost all private schools receive some municipal funding . The buildings are often purpose @-@ built on a site where around 30 @-@ 40m2 of playing space is available for each child in the playground . Around 6 m2 per child is allocated indoors . The institutions are intended to be mixed sex . Playschools are intended for children under the age of six ; the youngest children to attend are at least two years old . Children of single parents and students are given priority , and in some cases children with a handicap are also given priority . In the majority of cases , the children are divided into age groups , but in some smaller communities these may be grouped together . Children attend playschool for a minimum of four and a maximum of nine hours per day . = = = Compulsory = = = Compulsory education or grunnskóli ( lit . “ basic school ” ) , is the period of education which is compulsory for all . The legislation concerning compulsory education was passed in 2007 , and in 1996 municipalities took over the running of compulsory education . It comprises primary and lower secondary education , which often takes place at the same institution . The law states that education is mandatory for children and adolescents between the ages of 6 and 16 . The school year lasts nine months , and begins between August 21 and September 1 , ending between May 31 and June 10 . The minimum number of school days is 170 , but after a new teachers ’ wage contract , this will increase to 180 . Lessons take place five days a week . Responsibility lies with parents for making sure that their children attend and register at school . The law states that it is the responsibility of the municipality to give instruction and fund institutions ( this includes teaching , substitute teaching , administration and specialist services ) , and provide special education if required . There are no entry requirements for pupils , and the acceptance rate is 100 % at six years of age . Pupils have the right to attend a school in the area in which they live . The state requires that the school integrates handicapped pupils into mainstream education . The state is responsible for assessing institutions to make sure that they are operating within the law and the National Curriculum Guidelines . They also produce educational materials , and implement educational law and regulations . Compulsory education is divided into ten years . Schools which have all ten years , year one to seven , and years eight to ten are common . Those schools which teach from years eight to ten often have a wider catchment area . The size of institutions is widely varied . In the Reykjavík urban area , schools can be up to 1200 pupils in size . In rural areas , schools can have fewer than 10 pupils , and around 50 % of schools have fewer than 100 pupils . All compulsory education institutions are mixed sex . Many counselling services are available , including help with studies and specific subjects ; psychological counselling is also available . Each school must follow the National Curriculum Guidelines , but exceptions are made for schools with special characteristics . The school is required to create a school working plan and an annual calendar , organise teaching and pupil assessment and to provide extracurricular activities . The number of lessons for each year is as follows : Nowadays , the National Curriculum Guidelines have provisions for those learning Icelandic whose mother tongue is a foreign language and deaf and hearing @-@ impaired pupils . Pupils are expected to keep up with the pace of teaching ; however those students who are struggling receive remedial teaching without being moved from most of their classes . An emphasis is made on providing a variety of teaching methods . = = = = Assessment = = = = In Iceland , assessment and evaluation of pupils is conducted internally , and is not standardised between different institutions . Pupils are given regular reports to year their progress ; however the way in which this is done varies between schools . For example , a numerical year could be given , or an oral and written assessment may be given . Their principal purpose is to help ease the transition into upper secondary education and help the pupil to choose a course of study . Pupils are awarded a certificate with their marks at the end of the compulsory schooling period . In addition to pupil assessment , the law requires that schools implement some form of self @-@ evaluation on the quality of their services and to make sure that institutions are operating inside the law and within guidelines . Schools are assessed externally every five years by the Ministry of Education , Science and Culture . = = = = Teachers = = = = Similar to primary education in other countries , from years one to seven , the same teacher teaches the pupils all of their subjects . From year eight upwards , pupils receive teaching from a number of different teachers ( this marks the boundary between primary education and lower secondary education ) . Groups may be mixed around year by year . Primary school teachers are general teachers who have received their training at either the University of Iceland or the University of Akureyri . The typical course lasts three years . Lower secondary teachers may also be trained at the University of Iceland . A BA or BS degree is required in this situation . The courses are designed to be both academic and practical . Municipalities are responsible for the employment of teachers . Optional in @-@ service teacher training courses are offered on an annual basis . = = = Upper secondary = = = Upper secondary education or framhaldsskóli ( lit . “ continued school ” ) , follows lower secondary education . These schools are also known as gymnasia in English . It is not compulsory , but everyone who has had their compulsory education has the right to upper secondary education . The typical course length is four years , for students aged between 16 and 20 . The length of the course can vary , especially in vocational courses . This stage of education is governed by the Upper Secondary School Act of 2007 . Like all other schools in Iceland , upper secondary schools are mixed sex . Students do not have to pay tuition fees , but they must pay an enrolment fee and are expected to buy their own textbooks . Students who enrol in vocational courses pay a portion of the costs of the materials that they use . All students have the right to enter upper secondary education when they turn sixteen . Around 97 % of students leaving lower secondary education enter into upper secondary education ; however there is a notable drop @-@ out rate . There are specific entry requirements for different courses , but as all students have the right to this sort of education , a general program of study is available for those students who may fail to meet requirements . Some schools enjoy more prestige and popularity than others , especially in Reykjavík , and those may need to turn away hundreds of students every year . The school year lasts for nine months , and is divided into two terms : autumn and spring . Students attend around 32 – 40 lessons a week , each lasting 40 – 80 minutes . This can vary drastically between institutions . There are around forty gymnasia in the country ; sizes vary as much as the primary schools . The largest gymnasia have over 3 @,@ 000 students — the smallest , less than fifty . The gymnasia can be divided thus : grammar schools — offering four @-@ year @-@ long programmes of study , ending with matriculation exams ; industrial @-@ vocational schools — theoretical and practical courses in various trades ; comprehensive schools — offering a mixture of courses , has qualities of both a grammar school and an industrial @-@ vocational institution , in addition to specialised vocational programmes ; specialised vocational schools — programmes of study for specific trades and careers . The law requires that there are academic , vocational , artistic and general programmes of study , all of which lead to higher education . Any gymnasium can therefore offer the matriculation examination , called the Stúdentspróf , providing it complies with Ministry of Education regulations . The gymnasia have forms which operate on a unit @-@ credit system , that is to say a term is divided into course units , each of which is worth a certain number of credits . Students are consequently able to regulate the speed of their education based on their personal circumstances . This system is used in most upper secondary institutions in Iceland . Many institutions also offer evening classes targeted at adults , some of which are on @-@ a @-@ par with their daytime courses . Distance learning is also offered at most schools . Counselling services are also offered , like those of the compulsory education institutions . = = = = Assessment = = = = Examinations are taken at the end of every term as opposed to at the end of the year . Final years are often based on continuous assessments and assignments ; however some courses do have final exams . There were no nationally co @-@ ordinated exams in upper secondary education until school year 2003 – 4 , when certain subjects were introduced . Institutions are also required to self @-@ assess , like compulsory education institutions they are assessed externally every five years . = = = = Teachers = = = = Upper secondary teachers are required to have completed four years at university , of which at least two years must have been devoted to a major subject , and at least one to teaching methodology and skills . Vocational teachers must be qualified in their particular discipline , or must be a master craftsman in their trade , and have at least two years of experience . In @-@ service training courses are also offered . Teachers are paid by the state but hired by the individual school . = = = Higher education = = = The final level is higher education , or háskóli ( lit . “ high school ” ) . There are eight such institutions in the country , most of which are run by the state . The first institution , the University of Iceland , opened in 1911 , and is still the principal higher education institution in the country . In recent years , however , more universities have opened across the country , widening the range of choices available . Legislation concerning higher education institutions was passed in 1997 , which includes a definition of the term háskóli ( to include universities which do not carry out research ) . There is also separate legislation in place for each public institution , defining their role in research and general organisation . Private and public universities both receive funding from the state . The administration of each university is divided into the Senate , the rector , faculty meetings , faculty councils and deans ( however , some universities are not divided into faculties ) . The Senate ultimately makes decisions on the running and organisation of the institution , and formulates policy . The state will formulate a contract with the university , defining the institution ’ s objectives and the amount of funding that the state will give to the institution . Despite the growing number of higher education institutions in the country , many students decide to pursue their university education abroad ( around 16 % , mostly in postgraduate studies ) . The academic year lasts from September to May , and is divided into two terms : autumn and spring . = = = = Admission = = = = Most undergraduates will have to pass some form of matriculation exam to get into university ; however those with sufficient work experience may be admitted in some cases . Vocational and technical courses have looser requirements , only stating that the applicant have some sort of experience in their chosen field of study . Institutions are free to set their own admission criteria . Registration for potential students takes place from May to June each year ; however the application deadline for foreign students is earlier : March 15 . = = = = Student finance = = = = In state @-@ run institutions , students only need pay registration fees ; there are no tuition fees . Private institutions , however , charge fees . All students are eligible to some financial support from the Icelandic Student Loan Fund ; the exact amount depends on their financial and personal situation . The student must begin to repay this money two years after completing their study programme . In addition to Icelandic students , students from the European Union or EEA @-@ EFTA member states are also eligible to apply for loans , if they have been working in their trade in the country for at least one year . Annually there are a limited number of scholarships available for foreign students to study the Icelandic language and literature at the University of Iceland , offered by the Ministry of Education , Science and Culture . Grants are available for post @-@ graduates in research universities , which are awarded on the basis of joint submission from student and professor , and approval from the respective faculty . = = Special education = = Before the Compulsory Education Act of 1974 , only selected groups of students with disabilities , such as deaf and blind students , received any formal special education , although students with mild disabilities had been accommodated at rural schools since 1907 . With the changes in the law , a special school was opened in Reykjavik for students with mental retardation , and similar programs followed . Students with physical disabilities were mainstreamed into regular classrooms . The Iceland University of Education developed programs to train teachers and other specialists to provide appropriate services . Reflecting Icelandic cultural values of tolerance , equity , and celebrating differences rather than individualism , current government policy emphasizes inclusion , or " one school for all " , although segregated classrooms and schools are still permitted and supported . The Education Law on Upper Secondary Education of 1992 entitles students to attend schools and university , and to receive appropriate supports for doing so , but does not exempt them from the normal entrance requirements , such as demonstrating a given level of reading or mathematics achievement . Consequently , after reaching the end of compulsory school age , it is difficult for students with significant cognitive impairments to find further education . = Arthur Adams ( comics ) = For other people named Arthur Adams , see the Arthur Adams disambiguation page Arthur " Art " Adams ( born April 5 , 1963 ) is an American comic book artist and writer . He first broke into the American comic book industry with the 1985 Marvel Comics miniseries Longshot . His subsequent interior comics work includes a number of Marvel 's major books , including The Uncanny X @-@ Men , Excalibur , X @-@ Factor , Fantastic Four , Hulk and Ultimate X , as well books by various other publishers , such as Action Comics , Vampirella , The Rocketeer and The Authority . Adams has also illustrated books featuring characters for which he has a personal love , such as Godzilla , The Creature from the Black Lagoon and Gumby , the latter of which garnered him a 1988 Eisner Award for Best Single Issue . In 1994 , Adams joined a group of creators that included Frank Miller , John Byrne and Mike Mignola to form Legend , an imprint of creator @-@ owned comics published by Dark Horse Comics , through which Adams published Monkeyman and O 'Brien , a science fiction adventure series featuring archetypal sci @-@ fi monsters that Adams wrote and illustrated . Although the Legend imprint ceased in 1998 , Monkeyman and O 'Brien continued to appear in print , sometimes in crossover stories with other comics characters , such as Gen ¹ ³ / Monkeyman and O 'Brien ( 1998 ) , and Savage Dragon # 41 ( September 1997 ) . Because of his reputedly tight , labor @-@ intensive penciling style , which was initially influenced by Michael Golden and Walter Simonson , and his admittedly slow pace , Adams does not work as the regular artist on long @-@ running monthly series , but usually provides artwork for short storylines , one @-@ shots , miniseries or contributions to anthologies , such as his 2002 – 2004 work on " Jonni Future " , a pulp science fiction series he co @-@ created with Steve Moore for the Wildstorm Productions anthology Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales , and his 2008 work on Hulk # 7 - 9 . His other published work consists of cover work for books such as Avengers Classic , Wonder Woman and JLA , as well as pinups and other spot illustrations for books such as Sin City , The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe and his own published sketchbook series , Arthur Adams Sketchbook . He has also done design work for toys and video games . He is one of the most popular and widely imitated artists in the comics industry , whose drawing style has been credited as an influence upon the artists associated with the founding and early days of Image Comics such as J. Scott Campbell . = = Early life = = Arthur Adams was born on April 5 , 1963 in Holyoke , Massachusetts . His father was a loadmaster in the United States Air Force , and as a result , Adams frequently moved with his parents and four younger brothers to places that included West Virginia . When Adams was five years old , the family settled in Vacaville , California , near Travis Air Force Base . Adams ' first exposure to superhero and monster comics came through the ones his mother would buy for him once a month at a thrift store . His enthusiasm for superhero stories by particular creators began when his father returned from an overseas trip with the first Marvel Treasury Grab @-@ Bag , which included stories by Ross Andru , Wally Wood , and Gene Colan . He particularly liked Marvel Comics for their stories with monster @-@ like characters like the Thing , the Hulk and Man @-@ Thing . He became interested in dinosaurs and monsters like King Kong after watching Creature Features on TV every Saturday , and Universal Monster movies such as Frankenstein and Creature from the Black Lagoon . He also enjoyed superhero and science fiction programming , such as Super Friends , the 1967 Spider @-@ Man cartoon and Star Trek . Adams enjoyed drawing frequently in his youth , as far back as he could remember . He discovered the work of Frank Frazetta when he was 13 or 14 , which was a " huge " early influence on him , and attempted to mimic his style using watercolor . Adams did not consider illustration as a profession , however , as he aspired to be a paleontologist . His interest in professional paleontology waned , however , when he realized that the extreme climates of the environments in which he would be required to work were not appealing to him . Adams first thought about drawing comics professionally while in high school , when he bought Marvel Comics ' Micronauts # 1 , which was illustrated by Michael Golden , the first artist Adams noticed significantly . Adams would subsequently seek out work by other artists , and names as influences Barry Windsor @-@ Smith , Mike Kaluta , Bernie Wrightson and Terry Austin . Adams also cites Bill Sienkiewicz 's " Moon Knight " work in Hulk magazine and in particular Walter Simonson 's work on The Uncanny X @-@ Men and The New Teen Titans , which Adams saw as " the bible of how to draw comics " , and " the perfect example of how to do a team book . " Simonson and his wife , Louise Simonson , became close friends and collaborators with Adams , and Louise would later edit Adams ' breakthrough project , Longshot . Adams names Simonson and Golden as his two largest artistic influences . Adams also says he was influenced by Jack Kirby after he became a professional artist . In a 1997 interview , Adams responded to the observation that fans had noticed a manga influence in his work by stating that he had likely been influenced by Masamune Shirou . Aside from books on drawing human anatomy , Adams ' only formal education in illustration was learning newspaper strip @-@ type drawing in his freshman year of high school from Mr. Vandenberg , a teacher who stressed the importance of clear storytelling and perspective . After a female classmate Adams was attracted to talked him into joining the acting club , Adams also considered becoming an actor , eventually doing community theater for two years . He quit acting when he turned 19 , in order to concentrate on drawing . = = Career = = = = = Early work = = = Adams ' first published work was a Farrah Foxette pinup that he copied from Farrah Fawcett 's iconic 1976 swimsuit poster , which he submitted to the letters page of the DC Comics series Captain Carrot and His Amazing Zoo Crew ! That series ' editor , Roy Thomas , paid Adams $ 10 to publish the piece as a fan pinup . Adams initially created a portfolio of pinups and monster splash pages , and added story sequences when he began attending comic book conventions at age 17 , including a Creation Convention in San Francisco , where he received career advice from Steve Leialoha and Chris Claremont , and also met another aspiring illustrator , Mike Mignola ( with whom he became friends , and later , business partners ) . Because of the popularity of the X @-@ Men , he included a Wolverine story in his portfolio , although he was only a casual fan of the X @-@ Men himself . He would later become closely associated with the X @-@ Men in his early career . After showing his portfolio to editor Bob Schreck at a Creation Convention , he gained permission to set up a table , doing drawings for fans for $ 5 – $ 10 . His early convention appearances led to a meeting with a collaborator who asked him to illustrate some horror material for a comic book magazine , but the work , which Adams deems as poor , was never published . He began submitting samples to Marvel Comics when he was 18 , taking a job at a pizzeria after graduating high school . In 1982 he was given an unpaid job illustrating " One @-@ Eyed Jack " , a story that was self @-@ published in High Energy # 1 . Adams ' first professional job came about after he met Joe Rubinstein at a Creation Convention . Rubinstein took Adams ' samples to Marvel editors Dennis O 'Neil and Linda Grant , who in 1983 offered Adams the chance to write and draw " The Return of Richard Buzznick " , a short story for the black and white anthology Bizarre Adventures . Though Adams completed the story , the series was canceled before his story was published , and Adams returned to submitting samples while working at the pizzeria . Adams later dismissed the story as poorly drawn . He also drew " Away Off There Amid The Softly Winking Lights " , a story in the 1984 Pacific Comics anthology Three Dimensional Alien Worlds . = = = Longshot and X @-@ Men = = = Al Milgrom , who was ending his career as a Marvel editor to go freelance , found Adams ' samples as he was cleaning out his office for its future occupant , editor Carl Potts . Potts and his assistant editor , Ann Nocenti , sent Adams a Defenders script , from which Adams did layouts of 10 to 15 pages . Adams stated that while his action scenes were not rendered very well , the editors praised his casual , character @-@ based scenes . Nocenti described to Adams the concept for a miniseries she was writing , Longshot , which had been turned down by every other artist she offered it to . Adams , now a couple of months before his twentieth birthday , did a series of preliminary design drawings , basing the main character 's appearance and hairstyle on that of singer Limahl , and the female lead , Ricochet Rita , on Nocenti herself . The series was freelance @-@ edited by Louise Simonson , and without a firm schedule , which provided Adams the time he needed to complete it . This was due in part to his problems with perspective and other things he was not accustomed to drawing , such as windmills , babies and people smiling , and in part because he had to redraw the first half of it , as Ann Nocenti 's story was so dense that the pages featured up to 20 panels . As a result , Adams took eight months to draw the first issue . This problem was addressed by editor Elliot Brown , who showed Adams how to compose panels depicting multiple actions . Simonson would later introduce Adams to Marvel editor @-@ in @-@ chief Jim Shooter , who furthered Adams ' understanding of storytelling clarity by sitting down with him and showing him the panel @-@ to @-@ panel structure in an old Marvel book . He would take two years to draw all six issues of the miniseries . Longshot # 1 was published with a cover date of September 1985 . Reviewing the first issue for Amazing Heroes , R.A. Jones , who criticized the writing , stating : " Longshot does have one major saving grace , and that is the penciling of Arthur Adams . I 'm going to once again go out on my prophetic limb and predict that Art will soon become a fan favorite . He has a dynamic style that grabs your attention and won 't let go . To be sure , he exhibits some of the weaknesses of any young artist , the occasional awkward pose or crude drawing--but as a first effort this is incredibly impressive . In fact , this limited series should be worth buying simply to watch the progress Adams makes from issue to issue . Nocenti 's position as editor on the X @-@ Men books led to Uncanny X @-@ Men writer Chris Claremont 's discovery of Adams ' work , and in turn to Adams ' frequent association with that franchise during the 1980s , which began with New Mutants Special Edition # 1 and Uncanny X @-@ Men Annual # 9 , which were part of the " Asgardian Wars " storyline , and which Adams illustrated before Longshot # 1 was published . Nocenti also asked Adams to produce a cover for Heroes for Hope , a 1985 book intended to benefit famine relief in Africa , which was written and illustrated by dozens of creators , including writers Harlan Ellison and Stephen King , and artists John Byrne , Charles Vess and Bernie Wrightson . Nocenti asked Adams to pattern the cover after Paul Smith 's 1983 cover of Uncanny X @-@ Men # 173 , whose focus was Wolverine charging the viewer . This in turn led to Bob Budiansky , who was in charge of producing Marvel 's posters , asking Adams to produce a Wolverine poster with the same type of pose . The image , inked by Terry Austin , became not only a bestselling poster , but an iconic life @-@ size standee for comics shops , and led to two other posters by Adams , a 1987 X @-@ Men poster featuring most of the characters that had ever been a member of that team , and " Mutants " , a modification of Adams ' 1988 Marvel Age Annual # 4 cover that featured most of the characters appearing in all the X @-@ Men @-@ related books at the time , also with a charging Wolverine in the center . By 1986 , Adams ' professional career had been cemented , and he moved out of his parents ' home and into an Oakland , California apartment that he shared with Mike Mignola and Steve Purcell . Adams and Nocenti reunited for a story in Web of Spider @-@ Man Annual # 2 ( 1986 ) in which Warlock of the New Mutants encountered Spider @-@ Man . His work on the X @-@ Men franchise would continue with a number of covers for The New Mutants and The Uncanny X @-@ Men in 1986 and 1987 , respectively . He also drew all but three of the first 23 covers and interior frontispieces to Classic X @-@ Men from 1986 to 1988 . His interior X @-@ Men @-@ related work included a two @-@ issue run on X @-@ Factor and the one @-@ shot Excalibur : Mojo Mayhem , both in 1989 , and three Uncanny X @-@ Men Annuals , in 1986 , 1988 and 1990 . It was in drawing the 1988 annual that Adams says he felt like a professional comic book artist for the first time , as he first felt confident that he knew what he was doing . = = = Diversification and experimentation = = = Adams did work for publishers other than Marvel during the 1980s , as when he drew several pages of Batman # 400 in 1986 and Action Comics Annual # 1 in 1987 . The latter is viewed as a turning point in Adam 's drawing style , characterized by bulkier figures of Batman and Superman , though Adams explains that this was in part due to the influence of The Dark Knight Returns , and that the overall change in art was style partly due to deliberate experimentation on his part , and partly to Dick Giordano 's inking , which exhibited a different line weight . That same year , he illustrated Gumby Summer Fun Special # 1 by Comico Comics , a job he obtained through Comico editor Diana Schutz , an old friend who noticed the incidental images of Gumby that Adams had included in the pages of Longshot . Adams , who did not harbor fond memories of that cartoon as a child , and who feared he would be typecast as a Gumby artist if he took the job , told Schultz he would only do it if she could get Bob Burden to write it , on the assumption that Schultz would decline this condition . Schultz , who initially wanted Mark Evanier for the job , considered this , and eventually agreed to it after contacting Burden , who was enthusiastic about the idea . That book , which demonstrated Adams ' versatility in handling comedy as well as superheroics , garnered him and Burden a 1988 Eisner Award for Best Single Issue . Adams would later illustrate a second Gumby book , Gumby 's Winter Fun Special , which was written by Steve Purcell . Adams was one of 54 artists profiled in Ron Goulart 's 1989 book , The Great Comic Book Artists , Volume 2 , whose front and back covers Adams himself illustrated . = = = 1990s monster and creator @-@ owned work = = = Adams ' 1990s Marvel work included a 1990 three @-@ issue run on Fantastic Four , in which the Hulk , Spider @-@ Man , Wolverine and Ghost Rider formed a replacement Fantastic Four after being falsely informed that three of the original Fantastic Four had been murdered . The story allowed Adams the opportunity to draw a number of various monsters and other characters , such as the classic FF foe , Mole Man , the Moloids and the Skrulls , and is cited by Adams as one of his favorite works . It was later referenced by late night talk show host Conan O 'Brien in a " Fan Corrections " segment in a 2012 episode of Conan . Adams did more work for the X @-@ Men franchise , such as the 1997 intercompany crossover one @-@ shot Gen ¹ ³ / Generation X. His 1990s Marvel work also included providing designs for a line of Hulk action figures . Adams became acquainted with Randy Stradley and other staff members of Dark Horse Comics , after which he illustrated a number of their books featuring the classic Universal Monsters he loved in his youth . His first Godzilla work was Godzilla Color Special # 1 in 1992 . For that story Adams created an organization called G @-@ Force , which he designed to be a Japanese version of the Fantastic Four , and in the story , had that group mention that they had fought the Shrewmanoid , a villain Adams later created for Monkeyman & O 'Brien . Toho , the production company that produces the Godzilla films , would later introduce a version of that team in the 1993 film Godzilla vs. Mechagodzilla II . A book on the making of that film features a cover illustration of Godzilla that was copied from the Color Special , which amused Adams . Adams would follow these with other Godzilla works , such as " King Kong vs. Godzilla " , a story that appeared in the anthology Urban Legends # 1 that is notable for being the only work of his to date that he wrote , penciled , inked and lettered , and " Tramplin ' Tokyo " , an Alan Moore story he drew for Negative Burn # 18 ( December 1994 ) . In 1995 he drew Godzilla vs. Hero Zero , and wrote issues 5 - 8 of Target : Godzilla ! When Adams learned that Dark Horse would acquire the rights to the Universal Monsters , Adams lobbied to them to illustrate a comics sequel to the 1954 film Creature from the Black Lagoon , but Dark Horse wanted to produce an adaptation of the film first , and told Adams that if he illustrated that , that he would be able to illustrate a future sequel . The 50 @-@ page adaptation was published in 1993 , but the line 's low sales cost Dark Horse money , and it was cancelled after four books , precluding the sequel that Adams wanted to draw . In the early 1990s , Adams and Mignola were contacted by Erik Larsen , who invited them to produce books of their own creation for Image Comics , which Larsen and a group of other artists formed to publish creator @-@ owned books . Adams had never before considered producing his own original material , as he preferred to illustrate the properties he enjoyed as a child . However , his talks with Larsen convinced him to create Monkeyman and O 'Brien , a duo similar in concept to Angel and the Ape . The stories star San Francisco native Ann Darrow O 'Brien , whose name is a tribute to Fay Wray 's character from King Kong and that film 's special effects creator Willis O 'Brien , and Axewell Tiberius , a super @-@ intelligent gorilla man from another dimension . The duo finds itself embroiled in a variety of adventures typical of classic B @-@ movies , often featuring the type of movie monsters Adams is fond of , such as the subterranean Shrewmanoid and the extraterrestrial Froglodytes . Despite the offer from Image , Adams and Mignola ( the latter of whom created Hellboy , which had been rejected by DC Comics ) , took their ideas to Dark Horse , for whom Adams had already done work , as it would allow them to collaborate with creators they admired , such as Frank Miller and John Byrne . Together with Paul Chadwick , Mike Allred , Dave Gibbons , and Geof Darrow , the creators formed Legend , a creator @-@ owned imprint of Dark Horse . After an initial 1993 appearance in San Diego Comic Con Comics # 2 , Monkeyman and O 'Brien appeared in installments in Dark Horse Presents # 80 in 1993 and Dark Horse Insider # 27 in 1994 . The duo 's first appearance under the Legend imprint was an ongoing backup story in Mike Mignola 's 1994 Hellboy : Seed of Destruction miniseries . They would eventually graduate to their own self @-@ titled miniseries in 1996 . When first producing the series , Adams had on hand the Marvel Monsterworks reprint of the Atlas Comics monster stories " Where Monsters Dwell " and " Creatures on the Loose " for inspiration . Although the Legend imprint ceased in 1998 , Monkeyman and O 'Brien continued to appear in print , sometimes in crossover stories with other comics characters , as in Savage Dragon # 41 ( September 1997 ) by Erik Larsen , and Gen ¹ ³ / MonkeyMan and O 'Brien ( 1998 ) , both published by Image Comics , the latter of which Adams wrote and drew for Wildstorm Productions . In 1996 Dark Horse Comics published Art Adams ' Creature Features , a collection of Adams ' previously published stories that paid tribute to various B @-@ movie monsters , some of which had originally been published in black and white , but which were colored for the collection . They included Adams ' Creature from the Black Lagoon , two of his Godzilla stories , and the " Trapped In The Lair of the Shrewmanoid " story from Dark Horse Insider # 27 . The collection featured an introduction by Geoff Darrow . = = = 1999 – present = = = In 1999 , Adams returned to Wildstorm to draw an eight @-@ page flashback sequence in issue # 4 of Alan Moore 's series , Tom Strong , which was published under Moore 's brand for Wildstorm , America 's Best Comics . His subsequent Wildstorm work would include Danger Girl Special # 1 ( 2000 ) and two issues of The Authority in 2002 , significant portions of which Adams was asked by DC Comics to redraw in order to de @-@ emphasize the violence , in light of the September 11 attacks , much to Adams ' frustration . That same year , Adams and writer Steve Moore co @-@ created " Jonni Future " , a pastiche of a pulp science fiction series such as Adam Strange and Barbarella , which was published in eight @-@ page installments in the America 's Best Comics anthology Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales , the first ten issues of which Adams penciled from 2002 to 2004 . Adams work on " Jonni Future " has been characterized as exhibiting a romantic influence , with greater amounts realism and fine hatching , which Adams refers to as " noodling " . Adams says he was inspired by sources such as Paolo Eleuteri Serpieri , Warren Publishing 's Vampirella , and the character designs in Capcom video game character books when he drew " Jonni Future " , and refrained from using straight edges or templates in order to achieve a more elegant , hand @-@ drawn appearance . He regards " Jonni Future " as his best work . Throughout the 2000s , Adams provided cover images for various DC Comics , such as Superman , Batman and JLA : Scary Monsters , as well as for books by various other publishers , such as Vampirella , Red Sonja , Jurassic Park , Madman Adventures , Thundercats , Xena : Warrior Princess and Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Adams ' 2000s Marvel cover work include Generation X # 67 - 72 in 2000 and 2001 , and Incredible Hercules # 113 - 115 in 2008 , as well for three of its collected editions . His 2000s interior comics work includes Superman / Batman # 26 ( 2006 ) , an issue dedicated to writer Jeph Loeb 's late son , Sam , to which dozens of writers and artists contributed . In 2008 he illustrated a Red Hulk story in King @-@ Size Hulk # 1 , and later illustrated a Hulk / Wendigo story that appeared in 11 @-@ page installments Hulk # 7 - 9 , as well as those issues ' covers . In 2010 he illustrated Ultimate X # 1 @-@ 5 , his first work for the Ultimate Marvel line of comic books . On November 30 , 2011 , Gumby Comics / Wildcard Ink published a single volume collecting Adams ' previous two specials featuring Gumby . The book was initially called Gumby 's Arthur Adams Specials , but was eventually published with a sticker covering Adams ' name on the cover , effectively renaming the book Gumby 's Spring Specials . According to Rich Johnston of Bleeding Cool , this was done on Adams ' request , who wanted nothing to do with the publisher , and took action to keep his name off the book 's cover . The book is nonetheless sold by merchants such as Mile High Comics under its originally intended name . Outside the field of comics , Adams has also provided illustrations for various magazines , such as PlayStation Magazine , as well as toy designs , video games , and X @-@ Men @-@ themed cans of Chef Boyardee pasta . In 2016 he provided the illustration for a satirical piece in GQ magazine that imagined a number of controversial public figures as comic book supervillains , including Donald Trump , Vladimir Putin , Sepp Blatter , Martin Shkreli and Kris Jenner . Though his work for Marvel takes priority for him , he also makes a significant amount of his income from private commissions , which he produces when time permits . = = Technique and materials = = Adams ' art style is noted for its high level of detail , and he has a reputation of being a " tight " penciller . He states that he works at a slow pace , which limits the amount of work he does . When he penciled Fantastic Four # 347 - 349 in 1990 for regular writer / illustrator Walter Simonson , who needed a break in order to catch up on his own work on that title , Adams managed to pencil the first two issues in five weeks and four weeks , respectively , but was considerably late on the third . In 1997 Adams stated that he could produce a page of either pencils or inks in a day . In a 2007 interview , he stated he tends to produce 2 / 3 to 3 / 4 of a page a day , and can also ink at that rate , but can do up to two pages in a day if he is under pressure , as when he produced Cloak and Dagger # 9 ( 1986 ) in 22 days , for example . Another example is the 1989 one @-@ shot Excalibur : Mojo Mayhem , which due to changing deadlines , he completed at a quicker pace . Adams singles out one page of that book that he drew a half @-@ hour as his personal record for speed , but decries its poor quality . Adams is also noted for the humor in his work , as with , for example , the extraneous characters he places in cameo appearances in the backgrounds of his comics , as when he drew Gumby in the panels of Longshot , or the forms in which he depicted the shapeshifting alien Warlock in his The New Mutants work . Adams prefers to work from a plot rather than from a full script , a result of Ann Nocenti 's dense Longshot scripts , though he has worked from a full script , as with his work on Three Dimensional Alien Worlds for Pacific Comics and The Authority . Though he says he prefers group books because they more easily allow him to hide his " bad layout skills " , he is nonetheless comfortable with solo character books . He begins drawing thumbnail layouts from the story he is given , either at home or in a public place . The thumbnails range in size from 2 inches x 3 inches to half the size of the printed comic book . He or an assistant will then enlarge the thumbnails and trace them onto illustration board with a non @-@ photo blue pencil , sometimes using a Prismacolor light blue pencil , because it is not too waxy , and erases easily . When working on the final illustration board , he does so on a large drawing board when in his basement studio , and a lapboard when sitting on his living room couch . After tracing the thumbnails , he will then clarify details with another light blue pencil , and finalize the details with a Number 2 pencil . He drew the first three chapters of " Jonni Future " at twice the printed comic size , and also drew the fifth chapter , " The Garden of the Sklin " , at a size larger than standard , in order to render more detail than usual in those stories . For a large poster image with a multitude of characters , he will go over the figure outlines with a marker in order to emphasize them . He will use photographic reference when appropriate , as when he draws things that he is not accustomed to . In the early part of his career , Adams ' pencils were embellished by inkers such as Whilce Portacio , Dick Giordano and Terry Austin . When Adams attempted to ink his own work before becoming a professional , he initially used a Croquille pen , but after meeting Mike Mignola , he was spurred to switch to a brush , which he used for approximately a year before returning to a Croquille . He eventually began to ink his own work , which he prefers to do . Beginning in the late 1990s , he began using the Staedtler Pigment Liner , a felt @-@ tip pen . He prefers pens to brushes because pens feel " looser " , and cited this as his reason for using felt @-@ tip pens when he inked " Jonni Future " . Although Adams has experimented with painting with watercolor and oil paints ( his 1989 covers for Appleseed were rendered with a combination of ink , watercolor and color pencil ) , his color work is so sporadic that he says he has to relearn what he has forgotten in the interim each time , and is usually dissatisfied with the results . Because a significant portion of his income is derived from selling his original artwork , he is reluctant to learn how to produce his work digitally . = = Influence = = Adams is one of the most popular and widely imitated artists in the American comics industry . Adams ' style is attributed as a direct influence on the artists who would go on to found Image Comics , and the other popular artists of the 1990s associated with that era , such a Jim Lee and Rob Liefeld . Timothy Callahan of Comic Book Resources points to the use of dynamic action poses , idealized figures , costume designs featuring numerous accessories , a preference for copious crosshatching over brushwork in rendering , and the depiction of cybernetic limbs and other reflective surfaces seen in those artists ' styles as being derived from Adams work , in particular his run on Longshot . Callahan also points out that the detailed webbing for which Todd McFarlane became known during his run on Spider @-@ Man had previously been used by Adams on the cover of Longshot # 4 . Though Callahan notes that Adams did not necessarily originate these elements , but was influenced himself by Michael Golden and Micronauts , he states that Adams popularized them . Noting also that Adams ' Longshot pencils were inked by Whilce Portacio and an uncredited Scott Williams , Callahan refers to that book as " early Image , in primal form " . Artists who have named Adams as an influence include J. Scott Campbell , Aaron Kuder and Shelby Robertson . = = Personal life = = Adams is married to Joyce Chin , a comics artist who has inked a number of his cover pencils . Adams has also inked Chin 's pencils , as on Xena : Warrior Princess # 4 ( January 2000 ) . As of 1997 they lived in Portland , Oregon , but as of 2001 they and their children live in San Francisco , California . Regarding religion , Adams has stated that he does not believe in " any particular god " . His favorite Godzilla film is Godzilla vs. The Thing , and his other favorites include Ghidorah , the Three @-@ Headed Monster and Monster Zero . = = Awards = = 1986 Russ Manning Most Promising Newcomer Award 1988 Eisner Award for Best Single Issue ( with Bob Burden for Gumby Summer Fun Special # 1 ) = = = Interior work = = = Three Dimensional Alien Worlds : " Away Off There Amid the Softly Winking Lights " ( with Bruce Jones , one @-@ shot , Pacific Comics , 1984 ) Longshot # 1 @-@ 6 ( with Ann Nocenti , Marvel , 1985 ) New Mutants Special Edition # 1 : " Home is Where the Heart is " ( with Chris Claremont , Marvel , 1985 ) Uncanny X @-@ Men Annual # 9 @-@ 10 , 12 , 14 ( with Chris Claremont , Marvel , 1985 – 1990 ) Batman # 400 : " Resurrection Night ! " ( with Doug Moench , among other artists , DC Comics , 1986 ) Cloak and Dagger # 9 : " The Lady and the Unicorn " ( with Bill Mantlo , Marvel , 1986 ) Web of Spider @-@ Man Annual # 2 : " Wake Me Up I Gotta Be Dreaming " ( with Ann Nocenti , Marvel , 1986 ) Action Comics Annual # 1 : " Skeeter " ( with John Byrne , DC Comics , 1987 ) Gumby 's Summer Fun Special : " Summer Fun Adventure " ( with Bob Burden , one @-@ shot , Comico , 1987 ) Gumby 's Winter Fun Special : " Winter Fun Adventure " ( with Steve Purcell , one @-@ shot , Comico , 1988 ) Wonder Woman Annual # 1 : " Chapter 1 : The Diving Bird " ( with George Pérez , DC Comics , 1988 ) X @-@ Factor # 41 @-@ 42 ( with Louise Simonson , Marvel , 1989 ) Excalibur : Mojo Mayhem ( with Chris Claremont , one @-@ shot , Marvel , 1989 ) Fantastic Four # 347 @-@ 349 ( with Walter Simonson , Marvel , 1990 – 1991 ) Marvel Holiday Special # 1 ( Marvel , 1991 ) Armageddon : Inferno # 1 , 3 @-@ 4 ( with John Ostrander , DC Comics , 1992 ) Godzilla Color Special : " Godzilla : King of the Monsters " ( with Randy Stradley , one @-@ shot , Dark Horse , 1992 ) Creepy 1993 Fearbook : " Bugs " ( with Kurt Busiek , Harris Comics , 1993 ) Urban Legends : " King Kong vs. Godzilla " ( one @-@ shot , Dark Horse , 1993 ) Universal Monsters : Creature from the Black Lagoon ( with Steve Moncuse , one @-@ shot , Dark Horse , 1993 ) Monkeyman and O 'Brien ( Dark Horse , 1993 – 1999 ) : Dark Horse Presents # 80 , 100 , 118 @-@ 119 ( 1993 – 1997 ) Hellboy : Seed of Destruction # 1 @-@ 4 ( co @-@ feature , 1994 ) Monkeyman and O 'Brien # 1 @-@ 3 ( 1996 ) Dark Horse Extra # 1 @-@ 7 ( 1998 – 1999 ) The Big Book of Urban Legends : " The Spider in the Hairdo " ( with Robert Boyd , Jan Harold Brunvald and Robert Loren Fleming , Paradox Press , 1994 ) Negative Burn # 18 : " Alan Moore 's Songbook : Trampling Tokyo " ( with Alan Moore , Caliber Press , 1994 ) Asylum # 1 : " Warchild " ( with Eric Stephenson , Extreme Comics , 1995 ) Aliens : Havoc # 1 ( with Mark Schultz , among other artists , Dark Horse , 1997 ) Gen ¹ ³ ( Wildstorm , 1997 – 1998 ) : Gen ¹ ³ / Generation X : " Generation Gap " ( with Brandon Choi , one @-@ shot , 1997 ) Gen ¹ ³ 3D Special : " Mauling " ( one @-@ shot , 1997 ) Gen ¹ ³ / Monkeyman and O 'Brien # 1 @-@ 2 ( 1998 ) Gen ¹ ³ # 34 : " I Want My Mommaaaaa ! ! " ( with John Arcudi , 1998 ) Starship Troopers # 1 @-@ 2 ( with Bruce Jones and Mitch Byrd , Dark Horse , 1997 ) Legends of the DC Universe 80 @-@ Page Giant # 2 : " The Great Unknown ! " ( with Karl Kesel , DC Comics , 1998 ) Danger Girl Special : " Delusions of Grandeur " ( with J. Scott Campbell and Andy Hartnell , Cliffhanger , 2000 ) Superman # 165 : " Help ! " ( with Jeph Loeb , DC Comics , 2001 ) Orion # 10 , 12 : " Legends of Apokolips " ( with Walter Simonson , DC Comics , 2001 ) The Authority # 27 @-@ 28 : " Brave New World , Parts Two and Three " ( with Mark Millar and Grant Morrison ( uncredited ) , Wildstorm , 2002 ) Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales # 1 @-@ 4 , 6 @-@ 10 : " Jonni Future " ( with Steve Moore , America 's Best Comics , 2002 – 2004 ) The Many Worlds of Tesla Strong ( with Alan Moore and Peter K. Hogan , among other artists , one @-@ shot , Wildstorm , 2003 ) Action Comics Annual # 10 : " The Many Deaths of Superman " ( DC Comics , 2007 ) Countdown to Final Crisis # 14 : " The Origin of Gorilla Grodd " ( with Scott Beatty , co @-@ feature , DC Comics , 2008 ) King @-@ Size Hulk : " Where Monsters Dwell " ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2008 ) Hulk # 7 @-@ 9 ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2008 ) Ultimate Comics : X # 1 @-@ 5 ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2010 – 2011 ) AvX : VS # 6 ( with Jeph Loeb , Marvel , 2012 , pg 18 ) All @-@ New X @-@ Men # 25 ( Marvel , 2014 ) = = = Cover work = = = Marvel Fanfare # 13 ( Marvel Comics , 1984 ) Marvel Team @-@ Up # 141 ( Marvel , 1984 ) Micronauts : The New Voyages # 2 ( Marvel , 1984 ) The Defenders # 142 ( Marvel , 1985 ) The New Mutants # 38 @-@ 39 ( Marvel , 1986 ) Firestar # 3 ( Marvel , 1986 ) Classic X @-@ Men # 1 @-@ 23 ( Marvel , 1986 – 1988 ) Daredevil # 238 @-@ 239 ( Marvel , 1987 ) Uncanny X @-@ Men # 214 , 218 ( Marvel , 1987 ) The Spectre Annual # 1 ( DC Comics , 1988 ) Marvel Age Annual # 4 ( Marvel , 1988 ) The Last of the Viking Heroes # 7 ( Genesis West Comics ] , 1989 ) Tommy and the Monsters # 1 ( New Comics Group , 1989 ) Appleseed Book Two # 1 @-@ 5 ( Eclipse Comics , 1989 ) The Impossible Man Summer Vacation Spectacular ( Marvel , 1990 ) Marvel Super @-@ Heroes # 6 ( 1991 ) Conan the Barbarian # 247 @-@ 249 ( Marvel , 1991 ) Animal Confidential ] ' ( Dark Horse Comics , 1992 ) Vampirella : Summer Nights # 1 ( Harris Comics , 1992 ) Marvel Holiday Special ' 92 ( Marvel , 1993 ) Showcase ' 93 # 1 ( DC Comics , 1993 ) Superman : Legacy of Superman # 1 ( DC Comics , 1993 ) Dark Horse Comics # 11 ( Dark Horse , 1993 ) Comics ' Greatest World : Vortex # 2 ( Comics ' Greatest World , 1993 ) Out of the Vortex # 7 ( Dark Horse , 1994 ) Classic Star Wars : A New Hope # 1 ( Dark Horse , 1994 ) Division 13 # 1 ( Comics ' Greatest World , 1994 ) Medal of Honor # 2 ( Dark Horse , 1994 ) Gen ¹ ³ # 1 ( Wildstorm , 1995 ) New Men # 12 ( Extreme Studios , 1995 ) Godzilla # 1 @-@ 7 ( Dark Horse , 1995 ) Avengelyne # 3 ( Maximum Press , 1995 ) Badrock Annual # 1 ( Image , 1995 ) Godzilla vs. Hero Zero # 1 ( Dark Horse , 1995 ) Leonard Nimoy 's Primortals : Origins # 1 @-@ 2 ( Tekno Comix , 1995 ) Oblivion # 1 ( Comico , 1995 ) Leonard Nimoy 's Primortals # 13 @-@ 14 ( Tekno Comix , 1996 ) Untold Tales of Spider @-@ Man # 17 ( Marvel , 1996 ) The Real Adventures of Jonny Quest # 9 ( Dark Horse , 1997 ) Star Kid # 1 ( Dark Horse , 1998 ) Crimson # 2 ( Cliffhanger , 1998 ) Buffy the Vampire Slayer # 1 , 6 ( Dark Horse , 1998 – 1999 ) Daring Escapes # 1 ( Image , 1998 ) Clerks : Holiday Special # 1 ( Oni Press , 1998 ) Darkchylde : The Legacy # 2 @-@ 3 ( Image , 1998 ) Nathan Never # 1 @-@ 4 ( Dark Horse , 1999 ) Wildcats # 1 ( Wildstorm , 1999 ) Lady Death : The Rapture # 1 ( Chaos ! , 1999 ) Purgatori : Goddess Rising # 1 ( Chaos ! , 1999 ) JLA Annual # 3 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Batman Annual # 23 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Aquaman Annual # 5 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Wonder Woman Annual # 8 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) The Flash Annual # 12 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Superman Annual # 11 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Green Lantern Annual # 8 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Martian Manhunter Annual # 2 ( DC Comics , 1999 ) Tellos # 4 ( Image , 1999 ) Tom Strong # 4 ( America 's Best Comics , 1999 ) Lionheart # 2 ( Awesome , 1999 ) X @-@ Men # 100 ( Marvel , 2000 ) X @-@ Men : The Movie Special Edition # 1 ( Marvel , 2000 ) Generation X # 67 @-@ 72 ( Marvel , 2000 – 2001 ) Kin # 6 ( Top Cow , 2000 ) Gatecrasher # 5 ( Black Bull , 2000 ) X @-@ Men Annual ' 00 ( Marvel , 2000 ) Deadpool # 50 ( Marvel , 2001 ) Defenders # 2 ( Marvel , 2001 ) Cavewoman : Pangaean Sea # 0 ( Basement , 2001 ) Angel and the Ape # 1 @-@ 4 ( Vertigo , 2001 – 2002 ) The Authority # 29 ( Wildstorm , 2002 ) Thundercats # 1 ( Wildstorm , 2002 ) Tom Strong 's Terrific Tales # 5 , 12 ( America 's Best Comics , 2003 – 2005 ) JLA : Scary Monsters # 1 @-@ 6 ( DC Comics , 2003 ) Magdalena / Vampirella # 1 ( Top Cow , 2003 ) Wildguard : Casting Call # 3 ( Image , 2003 ) Witchblade / Magdalena / Vampirella # 1 ( Top Cow , 2004 ) Alter Nation # 1 ( Image , 2004 ) Action Comics # 814 @-@ 821 ( DC Comics , 2004 – 2005 ) Red Sonja # 1 @-@ 2 , 25 , 50 ( Dynamite , 2005 – 2010 ) Worldstorm # 1 ( Wildstorm , 2006 ) The Authority # 1 ( Wildstorm , 2006 ) Justice League of America # 5 ( DC Comics , 2007 ) Manhunter # 26 ( DC Comics , 2007 ) Midnighter # 2 ( Wildstorm , 2007 ) Tales of the Unexpected # 7 ( DC Comics , 2007 ) Avengers Classic # 1 @-@ 12 ( Marvel , 2007 – 2008 ) Booster Gold # 1 @-@ 2 ( DC Comics , 2007 ) Countdown Presents : The Search for Ray Palmer — Wildstorm # 1 ( DC Comics , 2007 ) Fantastic Four # 551 , 583 @-@ 584 , 600 ( Marvel , 2008 – 2011 ) The Incredible Hulk # 112 ( Marvel , 2008 ) The Incredible Hercules # 113 @-@ 115 ( Marvel , 2008 ) Thor # 6 ( Marvel , 2008 ) The Perhapanauts # 1 ( Image , 2008 ) Invincible # 50 ( Image , 2008 ) Brit # 7 ( Image , 2008 ) Marvel Apes # 0 , 4 ( 2008 – 2009 ) Agents of Atlas # 1 ( Marvel , 2009 ) Hulk # 10 @-@ 12 ( Marvel , 2009 ) Jurassic Park # 2 ( IDW Publishing , 2010 ) New Mutants # 15 , 25 ( Marvel , 2010 – 2011 ) New Mutants Forever # 2 , 4 ( Marvel , 2010 – 2011 ) Wolverine # 2 ( Marvel , 2010 ) Carnage # 1 @-@ 2 ( Marvel , 2010 – 2011 ) Warlord of Mars : Dejah Thoris # 1 @-@ 5 ( Dynamite , 2011 ) Avengers : The Children 's Crusade # 3 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Captain America : Man Out of Time # 1 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Young Allies # 6 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Avengers Prime # 5 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Thunderbolts # 154 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Journey into Mystery # 622 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Astonishing X @-@ Men # 43 ( Marvel , 2011 ) Godzilla : Legends # 1 @-@ 5 ( IDW Publishing , 2011 ) The Fearless # 1 @-@ 12 ( Marvel , 2011 – 2012 ) Godzilla # 1 ( IDW Publishing , 2012 ) Secret Avengers # 22 @-@ 25 , 29 @-@ 37 ( Marvel , 2012 @-@ 2013 ) Battle of the Atom # 1 @-@ 5 ( Marvel , 2013 ) Uncanny Avengers Annual # 1 ( Marvel , 2014 ) = National Football League playoffs = The National Football League ( NFL ) playoffs are a single @-@ elimination tournament held after the end of the regular season to determine the NFL champion . Six teams from each of the league 's two conferences qualify for the playoffs based on regular season records , and a tie @-@ breaking procedure exists	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
( canonical ) babbling appears 12 months : First words use a limited sound repertoire 18 months : Phonological processes ( deformations of target sounds ) become systematic 18 months – 7 years : Phonological inventory completion At each stage mentioned above , children play with sounds and learn methods to help them learn words . There is a relationship between children 's prelinguistic phonetic skills and their lexical progress at age two : failure to develop the required phonetic skills in their prelinguistic period results in children 's delay in producing words . Environmental influences may affect children 's phonological development , such as hearing loss as a result of ear infections . Deaf infants and children with hearing problems due to infections are usually delayed in the beginning of vocal babbling . = = = Babbling = = = Babbling is an important aspect of vocabulary development in infants , since it appears to help practice producing speech sounds . Babbling begins between five and seven months of age . At this stage , babies start to play with sounds that are not used to express their emotional or physical states , such as sounds of consonants and vowels . Babies begin to babble in real syllables such as " ba @-@ ba @-@ ba , neh @-@ neh @-@ neh , and dee @-@ dee @-@ dee , " between the ages of seven and eight months ; this is known as canonical babbling . Jargon babbling includes strings of such sounds ; this type of babbling uses intonation but doesn 't convey meaning . The phonemes and syllabic patterns produced by infants begin to be distinctive to particular languages during this period ( e.g. , increased nasal sounds in French and Japanese babies ) though most of their sounds are similar . There is a shift from babbling to the use of words as the infant grows . = = = Vocabulary spurt = = = As children get older their rate of vocabulary growth increases . Children probably understand their first 50 words before they produce them . By the age of eighteen months , children typically attain a vocabulary of 50 words in production , and between two and three times greater in comprehension . A switch from an early stage of slow vocabulary growth to a later stage of faster growth is referred to as the vocabulary spurt . Young toddlers acquire one to three words per month . A vocabulary spurt often occurs overtime as the number of words learned accelerates . It is believed that most children add about 10 to 20 new words a week . Between the ages of 18 to 24 months , children learn how to combine two words such as no bye @-@ bye and more please . Three @-@ word and four @-@ word combinations appear when most of the child 's utterances are two @-@ word productions . In addition , children are able to form conjoined sentences , using and . This suggests that there is a vocabulary spurt between the time that the child 's first word appears , and when the child is able to form more than two words , and eventually , sentences . However , there have been arguments as to whether or not there is a spurt in acquisition of words . Only about one in five children do have a spurt . This suggests that most children do not have a vocabulary spurt . = = Mapping problem = = In word learning , the mapping problem refers to the question of how infants attach the forms of language to the things that they experience in the world . There are infinite objects , concepts , and actions in the world that words could be mapped onto . Many theories have been proposed to account for the way in which the language learner successfully maps words onto the correct objects , concepts , and actions . While domain @-@ specific accounts of word learning argue for innate constraints that limit infants ' hypotheses about word meanings , domain @-@ general perspectives argue that word learning can be accounted for by general cognitive processes , such as learning and memory , which are not specific to language . Yet other theorists have proposed social pragmatic accounts , which stress the role of caregivers in guiding infants through the word learning process . According to some research , however , children are active participants in their own word learning , although caregivers may still play an important role in this process . Recently , an emergentist coalition model has also been proposed to suggest that word learning cannot be fully attributed to a single factor . Instead , a variety of cues , including salient and social cues , may be utilized by infants at different points in their vocabulary development . = = = Theories of constraints = = = Theories of constraints argue for biases or default assumptions that guide the infant through the word learning process . Constraints are outside of the infant 's control and are believed to help the infant limit their hypotheses about the meaning of words that they encounter daily . Constraints can be considered domain @-@ specific ( unique to language ) . Critics argue that theories of constraints focus on how children learn nouns , but ignore other aspects of their word learning . Although constraints are useful in explaining how children limit possible meanings when learning novel words , the same constraints would eventually need to be overridden because they are not utilized in adult language . For instance , adult speakers often use several terms , each term meaning something slightly different , when referring to one entity , such as a family pet . This practice would violate the mutual exclusivity constraint . Below , the most prominent constraints in the literature are detailed : Reference is the notion that a word symbolizes or stands in for an object , action , or event . Words consistently stand for their referents , even if referents are not physically present in context . Mutual Exclusivity is the assumption that each object in the world can only be referred to by a single label . Shape has been considered to be one of the most critical properties for identifying members of an object category . Infants assume that objects that have the same shape also share a name . Shape plays an important role in both appropriate and inappropriate extensions . The Whole Object Assumption is the belief that labels refer to whole objects instead of parts or properties of those objects . Children are believed to hold this assumption because they typically label whole objects first , and parts of properties of objects later in development . The Taxonomic Assumption reflects the belief that speakers use words to refer to categories that are internally consistent . Labels to pick out coherent categories of objects , rather than those objects and the things that are related to them . For example , children assume that the word " dog " refers to the category of " dogs " , not to " dogs with bones " , or " dogs chasing cats " . = = = Domain @-@ general views = = = Domain @-@ general views of vocabulary development argue that children do not need principles or constraints in order to successfully develop word @-@ world mappings . Instead , word learning can be accounted for through general learning mechanisms such as salience , association , and frequency . Children are thought to notice the objects , actions , or events that are most salient in context , and then to associate them with the words that are most frequently used in their presence . Additionally , research on word learning suggests that fast mapping , the rapid learning that children display after a single exposure to new information , is not specific to word learning . Children can also successfully fast map when exposed to a novel fact , remembering both words and facts after a time delay . Domain @-@ general views have been criticized for not fully explaining how children manage to avoid mapping errors when there are numerous possible referents to which objects , actions , or events might point . For instance , if biases are not present from birth , why do infants assume that labels refer to whole objects , instead of salient parts of these objects ? However , domain @-@ general perspectives do not dismiss the notion of biases . Rather , they suggest biases develop through learning strategies instead of existing as built @-@ in constraints . For instance , the whole object bias could be explained as a strategy that humans use to reason about the world ; perhaps we are prone to thinking about our environment in terms of whole objects , and this strategy is not specific to the language domain . Additionally , children may be exposed to cues associated with categorization by shape early in the word learning process , which would draw their attention to shape when presented with novel objects and labels . Ordinary learning could , then , lead to a shape bias . = = = Social pragmatic theories = = = Social pragmatic theories , also in contrast to the constraints view , focus on the social context in which the infant is embedded . According to this approach , environmental input removes the ambiguity of the word learning situation . Cues such as the caregiver 's gaze , body language , gesture , and smile help infants to understand the meanings of words . Social pragmatic theories stress the role of the caregiver in talking about objects , actions , or events that the infant is already focused @-@ in upon . Joint attention is an important mechanism through which children learn to map words @-@ to @-@ world , and vice versa . Adults commonly make an attempt to establish joint attention with a child before they convey something to the child . Joint attention is often accompanied by physical co @-@ presence , since children are often focused on what is in their immediate environment . As well , conversational co @-@ presence is likely to occur ; the caregiver and child typically talk together about whatever is taking place at their locus of joint attention . Social pragmatic perspectives often present children as covariation detectors , who simply associate the words that they hear with whatever they are attending to in the world at the same time . The co @-@ variation detection model of joint attention seems problematic when we consider that many caregiver utterances do not refer to things that occupy the immediate attentional focus of infants . For instance , caregivers among the Kaluli , a group of indigenous peoples living in New Guinea , rarely provide labels in the context of their referents . While the covariation detection model emphasizes the caregiver 's role in the meaning @-@ making process , some theorists argue that infants also play an important role in their own word learning , actively avoiding mapping errors . When infants are in situations where their own attentional focus differs from that of a speaker , they seek out information about the speaker 's focus , and then use that information to establish correct word @-@ referent mappings . Joint attention can be created through infant agency , in an attempt to gather information about a speaker 's intent . From early on , children also assume that language is designed for communication . Infants treat communication as a cooperative process . Specifically , infants observe the principles of conventionality and contrast . According to conventionality , infants believe that for a particular meaning that they wish to convey , there is a term that everyone in the community would expect to be used . According to contrast , infants act according to the notion that differences in form mark differences in meaning . Children 's attention to conventionality and contrast is demonstrated in their language use , even before the age of 2 years ; they direct their early words towards adult targets , repair mispronunciations quickly if possible , ask for words to relate to the world around them , and maintain contrast in their own word use . = = = Emergentist coalition model = = = The emergentist coalition model suggests that children make use of multiple cues to successfully attach a novel label to a novel object . The word learning situation may offer an infant combinations of social , perceptual , cognitive , and linguistic cues . While a range of cues are available from the start of word learning , it may be the case that not all cues are utilized by the infant when they begin the word learning process . While younger children may only be able to detect a limited number of cues , older , more experienced word learners may be able to make use of a range of cues . For instance , young children seem to focus primarily on perceptual salience , but older children attend to the gaze of caregivers and use the focus of caregivers to direct their word mapping . Therefore , this model argues that principles or cues may be present from the onset of word learning , but the use of a wide range of cues develops over time . Supporters of the emergentist coalition model argue that , as a hybrid , this model moves towards a more holistic explanation of word learning that is not captured by models with a singular focus . For instance , constraints theories typically argue that constraints / principles are available to children from the onset of word learning , but do not explain how children develop into expert speakers who are not limited by constraints . Additionally , some argue that domain @-@ general perspectives do not fully address the question of how children sort through numerous potential referents in order to correctly sort out meaning . Lastly , social pragmatic theories claim that social encounters guide word learning . Although these theories describe how children become more advanced word learners , they seem to tell us little about children 's capacities at the start of word learning . According to its proponents , the emergentist coalion model incorporates constraints / principles , but argues for the development and change in these principles over time , while simultaneously taking into consideration social aspects of word learning alongside other cues , such as salience . = = Pragmatic development = = Both linguistic and socio @-@ cultural factors affect the rate at which vocabulary develops . Children must learn to use their words appropriately and strategically in social situations . They have flexible and powerful social @-@ cognitive skills that allow them to understand the communicative intentions of others in a wide variety of interactive situations . Children learn new words in communicative situations . Children rely on pragmatic skills to build more extensive vocabularies . Some aspects of pragmatic behaviour can predict later literacy and mathematical achievement , as children who are pragmatically skilled often function better in school . These children are also generally better liked . Children use words differently for objects , spatial relations and actions . Children ages one to three often rely on general purpose deictic words such as " here " , " that " or " look " accompanied by a gesture , which is most often pointing , to pick out specific objects . Children also stretch already known or partly known words to cover other objects that appear similar to the original . This can result in word overextension or misuses of words . Word overextension is governed by the perceptual similarities children notice among the different referents . Misuses of words indirectly provide ways of finding out which meanings children have attached to particular words . When children come into contact with spatial relations , they talk about the location of one object with respect to another . They name the object located and use a deictic term , such as here or " there " for location , or they name both the object located and its location . They can also use a general purpose locative marker , which is a preposition , postposition or suffix depending on the language that is linked in some way to the word for location . Children 's earliest words for actions usually encode both the action and its result . Children use a small number of general purpose verbs , such as " do " and " make " for a large variety of actions because their resources are limited . Children acquiring a second language seem to use the same production strategies for talking about actions . Sometimes children use a highly specific verb instead of a general purpose verb . In both cases children stretch their resources to communicate what they want to say . Infants use words to communicate early in life and their communication skills develop as they grow older . Communication skills aid in word learning . Infants learn to take turns while communicating with adults . While preschoolers lack precise timing and rely on obvious speaker cues , older children are more precise in their timing and take fewer long pauses . Children get better at initiating and sustaining coherent conversations as they age . Toddlers and preschoolers use strategies such as repeating and recasting their partners ' utterances to keep the conversation going . Older children add new relevant information to conversations . Connectives such as then , so , and because are more frequently used as children get older . When giving and responding to feedback , preschoolers are inconsistent , but around the age of six , children can mark corrections with phrases and head nods to indicate their continued attention . As children continue to age they provide more constructive interpretations back to listeners , which helps prompt conversations . = = = Pragmatic influences = = = Caregivers use language to help children become competent members of society and culture . From birth , infants receive pragmatic information . They learn structure of conversations from early interactions with caregivers . Actions and speech are organized in games , such as peekaboo to provide children with information about words and phrases . Caregivers find many ways to help infants interact and respond . As children advance and participate more actively in interactions , caregivers adapt their interactions accordingly . Caregivers also prompt children to produce correct pragmatic behaviours . They provide input about what children are expected to say , how to speak , when they should speak , and how they can stay on topic . Caregivers may model the appropriate behaviour , using verbal reinforcement , posing a hypothetical situation , addressing children 's comments , or evaluating another person . Family members contribute to pragmatic development in different ways . Fathers often act as secondary caregivers , and may know the child less intimately . Older siblings may lack the capacity to acknowledge the child 's needs . As a result , both fathers and siblings may pressure children to communicate more clearly . They often challenge children to improve their communication skills , therefore preparing them to communicate with strangers about unfamiliar topics . Fathers have more breakdowns when communicating with infants , and spend less time focused on the same objects or actions as infants . Siblings are more directive and less responsive to infants , which motivates infants to participate in conversations with their older siblings . There are limitations to studies that focus on the influences of fathers and siblings , as most research is descriptive and correlational . In reality , there are many variations of family configurations , and context influences parent behaviour more than parent gender does . The majority of research in this field is conducted with mother / child pairs . Peers help expose children to multi @-@ party conversations . This allows children to hear a greater variety of speech , and to observe different conversational roles . Peers may be uncooperative conversation partners , which pressures the children to communicate more effectively . Speaking to peers is different from speaking to adults , but children may still correct their peers . Peer interaction provides children with a different experience filled with special humour , disagreements and conversational topics . Culture and context in infants ’ linguistic environment shape their vocabulary development . English learners have been found to map novel labels to objects more reliably than to actions compared to Mandarin learners . This early noun bias in English learners is caused by the culturally reinforced tendency for English speaking caregivers to engage in a significant amount of ostensive labelling as well as noun @-@ friendly activities such as picture book reading . Adult speech provides children with grammatical input . Both Mandarin and Cantonese languages have a category of grammatical function word called a noun classifier , which is also common across many genetically unrelated East Asian languages . In Cantonese , classifiers are obligatory and specific in more situations than in Mandarin . This accounts for the research found on Mandarin @-@ speaking children outperforming Cantonese @-@ speaking children in relation to the size of their vocabulary . = = = Pragmatic directions = = = Pragmatic directions provide children with additional information about the speaker 's intended meaning . Children 's learning of new word meanings is guided by the pragmatic directions that adults offer , such as explicit links to word meanings . Adults present young children with information about how words are related to each other through connections , such as " is a part of " , " is a kind of " , " belongs to " , or " is used for " . These pragmatic directions provide children with essential information about language , allowing them to make inferences about possible meanings for unfamiliar words . This is also called inclusion . When children are provided with two words related by inclusion , they hold on to that information . When children hear an adult say an incorrect word , and then repair their mistake by stating the correct word , children take into account the repair when assigning meanings to the two words . = = Vocabulary development in school @-@ age children = = Vocabulary development during the school years builds upon what the child already knows , and the child uses this knowledge to broaden his or her vocabulary . Once children have gained a level of vocabulary knowledge , new words are learned through explanations using familiar , or " old " words . This is done either explicitly , when a new word is defined using old words , or implicitly , when the word is set in the context of old words so that the meaning of the new word is constrained . When children reach school @-@ age , context and implicit learning are the most common ways in which their vocabularies continue to develop . By this time , children learn new vocabulary mostly through conversation and reading . Throughout schooling and adulthood , conversation and reading are the main methods in which vocabulary develops . This growth tends to slow once a person finishes schooling , as they have already acquired the vocabulary used in everyday conversation and reading material and generally are not engaging in activities that require additional vocabulary development . During the first few years of life , children are mastering concrete words such as " car " , " bottle " , " dog " , " cat " . By age 3 , children are likely able to learn these concrete words without the need for a visual reference , so word learning tends to accelerate around this age . Once children reach school @-@ age , they learn abstract words ( e.g. " love " , " freedom " , " success " ) . This broadens the vocabulary available for children to learn , which helps to account for the increase in word learning evident at school age . By age 5 , children tend to have an expressive vocabulary of 2 @,@ 100 – 2 @,@ 200 words . By age 6 , they have approximately 2 @,@ 600 words of expressive vocabulary and 20 @,@ 000 – 24 @,@ 000 words of receptive vocabulary . Some claim that children experience a sudden acceleration in word learning , upwards of 20 words per day , but it tends to be much more gradual than this . From age 6 to 8 , the average child in school is learning 6 – 7 words per day , and from age 8 to 12 , approximately 12 words per day . = = = Means for vocabulary development = = = Exposure to conversations and engaging in conversation with others help school @-@ age children develop vocabulary . Fast mapping is the process of learning a new concept upon a single exposure and is used in word learning not only by infants and toddlers , but by preschool children and adults as well . This principle is very useful for word learning in conversational settings , as words tend not to be explained explicitly in conversation , but may be referred to frequently throughout the span of a conversation . Reading is considered to be a key element of vocabulary development in school @-@ age children . Before children are able to read on their own , children can learn from others reading to them . Learning vocabulary from these experiences includes using context , as well as explicit explanations of words and / or events in the story . This may be done using illustrations in the book to guide explanation and provide a visual reference or comparisons , usually to prior knowledge and past experiences . Interactions between the adult and the child often include the child 's repetition of the new word back to the adult . When a child begins to learn to read , their print vocabulary and oral vocabulary tend to be the same , as children use their vocabulary knowledge to match verbal forms of words with written forms . These two forms of vocabulary are usually equal up until grade 3 . Because written language is much more diverse than spoken language , print vocabulary begins to expand beyond oral vocabulary . By age 10 , children 's vocabulary development through reading moves away from learning concrete words to learning abstract words . Generally , both conversation and reading involve at least one of the four principles of context that are used in word learning and vocabulary development : physical context , prior knowledge , social context and semantic support . = = = = Physical context = = = = Physical context involves the presence of an object or action that is also the topic of conversation . With the use of physical context , the child is exposed to both the words and a visual reference of the word . This is frequently used with infants and toddlers , but can be very beneficial for school @-@ age children , especially when learning rare or infrequently used words . Physical context may include props such as in toy play . When engaging in play with an adult , a child 's vocabulary is developed through discussion of the toys , such as naming the object ( e.g. " dinosaur " ) or labeling it with the use of a rare word ( e.g. , stegosaurus ) . These sorts of interactions expose the child to words they may not otherwise encounter in day @-@ to @-@ day conversation . = = = = Prior knowledge = = = = Past experiences or general knowledge is often called upon in conversation , so it is a useful context for children to learn words . Recalling past experiences allows the child to call upon their own visual , tactical , oral , and / or auditory references . For example , if a child once went to a zoo and saw an elephant , but did not know the word elephant , an adult could later help the child recall this event , describing the size and color of the animal , how big its ears were , its trunk , and the sound it made , then using the word elephant to refer to the animal . Calling upon prior knowledge is used not only in conversation , but often in book reading as well to help explain what is happening in a story by relating it back to the child 's own experiences . = = = = Social context = = = = Social context involves pointing out social norms and violations of these norms . This form of context is most commonly found in conversation , as opposed to reading or other word learning environments . A child 's understanding of social norms can help them to infer the meaning of words that occur in conversation . In an English @-@ speaking tradition , " please " and " thank you " are taught to children at a very early age , so they are very familiar to the child by school @-@ age . For example , if a group of people is eating a meal with the child present and one person says , " give me the bread " and another responds with , " that was rude . What do you say ? " , and the person responds with " please " , the child may not know the meaning of " rude " , but can infer its meaning through social context and understanding the necessity of saying " please " . = = = = Semantic support = = = = Semantic support is the most obvious method of vocabulary development in school @-@ age children . It involves giving direct verbal information of the meaning of a word . By the time children are in school , they are active participants in conversation , so they are very capable and willing to ask questions when they do not understand a word or concept . For example , a child might see a zebra for the first time and ask , what is that ? and the parent might respond , that is a zebra . It is like a horse with stripes and it is wild so you cannot ride it . = = = Pictures support = = = Pictures support involves two memory techniques - association and visualization . Associating an image with a word helps a user learn word in a more effective way . Anshul Agarwal , Founder of dailyvocab.com mentioned in his interview to Career360 - " memory aid for each word help student learn words more faster and effectively " = = = Memory and vocabulary development = = = Memory plays an important role in vocabulary development , however the exact role that it plays is disputed in the literature . Specifically , short @-@ term memory and how its capacities work with vocabulary development is questioned by many researchers . The phonology of words has proven to be beneficial to vocabulary development when children begin school . Once children have developed a vocabulary , they utilize the sounds that they already know to learn new words . The phonological loop encodes , maintains and manipulates speech @-@ based information that a person encounters . This information is then stored in the phonological memory , a part of short term memory . Research shows that children 's capacities in the area of phonological memory are linked to vocabulary knowledge when children first begin school at age 4 – 5 years old . As memory capabilities tend to increase with age ( between age 4 and adolescence ) , so does an individual 's ability to learn more complex vocabulary . Serial @-@ order short @-@ term memory may be critical to the development of vocabulary . As lexical knowledge increases , phonological representations have to become more precise to determine the differences between similar sound words ( i.e. " calm " , " come " ) . In this theory , the specific order or sequence of phonological events is used to learn new words , rather than phonology as a whole . = Albert Bridge , London = The Albert Bridge is a road bridge over the River Thames in West London , connecting Chelsea on the north bank to Battersea on the south bank . Designed and built by Rowland Mason Ordish in 1873 as an Ordish – Lefeuvre system modified cable @-@ stayed bridge , it proved to be structurally unsound , so between 1884 and 1887 Sir Joseph Bazalgette incorporated some of the design elements of a suspension bridge . In 1973 the Greater London Council added two concrete piers , which transformed the central span into a simple beam bridge . As a result , today the bridge is an unusual hybrid of three different design styles . It is an English Heritage Grade II * listed building . Built as a toll bridge , it was commercially unsuccessful . Six years after its opening it was taken into public ownership and the tolls were lifted . The tollbooths remained in place and are the only surviving examples of bridge tollbooths in London . Nicknamed " The Trembling Lady " because of its tendency to vibrate when large numbers of people walked over it , the bridge has signs at its entrances that warned troops to break step whilst crossing the bridge . Incorporating a roadway only 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide , and with serious structural weaknesses , the bridge was ill @-@ equipped to cope with the advent of the motor vehicle during the 20th century . Despite the many calls for its demolition or pedestrianisation , the Albert Bridge has remained open to vehicles throughout its existence , other than for brief spells during repairs , and is one of only two Thames road bridges in central London never to have been replaced . The strengthening work carried out by Bazalgette and the Greater London Council did not prevent further deterioration of the bridge 's structure . A series of increasingly strict traffic control measures have been introduced to limit its use and thus prolong its life , making it the least busy Thames road bridge in London , except for the little @-@ used Southwark Bridge . The bridge 's condition is continuing to degrade as the result of traffic load and severe rotting of the timber deck structure caused by the urine of the many dogs using it as a route to nearby Battersea Park . In 1992 , the Albert Bridge was rewired and painted in an unusual colour scheme designed to make it more conspicuous in poor visibility , and avoid being damaged by ships . At night it is illuminated by 4 @,@ 000 bulbs , making it one of west London 's most striking landmarks . In 2010 – 2011 , these were replaced with LEDs . = = History = = The historic industrial town of Chelsea on the north bank of the River Thames about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) west of Westminster , and the rich farming village of Battersea , facing Chelsea on the south bank , were linked by the modest wooden Battersea Bridge in 1771 . In 1842 the Commission of Woods , Forests , and Land Revenues recommended the construction of an embankment at Chelsea to free land for development , and proposed a new bridge downstream of Battersea Bridge , and the replacement of the latter by a more modern structure . Work on the Victoria Bridge ( later renamed Chelsea Bridge ) , a short distance downstream of Battersea Bridge , began in 1851 and was completed in 1858 , with work on the Chelsea Embankment beginning in 1862 . Meanwhile , the proposal to demolish Battersea Bridge was abandoned . The wooden Battersea Bridge had become dilapidated by the mid @-@ 19th century . It had grown unpopular and was considered unsafe . The newer Victoria Bridge , meanwhile , suffered severe congestion . In 1860 , Prince Albert suggested that a new tollbridge built between the two existing bridges would be profitable , and in the early 1860s the Albert Bridge Company was formed with the aim of building this new crossing . A proposal put forward in 1863 was blocked by strong opposition from the operators of Battersea Bridge , which was less than 500 yards ( 460 m ) from the proposed site of the new bridge and whose owners were consequently concerned over potential loss of custom . A compromise was reached , and in 1864 a new Act of Parliament was passed , authorising the new bridge on condition that it was completed within five years . The Act compelled the Albert Bridge Company to purchase Battersea Bridge once the new bridge opened , and to compensate its owners by paying them £ 3 @,@ 000 per annum ( about £ 266 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) in the interim . Rowland Mason Ordish was appointed to design the new bridge . Ordish was a leading architectural engineer who had worked on the Royal Albert Hall , St Pancras railway station , the Crystal Palace and Holborn Viaduct . The bridge was built using the Ordish – Lefeuvre system , an early form of cable @-@ stayed bridge design which Ordish had patented in 1858 . Ordish 's design resembled a conventional suspension bridge in employing a parabolic cable to support the centre of the bridge , but differed in its use of 32 inclined stays to support the remainder of the load . Each stay consisted of a flat wrought iron bar attached to the bridge deck , and a wire rope composed of 1 @,@ 000 1 ⁄ 10 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 mm ) diameter wires joining the wrought iron bar to one of the four octagonal support columns . = = Design and construction = = Although authorised in 1864 , work on the bridge was delayed by negotiations over the proposed Chelsea Embankment , since the bridge 's design could not be completed until the exact layout of the new roads being built on the north bank of the river had been agreed . While plans for the Chelsea Embankment were debated , Ordish built the Franz Joseph Bridge over the Vltava in Prague to the same design as that intended for the Albert Bridge . In 1869 , the time allowed by the 1864 Act to build the bridge expired . Delays caused by the Chelsea Embankment project meant that work on the bridge had not even begun , and a new Act of Parliament was required to extend the time limit . Construction finally got underway in 1870 , and it was anticipated that the bridge would be completed in about a year , at a cost of £ 70 @,@ 000 ( about £ 5 @.@ 83 million in 2016 ) . In the event , the project ran for over three years , and the final bill came to £ 200 @,@ 000 ( about £ 16 million in 2016 ) . It was intended to open the bridge and the Chelsea Embankment in a joint ceremony in 1874 , but the Albert Bridge Company was keen to start recouping the substantially higher than expected costs , and the bridge opened without any formal ceremony on 23 August 1873 , almost ten years after its authorisation . As the law demanded , the Albert Bridge Company then bought Battersea Bridge . Ordish 's bridge was 41 feet ( 12 m ) wide and 710 feet ( 220 m ) long , with a 384 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 117 @.@ 27 m ) central span . The deck was supported by 32 rigid steel rods suspended from four octagonal cast iron towers , with the towers resting on cast iron piers . The four piers were cast at Battersea and floated down the river into position , at which time they were filled with concrete ; at the time they were the largest castings ever made . Unlike most other suspension bridges of the time , the towers were positioned outside the bridge to avoid causing any obstruction to the roadway . At each entrance was a pair of tollbooths with a bar between them , to prevent people entering the bridge without paying . The bridge acquired the nickname of " The Trembling Lady " because of its tendency to vibrate , particularly when used by troops from the nearby Chelsea Barracks . Concerns about the risks of mechanical resonance effects on suspension bridges , following the 1831 collapse of the Broughton Suspension Bridge and the 1850 collapse of Angers Bridge , led to notices being placed at the entrances warning troops to break step ( i.e. not to march in rhythm ) when crossing the bridge ; Although the barracks closed in 2008 , the warning signs are still in place . = = Transfer to public ownership = = The Albert Bridge was catastrophically unsuccessful financially . By the time the new bridge opened , the Albert Bridge Company had been paying compensation to the Battersea Bridge Company for nine years , and on completion of the new bridge became liable for the costs of repairing the by then dilapidated and dangerous structure . The cost of subsidising Battersea Bridge drained funds intended for the building of wide approach roads , making the bridge difficult to reach . Located slightly further from central London than neighbouring Victoria ( Chelsea ) Bridge , demand for the new bridge was less than expected , and in the first nine months of its operation only £ 2 @,@ 085 ( about £ 175 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) were taken in tolls . In 1877 the Metropolis Toll Bridges Act was passed , which allowed the Metropolitan Board of Works to buy all London bridges between Hammersmith and Waterloo bridges and free them from tolls . In 1879 , The Albert Bridge , which had cost £ 200 @,@ 000 to build , was bought by the Board of Works along with Battersea Bridge for a combined price of £ 170 @,@ 000 ( about £ 15 @.@ 6 million in 2016 ) . The tolls were removed from both bridges on 24 May 1879 , but the octagonal tollbooths were left in place , and today are the only surviving bridge tollbooths in London . = = Structural weaknesses = = In 1884 the Board of Works ' Chief Engineer Sir Joseph Bazalgette conducted an inspection of the bridge and found that the iron rods were already showing serious signs of corrosion . Over the next three years the staying rods were augmented with steel chains , giving it an appearance more closely resembling a conventional suspension bridge , and a new timber deck was laid , at a total cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 ( about £ 2 @.@ 35 million in 2016 ) . Despite these improvements , Bazalgette was still concerned about its structural integrity and a weight limit of five tons was imposed on vehicles using the bridge . With a roadway only 27 feet ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide and subject to weight restrictions from early on , the Albert Bridge was ill @-@ suited to the advent of motorised transport in the 20th century . In 1926 the Royal Commission on Cross @-@ River Traffic recommended demolition and rebuilding of the bridge to carry four lanes of traffic , but the plan was not carried out because of a shortage of funds in the Great Depression . It continued to deteriorate , and in 1935 the weight limit was reduced to two tons . Because of its ongoing structural weaknesses , in 1957 the London County Council proposed replacing the Albert Bridge with a more conventional design . A protest campaign led by John Betjeman resulted in the withdrawal of the proposal , but serious concerns about the integrity of the bridge continued . In 1964 an experimental tidal flow scheme was introduced , in which only northbound traffic was permitted to use the bridge in the mornings and southbound traffic in the evenings . The bridge 's condition continued to deteriorate however , and in 1970 the Greater London Council ( GLC ) sought and obtained consent to carry out strengthening work . In April 1972 the bridge was closed for the work to be carried out . = = = Pedestrianised park proposal = = = The GLC 's solution entailed adding two concrete piers in the middle of the river to support the central span and thus transform the bridge 's central section into a beam bridge . The bridge 's main girder was also strengthened , and a lightweight replacement deck was laid . The modifications were intended to be a stopgap measure to extend the bridge 's life by five years while a replacement was being considered ; in the GLC 's estimation the work would last for a maximum of 30 years , but the bridge would need to be either closed or replaced well before then . In early 1973 , the Architectural Review submitted a proposal to convert the Albert Bridge into a landscaped public park and pedestrian footpath across the river . The proposal proved very popular with the area 's residents , and a May 1973 campaign led by John Betjeman , Sybil Thorndike and Laurie Lee raised a petition of 2 @,@ 000 signatures for the bridge to be permanently closed to traffic . Although the GLC reopened the bridge to traffic in July 1973 , it also announced its intention to proceed with the Architectural Review scheme once legal matters had been dealt with . The Royal Automobile Club campaigned vigorously against the pedestrianisation proposal . A publicity campaign fronted by actress Diana Dors in favour of reopening the bridge was launched , whilst a lobbying group of local residents led by poet Robert Graves campaigned in support of the GLC 's plan . Graves 's campaign collected over a thousand signatures in support , but was vigorously attacked by the British Road Federation , who derided the apparent evidence of public support for the scheme as " sending a lot of students around to council flats [ where ] most people will sign anything without knowing what it is all about " . A public enquiry of 1974 recommended that the bridge remain open to avoid congestion on neighbouring bridges , and it remained open to traffic with the tidal flow and 2 @-@ ton weight limit in place . = = Present day = = In 1990 , the tidal flow system was abandoned and the Albert Bridge was converted back to two @-@ way traffic . A traffic island was installed on the south end of the bridge to prevent larger vehicles from using it . In the early years of the 21st century the Chelsea area experienced a growth in the popularity of large four @-@ wheel drive cars ( so @-@ called Chelsea tractors ) , many of which were over the two @-@ ton weight limit ; it was estimated that one third of all vehicles using the bridge were over the weight limit . In July 2006 the 27 @-@ foot ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) wide roadway was narrowed to a single lane in each direction to reduce the load . Red and white plastic barriers have been erected along the roadway in an effort to protect the structure from damage by cars . Between 1905 and 1981 the Albert Bridge was painted uniformly green ; in 1981 it was repainted yellow . In 1992 it was redecorated and rewired . Partially as a result , it is now a major West London landmark . The bridge is painted in pink , blue and green to increase visibility in fog and murky light and thus to reduce the risks of ships colliding with the fragile structure during the day . At night , a network of 4 @,@ 000 low @-@ voltage tungsten @-@ halogen bulbs illuminate the bridge . In 1993 the innovative use of long @-@ life low @-@ energy lighting was commended by Mary Archer , at the time Chairwoman of the National Energy Foundation . Its distinctive and striking current appearance has led to its use as a backdrop for numerous films set in the Chelsea area , such as Absolute Beginners , Sliding Doors and Maybe Baby . Except for Tower Bridge , built in 1894 , the Albert Bridge is the only Thames road bridge in central London never to have been replaced . Intended as a temporary measure to be removed in 1978 , the concrete central piers remain in place , and although in 1974 its lifespan was estimated at a maximum of 30 years , the bridge is still standing and operational . The Albert Bridge was protected as a Grade II * listed structure in 1975 , granting it protection against significant alteration without consultation . It continues to deteriorate . Although proposals have been drawn up by Kensington and Chelsea London Borough Council to repair and rescue it , by March 2008 funds for the repairs were unavailable . As well as structural damage caused by traffic , the timbers underpinning the deck are being seriously rotted by the urine of dogs crossing to and from nearby Battersea Park . With multiple measures in place to reduce traffic flow and prolong the life of the bridge , in 2009 it carried approximately 19 @,@ 000 vehicles per day , the lowest usage of any Thames road bridge in London other than the little @-@ used Southwark Bridge . = = = Refurbishment of 2010 – 2011 = = = The bridge was closed to motor vehicles on 15 February 2010 for refurbishment and strengthening . It was originally expected to remain closed for approximately 18 months , but after the condition of the bridge was found to be worse than expected , it was closed for 22 months . All of the timber in the decking as well as the footway that had rotted away were replaced , with additional timber added for strengthening . Surfaces at the carriageway and pavement decking were replaced . New steel structures were added to strengthen the bridge . All the lightbulbs were changed to more energy @-@ efficient ones . The tollbooths were refurbished . All twelve layers of paint were stripped down until the bare metal was exposed , which was repaired and treated before three new coats of paint were added . The whole project cost £ 7 @.@ 2 million of which the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea provided 25 % of the cost and the other 75 % was provided by Transport for London . It re @-@ opened on 2 December 2011 , when two dogs named Prince and Albert , from nearby Battersea Dogs and Cats Home , walked across the bridge . All of the Grade II features were retained . = Bowfin = Bowfin ( Amia calva ) are basal bony fishes related to gars in the infraclass Holostei . Common names include mudfish , mud pike , dogfish , griddle , grinnel , cypress trout and choupique . They are regarded as taxonomic relicts , being the sole surviving species of the order Amiiformes which dates from the Jurassic to the Eocene , persisting to the present . Although bowfin are highly evolved , they are often referred to as " primitive fishes " because they have retained some morphological characteristics of their early ancestors . Bowfin are demersal freshwater piscivores native to North America , and commonly found throughout much of the eastern United States , and in southern Ontario and Quebec . Fossil deposits indicate Amiiformes were once widespread in both freshwater and marine environments with a range that spanned across North and South America , Europe , Asia and Africa . Now their range is limited to much of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada , including the drainage basins of the Mississippi River , Great Lakes and various rivers exiting in the Eastern Seaboard or Gulf of Mexico . Their preferred habitat includes vegetated sloughs , lowland rivers and lakes , swamps and backwater areas ; they are also occasionally found in brackish water . They are stalking , ambush predators known to move into the shallows at night to prey on fish and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish , mollusks , and aquatic insects . Like gars , bowfin are bimodal breathers which means they have the capacity to breathe both water and air . Their gills exchange gases in the water allowing them to exploit oxygen for breathing , but they also have a gas bladder that serves to maintain buoyancy , and also allows them to breathe air by means of a small pneumatic duct connected from the foregut to the gas bladder . They can break the surface to gulp air , which allows them to survive conditions of aquatic hypoxia that would be lethal to most other species . = = Morphology = = The average length of a bowfin is 50 cm ( 20 in ) ; females typically grow to 65 – 70 cm ( 26 – 28 in ) , males to 50 – 65 cm ( 20 – 26 in ) . Records indicate bowfin can reach 109 cm ( 43 in ) in length , and weigh 9 @.@ 75 kg ( 21 @.@ 5 lb ) . Young of the year typically grow to 13 – 23 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) by October . Females tend to grow larger than males . The body of the bowfin is elongated and cylindrical , with the sides and back olive to brown in color , often with vertical bars , and dark reticulations , or camouflaged pattern . The dorsal fin has horizontal bars , and the caudal fin has irregular vertical bars . The underside is white or cream , and the paired fins and anal fin are bright green . During larval stage , hatchlings from about 7 – 10 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 – 0 @.@ 39 in ) total length are black and tadpole @-@ like in appearance . At approximately 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) total length they have been described as looking like miniature placoderms . They grow quickly , and typically leave the nest within 4 to 6 weeks after hatching . Young males have a black eyespot on the base of the tail ( caudal peduncle ) that is commonly encircled by an orange @-@ yellowish border while the female 's is black , if present at all . It is thought the purpose of the eyespot is to confuse predators , deflecting attacks away from the head of the fish to its tail , which affords the bowfin an opportunity to escape predation . The bowfin is so named for its long , undulating dorsal fin consisting of 145 to 250 rays , and running from the middle of the back to the base of the tail . Bowfin are often referred to as " living fossils " , or " primitive fishes " because they retained some of the primitive characters common to their ancestral predecessors , including a modified ( rounded externally ) heterocercal caudal fin , a highly vascularized gas bladder lung , vestiges of a spiral valve , and a bony gular plate . The bony gular plate is located underneath the head on the exterior of the lower jaw between the two sides of the lower jaw bone . Other distinguishing characteristics include long , sharp teeth , and two protruding tube @-@ like nostrils . Unlike all of the most primitive actinopterygians , the scales of bowfin differ in that they are not ganoid scales , rather they are large , single @-@ layered cycloid scales closer in similarity to more derived teleosts . = = = Fishes similar in appearance = = = Northern snakeheads ( Channa argus ) are commonly mistaken for bowfin because of similarities in appearance , most noticeably their elongated , cylindrical shape , and long dorsal fin that runs along their backs . Northern snakeheads are piscivorous fishes native to the rivers and estuaries of China , Russia , and Korea . However , unlike bowfin which are native to North America , the northern snakehead is considered an invasive species and environmentally harmful . Some contrasting differences in bowfin include a black eyespot on their caudal peduncle , a tan and olive coloration , a shorter anal fin , a more rounded head , and an upper jaw that is longer than its lower jaw . The burbot , a predatory fish native to streams and lakes of North America and Eurasia , is also commonly mistaken for bowfin . Burbots can be distinguished by their flat head and chin barbel , long anal fin , and pelvic fins situated beneath the pectoral fins . = = Physiology = = Bowfin , like other physostomes such as bichirs ( Polypteridae ) , gars ( Lepisosteidae ) , and the lungfishes ( Dipnoi ) , are capable of bimodal respiration . They can extract oxygen from the water when breathing through their gills , and can also break the water 's surface to breathe or gulp air through a small pneumatic duct connected from their foregut to the gas bladder . When performing low @-@ level physical activity , bowfin obtain more than half of their oxygen from breathing air . Bowfin have two distinct air @-@ breathing mechanisms used to ventilate the gas bladder . Type I air breaths are consistent with the action of exhale @-@ inhale stimulated by aerial or aquatic hypoxia to regulate O2 gas exchange ; type II air breaths are by inhalation alone which is believed to regulate gas bladder volume for buoyancy control . Bimodal respiration helps bowfin survive and maintain their metabolic rate in hypoxic conditions . The rate of air breathing is higher in darkness , when the fish is more active . Bowfin blood can adapt to warm , acidic waters . The fish becomes inactive in waters below 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) ; at this temperature they breathe almost no air ; however , with increasing temperature their air breathing increases . Their preferred temperature range is between 12 – 26 ° C ( 54 – 79 ° F ) , with 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) the temperature of maximum activity . Air breathing is at a maximum in the range 18 @.@ 4 – 29 @.@ 6 ° C ( 65 @.@ 1 – 85 @.@ 3 ° F ) . Herpetologist Wilfred T. Neill , reported in 1950 that he unearthed a bowfin aestivating in a chamber 4 inches ( 10 cm ) below the ground surface , 8 inches ( 20 cm ) in diameter , .25 miles ( 0 @.@ 4 km ) from a river . It was further noted that flood levels had previously reached the area , and receded . It is not unusual for riverine species like bowfin to move into backwaters with flood currents , and become trapped when water levels recede . While aestivation is anecdotally documented by multiple researchers , laboratory experiments have suggested instead that bowfin are physiologically incapable of surviving more than three to five days of air exposure . However , no field manipulation has been performed . Regardless of the lack of evidence confirming the bowfin 's ability to aestivate , it has been noted that bowfin can survive prolonged conditions of exposure to air because they have the ability to breathe air . Their gill filaments and lamellae are rigid in structure which helps prevent the lamellae from collapsing and aids gas exchange even during air exposure . = = Evolution and phylogeny = = Competing hypotheses and debates continue over the evolution of Amia and relatives , including their relationship among basal extant teleosts , and organization of clades . Bowfin are the last remaining member of Halecomorphi , a group that includes many extinct species in several families . Halecomorphs were generally accepted as the sister group to Teleostei but not without question . While a halecostome pattern of neopterygian clades was produced in morphology @-@ based analyses of extant actinopterygians , a different result was produced with fossil taxa which showed a monophyletic Holostei . Monophyletic Holostei were also recovered by at least two nuclear gene analyses , in an independent study of fossil and extant fishes , and in an analysis of ultraconserved genomic elements . The extant ray @-@ finned fishes of the subclass Actinopterygii include 42 orders , 431 families and over 23 @,@ 000 species . They are currently classified into two infraclasses , Chondrostei ( holosteans ) and Neopterygii ( teleost fishes ) . Sturgeons , paddlefish , bichirs and reed fish comprise the thirty @-@ eight species of chondrosteans , and are considered relict species . Included in the over 23 @,@ 000 species of neopterygians are eight relict species comprising gars and the bowfin . = = = Infraclass Neopterygii = = = Neopterygians are the second major occurrence in the evolution of ray @-@ finned fishes and today include the majority of modern bony fish . They are distinguished from their earlier ancestors by major changes to the jaws , shape of the skull , and tail . They are divided into three divisions : Division 1 . Order Lepisosteiformes – the relict gars which include extant species of garfishes that first appeared in the Cretaceous . Division 2 . Order Amiiformes – the relict bowfin , ( halecomorphids ) , the only extant species in the order Amiiformes which date back to the Triassic period . Division 3 . Division Teleostei – the stem group of Teleostei from which modern fish arose , including most of the bony fish we are familiar with today . = = = Genome evolution = = = The bowfin genome contains an intact ParaHox gene cluster , similar to the bichir and to most other vertebrates . This is in contrast , however , with teleost fishes , which have a fragmented ParaHox cluster , probably because of a whole genome duplication event in their lineage . The presence of an intact ParaHox gene cluster suggests that bowfin ancestors separated from other fishes before the last common ancestor of all teleosts appeared . Bowfin are thus possibly a better model to study vertebrate genome organization than common teleost model organisms such as zebrafish . = = Feeding behavior = = Bowfin are stalking , ambush predators that customarily move into the shallows at night to prey on fish , and aquatic invertebrates such as crawfish , mollusks , and aquatic insects . Young bowfin feed mostly on small crustaceans , while adults are mostly piscivorous , but also known to be opportunistic . Bowfin are remarkably agile , can move quickly through the water , and they have a voracious appetite . Their undulating dorsal fin propels them silently through the water while stalking their prey . The attack is straight forward and swift with a movement that lasts approximately 0 @.@ 075 seconds . = = Distribution and habitat = = Fossil deposits indicate amiiforms included freshwater and marine species that were once widely distributed in North America , South America , Eurasia and Africa . Today , bowfin ( Amia calva ) are the only remaining species in the order Amiiformes ; they are demersal freshwater piscivores , and their range is restricted to freshwater environments in North America , including much of the eastern United States and adjacent southern Canada from the St. Lawrence River and Lake Champlain drainage of southern Ontario and Quebec westward around the Great Lakes in southern Ontario into Minnesota . Historically , their distribution in North America included the drainage basins of the Mississippi River from Quebec to northern Minnesota , the St. Lawrence @-@ Great Lakes , including Georgian Bay , Lake Nipissing and Simcoe , Ontario , south to the Gulf of Mexico ; Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plain from the Susquehanna River drainage in southeastern Pennsylvania to the Colorado River in Texas . = = = Stocking = = = Research from the late 1800s to the 1980s suggests a trend of intentional stockings of non @-@ indigenous fishes into ponds , lakes and rivers in the United States . At that time , little was known about environmental impacts , or long @-@ term effects of new species establishment and spread as a result of " fish rescue and transfer " efforts , or the importance of nongame fishes to the ecological balance of aquatic ecosystems . Introductions of bowfin to areas they were considered a non @-@ indigenous species included various lakes , rivers and drainages in Connecticut , Illinois , Iowa , Kansas , Kentucky Maryland , Massachusetts , Missouri , New Jersey , New York , North Carolina , Pennsylvania , Virginia , West Virginia , and Wisconsin . Many of the introductions were intentional stockings by various resource management ; however , there is no way to positively determine distribution resulting from flood transfers , or other inadvertent migrations . Bowfin are typically piscivorous , but as an introduced species are capable of being voracious predators that pose a threat to native fishes and their prey . = = = Preferred habitat = = = Bowfin prefer vegetated sloughs , lowland rivers and lakes , swamps , backwater areas , and are occasionally found in brackish water . They are well camouflaged , and not easy to spot in slow water with abundant vegetation . They often seek shelter under roots , and submerged logs . Oxygen @-@ poor environments can be tolerated because of their ability to breathe air . = = Life cycle = = Bowfin spawn in the spring or early summer , typically between April and June , more commonly at night in abundantly vegetated , clear shallow water in weed beds over sand bars , and also under stumps , logs , and bushes . Optimum temperatures for nesting and spawning range between 16 – 19 ° C ( 61 – 66 ° F ) . The males construct circular nests in fibrous root mats , clearing away leaves and stems . Depending on the density of surrounding vegetation there may be a tunnel @-@ like entrance at one side . The diameter of the nests commonly range between 39 – 91 cm ( 15 – 36 in ) , at a water depth of 61 – 92 cm ( 24 – 36 in ) . During spawning season , the fins and underside of male bowfin often change in color to a bright lime green . The courtship / spawning sequence lasts one to three hours , and can repeat up to five times . Courtship begins when a female approaches the nest . The ritual consists of intermittent nose bites , nudges , and chasing behavior by the male until the female becomes receptive , at which time the pair lie side by side in the nest . She deposits her eggs while he shakes his fins in a vibratory movement , and releases his milt for fertilization to occur . A male often has eggs from more than one female in his nest , and a single female often spawns in several nests . Females vacate the nest after spawning , leaving the male behind to protect the eggs during the eight to ten days of incubation . A nest may contain 2 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 eggs , possibly more . Fecundity is usually related to size of the fish , so it isn 't unusual for the roe of a large gravid female to contain over 55 @,@ 000 eggs . Bowfin eggs are adhesive , and will attach to aquatic vegetation , roots , gravel , and sand . After hatching , larval bowfin do not swim actively in search of food . During the seven to nine days required for yolk @-@ sac absorption , they attach to vegetation by means of an adhesive organ on their snout , and remain protected by the parent male bowfin . Bowfin aggressively protect their spawn from the first day of incubation to a month or so after the eggs have hatched . When the fry are able to swim and forage on their own , they will form a school and leave the nest accompanied by the parent male bowfin who slowly circles them to prevent separation . Bowfin reach sexually maturity at two to three years of age . They can live ten to twelve years in the wild , and 30 years in captivity . Females are longer @-@ lived than males . = = Diseases = = A common parasite of bowfin is the anchor worm ( Lernaea ) . These small crustaceans infest the skin and bases of fins , with consequences ranging from slowed growth to death . The mollusk Megalonaias gigantea lays eggs in the bowfin gills , that are then externally fertilized by sperm passing in the water flow . The small glochidia larvae then hatch and develop in the gill tubes . Bowfin with liver cancer and with fatal leukemia have been reported . = = Utilization = = As a sport fish , bowfin are not considered desirable to many anglers . They were once considered a nuisance fish by anglers and early biologists who believed the bowfin 's predatory nature was harmful to sport fish populations . As a result , efforts were taken to reduce their numbers . Research has since proven otherwise , and that knowledge together with a better understanding of maintaining overall balance of ecosystems , regulations were introduced to help protect and maintain viable populations of bowfin . Bowfin are strong fighters , a prized trait in game fish . However , they do have a jaw full of sharp teeth which requires careful handling . The current tackle record is 21 @.@ 5 lb ( 9 @.@ 8 kg ) Bowfin were once considered to have little commercial value because of its poor tasting meat which has been referred to as " soft , bland @-@ tasting and of poor texture " . However , it is considered quite palatable if cleaned properly and smoked , or prepared fried , blackened , used in courtbouillion , or in fishballs or fishcakes . Over the years , global efforts have imposed strict regulations on the international trade of caviar , particularly on the harvest of sturgeons from the Caspian Sea where the highly prized caviar from the beluga sturgeon originates . The bans imposed on Caspian sturgeons have created lucrative markets for affordable substitutes in the United States including paddlefish , bowfin , and various species of sturgeon . In Louisiana , bowfin are harvested in the wild , and cultured commercially in hatcheries for their meat and roe . The roe is processed into caviar , and sold as " Cajun caviar " , or marketed under the trade name " Choupiquet Royale " . = = Accumulation of toxic substances = = In some areas of the United States where aquatic environments have tested positive for elevated levels of toxins , such as mercury , arsenic , chromium , and copper , there are posted signs with warnings about the consumption of fish caught in those areas . Concentration of mercury biomagnifies as it passes up the food chain from organisms on lower trophic levels to apex predators . It bioaccumulates in the tissues of larger , long @-@ lived predatory fishes . When compared to smaller , short @-@ lived fishes , bowfin tend to concentrate mercury at higher levels thereby making them less safe for human consumption . = Craig Taborn = Craig Marvin Taborn ( / ˈteɪˌbɔːrn / ; born February 20 , 1970 ) is an American pianist , organist , keyboardist and composer . He works solo and in bands , mostly playing various forms of jazz . He started playing piano and Moog synthesizer as an adolescent and was influenced at an early stage by a wide range of music , including by the freedom expressed in recordings of free jazz and contemporary classical music . While at university , Taborn toured and recorded with jazz saxophonist James Carter . Taborn went on to play with numerous other musicians in electronic and acoustic settings , while also building a reputation as a solo pianist . He has a range of styles , and often adapts his playing to the nature of the instrument and the sounds that he can make it produce . His improvising , particularly for solo piano , often adopts a modular approach , in which he begins with small units of melody and rhythm and then develops them into larger forms and structures . In 2011 , Down Beat magazine chose Taborn as winner of the electric keyboard category , as well as rising star in both the piano and organ categories . By May 2016 , Taborn had released six albums under his own name and appeared on more than eighty as a sideman . = = Early life = = Taborn was born in Minneapolis , Minnesota , to John , a psychologist , and Marjorie , a social worker . He grew up in Golden Valley , Minnesota , where he attended Breck School . His parents gave him a Moog synthesizer as a present when he was 12 , which was also around the time when he started playing piano . He borrowed records from a public library and listened to public radio , discovering music from the Association for the Advancement of Creative Musicians and Sun Ra , among others . As a youth he also listened to heavy metal and contemporary classical music , and identified commonalities among these disparate forms of music . At high school , Taborn studied music theory and composition with PhD @-@ qualified teachers for two years . In his own words , he is " not a classically trained pianist at all " ; he practiced with others , initially playing rock , progressive rock , and jazz fusion , before becoming more interested in jazz . He borrowed from the library Segments II ( Orchestra Of Two Continents ) by pianist Cecil Taylor 's band while at high school , but found separating the various elements of the music too difficult . After attending a Last Exit concert ( a loud free jazz band of Peter Brötzmann , Bill Laswell , Ronald Shannon Jackson and Sonny Sharrock ) , he went home and listened to the Taylor album again : " It was more manageable in terms of being able to hear detail and listen to content . That was a big moment in terms of being able to relax and process information in more abstract environments . " = = Later life and career = = = = = 1988 – 1999 = = = Taborn studied at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor from 1988 . He auditioned for the jazz program in the university 's School of Music , but joined the College of Literature , Science and the Arts . Taborn met drummer Gerald Cleaver soon after arriving at university , and they established an electronic group , the Tracey Science Quartet . Taborn also played with Marcus Belgrave and Wendell Harrison . While still a university student , he became known for his membership of saxophonist James Carter 's band , where he contributed to a series of albums , beginning with JC on the Set , which was recorded in 1993 . Taborn 's first recording as leader came in 1994 , and was released by DIW . Craig Taborn Trio , with bassist Jaribu Shahid and drummer Tani Tabbal , featured Taborn playing in a range of styles on piano and included several of his own compositions . At this stage in his career , his comments on his tastes in composition and performance were : " Even though I like avant garde jazz and classical music , I like to swing . I like to work with harmony and melody in my own music , and I like acoustical instruments . But I can be quite dictatorial about the composed section , and lay down in great detail what everyone is supposed to do and how they should do it . " Frequent performances and tours with Carter and others meant that Taborn 's studies were delayed : he graduated from university with a BA in general studies ( rather than the intended English literature ) in April 1995 , after which he moved to New York . He continued playing with Carter into 1998 . In the late 1990s , Taborn also recorded with saxophonist Roscoe Mitchell ( Taborn 's first appearance on the ECM label ) , and for techno producer Carl Craig 's album Programmed as part of Innerzone Orchestra . = = = 2000 – 2009 = = = In 2001 , Taborn made his second recording as leader : Light Made Lighter , for Thirsty Ear , with Chris Lightcap on bass and Cleaver on drums . " On the strength of this recording " , wrote the Los Angeles Times reviewer , " Taborn emerges as one of the most exciting pianists to lead a band since the ascent of Matthew Shipp " . Another reviewer commented that " Taborn seems to revel in the cracks the way [ Thelonious ] Monk did , hitting the awkward @-@ sounding notes between the notes to punctuate his lines " . In the 2000s , " Taborn became one of the most in @-@ demand musicians in New York " , in the words of one biographer . He played and recorded with a large , diverse range of musicians , in both free jazz and more mainstream bands , and playing various keyboard and electronic instruments . One critic observed that a lot of his collaborations in the early and mid @-@ 2000s did not feature a bassist , and suggested that Taborn 's " dexterity and inventiveness [ ... ] stand in for both a keyboard and a bass player . " In 2001 , he had his first solo concert in New York , and made his first recordings under the leadership of saxophonist Tim Berne , and with a trio led by percussionist Susie Ibarra . On these , he employed electronics as well as piano . Taborn went on to record , during the period 2002 – 04 , as a sideman under the leadership of Steve Coleman , Dave Douglas , Marty Ehrlich , Drew Gress , Evan Parker , Wadada Leo Smith , and others . In 2003 , Taborn toured Europe with Ibarra 's band , and played with saxophonist Lotte Anker for the first time . Taborn 's third release as a leader was Junk Magic in 2004 , again for Thirsty Ear , with tenor saxophonist Aaron Stewart , violist Mat Maneri and drummer Dave King . The album 's title was also the name of the band , which was formed to be Taborn 's electronic group , allowing him to explore the interactions of composition , improvisation and electronics . Texture and pulse were important contributors to the overall sound . Taborn played with Chris Potter from around 2005 , and toured Europe with the saxophonist 's Underground band early in 2007 . The pianist played the Monterey Jazz Festival in 2007 . In late 2007 and early 2008 , Taborn toured internationally with Underground , guitarist David Torn 's Prezens , as well as being part of shorter tours and making occasional appearances with Cleaver , Gress , Ibarra , Mitchell , and William Parker . In April 2008 he toured Europe with Berne 's Science Friction , was back in Europe for the first three weeks of the following month , this time as part of David Binney 's quartet , and returned there in November with Potter . Taborn remarked in 2008 that he was attempting to phase out his use of a laptop in performance , to allow him to concentrate more on improvising , and that he had delayed further performances as a leader , owing to finances . In the same year , he commented on the number of regular , working bands he was a member of : " You could say 15 to 20 . But if you 're talking about the ones that are regularly working right now , I 'd have to say seven or eight . " After joining Michael Formanek 's quartet in 2008 , Taborn recorded under the double bassist 's leadership for the first time the following year . Also in 2009 , Taborn played with trumpeter Tomasz Stańko in New York , and returned to Europe for concerts with Torn , violinist Dominique Pifarély , and with his own trio . = = = 2010 – present = = = In the early 2010s , Taborn continued playing and recording with others , but also had more solo concerts than earlier in his career . He had a solo tour of Europe in 2010 , which may have led to an agreement with ECM to record his first solo piano album , Avenging Angel , which was released in 2011 . In critic Nate Chinen 's view , this album concentrated on " pure sound " , being " full of moments where a note hangs sharply in the air , and you hear the gathering overtones , the vibrations of the strings " . The album helped Taborn get more attention as a leader . In 2010 , Taborn also toured Europe with Anker 's trio , Potter 's Underground , and played piano duets with Vijay Iyer . In the following year , Taborn again performed with Stańko , as part of drummer Paul Motian 's quartet , and had another solo tour of Europe . Taborn toured internationally with his own trio , Anker 's trio , and with Dave Holland 's quartet Prism in 2012 , and remained part of Holland 's band into 2014 . A further ECM album , Chants , led by Taborn and with bassist Thomas Morgan and drummer Gerald Cleaver , was released in 2013 . This was the trio 's first release after eight years together . At this point , Taborn 's comments on composition and group performance were : " I knew that if I created a context and then deferred , fully , to Gerald 's and Thomas 's sensibilities it would inherently be stimulating and would also challenge the context . [ ... ] I 'd much rather engage with the group , always , than have the format be ' piano adventures with supporting cast ' . " This band began a tour of Europe in 2014 , but Cleaver was replaced by J.T. Bates part of the way through it , owing to illness . Earlier the same year , Taborn played in a small group led by guitarist Bill Frisell . Taborn played as part of the Ches Smith Trio late in 2014 and toured with the percussionist and Mat Maneri early in 2016 . His sixth album as leader , Flaga : Book of Angels Volume 27 , was released in 2016 . The trio recording , with Christian McBride on bass and Tyshawn Sorey on drums , employed compositions by John Zorn . According to Jazz Police , Taborn is " basically shy " and prefers to " let his music do the talking " , which is why he " doesn 't have , or want , his own website " . = = Playing style = = Taborn 's range of playing styles was summarized by Mike Hobart in The Financial Times : Taborn " draws obliquely on the jazz tradition [ ... ] he is as at home in free improvisation as he is in composition " . In an interview for Down Beat in 2011 , Taborn described his improvising style , particularly for solo piano . When playing , he often adopts a modular approach , using small units of melody and rhythm and then developing them . This can begin from as little as three notes , with structure being built around referring back to elements of the units . He starts simply , using basic elements such as major and minor thirds , varies them in turn , and then continues to expand to create larger structures . Taborn has commented on the similarities and differences in his playing on piano and electronic instruments . Comparing his accompaniments on piano and Fender Rhodes , he said that : I play some of the same chords on the piano , but there are definitely things I would do on the piano because it 's a more transparent instrument that I wouldn 't do on the Rhodes . [ ... ] The Rhodes is so strong that when you play something on it , it really can dictate , because it 's louder and the timbre is much more opaque . So you leave more holes . On the piano , I would maybe play more sustain chords . Taborn prefers earlier models of Fender Rhodes , for their raunchier sound . He also attempts to retain control over the sound that is presented to an audience when playing electronic instruments : he links his instruments to his own amplifier , and then has the venue take its feed from that amplifier . Guitarist Torn commented that Taborn is " the rare musician who takes the approach , ' What can I do with this instrument ? ' rather than playing through its book of techniques . [ ... He ] is able to eschew the technological aspect in order to get out the sounds that he feels are suitable for the music . " = = Compositions = = Taborn incorporates requirements to improvise within his compositions . Commenting on his writing for trio and quartet , Taborn stated that " I like multiple kinds of rhythmic things . On their own , they 're not so complicated , but when you fit them together , it sounds a little mysterious . A lot of that writing extends from my trio writing , where I 'm writing things that are playable in real time . There 's a certain orchestration you can get out of a four @-@ piece . How far can we suggest a larger ensemble ? [ I want ] to create the illusion of a larger ensemble " . = = Awards = = In 2009 and 2010 , Down Beat critics selected Taborn as the electric keyboard rising star winner . In 2011 , he was chosen as winner of the electric keyboard category , as well as rising star in both the piano and organ categories . In 2012 , he was given the North Sea Jazz Festival 's Paul Acket Award , which is presented " to an artist deserving wider recognition for extraordinary musicianship " . JazzTimes ranked Taborn in their 2013 critics ' poll as best piano player . In 2014 , the Jazz Journalists Association awarded him the Pianist of the Year award . In 2014 , Taborn was given a Doris Duke Artist Award , worth up to $ 275 @,@ 000 and given to " exemplary individual artists in contemporary dance , jazz , theatre and related interdisciplinary work who have proven their artistic vitality and commitment to their field . " = = Discography = = = = = As leader = = = = Géza I of Hungary = Géza I ( Hungarian pronunciation : [ ˈɡeːzɒ ] ; Hungarian : I. Géza ; c . 1040 – 25 April 1077 ) was King of Hungary from 1074 until his death . He was the eldest son of King Béla I. His baptismal name was Magnus . When his father died in 1063 , Géza 's cousin Solomon acquired the crown with German assistance , forcing Géza to leave Hungary . Géza returned with Polish reinforcements and signed a treaty with Solomon in early 1064 . In the treaty , Géza and his brother , Ladislaus acknowledged the rule of Solomon , who granted them their father 's former duchy , which encompassed one @-@ third of the Kingdom of Hungary . Géza closely cooperated with Solomon , but their relationship became tense from 1071 . The king invaded the duchy in February 1074 and defeated Géza in a battle . However , Géza was victorious at the decisive battle of Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 . He soon acquired the throne , although Solomon maintained his rule in the regions of Moson and Pressburg ( present @-@ day Bratislava , Slovakia ) for years . Géza initiated peace negotiations with his dethroned cousin in the last months of his life . Géza 's sons were minors when he died and he was succeeded by his brother Ladislaus . = = Early years ( before 1064 ) = = Géza was the eldest son of the future King Béla I of Hungary and his wife Richeza or Adelhaid , a daughter of King Mieszko II of Poland . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that Géza and his brother Ladislaus were born in Poland , where their father who had been banished from Hungary settled in the 1030s . Géza was born in about 1040 . According to the historians Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk , he was named after his grandfather 's uncle Géza , Grand Prince of the Hungarians . His baptismal name was Magnus . In about 1048 , Géza 's father returned to Hungary and received one third of the kingdom with the title of duke from his brother , King Andrew I. Géza seems to have arrived in Hungary with his father . The king , who had not fathered a legitimate son , declared Béla as his heir . According to the traditional principle of seniority , Béla preserved his claim to succeed his brother even after Andrew 's wife Anastasia of Kiev gave birth to Solomon in 1053 . However , the king had his son crowned in 1057 or 1058 . The Illuminated Chronicle narrates that the child Solomon " was anointed king with the consent of Duke Bela and his sons Geysa and Ladislaus " , which is the first reference to a public act by Géza . However , according to the contemporaneous text Annales Altahenses , Géza was absent from the meeting where Judith — the sister of the German monarch Henry IV — was engaged to the child Solomon in 1058 . Géza accompanied his father , who left for Poland to seek assistance against King Andrew . They returned with Polish reinforcements in 1060 . Géza was one of his father 's most influential advisors . Lampert of Hersfeld wrote that Géza persuaded his father to set free Count William of Weimar , one of the commanders of the German troops fighting on Andrew 's side , who had been captured in a battle . The king died during the civil war ; his partisans took Solomon to the Holy Roman Empire and Géza 's father Béla was crowned king on 6 December 1060 . Although Géza remained his father 's principal advisor , King Béla did not grant his former duchy to his son . According to the Annales Altahenses , Béla even offered Géza as hostage to the Germans when he was informed that the German court decided , in August 1063 , to invade Hungary to restore Solomon . However , the Germans refused Béla 's offer and he died on 11 September 1063 , some days after the imperial troops entered Hungary . Following his father 's death , Géza offered to accept Solomon 's rule if he received his father 's former duchy . This offer was refused , which forced him and his two brothers — Ladislaus and Lampert — to leave Hungary for Poland . King Bolesław II of Poland provided them with reinforcements and they returned after the German troops withdrewn from Hungary . The brothers wanted to avoid a new civil war and made an agreement with King Solomon . According to the treaty , which was signed in Győr on 20 January 1064 , Géza and his brothers accepted Solomon 's rule and the king granted them their father 's duchy . The king and his cousins celebrated Easter together in the cathedral of Pécs , where Duke Géza ceremoniously put a crown on Solomon 's head . Being a newcomer and not yet established in his kingdom , King [ Solomon ] was afraid that [ Géza ] would perhaps attack him with a Polish army , and he therefore retired for a time with his forces and took up a safe station in the strongly fortified castle of [ Moson ] . The bishops and other religious men strove most earnestly to bring about a peaceful settlement between them . Especially bishop Desiderius softened Duke [ Géza ] ' s spirit with his gentle admonitions and sweet pleadings that he should peaceably restore the kingdom to [ Solomon ] , even though he was the younger , and should himself assume the dukedom which his father had held before him . [ Géza ] listened to his words of wise persuasion and laid aside his ill feeling . At [ Győr ] , on the feast day of SS Fabian and Sebastian the martyrs , King [ Solomon ] and Duke [ Géza ] made peace with each other before the Hungarian people . = = Duke in Hungary ( 1064 – 1074 ) = = According to Ján Steinhübel and other Slovak historians , Géza only retained the administration of the region of Nyitra ( present @-@ day Nitra , Slovakia ) and gave the eastern territories of their father 's duchy , which were centered around Bihar ( present @-@ day Biharia , Romania ) , to his brother , Ladislaus . The Hungarian historian , Gyula Kristó likewise says that this division of Béla 's one @-@ time duchy is " probable " . The historians Gyula Kristó and Ferenc Makk write that Géza seems to have married a German countess , named Sophia around this time . Géza had the right to coinage in his duchy . The silver half @-@ denars minted for him bore the inscriptions DUX MAGNUS ( " Duke Magnus " ) and PANONAI ( " Kingdom of Hungary " ) . Géza closely cooperated with the king between 1064 and 1071 . For instance , they jointly routed an invading army which had plundered the eastern territories of the kingdom at Kerlés ( present @-@ day Chiraleş , Romania ) in 1068 . The identification of the invaders is uncertain : the Annales Posonienses writes of Pechenegs , the Illuminated Chronicle and other 14th- and 15th @-@ century Hungarian chronicles refer to Cumans , and a Russian chronicle identifies them as Cumans and Vlachs . Modern historians have concluded that they were Pechenegs . Géza 's and Solomon 's relationship only began to worsen during the siege of the Byzantine fortress of Belgrade in 1071 . Its commander preferred to surrender to Géza instead of the king and the Byzantine envoys who arrived in the Hungarian camp after the fall of Belgrade only negotiated with Géza . The division of the booty also gave rise to a new conflict between Solomon and Géza . Although Géza accompanied the king on a new campaign against the Byzantine Empire in 1072 , but his brother , Ladislaus stayed behind with half of the troops of their duchy . The conflict between the king and his cousins was sharpened by Solomon 's main advisor , Count Vid who wanted to acquire the dukes ' domains for himself . However , Solomon and Géza , who were convinced that they needed foreign reinforcements before attacking the other party , concluded a truce which was to last from 11 November 1073 to 24 April 1075 . Géza sent his brothers to Poland and Rus ' to seek assistance against Solomon . At a meeting in the Szekszárd Abbey , Count Vid persuaded the king to break the truce in order to unexpectedly attack Géza who was " hunting in Igfan Forest " to the east of the river Tisza . Although the abbot of the monastery , which had been established by Géza 's father , warned the duke of the king 's plans , the royal army crossed the river and routed Géza 's troops in the battle of Kemej on 26 February 1074 . From the battlefield , Géza and his retinue hastened towards Vác where he came upon his brother , Ladislaus and their brother @-@ in @-@ law , Duke Otto I of Olomouc . The latter , accompanied by Czech reinforcements , arrived in Hungary in order to assist Géza against Solomon . In the ensuing battle , fought at Mogyoród on 14 March 1074 , Géza " with the troops from Nitria was stationed in the centre " , according to the Illuminated Chronicle . During the battle , Géza and Ladislaus changed their standards in order to bewilder Solomon who was planning to attack Géza . Géza and his allies won a decisive victory and forced the king to flee from the battlefield and to withdraw to Moson at the western frontier of Hungary . Géza " made " Kapuvár , Babót , Székesfehérvár and " other castles secure with garrisons of the bravest soldiers " , thus taking possession of almost the entire kingdom . = = His reign ( 1074 – 1077 ) = = According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Géza accepted the throne " at the insistence of the Hungarians " after Solomon had taken refuge in Moson . However , he was not crowned because the royal jewels were still in the dethroned king 's possession . The German monarch Henry IV , who was Solomon 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , launched an expedition against Hungary in mid @-@ 1074 . The Germans marched as far as Vác , but Géza applied scorched earth tactics and bribed German commanders , who persuaded the German monarch to retreat from Hungary . [ Géza ] , hearing that the Emperor had come to Vacia , with prudent policy gave instructions to approach and win over the patriarch of Aquilegia , to whose counsels the Emperor most readily listened , and also all the [ German ] dukes , promising them much money if they would make the Emperor turn back . The patriarch , therefore , and the dukes , seduced by the gifts and possessed with love of gold , invented various false stories to induce the Emperor to turn back . The patriarch pretended that he had a dream whose interpretation most plainly was that the Emperor 's army would be wholly destroyed by the divine vengeance unless he returned with the utmost speed . The dukes pretended likewise to be awestricken by divine warnings ... In early 1074 , Géza had approached Pope Gregory VII to obtain international recognition of his rule . However , the pope wanted to take advantage of the conflict between Solomon and Géza and attempted to persuade both of them to acknowledge the suzerainty of the Holy See . Géza did not obey the pope and asked the Byzantine Emperor Michael VII Doukas for a crown . The emperor sent Géza a gold and enamel diadem , which bore the legend " Géza , the faithful king of Hungary " on one of its plaques . This " splendid work of art " became the lower part of the Holy Crown of Hungary by the end of the 12th century . Géza was crowned king with this diadem in early 1075 . In this year he styled himself as " anointed king of the Hungarians by the grace of God " in the charter of the foundation of the Benedictine Abbey of Garamszentbenedek ( present @-@ day Hronský Beňadik , Slovakia ) . Géza married a niece of Nikephoros Botaneiates , a close advisor of Emperor Michael VII . However , Solomon still controlled Moson and Pressburg ; the royal troops — which were under the command of Géza 's brother , Ladislaus — could not take Pressburg in 1076 . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , Géza considered renouncing the crown in favor of Solomon from the end of the year . Géza died on 15 April 1077 and was buried in the cathedral of Vác , which he had erected in the honor of the Holy Virgin . His brother , Ladislaus succeeded him . A grave discovered in the center of the medieval cathedral in August 2015 was identified as Géza 's burial site by Zoltán Batizi , the leader of the excavations . [ King Géza ] celebrated Christmas at [ Szekszárd ] . ... When the Mass had been celebrated and all observances had been duly performed , the King instructed that all should leave except the bishop and the abbots . Then the King prostrated himself with tears before the Archbishop and the other ecclesiastical personages and prelates . He said that he had sinned because he had possessed himself of the kingdom of a lawfully crowned king ; and he promised that he would restore the kingdom to [ Solomon ] , and that these would be the conditions of firm peace between them : He would by lawful right hold the crown with that third part of the kingdom belonging with the duchy ; the crowned [ Solomon ] would hold the two parts of the kingdom which he had held before . ... Then King [ Géza ] sent messengers to King [ Solomon ] with letters setting forth the terms of peace . Messengers passed to and fro , but feelings on this side and that were at variance , and so the reconciliation found no consummation . Meanwhile King [ Géza ] fell gravely ill , and on April 25 , adorned with virtues , he went the way of all flesh . He was most devoted to God in the Catholic faith , and he was a most Christian Prince . = = Family = = Géza married twice . The family of his first wife Sophia , whom he married in the late 1060s , is unknown . After his coronation in 1075 , he married his second wife , who was the niece of the future Byzantine Emperor Nikephoros III . It is uncertain which wife bore Géza 's children , but the historians Gyula Kristó and Márta Font say that Sophia was their mother . Kristó adds that Géza fathered at least six children . Although only two of them — Coloman and Álmos — are known by name , the Illuminated Chronicle states that Coloman had brothers who " died before him " . Both Coloman and Álmos were apparently born around 1070 . The following family tree presents Géza 's ancestors and some of his relatives who are mentioned in the article . * Whether Géza 's first or second wife was his children 's mother is uncertain . * * Géza had at least two further children , but their names are unknown . = Low @-@ pressure area = A low @-@ pressure area , low or depression , is a region where the atmospheric pressure is lower than that of surrounding locations . Low @-@ pressure systems form under areas of wind divergence that occur in the upper levels of the troposphere . The formation process of a low @-@ pressure area is known as cyclogenesis . Within the field of meteorology , atmospheric divergence aloft occurs in two areas . The first area is on the east side of upper troughs , which form half of a Rossby wave within the Westerlies ( a trough with large wavelength that extends through the troposphere ) . A second area of wind divergence aloft occurs ahead of embedded shortwave troughs , which are of smaller wavelength . Diverging winds aloft ahead of these troughs cause atmospheric lift within the troposphere below , which lowers surface pressures as upward motion partially counteracts the force of gravity . Thermal lows form due to localized heating caused by greater sunshine over deserts and other land masses . Since localized areas of warm air are less dense than their surroundings , this warmer air rises , which lowers atmospheric pressure near that portion of the Earth 's surface . Large @-@ scale thermal lows over continents help drive monsoon circulations . Low @-@ pressure areas can also form due to organized thunderstorm activity over warm water . When this occurs over the tropics in concert with the Intertropical Convergence Zone , it is known as a monsoon trough . Monsoon troughs reach their northerly extent in August and their southerly extent in February . When a convective low acquires a well @-@ hot circulation in the tropics it is termed a tropical cyclone . Tropical cyclones can form during any month of the year globally , but can occur in either the northern or southern hemisphere during November . Atmospheric lift will also generally produce cloud cover through adiabatic cooling once the air becomes saturated as it rises , although the low @-@ pressure area typically brings cloudy skies , which act to minimize diurnal temperature extremes . Since clouds reflect sunlight , incoming shortwave solar radiation decreases , which causes lower temperatures during the day . At night the absorptive effect of clouds on outgoing longwave radiation , such as heat energy from the surface , allows for warmer diurnal low temperatures in all seasons . The stronger the area of low pressure , the stronger the winds experienced in its vicinity . Globally , low @-@ pressure systems are most frequently located over the Tibetan Plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . In Europe ( particularly in the United Kingdom ) , recurring low @-@ pressure weather systems are typically known as " depressions " . = = Formation = = Cyclogenesis is the development and strengthening of cyclonic circulations , or low @-@ pressure areas , within the atmosphere . Cyclogenesis is the opposite of cyclolysis , and has an anticyclonic ( high @-@ pressure system ) equivalent which deals with the formation of high @-@ pressure areas — anticyclogenesis . Cyclogenesis is an umbrella term for several different processes , all of which result in the development of some sort of cyclone . The term cyclone is used where circular pressure systems flow in the direction of the Earth 's rotation , which normally coincides with areas of low pressure . The largest low @-@ pressure systems are cold @-@ core polar cyclones and extratropical cyclones which lie on the synoptic scale . Warm @-@ core cyclones such as tropical cyclones , mesocyclones , and polar lows lie within the smaller mesoscale . Subtropical cyclones are of intermediate size . Cyclogenesis can occur at various scales , from the microscale to the synoptic scale . Larger scale troughs , which are also called Rossby waves , are synoptic in scale . Shortwave troughs embedded within the flow around larger scale troughs are smaller in scale , or mesoscale in nature . Both Rossby waves and shortwaves embedded within the flow around Rossby waves migrate equatorward of the polar cyclones located in both the Northern and Southern hemispheres . All share one important aspect , that of upward vertical motion within the troposphere . Such upward motions decrease the mass of local atmospheric columns of air , which lower surface pressure . Extratropical cyclones form as waves along weather fronts due to a passing by shortwave aloft or upper level jet streak before occluding later in their life cycle as cold core cyclones . Polar lows are small @-@ scale , short @-@ lived atmospheric low @-@ pressure systems that are found over the ocean areas poleward of the main polar front in both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres . They are part of the larger class of mesoscale weather systems . Polar lows can be difficult to detect using conventional weather reports and are a hazard to high @-@ latitude operations , such as shipping and gas and oil platforms . They are vigorous systems that have near @-@ surface winds of at least 17 metres per second ( 38 mph ) . Tropical cyclones form due to latent heat driven by significant thunderstorm activity , and are warm core with well @-@ defined circulations . Certain criteria need to be met for their formation . In most situations , water temperatures of at least 26 @.@ 5 ° C ( 79 @.@ 7 ° F ) are needed down to a depth of at least 50 m ( 160 ft ) ; waters of this temperature cause the overlying atmosphere to be unstable enough to sustain convection and thunderstorms . Another factor is rapid cooling with height , which allows the release of the heat of condensation that powers a tropical cyclone . High humidity is needed , especially in the lower @-@ to @-@ mid troposphere ; when there is a great deal of moisture in the atmosphere , conditions are more favorable for disturbances to develop . Low amounts of wind shear are needed , as high shear is disruptive to the storm 's circulation . Lastly , a formative tropical cyclone needs a pre @-@ existing system of disturbed weather , although without a circulation no cyclonic development will take place . Mesocyclones form as warm core cyclones over land , and can lead to tornado formation . Waterspouts can also form from mesocyclones , but more often develop from environments of high instability and low vertical wind shear . In deserts , lack of ground and plant moisture that would normally provide evaporative cooling can lead to intense , rapid solar heating of the lower layers of air . The hot air is less dense than surrounding cooler air . This , combined with the rising of the hot air , results in a low @-@ pressure area called a thermal low . Monsoon circulations are caused by thermal lows which form over large areas of land and their strength is driven by how land heats quicker than the surrounding nearby ocean . This creates a steady wind blowing toward the land , bringing the moist near @-@ surface air over the oceans with it . Similar rainfall is caused by the moist ocean air being lifted upwards by mountains , surface heating , convergence at the surface , divergence aloft , or from storm @-@ produced outflows at the surface . However the lifting occurs , the air cools due expansion in lower pressure , which in turn produces condensation . In winter , the land cools off quickly , but the ocean keeps the heat longer due to its higher specific heat . The hot air over the ocean rises , creating a low @-@ pressure area and a breeze from land to ocean while a large area of drying high pressure is formed over the land , increased by wintertime cooling . Monsoons are similar to sea and land breezes , a term usually referring to the localized , diurnal ( daily ) cycle of circulation near coastlines everywhere , but they are much larger in scale also stronger and seasonal . = = Climatology = = = = = Mid @-@ latitudes and subtropics = = = Large polar cyclones help determine the steering of systems moving through the mid @-@ latitudes , south of the Arctic and north of the Antarctic . An index which is used to gauge the magnitude of this effect in the Northern Hemisphere is the Arctic oscillation . Extratropical cyclones tend to form east of climatological trough positions aloft near the east coast of continents , or west side of oceans . A study of extratropical cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between the 30th and 70th parallels , there are an average of 37 cyclones in existence during any 6 @-@ hour period . A separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 significant extratropical cyclones form each winter . In Europe , particularly the United Kingdom , recurring extratropical low @-@ pressure weather systems are typically known as depressions . These tend to bring wet weather throughout the year . Thermal lows also occur over continental areas across the subtropics during the summer such as the Sonoran Desert , the Mexican plateau , Sahara , South America , and Southeast Asia . The lows are most commonly located over the Tibetan plateau and in the lee of the Rocky mountains . = = = Monsoon trough = = = Elongated areas of low pressure form at the monsoon trough or intertropical convergence zone as part of the Hadley cell circulation . Monsoon troughing in the western Pacific reaches its zenith in latitude during the late summer when the wintertime surface ridge in the opposite hemisphere is the strongest . It can reach as far as the 40th parallel in East Asia during August and 20th parallel in Australia during February . Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure over the warmest part of the various continents . The large @-@ scale thermal lows over continents help create pressure gradients which drive monsoon circulations . In the southern hemisphere , the monsoon trough associated with the Australian monsoon reaches its most southerly latitude in February , oriented along a west @-@ northwest / east @-@ southeast axis . Many of the world 's rainforests are associated with these climatological low @-@ pressure systems . = = = Tropical cyclone = = = Tropical cyclones generally need to form more than 555 km ( 345 mi ) or poleward of the 5th parallel north and 5th parallel south , allowing the Coriolis effect to deflect winds blowing towards the low @-@ pressure center and creating a circulation . Worldwide , tropical cyclone activity peaks in late summer , when the difference between temperatures aloft and sea surface temperatures is the greatest . However , each particular basin has its own seasonal patterns . On a worldwide scale , May is the least active month while September is the most active month . November is the only month that activity in all the tropical cyclone basins is possible . Nearly one @-@ third of the world 's tropical cyclones form within the western Pacific ocean , making it the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth . = = Associated weather = = Wind is initially accelerated from areas of high pressure to areas of low pressure . This is due to density ( or temperature and moisture ) differences between two air masses . Since stronger high @-@ pressure systems contain cooler or drier air , the air mass is denser and flows towards areas that are warm or moist , which are in the vicinity of low @-@ pressure areas in advance of their associated cold fronts . The stronger the pressure difference , or pressure gradient , between a high @-@ pressure system and a low @-@ pressure system , the stronger the wind . Thus , stronger areas of low pressure are associated with stronger winds . The Coriolis force caused by the Earth 's rotation is what gives winds within low @-@ pressure systems their counter @-@ clockwise ( anticlockwise ) circulation in the northern hemisphere ( as the wind moves inward and is deflected right from the center of high pressure ) and clockwise circulation in the southern hemisphere ( as the wind moves inward and is deflected left from the center of high pressure ) . Friction with land slows down the wind flowing into low @-@ pressure systems and causes wind to flow more inward , or flowing more ageostrophically , toward their centers . A low @-@ pressure area is commonly associated with inclement weather , while a high @-@ pressure area is associated with light winds and fair skies . = The Secret War of Lisa Simpson = " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " is the twenty @-@ fifth and final episode of The Simpsons ' eighth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 18 , 1997 . Bart gets sent to a military academy as punishment for bad behavior . While visiting the academy , Lisa sees that the school is far more challenging than hers and she decides that she wants to attend as well . It was directed by Mike B. Anderson , written by Richard Appel and featured Willem Dafoe in a guest spot as the school 's commandant . = = Plot = = After a day watching mind @-@ numbing videos in class , Lisa becomes concerned that her education is not challenging enough . Meanwhile , Bart 's class visits the Springfield Police Department , where Bart finds a room with several megaphones . After placing them end to end and increasing their amplification , he inadvertently creates a sonic shockwave that shatters all the glass in Springfield . Chief Wiggum suggests sending Bart to military school to correct his behavior . When the family visit the school , Lisa is impressed by the challenging curriculum and decides to attend with Bart. Lisa stirs discontent among the students , as she is the first female student and gets her own barracks . She and Bart are subjected to hazing ; Bart is eventually accepted and distances himself from his sister . Lonely , Lisa considers going home , but decides to see it through . As the school year comes to a close , the Commandant reveals the final test for the students : the " Eliminator " , a hand @-@ over @-@ hand crawl across a rope suspended high above thorn bushes . Lisa fears she will not be able to complete the task , but Bart helps her train in secret . On the day of the test , Lisa is the last to cross the Eliminator . She is about to fall and the students jeer , but Bart cheers her on and she makes it across safely . The other students vow to make the rest of the semester a living hell for him , but realize they graduate in three hours . The Commandant awards Lisa a special medal " For Satisfactory Completion of the Second Grade " . = = Production = = The episode was written by Richard Appel , but the idea of Bart and Lisa attending a military academy had previously been pitched , and had been floating around since 1991 . The idea had not yet been used as an episode plot , because the writers had not felt comfortable with taking Bart and Lisa to a strange place early in the series . During the scene where the Commandant is talking , there is a brief shot of Lisa blinking . As there had been an error in the final print of the episode , the shot was animated , painted and shot on May 16 , 1997 , the Friday before the episode 's airdate . The spiky blond @-@ haired boy , who runs towards the Eliminator while screaming , is a caricature of director Mike B. Anderson . = = Reception = = The episode originally aired on May 18 , 1997 , as the season finale , along with a rerun of " The Springfield Files . " The episode was mistakenly anticipated by some as being about Lisa launching " a legal battle " to enroll at the military school . In its original broadcast , " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " finished 47th in ratings for the week of May 12 – 18 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 3 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 1 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following The X @-@ Files . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , disliked the episode , writing that it was " very dull " and that Dafoe was not used well . However , Dafoe is one of show runner Josh Weinstein 's favorite guest stars . Ian Johnson argued Dafoe 's casting was " rare " and " somewhat offbeat " . Journalist Raju Mudhar also wrote that in this episode , " The Simpsons have succinctly laid out our eventual future . " This referred to the rise of robots in the real world and the quote from this episode : " The wars of the future will not be fought on the battlefield or at sea . They will be fought in space , or possibly on top of a very tall mountain . In either case , most of the actual fighting will be done by small robots . And as you go forth today remember always your duty is clear : To build and maintain those robots . " = = Merchandise = = The episode was one of four in 1999 released on a VHS ( Re @-@ released on DVD in 2005 ) called Bart Wars focused on crosses between The Simpsons and Star Wars . However , one critic wrote that with this episode and " Marge Be Not Proud " and " Dog of Death , " both of which are also on the DVD , the " Star Wars connection " is " tangential at best . " The other episode was " Mayored to the Mob . " = Zapp ( band ) = Zapp ( also known as the Zapp Band or Zapp & Roger ) is an American funk band that emerged from Hamilton , Ohio , in 1977 . Particularly influential in the electro subgenre of funk , Zapp served as partial inspiration toward the creation of the G @-@ funk sound of hip @-@ hop popular on the West Coast of the United States in the early to mid 1990s , with many of their songs sampled by numerous hip @-@ hop artists . The original line @-@ up consisted of four brothers — Roger Troutman , Larry Troutman , Lester Troutman and Terry Troutman — and non @-@ Troutman family members Bobby Glover , Gregory Jackson , Sherman Fleetwood , Jerome Derrickson , Eddie Barber and Jannetta Boyce . The group received attention in the early 1980s for implementing heavy use of the talk @-@ box , which became one of their most well known characteristics . Zapp worked closely with members George Clinton and Bootsy Collins of the band Parliament @-@ Funkadelic during its early stages , their support being a factor in the group gaining a record deal with Warner Bros. Records in 1979 . Zapp released its eponymous debut album in 1980 , having a sound reminiscent of P @-@ Funk as a result of Clinton 's and Collins ' input on the production . Zapp achieved most of its mainstream recognition from the single " More Bounce to the Ounce " from the same album , now widely regarded as a classic example of early 1980s electronic funk . The following year in 1981 , Clinton stopped working with the band over a record dispute regarding Roger Troutman 's solo debut . Zapp continued to produce several more albums thereafter , releasing Zapp II in 1982 . The album 's musical style veered drastically away from their first release ; despite this , the album sold well , and was certified gold by late 1982 . Zapp disbanded in 1999 after both Roger and Larry Troutman were killed in a murder @-@ suicide , that was apparently carried out by Larry . Roger was shot several times before dying in hospital during surgery . Larry 's body was found close @-@ by in his vehicle with a single gunshot wound to the head . The motive behind Larry 's attack is unclear , but there are speculations that there were arguments over money , and Larry being angry over the lack of consultation from Roger as to why he fired him from being his manager . Zapp reformed briefly in 2003 with the remaining brothers of the Troutman family to produce the album Zapp VI : Back By Popular Demand . = = Career = = = = = 1966 – 80 : Early career and major record deal = = = Born on November 29 , 1951 , in Hamilton , Ohio , Roger Troutman began recording music in the late to mid 1960s , issuing his first solo recording efforts " Jolly Roger " and " Night Time " on the obscure and now defunct Ohio label , Teen Records in 1966 under the band name ' Lil ' Roger and His Fabulous Vels . Although neither song received recognition due to its very limited release , Troutman and brothers pursued their music career throughout the 1970s , forming Roger & The Human Body in 1976 , on their privately owned label Troutman Bros. Records . Their own label allowed Troutman and the band to give a slightly wider and more high profile release of their own music , issuing their first ( and only ) album Introducing Roger in 1976 . In the late 1970s Roger Troutman continued to record with his brothers , losing the name Roger & The Human Body and adopting the Zapp nickname from his brother Terry in 1977 . The group searching for recognition , began playing at various small venues locally around Ohio . The Troutman family had long standing friendships with Ohio natives Phelps " Catfish " Collins and William Earl " Bootsy " Collins , who had both been involved with Parliament @-@ Funkadelic in the early 1970s . Phelps and Bootsy were attendees at a performance , and were impressed with Zapp 's musical abilities , prompting Bootsy to invite Roger to the United Sound Studios in Detroit ( the P @-@ Funk studio base ) which was frequently used by Parliament @-@ Funkadelic . Roger Troutman subsequently wrote and recorded the demo for " More Bounce to the Ounce " in 1978 . George Clinton , the leader of Funkadelic liked the recording and encouraged Troutman to present the demo to Warner Bros. Records . Warner Bros. signed Zapp in early 1979 , and on July 28 , 1980 , Zapp released their debut album , which was recorded by Roger and produced by Bootsy between 1979 and early 1980 at the United Sound Studios in Detroit , their first recording on a major label . The album 's sound , which is highly influenced by Parliament @-@ Funkadelic , contrasts largely with Zapp 's later releases . " More Bounce to the Ounce " reached number two on the Billboard Hot R & B tracks for two weeks during the autumn of 1980 . By November 18 , 1980 , Zapp had been certified gold by the RIAA . = = = 1980 – 81 : Split with George Clinton and other workings = = = After the 1980 release of Zapp 's debut album , tensions rose between Roger Troutman and George Clinton . Troutman 's solo album The Many Facets of Roger was primarily funded by Clinton , through CBS , and was slated to be released on his own Uncle Jam Records label . By the early 1980s , Clinton and his musical projects were a midst financial troubles due to his poor management skills and shifting tastes in music . Around the time of Troutman 's to be released debut , Warner Bros. Records dropped Clinton from their label , and quietly released The Electric Spanking of War Babies which Troutman had worked briefly on , in early 1981 without much impact . Troutman , seeing the disarray that was surrounding Clinton at the time , accepted Warner Bros. offer of more money for the demo recordings of his album . The move resulted in a bitter severing of partnerships between Clinton and Troutman , and with Clinton 's departure , Troutman was left to exercise virtually full creative control over the band 's later work . In Clinton 's biography George Clinton : For the Record , Troutman was quoted commenting on the situation with a blasé attitude , " ... Heck gee @-@ willickers , Warner Bros. offered me mo ' money " . In response , Clinton remarked , " CBS paid for it , I paid for it . I don 't like to go into it on the negative side , but it cost about 5 million [ dollars ] , and a lot of people 's jobs and what we consider as the empire falling " . The loss of money that resulted from the actions of Troutman , is credited as one of the factors that disassembled both Clinton 's and Funkadelic 's musical careers . The Many Facets of Roger was eventually released in October 1981 on Warner Bros. = = = 1982 – 85 : Style change and gradual decline = = = Zapp released its second album , Zapp II , on October 14 , 1982 . It focused on more of an electronic orientated sound , containing greater use of the talk @-@ box that is often considered Troutman 's trademark . Despite the contrasting styles between the first and the second albums , Zapp II attained gold status by September 21 , 1982 . The album fared almost as well as Zapp 's debut , peaking at number two on the Billboard R & B chart , and reaching 25 on The Billboard 200 Albums chart . The single " Dancefloor ( Part I ) " peaked at number one on the R & B singles chart of 1982 . Zapp spawned several more albums in close succession within	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
theropods actually had broader tails than previously depicted , as broad or broader laterally than dorsoventrally near the base . Heinrich Mallison from Berlin 's Museum of Natural History would also present a theory in 2011 , suggesting that Tyrannosaurus and many other dinosaurs may have achieved relatively high speeds through short rapid strides instead of the long strides employed by modern birds and mammals when running , likening their movement to power @-@ walking . This , according to Mallison , would have been achievable irrespective of joint strength and lessened the need for additional muscle mass in the legs , particularly at the ankles . To support his theory , Mallison assessed the limbs of various dinosaurs and found that they were different from those of modern mammals and birds ; having their stride length greatly limited by their skeletons , but also having relatively large muscles at the hindquarters . He would however find a few similarities between the muscles in dinosaurs and race @-@ walkers ; having less muscle mass in the ankles but more at the hindquarters . Mallison suggests that the differences between dinosaurs , extant mammals , and birds would also have made equations to calculate speed from stride length inapplicable to dinosaurs . John Hutchinson however advised caution regarding this theory , suggesting that they must first look into dinosaur muscles to see how frequently they could have contracted . Those who argue that Tyrannosaurus was incapable of running estimate the top speed of Tyrannosaurus at about 17 kilometers per hour ( 11 mph ) . This is still faster than its most likely prey species , hadrosaurids and ceratopsians . In addition , some advocates of the idea that Tyrannosaurus was a predator claim that tyrannosaur running speed is not important , since it may have been slow but still faster than its probable prey . Thomas Holtz would also note that Tyrannosaurus had proportionately longer feet than the animals it hunted : duck @-@ billed dinosaurs and horned dinosaurs . However , Paul and Christiansen ( 2000 ) argued that at least the later ceratopsians had upright forelimbs and the larger species may have been as fast as rhinos . Healed Tyrannosaurus bite wounds on ceratopsian fossils are interpreted as evidence of attacks on living ceratopsians ( see below ) . If the ceratopsians that lived alongside Tyrannosaurus were fast , that casts doubt on the argument that Tyrannosaurus did not have to be fast to catch its prey . = = = Brain and senses = = = A study conducted by Lawrence Witmer and Ryan Ridgely of Ohio University found that Tyrannosaurus shared the heightened sensory abilities of other coelurosaurs , highlighting relatively rapid and coordinated eye and head movements , as well as an enhanced ability to sense low frequency sounds that would allow tyrannosaurs to track prey movements from long distances and an enhanced sense of smell . A study published by Kent Stevens of the University of Oregon concluded that Tyrannosaurus had keen vision . By applying modified perimetry to facial reconstructions of several dinosaurs including Tyrannosaurus , the study found that Tyrannosaurus had a binocular range of 55 degrees , surpassing that of modern hawks , and had 13 times the visual acuity of a human , thereby surpassing the visual acuity of an eagle which is only 3 @.@ 6 times that of a person . This would have allowed Tyrannosaurus to discern objects as far as 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) away , which is greater than the 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) that a human can see . Thomas Holtz Jr. would note that high depth perception of Tyrannosaurus may have been due to the prey it had to hunt ; noting that it had to hunt horned dinosaurs such as Triceratops , armored dinosaurs such as Ankylosaurus and the duck @-@ billed dinosaurs may have had complex social behaviors . He would suggest that this made precision more crucial for Tyrannosaurus enabling it to , " get in , get that blow in and take it down . " In contrast , Acrocanthosaurus had limited depth perception because they hunted large sauropods , which were relatively rare during the time of Tyrannosaurus . Tyrannosaurus had very large olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves relative to their brain size , the organs responsible for a heightened sense of smell . This suggests that the sense of smell was highly developed , and implies that tyrannosaurs could detect carcasses by scent alone across great distances . The sense of smell in tyrannosaurs may have been comparable to modern vultures , which use scent to track carcasses for scavenging . Research on the olfactory bulbs has shown that Tyrannosaurus rex had the most highly developed sense of smell of 21 sampled non @-@ avian dinosaur species . Somewhat unusually among theropods , T. rex had a very long cochlea . The length of the cochlea is often related to hearing acuity , or at least the importance of hearing in behavior , implying that hearing was a particularly important sense to tyrannosaurs . Specifically , data suggests that Tyrannosaurus rex heard best in the low @-@ frequency range , and that low @-@ frequency sounds were an important part of tyrannosaur behavior . A study by Grant R. Hurlburt , Ryan C. Ridgely and Lawrence Witmer would obtain estimates for Encephalization Quotients ( EQs ) , based on reptiles and birds , as well as estimates for the ratio of cerebrum to brain mass . The study would conclude that Tyrannosaurus had the relatively largest brain of all adult non @-@ avian dinosaurs with the exception of certain small maniraptoriforms ( Bambiraptor , Troodon and Ornithomimus ) . The study would however find that Tyrannosaurus 's relative brain size was still within the range of modern reptiles , being at most 2 standard deviations above the mean of non @-@ avian reptile EQs . The estimates for the ratio of cerebrum mass to brain mass would range from 47 @.@ 5 to 49 @.@ 53 percent . According to the study , this is more than the lowest estimates for extant birds ( 44 @.@ 6 percent ) , but still close to the typical ratios of the smallest sexually mature alligators which range from 45 @.@ 9 – 47 @.@ 9 percent . = = = Feeding strategies = = = A 2012 study by scientists Karl Bates and Peter Falkingham suggested that the bite force of Tyrannosaurus could have been the strongest of any terrestrial animal that has ever lived . The calculations suggested that adult T. rex could have generated from 35 @,@ 000 to 57 @,@ 000 Newtons of force in the back teeth . However , even higher estimates were made by professor Mason B. Meers of the University of Tampa in 2003 . In his study , Meers estimated a possible bite force of around 183 @,@ 000 to 235 @,@ 000 Newtons or 18 @.@ 3 to 23 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 20 @.@ 2 to 25 @.@ 9 short tons ) . Research done by Stephan Lautenschlager et al. of the University of Bristol , also reveals Tyrannosaurus was also capable of a maximum jaw gape of around 63 @.@ 5 degrees , a necessary adaptation for a wide range of jaw angles in order to power the creature 's strong bite . The debate about whether Tyrannosaurus was a predator or a pure scavenger is as old as the debate about its locomotion . Lambe ( 1917 ) described a good skeleton of Tyrannosaurus close relative Gorgosaurus and concluded that it and therefore also Tyrannosaurus was a pure scavenger , because the Gorgosaurus teeth showed hardly any wear . This argument is no longer taken seriously , because theropods replaced their teeth quite rapidly . Ever since the first discovery of Tyrannosaurus most scientists have speculated that it was a predator ; like modern large predators it would readily scavenge or steal another predator 's kill if it had the opportunity . Paleontologist Jack Horner has been a major advocate of the idea that Tyrannosaurus was exclusively a scavenger and did not engage in active hunting at all , though Horner himself has claimed that he never published this idea in the peer @-@ reviewed scientific literature and used it mainly as a tool to teach a popular audience , particularly children , the dangers of making assumptions in science ( such as assuming T. rex was a hunter ) without using evidence . Nevertheless , Horner presented several arguments in the popular literature to support the pure scavenger hypothesis : Tyrannosaur arms are short when compared to other known predators . Horner argues that the arms were too short to make the necessary gripping force to hold on to prey . Tyrannosaurs had large olfactory bulbs and olfactory nerves ( relative to their brain size ) . These suggest a highly developed sense of smell which could sniff out carcasses over great distances , as modern vultures do . Research on the olfactory bulbs of dinosaurs has shown that Tyrannosaurus had the most highly developed sense of smell of 21 sampled dinosaurs . Opponents of the pure scavenger hypothesis have used the example of vultures in the opposite way , arguing that the scavenger hypothesis is implausible because the only modern pure scavengers are large gliding birds , which use their keen senses and energy @-@ efficient gliding to cover vast areas economically . However , researchers from Glasgow concluded that an ecosystem as productive as the current Serengeti would provide sufficient carrion for a large theropod scavenger , although the theropod might have had to be cold @-@ blooded in order to get more calories from carrion than it spent on foraging ( see Metabolism of dinosaurs ) . They also suggested that modern ecosystems like the Serengeti have no large terrestrial scavengers because gliding birds now do the job much more efficiently , while large theropods did not face competition for the scavenger ecological niche from gliding birds . Tyrannosaur teeth could crush bone , and therefore could extract as much food ( bone marrow ) as possible from carcass remnants , usually the least nutritious parts . Karen Chin and colleagues have found bone fragments in coprolites ( fossilized feces ) that they attribute to tyrannosaurs , but point out that a tyrannosaur 's teeth were not well adapted to systematically chewing bone like hyenas do to extract marrow . Since at least some of Tyrannosaurus 's potential prey could move quickly , evidence that it walked instead of ran could indicate that it was a scavenger . On the other hand , recent analyses suggest that Tyrannosaurus , while slower than large modern terrestrial predators , may well have been fast enough to prey on large hadrosaurs and ceratopsians . Other evidence suggests hunting behavior in Tyrannosaurus . The eye sockets of tyrannosaurs are positioned so that the eyes would point forward , giving them binocular vision slightly better than that of modern hawks . Horner also pointed out that the tyrannosaur lineage had a history of steadily improving binocular vision . It is not obvious why natural selection would have favored this long @-@ term trend if tyrannosaurs had been pure scavengers , which would not have needed the advanced depth perception that stereoscopic vision provides . In modern animals , binocular vision is found mainly in predators . A skeleton of the hadrosaurid Edmontosaurus annectens has been described from Montana with healed tyrannosaur @-@ inflicted damage on its tail vertebrae . The fact that the damage seems to have healed suggests that the Edmontosaurus survived a tyrannosaur 's attack on a living target , i.e. the tyrannosaur had attempted active predation . There is also evidence for an aggressive interaction between a Triceratops and a Tyrannosaurus in the form of partially healed tyrannosaur tooth marks on a Triceratops brow horn and squamosal ( a bone of the neck frill ) ; the bitten horn is also broken , with new bone growth after the break . It is not known what the exact nature of the interaction was , though : either animal could have been the aggressor . Since the Triceratops wounds healed , it is most likely that the Triceratops survived the encounter and managed to overcome the Tyrannosaurus . Paleontologist Peter Dodson estimates that in a battle against a bull Triceratops , the Triceratops had the upper hand and would successfully defend itself by inflicting fatal wounds to the Tyrannosaurus using its sharp horns . When examining Sue , paleontologist Pete Larson found a broken and healed fibula and tail vertebrae , scarred facial bones and a tooth from another Tyrannosaurus embedded in a neck vertebra . If correct , these might be strong evidence for aggressive behavior between tyrannosaurs but whether it would have been competition for food and mates or active cannibalism is unclear . However , further recent investigation of these purported wounds has shown that most are infections rather than injuries ( or simply damage to the fossil after death ) and the few injuries are too general to be indicative of intraspecific conflict . Some researchers argue that if Tyrannosaurus were a scavenger , another dinosaur had to be the top predator in the Amerasian Upper Cretaceous . Top prey were the larger marginocephalians and ornithopods . The other tyrannosaurids share so many characteristics that only small dromaeosaurs and troodontids remain as feasible top predators . In this light , scavenger hypothesis adherents have suggested that the size and power of tyrannosaurs allowed them to steal kills from smaller predators , although they may have had a hard time finding enough meat to scavenge , being outnumbered by smaller theropods . Most paleontologists accept that Tyrannosaurus was both an active predator and a scavenger like most large carnivores . Tyrannosaurus may have had infectious saliva used to kill its prey . This theory was first proposed by William Abler . Abler examined the teeth of tyrannosaurids between each tooth serration ; the serrations may have held pieces of carcass with bacteria , giving Tyrannosaurus a deadly , infectious bite much like the Komodo dragon was thought to have . However , Jack Horner regards Tyrannosaurus tooth serrations as more like cubes in shape than the serrations on a Komodo monitor 's teeth , which are rounded . All forms of saliva contain possibly hazardous bacteria , so the prospect of it being used as a method of predation is disputable . Tyrannosaurus , and most other theropods , probably primarily processed carcasses with lateral shakes of the head , like crocodilians . The head was not as maneuverable as the skulls of allosauroids , due to flat joints of the neck vertebrae . = = = = Cannibalism = = = = A study from Currie , Horner , Erickson and Longrich in 2010 has been put forward as evidence of cannibalism in the genus Tyrannosaurus . They studied some Tyrannosaurus specimens with tooth marks in the bones , attributable to the same genus . The tooth marks were identified in the humerus , foot bones and metatarsals , and this was seen as evidence for opportunistic scavenging , rather than wounds caused by intraspecific combat . In a fight , they proposed it would be difficult to reach down to bite in the feet of a rival , making it more likely that the bite marks were made in a carcass . As the bite marks were made in body parts with relatively scanty amounts of flesh , it is suggested that the Tyrannosaurus was feeding on a carcass in which the more fleshy parts had already been consumed . They were also open to the possibility that other tyrannosaurids practiced cannibalism . Other evidence for cannibalism has been unearthed . = = = = Pack behavior = = = = Philip J. Currie of the University of Alberta has suggested that Tyrannosaurus may have been pack animals . Currie compared Tyrannosaurus rex favorably to related species Tarbosaurus bataar and Albertosaurus sarcophagus , fossil evidence from which Currie had previously used to suggest that they lived in packs . Currie pointed out that a find in South Dakota preserved three Tyrannosaurus rex skeletons in close proximity to each other . After using CT scanning , Currie stated that Tyrannosaurus would have been capable of such complex behavior , because its brain size is three times greater than what would be expected for an animal of its size . Currie elaborated that Tyrannosaurus had a larger brain @-@ to @-@ body @-@ size proportion than crocodiles and three times more than plant eating dinosaurs such as Triceratops of the same size . Currie believed Tyrannosaurus to be six times smarter than most dinosaurs and other reptiles. because the available prey , such as Triceratops and Ankylosaurus , were well @-@ armored , and that others were fast @-@ moving , it would have been necessary for Tyrannosaurus to hunt in groups . Currie speculated that juveniles and adults would have hunted together , with the faster juveniles chasing down the prey and the more powerful adults making the kill , by analogy to modern @-@ day pack hunters where each member contributes a skill . However , Currie 's pack @-@ hunting hypothesis has been harshly criticized by other scientists . Brian Switek , writing for The Guardian in 2011 , noted that Currie 's pack hypothesis has not been presented as research in a peer @-@ reviewed scientific journal , but primarily in relation to a television special and tie @-@ in book called Dino Gangs . Switek also noted that Currie 's argument for pack hunting in Tyrannosaurus rex is primarily based on analogy to a different species , Tarbosaurus bataar , and that the supposed evidence for pack hunting in T. bataar itself has not yet been published and subjected to scientific scrutiny . According to Switek and other scientists who have participated in panel discussions about the Dino Gangs television program , the evidence for pack hunting in Tarbosaurus and Albertosaurus is weak , based primarily on the association of several skeletons , for which numerous alternative explanations have been proposed ( e.g. drought or floods forcing numerous specimens together to die in one place ) . In fact , Switek notes that the Albertosaurus bonebed site , on which Currie has based most of the interpretations of supposed pack hunting in related species , preserves geological evidence of just such a flood . Switek said , " bones alone are not enough to reconstruct dinosaur behaviour . The geological context in which those bones are found – the intricate details of ancient environments and the pace of prehistoric time – are essential to investigating the lives and deaths of dinosaurs , " and noted that Currie must first describe the geological evidence from other tyrannosaur bonebed sites before jumping to conclusions about social behavior . Switek described the sensational claims provided in press releases and news stories surrounding the Dino Gangs program as " nauseating hype " and noted that the production company responsible for the program , Atlantic Productions , has a poor record involving exaggerating claims about new fossil discoveries , most notably the controversial claim it published regarding the supposed early human ancestor Darwinius , which soon turned out to be a relative of lemurs instead . Lawrence Witmer pointed out that social behavior can 't be determined by brain endocasts and the brains of solitary leopards are identical to those of a cooperatively hunting lion ; estimated brain sizes only show that an animal may have hunted in groups . In his opinion , the brains of tyrannosaurs were large enough for what he dubs " communal hunting " , a semi @-@ organized behavior that falls between solitary and cooperative hunting . Witmer claims that communal hunting is a step towards the evolution of cooperative hunting . He found it hard to believe that tyrannosaurs wouldn 't have exploited the opportunity to join others in making a kill , and thus decrease risk and increase their chances of success . On July 23 , 2014 , evidence , for the first time , in the form of fossilized trackways in Canada , showed that tyrannosaurs may have hunted in groups . = = = Pathology = = = In 2001 , Bruce Rothschild and others published a study examining evidence for stress fractures and tendon avulsions in theropod dinosaurs and the implications for their behavior . Since stress fractures are caused by repeated trauma rather than singular events they are more likely to be caused by regular behavior than other types of injuries . Of the 81 Tyrannosaurus foot bones examined in the study one was found to have a stress fracture , while none of the 10 hand bones were found to have stress fractures . The researchers found tendon avulsions only among Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus . An avulsion injury left a divot on the humerus of Sue the T. rex , apparently located at the origin of the deltoid or teres major muscles . The presence of avulsion injuries being limited to the forelimb and shoulder in both Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus suggests that theropods may have had a musculature more complex than and functionally different from those of birds . The researchers concluded that Sue 's tendon avulsion was probably obtained from struggling prey . The presence of stress fractures and tendon avulsions in general provides evidence for a " very active " predation @-@ based diet rather than obligate scavenging . A 2009 study showed that holes in the skulls of several specimens that were previously explained by intraspecific attacks might have been caused by Trichomonas @-@ like parasites that commonly infect avians . Further evidence of intraspecific attack would however be found by Joseph Peterson and his colleagues in the juvenile Tyrannosaurus nicknamed Jane . Peterson and his team found that Jane 's skull showed healed puncture wounds on the upper jaw and snout which they believe came from another juvenile Tyrannosaurus . Subsequent CT scans of Jane 's skull would further confirm the team 's hypothesis , showing that the puncture wounds came from a traumatic injury and that there was subsequent healing . The team would also state that Jane 's injuries were structurally different from the parasite @-@ induced lesions found in Sue and that Jane 's injuries were on her face whereas the parasite that infected Sue caused lesions to the lower jaw . = = Paleoecology = = Tyrannosaurus lived during what is referred to as the Lancian faunal stage ( Maastrichtian age ) at the end of the Late Cretaceous . Tyrannosaurus ranged from Canada in the north to at least Texas and New Mexico in the south of Laramidia . During this time Triceratops was the major herbivore in the northern portion of its range , while the titanosaurian sauropod Alamosaurus " dominated " its southern range . Tyrannosaurus remains have been discovered in different ecosystems , including inland and coastal subtropical , and semi @-@ arid plains . Several notable Tyrannosaurus remains have been found in the Hell Creek Formation . During the Maastrichtian this area was subtropical , with a warm and humid climate . The flora consisted mostly of angiosperms , but also included trees like dawn redwood ( Metasequoia ) and Araucaria . Tyrannosaurus shared this ecosystem with Triceratops , related ceratopsians Nedoceratops , Tatankaceratops and Torosaurus , the harosaurid Edmontosaurus annectens and possibly a species of Parasaurolophus , the armored dinosaurs Denversaurus , Edmontonia , Ankylosaurus , the dome headed dinosaurs Pachycephalosaurus , Stygimoloch , Sphaerotholus , and Dracorex , hypsilophodont Thescelosaurus , and the theropods Ornithomimus , Struthiomimus , Orcomimus , Acheroraptor , Dakotaraptor , Richardoestesia , Paronychodon , Pectinodon and Troodon . Another formation with tyrannosaur remains is the Lance Formation of Wyoming . This has been interpreted as a bayou environment similar to today 's Gulf Coast . The fauna was very similar to Hell Creek , but with Struthiomimus replacing its relative Ornithomimus . The small ceratopsian Leptoceratops also lived in the area . In its southern range Tyrannosaurus lived alongside the titanosaur Alamosaurus , the ceratopsians Torosaurus , Bravoceratops and Ojoceratops , hadrosaurs which consisted of a species of Edmontosaurus , Kritosaurus and a possible species of Gryposaurus , the nodosaur Glyptodontopelta , the oviraptorid Ojoraptosaurus , possible species of the theropods Troodon and Richardoestesia , and the pterosaur Quetzalcoatlus . The region is thought to have been dominated by semi @-@ arid inland plains , following the probable retreat of the Western Interior Seaway as global sea levels fell . = = History = = Henry Fairfield Osborn , president of the American Museum of Natural History , named Tyrannosaurus rex in 1905 . The generic name is derived from the Greek words τυράννος ( tyrannos , meaning " tyrant " ) and σαύρος ( sauros , meaning " lizard " ) . Osborn used the Latin word rex , meaning " king " , for the specific name . The full binomial therefore translates to " tyrant lizard the king " or " King Tyrant Lizard " , emphasizing the animal 's size and perceived dominance over other species of the time . = = = Earliest finds = = = Teeth from what is now documented as a Tyrannosaurus rex were found in 1874 by Arthur Lakes near Golden , Colorado . In the early 1890s , John Bell Hatcher collected postcranial elements in eastern Wyoming . The fossils were believed to be from a large species of Ornithomimus ( O. grandis ) but are now considered Tyrannosaurus rex remains . Vertebral fragments found by Edward Drinker Cope in western South Dakota in 1892 and assigned to Manospondylus gigas have also been recognized as belonging to Tyrannosaurus rex . Barnum Brown , assistant curator of the American Museum of Natural History , found the first partial skeleton of Tyrannosaurus rex in eastern Wyoming in 1900 . H. F. Osborn originally named this skeleton Dynamosaurus imperiosus in a paper in 1905 . Brown found another partial skeleton in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana in 1902 . Osborn used this holotype to describe Tyrannosaurus rex in the same paper in which D. imperiosus was described . In 1906 , Osborn recognized the two as synonyms , and acted as first revisor by selecting Tyrannosaurus as the valid name . The original Dynamosaurus material resides in the collections of the Natural History Museum , London . In total , Brown found five Tyrannosaurus partial skeletons . In 1941 , Brown 's 1902 find was sold to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . Brown 's fourth and largest find , also from Hell Creek , is on display in the American Museum of Natural History in New York . = = = Manospondylus = = = The first named fossil specimen which can be attributed to Tyrannosaurus rex consists of two partial vertebrae ( one of which has been lost ) found by Edward Drinker Cope in 1892 . Cope believed that they belonged to an " agathaumid " ( ceratopsid ) dinosaur , and named them Manospondylus gigas , meaning " giant porous vertebra " in reference to the numerous openings for blood vessels he found in the bone . The M. gigas remains were later identified as those of a theropod rather than a ceratopsid , and H.F. Osborn recognized the similarity between M. gigas and Tyrannosaurus rex as early as 1917 . However , owing to the fragmentary nature of the Manospondylus vertebrae , Osborn did not synonymize the two genera . In June 2000 , the Black Hills Institute located the type locality of M. gigas in South Dakota and unearthed more tyrannosaur bones there . These were judged to represent further remains of the same individual , and to be identical to those of Tyrannosaurus rex . According to the rules of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) , the system that governs the scientific naming of animals , Manospondylus gigas should therefore have priority over Tyrannosaurus rex , because it was named first . However , the Fourth Edition of the ICZN , which took effect on January 1 , 2000 , states that " the prevailing usage must be maintained " when " the senior synonym or homonym has not been used as a valid name after 1899 " and " the junior synonym or homonym has been used for a particular taxon , as its presumed valid name , in at least 25 works , published by at least 10 authors in the immediately preceding 50 years ... " Tyrannosaurus rex may qualify as the valid name under these conditions and would most likely be considered a nomen protectum ( " protected name " ) under the ICZN if it is ever formally published on , which it has not yet been . Manospondylus gigas could then be deemed a nomen oblitum ( " forgotten name " ) . = = = Notable specimens = = = Sue Hendrickson , amateur paleontologist , discovered the most complete ( approximately 85 % ) and the largest Tyrannosaurus fossil skeleton known in the Hell Creek Formation near Faith , South Dakota , on August 12 , 1990 . This Tyrannosaurus , nicknamed Sue in her honor , was the object of a legal battle over its ownership . In 1997 this was settled in favor of Maurice Williams , the original land owner . The fossil collection was purchased by the Field Museum of Natural History at auction for $ 7 @.@ 6 million , making it the most expensive dinosaur skeleton to date . From 1998 to 1999 Field Museum of Natural History preparators spent over 25 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours taking the rock off each of the bones . The bones were then shipped off to New Jersey where the mount was made . The finished mount was then taken apart , and along with the bones , shipped back to Chicago for the final assembly . The mounted skeleton opened to the public on May 17 , 2000 in the great hall ( Stanley Field Hall ) at the Field Museum of Natural History . A study of this specimen 's fossilized bones showed that Sue reached full size at age 19 and died at age 28 , the longest any tyrannosaur is known to have lived . Early speculation that Sue may have died from a bite to the back of the head was not confirmed . Though subsequent study showed many pathologies in the skeleton , no bite marks were found . Damage to the back of the skull may have been caused by post @-@ mortem trampling . Recent speculation indicates that Sue may have died of starvation after contracting a parasitic infection from eating diseased meat ; the resulting infection would have caused inflammation in the throat , ultimately leading Sue to starve because she could no longer swallow food . This hypothesis is substantiated by smooth @-@ edged holes in her skull which are similar to those caused in modern @-@ day birds that contract the same parasite . Another Tyrannosaurus , nicknamed Stan , in honor of amateur paleontologist Stan Sacrison , was found in the Hell Creek Formation near Buffalo , South Dakota , in the spring of 1987 . It was not collected until 1992 , as it was mistakenly thought to be a Triceratops skeleton . Stan is 63 % complete and is on display in the Black Hills Institute of Geological Research in Hill City , South Dakota , after an extensive world tour during 1995 and 1996 . This tyrannosaur , too , was found to have many bone pathologies , including broken and healed ribs , a broken ( and healed ) neck and a spectacular hole in the back of its head , about the size of a Tyrannosaurus tooth . In the summer of 2000 , Jack Horner discovered five Tyrannosaurus skeletons near the Fort Peck Reservoir in Montana . One of the specimens was reported to be perhaps the largest Tyrannosaurus ever found . In 2001 , a 50 % complete skeleton of a juvenile Tyrannosaurus was discovered in the Hell Creek Formation in Montana , by a crew from the Burpee Museum of Natural History of Rockford , Illinois . Dubbed Jane , the find was initially considered the first known skeleton of the pygmy tyrannosaurid Nanotyrannus but subsequent research has revealed that it is more likely a juvenile Tyrannosaurus . It is the most complete and best preserved juvenile example known to date . Jane has been examined by Jack Horner , Pete Larson , Robert Bakker , Greg Erickson , and several other renowned paleontologists , because of the uniqueness of her age . Jane is currently on exhibit at the Burpee Museum of Natural History in Rockford , Illinois . In a press release on April 7 , 2006 , Bozeman Campus , Montana State University , USA revealed that it possessed the largest Tyrannosaurus skull yet discovered . Discovered in the 1960s and only recently reconstructed , the skull measures 59 inches ( 150 cm ) long compared to the 55 @.@ 4 inches ( 141 cm ) of Sue 's skull , a difference of 6 @.@ 5 % . However , it has been incorrectly reconstructed , and has been corrected to 134 cm ( 53 in ) . = = In popular culture = = Since it was first described in 1905 , Tyrannosaurus rex has become the most widely recognized dinosaur species in popular culture . It is the only dinosaur that is commonly known to the general public by its full scientific name ( binomial name ) ( Tyrannosaurus rex ) , and the scientific abbreviation T. rex has also come into wide usage . Robert T. Bakker notes this in The Dinosaur Heresies and explains that a name like " Tyrannosaurus rex is just irresistible to the tongue . " = Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone = Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone is the first novel in the Harry Potter series and J. K. Rowling 's debut novel , first published in 1997 by Bloomsbury . It was published in the United States as Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone by Scholastic Corporation in 1998 . The plot follows Harry Potter , a young wizard who discovers his magical heritage as he makes close friends and a few enemies in his first year at the Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . With the help of his friends , Harry faces an attempted comeback by the dark wizard Lord Voldemort , who killed Harry 's parents , but failed to kill Harry when he was just a year old . The novel won most of the British book awards that were judged by children and other awards in the US . The book reached the top of the New York Times list of best @-@ selling fiction in August 1999 and stayed near the top of that list for much of 1999 and 2000 . It has been translated into at least sixty @-@ seven other languages and has been made into a feature @-@ length film of the same name , as have all six of its sequels . Most reviews were very favourable , commenting on Rowling 's imagination , humour , simple , direct style and clever plot construction , although a few complained that the final chapters seemed rushed . The writing has been compared to that of Jane Austen , one of Rowling 's favourite authors , or Roald Dahl , whose works dominated children 's stories before the appearance of Harry Potter , and of the Ancient Greek story @-@ teller Homer . While some commentators thought the book looked backwards to Victorian and Edwardian boarding school stories , others thought it placed the genre firmly in the modern world by featuring contemporary ethical and social issues . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , along with the rest of the Harry Potter series , has been attacked by several religious groups and banned in some countries because of accusations that the novels promote witchcraft , but other religious commentators have written that the book exemplifies important viewpoints , including the power of self @-@ sacrifice and the ways in which people 's decisions shape their personalities . The series has been used as a source of object lessons in educational techniques , sociological analysis and marketing . = = Synopsis = = = = = Plot = = = The most evil and powerful dark wizard in history , Lord Voldemort , murdered married couple James and Lily Potter but mysteriously disappeared after failing to kill their infant son , Harry . While the wizarding world celebrates Voldemort 's apparent downfall , Professor Dumbledore , Professor McGonagall and half @-@ giant Rubeus Hagrid place the one @-@ year @-@ old orphan in the care of his surly and cold Muggle uncle and aunt , Vernon and Petunia Dursley , with their spoiled and bullying son , Dudley . Ten years later while living at number Four Privet Drive , Harry is tormented by the Dursleys , treated more like a servant than a member of the family and forced to live in a cupboard under the stairs . Shortly before his eleventh birthday , a series of letters addressed to Harry arrive , but Vernon destroys them before Harry can read them , leading only to an influx of more letters . To evade the pursuit of the letters , Vernon first takes the family to a hotel , and , when the letters arrive there too , he hires a boat out to a small island . On Harry 's eleventh birthday at midnight , Hagrid bursts through the door to deliver Harry 's letter and tells him what the Dursleys have kept from him : Harry is a wizard and has been accepted into Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry . Hagrid takes Harry to a hidden London street called Diagon Alley , where he is startled to discover how famous he is among the witches and wizards , who refer to him as " the boy who lived . " He also finds that his parents ' inheritance is waiting for him at Gringotts Wizarding Bank . Guided by Hagrid , he buys the equipment he will need for his first year at Hogwarts and receives a pet owl . A month later , Harry leaves the Dursleys ' home to catch the Hogwarts Express from King 's Cross railway station . There he meets the Weasley family , who show him how to pass through the magic wall to Platform 9 ¾ , where the train that will take them to Hogwarts is waiting . While on the train , Harry meets two fellow first years , Ron Weasley , who immediately becomes his friend , and Hermione Granger , with whom the ice is a bit slower to break . Harry also makes an enemy of yet another first @-@ year , Draco Malfoy . Draco offers to advise Harry , but Harry dislikes Draco for his arrogance and prejudice and rejects his offer of " friendship " . At Hogwarts , the first @-@ years are assigned by the magical Sorting Hat to houses that best suites their personality . While Harry is being sorted , the Hat suggests that he be placed into Slytherin which is known to house potential dark witches and wizards , but when Harry objects , the Hat sends him to Gryffindor . Ron and Hermione are also sorted into Gryffindor . Draco is sorted into Slytherin , like his whole family before him . Harry starts classes at Hogwarts School , with lessons including Transfiguration with Head of Gryffindor , Minerva McGonagall , Herbology with Head of Hufflepuff , Pomona Sprout , Charms with Head of Ravenclaw Filius Flitwick , and Defence Against the Dark Arts with Quirinus Quirrell . Harry 's least favourite class is Potions , taught by Severus Snape , the vindictive Head of Slytherin who seems to loathe Harry . Harry , Ron , and Hermione become far more interested by extracurricular matters within and outside of the school , particularly after they discover that a huge three @-@ headed dog is standing guard over a trapdoor in a condemned corridor . They also become suspicious of Snape 's behaviour and become convinced that he is looking for ways to get past the trapdoor . Harry discovers an innate talent for flying on broomsticks and is appointed as Seeker on his House ’ s Quidditch team , a wizards 's sport played in the air . His first game goes well until his broomstick wobbles in mid @-@ air and almost throws him off . Ron and Hermione suspect foul play from Snape , whom they saw behaving oddly . For Christmas , Harry receives an invisibility cloak from an anonymous source and begins exploring the school at night and investigating the hidden object further . He discovers the Mirror of Erised , in which the viewer 's sees his deepest desires becoming true . Thanks to an indiscretion from Hagrid , Harry and his friends work out that the object kept at the school is a Philosopher 's Stone , made by an old friend of Dumbledore named Nicolas Flamel . Harry is also informed by a centaur he meets in the forest that a plot to steal the Philosopher ’ s stone is being orchestrated by none other than Voldemort himself , who would use it to be restored to his body and come back to power . When Dumbledore is lured from Hogwarts under false pretences , Harry and his friends fear that the theft is imminent and descend through the trapdoor themselves . They encounter a series of obstacles , each of which requires unique skills possessed by one of the three , and one of which requires Ron to sacrifice himself in a life @-@ sized game of wizard 's chess . In the final room , Harry , now alone , finds Quirrell , who admits that he had tried to kill Harry at his Quidditch match against Slytherin . He also admits that he let the troll into Hogwarts . Snape had been trying to protect Harry all along rather than to kill him , and his suspicious behaviour came from his own suspicions about Quirrell . Quirrell is one of Voldemort 's followers , and is now partly possessed by him : Voldemort 's face has sprouted on the back of his own head , hidden by his turban . Voldemort needs Harry 's help to get past the final obstacle : the Mirror of Erised , but when Quirrell tries to grab the Stone from Harry his contact proves lethal for Quirrell . Harry passes out and awakes in the school hospital , where Dumbledore explains to him that he survived because his mother sacrificed her life to protect him , and this left a powerful protective charm on him . Voldemort left Quirrell to die and is likely to return by some other means . The Stone has now been destroyed . The school year ends at the final feast , during which Gryffindor wins the House Cup . Harry returns to the Dursleys ' for the summer holiday but does not tell them that under @-@ age wizards are forbidden to use magic outside of Hogwarts . = = = Main characters = = = Harry Potter is an orphan whom Rowling imagined as a " scrawny , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy who didn 't know he was a wizard . " She developed the series ' story and characters to explain how Harry came to be in this situation and how his life unfolded from there . Apart from the first chapter , the events of this book take place just before and in the year following Harry 's eleventh birthday . Voldemort 's attack left a lightning bolt @-@ shaped scar on Harry 's forehead , which produces stabbing pains whenever Voldemort is present . Harry has a natural talent for Quidditch and became the first person to get on a team in their first year . Ron Weasley is Harry 's age and Rowling describes him as the ultimate best friend , " always there when you need him . " He is freckled , red @-@ haired and quite tall . He grew up in a fairly large pure @-@ blood family as the sixth born of seven children . Although his family is quite poor , they still live comfortably and happily . His loyalty and bravery in the face of a game of Wizards Chess plays a vital part in finding the Philosopher 's Stone . Hermione Granger , the daughter of an all @-@ Muggle family , is a bossy girl who has apparently memorised most of the textbooks before the start of term . Rowling described Hermione as a " very logical , upright and good " character with " a lot of insecurity and a great fear of failure beneath her swottiness " . Despite her nagging efforts to keep Harry and Ron out of trouble , she becomes a close friend of the two boys after they save her from a troll , and her magical and analytical skills play an important role in finding the Philosopher 's Stone . She has bushy brown hair and rather large front teeth . Neville Longbottom is a plump , diffident boy , so forgetful that his grandmother gives him a Remembrall , although he cannot remember why . Neville 's magical abilities are weak and appeared just in time to save his life when he was eight . Despite his timidity , Neville will fight anyone after some encouragement or if he thinks it is right and important . Rubeus Hagrid , a half @-@ giant nearly 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) tall , with tangled black hair and beard , was expelled from Hogwarts and his wand was broken , but Professor Dumbledore let him stay on as the school 's gamekeeper , a job which enables him to lavish affection and pet names on even the most dangerous of magical creatures . Hagrid is fiercely loyal to Dumbledore and quickly becomes a close friend of Harry , Ron and , later , Hermione , but his carelessness makes him unreliable . Professor Dumbledore , a tall , thin man who wears half @-@ moon spectacles and has silver hair and a beard that tucks into his belt , is the headmaster of Hogwarts , and thought to be the only wizard Voldemort fears . Dumbledore , while renowned for his achievements in magic , finds it difficult to resist sweets and has a whimsical sense of humour . Although he shrugs off praise , he is aware of his own brilliance . Rowling described him as the " epitome of goodness " . Professor McGonagall , a tall , severe @-@ looking woman with black hair tied in a tight bun , teaches Transfiguration , and sometimes transforms herself into a cat . She is Deputy Headmistress , and Head of Gryffindor House and , according to the author , " under that gruff exterior " is " a bit of an old softy " . Petunia Dursley , the sister of Harry 's mother Lily , is a thin woman with a long neck that she uses for spying on the neighbours . She regards her magical sister as a freak and tries to pretend that she never existed . Her husband Vernon is a heavily built man whose irascible bluster covers a narrow mind and a fear of anything unusual . Their son Dudley is an overweight , spoiled bully . Draco Malfoy is a slim , pale boy who speaks in a bored drawl . He is arrogant about his skill in Quidditch , and despises anyone who is not a pure @-@ blood wizard – and wizards who do not share his views . His parents had supported Voldemort , but changed sides after the dark wizard 's disappearance , claiming they had been bewitched . Draco avoids direct confrontations , and tries to get Harry and his friends into trouble . Professor Quirrell is a twitching , stammering man who teaches Defence Against the Dark Arts . Reputedly he was a brilliant scholar , but his nerve was shattered by an encounter with vampires . Quirrell wears a turban to conceal the fact that he is voluntarily possessed by Voldemort , whose face appears on the back of Quirrell 's head . Professor Snape , who has a hooked nose , sallow complexion and greasy black hair , teaches Potions , but would prefer to teach Defence Against the Dark Arts . Snape praises pupils in Slytherin , his own House but seizes every opportunity to humiliate others , especially Harry . Several incidents , beginning with the shooting pain in Harry 's scar during the start @-@ of @-@ term feast , lead Harry and his friends to think Snape is a follower of Voldemort . Filch , the school caretaker who knows the school 's secret passages better than anyone else except , possibly , the Weasley twins . His cat , Mrs. Norris , aids his constant hunt for misbehaving pupils . Other members of staff include the dumpy Herbology teacher and Head of Hufflepuff House Professor Sprout , Professor Flitwick , the tiny and excitable Charms teacher , and Head of Ravenclaw House , the soporific History of Magic teacher , Professor Binns , a ghost who does not seem to have noticed his own death ; and Madam Hooch , the Quidditch coach , who is strict , but a considerate and methodical teacher . The poltergeist Peeves wanders around the castle causing trouble wherever he can . In the book , Rowling introduces an eclectic cast of characters . The first character to be introduced is Vernon Dursley , Harry 's uncle . Most of the actions centre on the eponymous hero Harry Potter , an orphan who escapes his miserable childhood with the Dursley family . Rowling imagined him as a " scrawny , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy who didn 't know he was a wizard " , and says she transferred part of her pain about losing her mother to him . During the book , Harry makes two close friends , Ronald Weasley and Hermione Granger . Ron is described by Rowling as the ultimate best friend , " always there when you need him " . Rowling has described Hermione as a " very logical , upright and good " character with " a lot of insecurity and a great fear of failure beneath her swottiness " . Rowling also imagined a supporting cast of adults . The headmaster of Hogwarts is the powerful , but kind wizard Albus Dumbledore , who becomes Harry 's confidant ; Rowling described him as " epitome of goodness " . His right hand is severe Minerva McGonagall , who according to the author " under that gruff exterior " is " a bit of an old softy " , the friendly half @-@ giant Rubeus Hagrid , who saved Harry from the Dursley family and the sinister Severus Snape . Professor Quirrell is also featured in the novel . The main antagonists are Draco Malfoy , an elitist , bullying classmate and Lord Voldemort , the most powerful evil wizard who becomes disembodied when he tries to kill baby Harry . According to a 1999 interview with Rowling , the character of Voldemort was created as a literary foil for Harry , and his backstory was intentionally not fleshed @-@ out at first : The basic idea ... Harry , I saw Harry very very very clearly . Very vividly . And I knew he didn 't know he was a wizard . [ ... ] And so then I kind of worked backwards from that position to find out how that could be , that he wouldn 't know what he was . [ ... ] When he was one year old , the most evil wizard for hundreds and hundreds of years attempted to kill him . He killed Harry 's parents , and then he tried to kill Harry — he tried to curse him . [ ... ] And — so — but for some mysterious reason , the curse didn 't work on Harry . So he 's left with this lightning bolt shaped scar on his forehead and the curse rebounded upon the evil wizard , who has been in hiding ever since . = = Development , publication and reception = = = = = Development = = = The book , which was Rowling 's debut novel , was written between approximately June 1990 and some time in 1995 . In 1990 Jo Rowling , as she preferred to be known , wanted to move with her boyfriend to a flat in Manchester and in her words , " One weekend after flat hunting , I took the train back to London on my own and the idea for Harry Potter fell into my head ... A scrawny , little , black @-@ haired , bespectacled boy became more and more of a wizard to me ... I began to write Philosopher 's Stone that very evening . Although , the first couple of pages look nothing like the finished product . " Then Rowling 's mother died and , to cope with her pain , Rowling transferred her own anguish to the orphan Harry . Rowling spent six years working on Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , and after it was accepted by Bloomsbury , she obtained a grant of £ 8 @,@ 000 from the Scottish Arts Council , which enabled her to plan the sequels . She sent the book to an agent and a publisher , and then the second agent she approached spent a year trying to sell the book to publishers , most of whom thought it was too long at about 90 @,@ 000 words . Barry Cunningham , who was building a portfolio of distinctive fantasies by new authors for Bloomsbury Children 's Books , recommended accepting the book , and the eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter of Bloomsbury 's chief executive said it was " so much better than anything else " . = = = Publication and reception in the United Kingdom = = = Bloomsbury accepted the book , paying Rowling a £ 2 @,@ 500 advance , and Cunningham sent proof copies to carefully chosen authors , critics and booksellers in order to obtain comments that could be quoted when the book was launched . He was less concerned about the book 's length than about its author 's name , since the title sounded like a boys ' book to him , and he believed boys preferred books by male authors . Rowling therefore adopted the nom de plume J.K. Rowling just before publication . In June 1997 , Bloomsbury published Philosopher 's Stone with an initial print @-@ run of 500 copies in hardback , three hundred of which were distributed to libraries . Her original name , " Joanne Rowling " , can be found in small print on the copyright page of this first British edition . ( The 1998 first American edition would remove reference to " Joanne " completely . ) The short initial print run was standard for first novels , and Cunningham hoped booksellers would read the book and recommend it to customers . Examples from this initial print run have become quite valuable , selling for as much as US $ 33 @,@ 460 in a 2007 Heritage Auction . Lindsey Fraser , who had supplied one of the blurb comments , wrote what is thought to be the first published review , in The Scotsman on 28 June 1997 . She described Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone as " a hugely entertaining thriller " and Rowling as " a first @-@ rate writer for children " . Another early review , in The Herald , said , " I have yet to find a child who can put it down . " Newspapers outside Scotland started to notice the book , with glowing reviews in The Guardian , The Sunday Times and The Mail on Sunday , and in September 1997 Books for Keeps , a magazine that specialised in children 's books , gave the novel four stars out of five . The Mail on Sunday rated it as " the most imaginative debut since Roald Dahl " ; a view echoed by the Sunday Times ( " comparisons to Dahl are , this time , justified " ) , while The Guardian called it " a richly textured novel given lift @-@ off by an inventive wit " and The Scotsman said it had " all the makings of a classic " . In 1997 the UK edition won a National Book Award and a gold medal in the 9 to 11 year @-@ olds category of the Nestlé Smarties Book Prize . The Smarties award , which is voted for by children , made the book well @-@ known within six months of publication , while most children 's books have to wait for years . The following year , Philosopher 's Stone won almost all the other major British awards that were decided by children . It was also shortlisted for children 's books awards adjudicated by adults , but did not win . Sandra Beckett comments that books which were popular with children were regarded as undemanding and as not of the highest literary standards – for example the literary establishment disdained the works of Roald Dahl , an overwhelming favourite of children before the appearance of Rowling 's books . In 2003 , the novel was listed at number 22 on the BBC 's survey The Big Read . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone won two publishing industry awards given for sales rather than literary merit , the British Book Awards Children 's Book of the Year and the Booksellers ' Association / Bookseller Author of the Year . By March 1999 UK editions had sold just over 300 @,@ 000 copies , and the story was still the UK 's best @-@ selling title in December 2001 . A Braille edition was published in May 1998 by the Scottish Braille Press . Platform 9 ¾ , from which the Hogwarts Express left London , was commemorated in the real @-@ life King 's Cross railway station with a sign and a trolley apparently passing through the wall . = = = U.S. publication and reception = = = Scholastic Corporation bought the U.S. rights at the Bologna Book Fair in April 1997 for US $ 105 @,@ 000 , an unusually high sum for a children 's book . They thought that a child would not want to read a book with the word " philosopher " in the title and , after some discussion , the American edition was published in September 1998 under the title Rowling suggested , Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone . Rowling claimed that she regretted this change and would have fought it if she had been in a stronger position at the time . Philip Nel has pointed out that the change lost the connection with alchemy , and the meaning of some other terms changed in translation , for example from UK English " crumpets " to US English " muffin " . While Rowling accepted the change from both UK English " mum " and Seamus Finnigan 's Irish variant " mam " to " mom " in Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone , she vetoed this change in the later books ( this change was reversed in later editions of the book ) . However Nel considered that Scholastic 's translations were considerably more sensitive than most of those imposed on UK English books of the time , and that some other changes could be regarded as useful copyedits . Since the UK editions of early titles in the series were published a few months earlier than the American versions , some American readers became familiar with the British English versions after buying them via the Internet . At first the most prestigious reviewers ignored the book , leaving it to book trade and library publications such as Kirkus Reviews and Booklist , which examined it only by the entertainment @-@ oriented criteria of children 's fiction . However , more penetrating specialist reviews ( such as one by Cooperative Children 's Book Center Choices , which pointed out the complexity , depth and consistency of the world Rowling had built ) attracted the attention of reviewers in major newspapers . Although The Boston Globe and Michael Winerip in The New York Times complained that the final chapters were the weakest part of the book , they and most other American reviewers gave glowing praise . A year later the US edition was selected as an American Library Association Notable Book , a Publishers Weekly Best Book of 1998 , and a New York Public Library 1998 Best Book of the Year , and won Parenting Magazine 's Book of the Year Award for 1998 , the School Library Journal Best Book of the Year , and the American Library Association Best Book for Young Adults . In August 1999 Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone topped the New York Times list of best @-@ selling fiction , and stayed near the top of the list for much of 1999 and 2000 , until the New York Times split its list into children 's and adult sections under pressure from other publishers who were eager to see their books given higher placings . Publishers Weekly 's report in December 2001 on cumulative sales of children 's fiction placed Harry Potter and the Sorcerer 's Stone 19th among hardbacks ( over 5 million copies ) and 7th among paperbacks ( over 6 @.@ 6 million copies ) . In May 2008 , Scholastic announced the creation of a 10th Anniversary Edition of the book that was released on 1 October 2008 to mark the tenth anniversary of the original American release . For the fifteenth anniversary of the books , Scholastic re @-@ released Sorcerer 's Stone , along with the other six novels in the series , with new cover art by Kazu Kibuishi in 2013 . = = = Translations = = = By mid @-@ 2008 , official translations of the book were published in 67 languages . Bloomsbury have published translations in Latin and in Ancient Greek , and the latter was described as " one of the most important pieces of Ancient Greek prose written in many centuries " . = = Style and themes = = Philip Nel highlighted the influence of Jane Austen , whom Rowling has greatly admired since the age of twelve . Both novelists encourage re @-@ reading , because details that look insignificant foreshadow important events or characters much later in the story @-@ line – for example Sirius Black is briefly mentioned near the beginning of Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , and then becomes a major character in the third to fifth books . Like Austen 's heroines , Harry often has to re @-@ examine his ideas near the ends of books . Some social behaviour in the Harry Potter books is remininiscent of Austen , for example the excited communal reading of letters . Both authors satirise social behaviour and give characters names that express their personalities . However in Nel 's opinion Rowling 's humour is more based on caricature and the names she invents are more like those found in Charles Dickens 's stories , and Amanda Cockrell noted that many of these express their owners ' traits through allusions that run from ancient Roman mythology to eighteenth @-@ century German literature . Rowling , like the Narnia series ' author C.S. Lewis , thinks there is no rigid distinction between stories for children and for adults . Nel also noted that , like many good writers for children , Rowling combines literary genres ‍ — ‌ fantasy , young @-@ adult fiction , boarding school stories , Bildungsroman and many others . Some reviewers compared Philosopher 's Stone to the stories of Roald Dahl , who died in 1990 . Many writers since the 1970s had been hailed as his successor , but none had attained anything near his popularity with children and , in a poll conducted shortly after the launch of Philosopher 's Stone , seven of the ten most popular children 's books were by Dahl , including the one in top place . The only other really popular children 's author of the late 1990s was an American , R. L. Stine . Some of the story elements in Philosopher 's Stone resembled parts of Dahl 's stories ; for example , the hero of James and the Giant Peach lost his parents and had to live with a pair of unpleasant aunts ‍ — ‌ one fat and one thin rather like Mr. and Mrs. Dursley , who treated Harry as a servant . However Harry Potter was a distinctive creation , able to take on the responsibilities of an adult while remaining a child inside . Librarian Nancy Knapp and marketing professor Stephen Brown noted the liveliness and detail of descriptions , especially of shop scenes such as Diagon Alley . Tad Brennan commented that Rowling 's writing resembles that of Homer : " rapid , plain , and direct in expression . " Stephen King admired " the sort of playful details of which only British fantasists seem capable " and concluded that they worked because Rowling enjoys a quick giggle and then moves briskly forward . Nicholas Tucker described the early Harry Potter books as looking back to Victorian and Edwardian children 's stories : Hogwarts was an old @-@ style boarding school in which the teachers addressed pupils formally by their surnames and were most concerned with the reputations of the houses with which they were associated ; characters ' personalities were plainly shown by their appearances , starting with the Dursleys ; evil or malicious characters were to be crushed rather than reformed , including Filch 's cat Mrs Norris ; and the hero , a mistreated orphan who found his true place in life , was charismatic and good at sports , but considerate and protective towards the weak . Several other commentators have stated that the books present a highly stratified society including many social stereotypes . However Karin Westerman drew parallels with 1990s Britain : a class system that was breaking down but defended by those whose power and status it upheld ; the multi @-@ ethnic composition of Hogwarts ' students ; the racial tensions between the various intelligent species ; and school bullying . Susan Hall wrote that there is no rule of law in the books , as the actions of Ministry of Magic officials are unconstrained by laws , accountability or any kind of legal challenge . This provides an opportunity for Voldemort to offer his own horrific version of order . As a side @-@ effect Harry and Hermione , who were brought up in the highly regulated Muggle world , find solutions by thinking in ways unfamiliar to wizards . For example , Hermione notes that one obstacle to finding the Philosopher 's Stone is a test of logic rather than magical power , and that most wizards have no chance of solving it . Nel suggested that the unflattering characterisation of the extremely conventional , status @-@ conscious , materialistic Dursleys was Rowling 's reaction to the family policies of the British government in the early 1990s , which treated the married heterosexual couple as the " preferred norm " , while the author was a single mother . Harry 's relationships with adult and juvenile wizards are based on affection and loyalty . This is reflected in his happiness whenever he is a temporary member of the Weasley family throughout the series , and in his treatment of first Rubeus Hagrid and later Remus Lupin and Sirius Black as father @-@ figures . = = Legacy = = = = = Sequels = = = The second book , Harry Potter and the Chamber of Secrets , was originally published in the UK on 2 July 1998 and in the US on 2 June 1999 . Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban was then published a year later in the UK on 8 July 1999 and in the US on 8 September 1999 . Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire was published on 8 July 2000 at the same time by Bloomsbury and Scholastic . Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the longest book in the series at 766 pages in the UK version and 870 pages in the US version . It was published worldwide in English on 21 June 2003 . Harry Potter and the Half @-@ Blood Prince was published on 16 July 2005 and sold 11 million copies in the first 24 hours of its worldwide release . The seventh and final novel , Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows , was published on 21 July 2007 . The book sold 11 million copies within 24 hours of its release : 2 @.@ 7 million copies in the UK and 8 @.@ 3 million in the US . = = = Film version = = = In 1999 , Rowling sold the film rights of the first four Harry Potter books to Warner Bros. for a reported £ 1 million ( $ 1 @,@ 982 @,@ 900 ) . Rowling demanded that the principal cast be kept strictly British but allowed for the casting of Irish actors such as the late Richard Harris as Dumbledore and of foreign actors as characters of the same nationalities in later books . After extensive casting , filming began in September 2000 at Leavesden Film Studios and in London , with production ending in July 2001 . Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone was released in London on 14 November 2001 . Reviewers ' comments were positive , as reflected by an 80 % Fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes and by a score of 64 % at Metacritic , representing " generally favourable reviews " . = = = Video games = = = Five unique video games by different developers were released between 2001 and 2003 by Electronic Arts , loosely based on the film and book : = = = Uses in education and business = = = Writers on education and business subjects have used the book as an object lesson . Writing about clinical teaching in medical schools , Jennifer Conn contrasted Snape 's technical expertise with his intimidating behaviour towards students ; on the other hand Quidditch coach Madam Hooch illustrated useful techniques in the teaching of physical skills , including breaking down complex actions into sequences of simple ones and helping students to avoid common errors . Joyce Fields wrote that the books illustrate four of the five main topics in a typical first @-@ year sociology class : " sociological concepts including culture , society , and socialisation ; stratification and social inequality ; social institutions ; and social theory " . Stephen Brown noted that the early Harry Potter books , especially Harry Potter and the Philosopher 's Stone , were a runaway success despite inadequate and poorly organised marketing . Brown advised marketing executives to be less preoccupied with rigorous statistical analyses and the " analysis , planning , implementation , and control " model of management . Instead he recommended that they should treat the stories as " a marketing masterclass " , full of enticing products and brand names . For example , a real @-@ world analogue of Bertie Bott 's Every Flavour Beans was introduced under licence in 2000 by toymaker Hasbro . = = Release history = = = Kenilworth Road = Kenilworth Road is a football stadium in Luton , Bedfordshire , England . It has been home to Luton Town Football Club since 1905 when they left Dunstable Road . The ground has also hosted women 's and youth international matches . The 10 @,@ 356 all @-@ seater stadium is situated in Bury Park , one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of the centre of Luton . It is named after the road which runs along one end of it , but the official address is 1 Maple Road . Kenilworth Road hosted football in the Southern League until 1920 , then in the Football League until 2009 , when Luton were relegated to the Conference Premier . It has hosted Football League matches once more since 2014 . The ground is known for the artificial playing surface which was present from 1985 to 1991 , the unusual entrance to the Oak Road End , and the five @-@ season ban on away supporters that Luton Town imposed following a riot by visiting fans in 1985 . Floodlights were fitted in 1953 , and the ground became all @-@ seated in 1986 . The record attendance of 30 @,@ 069 was set in 1959 , in an FA Cup sixth round replay against Blackpool . = = History = = Luton Town moved to Kenilworth Road in 1905 , leaving their previous home at Dunstable Road after their landlord sold the site for housing at short notice . The club 's directors quickly procured a new site , and the club 's first match at the new ground came on 4 September 1905 — a 0 – 0 draw against Plymouth Argyle . Watford player C. Barnes scored the first ever goal at the stadium , in a reserve match . Originally known as Ivy Road , the new ground brought success with it — in their last season at Dunstable Road , Luton had finished second from bottom , but in the first at Kenilworth Road , Luton finished fourth in the Southern League . The ground has undergone several major changes since its original construction in 1905 . The original Main Stand , boasting a press loft and a balcony above the roof , burnt down in 1921 , and was replaced by the current stand before the 1922 – 23 campaign . The new Main Stand was split into two : the upper tier contained wooden seats , so there was a ban on smoking in the stand ; the lower tier , which became known as the Enclosure , was terracing . When attendances were first counted , in 1932 – 33 , Luton Town 's average home attendance was taken at 5 @,@ 868 . Kenilworth Road 's capacity of the time was 25 @,@ 000 , so it was not deemed necessary to improve the ground . However , only three years later , on 25 April 1936 , a match against Coventry City attracted 23 @,@ 142 spectators — at that time a club record . The decision was taken to renovate the stadium , already in disrepair , and work began at the end of the following season . The Kenilworth End terrace was extended , the Oak Road End received a roof and major work was done on the Main Stand . Following these steps , the ground was more in line with those of rival clubs , the capacity standing at 30 @,@ 000 . The first ten years following Kenilworth Road 's renovation saw average attendances of between 15 @,@ 000 and 18 @,@ 000 ; a huge improvement on what the club had previously been able to attract . Floodlights were installed at the ground before the 1953 – 54 season , and used for the first time in a friendly against Turkish side Fenerbahçe on 7 October 1953 . The Oak Road terrace was extended in 1955 , and promotion to the First Division for 1955 – 56 saw the average attendance climb as high as 21 @,@ 454 . Renovation of Kenilworth Road was neglected for the next two decades — financial difficulties and the club 's ambitions to build a new ground meant that regeneration was unaffordable , and would also prove unnecessary should relocation occur . However , following the rejection of several potential sites for a new ground , the club finally turned their attentions back to the maintenance of Kenilworth Road . The first real modernisation of the ground came in 1973 , with the first addition of seats at the stadium since the construction of the new Main Stand in 1922 . The Bobbers Stand became all @-@ seated , while the rest of the ground remained terracing . The new @-@ look stand could only hold 1 @,@ 539 seats , and as a result the capacity of the ground dropped to 22 @,@ 601 . A £ 1 million refubishment got under way in 1985 with the introduction of artificial turf , as well as the conversion of the ground to all @-@ seater , which began a year later in 1986 . The Oak Road End was filled with seats , while the Bobbers Stand had its seats ripped out to be replaced with executive boxes . The Main Stand 's enclosure received seats , and work also began on converting the Kenilworth Stand , which had a roof added at this time . The stand would also receive seats in stages over the coming years . The David Preece Stand was erected in 1991 , simply called the New Stand on construction . The final improvements to the ground came in 2005 , when the conversion of the Kenilworth Stand was finally completed to bring the capacity to its present 10 @,@ 356 . On 24 March 2015 the ground was officially renamed " The Prostate Cancer UK Stadium " for one day , for the game against Wycombe Wanderers , in support of charity and raising awareness of prostate cancer . = = = Artificial pitch = = = In 1985 , following the lead of Queen Park Rangers ' experiment at Loftus Road four years earlier , the grass pitch was dug up and replaced with an artificial playing surface . The surface , called Sporturf Professional , was manufactured by En @-@ Tout @-@ Cas , and cost the club £ 350 @,@ 000 . The first match on the new pitch was a 1 – 1 draw with Nottingham Forest . The new surface became exceedingly unpopular — derided as " the plastic pitch " , other clubs were starting to protest about Luton 's artificial pitch by 1989 . A meeting was held with other major clubs , mediated by a Football League Commission . The League Commission concluded that the pitch had suffered too much wear and tear from excessive use , and Luton installed a new surface during the summer of 1989 , at the cost of £ 60 @,@ 000 . This new artificial pitch was dug up during the summer of 1991 , as the surfaces were banned from English football . = = = Away fan ban = = = On 13 March 1985 , Millwall visited Kenilworth Road for an FA Cup sixth round match . After only 14 minutes the match was halted as the visiting fans began to riot . The referee took both teams off for 25 minutes , before bringing them back on to complete the match . Following the final whistle , and a 1 – 0 victory for Luton , another pitch invasion and subsequent riot by away supporters caused noticeable damage to the ground and the surrounding area . Many of those arrested turned out to be supporters of teams other than Millwall . The club 's chairman , David Evans , reacted by imposing a ban on all away supporters from Kenilworth Road from the start of 1986 – 87 , as well as introducing a scheme that would require even home supporters to carry membership cards to be admitted to matches . The Football League insisted that Luton relax the ban for League Cup matches , but when Evans refused to allow Cardiff City fans to visit Kenilworth Road for their second round tie , the club were thrown out of the competition . The ban continued for four seasons , with exceptions for cup matches , before Luton Town repealed the ban before the 1990 – 91 season . = = = Ownership = = = The ground was first constructed in 1905 , soon before the club moved in . The club rented the ground until 1933 , when newly appointed chairman Charles Jeyes organised the purchase of the stadium . The club retained ownership of the ground until February 1989 , when the freehold was sold to Luton Borough Council for £ 3 @.@ 25 million . The club was granted a seven @-@ year lease at peppercorn rent for its continued use . This arrangement has been extended several times , and as of 2015 is due to end in 2028 . = = Structure and facilities = = The ground is made up of five stands — opposite the eponymous Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End , and to the left is the Main Stand , which is flanked to its right by the David Preece Stand . Opposite them stand a row of executive boxes . The Main Stand covers approximately two thirds of the length of the pitch , though the attached enclosure is longer , covering the whole distance . The Main Stand , which seats 4 @,@ 277 fans , also contains the dressing rooms , club offices and television gantry , as well as a number of supporting pillars , a car park and the Nick Owen and Eric Morecambe suites . To the Main Stand 's right , in the corner above the end of the enclosure and next to the Kenilworth Stand , is the David Preece Stand , a family area which seats 711 spectators . The David Preece Stand acquired its present name in 2008 , a year after the former player 's death . Opposite the Main and Preece Stands are 25 executive boxes , which have an attached net to catch balls directed over them and a total capacity of 209 . The Bobbers Stand stood here until 1986 , when the seats were removed from the stand and replaced with the boxes . To the right of the Main Stand is the 3 @,@ 229 @-@ seater Kenilworth Stand , which backs onto Kenilworth Road . The Club Shop is behind this stand , which was once an open terrace but is now a roofed all @-@ seater stand . In the corner between the Kenilworth Stand and the boxes is the stadium clock . Opposite the Kenilworth Stand is the Oak Road End , which bears an electronic scoreboard on its roof and can seat a maximum of 1 @,@ 800 fans . Originally a home section , the Oak Road End was turned into a stand for away fans only at the start of the 1991 – 92 season . Early in the 2013 – 14 season , the Oak Road End was re @-@ opened for home supporters for fixtures where visiting support was predicted to be especially low , with the section for away fans moved to A Block of the Kenilworth Stand for these games . Later that season , it was announced that the stand was available for shared use between both home and away supporters , increasing Kenilworth Road 's home capacity by 15 % . The Oak Road End has an entrance that is often considered unusual , requiring spectators to go through an entrance built into the row of houses and up stairs to the stand . = = Future = = Luton Town have been looking for a new ground since 1955 , when club chairman Percy Mitchell spoke of building a stadium " to hold 35 @,@ 000 in comfort ... [ and ] get a lot of support which goes to London at the moment " . However , due to unstable finances and an inability to find a site , no ground was built . The club proposed a move to Milton Keynes in 1982 — according to The Luton News , to play as " MK Hatters " in a " super @-@ stadium " — but this was prevented by vehement protests in Luton , where supporters against such a move marched through the town to display their feelings . Despite consistent fan opposition to the idea , relocation up the M1 motorway to the new town was raised several more times over the next two decades ; for example , The Football League refused Luton permission to move to Milton Keynes in 2000 , saying that a member club was not allowed to leave its home town . Wimbledon F.C. was granted permission to relocate there in 2002 , did so a year later and became Milton Keynes Dons in 2004 . Luton have only managed to get as far as a planning application for a new ground once , when chairman David Kohler 's Kohlerdome was proposed in 1995 . The Kohlerdome was envisioned by Kohler as a 20 @,@ 000 all @-@ seater indoor arena with a retractable roof and pitch , hosting 85 capacity events each year . Kohler 's plans , though ambitious , were perhaps not very realistic — the plans were turned down by the Secretary of State in 1998 , with the reason given that the ground was not feasible unless the M1 motorway was widened . Kohler put the club on the market upon the plan 's rejection and after a period under Cliff Bassett , the club came under the control of Mike Watson @-@ Challis in 2000 . Watson @-@ Challis bought 55 acres ( 220 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land by Junction 10 of the M1 in 2001 , intending to move the club there , but once again , nothing came of the scheme . Most recently , in 2007 , Jayten Stadium Limited were hoping to relocate the club to a new purpose built stadium at Junction 12 , near Harlington and Toddington . This plan was very unpopular with both Luton Town supporters and the local authorities , but a planning application was still submitted by former chairman Bassett on the club 's behalf . The application was withdrawn by the club almost immediately after the takeover by Nick Owen 's Luton Town Football Club 2020 consortium in 2008 . As of 2012 , the club is undertaking an independent feasibility study to determine a viable location to move to . Sites mooted include a ground built as part of a new housing development to the west of Luton and a site by the proposed Junction 11A of the M1 , which is the preferred site of the local authorities . Luton Town did not rule out staying at a redeveloped Kenilworth Road , entering talks to buy the stadium back from the council in October 2012 , but by mid @-@ 2015 these plans had been dropped in favour of a move to a new location . Managing Director Gary Sweet confirmed that the club was in a position to " buy land , secure the best possible professional advice ... and to see the [ planning ] application process through to the receipt of consent . " The club announced its new preferred location in December 2015 — Power Court in central Luton , near the Mall and St Anne 's Church . The proposals describe a 17 @,@ 500 @-@ seater stadium ready for the start of the 2020 – 21 season . = = Other uses = = Kenilworth Road has been used occasionally by the England women 's team . The inaugural UEFA Women 's Championship in 1984 saw Kenilworth Road play host to the second leg of the Final against Sweden , won by Sweden on penalties . The most recent use of the stadium by the women 's team was a 4 – 2 victory over Spain on 22 March 2001 . Kenilworth Road has been used by England 's under @-@ 17 team since the 1970s , most recently in a 3 – 0 win over their Italian counterparts in the 2007 FA International Tournament Final . The ground is home to the Hatters Study Support Centre , which provides local school pupils with ICT equipment , football training and lessons in numeracy and literacy . Kenilworth Road also hosts a number of local tournaments and events , including an annual youth competition organised by London Luton Airport . = = Records = = The highest attendance record at this stadium was 30 @,@ 069 against Blackpool in the FA Cup on 4 March 1959 . The highest attendance in the Football League was 27 @,@ 911 against Wolverhampton Wanderers in Division One on 5 November 1955 . The highest seasonal average for Luton at Kenilworth Road was 21 @,@ 455 in the 1955 – 56 season . Luton 's lowest seasonal average was 5 @,@ 527 in 1998 – 99 . The most recent season in which the average attendance was more than 10 @,@ 000 was in the 1990 – 91 season , when the seasonal average was 10 @,@ 313 . = = Transport = = The ground is located about half a mile away from Luton railway station , which lies on the Midland Main Line between London 's St Pancras railway station and Leeds 's City station . Many of the roads near the ground are for residential permit holders only , meaning car parking at the ground is notoriously difficult . The number 31 bus , which is operated by Arriva and runs every ten minutes from outside the railway station , stops at the junction of Oak Road and Dunstable Road . The Luton to Dunstable Busway includes a terminal behind the Main Stand on Clifton Road as part of the A , B , C and E routes running between London Luton Airport and Houghton Regis . = Edwin Taylor Pollock = Edwin Taylor Pollock ( October 25 , 1870 – June 4 , 1943 ) was a career officer in the United States Navy , serving in the Spanish – American War and in World War I. He was later promoted to the rank of captain . Like many naval officers , his name was often abbreviated using initials : E. T. Pollock . As a young ensign , Pollock served aboard USS New York during the Spanish – American War . After the war , he rose through the ranks , served on several ships , and did important research into wireless communication . In 1917 , less than a week before the United States entered World War I , he won a race against a fellow officer to receive the U.S. Virgin Islands from Denmark , and served as the territory 's first acting governor . During the war , he was promoted to captain and a vessel under his command transported 60 @,@ 000 American soldiers to France , for which he was awarded a Navy Cross . Afterward , he was made the eighth Naval Governor of American Samoa and then the superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory , before retiring in 1927 . = = Early career = = Originally from Mount Gilead , Ohio , Pollock attended the United States Naval Academy and , as a midshipman , was assigned to USS Lancaster and USS Monocacy . He graduated with a rank of ensign in 1893 . After graduation , Pollock returned to Ohio and married Beatrice E. Law Hale on December 5 . Two weeks later , he was assigned to the cruiser USS New York during its initial shake @-@ down . He was subsequently assigned to the gunboat USS Machias for an expedition to China . He remained in China for two and a half years as part of the Asiatic Squadron , then transferring to USS Detroit before returning home in 1897 . On his return home , the Spanish – American War was heating up and he was reassigned to the New York , to see service in Cuba and Puerto Rico , eventually taking part in the Battle of Santiago de Cuba . In January 1900 , he was promoted to lieutenant and assigned to USS Alliance . Over the following year he served on USS Dolphin and USS Buffalo . On board the Buffalo , he returned to the Asiatic Squadron near China and was finally transferred to USS Brooklyn , the squadron 's flagship . He remained on board the Brooklyn , until its return home in May 1902 . After a brief leave , Pollock was assigned to the USS Chesapeake ( as the watch and division officer ) , a position he held for more than one year . He was transferred to USS Cincinnati , serving for another year , and then to Cavite Naval Base . At Cavite , he was promoted to lieutenant commander in February 1906 . His first duty as a lieutenant commander was on USS Alabama , as the navigator . In 1910 , Pollock was reassigned to USS Massachusetts , where he was promoted to commander in March 1911 . On his promotion , Pollock commanded USS Virginia and USS Kearsarge , before being transferred to the United States Naval Observatory . During his command of the Kearsarge , Pollock briefly commanded USS Salem for a world @-@ record setting wireless experiment . For this feat , the Salem was outfitted with 16 different wireless telegraph technologies and sailed to Gibraltar , with Pollock commanding . On arrival , they tested these technologies and set a world @-@ record for longest wireless telegraph distance , 2 @,@ 400 miles ( 3 @,@ 900 km ) , using a " Poulsen Apparatus " , based on principles by Valdemar Poulsen . Experiments were also conducted to determine wireless characteristics during inclement weather and during both the day and night . In 1916 , he was put in command of USS Alabama , the ship on which he had been the navigator . = = U.S. Virgin Islands = = In the final days before the entrance of the United States into World War I , the US military was concerned that Germany was planning to purchase or seize the Danish West Indies for use as a submarine or zeppelin base . At the time , Charlotte Amalie on Saint Thomas was considered the best port in the Caribbean outside of Cuba , and Coral Bay on Saint John was considered the safest harbor in the area . Although the United States was not yet at war with Germany , the US signed a treaty to purchase the territory from Denmark for 25 million dollars on March 28 , 1917 . President Woodrow Wilson nominated James Harrison Oliver to be the first military governor . The United States announced plans to build a naval base in the territory to aid in the protection of the Panama Canal . Oliver was unable to travel immediately to the Islands and the honor of being the first Acting Governor of the United States Virgin Islands was decided in an unusual way . Both Pollock , commanding USS Hancock , and B. B. Blerer 's USS Olympia were dispatched to the Islands in a race . The commander of the ship that arrived first would officiate at the transfer ceremony and be acting governor . Pollock arrived first and the transfer ceremony took place on March 31 , 1917 , on Saint Thomas . Blerer officiated at a smaller ceremony on Saint Croix . Present for the handover was the crew of the Danish station cruiser Valkyrien and the former island legislature . The United States declared war on Germany on April 6 , less than a week after securing the islands . Oliver was confirmed by Congress on April 20 and relieved Pollock as governor . = = World War I = = During the war , Pollock was appointed as Captain on USS George Washington , a German cruise liner which was seized by the United States government for use as a military transport ship . She was rechristened George Washington in September 1917 and Pollock was given her command on October 1 , 1917 . That December , she set out with her first load of troops . During the war , Pollock successfully transported 60 @,@ 000 American soldiers to France in 18 round trips . In 1918 , the George Washington was tasked to deliver President Woodrow Wilson to the Paris Peace Conference , though Pollock would not make the trip . He was reassigned on September 29 , 1918 . While on board the George Washington , Pollock and Chaplain Paul F. Bloomhardt edited a daily newspaper . After the war , stories from the paper were assembled and published in 1919 by J. J. Little & Ives co. as Hatchet of the United States Ship " George Washington " . A short review of the work by Outlook magazine called the book " readable " and " admirably illustrated " . It " abounds in clever bits of fun , queer and notable incidents , and sound and patriotic editorials . " After the war , he was eventually reassigned to the battleship USS Oklahoma , to serve in the Pacific fleet . On November 10 , 1920 , Pollock was awarded a Navy Cross for his services during the war . = = American Samoa = = On November 30 , 1921 , Pollock was transferred from command of the Oklahoma to become the Military Governor of American Samoa . Events both personal and political had led to a previous governor , Warren Terhune 's , suicide on November 3 , 1920 , and the appointment of Governor Waldo A. Evans to conduct a court of inquiry into the situation and to restore order . Pollock succeeded Evans , who had successfully restored the government and productivity of the islands after a period of unrest . At this time , American Samoa was administered by a team of twelve officers and a governor , with a total population of approximately 8 @,@ 000 people . The islands were primarily important due to the excellent harbor at Pago Pago . Beginning in 1920 , a Mau movement , from the Samoan word for " opposition " , was forming in American Samoa in protest of several Naval government policies , some of which had been implemented by Terhune but which were not revoked following his death , which natives ( and some non @-@ natives ) found heavy @-@ handed . The movement itself may have been inspired by a different and older Mau movement in nearby Western Samoa , against the German and then New Zealand colonial powers . Some of the initial grievances of the movement included the quality of roads in the territory , a marriage law which largely forbade natives from marrying non @-@ natives , and a justice system which discriminated against locals in part because laws were not often available in Samoan . In addition , the United States Navy also prohibited an assembly of Samoan chiefs , whom the movement considered the real government of the territory . Surprisingly , the movement had grown to include several prominent officers of former Governor Terhune 's staff , including his executive officer . It culminated in a proclamation by Samuel S. Ripley , an American Samoan from an afakasi or mixed @-@ blood Samoan family , with large communal property in the islands , that he was the leader of a legitimate successor government to pre @-@ 1899 Samoa . Evans also met with the high chiefs and secured their assent to continued Naval government . Ripley , who had traveled to Washington to meet with Secretary of the Navy Edwin C. Denby , was not permitted by Evans to enter the port at American Samoa and returned to exile in California , where he later became the mayor of Richmond . After being appointed as governor , Pollock 's continued the colonization work started by his predecessor . Prior to traveling to the territory , he met with Ripley in San Francisco , California . Although Ripley maintained that American " occupation " of Samoa was usurpation , he agreed to allow Pollock to govern unfettered and to provide him with copies of his letters . Almost immediately after arriving on the island , Pollock and Secretary of Native Affairs S. D. Hall met with representatives of the Mau , becoming the first governor to do so . Shortly afterwards , some members of the Mau disbanded , though the movement would continue in some form for another 13 years . Pollock 's remaining time as governor was less eventful . While exploring Tonga in May 1923 , he discovered a turtle which had been branded by Captain Cook on his expedition there in 1773 . The turtle was thus known to have lived more than 150 years . He was ordered home on July 26 , 1923 . = = United States Naval Observatory = = Immediately on leaving Samoa , Pollock was appointed superintendent of the United States Naval Observatory in Washington , D.C. , replacing outgoing Rear Admiral William D. MacDougal . On August 22 , 1924 , Mars came within 34 @,@ 630 @,@ 000 miles ( 55 @,@ 730 @,@ 000 km ) of Earth . The US Naval Observatory made no formal observations of the planet , but Pollock and the son of astronomer Asaph Hall ceremonially re @-@ enacted Hall 's 1877 discoveries of the moons Phobos and Deimos with his original 17 @-@ inch ( 430 mm ) telescope . They also made observations to calculate the masses of the two moons . On January 24 , 1925 , Pollock commanded the dirigible USS Los Angeles on a flight from Lakehurst , New Jersey , to photograph a solar eclipse from an altitude of 8 @,@ 000 feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m ) . This was the first time an eclipse had been photographed from the air . = = After retirement = = Pollock retired from service in 1927 and was replaced as superintendent by Captain Charles F. Freeman . In 1930 , Pollock and his wife purchased a summer home in Jamestown , Rhode Island , while continuing to maintain their main residence in Washington , D.C. In 1932 , he was made a director of the Jamestown Historical Society . He also became interested in genealogy and published several works on his family 's history through the 1930s . He died on June 4 , 1943 , after a long illness and was buried in Arlington National Cemetery on June 7 , 1943 . = = Works = = Hatchet of the United States Ship " George Washington " , edited by Pollock and Paul F. Bloomhardt . A compilation of stories from The Hatchet , a daily printed on board the George Washington during the First World War . Published 1919 . = Assassination of Spencer Perceval = Spencer Perceval , the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland , was shot and killed in the lobby of the House of Commons in London , at about 5 : 15 pm on Monday 11 May 1812 . His assailant was John Bellingham , a Liverpool merchant with a grievance against the government . Bellingham was detained and , four days after the murder , was tried , convicted and sentenced to death . He was hanged at Newgate Prison on 18 May . Perceval had led the Tory government since 1809 , during a critical phase of the Napoleonic Wars . His determination to prosecute the war using the harshest of measures caused widespread poverty and unrest on the home front ; thus the news of his death was a cause of rejoicing in the worst affected parts of the country . Despite initial fears that the assassination might be linked to a general uprising , it transpired that Bellingham had acted alone , protesting against the government 's failure to compensate him for his treatment a few years previously , when he had been imprisoned in Russia for a trading debt . Bellingham 's lack of remorse , and apparent certainty that his action was justified , raised questions about his sanity , but at his trial he was judged to be legally responsible for his actions . After Perceval 's death , Parliament made generous provision to his widow and children , and approved the erection of monuments . Thereafter his ministry was soon forgotten , his policies reversed , and he is generally better known for the manner of his death than for any of his achievements . Later historians have characterised Bellingham 's hasty trial and execution as contrary to the principles of justice . The possibility that he was acting within a conspiracy , on behalf of a consortium of Liverpool traders hostile to Perceval 's economic policies , is the subject of a 2012 study . = = Background = = = = = Biographical details = = = Spencer Perceval was born on 1 November 1762 , the second son from the second marriage of John Perceval , 2nd Earl of Egmont . He attended Harrow School and , in 1780 , entered Trinity College , Cambridge , where he was a noted scholar and prizewinner . A deeply religious boy , at Cambridge he became closely aligned with evangelicalism , to which he remained faithful all his life . Under the rule of primogeniture , Perceval had no realistic prospect of a family inheritance , and needed to earn his living ; on leaving Cambridge in 1783 , he entered Lincoln 's Inn to train as a lawyer . After being called to the bar in 1786 , Perceval joined the Midland Circuit , where his family connections helped him to acquire a lucrative practice . In 1790 he married Jane Wilson , the couple having eloped on her 21st birthday . The marriage proved happy and prolific ; twelve children ( six sons and six daughters ) were born over the following 14 years . Perceval 's politics were highly conservative , and he acquired a reputation for his attacks on radicalism . As a junior prosecuting counsel in the trials of Thomas Paine and John Horne Tooke , he was noticed by senior politicians in the ruling Pitt ministry . In 1796 , having refused the post of Chief Secretary for Ireland , Perceval was elected to parliament as the Tory member for Northampton , and won acclaim in 1798 with a speech defending Pitt 's government against attacks by the radicals Charles James Fox and Francis Burdett . He was generally seen as a rising star in his party ; his short stature and slight build earned him the nickname " Little P " . After William Pitt 's resignation in 1801 , Perceval served as Solicitor General , and then as Attorney General , in the Addington ministry of 1801 – 04 , continuing in the latter office through Pitt 's second government , 1804 – 06 . Perceval 's deep evangelical convictions led him to his unwavering opposition to the Catholic Church and to Catholic emancipation , and his equally fervent support for the abolition of the slave trade , when he worked with fellow evangelicals such as William Wilberforce to secure the passage of the Slave Trade Act 1807 . When Pitt died in 1806 his government was succeeded by the cross @-@ party " Ministry of All the Talents " , under Lord Grenville . Perceval remained in opposition during this short @-@ lived ministry , but when the Duke of Portland formed a new Tory administration in March 1807 , Perceval took office as Chancellor of the Exchequer and Leader of the House of Commons . Portland was elderly and ailing , and on his resignation in October 1809 , Perceval succeeded him as First Lord of the Treasury — the formal title by which prime ministers were then known — after a wounding internecine leadership struggle . In addition to his duties as head of the government he retained the Chancellorship , largely because he could find no minister of appropriate stature who would accept the office . = = = Troubled times = = = Perceval 's government was weakened by the refusals to serve of former ministers such as George Canning and William Huskisson . It faced massive problems at a time of considerable industrial unrest and at a low point in the war against Napoleon . The unsuccessful Walcheren Campaign in the Netherlands was unravelling , and the army of Sir Arthur Wellesley , the future Duke of Wellington , was pinned down in Portugal . At the outset of his ministry Perceval enjoyed the strong support of King George III , but in October 1810 the king lapsed into insanity and was permanently incapacitated . Perceval 's relationship with the Prince of Wales , who became Prince Regent , was initially far less cordial , but in the following months he and Perceval established a reasonable affinity , perhaps motivated in part by the prince 's fear that the king might recover and find his favourite statesman deposed . When the final British forces withdrew from Walcheren in February 1810 , Wellington 's force in Portugal was Britain 's only military presence on the continent of Europe . Perceval insisted that it stayed there , against the advice of most of his ministers and at great cost to the British exchequer . Ultimately this decision was vindicated , but for the time being his main weapon against Napoleon was the Orders in Council of 1807 , inherited from the previous ministry . These had been issued as a tit @-@ for @-@ tat response to Napoleon 's Continental System , a measure designed to destroy Britain 's overseas trade . The Orders permitted the Royal Navy to detain any ship thought to be carrying goods to France or its continental allies . With both warring powers employing similar strategies , world trade shrank , leading to widespread hardship and dissatisfaction in key British industries , particularly textiles and cotton . There were frequent calls for modification or repeal of the Orders , which damaged relations with the United States to the point that , by early 1812 , the two nations were on the brink of war . At home , Perceval upheld his earlier reputation as scourge of radicals , imprisoning Burdett and William Cobbett , the latter of whom continued to attack the government from his prison cell . Perceval was also faced with the anti @-@ machine protests known as " Luddism " , to which he reacted by introducing a bill making machine @-@ breaking a capital offence ; in the House of Lords the youthful Lord Byron called the legislation " barbarous " . Despite these difficulties Perceval gradually established his authority , so that in 1811 Lord Liverpool , the war minister , observed that the Prime Minister 's authority in the House now equalled that of Pitt . Perceval 's use of sinecures and other patronage to secure loyalties meant that by May 1812 , despite much public protest against his harsh policies , his political position had become unassailable . According to the humorist Sydney Smith , Perceval combined " the head of a country parson with the tongue of an Old Bailey lawyer " . Early in 1812 agitation for repeal of the Orders in Council increased . After riots in Manchester in April , Perceval consented to a House of Commons enquiry into the operation of the Orders ; hearings began in May . Perceval was expected to attend the session on 11 May 1812 ; among the crowd in the lobby awaiting his arrival was a Liverpool merchant , John Bellingham . = = John Bellingham = = = = = Early life = = = Bellingham was born in about 1770 , in the county of Huntingdonshire . His father , also named John , was a land agent and miniaturist painter ; his mother Elizabeth was from a well @-@ to @-@ do Huntingdonshire family . In 1779 John senior became mentally ill , and , after confinement in an asylum , died in 1780 or 1781 . The family were then provided for by William Daw , Elizabeth 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , a prosperous lawyer who arranged Bellingham 's appointment as an officer cadet on board the East India Company 's ship Hartwell . En route to India the ship was wrecked ; Bellingham survived and returned home . Daw then helped him to set up in business as a tin plate manufacturer in London , but after a few years the business failed , and Bellingham was made bankrupt in 1794 . He appears to have escaped debtors ' prison , perhaps through the further intervention of Daw . Chastened by this experience , he decided to settle down , and obtained a post as a book @-@ keeper with a firm engaged in trade with Russia . He worked hard , and was sufficiently regarded by his employers to be appointed in 1800 as the firm 's resident representative in Archangel , Russia . On his return home , Bellingham set up his own trading business , and moved to Liverpool . In 1803 he married Mary Neville from Dublin . = = = In Russia = = = In 1804 Bellingham returned to Archangel to supervise a major commercial venture , accompanied by Mary and their infant son . His business completed , in November he prepared to return home , but was detained on account of a supposed unpaid debt . This arose from losses incurred by a business associate for which Bellingham was deemed liable . He denied any responsibility for the debt ; his detention , he thought , was an act of revenge by powerful Russian merchants who — erroneously — thought that he had frustrated an insurance claim relating to a lost ship . Two arbitrators appointed by the governor of Archangel determined that he was responsible for a sum of 2 @,@ 000 roubles ( about £ 200 ) , a fraction of the original amount claimed . Bellingham rejected this judgement . With the issue still unresolved , Bellingham obtained passes for him and his family to travel to the Russian capital , St Petersburg . In February 1805 , as they prepared to set out , Bellingham 's pass was revoked ; Mary and the child were permitted to proceed , but he was arrested and imprisoned in Archangel . When he sought help from Lord Granville Leveson @-@ Gower , the British ambassador in St Petersburg , the matter was dealt with by the British consul , Sir Stephen Shairp , who informed Bellingham that as the dispute involved a civil debt , he could not interfere . Bellingham remained in custody in Archangel until November 1805 , when a new city governor ordered his release and allowed him to join Mary in St Petersburg . Here , instead of arranging his family 's swift return to England , Bellingham laid charges against the Archangel authorities for false imprisonment , and demanded compensation . In doing so he outraged the Russian authorities , who in June 1806 ordered his imprisonment . According to his later account , he was " often marched publicly through the city with gangs of felons and criminals of the worse description [ to the ] heart @-@ rending humiliation of himself " . Mary had meanwhile returned to England with her son ( she was pregnant with her second child ) , eventually settling in Liverpool where she set up a millinery business with a friend , Mary Stevens . For the next three years Bellingham made constant demands for release and compensation , seeking help from Shairp , Leveson @-@ Gower , and the latter 's successor as ambassador , Lord Douglas . None were prepared to intercede on his behalf : " Thus " , he later wrote when petitioning for redress , " without having offended any law , either civil or criminal , and without having injured any individual ... was your Petitioner bandied from one prison to another " . Bellingham 's position worsened in 1807 , when Russia signed the Treaty of Tilsit and aligned itself with Napoleon . Two further years passed before , after a direct petition to Tsar Alexander , he was released and ordered to leave Russia . He arrived in England , uncompensated , in December 1809 , determined to secure justice . = = = Seeking redress = = = On his return to England Bellingham spent six months in London , seeking compensation for the imprisonment and financial losses he had suffered in Russia . He considered the British authorities were responsible , through their neglect of his repeated requests for help . Successively he petitioned the Foreign Office , the Treasury , the Privy Council , and Perceval himself ; in each case his claims were politely rejected . Defeated and exhausted , in May 1811 Bellingham accepted his wife 's ultimatum to abandon his campaign or otherwise lose her and his family . He joined her in Liverpool to begin life afresh . During the following 18 months , Bellingham worked to rebuild his commercial career , with modest success . Mary continued to work as a milliner . The fact that he remained uncompensated continued to rankle . In December 1811 he returned to London , ostensibly to conduct business there , but in reality to resume his campaign for redress . He petitioned the Prince Regent , before resuming his efforts with the Privy Council , the Home Office and the Treasury , only to receive the same polite refusals as before . He then sent a copy of his petition to every member of parliament , again to no avail . On 23 March 1812 he wrote to the magistrates at Bow Street Magistrates ' Court , arguing that the government had " completely endeavoured to close the door of justice " , and asking the court to intervene . He received a perfunctory reply . After consulting his own MP , Isaac Gascoyne , Bellingham made a final attempt to present his case to the government . On 18 April he met with a Treasury official , Mr Hill , to whom he said that if he could get no satisfaction , he would take justice into his own hands . Hill , not perceiving these words as a threat , told him he should take whatever action he deemed proper . On 20 April , Bellingham purchased two .50 calibre ( 12 @.@ 7 mm ) pistols from a gunsmith of 58 Skinner Street . He also had a tailor sew an inside pocket to his coat . = = Assassination = = = = = House of Commons , 11 May 1812 = = = Bellingham 's presence in the House of Commons lobby on Monday 11 May , caused no particular suspicion ; he had made several recent visits , sometimes asking journalists to confirm specific ministers ' identities . Bellingham 's activities earlier that day did not overtly indicate a man preparing desperate measures . He had spent the morning writing letters and visiting his wife 's business partner , Mary Stevens , who was in London at the time . In the afternoon he had accompanied his landlady and her son on a visit to the European Museum , in the St James 's district of London . From there he made his way alone to the parliament buildings in Westminster , arriving in the lobby shortly before five o 'clock . In the House , as the session began at 4 @.@ 30 pm , the Whig MP Henry Brougham , a leading opponent of the Orders , drew attention to the Prime Minister 's absence and remarked that he ought to be there . A messenger was sent to fetch Perceval from Downing Street , but met him in Parliament Street ( Perceval having decided to walk and dispense with his usual carriage ) on his way to the House , where he arrived at about 5 @.@ 15 . As Perceval entered the lobby , he was confronted by Bellingham who , drawing a pistol , shot the Prime Minister in the chest . Perceval staggered forward a few steps and exclaimed " I am murdered ! " before falling face down at the feet of William Smith , the MP for Norwich . ( It was also variously reported Perceval had said " Murder " or " Oh my God " . ) Smith only realised that the victim was Perceval when he turned the body face upwards . By the time he had been carried into an adjoining room and propped up on a table with his feet on two chairs , he was senseless , although there was still a faint pulse . When a surgeon arrived a few minutes later , the pulse had stopped , and Perceval was declared dead . In the pandemonium that followed , Bellingham sat quietly on a bench as Perceval was carried into the Speaker 's quarters . In the lobby , such was the confusion that , according to a witness , had Bellingham " walked quietly out into the street , he would have escaped , and the committer of the murder would never have been known " . As it was , an official who had seen the shooting identified Bellingham , who was seized , disarmed , manhandled and searched . He remained calm , submitting to his captors without a struggle . When asked to explain his actions , he replied that he was rectifying a denial of justice on the part of the government . The Speaker ordered that Bellingham be transferred to the Serjeant @-@ at @-@ Arms 's quarters , where MPs who were also magistrates would conduct a committal hearing under the chairmanship of Harvey Christian Combe . The makeshift court heard evidence from eyewitnesses to the crime , and sent messengers to search Bellingham 's lodgings . The prisoner kept his composure throughout ; although warned against self @-@ incrimination , he insisted on explaining himself : " I have been ill @-@ treated ... I have sought redress in vain . I am a most unfortunate man and feel here " — placing hand on heart — " sufficient justification for what I have done . " He had , he said , exhausted all proper avenues , and had made it clear to the authorities that he proposed to take independent action . He had been told to do his worst : " I have obeyed them . I have done my worst , and I rejoice in the deed . " At around eight o 'clock , Bellingham was formally charged with Perceval 's murder , and was committed to Newgate Prison to await trial . = = = Reaction = = = Reports of the assassination spread quickly ; in his history of the times , Arthur Bryant records the crude delight with which the news was received by hungry workers who had received nothing but woe from Perceval 's government . In his prison cell , Cobbett understood their feelings ; the shooting had " ridded them of one whom they looked upon as the leader among those whom they thought totally bent on the destruction of their liberties " . The scenes outside the Palace of Westminster as Bellingham was taken out for transfer to Newgate were consistent with this mood ; Samuel Romilly , the law reformer and MP for Wareham , heard from the assembled crowd " the most savage expressions of joy and exultation ... accompanied with regret that others , and particularly the attorney general , had not shared the same fate " . The throng surged around the hackney coach carrying Bellingham ; many tried to shake his hand , others mounted the coach @-@ box and had to be beaten off with whips . He was hustled back into the building , and kept there until the disorder had died down sufficiently for him to be moved , with a full military escort . Among the governing classes there were initial fears that the assassination might be part of a general insurrection , or might spark one . The authorities took precautions ; the Foot Guards and mounted troops were deployed , as was the City militia , while local watches were reinforced . In contrast to the public 's evident approval of Bellingham 's actions , the mood among Perceval 's friends and colleagues was sombre and sorrowful . When parliament met the next day , George Canning spoke of " a man ... of whom it might with particular truth be said that , whatever was the strength of political hostility , he had never before that last calamity provoked a single enemy " . After further tributes from government and opposition members , the House moved a grant of £ 50 @,@ 000 and an annuity of £ 2 @,@ 000 to Perceval 's widow , which provision , slightly amended , was approved in June . The regard in which Perceval was held by his peers was made evident in an anonymous 1812 poem , " Universal Sympathy , or , The Martyr 'd Statesman " : = = Proceedings = = = = = Preliminaries = = = An inquest into Perceval 's death was held on 12 May , at the Rose and Crown public house in Downing Street . Among those who gave evidence were Gascoyne , Smith , and Joseph Hume , a doctor and Radical MP . He had helped to detain Bellingham , and now testified that from his controlled behaviour after the shooting , Bellingham appeared " perfectly sane " . The coroner duly registered the cause of death as " wilful murder by John Bellingham " . Armed with this verdict the Attorney General , Sir Vicary Gibbs , requested the Lord Chief Justice to arrange the earliest possible trial date . In Newgate prison , Bellingham was questioned by magistrates . His calm demeanour and poise led them , unlike Hume , to doubt his sanity , although his keepers had observed no signs of unbalanced behaviour . James Harmer , Bellingham 's solicitor , knew that insanity would provide the only conceivable defence for his client , and despatched agents to Liverpool to make enquiries there . While awaiting their reports he learned from an informant that Bellingham 's father had died insane ; he also heard evidence of Bellingham 's supposed derangement from Ann Billett , the prisoner 's cousin , who had known him from childhood . On 14 May a grand jury met in the Sessions House , Clerkenwell , and after hearing evidence from the eyewitnesses , found " a true Bill against John Bellingham for the murder of Spencer Perceval " . The trial was arranged to take place the next day , Friday 15 May 1812 , at the Old Bailey . When Bellingham received news of his forthcoming trial he asked Harmer to arrange for him to be represented in court by Brougham and Peter Alley , the latter an Irish lawyer with a reputation for flamboyance . Confident of his acquittal , Bellingham refused to discuss the case further with Harmer , and spent the afternoon and evening making notes . After drinking a glass of porter , he went to bed and slept soundly . = = = Trial = = = The trial began at the Old Bailey on Friday 15 May 1812 , under the presiding judge Sir James Mansfield , Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas . The prosecuting team was led by the Attorney General , Gibbs , whose assistants included William Garrow , himself a future Attorney General . Brougham having declined , Bellingham was represented by Alley , assisted by Henry Revell Reynolds . The law at that time limited the role of defending counsel in capital cases ; they could advise on points of law , and could examine and cross @-@ examine witnesses , but otherwise Bellingham would have to present his own defence . After Bellingham had entered a not guilty plea , Alley asked for a postponement to allow him time to locate witnesses who could attest to the prisoner 's insanity . This was opposed by Gibbs as a mere ploy to delay justice ; Mansfield concurred , and the trial proceeded . Gibbs then summarised the prisoner 's business activities before meeting misfortune in Russia — " whether through his own misconduct or by the justice or injustice of that country , I know not " . He recounted Bellingham 's unsuccessful efforts to obtain redress , and the consequent growth of a desire for revenge . Having described the shooting , Gibbs dismissed the possibility of insanity , maintaining that Bellingham was , at the time of the deed , fully in control of his actions . Numerous eyewitnesses testified to what they had seen in the Commons lobby . The court also heard from a tailor who , shortly before the attack had , on Bellingham 's instructions , modified the latter 's coat by adding a special inside pocket , in which Bellingham had concealed his pistols . When Bellingham rose , he thanked the attorney general for rejecting the " insanity " strategy : " I think it is far more fortunate that such a plea ... should have been unfounded , than it should have existed in fact " . He began his defence by asserting that " all the miseries which it is possible for human nature to endure " had fallen on him . He then read the petition that he had sent to the Prince Regent , and recalled his fruitless dealings with various government agencies . In his view the principal blame lay not with " that truly amiable and highly lamented individual , Mr Perceval " , but with Leveson @-@ Gower , the ambassador in St Petersburg who he felt had originally denied him justice , and who he said deserved the shot rather than the eventual victim . Bellingham 's main witnesses were Ann Billett and her friend , Mary Clarke , both of whom testified to his history of derangement , and Catherine Figgins , a servant in Bellingham 's lodgings . She had found him recently confused , but otherwise an honest and admirable lodger . As she stood down , Alley informed the court that two more witnesses had arrived from Liverpool . However , when they saw Bellingham , they realised that he was not the man to whose derangement they had come to attest , and withdrew . Mansfield then began his summing up , during the course of which he clarified the law : " The single question is whether at the time this act was committed , he possessed a sufficient degree of understanding to distinguish good from evil , right from wrong " . The judge advised the jury before they retired that the evidence showed Bellingham to be " in every respect a full and competent judge of all his actions " . = = = Verdict and sentence = = = The jury retired , and within 15 minutes returned with a guilty verdict . Bellingham appeared surprised but , from Thomas Hodgson 's contemporary trial account , was calm , " with [ out ] any demonstrations of that concern which the awfulness of his situation was calculate to produce " . Asked by the court clerk if he had anything to say , he remained silent . The clerk then read the sentence , Hodgson records , " in a most solemn and affecting manner , which bathed many of the auditors in tears " . First , he damned the crime , " as odious and abominable in the eyes of God as it is hateful and abhorrent to the feelings of man " . He reminded the prisoner of the short time , " a very short time " , that remained for him to seek for mercy in another world , and then pronounced the sentence of death itself : " You shall be hanged by the neck until you be dead , your body to be dissected and anatomized " . The entire trial had lasted less than eight hours . = = = Execution = = = Bellingham 's execution was fixed for the morning of Monday 18 May . The day before , he was visited by the Revd Daniel Wilson , curate at St John 's Chapel , Bedford Row , a future Bishop of Calcutta , who hoped that Bellingham would show true repentance for his act . The clergyman was disappointed , concluding that " a more dreadful instance of depravity and hardness of heart has surely never occurred " . Late on Sunday , Bellingham wrote a last letter to his wife , in which he appeared confident of his soul 's destination : " Nine hours more will waft me to those happy shores where bliss is without alloy " . Large crowds gathered outside Newgate on Monday ; a force of troops stood by , since warnings had been received of a " Rescue Bellingham " movement . The crowd was calm and restrained , as was Bellingham when he appeared at the scaffold shortly before 8 o 'clock . Hodgson records that Bellingham mounted the steps " with the utmost celerity ... his tread was bold and firm ... no indication of trembling , faltering , or irresolution appeared " . Bellingham was then blindfolded , the rope fastened , and a final prayer was said by the chaplain . As the clock struck eight the trap door was released , and Bellingham dropped to his death . Cobbett , still incarcerated in Newgate , observed the crowd 's reactions : " anxious looks ... half @-@ horrified countenances ... mournful tears ... unanimous blessings " . In accordance with the court 's sentence , the body was cut down and sent to St Bartholomew 's Hospital for dissection . In what the press described as " morbid sensationalism " , Bellingham 's clothes were sold for high prices to members of the public . = = Aftermath = = On 15 May , the House of Commons voted for the erection of a monument to the assassinated Prime Minister in Westminster Abbey . Later , memorials were placed in Lincoln 's Inn , and within Perceval 's Northampton constituency . On 8 June the Regent appointed Lord Liverpool to head a new Tory administration . Despite their eulogies to their fallen leader , members of the new government soon began to distance themselves from his ministry . Many of the changes that Perceval had opposed were gradually introduced : greater press freedom , Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform . The Orders in Council were repealed on 23 June , but too late to avoid the declaration of war on Britain by the United States . Lord Liverpool 's government did not maintain Perceval 's resolution in acting against the illegal slave trade , which began to flourish as the authorities looked the other way . Linklater estimates that around 40 @,@ 000 slaves were illegally transported from Africa to the West Indies , because of lax enforcement of the law . Linklater cites Perceval 's greatest achievement as his insistence on keeping Wellington 's army in the field , a policy which helped to turn the tide in the Napoleonic Wars decisively in Britain 's favour . Despite this , with the passage of time Perceval 's reputation faded ; Charles Dickens considered him " a third @-@ rate politician scarcely fit to carry Lord Chatham 's crutch " . In due course , little but the fact of his assassination lingered in public memory . As the bicentenary of the shooting approached , Perceval was described in newspapers as " the prime minister that history forgot " . The justice of Bellingham 's conviction was first questioned by Brougham , who condemned the trial as " the greatest disgrace to English justice " . In a study published in 2004 the American academic Kathleen S. Goddard criticises the timing of the trial so soon after the act , when passions were running high . She also draws attention to the court 's refusal to allow an adjournment that would permit the defence to contact possible witnesses . There was , she maintains , insufficient evidence produced at the trial to determine the true state of Bellingham 's sanity , and Mansfield 's summing @-@ up showed	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
significant bias . Bellingham 's claim to have acted alone was accepted in court ; Linklater 's 2012 study posits that he could been an agent of other interests — perhaps Liverpool merchants , who bore the main brunt of Perceval 's economic policies and had much to gain by his demise . Comments by a Liverpool newspaper , says Linklater , indicate that talk of assassination was common in the city . It remains unknown how Bellingham gained the funds to spend freely in the months preceding the assassination , when he was not apparently engaged in any business . This conspiracy theory has not convinced other historians ; the columnist Bruce Anderson points to the lack of any concrete evidence to support it . In the months immediately following her husband 's execution , Mary Bellingham continued to live and work in Liverpool . By the end of 1812 her business had failed , and thereafter her movements are obscure ; she may have reverted to her maiden name . In January 1815 , Jane Perceval married Sir Henry William Carr ; she died , aged 74 , in 1844 . In 1828 , The Times reported that Cornish industrialist landowner , John Williams the Third ( 1753 @-@ 1841 ) received a dream warning of Perceval 's assassination on 2 or 3 May 1812 , nearly ten days before the event , " correct in every detail " . A distant kinsman of the assassin , Henry Bellingham , became Conservative MP for North West Norfolk in 1983 , and held junior office in the Conservative @-@ Liberal coalition government of 2010 – 15 . When he temporarily lost his seat in 1997 — he regained it in 2001 — his narrow defeat was widely regarded as arising from the intervention of Roger Percival , the candidate for the Referendum Party whose votes largely came from disgruntled Conservatives . Despite the different spelling , media accounts asserted Percival 's descent from the assassinated Prime Minister 's family , and reported the defeat as a belated form of revenge . The greater part of the Palace of Westminster ( Westminster Hall apart ) that stood at the time of the assassination was destroyed by an accidental fire in 1834 , following which the Houses were comprehensively rebuilt and expanded . In July 2014 , a brass memorial plaque was unveiled in St Stephen 's Hall , Houses of Parliament , close to the place where Perceval was killed . Michael Ellis , Conservative MP for Northampton North ( part of Perceval 's old Northampton constituency ) had campaigned for the plaque after four patterned floor tiles that were said to mark the spot had been removed by workmen in a recent renovation . = = = = Books and news articles = = = = = = = = Online = = = = = Battle of Vimy Ridge = The Battle of Vimy Ridge was a military engagement fought primarily as part of the Battle of Arras , in the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region of France , during the First World War . The main combatants were the Canadian Corps , of four divisions , against three divisions of the German Sixth Army . The battle , which took place from 9 to 12 April 1917 , was part of the opening phase of the British @-@ led Battle of Arras , a diversionary attack for the French Nivelle Offensive . The objective of the Canadian Corps was to take control of the German @-@ held high ground along an escarpment at the northernmost end of the Arras Offensive . This would ensure that the southern flank could advance without suffering German enfilade fire . Supported by a creeping barrage , the Canadian Corps captured most of the ridge during the first day of the attack . The town of Thélus fell during the second day of the attack , as did the crest of the ridge once the Canadian Corps overcame a salient against considerable German resistance . The final objective , a fortified knoll located outside the village of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle , fell to the Canadian Corps on 12 April . The German forces then retreated to the Oppy – Méricourt line . Historians attribute the success of the Canadian Corps in capturing the ridge to a mixture of technical and tactical innovation , meticulous planning , powerful artillery support and extensive training , as well as the failure of the German Sixth Army to properly apply the new German defensive doctrine . The battle was the first occasion when all four divisions of the Canadian Expeditionary Force participated in a battle together and it was made a symbol of Canadian national achievement and sacrifice . A 100 @-@ hectare ( 250 @-@ acre ) portion of the former battleground serves as a memorial park and site of the Canadian National Vimy Memorial . = = Background = = Vimy Ridge is an escarpment 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) northeast of Arras on the western edge of the Douai Plains . The ridge rises gradually on its western side , and drops more quickly on the eastern side . At approximately 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) in length , and culminating at an elevation of 145 m ( 476 ft ) or 60 m ( 200 ft ) above the Douai Plains , the ridge provides a natural unobstructed view for tens of kilometres in all directions . The ridge fell under German control in October 1914 during the Race to the Sea as the Franco @-@ British and German forces continually attempted to outflank each other through northeastern France . The French Tenth Army attempted to dislodge the Germans from the region during the Second Battle of Artois in May 1915 by attacking their positions at Vimy Ridge and Notre Dame de Lorette . The French 1st Moroccan Division managed to briefly capture the height of the ridge but was unable to hold it owing to a lack of reinforcements . The French made another attempt during the Third Battle of Artois in September 1915 but only captured the town of Souchez at the western base of the ridge . The Vimy sector calmed following the offensive with both sides taking a largely live and let live approach . In all , the French suffered approximately 150 @,@ 000 casualties in their attempts to gain control of Vimy Ridge and surrounding territory . The British XVII Corps , commanded by Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Julian Byng , relieved the French Tenth Army in the sector in February 1916 , permitting the French to expand their operations at Verdun . The British soon discovered that German tunnelling companies had taken advantage of the relative calm on the surface to build an extensive network of tunnels and deep mines from which they would attack French positions by setting off explosive charges underneath their trenches . The Royal Engineers immediately deployed specialist tunnelling companies along the front to combat the German mining operations . In response to increased British mining aggression , German artillery and trench mortar fire intensified in early May 1916 . On 21 May 1916 , after shelling both forward trenches and divisional artillery positions from no less than 80 out @-@ of @-@ sight batteries on the reverse slope of the ridge , the German infantry began operation Schleswig Holstein , an attack on the British lines along a 1 @,@ 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 000 yd ) front in an effort to eject them from positions along the ridge . The Germans captured several British @-@ controlled tunnels and mine craters before halting their advance and entrenching their positions . Small counterattacks by units of the 140th and 141st British Brigades took place on 22 May but did not manage to change the situation . The Canadian Corps relieved the British IV Corps stationed along the western slopes of Vimy Ridge in October 1916 . = = Prelude = = = = = Strategic planning = = = On 28 May 1916 , Byng took command of the Canadian Corps from Lieutenant @-@ General Sir Edwin Alderson . Formal discussions for a spring offensive near Arras began following a conference of corps commanders held at British First Army Headquarters on 21 November 1916 . In March 1917 , British First Army headquarters formally presented Byng with orders outlining Vimy Ridge as the corps 's objective for the Arras Offensive . A formal assault plan , adopted in early March 1917 , drew heavily on the briefings of staff officers sent to learn from the experiences of the French Army during the Battle of Verdun . For the first time all four Canadian divisions were assembled to participate in a battle . The nature and size of the planned Canadian Corps assault necessitated support and resources beyond its normal operational capabilities . Consequently , the British 5th Infantry Division and supplementary artillery , engineer and labour units reinforced the four Canadian divisions . This brought the nominal strength of the Canadian Corps to about 170 @,@ 000 men , of whom 97 @,@ 184 were Canadian . = = = Tactical plan = = = In January 1917 , three Canadian Corps officers accompanied other British and Dominion officers attending a series of lectures hosted by the French Army regarding their experiences during the Battle of Verdun . The French counter offensive devised by General Robert Nivelle had been one of a number of Allied successes of 1916 . Following extensive rehearsal , eight French divisions had assaulted German positions in two waves along a 9 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 6 mi ) front . Supported by exceedingly strong artillery , the French had recovered lost ground and inflicted heavy casualties on five German divisions . On their return from the lectures , the Canadian Corps staff officers produced a tactical analysis of the Verdun battles and delivered a series of corps and divisional @-@ level lectures to promote the primacy of artillery and stress the importance of harassing fire and company and platoon flexibility . The report of 1st Canadian Division commander Arthur Currie highlighted the lessons he believed the Canadian Corps could learn from the experiences of the French . The final plan for the assault on Vimy Ridge drew heavily on the experience and tactical analysis of the officers who attended the Verdun lectures . British First Army commander General Henry Horne approved the plan on 5 March 1917 . The plan divided the Canadian Corps advance into four coloured objective lines . The attack would be made on a front of 6 @,@ 400 m ( 7 @,@ 000 yd ) , with its centre opposite the village of Vimy , to the east of the ridge . The first objective , represented by the Black Line , was to seize the German forward defensive line . The final objective of the northern flank was the Red Line : taking the highest point on the ridge , the fortified knoll known as the Pimple , the Folie Farm , the Zwischen @-@ Stellung trench and the hamlet of Les Tilleuls . The southern two divisions were to achieve two additional objectives : the Blue Line encompassing the town of Thélus and the woods outside the town of Vimy , and the Brown Line , which aimed at capturing the Zwölfer @-@ Graben trench and the German second line . The infantry would proceed close behind a creeping barrage placed down by light field guns , advancing in timed 91 @-@ metre ( 100 yd ) increments . The medium and heavy howitzers would establish a series of standing barrages further ahead of the infantry against known defensive systems . The plan called for units to leapfrog over one another , as the advance progressed , to maintain momentum during the attack . The initial wave would capture and consolidate the Black Line and then push forward to the Red Line . The barrage would pause , to enable reserve units to move up , and then move forward with the units pushing beyond the Red Line to the Blue Line . Once the corps secured the Blue Line , advancing units would once again leapfrog established ones and capture the Brown Line . Conducted properly , the plan would leave the German forces little time to exit the security of their deep dugouts and defend their positions against the infantry advance . If the corps maintained its schedule , the troops would advance as much as 3 @,@ 700 m ( 4 @,@ 000 yd ) and have the majority of the ridge under control by 1 : 00 pm of the first day . = = = German defences = = = The experience of the Battle of the Somme led the German command to conclude that the policy of rigidly defending a trench position line was no longer effective against the firepower that the Entente armies had accumulated . Ludendorff published a new defensive doctrine in December 1916 , in which deeper defences were to be built , within which the garrison would have room to manoeuvre , rather than rigidly holding successive lines of trenches . Along Vimy Ridge , the German forces spent two years constructing fortifications designed for rigid defence . Little reconstruction based upon the new defence @-@ in @-@ depth doctrine had been accomplished by April 1917 because the terrain made it impractical . The topography of the Vimy battlefield made defence @-@ in @-@ depth difficult to realize . The ridge was 700 metres ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) wide at its narrowest point , with a steep drop on the eastern side , all but eliminating the possibility of counterattacks if the ridge was captured . The Germans were apprehensive about the inherent weakness of the Vimy Ridge defences . The German defensive scheme was to maintain a front line defence of sufficient strength to defend against an initial assault and move operational reserves forward , before the enemy could consolidate their gains or overrun remaining German positions . As a result , the German defence at Vimy Ridge relied largely on machine guns , which acted as force multipliers for the defending infantry . Three line divisions , with seven infantry regiments between them , were responsible for the immediate defence of the ridge . The paper strength of each division was approximately 15 @,@ 000 men but their actual strengths was significantly fewer . In 1917 , a full @-@ strength German rifle company consisted of 264 men ; at Vimy Ridge , each rifle company contained approximately 150 men . Each German regiment held a zone approximately 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) wide as far back as the rear area . When the Canadian Corps attacked , each German company faced two or more battalions of approximately 1 @,@ 000 men each . Reserve divisions were kept approximately 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) back instead of assembling close behind the second line according the defence @-@ in @-@ depth theory . = = = Artillery = = = The Canadian Corps ' divisional artillery formations , totalling eight field brigades and two heavy artillery groups , were insufficient for the task at hand and were consequently reinforced with outside formations . Four heavy artillery groups , nine artillery field brigades , three divisional artillery groups and the artillery complement of the British 5th Division was attached to the Canadian Corps . In addition , ten heavy artillery groups of the flanking I and XVII Corps were assigned tasks in support of the Canadian Corps . The artillery batteries of I Corps were particularly important because they enfiladed German gun positions behind Vimy Ridge . In total , the British made available to the Canadian Corps twenty @-@ four brigade artillery groups consisting of four hundred and eighty 18 pounder field guns , one hundred thirty @-@ eight 4 @.@ 5 inch howitzers , ninety @-@ six 2 inch trench mortars , twenty @-@ four 9 @.@ 45 inch mortars , supported by 245 corps @-@ level siege guns and heavy mortars . This firepower gave a density of one heavy gun for every 18 metres ( 20 yd ) and one field gun for every 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 yd ) of Canadian Corps frontage , representing a considerable average increase , including three times the heavy guns , over the distribution of artillery at the Battle of the Somme a year earlier . Brigadier @-@ General Edward Morrison developed and subsequently issued a 35 page multi @-@ phased fire support plan called Canadian Corps Artillery Instruction No. 1 for the Capture of Vimy Ridge to support the efforts of the infantry . For its operations , the Canadian Corps received three times the artillery normally assigned to a corps for regular operations . To manage the logistics associated with the increased artillery , Royal Artillery staff officer Major Alan Brooke developed coordinated communication and transport plans to work in conjunction with the complex barrage plans . A 1 @.@ 6 million shell allotment allowed the artillery along the Canadian Corps front to maintain a high sustained rate of fire . Improvements in the quality of the shells compared to those used earlier in the war ensured fewer duds . The introduction of the instantaneous No. 106 fuze greatly improved the effectiveness of the artillery since this fuse burst reliably with the slightest of contact , unlike older timed fuses , making it especially effective at cutting barbed wire before the advance . To maintain communications during the battle , particularly with the artillery , field units laid over 1 @,@ 400 kilometres ( 870 mi ) of telegraph and field telephone cabling , normally at a depth of 2 @.@ 1 metres ( 7 ft ) . In addition , the corps conducted coordinated counter @-@ battery initiatives before the battle . The First Army Field Survey Company printed barrage maps for all batteries , produced artillery boards and provided counter @-@ battery support with their flash spotting groups and sound ranging sections . Utilizing flash spotting , sound ranging and aerial reconnaissance from No. 16 Squadron , and No. 1 & 2 Balloon Company of the Royal Flying Corps in the week before the battle , the counter battery artillery under command of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Andrew McNaughton fired 125 @,@ 900 shells , harassing an estimated 83 % of the German gun positions . = = = Training = = = In February 1917 , the British General Staff released a training pamphlet titled SS 143 Instructions for the Training of Platoons for Offensive Action , espousing the return to the pre @-@ war emphasis on fire and movement tactics and the use of the platoon as a self @-@ contained tactical unit . The short pamphlet noted the importance of dedicated hand grenade , rifle grenade and machine gun sections in suppressing enemy strong points with an appropriate level of fire to permit other military units to advance . Coupled with the observations and suggestions made by Currie in the report he submitted in January 1917 following the Verdun lectures , the Canadian Corps instilled the tactical change with vigour . The corps instilled the tactical doctrine for small units by assigning objectives down to the platoon level . Assaulting infantry battalions used hills behind the lines as full @-@ scale model representations of the battlefield . Taped lines demarcated German trench lines while officers on horseback carried flags to represent the advancing front of the artillery barrage . Recognizing that the men in leadership positions were likely to be wounded or killed , soldiers learned the jobs of those beside and above them . At the British First Army headquarters , a large @-@ scale plasticine model of the Vimy sector was constructed and used to show commissioned and senior non @-@ commissioned officers the topographical features of the battlefield and details of the German trench system . In addition , upwards of 40 @,@ 000 topographical trench maps were printed and distributed to ensure that even platoon sergeants and section commanders possessed a wider awareness of the battlefield . These measures gave each platoon a clearer picture of how it fitted into the greater battle plan , and in so doing , reduced the command and control problems that plagued First World War combat . = = = Underground operations = = = The Arras – Vimy sector was conducive to tunnel excavation owing to the soft , porous yet extremely stable nature of the chalk underground . Underground warfare had been conducted on the Vimy sector since 1915 . Bavarian engineers had blown twenty mines in the sector by March 1915 . By early 1916 , German miners had gained an advantage over their French counterparts . On their arrival , British tunnelling companies of the Royal Engineers began offensive mining against German miners , first stopping the German underground advance and then developing a defensive strategy that prevented the Germans from gaining a tactical advantage through their mining activities . By 1917 , 19 crater groups existed along this section of the Western Front , each with several large craters . In preparation for the assault , British tunnelling companies created extensive underground networks and fortifications . Twelve subways , up to 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 300 yd ) in length , were excavated at a depth of 10 metres ( 33 ft ) and used to connect reserve lines to front lines , permitting soldiers to advance to the front quickly , securely and unseen . Often incorporated into subways were light rail lines , hospitals , command posts , water reservoirs , ammunition stores , mortar and machine gun posts and communication centres . The Germans dug a number of similar tunnels on the Vimy front , to provide covered routes to the front line and protection for headquarters , resting personnel , equipment and ammunition . To protect some advancing troops from German machine @-@ gun fire , as they crossed no man 's land during the attack , eight mines were laid at the end of the subways , to allow troops to move more quickly and safely enter the German trench system , by creating an elongated trench @-@ depth crater that spanned the length of no man 's land . In an effort to destroy some German surface fortifications before the assault , the British tunnelling companies secretly laid 13 large explosive charges under German positions . The Germans conducted counter @-@ mining against the British tunnellers and destroyed a number of British attempts to plant mines under or near their lines . Of the explosive charges laid by the British , three mines were fired before the assault and three mines and two specialized charges were fired at the start of the attack . = = = Trench raiding = = = Trench raiding involved making small @-@ scale surprise attacks on enemy positions , often in the middle of the night for reasons of stealth . All belligerents employed trench raiding as a tactic to harass their enemy and gain intelligence . In the Canadian Corps trench raiding developed into a training and leadership @-@ building mechanism . The size of a raid would normally be anything from a few men to an entire company , or more , depending on the size of the mission . The four months before the April attack saw the Canadian Corps execute no fewer than 55 separate trench raids . Competition between units even developed with units competing for the honour of the greatest number of prisoners captured or most destruction wrought . The policy of aggressive trench raiding was not without its cost . A large @-@ scale trench raid on 13 February 1917 , involving 900 men from the 4th Canadian Division , resulted in 150 casualties . An even more ambitious trench raid on 1 March 1917 , once again by the 4th Canadian Division , failed and resulted in 637 casualties including two battalion commanders and a number of company commanders killed . This experience did not lessen the extent to which the Canadian Corps employed trench raiding with raids being conducted nightly between 20 March and the opening of the offensive on 9 April , resulting in approximately 1 @,@ 400 additional Canadian casualties . The Germans operated an active patrolling policy and although not as large and ambitious as those of the Canadian Corps , they also engaged in trench raiding . As an example , a German trench raid launched by 79 men against the 3rd Canadian Division on 15 March 1917 was successful in capturing prisoners and causing damage . = = = Battle in the air = = = The Royal Flying Corps launched a determined effort to gain air superiority over the battlefield in support of the spring offensive . The Canadians considered activities such as artillery spotting , and photography of opposing trench systems , troop movements and gun emplacements essential to continue their offensive . The Royal Flying Corps deployed 25 squadrons totalling 365 aircraft along the Arras sector , outnumbering the Imperial German Army Air Service by 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 . Byng was given use of No. 2 Squadron , No. 8 ( Naval ) Squadron , No. 25 Squadron , No. 40 Squadron and No. 43 Squadron , with No. 16 Squadron permanently attached to the Canadian Corps and employed exclusively for observation and artillery support . Aerial reconnaissance was often a hazardous task because of a requirement to fly at slow speeds and at low altitudes . The task was made all the more dangerous with the arrival of additional German flying squadrons , including Manfred von Richthofen 's highly experienced and well equipped Jasta 11 , which led to sharp increase in Royal Flying Corps casualties . Although significantly outnumbering the Germans , the Royal Flying Corps lost 131 aircraft during the first week of April alone . Despite the losses suffered by the Royal Flying Corps , the Imperial German Army Air Service failed to prevent the Royal Flying Corps from carrying out its prime objective , namely the continued support of the army throughout the Arras Offensive with up @-@ to @-@ date aerial photographs and reconnaissance information . = = Battle = = = = = Belligerents = = = German Sixth Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen was responsible for the Cambrai – Lille sector and commanded 20 divisions , plus reserves . Vimy Ridge itself was principally defended by the ad hoc Gruppe Vimy formation based under I Bavarian Reserve Corps commander General der Infanterie Karl von Fasbender . However , a division of Gruppe Souchez , under VIII Reserve Corps General of the Infantry Georg Karl Wichura , was involved in the frontline defence along the northernmost portion of the ridge . Three divisions were ultimately responsible for manning the frontline defences opposite the Canadian Corps . The 16th Bavarian Infantry Division was located opposite the town of Souchez and responsible for the defence of the northernmost section of the ridge . The division was created in January 1917 through the amalgamation of existing Bavarian formations and had so far only opposed the Canadian Corps . The 79th Reserve Division was responsible for the defence of the vast central section including the highest point of the ridge , Hill 145 . The 79th Reserve Division fought for two years on the Eastern Front before being transferred to the Vimy sector at the end of February 1917 . The 1st Bavarian Reserve Division had been in the Arras area since October 1914 and was holding the towns of Thélus , Bailleul and the southern slope of the ridge . Byng commanded four attacking divisions , one division of reserves and numerous support units . He was supported to the north by the 24th British Division of I Corps , which advanced north of the Souchez river and by the advancing XVII Corps to the south . The 4th Canadian Division was responsible for the northern portion of the advance that included the capture of the highest point of the ridge followed by the heavily defended Pimple just west of the town of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle . The 3rd Canadian Division was responsible for the narrow central section of the ridge , including the capture of La Folie Farm . The 2nd Canadian Division , which later included an additional brigade from the 5th British Division , was directly south of 3rd Canadian Division and entrusted with the capture of the town of Thélus . The 1st Canadian Division was responsible for the broad southern sector of the corps advance and expected to make the greatest advance in terms of distance . Byng planned for a healthy reserve for contingencies that included the relief of forward troops , help in consolidating positions and aiding the 4th Canadian Division with the capture of the Pimple . As a result , the 9th Canadian Brigade , 15th British Brigade and 95th British Brigade were kept in corps @-@ level reserve . = = = Preliminary attack = = = German foreign intelligence gathering , large @-@ scale Allied trench raids and observed troop concentrations west of Arras made it clear to the Germans that a spring offensive near Arras was being planned . In February 1917 , a German @-@ born Canadian soldier deserted to the German side and helped confirm many of the suspicions held by the Germans , providing them with a great deal of useful information . By March 1917 , the German forces were aware that a major attack was imminent and would include operations aimed at capturing Vimy Ridge . General of Infantry Ernst August Marx von Bachmeister , commanding the German 79th Reserve Division , reported in late @-@ March that he believed the Canadian Corps was moving into an echelon formation and were preparing for a major attack . The Germans quickly developed plans to launch a pre @-@ emptive operation , following the adage that the best defence is a good offence , intent on capturing the northern section of the Zouave Valley along the northernmost portion of the Canadian front . Heavy Canadian Corps artillery fire ultimately prevented the Germans from executing their pre @-@ emptive attack . The preliminary phase of the Canadian Corps artillery bombardment began on 20 March 1917 , with a systematic two @-@ week bombardment of German batteries , trenches and strong points . The Canadian Corps paid particular attention to eliminating German barbed wire , a task made easier with the introduction of the No. 106 instantaneous fuse . In addition , only half of the available artillery was committed at any one point in time with the intensity of the barrage expressly varied as to confuse the Germans and preserve some level of secrecy . Phase two lasted the entire week beginning 2 April 1917 and employed the entire artillery arsenal at the disposal of the Canadian Corps , massing the equivalent of one heavy gun for every 18 metres ( 20 yd ) and one field gun for every 9 @.@ 1 metres ( 10 yd ) . The German soldiers came to refer to the week before the attack as ' the week of suffering ' . By the Germans ' own account , their trenches and defensive works were almost completely demolished . Furthermore , German health and morale suffered from the stress of remaining at the ready for eleven straight days under extremely heavy artillery bombardment . Compounding German difficulties was the inability of ration parties to bring food supplies to the front lines . On 3 April , General von Falkenhausen ordered his reserve divisions to prepare to relieve frontline divisions over the course of a long drawn @-@ out defensive battle , in a manner similar to the Battle of the Somme . However , the divisions were kept 24 kilometres ( 15 mi ) from the battlefield to avoid being shelled . = = = Main assault = = = = = = = 9 April = = = = The attack was to begin at 5 : 30 am on Easter Monday , 9 April 1917 . The attack was originally planned for the morning of 8 April ( Easter Sunday ) , but it was postponed for 24 hours at the request of the French . During the late hours of 8 April and early morning of 9 April the men of the leading and supporting wave of the attack were moved into their forward assembly positions . The weather was cold and later changed to sleet and snow . Although physically discomforting for everyone , the north @-@ westerly storm provided some advantage to the assaulting troops by blowing snow in the faces of the defending troops . Light Canadian and British artillery bombardments continued throughout the prior night but stopped in the few minutes before the attack , as the artillery recalibrated their guns in preparation for the synchronized barrage . At exactly 5 : 30 am , every artillery piece at the disposal of the Canadian Corps began firing . Thirty seconds later , engineers detonated the mine charges laid under no man 's land and the German trench line , destroying a number of German strong points and creating secure communication trenches directly across no man 's land . Light field guns laid down a barrage that advanced in predetermined increments , often 100 yards ( 91 m ) every three minutes , while medium and heavy howitzers established a series of standing barrages further ahead , against known defensive systems . During the early fighting the German divisional artilleries , despite heavy losses , were able to maintain their defensive firing . As the Canadian assault advanced , it overran many of the German guns because there was no means of moving them to the rear on account of many of the horses being killed in the initial gas attack . The 1st , 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions reported reaching and capturing their first objective , the Black Line , by 6 : 25 am . The 4th Canadian Division encountered a great deal of trouble during its advance and was unable to complete its first objective until some hours later . After a planned pause , when the 1st , 2nd and 3rd Canadian Divisions consolidated their positions , the advance resumed . Shortly after 7 : 00 am , the 1st Canadian Division captured the left half of its second objective , the Red Line , and moved the 1st Canadian Brigade forward to mount an attack on the remainder . The 2nd Canadian Division reported reaching the Red Line and capturing the town of Les Tilleuls at approximately the same time . A mine explosion that killed many German troops of the Reserve Infantry Regiment 262 manning the front line preceded the advance of the 3rd Canadian Division . The remaining German troops could do no more than man temporary lines of resistance until later manning a full defence at the German third line . As a result , the southern section of the 3rd Canadian Division was able to reach the Red Line at the western edge of the Bois de la Folie at around 7 : 30 am . At 9 : 00 am the division learned of its exposed left flank , as the 4th Canadian Division had not yet captured Hill 145 . The 3rd Canadian Division was thus called upon to establish a divisional defensive flank to its north . Although the German commanders were able to maintain open lines of communication and issue operating orders , even with swift staff work the tempo of the assault was such that German decision cycle was unable to react decisively . The only portion of the Canadian assault that did not go as planned was the advance of the 4th Canadian Division , collapsing almost immediately after exiting their trenches . The commanding officer of one of the assaulting battalions requested that the artillery leave a portion of German trench undamaged . Machine @-@ gun nests in the undamaged sections of the German line pinned down , wounded or killed much of the 4th Canadian Division 's right flank . The progress on the left flank was eventually impeded by harassing fire from the Pimple that was made worse when the creeping barrage got too far ahead of the advancing troops . In view of the German defence , the 4th Canadian Division did not attempt a further frontal assault throughout the afternoon . Reserve units from the 4th Canadian Division came forward and once again attacked the German positions on the top of the ridge . Persistent attacks eventually forced the German troops holding the south @-@ western portion of Hill 145 to withdraw , but only after they had run out of ammunition , mortar rounds and grenades . Towards midday , the 79th Reserve Division was ordered to recapture the portions of its third line lost during the progression of the Canadian attack . However , it was not until 6 : 00 pm that the force was able to organize and counterattack , clearing the Canadian Corps troops out of the ruined village of Vimy , but not recapturing the third line south of the village . By night time , the German forces holding the top of the ridge believed they had overcome the immediate crisis for the mean time . Additional German reinforcements began arriving and by late evening portions of the 111th Infantry Division occupied the third line near Acheville and Arleux , with the remainder of the division arriving the following day . = = = = 10 April = = = = The British moved three fresh brigades up to the Red Line by 9 : 30 am on 10 April to support the advance of the 1st and 2nd Canadian Division , whereupon they were to leapfrog existing units occupying the Red line and advance to the Blue Line . Fresh units including two sections of tanks and the 13th British Brigade were called up from reserve to support the advance of the 2nd Canadian Division . By approximately 11 : 00 am , the Blue Line , including Hill 135 and the town of Thélus , had been captured . To permit the troops time to consolidate the Blue Line , the advance halted and the barrage remained stationary for 90 minutes while machine guns were brought forward . Shortly before 1 : 00 pm , the advance recommenced with both the 1st and 2nd Canadian Divisions reporting their final objective . The tank supported advance via Farbus , and directed at the rear of the 79th Reserve Division , was eventually halted by concentrated German fire short of the village . The Canadian 1st and 2nd Divisions were nonetheless able to secure the Brown Line by approximately 2 : 00 pm . The 4th Canadian Division had made an attempt to capture the northern half of Hill 145 at around 3 : 15 pm , briefly capturing the peak before a German counterattack retook the position . The Germans occupying the small salient on ridge soon found themselves being attacked along their flanks by continuously reinforced Canadian Corps troops . When it became obvious that the position was completely outflanked and there was no prospect of reinforcement , the German troops pulled back . The German forces were evacuated off the ridge with German artillery batteries moved west of the Vimy – Bailleul railway embankment or to the Oppy – Méricourt line . By nightfall of 10 April , the only Canadian objective not yet achieved was the capture of the Pimple . = = = = 12 April = = = = The 4th Canadian Division faced difficulties at the start of the battle that forced it to delay its assault on the Pimple until 12 April . The Pimple was initially defended by the 16th Bavarian Infantry Division , but the Canadian Corps ' preliminary artillery bombardment leading up to the assault on 9 April caused heavy casualties amongst its ranks . On 11 April , the 4th Guards Infantry Division first reinforced and then relieved affected 16th Bavarian Infantry Division units . The night before the attack , artillery harassed German positions while a gas section of Royal Engineers , employing Livens Projectors , fired more than 40 drums of gas directly into the town of Givenchy @-@ en @-@ Gohelle to cause confusion . The defending German troops managed to drive back the initial Canadian assaults at around 4 : 00 am using small arms fire . The 10th Canadian Brigade attacked once again at 5 : 00 am , this time supported by a significant amount of artillery and the 24th British Division of I Corps to the north . The German defensive artillery fire was late and too light to cause the assaulting troops great difficulty , allowing the Canadian Corps to exploit wide gaps and break into the German positions . The 10th Canadian Brigade , assisted by snow and a westerly wind , fought hastily entrained German troops to capture the entire Pimple by 6 : 00 pm . = = Aftermath = = By nightfall on 12 April 1917 , the Canadian Corps was in firm control of the ridge . The corps suffered 10 @,@ 602 casualties : 3 @,@ 598 killed and 7 @,@ 004 wounded . The German Sixth Army suffered an unknown number of casualties with approximately 4 @,@ 000 men becoming prisoners of war . Four members of the Canadian Corps received Victoria Crosses , the highest military decoration awarded to British and Commonwealth forces for valour , for their actions during the battle : Private William Johnstone Milne of the 16th ( Canadian Scottish ) Battalion . Lance @-@ Sergeant Ellis Wellwood Sifton of the 18th ( Western Ontario ) Battalion . Private John George Pattison of the 50th ( Calgary ) Battalion . Captain Thain Wendell MacDowell of the 38th ( Ottawa ) Battalion . At least two Orders Pour le Mérite , the Kingdom of Prussia 's highest military order , were awarded to German commanders for their actions during the battle : Oberstleutnant Wilhelm von Goerne commander of the 261st Prussian Reserve Infantry Regiment , of the German 79th Reserve Division . General of the Infantry Georg Karl Wichura commander of the VIII Reserve Corps and Gruppe Souchez . Following the defeat , the Chief of the German General Staff , Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg , ordered the Supreme Army Command to conduct a court of enquiry into the defensive collapse of the Arras sector . The court concluded that the Sixth Army headquarters had disregarded frontline commander reports , noting a possible imminent attack , and as a result , reserve units were kept too far back to execute a timely and effective counterattack . The court concluded that Sixth Army commander General Ludwig von Falkenhausen failed to apply an elastic defence properly as espoused by German defensive doctrine of the time . Instead , the defensive system was a series of unmoving strong points and static lines of resistance , which the Canadian artillery ultimately isolated and destroyed . As a result of the inquiry , Hindenburg removed Falkenhausen from his command and transferred him to Belgium where he served the remainder of the war as that country 's Governor General . The Germans did not see the Canadian Corps 's capture of Vimy Ridge as a loss . Contemporary German sources viewed the action , at worst , as a draw , given that no full @-@ scale breakthrough occurred following the attack . The Germans did not attempt to recapture the ridge , even during the Spring Offensive , and it remained under British control until the end of the war . The loss of Vimy Ridge forced the Germans to reassess their defensive strategy in the area . Instead of mounting a counterattack , they pursued a scorched earth policy , and retreated to the Oppy – Méricourt line . The complete failure of the French Nivelle Offensive in the week after the Arras Offensive placed pressure on Field Marshal Douglas Haig to keep the Germans occupied in the Arras sector to minimize French losses . The Canadian Corps participated in several of these actions including the Battle of Arleux and the Third Battle of the Scarpe in late April and early May 1917 . After the end of World War I , Julian Byng was raised to the peerage as Baron Byng of Vimy , of Thorpe @-@ le @-@ Soken in the County of Essex , on 7 October 1919 . The next month , he retired from the military and moved to Thorpe Hall . = = Commemoration = = = = = Influence on Canada = = = The Battle of Vimy Ridge has considerable significance for Canada . Although the battle is not generally considered the greatest achievement of the Canadian Corps in strategic importance or results obtained , it was the first instance in which all four Canadian divisions , made up of troops drawn from all parts of the country , fought as a cohesive formation . The image of national unity and achievement is what initially gave the battle importance for Canada . According to Pierce , " The historical reality of the battle has been reworked and reinterpreted in a conscious attempt to give purpose and meaning to an event that came to symbolize Canada 's coming of age as a nation . " The idea that Canada 's national identity and nationhood were born out of the battle is an opinion that is widely held in military and general histories of Canada . = = = Vimy Memorial = = = The Canadian National Vimy Memorial is Canada 's largest and principal overseas war memorial . Located on the highest point of the Vimy Ridge , the memorial is dedicated to the commemoration of the Battle of Vimy Ridge and Canadian Expeditionary Force members killed during the First World War . It serves as the place of commemoration for Canadian soldiers killed in France during the First World War with no known grave . France granted Canada perpetual use of a section of land at Vimy Ridge in 1922 for the purpose of a battlefield park and memorial . A 100 @-@ hectare ( 250 @-@ acre ) portion of the former battlefield is preserved as part of the memorial park that surrounds the monument . The grounds of the site are still honeycombed with wartime tunnels , trenches , craters and unexploded munitions , and are largely closed off for public safety . A section of preserved trenches and a portion of a tunnel have been made accessible to site visitors . The memorial took eleven years and $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( $ 20 @.@ 9 million in present terms ) to build and was unveiled on 26 July 1936 by King Edward VIII , in the presence of President Albert Lebrun of France and 50 @,@ 000 or more Canadian and French veterans and their families . Starting in 2004 , the monument underwent a major multi @-@ year restoration project , which included general cleaning and the recarving of many inscribed names . Queen Elizabeth II rededicated the restored monument on 9 April 2007 during a ceremony commemorating the 90th anniversary of the battle . Veterans Affairs Canada maintains the memorial site . = Haumea = Haumea , minor @-@ planet designation 136108 Haumea , is a dwarf planet located beyond Neptune 's orbit . It was discovered in 2004 by a team headed by Mike Brown of Caltech at the Palomar Observatory in the United States and independently in 2005 , by a team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain , though the latter claim has been contested . On September 17 , 2008 , it was recognized as a dwarf planet by the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) and named after Haumea , the Hawaiian goddess of childbirth . Haumea 's mass is about one @-@ third that of Pluto , and 1 / 1400 that of Earth . Although its shape has not been directly observed , calculations from its light curve indicate that it is a triaxial ellipsoid , with its major axis twice as long as its minor . Its gravity is thought to be sufficient for it to have relaxed into hydrostatic equilibrium , making it a dwarf planet . Haumea 's elongated shape together with its rapid rotation , high density , and high albedo ( from a surface of crystalline water ice ) , are thought to be the consequences of a giant collision , which left Haumea the largest member of a collisional family that includes several large trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) and Haumea 's two known moons , Hiʻiaka and Namaka . = = History = = = = = Discovery = = = Two teams claim credit for the discovery of Haumea . Mike Brown and his team at Caltech discovered Haumea in December 2004 on images they had taken on May 6 , 2004 . On July 20 , 2005 , they published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference in September 2005 . At around this time , José Luis Ortiz Moreno and his team at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía at Sierra Nevada Observatory in Spain found Haumea on images taken on March 7 – 10 , 2003 . Ortiz emailed the Minor Planet Center with their discovery on the night of July 27 , 2005 . Brown initially conceded discovery credit to Ortiz , but came to suspect the Spanish team of fraud upon learning that his observation logs were accessed from the Spanish observatory the day before the discovery announcement . These logs included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 images , and they were accessed again just before Ortiz scheduled telescope time to obtain confirmation images for a second announcement to the MPC on July 29 . Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing , stating he was merely verifying whether they had discovered a new object . IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC ( Minor Planet Center ) with enough positional data for a decent determination of its orbit , and that the credited discoverer has priority in choosing a name . However , the IAU announcement on September 17 , 2008 , that Haumea had been accepted as a dwarf planet , did not mention a discoverer . The location of discovery was listed as the Sierra Nevada Observatory of the Spanish team , but the chosen name , Haumea , was the Caltech proposal ; Ortiz 's team had proposed " Ataecina " , named for the ancient Iberian goddess of Spring . = = = Name = = = Until it was given a permanent name , the Caltech discovery team used the nickname " Santa " among themselves , because they had discovered Haumea on December 28 , 2004 , just after Christmas . The Spanish team were the first to file a claim for discovery to the Minor Planet Center , in July 2005 . On July 29 , 2005 , Haumea was given the provisional designation 2003 EL61 , based on the date of the Spanish discovery image . On September 7 , 2006 , it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 . Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation , in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 and its moons , in order " to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered " . The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team . Haumea is the matron goddess of the island of Hawaiʻi , where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located . In addition , she is identified with Papa , the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea ( space ) , which is appropriate because Haumea is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock , without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects . Lastly , Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth , with many children who sprang from different parts of her body ; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision . The two known moons , also believed to have formed in this manner , are thus named after two of Haumea 's daughters , Hiʻiaka and Nāmaka . The proposal by the Ortiz team , Ataecina , did not meet IAU naming requirements , because Ataecina is not a creation deity . ( See Ataecina § Dwarf planet . ) = = Classification = = Haumea is a plutoid , a dwarf planet beyond Neptune 's orbit . Its classification as a dwarf planet means it is presumed to be massive enough to have been rounded by its own gravity into a shape in hydrostatic equilibrium , but not massive enough to have cleared its neighbourhood of similar objects . Haumea appears to have a triaxial ellipsoid shape resulting its rapid rotation complicated by tidal interactions with its moons . This contrasts with the simpler oblate shape typically assumed by less rapidly rotating astronomical bodies such as the Earth , Jupiter ( or a water balloon tossed with moderate spin ) . Like the earth , Haumea is flattened at the poles ( indeed much more so ) , but its equator , instead of being round like the Earth 's , is elliptical , with two big bulges 180 degrees apart in longitude , buoyed up , as it were , by the greater centrifugal force they experience by virtue of being farther from the axis of rotation . In other words , Haumea is spinning so fast that if it spun much faster these bulges would distort into a dumbbell shape and split the planet in two . Haumea was initially listed as a classical Kuiper belt object in 2006 by the Minor Planet Center , but no longer . The nominal trajectory suggests that it is in the weak 7 : 12 resonance with Neptune ( orbiting the Sun 7 times for every 12 orbits of Neptune ) , because its perihelion distance of 35 AU is near the limit of stability with Neptune . There are precovery images of Haumea dating back to March 22 , 1955 from the Palomar Mountain Digitized Sky Survey . Further observations of the orbit will be required to verify its dynamic status . = = Orbit and rotation = = Haumea has an orbital period of 284 Earth years , a perihelion of 35 AU , and an orbital inclination of 28 ° . It passed aphelion in early 1992 , and is currently more than 50 AU from the Sun . Haumea 's orbit has a slightly greater eccentricity than that of the other members of its collisional family . This is thought to be due to Haumea 's weak 7 : 12 orbital resonance with Neptune gradually modifying its initial orbit over the course of a billion years , through the Kozai effect , which allows the exchange of an orbit 's inclination for increased eccentricity . With a visual magnitude of 17 @.@ 3 , Haumea is the third @-@ brightest object in the Kuiper belt after Pluto and Makemake , and easily observable with a large amateur telescope . However , because the planets and most small Solar System bodies share a common orbital alignment from their formation in the primordial disk of the Solar System , most early surveys for distant objects focused on the projection on the sky of this common plane , called the ecliptic . As the region of sky close to the ecliptic became well explored , later sky surveys began looking for objects that had been dynamically excited into orbits with higher inclinations , as well as more distant objects , with slower mean motions across the sky . These surveys eventually covered the location of Haumea , with its high orbital inclination and current position far from the ecliptic . Haumea displays large fluctuations in brightness over a period of 3 @.@ 9 hours , which can only be explained by a rotational period of this length . This is faster than any other known equilibrium body in the Solar System , and indeed faster than any other known body larger than 100 km in diameter . This rapid rotation is thought to have been caused by the impact that created its satellites and collisional family . = = Physical characteristics = = Because Haumea has moons , the mass of the system can be calculated from their orbits using Kepler 's third law . The result is 4 @.@ 2 × 1021 kg , 28 % the mass of the Plutonian system and 6 % that of the Moon . Nearly all of this mass is in Haumea . = = = Size , shape , and composition = = = The size of a Solar System object can be deduced from its optical magnitude , its distance , and its albedo . Objects appear bright to Earth observers either because they are large or because they are highly reflective . If their reflectivity ( albedo ) can be ascertained , then a rough estimate can be made of their size . For most distant objects , the albedo is unknown , but Haumea is large and bright enough for its thermal emission to be measured , which has given an approximate value for its albedo and thus its size . However , the calculation of its dimensions is complicated by its rapid rotation . The rotational physics of deformable bodies predicts that over as little as a hundred days , a body rotating as rapidly as Haumea will have been distorted into the equilibrium form of a triaxial ellipsoid . It is thought that most of the fluctuation in Haumea 's brightness is caused not by local differences in albedo but by the alternation of the side view and end view as seen from Earth . The rotation and amplitude of Haumea 's light curve place strong constraints on its composition . If Haumea had a low density like Pluto , with a thick mantle of ice over a small rocky core , its rapid rotation would have elongated it to a greater extent than the fluctuations in its brightness allow . Such considerations constrain its density to a range of 2 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 3 g / cm3 . By comparison , the Moon , which is rocky , has a density of 3 @.@ 3 g / cm3 , whereas Pluto , which is typical of icy objects in the Kuiper belt , has a density of 1 @.@ 86 g / cm3 . Haumea 's possible density covers the values for silicate minerals such as olivine and pyroxene , which make up many of the rocky objects in the Solar System . This suggests that the bulk of Haumea is rock covered with a relatively thin layer of ice . A thick ice mantle more typical of Kuiper belt objects may have been blasted off during the impact that formed the Haumean collisional family . The denser the object in hydrostatic equilibrium , the more spherical it must be for a given rotational period , placing constraints on Haumea 's possible dimensions . Fitting its accurately known mass , its rotation , and its inferred density to an equilibrium ellipsoid predicts that Haumea is approximately the diameter of Pluto along its longest axis and about half that at its poles . Because no observations of occultations of stars by Haumea or occultations of the dwarf planet with its moons have yet been made , direct , precise measurements of its dimensions , like those that were made for Pluto , do not yet exist . Several ellipsoid @-@ model calculations of Haumea 's dimensions have been made . The first model produced after Haumea 's discovery was calculated from ground @-@ based observations of Haumea 's light curve at optical wavelengths : it provided a total length of 1 @,@ 960 to 2 @,@ 500 km and a visual albedo ( pv ) greater than 0 @.@ 6 . The most likely shape is a triaxial ellipsoid with approximate dimensions of 2 @,@ 000 x 1 @,@ 500 x 1 @,@ 000 km , with an albedo of 0 @.@ 71 . Observations by the Spitzer Space Telescope give a diameter of 1 @,@ 150 + 250 − 100 km and an albedo of 0 @.@ 84 + 0 @.@ 1 − 0 @.@ 2 , from photometry at infrared wavelengths of 70 μm . Subsequent light @-@ curve analyses have suggested an equivalent circular diameter of 1 @,@ 450 km . In 2010 an analysis of measurements taken by Herschel Space Telescope together with the older Spitzer Telescope measurements yielded a new estimate of the equivalent diameter of Haumea — about 1300 km . These independent size estimates overlap at an average geometric mean diameter of roughly 1 @,@ 400 km . This makes Haumea one of the largest trans @-@ Neptunian objects discovered , smaller than Eris , Pluto , probably Makemake , and possibly 2007 OR10 , and larger than Sedna , Quaoar , and Orcus . = = = Surface = = = In 2005 , the Gemini and Keck telescopes obtained spectra of Haumea which showed strong crystalline water ice features similar to the surface of Pluto 's moon Charon . This is peculiar , because crystalline ice forms at temperatures above 110 K , whereas Haumea 's surface temperature is below 50 K , a temperature at which amorphous ice is formed . In addition , the structure of crystalline ice is unstable under the constant rain of cosmic rays and energetic particles from the Sun that strike trans @-@ Neptunian objects . The timescale for the crystalline ice to revert to amorphous ice under this bombardment is on the order of ten million years , yet trans @-@ Neptunian objects have been in their present cold @-@ temperature locations for timescales of billions of years . Radiation damage should also redden and darken the surface of trans @-@ Neptunian objects where the common surface materials of organic ices and tholin @-@ like compounds are present , as is the case with Pluto . Therefore , the spectra and colour suggest Haumea and its family members have undergone recent resurfacing that produced fresh ice . However , no plausible resurfacing mechanism has been suggested . Haumea is as bright as snow , with an albedo in the range of 0 @.@ 6 – 0 @.@ 8 , consistent with crystalline ice . Other large TNOs such as Eris appear to have albedos as high or higher . Best @-@ fit modeling of the surface spectra suggested that 66 % to 80 % of the Haumean surface appears to be pure crystalline water ice , with one contributor to the high albedo possibly hydrogen cyanide or phyllosilicate clays . Inorganic cyanide salts such as copper potassium cyanide may also be present . However , further studies of the visible and near infrared spectra suggest a homogeneous surface covered by an intimate 1 : 1 mixture of amorphous and crystalline ice , together with no more than 8 % organics . The absence of ammonia hydrate excludes cryovolcanism and the observations confirm that the collisional event must have happened more than 100 million years ago , in agreement with the dynamic studies . The absence of measurable methane in the spectra of Haumea is consistent with a warm collisional history that would have removed such volatiles , in contrast to Makemake . In addition to the large fluctuations in Haumea 's light curve due to the body 's shape , which affect all colours equally , smaller independent colour variations seen in both visible and near @-@ infrared wavelengths show a region on the surface that differs both in colour and in albedo . More specifically , a large dark red area on Haumea 's bright white surface was seen in September 2009 , possibly an impact feature , which indicates an area rich in minerals and organic ( carbon @-@ rich ) compounds , or possibly a higher proportion of crystalline ice . Thus Haumea may have a mottled surface reminiscent of Pluto , if not as extreme . = = Moons = = Two small satellites have been discovered orbiting Haumea , ( 136108 ) Haumea I Hiʻiaka and ( 136108 ) Haumea II Namaka . Brown 's team discovered both in 2005 , through observations of Haumea using the W.M. Keck Observatory . Hiʻiaka , at first nicknamed " Rudolph " by the Caltech team , was discovered January 26 , 2005 . It is the outer and , at roughly 310 km in diameter , the larger and brighter of the two , and orbits Haumea in a nearly circular path every 49 days . Strong absorption features at 1 @.@ 5 and 2 micrometres in the infrared spectrum are consistent with nearly pure crystalline water ice covering much of the surface . The unusual spectrum , along with similar absorption lines on Haumea , led Brown and colleagues to conclude that capture was an unlikely model for the system 's formation , and that the Haumean moons must be fragments of Haumea itself . Namaka , the smaller , inner satellite of Haumea , was discovered on June 30 , 2005 , and nicknamed " Blitzen " . It is a tenth the mass of Hiʻiaka , orbits Haumea in 18 days in a highly elliptical , non @-@ Keplerian orbit , and as of 2008 is inclined 13 ° from the larger moon , which perturbs its orbit . The relatively large eccentricities together with the mutual inclination of the orbits of the satellites are unexpected as they should have been damped by the tidal effects . A relatively recent passage by a 3 : 1 resonance might explain the current excited orbits of the Haumean moons . At present , the orbits of the Haumean moons appear almost exactly edge @-@ on from Earth , with Namaka periodically occulting Haumea . Observation of such transits would provide precise information on the size and shape of Haumea and its moons , as happened in the late 1980s with Pluto and Charon . The tiny change in brightness of the system during these occultations will require at least a medium @-@ aperture professional telescope for detection . Hiʻiaka last occulted Haumea in 1999 , a few years before discovery , and will not do so again for some 130 years . However , in a situation unique among regular satellites , Namaka 's orbit is being greatly torqued by Hiʻiaka , preserving the viewing angle of Namaka – Haumea transits for several more years . = = Collisional family = = Haumea is the largest member of its collisional family , a group of astronomical objects with similar physical and orbital characteristics thought to have formed when a larger progenitor was shattered by an impact . This family is the first to be identified among TNOs and includes — beside Haumea and its moons — ( 55636 ) 2002 TX300 ( ≈ 364 km ) , ( 24835 ) 1995 SM55 ( ≈ 174 km ) , ( 19308 ) 1996 TO66 ( ≈ 200 km ) , ( 120178 ) 2003 OP32 ( ≈ 230 km ) , and ( 145453 ) 2005 RR43 ( ≈ 252 km ) . Brown and colleagues proposed that the family were a direct product of the impact that removed Haumea 's ice mantle , but a second proposal suggests a more complicated origin : that the material ejected in the initial collision instead coalesced into a large moon of Haumea , which was later shattered in a second collision , dispersing its shards outwards . This second scenario appears to produce a dispersion of velocities for the fragments that is more closely matched to the measured velocity dispersion of the family members . The presence of the collisional family could imply that Haumea and its " offspring " might have originated in the scattered disc . In today 's sparsely populated Kuiper belt , the chance of such a collision occurring over the age of the Solar System is less than 0 @.@ 1 percent . The family could not have formed in the denser primordial Kuiper belt because such a close @-@ knit group would have been disrupted by Neptune 's migration into the belt — the believed cause of the belt 's current low density . Therefore , it appears likely that the dynamic scattered disc region , in which the possibility of such a collision is far higher , is the place of origin for the object that generated Haumea and its kin . Because it would have taken at least a billion years for the group to have diffused as far as it has , the collision which created the Haumea family is believed to have occurred very early in the Solar System 's history . = = Exploration = = It was calculated that a flyby mission to Haumea could take 14 @.@ 25 years using a Jupiter gravity assist , based on a launch date of 25 September 2025 . Haumea would be 48 @.@ 18 AU from the Sun when the spacecraft arrives . A flight time of 16 @.@ 45 years can be achieved with launch dates on 1 November 2026 , 23 September 2037 and 29 October 2038 . Haumea could become a target for an exploration missions , and an example of this work is a preliminary study on a probe to Haumea and its moons ( at 35 – 51 AU ) . Probe mass , power source , and propulsion systems are key technology areas for this type of mission . = An Inconvenient Truth = An Inconvenient Truth is a 2006 documentary film directed by Davis Guggenheim about former United States Vice President Al Gore 's campaign to educate citizens about global warming via a comprehensive slide show that , by his own estimate made in the film , he has given more than a thousand times . Premiering at the 2006 Sundance Film Festival and opening in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24 , 2006 , the documentary was a critical and box @-@ office success , winning two Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song . The film grossed $ 24 million in the U.S. and $ 26 million in the foreign box office , becoming the tenth highest grossing documentary film to date in the United States . The idea to document his efforts came from producer Laurie David who saw his presentation at a town @-@ hall meeting on global warming which coincided with the opening of The Day After Tomorrow . Laurie David was so inspired by Gore 's slide show that she , with producer Lawrence Bender , met with Guggenheim to adapt the presentation into a film . Since the film 's release , An Inconvenient Truth has been credited for raising international public awareness of global warming and reenergizing the environmental movement . The documentary has also been included in science curricula in schools around the world , which has spurred some controversy . = = Synopsis = = An Inconvenient Truth presents in film form an illustrated talk on climate by Al Gore , aimed at alerting the public to an increasing " planetary emergency " due to global warming , and shows re @-@ enacted incidents from his life story which influenced his concerns about environmental issues . He began making these presentations in 1989 with flip chart illustrations , the film version uses a Keynote presentation , which Gore refers to as " the slide show " . The former vice president opens the film by greeting an audience with his well known line about his campaign in 2000 : " I am Al Gore ; I used to be the next President of the United States . " He is shown using his laptop to edit his presentation , and pondering the difficulty he has had in awakening public concern : " I 've been trying to tell this story for a long time and I feel as if I 've failed to get the message across . " Gore then begins his slide show on Global Warming ; a comprehensive presentation replete with detailed graphs , flow charts and stark visuals . Gore shows off several majestic photographs of the Earth taken from multiple space missions , Earthrise and The Blue Marble . Gore notes that these photos dramatically transformed the way we see the Earth , helping spark modern environmentalism . Following this , Gore shares anecdotes that inspired his interest in the issue , including his college education with early climate expert Roger Revelle at Harvard University , his sister 's death from lung cancer and his young son 's near @-@ fatal car accident . Gore recalls a story from his grade @-@ school years , where a fellow student asked his geography teacher about continental drift ; in response , the teacher called the concept the " most ridiculous thing [ he 'd ] ever heard . " Gore ties this conclusion to the assumption that " the Earth is so big , we can 't possibly have any lasting , harmful impact on the Earth 's environment . " For comic effect , Gore uses a clip from the Futurama episode " Crimes of the Hot " to describe the greenhouse effect . Gore refers to his loss to George W. Bush in the 2000 United States presidential election as a " hard blow " yet one which subsequently " brought into clear focus , the mission [ he ] had been pursuing for all these years . " Throughout the movie , Gore discusses the scientific opinion on global warming , as well as the present and future effects of global warming and stresses that global warming " is really not a political issue , so much as a moral one , " describing the consequences he believes global warming will produce if the amount of human @-@ generated greenhouse gases is not significantly reduced in the very near future . Gore also presents Antarctic ice coring data showing CO2 levels higher now than in the past 650 @,@ 000 years . The film includes segments intended to refute critics who say that global warming is unproven or that warming will be insignificant . For example , Gore discusses the possibility of the collapse of a major ice sheet in Greenland or in West Antarctica , either of which could raise global sea levels by approximately 20 feet , flooding coastal areas and producing 100 million refugees . Melt water from Greenland , because of its lower salinity , could then halt the currents that keep northern Europe warm and quickly trigger dramatic local cooling there . It also contains various short animated projections of what could happen to different animals more vulnerable to global warming The documentary ends with Gore arguing that if appropriate actions are taken soon , the effects of global warming can be successfully reversed by releasing less CO2 and planting more vegetation to consume existing CO2 . Gore calls upon his viewers to learn how they can help him in these efforts . Gore concludes the film by saying : " Each one of us is a cause of global warming , but each one of us can make choices to change that with the things we buy , the electricity we use , the cars we drive ; we can make choices to bring our individual carbon emissions to zero . The solutions are in our hands , we just have to have the determination to make it happen . We have everything that we need to reduce carbon emissions , everything but political will . But in America , the will to act is a renewable resource . " During the film 's end credits , a diaporama pops up on screen suggesting to viewers things at home they can do to combat global warming , including " recycle " , " speak up in your community " , " try to buy a hybrid vehicle " and " encourage everyone you know to watch this movie . " Gore 's book of the same title was published concurrently with the theatrical release of the documentary . The book contains additional information , scientific analysis , and Gore 's commentary on the issues presented in the documentary . A 2007 documentary entitled An Update with Former Vice President Al Gore features Gore discussing additional information that came to light after the film was completed , such as Hurricane Katrina , coral reef depletion , glacial earthquake activity on the Greenland ice sheet , wildfires , and trapped methane gas release associated with permafrost melting . = = Background = = = = = Origins = = = Gore became interested in global warming when he took a course at Harvard University with Professor Roger Revelle , one of the first scientists to measure carbon dioxide in the atmosphere . Later , when Gore was in Congress , he initiated the first congressional hearing on the subject in 1981 . Gore 's 1992 book , Earth in the Balance , dealing with a number of environmental topics , reached the New York Times bestseller list . As Vice President during the Clinton Administration , Gore pushed for the implementation of a carbon tax to encourage energy efficiency and diversify the choices of fuel better reflecting the true environmental costs of energy use ; it was partially implemented in 1993 . He helped broker the 1997 Kyoto Protocol , an international treaty designed to curb greenhouse gas emissions . The treaty was not ratified in the United States after a 95 to 0 vote in the Senate . The primary objections stemmed from the exemptions the treaty gave to China and India , whose industrial base and carbon footprint have grown rapidly , and fears that the exemptions would lead to further trade imbalances and offshoring arrangement with those countries . Gore also supported the funding of the controversial , and much @-@ delayed satellite called Triana , which would have provided an image of the Earth 24 hours a day , over the internet and would have acted as a barometer measuring the process of global warming . During his 2000 presidential campaign , Gore ran , in part , on a pledge to ratify the Kyoto Protocol . = = = The slide show = = = After his defeat in the 2000 presidential election by George W. Bush , Gore returned his focus to the topic . He edited and adapted a slide show he had compiled years earlier , and began featuring the slide show in presentations on global warming across the U.S. and around the world . At the time of the film , Gore estimated he had shown the presentation more than one thousand times . Producer Laurie David saw Gore 's slide show in New York City at a global warming town @-@ hall meeting after the May 27 , 2004 premiere of The Day After Tomorrow . Gore was one of several panelists and he showed a ten @-@ minute version of his slide show . I had never seen it before , and I was floored . As soon as the evening 's program concluded , I asked him to let me present his full briefing to leaders and friends in New York and Los Angeles . I would do all the organizing if he would commit to the dates . Gore 's presentation was the most powerful and clear explanation of global warming I had ever seen . And it became my mission to get everyone I knew to see it too . Inspired , David assembled a team , including producer Lawrence Bender and former president of eBay Jeffrey Skoll , who met with Gore about the possibility of making the slide show into a movie . It took some convincing . The slide show , she says , " was his baby , and he felt proprietary about it and it was hard for him to let go . " David said the box office returns weren 't important to her . " None of us are going to make a dime . " What is at stake , she says , " is , you know , the planet . " David and Bender later met with director Davis Guggenheim , to have him direct the film adaptation of his slide show . Guggenheim , who was skeptical at first , later saw the presentation for himself , stating that he was " blown away , " and " left after an hour and a half thinking that global warming [ was ] the most important issue ... I had no idea how you ’ d make a film out of it , but I wanted to try , " he said . In 2004 Gore enlisted Duarte Design to condense and update his material and add video and animation . Ted Boda described the tools that went into designing the project : " Gore 's presentation was in fact using Apple 's Keynote presentation software ( the same software Steve Jobs presents from ) and did so for a number of reasons . As a designer for the presentation , Keynote was the first choice to help create such an engaging presentation . " Initially reluctant of the film adaptation , Gore said after he and the crew were into the production of the movie , the director , Guggenheim , earned his trust . I had seen enough to gain a tremendous respect for his skill and sensitivity . And he said that one of the huge differences between a live stage performance and a movie is that when you 're in the same room with a live person who 's on stage speaking – even if it 's me – there 's an element of dramatic tension and human connection that keeps your attention . And in a movie , that element is just not present . He explained to me that you have to create that element on screen , by supplying a narrative thread that allows the audience to make a connection with one or more characters . He said , " You 've got to be that character . " So we talked about it , and as I say , by then he had earned such a high level of trust from me that he convinced me . = = = Production = = = When Bender first saw Gore 's visual presentation he had concerns about connection with viewers , citing a " need to find a personal way in . " In the string of interviews with Gore that followed , Gore himself felt like they " were making Kill Al Vol . 3 " . Bender had other issues including a time frame that was " grueling " and needed to be done in " a very short period of time " despite many filming locations planned . These included many locations throughout the United States and also included China . " It was a lot of travel in a very short period of time . And they had to get this thing edited and cut starting in January , and ready to screen in May . That ’ s like a seriously tight schedule . So the logistics of pulling it off with a low budget were really difficult , and if there ’ s one person who gets credit , it ’ s Leslie Chilcott , because she really pulled it together . " = = = = Technical aspects = = = = The majority of the movie exhibits Gore delivering his lecture to an audience at a relatively small theater in Los Angeles . Gore 's presentation was delivered on a 70 @-@ foot digital screen that Bender commissioned specifically for the movie . While the bulk of the film was shot on 4 : 4 : 4 HDCAM , according to director Guggenheim , a vast array of different film formats were used : " There ’ s 35mm and 16mm . A lot of the stuff on the farm I just shot myself on 8mm film . We used four Sony F950 HDCAMs for the presentation . We shot three different kinds of prosumer HD , both 30 and 24 . There ’ s MiniDV , there ’ s 3200 black @-@ and @-@ white stills , there ’ s digital stills , some of them emailed on the day they were taken from as far off as Greenland . There was three or four different types of animation . One of the animators is from New Zealand and emailed me his work . There ’ s JPEG stuff . " Guggenheim says while it would 've been a lot easier to use one format , it would not have had the same impact . " Each format has its own feel and texture and touch . For the storytelling of what Gore ’ s memory was like of growing up on the farm , some of this 8mm stuff that I shot is very impressionistic . And for some of his memories of his son ’ s accident , these grainy black @-@ and @-@ white stills ... have a feel that contrasted very beautifully with the crisp hi @-@ def HD that we shot . Every format was used to its best potential . Some of the footage of Katrina has this blown @-@ out video , where the chroma is just blasted , and it looks real muddy , but that too has its own kind of powerful , impactful feeling . " = = Scientific basis = = The film 's thesis is that global warming is real , potentially catastrophic , and human @-@ caused . Gore presents specific data that supports the thesis , including : The Keeling curve , measuring CO2 from the Mauna Loa Observatory . The retreat of numerous glaciers is shown in before @-@ and @-@ after photographs . A study by researchers at the Physics Institute at the University of Bern and the European Project for Ice Coring in Antarctica ( EPICA ) presenting data from Antarctic ice cores showing carbon dioxide concentrations higher than at any time during the past 650 @,@ 000 years . Instrumental temperature record showing that the ten hottest years ever measured in this atmospheric record had all occurred in the previous fourteen years . A 2004 survey , by Naomi Oreskes of 928 peer @-@ reviewed scientific articles on global climate change published between 1993 and 2003 . The survey , published as an editorial in the journal Science , found that every article either supported the human @-@ caused global warming consensus or did not comment on it . Gore also presented a 2004 study by Max and Jules Boykoff showing 53 % of articles that appeared in major US newspapers over a fourteen @-@ year period gave roughly equal attention to scientists who expressed views that global warming was caused by humans as they did to global warming " skeptics " ( many of them funded by carbon @-@ based industry interests ) , creating a false balance . The Associated Press contacted more than 100 climate researchers and questioned them about the film 's veracity . All 19 climate scientists who had seen the movie or had read the homonymous book said that Gore accurately conveyed the science , with few errors . William H. Schlesinger , dean of the Nicholas School of Environment and Earth Sciences at Duke University said " [ Gore ] got all the important material and got it right . " Robert Corell , chairman of the Arctic Climate Impact Assessment was also impressed . " I sat there and I 'm amazed at how thorough and accurate . After the presentation I said , ' Al , I 'm absolutely blown away . There 's a lot of details you could get wrong . ' ... I could find no error . " Michael Shermer , scientific author and founder of The Skeptics Society , wrote in Scientific American that Gore 's slide show " shocked me out of my doubting stance . " Eric Steig , a climate scientist writing on RealClimate , lauded the film 's science as " remarkably up to date , with reference to some of the very latest research . " Ted Scambos , lead scientist from the National Snow and Ice Data Center , said the film " does an excellent job of outlining the science behind global warming and the challenges society faces in the coming century because of it . " One concern among scientists in the film was the connection between hurricanes and global warming , which remains contentious in the science community . Gore cited five recent scientific studies to support his view . " I thought the use of imagery from Hurricane Katrina was inappropriate and unnecessary in this regard , as there are plenty of disturbing impacts associated with global warming for which there is much greater scientific consensus , " said Brian Soden , professor of meteorology and oceanography at the University of Miami . Gavin Schmidt , climate modeler for NASA , thought Gore appropriately addressed the issue . " Gore talked about 2005 and 2004 being very strong seasons , and if you weren 't paying attention , you could be left with the impression that there was a direct cause and effect , but he was very careful to not say there 's a direct correlation , " Schmidt said . " There is a difference between saying ' we are confident that they will increase ' and ' we are confident that they have increased due to this effect , ' " added Steig . " Never in the movie does he say : ' This particular event is caused by global warming . ' " Gore 's use of long ice core records of CO2 and temperature ( from oxygen isotope measurements ) in Antarctic ice cores to illustrate the correlation between the two drew some scrutiny ; Schmidt , Steig and Michael E. Mann back up Gore 's data . " Gore stated that the greenhouse gas levels and temperature changes over ice age signals had a complex relationship but that they ' fit ' . Both of these statements are true , " said Schmidt and Mann . " The complexity though is actually quite fascinating ... a full understanding of why CO2 changes in precisely the pattern that it does during ice ages is elusive , but among the most plausible explanations is that increased received solar radiation in the southern hemisphere due to changes in Earth ’ s orbital geometry warms the southern ocean , releasing CO2 into the atmosphere , which then leads to further warming through an enhanced greenhouse effect . Gore ’ s terse explanation of course does not mention such complexities , but the crux of his point – that the observed long @-@ term relationship between CO2 and temperature in Antarctica supports our understanding of the warming impact of increased CO2 concentrations – is correct . Moreover , our knowledge of why CO2 is changing now ( fossil fuel burning ) is solid . We also know that CO2 is a greenhouse gas , and that the carbon cycle feedback is positive ( increasing temperatures lead to increasing CO2 and CH4 ) , implying that future changes in CO2 will be larger than we might anticipate . " " Gore is careful not to state what the temperature / CO2 scaling is , " said Steig . " He is making a qualitative point , which is entirely accurate . The fact is that it would be difficult or impossible to explain past changes in temperature during the ice age cycles without CO2 changes . In that sense , the ice core CO2 @-@ temperature correlation remains an appropriate demonstration of the influence of CO2 on climate . " Steig disputed Gore 's statement that you can visibly see the effect that the United States Clean Air Act has had on ice cores in Antarctica . " One can neither see , nor even detect using sensitive chemical methods any evidence in Antarctica of the Clean Air Act , " he said , but did note that they are " clearly recorded in ice core records from Greenland . " Despite these flaws , Steig said that the film got the fundamental science right and the minor factual errors did not undermine the main message of the film , adding " An Inconvenient Truth rests on a solid scientific foundation . " Lonnie Thompson , Earth Science professor at Ohio State University , whose work on retreating glaciers was featured in the film , was pleased with how his research was presented . " It 's so hard given the breadth of this topic to be factually correct , and make sure you don 't lose your audience , " Thompson said . " As scientists , we publish our papers in Science and Nature , but very few people read those . Here 's another way to get this message out . To me , it 's an excellent overview for an introductory class at a university . What are the issues and what are the possible consequences of not doing anything about those changes ? To me , it has tremendous value . It will reach people that scientists will never reach . " John Nielsen @-@ Gammon from Texas A & M University said the " main scientific argument presented in the movie is for the most part consistent with the weight of scientific evidence , but with some of the main points needing updating , correction , or qualification . " Nielsen @-@ Gammon thought the film neglected information gained from computer models , and instead relied entirely on past and current observational evidence , " perhaps because such information would be difficult for a lay audience to grasp , believe , or connect with emotionally . " Steven Quiring , climatologist from Texas A & M University added that " whether scientists like it or not , An Inconvenient Truth has had a much greater impact on public opinion and public awareness of global climate change than any scientific paper or report . " = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = The film opened in New York City and Los Angeles on May 24 , 2006 . On Memorial Day weekend , it grossed an average of $ 91 @,@ 447 per theater , the highest of any movie that weekend and a record for a documentary , though it was only playing on four screens at the time . At the 2006 Sundance Film Festival , the movie received three standing ovations . It was also screened at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and was the opening night film at the 27th Durban International Film Festival on June 14 , 2006 . An Inconvenient Truth was the most popular documentary at the 2006 Brisbane International Film Festival . The film has grossed over $ 24 million in the U.S. , making it the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing documentary in the U.S. ( from 1982 to the present ) . It grossed nearly $ 26 million in foreign countries , the highest being France , where it grossed $ 5 million . According to Gore , " Tipper and I are devoting 100 percent of the profits from the book and the movie to a new bipartisan educational campaign to further spread the message about global warming . " Paramount Classics committed 5 % of their domestic theatrical gross from the film to form a new bipartisan climate action group , Alliance for Climate Protection , dedicated to awareness and grassroots organizing . = = = Reviews = = = The film received a positive reaction from film critics and audiences . It garnered a " certified fresh " 93 % rating at Rotten Tomatoes . At Metacritic , which assigns a weighted average score out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film has received an average score of 75 , based on 32 reviews . Film critics Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper gave the film " two thumbs up " . Ebert said , " In 39 years , I have never written these words in a movie review , but here they are : You owe it to yourself to see this film . If you do not , and you have grandchildren , you should explain to them why you decided not to , " calling the film " horrifying , enthralling and [ having ] the potential , I believe , to actually change public policy and begin a process which could save the Earth . " New York Magazine critic David Edelstein called the film " One of the most realistic documentaries I 've ever seen — and , dry as it is , one of the most devastating in its implications . " The New Yorker 's David Remnick added that while it was " not the most entertaining film of the year ... it might be the most important " and a " brilliantly lucid , often riveting attempt to warn Americans off our hellbent path to global suicide . " New York Times reviewer A.O. Scott thought the film was " edited crisply enough to keep it from feeling like 90 minutes of C @-@ SPAN and shaped to give Mr. Gore 's argument a real sense of drama , " and " as unsettling as it can be , " Scott continued , " it is also intellectually exhilarating , and , like any good piece of pedagogy , whets the appetite for further study . " Bright Lights Film Journal critic Jayson Harsin declared the film 's aesthetic qualities groundbreaking , as a new genre of slideshow film . NASA climatologist James Hansen described the film as powerful , complemented by detail in the book . Hansen said that " Gore has put together a coherent account of a complex topic that Americans desperately need to understand . The story is scientifically accurate and yet should be understandable to the public , a public that is less and less drawn to science . " He added that with An Inconvenient Truth , " Al Gore may have done for global warming what Silent Spring did for pesticides . He will be attacked , but the public will have the information needed to distinguish our long @-@ term well @-@ being from short @-@ term special interests . " In " extensive exit polling " of An Inconvenient Truth in " conservative suburban markets like Plano and Irvine ( Orange County ) , as well as Dallas and Long Island " , 92 percent rated " Truth " highly and 87 percent of the respondents said they 'd recommend the film to a friend . University of Washington professor Michele Poff argued that Gore was successful in communicating to conservative @-@ leaning audiences by framing the climate crisis as apolitical . " Gore ’ s and the environment ’ s identification with the Democratic Party posed a significant challenge to reaching Republicans and conservatives , as well as those disgruntled with politics in general , " Poff wrote . " To appeal to such individuals , Gore framed the matter as distinctly apolitical — as an issue both outside politics and one that was crucial regardless of one ’ s ideological leanings . These explicit attempts to frame the issue as apolitical take on further gravitas when we consider how Gore infused the film with reflections of conservative values . Indeed , Gore reached deeply into the value structure of American conservatives to highlight ideals that suggested his cause was not liberal , but rather was beyond politics , beyond ideology . " = = = Critical reviews = = = Several reviews criticized the film on scientific and political grounds . Journalist Ronald Bailey argued in the libertarian magazine Reason that although " Gore gets [ the science ] more right than wrong , " he exaggerates the risks . MIT atmospheric physicist Richard S. Lindzen was vocally critical of the film , writing in a June 26 , 2006 op @-@ ed in the Wall Street Journal that Gore was using a biased presentation to exploit the fears of the public for his own political gain . Some other reviewers were also skeptical of Gore 's intent , wondering whether he was setting himself for another Presidential run . Boston Globe writer Peter Canello criticized the " gauzy biographical material that seems to have been culled from old Gore campaign commercials . " Phil Hall of Film Threat gave the film a negative review , saying " An Inconvenient Truth is something you rarely see in movies today : a blatant intellectual fraud . " Others felt Gore didn 't go far enough in depicting the threat Indigenous peoples faced with the dire consequences of climate change . " An Inconvenient Truth completely ignores the plight of Arctic indigenous peoples whose cultures and landscapes are facing profound changes produced by melting polar ice , " argued environmental historian Finis Dunaway . = = Accolades = = An Inconvenient Truth has received many different awards worldwide . The film won the 2006 Academy Awards for Best Documentary Feature and Best Original Song for Melissa Etheridge 's " I Need to Wake Up " . It is the first documentary to win 2 Oscars and the first to win a best original song Oscar . After winning the 2007 Academy Award for Documentary Feature , the Oscar was awarded to director Guggenheim , who asked Gore to join him and other members of the crew on stage . Gore then gave a brief speech , saying : My fellow Americans , people all over the world , we need to solve the climate crisis . It 's not a political issue ; it 's a moral issue . We have everything we need to get started , with the possible exception of the will to act . That 's a renewable resource . Let 's renew it . Sight & Sound magazine conducts a poll every ten years of the world 's finest film directors to find out the Ten Greatest Films of All Time . This poll has been going since 1992 , and has become the most recognised poll of its kind in the world . In 2012 Cyrus Frisch voted for " An Inconvenient Truth " . Frisch commented : " A few years after this film was made , global industry has become more aware of its impact on nature . " In addition , the film received numerous other accolades , including a special recognition from the Humanitas Prize , the first time the organization had handed out a Special Award in over 10 years , the 2007 Stanley Kramer Award from The Producers Guild of America , which recognizes " work that dramatically illustrates provocative social issues " and the President ’ s Award 2007 from the Society for Technical Communication " for demonstrating that effective and understandable technical communication , when coupled with passion and vision , has the power to educate — and change — the world . " For Gore 's wide @-@ reaching efforts to draw the world ’ s attention to the dangers of global warming which is centerpieced in the film , Al Gore , along with the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) , won the 2007 Nobel Peace Prize . The related album , which featured the voices of Beau Bridges , Cynthia Nixon and Blair Underwood , also won Best Spoken Word Album at the 51st Grammy Awards . The film won many other awards for Best Documentary : = = Impact = = The documentary has been generally well @-@ received politically in many parts of the world and is credited for raising further awareness of global warming internationally . The film inspired producer Kevin Wall to conceive the 2007 Live Earth festival and influenced Italian composer Giorgio Battistelli to write an operatic adaptation , entitled " CO2 , " premiering at La Scala in Milan in 2015 . = = = Activism = = = Following the film , Gore founded The Climate Reality Project in 2006 which trained 1 @,@ 000 activists to give Gore ’ s presentation in their communities . Presently , the group has 3 @,@ 500 presenters worldwide . An additional initiative was launched in 2010 , called " Inconvenient Youth " . " ' Inconvenient Youth ' is built on the belief that teens can help lead efforts to solve the climate crisis , " said Gore . The project was inspired by Mary Doerr , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old who trained as presenter for the organization . University of Scranton professor Jessica Nolan found in a 2010 study published for Environment and Behavior that people became more informed and concerned about climate change right after seeing the film but that these concerns didn 't translate into changed behavior a month later . On the contrary , in a 2011 paper published in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management , University of Oregon professor Grant Jacobsen found in the two months following the release of the film , zip codes within a 10 @-@ mile radius of a zip code where the film was shown experienced a 50 percent relative increase in the purchase of voluntary carbon offsets . = = = Public opinion = = = In a July 2007 47 @-@ country Internet survey conducted by The Nielsen Company and Oxford University , 66 % of those respondents who said they had seen An Inconvenient Truth stated that it had " changed their mind " about global warming and 89 % said it had made them more aware of the problem . Three out of four ( 74 % ) said they had changed some of their habits because of seeing the film . = = = Governmental reactions = = = Then @-@ president George W. Bush , when asked whether he would watch the film , responded : " Doubt it . " Gore responded that " The entire global scientific community has a consensus on the question that human beings are responsible for global warming and he [ Bush ] has today again expressed personal doubt that that is true . " White House deputy press secretary Dana Perino stated that " The president noted in 2001 the increase in temperatures over the past 100 years and that the increase in greenhouse gases was due to a certain extent to human activity " . Several United States Senators screened the film . New Mexico Democratic Senator Jeff Bingaman and Nevada Democratic Senator Harry Reid saw the movie at its Washington premiere at the National Geographic Society . New Mexico Democratic Senator Tom Udall planned to see the film saying " It 's such a powerful statement because of the way the movie is put together , I tell everybody , Democrat or Republican , they 've got to go see this movie . " Former New Mexico Republican Senator Pete Domenici thought Gore 's prominence on the global warming issue made it more difficult to get a consensus in Congress . Bingaman disputed this saying , " It seems to me we were having great difficulty recruiting Republican members of Congress to support a bill before Al Gore came up with this movie . " Oklahoma Republican Senator Jim Inhofe , then @-@ chairman of the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee , didn 't plan to see the film ( which he appears in ) , and compared it to Adolf Hitler 's book " Mein Kampf " . " If you say the same lie over and over again , and particularly if you have the media 's support , people will believe it , " Inhofe said , adding that he thought Gore was trying to use the issue to run for president again in 2008 . In contrast to Inhofe , Arizona Republican Senator John McCain , did not criticize Gore 's efforts or the movie , which he planned to see . Tennessee Republican Senator Lamar Alexander , said " Because ( Gore ) was a former vice president and presidential nominee , he brings a lot of visibility to ( the issue ) , " Alexander said . " On the other hand it may be seen as political by some , and they may be less eager to be a part of it . " Alexander also criticized the omission of nuclear power in the film . " Maybe it needs a sequel : ' An Inconvenient Truth 2 : Nuclear Power . ' " In September 2006 , Gore traveled to Sydney , Australia to promote the film . Then @-@ Australian Prime Minister John Howard said he would not meet with Gore or agree to Kyoto because of the movie : " I don 't take policy advice from films . " Former Opposition Leader Kim Beazley joined Gore for a viewing and other MPs attended a special screening at Parliament House earlier in the week . After winning the general election a year later , Prime Minister Kevin Rudd ratified Kyoto in his first week of office , leaving the United States the only industrialized nation in the world not to have signed the treaty . In the United Kingdom , Conservative party leader and future Prime Minister David Cameron urged people to watch the film in order to understand climate change . In Belgium , Margaretha Guidone persuaded the entire Belgian government to see the film . 200 politicians and political staff accepted her invitation , among whom were Belgian prime minister Guy Verhofstadt and Minister @-@ President of Flanders , Yves Leterme . Gore received the Prince of Asturias Prize in 2007 for international cooperation . In Costa Rica , the film was screened by president Oscar Arias . Arias 's subsequent championing of the climate change issue was greatly influenced by the film . = = = Industry and business = = = The Competitive Enterprise Institute released pro @-@ carbon dioxide television ads in preparation for the film 's release in May 2006 . The ads featured a little girl blowing a dandelion with the tagline , " Carbon dioxide . They call it pollution . We call it life . " In August 2006 , the Wall Street Journal revealed that a YouTube video lampooning Gore and the movie , titled Al Gore 's Penguin Army , appeared to be " astroturfing " by DCI Group , a Washington public relations firm . = = Use in education = = Several colleges and high schools have begun to use the film in science curricula . In Germany , German Environment Minister Sigmar Gabriel bought 6 @,@ 000 DVDs of An Inconvenient Truth to make it available to German schools . Prime Minister José Luis Rodríguez Zapatero distributed 30 000 copies to the Spanish schools in October , 2007 . In Burlington , Ontario , Canada , the Halton District School Board made An Inconvenient Truth available at schools and as an educational resource . = = = In the United Kingdom = = = As part of a nationwide " Sustainable Schools Year of Action " launched in late 2006 , the UK Government , Welsh Assembly Government and Scottish Executive announced between January – March 2007 that copies of An Inconvenient Truth would be sent to all their secondary schools . The film was placed into the science curriculum for fourth and sixth @-@ year students in Scotland as a joint initiative between Learning and Teaching Scotland and ScottishPower . = = = = Dimmock case = = = = In May 2007 , Stewart Dimmock — a lorry ( HGV ) driver , school governor from Kent , England , and member of a right @-@ wing group called the New Party — challenged the UK Government 's distribution of the film in a lawsuit , Dimmock v Secretary of State for Education and Skills , with help from political ally and New Party founder Viscount Monckton , who notably pointed out " 35 serious scientific errors " . The plaintiffs sought an injunction preventing the screening of the film in English schools , arguing that by law schools are forbidden to promote partisan political views and , when dealing with political issues , are required to provide a balanced presentation of opposing views . On October 10 , 2007 , Justice Michael Burton , after explaining that the requirement for a balanced presentation does not warrant that equal weight be given to alternative views of a mainstream view , ruled that it was clear that the film was substantially founded upon scientific research and fact , albeit that the science had been used , in the hands of a " talented politician and communicator " , to make a political statement and to support a political program . The judge ruled that An Inconvenient Truth contained nine scientific errors and thus must be accompanied by an explanation of those errors before being shown to school children . The judge said that showing the film without the explanations of error would be a violation of education laws . The judge concluded " I have no doubt that Dr Stott , the Defendant 's expert , is right when he says that : ' Al Gore 's presentation of the causes and likely effects of climate change in the film was broadly accurate . ' " On the basis of testimony from Robert M. Carter and the arguments put forth by the claimant 's lawyers , the judge also pointed to nine " errors " , i.e. statements the truth of which he did not rule on , but that he found to depart from the mainstream scientific positions on global warming . He also found that some of these departures from the mainstream arose in the context of alarmism and exaggeration in support of political theses . Since the government had already accepted to amend the guidance notes to address these along with other points in a fashion that the judge found satisfactory , no order was made on the application . Each side declared victory . Government Minister of Children , Young People and Families , Kevin Brennan stated : " We have updated the accompanying guidance , as requested by the judge to make it clearer for teachers as to the stated Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change position on a number of scientific points raised in the film . " Plaintiff Dimmock complained that " no amount of turgid guidance " could change his view that the film was unsuitable for the classroom . A spokesman for Gore said : " Of the thousands of facts in the film , the judge only took issue with just a handful . And of that handful , we have the studies to back those pieces up . " = = = In the United States = = = In the United States , 50 @,@ 000 free copies of An Inconvenient Truth were offered to the National Science Teachers Association ( NSTA ) , which declined to take them . Producer David provided an email correspondence from the NSTA detailing that their reasoning was that the DVDs would place " unnecessary risk upon the [ NSTA ] capital campaign , especially certain targeted supporters , " and that they saw " little , if any , benefit to NSTA or its members " in accepting the free DVDs . A Washington Post editorial called the decision " Science a la Joe Camel " , citing for example that the NSTA had received $ 6 million since 1996 from Exxon Mobil , which had a representative on the organization 's corporate board . In public , the NSTA argued that distributing this film to its members would have been contrary to a long @-@ standing NSTA policy against distributing unsolicited materials to its members . The NSTA also said that they had offered several other options for distributing the film but ultimately " [ it ] appears that these alternative distribution mechanisms were unsatisfactory . " David has said that NSTA Executive Director Gerry Wheeler promised in a telephone conversation to explore alternatives with NSTA 's board for advertising the film but she had not yet received an alternative offer at the time of NSTA 's public claim . She also said that she rejected their subsequent offers because they were nothing more than offers to sell their " commercially available member mailing list " and advertising space in their magazine and newsletter , which are available to anyone . She noted that in the past , NSTA had shipped out 20 @,@ 000 copies of a 10 @-@ part video produced by Wheeler with funding provided by ConocoPhillips in 2003 . NSTA indicated that they retained editorial control over the content , which David questioned based on the point of view portrayed in the global warming section of the video . The American Association for the Advancement of Science publication ScienceNOW published an assessment discussing both sides of the NSTA decision in which it was reported that " David says NSTA 's imprimatur [ i.e. endorsement or sanction ] was essential and that buying a mailing list is a nonstarter . ' You don 't want to send out a cold letter , and it costs a lot of money , ' she says . ' There are a thousand reasons why that wouldn 't work . ' " In January 2007 , the Federal Way ( Washington State ) School Board voted to require an approval by the principal and the superintendent for teachers to show the film to students and that the teachers must include the presentation of an approved " opposing view " . The moratorium was repealed , at a meeting on January 23 , after a predominantly negative community reaction . Shortly thereafter , the school board in Yakima , Washington , calling the film a " controversial issue " , prevented the Environmental Club of Eisenhower High School from showing it , pending review by the school board , teachers , principal , and parents . It lifted the stay a month later , upon the approval by a review panel . = = = In New Zealand = = = Former ACT New Zealand Member of Parliament Muriel Newman filed a petition to have New Zealand schoolchildren be protected from political indoctrination by putting provisions that resembled those in the UK to the Education Act . The petition was in response to concerned parents talked with Newman after An Inconvenient Truth was shown in schools in 2007 . The parents were worried that teachers were not pointing out supposed inaccuracies in the film and were not explaining differing viewpoints . = = Music = = An Inconvenient Truth was scored by Michael Brook with an accompanying theme song played during the end credits by Melissa Etheridge . Brook explained that he wanted to bring out the emotion expressed in the film : " ... in Inconvenient Truth , there 's a lot of information and it 's kind of a lecture , in a way , and very well organized and very well presented , but it 's a lot to absorb . And the director , Guggenheim , wanted to have – sort of give people a little break every once in a while and say , okay , you don 't have to absorb this information , you can just sort of – and it was more the personal side of Al Gore 's life or how it connected to the theme of the film . And that 's when there 's music . " Etheridge agreed to write An Inconvenient Truth 's theme song , " I Need to Wake Up " after viewing Gore 's slide show . " I was so honored he would ask me to contribute to a project that is so powerful and so important , I felt such a huge responsibility , " she said . " Then I went , ' What am I going to write ? What am I going to say ? ' " Etheridge 's former partner , Tammy Lynn Michaels , told her : " Write what you feel , because that 's what people are going to feel . " Of Etheridge 's commitment to the project , Gore said , " Melissa is a rare soul who gives a lot of time and effort to causes in which she strongly believes . " Etheridge received the 2006 Academy Award for Best Original Song for " I Need to Wake Up . " Upon receiving the award , she noted in her acceptance speech : Mostly I have to thank Al Gore , for inspiring us , for inspiring me , showing that caring about the Earth is not Republican or Democrat ; it 's not red or blue , it 's all green . = = Sequel = = When asked during a Reddit " Ask Me Anything " in 2013 whether there were plans for a follow @-@ up film , Guggenheim said , " I think about it a lot -- I think we need one right now . " In 2014 , The Hollywood Reporter reported that the producers of the film were in talks over a possible sequel . " We have had conversations , " co @-@ producer Bender said . " We 've met ; we 've discussed . If we are going to make a movie , we want it to have an impact . " Co @-@ producer David also believed a sequel was needed . " God , do we need one , " David said . " Everything in that movie has come to pass . At the time we did the movie , there was Hurricane Katrina ; now we have extreme weather events every other week . The update has to be incredible and shocking . " = The Psychology of The Simpsons = The Psychology of The Simpsons : D 'oh ! is a non @-@ fiction book analyzing psychology themes in the television series The Simpsons . It contains content from several contributors , including psychologists , counselors and school therapists . The book was edited by Alan S. Brown , Ph.D. , and Chris Logan , and was published on March 1 , 2006 by BenBella Books . It has received praise from reviewers . = = Background = = The book was published on March 1 , 2006 by BenBella Books , and is part of their " Psychology of Popular Culture Series , " or " Smart Pop " for short . Other books in the series include works which analyze psychology and pop culture themes as related to Superman , the X @-@ Men , and The Matrix . The BenBella psychology series was inspired by a similar pop philosophy series from publisher Open Court Publishing Company . The editors of the book were Alan S. Brown , Ph.D. , and Chris Logan . Brown is a professor of psychology , and Logan is a lecturer in the field . The book is meant to appeal both to fans of The Simpsons , and academic students of psychology . = = Content = = The book contains content from twenty @-@ nine contributors , including psychologists , counselors , teachers and school therapists . It also includes content from Brown and Logan . General topics discussed in the work include family , alcohol abuse , relationships , self @-@ esteem , sex and gender , and personality . Specific topics in the field of psychology include clinical psychology , cognition , abnormal psychology , evolutionary psychology , gambling addiction , Pavlovian conditioning and family therapy . Contributor Denis M. McCarthy , assistant professor of psychology at the University of Missouri , analyzes risk factors for alcoholism presented in The Simpsons . McCarthy cites Bart 's passive @-@ avoidance learning as a risk factor , and notes that Maggie is at a high risk for substance abuse due to violent tendencies . Though each chapter contains material comparing The Simpsons episodes to academic psychology themes , the chapter titles are less serious , including " Which One of Us is Truly Crazy " and " Looking For Mr. Smarty Pants . " Editor Chris Logan explained : " The book ’ s content is very serious , but it 's not presented in an overly serious way . " The Simpsons Archive also described the balance between humor and academia in the book , noting : " Fortunately , despite numerous references to various psychological theories and academic studies , the essays steer clear of becoming too serious , and manage to stay entertaining throughout the book . " = = Reception = = The book was received favorably in a publication of Southern Methodist University . In the introduction to an interview with one of the book 's editors , the interviewer noted : " Get past the goofy cover , with its illustration of Homer ’ s beer- and TV @-@ saturated brain , and you find analysis aimed at both TV viewers and students of psychology . " The book also received positive mention in The Times , where Andrew Billen wrote : " I can commend D 'Oh ! : The Psychology of The Simpsons and Reading The Sopranos , since both shows are sturdy enough to support the intellectual studies . " An article at The Simpsons Archive also wrote positively of the work : " The connection to the show and its events is solid and psychological points are illustrated using explanatory snippets from the Simpsons . " = Ron Hextall = Ronald Jeffrey Hextall ( born May 3 , 1964 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey goaltender who played 13 National Hockey League ( NHL ) seasons for the Philadelphia Flyers , Quebec Nordiques , and New York Islanders . He served as Assistant General Manager for the Flyers for one season , and was promoted to General Manager of the Philadelphia Flyers , replacing Paul Holmgren on May 7 , 2014 . Before this he served as Assistant General Manager for the Los Angeles Kings , who won the Stanley Cup in 2012 . Hextall played 11 of his 13 seasons over two stints with the Flyers . He holds several team records and is a member of the Flyers Hall of Fame . During his	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
rookie season in 1986 – 87 , he was awarded the Vezina Trophy as the league 's top goaltender and led the Flyers to the Stanley Cup Finals . Despite the Flyers ' loss to the Edmonton Oilers in seven games , he won the Conn Smythe Trophy as the playoffs ' most valuable player , making him one of only five players to win the trophy in a losing effort . Injuries in the middle of his career contributed to a drop in his playing ability ; as a result , he was traded on three occasions in the off @-@ seasons between 1992 and 1994 to the Quebec Nordiques , the New York Islanders and then back to the Flyers . Upon his return to Philadelphia , Hextall regained confidence and form , recording goals against averages ( GAA ) below 3 @.@ 00 in each of his five subsequent seasons – the lowest of his career . He retired from the NHL at the end of the 1998 – 99 season . Hextall became the first NHL goaltender to score a goal by shooting the puck into the opponent 's empty net , against the Boston Bruins in the 1987 – 88 season . The following season , he became the first goaltender to score in the playoffs , by shooting the puck into the Washington Capitals ' empty net . His mobile style of play , in which he provided support to his defencemen by coming out of the goal area to play the puck was revolutionary , and inspired future generations of goaltenders , such as Martin Brodeur . He was also known for being one of the NHL 's most aggressive goaltenders : he was suspended for six or more games on three occasions , had more than 100 penalty minutes in each of his first three seasons , and set new records for the number of penalty minutes recorded by a goaltender in the NHL . = = Early life = = Ron Hextall was born on May 3 , 1964 in Brandon , Manitoba , the third and youngest child of Bryan and Fay Hextall . Hextall is a third @-@ generation NHL player - his grandfather , Hall of Famer Bryan Hextall , played 11 seasons with the New York Rangers , and was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame in 1969 . His father , Bryan Hextall , Jr . , played in the NHL for 10 seasons , most notably for the Pittsburgh Penguins , and his uncle , Dennis Hextall , played 14 seasons of NHL hockey , not staying with any one club for longer than five years . During his youth , Hextall saw his father and uncle often roughed up by the Philadelphia Flyers , whose aggressive style of play for much of the 1970s gave the team the name " Broad Street Bullies " . Hextall later reflected that during this period he " hated the Flyers . " Because of his father 's career , Hextall 's education was far from stable ; each year began at Brandon , and once the hockey season commenced in October , he moved to a school nearer to where his father was playing . At school , he achieved B and C grades , putting in the minimum amount of effort , but his mind remained on hockey , and specifically goaltending . " Everybody else would be working and I 'd be drawing pictures of Tony Esposito and Jimmy Rutherford , " he recalled . Hextall came to mostly enjoy the constant moving , later saying " I got to hang around NHL rinks . What more would I have wanted ? " Although both his father and grandfather played as forwards , his father was happy for him to play in goal , but insisted that he try other positions to improve his skating : Bryan believed his son would have made a good defenceman . Hextall 's mother thought her son 's love for hockey exceeded that of her husband 's teammates and believed it would drive him to achieve his aim of goaltending in the NHL . Each summer , Hextall received training at the hockey school at which his father taught , but the hockey programs in Pittsburgh and Atlanta were sub @-@ standard , and meant that during his teenage years , he was behind many of his fellow players . He describes himself as " [ not ] what you would call real polished " in his first year of junior hockey , aged 17 . = = Playing career = = = = = Junior hockey = = = Hextall began his junior hockey career with the Melville Millionaires in the Saskatchewan Junior Hockey League ( SJHL ) . In his solitary season with the club , he played 37 games with a goals against average ( GAA ) of 6 @.@ 57 . In one game that season , against the Prince Albert Raiders , Hextall faced 105 shots , and made 84 saves , a performance described as brilliant by the Regina Leader @-@ Post . Although the Millionaires lost 21 – 2 , the reporter noted that if it was not for Hextall , the Raiders could have scored " 34 or 35 " . Millionaires teammate Mark Odnokon praised his performance , particularly the way " he lived up to his responsibilities and stayed in there until the end . " In 2009 , Hextall was inducted as one of the inaugural members of the SJHL Hall of Fame . Hextall returned to Brandon for the 1981 – 82 season , playing for the Brandon Wheat Kings in the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . He played 30 regular season games for the Wheat Kings , during which he recorded a GAA of 5 @.@ 71 . The Wheat Kings reached the playoffs but were swept four games to none ( 4 – 0 ) in the first @-@ round by the Regina Pats . Hextall played in three of the games , but completed only two and had a GAA of 9 @.@ 32 . His team was regarded as a poor one at the time by critics and Hextall had to battle in each game . Flyers ' scout Gerry Melnyk said he could understand why many teams did not rate Hextall : " There were teams who thought he was loony . " Melnyk claimed it was these attributes which he was attracted by , and he felt that Hextall could fit in well with the Flyers . Subsequently , the Flyers chose Hextall in the sixth round of the 1982 NHL Draft , 119th overall . After his selection , Hextall remained with Brandon for two further seasons . He played 44 games in 1982 – 83 , recording a GAA of 5 @.@ 77 during a season in which the Wheat Kings did not qualify for the playoffs . The following year was his most successful in the WHL : a GAA of 4 @.@ 29 across his 46 regular season games , which included 29 wins – more than in the previous two seasons combined . He played in ten of the twelve playoff games , recording five wins and five losses , with a GAA of 3 @.@ 75 . During the 1983 – 84 season , Hextall set a record for the most penalty minutes accumulated by a goaltender , being assessed for 117 minutes during the regular season . = = = Professional hockey = = = Hextall arrived at the Philadelphia Flyers training camp in 1984 with the expectation of playing in the NHL . However , the Flyers subsequently sent him to their farm team in the International Hockey League ( IHL ) , the Kalamazoo Wings . Although disappointed , Hextall was now playing at a higher level than at WHL and made his debut in professional hockey . He played 19 games for Kalamazoo , recording six wins and a GAA of 4 @.@ 35 . During the season , he moved to the Flyers ' other farm team ; Hershey Bears of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , where he played 11 times , with four wins , and a GAA of 3 @.@ 68 . In the following season , Hextall remained with Hershey , appearing in 53 games during the 1985 – 86 season . He recorded 30 wins and the lowest GAA average of his career to that point , 3 @.@ 41 . The Bears finished the regular season as league leaders , and won the John D. Chick Trophy as the South Division Champions . Hextall lived up to his aggressive reputation in the Conference final , played against the St. Catharines Saints , fighting three different members of the opposition side during a single bench @-@ clearing brawl . The Bears advanced to the Calder Cup final , having beaten the New Haven Nighthawks 4 – 1 and the St. Catharines Saints 4 – 3 . In the final , they faced the Adirondack Red Wings , who won the championship by four games to two . Hextall played 13 games in the playoffs , of which his team won five , and his GAA was 3 @.@ 23 . He was named as the Dudley " Red " Garrett Memorial Award winner , as the AHL 's outstanding rookie player . Looking back on his time in the AHL , Hextall reflected that despite his initial disappointment at not being selected to play for the Flyers straight away , " the two years that I spent in the American League got me to the point where I was sure I could be a No. 1 goaltender at the NHL level . " = = = Philadelphia Flyers = = = = = = = First three seasons = = = = After his performances in the AHL , Hextall was invited to the Flyers ' training camp as a long @-@ shot . His play in four exhibition games convinced Flyers ' coach Mike Keenan to call up Hextall to the NHL , and to play him in the opening game of the season , against the Edmonton Oilers . Hextall conceded a goal from the first shot he faced in the game , but allowed no further shots past him , leading his side to a 2 – 1 victory . Hextall continued to display the aggressive nature with which he had always played , swinging his stick at Brad Smith and Troy Murray early in his first NHL season . Despite these swipes , Hextall claimed at the time that , " I used to be worse , I 've learned to control my temper . " Two months after making these comments , Hextall was involved in a fight with opposing New Jersey Devils goaltender Alain Chevrier . Having lost to the Devils , the Flyers wanted revenge for Steve Richmond 's punch on Kjell Samuelsson at the end of the game ; Hextall targeted Chevrier in a fight labelled by Chico Resch as " like a heavyweight against a lightweight . " Hextall and seven other players were fined $ 300 each for their part in the brawl . In 66 regular season games during his rookie year , Hextall posted a GAA of 3 @.@ 00 , and recorded 37 wins . His was awarded the Vezina Trophy for the most outstanding goaltender by the NHL general managers , but he was second in the voting to Luc Robitaille for the Calder Memorial Trophy , awarded to the " player selected as the most proficient in his first year of competition " . Hextall led the Flyers to top their Conference , and win the Prince of Wales Trophy . The Flyers progressed to face the Edmonton Oilers in the Stanley Cup Finals , having beaten the New York Rangers 4 – 2 , the New York Islanders 4 – 3 , and the Montreal Canadiens 4 – 2 . Following their series victory over Montreal , Flyers captain Dave Poulin identified Hextall as the team 's leading performer . In the fourth game of the Finals , Hextall received two penalties , first a ten @-@ minute misconduct penalty for " expressing his displeasure at the fourth Oiler goal , " and later a five @-@ minute penalty for slashing Kent Nilsson . In the latter incident , Hextall had received a slash from Glenn Anderson for which there was no call from the referees , and Hextall sought revenge by striking the back of Nilsson 's knees . After the game Hextall expressed remorse for striking the wrong player but not for his action : " If somebody slaps you in the face , you 're going to slap him back , it 's not like he gave me a touch to jar the puck . What 's he going to do next , break my arm ? I 'm sorry it was Nilsson and not Anderson I hit , but I just reacted . At the time , it seemed the right thing to do . " The performance of Hextall in the next game tied the series and forced a seventh game ; at the end , the Flyers team surrounded Hextall in congratulation and the Oilers player Kevin Lowe said that Hextall " held them in it " . Between the sixth and seventh games , the Oilers ' forward Wayne Gretzky described Hextall as " probably the best goaltender I 've ever played against in the NHL " Edmonton won the final game of the series to take the Stanley Cup . Robin Finn , writing in The New York Times , said that the team won the title " without their trademark , those endless waves of madcap scoring " , primarily due to the " heroics of Hextall " . Flyers teammate Rick Tocchet said that when he realised his side were going to lose , his " first thought was to feel sorry for Ronny Hextall , because he did everything he could to get us here and keep us in it . " Hextall was awarded the Conn Smythe Trophy for the most valuable player in the playoffs , becoming only the fourth player from a losing side to be awarded the trophy . During the off @-@ season , Hextall received an eight @-@ game suspension for the start of the 1987 – 88 season after his slash on Nilsson . Speaking on behalf of the NHL , Brian O 'Neill said that : " There is no justification for any player to swing his stick in retaliation and this is especially the case for a goaltender whose stick , because of its weight , can cause serious injury . " The Flyers had a difficult start to the 1987 – 88 season , partly attributed by Keenan to the absence of Hextall . Hextall returned to the Flyers line @-@ up against the New York Rangers , and made over 40 saves in a 2 – 2 tie . Just over a month later , Hextall became the first goaltender to shoot at goal and score in the NHL when he scored an empty net goal towards the end of a game against the Boston Bruins . The Flyers led 4 – 2 which prompted the Bruins to pull their goaltender in favour of an extra attacker . The puck was dumped into the Philadelphia zone by the Bruins , and Hextall picked it up without any players near him ; his shot fired into the air , bounced and rolled into the net . Hextall had targeted becoming the " first NHL goaltender to score a true goal " over a year earlier , and , speaking after the game , commented that : " I knew I could do it . It was a matter of when . " Despite his early season suspension , and a shoulder injury late in the season which made him miss five games , Hextall played 62 of the 67 games for which he was available during the regular season . He recorded 30 wins , and a GAA of 3 @.@ 50 , slightly higher than during his rookie year . Hextall struggled in the playoffs : he was replaced in successive games of the series against the Washington Capitals having conceded four goals in each . In the final two games of the series , which the Capitals won 4 – 3 , Hextall gave up a further 12 goals , and completed the playoffs with a GAA of 4 @.@ 75 . In each of his first two seasons , Hextall accumulated 104 penalty minutes during the regular season , the first time that a goaltender had collected over 100 . In the 1988 – 89 season , he broke his own record , being assessed 113 penalty minutes , the most by any goaltender in an NHL season ( as of 2015 ) . Hextall completed the 1988 – 89 regular season with 30 wins , the third consecutive season in which he had recorded so many , and the first time a goaltender had recorded 30 wins in each of their first three seasons in the NHL . The Flyers finished fourth in the Patrick Division and qualified for the playoffs . They faced the Washington Capitals in the first round , and the teams shared the first four games . The Flyers won the fifth , despite being 5 – 4 down in the third period . Flyers ' defenceman Mark Howe credited their victory to Hextall . Late in the game , the Capitals pulled their goaltender , and Hextall scored the second goal of his career . The puck was shot into the Flyers ' left defensive zone by Scott Stevens , and Hextall went around the back of his net , controlled the puck and shot at goal . He became the first goaltender to score a goal in the NHL playoffs . The Flyers won 8 – 5 , and went on to win the series 4 – 2 , which Joe Sexton of the New York Times attributed primarily to Hextall 's return to form . Against the Penguins in the Patrick Division Final , Hextall 's performances were mixed : he under @-@ performed early in the series , and in game five was swapped out of the net and then reinstated twice during a 10 – 7 defeat for the Flyers . Hextall faced 17 shots in the game , conceding nine of the Penguins goals . After the game , he denied being out of control , despite having assaulted one of the officials and chasing Rob Brown around the ice . He said , " I like to think I 'm strong mentally . Hey , if I was as out of control as people say I am , I wouldn 't be in the National Hockey League . " The Penguins coach , Gene Ubriaco , agreed with Hextall 's assessment , and believed the goaltender lost control intentionally : " He uses a loss of control to his advantage , in a way . He 's the extreme example of controlled violence . And they [ the Flyers ] live and die with it . " The Flyers won the next game to force a decider , but Hextall was ruled out of the contest with a first degree sprain of the medial collateral ligament ( MCL ) in his right knee . Hextall 's injury kept him out of the first three games of the series against the Canadiens , during which the Canadiens took a 2 – 1 lead . He returned for the fourth game , but could not prevent his side losing 3 – 0 . The Flyers won the following game to extend the series to six games , but lost the next game 4 – 2 , and were eliminated . Hextall displayed his violent side during the final minutes of game six , skating out of his crease to attack Chris Chelios . Hextall claimed that the attack was in retaliation for Chelios ' hit on his Flyer teammate Brian Propp in game one , when Chelios caught Flyer Propp with a " flying elbow " to the side of the head , rendering him unconscious . Hextall was given a 12 @-@ game suspension for his actions , at the beginning of the 1989 – 90 season . Following the announcement of the suspension , Hextall stated his disappointment , and added that his intention was to fight rather than hurt Chelios . = = = = Contract rebel and injury troubles = = = = Prior to the 1989 – 90 season , Hextall became unhappy that his eight @-@ year , $ 4 million contract was only earning him $ 325 @,@ 000 a year , and hired a confrontational agent , Ritch Winter , to renegotiate his contract . The Flyers refused to deal with the agent , and at a tearful press conference , Hextall declared his contract invalid and announced that he would not take part in the team 's training camp . After negotiations about which neither side revealed details , Hextall returned to practice with the team on October 20 , 42 days later . Hextall suffered a slight groin pull during his first game back , and in his second , he hurt his left hamstring . Just under a month later , while playing for the Hershey Bears in an attempt to establish his fitness , he was carried off the ice after once more hurting his groin . In total that season , Hextall appeared nine times ; once for the Bears in the AHL , and eight times for the Flyers . In the NHL , he recorded a GAA of 4 @.@ 15 , the highest he averaged during any single season of the NHL . Hextall continued to be plagued by groin injuries during the next two seasons , twice straining his left groin muscle in the 1990 – 91 season . The Flyers ' orthopaedist , Dr. Arthur Bartolozzi , suggested a possible reason for his series of injuries : " He is in motion anticipating the shot before the guy even hits the puck . So he 's already on the ice or doing a split or anticipating the shot well before it 's made . That 's probably what makes him a great goaltender . But it 's also what may predispose him to injury . " In 1990 – 91 , Hextall appeared in 36 NHL games , less than half of those played by the Flyers that season . He recorded 13 wins , with a GAA of 3 @.@ 13 . For the second successive year , the Flyers failed to qualify for the playoffs . Early the following season , Hextall received the third significant suspension of his career , missing six games for slashing Detroit forward Jim Cummins during a pre @-@ season game . Suspension , further injuries , and a lack of form meant Hextall appeared 45 times for the Flyers . He recorded 16 wins during the season , resulting in his lowest win percentage in the NHL , 35 @.@ 56 % . = = = Quebec Nordiques = = = In the 1992 off @-@ season , Hextall was part of the trade which brought Eric Lindros to the Philadelphia Flyers . Lindros , who had been picked first overall by the Quebec Nordiques in the 1991 entry draft , had refused to play for Quebec during the 1991 – 92 season , forcing the club 's owner Marcel Aubut to trade him . While negotiating to get the best possible deal , Aubut traded Lindros to both the Flyers and the Rangers , meaning an arbitrator had to rule which club should receive him . During the ten days between the trades being made and the arbitrator 's ruling , there was a lot of speculation about which Flyers ' and Rangers ' players were involved in the potential trades . Hextall was among the players mentioned , something which he was unhappy about . Speaking through his agent , Hextall admitted to being " scared to death " about the possibility of moving with his family to the French @-@ speaking area . On July 30 , the arbitrator ruled in favour of the Philadelphia Flyers , and Hextall was traded to Quebec , along with five other players , two first round selections ( in 1993 and 1994 ) , and $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cash for Lindros . In the New York Times preview of the Adams Division for the 1992 – 93 season , Hextall is described as " inconsistent and injury @-@ prone " , while the players gained in the Lindros trade are collected dubbed as " good players but no superstars . " Hextall regained some of the confidence he displayed during his first years in Philadelphia , and although a strained thigh muscle kept him out towards the end of the regular season , he helped the Nordiques to reach the playoffs for the first time since 1987 . Quebec were eliminated 4 – 2 by the Montreal Canadiens in the first round , during which Hextall was praised as being " at the top of his game " . = = = New York Islanders = = = After only one season at the Nordiques , Hextall was traded to the New York Islanders in return for Mark Fitzpatrick during the off @-@ season , a move made because the Nordiques could only protect one goalie for the expansion draft and instead of losing him chose to trade him to Long Island . The two teams also traded first round draft picks . The move was a surprise for Hextall , who had settled in well in Quebec with his family . Don Maloney , the Islanders ' General Manager , described the trade as " too good to pass up " . The trade was praised by the New York Times as possibly " the best in the league over the off season " . Hextall had a poor beginning to his career as an Islander , conceding 23 goals in 14 periods at the start of the season , resulting in his replacement prior to the third period against the New Jersey Devils in mid @-@ October . During that game , in which the Islanders were playing at home , Hextall was jeered by the crowd , something to which he had become accustomed during his time with Philadelphia . In contrast to the fan 's derision , Hextall 's teammates backed him , taking some of the blame themselves , and expressing their belief in their new colleague . Steve Thomas suggested that Hextall was " one of the best goalies in the league , easily in the top five or 10 , " while coach Al Arbour dismissed dropping Hextall , saying that " We 're not playing well in front of the goaltender and he can only be as good as the guys in front of him . " Any thoughts that Arbour might have had of replacing Hextall as the team 's number @-@ one goaltender were limited by the play of his back @-@ up , Tom Draper , who recorded a GAA of 4 @.@ 23 in the seven NHL games he played that season . This , coupled with the lack of experienced goaltenders at the club 's IHL affiliate , the Salt Lake Golden Eagles , resulted in Hextall starting 20 games in a row until Jamie McLennan was called up from the Golden Eagles . The break , and challenge , that Hextall was afforded by McLennan 's call @-@ up helped him to recover his form , and in February , he made consecutive shutouts against the Ottawa Senators and Washington Capitals . He recorded another shutout in his next home game , against the Flyers , and was shortly thereafter named as the NHL 's player of the week . During the regular season with the Islanders , Hextall recorded a career @-@ best five shutouts , and a GAA of 3 @.@ 08 , the best since his rookie year . Maloney described Hextall 's time with the team as having " a slow start and a disastrous finish " . The Islanders reached the playoffs , but were swept 4 – 0 by their rivals , the New York Rangers . Hextall played three of the four games , conceding 16 goals for a GAA of 6 @.@ 08 , the worst average of his NHL career by some distance . After the season had concluded , Maloney said that he believed that only two Islanders players had distinguished themselves during the 1993 – 94 season , with one of those being Jamie McLennan . He also praised Hextall 's play during his long sequence of starts , but five months later , Maloney traded Hextall back to Philadelphia . He described the move as being two @-@ pronged : it would appease the fans and prevent the derisory calls when the team were struggling , and it would give McLennan a chance to establish himself as the number @-@ one goaltender . Hextall , along with a sixth round draft pick was traded to the Flyers in return for goaltender Tommy Söderström . = = = Return to Philadelphia = = = In his first season back in Philadelphia , Hextall played 31 games , recording his lowest GAA in a season to that point , 2 @.@ 89 . The Flyers reached the playoffs for the first time in six years . After defeating the Buffalo Sabres in the first round , the Flyers faced the New York Rangers in the second . Following the Rangers sweep of the Islanders the previous season , the Rangers ' fans chanted " We Want Hex @-@ tall ! " during their game @-@ six victory in the first round . The Flyers ' coach , Terry Murray dismissed the chants , stating that " emotionally he 's really under control . " The New York Times supported this belief , claiming that " this isn 't the same Ron Hextall they remember so fondly " . The Flyers won the first two games of the series , and at Madison Square Garden , Hextall had a quiet game in which he even acted as a calming influence to teammates Kevin Haller and Dmitri Yushkevich , a turnaround from the aggressiveness he had displayed earlier in his career . The Flyers swept the Rangers 4 – 0 and advanced to the Conference Final against the New Jersey Devils , to whom they lost 4 – 2 . Hextall 's statistics in the playoffs were his best since his rookie year : he recorded ten wins with a GAA of 2 @.@ 81 . For the first time in three seasons , Hextall was not traded during the off @-@ season , and remained with the Flyers for the 1995 – 96 season . During the regular season , Hextall improved on his figures from the previous year , passing 30 wins for the first time since 1988 – 89 . His GAA of 2 @.@ 17 was both the best in the NHL that year , and the best of Hextall 's career . In the playoffs , Hextall played in all twelve of the Flyers ' games , a 4 – 2 first round victory over the Tampa Bay Lightning followed by a 4 – 2 defeat to the Florida Panthers . His GAA of 2 @.@ 13 was his lowest recorded in any post @-@ season . He continued to perform well over the next two seasons , passing 30 wins again in 1996 – 97 , and adding another nine shutouts to the four he had made in 1995 – 96 . Over his first five seasons in the NHL , Hextall only made one shutout , while in his final six seasons , he achieved the feat on nineteen occasions . The Flyers progressed to the 1997 Stanley Cup Finals , though Hextall only appeared in eight playoff games , finishing seven of them . Throughout the season and the playoffs , the uncertainty in goal resulted in Hextall and Garth Snow swapping places regularly . Snow started nine of the ten games during the first two rounds , but Hextall replaced him in game two of the Conference Final , and remained the starting goaltender for the remainder of the series . A loss against the Detroit Red Wings in the first game of the Stanley Cup finals resulted in coach Murray switching back to Snow for the second game . Hextall returned for games three and four , but the Flyers were swept 4 – 0 by the Red Wings . In his final two playing seasons , both spent at the Flyers , Hextall made fewer appearances ; he played 46 games in 1997 – 98 , and 23 the following year . He maintained a sub @-@ three GAA in each year , repeating the achievement in each of his final five seasons in the NHL having failed to do so in the previous eight seasons . At the end of 1998 – 99 , Hextall was waived by the Flyers , and after going unclaimed in the expansion draft , he announced his retirement on September 6 , 1999 . = = International career = = Hextall 's first international recognition came when he was named as part of Team Canada 's squad for the 1987 Canada Cup . During a practice session , he chopped Sylvain Turgeon 's arm with his stick during a scrimmage , claiming that the left wing was too close to the goal . Turgeon missed the tournament with a fractured arm ; Hextall was back @-@ up to Grant Fuhr and did not play a single game . He later represented Canada in the 1992 World Championships , playing five games to record one win and a GAA of 2 @.@ 86 as Canada were eliminated in the quarter @-@ finals . = = Playing style = = Hextall brought a new style of goaltending to the NHL , providing support to his two defencemen due to his willingness to come out of the net and play the puck . He was known for his excellent puck @-@ handling ability . In Hextall 's time , goaltenders would limit themselves to stopping the puck behind the net , make short push passes , or at most clear the puck out of the zone with " clumsy " backhands . He distinguished himself by using his stick as a defenceman would ; for example , he was capable of starting a counterattack , easily lifting the puck or bouncing it off the glass . Hextall 's puck @-@ handling ability meant that it was inadvisable to try a dump and chase strategy of sending the puck in a corner , regaining it , and establishing an attack in the offensive zone , because Hextall would invariably get to the puck first and clear it out of his zone towards a waiting player in the neutral zone . He was described by former NHL player Peter McNab as the " original outlet pass goalie " . While playing junior hockey , Hextall 's coaches advised him that he would not reach the NHL if he continued to move the puck . Not everyone agreed ; NHL goaltender Darren Pang described feeling as if " he had just witnessed Superman flying out of a phone booth " when he saw Hextall 's puckhandling ability in a minor league game . Former NHL goaltender Johnny Bower , when scouting for the Toronto Maple Leafs in Brandon , remarked that Hextall would at times let in soft goals , and doubted if he would reach the NHL ; Hextall retained a tendency to let in occasional weak goals throughout his career . Hextall claims his adventurous style stemmed from his youth , when he played on outdoor ice rinks with a skater 's stick , rather than the heftier goaltender 's stick . Martin Brodeur modelled his own play on that of Hextall , saying " I love the fact that he was playing the puck . He was one of the first goalies that came out and played the puck . He was a little rough for my liking , but it was entertaining . The playing of the puck was the big thing . " Hextall 's mobility provided extra passing opportunities for his defencemen : when killing a penalty they would frequently pass the puck back to him , relieving some of the pressure on his team . He is described on the Hockey Hall of Fame 's Legends of Hockey website as being " perhaps the game 's most mobile goalie of all time . " Frank Orr , a columnist in the Toronto Star , suggested that Hextall 's aggressive nature , which resulted in three suspensions of six or more games during his NHL career , was an intentional part of his game designed to protect him . He theorized that because Hextall 's style of play frequently took him out of his goal crease , the threat of physical violence lessened the chances of him being challenged by an attacker when out of position . In the 1993 playoff series between the Montreal Canadiens and Hextall 's Nordiques , the Canadiens ' coach Jacques Demers designed a plan to disrupt Hextall 's play after Montreal had lost its two first games to Quebec . He noted that Hextall would be off his game if he were disturbed or bumped . Montreal then won four straight games to win the series in six games . Demers felt that Hextall 's emotional play lessened his effectiveness ; while acknowledging him as a " great competitor " , he felt that " he didn 't reach the level of a Grant Fuhr or a Martin Brodeur [ because ] he lost his cool if you got in his face . " Rogie Vachon , who served as the General Manager of the Los Angeles Kings during the early part of the Hextall 's playing career , praised his goaltending ability , but felt that his aggressive conduct " shouldn 't be in hockey and I think it tarnishes his image , too . He can play . He doesn 't need that ( stuff ) . " His view was shared by many , leading Hextall to be tagged as one of the most " revered and reviled " players in the league . Former NHL goaltender John Davidson commented that Hextall " thrived " on being a villain ; he further described him as a " great character " , and noted that " when he came to town , fans would want to race to the arena to boo him . " = = Management career = = Upon his retirement from playing in 1999 , Hextall immediately joined the Philadelphia Flyers ' set @-@ up as a Professional Scout . He was promoted to Director of Professional Player Personnel three years later , and was considered by the Manitoba Sports Hall of Fame to be a key factor in the success experienced by the Flyers during the early 2000s , when they won the Atlantic Division three times , and reached the Eastern Conference Finals on two occasions . In June 2006 , Hextall moved to the Los Angeles Kings to take on the role of Vice President and Assistant General Manager . In addition , Hextall served as the General Manager of the Manchester Monarchs of the AHL , the Kings ' primary affiliate . On June 11 , 2012 , Hextall won the Stanley Cup that eluded him in 1987 and 1997 , this time as the Assistant General Manager of the Los Angeles Kings . On July 15 , 2013 , Hextall returned to the Flyers , being named Assistant General Manager and Director of Hockey Operations . On May 7 , 2014 , Hextall was named General Manager of the Flyers , following the promotion of Paul Holmgren to team President . = = Personal life = = Hextall married Diane Ogibowski , a former figure skater , and the pair have four children ; Kristin , Brett , Rebecca , and Jeffrey . Brett Hextall was drafted by the Phoenix Coyotes as a sixth @-@ round pick ( 159th overall ) in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft . He was signed to an entry @-@ level contract with the team in April 2011 , and if he plays in the NHL will become the second fourth @-@ generation player in NHL history , after Blake Geoffrion . = = Awards and honours = = = = Records = = = = = NHL = = = Most penalty minutes by a goaltender in a single season – 113 ( 1988 – 89 ) = = = Philadelphia Flyers = = = Most career games played by a goaltender – 489 Most career wins – 240 Most career playoff wins – 45 Most career points by a goaltender – 28 Most career penalty minutes by a goaltender – 476 = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season = = = = = = Post season = = = = = = International = = = = Pulling Strings ( White Collar ) = " Pulling Strings " is the 14th episode of the third season of the American comedy @-@ drama television series White Collar , and the 44th episode overall . It was first broadcast on USA Network in the United States on February 7 , 2012 . The episode was directed by Anton Cropper and written by Channing Powell . In the episode , Peter Burke ( Tim DeKay ) assigns Neal Caffrey ( Matt Bomer ) to work with his former girlfriend , Sara Ellis ( Hilarie Burton ) , to track down a missing Stradivarius violin . Meanwhile , Peter must deal with the arrival of Elizabeth 's ( Tiffani Thiessen ) parents ( Tom Skerritt and Debra Monk ) , who are in New York for their daughter 's birthday . According to the Nielsen ratings system , an estimated 2 @.@ 469 million household viewers watched the original broadcast of the episode , with 0 @.@ 8 million in the 18 – 49 demographic . " Pulling Strings " received mostly mixed to positive reviews from critics , with many praising individual elements of the episode . = = Plot = = After taking vacation from work to be with his wife – and her parents – on her birthday , Peter turns Neal over to Sara in order to retrieve a missing Stradivarius that she believes was stolen by her former fiancé and current boss , Bryan McKenzie ( Bailey Chase ) . Before beginning work on the case , Neal is approached by Agent Kramer ( Beau Bridges ) , who is in New York to look into Neal ’ s upcoming commutation hearing . Searching McKenzie ’ s apartment , Neal discovers a hidden security tape . Meanwhile , Sara convinces him to attend the symphony with her . With help from June ( Diahann Carroll ) , Neal and Diana Berrigan ( Marsha Thomason ) are able to go to the symphony as well . While they quickly discover that the second @-@ chair violinist is the woman on the security video , McKenzie realizes that Neal is not exactly who he claims to be . While searching backstage , Neal and Diana find a body ; they quickly recognize him as the symphony ’ s instrument expert . Upon questioning the violinist from the security tape , Diana discovers that she had damaged the violin and had given it to the instrument expert for repairs . Sara approaches McKenzie with the information she has , pretending to want to join him . Diana and Neal soon arrive to arrest McKenzie , and Sara tells Neal to “ call [ her ] sometime . ” Meanwhile , Peter suffers through the arrival of his in @-@ laws . Everything goes wrong at Elizabeth ’ s birthday : her parents give her a much @-@ despised doll from her childhood , Peter ’ s gift to Elizabeth does not turn out the way he had planned , and Elizabeth ’ s father continues to disapprove of Peter . Peter eventually calls upon Mozzie ( Willie Garson ) for assistance , and together they right all of the wrongs . Agent Kramer returns to the FBI to speak with Diana , who has recently announced her engagement to Christie . Kramer intimidates Diana , learning that she , Peter , and Jones ( Sharif Atkins ) have been covering up Neal ’ s recent crimes . = = Production = = On June 20 , 2011 , it was announced that Beau Bridges had been cast as Peter 's mentor ; his first appearance was in " Countdown " , and he returned for " Pulling Strings " . The next month , the casting of Tom Skerritt was announced ; he was reported to play Alan Mitchell , the father of Elizabeth Burke . Bailey Chase 's casting as Bryan McKenzie , a Sterling @-@ Bosch vice president , was announced simultaneously . Debra Monk 's appearance in the series was confirmed simultaneously with the announcement of the fourth season renewal ; while it was not stated which episode she would appear in , it was revealed that she would appear in one of the season 's last six episodes . With this announcement also came news that Diahann Carroll would return to the series in her recurring role as June . " Pulling Strings " was directed by Anton Cropper , his first directing credit for the series . The episode was written by Channing Powell ; it was his fifth writing contribution . Powell has stated that Peter 's reduced role in the episode was due to actor Tim DeKay 's preparation for directing the next episode . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = Upon its premiere , " Pulling Strings " drew 2 @.@ 469 million viewers , which , at the time , was the lowest of the series . The episode drew 0 @.@ 8 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic , which was down 0 @.@ 3 and 0 @.@ 2 million from the previous two episodes , " Upper West Side Story " and " Neighborhood Watch " , respectively . The episode ranked 28th in the 18 – 49 demographic for the night , down seventeen places from the previous week . = = = Reviews = = = " Pulling Strings " received mostly mixed to positive reviews , with many critics praising Tom Skerritt 's performance , but with many criticizing the use of Hilarie Burton 's character . Kenny Herzog of The A.V. Club gave the episode a B + rating , praising Channing Powell 's writing in a mostly standalone episode . While he complimented Bomer and Garson 's rapport and Garson 's scenes at the Burke home , he stated that Burton 's character " continues to feel just off . " He went on to say that the episode is " once again an example of ... just how good they 've gotten at making White Collar tick . " Hilary Rothing of CraveOnline wrote that she enjoyed the performances of Bridges and Skerritt and that the Burkes ' storyline was " fun " but " still schmaltzy . " She also praised the episode 's use of Burton 's character . Rothing later complimented both the episodic case and Bridges 's story arc ; she ultimately gave the episode a rating of 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 . C. Charles of TV Fanatic called the episode " intriguing " and praised many aspects of " Pulling Strings " , including Bridges and Burton 's reintroductions and the use of Elizabeth 's parents ; Charles rated the episode 4 @.@ 8 out of 5 . Reviewer Gregg Wright gave the episode an 8 out of 10 , elaborating that while the episode " could have easily been an average or sub @-@ par procedural , " it became above @-@ average when all of the elements were combined . He also complimented Carroll 's appearance and Bridges 's performance as a strong antagonist . Brittany Frederick of Starpulse.com gave the episode a more mediocre review , calling it " lackluster " and mentioning that she has " never felt Hilarie Burton 's chemistry with Matt Bomer . " She did , however , praise the heightened roles of Thomason and Atkins and the introduction of Elizabeth 's parents . = Colorado River = The Colorado River is one of the principal rivers of the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico ( the other being the Rio Grande ) . The 1 @,@ 450 @-@ mile ( 2 @,@ 330 km ) Colorado River drains an expansive , arid watershed that encompasses parts of seven U.S. and two Mexican states . Starting in the central Rocky Mountains in the U.S. , the river flows generally southwest across the Colorado Plateau and through the Grand Canyon before reaching Lake Mead on the Arizona – Nevada border , where it turns south toward the international border . After entering Mexico , the Colorado approaches the large Colorado River Delta at the tip of the Gulf of California between Baja California and Sonora . Known for its dramatic canyons and whitewater rapids , the Colorado is a vital source of water for agricultural and urban areas in much of the southwestern desert lands of North America . The river and its tributaries are controlled by an extensive system of dams , reservoirs , and aqueducts , which in most years divert its entire flow to furnish irrigation and municipal water supply for almost 40 million people both inside and outside the watershed . The Colorado 's large flow and steep gradient are used for generating hydroelectric power , and its major dams regulate peaking power demands in much of the Intermountain West . This intensive consumption has dried up the lower 100 miles ( 160 km ) of the river , such that it has reached the sea only a few times since the 1960s . Beginning with small bands of nomadic hunter @-@ gatherers , Native Americans have inhabited the Colorado River basin for at least 8 @,@ 000 years . Between 2 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 000 years ago , the river and its tributaries fostered large agricultural civilizations , which may have been some of the most sophisticated indigenous cultures in North America . These societies are believed to have collapsed because of a combination of severe drought and poor land use practices . Most native peoples that inhabit the basin today are descended from other groups that settled in the region beginning about 1 @,@ 000 years ago . Europeans first entered the Colorado Basin in the 16th century , when explorers from Spain began mapping and claiming the area , which later became part of Mexico upon its independence in 1821 . Early contact between foreigners and natives was generally limited to the fur trade in the headwaters and sporadic trade interactions along the lower river . After the greater Colorado River basin became part of the U.S. in 1846 , the bulk of the river 's course was still largely the subject of myths and speculation . Several expeditions charted the Colorado in the mid @-@ 19th century , one of which , led by John Wesley Powell in 1869 , was the first to run the rapids of the Grand Canyon . American explorers collected valuable information that would later be used to develop the river for navigation and water supply . Large @-@ scale settlement of the lower basin began in the mid- to late @-@ 19th century , with steamboats providing transportation from the Gulf of California to landings along the Colorado River that linked to wagon roads into the interior of New Mexico Territory . Lesser numbers settled in the upper basin , which was the scene of major gold strikes in the 1860s and 1870s . Major engineering of the river basin began around the start of the 20th century , with many guidelines established in a series of domestic and international treaties known as the " Law of the River " . The U.S. federal government was the main driving force behind the construction of hydraulic engineering projects in the river system , although many state and local water agencies were also involved . Most of the major dams in the river basin were built between 1910 and 1970 , and the system keystone , Hoover Dam , was completed in 1935 . The Colorado is now considered among the most controlled and litigated rivers in the world , with every drop of its water fully allocated . The damming and diversion of the Colorado River system have been opposed by the environmental movement in the American Southwest because of the detrimental effect on the ecology and natural beauty of the river and its tributaries . During the construction of Glen Canyon Dam , environmental organizations vowed to block any further development of the river , and a number of later dam and aqueduct proposals were defeated by citizen opposition . As demands for Colorado River water continue to rise , the level of human development and control of the river continues to generate controversy . = = Course = = The Colorado begins at La Poudre Pass in the Southern Rocky Mountains of Colorado , at just under 2 miles ( 3 km ) above sea level . After a short run south , the river turns west below Grand Lake , the largest natural lake in the state . For the first 250 miles ( 400 km ) of its course , the Colorado carves its way through the mountainous Western Slope , a sparsely populated region defined by the portion of the state west of the Continental Divide . As it flows southwest , it gains strength from many small tributaries , as well as larger ones including the Blue , Eagle and Roaring Fork rivers . After passing through De Beque Canyon , the Colorado emerges from the Rockies into the Grand Valley , a major farming and ranching region where it meets one of its largest tributaries , the Gunnison River , at Grand Junction . Most of the upper river is a swift whitewater stream ranging from 200 to 500 feet ( 60 to 150 m ) wide , the depth ranging from 6 to 30 feet ( 2 to 9 m ) , with a few notable exceptions , such as the Blackrocks reach where the river is nearly 100 feet ( 30 m ) deep . In a few areas , such as the marshy Kawuneeche Valley near the headwaters and the Grand Valley , it exhibits braided characteristics . Arcing northwest , the Colorado begins to cut across the eponymous Colorado Plateau , a vast area of high desert centered at the Four Corners of the southwestern United States . Here , the climate becomes significantly drier than that in the Rocky Mountains , and the river becomes entrenched in progressively deeper gorges of bare rock , beginning with Ruby Canyon and then Westwater Canyon as it enters Utah , now once again heading southwest . Farther downstream it receives the Dolores River and defines the southern border of Arches National Park , before passing Moab and flowing through " The Portal " , where it exits the Moab Valley between a pair of 1 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 300 m ) sandstone cliffs . In Utah , the Colorado flows primarily through the " slickrock " country , which is characterized by its narrow canyons and unique " folds " created by the tilting of sedimentary rock layers along faults . This is one of the most inaccessible regions of the continental United States . Below the confluence with the Green River , its largest tributary , in Canyonlands National Park , the Colorado enters Cataract Canyon , named for its dangerous rapids , and then Glen Canyon , known for its arches and erosion @-@ sculpted Navajo sandstone formations . Here , the San Juan River , carrying runoff from the southern slope of Colorado 's San Juan Mountains , joins the Colorado from the east . The Colorado then enters northern Arizona , where since the 1960s Glen Canyon Dam near Page has flooded the Glen Canyon reach of the river , forming Lake Powell for water supply and hydroelectricity generation . In Arizona , the river passes Lee 's Ferry , an important crossing for early explorers and settlers and since the early 20th century the principal point where Colorado River flows are measured for apportionment to the seven U.S. and two Mexican states in the basin . Downstream , the river enters Marble Canyon , the beginning of the Grand Canyon , passing under the Navajo Bridges on a now southward course . Below the confluence with the Little Colorado River , the river swings west into Granite Gorge , the most dramatic portion of the Grand Canyon , where the river cuts up to one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) into the Colorado Plateau , exposing some of the oldest visible rocks on Earth , dating as long ago as 2 billion years . The 277 miles ( 446 km ) of the river that flow through the Grand Canyon are largely encompassed by Grand Canyon National Park and are known for their difficult whitewater , separated by pools that reach up to 110 feet ( 34 m ) in depth . At the lower end of Grand Canyon , the Colorado widens into Lake Mead , the largest reservoir in the continental United States , formed by Hoover Dam on the border of Arizona and Nevada . Situated southeast of metropolitan Las Vegas , the dam is an integral component for management of the Colorado River , controlling floods and storing water for farms and cities in the lower Colorado River basin . Below the dam the river passes under the Mike O 'Callaghan – Pat Tillman Memorial Bridge – which at nearly 900 feet ( 270 m ) above the water is the highest concrete arch bridge in the Western Hemisphere – and then turns due south towards Mexico , defining the Arizona – Nevada and Arizona – California borders . After leaving the confines of the Black Canyon , the river emerges from the Colorado Plateau into the Lower Colorado River Valley ( LCRV ) , a desert region dependent on irrigation agriculture and tourism and also home to several major Indian reservations . The river widens here to a broad , moderately deep waterway averaging 500 to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 150 to 300 m ) wide and reaching up to 1 ⁄ 4 mile ( 400 m ) across , with depths ranging from 8 to 60 feet ( 2 to 20 m ) . Before channelization of the Colorado in the 20th century , the lower river was subject to frequent course changes caused by seasonal flow variations . Joseph C. Ives , who surveyed the lower river in 1861 , wrote that " the shifting of the channel , the banks , the islands , the bars is so continual and rapid that a detailed description , derived from the experiences of one trip , would be found incorrect , not only during the subsequent year , but perhaps in the course of a week , or even a day . " The LCRV is one of the most densely populated areas along the river , and there are numerous towns including Bullhead City , Arizona , Needles , California , and Lake Havasu City , Arizona . Here , many diversions draw from the river , providing water for both local uses and distant regions including the Salt River Valley of Arizona and metropolitan Southern California . The last major U.S. diversion is at Imperial Dam , where over 90 percent of the river 's remaining flow is moved into the All @-@ American Canal to irrigate California 's Imperial Valley , the most productive winter agricultural region in the United States . Below Imperial Dam , only a small portion of the Colorado River makes it beyond Yuma , Arizona , and the confluence with the intermittent Gila River – which carries runoff from western New Mexico and most of Arizona – before defining about 24 miles ( 39 km ) of the Mexico – United States border . At Morelos Dam , the entire remaining flow of the Colorado is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley , among Mexico 's most fertile agricultural lands . Below San Luis Río Colorado , the Colorado passes entirely into Mexico , defining the Baja California – Sonora border ; in most years , the stretch of the Colorado between here and the Gulf of California is dry or a trickle formed by irrigation return flows . The Hardy River provides most of the flow into the Colorado River Delta , a vast alluvial floodplain covering about 3 @,@ 000 square miles ( 7 @,@ 800 km2 ) of northwestern Mexico . A large estuary is formed here before the Colorado empties into the Gulf about 75 miles ( 120 km ) south of Yuma . Before 20th @-@ century development dewatered the lower Colorado , a major tidal bore was present in the delta and estuary ; the first historical record was made by the Croatian missionary in Spanish service Father Ferdinand Konščak on July 18 , 1746 . During spring tide conditions , the tidal bore – locally called El Burro – formed in the estuary about Montague Island in Baja California and propagated upstream . = = = Major tributaries = = = The Colorado is joined by over 25 significant tributaries , of which the Green River is the largest by both length and discharge . The Green takes drainage from the Wind River Range of west @-@ central Wyoming , from Utah 's Uinta Mountains , and from the Rockies of northwestern Colorado . The Gila River is the second longest and drains a greater area than the Green , but has a significantly lower flow because of a more arid climate and larger diversions for irrigation and cities . Both the Gunnison and San Juan rivers , which derive most of their water from Rocky Mountains snowmelt , contribute more water than the Gila did naturally . = = Discharge = = In its natural state , the Colorado River poured about 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) into the Gulf of California each year , amounting to an average flow rate of 22 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 640 m3 / s ) . Its flow regime was not at all steady – indeed , " prior to the construction of federal dams and reservoirs , the Colorado was a river of extremes like no other in the United States . " Once , the river reached peaks of more than 100 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 2 @,@ 800 m3 / s ) in the summer and low flows of less than 2 @,@ 500 cubic feet per second ( 71 m3 / s ) in the winter annually . At Topock , Arizona , about 300 miles ( 480 km ) upstream from the Gulf , a maximum historical discharge of 384 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 10 @,@ 900 m3 / s ) was recorded in 1884 and a minimum of 422 cubic feet per second ( 11 @.@ 9 m3 / s ) was recorded in 1935 . In contrast , the regulated discharge rates on the lower Colorado below Hoover Dam rarely exceed 35 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 990 m3 / s ) or drop below 4 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 110 m3 / s ) . Annual runoff volume has ranged from a high of 22 @.@ 2 million acre feet ( 27 @.@ 4 km3 ) in 1984 to a low of 3 @.@ 8 million acre feet ( 4 @.@ 7 km3 ) in 2002 , although in most years only a small portion of this flow , if any , reaches the Gulf . Between 85 and 90 percent of the Colorado River 's discharge originates in snowmelt , mostly from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and Wyoming . The three major upper tributaries of the Colorado – the Gunnison , Green , and San Juan – alone deliver almost 9 million acre feet ( 11 km3 ) per year to the main stem , mostly from snowmelt . The remaining 10 to 15 percent comes from a variety of sources , principally groundwater base flow and summer monsoon storms . The latter often produces heavy , highly localized floods on lower tributaries of the river , but does not often contribute significant volumes of runoff . Most of the annual runoff in the basin occurs with the melting of Rocky Mountains snowpack , which begins in April and peaks during May and June before exhausting in late July or early August . Flows at the mouth have steadily declined since the beginning of the 20th century , and in most years after 1960 the Colorado River has run dry before reaching the sea . Irrigation , industrial , and municipal diversions , evaporation from reservoirs , natural runoff , and likely climate change have all contributed to this substantial reduction in flow , threatening the future water supply . For example , the Gila River – formerly one of the Colorado 's largest tributaries – contributes little more than a trickle in most years due to use of its water by cities and farms in central Arizona . The average flow rate of the Colorado at the northernmost point of the Mexico – United States border ( NIB , or Northerly International Boundary ) is about 2 @,@ 060 cubic feet per second ( 58 m3 / s ) , 1 @.@ 49 million acre feet ( 1 @.@ 84 km3 ) per year – less than a 10th of the natural flow – due to upstream water use . Below here , all of the remaining flow is diverted to irrigate the Mexicali Valley , leaving a dry riverbed from Morelos Dam to the sea that is supplemented by intermittent flows of irrigation drainage water . There have been exceptions , however , namely in the early to mid @-@ 1980s , when the Colorado once again reached the sea during several consecutive years of record @-@ breaking precipitation and snowmelt . In 1984 , so much excess runoff occurred that some 16 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 4 km3 ) , or 22 @,@ 860 cubic feet per second ( 647 m3 / s ) , poured into the sea . The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) operates or has operated 46 stream gauges to measure the discharge of the Colorado River , ranging from the headwaters near Grand Lake to the Mexico – U.S. border . The tables at right list data associated with eight of these gauges . River flows as gauged at Lee 's Ferry , Arizona , about halfway along the length of the Colorado and 16 miles ( 26 km ) below Glen Canyon Dam , are used to determine water allocations in the Colorado River basin . The average discharge recorded there was approximately 14 @,@ 800 cubic feet per second ( 420 m3 / s ) , 10 @.@ 72 million acre feet ( 13 @.@ 22 km3 ) per year , from 1921 to 2010 . This figure has been heavily affected by upstream diversions and reservoir evaporation , especially after the completion of the Colorado River Storage Project in the 1970s . Prior to the completion of Glen Canyon Dam in 1964 , the average discharge recorded between 1912 and 1962 was 17 @,@ 850 cubic feet per second ( 505 m3 / s ) , 12 @.@ 93 million acre feet ( 15 @.@ 95 km3 ) per year . = = Watershed = = The drainage basin or watershed of the Colorado River encompasses 246 @,@ 000 square miles ( 640 @,@ 000 km2 ) of southwestern North America , making it the seventh largest on the continent . About 238 @,@ 600 square miles ( 618 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 97 percent of the watershed , is in the United States . The river and its tributaries drain most of western Colorado and New Mexico , southwestern Wyoming , eastern and southern Utah , southeastern Nevada and California , and nearly all of Arizona . The areas drained within Baja California and Sonora are very small and do not contribute measurable runoff . Most of the basin is arid , defined by the Sonoran and Mojave deserts and the expanse of the Colorado Plateau , although significant expanses of forest are found in the Rocky Mountains ; the Kaibab , Aquarius , and Markagunt plateaus in southern Utah and northern Arizona ; the Mogollon Rim through central Arizona ; and other smaller mountain ranges and sky islands . Elevations range from sea level at the Gulf of California to 14 @,@ 321 feet ( 4 @,@ 365 m ) at the summit of Uncompahgre Peak in Colorado , with an average of 5 @,@ 500 feet ( 1 @,@ 700 m ) across the entire basin . Climate varies widely across the watershed . Mean monthly high temperatures are 25 @.@ 3 ° C ( 77 @.@ 5 ° F ) in the upper basin and 33 @.@ 4 ° C ( 92 @.@ 1 ° F ) in the lower basin , and lows average − 3 @.@ 6 and 8 @.@ 9 ° C ( 25 @.@ 5 and 48 @.@ 0 ° F ) , respectively . Annual precipitation averages 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 164 mm ) , ranging from over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) in some areas of the Rockies to just 0 @.@ 6 inches ( 15 mm ) along the Mexican reach of the river . The upper basin generally receives snow and rain during the winter and early spring , while precipitation in the lower basin falls mainly during intense but infrequent summer thunderstorms brought on by the North American Monsoon . As of 2010 , approximately 12 @.@ 7 million people lived in the Colorado River basin . Phoenix in Arizona and Las Vegas in Nevada are the largest metropolitan areas in the watershed . Population densities are also high along the lower Colorado River below Davis Dam , which includes Bullhead City , Lake Havasu City , and Yuma . Other significant population centers in the basin include Tucson , Arizona ; St. George , Utah ; and Grand Junction , Colorado . Colorado River basin states are among the fastest @-@ growing in the U.S. ; the population of Nevada alone increased by about 66 percent between 1990 and 2000 as Arizona grew by some 40 percent . The Colorado River basin shares drainage boundaries with many other major watersheds of North America . The Continental Divide of the Americas forms a large portion of the eastern boundary of the watershed , separating it from the basins of the Yellowstone River and the Platte River – both tributaries of the Missouri River – on the northeast , and from the headwaters of the Arkansas River on the east . Both the Missouri and Arkansas rivers are part of the Mississippi River system . Further south , the Colorado River basin borders on the Rio Grande drainage , which along with the Mississippi flows to the Gulf of Mexico , as well as a series of endorheic ( closed ) drainage basins in southwestern New Mexico and extreme southeastern Arizona . For a short stretch , the Colorado watershed meets the drainage basin of the Snake River , a tributary of the Columbia River , in the Wind River Range of western Wyoming . Southwest of there , the northern divide of the Colorado watershed skirts the edge of the Great Basin , bordering on the closed drainage basins of the Great Salt Lake and the Sevier River in central Utah , and other closed basins in southern Utah and Nevada . To the west in California , the Colorado River watershed borders on those of small closed basins in the Mojave Desert , the largest of which is the Salton Sea drainage north of the Colorado River Delta . On the south , the watersheds of the Sonoyta , Concepción , and Yaqui rivers , all of which drain to the Gulf of California , border that of the Colorado . = = Geology = = As recently as the Cretaceous period 100 million years ago , much of western North America was still part of the Pacific Ocean . Tectonic forces from the collision of the Farallon Plate with the North American Plate pushed up the Rocky Mountains between 75 and 50 million years ago in a mountain @-@ building episode known as the Laramide orogeny . The Colorado first formed as a west @-@ flowing stream draining the southwestern portion of the range , and the uplift also diverted the Green River from its original course to the Mississippi River west towards the Colorado . About 30 to 20 million years ago , volcanic activity related to the orogeny led to the Mid @-@ Tertiary ignimbrite flare @-@ up , which created smaller formations such as the Chiricahua Mountains in Arizona and deposited massive amounts of volcanic ash and debris over the watershed . The Colorado Plateau first began to rise during the Eocene , between about 55 and 34 million years ago , but did not attain its present height until about 5 million years ago , about when the Colorado River established its present course into the Gulf of California . The time scale and sequence over which the river 's present course and the Grand Canyon were formed is uncertain . Before the Gulf of California was formed around 12 to 5 million years ago by faulting processes along the boundary of the North American and Pacific plates , the Colorado flowed west to an outlet on the Pacific Ocean – possibly Monterey Bay on the Central California coast , forming the Monterey submarine canyon . The uplift of the Sierra Nevada mountains began about 4 @.@ 5 million years ago , diverting the Colorado southwards towards the Gulf . As the Colorado Plateau continued to rise between 5 and 2 @.@ 5 million years ago , the river maintained its ancestral course ( as an antecedent stream ) and began to cut the Grand Canyon . Antecedence played a major part in shaping other peculiar geographic features in the watershed , including the Dolores River 's bisection of Paradox Valley in Colorado and the Green River 's cut through the Uinta Mountains in Utah . Sediments carried from the plateau by the Colorado River created a vast delta made of more than 10 @,@ 000 cubic miles ( 42 @,@ 000 km3 ) of material that walled off the northernmost part of the gulf in approximately 1 million years . Cut off from the ocean , the portion of the gulf north of the delta eventually evaporated and formed the Salton Sink , which reached about 260 feet ( 79 m ) below sea level . Since then the river has changed course into the Salton Sink at least three times , transforming it into Lake Cahuilla , which at maximum size flooded up the valley to present @-@ day Indio , California . The lake took about 50 years to evaporate after the Colorado resumed flowing to the Gulf . The present @-@ day Salton Sea can be considered the most recent incarnation of Lake Cahuilla , though on a much smaller scale . Between 1 @.@ 8 million and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , massive flows of basalt from the Uinkaret volcanic field in northern Arizona dammed the Colorado River within the Grand Canyon . At least 13 lava dams were formed , the largest of which was more than 2 @,@ 300 feet ( 700 m ) high , backing the river up for nearly 500 miles ( 800 km ) to present @-@ day Moab , Utah . The lack of associated sediment deposits along this stretch of the Colorado River , which would have accumulated in the impounded lakes over time , suggests that most of these dams did not survive for more than a few decades before collapsing or being washed away . Failure of the lava dams caused by erosion , leaks and cavitation caused catastrophic floods , which may have been some of the largest ever to occur in North America , rivaling the late @-@ Pleistocene Missoula Floods of the northwestern United States . Mapping of flood deposits indicate that crests as high as 700 feet ( 210 m ) passed through the Grand Canyon , reaching peak discharges as great as 17 million cubic feet per second ( 480 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) . = = History = = = = = Indigenous peoples = = = The first humans of the Colorado River basin were likely Paleo @-@ Indians of the Clovis and Folsom cultures , who first arrived on the Colorado Plateau about 12 @,@ 000 years ago . Very little human activity occurred in the watershed until the rise of the Desert Archaic Culture , which from 8 @,@ 000 to 2 @,@ 000 years ago constituted most of the region 's human population . These prehistoric inhabitants led a generally nomadic lifestyle , gathering plants and hunting small animals ( though some of the earliest peoples hunted larger mammals that became extinct in North America after the end of the Pleistocene epoch ) . Another notable early group was the Fremont culture , whose peoples inhabited the Colorado Plateau from 2 @,@ 000 to 700 years ago . The Fremont were likely the first peoples of the Colorado River basin to domesticate crops and construct masonry dwellings ; they also left behind a large amount of rock art and petroglyphs , many of which have survived to the present day . Beginning in the early centuries A.D. , Colorado River basin peoples began to form large agriculture @-@ based societies , some of which lasted hundreds of years and grew into well @-@ organized civilizations encompassing tens of thousands of inhabitants . The Ancient Puebloan ( also known as Anasazi or Hisatsinom ) people of the Four Corners region were descended from the Desert Archaic culture . The Anasazi people developed a complex distribution system to supply drinking and irrigation water in Chaco Canyon in northwestern New Mexico . The Puebloans dominated the basin of the San Juan River , and the center of their civilization was in Chaco Canyon . In Chaco Canyon and the surrounding lands , they built more than 150 multi @-@ story pueblos or " great houses " , the largest of which , Pueblo Bonito , is composed of more than 600 rooms . The Hohokam culture was present along the middle Gila River beginning around 1 A.D. Between 600 and 700 A.D. they began to employ irrigation on a large scale , and did so more prolifically than any other native group in the Colorado River basin . An extensive system of irrigation canals was constructed on the Gila and Salt rivers , with various estimates of a total length ranging from 180 to 300 miles ( 290 to 480 km ) and capable of irrigating 25 @,@ 000 to 250 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 000 to 101 @,@ 000 ha ) . Both civilizations supported large populations at their height ; the Chaco Canyon Puebloans numbered between 6 @,@ 000 and 15 @,@ 000 and estimates for the Hohokam range between 30 @,@ 000 and 200 @,@ 000 . These sedentary peoples heavily exploited their surroundings , practicing logging and harvesting of other resources on a large scale . The construction of irrigation canals may have led to a significant change in the morphology of many waterways in the Colorado River basin . Prior to human contact , rivers such as the Gila , Salt and Chaco were shallow perennial streams with low , vegetated banks and large floodplains . In time , flash floods caused significant downcutting on irrigation canals , which in turn led to the entrenchment of the original streams into arroyos , making agriculture difficult . A variety of methods were employed to combat these problems , including the construction of large dams , but when a megadrought hit the region in the 14th century A.D. the ancient civilizations of the Colorado River basin abruptly collapsed . Some Puebloans migrated to the Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico and south @-@ central Colorado , becoming the predecessors of the Hopi , Zuni , Laguna and Acoma people in western New Mexico . Many of the tribes that inhabited the Colorado River basin at the time of European contact were descended from Puebloan and Hohokam survivors , while others already had a long history of living in the region or migrated in from bordering lands . The Navajo were an Athabaskan people who migrated from the north into the Colorado River basin around 1025 A.D. They soon established themselves as the dominant Native American tribe in the Colorado River basin , and their territory stretched over parts of present @-@ day Arizona , New Mexico , Utah and Colorado – in the original homelands of the Puebloans . In fact , the Navajo acquired agricultural skills from the Puebloans before the collapse of the Pueblo civilization in the 14th century . A profusion of other tribes have made a continued , lasting presence along the Colorado River . The Mohave have lived along the rich bottomlands of the lower Colorado below Black Canyon since 1200 A.D. They were fishermen – navigating the river on rafts made of reeds to catch Gila trout and Colorado pikeminnow – and farmers , relying on the annual floods of the river rather than irrigation to water their crops . Ute peoples have inhabited the northern Colorado River basin , mainly in present @-@ day Colorado , Wyoming and Utah , for at least 2 @,@ 000 years , but did not become well established in the Four Corners area until 1500 A.D. The Apache , Maricopa , Pima , Havasupai and Hualapai are among many other groups that lived along or had territories bordering on the Colorado River and its tributaries . Beginning in the 17th century , contact with Europeans brought significant changes to the lifestyles of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin . Missionaries sought to convert indigenous peoples to Christianity – an effort sometimes successful , such as in Father Eusebio Francisco Kino 's 1694 encounter with the " docile Pimas of the Gila Valley [ who ] readily accepted Father Kino and his Christian teachings " . The Spanish introduced sheep and goats to the Navajo , who came to rely heavily on them for meat , milk and wool . By the mid @-@ 16th century , the Utes , having acquired horses from the Spanish , introduced them to the Colorado River basin . The use of horses spread through the basin via trade between the various tribes and greatly facilitated hunting , communications and travel for indigenous peoples . More warlike groups such as the Utes and Navajos often used horses to their advantage in raids against tribes that were slower to adopt them , such as the Goshutes and Southern Paiutes . The gradual influx of European and American explorers , fortune seekers and settlers into the region eventually led to conflicts that forced many Native Americans off their traditional lands . After the acquisition of the Colorado River basin from Mexico in the Mexican – American War in 1846 , U.S. military forces commanded by Kit Carson forced more than 8 @,@ 000 Navajo men , women and children from their homes after a series of unsuccessful attempts to confine their territory , many of which were met with violent resistance . In what is now known as the Long Walk of the Navajo , the captives were marched from Arizona to Fort Sumner in New Mexico , and many died along the route . Four years later , the Navajo signed a treaty that moved them onto a reservation in the Four Corners region that is now known as the Navajo Nation . It is the largest Native American reservation in the United States , encompassing 27 @,@ 000 square miles ( 70 @,@ 000 km2 ) with a population of over 180 @,@ 000 as of 2000 . The Mohave were expelled from their territory after a series of minor skirmishes and raids on wagon trains passing through the area in the late 1850s , culminating in an 1859 battle with American forces that concluded the Mohave War . In 1870 , the Mohave were relocated to a reservation at Fort Mojave , which spans the borders of Arizona , California and Nevada . Some Mohave were also moved to the 432 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 120 km2 ) Colorado River Indian Reservation on the Arizona – California border , originally established for the Mohave and Chemehuevi people in 1865 . In the 1940s , some Hopi and Navajo people were also relocated to this reservation . The four tribes now form a geopolitical body known as the Colorado River Indian Tribes . Water rights of Native Americans in the Colorado River basin were largely ignored during the extensive water resources development carried out on the river and its tributaries in the 19th and 20th centuries . The construction of dams has often had negative impacts on tribal peoples , such as the Chemehuevi when their riverside lands were flooded after the completion of Parker Dam in 1938 . Ten Native American tribes in the basin now hold or continue to claim water rights to the Colorado River . The U.S. government has taken some actions to help quantify and develop the water resources of Native American reservations . The first federally funded irrigation project in the U.S. was the construction of an irrigation canal on the Colorado River Indian Reservation in 1867 . Other water projects include the Navajo Indian Irrigation Project , authorized in 1962 for the irrigation of lands in part of the Navajo Nation in north @-@ central New Mexico . The Navajo continue to seek expansion of their water rights because of difficulties with the water supply on their reservation ; about 40 percent of its inhabitants must haul water by truck many miles to their homes . In the 21st century , they have filed legal claims against the governments of Arizona , New Mexico and Utah for increased water rights . Some of these claims have been successful for the Navajo , such as a 2004 settlement in which they received a 326 @,@ 000 @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 402 @,@ 000 ML ) allotment from New Mexico . = = = Early explorers = = = During the 16th century , the Spanish began to explore and colonize western North America . An early motive was the search for the Seven Cities of Gold , or " Cibola " , rumored to have been built by Native Americans somewhere in the desert Southwest . According to a United States Geological Survey publication , it is likely that Francisco de Ulloa was the first European to see the Colorado River when in 1536 he sailed to the head of the Gulf of California . Francisco Vásquez de Coronado 's 1540 – 1542 expedition began as a search for the fabled Cities of Gold , but after learning from natives in New Mexico of a large river to the west , he sent García López de Cárdenas to lead a small contingent to find it . With the guidance of Hopi Indians , Cárdenas and his men became the first outsiders to see the Grand Canyon . Cárdenas was reportedly unimpressed with the canyon , assuming the width of the Colorado River at 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) and estimating 300 @-@ foot ( 91 m ) -tall rock formations to be the size of a man . After failing at an attempt to descend to the river , they left the area , defeated by the difficult terrain and torrid weather . In 1540 , Hernando de Alarcón and his fleet reached the mouth of the river , intending to provide additional supplies to Coronado 's expedition . Alarcón may have sailed the Colorado as far upstream as the present @-@ day California – Arizona border . Coronado never reached the Gulf of California , and Alarcón eventually gave up and left . Melchior Díaz reached the delta in the same year , intending to establish contact with Alarcón , but the latter was already gone by the time of Díaz 's arrival . Díaz named the Colorado River Rio del Tizon ( " Firebrand River " ) after seeing a practice used by the local natives for warming themselves . The name Tizon lasted for the next 200 years , while the name Rio Colorado ( " Red River " ) was first applied to a tributary of the Gila River , possibly the Verde River , circa 1720 . The first known map to label the main stem as the Colorado was drawn by French cartographer Jacques @-@ Nicolas Bellin in 1743 . During the 18th and early 19th centuries , many Americans and Spanish believed in the existence of the Buenaventura River , purported to run from the Rocky Mountains in Utah or Colorado to the Pacific Ocean . The name Buenaventura was given to the Green River by Silvestre Vélez de Escalante as early as 1776 , but Escalante did not know that the Green drained to the Colorado . Many later maps showed the headwaters of the Green and Colorado rivers connecting with the Sevier River ( Rio San Ysabel ) and Utah Lake ( Lake Timpanogos ) before flowing west through the Sierra Nevada into California . Mountain man Jedediah Smith reached the lower Colorado by way of the Virgin River canyon in 1826 . Smith called the Colorado the " Seedskeedee " , as the Green River in Wyoming was known to fur trappers , correctly believing it to be a continuation of the Green and not a separate river as others believed under the Buenaventura myth . John C. Frémont 's 1843 Great Basin expedition proved that no river traversed the Great Basin and Sierra Nevada , officially debunking the Buenaventura myth . In 1857 , Lieutenant Joseph C. Ives led an expedition to explore the feasibility of using the Colorado River as a navigation route in the Southwest . Ives and his men used a specially built steamboat , the shallow @-@ draft U.S.S. Explorer , and traveled up the river as far as Black Canyon on what is now the Arizona – Nevada border . After experiencing numerous groundings and accidents and having been inhibited by low water in the river , Ives declared : " Ours has been the first , and will doubtless be the last , party of whites to visit this profitless locality . It seems intended by nature that the Colorado River , along the greater portion of its lonely and majestic way , shall be forever unvisited and undisturbed . " Up until the mid @-@ 19th century , long stretches of the Colorado and Green rivers between Wyoming and Nevada remained largely unexplored due to their remote location and dangers of navigation . Because of the dramatic drop in elevation of the two rivers , there were rumors of huge waterfalls and violent rapids , and Native American tales strengthened their credibility . In 1869 , one @-@ armed Civil War veteran John Wesley Powell led an expedition from Green River Station in Wyoming , aiming to run the two rivers all the way down to St. Thomas , Nevada , near present @-@ day Hoover Dam . Powell and nine men – none of whom had prior whitewater experience – set out in May . After braving the rapids of the Gates of Lodore , Cataract Canyon and other gorges along the Colorado , the party arrived at the mouth of the Little Colorado River , where Powell noted down arguably the most famous words ever written about the Grand Canyon of the Colorado : We are now ready to start on our way down the Great Unknown . Our boats , tied to a common stake , are chafing each other , as they are tossed by the fretful river . They ride high and buoyant , for their loads are lighter than we could desire . We have but a month 's rations remaining . The flour has been re @-@ sifted through the mosquito net sieve ; the spoiled bacon has been dried , and the worst of it boiled ; the few pounds of dried apples have been spread in the sun , and re @-@ shrunken to their normal bulk ; the sugar has all melted , and gone on its way down the river ; but we have a large sack of coffee . The lighting of the boats has this advantage : they will ride the waves better , and we shall have little to carry when we make a portage . We are three @-@ quarters of a mile in the depths of the earth , and the great river shrinks into insignificance , as it dashes its angry waves against the walls and cliffs , that rise to the world above ; they are but puny ripples , and we but pigmies , running up and down the sands , or lost among the boulders . We have an unknown distance yet to run ; an unknown river yet to explore . What falls there are , we know not ; what rocks beset the channel , we know not ; what walls rise over the river , we know not ; Ah , well ! we may conjecture many things . The men talk as cheerfully as ever ; jests are bandied about freely this morning ; but to me the cheer is somber and the jests are ghastly . On August 28 , 1869 , three men deserted the expedition , convinced that they could not possibly survive the trip through the Grand Canyon . They were killed by either Native Americans or Mormon settlers after making it to the rim of the canyon ; two days later , the expedition ran the last of the Grand Canyon rapids and reached St. Thomas . Powell led a second expedition in 1871 , this time with financial backing from the U.S. government . The explorers named many features along the Colorado and Green rivers , including Glen Canyon , the Dirty Devil River , Flaming Gorge , and the Gates of Lodore . In what is perhaps a twist of irony , modern @-@ day Lake Powell , which floods Glen Canyon , is also named for their leader . = = = American settlement = = = During the Manifest Destiny era of the mid @-@ 19th century , American pioneers settled many western states but generally avoided the Colorado River basin until the 1850s . Under Brigham Young 's grand vision for a " vast empire in the desert " , ( the State of Deseret ) Mormon settlers were among the first whites to establish a permanent presence in the watershed , Fort Clara or Fort Santa Clara , in the winter of 1855 @-@ 1856 along the Santa Clara River , tributary of the Virgin River . In 1860 , anticipating the American Civil War , the Mormons established a number of settlements to grow cotton along the Virgin River in Washington County , Utah . From 1863 to 1865 , Mormon colonists founded St. Thomas and other colonies on the Muddy and Virgin rivers in northwestern Arizona Territory , ( now Clark County , Nevada ) . Stone 's Ferry was established by these colonists on the Colorado at the mouth of the Virgin River to carry their produce on a wagon road to the mining districts of Mohave County , Arizona to the south . Also , in 1866 , a steamboat landing was established at Callville , intended as an outlet to the Pacific Ocean via the Colorado River , for Mormon settlements in the Great Basin . These settlements reached a peak population of about 600 before being abandoned in 1871 , and for nearly a decade these valleys became a haven for outlaws and cattle rustlers . One Mormon settler Daniel Bonelli , remained , operating the ferry and began mining salt in nearby mines , bring it in barges , down river to El Dorado Canyon where it was used to process silver ore . From 1879 to 1887 , Colorado Steam Navigation Company steamboats carried the salt , operating up river in the high spring flood waters , through Boulder Canyon , to the landing at Rioville at the mouth of the Virgin River . From 1879 to 1882 the Southwestern Mining Company , largest in El Dorado Canyon , brought in a 56 @-@ foot sloop the Sou 'Wester that sailed up and down river carrying the salt in the low water time of year until it was wrecked in the Quick and Dirty Rapids of Black Canyon . Mormons founded the settlement of Vernal along the Green River in Utah in 1878 , and populated the Little Colorado River valley later in the century , creating towns such as St. Johns , Arizona . They also established settlements along the Gila River in central Arizona beginning in 1871 . These early settlers were impressed by the extensive ruins of the Hohokam civilization that previously occupied the Gila River valley , and are said to have " envisioned their new agricultural civilization rising as the mythical phoenix bird from the ashes of Hohokam society " . The Mormons were the first whites to develop the water resources of the basin on a large scale , and built complex networks of dams and canals to irrigate wheat , oats and barley in addition to establishing extensive sheep and cattle ranches . One of the main reasons the Mormons were able to colonize Arizona was the existence of Jacob Hamblin 's ferry across the Colorado at Lee 's Ferry ( then known as Pahreah Crossing ) , which began running in March 1864 . This location was the only section of river for hundreds of miles in both directions where the canyon walls dropped away , allowing for the development of a transport route . John Doyle Lee established a more permanent ferry system at the site in 1870 . One reason Lee chose to run the ferry was to flee from Mormon leaders who held him responsible for the Mountain Meadows Massacre , in which 120 emigrants in a wagon train were killed by a local militia disguised as Native Americans . Even though it was located along a major travel route , Lee 's Ferry was very isolated , and there Lee and his family established the aptly named Lonely Dell Ranch . In 1928 , the ferry sank , resulting in the deaths of three men . Later that year , the Navajo Bridge was completed at a point 5 miles ( 8 km ) downstream , rendering the ferry obsolete . Gold strikes from the mid @-@ 19th to early 20th centuries played a major role in attracting settlers to the upper Colorado River basin . In 1859 , a group of adventurers from Georgia discovered gold along the Blue River in Colorado and established the mining boomtown of Breckenridge . During 1875 , even bigger strikes were made along the Uncompahgre and San Miguel rivers , also in Colorado , and these led to the creation of Ouray and Telluride , respectively . Because most gold deposits along the upper Colorado River and its tributaries occur in lode deposits , extensive mining systems and heavy machinery were required to extract them . Mining remains a substantial contributor to the economy of the upper basin and has led to acid mine drainage problems in some regional streams and rivers . Starting in the latter half of the 19th century , the lower Colorado below Black Canyon became an important waterway for steamboat commerce . In 1852 , the Uncle Sam was launched to provide supplies to the U.S. Army outpost at Fort Yuma . Although this vessel accidentally foundered and sank early in its career , commercial traffic quickly proliferated because river transport was much cheaper than hauling freight over land . Navigation on the Colorado River was dangerous because of the shallow channel and flow variations , so the first sternwheeler on the river , the Colorado of 1855 , was designed to carry 60 short tons ( 54 t ) while drawing less than 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) of water . The tidal bore of the lower Colorado also presented a major hazard ; in 1922 , a 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) -high wave swamped a ship bound for Yuma , killing between 86 and 130 people . Steamboats quickly became the principal source of communication and trade along the river until competition from railroads began in the 1870s , and finally the construction of dams along the lower river , none of which had locks to allow the passage of ships . = = = = Naming of the upper Colorado River and controversy = = = = Prior to 1921 , the upper Colorado River above the confluence with the Green River in Utah had assumed various names . Fathers Dominguez and Escalante named it Rio San Rafael in 1776 . Through the mid @-@ 1800s , the river between Green River and the Gunnison River was most commonly known as the Grand River . The river above the junction with the Gunnison River , however , was known variously as the Bunkara River , the North Fork of the Grand River , the Blue River , and the Grand River . The latter name did not become consistently applied until the 1870s . In 1921 , U.S. Representative Edward T. Taylor of Colorado petitioned the Congressional Committee on Interstate and Foreign Commerce to rename the Grand River as the Colorado River . Taylor saw the fact that the Colorado River started outside the border of his state as an " abomination " . On July 25 , the name change was made official in House Joint Resolution 460 of the 66th Congress , over the objections of representatives from Wyoming , Utah , and the USGS , which noted that the Green River was much longer and had a larger drainage basin above its confluence with the Grand River , although the Grand contributed a greater flow of water . = = Engineering and development = = 36 to 40 million people depend on its water for agricultural , industrial and domestic needs . Southern Nevada Water Authority called the Colorado River one of the " most controlled , controversial and litigated rivers in the world " . Over 29 major dams and hundreds of miles of canals serve to supply thirsty cities , provide irrigation water to some 4 million acres ( 1 @.@ 6 million hectares ) , and meet peaking power demands in the Southwest , generating more than 12 billion kWh of hydroelectricity each year . Often called " America 's Nile " , the Colorado is so carefully managed – with basin reservoirs capable of holding four times the river 's annual flow – that each drop of its water is used an average of 17 times in a single year . One of the earliest water projects in the Colorado River basin was the Grand Ditch , a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) diversion canal that sends water from the Never Summer Mountains , which would naturally have drained into the headwaters of the Colorado River , to bolster supplies in Colorado 's Front Range Urban Corridor . Constructed primarily by Japanese and Mexican laborers , the ditch was considered an engineering marvel when completed in 1890 , delivering 17 @,@ 700 acre feet ( 21 @,@ 800 ML ) across the Continental Divide each year . Because roughly 75 percent of Colorado 's precipitation falls west of the Rocky Mountains while 80 percent of the population lives east of the range , more of these interbasin water transfers , locally known as transmountain diversions , followed . While first envisioned in the late 19th century , construction on the Colorado @-@ Big Thompson Project ( C @-@ BT ) did not begin until the 1930s . The C @-@ BT now delivers more than 11 times the Grand Ditch 's flow from the Colorado River watershed to cities along the Front Range . Meanwhile , large @-@ scale development was also beginning on the opposite end of the Colorado River . In 1900 , entrepreneurs of the California Development Company ( CDC ) looked to the Imperial Valley of southern California as an excellent location to develop agriculture irrigated by the waters of the river . Engineer George Chaffey was hired to design the Alamo Canal , which split off from the Colorado River near Pilot Knob , curved south into Mexico , and dumped into the Alamo River , a dry arroyo which had historically carried flood flows of the Colorado into the Salton Sink . With a stable year @-@ round flow in the Alamo River , irrigators in the Imperial Valley were able to begin large @-@ scale farming , and small towns in the region started to expand with the influx of job @-@ seeking migrants . By 1903 , more than 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 40 @,@ 000 ha ) in the valley were under cultivation , supporting a growing population of 4 @,@ 000 . It was not long before the Colorado River began to wreak havoc with its erratic flows . In autumn , the river would drop below the level of the canal inlet , and temporary brush diversion dams had to be constructed . In early 1905 , heavy floods destroyed the headworks of the canal , and water began to flow uncontrolled down the canal towards the Salton Sink . On August 9 , the entire flow of the Colorado swerved into the canal and began to flood the bottom of the Imperial Valley . In a desperate gamble to close the breach , crews of the Southern Pacific Railroad , whose tracks ran through the valley , attempted to dam the Colorado above the canal , only to see their work demolished by a flash flood . It took seven attempts , more than $ 3 million , and two years for the railroad , the CDC , and the federal government to permanently block the breach and send the Colorado on its natural course to the gulf – but not before part of the Imperial Valley was flooded under a 45 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 72 km ) lake , today 's Salton Sea . After the immediate flooding threat passed , it was realized that a more permanent solution would be needed to rein in the Colorado . = = = Lower Basin development , 1930s @-@ 50s = = = In 1922 , six U.S. states in the Colorado River basin signed the Colorado River Compact , which divided half of the river 's flow to both the Upper Basin ( the drainage area above Lee 's Ferry , comprising parts of Colorado , New Mexico , Utah , and Wyoming and a small portion of Arizona ) and the Lower Basin ( Arizona , California , Nevada , and parts of New Mexico and Utah ) . Each was given rights to 7 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 9 @.@ 3 km3 ) of water per year , a figure believed to represent half of the river 's minimum flow at Lee 's Ferry . This was followed by a U.S. – Mexico treaty in 1944 , allocating 1 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 1 @.@ 9 km3 ) of Colorado River water to the latter country per annum . Arizona refused to ratify the Colorado River Compact in 1922 because it feared that California would take too much of the lower basin allotment ; in 1944 a compromise was reached in which Arizona would get a firm allocation of 2 @.@ 8 million acre feet ( 3 @.@ 5 km3 ) , but only if California 's 4 @.@ 4 @-@ million @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 4 km3 ) allocation was prioritized during drought years . These and nine other decisions , compacts , federal acts and agreements made between 1922 and 1973 form what is now known as the Law of the River . On September 30 , 1935 , the United States Bureau of Reclamation ( USBR ) completed Hoover Dam in the Black Canyon of the Colorado River . Behind the dam rose Lake Mead , the largest artificial lake in the U.S. , capable of holding more than two years of the Colorado 's flow . The construction of Hoover was a major step towards stabilizing the lower channel of the Colorado River , storing water for irrigation in times of drought , and providing much @-@ needed flood control as part of a program known as the Boulder Canyon Project . Hoover was the tallest dam in the world at the time of construction and also had the world 's largest hydroelectric power plant . Flow regulation from Hoover Dam opened the doors for rapid development on the lower Colorado River ; Imperial and Parker dams followed in 1938 , and Davis Dam was completed in 1950 . Completed in 1938 some 20 miles ( 32 km ) above Yuma , Imperial Dam diverts nearly all of the Colorado 's flow into two irrigation canals . The All @-@ American Canal , built as a permanent replacement for the Alamo Canal , is so named because it lies completely within the U.S. , unlike its ill – fated predecessor . With a capacity of over 26 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 740 m3 / s ) , the All @-@ American is the largest irrigation canal in the world , supplying water to 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) of California 's Imperial Valley . Because the valley 's warm and sunny climate lends to a year @-@ round growing season in addition to the large water supply furnished by the Colorado , the Imperial Valley is now one of the most productive agricultural regions in North America . In 1957 , the USBR completed a second canal , the Gila Gravity Main Canal , to irrigate about 110 @,@ 000 acres ( 450 km2 ) in southwestern Arizona with Colorado River water as part of the Gila Project . The Lower Basin states also sought to develop the Colorado for municipal supplies . Central Arizona initially relied on the Gila River and its tributaries through projects such as the Theodore Roosevelt and Coolidge Dams – completed in 1924 and 1928 , respectively . Roosevelt was the first large dam constructed by the USBR and provided the water needed to start large @-@ scale agricultural and urban development in the region . The Colorado River Aqueduct , which delivers water nearly 250 miles ( 400 km ) from near Parker Dam to 10 million people in the Los Angeles metropolitan area , was completed in 1941 . The San Diego Aqueduct branch , whose initial phase was complete by 1947 , furnishes water to nearly 3 million people in San Diego and its suburbs . The Las Vegas Valley of Nevada experienced rapid growth in part due to Hoover Dam construction , and Las Vegas had tapped a pipeline into Lake Mead by 1937 . Nevada officials , believing that groundwater resources in the southern part of the state were sufficient for future growth , were more concerned with securing a large amount of the dam 's power supply than water from the Colorado ; thus they settled for the smallest allocation of all the states in the Colorado River Compact . = = = Upper Basin development , 1950s @-@ 1970s = = = Through the early decades of the 20th century , the Upper Basin states , with the exception of Colorado , remained relatively undeveloped and used little of the water allowed to them under the Colorado River Compact . Water use had increased significantly by the 1950s , and more water was being diverted out of the Colorado River basin to the Front Range corridor , the Salt Lake City area in Utah , and the Rio Grande basin in New Mexico . Such projects included the Roberts Tunnel , completed in 1956 , which diverts 63 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 78 @,@ 000 ML ) per year from the Blue River to the city of Denver , and the Fryingpan @-@ Arkansas Project , which delivers 69 @,@ 200 acre feet ( 85 @,@ 400 ML ) from the Fryingpan River to the Arkansas River basin each year . Without the addition of surface water storage in the upper basin , there was no guarantee that the upper basin states would be able to use the full amount of water given to them by the compact . There was also the concern that drought could impair the upper basin 's ability to deliver the required 7 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 9 @.@ 3 × 109 m3 ) past Lee 's Ferry per year as stipulated by the compact . A 1956 act of Congress cleared the way for the USBR 's Colorado River Storage Project ( CRSP ) , which entailed the construction of large dams on the Colorado , Green , Gunnison and San Juan Rivers . The initial blueprints for the CRSP included two dams on the Green River within Dinosaur National Monument 's Echo Park Canyon , a move criticized by both the U.S. National Park Service and environmentalist groups such as the Sierra Club . Controversy reached a nationwide scale , and the USBR dropped its plans for the Dinosaur dams in exchange for a dam at Flaming Gorge and a raise to an already @-@ proposed dam at Glen Canyon . The famed opposition to Glen Canyon Dam , the primary feature of the CRSP , did not build momentum until construction was well underway . This was primarily because of Glen Canyon 's remote location and the result that most of the American public did not even know of the existence of the impressive gorge ; the few who had contended that it had much greater scenic value than Echo Park . Sierra Club leader David Brower fought the dam both during the construction and for many years afterwards until his death in 2000 . Brower strongly believed that he was personally responsible for the failure to prevent Glen Canyon 's flooding , calling it his " greatest mistake , greatest sin " . = = = Pacific Southwest Water Plan = = = Agricultural and urban growth in Arizona eventually outstripped the capacity of local rivers ; these concerns were reflected in the creation of a Pacific Southwest Water Plan in the 1950s , which aimed to build a project that would permit Arizona to fully utilize its 2 @.@ 8 @-@ million @-@ acre @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 5 km3 ) allotment of the river . The Pacific Southwest Water Plan was the first major proposal to divert water to the Colorado Basin from other river basins – namely , from the wetter northwestern United States . It was intended to boost supplies for the Lower Basin states of Arizona , California and Nevada as well as Mexico , thus allowing the Upper Basin states to retain native Colorado River flows for their own use . Although there was still a surplus of water in the Colorado Basin during the mid @-@ 20th century , the Bureau of Reclamation predicted , correctly , that eventually population growth would outstrip the available supply and require the transfer of water from other sources . The original version of the plan proposed to divert water from the Trinity River in northern California to reduce Southern California 's dependence on the Colorado , allowing more water to be pumped , by exchange , to central Arizona . Because of the large amount of power that would be required to pump Colorado River water to Arizona , the CAP originally included provisions for hydroelectric dams at Bridge Canyon and Marble Canyon , which would have flooded large portions of the Colorado within the Grand Canyon and dewatered much of the remainder . When these plans were publicized , the environmental movement – still reeling from the Glen Canyon controversy – successfully lobbied against the project . As a result , the Grand Canyon dams were removed from the CAP agenda , the boundaries of Grand Canyon National Park were extended to preclude any further development in the area , and the pumping power was replaced by the building of the coal @-@ fired Navajo Generating Station near Page , Arizona , in 1976 . The resulting Central Arizona Project ( CAP ) irrigates more than 830 @,@ 000 acres ( 3 @,@ 400 km2 ) and provides municipal supplies to over 5 million people from Phoenix to Tucson using water from the Colorado River . = = = Environmental impacts = = = Historically , the Colorado transported from 85 to 100 million short tons ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to 91 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 t ) of sediment or silt to the Gulf of California each year – second only to the Mississippi among North American rivers . This sediment nourished wetlands and riparian areas along the river 's lower course , particularly in its 3 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 7 @,@ 800 km2 ) delta , once the largest desert estuary on the continent . Currently , the majority of sediments carried by the Colorado River are deposited at the upper end of Lake Powell , and most of the remainder ends up in Lake Mead . Various estimates place the time it would take for Powell to completely fill with silt at 300 to 700 years . Dams trapping sediment not only pose damage to river habitat but also threaten future operations of the Colorado River reservoir system . Reduction in flow caused by dams , diversions , water for thermoelectric power stations , and evaporation losses from reservoirs – the latter of which consumes more than 15 percent of the river 's natural runoff – has had severe ecological consequences in the Colorado River Delta and the Gulf of California . Historically , the delta with its large freshwater outflow and extensive salt marshes provided an important breeding ground for aquatic species in the Gulf . Today 's desiccated delta , at only a fraction of its former size , no longer provides suitable habitat , and populations of fish , shrimp and sea mammals in the gulf have seen a dramatic decline . Since 1963 , the only times when the Colorado River has reached the ocean have been during El Niño events in the 1980s and 1990s . Reduced flows have led to increases in the concentration of certain substances in the lower river that have impacted water quality . Salinity is one of the major issues . The lower Colorado 's salt content was about 50 parts per million ( ppm ) in its natural state , but by the 1960s , it had increased to well over 2000 ppm . By the early 1970s , there was also serious concern about salinity caused by salts leached from local soils by irrigation drainage water , which were estimated to add 10 million short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 t ) of excess salt to the river per year . The Colorado River Basin Salinity Control Act was passed in 1974 , mandating conservation practices including the reduction of saline drainage . The program reduced the annual load by about 1 @.@ 2 million short tons ( 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 t ) , but salinity remains an ongoing issue . In 1997 , the USBR estimated that saline irrigation water caused crop damages exceeding $ 500 million in the U.S. and $ 100 million in Mexico . Further efforts have been made to combat the salt issue in the lower Colorado , including the construction of a desalination plant at Yuma . In 2011 , the seven U.S. states agreed upon a " Plan of Implementation " , which aims to reduce salinity by 644 @,@ 000 short tons ( 584 @,@ 000 t ) per year by 2030 . Agricultural runoff containing pesticide residues has also been concentrated in the lower river in greater amounts . Toxins derived from pesticides have led to fish kills ; six of these events were recorded between 1964 and 1968 alone . The pesticide issue is even greater in streams and water bodies near agricultural lands irrigated by the Imperial Irrigation District with Colorado River water . In the Imperial Valley , Colorado River water used for irrigation overflows into the New and Alamo rivers and into the Salton Sea . Both rivers and the sea are among the most polluted bodies of water in the United States , posing dangers not only to aquatic life but to contact by humans and migrating birds . Pollution from agricultural runoff is not limited to the lower river ; the issue is also significant in upstream reaches such as Colorado 's Grand Valley , also a major center of irrigated agriculture . Large dams such as Hoover and Glen Canyon typically release water from lower levels of their reservoirs , resulting in stable and relatively cold year @-@ round temperatures in long reaches of the river . The Colorado 's average temperature once ranged from 85 ° F ( 29 ° C ) at the height of summer to near freezing in winter , but modern flows through the Grand Canyon , for example , rarely deviate significantly from 46 ° F ( 8 ° C ) . Changes in temperature regime have caused declines of native fish populations , and stable flows have enabled increased vegetation growth , obstructing riverside habitat . These flow patterns have also made the Colorado more dangerous to recreational boaters ; people are more likely to die of hypothermia in the colder water , and the general lack of flooding allows rockslides to build up , making the river more difficult to navigate . = = = = Minute 319 = = = = In the 21st century , there has been renewed interest in restoring a limited water flow to the delta . In November 2012 , the U.S. and Mexico reached an agreement , known as Minute 319 , permitting Mexico storage of its water allotment in U.S. reservoirs during wet years , thus increasing the efficiency with which the water can be used . In addition to renovating irrigation canals in the Mexicali Valley to reduce leakage , this will make about 45 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 56 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) per year available for release to the delta on average . The water will be used to provide both an annual base flow and a spring " pulse flow " to mimic the river 's original snowmelt @-@ driven regime . The first pulse flow , an eight @-@ week release of 105 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 130 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) , was initiated on March 21 , 2014 , with the aim of revitalising 2 @,@ 350 acres ( 950 hectares ) of wetland . This pulse reached the sea on May 16 , 2014 , marking the first time in 16 years that any water from the Colorado flowed into the ocean , and was hailed as " an experiment of historic political and ecological significance " and a landmark in U.S. – Mexican cooperation in conservation . The pulse will be followed by the steady release of 52 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 64 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ) over the following three years , just a small fraction of its average flow before damming . = = = Uncertain future = = = When the Colorado River Compact was drafted in the 1920s , it was based on barely 30 years of streamflow records that suggested an average annual flow of 17 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 21 @.@ 6 km3 ) past Lee 's Ferry . Modern studies of tree rings revealed that those three decades were probably the wettest in the past 500 to 1 @,@ 200 years and that the natural long @-@ term annual flow past Lee 's Ferry is probably closer to 13 @.@ 5 million acre feet ( 16 @.@ 7 km3 ) , as compared to the natural flow at the mouth of 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) . This has resulted in more water being allocated to river users than actually flows through the Colorado . Droughts have exacerbated the issue of water over @-@ allocation , including the Texas drought of the 1950s , which saw several consecutive years of notably low water and has often been used in planning for " a worst @-@ case scenario " . The most severe drought on record began in the early 21st century , in which the river basin produced normal or above @-@ average runoff in only four years between 2000 and 2012 . Major reservoirs in the basin dropped to historic lows , with Lake Powell falling to just one @-@ third of capacity in early 2005 , the lowest level on record since the reservoir was first filling in 1969 . The watershed is experiencing a warming trend , which is accompanied by earlier snowmelt and a general reduction in precipitation . A 2004 study showed that a 1 – 6 percent decrease of precipitation would lead to runoff declining by as much as 18 percent by 2050 . Average reservoir storage declined by at least 32 percent , further crippling the region 's water supply and hydropower generation . A study by the Scripps Research Institute in 2008 predicted that both Lake Mead and Lake Powell stand an even chance of dropping to useless levels or " dead pool " by 2021 if current drying trends and water usage rates continue . In late 2010 , Lake Mead dropped to just 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) above the first " drought trigger " elevation , a level at which Arizona and Nevada would have to begin rationing water as delineated by the Colorado River Compact . Despite above @-@ average runoff in 2011 that raised the immense reservoir more than 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) , record drought conditions returned in 2012 and 2013 . Reservoir levels were low enough at the beginning of water year 2014 that the Bureau of Reclamation cut releases from Lake Powell by 750 @,@ 000 acre feet ( 930 @,@ 000 ML ) – the first such reduction since the 1960s , when Lake Powell was being filled for the first time . This resulted in Lake Mead dropping to its lowest recorded level since 1937 , when it was first being filled . Rapid development and economic growth further complicate the issue of a secure water supply , particularly in the case of California 's senior water rights over those of Nevada and Arizona : in case of a reduction in water supply , Nevada and Arizona would have to endure severe cuts before any reduction in the California allocation , which is also larger than the other two combined . Although stringent water conservation measures have been implemented , the threat of severe shortfalls in the Colorado River basin continues to increase each year . = = Wildlife and plants = = The Colorado River and its tributaries often nourish extensive corridors of riparian growth as they traverse the arid desert regions of the watershed . Although riparian zones represent a relatively small proportion of the basin and have been affected by engineering projects and river diversion in many places , they have the greatest biodiversity of any habitat in the basin . The most prominent riparian zones along the river occur along the lower Colorado below Davis Dam , especially in the Colorado River Delta , where riparian areas support 358 species of birds despite the reduction in freshwater flow and invasive plants such as tamarisk ( salt cedar ) . Reduction of the delta 's size has also threatened animals such as jaguars and the vaquita porpoise , which is endemic to the gulf . Human development of the Colorado River has also helped to create new riparian zones by smoothing the river 's seasonal flow , notably through the Grand Canyon . More than 1 @,@ 600 species of plants grow in the Colorado River watershed , ranging from the creosote bush , saguaro cactus , and Joshua trees of the Sonoran and Mojave Deserts to the forests of the Rocky Mountains and other uplands , composed mainly of ponderosa pine , subalpine fir , Douglas @-@ fir and Engelmann spruce . Before logging in the 19th century , forests were abundant in high elevations as far south as the Mexico – U.S. border , and runoff from these areas nourished abundant grassland communities in river valleys . Some arid regions of the watershed , such as the upper Green River valley in Wyoming , Canyonlands National Park in Utah and the San Pedro River valley in Arizona and Sonora , supported extensive reaches of grassland roamed by large mammals such as buffalo and antelope as late as the 1860s . Near Tucson , Arizona , " where now there is only powder @-@ dry desert , the grass once reached as high as the head of a man on horse back " . Rivers and streams in the Colorado basin were once home to 49 species of native fish , of which 42 were endemic . Engineering projects and river regulation have led to the extinction of four species and severe declines in the populations of 40 species . Bonytail chub , razorback sucker , Colorado pikeminnow , and humpback chub are among those considered the most at risk ; all are unique to the Colorado River system and well adapted to the river 's natural silty conditions and flow variations . Clear , cold water released by dams has significantly changed characteristics of habitat for these and other Colorado River basin fishes . A further 40 species that occur in the river today , notably the brown trout , were introduced during the 19th and 20th centuries , mainly for sport fishing . = = Recreation = = Famed for its dramatic rapids and canyons , the Colorado is one of the most desirable whitewater rivers in the United States , and its Grand Canyon section – run by more than 22 @,@ 000 people annually – has been called the " granddaddy of rafting trips " . Grand Canyon trips typically begin at Lee 's Ferry and take out at Diamond Creek or Lake Mead , and range from one to eighteen days for commercial trips and from two to twenty @-@ five days for private trips . Private ( noncommercial ) trips are extremely difficult to arrange because the National Park Service limits river traffic for environmental purposes ; people who desire such a trip often have to wait more than 10 years for the opportunity . Several other sections of the river and its tributaries are popular whitewater runs , and many of these are also served by commercial outfitters . The Colorado 's Cataract Canyon and many reaches in the Colorado headwaters are even more heavily used than the Grand Canyon , and about 60 @,@ 000 boaters run a single 4 @.@ 5 @-@ mile ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) section above Radium , Colorado , each year . The upper Colorado also includes many of the river 's most challenging rapids , including those in Gore Canyon , which is considered so dangerous that " boating is not recommended " . Another section of the river above Moab , known as the Colorado " Daily " or " Fisher Towers Section " , is the most visited whitewater run in Utah , with more than 77 @,@ 000 visitors in 2011 alone . The rapids of the Green River 's Gray and Desolation Canyons and the less difficult " Goosenecks " section of the lower San Juan River are also frequently traversed by boaters . Eleven U.S. national parks – Arches , Black Canyon of the Gunnison , Bryce Canyon , Canyonlands , Capitol Reef , Grand Canyon , Mesa Verde , Petrified Forest , Rocky Mountain , Saguaro , and Zion – are in the watershed , in addition to many national forests , state parks and recreation areas . Hiking , backpacking , camping , skiing and fishing are among the multiple recreation opportunities offered by these areas . Fisheries have declined in many streams in the watershed , especially in the Rocky Mountains , because of polluted runoff from mining and agricultural activities . The Colorado 's major reservoirs are also heavily traveled summer destinations . Houseboating and water @-@ skiing are popular activities on Lakes Mead , Powell , Havasu and Mojave , as well as Flaming Gorge Reservoir in Utah and Wyoming , and Navajo Reservoir in New Mexico and Colorado . Lake Powell and surrounding Glen Canyon National Recreation Area received more than 2 million visitors per year as of 2007 , while nearly 7 @.@ 9 million people visited Lake Mead and the Lake Mead National Recreation Area in 2008 . Colorado River recreation employs some 250 @,@ 000 people and contributes $ 26 billion each year to the Southwest economy . = Missy Higgins = Melissa " Missy " Morrison Higgins ( born 19 August 1983 ) is an Australian singer @-@ songwriter , musician and actress . Her Australian number @-@ one albums are The Sound of White ( 2004 ) , On a Clear Night ( 2007 ) and The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle ( 2012 ) , and her most popular singles are " Scar " , " The Special Two " , " Steer " and " Where I Stood " . Higgins was nominated for five ARIA Music Awards in 2004 and won ' Best Pop Release ' for " Scar " . In 2005 , she was nominated for seven more awards and won five . Higgins won her seventh ARIA in 2007 . Her third album , The Ol ' Razzle Dazzle , was released in Australia in June 2012 ( July 2012 in the US ) . As of August 2014 , Higgins ' first three studio albums had sold over one million units . Higgins ' fourth studio album , OZ , was released in September 2014 and consists of cover versions of Australian composers , as well as a book of related essays . Alongside her music career , Higgins pursues interests in animal rights and the environment , endeavouring to make her tours carbon neutral . In 2010 she made her acting debut in the feature film Bran Nue Dae and also performed on its soundtrack . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Higgins was born in Melbourne , Victoria , to Christopher Higgins , an English @-@ Australian general practitioner , and Margaret ( née Morrison ) , an Australian childcare centre operator . Her sister , Nicola , is seven years older , and brother , David , is six years older . She learned to play classical piano from age six , following in the footsteps of Christopher and David , but realised she wanted to be a singer at about 12 when she appeared in an Armadale Primary School production of Andrew Lloyd Webber 's musical Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat . Bored with practice , she gave up playing piano at that time . Hoping for more freedom , she urged her parents to send her to Geelong Grammar School , an independent boarding school attended by her siblings . At Geelong she took up the piano again , this time playing jazz including performing with her brother David 's group on weekends . She was introverted and found that piano practice helped her cope with living at boarding school . At 15 , she wrote " All for Believing " for a school music assignment and completed it just hours before the deadline . The assignment earned an A and she performed her song in front of classmates . She approached a Melbourne record company and was told that they wanted more than one song . She wrote more songs and worked with the Kool Skools project , which enables students to record music . In 2001 , her sister Nicola entered " All for Believing " on Higgins ' behalf into Unearthed , radio station Triple J 's competition for unsigned artists . The song won the competition and was added to the station 's play list . Two record companies showed an interest in Higgins — Sony and Eleven . She signed with Eleven , partly because they agreed that she would not be " made into a pop star " and partly because they were happy for her to take time off for a backpacking holiday . Higgins ' manager is Eleven 's John Watson , who also manages rock band Silverchair . Watson later disclosed that " Missy 's the only time in my career I knew after 90 seconds I really wanted to sign her . " The backpacking trip had been planned with a friend for years and the pair spent most of 2002 in Europe ; while Higgins was travelling , " All for Believing " started to receive airplay on Los Angeles radio station KCRW . Such radio exposure attracted the attention of American record labels and , by year 's end , an international recording deal with Warner Bros. had been negotiated = = = 2003 – 2005 : The Sound of White = = = Higgins was the support act on a 2003 Australian tour by folk rock band The Waifs and rock band george . She travelled to the US to work with John Porter , who produced her first EP , Missy Higgins , which was released in November and entered the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) Singles Chart Top 50 in August 2004 . She toured Australia , supporting Pete Murray and John Butler Trio . Her second four @-@ track EP Scar was released in July . The title track " Scar " , co @-@ written with US songwriter , Kevin Griffin , debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Charts . Her first album , The Sound of White , was released in September , and debuted at No. 1 on the ARIA Albums Chart . Also produced by Porter , it sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies . She was nominated in five categories at the ARIA Music Awards of 2004 for " Scar " : Best Female Artist ' , ' Single of the Year ' , ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Breakthrough Artist – Single ' and ' Best Video ' ( directed by Squareyed Films ) . At the awards ceremony on 17 October she received the award for Best Pop Release , beating Delta Goodrem , The Dissociatives , Kylie Minogue and Pete Murray . This was followed by her first national headline tour . Her second single " Ten Days " was co @-@ written with Jay Clifford ( guitarist in US band Jump , Little Children ) and was inspired by Higgins ' 2002 break @-@ up with her boyfriend before she travelled to Europe . Released in November , it peaked at No. 12 . On 29 January 2005 Higgins performed with other local musicians including Nick Cave and Powderfinger at the WaveAid fundraising concert in the Sydney Cricket Ground . The concert raised A $ 2 @.@ 3 million for four charities supporting the victims of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake . In March Higgins performed at the MTV Australia Awards and won the prize for ' Breakthrough Artist of the Year ' . The following month she released her third single , " The Special Two " , which was a radio hit and reached No. 2 . " The Special Two " was released on an EP which included her cover of the Skyhooks song , " You Just Like Me Cos I 'm Good In Bed " , recorded for Triple J 's 30th anniversary . The song had been the first track played on Triple J when it launched ( as Double J ) in 1975 . In May , Higgins won the ' Song of the Year ' and ' Breakthrough ' awards for " Scar " from the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) . She continued touring in mid @-@ 2005 and released her fourth single , " The Sound of White " , in August . In September she played a sold out performance at the Vanguard in Sydney with the proceeds going to charity . She was nominated for seven more ARIAs and in October won ' Album of the Year ' , ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Breakthrough Artist – Album ' and ' Highest Selling Album ' ( all for The Sound of White ) and ' Best Female Artist ' ( for " Scar " ) . She teamed up with fellow ARIA award @-@ winning singer Ben Lee in late 2005 for a national tour . = = = 2006 – 2009 : On a Clear Night = = = During 2006 , Higgins lived in Broome , Western Australia for six months , away from the entertainment industry . The relaxed lifestyle helped her focus on writing new material . The landscape made a big impression , " It was the first place I 'd ever felt honestly connected with my country , with the physical land of my country " and inspired her to write " Going North " . She then toured the United States and South Africa , writing more material on the road . In September she based herself in Los Angeles to record her second album , On a Clear Night , with producer Mitchell Froom . " Steer " was released as an EP , followed a fortnight later by its album on 28 April 2007 , both debuted at No. 1 on their respective charts . In February , Higgins had contributed a tribute song to the album , Cannot Buy My Soul , for noted indigenous singer , Kev Carmody , singing " Droving Woman " with musician Paul Kelly and group Augie March . On 7 July , she participated in the Live Earth concert in Sydney , performing her own set before joining Carmody , Kelly and vocalist John Butler on stage for the song " From Little Things Big Things Grow " . Emily Dunn in The Sydney Morning Herald wrote " [ the song ] could have been the event 's anthem " . Rolling Stone 's Dan Lander pointed out a highlight , when the " whole crowd sung along – all eleven verses . " Higgins returned to Los Angeles to focus on the US market — she spent September and October touring — where she was still relatively unknown . On 26 October , backed by the Sydney Youth Orchestra , she headlined the annual Legs 11 concert , a breast cancer benefit held in The Domain , Royal Botanic Gardens , Sydney . Two days later Higgins performed at the 2007 ARIAs where she was nominated for ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Highest Selling Album ' and ' Highest Selling Single ' ( for " Steer " ) and won ' Best Female Artist ' ( for On a Clear Night ) — her seventh ARIA Music Award . On 31 October , she was a guest at television music channel MAX 's inaugural Concert for the Cure , a private concert for people affected by breast cancer . She sang headline act Powderfinger 's " Sunsets " with front man Bernard Fanning and joined in with the encore of " These Days " . She spent November and December on her For One Night Only Tour , taking in Cairns , Sydney and Perth . You Am I lead singer , Tim Rogers , joined her on some shows . On a Clear Night , was released in the US on 26 February 2008 , supported by a tour in March . Her ten @-@ month stay in Los Angeles during 2008 promoted her songs for films and television shows . Her first US single " Where I Stood " was featured in US series including Grey 's Anatomy , One Tree Hill and So You Think You Can Dance . During	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
. Two torpedoes fired by land @-@ based torpedo batteries struck the ship , causing serious damage . A major fire broke out aboard Blücher , which could not be contained . After a magazine explosion , the ship slowly capsized and sank , with major loss of life . The wreck remains on the bottom of the Oslofjord ; several salvage attempts were considered after 1963 , but none were carried out . The ship 's screws were removed in 1953 and divers removed over 1 @,@ 000 t ( 980 long tons ; 1 @,@ 100 short tons ) of fuel oil from the ship 's bunkers in 1994 , though oil from unaccessible fuel tanks is still leaking from the sunken ship . At the time the divers removed the oil , they also recovered one of her Ar 196 floatplanes , which is preserved in Stavanger . = = = Prinz Eugen = = = Prinz Eugen saw extensive action during Operation Rheinübung , an attempted breakout into the Atlantic Ocean with the battleship Bismarck in May 1941 . The two ships engaged the British battlecruiser Hood and battleship Prince of Wales in the Battle of Denmark Strait , during which Hood was destroyed and Prince of Wales was severely damaged . Prinz Eugen was detached from Bismarck during the operation to raid Allied merchant shipping , but this was cut short due to engine troubles . After putting into occupied France and undergoing repairs , the ship participated in Operation Cerberus , a daring daylight dash through the English Channel back to Germany . In February 1942 , Prinz Eugen was deployed to Norway , although her time stationed there was cut short when she was torpedoed by the British submarine Trident days after arriving in Norwegian waters . The torpedo severely damaged the ship 's stern , which necessitated repairs in Germany . Upon returning to active service , the ship spent several months training new officer cadets in the Baltic before serving as artillery support to the retreating German Army on the Eastern Front . After the German collapse in May 1945 , the ship was surrendered to the British Royal Navy before being transferred to the US Navy as a war prize . After examining the ship in the United States , the US Navy assigned the cruiser to the Operation Crossroads nuclear tests in the Bikini Atoll . After surviving both atomic blasts , Prinz Eugen was towed to Kwajalein Atoll where she ultimately capsized and sank in December 1946 . The wreck remains partially visible above the water ; one of her screws was salvaged and is on display at the Laboe Naval Memorial in Germany . = = = Seydlitz = = = At the time construction on Seydlitz was halted , she was approximately 95 percent complete . The unfinished ship remained inactive until March 1942 , when the Kriegsmarine decided to pursue aircraft carriers over surface combatants . Seydlitz was among the vessels chosen for conversion into auxiliary aircraft carriers . Renamed Weser , conversion work began on the ship in May 1942 . The majority of the superstructure was cut away , with the exception of the funnel , to prepare for the installation of a flight deck and an aircraft hangar . In total , approximately 2 @,@ 400 t ( 2 @,@ 400 long tons ; 2 @,@ 600 short tons ) of material from the ship was removed . As a carrier , the ship was to have had a complement of ten Bf 109 fighters and ten Ju 87 dive @-@ bombers . She would have been armed with an anti @-@ aircraft battery of ten 10 @.@ 5 cm SK C / 33 guns in dual mounts , ten 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in dual mounts , and twenty @-@ four 2 cm Flak 38 guns in quadruple mounts . Conversion work was halted in June 1943 , however , and the incomplete vessel was towed to Königsberg where she was eventually scuttled on 29 January 1945 . The ship was seized by the advancing Soviet Army and was briefly considered for cannibalization for spare parts to complete her sister ship Lützow , which had been purchased by the Soviet Navy before the war . This plan was also abandoned , and the ship was broken up for scrap . = = = Lützow = = = In October 1939 , the Soviet Union requested the purchase of the incomplete Lützow . After a series of negotiations , the Kriegsmarine agreed to the sale in February 1940 , at the price of 150 million Reichsmarks . The transfer was completed on 15 April . The vessel was still incomplete when sold to the Soviet Union , with only half of her main battery of eight 20 @.@ 3 cm ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) guns installed and much of the superstructure missing . Renamed Petropavlovsk in September 1940 , work on the ship was effected by a German @-@ advised Soviet shipyard in Leningrad . Still unfinished when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , the ship briefly took part in the defense of Leningrad by providing artillery support to the Soviet defenders . She was sunk by German artillery in September 1941 and raised a year later in September 1942 . After repairs were effected , the ship was renamed Tallinn and used in the Soviet counter @-@ offensive that relieved Leningrad in 1944 . After the end of the war , the ship was used as a stationary training platform and as a floating barracks before being broken up for scrap sometime between 1953 and 1960 . = = See Also = = List of ships of the Second World War List of ship classes of the Second World War = 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment = The 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment was a segregated United States Army infantry regiment made up of Filipino Americans from the continental United States and a few veterans of the Battle of the Philippines that saw combat during World War II . It was formed and activated at Camp San Luis Obispo , California , under the auspices of the California National Guard . Originally created as a battalion , it was declared a regiment on 13 July 1942 . Deployed initially to New Guinea in 1944 , it became a source of manpower for special forces and units that would serve in occupied territories . In 1945 , it deployed to the Philippines , where it first saw combat as a unit . After major combat operations , it remained in the Philippines until it returned to California and was deactivated in 1946 at Camp Stoneman . = = Background = = In 1898 , the Philippines was ceded by Spain to the United States and , after a conflict between Philippine independence forces and the United States , Filipinos were allowed to immigrate freely to the United States as U.S. nationals . Most immigrants chose to settle in the Territory of Hawaii and the West coast . In 1934 , U.S. policy changed and their status as nationals was revoked . In 1941 , the Imperial Japanese Navy attacked Pearl Harbor , while other Japanese forces attacked the Philippines . Filipino Americans , like other Americans , attempted to volunteer for military service , but were not allowed to enlist since they were neither citizens nor resident aliens . Following a change in legislation it was announced on 3 January 1942 , the day after Manila fell , that Filipinos would be permitted to volunteer , and could be drafted , for military service ; in California , almost half of the male Filipino American population enlisted . Some who volunteered to serve were refused due to their age ; other older volunteers were refused due to the need for agricultural labor . Filipinos were strongly encouraged to volunteer for the Regiment , and only those who did so were assigned to it . Those who did not volunteer to serve in the Regiment served in regular ( white ) units in various theaters of operation . One example was PFC Ramon S. Subejano , who was awarded the Silver Star for actions in Germany . = = History = = = = = Stateside = = = Constituted in March 1942 , the 1st Filipino Infantry Battalion was activated in April at Camp San Luis Obispo , to liberate the Philippines . Colonel Robert Offley was selected as the unit 's commanding officer , as he spoke Tagalog and had spent time on Mindoro in his youth . During the following months , Filipino Americans continued to volunteer and the unit grew . Philippine Army personnel who were in the United States and Filipino military personnel who had escaped the fall of the Philippines and were recuperating in the United States were also instructed to report to the unit . In July 1942 , the battalion was elevated to a regiment at the California Rodeo Grounds in Salinas , California . The Regiment was made up of three battalions , each consisting of a headquarters company and four infantry companies . The Regiment had a separate regimental headquarters company , a service company , an anti @-@ tank company , a medical detachment , and a band . The Regiment continued to train and grow , leading to the activation of the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment at Fort Ord in November 1942 . The 2nd Regiment was assigned to Camp Cooke and the 1st to Camp Beale . Eventually , more than 7 @,@ 000 soldiers would be assigned to the Filipino Infantry Regiments . While at Camp Beale , there was a mass naturalization ceremony of 1 @,@ 200 soldiers of the Regiment . As members of the armed forces they were able to become citizens ; in 1924 naturalization of Filipino Americans had been barred , as it was determined that only aliens could be naturalized and Filipinos at the time were nationals . In November 1943 , it paraded through Los Angeles , with Carlos Bulosan , the influential Filipino author of America Is in the Heart , there to witness it . Members of the Regiment faced discrimination during this period . The anti @-@ miscegenation laws in California meant that the soldiers were banned from marrying non @-@ Filipino women ; those soldiers who wished to marry in this way were transported to Gallup , New Mexico , as New Mexico had repealed its anti @-@ miscegenation law after the Civil War . Soldiers of the Regiment faced discrimination in Marysville while visiting from neighboring Camp Beale , as the local businesses refused to serve Filipinos . This was later remedied by the Regiment 's commander , who informed the Chamber of Commerce that they were failing to cooperate with the Army , at which point they changed their business practices . Further instances of discrimination against soldiers of the Regiment were also reported in Sacramento and San Francisco , where they were mistaken for Japanese Americans . = = = Deployment = = = In April 1944 , the Regiment departed California aboard the USS General John Pope for Oro Bay , New Guinea . On the way to New Guinea the Regiment spent part of June in Australia . Upon arriving at Oro Bay , it was assigned to the 31st Infantry Division , 8th Army to provide area security and continue training . Some soldiers were then assigned to the Alamo Scouts , the 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion , and to the Philippine Regional Section of Allied Intelligence Bureau . One example was Second Lieutenant Rafael Ileto , a future Vice Chief of Staff in the Philippines , who led a team in the Alamo Scouts . Due to the reassignment of these soldiers , both Filipino Infantry Regiments became smaller than authorized . In response , the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment was disbanded and used to bring the 1st Filipino Infantry Regiment to 125 % of its standard allocated size . The remaining soldiers of the 2nd Filipino Infantry Regiment who did not join the Regiment formed the 2nd Filipino Infantry Battalion ( Separate ) . During its time at Oro Bay the Regiment was reinforced with Filipinos from Hawaii . These men had not been able to enlist in the Army until 1943 as the Hawaiian Sugar Planters ' Association had successfully argued that their labor was needed in the sugar industry . In February 1945 , the Regiment was sent to Leyte and was assigned to the Americal Division , 10th Corps . It would later be reassigned back to the 8th Army , in May 1945 , along with the Americal Division . Finally in the Philippines , it conducted " mopping up " operations on Leyte , Samar , and other islands in the Visayan islands group . In addition , some of the companies of the Regiment provided security for 8th Army General Headquarters , Far East Air Force , two airstrips at Tanauan and Tacloban , and Seventh Fleet Headquarters . Other soldiers would also participate in the Luzon Campaign , fighting on the Bataan Peninsula , and the recapture of former Fort Mills ; the Regiment was not awarded formal campaign participation for these individual actions . = = = Post @-@ combat = = = By August 1945 , operations came to a close due to the Japanese Emperor 's decision to end the war following the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . Soldiers of the Regiment who had been detached to the Alamo Scouts , 5217th Reconnaissance Battalion , and other units were reassigned back to it . During the period between the close of operations and their return to the United States , and without the Imperial Japanese Army to fight , the men of the Regiment clashed with soldiers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and Philippine Constabulary over differences in pay , culture and local women . Others married women under the War Brides Act , which allowed spouses and adopted children of United States military personnel to enter the U.S. For these newly married couples , a " tent city " was established by Colonel William Hamby , who had succeeded Offley as the Regiment Commander . Many younger soldiers connected to a culture to which they had previously only had a distant relationship , learning language and customs that were not used or practiced in the United States . Soldiers of the Regiment who did either not qualify to return to the U.S. , either due to having insufficient service points or their being otherwise ineligible , and those who chose to remain in the Philippines , were transferred to 2nd Filipino Infantry Battalion ( Separate ) in Quezon City . Returning to the United States aboard the USS General Calan on 8 April 1946 , the rest of the Regiment was sent to Camp Stoneman , near Pittsburgh , California , where it was deactivated on 10 April 1946 . = = Legacy = = During the war the efforts of Filipino and American defenders during the Battle of Bataan were widely covered by the press , as were the actions of the 100th and 442nd Infantry . After the war , the efforts of the 442nd continued to be lauded , with the 1951 film Go for Broke ! portraying their endeavors . By contrast , the activities of the Filipino Infantry Regiment and her sister units were largely unpublicized ; it was not until the documentaries Unsung Heroes and An UnTold Triumph that any significant visual media covered the history of the Regiment . In 1984 an association of veterans of the Regiment erected a marker in Salinas in honor of their former unit . The War Brides Act of 1945 , and subsequent Alien Fiancées and Fiancés Act of 1946 , continued to apply until the end of 1953 , allowing veterans of the Regiment , and other Filipino American veterans , to return to the Philippines to bring back fiancées , wives , and children . In the years following the war , some sixteen thousand Filipinas entered the United States as war brides . These new Filipino American families formed a second generation of Filipino Americans , significantly expanding the Filipino American community . = City and South London Railway = The City and South London Railway ( C & SLR ) was the first deep @-@ level underground " tube " railway in the world , and the first major railway to use electric traction . The railway was originally intended for cable @-@ hauled trains , but owing to the bankruptcy of the cable contractor during construction , a system of electric traction using electric locomotives — an experimental technology at the time — was chosen instead . When opened in 1890 , the line had six stations and ran for 3 @.@ 2 miles ( 5 @.@ 1 km ) in a pair of tunnels between the City of London and Stockwell , passing under the River Thames . The diameter of the tunnels restricted the size of the trains , and the small carriages with their high @-@ backed seating were nicknamed padded cells . The railway was extended several times north and south , eventually serving 22 stations over a distance of 13 @.@ 5 miles ( 21 @.@ 7 km ) from Camden Town in north London to Morden in Surrey . Although the C & SLR was well used , low ticket prices and the construction cost of the extensions placed a strain on the company 's finances . In 1913 , the C & SLR became part of the Underground Group of railways and , in the 1920s , it underwent major reconstruction works before its merger with another of the Group 's railways , the Charing Cross , Euston & Hampstead Railway , forming a single London Underground line called the Morden @-@ Edgware line . In 1933 , the C & SLR and the rest of the Underground Group was taken into public ownership . Today , its tunnels and stations form the Bank Branch of the Northern Line from Camden Town to Kennington and the southern leg of the line from Kennington to Morden . = = Establishment = = In November 1883 , notice was given that a private bill was to be presented to Parliament for the construction of the City of London & Southwark Subway ( CL & SS ) . The promoter of the bill , and engineer of the proposed railway , was James Henry Greathead , who had , in 1869 – 70 , constructed the Tower Subway using the same tunnelling shield / segmented cast iron tube method proposed for the CL & SS . The railway was to run from Elephant and Castle , in Southwark , south London , under the River Thames to King William Street in the City of London . The tracks were to be in twin tunnels 10 ft 2 in ( 3 @.@ 1 metres ) in diameter , running for a distance of 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) . The bill received royal assent as the City of London and Southwark Subway Act , 1884 on 28 July 1884 . Section 5 of the Act stated : The works authorised by this Act are as follows : A subway commencing ... near ... Short Street at the ... junction ... with Newington Butts and terminating at King William Street ... The subway shall consist of two tubes for separate up and down traffic and shall be approached by means of staircases and by hydraulic lifts . In 1886 , a further bill was submitted to Parliament to extend the tunnels south from Elephant and Castle to Kennington and Stockwell . This received assent on 12 July 1887 as the City of London and Southwark Subway ( Kennington Extensions , & c . ) Act , 1887 , allowing the construction of the extension to be added to the work on the original route , which had begun in 1886 . The tunnels on this section were of a slightly larger diameter – 10 ft 6 in ( 3 @.@ 2 m ) and extended the line by a further 1 @.@ 75 miles ( 2 @.@ 82 km ) . Before the railway opened , a further bill received assent , granting permission to continue the line south to Clapham Common . The act was published on 25 July 1890 as the City and South London Railway Act , 1890 , also effecting a change of the company 's name . = = Haulage and infrastructure = = Given the small dimension of the tunnels as well as the difficulty of providing sufficient ventilation , steam power , as used on London 's other underground railways , was not feasible for a deep tube railway . Like Greathead 's earlier Tower Subway , the CL & SS was intended to be operated by cable haulage with a static engine pulling the cable through the tunnels at a steady speed . Section 5 of the 1884 Act specified that : The traffic of the subway shall be worked by ... the system of the Patent Cable Tramway Corporation Limited or by such means other than steam locomotives as the Board of Trade may from time to time approve . The Patent Cable Tramway Corporation owned the rights to the Hallidie cable @-@ car system first invented and used in San Francisco in 1873 ; trains were attached to the cable with clamps , which would be opened and closed at stations , allowing the carriages to disconnect and reconnect without needing to stop the cable or to interfere with other trains sharing the cable . There were to be two independent endless cables , one between City station and Elephant and Castle moving at 10 mph , and the other between Elephant and Castle and Stockwell , where the gradient was less , at 12 mph . However , the additional length of tunnel permitted by the supplementary acts challenged the practicality of the cable system . It is reported that this problem with the CL & SS contributed to the bankruptcy of the cable company in 1888 . However , electric motor traction had been considered all along , and much engineering progress had been made since the tunnel 's construction had begun in 1886 . So , CL & SS chairman Charles Grey Mott decided to switch to electric traction . Other cable @-@ operated systems using the Hallidie patents continued to be designed , such as the Glasgow Subway which opened in 1896 . The solution adopted was electrical power , provided via a third rail beneath the train , but offset to the west of centre for clearance reasons . Although the use of electricity to power trains had been experimented with during the previous decade , and small @-@ scale operations had been implemented , the C & SLR was the first major railway in the world to adopt it as a means of motive power . The system operated using electric locomotives built by Mather & Platt collecting a voltage of 500 volts ( actually + 500 volts in the northbound tunnel and − 500 volts in the southbound ) from the third rail and pulling several carriages . A depot and generating station were constructed at Stockwell . Owing to the limited capacity of the generators , the stations were originally illuminated by gas . The depot was on the surface , and trains requiring maintenance were initially hauled up via a ramp although , following a runaway accident , a lift was soon installed . In practice , most rolling stock and locomotives went to the surface only for major maintenance . To avoid the need to purchase agreements for running under surface buildings , the tunnels were bored below roadways , where construction could be carried out without charge . At the northern end of the railway , the need to pass deep beneath the bed of the River Thames and the medieval street pattern of the City of London constrained the arrangement of the tunnels on the approach to King William Street station . Because of the proximity of the station to the river , steeply inclined tunnels were required to the west of the station . Because of the narrow street under which they ran , they were bored one above the other rather than side by side as elsewhere . The outbound tunnel was the lower and steeper of the two . The tunnels converged immediately before the station , which was in one large tunnel and comprised a single track with platforms either side . The other terminus at Stockwell was also constructed in a single tunnel but with tracks on either side of a central platform . = = Opening = = The railway was opened officially by Edward , Prince of Wales ( later Edward VII ) on 4 November 1890 . It was opened to the public on 18 December 1890 . Initially , it had stations at : Stockwell The Oval ( now Oval ) Kennington Elephant & Castle Borough King William Street The original service was operated by trains composed of an engine and three carriages . Thirty @-@ two passengers could be accommodated in each carriage , which had longitudinal bench seating and sliding doors at the ends , leading onto a platform for boarding and alighting . It was reasoned that there was nothing to look at in the tunnels , so the only windows were in a narrow band high up in the carriage sides . Gate @-@ men rode on the carriage platforms to operate the lattice gates and announce the station names to the passengers . Because of their claustrophobic interiors , the carriages soon became known as padded cells . Unlike other railways , the C & SLR had no ticket classes or paper tickets ; when the railway began operations , a flat fare of two pence , collected at a turnstile , was charged . Despite the cramped carriages and competition from bus and tram services , the railway attracted 5 @.@ 1 million passengers in 1891 , its first year of operation . To alleviate overcrowding , the fleet of rolling stock was enlarged . = = Extensions to Clapham Common and Angel , 1890 – 1901 = = Shortly before it opened to the public , the C & SLR gave notice of its intention to submit another private bill to Parliament , to construct a new line from its northern terminus at King William Street towards Islington . Because of the awkward arrangement of King William Street station , the extension was not to be connected directly to the existing running tunnels but was to be linked via a pedestrian subway through which passengers could make interchanges between the separate lines . The bill was rejected on the grounds that the extension failed to make a connection to the existing line . In November 1891 , the C & SLR published details of a revised bill for the extension to Islington . The company had recognised the deficiencies of its King William Street station and , just a year after the line had opened , planned to construct a new pair of tunnels to bypass the problematic northern section . Near Borough station the new tunnels would branch off via a new station to form an interchange with the SE & CR and the LB & SCR at London Bridge mainline station . The tunnels would then pass to the east of London Bridge , north through the City of London to Angel . Following a delay , during which a Joint Select Committee reviewed the proposals of several new underground railways , the City and South London Railway Act , 1893 received royal assent on 24 August 1893 . The Act also incorporated another bill of 1893 to grant an extension of time to build the southern extension to Clapham . Construction of the two authorised extensions was delayed while funds were raised and plans were finalised . Between 1895 and 1898 , three further bills were put before Parliament to keep the permissions alive and obtain additional approvals : 1895 : an extension of time for the 1890 Act and to allow for a new approach tunnel to be built into King William Street station . Approved as the City and South London Railway Act , 1895 on 14 April 1895 . 1896 : an extension of time for the 1893 Act and changes to the construction of Bank station . Approved as the City and South London Railway Act , 1896 on 14 August 1896 . 1898 : an extension of time for the 1896 Act , plans to add sidings to the southern extension at Clapham Common and plans to sell King William Street station and its approach tunnels to the newly proposed City and Brixton Railway ( C & BR ) . Approved as the City and South London Railway Act , 1898 on 23 May 1898 . The new tunnels permitted by the 1895 Act enabled the track layout at King William Street station to be modified to a single central platform with a track each side . This was opened as a temporary measure while funds for the extensions were raised . Finance was eventually obtained and construction proceeded so that the King William Street section closed and the first section of the northern extension opened on 25 February 1900 , with stations at : London Bridge Bank Moorgate Street The southern extension opened on 3 June 1900 , with stations at : Clapham Road Clapham Common Like the original Stockwell station and the rearranged King William Street , Clapham Road and Clapham Common were constructed with a single station tunnel , with a central platform served by tracks on each side . Work continued on the rest of the northern extension . The City and South London Railway Act , 1900 , approved on 25 May 1900 , gave permission to enlarge the station tunnel at Angel to a diameter of 9 @.@ 2 m ( 30 ft ) and the rest of the extension opened on 17 November 1901 , with stations at : Old Street City Road ( closed 1922 ) Angel = = Extension to Euston , 1901 – 1907 = = Despite the technical innovations of the railway and the large passenger demand , the C & SLR was not particularly profitable and the rapid series of extensions aimed at improving profits had placed a strain on the finances . The dividends were low and declining ( 2 ⅛ % in 1898 , 1 ⅞ % in 1899 and 1 ¼ % in 1900 ) and the company had been accused of extravagance for the abandonment of King William Street station . In an attempt to work around this poor reputation and make it easier to raise funds , the next bill for an extension of the line was submitted in November 1900 by a notionally separate company , the Islington and Euston Railway ( I & ER ) , albeit one that shared its chairman with the C & SLR . The proposed railway was to run from the as yet unfinished C & SLR station at Angel to the main @-@ line stations at King 's Cross , St Pancras and Euston . The I & ER bill coincided with a rash of other railway bills encouraged by the successful opening of the Central London Railway ( CLR ) in 1900 and was considered alongside these by another Parliamentary Joint Committee in 1901 . The bill was approved , but the time taken for the committee 's review meant that it had to be resubmitted for the 1902 Parliamentary session . In the 1902 session , the bill was considered again but was subject to opposition from one of London 's other underground railways , the Metropolitan Railway ( MR ) , which considered the proposed extension to be a threat to its service between King 's Cross and Moorgate . The I & ER also submitted a petition to allow the C & SLR to take over the powers of the railway if approved . The committee reversed its earlier decision and rejected the bill . In November 1902 , the C & SLR submitted a bill in its own name for the Euston extension as well as the authority to take over the dormant powers of the C & BR . At Euston , the railway would have an interchange with the planned but not yet built Charing Cross , Euston & Hampstead Railway ( CCE & HR ) . The intention for C & BR powers was to adapt them to provide a new station at King William Street , which would have pedestrian subway connections to the C & SLR 's Bank station and the District Railway 's ( DR 's ) Monument station . A third pair of tunnels would be constructed under the Thames to connect with the original abandoned tunnels north of Borough station and then the C & BR route would be constructed as previously approved with connections to the existing C & SLR route at London Bridge and Oval . This time , the bill was approved and received royal assent as the City and South London Railway Act , 1903 on 11 August 1903 . Although the C & BR proposals were never implemented , the Euston extension was quickly built and opened on 12 May 1907 , with stations at : King 's Cross Euston = = Cooperation and consolidation , 1907 – 1919 = = By 1907 , Londoners had seen the network of deep tube underground railways expand from the original C & SLR line of 1890 with its six stations to a network of seven lines serving more than 70 stations . These companies , along with the sub @-@ surface Metropolitan Railway and District Railway , criss @-@ crossed beneath the city streets , competing with one another for passengers as well as with the new electric trams and motor buses . In several cases pre @-@ opening predictions of passenger numbers had proven to be over optimistic . The reduced revenues generated from the lower numbers of passengers using the lines made it difficult for the operators to pay back the capital borrowed and pay dividends to shareholders . In an effort to improve their collective situations , most of the underground railways in London : the C & SLR , the CLR , the Great Northern & City Railway and the Underground Electric Railways Company of London ( UERL , which operated the Baker Street & Waterloo Railway ( BS & WR ) , the Great Northern , Piccadilly & Brompton Railway ( GNP & BR ) , the CCE & HR and the DR ) began , from 1907 , to introduce fare agreements . From 1908 , they began to present themselves through common branding as the Underground . The Waterloo & City Railway , operated by the main @-@ line London and South Western Railway , was the only tube railway that did not participate in the arrangement . In 1912 , the C & SLR submitted another bill for Parliamentary consideration seeking to increase its capacity by enlarging its tunnels to the larger diameter used for the tunnels of the more recently built railways to allow larger , more modern rolling stock to be used . A separate bill was published at the same time by the London Electric Railway ( LER , a company formed by the UERL in 1910 through a merger of the BS & WR , GNP & BR and CCE & HR ) , which included plans to construct tunnels to connect the C & SLR at Euston to the CCE & HR 's station at Camden Town . Together , the works proposed in these bills would enable the CCE & HR 's trains to run over the C & SLR 's route and vice versa , effectively combining the two separate railways . On 1 January 1913 the UERL purchased the C & SLR , paying two shares of its own stock for three of the C & SLR 's , a discount reflecting the struggling financial position of the older company . Both bills were enacted on 15 August 1913 , as the City and South London Railway Act , 1913 and the London Electric Railway Act , 1913 . The proposed extension and tunnel enlargement works were delayed by World War I and it was not until after the war that works could begin . = = Reconstruction , connections and extension , 1919 – 1926 = = In February 1919 , with the war over , the C & SLR submitted a new bill that included provisions for an extension of time for the tunnel enlargement works approved in the act of 1913 . The resulting act was passed on 19 August 1919 as the City and South London Railway Act , 1919 . In 1920 , under special wartime provisions , the LER was granted an extension of time to carry out the works for its own 1913 act . Although the permissions to carry out the works had been renewed , the Underground companies were not in a position to raise the funds needed to pay for the works . Construction costs had increased considerably during the war years and the returns produced by the companies could not cover the cost of repaying borrowed capital . The projects were made possible when the government introduced the Trade Facilities Act , 1921 by which the Treasury underwrote loans for public works as a means of alleviating unemployment . With this support , the Underground companies were able to obtain the funds and work began on enlarging the tunnels of the C & SLR . The tunnels were enlarged by removing several of the cast iron segments from each tunnel ring , excavating a void behind to the required new diameter and reinstalling the segments with additional packing spacers . The northern section of the C & SLR between Euston and Moorgate was closed from 8 August 1922 , but the rest of the line remained open with enlargement works taking place at night . A collapse on 27 November 1923 caused when a train hit temporary shoring on the incomplete excavations near Elephant & Castle station filled the tunnel with soil . The line was briefly operated in two parts , but was completely closed on 28 November 1923 . The Euston to Moorgate section reopened on 20 April 1924 , along with the new tunnels linking Euston to Camden Town . The rest of the line to Clapham Common reopened on 1 December 1924 . At the same time as the tunnels were being enlarged , the stations were modernised , with longer platforms , a new tiling scheme on platform and passageway walls and new frontages to the surface buildings . Some stations also received escalators to replace the original lifts . While the reconstruction works were underway , the C & SLR submitted a bill in 1922 that contained proposals to extend the line south from Clapham Common through Balham and Tooting to Morden in tunnel . From Morden , the line was to continue on the surface to Sutton sharing part of the route of an unbuilt railway planned from Wimbledon to Sutton ( see Wimbledon and Sutton Railway for full details ) . The bill was enacted as the City and South London Railway Act , 1923 on 2 August 1923 . Parallel negotiations with the Southern Railway over the proposals curtailed the extension at Morden , where a large new depot was constructed . The Morden extension opened on 13 September 1926 , with stations designed by Charles Holden at : Clapham South Balham ( opened on 6 December 1926 ) Tooting Bec ( originally Trinity Road ) Tooting Broadway Colliers Wood South Wimbledon Morden Also on 13 September 1926 a further connection between the CCE & HR and the C & SLR was opened when tunnels were brought into service from the CCE & HR 's Charing Cross station ( now Embankment ) to Kennington station rebuilt with four platforms . An intermediate station was constructed at Waterloo . Thus fully integrated , combined services operated over the C & SLR and CCE & HR routes using new Standard Stock trains . On tube maps the combined lines were shown in a single colour , although the separate names continued in use into the 1930s . " Edgware , Highgate and Morden line " and " Morden @-@ Edgware line " were used in the mid 1930s before the adoption of " Northern line " on 28 August 1937 . = = Move to public ownership , 1924 – 1933 = = Despite the modernisation of the C & SLR and other improvements made to other parts of the network , the Underground railways were still struggling to make a profit . The Underground Group 's ownership of the highly profitable London General Omnibus Company ( LGOC ) since 1912 had enabled the Group , through the pooling of revenues , to use profits from the bus company to subsidise the less profitable railways . However , competition from numerous small bus companies during the early years of the 1920s eroded the profitability of the LGOC and had a negative impact on the profitability of the whole Group . In an effort to protect the Group 's income , its Managing Director / Chairman , Lord Ashfield , lobbied the government for regulation of transport services in the London area . During the 1920s , a series of legislative initiatives was made in this direction , with Ashfield and Labour London County Councillor ( later MP ) Herbert Morrison , at the forefront of debates as to the level of regulation and public control under which transport services should be brought . Ashfield aimed for regulation that would give the existing Group protection from competition and allow it to take substantive control of the LCC 's tram system ; Morrison preferred full public ownership . Eventually , after several years of false starts , a bill was announced at the end of 1930 for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board , a public corporation that would take control of the Underground Group , the Metropolitan Railway as well as all buses and trams within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area . The Board was a compromise – public ownership but not full nationalisation – and came into existence on 1 July 1933 . On this date , the C & SLR and the other Underground companies were liquidated . = = Legacy = = The technologies of deep tube tunnelling and electric traction pioneered and proved by the C & SLR shaped the direction of subsequent underground railways built in London . The C & SLR demonstrated that an underground railway could be constructed without the need to purchase large and expensive tracts of land for the shallow cuttings of sub @-@ surface steam operated railways . Instead , it became possible to construct a tunnel at deep level without adversely affecting conditions on the surface . The C & SLR thus encouraged the construction of a network of underground railways in London , far larger than might have been the case otherwise . The size and depth of the tunnels used on the deep tube lines , including the Northern line , does have drawbacks : the tunnels have a limited loading gauge and the lines suffer from overheating in the summer . During World War II , the disused tunnels between Borough and King William Street stations were converted for use as an air @-@ raid shelter , with entrances to the shelter at King William Street and at six sites south of the Thames ( of nine planned ) . In the 1960s the disused tunnels were used to assist the ventilation of London Bridge station and all the entrances bar that at 9 London Bridge Street were infilled with concrete . It is now only possible to access the tunnels from Three Castles House or a passage from the Jubilee line at London Bridge . Most of the C & SLR 's six original station buildings were rebuilt or modified during the improvements to the line in the 1920s or during more recent modernisations . Only the building at Kennington retains its original exterior and the dome over the lift shaft , a feature of all the original stations . = = Rolling stock = = = = = Locomotives = = = See City & South London Railway locomotives for more information = = = Carriages = = = = = = Preserved stock = = = A number of the C & SLR 's vehicles have been preserved . Locomotive 35 had been placed on display on a pedestal at the Metropolitan line 's Moorgate station following the C & SLR 's reconstruction . It was badly damaged during an air raid , and was eventually removed . Carriage number 39 survived for over two decades after withdrawal as a summer house at Watlington , Oxfordshire . = 1990 – 91 South Pacific cyclone season = The 1990 – 91 South Pacific cyclone season was one of the least active cyclone seasons , with only three tropical cyclones occurring within the South Pacific basin which is to the east of 160 ° E. The season officially ran from November 1 , 1990 , to April 30 , 1991 with the first disturbance of the season forming on November 23 and the last disturbance dissipating on May 19 . This is the period of the year when most tropical cyclones form within the South Pacific Ocean . During the season there was no deaths recorded from any of the tropical cyclones while they were within the basin . However six people were killed by Cyclone Joy , when it made landfall on Australia . As a result of the impacts caused by Joy and Sina , the names were retired from the tropical cyclone naming lists . During the season , tropical cyclones were monitored by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centers ( TCWC ) in Nadi , Fiji , and in Wellington , New Zealand . Whilst tropical cyclones that moved to the west of 160 ° E were monitored as a part of the Australian region . Both the United States Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the Naval Western Oceanography Center ( NWOC ) issued unofficial warnings within the southern Pacific . The JTWC issued warnings between 160 ° E and the International Date Line whilst the NWOC issued warnings for tropical cyclones forming between the International Date Line and the coasts of the Americas . Both the JTWC and the NWOC designated tropical cyclones with a number and a P suffix with numbers assigned in order to tropical cyclones developing within the whole of the Southern Hemisphere . TCWC Nadi , TCWC Wellington and TCWC Brisbane all use the Australian Tropical Cyclone Intensity Scale and estimate wind speeds over a ten @-@ minute period , while the JTWC estimates sustained winds over a one @-@ minute period , which are subsequently compared to the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale ( SSHWS ) . = = Seasonal summary = = As a result of the South Pacific Convergence Zone being both weaker and located further to the north than in previous seasons and the Madden – Julian oscillations being weaker and less regular defined than in previous tropical cyclone seasons . As a result , only three tropical cyclones occurred within the South Pacific basin between 160 ° E and 120 ° W , which made the season one of the least active on record . The first tropical cyclone was first noted as a shallow depression on November 20 before it was named Sina on November 24 after it had intensified into a tropical cyclone . After peaking as a category three severe tropical cyclone on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , Sina affected Fiji , Tonga , Niue and the Southern Cook Islands with total damage estimated at over 18 @.@ 5 million before it was last noted on December 4 , as it was absorbed by an advancing trough of low pressure near 50 ° S. During December 15 , the precursor tropical low to Cyclone Joy developed near the Solomon Islands . Over the next two days the system moved westwards , before it moved into the Australian region during December 17 . The system was subsequently named Joy on December 19 , before it made landfall on Queensland during December 26 . The basin then remained quiet until March when three significant tropical depressions including 15 and 16P were observed within the Coral Sea / Australian region , which did not develop into tropical cyclones but were subject to gale warnings . 15P was first noted on March 3 , while it was located about 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the east of the Solomon Islands and over the next couple of days subsequently moved south @-@ westwards and out of the South Pacific basin during the next day . 16P was first noted on March 14 , while located about 300 km ( 185 mi ) to the southeast of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ east before the JTWC designated the system 16P and initiated advisories on it during March 18 after it had moved into the South Pacific basin . Over the next couple of days the system , moved towards the south @-@ southeast before it turned towards the southwest and passed over New Caledonia on March 20 , before it was last noted during the next day moving out of the basin . The final tropical cyclone of the season , Lisa , moved into the Southern Pacific on May 11 at its peak intensity of 110 km / h ( 75 mph ) . During the next day as the storm moved towards the subtropical jet , Lisa rapidly weakened into a tropical depression before passing over Anatom Island without causing any significant damage . After the season both the names Sina and Joy were retired from the naming lists for the region , while it was determined that a weak gale force tropical cyclone had affected Tonga between December 14 – 17 . = = Storms = = = = = Severe Tropical Cyclone Sina = = = On November 20 , the FMS started to monitor a shallow tropical depression that had developed within the South Pacific Convergence Zone to the west of Wallis Island . Over the next three days the system moved towards the west @-@ northwest and the Fijian dependency of Rotuma , before the JTWC initiated advisories and classified the depression as Tropical Cyclone 03P during November 24 . TCWC Nadi subsequently named the system Sina after the depression had developed into a category 1 tropical cyclone on the Australian scale , while it was located about 425 km ( 265 mi ) to the northwest of Rotuma . During the next day the cyclone continued to intensify and developed an eye as it moved erratically towards the west @-@ southwest and performed a small clockwise loop . During that day Sina 's eye became very distinct on satellite imagery , as it intensified and the upper level steering flow which resulted in Sina moving erratically towards the southeast and Fiji . Later that day TCWC Nadi reported that the system had peaked as a category 3 severe tropical cyclone , with 10 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . The JTWC subsequently reported early the next day that Sina had peaked with 1 @-@ minute sustained wind speeds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) , which made it equivalent to a category 4 hurricane on the SSHWS . Sina remained at its peak intensity for most of that day , before it started to gradually weaken as it passed about 40 km ( 25 mi ) to the south of Viti Levu before it passed over the island groups of Vatulele and Moala and the Southern Lau Islands during November 28 . Early on November 29 , Sina weakened into a category two tropical cyclone on the Australian scale just before it passed to the north of Tongatapu in Tonga . During that day the system moved eastwards towards the Southern Cook Islands and gradually weakened further . Early the next day , the system passed about 160 km ( 100 mi ) to the south of Niue , before it recurved sharply towards the south @-@ southeast later that day as it approached the Southern Cook Islands . The system subsequently rapidly weakened and transitioned into an extratropical cyclone under the influence of strong vertical wind shear and cooler sea surface temperatures . Over the next couple of days Sina 's extratropical remnants maintained a southeastward track , before it was absorbed by an advancing trough of low pressure near 50 ° S on December 4 . The cyclone caused no deaths and over US $ 18 @.@ 5 million in damages , as it affected Fiji , Tonga , Niue and the Southern Cook Islands . Ahead of the system affecting Fiji , hundreds of holiday makers were evacuated from Fiji 's outer island resorts to hotels on the mainland . High winds and heavy rain forced the closure of several local airports and the main Nadi International Airport . As Sina moved through the archipelago , the system destroyed or damaged houses and other building structures , while bringing down electric and telephone lines and uprooting trees . The system also washed away a railway bridge on Vanua Levu that was used to take sugar cane to Labasa 's mills , growers had no choice but to go through the village of Korowiri . However , the workers refused to go into their fields unless they had police protection to go through the village , after Methodists from the local church attacked a group of growers for working on Sundays in defiance of Fiji 's Sunday Observance Decree . Within Tonga only minor damage to weak structures , trees , banana plantations , electric and telephone lines was recorded . Within both Niue and the Southern Cook Islands only minor damage to crops and structures was reported . = = = Tropical Cyclone Lisa = = = Tropical Cyclone Lisa moved into the South Pacific from the Australian region during May 11 , while it was a Category 2 tropical cyclone with sustained wind speeds of 110 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Over the next couple of days , Lisa moved south @-@ eastwards and passed in between the Vanuatuan islands of Tanna and Anatom as it gradually weakened and lost its tropical cyclone characteristics . Lisa 's remnants subsequently started to deepen during May 14 , under the influence of an upper level mid latitude trough and reached a secondary peak intensity of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) . Over the next few days the system continued to move towards the southeast while slowly weakening until it was last noted dissipating about 2 @,@ 600 km ( 1 @,@ 615 mi ) to the east of Wellington , New Zealand . There were no reports of any significant damage associated with Lisa in Papua New Guinea , Vanuatu or the Solomon Islands . = = = Other systems = = = On December 15 , in response to the formation of Typhoon Russ , in the North @-@ Western Pacific Ocean , a tropical low developed about 500 km ( 310 mi ) to the south @-@ east of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . Over the next two days the moved westwards before it moved into the Australian basin during December 17 , where it was later named Joy . A weak gale force tropical cyclone affected Tonga between December 14 – 17 . During March , three significant tropical depressions including 15 and 16P were observed within the Coral Sea / Australian region , which did not become tropical cyclones on the Australian scale but were subject to gale warnings . 15P was first noted on March 3 , while it was located about 900 km ( 560 mi ) to the east of the Solomon Islands and over the next couple of days subsequently moved south @-@ westwards and out of the South Pacific basin during the next day . 16P was first noted on March 14 , while located about 300 km ( 185 mi ) to the southeast of Honiara in the Solomon Islands . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ east before the JTWC designated the system 16P and initiated advisories on it during March 18 after it had moved into the South Pacific basin . Over the next couple of days the system moved towards the south @-@ southeast before it turned towards the southwest and passed over New Caledonia on March 20 , before it was last noted during the next day as it moved back into the Australian region . = = Season effects = = This table lists all the storms that developed in the South Pacific to the east of longitude 160 ° E during the 1990 – 91 season . It includes their intensity on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale , duration , name , landfalls , deaths , and damages . All data is taken from the warning centers from the region unless otherwise noted . = Al Costello = Giacomo Costa ( 14 December 1919 – 22 January 2000 ) was an Italian Australian professional wrestler best known by his ring name , Al Costello . Costello was the first professional wrestler to be nicknamed " The Man of a Thousand Holds " because of his innovative and very technical style . Costello was the creator and original member of the tag team The Fabulous Kangaroos , whose " Ultra Australian " gimmick complete with boomerangs , bush hats and the song " Waltzing Matilda " as their entrance music , existed in various forms from 1957 until 1983 . Costello was either an active wrestler , or a manager in all versions of The Fabulous Kangaroos . He and Roy Heffernan are arguably the most famous version of The Kangaroos , regarded as one of the top tag teams to ever compete in professional wrestling , and are often credited with popularizing tag team wrestling in the late 1950s and 1960s . Costello later formed other versions of The Fabulous Kangaroos with Ray St. Clair , Don Kent and Tony Charles . He also managed the team of Don Kent & Bruno Bekkar and later on " Johnny Heffernan " under The Fabulous Kangaroos name . Costello officially retired from wrestling in 1983 but still made a few brief returns to the ring after that . In 1993 , he managed The New Fabulous Kangaroos ( Denny Kass and Al Snow ) before retiring completely from the wrestling business . Both Costello and his tag team partner Heffernan died before Kangaroos were honored as the first tag team to ever be inducted into the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame in 2003 , which started a tradition of inducting a new team every year . = = Growing up = = Costa was born in Lingua di Salina , Italy , near Sicily , and lived there until his family immigrated to Australia when he was six years old . The family settled in Rockdale , New South Wales , where Costa helped out in his father ’ s fruit store . He excelled at school sports , and became interested in weightlifting at an early age . At age 16 , Costa took up amateur boxing despite his father ’ s wishes that he should become an opera singer . Costa was approached by Australian middleweight wrestling champion " Basher Bonas " , who convinced him to try wrestling . Costa made his debut under an assumed name ; his father still had hopes of him becoming an opera singer , and he did not want his parents to find out that he was wrestling . He came up with the name " Al Costello " , thinking it sounded tough like a portmanteau of Al Capone and Frank Costello . = = Wrestling career = = Al Costello made his professional wrestling debut in 1938 , but the man that would be known as " The Man of a Thousand Holds " 20 years later , found little success early in his career . The general belief in Australian professional wrestling at the time was that a wrestler had to go to North America and learn how to be a pro before the bookers would even consider pushing them up the card . Costello travelled across Asia , where he did see some success ; he won the Malaysian Heavyweight title in 1939 , as well as the South Africa trophy in 1949 . During the 1950s , Costello finally started to turn heads at home by winning the Australasian title . In 1952 , Costello began wrestling in America , hoping to finally break through and make a big name of himself . = = = Fabulous Kangaroos = = = For years , Al Costello had been working on an idea for a new tag team ; he even knew who he wanted for a partner : a wrestler he had worked with some years ago named Roy Heffernan . Because Costello and Heffernan had lost touch over the years , the idea remained dormant until Costello toured Hawaii in 1956 . Costello mentioned his idea of an " Ultra Australian " tag team to fellow wrestler , and future promoter , Joe Blanchard . Blanchard happened to be a good friend of Roy Heffernan and knew he was working in Stampede Wrestling at the time . Blanchard put the two in touch with each other , and Costello was soon off to Calgary , Alberta , Canada to join Heffernan and finally make his tag team a reality . Costello and Heffernan debuted as " The Fabulous Kangaroos " on 3 May 1957 for Stu Hart ’ s Stampede Wrestling promotion in a match against Maurice LaPointe and Tony Baillargeon . Only weeks after that first match , The Kangaroos were working with the top tag teams in the promotion . After working in Stampede for a while , The Fabulous Kangaroos started to travel across the United States , headlining shows wherever they went due to their ability to rile up crowds with their heel ( bad guy ) tactics . On one occasion in August 1958 , The Kangaroos , or " Kangaroo Men " as they were billed , nearly caused a riot in Madison Square Garden during a match against Antonino Rocca and Miguel Pérez ; the fans began to throw fruit and stones at them . After the match ended without a decisive winner , the promoters stepped in , turned up the arena lights , and played the National Anthem to stop a potential riot . This was a common tactic used at the time by the New York promoters in order to prevent riots and help the heels leave the arena unharmed . Later that year , Costello and Heffernan started working for Dory Funk ’ s NWA Western States promotion based in Amarillo , Texas . Here , The Kangaroos won their first title as a team when they defeated Pepper Gomez and El Medico to win the Texas version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship on 17 November 1958 . Their first title reign was short lived , however , as Gomez and Rito Romero defeated them to regain the titles two weeks later . Between 1957 and 1965 , The Kangaroos wrestled in the United States , Canada , Asia and select tours of Australia and New Zealand . They worked for such companies as Capitol Wrestling Corporation ( the future World Wrestling Entertainment ) , Championship Wrestling from Florida , NWA Ohio , the Japan Wrestling Association and the World Wrestling Association in Los Angeles , California . The Kangaroos never forgot their roots and continued to work in Canada off and on through the years ; in addition to Stampede Wrestling , the team also worked for NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling based in Vancouver , British Columbia . Costello featured in a National Film Board of Canada short subject La Lotta / Wrestling / Le Catch . Their stint in NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling was the last time Costello and Heffernan teamed together . In June 1965 , The Kangaroos lost to Don Leo Jonathan and Jim Hardy and then split up . Heffernan had left Australia to tour the world in 1953 and wanted to return to his homeland , while Costello was determined to remain in the United States for a while longer . = = = Between Kangaroos = = = Heffernan returned to Australia and began working for World Championship Wrestling ( the Australian version , not the North American wrestling federation ) under booker Jim Barnett as a singles wrestler . Costello was originally supposed to return to Australia as well and work for WCW , but those plans never came through . Instead , Costello remained in the United States and kept working in the tag team division , never seeking a career as a singles wrestler . Costello began wrestling for Georgia Championship Wrestling , where he teamed up with Louis Tillet to form a tag team known as " The Globetrotters " ; a name that played off Costello ’ s Australian and Tillet ’ s French heritage . The Globetrotters defeated the Mysterious Medics in the finals of the Georgia NWA World Tag Team Championship championship but only held the titles for a week before losing them to Kurt and Karl Von Brauner on 4 February 1966 . After this , the Globetrotters broke up due to differences in their approach to tag teaming . Costello then moved to the NWA Mid @-@ America territory near Nashville , Tennessee . In Mid @-@ American , Costello teamed with Herb Welch to win the Mid @-@ American version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , which they held for just over 2 months . While still working in Mid @-@ America , Costello began to team with Karl Von Brauner , who used a " German Nazi " gimmick despite being American . Under the management of " Playboy " Gary Hart , Costello and Von Brauner were billed as " The Internationals " ; the team was later managed by George " Crybaby " Cannon . The Internationals worked mainly in Tennessee and Texas for NWA Western States . In Texas , Costello and Von Brauner won the Texas version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , a title Costello and Heffernan had held in 1958 . The team was also billed as the first NWA American Tag Team Champions , titles that were also recognized by World Class Championship Wrestling in addition to the Western States promotion . The Internationals lost the American Tag Team title to Fritz and Waldo Von Erich on 21 February 1967 . Kurt then decided to go back to teaming with his storyline brother , Karl Von Brauner . After the Internationals broke up , Costello returned to Australia to visit friends and relatives and to recuperate after many years on the road . On his way back to the United States , Costello had a stop over in Detroit , Michigan , where he met Cleo Williams . The two fell in love and married shortly afterwards , remaining together for the rest of Costello ’ s life . = = = Kangaroos once more = = = In 1967 , Al Costello reformed The Fabulous Kangaroos , this time teaming up with Ray St. Clair . The team had been touring non @-@ stop for about six months when St. Clair was forced to retire due to knee problems . A few months after St. Clair retired , Costello found a new man to don the bush hat : Don Kent . Kent , who was from Michigan , adopted the Ultra @-@ Australian gimmick ( but retained his American accent ) and the two formed the third overall and second most well @-@ known version of The Fabulous Kangaroos . Costello and Kent teamed together on a regular basis from 1968 until 1974 , approximately the same amount of time that Costello spent teaming with his original partner , Roy Heffernan . Costello and Kent continued in a tradition that was reminiscent of the original Kangaroos ; when a federation needed a new tag team title , The Kangaroos were brought in and acknowledged as champions upon arrival instead of holding a tournament to determine the champions . In 1967 , the Japanese federation " International Wrestling Enterprise " ( IWE ) brought The Kangaroos in as the first Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Champions . They held this title until 10 January 1968 when IWE mainstays Toyonobori and Thunder Sugiyama beat them for the gold . Over the years , many more title reigns came from various promotions all over the globe . In Canada , The Kangaroos were the first Eastern Sports Association International Tag Team Champions . In the World Wrestling Association of Indianapolis , they held the WWA World Tag Team Championship twice . In addition to winning titles all over North America , Costello and Kent also made appearances for the World Wide Wrestling Federation ( now known as WWE ) . The Kangaroos frequented NWA Detroit , where they held the Detroit version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship for most of 1971 . By the end of 1972 , The Kangaroos began working for Nick Gulas ’ NWA Mid @-@ America . In Mid @-@ America , they held the local version of the NWA World Tag Team Championship , the Mid @-@ America version , on three occasions . After a match at Cincinnati Gardens , an enraged fan took a fire extinguisher off the wall and threw it at Costello and Kent from the balcony of the Gardens . The extinguisher hit Costello in the hip , damaging it so much that he needed hip replacement surgery later that year . The fan was arrested , served 15 days in jail , and fined fifty dollars for damaging the fire extinguisher . The hip injury left Costello unable to wrestle , and The Fabulous Kangaroos split up once again . Costello had a full hip replacement and was forced to retire from active competition . = = = Managing = = = In 1975 , Costello surprised everyone by returning to professional wrestling as the manager of the team known as " The Love Brothers " ( Hartford and Reggie Love ) . He actually stepped into the ring on occasion as part of special six @-@ man tag team matches . After recovering from his hip surgery , Costello returned to active competition at age 56 . The fact that he was able to recover from such a major injury is credited to his almost @-@ fanatical style of healthy living . As a devout vegan , Costello credited his meat @-@ free diet with his recovery , as well as the remarkable shape he was in for a man of his age . Costello reformed The Fabulous Kangaroos once more , this time teaming up with wrestler Tony Charles . The team defeated Dominic DeNucci and Chris Markoff to win Detroit 's version of the NWA World Tag Team title , the same title that Costello and Kent had previously held . The Kangaroos title run was short , however , and they lost their gold to " Crazy " Luke Graham and Ripper Collins . In 1977 , Tony Charles was replaced by Don Kent and the two reunited for a tour of Puerto Rico with the World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) . In Puerto Rico , The Kangaroos arrived billed as the WWC World Tag Team Champions , once more to give a newly created title legitimacy . They dropped the titles to Carlos Colón and Jose Rivera on 12 March 1977 and remained in the WWC until 1978 chasing , but never regaining , the WWC World Tag Team Championship . After their tour in Puerto Rico ended , Don Kent returned to singles wrestling , and Costello refocused on managing . = = = Still a Kangaroo = = = In 1981 , Costello convinced Kent to once again don the bush hat and pick up the boomerang . Costello got Kent to team up with Bruno Bekkar , who was mostly known from working in his native New Zealand and Australia . Kent and Bekkar worked a tour for the WWC , while Costello served as their manager . The team won the WWC North American Tag Team titles from Jack and Jerry Brisco on 22 October 1981 . They then lost the titles to Invader I and Super Gladiator but quickly gained them back before dropping the titles for good to Invader and Gladiator on 26 January 1982 . The Kent and Bekkar team only lasted through one tour of the Caribbean , after which Bruno Bekkar returned to Australia and New Zealand to work for the local promotions there . Bekkar was replaced with Johnny Heffernan ( Canadian wrestler Bob Della Serra ) , a storyline cousin of Roy Heffernan , for what was the final version of The Fabulous Kangaroos . The team ended Terry and Dory Funk , Jr . ' s year and a half run with the WWC World Tag Team championship on 1 May 1982 . Kent and Heffernan held the gold for less than two months before losing the WWC World Tag Team titles to Invader I and Pierre Martel . After a tour in Puerto Rico , Costello , Kent and Heffernan returned to work for Championship Wrestling from Florida ( CWF ) , a promotion The Kangaroos last worked for in 1962 . In Florida , The Kangaroos won the NWA Florida Global Tag Team Championship four times . The final storyline involving The Fabulous Kangaroos saw Al Costello bring in J.J. Dillon to act as his short term replacement while he was " away on business " . When Costello returned from his business trip , Dillon kayfabe refused to give up The Kangaroos ' contracts and was backed up by both Kent and Heffernan . This angle was designed to write Al Costello out of The Fabulous Kangaroos ' storyline and allow him to retire from wrestling altogether . Not long after Costello retired , Kent and Johnny Heffernan went their separate ways . = = = Retirement = = = After retiring from wrestling , Al Costello became the head of security at College Harbor , Florida . In 1992 , at the age of 71 , Costello retired from his job in Florida and began teaching wrestling . He also started to manage The New Fabulous Kangaroos in 1993 , a team consisting of Mickey Doyle and Denny Kass who worked for " Motor City Wrestling " ( MCW ) . By the fall of 1993 , Mickey Doyle had been replaced by a young wrestler by the name of Al Snow ; with Costello ’ s help The New Fabulous Kangaroos defeated " Canadian Lighting " ( Otis Apollo and " Irish " Bobby Clancy ) , on 29 December 1993 , to win the MCW Tag Team Championship . On 14 May 1994 , Kass and Snow defeated Canadian Lighting again to win the Border City Wrestling ( BCW ) Can @-@ Am Tag Team Championship , unifying the two tag team championships . A week later , The New Fabulous Kangaroos lost both sets of titles to Scott D 'Amore and " Irish " Bobby Clancy . After losing the unified MCW / BCW Tag Team championships , The New Kangaroos split up ; Snow focused on his World Wrestling Federation career while Costello retired for good , never making another wrestling related appearance . = = = Death = = = On 22 January 2000 , Costello died from a combination of pneumonia and heart problems . In 2003 , Al Costello and Roy Heffernan became the first tag team to ever be inducted into the Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame . Since that time , the Hall of Fame has honored other tag teams , but The Fabulous Kangaroos were given the honor of being the first . In the tradition of the Kangaroos , they were " billed as champions on arrival " one last time . = = In wrestling = = Managers " Wild " Red Berry George " Crybaby " Cannon " Sir " Dudley Clement Wrestlers Managed by Costello Don Kent Bruno Bekkar Johnny Heffernan Al Snow Mickey Doyle Denny Kass The Love Brothers ( Reginald and Hartford ) Kurt Von Hess Dennis Condrey Phil Hickerson David St. Onge = = Championships and accomplishments = = Alex Turk Promotions ( Winnipeg ) International Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Roy Heffernan Capitol Wrestling Corporation NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Northeast version ) ( 3 times ) - with Roy Heffernan Cauliflower Alley Club Other honoree ( 1994 ) Championship Wrestling from Florida NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Florida version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan Eastern Sports Association ESA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Don Kent Georgia Championship Wrestling NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Georgia version ) 1 time – with Louie Tillet International Wrestling Enterprise Trans @-@ World Wrestling Alliance World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Don Kent Japan Wrestling Association NWA International Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan Midwest Wrestling Association NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( Ohio version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan Mike London Promotions Rocky Mountain Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan National Wrestling Alliance NWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2013 ) NWA All @-@ Star Wrestling NWA Canadian Tag Team Championship ( Vancouver version ) ( 4 times ) - with Roy Heffernan NWA Big Time Wrestling NWA American Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Karl Von Brauner NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 2 times ) - with Roy Heffernan ( 1 ) , Karl Von Brauner ( 1 ) NWA Detroit NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Detroit version ) ( 3 times ) - with Roy Heffernan ( 2 ) , Ray St. Clair ( 1 ) NWA Mid @-@ America NWA Southern Junior Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) NWA World Tag Team Championship ( Mid @-@ America version ) 4 times ) - with Don Kent ( 3 ) , Herb Welch ( 1 ) NWA Western States Sports NWA International Tag Team Championship ( Texas version ) ( 1 time ) - with Roy HeffernanA New Zealand Wrestling Union NWA Australasian Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame Class of 2003 - with Roy Heffernan World Wrestling Association WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Don Kent Worldwide Wrestling Associates WWA World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Roy Heffernan WWA International Television Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) - with Roy Heffernan World Wrestling Council WWC World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Don Kent Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards Wrestling Observer Newsletter Hall of Fame ( Class of 1996 ) - with Roy Heffernan = Battle of Mont Sorrel = The Battle of Mont Sorrel ( Battle of Mount Sorrel , Battle of Hill 62 ) was a local operation in World War I by three divisions of the British Second Army and three divisions of the German Fourth Army in the Ypres Salient , near Ypres , Belgium , from 2 to 14 June 1916 . In an effort to pull British resources from the observed build @-@ up in the Somme , the XIII ( Royal Württemberg ) Corps and the 117th Infantry Division attacked an arc of high ground positions , defended by the Canadian Corps . The German forces initially captured the heights at Mount Sorrel and Tor Top before entrenching on the far slope of the ridge . Following a number attacks and counterattacks , two divisions of the Canadian Corps , supported by the 20th Light Division and Second Army siege and howitzer battery groups , recaptured the majority of their former positions . = = Background = = Located in the Ypres Salient , 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Ypres , Belgium , the Battle of Mount Sorrel took place along a ridge between Hooge and Zwarteleen . The crest line of Mount Sorrel , nearby Tor Top ( Hill 62 ) and Hill 61 rose approximately 30 metres ( 98 ft ) higher than the shallow ground at Zillebeke , affording the occupying force excellent observation over the salient , the town of Ypres and approach routes . The peaks were the only portion of the crest of the Ypres ridge which remained in Allied hands . In northern France , men and resources were being marshalled in preparation for the large British @-@ French Somme Offensive . The build @-@ up in the Somme did not go unnoticed by the German Supreme Army Command . The German Second Army , which was holding the sector north of the Somme , had observed preparations for an offensive since the end of February 1916 . Short of resources due to operations at Verdun , the Germans could only mount local operations in an effort to divert British resources from the Somme . On 28 May 1916 , in an abrupt change of command , Lieutenant @-@ General Edwin Alderson was appointed to the largely ceremonial post of Inspector General of Canadian Forces in England and was succeeded by Lieutenant @-@ General Julian Byng as commander of the Canadian Corps . = = Battle = = = = = German offensive = = = Byng inspected the Canadian Corps positions and noted that the Canadian troops were overlooked by German positions and under constant danger of enemy fire . He assigned 3rd Canadian Division commander , Major @-@ General Malcolm Mercer to draw up a plan to overrun the more dangerous German positions in a local attack . As the Canadians began preparations for an assault , the Germans were in the process of executing an assault plan of their own . The XIII ( Royal Württemberg ) Corps spent six weeks planning and carefully preparing their attack on the Mount Sorrel , Tor Top ( Hill 62 ) and Hill 61 peaks . Their objective was to take control of the observation positions east of Ypres and keep as many British units as possible pinned down in the area , to avoid them transferring to the Somme front and assisting with the observed build @-@ up in that area . The Germans constructed practice trenches resembling the Canadian positions near Tor Top to rehearse the assault , well behind their own lines . In mid @-@ May , aerial reconnaissance near Mont Sorrel indicated that German forces were preparing an attack . Royal Flying Corps ( RFC ) observers had noted the existence of works curiously resembling the Canadian positions , well behind the German lines . The Germans were also observed digging new sap trenches which implied that an assault was intended . The Canadian Corps had just begun developing plans to overrun the more dangerous German positions , when the Germans executed an assault of their own . On the morning of 2 June , the German XIII Corps began a massive heavy artillery bombardment against the Canadian positions . Nine @-@ tenths of the Canadian forward reconnaissance battalion became casualties during the bombardment . 3rd Canadian Division commander Major @-@ General Malcolm Mercer and 8th Canadian Brigade commander Brigadier @-@ General Arthur Victor Seymour Williams had been conducting an inspection of the front line , when the shelling began . Mercer was wounded three times and died early on June 3 ; Williams was wounded in the face and head and taken prisoner . At 1 : 00pm , German pioneers detonated four mines near the Canadian forward trenches , before the Germans attacked with six battalions , five more battalions in support and an additional six in reserve . When the German forces attacked , mainly against positions held by the 8th Canadian Brigade , resistance at the front lines was " minimal " . For several critical hours both the 3rd Canadian Division and the 8th Canadian Brigade were leaderless and their level of defence suffered accordingly . Brigadier @-@ General Edward Spencer Hoare Nairne , of the Lahore Divisional Artillery , eventually assumed temporary command of the 3rd Canadian Division . However , German forces were still able to capture Mont Sorrel and Hill 61 . After advancing up to 1 @,@ 100 metres ( 1 @,@ 200 yd ) , the XIII Corps troops dug in . Although the road to Ypres was open and undefended , no German officer took the initiative to exceed instructions and capitalize on the success experienced by the German forces . = = = Failed counterattack = = = Lieutenant @-@ General Byng assembled a hastily organized counterattack in the early hours of 3 June . Owing to the 3rd Canadian Division ’ s heavy losses , two brigades of the 1st Canadian Division were temporarily placed under the control of Brigadier @-@ General Hoare Nairne , who had assumed control of 3rd Canadian Division . The counterattack was scheduled to begin at 2 : 00 am on 3 June 1916 . Due to the distances that had to be covered by incoming units , the difficulties in communications and ever present enemy fire , the time allowed for assembly proved inadequate and the attack was postponed until 7 : 00 am . The signal to attack was to be six simultaneous green rockets . Some rockets misfired and did not burst , resulting in an uneven assault whereby each unit moved from their start lines at different times . The four attacking battalions suffered heavy losses as they advanced over open ground in broad daylight . The attackers failed to regain any lost territory but managed to close a 550 metres ( 600 yd ) gap in the line and advance the Canadian front about 910 metres ( 1 @,@ 000 yd ) from the positions it had retreated to after the German assault . = = = British reinforcements and second German attack = = = British Expeditionary Force commander General Douglas Haig and Second Army commander General Herbert Plumer both believed it necessary to expel the Germans from the captured positions . In view of the preparations for the Somme offensive , Haig did not wish to divert more forces than were necessary . Support was limited to a number of additional artillery units and an infantry brigade from the 20th Light Division . It was suggested that the next counterattack be carried out with the infantry available , with a particularly large emphasis placed on artillery . The additional artillery units immediately went to work hampering German consolidation , by shelling their front and support lines and seeking out hostile batteries . The Germans sprung a surprise on the Canadians by exploding four large mines under trenches of the 2nd Canadian Division covering the spur at the eastern outskirts of the ruins of Hooge and a company of the Canadian 28th ( North West ) Battalion was wiped out in the explosions . The Canadians managed to hold their position and prevent the Germans from reaching their support line but Byng ultimately decided to leave the Hooge trenches in German hands and to concentrate on regaining Mount Sorrel and Tor Top . To dissuade the Germans from more attacks on the left flank of the Canadian Corps , the dismounted British 2nd Cavalry Brigade came on loan to the Canadian Corps as a counter @-@ attack force . = = = Return to original lines = = = Byng ordered 1st Canadian Division commander Major @-@ General Arthur Currie to organize a careful attack against the German positions at Mont Sorrel and Tor Top . Due to the casualties suffered during the unsuccessful counterattack of 3 June , Currie regrouped his stronger battalions into two composite brigades . Four intense bombardments of thirty minutes each were carried out between 9 and 12 June in an effort to deceive the Germans into expecting immediate attacks , which did not transpire . For ten hours on 12 June all the German positions between Hill 60 and Sanctuary Wood were shelled unremittingly . Particular attention was given to the Canadian Corps flanks , from which enfilade machine @-@ gun fire might be expected . The following morning , the Germans were subjected to an additional 45 minutes of heavy artillery bombardment , before the assaulting troops advanced behind a generated smoke screen . The Germans are believed to have been taken largely by surprise as they offered little resistance and the Canadians were able to take approximately 200 prisoners . With the exception of the trenches at Hooge , the Germans fell back to their original lines and in a little over an hour the assault was over . On 14 June , the Germans launched two counterattacks which were repulsed , after which they advanced their trench to within 150 metres ( 490 ft ) of the Canadians but made no further assaults . = = Aftermath = = The Canadian Corps remained in the Ypres Salient in a stationary yet aggressive status until the beginning of September when the corps was transferred to the Somme . In the aftermath of the battle and in the wake of the death of Major @-@ General M.S. Mercer , Canadian Corps commander Julian Byng was forced to address the politically sensitive topic of appointing a new 3rd Canadian Division commander . Canadian Minister of Militia and Defence Sam Hughes telegraphed Byng and insisted that his son , 1st Canadian Brigade commander Brigadier @-@ General Garnet Hughes , be given command of the 3rd Canadian Division . To the fury of the minister , Byng instead promoted 2nd Canadian Brigade commander Brigadier @-@ General Louis Lipsett , a highly regarded pre @-@ war British regular , to the post . The minister protested and confronted Byng in August 1916 but he did not relent , insisting that " he had nothing against Garnet Hughes there was simply a better man for the post " . The change in command between Lieutenant @-@ General Edwin Alderson and Julian Byng was also used as an opportunity to make additional changes . Much to the displeasure of Minister Hughes and delight of the Canadian troops , the unreliable Canadian Ross Rifle began to be replaced with the British Lee – Enfield and the Colt machine gun with the Vickers and Lewis machine guns . = = Commemoration = = For the Canadian Corps , participation in the Battle of Mount Sorrel is commemorated with the Hill 62 ( Sanctuary Wood ) Memorial . The nearby Sanctuary Wood Museum Hill 62 contains a preserved / simulated section of front line trenches occupied by the British and Canadians between 1916 and 1917 . Allied soldiers killed during the battle are buried in the nearby Sanctuary Wood Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery , Hooge Crater Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery , Maple Copse Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery and Lijssenthoek Military Cemetery . Those killed during the battle with no known resting place are commemorated on the Menin Gate in Ypres , Belgium . The Royal Regiment of Canada conducts a Sorrel Day parade , open to the public , at the Fort York Armoury every year on the second Sunday in June . = Music of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 = The music of the video game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 was composed by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . Regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu did not contribute any of the music , despite having composed the majority of the soundtrack for the first game , Final Fantasy X. The Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack was released on two Compact Discs in 2003 by Avex . After the release of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission , an album entitled Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack composed of the songs added to the soundtrack for that game was released in 2003 by Avex . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection , a collection of piano arrangements of the original soundtracks by Noriko Matsueda , Takahito Eguchi , Hiroko Kokubu , Masahiro Sayama , and Febian Reza Pane , was released by Avex in 2004 . A single by Koda Kumi entitled real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba , based on the theme song for the game and the ending credits song , was published by Rhythm Zone prior to the game 's release in 2003 . Another single , titled Eternity ~ Memories of Waves and Light ~ Music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , was released by Avex in 2003 along with the original soundtrack . It consisted of live arrangements of several of the game 's songs , composed and arranged by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . A set of three singles entitled Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Paine , Rikku , and Yuna was published by Avex in 2003 , with each single including vocal arrangements of songs from the game , sung by the respective character 's voice actress . The soundtrack received mixed reviews from critics ; while several felt that the music was good and keeping in tone with the game , others found it to be odd and shallow . Several reviewers attributed the change to the lack of participation by Uematsu . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection , on the other hand , were very well received by critics , who felt that they were far superior to the original soundtrack . The singles for the soundtrack were poorly received by critics , who found a few of the songs to be enjoyable but all of the singles to be overpriced . = = Concept and creation = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 marks the first soundtrack where former Square composer Nobuo Uematsu did not contribute a single piece , despite having composed the majority of the soundtrack for the predecessor , Final Fantasy X , as he was already busy with other projects . None of the pieces from the Final Fantasy X soundtrack were re @-@ used in X @-@ 2 . Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi were brought on board to compose the music for the game , as the developers felt they were the " perfect fit " to incorporate a " pop " style into the music . The game includes two songs with vocalized elements , one of which , the J @-@ Pop song " Real Emotion " , was written by Ken Kato and composed by Kazuhiro Hara . The other , J @-@ Pop ballad " 1000 Words " , was written by scenario writers Kazushige Nojima and Daisuke Watanabe . Matsueda and Eguchi composed and arranged the track . Both songs were sung by Jade Villalon from Sweetbox in the English version of the game , and are available as bonus tracks on the Japanese release of her album Adagio . In the Japanese version of the game both the songs were sung by Koda Kumi , and were released as a single entitled real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba . Kumi also released her own English versions of the songs on her CD single Come with Me , with slightly different versions of the lyrics than Jade . = = Albums = = = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 composed , arranged and produced by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . The album spans two discs and 61 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 18 : 00 . It was released on March 31 , 2003 in Japan by Avex bearing the catalog number AVCD @-@ 17254 . It included a booklet filled with printed images , providing more information about the soundtrack . Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack sold 82 @,@ 000 copies as of January 2010 ; it reached position # 5 on the Japanese Oricon charts and remained on the charts for 12 weeks . The game 's soundtrack was met with mixed feelings from critics , because Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 's score was the first in the series without input from Nobuo Uematsu , composer of all previous games in the main series , and because of the change to a distinct J @-@ pop atmosphere . While IGN commented that the music provided an " appropriately fitting backdrop " and 1UP.com suggested that it " certainly is in keeping with the new flavor " , others , such as Electronic Gaming Monthly , regarded it as " too bubbly " . One staff member at RPGamer suggested that " the absence of Uematsu proves deafening " and " the soundtrack that accompanies this nonsensical adventure manages to encapsulate the shallow nature of the game perfectly " . Ben Schweitzer of RPGFan found that the Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Original Soundtrack album was unique and enjoyable , but " ultimately forgettable . " Liz Maas of RPGFan agreed , finding the album to be simultaneously " refreshing " and " odd " . Chris Heit of Soundtrack Central , however , found that the album had " good , original music " , although altogether different than previous Final Fantasy soundtracks . Tracklist = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 International + Last Mission composed , arranged and produced by Noriko Matsueda , Takahito Eguchi and Kazuhiro Hara . The album spans 10 tracks , covering a duration of 45 : 21 . It includes the English versions of " real Emotion " and " 1000 Words " , performed by Jade Villalon of Sweetbox , as well as the eight tracks added for the International version of Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , released in Japan on February 19 , 2004 . The album was released on July 16 , 2003 in Japan by Avex bearing the catalog number AVCD @-@ 17388 . The album was better received than the original soundtrack , with Patrick Gann finding several of the tracks to be " beautiful " and the album as a whole " a sure step up from the X @-@ 2 OST " . He concluded that " if you owned and kept the X @-@ 2 OST , you 're a fool not to add this CD to your collection . " Chris of Square Enix Music Online had similar feelings for the album , terming it a " high @-@ quality and surprising effort " and " an incredible improvement " over the original soundtrack . The album reached # 42 on the Oricon charts and remained on the charts for four weeks . = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Piano Collection is a collection of music from the game 's soundtrack composed by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi and arranged for the piano . The tracks were arranged by Noriko Matsueda , Takahito Eguchi , Hiroko Kokubu , Masahiro Sayama , and Febian Reza Pane . Matsueda and Eguchi 's tracks were performed by Shinko Ogata , while the other arrangers performed their own works . The album spans 12 tracks and covers a duration of 47 : 38 . It was released on March 31 , 2004 by Avex with catalog number AVCD @-@ 17444 . The album was very well received , with Patrick Gann claiming that it " shines as a light in the darkness " compared to the original soundtrack and that he was " extremely pleased " with the album . Chris from Square Enix Music Online agreed , calling the album " nothing short of fantastic " and saying that the pianists did " a flawless job executing each arrangement " . Jillian of Square Enix Music Online agreed , finding it to be the best Final Fantasy piano arrangement album to date . = = Singles = = = = = Real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba = = = " real Emotion / 1000 no Kotoba " ( real Emotion / 1000の言葉 , riaru Emōshon / Sen no Kotoba ) is a double A @-@ side by Koda Kumi , consisting of the songs " Real Emotion " and " 1000 no Kotoba " ( lit . " 1000 words " ) , which are used as the opening and closing themes respectively of Square Enix 's game Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 , which was used in a cut @-@ scene in the game as well as its ending credits . " 1000 no Kotoba " was arranged by Takahito Eguchi and Noriko Matsueda . The CD contains the two songs in addition to their instrumental versions , covering a duration of 20 : 02 . It was published by Rhythm Zone on March 5 , 2003 with the catalog number RZCD @-@ 45080 . Real Emotion / 1000 Words was poorly received by critics , with Patrick Gann declaring himself to be " not too impressed " . = = = Eternity ~ Memories of Waves and Light ~ Music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 = = = Eternity ~ Memories of Waves and Light ~ Music from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 is an arranged single consisting of the songs from the game " Eternity ~ Memory of Lightwaves " , " Besaid " , and " Yuna 's Ballad " , composed and arranged by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . The songs feature live instruments , and are the only arranged tracks released from the Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 OST to date . The album was released by Avex on March 31 , 2003 . It covers a duration of 9 : 37 and has a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30444 . Gann was more receptive to the album than to " Real Emotion " , feeling that the tracks were three of the best tracks from the soundtrack , and that the single was worth purchasing if only because it was the only release of arranged music from the game to date . However , he felt that for the length , the single was overpriced . Chris of Square Enix Music Online also felt the single was overpriced , but additionally felt that the arrangements were " unremarkable musically " and that the album as a whole was " a cheap production . " Memories of Waves and Light reached # 32 on the Oricon charts and stayed on the charts for eight weeks . = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection = = = Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection was a set of three singles , each consisting of two tracks sung by the voice actress for one of the main characters of the game and two instrumental tracks . The singles , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Paine , Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Rikku , and Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 Vocal Collection- Yuna , were released by Avex on July 16 , 2003 . The songs were composed and arranged by Noriko Matsueda and Takahito Eguchi . Paine was voiced by Megumi Toyoguchi , Rikku by Marika Matsumoto , and Yuna by Mayuko Aoki . Each single was produced with an accompanying DVD which included a music video , an interview with the voice actress , and a montage of scenes from the game . Paine covered a duration of 16 : 19 and had a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30485 / B , Rikku had a duration of 16 : 09 and a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30483 / B , while Yuna covered a duration of 18 : 59 and had a catalog number of AVCD @-@ 30481 / B. The Final Fantasy Vocal Collection singles received mixed reviews , with Patrick Gann praising Paine as " sophisticated " and applauding the instrumentation , while also approving of Yuna , terming it " peaceful " and the best of the three . However , he also derided Rikku as " cheesy " and disliked the lyrics of one of the two tracks from Paine . Additionally , he overall found the singles to be very overpriced for the small amount of material included . Paine , Rikku and Yuna reached # 30 , # 25 , and # 21 on the Oricon charts , respectively , and stayed on the charts for four , six , and seven weeks . Track listing = = Legacy = = Unlike the music from the main Final Fantasy series , no songs from Final Fantasy X @-@ 2 have been played at any of the numerous Final Fantasy concerts . Selections of music from the game have appeared on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites . = N3 @-@ class battleship = The N3 class was a dreadnought battleship class designed for the Royal Navy after World War I , incorporating all the lessons learned from that conflict . They were very similar in design to the G3 @-@ class battlecruiser , but had larger guns and thicker armour . They were never ordered due to signing of the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 , which limited the size and armament of battleships to 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) and no gun bigger than 16 inches ( 406 mm ) . = = Background = = In 1916 the US had declared its intention to create a Navy " second to none " ; Congress had authorized the building of a large number of battleships and battlecruisers . In response , the Japanese government also began a large programme of warship building ( the 8 @-@ 8 fleet ) . Two improved Revenge @-@ class hulls were rebuilt into the two Renown @-@ class battlecruisers by the Royal Navy during the war . The only new capital ships laid down during the war were the Admiral @-@ class battlecruisers . Their design had been called into question after the Battle of Jutland in 1916 and three ships of this class were cancelled , leaving only Hood to be completed to a modified design . The US plan had been delayed by the wartime need to build smaller vessels . Nevertheless , estimates by the Admiralty were that by the early 1920s the Royal Navy would be behind in ships . By the beginning of 1920 , the Americans had completed one battleship since the end of World War I and had five more building . Seven more were intended to be laid down in 1920 – 21 , six of these were the very large and powerful South Dakota class , armed with twelve 16 @-@ inch guns . The Japanese had finished one battleship since the end of the war and had three more under construction . To correct this state of affairs , the Admiralty initially planned to build three battleships and one battlecruiser in Fiscal Year ( FY ) 1921 – 22 and again in FY 1922 – 23 , but this was changed to four G3 @-@ class battlecruisers to be built first , presumably to be followed by the same number of battleships the following year . A pair of designs were prepared in June 1920 , derived from the ' ' U @-@ 4 ' ' battleship design of 1914 , of ships with displacements of about 50 @,@ 000 long tons ( 51 @,@ 000 t ) and armed with eight or nine guns , in four twin or three triple gun turrets mounting a new 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) gun then under development . The only limitation of the design was the inability to use British dockyards and pass through the Suez Canal . The most unusual feature of these designs was that none of the turrets were superfiring , presumably to keep the centre of gravity as low as possible and avoid the extra weight required for tall , superfiring barbettes . The designs were revised in October and split into separate battleship and battlecruiser designs . The battleship designs were given letters of the alphabet from L through N , with the use of triple or double gun turrets shown by 3 or 2 respectively . Both ' L2 ' and ' L3 ' had superfiring guns and the armour was reduced to a 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) inclined waterline belt while the main armoured deck was 8 inches ( 203 mm ) thick ( 9 inches ( 229 mm ) where it sloped to meet the belt ) . They both had a designed speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) and had transom sterns . ' L2 ' displaced 52 @,@ 100 long tons ( 52 @,@ 900 t ) , but ' L3 ' was a thousand tons lighter . ' M2 ' and ' M3 ' followed in November and December and were very different from the earlier designs . 'M2 ' and ' M3 ' sacrificed fire directly astern by moving the rear turret ( s ) amidships in order to save weight by shortening the length of the armoured citadel . Compared to the earlier , more conventional , designs , ' M2 ' saved 1 @,@ 540 long tons ( 1 @,@ 560 t ) and ' M3 ' 1 @,@ 740 long tons ( 1 @,@ 770 t ) . More weight was saved by reducing the designed speed to 23 – 23 @.@ 5 knots ( 42 @.@ 6 – 43 @.@ 5 km / h ; 26 @.@ 5 – 27 @.@ 0 mph ) and using only two propeller shafts , although it was thought that this would improve manoeuvering power over four smaller propellers . These changes saved 4 @,@ 350 long tons ( 4 @,@ 420 t ) for ' M2 ' and 5 @,@ 000 long tons ( 5 @,@ 100 t ) for ' M3 ' over their predecessors . A lengthened version of ' M3 ' was chosen for further development as N3 and approved in November 1921 . = = Description = = Most noticeable of the N3 design was the concentration of the main battery forward of the bridge and machinery spaces . A related feature of the design was the tower bridge structure behind the first two gun turrets . This provided a better and more stable foundation for fire @-@ control equipment , greatly improved accommodation and protection from the weather . The N3 battleships were significantly larger than their predecessors of the Revenge class . They had an overall length of 820 feet ( 249 @.@ 9 m ) , a beam of 106 feet ( 32 @.@ 3 m ) , and a draught of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) at deep load . They would have displaced about 48 @,@ 500 long tons ( 49 @,@ 300 t ) , nearly double the displacement of the older ships . They had a complete double bottom 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) deep . The ships would have had two geared steam turbine sets , each of which drove one propeller shaft , in two engine rooms forward of the boiler rooms . This allowed the funnel to be placed further aft and increased the ability of the rear turret to fire to the rear . The turbines would have been powered by small @-@ tube boilers intended to produce a total of 56 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 42 @,@ 000 kW ) . The ships ' maximum speed would have been about 23 knots . Housing the main armament in triple turrets was new to the Royal Navy though British companies had been involved in the production of triple gun turret designs for other navies . The choice of a high muzzle velocity with a relatively lighter shell was taken from the German practice ; it ran counter to previous British guns such as the BL 15 @-@ inch Mark I gun of 42 @-@ calibre length which were lower @-@ muzzle @-@ velocity weapons firing heavy shells . = = = Armament = = = The N3 design mounted nine 45 @-@ calibre BL 18 @-@ inch guns in three triple gun turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , and ' X ' from front to rear . The guns had a maximum elevation of 40 ° . As none of these guns was ever completed and test @-@ fired , sources differ on their exact specifications . Naval historian John Campbell quotes the projectile weight as 2 @,@ 916 pounds ( 1 @,@ 323 kg ) fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 650 ft / s ( 810 m / s ) , but Alan Raven and John Roberts cite a 2 @,@ 837 pounds ( 1 @,@ 287 kg ) fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ( 820 m / s ) . The N3s carried a secondary armament of sixteen BL 6 @-@ inch Mk XXII guns in superfiring twin turrets . Four turrets were sited around the forward superstructure and four at the stern . The guns could elevate between – 5 ° and + 60 ° . They fired 100 @-@ pound ( 45 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 945 ft / s ( 898 m / s ) . Their maximum range was 25 @,@ 800 yd ( 23 @,@ 600 m ) at 45 ° elevation . Their rate of fire was five rounds per minute . An anti @-@ aircraft battery of six QF 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk VIII guns was included . They had a maximum depression of -5 ° and a maximum elevation of 90 ° . They fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) high explosive shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 457 ft / s ( 749 m / s ) at a rate of eight to twelve rounds per minute . The guns had a maximum ceiling of 32 @,@ 000 ft ( 9 @,@ 800 m ) , but an effective range of much less . The ships were intended to carry four 10 @-@ barreled mountings for the 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk VIII gun ( commonly known as a pom @-@ pom ) , two abaft the funnels and two at the stern . Each barrel was provided with 1300 rounds of ammunition . The gun fired a 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) .91 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 41 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 920 ft / s ( 590 m / s ) to a distance of 3 @,@ 800 yards ( 3 @,@ 500 m ) . The gun 's rate of fire was approximately 96 – 98 rounds per minute . Like previous classes of British battlecruisers , a pair of submerged , broadside @-@ firing torpedo tubes were planned for these ships . Their compartment was located just forward of the ' A ' shell room on the platform deck . Six 24 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 620 mm ) torpedoes per tube were to be carried in peace @-@ time , but this would increase to eight in wartime . These Mark I torpedoes had a warhead of 743 pounds ( 337 kg ) of TNT and were powered by oxygen @-@ enriched air . They had two speed settings which governed their range : either 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 13 @,@ 716 m ) at 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) , or 20 @,@ 000 yards ( 18 @,@ 288 m ) at 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) . = = = Fire @-@ control = = = The main guns of the battleships could be controlled from any of the two director @-@ control towers ( DCT ) . The primary DCT was mounted at the top of the forward superstructure . Another was mounted on the roof of the conning tower in an armoured hood . Each main gun turret was provided with a 41 @-@ foot ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) coincidence rangefinder in an armoured housing on the turret roof . The secondary armament was primarily controlled by two DCTs mounted on each side of the bridge . The anti @-@ aircraft guns were controlled by a high @-@ angle control system mounted on the mizzenmast . Each pom @-@ pom mount had its own director and there was also a height @-@ finder aft . Two 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) torpedo rangefinders were located on the sides of the funnels . = = = Armour = = = A first for any British dreadnought was the use of the all or nothing protection scheme in the N3s and G3s . Medium @-@ thickness armour had proven to be useless in stopping heavy @-@ calibre shells during World War I so the vital areas of the ship were protected by the thickest possible armour and the rest of the ship was left unarmoured . Use of this system was pioneered by contemporary U.S. Navy battleship designs starting with the Nevada class . However , this system of protection required that the armoured citadel should have enough reserve buoyancy to keep the ship stable even if the rest of the hull was riddled by gunfire . The waterline belt of the N3 had a maximum thickness of 15 inches ( 381 mm ) thick with the top of the armour angled outwards . This angle increased the armor 's relative thickness to horizontal , close @-@ range fire , albeit at the cost of reducing its relative height which increased the chance of plunging shellfire going over or under it . It ran some 463 feet ( 141 @.@ 1 m ) , from 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) forward of ' A ' barbette to the rear of the after 6 @-@ inch magazine . For about 115 feet ( 35 @.@ 1 m ) , it reduced to 13 @.@ 5 inches ( 343 mm ) over the engine and boiler rooms . The belt had a height of 14 feet 3 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) , of which 4 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 4 m ) was below the designed waterline . The lower edge of the belt abreast the magazines was continued down another 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 9 m ) by a 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thickness of high @-@ tensile steel inclined at 36 ° to prevent a shell from reaching the magazines via a wave trough at high speed . The ends of the belt terminated in 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) transverse bulkheads . The 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) armoured deck matched the length of the waterline belt and sloped down to meet the upper edge of the belt . It extended forward over the torpedo compartment which had a separate transverse bulkhead protecting it that was 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick . The steering gear was protected by a deck and bulkhead 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick . The turret faces were 18 inches ( 457 mm ) thick while their sides were probably 14 inches ( 356 mm ) in thickness , and the roof was 8 inches thick . The armour of the barbettes and the conning tower was 15 inches thick and the conning tower 's communications tube to the upper deck was 8 inches thick . The fire @-@ control director atop the conning tower was protected by an armoured hood 4 to 6 inches thick . The anti @-@ torpedo bulges of the N3 were internal to the hull and were intended to withstand the explosion of a 750 @-@ pound ( 340 kg ) torpedo warhead . They consisted of an outer air space , an inner buoyancy space and the 2 inches ( 51 mm ) thick torpedo bulkhead . The bulkhead was situated about 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) inboard from the side of the ship . Postwar tests done on a replica of this system showed that filling the buoyancy space with water rather than the sealed steel crushing tubes as used in Hood was just as effective and weighed less . = = Cancellation = = The four N3 battleships were never ordered because the Washington Naval Treaty , an arms limitation treaty under negotiation at the time , forbade construction of any ship larger than 35 @,@ 000 tons . Many of the aspects of their design ultimately were incorporated into the two Nelson @-@ class battleships , and they are often described as being a cut @-@ down N3 . Indeed , the Nelsons received the design designation ' O3 ' , marking them as next in the design sequence , although they used the guns intended for the G3 battlecruisers for cost reasons and to comply with the Treaty 's 16 @-@ inch limitation on main armament . = Tropical Storm Andres ( 1997 ) = Tropical Storm Andres was the only tropical cyclone on record to strike El Salvador . The first named storm of the active 1997 Pacific hurricane season , Andres formed on June 1 off the coast of Mexico . It initially moved toward the coast , although a change in steering winds turned the storm toward Mexico and Guatemala . After passing just offshore , Andres again changed direction toward the southeast , gradually weakening in the process . On June 7 , it turned toward and hit El Salvador before dissipating . The storm brought rainfall to coastlines along much of its path , destroying some houses and inflicted damage . Two fishermen were reported missing in Nicaragua due to high seas , and there were four deaths in El Salvador . = = Meteorological history = = Tropical Storm Andres was the first of many storms of the season , with above @-@ average activity due to one of the strongest El Niño events on record . In most of May 1997 , strong westerlies extended across the eastern Pacific Ocean , which inhibited tropical cyclogenesis . Toward the end of the month , however , wind shear decreased in the easternmost portion of the basin , which allowed a low @-@ level circulation to develop ; it is possible the system originated from a tropical wave that traversed the Atlantic Ocean in the previous two weeks . Deep convection increased over the circulation on May 31 , prompting classifications with the Dvorak technique . Based on satellite imagery , it is estimated the system developed into Tropical Depression One @-@ E early on June 1 , about 345 miles ( 555 km ) south of the Gulf of Tehuantepec . The tropical cyclone was never well @-@ organized , and after its formation , the convection became elongated . As the entire system moved northwestward , another circulation developed which eventually became the dominant center , causing the original circulation to dissipate . Midday on June 2 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Andres . The next day , steering winds forced the storm east @-@ northeastward , and on June 4 , Andres attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . A trough bypassed the storm to the north and changed the steering flow toward the southeast . This produced a track paralleling the Central America coastline ; such a track was considered " unprecedented " by the National Hurricane Center in the database for all eastern Pacific storms . Initially , the storm was expected to continue moving toward Mexico and Guatemala . Turning southeastward , Tropical Storm Andres passed about 35 miles ( 55 km ) off the coast of Guatemala , before it began weakening due to interaction with the Intertropical Convergence Zone . The convection became amorphous and later shifted to the southeast of the circulation . On June 6 Andres weakened to tropical depression status . It turned northward and moved ashore near San Salvador , El Salvador on June 7 , which was the first recorded landfall in the country . The low @-@ level circulation quickly dissipated over land , although the mid @-@ level circulation persisted across Central America . After the featured reached the western Caribbean Sea , a new surface circulation developed , and initially , tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated the development of a significant storm in the eastern Gulf of Mexico . Instead , the system remained disorganized , bringing rainfall to Cuba , Florida , and the Bahamas before it was absorbed by a weak trough in the Gulf of Mexico . = = Impact and preparations = = When Tropical Storm Andres first turned to the northeast , tropical storm warnings were issued from Punta Galera , Mexico to the Mexico / Guatemala border . A tropical storm warning was later issued from Champerico , Guatemala to the Mexican border . All of the warnings were dropped when Andres turned toward the southeast . Later , a tropical storm watch was issued for Guatemala and El Salvador , but it was quickly canceled . Due to the threat of the storm , officials closed ports along the southern Mexican coastline , and also advised for small boats to excise caution . Throughout its life , Andres produced rainfall along the coast of Mexico , in Guerrero , Oaxaca , and Chiapas , as well as through the Yucatán Peninsula . The highest total in the country was 11 @.@ 42 inches ( 29 cm ) in Mazatán , Chiapas . Heavy rainfall and high seas spread across western Central America . In El Salvador and Nicaragua , the storm led to power outages , traffic accidents , and overflown rivers , as well as destroyed bridges and buildings in Nicaragua . Two fishermen were left missing in Nicaragua , and the storm damaged 91 houses and destroyed 82 more , leaving a total of 1 @,@ 259 people homeless . There were 4 deaths in El Salvador where Andres made landfall . The remnants of Andres brought rainfall to Cuba , Florida , and the Bahamas . In Florida , the system produced a daily record precipitation of 5 @.@ 89 inches ( 15 cm ) at the Miami International Airport ; the rainfall led to street flooding , accidents , and housing damage . = The Boat Race 1983 = The 129th Boat Race took place on 2 April 1983 . Held annually , the event is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . The pre @-@ race preparation saw Cambridge threaten to boycott the race for the first time , following the inclusion of Boris Rankov in the Oxford boat . The crews were the two heaviest in the history of the event , and featured ten former Boat Race competitors . Oxford won the race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Isis won the reserve race , while Cambridge were victorious in the Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 miles ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and broadcast worldwide . Oxford were the reigning champions , having beaten Cambridge by three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ quarter lengths in the previous year 's race . However , Cambridge held the overall lead , with 68 victories to Oxford 's 59 . The race was sponsored by Ladbrokes ; the winner was awarded the Ladbrokes Trophy . On 7 March 1983 , Cambridge issued a statement suggesting that they might boycott the race following a dispute over Oxford 's selection of Boris Rankov as a member of their crew . Veteran of the previous five Boat Races , all of which were Dark Blue victories , Cambridge argued Rankov was ineligible for inclusion as he was a lecturer at the university . Coach David Townsend of the University of London offered the services of his crew to provide an opponent for Oxford , should Cambridge refuse to participate . Rankov himself had offered to withdraw from the race , but the Dark Blues ' committee rejected this . Cambridge finally agreed to race after they reached an agreement with Oxford to discuss and possibly tighten the eligibility criteria . This ultimately led to establishment of the so @-@ called " Rankov Rule " , which states that oarsmen will compete in the race no more than four times as an undergraduate and no more than four times as a graduate . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Up until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
ised by the use of small war @-@ bands of household troops often engaging in raids and low level warfare . The arrival of the Vikings brought a new scale of naval warfare , with rapid movement based around the Viking longship . The birlinn , which developed form the longship , became a major factor in warfare in the Highlands and Islands . By the High Middle Ages , the kings of Scotland could command forces of tens of thousands of men for short periods as part of the " common army " , mainly of poorly armoured spear and bowmen . After the introduction of feudalism to Scotland , these forces were augmented by small numbers of mounted and heavily armoured knights . Feudalism also introduced castles into the country , originally simple wooden motte @-@ and @-@ bailey constructions , but these were replaced in the thirteenth century with more formidable stone " enceinte " castles , with high encircling walls . In the thirteenth century the threat of Scandinavian naval power subsided and the kings of Scotland were able to use naval forces to help subdue the Highlands and Islands . Scottish field armies rarely managed to stand up to the usually larger and more professional armies produced by England , but they were used to good effect by Robert I at Bannockburn in 1314 to secure Scottish independence . He also made use of naval power to support his forces and began to develop a royal Scottish naval force . Under the Stewart kings these forces were further augmented by specialist troops , particularly men @-@ at @-@ arms and archers , hired by bonds of manrent , similar to English indentures of the same period . New " livery and maintenance " castles were built to house these troops and castles began to be adapted to accommodate gunpowder weapons . The Stewarts also adopted major innovations in continental warfare , such as longer pikes and the extensive use of artillery , and they built up a formidable navy . However , in the early fifteenth century one of the best armed and largest Scottish armies ever assembled still met with defeat at the hands of an English army at the Battle of Flodden in 1513 , which saw the destruction of a large number of ordinary troops , a large section of the nobility and the king , James IV . = = Religion = = Christianity was probably introduced to what is now lowland Scotland from Roman soldiers stationed in the north of the province of Britannia . It is presumed to have survived among the Brythonic enclaves in the south of modern Scotland , but retreated as the pagan Anglo @-@ Saxons advanced . Scotland was largely converted by Irish @-@ Scots missions associated with figures such as St Columba from the fifth to the seventh centuries . These missions tended to found monastic institutions and collegiate churches that served large areas . Partly as a result of these factors , some scholars have identified a distinctive form of Celtic Christianity , in which abbots were more significant than bishops , attitudes to clerical celibacy were more relaxed and there was some significant differences in practice with Roman Christianity , particularly the form of tonsure and the method of calculating Easter , although most of these issues had been resolved by the mid @-@ seventh century . After the reconversion of Scandinavian Scotland from the tenth century , Christianity under papal authority was the dominant religion of the kingdom . In the Norman period the Scottish church underwent a series of reforms and transformations . With royal and lay patronage , a clearer parochial structure based around local churches was developed . Large numbers of new foundations , which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism , began to predominate and the Scottish church established its independence from England , developed a clearer diocesan structure , becoming a " special daughter of the see of Rome " , but lacking leadership in the form of archbishops . In the Late Middle Ages the problems of schism in the Catholic Church allowed the Scottish Crown to gain greater influence over senior appointments and two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the fifteenth century . While some historians have discerned a decline of monasticism in the Late Middle Ages , the mendicant orders of friars grew , particularly in the expanding burghs , to meet the spiritual needs of the population . New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated . Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the fourteenth century , and some evidence of heresy in this period , the church in Scotland remained relatively stable before the Reformation in the sixteenth century . = = Geography = = Modern Scotland is half the size England and Wales in area , but with its many inlets , islands and inland lochs , it has roughly the same amount of coastline at 4 @,@ 000 miles . Only a fifth of Scotland is less than 60 metres above sea level . Its east Atlantic position means that it has very heavy rainfall : today about 700 cm per year in the east and over 1 @,@ 000 cm in the west . This encouraged the spread of blanket peat bog , the acidity of which , combined with high level of wind and salt spray , made most of the islands treeless . The existence of hills , mountains , quicksands and marshes made internal communication and conquest extremely difficult and may have contributed to the fragmented nature of political power . The defining factor in the geography of Scotland is the distinction between the Highlands and Islands in the north and west and the Lowlands in the south and east . The highlands are further divided into the Northwest Highlands and the Grampian Mountains by the fault line of the Great Glen . The lowlands are divided into the fertile belt of the Central Lowlands and the higher terrain of the Southern Uplands , which included the Cheviot hills , over which the border with England came to run by the end of the period . Some of these were further divided by mountains , major rivers and marshes . The Central Lowland belt averages about 50 miles in width and , because it contains most of the good quality agricultural land and has easier communications , could support most of the urbanisation and elements of conventional Medieval government . However , the Southern Uplands , and particularly the Highlands were economically less productive and much more difficult to govern . This provided Scotland with a form of protection , as minor English incursions had to cross the difficult southern uplands and the two major attempts at conquest by the English , under Edward I and then Edward III , were unable to penetrate the highlands , from which area potential resistance could reconquer the Lowlands . However , it also made those areas problematic to govern for Scottish kings and much of the political history of the era after the wars of independence circulated around attempts to resolve problems of entrenched localism in these regions . Until the thirteenth century the borders with England were very fluid , with Northumbria being annexed to Scotland by David I , but lost under his grandson and successor Malcolm IV in 1157 . By the late thirteenth century when the Treaty of York ( 1237 ) and Treaty of Perth ( 1266 ) had fixed the boundaries with the Kingdom of the Scots with England and Norway respectively , its borders were close to the modern boundaries . The Isle of Man fell under English control in the fourteenth century , despite several attempts to restore Scottish authority . The English were able to annexe a large slice of the Lowlands under Edward III , but these losses were gradually regained , particularly while England was preoccupied with the Wars of the Roses ( 1455 – 85 ) . The dowry of the Orkney and Shetland Islands in 1468 was the last great land acquisition for the kingdom . However , in 1482 Berwick , a border fortress and the largest port in Medieval Scotland , fell to the English once again , for what was to be the final change of hands . = = Economy and society = = = = = Economy = = = Having between a fifth or sixth of the arable or good pastoral land and roughly the same amount of coastline as England and Wales , marginal pastoral agriculture and fishing were two of the most important aspects of the Medieval Scottish economy . With poor communications , in the Early Middle Ages most settlements needed to achieve a degree of self @-@ sufficiency in agriculture . Most farms were based around a family unit and used an infield and outfield system . Arable farming grew in the High Middle Ages and agriculture entered a period of relative boom between the thirteenth century and late fifteenth century . Unlike England , Scotland had no towns dating from Roman occupation . From the twelfth century there are records of burghs , chartered towns , which became major centres of crafts and trade. and there is evidence of 55 burghs by 1296 . There are also Scottish coins , although English coinage probably remained more significant in trade and until the end of the period barter was probably the most common form of exchange . Nevertheless , craft and industry remained relatively undeveloped before the end of the Middle Ages and , although there were extensive trading networks based in Scotland , while the Scots exported largely raw materials , they imported increasing quantities of luxury goods , resulting in a bullion shortage and perhaps helping to create a financial crisis in the fifteenth century . = = = Demography = = = There are almost no written sources from which to re @-@ construct the demography of early Medieval Scotland . Estimates have been made of a population of 10 @,@ 000 inhabitants in Dál Riata and 80 – 100 @,@ 000 for Pictland . It is likely that the 5th and 6th centuries saw higher mortality rates due to the appearance of bubonic plague , which may have reduced net population . The examination of burial sites for this period like that at Hallowhill , St Andrews indicate a life expectancy of only 26 @-@ 9 . The known conditions have been taken to suggest it was a high fertility , high mortality society , similar to many developing countries in the modern world , with a relatively young demographic profile , and perhaps early childbearing , and large numbers of children for women . This would have meant that there were a relatively small proportion of available workers to the number of mouths to feed . This have made it difficult to produce a surplus that would allow demographic growth and more complex societies to develop . From the formation of the Kingdom of Alba in the tenth century , to before the Black Death reached the country in 1349 , estimates based on the amount of farmable land , suggest that population may have grown from half a million to a million . Although there is no reliable documentation on the impact of the plague , there are many anecdotal references to abandoned land in the following decades . If the pattern followed that in England , then the population may have fallen to as low as half a million by the end of the fifteenth century . Compared with the situation after the redistribution of population in the later clearances and the industrial revolution , these numbers would have been relatively evenly spread over the kingdom , with roughly half living north of the Tay . Perhaps ten per cent of the population lived in one of many burghs that grew up in the later Medieval period , mainly in the east and south . It has been suggested that they would have had a mean population of about 2 @,@ 000 , but many would be much smaller than 1 @,@ 000 and the largest , Edinburgh , probably had a population of over 10 @,@ 000 by the end of the era . = = = Social structure = = = The organisation of society is obscure in the early part of the period , for which there are few documentary sources . Kinship probably provided the primary unit of organisation and society was divided between a small aristocracy , whose rationale was based around warfare , a wider group of freemen , who had the right to bear arms and were represented in law codes , above a relatively large body of slaves , who may have lived beside and become clients of their owners . By the thirteenth century there are have sources that allow greater stratification in society to be seen , with layers including the king and a small elite of mormaers above lesser ranks of freemen and what was probably a large group of serfs , particularly in central Scotland . In this period the feudalism introduced under David I meant that baronial lordships began to overlay this system , the English terms earl and thane became widespread . Below the noble ranks were husbandmen with small farms and growing numbers of cottars and gresemen with more modest landholdings . The combination of agnatic kinship and feudal obligations has been seen as creating the system of clans in the Highlands in this era . Scottish society adopted theories of the three estates to describe its society and English terminology to differentiate ranks . Serfdom disappeared from the records in the fourteenth century and new social groups of labourers , craftsmen and merchants , became important in the developing burghs . This led to increasing social tensions in urban society , but , in contrast to England and France , there was a lack of major unrest in Scottish rural society , where there was relatively little economic change . = = Culture = = = = = Language and culture = = = Modern linguists divide Celtic languages into two major groups , the P @-@ Celtic , from which the Brythonic languages : Welsh , Breton , Cornish and Cumbric derive , and the Q @-@ Celtic , from which come the Goidelic languages : Irish , Manx and Gaelic . The Pictish language remains enigmatic , since the Picts had no written script of their own and all that survives are place names and some isolated inscriptions in Irish ogham script . Most modern linguists accept that , although the nature and unity of Pictish language is unclear , it belonged to the former group . Historical sources , as well as place name evidence , indicate the ways in which the Pictish language in the north and Cumbric languages in the south were overlaid and replaced by Gaelic , Old English and later Norse in this period . By the High Middle Ages the majority of people within Scotland spoke the Gaelic language , then simply called Scottish , or in Latin , lingua Scotica . The Kingdom of Alba was overwhelmingly an oral society dominated by Gaelic culture . Our fuller sources for Ireland of the same period suggest that there would have been filidh , who acted as poets , musicians and historians , often attached to the court of a lord or king , and passed on their knowledge and culture in Gaelic to the next generation . In the Northern Isles the Norse language brought by Scandinavian occupiers and settlers evolved into the local Norn , which lingered until the end of the eighteenth century and Norse may also have survived as a spoken language until the sixteenth century in the Outer Hebrides . French , Flemish and particularly English became the main language of Scottish burghs , most of which were located in the south and east , an area to which Anglian settlers had already brought a form of Old English . In the later part of the twelfth century , the writer Adam of Dryburgh described lowland Lothian as " the Land of the English in the Kingdom of the Scots " . At least from the accession of David I , Gaelic ceased to be the main language of the royal court and was probably replaced by French , as evidenced by reports from contemporary chronicles , literature and translations of administrative documents into the French language . After this " de @-@ gallicisation " of the Scottish court , a less highly regarded order of bards took over the functions of the filidh and they would continue to act in a similar role in the Highlands and Islands into the eighteenth century . They often trained in bardic schools , of which a few , like the one run by the MacMhuirich dynasty , who were bards to the Lord of the Isles , existed in Scotland and a larger number in Ireland , until they were suppressed from the seventeenth century . Members of bardic schools were trained in the complex rules and forms of Gaelic poetry . Much of their work was never written down and what survives was only recorded from the sixteenth century . In the late Middle Ages , Middle Scots , often simply called English , became the dominant language of the country . It was derived largely from Old English , with the addition of elements from Gaelic and French . Although resembling the language spoken in northern England , it became a distinct dialect from the late fourteenth century onwards . It began to be adopted by the ruling elite as they gradually abandoned French . By the fifteenth century it was the language of government , with acts of parliament , council records and treasurer 's accounts almost all using it from the reign of James I onwards . As a result , Gaelic , once dominant north of the Tay , began a steady decline . Lowland writers began to treat Gaelic as a second class , rustic and even amusing language , helping to frame attitudes towards the highlands and to create a cultural gulf with the lowlands . = = = Education = = = The establishment of Christianity brought Latin to Scotland as a scholarly and written language . Monasteries served as major repositories of knowledge and education , often running schools and providing a small educated elite , who were essential to create and read documents in a largely illiterate society . In the High Middle Ages new sources of education arose , with song and grammar schools . These were usually attached to cathedrals or a collegiate church and were most common in the developing burghs . By the end of the Middle Ages grammar schools could be found in all the main burghs and some small towns . Early examples including the High School of Glasgow in 1124 and the High School of Dundee in 1239 . There were also petty schools , more common in rural areas and providing an elementary education . Some monasteries , like the Cistercian abbey at Kinloss , opened their doors to a wider range of students . The number and size of these schools seems to have expanded rapidly from the 1380s . They were almost exclusively aimed at boys , but by the end of the fifteenth century , Edinburgh also had schools for girls , sometimes described as " sewing schools " , and probably taught by lay women or nuns . There was also the development of private tuition in the families of lords and wealthy burghers . The growing emphasis on education cumulated with the passing of the Education Act 1496 , which decreed that all sons of barons and freeholders of substance should attend grammar schools to learn " perfyct Latyne " . All this resulted in an increase in literacy , but which was largely concentrated among a male and wealthy elite , with perhaps 60 per cent of the nobility being literate by the end of the period . Until the fifteenth century , those who wished to attend university had to travel to England or the continent , and just over a 1 @,@ 000 have been identified as doing so between the twelfth century and 1410 . Among these the most important intellectual figure was John Duns Scotus , who studied at Oxford , Cambridge and Paris and probably died at Cologne in 1308 , becoming a major influence on late Medieval religious thought . After the outbreak of the Wars of Independence , with occasional exceptions under safe conduct , English universities were closed to Scots and continental universities became more significant . Some Scottish scholars became teachers in continental universities . At Paris this included John De Rate and Walter Wardlaw in the 1340s and 1350s , William de Tredbrum in the 1380s and Laurence de Lindores in the early 1500s . This situation was transformed by the founding of the University of St Andrews in 1413 , the University of Glasgow in 1450 and the University of Aberdeen in 1495 . Initially these institutions were designed for the training of clerics , but they would increasingly be used by laymen who would begin to challenge the clerical monopoly of administrative post in the government and law . Those wanting to study for second degrees still needed to go elsewhere and Scottish scholars continued to visit the continent and English universities reopened to Scots in the late fifteenth century . The continued movement to other universities produced a school of Scottish nominalists at Paris in the early sixteenth century , of which John Mair was probably the most important figure . He had probably studied at a Scottish grammar school , then Cambridge , before moving to Paris , where he matriculated in 1493 . By 1497 the humanist and historian Hector Boece , born in Dundee and who had studied at Paris , returned to become the first principal at the new university of Aberdeen . These international contacts helped integrate Scotland into a wider European scholarly world and would be one of the most important ways in which the new ideas of humanism were brought into Scottish intellectual life . = = = Literature = = = Much of the earliest Welsh literature was actually composed in or near the country now called Scotland , in the Brythonic speech , from which Welsh would be derived , include The Gododdin and the Battle of Gwen Ystrad . There are also religious works in Gaelic including the Elegy for St Columba by Dallan Forgaill , c . 597 and " In Praise of St Columba " by Beccan mac Luigdech of Rum , c . 677 . In Latin they include a " Prayer for Protection " ( attributed to St Mugint ) , c. mid @-@ sixth century and Altus Prosator ( " The High Creator " , attributed to St Columba ) , c . 597 . In Old English there is The Dream of the Rood , from which lines are found on the Ruthwell Cross , making it the only surviving fragment of Northumbrian Old English from early Medieval Scotland . Before the reign of David I , the Scots possessed a flourishing literary elite that produced texts in both Gaelic and Latin , a tradition that survived in the Highlands into the thirteenth century . It is possible that more Middle Irish literature was written in Medieval Scotland than is often thought , but has not survived because the Gaelic literary establishment of eastern Scotland died out before the fourteenth century . In the thirteenth century , French flourished as a literary language , and produced the Roman de Fergus , the earliest piece of non @-@ Celtic vernacular literature to survive from Scotland . The first surviving major text in Early Scots literature is John Barbour 's Brus ( 1375 ) , composed under the patronage of Robert II and telling the story in epic poetry of Robert I 's actions before the English invasion till the end of the war of independence . Much Middle Scots literature was produced by makars , poets with links to the royal court , which included James I ( who wrote The Kingis Quair ) . Many of the makars had a university education and so were also connected with the Kirk . However , Dunbar 's Lament for the Makaris ( c.1505 ) provides evidence of a wider tradition of secular writing outside of Court and Kirk , now largely lost . Before the advent of printing in Scotland , writers such as Robert Henryson , William Dunbar , Walter Kennedy and Gavin Douglas have been seen as leading a golden age in Scottish poetry . In the late fifteenth century , Scots prose also began to develop as a genre . Although there are earlier fragments of original Scots prose , such as the Auchinleck Chronicle , the first complete surviving work includes John Ireland 's The Meroure of Wyssdome ( 1490 ) . There were also prose translations of French books of chivalry that survive from the 1450s , including The Book of the Law of Armys and the Order of Knychthode and the treatise Secreta Secetorum , an Arabic work believed to be Aristotle 's advice to Alexander the Great . The landmark work in the reign of James IV was Gavin Douglas 's version of Virgil 's Aeneid , the Eneados , which was the first complete translation of a major classical text in an Anglian language , finished in 1513 , but overshadowed by the disaster at Flodden . = = = Art = = = In the early middles ages , there were distinct material cultures evident in the different linguistic groups , federations and kingdoms within what is now Scotland . Pictish art can be seen in the extensive survival of carved stones , particularly in the north and east of the country , which hold a variety of recurring images and patterns , as at Dunrobin ( Sutherland ) and Aberlemno stones ( Angus ) . It can also be seen in elaborate metal work that largely survives in buried hordes like the St Ninian 's Isle Treasure . Irish @-@ Scots art from the Kingdom of Dál Riata is much more difficult to identify , but may include items like the Hunterston brooch , which with other items like the Monymusk Reliquary , suggest that Dál Riata was one of the places , as a crossroads between cultures , where the Insular style developed . Insular art is the name given to the common style that developed in Britain and Ireland after the conversion of the Picts and the cultural assimilation of Pictish culture into that of the Scots and Angles , and which became highly influential in continental Europe , contributing to the development of Romanesque and Gothic styles . It can be seen in elaborate jewellery , often making extensive use of semi @-@ precious stones , in the heavily carved High crosses found most frequently in the Highlands and Islands , but distributed across the country and particularly in the highly decorated illustrated manuscripts such as the Book of Kells , which may have been begun , or wholly created on Iona . The finest era of the style was brought to an end by the disruption to monastic centres and aristocratic life of the Viking raids in the late eighth century . Scotland adopted the Romanesque in the late twelfth century , retaining and reviving elements of its style after the Gothic had become dominant elsewhere from the thirteenth century . Much of the best Scottish artwork of the High and Late Middle Ages was either religious in nature or realised in metal and woodwork , and has not survived the impact of time and of the Reformation . However , examples of sculpture are extant as part of church architecture , including evidence of elaborate church interiors like the sacrament houses at Deskford and Kinkell and the carvings of the seven deadly sins at Rosslyn Chapel . From the thirteenth century , there are relatively large numbers of monumental effigies like the elaborate Douglas tombs in the town of Douglas . Native craftsmanship can be seen in items like the Bute mazer and the Savernake Horn , and more widely in the large number of high quality seals that survive from the mid thirteenth century onwards . Visual illustration can be seen in the illumination of charters , and occasional survivals like the fifteenth century Doom painting at Guthrie . Surviving copies of individual portraits are relatively crude , but more impressive are the works or artists commissioned from the continent , particularly the Netherlands , including Hugo van Der Goes 's altarpiece for the Trinity College Church in Edinburgh and the Hours of James IV of Scotland . = = = Architecture = = = Medieval vernacular architecture utilised local building materials , including cruck constructed houses , turf walls and clay , with a heavy reliance on stone . As burghs developed there were more sophisticated houses for the nobles , burgesses and other inhabitants . By the end of the period some were stone built with slate roofs or tiles . Medieval parish church architecture was typically simpler than in England , with many churches remaining simple oblongs , without transepts and aisles , and often without towers . From the eleventh century there were influences from English and continental European designs and grander ecclesiastical buildings were built in the Romanesque style , as can be seen at Dunfermline Abbey and Elgin Cathedral , and later the Gothic style as at Glasgow Cathedral and in the rebuilding of Melrose Abbey . From the early fifteenth century the introduction of Renaissance styles included the selective return of Romanesque forms , as in the nave of Dunkeld Cathedral and in the chapel of Bishop Elphinstone 's Kings College , Aberdeen ( 1500 – 09 ) . Many of the motte and bailey castles introduced into Scotland with feudalism in the twelfth century and the castles " enceinte " , with a high embattled curtain wall that replaced those still in occupation , were slighted during the Wars of Independence . In the late Middle Ages new castles were built , some on a grander scale as " livery and maintenance " castles , to house retained troops . Gunpowder weaponry fundamentally altered the nature of castle architecture , with existing castles being adapted to allow the use of gunpowder weapons by the incorporation of " keyhole " gun ports , platforms to mount guns and walls being adapted to resist bombardment . Ravenscraig , Kirkcaldy , begun about 1460 , is probably the first castle in the British Isles to be built as an artillery fort , incorporating " D @-@ shape " bastions that would better resist cannon fire and on which artillery could be mounted . The largest number of late medieval fortifications in Scotland built by nobles were of the tower house design. primarily aimed to provide protection against smaller raiding parties , rather than a major siege . Extensive building and rebuilding of royal palaces in the Renaissance style probably began under James III and accelerated under James IV . Linlithgow was first constructed under James I , under the direction of master of work John de Waltoun and was referred to as a palace , apparently the first use of this term in the country , from 1429 . This was extended under James III and began to correspond to a fashionable quadrangular , corner @-@ towered Italian signorial palace , combining classical symmetry with neo @-@ chivalric imagery . = = = Music = = = In the late twelfth century , Giraldus Cambrensis noted that " in the opinion of many , Scotland not only equals its teacher , Ireland , but indeed greatly outdoes it and excels her in musical skill " . He identified the Scots as using the cithara , tympanum and chorus , although what exactly these instruments were is unclear . Bards probably accompanied their poetry on the harp , and can also be seen in records of the Scottish courts throughout the Medieval period . Scottish church music from the thirteenth century was increasingly influenced by continental developments , with figures like the musical theorist Simon Tailler studying in Paris , before returned to Scotland where he introduced several reforms of church music . Scottish collections of music like the thirteenth century ' Wolfenbüttel 677 ' , which is associated with St Andrews , contain mostly French compositions , but with some distinctive local styles . The captivity of James I in England from 1406 to 1423 , where he earned a reputation as a poet and composer , may have led him to take English and continental styles and musicians back to the Scottish court on his release . In the late fifteenth century a series of Scottish musicians trained in the Netherlands before returning home , including John Broune , Thomas Inglis and John Fety , the last of whom became master of the song school in Aberdeen and then Edinburgh , introducing the new five @-@ fingered organ playing technique . In 1501 James IV refounded the Chapel Royal within Stirling Castle , with a new and enlarged choir and it became the focus of Scottish liturgical music . Burgundian and English influences were probably reinforced when Henry VII 's daughter Margaret Tudor married James IV in 1503 . = = National identity = = In the High Middle Ages the word " Scot " was only used by Scots to describe themselves to foreigners , amongst whom it was the most common word . They called themselves Albanach or simply Gaidel . Both " Scot " and Gaidel were ethnic terms that connected them to the majority of the inhabitants of Ireland . At the beginning of the thirteenth century , the author of De Situ Albanie noted that : " The name Arregathel [ Argyll ] means margin of the Scots or Irish , because all Scots and Irish are generally called ' Gattheli ' . " Scotland came to possess a unity which transcended Gaelic , French and Germanic ethnic differences and by the end of the period , the Latin , French and English word " Scot " could be used for any subject of the Scottish king . Scotland 's multilingual Scoto @-@ Norman monarchs and mixed Gaelic and Scoto @-@ Norman aristocracy all became part of the " Community of the Realm " , in which ethnic differences were less divisive than in Ireland and Wales . This identity was defined in opposition to English attempts to annexe the country and as a result of social and cultural changes . The resulting antipathy towards England dominated Scottish foreign policy well into the fifteenth century , making it extremely difficult for Scottish kings like James III and James IV to pursue policies of peace towards their southern neighbour . In particular the Declaration of Arbroath asserted the ancient distinctiveness of Scotland in the face of English aggression , arguing that it was the role of the king to defend the independence of the community of Scotland . This document has been seen as the first " nationalist theory of sovereignty " . The adoption of Middle Scots by the aristocracy has been seen as building a shared sense of national solidarity and culture between rulers and ruled , although the fact that north of the Tay Gaelic still dominated may have helped widen the cultural divide between highlands and lowlands . The national literature of Scotland created in the late medieval period employed legend and history in the service of the crown and nationalism , helping to foster a sense of national identity , at least within its elite audience . The epic poetic history of the Brus and Wallace helped outline a narrative of united struggle against the English enemy . Arthurian literature differed from conventional versions of the legend by treating Arthur as a villain and Mordred , the son of the king of the Picts , as a hero . The origin myth of the Scots , systematised by John of Fordun ( c . 1320 @-@ c . 1384 ) , traced their beginnings from the Greek prince Gathelus and his Egyptian wife Scota , allowing them to argue superiority over the English , who claimed their descent from the Trojans , who had been defeated by the Greeks . The image of St. Andrew , martyred while bound to an X @-@ shaped cross , first appeared in the Scotland during the reign of William I and was again depicted on seals used during the late thirteenth century ; including on one particular example used by the Guardians of Scotland , dated 1286 . Use of a simplified symbol associated with Saint Andrew , the saltire , has its origins in the late fourteenth century ; the Parliament of Scotland decreed in 1385 that Scottish soldiers should wear a white Saint Andrew 's Cross on their person , both in front and behind , for the purpose of identification . Use of a blue background for the Saint Andrew 's Cross is said to date from at least the fifteenth century . The earliest reference to the Saint Andrew 's Cross as a flag is to be found in the Vienna Book of Hours , circa 1503 . = Rhys Williams ( Torchwood ) = Rhys Alun Williams , portrayed by Kai Owen , is a fictional character in the BBC television programme Torchwood , a spin @-@ off from the long @-@ running series Doctor Who . The character is introduced in the premiere episode as the co @-@ habiting boyfriend of principal character Gwen Cooper . Initially a recurring character , Rhys ' role is increased after the second series ; actor Kai Owen is given star billing from the show 's third series — a five @-@ part serial subtitled Torchwood : Children of Earth — onwards . The character has gone on to appear in expanded universe material such as the Torchwood novels and audiobooks , comic books and radio plays . Throughout the first series ( 2006 ) , Rhys is initially unaware of Gwen 's vocation as a Torchwood agent , believing her to work in generic special forces . Gwen 's relationship with Rhys languishes while she is unable to communicate fully with him , but in the early part of series two ( 2008 ) he discovers the truth , and from thereon in their relationship is revitalised ; the two enter a marriage based on honesty later in the series . In the third series ( 2009 ) Rhys becomes directly involved in assisting the Torchwood team in lieu of a fourth team member . In the show 's fourth series — a 2011 BBC / Starz co @-@ production — Rhys again finds himself having to assist Torchwood , though he would rather live a domestic life with Gwen and their daughter Anwen . The original intention of the writers had been to kill off Rhys at the end of the first series , but series creator Russell T Davies found it necessary to keep the show grounded through Rhys as Gwen evolved as a character . Producer Richard Stokes stated that " without him , it simply becomes a sci @-@ fi show about sci @-@ fi people , running around and hunting aliens . " Following from the first series the production team decided to make Rhys less of a " sap " whilst continuing to use him as a contrast to Torchwood 's activities and its charismatic leader Jack Harkness . Whilst early response to the character was mixed — the character was parodied as " Barry Backstory " — subsequent reviews praised the character 's larger role in later episodes . = = Appearances = = = = = Television = = = Rhys is introduced in the first episode of the series ( 2006 ) as the unspectacular boyfriend of police constable Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) . When Gwen takes a new job with the Torchwood Institute 's Cardiff branch as an alien hunter , she is forced to keep it a secret . Over the course of the first series Rhys shows increasing irritation with Gwen 's evasiveness and long hours , and her ease and readiness to lie to him . Unknown to Rhys , Gwen establishes a sexual relationship with Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) to help herself deal with her secret double @-@ life . She confesses the affair after it ends in " Combat " but drugs Rhys with an amnesia pill so he will not remember her confession . Rhys is murdered by Bilis Manger ( Murray Melvin ) in " End of Days " , but this event is erased from history after the Torchwood team reset time by opening the space @-@ time rift located in Cardiff . The series two premiere ( 2008 ) establishes that Rhys became engaged to Gwen between the first and second series . After Rhys becomes suspicious of her behaviour and her friendship with her boss Captain Jack ( John Barrowman ) in " Meat " , Gwen reveals to him the truth about her responsibilities with Torchwood . Rhys then becomes involved in a mission to uncover and destroy an alien meat @-@ trading racket , and ends up taking a bullet to protect Gwen 's life . Because she enjoys finally being able to be honest with Rhys , Gwen cannot bring herself to drug him for a second time , and so demands that Jack allow Rhys keep his memories of Torchwood . Rhys and Gwen marry in the episode " Something Borrowed " . Following the wedding , in the episode " Adrift " , Rhys brings up the issue of starting a family with Gwen , though she dismisses the idea , arguing that it would be impossible to have children with her job . During the events of " Fragments " and series finale " Exit Wounds " , Rhys plays a particular role in the team 's campaign against the returned Captain John Hart ( James Marsters ) and the insane Gray ( Lachlan Nieboer ) , helping Gwen rescue the others after they are caught in an exploding building and subsequently working with Gwen 's former colleague Andy Davidson ( Tom Price ) to help keep the attacking alien Weevils out of the police station . Rhys is referenced , but does not appear onscreen , in the Doctor Who crossover episode " The Stolen Earth " ( 2008 ) ; Gwen speaks to him over the phone during a global emergency . Rhys becomes a main character in the third series of Torchwood , a five @-@ part miniseries called Children of Earth airing in 2009 . When aliens called the 456 announce their plans to visit to Earth , the government attempts to assassinate Torchwood to cover up a conspiracy . Rhys becomes a fugitive from the government because of his marriage to Gwen . The pair flee to London via cargo lorry and Rhys is delighted to discover Gwen is pregnant . He is with the Torchwood team when they relocate to a London warehouse and takes a role in their mission , hiding with the recordings showing corruption within Downing Street . In the last episode of the series he returns to Cardiff with Gwen , and helps Gwen do one last favour for her deceased coworker Ianto ( Gareth David @-@ Lloyd ) by helping his niece and nephew evade capture , and with them many other neighbourhood children . The series ' dénouement , set six months later , shows Rhys still at Gwen 's side , awaiting the arrival of their child . Series four , Miracle Day ( 2011 ) , begins by showing Rhys living in seclusion alongside Gwen and their daughter , Anwen . His rural idyll is shattered when CIA agent Rex Matheson ( Mekhi Phifer ) extradites Jack and Gwen to America — believing them to be connected to a phenomenon where humans can no longer die — whilst forcing Rhys to stay in Wales . With the aid of computer expert Esther Drummond ( Alexa Havins ) , Gwen is able to establish communications with Rhys in the episode " Dead of Night " . Whilst on a mission in Los Angeles , Gwen asks Rhys to remove her father Geraint ( William Thomas ) from a hospital which she believes to be unsafe . Rhys subsequently has Geraint sent to an " overflow camp " , unaware that it contains a facility for burning the severely injured alive , and in " The Categories of Life " and " The Middle Men " has to go undercover to help rescue his father @-@ in @-@ law . After escaping from the facility with Geraint , Rhys is briefly held hostage in an attempt to force Gwen to surrender Jack Harkness , but is rescued by Andy and his team . In " The Gathering " , Rhys figures out the antipodal connection between Buenos Aires and Shanghai , which directs the Torchwood team to their final mission . Because of Rhys ' violent disposition towards murderer @-@ paedophile Oswald Danes ( Bill Pullman ) , Gwen fears that he may enact vigilante justice and so takes the latter to Shanghai to protect her husband . In the series finale , Rhys gains entry to the overflow camp where Geraint has been recaptured in order to sit by his side as " Miracle Day " ends and death is restored . After Esther 's funeral , he is hopeful that Jack will not reform Torchwood . = = = Literature = = = Rhys appears in all three Torchwood novels in the first wave published by BBC Books in January 2007 , set between episodes of Torchwood series one . These novels expand on the difficult period in Gwen and Rhys ' relationship — whilst his appearances in Another Life , and Border Princes , are relatively minor , he has a more significant role in Slow Decay , where he unwittingly brings himself into danger by taking an alien diet pill . Reviewer Patrick Holm feels that the success of these novels lies in the fact that they help readers empathise with characters such as Rhys . Rhys makes cameo appearances in Something in the Water ( set between " Kiss Kiss Bang Bang " and " Meat " ) and Trace Memory , and has a significant role in The Twilight Streets , ( released March 2008 ) which depicts an alternate future where Gwen and Rhys start a new Torchwood to make a safe world for their son after the Torchwood Team are destroyed fighting sentient particles known as the dark . Three more Torchwood books were released in October 2008 in which Rhys has an involved role . In Pack Animals Rhys assists Gwen in her investigation and becomes part of a car chase , SkyPoint sees them inadvertently discover an alien presence whilst flathunting and Almost Perfect , the first novel set after " Exit Wounds " , depicts Rhys speed dating undercover . Rhys makes further appearances in later Torchwood novels Bay of the Dead , The House that Jack Built , and Consequences , all set between " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth . Rhys appeared occasionally in the Torchwood Magazine comic strip during its publication between January 2008 and December 2010 . In part three of the serialised ten part comic Rift War he aids Gwen in her Torchwood duties by helping care for an infant alien left stranded in Cardiff . A scene in Gareth David @-@ Lloyd 's comic " Shrouded " , published in May 2010 , includes a scene set after Children in Earth which shows Gwen cradling her young child ; as Gwen is busy , Rhys is required to team up with Captain John Hart to save the timeline . Non @-@ fiction tie @-@ in The Torchwood Archives gives an " insider 's look " into the Torchwood world , including Gwen 's domestic life with Rhys . The book includes unpublished photographs of Gwen and Rhys used as set dressing in the TV series and also provides some background information on Rhys ' friends and his working life . = = = Audio drama = = = Rhys makes an appearance in the Torchwood radio play " The Dead Line " ( 2009 ) , where he assists Gwen with her investigations into the phone @-@ line induced comas . He also has a central role investigating a mystery in the audio book Ghost Train ( 2011 ) , read by Kai Owen . With Gwen dead and Jack missing Rhys is left alone to figure out the strange goings on involving cargo trains . Rhys also appears in " The Devil and Miss Carew " ( 2011 ) , one of three additional radio plays set between " Exit Wounds " and Children of Earth , which shows his reaction to the death of his elderly Uncle Bryn . In this play Rhys rescues Gwen from a woman under the influence of a malevolent devil like entity . = = Characterisation = = Rhys is a " down to earth trucker " , who functions as Gwen Cooper 's normality base . At the start of the series he believes alien interference to be a result of hallucinations induced by psychotropic drugs in the water supply and that his girlfriend 's job is nothing more unusual than generic " special ops " . Writer Stephen James Walker feels that Rhys " originally didn 't look to have much to him initially but really came into his own as Series One progressed " , attributing this to the " spot @-@ on performance of the perfectly cast Kai Owen . " The original intention of the writers had been for Rhys to die at the end of series one , but Richard Stokes explains that it was overruled by show creator Russell T Davies , who felt that without Rhys , the show 's main link to the real world would be lost . Executive Producer Julie Gardner expands on this by stating that " It 's a show where you 've got to contrast the ordinary everyday with the extraordinary and ( with ) Gwen going home to Rhys and then going to work in an underground secret base ... it 's right to have that balance . " Actor Kai Owen attributes part of his character 's success to his on @-@ screen rapport with actress Eve Myles . After reprisal from death , Davies felt further development was necessary for the character to continue as part of the drama ; one of the first decisions the production team made was that " we can 't make this guy look like a sap any longer . He 's got to be made aware of what 's going on . " The events of the episode " Meat " , in which Rhys learns the real nature of Gwen 's job , are seen by Davies as a " rite of passage " for the couple . Director Colin Teague highlights Rhys ' patience in relation to Gwen noting that " he puts up with an awful lot from his wife to be " . The second series also explores Rhys 's insecurities and jealousies towards series protagonist Captain Jack Harkness , for whom a mutual sexual tension with Gwen was evident in the first series . Both Stephen James Walker and episode writer Catherine Tregenna felt that " the triangle of relationships between Rhys , Gwen and Jack " comprise " the most interesting narrative territory explored in ' Meat ' " . Although actor Kai Owen feels that " Rhys will always have a little bit of a gripe about Jack " , he concedes that " he respects him and he 'll like him for looking after Gwen " . Walker comments favourably on the interaction between Jack and Rhys in " Meat " in both its antagonistic and comedic forms , citing the scene in the truck where Rhys questions Jack as particularly effective . The two function as unusual literary foils for one another , insofar as their relationships with Gwen are concerned . In her critical essay Gwen 's Evil Stepmother : Concerning Gloves and Magic Slippers , Valerie Estelle Frankel compares Rhys to Jack , likening the former to a " sweet , kind handsome prince " and the latter to a " compelling trickster . " Whilst Eve Myles feels that " Jack highlights how ordinary Rhys is " , she states that it is precisely this ordinariness which makes Rhys a benefit to Gwen 's strength of character . The plot of Children of Earth results in Rhys becoming more directly involved with the Torchwood team 's activities , and actor Kai Owen also receives star billing for the first time . Whilst Gwen by the third series has become a more militant character , Rhys retains his everyman status and takes on the role of audience surrogate ; press material describes him as " the ordinary guy in the street " and " the normal person 's eyes and ears " who " says what he thinks about the situations Torchwood find themselves in , bringing the reality back to them " . Paul Collins comments of the significance of Rhys having the first dialogue in the serial , remarking that this is Torchwood 's " determination to establish its domestic credentials before subverting them " . Rhys becomes a reluctant hero ; Kai Owen states that he " would rather not get involved if he had the choice " , but when faced with the life @-@ or @-@ death situations in the serial " he doesn 't run away from it " because the character has " seen so many things " . This , in Owen 's eyes , makes the Rhys seen in Children of Earth a " very brave hero who has grown in stature " . Rhys retains core character status for the fourth series , Torchwood : Miracle Day . Whilst Kai Owen explains that Rhys will always be at the forefront of " Gwen 's troubles or fights or adventures " because of his concern for her , he remains unafraid to tell her when she has become too consumed by her job . Davies links the relationship between Gwen and Rhys in the fourth series to the show 's continued exploration of human sexuality , stating that " open sexuality has to include everything " including " a husband / wife great big crime @-@ fighting team ... happily in love " . = = Reception = = Rhys ' incidental role in the series was initially mocked in The Register 's 2006 one @-@ off Torchwood parody Under Torch Wood ( in the style of Dylan Thomas ' Under Milk Wood ) , in which he is described as " Barry Backstory , who is dreaming of future episodes where he gets a bigger part . " However , as the character has been developed on screen and given a bigger role , he has attracted more positive commentary from reviewers . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy describes his role in the episode " Meat " as " forming a clever contrast with the activities of Torchwood " . He praised the verisimilitude of Rhys ' relationship with Gwen , describing their domestic argument as " a unique spin on the kitchen sink melodrama usually seen in EastEnders " which delivers " a real impact and emotional honesty due to the wonderfully earnest performances from Kai Owen and Eve Myles " . Jack Kibble @-@ White of Den of Geek states that " in the main having Rhys run alongside Captain Jack and the rest worked well " and he cites the character 's wedding to Gwen as a series highlight . TV Squad 's Jason Hughes feels that the character 's marriage to Gwen is " handled in a painfully honest way " and serves as " a true definition of " love " written with subtlety and perfection " . Alan Stanley Blair enjoyed the rapport between Owen and Price ( PC Andy ) in the episode " Exit Wounds " stating , that it " was also an interesting dynamic " and that the two " could potentially carry their own sitcom " , a view corroborated by AfterElton 's Steven Frank . Dan Martin of The Guardian singles out the scene where Gwen and Rhys become stowaways in Children of Earth as " just lovely " and " a credit to both actors , particularly Kai Owen , who has finally made Rhys likable " , whilst IGN writer Asham Haque also feels that Rhys ' " meatier role " provides " some great sequences " for the couple . Rawson @-@ Jones speaks favourably on Owen 's role in the overall ensemble opining that he , along with Barrowman , Myles and David @-@ Lloyd managed to guide the audience through the serial with " panache and verve " . The Chicago Tribune 's Maureen Ryan feels that the initiated Rhys is key to the show , and is a " very enjoyable character " , describing his appeal to government PA Lois Habiba to pay for his and Gwen 's dinner as " priceless " . Speaking of the show 's fourth series premiere , Simon Brew highlights the central returning trio of Barrowman , Myles and Owen as the show 's most engaging actors , and further describes Owen 's performance as mixing " humour with an earnest , and a real sense of drive " . = Willard Libby = Willard Frank Libby ( December 17 , 1908 – September 8 , 1980 ) was an American physical chemist noted for his role in the 1949 development of radiocarbon dating , a process which revolutionized archaeology and palaeontology . For his contributions to the team that developed this process , Libby was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1960 . A 1927 chemistry graduate of the University of California at Berkeley , from which he received his doctorate in 1933 , he studied radioactive elements and developed sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity . During World War II he worked in the Manhattan Project 's Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories at Columbia University , developing the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment . After the war , Libby accepted professorship at the University of Chicago 's Institute for Nuclear Studies , where he developed the technique for dating organic compounds using carbon @-@ 14 . He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water , and therefore wine . In 1950 , he became a member of the General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) of the Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) . He was appointed a commissioner in 1954 , becoming its sole scientist . He sided with Edward Teller on pursuing a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb , participated in the Atoms for Peace program , and defended the administration 's atmospheric nuclear testing . Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 to become Professor of Chemistry at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , a position he held until his retirement in 1976 . In 1962 , he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics ( IGPP ) . He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972 , and as a member of the California Air Resources Board , he worked to develop and improve California 's air pollution standards . = = Early life and career = = Willard Frank Libby was born in Grand Valley , Colorado , on December 17 , 1908 , the son of farmers Ora Edward Libby and his wife Eva May ( née Rivers ) . He had two brothers , Elmer and Raymond , and two sisters , Eva and Evelyn . Libby began his education in a two @-@ room Colorado schoolhouse . When he was five , Libby 's parents moved to Santa Rosa , California . He attended Analy High School , near Sebastopol , from which he graduated in 1926 . Libby , who grew to be 6 feet 2 inches ( 188 cm ) tall , played tackle on the high school football team . In 1927 he entered the University of California at Berkeley , where he received his B.S. in 1931 , and his Ph.D. in 1933 , writing his doctoral thesis on the " Radioactivity of ordinary elements , especially samarium and neodymium : method of detection " under the supervision of Wendell Mitchell Latimer . Independently of the work of George de Hevesy and Max Pahl , he discovered that the natural long @-@ lived isotopes of samarium primarily decay by emission of alpha particles . Libby was appointed Instructor in the Department of Chemistry at the University of California , in 1933 . He became an assistant professor of Chemistry there in 1938 . He spent the 1930s building sensitive Geiger counters to measure weak natural and artificial radioactivity . In 1940 , Libby married Leonor Hickey , a physical education teacher . They had twin daughters , Janet Eva and Susan Charlotte , who were born in 1945 . He joined Berkeley 's chapter of Alpha Chi Sigma in 1941 . That year he was awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship , and elected to work at Princeton University . = = Manhattan Project = = On December 8 , 1941 , the day after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor brought the United States into World War II , Libby volunteered his services to Nobel Prize laureate Harold Urey . Urey arranged for Libby to be given leave from the University of California and to join him at Columbia University to work on the Manhattan Project , the wartime project to develop atomic bombs , at what became its Substitute Alloy Materials ( SAM ) Laboratories . During his time in the New York City area , Libby was a resident of Leonia , New Jersey . Over the next three years , Libby worked on the gaseous diffusion process for uranium enrichment . An atomic bomb required fissile material , and the fissile uranium @-@ 235 made up only 0 @.@ 7 percent of natural uranium . The SAM Laboratories therefore had to find a way of separating kilograms of it from the more abundant uranium @-@ 238 . Gaseous diffusion worked on the principle that a lighter gas diffuses through a barrier faster than a heavier one at a rate inversely proportional to its molecular weight . But the only known gas containing uranium was the highly corrosive uranium hexafluoride , and a suitable barrier was hard to find . Through 1942 , Libby and his team studied different barriers and the means to protect them from corrosion from the uranium hexafluoride . The most promising type was a barrier made of powdered nickel developed by Edward O. Norris of the Jelliff Manufacturing Corporation and Edward Adler from the City College of New York , which became known as the " Norris @-@ Adler " barrier by late 1942 . In addition to developing a suitable barrier , the SAM Laboratories also had to assist in the design of a gaseous separation plant , which became known as K @-@ 25 . Libby helped with the engineers from Kellex to produce a workable design for a pilot plant . Libby conducted a series of tests that indicated that the Norris @-@ Adler barrier would work , and he remained confident that with an all @-@ out effort , the remaining problems with it could be solved . Although doubts remained , construction work began on the K @-@ 25 full @-@ scale production plant in September 1943 . As 1943 gave way to 1944 , many problems remained . Tests began on the machinery at K @-@ 25 in April 1944 without a barrier . Attention turned to a new process developed by Kellex . Finally , in July 1944 , Kellex barriers began to be installed in K @-@ 25 . K @-@ 25 commenced operation in February 1945 , and as cascade after cascade came online , the quality of the product increased . By April 1945 , K @-@ 25 had attained a 1 @.@ 1 % enrichment . Uranium partially enriched in K @-@ 25 was fed into the calutrons at Y @-@ 12 to complete the enrichment process . Construction of the upper stages of the K @-@ 25 plant was cancelled , and Kellex was directed to instead design and build a 540 @-@ stage side feed unit , which became known as K @-@ 27 . The last of K @-@ 25 's 2 @,@ 892 stages commenced operation in August 1945 . On August 5 , K @-@ 25 starting producing feed enriched to 23 percent uranium @-@ 235 . K @-@ 25 and K @-@ 27 achieved their full potential only in the early postwar period , when they eclipsed the other production plants and became the prototypes for a new generation of plants . Enriched uranium was used in the Little Boy bomb employed in the bombing of Hiroshima on August 6 , 1945 . Libby brought home a stack of newspapers and told his wife , " This is what I 've been doing . " = = Radiocarbon dating = = With the war over , Libby accepted an offer from the University of Chicago of a professorship in the Chemistry Department at the new Institute for Nuclear Studies . He returned to his pre @-@ war studies of radioactivity . In 1939 , Serge Korff had discovered that cosmic rays generated neutrons in the upper atmosphere . These interact with nitrogen @-@ 14 in the air to produce carbon @-@ 14 : 1n + 14N → 14C + 1p The half @-@ life of carbon @-@ 14 is 5 @,@ 730 ± 40 years . Libby realized that when plants and animals die they cease to ingest fresh carbon @-@ 14 , thereby giving any organic compound a built @-@ in nuclear clock . He published his theory in 1946 , and expanded on it in his monograph Radiocarbon Dating in 1955 . He also developed sensitive radiation detectors that could use the technique . Tests against sequoia with known dates from their tree rings showed radiocarbon dating to be reliable and accurate . The technique revolutionised archaeology , palaeontology and other disciplines that dealt with ancient artefacts . In 1960 , he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry " for his method to use carbon @-@ 14 for age determination in archaeology , geology , geophysics , and other branches of science " . He also discovered that tritium similarly could be used for dating water , and therefore wine . = = Atomic Energy Commission = = Atomic Energy Commission ( AEC ) Chairman Gordon Dean appointed Libby to its influential General Advisory Committee ( GAC ) in 1950 . In 1954 , he was appointed an AEC commissioner by President Dwight D. Eisenhower on the recommendation of Dean 's successor , Lewis Strauss . Libby and his family moved from Chicago to Washington , D.C. He brought with him a truckload of scientific equipment , which he used to establish a laboratory at the Carnegie Institution there to continue his studies of amino acids . Staunchly conservative politically , he was one of the few scientists who sided with Edward Teller rather than Robert Oppenheimer during the debate on whether it was wise to pursue a crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb . As a commissioner , Libby played an important role in promoting Eisenhower 's Atoms for Peace program , and was part of the United States delegation at the Geneva Conferences on Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy in 1955 and 1958 . As the only scientist among the five AEC commissioners , it fell to Libby to defend the Eisenhower administration 's stance on atmospheric nuclear testing . He argued that the dangers of radiation from nuclear tests were less than that from chest X @-@ rays , and therefore less important than the risk of having an inadequate nuclear arsenal , but his arguments failed to convince the scientific community or reassure the public . In January 1956 , he publicly revealed the existence of Project Sunshine , a series of research studies to ascertain the impact of radioactive fallout on the world 's population that he had initiated in 1953 while serving on the GAC . By 1958 , even Libby and Teller were supporting limits on atmospheric nuclear testing . = = UCLA = = Libby resigned from the AEC in 1959 , he became Professor of Chemistry at University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , a position he held until his retirement in 1976 . He taught honors freshman chemistry . In 1962 , he became the Director of the University of California statewide Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics ( IGPP ) , a position he also held until 1976 . His time as director encompassed the Apollo space program and the lunar landings . In 1966 he divorced Leonor and married Leona Woods Marshall , a distinguished nuclear physicist who was one of the original builders of Chicago Pile @-@ 1 , the world 's first nuclear reactor . She joined him at UCLA as a professor of environmental engineering in 1973 . Through this second marriage he acquired two stepsons , the children of her first marriage . He started the first Environmental Engineering program at UCLA in 1972 . As a member of the California Air Resources Board , he worked to develop and improve California 's air pollution standards . He established a research program to investigate heterogeneous catalysis with the idea of reducing emissions from motor vehicles through more complete fuel combustion . The election of Richard Nixon as president in 1968 generated speculation that Libby might be appointed as Presidential Science Advisor . There was a storm of protest from scientists who felt that Libby was too conservative , and the offer was not made . Although Libby retired and became a professor emeritus in 1976 , he remained professionally active as a member of the National Academy of Sciences , American Academy of Arts and Sciences , and the American Philosophical Society , until his death in 1980 . In addition to the Nobel Prize , he received numerous honours and awards , including Columbia University 's Chandler Medal in 1954 , the Remsen Memorial Lecture Award in 1955 , the Bicentennial Lecture Award from the City College of New York and the Nuclear Applications in Chemistry Award in 1956 , the Franklin Institute 's Elliott Cresson Medal in 1957 , the American Chemical Society 's Willard Gibbs Award in 1958 , the Priestley Medal from Dickinson College and the Albert Einstein Medal in 1959 , the Geological Society of America 's Arthur L. Day Medal in 1961 , the Gold Medal of the American Institute of Chemists in 1970 , and the Lehman Award from the New York Academy of Sciences in 1971 . He was elected a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1950 . Analy High School library has a mural of Libby , and a Sebastopol city park and a nearby highway are named in his honor . Libby died at the UCLA Medical Center in Los Angeles on September 8 , 1980 , from a blood clot in his lung complicated by pneumonia . His papers are in the Charles E. Young Research Library at the UCLA . Seven volumes of his papers were edited by Leona and Rainer Berger and published in 1981 . = Clement of Alexandria = Titus Flavius Clemens ( Greek : Κλήμης ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς ; c . 150 – c . 215 ) , known as Clement of Alexandria to distinguish him from the earlier Clement of Rome , was a Christian theologian who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria . A convert to Christianity , he was an educated man who was familiar with classical Greek philosophy and literature . As his three major works demonstrate , Clement was influenced by Hellenistic philosophy to a greater extent than any other Christian thinker of his time , and in particular by Plato and the Stoics . His secret works , which exist only in fragments , suggest that he was also familiar with pre @-@ Christian Jewish esotericism and Gnosticism . In one of his works he argued that Greek philosophy had its origin among non @-@ Greeks , claiming that both Plato and Pythagoras were taught by Egyptian scholars . Among his pupils were Origen and Alexander of Jerusalem . Clement is regarded as a Church Father , like Origen . He is venerated as a saint in Coptic Christianity , Ethiopian Christianity and Anglicanism . He was previously revered in the Roman Catholic Church , but his name was removed from the Roman Martyrology in 1586 by Pope Sixtus V on the advice of Baronius . = = Biography = = Neither Clement 's birthdate or birthplace is known with any degree of certainty . It is conjectured that he was born in around 150 . According to Epiphanius Scholasticus , he was born in Athens , but there is also a tradition of an Alexandrian birth . His parents were pagans , and Clement was a convert to Christianity . In the Protrepticus he displays an extensive knowledge of Greek mythology and mystery religions , which could only have arisen from the practice of his family 's religion . Having rejected paganism as a young man due to its perceived moral corruption , he travelled in Greece , Asia Minor , Palestine and Egypt . Clement 's journeys were primarily a religious undertaking . In Greece , he encountered an Ionian theologian , who has been identified as Athenagoras of Athens ; while in the east , he was taught by an Assyrian , sometimes identified with Tatian , and a Jew , who was possibly Theophilus of Caesarea . In around 180 , Clement reached Alexandria , where he met Pantaenus , who taught at the Catechetical School of Alexandria . Eusebius suggests that Pantaenus was the head of the school , but it is controversial whether the institutions of the school were formalized in this way before the time of Origen . Clement studied under Pantaenus , and was ordained to the priesthood by Pope Julian before 189 . Otherwise , virtually nothing is known of Clement 's life in Alexandria . He may have been married , a conjecture supported by his writings . During the Severian persecutions of 202 – 203 , Clement left Alexandria . In 211 , Alexander of Jerusalem wrote a letter commending him to the Church of Antioch , which may imply that Clement was living in Cappadocia or Jerusalem at that time . The date and location of his death are unknown . = = Theological works = = = = = Trilogy = = = Three of Clement 's major works have survived in full , and they are collectively referred to as the trilogy : the Protrepticus ( Exhortation ) – written c . 195 . the Paedagogus ( Tutor ) – written c . 198 . the Stromata ( Miscellanies ) – written c . 198 – c . 203 . = = = = Protrepticus = = = = The Protrepticus is , as its title suggests , an exhortation to the pagans of Greece to adopt Christianity , and within it Clement demonstrates his extensive knowledge of pagan mythology and theology . It is chiefly important due to Clement 's exposition of religion as an anthropological phenomenon . After a short philosophical discussion , it opens with a history of Greek religion in seven stages . Clement suggests that at first , men mistakenly believed the Sun , the Moon and other heavenly bodies to be gods . The next development was the worship of the products of agriculture , from which he contends the cults of Demeter and Dionysus arose . Man then paid reverence to revenge , and deified human feelings of love and fear , among others . In the following stage , the poets Hesiod and Homer attempt to enumerate the Gods ; Hesiod 's Theogony giving the number of twelve . Finally , men proclaimed other men , such as Asclepius and Heracles , deities . Discussing idolatry , Clement contends that the objects of primitive religion were unshaped wood and stone , and idols thus arose when such natural items were carved . Following Plato , Clement is critical of all forms of visual art , suggesting that artworks are but illusions and " deadly toys " . Clement criticizes Greek paganism in the Protrepticus on the basis that its deities are both false and poor moral examples , and he attacks the mystery religions for their obscurantism and trivial rituals . In particular , the worshippers of Dionysus are ridiculed for their ritual use of children 's toys . He suggests at some points that the pagan deities are based on humans , but at others that they are misanthropic demons , and he cites several classical sources in support of this second hypothesis . Clement , like many pre @-@ Nicene fathers , writes favourably about Euhemerus and other rationalist philosophers , on the grounds that they at least saw the flaws in paganism . However , his greatest praise is reserved for Plato , whose apophatic views of God prefigure Christianity . The figure of Orpheus is prominent throughout the narrative , and Clement contrasts his song , representing pagan superstition , with the divine Logos of Christ . According to Clement , through conversion to Christianity alone can man fully participate in the Logos , which is universal truth . = = = = Paedagogus = = = = This work 's title , translatable as " tutor " , refers to Christ as the teacher of all mankind , and it features an extended metaphor of Christians as children . It is not simply instructional : the author intends to show how the Christian should respond to the Love of God authentically . Clement , following Plato ( Republic 4 : 441 ) , divides life into three elements : character , actions and passions . The first having been dealt with in the Protrepticus , he devotes the Paedagogus to reflections on Christ 's role in teaching us to act morally and to control our passions . Despite its explicitly Christian nature , Clement 's work draws on Stoic philosophy and pagan literature ; Homer alone is cited over sixty times in the work . Although Christ , like man , is made in the image of God , he alone shares the likeness of God the Father . Christ is both sinless and apathetic , and thus by striving to imitate Christ , man can achieve salvation . To Clement , sin is involuntary , and thus irrational [ αλόγον ] , removed only through the wisdom of the Logos . God 's guidance of us away from sin is thus a manifestation of God 's universal love for mankind . The word play on λόγος and αλόγον is characteristic of Clement 's writing , and may be rooted in the Epicurean belief that relationships between words are deeply reflective of relationships between the objects they signify . Clement argues for the equality of sexes , on the grounds that salvation is extended to all of mankind equally . Unusually , he suggests that Christ is neither male or female , and that God the Father has both male and female aspects : the eucharist is described as milk from the breast ( Christ ) of the Father . He is supportive of women playing an active role in the leadership of the church , and provides a list of women he considers inspirational , which includes both Biblical and Classical Greek figures . It has been suggested that Clement 's progressive views on gender as set out in the Paedagogus were influenced by Gnosticism . However , later in the work , he argues against the Gnostics that faith , not esoteric knowledge [ γνῶσις ] , is required for salvation . According to Clement , it is through faith in Christ that we are enlightened and come to know God . In the second book , Clement provides practical rules on living a Christian life . He argues against overindulgence in food and in favour of good table manners . While prohibiting drunkenness , he promotes the drinking of alcohol in moderation following 1 Timothy 5 : 23 . Clement argues for a simple way of life in accordance with the innate simplicity of Christian monotheism . He condemns elaborate and expensive furnishings and clothing , and argues against overly passionate music and perfumes . But Clement does not believe in the abandoning of worldly pleasures and argues that the Christian should be able to express his joy in God 's creation through gaiety and partying . He opposes the wearing of garlands , because the picking of the flowers ultimately kills a beautiful creation of God , and the garland resembles the crown of thorns . Clement treats sex at some length . He argues that both promiscuity and sexual abstinence are unnatural , and that the main goal of human sexuality is procreation . Homosexuality , prostitution , concubinage , adultery and coitus with pregnant women should all be avoided as they will not act towards the generation of legitimate offspring . The third book continues along a similar vein , condemning cosmetics on the grounds that it is our souls , not our bodies , that we should seek to beautify . Clement also opposes the dyeing of men 's hair and male depilation as effeminacy . He advises choosing one 's company carefully , to avoid being corrupted by immoral people , and while arguing that material wealth is no sin in itself , it is too likely to distract one from the infinitely more important spiritual wealth which is found in Christ . The work finishes with selections of scripture supporting Clement 's argument , and following a prayer , the lyrics of a hymn . = = = = Stromata = = = = The contents of the Stromata , as its title suggests , are miscellaneous . Its place in the trilogy is disputed – Clement initially intended to write the Didasculus , a work which would complement the practical guidance of the Paedagogus with a more intellectual schooling in theology . The Stromata is less systematic and ordered than Clement 's other works , and it has been theorized by André Méhat that it was intended for a limited , esoteric readership . Although Eusebius wrote of eight books of the work , only seven undoubtably survive . Photius , writing in the 9th century , found various text appended to manuscripts of the seven canonical books , which lead Daniel Heinsius to suggest that the original eighth book is lost , and he identified the text purported to be from the eighth book as fragments of the Hypopotoses . The first book starts on the topic of Greek philosophy . Consistent with his other writing , Clement affirms that philosophy had a propaedeutic role for the Greek , similar to the function of the law for the Jews . He then embarks on a discussion of the origins of Greek culture and technology , arguing that most of the important figures in the Greek world were foreigners , and ( erroneously ) that Jewish culture was the most significant influence on Greece . In an attempt to demonstrate the primacy of Moses , Clement gives an extended chronology of the world , wherein he dates the birth of Christ to 25 April or May , 4 @-@ 2 B.C. , and the creation of the world to 5592 B.C. The books ends with a discussion on the origin of languages and the possibility of a Jewish influence on Plato . The second book is largely devoted to the respective roles of faith and philosophical argument . Clement contends that while both are important , the fear of God is foremost , because through faith one receives divine wisdom . To Clement , scripture is an innately true primitive philosophy which is complemented by human reason through the Logos . Faith is voluntary , and the decision to believe is a crucial fundamental step in becoming closer to God . It is never irrational , as it is founded on the knowledge of the truth of the Logos , but all knowledge proceeds from faith , as first principles are unprovable outside a systematic structure . The third book covers asceticism . He discusses marriage , which is treated similarly in the Paedagogus . Clement rejects the Gnostic opposition to marriage , arguing that only men who are uninterested in women should remain celibate , and that sex is a positive good if performed within marriage for the purposes of procreation . However it has not always been so : the Fall occurred because Adam and Eve succumbed to their desire for each other , and copulated before the allotted time . He argues against the idea that Christians should reject their family for an ascetic life , which stems from Luke 14 : 25 – 27 , contending that Jesus would not have contradicted the precept to " Honour thy Father and thy Mother " ( Exodus 20 : 12 ) , one of the Ten Commandments . Clement concludes that asceticism will only be rewarded if the motivation is Christian in nature , and thus the asceticism of non @-@ Christians such as the gymnosophists is pointless . Clement begins the fourth book with a belated explanation of the disorganized nature of the work , and gives a brief description of his aims for the remaining three or four books . The fourth book focuses on martyrdom . While all good Christians should be unafraid of death , Clement condemns those who actively seek out a martyr 's death , arguing that they do not have sufficient respect for God 's gift of life . He is ambivalent whether any believing Christian can become a martyr by virtue of the manner of their death , or whether martyrdom is reserved for those who have lived exceptional lives . Marcionites cannot become martyrs , because they do not believe in the divinity of God the Father – their sufferings are in vain . There is then a digression to the subject of theological epistemology . According to Clement , there is no way of empirically testing the existence of God the Father , because the Logos has revelatory , not analysable meaning , although Christ was an object of the senses . God had no beginning , and is the universal first principle . The fifth book returns to the subject of faith . Clement argues that truth , justice and goodness can be seen only by the mind , not the eye ; faith is a way of accessing the unseeable . He stresses that knowledge of God can only be achieved through faith once ones moral faults have been corrected . This parallels Clement 's earlier insistence that martyrdom can only be achieved by those who practice their faith in Christ through good deeds , not those who simply profess their faith . God transcends matter entirely , and thus the materialist cannot truly come to know God . Although Christ was God incarnate , it is our spiritual , not physical comprehension of him which is important . In the beginning of the sixth book , Clement intends to demonstrate that the works of Greek poets were derived from the prophetic books of the Bible . In order to reinforce his position that the Greeks were inclined towards plagiarism , he cites numerous instances of such inappropriate appropriation by classical Greek writers , reported second @-@ hand from On Plagiarism , an anonymous 3rd century BC work sometimes ascribed to Aretades . Clement then digresses to the subject of sin and hell , arguing that Adam was not perfect when created , but given the potential to achieve perfection . He espouses broadly universalist doctrine , holding that Christ 's promise of salvation is available to all , even those condemned to hell . The final extant book begins with a description of the nature of Christ , and that of the true Christian , who aims to be as similar as possible to both the Father and the Son . Clement then criticizes the simplistic anthropomorphism of most ancient religions , quoting Xenophanes ' famous description of African , Thracian and Egyptian deities . The Greek gods may also have had their origins in the personification of material objects : Ares representing iron , and Dionysus wine . Prayer , and the relationship between love and knowledge are then discussed . 1 Corinthians 13 : 8 seems to contradict the characterization of the true Christian as one who knows ; but to Clement knowledge vanishes only in that it is subsumed by the universal love expressed by the Christian in his reverence for his Creator . Following Socrates , he argues that vice arises from a state of ignorance , not from intention . The Christian is a " labourer in God 's vineyard " , responsible both for his own path to salvation and that of his neighbor . The work ends with an extended passage against the contemporary divisions and heresies within the church . = = = Other works = = = Besides the great trilogy , Clement 's only other extant work is the treatise Salvation for the rich , also known as Who is the Rich Man who is Saved ? . Having begun with a scathing criticism of the corrupting effects of money and misguided servile attitudes towards the wealthy , Clement discusses the implications of Mark 10 : 25 . The rich are either unconvinced by the promise of eternal life , or unaware of the conflict between the possession of material and spiritual wealth , and the good Christian has a duty to guide them towards a better life through the Gospel . Jesus ' words are not to be taken literally – we should seek the supercelestial [ ὑπερουράνιος ] meaning in which the true route to salvation is revealed . The holding of material wealth in itself is not a wrong , as long as it is used charitably , but men should be careful not to let their wealth dominate their spirit . It is more important to give up sinful passions than external wealth . If the rich man is to be saved , all he must do is to follow the two commandments , and while material wealth is of no value to God , it can be used to alleviate the suffering of our neighbor . Other known works exist in fragments alone , including the four eschatological works in the secret tradition : Hypotyposes , Excerpta ex Theodoto , Eclogae Propheticae and the Adumbraetiones . These cover Clement 's celestial hierarchy , a complex schema in which the universe is headed by the Face of God , below which lie seven protoctists , followed by archangels , angels and humans . According to Jean Daniélou , this schema is inherited from a Judaeo @-@ Christian esotericism , followed by the Apostles , which was only imparted orally to those Christians who could be trusted which such mysteries . The proctocists are the first beings created by God , and act as priests to the archangels . Clement identifies them both as the " Eyes of the Lord " and with the Thrones . Clement characterizes the celestial forms as entirely different from anything earthly , although he argues that members of each order only seem incorporal to those of lower orders . According to the Eclogae Propheticae , every thousand years every member of each order moves up a degree , and thus men can become angels . Even the protoctists can be elevated , although their new position in the hierarchy is not clearly defined . The apparent contradiction between the fact that there can be only seven protoctists but also a vast number of archangels to be promoted to their order is problematic . The commonest modern explanation is that the number seven is not meant to be taken literally , but has a principally numerological significance . We know the titles of several lost works because of a list in Eusebius ' Ecclesiastical History , 6 @.@ 13 @.@ 1 @-@ 3 . They include the Outlines , in eight books , and Against Judaizers . Others are known only from mentions in Clement 's own writings , including On Marriage and On Prophecy , although few are attested by other writers and it is difficult to separate works which he intended to write from those which were actually completed . The Mar Saba letter was attributed to Clement by Morton Smith , but there remains much debate today over whether it is an authentic letter from Clement , an ancient pseudepigraph or a modern forgery . If authentic , its main significance would be in its relating that the apostle Mark came to Alexandria from Rome and there wrote a more spiritual gospel , which he entrusted to the church in Alexandria on his death : if genuine , the letter pushes back the tradition related by Eusebius connecting Mark with Alexandria by a century . = = Legacy = = Eusebius is the first writer to provide an account of Clement 's life and works , in the Church History . There are two separate sections of the work dedicated to Clement ( 5 @.@ 11 and 6 @.@ 11 ) , the latter of which seems decidedly out of place , and Valesius argued that this was evidence that Eusebius never revised his work . Eusebius provides a list of Clement 's works , biographical information , and an extended quotation from the Stromata . Photios I of Constantinople writes against Clement 's theology in the Bibliotheca , although he is appreciative of Clement 's learning and the literary merits of his work . In particular , he is highly critical of the Hypotyposes , a work of biblical exegesis of which only a few fragments have survived . Photius compared Clement 's treatise , which like his other works was highly syncretic , featuring ideas of Hellenistic , Jewish and Gnostic origin , unfavourably against the prevailing orthodoxy of the 9th century . Among the particular ideas Photius deemed heretical were : His belief that matter and thought are eternal , and thus did not originate from God , contradicting the doctrine of Creatio ex nihilo . His belief in cosmic cycles predating the creation of the world , following Heraclitus , which is extra @-@ Biblical in origin . His belief that Christ , as Logos , was in some sense created , contrary to John 1 but following Philo . His ambivalence towards docetism , the heretical doctrine that Christ 's earthly body was an illusion . His belief that Eve was created from Adam 's sperm after he ejaculated during the night . His belief that Genesis 6 : 2 implies that angels indulged in coitus with human women . In Orthodox Catholic theology , angels are considered sexless . Down to the seventeenth century he was venerated as a saint in Catholicism . His name was to be found in the martyrologies , and his feast fell on the fourth of December . But when the Roman Martyrology was revised by Pope Clement VIII his name was dropped from the calendar on the advice of Cardinal Baronius . Benedict XIV maintained this decision of his predecessor on the grounds that Clement 's life was little known , that he had never obtained public cultus in the Church , and that some of his doctrines were , if not erroneous , at least suspect . Thus Clement is not revered as a saint in contemporary Roman Catholicism , nor is he considered a saint in much of Eastern Orthodox Christianity . Clement 's veneration is somewhat limited ; he is commemorated nonetheless in Anglicanism . As well , the Universal Catholic Church 's cathedral in Dallas is dedicated to him . As one of the earliest of the Church fathers whose works have survived , he is the subject of a significant amount of recent academic work , mainly focusing on the relationship between his thought and non @-@ Christian philosophy and his influence on Origen . = W. H. Auden = Wystan Hugh Auden ( / ˈwɪstən ˈhjuː ˈɔːdən / ; 21 February 1907 – 29 September 1973 ) was an English poet , who later became an American citizen . He is best known for love poems such as " Funeral Blues , " poems on political and social themes such as " September 1 , 1939 " and " The Shield of Achilles , " poems on cultural and psychological themes such as The Age of Anxiety , and poems on religious themes such as " For the Time Being " and " Horae Canonicae . " He was born in York , grew up in and near Birmingham in a professional middle @-@ class family . He attended English independent ( or public ) schools and studied English at Christ Church , Oxford . After a few months in Berlin in 1928 – 29 he spent five years ( 1930 – 35 ) teaching in English public schools , then travelled to Iceland and China in order to write books about his journeys . In 1939 he moved to the United States and became an American citizen in 1946 . He taught from 1941 to 1945 in American universities , followed by occasional visiting professorships in the 1950s . From 1947 to 1957 he wintered in New York and summered in Ischia ; from 1958 until the end of his life he wintered in New York ( in Oxford in 1972 – 73 ) and summered in Kirchstetten , Austria . Auden 's poetry was noted for its stylistic and technical achievement , its engagement with politics , morals , love , and religion , and its variety in tone , form and content . He came to wide public attention at the age of twenty @-@ three , in 1930 , with his first book , Poems , followed in 1932 by The Orators . Three plays written in collaboration with Christopher Isherwood in 1935 – 38 built his reputation as a left @-@ wing political writer . Auden moved to the United States partly to escape this reputation , and his work in the 1940s , including the long poems " For the Time Being " and " The Sea and the Mirror , " focused on religious themes . He won the Pulitzer Prize in Poetry for his 1947 long poem The Age of Anxiety , the title of which became a popular phrase describing the modern era . In 1956 – 61 he was Professor of Poetry at Oxford ; his lectures were popular with students and faculty and served as the basis of his 1962 prose collection The Dyer 's Hand . From around 1927 to 1939 Auden and Isherwood maintained a lasting but intermittent sexual friendship while both had briefer but more intense relations with other men . In 1939 Auden fell in love with Chester Kallman and regarded their relation as a marriage ; this ended in 1941 when Kallman refused to accept the faithful relation that Auden demanded , but the two maintained their friendship , and from 1947 until Auden 's death they lived in the same house or apartment in a non @-@ sexual relation , often collaborating on opera libretti such as The Rake 's Progress , for music by Igor Stravinsky . Auden was a prolific writer of prose essays and reviews on literary , political , psychological and religious subjects , and he worked at various times on documentary films , poetic plays , and other forms of performance . Throughout his career he was both controversial and influential , and critical views on his work ranged from sharply dismissive , treating him as a lesser follower of W. B. Yeats and T. S. Eliot , to strongly affirmative , as in Joseph Brodsky 's claim that he had " the greatest mind of the twentieth century " . After his death , some of his poems , notably " Funeral Blues " , " Musée des Beaux Arts " , " Refugee Blues " , " The Unknown Citizen " , and " September 1 , 1939 " , became known to a much wider public than during his lifetime through films , broadcasts , and popular media . = = Life = = = = = Childhood = = = Auden was born in York , England , to George Augustus Auden , a physician , and Constance Rosalie Auden , née Bicknell , who had trained ( but never served ) as a missionary nurse . He was the third of three sons ; the eldest , George Bernard Auden , became a farmer , while the second , John Bicknell Auden , became a geologist . Auden , whose grandfathers were both Church of England clergymen , grew up in an Anglo @-@ Catholic household that followed a " High " form of Anglicanism with doctrine and ritual resembling those of Roman Catholicism . He traced his love of music and language partly to the church services of his childhood . He believed he was of Icelandic descent , and his lifelong fascination with Icelandic legends and Old Norse sagas is evident in his work . In 1908 his family moved to Homer Road , Solihull , near Birmingham , where his father had been appointed the School Medical Officer and Lecturer ( later Professor ) of Public Health . Auden 's lifelong psychoanalytic interests began in his father 's library . From the age of eight he attended boarding schools , returning home for holidays . His visits to the Pennine landscape and its declining lead @-@ mining industry figure in many of his poems ; the remote decaying mining village of Rookhope was for him a " sacred landscape " , evoked in a late poem , " Amor Loci " . Until he was fifteen he expected to become a mining engineer , but his passion for words had already begun . He wrote later : " words so excite me that a pornographic story , for example , excites me sexually more than a living person can do . " = = = Education = = = Auden attended St Edmund 's School , Hindhead , Surrey , where he met Christopher Isherwood , later famous in his own right as a novelist . At thirteen he went to Gresham 's School in Norfolk ; there , in 1922 , when his friend Robert Medley asked him if he wrote poetry , Auden first realised his vocation was to be a poet . Soon after , he " discover ( ed ) that he ( had ) lost his faith " ( through a gradual realisation that he had lost interest in religion , not through any decisive change of views ) . In school productions of Shakespeare , he played Katherina in The Taming of the Shrew in 1922 , and Caliban in The Tempest in 1925 , his last year at Gresham 's . His first published poems appeared in the school magazine in 1923 . Auden later wrote a chapter on Gresham 's for Graham Greene 's The Old School : Essays by Divers Hands ( 1934 ) . In 1925 he went up to Christ Church , Oxford , with a scholarship in biology ; he switched to English by his second year . Friends he met at Oxford include Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , Louis MacNeice , and Stephen Spender ; these four were commonly though misleadingly identified in the 1930s as the " Auden Group " for their shared ( but not identical ) left @-@ wing views . Auden left Oxford in 1928 with a third @-@ class degree . Auden was reintroduced to Christopher Isherwood in 1925 by his fellow student A. S. T. Fisher . For the next few years Auden sent poems to Isherwood for comments and criticism ; the two maintained a sexual friendship in intervals between their relations with others . In 1935 – 39 they collaborated on three plays and a travel book . From his Oxford years onward , Auden 's friends uniformly described him as funny , extravagant , sympathetic , generous , and , partly by his own choice , lonely . In groups he was often dogmatic and overbearing in a comic way ; in more private settings he was diffident and shy except when certain of his welcome . He was punctual in his habits , and obsessive about meeting deadlines , while choosing to live amidst physical disorder . = = = Britain and Europe , 1928 – 38 = = = In late 1928 , Auden left Britain for nine months , going to Berlin , partly to rebel against English repressiveness . In Berlin , he first experienced the political and economic unrest that became one of his central subjects . On returning to Britain in 1929 , he worked briefly as a tutor . In 1930 his first published book , Poems ( 1930 ) , was accepted by T. S. Eliot for Faber and Faber , and the same firm remained the British publisher of all the books he published thereafter . In 1930 he began five years as a schoolmaster in boys ' schools : two years at the Larchfield Academy in Helensburgh , Scotland , then three years at the Downs School in the Malvern Hills , where he was a much @-@ loved teacher . At the Downs , in June 1933 , he experienced what he later described as a " Vision of Agape " , while sitting with three fellow @-@ teachers at the school , when he suddenly found that he loved them for themselves , that their existence had infinite value for him ; this experience , he said , later influenced his decision to return to the Anglican Church in 1940 . During these years , Auden 's erotic interests focused , as he later said , on an idealised " Alter Ego " rather than on individual persons . His relationships ( and his unsuccessful courtships ) tended to be unequal either in age or intelligence ; his sexual relations were transient , although some evolved into long friendships . He contrasted these relationships with what he later regarded as the " marriage " ( his word ) of equals that he began with Chester Kallman in 1939 , based on the unique individuality of both partners . From 1935 until he left Britain early in 1939 , Auden worked as freelance reviewer , essayist , and lecturer , first with the G.P.O. Film Unit , a documentary film @-@ making branch of the post office , headed by John Grierson . Through his work for the Film Unit in 1935 he met and collaborated with Benjamin Britten , with whom he also worked on plays , song cycles , and a libretto . Auden 's plays in the 1930s were performed by the Group Theatre , in productions that he supervised to varying degrees . His work now reflected his belief that any good artist must be " more than a bit of a reporting journalist " . In 1936 , Auden spent three months in Iceland where he gathered material for a travel book Letters from Iceland ( 1937 ) , written in collaboration with Louis MacNeice . In 1937 he went to Spain intending to drive an ambulance for the Republic in the Spanish Civil War , but was put to work broadcasting propaganda , a job he left to visit the front . His seven @-@ week visit to Spain affected him deeply , and his social views grew more complex as he found political realities to be more ambiguous and troubling than he had imagined . Again attempting to combine reportage and art , he and Isherwood spent six months in 1938 visiting China amid the Sino @-@ Japanese War , working on their book Journey to a War ( 1939 ) . On their way back to England they stayed briefly in New York and decided to move to the United States . Auden spent late 1938 partly in England , partly in Brussels . Many of Auden 's poems during the 1930s and after were inspired by unconsummated love , and in the 1950s he summarised his emotional life in a famous couplet : " If equal affection cannot be / Let the more loving one be me " ( " The More Loving One " ) . He had a gift for friendship and , starting in the late 1930s , a strong wish for the stability of marriage ; in a letter to his friend James Stern he called marriage " the only subject . " Throughout his life , Auden performed charitable acts , sometimes in public ( as in his 1935 marriage of convenience to Erika Mann that provided her with a British passport to escape the Nazis ) , but , especially in later years , more often in private . He was embarrassed if they were publicly revealed , as when his gift to his friend Dorothy Day for the Catholic Worker movement was reported on the front page of The New York Times in 1956 . = = = United States and Europe , 1939 – 73 = = = Auden and Isherwood sailed to New York City in January 1939 , entering on temporary visas . Their departure from Britain was later seen by many as a betrayal , and Auden 's reputation suffered . In April 1939 , Isherwood moved to California , and he and Auden saw each other only intermittently in later years . Around this time , Auden met the poet Chester Kallman , who became his lover for the next two years ( Auden described their relation as a " marriage " that began with a cross @-@ country " honeymoon " journey ) . In 1941 Kallman ended their sexual relationship because he could not accept Auden 's insistence on mutual fidelity , but he and Auden remained companions for the rest of Auden 's life , sharing houses and apartments from 1953 until Auden 's death . Auden dedicated both editions of his collected poetry ( 1945 / 50 and 1966 ) to Isherwood and Kallman . In 1940 – 41 , Auden lived in a house at 7 Middagh Street in Brooklyn Heights , that he shared with Carson McCullers , Benjamin Britten , and others , which became a famous centre of artistic life , nicknamed " February House " . In 1940 , Auden joined the Episcopal Church , returning to the Anglican Communion he had abandoned at thirteen . His reconversion was influenced partly by what he called the " sainthood " of Charles Williams , whom he had met in 1937 , and partly by reading Søren Kierkegaard and Reinhold Niebuhr ; his existential , this @-@ worldly Christianity became a central element in his life . After Britain declared war on Germany in September 1939 , Auden told the British embassy in Washington that he would return to the UK if needed . He was told that , among those his age ( 32 ) , only qualified personnel were needed . In 1941 – 42 he taught English at the University of Michigan . He was called for the draft in the United States Army in August 1942 , but was rejected on medical grounds . He had been awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1942 – 43 but did not use it , choosing instead to teach at Swarthmore College in 1942 – 45 . In mid @-@ 1945 , after the end of World War II in Europe , he was in Germany with the U. S. Strategic Bombing Survey , studying the effects of Allied bombing on German morale , an experience that affected his postwar work as his visit to Spain had affected him earlier . On his return , he settled in Manhattan , working as a freelance writer , a lecturer at The New School for Social Research , and a visiting professor at Bennington , Smith , and other American colleges . In 1946 he became a naturalised citizen of the US . Auden began summering in Europe in 1948 , first in Ischia , Italy , where he rented a house , then , starting in 1958 , in Kirchstetten , Austria , where he bought a farmhouse , and , he said , shed tears of joy at owning a home for the first time . In 1956 – 61 , Auden was Professor of Poetry at Oxford University where he was required to give three lectures each year . This fairly light workload allowed him to continue to winter in New York , where he now lived at 77 St. Mark 's Place in Manhattan 's East Village , and to summer in Europe , spending only three weeks each year lecturing in Oxford . He now earned his income mostly from readings and lecture tours , and by writing for The New Yorker , The New York Review of Books , and other magazines . In 1972 , Auden moved his winter home from New York to Oxford , where his old college , Christ Church , offered him a cottage , while he continued to summer in Austria . He died in Vienna in 1973 and was buried in Kirchstetten . = = Work = = Auden published about four hundred poems , including seven long poems ( two of them book @-@ length ) . His poetry was encyclopaedic in scope and method , ranging in style from obscure twentieth @-@ century modernism to the lucid traditional forms such as ballads and limericks , from doggerel through haiku and villanelles to a " Christmas Oratorio " and a baroque eclogue in Anglo @-@ Saxon meters . The tone and content of his poems ranged from pop @-@ song clichés to complex philosophical meditations , from the corns on his toes to atoms and stars , from contemporary crises to the evolution of society . He also wrote more than four hundred essays and reviews about literature , history , politics , music , religion , and many other subjects . He collaborated on plays with Christopher Isherwood and on opera libretti with Chester Kallman , and worked with a group of artists and filmmakers on documentary films in the 1930s and with the New York Pro Musica early music group in the 1950s and 1960s . About collaboration he wrote in 1964 : " collaboration has brought me greater erotic joy . . . than any sexual relations I have had . " Auden controversially rewrote or discarded some of his most famous poems when he prepared his later collected editions . He wrote that he rejected poems that he found " boring " or " dishonest " in the sense that they expressed views he had never held but had used only because he felt they would be rhetorically effective . His rejected poems include " Spain " and " September 1 , 1939 " . His literary executor , Edward Mendelson , argues in his introduction to Selected Poems that Auden 's practice reflected his sense of the persuasive power of poetry and his reluctance to misuse it . ( Selected Poems includes some poems that Auden rejected and early texts of poems that he revised . ) = = = Early work , 1922 – 39 = = = = = = = Up to 1930 = = = = Auden began writing poems at thirteen , mostly in the styles of 19th @-@ century romantic poets , especially Wordsworth , and later poets with rural interests , especially Thomas Hardy . At eighteen he discovered T. S. Eliot and adopted an extreme version of Eliot 's style . He found his own voice at twenty when he wrote the first poem later included in his collected work , " From the very first coming down " . This and other poems of the late 1920s tended to be in a clipped , elusive style that alluded to , but did not directly state , their themes of loneliness and loss . Twenty of these poems appeared in his first book Poems ( 1928 ) , a pamphlet hand @-@ printed by Stephen Spender . In 1928 he wrote his first dramatic work , Paid on Both Sides , subtitled " A Charade " , which combined style and content from the Icelandic sagas with jokes from English school life . This mixture of tragedy and farce , with a dream play @-@ within @-@ a @-@ play , introduced the mixed styles and content of much of his later work . This drama and thirty short poems appeared in his first published book Poems ( 1930 , 2nd edition with seven poems replaced , 1933 ) ; the poems in the book were mostly lyrical and gnomic mediations on hoped @-@ for or unconsummated love and on themes of personal , social , and seasonal renewal ; among these poems were " It was Easter as I walked , " " Doom is dark , " " Sir , no man 's enemy , " and " This lunar beauty . " A recurrent theme in these early poems is the effect of " family ghosts " , Auden 's term for the powerful , unseen psychological effects of preceding generations on any individual life ( and the title of a poem ) . A parallel theme , present throughout his work , is the contrast between biological evolution ( unchosen and involuntary ) and the psychological evolution of cultures and individuals ( voluntary and deliberate even in its subconscious aspects ) . = = = = 1931 – 35 = = = = Auden 's next large @-@ scale work was The Orators : An English Study ( 1932 ; revised editions , 1934 , 1966 ) , in verse and prose , largely about hero @-@ worship in personal and political life . In his shorter poems , his style became more open and accessible , and the exuberant " Six Odes " in The Orators reflect his new interest in Robert Burns . During the next few years , many of his poems took their form and style from traditional ballads and popular songs , and also from expansive classical forms like the Odes of Horace , which he seems to have discovered through the German poet Hölderlin . Around this time his main influences were Dante , William Langland , and Alexander Pope . During these years , much of his work expressed left @-@ wing views , and he became widely known as a political poet although he was privately more ambivalent about revolutionary politics than many reviewers recognised , and Mendelson argues that he expounded political views partly out of a sense of moral duty and partly because it enhanced his reputation , and that he later regretted having done so . He generally wrote about revolutionary change in terms of a " change of heart " , a transformation of a society from a closed @-@ off psychology of fear to an open psychology of love . His verse drama The Dance of Death ( 1933 ) was a political extravaganza in the style of a theatrical revue , which Auden later called " a nihilistic leg @-@ pull . " His next play The Dog Beneath the Skin ( 1935 ) , written in collaboration with Isherwood , was similarly a quasi @-@ Marxist updating of Gilbert and Sullivan in which the general idea of social transformation was more prominent than any specific political action or structure . The Ascent of F6 ( 1937 ) , another play written with Isherwood , was partly an anti @-@ imperialist satire , partly ( in the character of the self @-@ destroying climber Michael Ransom ) an examination of Auden 's own motives in taking on a public role as a political poet . This play included the first version of " Funeral Blues " ( " Stop all the clocks " ) , written as a satiric eulogy for a politician ; Auden later rewrote the poem as a " Cabaret Song " about lost love ( written to be sung by the soprano Hedli Anderson , for whom he wrote many lyrics in the 1930s ) . In 1935 , he worked briefly on documentary films with the G.P.O. Film Unit , writing his famous verse commentary for Night Mail and lyrics for other films that were among his attempts in the 1930s to create a widely accessible , socially conscious art . = = = = 1936 – 39 = = = = In 1936 Auden 's publisher chose the title Look , Stranger ! for a collection of political odes , love poems , comic songs , meditative lyrics , and a variety of intellectually intense but emotionally accessible verse ; Auden hated the title and retitled the collection for the 1937 US edition On This Island ) . Among the poems included in the book are " Hearing of harvests " , " Out on the lawn I lie in bed " , " O what is that sound " , " Look , stranger , on this island now " ( later revised versions change " on " to " at " ) , and " Our hunting fathers " . Auden was now arguing that an artist should be a kind of journalist , and he put this view into practice in Letters from Iceland ( 1937 ) a travel book in prose and verse written with Louis MacNeice , which included his long social , literary , and autobiographical commentary " Letter to Lord Byron " . In 1937 , after observing the Spanish Civil War he wrote a politically engaged pamphlet poem Spain ( 1937 ) ; he later discarded it from his collected works . Journey to a War ( 1939 ) a travel book in prose and verse , was written with Isherwood after their visit to the Sino @-@ Japanese War . Auden 's last collaboration with Isherwood was their third play , On the Frontier , an anti @-@ war satire written in Broadway and West End styles . Auden 's shorter poems now engaged with the fragility and transience of personal love ( " Danse Macabre " , " The Dream " , " Lay your sleeping head " ) , a subject he treated with ironic wit in his " Four Cabaret Songs for Miss Hedli Anderson " ( which included " Tell Me the Truth About Love " and the revised version of " Funeral Blues " ) , and also the corrupting effect of public and official culture on individual lives ( " Casino " , " School Children " , " Dover " ) . In 1938 he wrote a series of dark , ironic ballads about individual failure ( " Miss Gee " , " James Honeyman " , " Victor " ) . All these appeared in Another Time ( 1940 ) , together with poems including " Dover " , " As He Is " , and " Musée des Beaux Arts " ( all written before he moved to America in 1939 ) , and " In Memory of W. B. Yeats " , " The Unknown Citizen " , " Law Like Love " , " September 1 , 1939 " , and " In Memory of Sigmund Freud " ( written in America ) . The elegies for Yeats and Freud are partly anti @-@ heroic statements , in which great deeds are performed , not by unique geniuses whom others cannot hope to imitate , but by otherwise ordinary individuals who were " silly like us " ( Yeats ) or of whom it could be said " he wasn 't clever at all " ( Freud ) , and who became teachers of others , not awe @-@ inspiring heroes . = = = Middle period , 1940 – 57 = = = = = = = 1940 – 46 = = = = In 1940 Auden wrote a long philosophical poem " New Year Letter " , which appeared with miscellaneous notes and other poems in The Double Man ( 1941 ) . At the time of his return to the Anglican Communion he began writing abstract verse on theological themes , such as " Canzone " and " Kairos and Logos " . Around 1942 , as he became more comfortable with religious themes , his verse became more open and relaxed , and he increasingly used the syllabic verse he had learned from the poetry of Marianne Moore . Auden 's work in this era addresses the artist 's temptation to use other persons as material for his art rather than valuing them for themselves ( " Prospero to Ariel " ) and the corresponding moral obligation to make and keep commitments while recognising the temptation to break them ( " In Sickness and Health " ) . From 1942 through 1947 he worked mostly on three long poems in dramatic form , each differing from the others in form and content : " For the Time Being : A Christmas Oratorio " , " The Sea and the Mirror : A Commentary on Shakespeare 's The Tempest " ( both published in For the Time Being , 1944 ) , and The Age of Anxiety : A Baroque Eclogue ( published separately in 1947 ) . The first two , with Auden 's other new poems from 1940 to 1944 , were included in his first collected edition , The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden ( 1945 ) , with most of his earlier poems , many in revised versions . = = = = 1947 – 57 = = = = After completing The Age of Anxiety in 1946 he focused again on shorter poems , notably " A Walk After Dark " , " The Love Feast " , and " The Fall of Rome " . Many of these evoked the Italian village where he summered in 1948 – 57 , and his next book , Nones ( 1951 ) , had a Mediterranean atmosphere new to his work . A new theme was the " sacred importance " of the human body in its ordinary aspect ( breathing , sleeping , eating ) and the continuity with nature that the body made possible ( in contrast to the division between humanity and nature that he had emphasised in the 1930s ) ; his poems on these themes included " In Praise of Limestone " ( 1948 ) and " Memorial for the City " ( 1949 ) . In 1949 Auden and Kallman wrote the libretto for Igor Stravinsky 's opera The Rake 's Progress , and later collaborated on two libretti for operas by Hans Werner Henze . Auden 's first separate prose book was The Enchafèd Flood : The Romantic Iconography of the Sea ( 1950 ) , based on a series of lectures on the image of the sea in romantic literature . Between 1949 and 1954 he worked on a sequence of seven Good Friday poems , titled " Horae Canonicae " , an encyclopaedic survey of geological , biological , cultural , and personal history , focused on the irreversible act of murder ; the poem was also a study in cyclical and linear ideas of time . While writing this , he also wrote " Bucolics , " a sequence of seven poems about man 's relation to nature . Both sequences appeared in his next book , The Shield of Achilles ( 1955 ) , with other short poems , including the book 's title poem , " Fleet Visit " , and " Epitaph for the Unknown Soldier " . In 1955 – 56 Auden wrote a group of poems about " history " , the term he used to mean the set of unique events made by human choices , as opposed to " nature " , the set of involuntary events created by natural processes , statistics , and anonymous forces such as crowds . These poems included " T the Great " , " The Maker " , and the title poem of his next collection Homage to Clio ( 1960 ) . = = = Later work , 1958 – 73 = = = In the late 1950s Auden 's style became less rhetorical while its range of styles increased . In 1958 , having moved his summer home from Italy to Austria , he wrote " Good @-@ bye to the Mezzogiorno " ; other poems from this period include " Dichtung und Wahrheit : An Unwritten Poem " , a prose poem about the relation between love and personal and poetic language , and the contrasting " Dame Kind " , about the anonymous impersonal reproductive instinct . These and other poems , including his 1955 – 66 poems about history , appeared in Homage to Clio ( 1960 ) . His prose book The Dyer 's Hand ( 1962 ) gathered many of the lectures he gave in Oxford as Professor of Poetry in 1956 – 61 , together with revised versions of essays and notes written since the mid @-@ 1940s . Among the new styles and forms in Auden 's later work were the haiku and tanka that he began writing after translating the haiku and other verse in Dag Hammarskjöld 's Markings . A sequence of fifteen poems about his house in Austria , " Thanksgiving for a Habitat " ( written in various styles that included an imitation of William Carlos Williams ) appeared in About the House ( 1965 ) , together with other poems that included his reflection on his lecture tours , " On the Circuit " . In the late 1960s he wrote some of his most vigorous poems , including " River Profile " and two poems that looked back over his life , " Prologue at Sixty " and " Forty Years On " . All these appeared in City Without Walls ( 1969 ) . His lifelong passion for Icelandic legend culminated in his verse translation of The Elder Edda ( 1969 ) . Among his later themes was the " religionless Christianity " he learned partly from Dietrich Bonhoeffer , the dedicatee of his poem " Friday 's Child . " A Certain World : A Commonplace Book ( 1970 ) was a kind of self @-@ portrait made up of favourite quotations with commentary , arranged in alphabetical order by subject . His last prose book was a selection of essays and reviews , Forewords and Afterwords ( 1973 ) . His last books of verse , Epistle to a Godson ( 1972 ) and the unfinished Thank You , Fog ( published posthumously , 1974 ) include reflective poems about language ( " Natural Linguistics " ) and about his own ageing ( " A New Year Greeting " , " Talking to Myself " , " A Lullaby " [ " The din of work is subdued " ] ) . His last completed poem was " Archaeology " , about ritual and timelessness , two recurring themes in his later years . = = = Reputation and influence = = = Auden 's stature in modern literature has been contested . Probably the most common critical view from the 1930s onward ranked him as the last and least of the three major twentieth @-@ century British poets , Yeats , Eliot , Auden , while a minority view , more prominent in recent years , ranks him as the highest of the three . Opinions have ranged from those of Hugh MacDiarmid , who called him " a complete wash @-@ out , " F. R. Leavis who wrote that Auden 's ironic style was " self @-@ defensive , self @-@ indulgent or merely irresponsible " , and Harold Bloom who wrote " Close thy Auden , open thy [ Wallace ] Stevens , " to the obituarist in The Times ( London ) , who wrote : " W. H. Auden , for long the enfant terrible of English poetry . . . emerges as its undisputed master . " Critical estimates were divided from the start . Reviewing Auden 's first book , Poems ( 1930 ) , Naomi Mitchison wrote " If this is really only the beginning , we have perhaps a master to look forward to . " But John Sparrow , recalling Mitchison 's comment in 1934 , dismissed Auden 's early work as " a monument to the misguided aims that prevail among contemporary poets , and the fact that ... he is being hailed as ' a master ' shows how criticism is helping poetry on the downward path . " Auden 's clipped , satiric , and ironic style in the 1930s was widely imitated by younger poets such as Charles Madge , who wrote in a poem " there waited for me in the summer morning / Auden fiercely . I read , shuddered , and knew . " He was widely described as the leader of an " Auden group " that comprised his friends Stephen Spender , Cecil Day @-@ Lewis , and Louis MacNeice . The four were mocked by the poet Roy Campbell as if they were a single undifferentiated poet named " Macspaunday . " Auden 's propagandistic poetic plays , including The Dog Beneath the Skin and The Ascent of F6 , and his political poems such as " Spain " gave him the reputation as a political poet writing in a progressive and accessible voice , in contrast to Eliot ; but this political stance provoked opposing opinions , such as that of Austin Clarke who called Auden 's work " liberal , democratic , and humane " , and John Drummond , who wrote that Auden misused a " characteristic and popularizing trick , the generalized image " , to present ostensibly left @-@ wing views that were in fact " confined to bourgeois experience . " Auden 's departure for America in 1939 was debated in Britain ( once even in Parliament ) , with some seeing his emigration as a betrayal . Defenders of Auden such as Geoffrey Grigson , in an introduction to a 1949 anthology of modern poetry , wrote that Auden " arches over all " . His stature was suggested by book titles such as Auden and After by Francis Scarfe ( 1942 ) and The Auden Generation by Samuel Hynes ( 1977 ) . In the US , starting in the late 1930s , the detached , ironic tone of Auden 's regular stanzas became influential ; John Ashbery recalled that in the 1940s Auden " was the modern poet " . Auden 's formal influences were so pervasive in American poetry that the ecstatic style of the Beat Generation was partly a reaction against his influence . From the 1940s through the 1960s , many critics lamented that Auden 's work had declined from its earlier promise ; Randall Jarrell wrote a series of essays making a case against Auden 's later work , and Philip Larkin 's " What 's Become of Wystan ? " ( 1960 ) had a wide impact . The first full @-@ length study of Auden was Richard Hoggart 's Auden : An Introductory Essay ( 1951 ) , which concluded that " Auden 's work , then , is a civilising force . " It was followed by Joseph Warren Beach 's The Making of the Auden Canon ( 1957 ) , a disapproving account of Auden 's revisions of his earlier work . The first systematic critical account was Monroe K. Spears ' The Poetry of W. H. Auden : The Disenchanted Island ( 1963 ) , " written out of the conviction that Auden 's poetry can offer the reader entertainment , instruction , intellectual excitement , and a prodigal variety of aesthetic pleasures , all in a generous abundance that is unique in our time . " Auden was one of three candidates recommended by the Nobel Committee to the Swedish Academy for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1963 and six recommended for the 1964 prize . By the time of his death in 1973 he had attained the status of a respected elder statesman , and a memorial stone for him was placed in Poets ' Corner in Westminster Abbey in 1974 . The Encyclopaedia Britannica writes that " by the time of Eliot 's death in 1965 ... a convincing case could be made for the assertion that Auden was indeed Eliot 's successor , as Eliot had inherited sole claim to supremacy when Yeats died in 1939 . " With some exceptions , British critics tended to treat his early work as his best , while American critics tended to favour his middle and later work . Another group of critics and poets has maintained that unlike other modern poets , Auden 's reputation did not decline after his death , and the influence of his later writing was especially strong on younger American poets including John Ashbery , James Merrill , Anthony Hecht , and Maxine Kumin . Typical later evaluations describe him as " arguably the [ 20th ] century 's greatest poet " ( Peter Parker and Frank Kermode ) , who " now clearly seems the greatest poet in English since Tennyson " ( Philip Hensher ) . Public recognition of Auden 's work sharply increased after his " Funeral Blues " ( " Stop all the clocks " ) was read aloud in the film Four Weddings and a Funeral ( 1994 ) ; subsequently , a pamphlet edition of ten of his poems , Tell Me the Truth About Love , sold more than 275 @,@ 000 copies . After 11 September 2001 his 1939 poem " September 1 , 1939 " was widely circulated and frequently broadcast . Public readings and broadcast tributes in the UK and US in 2007 marked his centenary year . = = Published works = = The following list includes only the books of poems and essays that Auden prepared during his lifetime ; for a more complete list , including other works and posthumous editions , see W. H. Auden bibliography . In the list below , works reprinted in the Complete Works of W. H. Auden are indicated by footnote references . Books Poems ( London , 1930 ; second edn . , seven poems substituted , London , 1933 ; includes poems and Paid on Both Sides : A Charade ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood ) . The Orators : An English Study ( London , 1932 , verse and prose ; slightly revised edn . , London , 1934 ; revised edn. with new preface , London , 1966 ; New York 1967 ) ( dedicated to Stephen Spender ) . The Dance of Death ( London , 1933 , play ) ( dedicated to Robert Medley and Rupert Doone ) . Poems ( New York , 1934 ; contains Poems [ 1933 edition ] , The Orators [ 1932 edition ] , and The Dance of Death ) . The Dog Beneath the Skin ( London , New York , 1935 ; play , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to Robert Moody ) . The Ascent of F6 ( London , 1936 ; 2nd edn . , 1937 ; New York , 1937 ; play , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to John Bicknell Auden ) . Look , Stranger ! ( London , 1936 , poems ; US edn . , On This Island , New York , 1937 ) ( dedicated to Erika Mann ) Letters from Iceland ( London , New York , 1937 ; verse and prose , with Louis MacNeice ) ( dedicated to George Augustus Auden ) . On the Frontier ( London , 1938 ; New York 1939 ; play , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to Benjamin Britten ) . Journey to a War ( London , New York , 1939 ; verse and prose , with Christopher Isherwood ) ( dedicated to E. M. Forster ) . Another Time ( London , New York 1940 ; poetry ) ( dedicated to Chester Kallman ) . The Double Man ( New York , 1941 , poems ; UK edn . , New Year Letter , London , 1941 ) ( Dedicated to Elizabeth Mayer ) . For the Time Being ( New York , 1944 ; London , 1945 ; two long poems : " The Sea and the Mirror : A Commentary on Shakespeare 's The Tempest " , dedicated to James and Tania Stern , and " For the Time Being : A Christmas Oratorio " , in memoriam Constance Rosalie Auden [ Auden 's mother ] ) . The Collected Poetry of W. H. Auden ( New York , 1945 ; includes new poems ) ( dedicated to Christopher Isherwood and Chester Kallman ) . The Age of Anxiety : A Baroque Eclogue ( New York , 1947 ; London , 1948 ; verse ; won the 1948 Pulitzer Prize for Poetry ) ( dedicated to John Betjeman ) . Collected Shorter Poems , 1930 – 1944 ( London , 1950 ; similar to 1945 Collected Poetry )	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
the merengue mix version " adds a lively , tropical tone to the original slow tempo love song " , but he added that it " seems awkwardly paired when it comes to collaborating artists , who often clash with Selena 's voice and the overall sound " . Of the acoustic bonus tracks , Guerra wrote that they are " unlikely highlights , the new instrumentation gives them all a nice edge and highlights Selena 's burgeoning vocal prowess " . Banda was more positive , listing them as recommended tracks that he found to be reminiscent of live Selena recordings . = = Release = = Latina magazine released a snippet of the acoustic track of " Cobarde " on 30 March 2012 . Enamorada de Ti was released on 3 April 2012 through Capitol Latin and Q @-@ Productions . A deluxe edition of the album was released through Wal @-@ Mart on the same day , with three additional acoustic tracks . On iTunes , the Juan Magan remix of " Is It the Beat ? " was added as a bonus track . Verizon Wireless made an acoustic version of " Amor Prohibido " available as a ringtone . The album debuted at number one on the US Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts . It debuted and peaked at number 135 on Billboard 200 and at number 117 on the Billboard Comprehensive Albums chart . It was number one on the Latin Pop Albums chart for two consecutive weeks . On the week ending 8 April 2012 , it peaked at number 57 on Top 100 Mexico . It knocked Ednita Nazario 's Desnuda ( 2012 ) off the top of both Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums . Carlos Quintana of About.com named Enamorada de Ti one of the " Best Latin Music Albums of the Year , So Far " and one of the " Most Popular Albums of the Year " in 2012 . The album was the 65th best @-@ selling Latin album of 2012 , and the 19th best @-@ selling Latin pop album of 2012 . The lead single , " Amor Prohibido " , was released digitally on 28 February 2012 . It peaked at number 39 on the Latin Tropical Airplay chart , number 23 on Hot Latin Tracks , number 8 on Latin Pop Songs , and number 8 on Latin Regional Mexican Digital Songs . It also reached singles music charts in Colombia , Ecuador , Venezuela and Peru . The second single to be released digitally was the duet version of " Como La Flor " , with Christian Castro . It was released in Colombia on 14 August 2012 . Because of the commercial success of Enamorada de Ti , Capitol Latin confirmed a trilogy of Selena remix / duet albums . In May 2012 , Capitol Latin confirmed an English @-@ language followup . By February 2012 , Canadian singer Michael Bublé was confirmed as one of many other artists who expressed interest in recording a duet with Selena . In late August 2012 , fans were asked to fill out a survey from the official Selena Facebook page , inviting them to choose three Latin singers and three non @-@ Latin singers they would like to see recording a duet with Selena on the follow @-@ up album . Guerra suggested La Mafia 's Oscar de la Rosa , Jennifer Lopez , Blake Shelton , Drake , Bruno Mars and Beyoncé Knowles . = = Promotion = = Several music and talk shows , including E ! , the Cristina Show , Sábado Gigante , El Gordo y la Flaca and Acceso Total , competed in releasing the news to their viewers . Gomez earned praise from Gatica by using her Twitter account to tell her fans about the album 's release . Castro and Samo performed their respective duets from the album during the 2012 Latin Billboard Music Awards . Quintana of About.com wrote , " they delivered one of the most touching performances of the night with the songs ' Como La Flor ' and ' Amor Prohibido ' " . Capitol Latin created a website to promote the album . = = Critical reception = = Enamorada de Ti received mixed reviews . A writer for Semana News called the duets " unique collaborations " . Domingo Banda , also writing for Semana News , said that Selena 's voice sounded very much alive and vibrant again . Enrique Lopetegui of the San Antonio Current wrote that diehard Selena fans " will take the new pop duet of ' Amor Prohibido ' with Camila 's Samo over the cheesy cumbia original anytime " . Lopetegui described " Cobarde " , " Si Una Vez " , and " No Quiero Saber " as " unplugged " because of their " superb acoustic guitar [ s ] " . Furthermore , Lopetegui complimented the technology used in the album to " change the tempo of Selena 's original track without changing the pitch , and her duet with Christian Castro is proof of technology put to good use " . He found " Fotos y Recuerdos " and the title track " unbearable " , however , and advised his readers to be prepared to skip them . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic wrote that Enamorada de Ti gave a good idea of how Selena might have sounded in 2012 . Erlewine commented that " Amor Prohibido " , as updated for the album , " ha [ d ] much of its overly stiff drum machines stripped away , replaced with warmer studio musicians " . Far from making Selena sound contemporary , he thought that all the remixed songs " are rooted in the ' 90s and sound that way " , even if " fresher " than many other posthumous Selena releases . Guerra wrote that Enamorada de Ti included " reworked gems " , but he believed that it felt rushed and dated . Unlike the remixes , he found the originals " still fresh almost two decades later " . He disapproved of the acoustic and the slowing down of the music 's arrangements . Guerra concluded that Selena 's legacy " deserves better than this half @-@ hearted attempt " , and that better duet partners and producers ( he named René Pérez Joglar from Calle 13 , RedOne , Ximena Sariñana , and Cachorro López ) could have made Enamorada de Ti " a fascinating tribute to Selena " . Quintana from About.com believed the duets on Enamorada de Ti underlined the " timeless appeal " of Selena 's music . He observed that the album is musically diverse , with examples of bolero ( " No Me Queda Mas " ) , ranchera ( " Como La Flor " ) , cumbia ( " Techno Cumbia " ) , reggaeton ( " Fotos y Recuerdo " ) , Latin pop ( " Amor Prohibido " ) and merengue ( " Enamorada de Ti " ) . Quintana was unsurprised by the excitement of Selena fans , calling Enamorada de Ti a " very experimental project " that " introduces a new sound to the music [ of Selena ] " . He concluded that the experiment was worthwhile and that the album is a good introduction to Selena 's repertoire . Lovelace of Reporter Magazine found Gomez ' " awkward " and " squeaky " voice unsuitable and believed that Castro was not the right choice for " Como La Flor " . " If you 're new to Spanish @-@ speaking music , " he wrote , " you 'll enjoy the mixes . If not , avoid them at all cost . " Then , however , he judged all the songs except " Como La Flor " , " Bidi Bidi Bom Bom " , and the title track to be " excellent ... catchy and appropriate 2012 @-@ spin " . Sugey Palomares of Latina called Enamorada de Ti a " groundbreaking and emotional musical project " . = = Track listing = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits are taken from the album 's liner notes . Instruments Technical and production = = Chart positions = = = Paul McCartney = Sir James Paul McCartney , MBE ( born 18 June 1942 ) is an English singer @-@ songwriter , multi @-@ instrumentalist , and composer . With John Lennon , George Harrison , and Ringo Starr , he gained worldwide fame with the rock band the Beatles , one of the most popular and influential groups in the history of pop music . His songwriting partnership with Lennon is one of the most celebrated of the 20th century . After the band 's break @-@ up , he pursued a solo career and formed Wings with his first wife , Linda , and Denny Laine . McCartney has been recognised as one of the most successful composers and performers of all time . More than 2 @,@ 200 artists have covered his Beatles song " Yesterday " , more than any other copyrighted song in history . Wings ' 1977 release " Mull of Kintyre " is one of the all @-@ time best @-@ selling singles in the UK . A two @-@ time inductee into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame ( as a member of the Beatles in 1988 , and as a solo artist in 1999 ) , and a 21 @-@ time Grammy Award winner , McCartney has written , or co @-@ written , 32 songs that have reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , and as of 2009 he has 25 @.@ 5 million RIAA @-@ certified units in the United States . McCartney , Lennon , Harrison and Starr received MBEs in 1965 , and in 1997 , McCartney was knighted for services to music . McCartney has released an extensive catalogue of songs as a solo artist and has composed classical and electronic music . He has taken part in projects to promote international charities related to such subjects as animal rights , seal hunting , land mines , vegetarianism , poverty , and music education . He has married three times and is the father of five children . = = Early life = = James Paul McCartney was born on 18 June 1942 in Walton Hospital , Liverpool , England , where his mother , Mary Patricia ( née Mohin ; 1909 – 1956 ) , had qualified to practise as a nurse . His father , James ( " Jim " ) McCartney ( 1902 – 1976 ) , was absent from his son 's birth due to his work as a volunteer firefighter during World War II . Paul has one younger brother , Michael ( born 7 January 1944 ) . Though the children were baptised in their mother 's Catholic faith , their father was a former Protestant turned agnostic , and religion was not emphasised in the household . McCartney attended Stockton Wood Road Primary School in Speke from 1947 until 1949 , when he transferred to Joseph Williams Junior School in Belle Vale because of overcrowding at Stockton . In 1953 , with only three others out of ninety examinees , he passed the 11 @-@ Plus exam , meaning he could attend the Liverpool Institute , a grammar school rather than a secondary modern school . In 1954 , he met schoolmate George Harrison on the bus from his suburban home in Speke . The two quickly became friends ; McCartney later admitted : " I tended to talk down to him because he was a year younger . " McCartney 's mother Mary was a midwife and the family 's primary wage earner ; her earnings enabled them to move into 20 Forthlin Road in Allerton , where they lived until 1964 . She rode a bicycle to her patients ; McCartney described an early memory of her leaving at " about three in the morning [ the ] streets ... thick with snow " . On 31 October 1956 , when McCartney was fourteen , his mother died of an embolism . McCartney 's loss later became a point of connection with John Lennon , whose mother , Julia , had died when he was seventeen . McCartney 's father was a trumpet player and pianist , who had led Jim Mac 's Jazz Band in the 1920s . He kept an upright piano in the front room , encouraged his sons to be musical and advised Paul to take piano lessons , but Paul preferred to learn by ear . He gave Paul a nickel @-@ plated trumpet for his fourteenth birthday , but when rock and roll became popular on Radio Luxembourg , McCartney traded it for a £ 15 Framus Zenith ( model 17 ) acoustic guitar , since he wanted to be able to sing while playing . He found it difficult to play guitar right @-@ handed , but after noticing a poster advertising a Slim Whitman concert and realising that Whitman played left @-@ handed , he reversed the order of the strings . McCartney wrote his first song , " I Lost My Little Girl " , on the Zenith , and composed another early tune that would become " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " on the piano . American rhythm and blues influenced him , and Little Richard was his schoolboy idol ; " Long Tall Sally " was the first song McCartney performed in public , at a Butlins holiday camp talent competition . = = Career = = = = = 1957 – 60 : The Quarrymen = = = At the age of fifteen , McCartney met Lennon and his band , the Quarrymen , at the St Peter 's Church Hall fête in Woolton on 6 July 1957 . The Quarrymen played a mix of rock and roll and skiffle , a type of popular music with jazz , blues and folk influences . The band invited McCartney to join soon afterwards as a rhythm guitarist , and he formed a close working relationship with Lennon . Harrison joined in 1958 as lead guitarist , followed by Lennon 's art school friend Stuart Sutcliffe on bass , in 1960 . By May 1960 the band had tried several names , including Beatals , Johnny and the Moondogs and the Silver Beetles . They adopted the name the Beatles in August 1960 and recruited drummer Pete Best shortly before a five @-@ engagement residency in Hamburg . = = = 1960 – 70 : The Beatles = = = Informally represented by Allan Williams , the Beatles ' first booking was for a residency in Hamburg , starting in 1960 . In 1961 , Sutcliffe left the band and McCartney reluctantly became their bass player . They recorded professionally for the first time while in Hamburg , credited as the Beat Brothers , as the backing band for English singer Tony Sheridan on the single " My Bonnie " . This brought them to the attention of Brian Epstein , a key figure in their subsequent development and success . He became their manager in January 1962 . Ringo Starr replaced Best in August , and the band had their first hit , " Love Me Do " , in October , becoming popular in the UK in 1963 , and in the US a year later . Their fans ' hysteria became known as " Beatlemania " , and the press sometimes referred to McCartney as the " cute Beatle " . In August 1965 , the Beatles released the McCartney composition " Yesterday " , featuring a string quartet . Included on the Help ! LP , the song was the group 's first recorded use of classical music elements and their first recording that involved only a single band member . " Yesterday " became the most covered song in popular music history . Later that year , during recording sessions for the album Rubber Soul , McCartney began to supplant Lennon as the dominant musical force in the band . Musicologist Ian MacDonald wrote , " from [ 1965 ] ... [ McCartney ] would be in the ascendant not only as a songwriter , but also as instrumentalist , arranger , producer , and de facto musical director of the Beatles . " Critics described Rubber Soul as a significant advance in the refinement and profundity of the band 's music and lyrics . Considered a high point in the Beatles catalogue , both Lennon and McCartney said they had written the music for the song " In My Life " . McCartney said of the album , " we 'd had our cute period , and now it was time to expand . " Recording engineer Norman Smith stated that the Rubber Soul sessions exposed indications of increasing contention within the band : " the clash between John and Paul was becoming obvious ... [ and ] as far as Paul was concerned , George [ Harrison ] could do no right — Paul was absolutely finicky . " In 1966 , the Beatles released the album Revolver . Featuring sophisticated lyrics , studio experimentation , and an expanded repertoire of musical genres ranging from innovative string arrangements to psychedelic rock , the album marked an artistic leap for the Beatles . The first of three consecutive McCartney A @-@ sides , the single " Paperback Writer " preceded the LP 's release . The Beatles produced a short promotional film for the song , and another for its B @-@ side , " Rain " . The films , described by Harrison as " the forerunner of videos " , aired on The Ed Sullivan Show and Top of the Pops in June 1966 . Revolver also included McCartney 's " Eleanor Rigby " , which featured a string octet . According to Gould , the song is " a neoclassical tour de force ... a true hybrid , conforming to no recognizable style or genre of song " . Except for some backing vocals , the song included only McCartney 's lead vocal and the strings arranged by producer George Martin . The band gave their final commercial concert at the end of their 1966 US tour . Later that year , McCartney completed his first musical project apart from the group — a film score for the UK production The Family Way . The score was a collaboration with Martin , who used two McCartney themes to write thirteen variations . The soundtrack failed to chart , but it won McCartney an Ivor Novello Award for Best Instrumental Theme . Upon the end of the Beatles ' performing career , McCartney sensed unease in the band and wanted them to maintain creative productivity . He pressed them to start a new project , which became Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , widely regarded as rock 's first concept album . Inspired to create a new persona for the group , to serve as a vehicle for experimentation and to demonstrate to their fans that they had musically matured , McCartney invented the fictional band of the album 's title track . As McCartney explained , " We were fed up with being the Beatles . We really hated that fucking four little mop @-@ top approach . We were not boys we were men ... and [ we ] thought of ourselves as artists rather than just performers . " Starting in November 1966 , the band adopted an experimental attitude during recording sessions for the album . According to engineer Geoff Emerick , " the Beatles were looking to go out on a limb , both musically and sonically ... we were utilising a lot of tape varispeeding and other manipulation techniques ... limiters and ... effects like flanging and ADT . " Their recording of " A Day in the Life " required a forty @-@ piece orchestra , which Martin and McCartney took turns conducting . The sessions produced the double A @-@ side single " Strawberry Fields Forever " / " Penny Lane " in February 1967 , and the LP followed in June . McCartney 's " She 's Leaving Home " was an orchestral pop song . MacDonald described the track as " [ among ] the finest work on Sgt. Pepper — imperishable popular art of its time " . Based on an ink drawing by McCartney , the LP 's cover included a collage designed by pop artists Peter Blake and Jann Haworth , featuring the Beatles in costume as the Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , standing with a host of celebrities . The heavy moustaches worn by the Beatles reflected the growing influence of hippie style trends on the band , while their clothing " spoofed the vogue in Britain for military fashions " , wrote Gould . Scholar David Scott Kastan described Sgt. Pepper as " the most important and influential rock @-@ and @-@ roll album ever recorded " . Epstein 's death in August 1967 created a void , which left the Beatles perplexed and concerned about their future . McCartney , stepping in to fill that void , gradually became the de facto leader and business manager of the group Lennon had once led . His first creative suggestion after this change of leadership was to propose that the band move forward on their plans to produce a film for television , which was to become Magical Mystery Tour . The project was " an administrative nightmare throughout " , according to Beatles ' historian Mark Lewisohn . McCartney largely directed the film , which brought the group their first unfavourable critical response . However , the film 's soundtrack was more successful . It was released in the UK as a six @-@ track double extended play disc ( EP ) , and as an identically titled LP in the US , filled out with five songs from the band 's recent singles . The only Capitol compilation later included in the group 's official canon of studio albums , the Magical Mystery Tour LP achieved $ 8 million in sales within three weeks of its release , higher initial sales than any other Capitol LP up to that point . In January 1968 , EMI filmed the Beatles for a promotional trailer intended to advertise the animated film Yellow Submarine , loosely based on the imaginary world evoked by McCartney 's 1966 composition . Though critics admired the film for its visual style , humour and music , the soundtrack album issued seven months later received a less enthusiastic response . By late 1968 , relations within the band were deteriorating . The tension grew during the recording of their self @-@ titled double album , also known as the " White Album " . Matters worsened the following year during the Let It Be sessions , when a camera crew filmed McCartney lecturing the group : " We 've been very negative since Mr. Epstein passed away ... we were always fighting [ his ] discipline a bit , but it 's silly to fight that discipline if it 's our own " . In March 1969 , McCartney married Linda Eastman , and in August , the couple had their first child , Mary , named after his late mother . For Abbey Road , the band 's last recorded album , Martin suggested " a continuously moving piece of music " , urging the group to think symphonically . McCartney agreed , but Lennon did not . They eventually compromised , agreeing to McCartney 's suggestion : an LP featuring individual songs on side one , and a long medley on side two . In October 1969 , a rumour surfaced that McCartney had died in a car crash in 1966 and been replaced by a lookalike , but this was quickly refuted when a November Life magazine cover featured him and his family , accompanied by the caption " Paul is still with us " . On 10 April 1970 , in the midst of business disagreements with his bandmates , McCartney announced his departure from the group . He filed suit for the band 's formal dissolution on 31 December 1970 . More legal disputes followed as McCartney 's attorneys , his in @-@ laws John and Lee Eastman , fought Lennon 's , Harrison 's , and Starr 's business manager , Allen Klein , over royalties and creative control . An English court legally dissolved the Beatles on 9 January 1975 , though sporadic lawsuits against their record company EMI , Klein , and each other persisted until 1989 . They are widely regarded as one of the most popular and influential acts in the history of rock music . Prior to , and for a while after leaving the group , McCartney suffered from a deep depression as a result of the band 's break @-@ up . He spent days in bed and drank excessively : " I nearly had a breakdown , " he said . " I was going crazy . " Biographer Howard Sounes writes that " McCartney sank into whisky @-@ soaked oblivion , [ and ] only Linda knew how to save him . " She helped him pull out of that emotional crisis by praising his work as a songwriter and convincing him to continue writing and recording . In her honor , he later wrote " Maybe I 'm Amazed " , explaining that with the Beatles breaking up , " that was my feeling : Maybe I 'm amazed at what 's going on ... Maybe I 'm a man and maybe you 're the only woman who could ever help me ; Baby won 't you help me understand ... Maybe I 'm amazed at the way you pulled me out of time , hung me on the line , Maybe I 'm amazed at the way I really need you . " He added that " every love song I write is for Linda . " = = = 1970 – 81 : Wings = = = After the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , McCartney continued his musical career with his first solo release , McCartney , a US number @-@ one album . Apart from some vocal contributions from Linda , McCartney is a one @-@ man album , with Paul providing compositions , instrumentation and vocals . In 1971 , he collaborated with Linda and drummer Denny Seiwell on a second album , Ram . A UK number one and a US top five , Ram included the co @-@ written US number @-@ one hit single " Uncle Albert / Admiral Halsey " . Later that year , ex @-@ Moody Blues guitarist Denny Laine joined the McCartneys and Seiwell to form the band Wings . McCartney had this to say on the group 's formation : " Wings were always a difficult idea ... any group having to follow [ the Beatles ' ] success would have a hard job ... I found myself in that very position . However , it was a choice between going on or finishing , and I loved music too much to think of stopping . " In September 1971 , the McCartneys ' daughter Stella was born , named in honour of Linda 's grandmothers , both of whom were named Stella . Following the addition of guitarist Henry McCullough , Wings ' first concert tour began in 1972 with a debut performance in front of an audience of seven hundred at the University of Nottingham . Ten more gigs followed as they travelled across the UK in a van during an unannounced tour of universities , during which the band stayed in modest accommodation and received pay in coinage collected from students , while avoiding Beatles songs during their performances . A seven @-@ week , 25 @-@ show tour of Europe followed , during which the band played solely Wings and McCartney solo material except for a few covers , including the Little Richard hit " Long Tall Sally " , the only song McCartney played during the tour that had previously been recorded by the Beatles . McCartney wanted the tour to avoid large venues ; most of the small halls they played had capacities of fewer than 3 @,@ 000 people . Of his first two post @-@ Beatles tours , McCartney said , " The main thing I didn 't want was to come on stage , faced with the whole torment of five rows of press people with little pads , all looking at me and saying , ' Oh well , he is not as good as he was . ' So we decided to go out on that university tour which made me less nervous ... by the end of that tour I felt ready for something else , so we went into Europe . " In March 1973 , Wings achieved their first US number @-@ one single , " My Love " , included on their second LP , Red Rose Speedway , a US number one and UK top five . Paul 's collaboration with Linda and former Beatles producer Martin resulted in the song " Live and Let Die " , which was the theme song for the James Bond film of the same name . Nominated for an Academy Award , the song reached number two in the US and number nine in the UK . It also earned Martin a Grammy for his orchestral arrangement . Music professor and author Vincent Benitez described the track as " symphonic rock at its best " . After the departure of McCullough and Seiwell in 1973 , the McCartneys and Laine recorded Band on the Run . The album was the first of seven platinum Wings LPs . It was a US and UK number one , the band 's first to top the charts in both countries and the first ever to reach Billboard magazine 's charts on three separate occasions . One of the best @-@ selling releases of the decade , it remained on the UK charts for 124 weeks . Rolling Stone named it Album of the Year for 1974 , and in 1975 it won Grammy Awards for Best Contemporary / Pop Vocal and Best Engineered Album . In 1974 , Wings achieved a second US number @-@ one single with the title track . The album also included the top @-@ ten hits " Jet " and " Helen Wheels " , and earned the 413th spot on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . Wings followed Band on the Run with the chart @-@ topping albums Venus and Mars ( 1975 ) and Wings at the Speed of Sound ( 1976 ) . In 1975 , they began the fourteen @-@ month Wings Over the World Tour , which included stops in the UK , Australia , Europe and the US . The tour marked the first time McCartney performed Beatles songs live with Wings , with five in the two @-@ hour set list : " I 've Just Seen a Face " , " Yesterday " , " Blackbird " , " Lady Madonna " and " The Long and Winding Road " . Following the second European leg of the tour and extensive rehearsals in London , the group undertook an ambitious US arena tour that yielded the US number @-@ one live triple LP Wings over America . In September 1977 , the McCartneys had a third child , a son they named James . In November , the Wings song " Mull of Kintyre " , co @-@ written with Laine , was quickly becoming one of the best @-@ selling singles in UK chart history . The most successful single of McCartney 's solo career , it achieved double the sales of the previous record holder , " She Loves You " , and went on to sell 2 @.@ 5 million copies and hold the UK sales record until the 1984 charity single , " Do They Know It 's Christmas ? " London Town ( 1978 ) spawned a US number @-@ one single ( " With a Little Luck " ) , and was Wings ' best @-@ selling LP since Band on the Run , making the top five in both the US and the UK . Critical reception was unfavourable , and McCartney expressed disappointment with the album . Back to the Egg ( 1979 ) featured McCartney 's collaboration with a rock supergroup dubbed " the Rockestra " . Credited to Wings , the band included Pete Townshend , David Gilmour , Gary Brooker , John Paul Jones and John Bonham . Though certified platinum , critics panned the album . Wings completed their final concert tour in 1979 , with twenty shows in the UK that included the live debut of the Beatles songs " Got to Get You into My Life " , " The Fool on the Hill " and " Let it Be " . In 1980 , McCartney released his second solo LP , the self @-@ produced McCartney II , which peaked at number one in the UK and number three in the US . As with his first album , he composed and performed it alone . The album contained the song " Coming Up " , the live version of which , recorded in Glasgow , Scotland , in 1979 by Wings , became the group 's last number @-@ one hit . By 1981 , McCartney felt he had accomplished all he could creatively with Wings and decided he needed a change . The group disbanded in April 1981 following disagreements over royalties and salaries . = = = 1982 – 90 = = = In 1982 McCartney collaborated with Stevie Wonder on the Martin @-@ produced number @-@ one hit " Ebony and Ivory " , included on McCartney 's Tug of War LP , and with Michael Jackson on " The Girl Is Mine " from Thriller . " Ebony and Ivory " was McCartney 's record 28th single to hit number one on the Billboard 100 . The following year , he and Jackson worked on " Say Say Say " , McCartney 's most recent US number one as of 2014 . McCartney earned his latest UK number one as of 2014 with the title track of his LP release that year , " Pipes of Peace " . In 1984 , McCartney starred in the musical Give My Regards to Broad Street , a feature film he also wrote and produced which included Starr in an acting role . Disparaged by critics , Variety described the film as " characterless , bloodless , and pointless " . Roger Ebert awarded it a single star and wrote , " you can safely skip the movie and proceed directly to the soundtrack " . The album fared much better , reaching number one in the UK and producing the US top @-@ ten hit single " No More Lonely Nights " , featuring David Gilmour on lead guitar . In 1985 , Warner Brothers commissioned McCartney to write a song for the comedic feature film Spies Like Us . He composed and recorded the track in four days , with Phil Ramone co @-@ producing . McCartney participated in Live Aid , performing " Let it Be " , but technical difficulties rendered his vocals and piano barely audible for the first two verses , punctuated by squeals of feedback . Equipment technicians resolved the problems and David Bowie , Alison Moyet , Pete Townshend and Bob Geldof joined McCartney on stage , receiving an enthusiastic crowd reaction . McCartney collaborated with Eric Stewart on Press to Play ( 1986 ) , with Stewart co @-@ writing more than half the songs on the LP . In 1988 , McCartney released Choba B CCCP , released only in the Soviet Union , which contained eighteen covers ; recorded over the course of two days . In 1989 , he joined forces with fellow Merseysiders Gerry Marsden and Holly Johnson to record an updated version of " Ferry Cross the Mersey " , for the Hillsborough disaster appeal fund . That same year , he released Flowers in the Dirt ; a collaborative effort with Elvis Costello that included musical contributions from Gilmour and Nicky Hopkins . McCartney then formed a band consisting of himself and Linda , with Hamish Stuart and Robbie McIntosh on guitars , Paul " Wix " Wickens on keyboards and Chris Whitten on drums . In September 1989 , they launched the Paul McCartney World Tour , his first in over a decade . The following year , he released the triple album , Tripping the Live Fantastic , which contained select performances from the tour . In 1990 , the US publication Amusement Business presented McCartney with an award for the highest grossing show of the year ; his two performances at Berkeley earned over $ 3 @.@ 5 million . He performed for the largest paying stadium audience in history on 21 April 1990 , when 184 @,@ 000 people attended his concert at Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil . = = = 1991 – 2000 = = = McCartney ventured into orchestral music in 1991 , when the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Society commissioned a musical piece by him to celebrate its sesquicentennial . He collaborated with composer Carl Davis , producing Liverpool Oratorio . The performance featured opera singers Kiri Te Kanawa , Sally Burgess , Jerry Hadley and Willard White , with the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Orchestra and the choir of Liverpool Cathedral . Reviews were negative . The Guardian was especially critical , describing the music as " afraid of anything approaching a fast tempo " , and adding that the piece has " little awareness of the need for recurrent ideas that will bind the work into a whole " . The paper published a letter McCartney submitted in response in which he noted several of the work 's faster tempos and added , " happily , history shows that many good pieces of music were not liked by the critics of the time so I am content to ... let people judge for themselves the merits of the work . " The New York Times was slightly more generous , stating , " There are moments of beauty and pleasure in this dramatic miscellany ... the music 's innocent sincerity makes it difficult to be put off by its ambitions " . Performed around the world after its London premiere , the Liverpool Oratorio reached number one on the UK classical chart , Music Week . In 1991 , McCartney performed a selection of acoustic @-@ only songs on MTV Unplugged and released a live album of the performance titled Unplugged ( The Official Bootleg ) . During the 1990s , McCartney collaborated twice with Youth of Killing Joke as the musical duo " the Fireman " . The two released their first electronica album together , Strawberries Oceans Ships Forest , in 1993 . McCartney released the rock album Off the Ground in 1993 . The subsequent New World Tour followed , which led to the release of the Paul Is Live album later that year . Starting in 1994 , McCartney took a four @-@ year break from his solo career to work on Apple 's Beatles Anthology project with Harrison , Starr and Martin . He recorded a radio series called Oobu Joobu in 1995 for the American network Westwood One , which he described as " widescreen radio " . Also in 1995 , Prince Charles presented him with an Honorary Fellowship of the Royal College of Music — " kind of amazing for somebody who doesn 't read a note of music " , commented McCartney . In 1997 , McCartney released the rock album Flaming Pie . Starr appeared on drums and backing vocals in " Beautiful Night " . Later that year , he released the classical work Standing Stone , which topped the UK and US classical charts . In 1998 , he released Rushes , the second electronica album by the Fireman . In 1999 , McCartney released Run Devil Run . Recorded in one week , and featuring Ian Paice and David Gilmour , it was primarily an album of covers with three McCartney originals . He had been planning such an album for years , having been previously encouraged to do so by Linda , who had died of cancer in April 1998 . He did an unannounced performance at the benefit tribute , " Concert for Linda , " his wife of 29 years who died a year earlier . It was held at the Royal Albert Hall in London on 10 April 1999 , and was organised by two of her close friends , Chrissie Hynde and Carla Lane . Also during 1999 , he continued his experimentation with orchestral music on Working Classical . In 2000 , he released the electronica album Liverpool Sound Collage with Super Furry Animals and Youth , using the sound collage and musique concrète techniques that had fascinated him in the mid @-@ 1960s . He contributed the song " Nova " to a tribute album of classical , choral music called A Garland for Linda ( 2000 ) , dedicated to his late wife . = = = 2000 – 10 = = = Having witnessed the 11 September 2001 attacks from the JFK airport tarmac , McCartney was inspired to take a leading role in organising the Concert for New York City . His studio album release in November that year , Driving Rain , included the song " Freedom " , written in response to the attacks . The following year , McCartney went out on tour with a band that included guitarists Rusty Anderson and Brian Ray , accompanied by Paul " Wix " Wickens on keyboards and Abe Laboriel , Jr. on drums . They began the Driving World Tour in April 2002 , which included stops in the US , Mexico and Japan . The tour resulted in the double live album Back in the US , released internationally in 2003 as Back in the World . The tour earned a reported $ 126 @.@ 2 million , an average of over $ 2 million per night , and Billboard named it the top tour of the year . In July 2002 , McCartney married Heather Mills . In November , on the first anniversary of George Harrison 's death , McCartney performed at the Concert for George . He participated in the National Football League 's Super Bowl , performing " Freedom " during the pre @-@ game show for Super Bowl XXXVI in 2002 and headlining the halftime show at Super Bowl XXXIX in 2005 . The English College of Arms honoured McCartney in 2002 by granting him a coat of arms . His crest , featuring a Liver bird holding an acoustic guitar in its claw , reflects his background in Liverpool and his musical career . The shield includes four curved emblems which resemble beetles ' backs . The arms ' motto is Ecce Cor Meum , Latin for " Behold My Heart " . In 2003 , the McCartneys had a child , Beatrice Milly . In July 2005 , he performed at the Live 8 event in Hyde Park , London , opening the show with " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " ( with U2 ) and closing it with " Drive My Car " ( with George Michael ) , " Helter Skelter " , and " The Long and Winding Road " . In September , he released the rock album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , for which he provided most of the instrumentation . In 2006 , McCartney released the classical work Ecce Cor Meum . The rock album Memory Almost Full followed in 2007 . In 2008 , he released his third Fireman album , Electric Arguments . Also in 2008 , he performed at a concert in Liverpool to celebrate the city 's year as European Capital of Culture . In 2009 , after a four @-@ year break , he returned to touring and has since performed over 80 shows . More than forty @-@ five years after the Beatles first appeared on American television during The Ed Sullivan Show , he returned to the same New York theatre to perform on Late Show with David Letterman . On 9 September 2009 , EMI reissued the Beatles catalogue following a four @-@ year digital remastering effort , releasing a music video game called The Beatles : Rock Band the same day . McCartney 's enduring fame has made him a popular choice to open new venues . In 2009 , he played three sold @-@ out concerts at the newly built Citi Field — a venue constructed to replace Shea Stadium in Queens , New York . These performances yielded the double live album Good Evening New York City later that year . In 2010 , McCartney opened the Consol Energy Center in Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . = = = 2011 – present = = = In July 2011 , McCartney played two sold @-@ out concerts at the new Yankee Stadium . A New York Times review of the first concert reported that McCartney was " not saying goodbye but touring stadiums and playing marathon concerts . " In September 2011 , having been commissioned by the New York City Ballet , McCartney released his first score for dance , a collaboration with Peter Martins called Ocean 's Kingdom . Also in 2011 , McCartney married Nancy Shevell . He released Kisses on the Bottom , a collection of standards , in February 2012 ; that same month the National Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences honoured him as the MusiCares Person of the Year , two days prior to his performance at the 54th Grammy Awards . McCartney remains one of the world 's top draws . He played to over 100 @,@ 000 people total during two performances in Mexico City in May , the shows grossing nearly $ 6 million . In June 2012 , McCartney closed Queen Elizabeth 's Diamond Jubilee Concert held outside Buckingham Palace , performing a set that included " Let It Be " and " Live and Let Die " . He closed the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London on 27 July , singing " The End " and " Hey Jude " and inviting the audience to join in on the coda . Having donated his time , he received £ 1 from the Olympic organisers . On 12 December , McCartney performed with three former members of Nirvana ( Krist Novoselic , Dave Grohl , and Pat Smear ) during the closing act of 12 @-@ 12 @-@ 12 : The Concert for Sandy Relief , seen by approximately two billion people worldwide . On 28 August 2013 , McCartney released the title track of his upcoming studio album New , which came out in October 2013 . A primetime entertainment special celebrating the legacy of seven @-@ time Grammy @-@ winning group the Beatles and their groundbreaking first performance on The Ed Sullivan Show , featuring Paul McCartney and Ringo Starr , was taped 27 January 2014 at the Ed Sullivan Theater with a 9 February 2014 CBS airing . The show , titled The Night That Changed America : A Grammy Salute to The Beatles , featured 22 classic Beatles songs as performed by various artists , including McCartney and Starr . On 19 May 2014 , it was reported that McCartney had been bedridden by an unspecified virus on doctor 's orders , and had to cancel a sold @-@ out concert tour of Japan scheduled to begin later in the week . The tour would have included a stop at the famed Budokan Hall . McCartney also had to push his June US dates to October , as part of his doctor 's order to take it easy to make a full recovery . However , he resumed the tour with a high @-@ energy three hour appearance in Albany , New York , on 5 July 2014 . On 14 August 2014 , McCartney performed the final concert at Candlestick Park in San Francisco , California before its demolition . It was the same venue that the Beatles played their final concert in 1966 . In 2014 , McCartney wrote and performed " Hope for the Future , " the ending song for the video game Destiny . In November 2014 , a 42 @-@ song tribute album titled The Art of McCartney was released , which features a wide range of artists covering McCartney 's solo and Beatles work . Also that year , McCartney collaborated with American recording artist Kanye West on the single " Only One " , released on 31 December . In January 2015 , McCartney collaborated with Kanye West and Barbadian singer Rihanna on the single " FourFiveSeconds " . They released a music video for the song in January and performed it live at the 57th Annual Grammy Awards on 8 February 2015 . McCartney is a featured guest on West 's 2015 single " All Day " , which also features Theophilus London and Allan Kingdom . On 15 February 2015 , McCartney appeared and performed with Paul Simon for the Saturday Night Live 40th Anniversary Special . McCartney and Simon performed the first verse of " I 've Just Seen a Face " on acoustic guitars , and McCartney later performed " Maybe I 'm Amazed . " McCartney shared lead vocals on the Alice Cooper @-@ led Hollywood Vampires supergroup 's cover of his song " Come and Get It " which appears on their debut album , released 11 September 2015 . On 31 March 2016 , McCartney announced the upcoming release , on 10 June , of his career @-@ spanning collection Pure McCartney . The set includes songs from throughout McCartney 's solo career and his work with Wings and the Fireman , and will be available in three different formats ( 2 @-@ CD , 4 @-@ CD , 4 @-@ LP and Digital ) . The 4 @-@ CD version will include 67 tracks , the majority of which were top 40 hits . In 2017 , McCartney will appear in the movie Pirates of the Caribbean : Dead Men Tell No Tales . = = Musicianship = = Largely a self @-@ taught musician , McCartney 's approach was described by musicologist Ian MacDonald as " by nature drawn to music 's formal aspects yet wholly untutored ... [ he ] produced technically ' finished ' work almost entirely by instinct , his harmonic judgement based mainly on perfect pitch and an acute pair of ears ... [ A ] natural melodist — a creator of tunes capable of existing apart from their harmony " . McCartney commented , " I prefer to think of my approach to music as ... rather like the primitive cave artists , who drew without training . " = = = Bass guitar = = = McCartney 's skill as a bass player has been acknowledged by other bassists , including Sting , Dr. Dre bassist Mike Elizondo , and Colin Moulding of XTC . Best known for primarily using a plectrum or pick , McCartney occasionally plays fingerstyle . He does not use slapping or muting techniques . He was strongly influenced by Motown artists , in particular James Jamerson , who McCartney called a hero for his melodic style . He was also influenced by Brian Wilson , as he commented : " because he went to very unusual places " . Another favourite bassist of his is Stanley Clarke . During McCartney 's early years with the Beatles , he primarily used a Höfner 500 / 1 bass , though in 1965 , he began sporadically using a Rickenbacker 4001S for recording . While typically using Vox amplifiers , by 1967 he had also begun using a Fender Bassman for amplification . During the late 1980s and early 1990s , he used a Wal 5 @-@ String , which he said made him play more thick @-@ sounding basslines , in contrast to the much lighter Höfner , which inspired him to play more sensitively , something he considers fundamental to his playing style . He changed back to the Höfner around 1990 for that reason . He uses Mesa Boogie bass amplifiers while performing live . MacDonald identified " She 's a Woman " as the turning point when McCartney 's bass playing began to evolve dramatically , and Beatles biographer Chris Ingham singled out Rubber Soul as the moment when McCartney 's playing exhibited significant progress , particularly on " The Word " . Bacon and Morgan agreed , calling McCartney 's groove on the track " a high point in pop bass playing and ... the first proof on a recording of his serious technical ability on the instrument . " MacDonald inferred the influence of James Brown 's " Papa 's Got a Brand New Bag " and Wilson Pickett 's " In the Midnight Hour " , American soul tracks from which McCartney absorbed elements and drew inspiration as he " delivered his most spontaneous bass @-@ part to date " . Bacon and Morgan described his bassline for the Beatles song " Rain " as " an astonishing piece of playing ... [ McCartney ] thinking in terms of both rhythm and ' lead bass ' ... [ choosing ] the area of the neck ... he correctly perceives will give him clarity for melody without rendering his sound too thin for groove . " MacDonald considered the track the Beatles ' best B @-@ side , stating that its " clangorously saturated texture resonates around McCartney 's [ bassline ] " , which MacDonald described as " so inventive that it threatens to overwhelm the track " . MacDonald also indicated the influence of Indian classical music in " exotic melismas in the bass part " . McCartney identified Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band as containing his strongest and most inventive bass playing , particularly on " Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds " . = = = Acoustic guitar = = = McCartney primarily flatpicks while playing acoustic guitar , though he also uses elements of fingerpicking . Examples of his acoustic guitar playing on Beatles tracks include " Yesterday " , " I 'm Looking Through You " , " Michelle " , " Blackbird " , " I Will " , " Mother Nature 's Son " and " Rocky Raccoon " . McCartney singled out " Blackbird " as a personal favourite and described his technique for the guitar part in the following way : " I got my own little sort of cheating way of [ fingerpicking ] ... I 'm actually sort of pulling two strings at a time ... I was trying to emulate those folk players . " He employed a similar technique for " Jenny Wren " . He played an Epiphone Texan on many of his acoustic recordings , but also used a Martin D @-@ 28 . = = = Electric guitar = = = McCartney played lead guitar on several Beatles recordings , including what MacDonald described as a " fiercely angular slide guitar solo " on " Drive My Car " , which McCartney played on an Epiphone Casino . McCartney said of the instrument , " if I had to pick one electric guitar it would be this . " He contributed what MacDonald described as " a startling guitar solo " on the Harrison composition " Taxman " and the " shrieking " guitar on " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " and " Helter Skelter " . MacDonald also praised McCartney 's " coruscating pseudo @-@ Indian " guitar solo on " Good Morning Good Morning " . McCartney also played lead guitar on " Another Girl " . While in Wings , McCartney tended to leave electric guitar work to other group members , though he played most of the lead guitar on Band on the Run . In 1990 , when asked who his favourite guitar players were he included Eddie Van Halen , Eric Clapton and David Gilmour , stating , " but I still like Hendrix the best " . He has primarily used a Gibson Les Paul for electric work , particularly during live performances . = = = Vocals = = = Often renowned as one of the greatest singers in pop music , McCartney was ranked the 11th greatest singer of all time by The Rolling Stone , voted the 8th greatest singer ever by the NME readers and number 10 by the Music Radar readers in the list of ' the 30 greatest lead singers of all time ' . He is known for his belting power , versatility and wide tenor vocal range , spanning over four octaves . Heavily influenced by Little Richard , McCartney 's vocals would cross several musical genres throughout his career . On " Call Me Back Again " , according to Benitez , " McCartney shines as a bluesy solo vocalist " while MacDonald called " I 'm Down " " a rock @-@ and @-@ roll classic " that " illustrates McCartney 's vocal and stylistic versatility " . MacDonald described " Helter Skelter " as an early attempt at heavy metal , and " Hey Jude " as a " pop / rock hybrid " , pointing out McCartney 's " use of gospel @-@ style melismas " in the song and his " pseudo @-@ soul shrieking in the fade @-@ out " . Benitez identified " Hope of Deliverance " and " Put It There " as examples of McCartney 's folk music efforts while musicologist Walter Everett considered " When I 'm Sixty @-@ Four " and " Honey Pie " attempts at vaudeville . MacDonald praised the " swinging beat " of the Beatles ' twenty @-@ four bar blues song , " She 's a Woman " as " the most extreme sound they had manufactured to date " , with McCartney 's voice " at the edge , squeezed to the upper limit of his chest register and threatening to crack at any moment . " MacDonald described " I 've Got a Feeling " as a " raunchy , mid @-@ tempo rocker " with a " robust and soulful " vocal performance and " Back in the U.S.S.R. " as " the last of [ the Beatles ' ] up @-@ tempo rockers " , McCartney 's " belting " vocals among his best since " Drive My Car " , recorded three years earlier . McCartney also teasingly tried out classical singing , namely singing various renditions of " Besame Mucho " with the rest of The Beatles . He 'd continue wildly experimenting with various musical and vocal styles throughout his post @-@ Beatles career as a solo artist , " Monkberry Moon Delight " being named by Pitchfork 's Jayson Greene as " an absolutely unhinged vocal take , Paul gulping and sobbing right next to your inner ear " , adding that " it could be a latter @-@ day Tom Waits performance " . Over the years , McCartney has been named a significant vocal influence by a number of renowned artists , including Chris Cornell , Billy Joel , Steven Tyler , Brad Delp and Axl Rose . = = = Keyboards = = = McCartney played piano on several Beatles songs , including " Every Little Thing " , " She 's a Woman " , " For No One " , " A Day in the Life " , " Hello , Goodbye " , " Hey Jude " , " Lady Madonna " , " Let It Be " and " The Long and Winding Road " . MacDonald considered the piano part in " Lady Madonna " as reminiscent of Fats Domino , and " Let It Be " as having a gospel rhythm . MacDonald called McCartney 's Mellotron intro on " Strawberry Fields Forever " an integral feature of the song 's character . McCartney played a Moog synthesizer on the Beatles song " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " and the Wings track " Loup ( 1st Indian on the Moon ) " . Ingham described the Wings songs " With a Little Luck " and " London Town " as " full of the most sensitive pop synthesizer touches " . = = = Drums = = = McCartney played drums on the Beatles ' songs " Back in the U.S.S.R. " , " Dear Prudence " , " Martha My Dear " , " Wild Honey Pie " and " The Ballad of John and Yoko " . He also played all the drum parts on his first and second solo albums McCartney and McCartney II , as well as on the Wings album Band on the Run and most of the drums on his solo LP Chaos and Creation in the Backyard . McCartney also played drums on Paul Jones ' rendition of " And the Sun Will Shine " in 1968 . Using the pseudonym Paul Ramon , which he had first used during the Beatles first tour in Scotland in 1960 , McCartney played drums on Steve Miller Band 's 1969 tracks " Celebration Song " and " My Dark Hour " . = = = Tape loops = = = In the mid @-@ 1960s , when visiting artist friend John Dunbar 's flat in London , McCartney brought tapes he had compiled at then @-@ girlfriend Jane Asher 's home . They included mixes of various songs , musical pieces and comments made by McCartney that Dick James made into a demo for him . Heavily influenced by American avant @-@ garde musician John Cage , McCartney made tape loops by recording voices , guitars and bongos on a Brenell tape recorder and splicing the various loops . He referred to the finished product as " electronic symphonies " . He reversed the tapes , speeded them up , and slowed them down to create the desired effects , some of which the Beatles later used on the songs " Tomorrow Never Knows " and " The Fool on the Hill " . = = = Early influences = = = McCartney 's earliest musical influences include Little Richard , Elvis Presley , Buddy Holly , Carl Perkins , and Chuck Berry . When asked why the Beatles did not include Presley on the Sgt. Pepper cover , McCartney replied , " Elvis was too important and too far above the rest even to mention ... so we didn 't put him on the list because he was more than merely a ... pop singer , he was Elvis the King . " McCartney stated that for his bassline for " I Saw Her Standing There " , he directly quoted Berry 's " I 'm Talking About You " . McCartney called Little Richard an idol , whose falsetto vocalisations inspired McCartney 's own vocal technique . McCartney said he wrote " I 'm Down " as a vehicle for his Little Richard impersonation . In 1971 , McCartney bought the publishing rights to Holly 's catalogue , and in 1976 , on the fortieth anniversary of Holly 's birth , McCartney inaugurated the annual " Buddy Holly Week " in England . The festival has included guest performances by famous musicians , songwriting competitions , drawing contests and special events featuring performances by the Crickets . = = Lifestyle = = = = = Creative outlets = = = While at school during the 1950s , McCartney thrived at art assignments , often earning top accolades for his visual work . However , his lack of discipline negatively affected his academic grades , preventing him from earning admission to art college . During the 1960s , he delved into the visual arts , explored experimental cinema , and regularly attended film , theatrical and classical music performances . His first contact with the London avant @-@ garde scene was through artist John Dunbar , who introduced McCartney to art dealer Robert Fraser . At Fraser 's flat he first learned about art appreciation and met Andy Warhol , Claes Oldenburg , Peter Blake , and Richard Hamilton . McCartney later purchased works by Magritte , using his painting of an apple for the Apple Records logo . McCartney became involved in the renovation and publicising of the Indica Gallery in Mason 's Yard , London , which Barry Miles had co @-@ founded and where Lennon first met Yoko Ono . Miles also co @-@ founded International Times , an underground paper that McCartney helped to start with direct financial support and by providing interviews to attract advertiser income . Miles later wrote McCartney 's official biography , Many Years From Now ( 1997 ) . McCartney became interested in painting after watching artist Willem de Kooning work in de Kooning 's Long Island studio . McCartney took up painting in 1983 , and he first exhibited his work in Siegen , Germany , in 1999 . The 70 @-@ painting show featured portraits of Lennon , Andy Warhol and David Bowie . Though initially reluctant to display his paintings publicly , McCartney chose the gallery because events organiser Wolfgang Suttner showed genuine interest in McCartney 's art . In September 2000 , the first UK exhibition of McCartney 's paintings opened , featuring 500 canvases at the Arnolfini Gallery in Bristol , England . In October 2000 , McCartney 's art debuted in his hometown of Liverpool . McCartney said , " I 've been offered an exhibition of my paintings at the Walker Art Gallery ... where John and I used to spend many a pleasant afternoon . So I 'm really excited about it . I didn 't tell anybody I painted for 15 years but now I 'm out of the closet " . McCartney is lead patron of the Liverpool Institute for Performing Arts , a school in the building formerly occupied by the Liverpool Institute for Boys . When McCartney was a child , his mother read him poems and encouraged him to read books . His father invited Paul and his brother Michael to solve crosswords with him , to increase their " word power " , as McCartney said . In 2001 , McCartney published Blackbird Singing , a volume of poems and lyrics to his songs for which he gave readings in Liverpool and New York City . In the foreword of the book , he explains : " When I was a teenager ... I had an overwhelming desire to have a poem published in the school magazine . I wrote something deep and meaningful — which was promptly rejected — and I suppose I have been trying to get my own back ever since " . His first children 's book was published by Faber & Faber in 2005 , High in the Clouds : An Urban Furry Tail , a collaboration with writer Philip Ardagh and animator Geoff Dunbar . Featuring a squirrel whose woodland home is razed by developers , it had been scripted and sketched by McCartney and Dunbar over several years , as an animated film . The Observer labelled it an " anti @-@ capitalist children 's book " . In 1981 , McCartney asked Geoff Dunbar to direct a short animated film called Rupert and the Frog Song ; McCartney was the writer and producer , and he also added some of the character voices . In 1992 , he worked with Dunbar on an animated film about the work of French artist Honoré Daumier , which won them a BAFTA award . In 2004 , they worked together on the animated short film Tropic Island Hum . The accompanying single , " Tropic Island Hum " / " We All Stand Together " , reached number 21 in the UK . McCartney also produced and hosted The Real Buddy Holly Story , a 1985 documentary featuring interviews with Keith Richards , Phil and Don Everly , the Holly family , and others . In 1995 , he made a guest appearance on the Simpsons episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " and directed a short documentary about the Grateful Dead . In 2015 , it was revealed that McCartney turned down an offer to play the role of father to Helen Baxendale 's character Emily in Friends . = = = Business = = = Since the Rich List began in 1989 , McCartney has been the UK 's wealthiest musician , with an estimated fortune of £ 730 million in 2015 . In addition to an interest in Apple Corps and MPL Communications , an umbrella company for his business interests , he owns a significant music publishing catalogue , with access to over 25 @,@ 000 copyrights , including the publishing rights to the musicals Guys and Dolls , A Chorus Line , Annie and Grease . He earned £ 40 million in 2003 , the highest income that year within media professions in the UK . This rose to £ 48 @.@ 5 million by 2005 . McCartney 's 18 @-@ date On the Run Tour grossed £ 37 million in 2012 . McCartney signed his first recording contract , as a member of the Beatles , with Parlophone Records , an EMI subsidiary , in June 1962 . In the United States , the Beatles recordings were distributed by EMI subsidiary Capitol Records . The Beatles re @-@ signed with EMI for another nine years in 1967 . After forming their own record label , Apple Records , in 1968 , the Beatles ' recordings would be released through Apple although the masters were still owned by EMI . Following the break @-@ up of the Beatles , McCartney 's music continued to be released by Apple Records under the Beatles ' 1967 recording contract with EMI which ran until 1976 . Following the formal dissolution of the Beatles ' partnership in 1975 , McCartney re @-@ signed with EMI worldwide and Capitol in the US , Canada and Japan , acquiring ownership of his solo catalogue from EMI as part of the deal . In 1979 , McCartney signed with Columbia Records in the US and Canada — reportedly receiving the industry 's most lucrative recording contract to date , while remaining with EMI for distribution throughout the rest of the world . McCartney returned to Capitol in the US in 1985 , remaining with EMI until 2006 . In 2007 , McCartney signed with Hear Music , becoming the label 's first artist . He remains there as of 2012 's Kisses on the Bottom . In 1963 , Dick James established Northern Songs to publish the songs of Lennon – McCartney . McCartney initially owned 20 % of Northern Songs , which became 15 % after a public stock offering in 1965 . In 1969 , James sold a controlling interest in Northern Songs to Lew Grade 's Associated Television ( ATV ) after which McCartney and John Lennon sold their remaining shares although they remained under contract to ATV until 1973 . In 1972 , McCartney re @-@ signed with ATV for seven years in a joint publishing agreement between ATV and McCartney Music . Since 1979 , MPL Communications has published McCartney 's songs . McCartney and Yoko Ono attempted to purchase the Northern Songs catalogue in 1981 , but Grade declined their offer and decided to sell ATV in its entirety to businessman Robert Holmes à Court . Michael Jackson subsequently purchased ATV in 1985 . In 1995 , Jackson merged his catalogue with Sony for a reported £ 59 @,@ 052 @,@ 000 ( $ 95 million ) , establishing Sony / ATV Music Publishing , in which he retained half @-@ ownership . McCartney has criticised Jackson 's purchase and handling of Northern Songs over the years . Now formally dissolved , in 1995 it became absorbed in the Sony / ATV catalogue . McCartney receives writers ' royalties which together are 33 ⅓ percent of total commercial proceeds in the US , and which vary elsewhere between 50 and 55 percent . Two of the Beatles ' earliest songs — " Love Me Do " and " P.S. I Love You " — were published by an EMI subsidiary , Ardmore & Beechwood , before signing with James . McCartney acquired their publishing rights from Ardmore in the mid @-@ 1980s , and they are the only two Beatles songs owned by MPL Communications . = = = Drugs = = = McCartney first used drugs in the Beatles ' Hamburg days , when they often used Preludin to maintain their energy while performing for long periods . Bob Dylan introduced them to marijuana in a New York hotel room in 1964 ; McCartney recalls getting " very high " and " giggling uncontrollably " . His use of the drug soon became habitual , and according to Miles , McCartney wrote the lyrics " another kind of mind " in " Got to Get You into My Life " specifically as a reference to cannabis . During the filming of Help ! , McCartney occasionally smoked a joint in the car on the way to the studio during filming , and often forgot his lines . Director Richard Lester overheard two physically attractive women trying to persuade McCartney to use heroin , but he refused . Introduced to cocaine by Robert Fraser , McCartney used the drug regularly during the recording of Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , and for about a year total but stopped because of his dislike of the unpleasant melancholy he felt afterwards . Initially reluctant to try LSD , McCartney eventually did so in late 1966 , and took his second " acid trip " in March 1967 , with Lennon , after a Sgt. Pepper studio session . He later became the first Beatle to discuss the drug publicly , declaring , " It opened my eyes ... [ and ] made me a better , more honest , more tolerant member of society . " He made his attitude about cannabis public in 1967 , when he , along with the other Beatles and Epstein , added his name to a July advertisement in The Times , which called for its legalisation , the release of those imprisoned for possession , and research into marijuana 's medical uses . In 1972 , a Swedish court fined McCartney £ 1 @,@ 000 for cannabis possession . Soon after , Scottish police found marijuana plants growing on his farm , leading to his 1973 conviction for illegal cultivation and a £ 100 fine . As a result of his drug convictions , the US government repeatedly denied him a visa until December 1973 . Arrested again for marijuana possession in 1975 , in Los Angeles , Linda took the blame , and the court soon dismissed the charges . In January 1980 , when Wings flew to Tokyo for a tour of Japan , customs officials found approximately 8 ounces ( 200 g ) of cannabis in his luggage . They arrested McCartney and brought him to a local jail while the Japanese government decided what to do . After ten days , they released and deported him without charge . In 1984 , while McCartney was on holiday in Barbados , authorities arrested him for possession of marijuana and fined him $ 200 . Upon his return to England , he stated : " cannabis is ... less harmful than rum punch , whiskey , nicotine and glue , all of which are perfectly legal ... I don 't think ... I was doing anyone any harm whatsoever . " In 1997 , he spoke out in support of decriminalisation of the drug : " People are smoking pot anyway and to make them criminals is wrong . " He did however , decide to quit cannabis in 2015 , citing a desire to set a good example for his grandchildren . = = = Vegetarianism and activism = = = Since 1975 , McCartney has been a vegetarian ; he and his wife Linda were vegetarians for most of their 30 @-@ year marriage . They decided to stop consuming meat after Paul saw lambs in a field as they were eating a meal of lamb . Soon after , the couple became outspoken animal rights activists . In his first interview after Linda 's death , he promised to continue working for animal rights , and in 1999 he spent £ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 to ensure Linda McCartney Foods remained free of genetically engineered ingredients . In 1995 , he narrated the documentary Devour the Earth , written by Tony Wardle . McCartney is a supporter of the animal @-@ rights organisation People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals . He has appeared in the group 's campaigns and , in 2009 , he narrated a short factory farm exposé titled " Glass Walls " . McCartney has also supported campaigns headed by the Humane Society of the United States , Humane Society International , World Animal Protection , and the David Shepherd Wildlife Foundation . Following McCartney 's marriage to Mills , he joined her in a campaign against land mines , becoming a patron of Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield . He wore an anti @-@ landmines T @-@ shirt during some of the Back in the World tour shows . In 2006 , the McCartneys travelled to Prince Edward Island to raise international awareness of seal hunting . The couple debated with Danny Williams , Newfoundland 's then Premier , on Larry King Live , stating that fishermen should stop hunting seals and start seal @-@ watching businesses instead . McCartney also supports the Make Poverty History campaign . McCartney has participated in several charity recordings and performances , including the Concerts for the People of Kampuchea , Ferry Aid , Band Aid , Live Aid , Live 8 , and the recording of " Ferry Cross the Mersey " . In 2004 , he donated a song to an album to aid the " US Campaign for Burma " , in support of Burmese Nobel Prize winner Aung San Suu Kyi . In 2008 , he donated a song to Aid Still Required 's CD , organised as an effort to raise funds to assist with the recovery from the devastation caused in Southeast Asia by the 2004 tsunami . In 2009 , McCartney wrote to Tenzin Gyatso , the 14th Dalai Lama , asking him why he was not a vegetarian . As McCartney explained , " He wrote back very kindly , saying , ' my doctors tell me that I must eat meat ' . And I wrote back again , saying , you know , I don 't think that 's right ... I think he 's now being told ... that he can get his protein somewhere else ... It just doesn 't seem right — the Dalai Lama , on the one hand , saying , ' Hey guys , don 't harm sentient beings ... Oh , and by the way , I 'm having a steak . ' " In 2012 , McCartney joined the anti @-@ fracking campaign Artists Against Fracking . Save the Arctic is a campaign to protect the Arctic and an international outcry and a renewed focus concern on oil development in the Arctic , attracting the support of more than five million people . This includes McCartney , Archbishop Desmond Tutu and 11 Nobel Peace Prize winners . In 2014 , McCartney narrated a video for People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals , titled " Glass Walls " , which was harshly critical of slaughterhouses , the meat industry , and their effect on animal welfare . In 2015 , following British prime minister David Cameron 's decision to give Members of Parliament a free vote on amending the law against fox hunting , McCartney was quoted : " The people of Britain are behind this Tory government on many things but the vast majority of us will be against them if hunting is reintroduced . It is cruel and unnecessary and will lose them support from ordinary people and animal lovers like myself . " = = = Meditation = = = In August 1967 , McCartney met the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi at the London Hilton and later went to Bangor in North Wales to attend a weekend initiation conference , where he and the other Beatles learned the basics of Transcendental Meditation . He said , " The whole meditation experience was very good and I still use the mantra ... I find it soothing . " In 2009 , McCartney and Starr headlined a benefit concert at Radio City Music Hall , raising three million dollars for the David Lynch Foundation to fund instruction in Transcendental Meditation for at @-@ risk youth . = = = Football = = = McCartney has publicly professed support for Everton , and also shown favour for Liverpool . In 2008 , he ended speculation about his allegiance when he said , " Here 's the deal : my father was born in Everton , my family are officially Evertonians , so if it comes down to a derby match or an FA Cup final between the two , I would have to support Everton . But after a concert at Wembley Arena I got a bit of a friendship with Kenny Dalglish , who had been to the gig and I thought ' You know what ? I am just going to support them both because it 's all Liverpool . ' " = = Personal relationships = = = = = Girlfriends = = = = = = = Dot Rhone = = = = McCartney 's first serious girlfriend in Liverpool was Dot Rhone , whom he met at the Casbah club in 1959 . According to Spitz , Rhone felt that McCartney had a compulsion to control situations . He often chose clothes and make @-@ up for her , encouraging her to grow her hair out like Brigitte Bardot 's , and at least once insisting she have it re @-@ styled , to disappointing effect . When McCartney first went to Hamburg with the Beatles , he wrote to Rhone regularly , and she accompanied Cynthia Lennon to Hamburg when they played there again in 1962 . The couple had a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year relationship , and were due to marry until Rhone 's miscarriage ; according to Spitz , McCartney , now " free of obligation " , ended the engagement . = = = = Jane Asher = = = = McCartney first met British actress Jane Asher on 18 April 1963 , when a photographer asked them to pose at a Beatles performance at the Royal Albert Hall in London . The two began a relationship , and in November of that year he took up residence with Asher at her parents ' home at 57 Wimpole Street , London . They had lived there for more than two years before the couple moved to McCartney 's own home in St. John 's Wood , in March 1966 . He wrote several songs while living at the Ashers ' , including " Yesterday " , " And I Love Her " , " You Won 't See Me " and " I 'm Looking Through You " , the latter three having been inspired by their romance . They had a five @-@ year relationship and planned to marry , but Asher broke off the engagement after she discovered he had become involved with Francie Schwartz . = = = Wives = = = = = = = Linda Eastman = = = = Linda Eastman was a music fan who once commented , " all my teen years were spent with an ear to the radio . " At times , she skipped school to see artists such as Fabian , Bobby Darin and Chuck Berry . She became a popular photographer with several rock groups , including the Jimi Hendrix Experience , the Grateful Dead , the Doors and the Beatles , whom she first met at Shea Stadium in 1966 . She commented , " It was John who interested me at the start . He was my Beatle hero . But when I met him the fascination faded fast , and I found it was Paul I liked . " The pair first properly met in 1967 at a Georgie Fame concert at The Bag O 'Nails club , during her UK assignment to photograph rock musicians in London . As Paul remembers , " The night Linda and I met , I spotted her across a crowded club , and although I would normally have been nervous chatting her up , I realised I had to ... Pushiness worked for me that night ! " Linda said this about their meeting : " I was quite shameless really . I was with somebody else [ that night ] ... and I saw Paul at the other side of the room . He looked so beautiful that I made up my mind I would have to pick him up . " The pair married in 1969 . About their relationship , Paul said , " We had a lot of fun together ... just the nature of how we are , our favourite thing really is to just hang , to have fun . And Linda 's very big on just following the moment . " He added , " We were crazy . We had a big argument the night before we got married , and it was nearly called off ... [ it 's ] miraculous that we made it . But we did . " The two collaborated musically after the Beatles ' break @-@ up , forming Wings in 1971 . They faced derision from some fans and critics , who questioned her inclusion . She was nervous about performing with Paul , who explained , " she conquered those nerves , got on with it and was really gutsy . " Paul defended her musical ability : " I taught Linda the basics of the keyboard ... She took a couple of lessons and learned some bluesy things ... she did very well and made it look easier than it was ... The critics would say , ' She 's not really playing ' or ' Look at her — she 's playing with one finger . ' But what they didn 't know is that sometimes she was playing a thing called a Minimoog , which could only be played with one finger . It was monophonic . " He went on to say , " We thought we were in it for the fun ... it was just something we wanted to do , so if we got it wrong — big deal . We didn 't have to justify ourselves . " Former Wings guitarist McCullough said of collaborating with Linda , " trying to get things together with a learner in the group didn 't work as far as I was concerned . " They had four children — Linda 's daughter Heather ( legally adopted by Paul ) , Mary , Stella and James — and remained married until Linda 's death from breast cancer at age 56 in 1998 . After her death , Paul stated in the Daily Mail , " I got a counsellor because I knew that I would need some help . He was great , particularly in helping me get rid of my guilt [ about wishing I 'd been ] perfect all the time ... a real bugger . But then I thought , hang on a minute . We 're just human . That was the beautiful thing about our marriage . We were just a boyfriend and girlfriend having babies . " = = = = Heather Mills = = = = In 2002 , McCartney married Heather Mills , a former model and anti @-@ landmines campaigner . In 2003 , the couple had a child , Beatrice Milly , named in honour of Mills ' late mother , and one of McCartney 's aunts . They separated in April 2006 and divorced acrimoniously in March 2008 . In 2004 , he commented on media animosity toward his partners : " [ the British public ] didn 't like me giving up on Jane Asher ... I married [ Linda ] , a New York divorcee with a child , and at the time they didn 't like that " . = = = = Nancy Shevell = = = = McCartney married New Yorker Nancy Shevell in a civil ceremony at Old Marylebone Town Hall , London , on 9 October 2011 . The wedding was a modest event attended by a group of about 30 relatives and friends . The couple had been dating since November 2007 . Shevell is vice @-@ president of a family @-@ owned transportation conglomerate which owns New England Motor Freight . She is a former member of the board of the New York Metropolitan Transportation Authority . = = = Beatles = = = = = = = John Lennon = = = = Though McCartney had a strained relationship with Lennon , they briefly became close again in early 1974 , and played music together on one occasion . In later years , the two grew apart . While McCartney would often phone Lennon , he was apprehensive about the reception he would receive . During one call , Lennon told him , " You 're all pizza and fairytales ! " In an effort to avoid talking only about business , they often spoke of cats , babies or baking bread . On 24 April 1976 , the two were watching an episode of Saturday Night Live together at Lennon 's home in the Dakota , during which Lorne Michaels made a $ 3 @,@ 000 cash offer for the Beatles to reunite . While they seriously considered going to the SNL studio a few blocks away , they decided it was too late . This was their last time together . VH1 fictionalised this event in the 2000 television film Two of Us . McCartney 's last telephone call to Lennon , days before Lennon and Ono released Double Fantasy , was friendly ; he said this about the call : " [ It is ] a consoling factor for me , because I do feel it was sad that we never actually sat down and straightened our differences out . But fortunately for me , the last phone conversation I ever had with him was really great , and we didn 't have any kind of blow @-@ up . " = = = = = Reaction to Lennon 's murder = = = = = On 9 December 1980 , McCartney followed the news that Lennon had been murdered the previous night , his death creating a media frenzy around the surviving members of the band . That evening , as he was leaving an Oxford Street recording studio surrounded by reporters who asked him for his reaction , he responded : " It 's a drag " . The press quickly criticised him for what appeared to be a superficial response . He later explained , " When John was killed somebody stuck a microphone at me and said : ' What do you think about it ? ' I said , ' It 's a dra @-@ a @-@ ag ' and meant it with every inch of melancholy I could muster . When you put that in print it says , ' McCartney in London today when asked for a comment on his dead friend said , " It 's a drag " . ' It seemed a very flippant comment to make . " He described his first exchange with Ono after the murder , and his last conversation with Lennon : I talked to Yoko the day after he was killed , and the first thing she said was , " John was really fond of you . " The last telephone conversation I had with him we were still the best of mates . He was always a very warm guy , John . His bluff was all on the surface . He used to take his glasses down , those granny glasses , and say , " it 's only me . " They were like a wall you know ? A shield . Those are the moments I treasure . In 1983 , McCartney said , " I would not have been as typically human and standoffish as I was if I knew John was going to die . I would have made more of an effort to try and get behind his " mask " and have a better relationship with him . " He said that he went home that night , watched the news on television with his children and cried most of the evening . In 1997 , he admitted the ex @-@ Beatles were nervous at the time that they might also be murdered . He told Mojo magazine in 2002 that Lennon was his greatest hero . In 1981 , McCartney sang backup on Harrison 's tribute to their ex @-@ bandmate , " All Those Years Ago " , which featured Starr on drums . McCartney released " Here Today " in 1982 , a song Everett described as " a haunting tribute " to McCartney 's friendship with Lennon . = = = = George Harrison = = = = Discussing his relationship with McCartney , Harrison said , " Paul would always help along when you 'd done his ten songs — then when he got ' round to doing one of my songs , he would help . It was silly . It was very selfish , actually ... There were a lot of tracks , though , where I played bass ... because what Paul would do — if he 'd written a song , he 'd learn all the parts for Paul and then come in the studio and say ( sometimes he was very difficult ) : ' Do this ' . He 'd never give you the opportunity to come out with something . " After Harrison 's death in November 2001 , McCartney issued a statement outside his home in St. John 's Wood , calling him " a lovely guy and a very brave man who had a wonderful sense of humour " . He went on to say , " We grew up together and we just had so many beautiful times together – that 's what I am going to remember . I 'll always love him , he 's my baby brother . " On the first anniversary of his death , McCartney played Harrison 's " Something " on a ukulele at the Concert for George . He also performed " For You Blue " and " All Things Must Pass " , and played the piano on Eric Clapton 's rendition of " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . = = = = Ringo Starr = = = = Starr once described McCartney as " pleasantly insincere " , though the two generally enjoy each other 's company , and at least once went on holiday together in Greece . Starr recalled , " We couldn 't understand a word of the songs the hotel band were playing , so on the last night Paul and I did a few rockers like " What 'd I Say " . There was at times discord between them as well , particularly during sessions for the White Album . As Apple 's Peter Brown recalled , " it was a poorly kept secret among Beatle intimates that after Ringo left the studio Paul would often dub in the drum tracks himself ... [ Starr ] would pretend not to notice " . In August 1968 , the two got into an argument over McCartney 's critique of Starr 's drum part for " Back in the U.S.S.R. " , which contributed to Starr temporarily leaving the band . Starr later commented on working with McCartney : " Paul is the greatest bass player in the world . But he is also very determined ... [ to ] get his own way ... [ thus ] musical disagreements inevitably arose from time to time . " McCartney and Starr collaborated on several post @-@ Beatles projects starting in 1973 , when McCartney contributed instrumentation and backing vocals for " Six O 'Clock " , a song	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
. The call has been described as very loud and ringing in the Tasmanian and Kangaroo Island subspecies ; Edwin Ashby wrote that in Tasmania it was akin to the squeaking of a wheelbarrow and Gregory Mathews that it was like the kling of an anvil . Elsewhere , their call has been likened to the screech of ungreased metal grinding in Victoria and South Australia ( races versicolor and melanoptera are noted as similar to each other ) , and as a harsh squeak in Western Australia . The clinking call resembles that of the superb lyrebird , which imitates the currawong call at times . A softer and more tuneful musical call has been called the toy @-@ trumpet call . It has been reported to foretell rainy weather . The loud bell call resembles the clinking call , and is a clear piping sound . Females and young make an insistent repetitive squawking when begging for food from a parent or mate , similar to the begging call of the Australian magpie , and make a gobbling sound when fed . = = = Similar species = = = The grey currawong is unlikely to be confused with other species apart from other currawongs . It is immediately distinguishable from crows and ravens as they have wholly black plumage , a stockier build and white ( rather than yellow ) eyes . However , it can be encountered in mixed @-@ species flocks with the pied currawong . It can be distinguished by its paler plumage , lack of white base to the tail , straighter bill , and very different vocalisations . In northwestern Victoria , the black @-@ winged currawong ( subspecies melanoptera ) has a darker plumage than other grey subspecies , and is thus more similar in appearance to the pied currawong , but its wings lack the white primaries of the latter species . In Tasmania , the black currawong is similar but has a heavier bill and call similar to the pied and lacks the white rump . = = Distribution and habitat = = Grey currawongs are found right across the southern part of Australia from the Central Coast region of New South Wales , occurring south of latitude 32 ° S southwards and westwards , from the vicinity of Mudgee in the north and southwest to Temora and Albury onto the Riverina and across most of Victoria and southern South Australia to the fertile south @-@ west corner of Western Australia and the semi @-@ arid country surrounding it . The clinking subspecies is endemic to Tasmania , where it is more common in the eastern parts , but is absent from King and Flinders Islands in Bass Strait . There is an outlying population in the arid area where the Northern Territory meets South Australia and Western Australia . In general , the grey currawong is sedentary throughout its range , although it appears to be resident in the cooler months only in south Gippsland in eastern Victoria and the far south coast of New South Wales . The grey currawong is found in wet and dry sclerophyll forests across its range , as well as mallee scrubland , and open areas such as parks or farmland near forested areas . It also inhabits pine plantations . Preferences vary between regions ; subspecies versicolor is more common in wetter forests in southeastern mainland Australia , while the Tasmanian subspecies arguta is found most commonly in lowland dry sclerophyll forest . The subspecies melanoptera and intermedia are found mainly in mallee scrublands and woodlands , while in Western Australia , subspecies plumbea is found in various forests and woodlands , such as jarrah ( Eucalyptus marginata ) , karri ( E. diversicolor ) , tuart ( E. gomphocephala ) and wandoo ( E. wandoo ) , as well as paperbark woodlands around swampy areas , and acacia shrublands dominated by summer @-@ scented wattle ( Acacia rostellifera ) and mulga ( Acacia aneura ) with Eremophila understory . The grey currawong appears to have declined across its distribution ; formerly common , it became scarce in northern Victoria in the 1930s , and in northeastern Victoria in the 1960s . Habitat destruction has seen it decline in southeastern South Australia around Naracoorte and from many areas in the Western Australian Wheatbelt . It also became rare in the Margaret River and Cape Naturaliste regions after 1920 , and vanished from much of the Swan Coastal Plain by the 1940s . One place which has seen an increase in numbers is the Mount Lofty Ranges in the 1960s . The species has never been common in the Sydney Basin and sightings have been uncommon and scattered since the time of John Gould in the early 19th century . The status of the species is uncertain in the Northern Territory , where it may be extinct . It has been classified as critically endangered there pending further information . = = Behaviour = = Overall , data on the social behaviour of the grey currawong is lacking , and roosting habits are unknown . It is generally shyer and more wary than its pied relative , but has become more accustomed to people in areas of high human activity in southwest Western Australia . Its undulating flight is rapid and silent . It hops or runs when on the ground . Birds are generally encountered singly or in pairs , but may forage in groups of three to eleven birds . Up to forty birds may gather to harvest a fruit tree if one is found . The black @-@ winged subspecies is seldom seen in groups larger than four or five , while the clinking currawong may form groups of up to forty birds over the non @-@ breeding season . There is some evidence of territoriality , as birds in the Wheatbelt maintain territories year @-@ round there . The grey currawong has been recorded harassing larger birds such as the wedge @-@ tailed eagle , square @-@ tailed kite and Australian hobby . The species has been observed bathing by shaking its wings in water at ponds , as well as applying clay to its plumage after washing . Two species of chewing louse have been isolated and described from grey currawongs : ( Menacanthus dennisi ) from subspecies halmaturina on Kangaroo Island in South Australia , and Australophilopterus strepericus from subspecies arguta near Launceston in Tasmania . A new species of spirurian nematode , Microtetrameres streperae isolated from a grey currawong at Waikerie was described in 1977 . = = = Feeding = = = The grey currawong is an omnivorous and opportunistic feeder . It preys on many invertebrates , such as snails , spiders and woodlice , and a wide variety of insects including beetles , earwigs , cockroaches , wasps , ants and grasshoppers , and smaller vertebrates , including frogs , lizards such as the bearded dragon as well as skinks , rats , mice , and nestlings or young of Tasmanian nativehen , red wattlebird , eastern spinebill , house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) , and splendid fairywren ( M. splendens ) , It has been recorded hunting at the nests of the superb fairywren ( Malurus cyaneus ) , and the bell miner ( Manorina melanophrys ) . A wide variety of plant material is also consumed , including the fruit or berries of Ficus species , Leucopogon species , Exocarpos species , a cycad Macrozamia riedlei , a mistletoe Lysiana exocarpi , Astroloma humifusum , A. pinifolium , Myoporum insulare , Enchylaena tomentosa and Coprosma quadrifida . The grey currawong also eats berries of introduced plants such as Pyracantha angustifolia and P. fortuneana , and Cotoneaster species , and crops such as maize , apples , pears , quince , various stone fruit of the genus Prunus , grapes , tomato , passion flowers , and the nectar of gymea lily ( Doryanthes excelsa ) . On Kangaroo Island , the grey currawong has been identified as the main vector for the spread of bridal creeper ( Asparagus asparagoides ) . Boneseed ( Chrysanthemoides monilifera subspecies monilifera ) , another invasive species readily dispersed in bird droppings , is also consumed by grey currawongs . In Tasmania , A. pinifolium is especially popular , and one observer noted that the normally noisy birds became quiet and sluggish after eating it , prompting him to wonder whether the plant had a narcotic effect on the birds . Foraging takes place on the ground , or less commonly in trees or shrubs . Most commonly the grey currawong probes the ground for prey , but sometimes chases more mobile animals . It has been recorded removing insects from parked cars , as well as employing the zirkeln method , where it inserts its bill in a crack or under a rock and uses it to lever open a wider space to hunt prey . In one case , a bird was observed holding bark off the branch of a eucalypt and levering open gaps every 4 to 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 to 2 in ) with its bill . The grey currawong usually swallows prey whole , although one bird was observed impaling a rodent on a stick and eating parts of it , in the manner of a butcherbird . A field study on road ecology in southwestern Australia revealed that the grey currawong is unusual in inhabiting cleared areas adjacent to roads . However , it was not recorded feeding on roadkill , and moves away from the area in breeding season . It was also commonly hit and killed by vehicles . = = = Breeding = = = The breeding habits of the grey currawong are not well known , and the inaccessibility of its nests makes study difficult . The breeding season lasts from August to December . The grey currawong builds a large shallow nest of thin sticks lined with grass and bark high in trees ; generally eucalypts are chosen . It produces a clutch of one to five ( though usually two or three ) rounded or tapered oval eggs , which vary in size and colour according to subspecies . Those of subspecies versicolor average 30 mm × 43 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) in size and are a pale brown or buff with shades of pink or wine tones , and are marked with streaks or splotches of darker brown , purple @-@ brown , slate @-@ grey or even blue @-@ tinged . Those of the black @-@ winged currawong are similarly sized at 30 mm × 41 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 6 in ) and are buff or flesh @-@ coloured with a purple tint and marked with darker browns or purple @-@ browns . The clinking currawong lays larger and paler eggs of dull white , pale grey or buff with a faint wine @-@ colour tint , and marked with darker tones of purple- , grey- or blue @-@ tinged brown , which average 31 mm × 46 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 8 in ) . The eggs of the brown currawong are also pale wine @-@ tinted brown , buff , or cream with darker markings of cinnamon , brown or purple @-@ brown , and measure 29 mm × 42 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) . Finally , the western subspecies lays eggs averaging 31 mm × 43 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in × 1 @.@ 7 in ) in size which are pale shades of red @-@ brown or wine @-@ colour , with darker red @-@ brown markings . In all subspecies , the markings can coalesce over the larger end of the egg to form a darker ' cap ' . The incubation period is poorly known because of the difficulty of observing nests , but one observation suggested around 23 days from laying to hatching . Like all passerines , the chicks are born naked , and blind ( altricial ) , and remain in the nest for an extended period ( nidicolous ) . Both parents feed the young . Data on nesting success rates is limited ; one study of 35 nests found 28 ( 80 % ) resulted in the fledging of at least one young currawong . Causes of failure included nest collapse by gale @-@ force winds and rain , and harassment and nest raiding by pied currawongs . The incidence of brood parasitism is uncertain . A pair of grey currawongs have been observed feeding a channel @-@ billed cuckoo ( Scythrops novaehollandiae ) chick on one occasion . = Jordan Eberle = Jordan Leslie Eberle ( born May 15 , 1990 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey right winger and alternate captain currently playing for the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . He was selected in the first round , 22nd overall , in the 2008 NHL Entry Draft . During his four @-@ year junior career with the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , he won the CHL Player of the Year Award in 2010 , the Doc Seaman Trophy as the scholastic player of the year in 2008 and was a two @-@ time First Team East All @-@ Star in 2008 and 2010 . In his second season in the NHL , Eberle was named to the All @-@ Star Game and led the Oilers in goal- and point @-@ scoring . Internationally , Eberle has competed for Canada in two World Junior Championships , winning gold and silver in 2009 and 2010 , respectively . He was named Tournament MVP and Best Forward at the 2010 World Junior Championships and is tied with Brayden Schenn as Canada 's second all @-@ time leading scorer at the tournament with 26 points . Both are 5 behind Eric Lindros ' 31 points . TSN named him the best Canadian World Junior Player ever , being the only player to have earned points in all 12 career games played , the longest career scoring streak in team history by five games . = = Hockey career = = = = = Minor = = = Eberle played novice with Hockey Regina 's tier @-@ 1 Kings and amassed 216 goals over sixty games in 1999 – 2000 . He went on to play Bantam AAA for the Athol Murray College of Notre Dame in Wilcox , Saskatchewan , as a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old . After being selected by his hometown major junior team , the Regina Pats of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) , in the seventh round ( 126th overall ) of the 2005 WHL Bantam Draft , Eberle joined the midget ranks with the Calgary Buffaloes of the Alberta Midget Hockey League ( AMHL ) . He won a bronze medal with the Buffaloes at the 2006 Mac 's Midget Hockey Tournament , scoring two goals in the bronze @-@ medal game against the Prince Albert Mintos . He helped his team qualify for the 2006 Telus Cup national midget championship , where the Buffaloes lost a 5 – 4 triple @-@ overtime game in the final against the Mintos . Eberle scored a goal in the losing effort and was awarded the Most Sportsmanlike Award for the tournament . = = = Regina Pats = = = Eberle debuted with the Pats in 2006 – 07 , scoring 55 points and a team @-@ high 28 goals as a rookie . He added two goals and seven points in six games against the Swift Current Broncos in the opening round of the 2007 WHL playoffs , but was sidelined for the entirety of the second round against the Medicine Hat Tigers with a virus . Eberle started his second major junior season by earning WHL Player of the Month honours for October 2007 , totaling sixteen goals and 26 points over sixteen games for the Pats . He had missed two games early in the season with tonsillitis , before scoring a hat trick in his return on October 6 , 2007 , against the Moose Jaw Warriors . Eberle later represented Team WHL against Russia in the 2007 ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge in late November . Midway through the season , he was chosen to compete in the 2008 CHL Top Prospects Game in Edmonton . Eberle finished 2007 – 08 with a team @-@ high 42 goals and 75 points . His 42 goals accounted for one @-@ fifth of his team 's scoring and marked the first time a Pats player hit the forty @-@ goal mark since Matt Hubbauer scored 48 in 2001 – 02 . It also tied for fourth in league scoring with Drayson Bowman of the Spokane Chiefs . He was selected to the WHL East First All @-@ Star Team and received the Doc Seaman Trophy as WHL Scholastic Player of the Year ( beating out defenceman Jared Cowen of the Spokane Chiefs ) . Eberle had started the 2007 – 08 season ranked seventh among WHL skaters in the NHL Central Scouting Bureau 's preliminary rankings for the 2008 NHL Entry Draft . At mid @-@ season , he was ranked 24th among North American skaters , then dropped to 33rd in the NHL CSS 's final rankings . Director of NHL Central Scouting E. J. McGuire described Eberle as a scorer whose strengths are his skating and stickhandling . He was selected in the first round , 22nd overall , by the Edmonton Oilers . Having grown up in Regina , Eberle was a childhood fan of the Oilers , even after his family moved to Calgary at fourteen years old . After being selected , he commented in an interview , " If I had to pick one pick , [ the Oilers ] would have been it . " Eberle competed in his second ADT Canada – Russia Challenge for Team WHL in 2008 . After completing the 2008 – 09 WHL season with a team @-@ leading 74 points in 61 games , Eberle was signed to a three @-@ year , entry @-@ level contract with the Oilers on March 23 , 2009 . Competing for a roster spot with the Oilers in the 2009 training camp , Eberle was one of the final cuts . He was returned to the Pats on September 27 , 2009 , and reeled off 25 points in twelve games to be named WHL Player of the Month for September and October . He was named to Team WHL for the 2009 Subway Super Series ( formerly known as the ADT Canada – Russia Challenge ) and was selected as an alternate captain to Pats teammate Colten Teubert for Game 5 . Eberle finished the 2009 – 10 WHL season second in league scoring with 106 points in 57 games ( one point behind Brandon Kozun of the Calgary Hitmen in eight fewer games ) and was a unanimous selection to his second WHL East First All @-@ Star Team in three years . He was the first member of the Pats to score 50 goals and record 100 points since Ronald Petrovický during the 1997 – 98 season . Eberle finished his career with the Pats seventh all @-@ time in franchise goal scoring with 155 and twelfth in points with 310 . Eberle was named the Regina Pats Player of the Year , Most Sportsmanlike Player and the Most Popular player after the 2009 – 10 season . Despite the Pats ' disappointing season as a team , Eberle was selected as the winner of the Four Broncos Memorial Trophy as WHL Player of the Year , defeating Western Conference nominee Craig Cunningham of the Vancouver Giants . He was later named CHL Player of the Year , beating out the Ontario Hockey League ( OHL ) and Quebec Major Junior Hockey League ( QMJHL ) nominees Tyler Seguin and Mike Hoffman , respectively . It marked the third time a Pats player won the award , after Ed Staniowski in 1975 and Doug Wickenheiser in 1980 . In recognition of his outstanding junior hockey career , the Pats retired Eberle 's number 7 on December 5 , 2012 . = = = Edmonton Oilers = = = Soon after signing a professional contract with the Oilers in 2009 , Eberle was assigned to the teams ' minor league affiliate , the Springfield Falcons of the American Hockey League ( AHL ) , for the remainder of the 2008 – 09 season . He scored his first professional goal in his third game with the Falcons , a 4 – 3 loss to the Portland Pirates , on March 29 , 2009 . He went on to tally three goals and nine points in nine games . Eberle was again assigned to the Falcons after finishing the 2009 – 10 season with the Pats . He notched six goals and 14 points in the Falcons ' last 11 games of the regular season . Eberle made his NHL debut with the Oilers on October 7 , 2010 , against the Calgary Flames . He recorded his first goal , on the penalty kill in the third period , deking past defenceman Ian White on a two @-@ on @-@ one before scoring on a backhand deke past goaltender Miikka Kiprusoff . The goal was later voted by fans as the NHL 's Goal of the Year on the League 's Facebook page , as well as Play of the Year on The Sports Network 's website . He later added an assist on the powerplay , taking a shot that deflected off teammate Shawn Horcoff 's shinpads . The Oilers went on to win the game 4 – 0 . Eberle was named the first star of the game . Later in the season , Eberle suffered a high ankle sprain after colliding with opposing forward Aleš Kotalík during a game against the Flames on January 1 , 2011 . While sidelined with the injury , he underwent an unrelated emergency appendectomy four days later . Missing 13 games with his ankle injury , he returned to action in early February . During a game against the Vancouver Canucks late in the season , on April 5 , Eberle received a hit to the head from opposing forward Raffi Torres . While Eberle was not injured on the play , Torres received a four @-@ game suspension for the hit . Eberle finished the season with 43 points ( 18 goals and 25 assists ) in 69 games , leading his team in scoring and ranking sixth among league rookies . Though the Oilers finished with the worst record in the NHL for the second straight year , expectations remained high in Edmonton for the future of the team , as Eberle 's success as a rookie was matched by the performance of fellow first @-@ year forwards Taylor Hall and Magnus Pääjärvi . During his second NHL season , Eberle sustained a sprained knee after colliding with Dallas Stars forward Jamie Benn during a game on January 7 , 2012 . At the time of the injury , Eberle was among the league 's top scorers and six points behind the league 's leader . Despite his success , he was left off the 2012 NHL All @-@ Star Game roster , which was selected while he was sidelined . Several members within the Oilers organization were outspoken regarding the omission , including captain Shawn Horcoff and Head Coach Tom Renney , to which the League replied that Eberle would have been selected had he not been injured . By January 19 , Eberle returned to the Oilers lineup after missing four games . Five days later , he was nonetheless named as an All @-@ Star replacement for the injured Mikko Koivu . Eberle was selected to Team Chara as part of the All @-@ Star Fantasy Draft and went on to record an assist in the squad 's 12 – 9 win against Team Alfredsson . The following month , Eberle recorded his 100th career NHL point on February 21 , 2012 , with a goal and two assists in a 6 – 1 victory over the Calgary Flames . He finished his second NHL season leading with a team @-@ leading 34 goals , 42 assists and 76 points . Among league scorers , he ranked 16th in goals and points . The Oilers continued to struggle as a team , however , and finished 14th in the Western Conference with 32 wins and 74 points . On April 23 , 2012 , Eberle was nominated for the Lady Byng Memorial Trophy , along with Florida Panthers Brian Campbell and New York Islanders Matt Moulson . On August 30 , 2012 , Eberle signed a six @-@ year , $ 36 million contract extension with the Oilers . During the 2012 – 13 NHL lockout , Eberle played for the Oklahoma City Barons of the AHL and at the time the lockout was resolved , Eberle was leading the League with 25 goals and 51 points . This led Eberle to become AHL Player of the Month for two consecutive months . On February 11 , 2016 , Eberle scored his first career hat @-@ trick against the Toronto Maple Leafs . All three goals were assisted by Connor McDavid . This also happened to be the final hat @-@ trick scored at Rexall Place . = = International play = = Eberle represented Alberta at the 2007 Canada Games in Whitehorse , Yukon . He notched two goals and an assist in the bronze medal game against British Columbia in Alberta 's 4 – 3 win . He finished the tournament with six goals and five assists in five games played to place eighth in tournament scoring . Several months later , Eberle played for Team Canada 's under @-@ 18 team at the 2007 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , but failed to register a point as Canada was kept from a medal . He continued with the national under @-@ 18 team the following year at the 2008 IIHF World U18 Championships in Russia . He began the tournament by earning player of the game honours with a two @-@ goal effort in the first round @-@ robin game against Germany — a 9 – 2 win for Canada . He later notched two goals and an assist in an 8 – 0 gold medal game win to help Canada to their first tournament championship in five years . Eberle finished the tournament with ten points in seven games , second in team scoring to Cody Hodgson . In his third WHL season , Eberle was selected to the Team Canada 's under @-@ 20 team for the 2009 World Junior Championships in Ottawa . In the semi @-@ finals , on January 3 , 2009 , Eberle was named player of the game after scoring two goals and the shootout @-@ winner against Russia in a 6 – 5 win . Eberle dramatically scored his second goal of the night with just 5 @.@ 4 seconds left in regulation to force extra time and the eventual shootout , in which he shot first and scored . Defeating Sweden 5 – 1 in the final , Eberle helped Canada to a record @-@ tying fifth straight gold medal and was named by the coaching staff as one of the team 's best three players . At the conclusion of the tournament , Eberle was third in tournament scoring with 13 points ( six goals , seven assists ) . The following year , Eberle was named to his second national junior team for the 2010 World Junior Championships in his hometown Regina , Saskatchewan . He was selected as an alternate captain to Patrice Cormier along with fellow returnees Colten Teubert , Alex Pietrangelo and Stefan Della Rovere . He was named player of the game against Switzerland in the second game of the round @-@ robin — a 6 – 0 win — with a five @-@ point game ( one goal , four assists ) . Two games later , he notched two goals in regulation ( one of which began a two @-@ goal comeback late in the third period ) and one in the shootout against the United States in the final game of the round @-@ robin to earn his second player of the game honour of the tournament . Canada later met the United States again in the gold medal game . Down 5 – 3 with three minutes to go in regulation , Eberle scored twice to force overtime . His tying goal with 1 : 35 left made him Canada 's all @-@ time leading goal scorer in the tournament with 14 goals , passing John Tavares ' mark set the previous year . Canada eventually lost in overtime , earning silver and ending their five @-@ year gold medal streak . At the conclusion of the tournament , Eberle finished tied for the tournament lead in goals with André Petersson of Sweden and was second in points to Derek Stepan of the United States . He was voted as the Most Valuable Player and Top Forward . He was also named to the tournament All @-@ Star Team by the media and named one of Canada 's top three players by the coaches . Three days after the gold medal game , Regina Mayor Pat Fiacco proclaimed January 8 , 2010 , as " Jordan Eberle and Colten Teubert Day " in the city for their efforts in the tournament . On April 16 , 2010 , Eberle was named to Team Canada as an alternate for the 2010 IIHF World Championship in Germany . After injuries to Ryan Smyth and Steve Stamkos in the preliminary round , he debuted with Canada 's men 's team on May 14 , 2010 , versus Norway . Eberle scored a goal and assisted on three others to earn the Player of the Game Award in a 12 – 1 Canadian victory . He played in three more games without any points as Canada finished in seventh place with a loss to Russia in the quarter @-@ final . Following his NHL rookie season , Eberle joined the Canadian men 's team for the second consecutive year for the 2011 IIHF World Championship in Slovakia . During the preliminary round , Eberle scored a goal in a contest against Switzerland to be named player of the game . In a game against the United States during the qualifying round , Eberle scored in a shootout , helping Canada to a 4 – 3 win , while also temporarily tying them for the lead in their pool . Canada went on to top their pool , but lost 2 – 1 in the quarter @-@ final against Russia for the second consecutive year . Scoring four times over seven tournament games ( no assists ) , Eberle tied for second in team goal @-@ scoring , behind John Tavares . At the 2015 World Championships , where Canada won the gold medal for the first time since 2007 with a perfect 10 @-@ 0 record , Eberle finished second in scoring with 5 goals and 8 assists , one point behind tournament leader Jason Spezza . = = Personal life = = Eberle was born to Darren and Lisa Eberle in Regina , Saskatchewan . His dad coached him on his minor hockey teams growing up . He has two sisters , Ashley and Whitney , and a younger brother , Dustin . He attended high school at the Athol Murray College of Notre Dame in Wilcox , Saskatchewan , before moving to Calgary , Alberta , at age 15 with his parents and three siblings . He returned to Regina to play junior hockey for the Regina Pats and attended Archbishop M.C. O 'Neill High School during the hockey season . He went on to graduate from Bishop O 'Byrne Senior High School in Calgary in June 2008 . Eberle has a cousin , Derek Eberle , who also played junior for the Pats from 1990 to 1993 . His brother Dustin was drafted by the Pats in the 12th round , 248th overall , of the 2007 WHL Bantam Draft . Eberle has been in a relationship with his girlfriend Lauren since 2007 . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = = = = International = = = = = Awards = = = Kylie Gauci = Kylie Gauci ( born 1 January 1985 ) is an Australian Paralympic 2 @-@ point wheelchair basketball player . She participated in the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens , where she won a silver medal ; in the 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a bronze medal , and the 2012 Summer Paralympics in London , where she won a second silver medal . Gauci represented Australia at the 2002 , 2006 and 2010 World Championships , and was named to the World All Star 5 at the World Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 . She has played over 180 international games . Playing with the Hill 's Hornets , Gauci was named the Women 's National Wheelchair Basketball League ( WNWBL ) ' s Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) 2 Pointer and named to the All Star Five on five consecutive occasions . In 2006 she switched to the North 's Bears , now known as the Stacks Goudkamp Bears , and was named MVP 2 Pointer and All Star Five six times in a row . = = Personal = = Gauci was born on 1 January 1985 . She was born with lumbar sacral agenesis , meaning that she is missing the lower part of her spine . In 2008 and 2009 , she was the Australian Paralympic Committee 's New South Wales Assistant . As of 2012 , she lives in Rooty Hill , New South Wales . = = Basketball = = Gauci is an Australian Paralympic wheelchair basketball 2 @-@ point player . She began competing in 1996 when she was eleven years old , and was inspired to play for the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team after watching their performance at the 2000 Sydney Paralympics . She enjoys the physical aspects of the game : " I 'm a big fan of the big hits in rugby league . The aggression in wheelchair basketball is not as fierce , but it 's as close as I 'm likely to get . " Her 2008 national team coach Gerry Hewson said , " She 's got a really good outside game and she can get inside and mix it with the best . " While still a member of the New South Wales women 's junior representative team , Gauci played with a New South Wales State team in a warm @-@ up game against the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team in the lead up to the 2000 Summer Paralympics . In financial year 2012 / 13 , the Australian Sports Commission gave her a A $ 20 @,@ 000 grant as part of their Direct Athlete Support program . She received $ 17 @,@ 000 in 2010 / 11 and again in 2011 / 12 and $ 5 @,@ 571 @.@ 42 in 2009 / 10 . In 2012 , she had a scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport . = = = Club = = = She played for the Hills Hornets in 2000 , when they finished second in the Women 's National Wheelchair basketball League ( WNWBL ) final , losing 51 – 50 to the Victorian Women . With the Hornets , she was named the WNWBL 's Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) 2 Pointer and named to the All Star Five in 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2004 and 2005 . In 2006 she switched to the North 's Bears , now known as the Stacks Goudkamp Bears , and was named 2 Pointer MVP and All Star Five in 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2009 , 2010 and 2011 . Since 2008 , she has played for the Wenty WheelKings in the National Wheelchair Basketball League ( NWBL ) . She also plays for the Stacks Goudkamp Bears in the WNWBL . In 2012 , as a member of the Stacks Goudkamp Bears , she was the WNWBL 's MVP 2 Pointer and named to the All Star Five for the twelfth year running . Her team finished second , losing 77 – 54 to the Victoria Dandenong Rangers in the WNWBL 's championship game . = = = National team = = = Gauci first played for the Australian junior national team when she was fourteen years old . She joined the national team , known as the Gliders , in 2002 , when she was 17 years old . She played in a four @-@ game test series in Canberra against Japan in March , the first Australian hosted international for the team since the 2000 Summer Paralympics . She was then selected to play at the 2002 World Cup event in Japan . Gauci represented Australia as a member of the Gliders at the 2002 , 2006 and 2010 World Championships , where they finished fourth each time . She was named to the World All Star 5 at the World Championships in Amsterdam in 2006 . She was selected to participate in a national team training camp in 2010 , and was a member of the team that played in the Osaka Cup in 2009 . She has played over 180 international games . = = = = Paralympics = = = = Gauci competed with the team at the 2004 Summer Paralympics in Athens and 2008 Summer Paralympics in Beijing , where she won a silver and bronze medal respectively . The 2004 Games were her debut Games . She also played in the 2012 Summer Paralympics . In the group stage , the Australia women 's national wheelchair basketball team at the 2012 Summer Paralympics posted wins against Brazil , Great Britain , and the Netherlands , but lost to the Canada . This was enough to advance the Gliders to the quarter @-@ finals , where they beat Mexico . The Gliders then defeated the United States by a point to set up a final clash with Germany . The Gliders lost 44 – 58 , and earned a silver medal . Gauci scored 15 points with 4 rebounds . She was the only player on her team to score a three @-@ point field goal in the whole series , scoring two of them . = = Statistics = = = 1986 Chalfant Valley earthquake = The 1986 Chalfant Valley earthquake struck southern Mono County near Bishop and Chalfant , California at 07 : 42 : 28 Pacific Daylight Time on July 21 . With a moment magnitude of 6 @.@ 2 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) , the shock injured two people and caused property damage estimated at $ 2 @.@ 7 million in the affected areas . There was a significant foreshock and aftershock sequence that included a few moderate events , and was the last in a series of three earthquakes that affected southern California and the northern Owens Valley in July 1986 . Strong motion stations at the Long Valley Dam and an instrumented building in Bishop captured light to moderate readings from the event . The faulting reached the surface of the ground , but the maximum amount of measurable slip was limited to about 11 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) of strike @-@ slip motion along the White Mountain Fault Zone . Other destructive and surface @-@ rupturing earthquakes , as well as large volume volcanic eruptions , have occurred in the area . Although the series of shocks occurred within the White Mountain seismic gap , the region continues to have potential for a very large earthquake . = = Preface = = July 1986 was an unusually active month for moderate to strong earthquakes in California , with three events occurring in less than two weeks , each with mild to moderate effects . The first of these shocks came on July 8 with a M6.0 event on the Banning fault near Palm Springs and the second event occurred off the coast of Oceanside as a M5.8 shock on July 13 . While the earthquake off the southern California coast occurred in an area thought to be capable of generating a tsunami , the earthquake near Palm Springs occurred on a portion of the southern San Andreas Fault system that has been designated a seismic gap , and is a likely location for a very large earthquake . The same seismic gap theory ( regarding the potential for a future large earthquake ) had also been presented for the White Mountains area near Chalfant . = = Tectonic setting = = The Owens Valley , located at the western boundary of the Basin and Range Province , is confined by the Sierra Nevada mountain range to the west and the White @-@ Inyo Mountains to the east . The valley was brought about by active tectonics over the last 2 – 4 million years , and was the scene of a very large earthquake in 1872 that generated surface rupture from Lone Pine in the south to as far north as Big Pine , a distance of approximately 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) . Other large , surface rupturing events in 1915 , 1932 , and 1954 delineate the Eastern California – Central Nevada seismic zone . As no large earthquake has occurred between the southern extent of the 1932 Cedar Mountain earthquake 's rupture and the northern extent of the 1872 Lone Pine earthquake 's rupture in the south ( a distance of 130 km ( 81 mi ) ) , the zone has been labeled the White Mountain seismic gap . The 1934 M6.3 Excelsior Mountains earthquake and the 1986 Chalfant Valley event were several smaller earthquakes that have occurred within the gap , and both generated limited surface faulting and some surface cracking in the Volcanic Tableland , which was created .7 mya from a major volcanic eruption that also formed the Long Valley Caldera northwest of Bishop . An estimated 500 cubic kilometers of material ( tephra ) produced in the event covers the northern Owens Valley as a rocky landform . The surface of the layered plateau is known as Bishop Tuff and features fumarole mounds and hundreds of north @-@ south oriented fault scarps , many of which are visible on topographic maps , via aerial photography , and satellite imagery . = = Foreshocks = = The University of Nevada , Reno ( UNR ) and the United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) both operated seismograph networks in the region where the Chalfant Valley earthquake sequence occurred . The data that was captured was transmitted in real time to Reno , Nevada and Menlo Park , California and was digitized for later examination . The foreshock activity was found to have begun eighteen days prior to the main event on July 3 , with the onset of a 3 @.@ 5 event ( local magnitude ) . Activity increased on July 18 with several doublets then reduced again in the hours prior to the primary M5.7 ( intensity V ( Moderate ) ) foreshock on July 20 . All forty events that were recorded by the UNR and USGS stations before that event were within 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) its epicenter , and another 132 events that were considered to be its aftershocks were documented in the remaining 24 hours leading up to the mainshock . One of these events , just over two hours after the primary foreshock , reached M4.7 with an intensity of IV ( Light ) . = = Earthquake = = The mainshock occurred at 07 : 42 : 26 on July 21 and caused the most damage in the sequence of events . The shock measured 6 @.@ 2 Mw as measured by the International Seismological Centre and originated at a depth of approximately 10 @.@ 8 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 7 mi ) . The focal mechanisms of the three largest events ( the July 20 foreshock , the mainshock , and the largest aftershock ) were primarily strike @-@ slip with a minor amount of normal @-@ slip and were especially well @-@ constrained due to the dense array of seismometers in the area that were operated by the UNR and the USGS . The primary foreshock 's preferred fault plane solution indicated left @-@ lateral slip on a fault striking N25 ° E , but neither the mainshock nor the largest aftershock conformed with their right @-@ lateral slip striking N25 ° W and N15 ° W respectively . = = = Damage = = = In Bishop , windows were shattered and ceiling tiles fell in several buildings , and a portion of the brick facade at the First Sierra bank building fell onto the sidewalk . A Burger King restaurant had part of its ceiling come down . Northwest of Bishop , a portion of U.S. Route 395 was blocked temporarily by a landslide . Campers were briefly trapped at the Pleasant Valley Reservoir when a 150 ft ( 46 m ) section of an access road was destroyed as a result of land movement . Both injuries that were reported occurred to the north in Chalfant Valley ( minor cuts and injuries from falling objects ) where 53 mobile homes were knocked off their foundations and two homes were destroyed . Nearly all the buildings in that small town were affected , with water and sewer lines broken there as well . Many of the mobile homes were able to be remounted on their foundations , but 18 – 20 of the homes were unable to be repaired . The overall damage from the event was compared with the other events in southern California . While the Oceanside shock caused $ 200 @,@ 000 in damage , the Palm Springs event caused an estimated $ 8 million in damage . Damage in from the Chalfant Valley event was estimated at $ 2 @.@ 7 million . = = = Surface faulting = = = Ground fractures that were deemed to be tectonic in nature were documented on about 10 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 6 @.@ 5 mi ) of the White Mountain Fault Zone from Silver Creek to Piute Creek . The cracks trended 350 ° and a maximum right @-@ lateral slip of about 11 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 3 in ) was measured , though other vertical ( downslope ) or extensional movement was also seen , especially on the 150 m ( 500 ft ) -thick surface of the Bishop Tuff in the Volcanic Tableland . There , the largest displacements were seen in the vicinity of Casa Diablo Mountain . The cracks were found primarily in loose sand , which made measurements difficult . = = = Strong motion = = = The foreshock , mainshock , and the two largest aftershocks were recorded by strong motion stations that were operated by the California Strong Motion Instrumentation Program ( CSMIP ) and the USGS . A total of 36 seismograms were captured from 11 stations , including a two story steel frame building , the Long Valley Dam , and several free field stations . The Chalfant strong motion station recorded the largest horizontal accelerations for the foreshock , mainshock , and the July 21 M5.6 aftershock of .28g , .46g , and .17g. The instruments at the building on North Main street in Bishop recorded all four shocks and indicated .25g at ground level and .4g on the roof , both during the mainshock . The station at the earthen Long Valley Dam had produced many quality recordings since being put into operation in 1979 and saw mainshock accelerations of .09g on bedrock , and .24g on an upper abutment . = = Aftershocks = = The day of the main event two aftershocks occurred ( 5 @.@ 6 at 14 : 51 and 5 @.@ 4 at 22 : 07 ) but the initial shock was V ( Moderate ) on the Mercalli intensity scale and the second event was felt only . Ten days following the mainshock on July 31 , a stronger aftershock occurred with a local magnitude of 5 @.@ 8 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of VI ( Strong ) . That aftershock was felt in California and western Nevada , broke windows and knocked items of shelves in Bishop , and light fixtures were damaged at the National Weather Service office . = Sibyl de Neufmarché = Sibyl de Neufmarché , Countess of Hereford , suo jure Lady of Brecknock ( c . 1100 – after 1143 ) , was a Cambro @-@ Norman noblewoman , heiress to one of the most substantial fiefs in the Welsh Marches . The great @-@ granddaughter of Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , king of Wales , Sibyl was also connected to the nobility of England and Normandy . Sibyl inherited the titles and lands of her father , Bernard de Neufmarché , Lord of Brecon , after her mother , Nest ferch Osbern , had declared her brother Mahel to have been illegitimate . Most of these estates passed to Sibyl 's husband , Miles de Gloucester , 1st Earl of Hereford , as her dowry . Their marriage had been arranged personally by King Henry I of England in the spring of 1121 . Sibyl , with her extensive lands , was central to the King 's plans of consolidating Anglo @-@ Norman power in south @-@ east Wales by the merging of her estates with those of Miles , his loyal subject on whom he relied to implement Crown policy . As an adult , Sibyl lived through King Stephen 's turbulent reign , known to history as the Anarchy , in which her husband played a pivotal role . Following Miles ' accidental death in 1143 , Sibyl entered a religious life at Llanthony Secunda Priory , Gloucestershire , England , which she had endowed up to six years previously . Sibyl is buried at the priory , founded by Miles in 1136 . = = Family = = = = = Ancestry = = = Sibyl was born in about 1100 in Brecon Castle , Brecon , Wales , the only daughter of Marcher Lord Bernard de Neufmarché , Lord of Brecon , and Nest ferch Osbern . Nest was the daughter of Osbern FitzRichard and Nest ferch Gruffydd . Sybil 's maternal great @-@ grandparents were Gruffydd ap Llywelyn , king of Wales , and Ealdgyth ( Edith of Mercia ) . Ealdgyth , the daughter of Ælfgar , Earl of Mercia , was briefly Queen consort of England by her second marriage to Harold Godwinson , the last Anglo @-@ Saxon king of England , who was killed at the Battle of Hastings . Sibyl 's father , Bernard , was born at the castle of Le Neuf @-@ Marché @-@ en @-@ Lions , on the frontier between Normandy and Beauvais . Bernard was a knight who had fought under English kings William I , William Rufus and Henry I. According to historian Lynn H Nelson , Bernard de Neufmarché was " the first of the original conquerors of Wales " . He led the Norman army at the Battle of Brecon in 1093 , during which Rhys ap Tewdwr was killed . Kingship in Wales ended with Rhys ' death , and allowed Bernard to confirm his hold on Brycheiniog , becoming the first ruler of the lordship of Brecon . The title and lands would remain in his family 's possession until 1521 . The name Neufmarché , Novo Mercato in Latin , is anglicised into ' Newmarket ' or ' Newmarch ' . = = = Inheritance = = = Sibyl had two brothers , Philip , who most likely died young , and Mahel . Nest had Mahel disinherited by swearing to King Henry I of England that Mahel had been fathered by another man . According to Giraldus Cambrensis , this was done out of vengeance when Mahel had multilated Nest 's lover , a knight whose identity is not disclosed . In the 19th century , Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward proposed that , after Bernard 's death , Nest " disgraced herself with an intrigue " with one of his soldiers . Mahel , who had by this time inherited Bernard 's estates , disapproved of the liaison to such an extent that he killed Nest 's lover . Nest 's revenge was to have Mahel disinherited by claiming that Bernard was not Mahel 's father . The maritagium ( marriage charter ) arranged by King Henry I in 1121 for the marriage between Sibyl and her future husband Miles , however , makes it clear that Bernard was still alive when it was written ; showing Bernard Bolingbroke Woodward 's version of the story to diverge from the known facts . Author Jennifer C. Ward suggests that , although the marriage charter recorded that King Henry was acting at the request of Bernard , Nest , and the barons , it was probable he had put considerable pressure on the Neufmarchés to disinherit Mahel in favour of Sibyl and , thereby , Miles . Nevertheless , whatever the timing or reason , the outcome of Nest 's declaration was that Sibyl ( whom Nest acknowledged as Bernard 's child ) became the sole lawful heiress to the vast Lordship of Brecon , one of the most important and substantial fiefs in the Welsh Marches . Henry 's maritagium referred specifically to Sibyl 's parents ' lands as " comprising Talgarth , the forest of Ystradwy , the castle of Hay , the whole land of Brecknock , up to the boundaries of the land of Richard Fitz Pons , namely up to Brecon and Much Cowarne , a vill in England " ; the fees and services of several named individuals were also granted as part of the dowry . This made her suo jure Lady of Brecknock on her father 's death , and one of the wealthiest heiresses in south Wales . = = Marriage = = Sometime in April or May 1121 , Sibyl married Miles ( or Milo ) FitzWalter de Gloucester , who on his father 's death in 1129 , became sheriff of Gloucester , and Constable of England . The marriage was personally arranged by King Henry I , to whom Miles was a trusted royal official . A charter written in Latin ( the maritagium ) , which dates to 10 April / 29 May 1121 , records the arrangements for the marriage of Sibyl and Miles . Historian C. Warren Hollister found the charter 's wording telling , noting that " the king gave the daughter as if he were making a grant of land " : " Know that I [ King Henry I ] have given and firmly granted to Miles of Gloucester Sibyl , daughter of Bernard de Neufmarché , together with all the lands of Bernard her father and of her mother after their deaths … " . Her parents ' lands would be conveyed to Miles after their deaths or earlier during " their life if they so wish " . Henry also commanded that the fief 's tenants were to pay Miles liege homage as their lord . By arranging a series of matrimonial alliances , similar to that between Sibyl and Miles , King Henry I of England transformed " the map of territorial power in south @-@ east Wales " . Such arrangements were mutually advantageous . Hollister describes Miles ' marriage to Sibyl as having been a " crucial breakthrough in his career " . The new lords , in similar positions to Miles , were the King 's own loyal vassals , on whom he could rely to implement royal policy . Sibyl 's father died sometime before 1128 ( most probably in 1125 ) , and Miles came into possession of her entire inheritance , which when merged with his own estates , formed one honour . = = = Children = = = Together Sibyl and Miles had eight children : Margaret of Hereford ( 1122 / 1123- 6 April 1197 ) , married Humphrey II de Bohun , by whom she had children . She received the office of constable of England and exercised lordship of Herefordshire as a widow until her death . Roger Fitzmiles , 2nd Earl of Hereford ( before 1125- 22 September 1155 ) . Roger 's marriage settlement with Cecily FitzJohn ( her first marriage ) , daughter of Payn FitzJohn and Sibyl de Lacy , was ratified by King Stephen in 1137 . The marriage was childless as were Cecily 's subsequent marriages . Walter de Hereford ( died 1159 / 60 ) , whether he married is unknown ; however , Walter departed for Palestine on Michaelmas 1159 , and died shortly afterwards without leaving legitimate issue Henry Fitzmiles ( died c.1162 ) , married a woman named Isabella , surname unknown ; Henry died without legitimate issue . Mahel de Hereford ( died 1164 ) , no record of marriage ; died without legitimate issue . William de Hereford ( died 1166 ) , no record of marriage ; died without legitimate issue . Bertha of Hereford ( c.1130- ) , married William de Braose , 3rd Lord of Bramber , by whom she had issue . Lucy of Hereford , Lady of Blaen Llyfni and Bwlch y Dinas ( died 1219 / 20 ) , married Herbert FitzHerbert of Winchester , by whom she had issue . = = The Anarchy = = After Henry I 's death in 1135 , the throne of England was seized by Stephen of Blois , a grandson of William I of England . Henry 's daughter , Empress Matilda ( Maud ) , also claimed the throne , and had the support of the Marcher Lords . On the death of her husband , the Holy Roman Emperor , Henry V , in 1125 , Matilda had returned to England for the first time in 16 years . At the insistence of her father , the barons ( including Stephen ) swore to uphold Matilda 's rights as his heir . Matilda married Geoffrey of Anjou in 1128 . They lived together in France , having three sons ; the eldest of whom was to become King Henry II of England . Initially , Miles supported Stephen . In about 1136 , Stephen granted Sibyl 's husband the entire honour of Gloucester and Brecknock , and appointed him Constable of Gloucester Castle , whereby Miles became known as one of Stephen 's " henchmen " . Llanthony Priory had been established near Crucorney , in the Vale of Ewyas , in 1118 ; Wales ' earliest Augustine monastery . Miles ' father , Walter de Gloucester , had retired there by 1126 . The unrest that had been simmering in Wales during the last years of Henry 's reign , boiled over in 1135 on his death . The area around the priory returned to Welsh rule , coming under such “ hostile mollestation ” from the Welsh that the non @-@ Welsh canons decided to leave . Miles established a new Priory for them in Gloucester , England , which they called Llanthony Secunda , in 1136 . Sometime after 1137 , Sibyl , together with her husband , made a further endowment to Llanthony Secunda . Miles transferred his allegiance to Empress Matilda , on her return to England in 1139.Matthew 2002 , pp. 95 , 96 According to Professor Edmund King , Miles ' decision to support Matilda was guided by expediancy rather than principle , and the necessity of joining forces with Matilda 's illegitimate half @-@ brother , the powerful Robert , Earl of Gloucester , who was the overlord of some of Miles ' fiefs . Stephen stripped Miles of the title ' Constable of England ' in punishment for having deserted him . On 25 July 1141 , in gratitude for his support and military assistance and , according to historian R.H.C. Davis , possibly to compensate Miles for having appeared to have lost the constableship , Matilda invested him as 1st Earl of Hereford . He also received St. Briavels Castle and the Forest of Dean . At the time Matilda was the de facto ruler of England , Stephen having been imprisoned at Bristol following his capture the previous February after the Battle of Lincoln . Sibyl was styled Countess of Hereford , until Miles ' unexpected death over two years later . In 1141 , Miles received the honour of Abergavenny from Brien FitzCount , the ( likely illegitimate ) son of Duke Alan IV of Brittany . This was in appreciation of the skilled military tactics Miles had deployed which had spared Brien 's castle of Wallingford during King Stephen 's besiegement in 1139 / 1140 . Matilda gave her permission for the transfer . During the Anarchy , which the period of Stephen 's reign as King of England was to become known , life was greatly disrupted in her husband 's lands . Sibyl would have doubtless suffered as a result , especially after Miles ' decision to support Matilda 's claim to the throne and to oppose Stephen . When Matilda was defeated at Winchester in late 1141 , Miles was compelled to return to Gloucester in disgrace : " weary , half @-@ naked and alone " . In November of that same year , Stephen was released from prison and restored to the English throne . Sibyl 's distress would have been heightened in 1143 after the Bishop of Hereford , Robert de Bethune placed an interdict upon Hereford , blocked all the cathedral 's entrances with thorns , and excommunicated Miles . In order to raise money to pay his troops and to assist Matilda financially , Miles had imposed a levy on all the churches in his earldom , an act which the bishop had regarded as unlawful . When the bishop protested and threatened Miles with excommunication , Miles in response , sent his men to plunder the diocese of its resources . In retaliation against Miles ' earlier attacks on the royalist city of Worcester and the castles of Hereford and Wallingford , King Stephen bestowed the title " Earl of Hereford " on Robert de Beaumont , 2nd Earl of Leicester ; Miles , however , never surrendered the earldom nor the title to Robert de Beaumont . = = Widowhood and death = = While on a deer @-@ hunting expedition in his own Forest of Dean , Sibyl 's husband was accidentally shot in the chest by an arrow which killed him on 24 December 1143 . He had been involved in legal proceedings against the bishop 's jurisdiction when he died . Their eldest son , Roger succeeded him in the earldom . In protest against his father 's excommunication , Roger remained an outspoken enemy of the Church until close to the end of his life when he entered a Gloucester monastery as a monk . After her husband 's death , Sibyl entered a religious life at Llanthony Secunda Priory , Gloucester , which she had previously endowed . Sibyl was buried in the same priory , the dates of death and burial unrecorded . = = Sibyl 's legacy = = Upon the childless death of Roger in 1155 , the Earldom of Hereford fell into abeyance until 1199 when King John bestowed the title on Henry de Bohun , Sibyl 's grandson through her eldest daughter , Margaret . As her sons all died without legitimate offspring , Sibyl 's three daughters became co @-@ heirs to the Brecon honour , with Bertha , the second daughter , passing Sibyl 's inheritance on ( through marriage ) to the de Braoses , thereby making them one of the most powerful families in the Welsh Marches . The Brecknock lordship would eventually go to the de Bohuns , by way of Eleanor de Braose . Eleanor , a descendant of Sibyl 's through Bertha of Hereford , married Humphrey de Bohun , son of the 2nd Earl of Hereford . Eleanor and Humphrey 's son , Humphrey de Bohun , succeeded his grandfather to the titles in 1275 . Through the advantageous marriages of her daughters , Sibyl was an ancestress of many of England and Ireland 's noblest families including among others , the de Bohun 's , de Beauchamps , Mortimers , Fitzalans , de Burghs , de Lacy 's , and Bonvilles . Four of her descendants , Humphrey de Bohun , 4th Earl of Hereford , Elizabeth de Burgh , 4th Countess of Ulster , Eleanor de Bohun , and Mary de Bohun married into the English royal family , while another , Anne Mortimer was the grandmother of Yorkist kings Edward IV and Richard III . By way of Edward 's daughter , Elizabeth of York , every monarch of England and , subsequently , the United Kingdom , from Henry VIII up to and including Elizabeth II , descended from Sibyl de Neufmarché , as did the various royal sovereigns of Europe who shared a common descent from Mary , Queen of Scots . = Prithu = According to Hindu mythology , Prithu ( Sanskrit : पृथु , Pṛthu , lit . " large , great , important , abundant " ) is a sovereign ( chakravartin ) , named in the Vedic scriptures and considered an Avatar ( incarnation ) of the preserver god — Vishnu . He is also called Pruthu , Prithi and Prithu Vainya , literally , Prithu — the son of Vena . Prithu is " celebrated as the first consecrated king , from whom the earth received her ( Sanskrit ) name Prithvi . " He is mainly associated with the legend of his chasing the earth goddess , Prithvi , who fled in the form of a cow and eventually agreed to yield her milk as the world 's grain and vegetation . The epic Mahabharata and text Vishnu Purana describes him as a part Avatar ( incarnation ) of Vishnu . = = Legends = = The birth of Prithu is without female intervention . Thus being a ayonija ( " born without ( the participation ) of the yoni " ) , Prithu is untouched by desire and ego and can thus control his senses to rule dutifully upholding Dharma . The Mahabharata traces Prithu 's lineage from Vishnu.The Almighty Vishnu created a human named Virajas to rule the earth and bring order to the Humans . Virajas lost his desire to rule the earth after beholding Vishnu and became an ascetic . Virajas ' son was Krittimat , who became an ascetic . Krittimat 's son was Kardama . Kardama 's son was Ananga and Ananga 's son was Atibala . Atibala , also called Anga , conquered the earth and ruled well . Atibala married Mrityu 's daughter , Sunita and had a son named Vena . Vena 's son would be Prithu . The Bhagavata Purana and Vishnu Purana tells the story of Prithu : King Vena , from the lineage of the pious Dhruva , was an evil king , who neglected Vedic rituals . Thus the rishis ( sages ) killed him , leaving the kingdom without an heir and in famine due to the anarchy of Vena . So , the sages churned Vena 's body , out of which first appeared a dark dwarf hunter , a symbol of Vena 's evil . Since the sins of Vena had gone away as the dwarf , the body was now pure . On further churning , Prithu emerged from right arm of the corpse . To end the famine by slaying the earth and getting her fruits , Prithu chased the earth ( Prithvi ) who fled as a cow . Finally , cornered by Prithu , the earth states that killing her would mean the end of his subjects too . So Prithu lowered his weapons and reasoned with the earth and promised her to be her guardian . Finally , Prithu milked her using Manu as a calf , and received all vegetation and grain as her milk , in his hands for welfare of humanity . Before Prithu 's reign , there was " no cultivation , no pasture , no agriculture , no highway for merchants " , all civilization emerged in Prithu 's rule . By granting life to the earth and being her protector , Prithu became the Earth 's father and she accepted the patronymic name " Prithvi " . However , the Manu Smriti considers Prithvi as Prithu 's wife and not his daughter , and thus suggests the name " Prithvi " is named after her husband , Prithu . The Vayu Purana records that when born , Prithu stood with a bow , arrows and an armour , ready to destroy the earth , which was devoid of Vedic rituals . Terrified , the earth fled in form of a cow and finally submitted to Prithu 's demands , earning him the title chakravartin ( sovereign ) . Prithu is the first king , recorded to earn the title . The creator @-@ god Brahma is described to have recognized Prithu as an avatar of Vishnu , as one of Prithu 's birthmark was Vishnu 's chakram ( discus ) on his hand and thus Prithu was " numbered amongst the human gods " . According to Oldham , the title Chakravarti may be derived from this birthmark , and may not be indicative of universal dominion . Prithu was worshipped as an incarnation of Vishnu in his lifetime and now is considered a Nāga demi @-@ god . Shatapatha Brahmana ( Verse 3 @.@ 5 @.@ 4 . ) calls him the first anointed king and Vayu Purana calls him adiraja ( " first king " ) . The epic Mahabharata states that Vishnu crowned Prithu as the sovereign and entered the latter 's body so that everyone bows to the king as to god Vishnu . Now , the king was " endowed with Vishnu 's greatness on earth " . Further , Dharma ( righteousness ) , Shri ( goddess of wealth , beauty and good fortune ) and Artha ( purpose , material prosperity ) established themselves in Prithu . = = = Reign = = = Prithu became the first true king . He became a Kshatriya after he healed the Brahmanas of their wounds , inflicted by Prithu 's tyrannical father , Vena . After acquiring many presents from the gods , Prithu conquered and ruled the earth as well as the Devas , Asuras , Yakshas , Rakshasas and Nagas in all glory . It was where the Satya Yuga reached its pinnacle . Prithu liberated his father Vena , from the hell called Pūt , hence all sons are called Putras . Practicing detachment , Prithu ruled according to the Vedas and the Dandaneeti . His capital is believed to be somewhere in modern @-@ day Haryana . Prithu used his Kshatriya power to make the earth yield its riches . Hence the earth is called Prithvi , daughter of Prithu . Prithu , by mere fiat of will , created millions of men , elephants , chariots and horses . During his reign , there was no decreptitude , no calamity , no famine , no disease , no agriculture and no mining . Prithu enjoyed popularity amongst his subjects , hence all kings are called Rajas . Cows yielded buckets of rich milk when they were touched . Trees and lotuses always had honey in them . People were healthy and happy and had no fear of thieves or wild animals . Nobody died of accidents . Kusha grass was golden in colour . Fruits were always sweet and ripe and nobody went hungry . People lived in houses or caves or trees or wherever they liked . For the first time , civilization and commerce came into existence . Prithu himself shattered many mountains with his arrows and made the earth even . He had divine powers of creating or disappearing any mundane object with his mental power ; ability to play musical instruments , sing and act . His chariot could travel over land , water and air with complete ease . Mountains made way for Prithu on his chariot and his flagstaff was never entangled when Prithu travelled through dense forests as the trees made way for him . Prithu practised charity and donated colossal amounts of gold to the Brahmanas . Prithu appointed Shukracharya , the son of Bhrigu and Garga , the son of Angirasa as his preceptors . The Valakhilyas , a group consisting of 60 @,@ 000 thumb sized ascetics and known for their genius , became Prithu 's counsellors . The Atharvaveda credits him of the invention of ploughing and thus , agriculture . He is also described as one who flattened the Earth 's rocky surface , thus encouraging agriculture , cattle @-@ breeding , commerce and development of new cities on earth . In a hymn in Rigveda , Prithu is described as a rishi ( seer ) . D. R. Patil suggests that the Rigvedic Prithu was a vegetarian deity , associated with Greek god Dionysus and another Vedic god Soma . Bhagavata Purana further states that Prithu performed ninety @-@ nine ashwamedha yagnas ( horse @-@ sacrifices ) , but Indra , kings of the demi @-@ gods , disturbed Prithu 's hundredth one . The yagya was abandoned , Vishnu gave Prithu his blessings and Prithu forgave Indra for the latter 's theft of the ritual @-@ horse . It also states that the Four Kumaras , the four sage @-@ incarnations of Vishnu , preached Prithu about devotion to Vishnu . After governing his kingdom for a long time , Prithu left with his wife Archi , to perform penance in the forest in his last days . He experienced Samadhi and voluntarily gave up his body in the forest , and Archi went Sati on his funeral pyre . = = = Wives and children = = = Apart from Prithvi who is sometimes considered the daughter or wife of Prithu , Prithu has a wife called Archi and five sons . Archi , emerged from Vena 's body , along with Prithu and is considered as an avatar of goddess Lakshmi , the wife of Vishnu . Prithu 's son Vijitswa , became the sovereign and controlled the middle of the kingdom . Prithu 's other sons , Haryarksha , Dhumrakesha , Vrika and Dravina ruled the east , south , west and north of kingdom respectively . = = Symbolism = = O 'Flaherty interprets the myth of Prithu — his transformation from a hunter who chased the earth @-@ cow to the herdsman @-@ farmer — as a transition in Vedic or Hindu people from eating beef to having cow 's milk and cultivated vegetables and grain instead of beef . David Shulman compares Prithu with the Vedic deity Rudra @-@ Shiva . Prithu , like Rudra , is an ideal king , but with a violent side . Prithu 's actions of chasing the earth @-@ cow as a hunter and finally milking her , display this terrifying side of the king . Both , Prithu and Rudra , are closely associated with sacrifice . = = Celebration in Indian society = = Chinese scholar Hiuen Tsang ( c . 640 AD ) records the existence of the town Pehowa , named after Prithu , " who is said to be the first person that obtained the title Raja ( king ) " . Another place associated with Prithu is Prithudaka ( lit . " Prithu 's pool " ) , a town on banks of Sarasvati river , where Prithu is believed to have performed the Shraddha of his father . The town is referred as the boundary between Northern and central India and referred to by Patanjali as the modern Pehowa . Shriman Narayan , one of the protagonists of Indian Panchayati Raj movement , tracing its origin , writes : " It is believed that the system was first introduced by King Prthu while colonizing the Doab between the Ganges and Jamuna . " = Robinson Crusoe economy = A Robinson Crusoe economy is a simple framework used to study some fundamental issues in economics . It assumes an economy with one consumer , one producer and two goods . The title " Robinson Crusoe " is a reference to the novel of the same name authored by Daniel Defoe in 1719 . As a thought experiment in economics , many international trade economists have found this simplified and idealized version of the story important due to its ability to simplify the complexities of the real world . The implicit assumption is that the study of a one agent economy will provide useful insights into the functioning of a real world economy with many economic agents . This article pertains to the study of consumer behaviour , producer behaviour and equilibrium as a part of microeconomics . In other fields of economics , the Robinson Crusoe economy framework is used for essentially the same thing . For example , in public finance the Robinson Crusoe economy is used to study the various types of public goods and certain aspects of collective benefits . It is used in growth economics to develop growth models for underdeveloped or developing countries to embark upon a steady growth path using techniques of savings and investment . In the Robinson Crusoe economy , there is only one individual – Robinson Crusoe himself . He acts both as a producer to maximise profits , as well as consumer to maximise his utility . The possibility of trade can be introduced by adding another person to the economy . This person is Crusoe 's friend , Man Friday . Although in the novel he plays the role of Crusoe 's servant , in the Robinson Crusoe economy he is considered as another actor with equal decision making abilities as Crusoe . Along with this , conditions of Pareto Efficiency can be analysed by bringing in the concept of the Edgeworth box . The basic assumptions of the Robinson Crusoe economy are as follows : The island is cut off from the rest of the world ( and hence cannot trade ) There is only a single economic agent ( Crusoe himself ) All commodities on the island have to be produced or found from existing stocks = = Framework = = Robinson Crusoe is assumed to be shipwrecked on a deserted island . Similar to the choices that households ( suppliers of labour ) face , Crusoe has only two activities to participate in – earn income or pass his time in leisure . The income generating activity in this case is gathering coconuts . As usual , the more time he spends in leisure , the less food he has to eat , and conversely , the more time he spends gathering coconuts , the less time he has for leisure . This is depicted in figure 1 . = = Production function and indifference curves = = Crusoe 's indifference curves depict his preferences for leisure and coconuts while the production function depicts the technological relationship between how much he works and how many coconuts he gathers . If the axes depicting coconut collection and leisure are reversed and plotted with Crusoe 's indifference map and production function , figure 2 can be drawn : The production function is concave in two dimensions and quasi @-@ convex in three dimensions . This means that the longer Robinson works , the more coconuts he will be able to gather . But due to diminishing marginal returns of labour , the additional number of coconuts he gets from every additional hour of labour is declining . The point at which Crusoe will reach an equilibrium between the number of hours he works and relaxes can be found out when the highest indifference curve is tangent to the production function . This will be Crusoe 's most preferred point provided the technology constraint is given and cannot be changed . At this equilibrium point , the slope of the highest indifference curve must equal the slope of the production function . Recall that the Marginal rate of substitution is the rate at which a consumer is ready to give up one good in exchange for another good while maintaining the same level of utility . Additionally , an input 's marginal product is the extra output that can be produced by using one more unit of the input , assuming that the quantities of no other inputs to production change . Then , MPL = MRSLeisure , Coconuts where , MPL = Marginal Product of Labour , and MRSLeisure , Coconuts = Marginal rate of substitution between Leisure and Coconuts = = Crusoe 's multifaceted role = = Suppose Crusoe decides to stop being a producer and consumer simultaneously . He decides he will produce one day and consume the next . His two roles of consumer and producer are being split up and studied separately to understand the elementary form of consumer theory and producer theory in microeconomics . For dividing his time between being a consumer and producer , he must set up two collectively exhaustive markets , the coconut market and the labour market . He also sets up a firm , of which he becomes the sole shareholder . The firm will want to maximise profits by deciding how much labour to hire and how many coconuts to produce according to their prices . As a worker of the firm , Crusoe will collect wages , as a shareholder , he will collect profits and as a consumer , he will decide how much of the firm 's output to purchase according to his income and the prevailing market prices . Let 's assume that a currency called " Dollars " has been created by Robinson to manage his finances . For simplicity , assume that PriceCoconuts = $ 1 @.@ 00 . This assumption is made to make the calculations in the numerical example easy because the inclusion of prices will not alter the result of the analysis . For more details , refer to Numéraire commodities . = = = Producer = = = Assume that when the firm produces C amount of total coconuts , <formula> represents its profit level . Also assume that when the wage rate at which the firm employs labour is w , L amount of labour will be employed . Then , <formula> <formula> The above function describes iso @-@ profit lines ( the locus of combinations between labour and coconuts that produce a constant profit of Π ) . Profits can be maximised when the marginal product of labour equals the wage rate ( marginal cost of production ) . Symbolically , MPL = w Graphically , the iso @-@ profit line must be tangent to the production function . The vertical intercept of the iso @-@ profit line measures the level of profit that Robinson Crusoe 's firm will make . This level of profit , Π , has the ability to purchase Π dollars worth of coconuts . Since PriceCoconuts is $ 1 @.@ 00 , Π number of coconuts can be purchased . Also , the firm will declare a dividend of Π dollars . This will be given to the firm 's sole shareholder , Crusoe himself . = = = Consumer = = = As a consumer , Crusoe will have to decide how much to work ( or indulge in leisure ) and hence consume . He can choose to not work at all , since he has an endowment of Π dollars from being a shareholder . Let us instead consider the more realistic case of him deciding to work for a few hours . His labour consumption choice can be illustrated in figure 4 : Note that labour is assumed to be a ' bad ' , i.e. , a commodity that a consumer doesn 't like . Its presence in his consumption basket lowers the utility he derives . On the other hand , coconuts are goods . This is why the indifference curves are positively sloped . The maximum amount of labour is indicated by L ' . The distance from L ' to the chosen supply of labour ( L * ) gives Crusoe 's demand for leisure . Notice Crusoe 's budget line . It has a slope of w and passes through the point ( 0 , Π ) . This point is his endowment level i.e. , even when he supplies 0 amount of labour , he has Π amount of coconuts ( dollars ) to consume . Given the wage rate , Crusoe will choose how much to work and how much to consume at that point where , MRSLeisure , Coconuts = w = = Equilibrium = = At equilibrium , the demand for coconuts will equal the supply of coconuts and the demand for labour will equal the supply of labour . Graphically this occurs when the diagrams under consumer and producer are superimposed . Notice that , MRSLeisure , Coconuts = w MPL = w - = > MRSLeisure , Coconuts = MPL This ensures that the slopes of the indifference curves and the production set are the same . As a result , Crusoe ends up consuming at the same point he would have if he made all the above decisions together . In other words , using the market system has the same outcome as choosing the individual utility maximisation and cost minimisation plans . This is an important result when put into a macro level perspective because it implies that there exists a set of prices for inputs and outputs in the economy such that the profit @-@ maximising behaviour of firms along with the utility @-@ maximizing actions of individuals results in the demand for each good equaling the supply in all markets . This means that a competitive equilibrium can exist . The merit of a competitive equilibrium is that an efficient allocation of resources is achievable . In other words , no economic agent can be made better off without making another economic agent worse off . = = Production possibilities with two goods = = Let 's assume that there is another commodity that Crusoe can produce apart from coconuts , for example , fish . Now , Robinson has to decide how much time to spare for both activities , i.e. how many coconuts to gather and how many fish to hunt . The locus of the various combinations of fish and coconuts that he can produce from devoting different amounts of time to each activity is known as the production possibilities set . This is depicted in the figure 6 : The boundary of the production possibilities set is known as the Production @-@ possibility frontier ( PPF ) . This curve measures the feasible outputs that Crusoe can produce , with a fixed technological constraint and given amount of resources . In this case , the resources and technological constraints are Robinson Crusoe 's labour . It is crucial to note that the shape of the PPF depends on the nature of the technology in use . Here , technology refers to the type of returns to scale prevalent . In figure 6 , the underlying assumption is the usual decreasing returns to scale , due to which the PPF is concave to the origin . In case we assumed increasing returns to scale , say if Crusoe embarked upon a mass production movement and hence faced decreasing costs , the PPF would be convex to the origin . The PPF is linear with a downward slope in two circumstances : If the technology for gathering coconuts and hunting fish exhibits constant returns to scale If there is only one input in production So in the Robinson Crusoe economy , the PPF will be linear due to the presence of only one input . = = = Marginal rate of transformation = = = Suppose that Crusoe can produce 4 pounds of fish or 8 pounds of coconuts per hour . If he devotes Lf hours to fish gathering and Lc hours to gathering coconuts , he will produce 4Lf pounds of fish and 8Lc pounds of coconuts . Suppose that he decides to work for 12 hours a day . Then the production possibilities set will consist of all combinations of fish , F , and coconuts , C , such that <formula> <formula> <formula> Solve the first two equations and substitute in the third to get , <formula> This equation represents Crusoe 's PPF . The slope of this PPF measures the Marginal rate of transformation ( MRT ) , i.e. , how much of the first good must be given up in order to increase the production of the second good by one unit . If Crusoe works one hour less on hunting fish , he will have 4 less fish . If he devotes this extra hour to collecting coconuts , he will have 8 extra coconuts . The MRT is thus , MRT Coconuts , Fish <formula> <formula> = = = Comparative advantage = = = Under this section , the possibility of trade is introduced by adding another person to the economy . Suppose that the new worker who is added to the Robinson Crusoe Economy has different skills in gathering coconuts and hunting fish . The second person is called " Friday " . Friday can produce 8 pounds of fish or 4 pounds of coconuts per hour . If he too decides to work for 12 hours , his production possibilities set will be determined by the following relations : <formula> <formula> <formula> <formula> Thus , MRT Coconuts , Fish <formula> <formula> This means that for every pound of coconuts Friday gives up , he can produce 2 more pounds of fish . So , we can say that Friday has a Comparative advantage in hunting fish while Crusoe has a comparative advantage in gathering coconuts . Their respective PPFs can be shown in the following diagram : The joint production possibilities set at the extreme right shows the total amount of both commodities that can be produced by Crusoe and Friday together . It combines the best of both workers . If both of them work to gather coconuts only , the economy will have 144 coconuts in all , 96 from Crusoe and 48 from Friday . ( This can be obtained by setting F = 0 in their respective PPF equations and summing them up ) . Here the slope of the joint PPF is -1 / 2 . If we want more fish , we should shift that person who has a comparative advantage in fish hunting ( i.e. Friday ) out of coconut gathering and into fish hunting . When Friday is producing 96 pounds of fish , he is fully occupied . If fish production is to be increased beyond this point , Crusoe will have to start hunting fish . Here onward , the slope of the joint PPF is -2 . If we want to produce only fish , then the economy will have 144 pounds of fish , 48 from Crusoe and 96 from Friday . Thus the joint PPF is kinked because Crusoe and Friday have comparative advantages in different commodities . As the economy gets more and more ways of producing output and different comparative advantages , the PPF becomes concave . = = Pareto efficiency = = Assume that there are c units of coconut and f units of fish available for consumption in the Crusoe Friday economy . Given this endowment bundle ( c , f ) , the Pareto efficient bundle can be determined at the mutual tangency of Crusoe 's and Friday 's indifference curves in the Edgeworth box along the Pareto Set ( Contract curve ) . These are the bundles at which Crusoe 's and Friday 's Marginal rate of substitution are equal . In a simple exchange economy , the contract curve describes the set of bundles that exhaust the gains from trade . But in a Robinson Crusoe / Friday economy , there is another way to exchange goods – to produce less of one good and more of the other . From the figure 8 , it is clear that an economy operating at a position where the MRS of either Crusoe or Friday is not equal to the MRT between coconuts and fish cannot be Pareto efficient . This is because the rate at which , say Friday is willing to trade coconuts for fish is different from the rate at which coconuts can be transformed into fish . Thus , there is a way to make Friday better off by rearranging the production pattern . Thus for Pareto Efficiency , MRT Coconuts , Fish = MRSCoconuts , Fish ( for both Crusoe and Friday ) This can be achieved in a competitive market by decentralising production and consumption decisions , i.e. Crusoe and Friday will both solve their own problems of how much to consume and produce independently . = New York State Route 458 = New York State Route 458 ( NY 458 ) is a state highway in the North Country of New York in the United States . It extends for 24 @.@ 42 miles ( 39 @.@ 30 km ) from an intersection with NY 11B in the St. Lawrence County town of Hopkinton to a junction with NY 30 in the Franklin County town of Brighton . The route follows a generally northwest – southeast alignment between the two points , serving only small hamlets as it crosses an otherwise rural area of the North Country . NY 458 was assigned c . 1973 to the former routing of NY 72 east of the Hopkinton hamlet of Nicholville . Prior to being signed as part of NY 72 in 1930 , it was designated as part of NY 56 in the 1920s . = = Route description = = NY 458 begins at a junction with NY 11B in Hopkinton at the western fringe of the Lawrence hamlet of Nicholville . The route heads southeast , loosely paralleling the St. Regis River as it proceeds through rural eastern St. Lawrence County . After 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) , it passes into both the Franklin County town of Waverly and Adirondack Park . Now within the park boundaries , NY 458 crosses over the Lake Ozonia Outlet on its way eastward to the hamlet of St. Regis Falls , the largest community on the entire route . The route crosses the St. Regis River twice and intersects County Route 5 ( CR 5 ) , a connector to the hamlet of Moira 10 miles ( 16 km ) to the north , within St. Regis Falls . At the junction with CR 5 , here named North Main Street but known as Moira – St. Regis Falls Road north of Adirondack Park , the highway turns south to follow South Main Street out of the community . NY 458 continues southeast through Waverly to the hamlet known as Santa Clara in the town of the same name . The route heads through the hamlet and over the St. Regis for the final time as it approaches Goodnow Mountain , a peak rising roughly 1 @,@ 960 feet ( 600 m ) above sea level . Instead of traversing the mountain , the highway bypasses it to the south . East of the peak , NY 458 turns southeast and begins to parallel the east branch of the St. Regis River . This pairing remains intact through the towns of Santa Clara and Duane to Brighton , where NY 458 ends at NY 30 . = = History = = The entirety of modern NY 458 was originally designated as part of NY 56 , a route extending from Massena to Brighton via Winthrop and Nicholville , in the mid @-@ 1920s . NY 56 was realigned in 1927 to continue west from Nicholville to a new terminus in Potsdam . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 56 was renumbered to NY 72 . The portion of NY 72 east of Nicholville remained unchanged until c . 1973 when NY 72 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Hopkinton . The former routing of NY 72 from Nicholville to Brighton was renumbered to NY 458 . = = Major intersections = = = Indian Head cent = The Indian Head cent , also known as an Indian Head penny , was a one @-@ cent coin ( $ 0 @.@ 01 ) produced by the United States Bureau of the Mint from 1859 to 1909 . It was designed by James Barton Longacre , the Chief Engraver at the Philadelphia Mint . From 1793 to 1857 , the cent was a copper coin about the size of a half dollar . As rising copper prices made it impractical to keep striking them , in 1857 the Mint reduced the size of the cent , issuing a new design , the Flying Eagle cent . The new pieces were identical in diameter to modern cents , though somewhat thicker and made of copper @-@ nickel . The design caused production difficulties , and the Mint soon looked to replace the coin . Mint Director James Ross Snowden selected the Indian Head design , and chose a laurel wreath for the reverse that was replaced in 1860 by an oak wreath with a shield . Cents were hoarded during the economic chaos of the American Civil War , when the metal nickel was in short supply . As Mint officials saw that privately issued bronze tokens were circulating , they induced Congress to pass the Coinage Act of 1864 , authorizing a slimmer cent of bronze alloy . In the postwar period , the cent became very popular and was struck in large numbers in most years . An exception was 1877 , when a poor economy and little demand for cents created one of the rarest dates in the series . With the advent of coin @-@ operated machines in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , even more cents were produced , reaching 100 million for the first time in 1907 . In 1909 , the Indian Head cent was replaced by the Lincoln cent , designed by Victor D. Brenner . = = Inception = = The half @-@ dollar @-@ sized large cent was struck from 1793 to 1857 , authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 which defined the " cent " as 1 / 100 dollar . That coin was intended to contain close to a cent 's worth of copper , as people then expected that coins contain close to their face values in metal . Nevertheless , because of the constitutional clause making only gold and silver legal tender , the government would not accept copper cents for taxes or other payments . By the early 1850s , fluctuations in the price of copper led the Mint of the United States ( hereafter Mint ) to seek alternatives , including reducing the size of the cent and experimenting with compositions other than pure copper . The result was the Flying Eagle cent , the same diameter as the later Lincoln cent but somewhat thicker and heavier , composed of 88 % copper and 12 % nickel . The Flying Eagle cent was struck in limited numbers as a pattern coin in 1856 , then for circulation in 1857 and 1858 . The Flying Eagle cent was issued in exchange for worn Spanish colonial silver coins , which until then had circulated widely in the United States . These " small cents " were also issued in exchange for the copper coins they had replaced . By 1858 , Mint authorities found the piece unsatisfactory in production . The high points on both sides of the coin ( the eagle 's head and the wreath ) opposed each other , and it was difficult to get the design to be brought out fully in the tough copper @-@ nickel alloy . Mint Engraver James B. Longacre , designer of the Flying Eagle cent , was instructed to develop alternative designs . He produced one , showing a slimmer eagle , which would not clash as much with the reverse wreath . Although this would have cured the production problem , the design was not liked . Mint Director James Ross Snowden suggested a head of Columbus as an obverse design , but Longacre felt the public would not approve of a historic figure on an American coin . In 1858 , the Mint tested new designs for the cent . Between 60 and 100 sets of twelve pattern coins were struck , consisting of the standard Flying Eagle obverse , a " scrawny eagle " pattern , and the Indian Head design , mated with four different wreaths for the reverse . Snowden would make his choice of what design would be struck in 1859 from these patterns ; the sets were also sold to collectors . The Indian Head design was apparently prepared by April , as on the twelfth of that month , a Mr. Howard wrote to Snowden that " I have learned that a new pattern piece for the cent has been struck off at the Mint [ with ] a head resembling that of the three dollar piece and on the reverse a shield at the top of the olive and oak wreath " , and asking to purchase a specimen . Other numismatists also sought pieces : R. Coulton Davis , a Philadelphia druggist with ties to the Mint , wrote to Snowden in June informing him of a favorable story in a Boston newspaper , and Augustus B. Sage wrote to the Mint Director the same month , asking for a specimen for himself , and one for the newly founded American Numismatic Society . According to Walter Breen , Snowden most likely chose the combination of the Indian Head and the laurel wreath as it was the lowest relief of any of the options , and could be expected to strike well . On November 4 , 1858 , Snowden wrote to Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb about the Indian Head design , and two days later wrote to Longacre , informing him that it was approved . Longacre was to prepare the necessary dies for production , which was to begin on January 1 , 1859 . = = Design = = Longacre advocated his Indian Head design in an August 21 , 1858 , letter to Snowden : From the copper shores of Lake Superior , to the silver mountains of Potosi from the Ojibwa to the Aramanian , the feathered tiara is as characteristic of the primitive races of our hemisphere , as the turban is of the Asiatic . Nor is there anything in its decorative character , repulsive to the association of Liberty … It is more appropriate than the Phrygian cap , the emblem rather of the emancipated slave , than of the independent freeman , of those who are able to say " we were never in bondage to any man " . I regard then this emblem of America as a proper and well defined portion of our national inheritance ; and having now the opportunity of consecrating it as a memorial of Liberty , ' our Liberty ' , American Liberty ; why not use it ? One more graceful can scarcely be devised . We have only to determine that it shall be appropriate , and all the world outside of us cannot wrest it from us . By numismatic legend , the facial features of the goddess Liberty on the obverse of the Indian Head cent were based on the features of Longacre 's daughter Sarah ; the tale runs that she was at the mint one day when she tried on the headdress of one of a number of Native Americans who were visiting , and her father sketched her . However , Sarah Longacre was 30 years old and married in 1858 , not 12 as in the tale , and Longacre himself stated that the face was based on a statue of Venus in Philadelphia on loan from the Vatican . He did often sketch his elder daughter , and there are resemblances between the depictions of Sarah and the various representations of Liberty on his coins of the 1850s . These tales were apparently extant at the time , as Snowden , writing to Treasury Secretary Howell Cobb in November 1858 , denied that the coin was based " on any human features in the Longacre family " . Lee F. McKenzie , in his 1991 article on Longacre , notes that any artist can be influenced by many things , but calls the story " essentially false " . Regardless of who posed for Longacre , the facial features of the " Indian " are essentially Caucasian , meaning that a White woman wears the headdress of a Native American man . Longacre had , in 1854 , designed the three @-@ dollar piece with a female with similar features ( also supposedly based on the museum sculpture ) but a more fanciful headdress , and adapted that design for the gold dollar . Officials were aware of this artistic license at the time of issue ; Snowden , in his November 1858 letter to Cobb , characterizes the two earlier coins as " the artists at the Mint evidently not realizing the absurd incongruity of placing this most masculine attribute of the warrior brave on the head of a woman " . Longacre would not be the last to juxtapose the features of a White woman with an Indian headdress reserved for men ; Augustus Saint Gaudens , for the Indian Head eagle ( 1907 ) , produced a similar design . Later issues depict more accurate Indians , including Bela Lyon Pratt 's Indian Head gold pieces ( 1908 ) , the Buffalo nickel ( 1913 ) by James Earle Fraser , who worked from Native American models , and the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar ( 1926 ) , designed by Fraser and his wife Laura . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule had mixed emotions about the Indian Head cent : " Longacre enriched the mythology of American coinage in a pleasant if unpretentious fashion . Given his pattern half @-@ dollar designs of 1859 as a yardstick , he could have done worse . " In another comparison , Vermeule suggested , " far from a major creation aesthetically or iconographically , and far less attractive to the eye than the [ flying eagle ] , the Indian head cent was at least to achieve the blessing of popular appeal . The coin became perhaps the most beloved and typically American of any piece great or small in the American series . Great art the coin was not , but it was one of the first products of the United States mints to achieve the common touch . " = = Production = = = = = Redesign and surplus ( 1859 – 1861 ) = = = Production of the Indian Head cent for commerce began at the start of 1859 . As issued for circulation , the pieces differ in some particulars from the pattern 1858 cent of similar design ; Longacre sharpened some details . The pattern coin had the laurel leaves in the reverse wreath in bunches of five leaves ; the issued 1859 cent has them in bunches of six . Cents dated 1858 with the adopted reverse ( with six @-@ leaf bunches ) are known , were most likely struck in 1859 , and are extremely rare . In 1860 , the reverse of the cent was changed to feature an oak wreath and a narrow shield ; such reverses are also known on 1859 @-@ dated pieces struck as patterns . According to Richard Snow in his guide book to Flying Eagle and Indian Head cents , this was not due to problems with the " Laurel Wreath " reverse design used in 1859 , as full details survive on many extant pieces . Walter Breen , however , suggested that the feathers and curls on the obverse did not strike as well as they would later , and that " this may account for Snowden 's decision to change the design again " . David Lange , in his history of the Mint , states that it was to give the coin , quoting Snowden , " more National character " . All 1859 cents and some from 1860 have the cutoff of Liberty 's bust on the obverse end with a point ; most 1860 cents and all later issues have it rounded . Tens of millions of Flying Eagle cents had been issued in exchange for the old American coppers and small Spanish silver . The Spanish silver was still flowing into the Mint in early 1859 and , at Snowden 's urging , Congress on March 3 of that year extended the redemption of these foreign coins , legal tender in the US until 1857 , for another two years . Neil Carothers , in his work on small @-@ denomination currency , challenged this decision as unnecessary — deprived of legal tender status , the remaining Spanish silver would have been eliminated through sales to banks for their bullion . Those who brought the old coins to the Mint received cents for them , at first Flying Eagle , and then Indian Head . In the year following the renewal , some forty million Indian Head cents were issued , meaning nearly a hundred million copper @-@ nickel cents had entered commerce since 1857 . As the coin did not circulate in the South and West due to prejudice against base @-@ metal money , they choked commerce . No one had to take them ; no law made them legal tender . At Snowden 's urging Congress in June 1860 ended the exchange . Nevertheless , as Snowden admitted in his annual report that year , there were too many cents in circulation . In October 1860 , The Bankers ' Magazine and Statistical Register reported that there were ten million cents in commerce in New York City above what was needed , and if anyone wished to order in bulk , they could be purchased at a discount . = = = Shortage and redesign ( 1862 – 1864 ) = = = The surplus of cents was relieved by the economic chaos engendered by the American Civil War , which began in 1861 . At the end of that year , the banks stopped paying out gold , which thereafter commanded a premium over paper money . These greenbacks , beginning in the following year , were issued in large quantities by the federal government . Silver vanished from commerce in June 1862 , as the price of that metal rose , leaving the cent the sole federal coin that had not entirely vanished from commerce through hoarding . The glut of cents had by then abated , as merchants had stored them away in quantity — one New York City floor collapsed beneath the load . There were other means of making change which passed in the emergency , from postage stamps to privately issued tokens , but the public demand was for the cent — the Philadelphia Mint struck record numbers , and set aside part of the production to be transmitted to other cities . Nevertheless , by July 1862 , the cent , in quantity , could only be purchased at a premium of 4 % in paper money in major cities in the East . The copper @-@ nickel pieces were nicknamed " nickels " , or " nicks " . Presentation of coins in payment carried with it no obligation to make change in the same . Accordingly , with a small quantity of " nicks " , a shopper could make purchases with exact change , without receiving such makeshifts as merchants ' credit slips , that others might not accept at the stated value . By 1863 , The Bankers ' Magazine reported that the premium for cents in Philadelphia had risen to 20 % . Thereafter , the premium decreased as there was a flood of metal tokens issued by merchants , which were widely accepted . Other war expedients , such as fractional currency , lessened the demand for the cent by taking the place of missing silver coinage . Small quantities of cents circulated among them , though many were still hoarded . Government officials saw that the public readily accepted the merchant tokens . Many of these tokens were made of bronze , and when , in 1863 , they attempted to restore coins to circulation , the use of bronze coins , which would not contain their face values in metal , was considered . In his annual report submitted October 1 , 1863 , Lincoln Administration Mint Director James Pollock noted that " whilst people expect a full value in their gold and silver coins , they merely want the inferior [ base metal ] money for convenience in making exact payments " . He observed that the private cent tokens had sometimes contained as little as a fifth of a cent in metal , yet had still circulated . He proposed that the copper @-@ nickel cent be replaced with a bronze piece of the same size . Pollock also wanted to eliminate nickel as a coinage metal ; its hard alloys destroyed dies and machinery . On December 8 , Pollock wrote to Treasury Secretary Salmon P. Chase , proposing a bronze cent and two @-@ cent piece . On March 2 , 1864 , Pollock wrote urgently to Chase , warning him that the Mint was running out of nickel and that demand for cents was at an all @-@ time high . He also informed the Secretary that the United States Assay Commission , composed of citizens and officials who had met the previous month to test the nation 's silver and gold coinage , had recommended the use of French bronze ( 95 % copper with the remainder tin and zinc ) as a coinage metal for the cent and a new two @-@ cent piece . Three days later , Chase sent Pollock 's December letter and draft legislation for bronze one- and two @-@ cent pieces to Maine Senator William P. Fessenden , chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . Fessenden took no immediate action , and on March 16 , Pollock wrote again to Chase , warning that the Mint was going to run out of nickel , much of which was imported . Chase forwarded his letter to Fessenden . Legislation was finally introduced by New Hampshire Senator Daniel Clark on March 22 ; Pollock 's letters were read and apparently influenced proceedings as the Senate passed the bill without debate . The domestic supply of nickel was at that time produced by a mine at Gap , Pennsylvania , owned by industrialist Joseph Wharton . On March 19 , Pollock wrote to Chase that they had no more nickel , nor was any available from overseas ; " we are thus shut up to the home supply ; from the works of Mr. Wharton " . Opposed to the removal of nickel from the cent , Wharton published a pamphlet in April 1864 proposing coinage of one- , two- , three- , five- , and ten @-@ cent pieces of an alloy of one part nickel to three of copper , doubling the percentage of nickel used in the cent . Despite Wharton 's efforts , on April 20 , a select committee of the House of Representatives endorsed the bill . It was opposed by Pennsylvania 's Thaddeus Stevens , who represented the mining area from which Wharton extracted his nickel . Wharton had spent $ 200 @,@ 000 to develop his mine and ore refinement machinery , Stevens related , and it was unfair to deprive him of the major use of his metal . " Shall we destroy all this property because by coining with another metal more money may be saved to the government ? " Besides , he argued , the copper @-@ nickel alloy for the cent had been approved by Congress , and the new metal , which he termed " brass " , would show rust . He was rebutted by Iowa Congressman John A. Kasson , chairman of the House Committee on Coinage , Weights , and Measures , who stated that the bronze alloy did not resemble brass , and he could not support the proposition that the government is bound to purchase from a supplier because he has spent money in anticipation of sales . The legislation passed the House , and the Coinage Act of 1864 was signed by President Abraham Lincoln on April 22 , 1864 . The legislation made base metal coins legal tender for the first time : both cents and two @-@ cent pieces were acceptable in quantities of up to ten . The government would not , however , redeem them in bulk . The act also outlawed the private one- and two @-@ cent tokens , and later that year Congress abolished all such issues . The legislation did not allow for the redemption of the old copper @-@ nickel cents ; it had been drafted by Pollock , who was hoping that the seignorage income from issuing the new coins would help finance Mint operations , and he did not want it reduced by the recall of the old pieces . Wharton and his interests were appeased by the passage of a bill for a three @-@ cent piece in 1865 and a five @-@ cent piece in 1866 , both of his proposed alloy , out of which the " nickel " , as the latter coin has come to be known , is still struck . Despite this , Wharton and his nickel interests made repeated attempts to return nickel to the cent , each time failing , both as part of the deliberations over what became the Coinage Act of 1873 , and in the early 1880s . The copper @-@ nickel cents from early in 1864 were generally bought up by speculators and did not circulate in large numbers . The Mint began producing bronze cents on May 13 , three weeks after the passage of the Coinage Act , and they were released into circulation on May 20 . Dies prepared for copper @-@ nickel pieces were used to strike bronze . Sometime during 1864 , Longacre sharpened his design for use in striking the softer bronze pieces , and also added his initial " L " . It is not known when this was done ; it may have been as early as May , with the new dies used alongside the old . These bronze pieces are often referred to as " 1864 @-@ L " and " 1864 No L " . The " L " is known on 1863 @-@ dated pieces , in both metals , and on 1864 @-@ dated copper @-@ nickel pieces — some of these issues , all extremely rare , were likely struck at a later date . The bronze cent was immediately accepted by the public , and heavy production of the issue soon alleviated the shortage of cents . = = = Later years ( 1865 – 1909 ) = = = In the postwar years , the heavy production of cents was scaled back , as hoarding ceased and some of the slack was taken up by other base @-@ metal coins . Nevertheless , the various issues of small coins , at that time not redeemed by the government , caused another glut in commerce , which was not completely broken until the Act of March 3 , 1871 , allowed redemption of cents and other minor coins in lots of $ 20 or more . Pursuant to this act , over thirty million copper @-@ nickel cents , of both the Indian Head and Flying Eagle designs , were redeemed ; the Mint melted these for recoinage . Fifty @-@ five million bronze cents were also sold to the government ; beginning in 1874 , the Mint re @-@ issued these in response to commercial requests for cents , lowering the demand for new coins . Drops in the price of silver brought coins of that metal , hoarded for a decade or more , back into commerce , also decreasing demand . Between 1866 and 1878 , production only occasionally exceeded ten million ; the 1877 coin , with a circulation mintage of 852 @,@ 500 , is a rare date for the series . After 1881 , there were few redemptions of bronze cents , due to high demand for the denomination , though copper @-@ nickel cents continued to be redeemed and melted . With the discontinuance of the two @-@ cent piece and three @-@ cent silver in 1873 , the cent and the three @-@ cent nickel were the sole survivors of the coins valued at less than five cents . The three @-@ cent nickel , by this time , was unpopular because of its odd denomination and ( with the return of silver coinage ) its similarity in size to the dime . A three @-@ cent postage rate had been one of the reasons why that denomination had begun , in the 1850s ; in the early 1880s the Post Office decreased the basic rate for letters to two cents . This change both increased demand for cents , and decreased the demand for the three @-@ cent nickel , which was abolished in 1890 . In most years of the 1880s , there were large issues of Indian Head cents . The exception was in the mid @-@ 1880s , when poor economic times led to less demand for minor coins . No cents or five @-@ cent nickels were minted after February 1885 until near the end of 1886 . Production of undated dies into which the year of issue could be punched did continue , and during the hiatus in coin production , Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber modified the design , removing light outlines between the lettering on the obverse and the rest of the design , and making other changes . This led to two types for the 1886 Indian Head cent , which may be distinguished : on the Type I , the lowest feather on the obverse points between the I and the C in " AMERICA " , while on the Type II it points between the C and the final A. Snow estimates that 14 million of the mintage of 17 @,@ 654 @,@ 290 were Type I , as were a majority of the 4 @,@ 290 proof strikings . The economic Panic of 1893 again caused a decrease in the number of cents produced , as coins accumulated in private hands were spent , creating a surplus . Aside from that , the final years of the series before its termination in 1909 were marked by large mintages , with 1907 topping the hundred million mark . A healthy economy in most years fueled demand , as did the increasing popularity of coin @-@ operated machines , some of which could be found at penny arcades . By the early 20th century , the cent was accepted across the nation , but by law production of the cent was limited to the Philadelphia Mint . Treasury officials sought removal of this restriction , and for an increase in the annual appropriation to purchase base metals for production of the cent and nickel — the amount expended had remained the same since 1873 , although demand for cents had greatly increased . By the Act of April 24 , 1906 , the Mint received permission to strike base metal coins at any mint , and the appropriation was quadrupled to $ 200 @,@ 000 . Small quantities of cents were struck at the San Francisco Mint in 1908 and 1909 . = = Replacement = = Congress passed legislation in 1890 allowing the Mint to alter designs that had been in use for 25 years without the need for legislative authorization . In 1904 , President Theodore Roosevelt wrote to his Secretary of the Treasury , Leslie Mortier Shaw , complaining that U.S. coinage lacked artistic merit , and enquiring if it would be possible to engage a private artist , such as sculptor Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , to prepare new coin designs . At Roosevelt 's instructions , the Mint hired Saint @-@ Gaudens to redesign the cent and the four gold pieces : the double eagle ( $ 20 ) , eagle ( $ 10 ) , half eagle ( $ 5 ) , and quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 ) . As the designs of those pieces had remained the same for 25 years , they could be changed without an act of Congress , as could the Indian Head cent . Saint @-@ Gaudens originally conceived a flying eagle design for the cent , but at Roosevelt 's request , developed it for the $ 20 piece after learning that under the 1873 act , an eagle could not appear on the cent . Writer and friend Witter Bynner recalled that in January 1907 , Saint @-@ Gaudens was seriously ill with cancer , and was carried to his studio for ten minutes a day to critique the work of his assistants on current projects , including the cent . Saint @-@ Gaudens died on August 3 , 1907 , without having submitted another design for the cent . With the redesign of the four gold denominations completed by 1908 , Roosevelt turned his attention to the cent . The centennial of the birth of assassinated president Abraham Lincoln would occur in February 1909 , and large numbers of privately manufactured souvenirs were already being issued . Many citizens had written to the Treasury Department , proposing a Lincoln coin , and Roosevelt was interested in honoring his fellow Republican . This was a break with previous American numismatic tradition ; before the Lincoln cent , no regularly circulating U.S. coin had featured an actual person ( as opposed to idealized personifications , as of " liberty " ) . In late 1908 , Roosevelt sat for sculptor Victor David Brenner , who was designing a medal for the Panama Canal Commission . It is uncertain how Brenner was selected to design the coin , but in January 1909 , Mint Director Frank A. Leach hired him to design a Lincoln cent . This went into circulation later in 1909 , putting an end to the Indian Head cent series . = = Collecting = = Indian Head cents were popular among coin collectors even in the half @-@ century when they were produced ; since then , with the growth of the hobby , interest has increased . The 1930s introduction of inexpensive coin albums to house the series and encourage collectors to seek a complete set came at a time when the bronze version of the Indian Head cent was still common in pocket change . They were not widely studied until the 1960s ; numismatic writer Tom DeLorey , in his introduction to Snow 's book , ascribes this to prejudice among numismatists who grew up with the Indian Head cent as a common circulation piece . He notes that the 1960 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins ( commonly , the Red Book ) listed only four dates for which there were varieties , one of which , the overdate 1869 / 68 was in error , as the final digit was actually over another 9 . The 2015 edition of the Red Book lists varieties for 11 dates . Like most other denominations of U.S. coins , the 1873 may be found in two varieties , depending on the appearance of the final digit of the date : the " Close 3 " or " Closed 3 " is from early dies ; but after Chief Coiner A. Loudon Snowden complained that the " 3 " looked too much like an " 8 " , Chief Engraver William Barber modified his work to create the " Open 3 " . Some 1875 pieces have a dot appearing on the letter " N " in " ONE " on the reverse . This may have been a secret mark , added to catch a thief within the Philadelphia Mint . The Indian Head cent was struck in large quantities and most dates remain inexpensive : Yeoman lists all dates from 1900 to 1908 from Philadelphia at $ 2 in Good @-@ 4 condition . The record holder for the denomination is a proof specimen of the 1864 @-@ L , of which there were an estimated 20 struck ; it sold for $ 161 @,@ 000 in 2012 . = Belton House = Belton House is a Grade I listed country house in Belton near Grantham , Lincolnshire , England . The mansion is surrounded by formal gardens and a series of avenues leading to follies within a larger wooded park . Belton has been described as a compilation of all that is finest of Carolean architecture , the only truly vernacular style of architecture that England had produced since the Tudor period . The	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . First held in 1829 , the race takes place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1951 race by a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and had won the previous five races . They led overall with 53 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford 's coaches were A. J. M. Durand ( who had rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1920 race ) , Hugh " Jumbo " Edwards ( who rowed for Oxford in 1926 and 1930 ) , R. D. Hill ( who rowed in the 1940 wartime race ) and J. H. Page . Cambridge were coached by C. B. M. Lloyd ( three @-@ time Blue between 1949 and 1951 ) , Roy Meldrum ( a coach for Lady Margaret Boat Club ) , James Owen and Harold Rickett ( who rowed three times between 1930 and 1932 ) . The race was umpired for the third time by the former British Olympian Kenneth Payne , who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races . Although Cambridge had arrived at Putney as clear favourites to win , Oxford 's improvements during the build @-@ up to the race had shortened their odds : as the rowing correspondent in The Manchester Guardian suggested , " anything might happen " . The rowing correspondent for the The Times reported that Cambridge were " quoted as even " but would " still start [ the ] race as favourites " . Moreover , the crews were " extraordinarily evenly matched , but Oxford have a very good chance of breaking the run of Cambridge wins . " = = Crews = = The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 11 @.@ 5 lb ( 81 @.@ 2 kg ) , 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford 's crew contained three rowers with Boat Race experience including their stroke Chris Davidge who was making his third appearance in the event . Cambridge saw three participants return , including cox John Hinde . Oxford 's number six Ken Keniston was the only participant registered as non @-@ British ; the former Harvard University rower was from the United States . = = Race = = Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . The weather was inclement , with gale @-@ force winds and snow disrupting the race , and limiting the number of spectators lining the banks of the Thames to a few thousand . Umpire Payne started the race at 3 : 15 p.m. Cambridge made the cleaner start in the rough conditions , and held a quarter @-@ length lead at the Dukes ' Head pub . Despite making a number of spurts , the Light Blues could not pull away from Oxford , the Dark Blues ' stroke maintaining a higher stroke rate to keep in touch . Keeping to more sheltered conditions yet in slower water , Cambridge passed the Mile Post with a lead of half a length . With the bend in the river beginning to favour Oxford , the lead was slowly eroded until both boats passed nearly level below Hammersmith Bridge . Alongside Chiswick Eyot , the Dark Blues were almost half @-@ a @-@ length ahead but not gaining further . Cambridge 's cox Hinde pushed the Oxford boat towards the centre of the river and as they passed under Barnes Bridge the Dark Blue lead was down to less than a quarter of a length . Oxford won by a canvas ( approximately 9 feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) ) in a time of 20 minutes 23 seconds , the narrowest margin of victory since 1877 , and their first win in six attempts . At no point during the course of the race did either boat have a clear water advantage over their opponent . The rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian described the race as " one of the closest fought of all time " , while Ian Thomson , writing in The Observer suggested it was " one of the most exciting races ever rowed . " = Nidan = Nidan ( sometimes known as Midan or Idan ) was a Welsh priest and , according to some sources , a bishop , in the 6th and 7th centuries . He is now commemorated as a saint . He was the confessor for the monastery headed by St Seiriol at Penmon , and established a church at what is now known as Llanidan , which are both places on the Welsh island of Anglesey . He is the patron saint of two churches in Anglesey : St Nidan 's Church , Llanidan , built in the 19th century , and its medieval predecessor , the Old Church of St Nidan , Llanidan . Midmar Old Kirk in Aberdeenshire , Scotland , is also dedicated to him : Nidan is said to have helped to establish Christianity in that area as a companion of St Kentigern . St Nidan 's , Llanidan , has a reliquary dating from the 14th or 16th century , which is said to house his relics . = = Life = = Little is known in detail about Nidan 's life , and his year and place of birth are unknown . He is sometimes referred to as " Midan " or " Idan " . According to manuscript sources , such as Peniarth MS 45 ( which has been dated to the 14th century ) in the National Library of Wales , he was the son of Gwrfyw ab Pasgen ab Urien Rheged . He was a descendant of Urien Rheged , as was Saint Grwst of Llanrwst , a town on the north Wales mainland in present @-@ day Conwy County Borough . Urien was a " celebrated warrior " from the late 5th century , whose deeds were commemorated by the Welsh poet Taliesin . Nidan was associated with St Seiriol 's monastery at Penmon , on the eastern tip of Anglesey in north Wales , and was the monastery 's confessor . He is also referred to as a bishop in one source . He founded a church in what is now known as Llanidan , also on Anglesey , near to the Menai Straits . According to tradition , this was established in 616 . He is reported to have lived at Cadair Idan , near the church , and a well about 200 yards ( 180 m ) away from the church is reputed to be his holy well . Nidan is said to have been one of the 665 monks who travelled with St Kentigern , also known as St Mungo , and reputed to be a cousin of his , from Llanelwy , north Wales , to Scotland . Together with another of Kentigern 's companions , Finan or Ffinan , they are said to have established Christianity in Midmar , in what is now Aberdeenshire , in the 7th century . A church in Midmar was dedicated to Nidan . However , the existence of a link between Nidan and Kentigern has been doubted , with one author saying that " the whole idea that these people [ i.e. Nidan and Ffinan ] had any connection with Kentigern is without any real foundation . " According to some sources , he died in about 610 , which would be inconsistent with the reported foundation date for the church at Llanidan of 616 . = = Commemoration = = The Old Church of St Nidan , Llanidan , was in use until the middle of the 19th century when it was replaced by St Nidan 's Church , Llanidan , nearer to the village of Brynsiencyn . This was for two reasons : the old church needed repair , and also because the population of Brynsiencyn needed a church . The old church was then partially demolished . The new church contains a sandstone reliquary , about 26 inches ( 66 cm ) long , which is said to contain Nidan 's relics . The reliquary 's date is uncertain : it has been described as being " probably " from the 14th century , but also , in a more recent description , as " probably 16th century " . It was found buried under the altar of the old church in 1700 . His feast day in the Welsh calendar of saints is 30 September ; in the Scottish calendar of saints , it is 3 November . Nidan was venerated as a saint , although he was never canonized by a pope : as the historian Jane Cartwright notes , " In Wales sanctity was locally conferred and none of the medieval Welsh saints appears to have been canonized by the Roman Catholic Church " . = East Riding of Yorkshire = The East Riding of Yorkshire , or simply East Yorkshire , is a ceremonial county of England . It is located in the region of Yorkshire and the Humber . It is a local government district with unitary authority status . For ceremonial purposes the county also includes the city of Kingston upon Hull , which is a separate unitary authority . It is named after the historic East Riding of Yorkshire ( one of three ridings alongside the North Riding and West Riding ) , which also constituted a ceremonial and administrative county until 1974 . From 1974 to 1996 the area of the modern East Riding of Yorkshire constituted the northern part of the non @-@ metropolitan county of Humberside . At the 2011 Census the Unitary Authority population was 334 @,@ 179 . The landscape consists of a crescent of low chalk hills , the Yorkshire Wolds , surrounded by the low @-@ lying fertile plains of Holderness and the Vale of York . The Humber Estuary and North Sea mark its southern and eastern limits . Archaeological investigations have revealed artefacts and structures from all historical periods since the last ice age . There are few large settlements and no industrial centres . The area is administered from the ancient market and ecclesiastical town of Beverley . Christianity is the religion with the largest following in the area and there is a higher than average percentage of retired people in residence . The economy is mainly based on agriculture and this , along with tourism , has contributed to the rural and seaside character of the Riding . These aspects are also reflected in the places of interest to visitors and major landmarks , which include historic buildings , nature reserves and the Wolds Way long @-@ distance footpath . The open and maritime aspects and lack of major urban developments have also led to the county being allocated relatively high targets for the generation of energy from renewable sources . Major sporting and entertainment venues are concentrated in Kingston upon Hull , while the seaside and market towns support semi @-@ professional and amateur sports clubs and provide seasonal entertainment for visitors . Bishop Burton is the site of an agricultural college , and Hull provides the region 's only university . On the southern border , close to Hull , the Humber Bridge spans the Humber Estuary to enable the A15 to link Hessle with Barton @-@ upon @-@ Humber in North Lincolnshire . = = History = = When the last glacial period ended , the hunter gatherers of the Palaeolithic period followed the animal herds across the land between continental Europe and Britain . Then , as conditions continued to improve and vegetation became more able to support a greater diversity of animals , the annual range of seasonal movement by Mesolithic communities decreased , and people became more fixed to particular localities . Until about 6 @,@ 000 BC , Mesolithic people appear to have exploited their environment as they found it . As communities came to rely on a smaller territorial range and as population levels increased , attempts began to be made to modify or control the natural world . In the Great Wold Valley pollen samples of Mesolithic date , indicate that the forest cover in the area was being disturbed and altered by man , and that open grasslands were being created . The Yorkshire Wolds became a major focus for human settlement during the Neolithic period as they had a wide range of natural resources . The oldest monuments found on the Wolds are the Neolithic long barrows and round barrows . Two earthen long barrows in the region are found at Fordon , on Willerby Wold , and at Kilham , both of which have radiocarbon dates of around 3700 BC . From around 2000 to 800 BC the people of the Bronze Age built the 1 @,@ 400 Bronze Age round barrows that are known to exist on the Yorkshire Wolds . These are found both in isolation and grouped together to form cemeteries . Many of these sites can still be seen as prominent features in the present @-@ day landscape . By the later Bronze Age , an open , cleared , landscape predominated on the Wolds . It was used for grazing and also for arable cultivation . The wetlands on either side of the Wolds in the River Hull valley , Holderness and the Vale of York were also being used for animal rearing at this time . In the Iron Age there were further cultural changes in the area . There emerged a distinctive local tradition known as the Arras Culture , named after a site at Arras , near Market Weighton . There are similarities between the chariot burials of the Arras Culture and groups of La Tene burials in northern Europe , where the burial of carts was also practised . The area became the kingdom of the tribe known as the Parisi . After invading Britain in 43 AD the Romans crossed the Humber Estuary in 71 AD to invade the Northumbrian territory of the Parisi tribe . From their bridgehead at Petuaria they travelled northwards and built roads along the Wolds to Derventio , present day Malton , and then westwards to the River Ouse where they built the fort of Eboracum . There is evidence of extensive use of the light soils of the Wolds for grain farming in the Roman era . Several Roman villas which were the centres of large agricultural estates have been identified around Langton and Rudston . In the low @-@ lying lands on either side of the Wolds there was an increase in the number of settlements between 500 BC and 500 AD as the land became drier and more accessible due to a fall in sea level . The lower @-@ lying land was used for stock breeding . During the last years of Roman occupation Anglo @-@ Saxon raiders were troubling the area and , by the second half of the fifth century , settlement by Anglian invaders was taking place in east Yorkshire . Village names containing the elements -ing , -ingham or -ham are Anglian settlement names . As Christianity became established in the area from the seventh century onwards , several cemeteries like the one at Garton on the Wolds show evidence of the abandonment of pagan burial practices . In 867 AD the Great Danish Army captured the Anglian town of York , and the remnants of the army settled in Yorkshire from 876 AD when their leader Halfdan shared out the land among them . Scandinavian settlements have names including the elements -by and -thorpe . Scandinavian rule in the area came to an end in 954 AD with the death of their ruler Eric Bloodaxe . After the Norman Conquest of England by William the Conqueror in 1066 AD , the land in the East Riding was granted to followers of the new Norman king and ecclesiastical institutions . When some of the northern earls rebelled , William retaliated with the Harrying of the North which laid waste many East Riding villages . The land was then distributed among powerful barons , such as the Count of Aumale in Holderness and the Percy family in the Wolds and the Vale of York . These lay lords and ecclesiastical institutions , including the monasteries , continued to improve and drain their holdings throughout the Middle Ages to maximise the rents they could charge for them . In the mid @-@ sixteenth century Henry VIII of England dissolved the monasteries , resulting in the large areas of land owned by Meaux Abbey , Bridlington Priory and other monastic holdings being confiscated . The Crown subsequently sold these large tracts of land into private ownership . Along with the land already belonging to lay owners , they formed some of the vast estate holdings which continued to exist in the Riding until the twentieth century . The eighteenth and nineteenth centuries saw first the expansion of canals and then the construction of rail links . The River Derwent was canalised as far upstream as Malton and was linked to Pocklington by the cutting of the Pocklington Canal . Other canals were cut to join the towns of Beverley and Driffield to the River Hull , which was also improved to aid navigation . The Market Weighton Canal connected the town directly to the Humber Estuary . An early rail link was constructed between Filey and Bridlington in 1847 and the Malton to Driffield railway was the first to cross the Wolds in 1853 . These routes primarily served the agricultural community in helping to get their products to the expanding industrial markets in the West Riding of Yorkshire and to the port of Hull for export . The rail links served also to transport holidaymakers to the expanding coastal resorts of Bridlington , Hornsea and Withernsea . The canals and canalisation of some of the rivers helped to aid drainage in such of the low @-@ lying ill @-@ drained areas that then still existed . The landscape in the East Riding had changed little since the enclosure of the open fields , in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries , except for the removal of some hedgerows to allow for the use of large agricultural machinery in the twentieth century . = = Geography = = = = = Location = = = As a ceremonial county , the East Riding of Yorkshire borders North Yorkshire , South Yorkshire and Lincolnshire , and includes the city of Kingston upon Hull , which is a separate unitary authority . As a district the East Riding borders North East Lincolnshire , beyond the Humber estuary ; North Lincolnshire , beyond the Humber and on land ; Hull , Doncaster , Selby , York , Ryedale and Scarborough . = = = Geology = = = Geologically the East Riding district is split into three parts . The western part is the eastern section of the Vale of York with the southern extension into the Humberhead Levels . In this area there is a belt of sandstones overlain by glacial and lake deposits formed at the close of the last ice age . The middle part is the Yorkshire Wolds , a chalk formation which extends from the Humber at North Ferriby to the coast at Flamborough Head , a chalk headland . The south @-@ east of the district is the low @-@ lying coastal plain of Holderness , which faces east to the North Sea , and to the south drains into the Humber estuary . South of Flamborough Head is Bridlington , which features several beaches , and at the far south @-@ east of the district is the Spurn peninsula . Before the last ice age the eastern coastline of the area was located along the eastern foot of the Yorkshire Wolds where remnants of beaches have been discovered . The North Sea ice sheet deposited huge amounts of boulder clay as it retreated and this subsequently formed a wet and swampy area which became the plain of Holderness . Another ice sheet in the Vale of York retreated at the same time leaving thick glacial deposits and two prominent moraines to the west of the Wolds . These Vale of York deposits also formed wetlands . The Wolds themselves were largely ice @-@ free , well drained , chalk uplands . Gradually the tundra conditions that had existed as the ice retreated gave way to vegetation that could support grazing fauna . Because a lot of water was still locked in the northern ice sheets , sea level was much lower than in the present day and an area of land stretched eastwards to the low countries . = = = Landscape = = = The Wolds area takes the form of an elevated , gently rolling plateau , cut by numerous deep , steep @-@ sided , flat @-@ bottomed valleys of glacial origin . The chalk formation of the hills provides exceptionally good drainage , with the result that most of these valleys are dry . Surface water is quite scarce throughout the Wolds . At Flamborough Head the Wolds rise up to form high chalk cliffs , where there are water @-@ worn caves and stacks along the shore . Flamborough Headland is designated a Heritage Coast . Coastal erosion around Flamborough Head has led to visitors being warned by the Humber Coastguard to be very careful on coastal paths . The Holderness landscape is dominated by deposits of till , boulder clays and glacial lake clays . These were deposited during the Devensian glaciation . The glacial deposits form a more or less continuous lowland plain which has some peat filled depressions ( known locally as meres ) which mark the presence of former lake beds . There are other glacial landscape features such as drumlin mounds , ridges and kettle holes scattered throughout the area . The well drained glacial deposits provide fertile soils that can support intensive arable cultivation . Fields are generally large and bounded by drainage ditches . There is very little woodland in the area and this leads to a landscape that is essentially rural but very flat and exposed . The Holderness coastline suffers the highest rate of coastal erosion in Europe : 2 metres a year on average or 2 million tonnes of material a year . Some of this is transported by longshore drift with about 3 % of material being deposited at Spurn Head spit , to the south . The coastline has retreated noticeably in the last 2 @,@ 000 years , with many former settlements now flooded , particularly Ravenser Odd and Ravenspurn , which was a major port until its destruction in the 14th century . Erosion is an ongoing concern in the area . The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has been carrying out cliff erosion defences between Sewerby and Kilnsea since 1951 . The Holderness area drains mostly into the Humber and the eponymous River Hull drains the area north of Hull . The western part of the district in the Vale of York borders on and is drained by the River Derwent . The landscape is generally low @-@ lying and flat although minor ridges and glacial moraines provide some variations in topography . Where there are dry sandy soils there are remnants of historic heathlands and ancient semi @-@ natural woodlands . Arable fields dominate the land cover of the area and grasslands are infrequent . There are very few flood meadows left , although some significant areas remain on the lower reaches of the River Derwent . = = = Climate = = = The East Riding generally has cool summers and relatively mild winters . Weather conditions vary from day to day as well as from season to season . The latitude of the area means that it is influenced by predominantly westerly winds with depressions and their associated fronts , bringing with them unsettled and windy weather , particularly in winter . Between depressions there are often small mobile anticyclones that bring periods of fair weather . In winter , anticyclones bring cold dry weather . In summer the anticyclones tend to bring dry settled conditions which can lead to drought , particularly on the Wolds . For its latitude this area is mild in winter and cooler in summer due to the influence of the Gulf Stream in the northern Atlantic Ocean . Air temperature varies on a daily and seasonal basis . The temperature is usually lower at night , and January is the coldest time of the year . The two dominant influences on the climate of the area are the shelter against the worst of the moist westerly winds provided by the Pennines and the proximity of the North Sea . The High Mowthorpe weather station is in the East Riding on the Yorkshire Wolds , but areas in Holderness which are lower and nearer to the sea have generally milder weather . = = Governance = = = = = Administrative history = = = The administrative division of the East Riding of Yorkshire originated in antiquity . Unlike most counties in Great Britain , which were divided anciently into hundreds , Yorkshire was divided first into three ridings and then into numerous wapentakes within each riding . The separate Lieutenancy for the riding was established after the Restoration , and the ridings each had separate Quarter Sessions . For statistical purposes in the 19th century an East Riding of Yorkshire registration county was designated , consisting of the entirety of the Poor Law Unions of Beverley , Bridlington , Driffield , Howden , Hull , Patrington , Pocklington , Sculcoates , Skirlaugh and York . A county council for the East Riding of Yorkshire was set up in 1889 , covering an administrative county which did not cover the county borough of Hull , but otherwise had the same boundaries as the historic riding . Both the administrative county and the historic Lieutenancy were abolished under the Local Government Act 1972 , on 1 April 1974 , with most of the riding going to form the northern part of Humberside . The creation of this cross @-@ Humber authority was unpopular and this culminated in the local government review in the 1990s , which saw Humberside abolished and the northern part form two unitary authorities . The East Riding district was formed on 1 April 1996 . The ceremonial county , the area in which the Lord Lieutenant of the East Riding of Yorkshire represents the Crown , was re @-@ established the same day , covering Hull as well as the district . The district is entirely parished ; Hull has no parishes . From 1996 Beverley had Charter Trustees to maintain the charter of the borough of Beverley : these were replaced by a Beverley Town Council in 1999 , and Bridlington was parished in 1999 . The unparished area consisting of the urban district of Haltemprice was divided into various parishes in 1999 and 2000 . = = = Current administration = = = The East Riding of Yorkshire Council is based in Beverley , in the former headquarters of Humberside County Council , and East Riding County Council before that . There are 26 wards electing a total of 67 councillors in the District . The council elects on a four @-@ yearly cycle with all seats up for election at the same time . It first had elections in 1995 — a year before it came into its powers — as a shadow authority . Between 1995 and 2007 the council had No overall control . In the 2007 local elections the Conservative Party gained a majority of seats , including those of the Liberal Democrat and Labour Party leaders . The council has a leader @-@ and @-@ executive system , the leader being Stephen Parnaby of the Conservatives . In the Audit Commission report covering 2007 the council was given a four @-@ star rating , which places the authority as one of the best in the country . = = = 2007 local election results = = = = = = Westminster parliamentary = = = For representation in the Parliament of the United Kingdom the bulk of the East Riding district is divided into three county constituencies : Beverley and Holderness , East Yorkshire and Haltemprice and Howden , which are all Conservative @-@ held . One of Hull 's three borough constituencies , Kingston upon Hull West and Hessle , spills into the area , as does Brigg and Goole , otherwise in North Lincolnshire . All the Hull seats are Labour @-@ held . = = = European parliamentary = = = For the European Parliament it lies within the Yorkshire and the Humber constituency , which in the May 2014 European Election elected three UKIP , two Labour and one Conservative MEPs . = = Demographics = = Until 1 April 2009 , the East Riding was the largest district and the largest unitary authority in England by area and the second largest non @-@ metropolitan district in England by population . Following the 2009 structural changes to local government in England it fell to fifth place by area and sixth place by population . The East Riding of Yorkshire covers 240 @,@ 768 hectares ( 930 sq mi ) and has a population of 335 @,@ 049 ( 2008 Office for National Statistics mid @-@ year estimates ) , a density of 1 @.@ 4 people per hectare . The most populous parishes in the main 2001 census were Bridlington ( 34 @,@ 000 ) , Goole ( 17 @,@ 000 ) , Beverley ( 17 @,@ 000 ) , Cottingham ( 17 @,@ 000 , part of the Hull urban area ) , Hessle ( 15 @,@ 000 , by Hull ) , Driffield ( 11 @,@ 000 ) , Anlaby with Anlaby Common ( 10 @,@ 000 , by Hull ) , Hornsea ( 8 @,@ 000 ) and Willerby ( 8 @,@ 000 , by Hull ) , Pocklington ( 8 @,@ 000 ) and Elloughton @-@ cum @-@ Brough ( 7 @,@ 000 ) . Half the district 's population reside in these 11 parishes , with the other half living in the other 160 parishes . In comparison , Hull 's population according to the same census was 243 @,@ 589 . The population density of the district was around 135 people per square km , which made it the least densely populated unitary authority after the Isles of Scilly , Rutland and Herefordshire . The East Riding has a larger than average number of residents aged 40 and above . There is a particularly strong deficit in the number of young adults . There is a higher @-@ than @-@ average level of car ownership . 36 @.@ 4 % of all households do not have a car . Less than 5 % of the population travel to work by public transport compared with 15 % nationally . The district is one of the lowest non @-@ white populations , with the census reporting 98 @.@ 8 % of the inhabitants being white . Hull itself is also quite monoethnic for a city of its size , with the census reporting 97 @.@ 7 % white . Areas of the East Riding show significant signs of affluence , including the Parliamentary constituency of Haltemprice and Howden which mainly consists of middle class suburbs , towns and villages including Swanland , Cottingham , Howden , Brough and North Ferriby . The area is affluent and has one of the highest proportions of owner @-@ occupiers in the country . The crime rate in the East Riding is lower than the national average in robbery , sexual offences , theft of a vehicle , theft from a vehicle , violence against a person and burglary . Christianity is the religion with the largest following in the area , with 79 @.@ 67 % residents so identifying in the 2001 census . These census figures show no other single religion returned affiliation , as a percentage of population , above the national average for England . At the time of the 2001 UK census the population of the East Riding was 314 @,@ 113 and its ethnic composition was 96 @.@ 80 % white , compared with the English average of 90 @.@ 92 % . The area has a slightly higher elderly population , of 24 @.@ 0 % in 2008 , than the national average . = = Towns and villages = = Excluding Kingston upon Hull there are several areas of settlement in the East Riding , each giving rise to distinctive types of small to medium @-@ sized towns and villages . Cottingham and Willerby are exceptional in that they are suburban villages which are almost contiguous with the Hull urban area . Bridlington is the most populous of the coastal settlements , which also include Flamborough , Hornsea , Withernsea and Aldbrough . Towns and villages on the flat agricultural area of Holderness are Hedon and Roos , and nestling in the Great Wold Valley is Rudston . Along the eastern foot of the Wolds lie Beverley , Bishop Burton , Driffield and Lockington . In the low @-@ lying lands close to the Humber Estuary are Goole , Brough , North Ferriby , Hessle and Kirk Ella . Stamford Bridge , Pocklington , Market Weighton , Holme @-@ on @-@ Spalding @-@ Moor , Howden and South Cave all lie to the north and west of the area , between the River Derwent and the scarp slope of the Wolds . = = Places of interest = = There are a wide range of interesting places to visit in the East Riding . These include historic buildings such as Burnby Hall , Burton Agnes Manor House , Burton Agnes Hall , Sewerby Hall , Skipsea Castle and the gun battery of Fort Paull . The religious edifices of the Rudston Monolith , Beverley Minster and Beverley Friary , and Howden Minster can be visited at all seasons . The sails of Skidby Windmill can be seen providing the power to grind flour on certain days , and natural sites provide interest at Spurn , Bempton Cliffs , Hornsea Mere , Humber Estuary , River Hull , Watton Beck , River Derwent , River Ouse , River Aire , River Trent , and River Don , some of which are owned or run by the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust . The Driffield Navigation , Leven Canal , Market Weighton Canal and Pocklington Canal offer glimpses of tranquillity . Stamford Bridge is the site of the famous battle , and the Yorkshire Wolds Way is a long @-@ distance footpath that takes a winding route through the Yorkshire Wolds to Filey . = = = Religious sites = = = Most of the East Riding is in the East Riding Archdeaconry of the Church of England Diocese of York . The archdeaconry includes the Yorkshire Wolds and the City of Hull , with a coastline extending from Scarborough and Bridlington in the north to Spurn Point . The Middlesbrough Roman Catholic diocese covers the East Riding of Yorkshire and North Yorkshire , together with the City of York . Notable religious sites include Beverley Minster and Bridlington Priory along with the historic parish church of St Augustine , Hedon , known as the ' King of Holderness ' , which is a Grade I listed building . The Sykes Churches Trail is a tour of East Yorkshire churches which were built , rebuilt or restored by the Sykes family of Sledmere House in the nineteenth century . = = Transport = = The East Riding has only a small segment of motorway . Part of the M62 serves to link the Hull area to West Yorkshire and the national motorway network , while the M18 incidentally passes the district border near Goole . Primary roads in the district include the A63 , A164 , A165 , A1034 , A166 , A1033 and the A1079 . Hull Paragon is a large railway station , served by the Selby Line to the west and the Yorkshire Coast Line to the north . See Railway stations in the East Riding of Yorkshire . Train operators active in the area are Northern , Virgin Trains East Coast and TransPennine Express . Hull Trains is an ' open access ' operator established in 2002 running fast services between London and Hull . Bus services are provided by several operators including FirstGroup , which provides services from the East Riding into York , Goole Town Service and also services from Goole to Doncaster . Stagecoach provides services from the East Riding to Hull and into Lincolnshire , and East Yorkshire Motor Services , historically the dominant area operator , provides a wide variety of bus services throughout the East Riding . Yorkshire Coastliner provides services from Bridlington to Malton , York and Leeds . Holderness Area Rural Transport , a charity , provides a community transport service for North Holderness , taking people to medical appointments in Hull and to the shops . The Humber Bridge , a road @-@ only bridge , part of the A15 , links Hessle , west of Hull , with Barton @-@ upon @-@ Humber in Lincolnshire . West of this the next crossing of the river ( the Ouse at this point ) are three bridges near Goole : a railway bridge , the M62 bridge and the A614 . The area is served by Humberside Airport located in Lincolnshire . = = Economy = = The district is generally rural , with no towns approaching the size of Hull . There are a few market towns such as Beverley , Driffield , Goole , Market Weighton and Pocklington , and the coastal towns of Bridlington , Hornsea and Withernsea . In the south the district contains areas such as Hessle which are part of the Hull urban area but outside the city boundaries . Rural areas tend to have a greater business stock than urban areas , reflecting the number of agricultural businesses and small businesses in rural areas . 20 % of all VAT registered businesses in the East Riding are in agriculture and related sectors , although the number of such businesses fell by 40 % between 1997 and 2003 . Easington , on the coast , is the site of a natural gas terminal , Easington Gas Terminal , used for the Langeled pipeline , as well as three other gas terminals operated by BP and Centrica . This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of East Riding of Yorkshire at current basic prices with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling . a Components may not sum to totals due to rounding b includes hunting and forestry c includes energy and construction d includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured The East Riding is characterised by a high employment rate and a relatively low unemployment level . The overall unemployment rate is 4 @.@ 3 % , which is 1 @.@ 2 percentage points lower than the national average . However , there are unemployment hotspots in Bridlington , Goole and Withernsea . Unemployment levels tend to fluctuate over the course of the year with lower levels during the summer months due to increased employment in the tourism and food production sectors . A major year @-@ round employer in the East Riding is the Defence School of Transport at RAF Leconfield , which trains 14 @,@ 000 personnel from the Army , the Royal Air Force and the Royal Marines each year and provides more than 1 @,@ 000 civilian jobs . The East Riding of Yorkshire Council has joined Hull City Council , North East Lincolnshire and North Lincolnshire Councils in the Hull and Humber Ports City Region Partnership . = = = Renewable energy = = = The UK government has set a target to generate 10 % of the UK 's electricity from renewable energy sources by 2010 . The Energy White Paper ( 2003 ) sets out the Government 's aspiration to double that figure to 20 % by 2020 . It has additionally signed up to the legally binding Kyoto Protocol , which requires a reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 12 @.@ 5 % of 1990 levels by 2008 – 12 and a reduction of CO2 emissions by 20 % of 1990 levels by 2010 . Regional and local authorities are required to contribute to the delivery of these national targets . The East Riding has an above @-@ average potential to generate renewable electricity for Local Authorities in the region due its large wind energy potential . The East Riding of Yorkshire is set a target of 41 MW by 2010 , and a target for 2021 of 148 MW for installed grid @-@ connected renewable energy . There are operational wind farms at Lissett in Holderness and Out Newton to the north of the Humber estuary . There are single turbines at the Waste Water Treatment Works at Saltend and at Loftsome Bridge Water Treatment Works near Barmby on the Marsh . In addition , several other wind developments have either been given or are applying for permission . By late February 2009 there was existing developed capacity or planning approval for 140 MW of renewable energy from wind farm developments . The overall renewable energy target for 2010 and 2021 has therefore already been exceeded by wind energy proposals alone , assuming some of these schemes will be operational by 2010 . The East Riding has also exceeded 148 MW , when other renewable energy types such as biomass are included in the calculation . The Humber estuary is to be used for trials of a tidal stream generator . If successful , it will be used to develop larger models which could be deployed in a 100 @-@ unit " renewable power station " capable of powering 70 @,@ 000 homes . = = Education = = The East Riding local education authority supports 150 schools : 131 primary schools and 19 secondary schools . The total net spending per head of population on education rose from £ 578 @.@ 08 in 2006 / 07 to £ 632 @.@ 88 in 2007 / 08 . In 2009 primary school test results showed a slide down the national performance table for the East Riding authority , dropping eight places in the national league table to 28th after other education authorities improved more in the tests . At secondary level the authority slipped seven places to 39th out of 149 authorities , despite producing the best set of General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) results since the inception of East Riding Council in 1996 . The percentage of students achieving five or more good GCSEs , at grades A * – C including maths and English , rose to 52 @.@ 5 per cent , from 50 @.@ 8 per cent in 2007 . This is above the national average of 47 @.@ 6 per cent . Bishop Burton is the location of Bishop Burton College , a further education and higher education college specialising in agriculture and equine studies . Beverley Grammar School , which was founded around 700 AD , is widely renowned for being the oldest continuously operating state school in England . Furthermore , Hull is home to several schools , including the private Hymers College , and a university . The University of Hull was founded as a university college in 1927 and received full university status in 1954 ; it is home to the Hull York Medical School , and has seen large scale expansion in recent years to cater for the ever growing number of students . = = Public services = = Both the East Riding and Hull are still covered by the Humberside Police area and the Humberside Fire and Rescue Service . Piped water is supplied by Yorkshire Water who also maintain the sewerage system . About 1 % of the population use water from private supplies . They are usually in the more remote parts of the East Riding . The majority are bore holes but they can be wells or natural springs . NHS East Riding of Yorkshire provides health services such as district nursing , health visiting , school nursing , intermediate care and therapy services . It works with local GP practices , pharmacists , dentists , optometrists and ambulance services to provide a primary healthcare service . Hull and East Yorkshire Hospitals NHS Trust provides hospitals at Castle Hill Hospital , Hull Royal Infirmary and Beverley Westwood Hospital . Scarborough and North East Yorkshire Healthcare NHS Trust runs Bridlington Hospital and also provides health care from the community hospitals at Driffield and Malton which are run by the local primary care trusts ( NHS East Riding and NHS North Yorkshire and York ) . Small cottage and community hospitals provide a range of services at Hornsea and Withernsea . There are ten household waste recycling sites across the East Riding . In the financial year 2004 / 05 210 @,@ 112 tonnes ( 206 @,@ 794 long tons ; 231 @,@ 609 short tons ) of municipal waste was collected by East Riding and 154 @,@ 723 tonnes ( 152 @,@ 279 long tons ; 170 @,@ 553 short tons ) by Hull . Between 2003 / 04 and 2004 / 05 the amount of waste collected in Hull increased by 1 @.@ 77 % ( 2 @,@ 696 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 653 long tons ; 2 @,@ 972 short tons ) ) and in the East Riding by 4 @.@ 80 % ( 9 @,@ 629 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 477 long tons ; 10 @,@ 614 short tons ) ) . Target 45 + is a joint sustainable waste @-@ management strategy developed in partnership by Hull City Council and the East Riding of Yorkshire Council . The overall aim is to achieve 45 % recycling or composting by 2010 and then go beyond this . At the outset it was anticipated that recycling rates in the East Riding by the end of 2005 / 06 would be 22 @.@ 4 % and in Hull the rate would be 17 @.@ 4 % . The Waste Recycling Group is a company working in partnership with the Hull City and East Riding of Yorkshire councils to deal with waste . The company has plans to build an energy from waste plant at Saltend to deal with 240 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 240 @,@ 000 long tons ; 260 @,@ 000 short tons ) of rubbish and put waste to a productive use by providing power for the equivalent of 20 @,@ 000 houses . = = Sport and leisure = = Hull is the main centre for national @-@ level sport in the region . Hull City A.F.C. play in the Premier League , the first tier of the English football league system , after promotion from the Championship in the 2016 play @-@ off final win against Sheffield Wednesday . Bridlington Town A.F.C. play in the Northern Counties East League Premier Division . There are two professional rugby league teams based in Hull : Hull F.C. and Hull Kingston Rovers . Both teams play in the Super League . Bridlington Rugby Union Football Club plays at Dukes Park in Bridlington . The Hull Stingrays ice hockey team plays in the highest tier of the sport , the Elite League . Horse racing is catered for at Beverley Racecourse on the Westwood to the west of Beverley . What the organisers claim is the world 's oldest horse race , the Kiplingcotes Derby , has been held annually in the East Riding since 1519 . There are more than a dozen golf clubs in the Riding including the cliff @-@ top course at Flamborough . The Royal Yorkshire Yacht Club is based at Bridlington , and flying and gliding take place from Pocklington airfield and Eddsfield airfield . = = Media = = The region is covered by the BBC Yorkshire and Lincolnshire based in Hull and ITV Yorkshire , broadcast from Leeds . Local analogue radio stations include BBC Radio Humberside , Capital Yorkshire , KCFM , Viking FM and Yorkshire Coast Radio . A local Digital Audio Broadcasting multiplex is based around Humberside . The county also has three Community radio stations Seaside FM , which serves the Holderness area on 105 @.@ 3 FM MHz , Vixen 101 which serves Market Weighton and Pocklington and 107 @.@ 8 Beverley FM which serves Beverley and the surrounding areas . Newspapers include the Hull Daily Mail , owned by the Northcliffe Media group . An East Riding Mail has recently been launched as a sister paper to this . Other newspapers in the area include the Bridlington Free Press , the Beverley Guardian , the Driffield Times & Post , the Goole Times and the Holderness Gazette . = HMS Philomel ( 1890 ) = HMS Philomel , later HMNZS Philomel , was a Pearl @-@ class cruiser . She was the fifth ship of that name and served with the Royal Navy . After her commissioning in 1890 , she served on the Cape of Good Hope Station and later with the Mediterranean Fleet . In 1914 , she was loaned to New Zealand for service with what would later become the Royal New Zealand Navy . During the early stages of the First World War she performed convoy escort duties and then carried out operations in the Mediterranean against the Turks . She later conducted patrols in the Red Sea and Persian Gulf . By 1917 , she was worn out and dispatched back to New Zealand where she served as a depot ship in Wellington Harbour for minesweepers . In 1921 she was transferred to the Devonport Naval Base in Auckland for service as a training ship . Decommissioned and sold for scrap in 1947 , her hulk was scuttled in 1949 . = = Design and description = = HMS Philomel was laid down on 9 May 1889 at HM Naval Dockyard in Devonport , Plymouth . Her name is derived from Philomela , in Greek mythology the daughter of Pandion I , King of Athens , and was the fifth ship to be so named . The ship had an overall length of 278 feet ( 84 @.@ 7 m ) , a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) and a draught of 17 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 575 long tons ( 2 @,@ 616 t ) . Propulsion was through 3 @-@ cylinder triple @-@ expansion steam engines , driving two shafts , which produced a total of 7 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 600 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . She was also rigged for sail and when installing the foremast , workmen noticed it was stamped " Devonport Dockyard 1757 " . Her main armament consisted of eight QF 4 @.@ 7 inch ( 120 mm ) guns with a secondary armament of eight 3 @-@ pounders . As well as four machine guns , the ship also mounted two submerged 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) torpedo tubes . Philomel was launched on 28 August 1890 , and completed the following March . After completing sea trials , she was commissioned in the Royal Navy on 10 November 1891 . Commanded by Captain Charles Campbell , she was assigned to the Cape of Good Hope Station although fitting work and working up trials meant that Philomel did not arrive in South Africa until June 1892 . = = Operational history = = For six years , Philomel served on station , intercepting slave traders along the coast of Africa . In 1896 , she participated in the Anglo @-@ Zanzibar War , during which rebels murdered the Sultan of Zanzibar and seized his palace . Along with the three gunboats and HMS St George , she bombarded the palace fortress and the only ship of the Zanzibar Navy , the HHS Glasgow . This action lasted less than an hour and resulted in the routing of the rebels . The following year , Philomel was transferred to the West Africa Station and participated in the Benin Expedition . A refit was completed in 1898 after which Philomel returned to Cape of Good Hope Station . She served throughout the Second Boer War . Some of her complement of 220 men served in the field with the Naval Brigade . Two of her 4 @.@ 7 inch guns were disembarked and used in the Battle of Colenso . After the war , she returned to Devonport and was paid off on 22 March 1902 . She was laid up in the Firth of Forth for several years before a refit was carried out in 1907 at Haulbowline Dock in Ireland . During her tow to Ireland she went adrift for a night in the North Sea when the rope to the towing vessel , the HMS Hampshire , broke . Philomel was recommissioned in February 1908 for service with the Mediterranean Fleet under the command of Captain John Seagrave . She provided assistance in the wake of the earthquake at Messina in Sicily . The following year she served with the East Indies Station , running patrols from Aden in the Persian Gulf for two years . = = = Transfer to New Zealand = = = In 1913 the Admiralty agreed to lend Philomel to New Zealand as a seagoing training cruiser to form the nucleus of the newly established New Zealand Naval Forces , which was a new division of the Royal Navy . This was in response to the desire of the New Zealand Minister of Defence at the time , James Allen , who wanted to establish a local naval force which would co @-@ operate with the fledgling Royal Australian Navy . Philomel was recommissioned in October 1913 in Singapore and later sailed for New Zealand to join HMAS Psyche and HMAS Pyramus , both Pelorus @-@ class cruisers serving on the New Zealand Station . The Philomel was commissioned for New Zealand service on 15 July 1914 , under the command of Captain Percival Hall @-@ Thompson . Although mainly crewed by Englishmen , she was the country 's first warship . = = = First World War = = = The Philomel was on a short shakedown voyage to Picton on 30 July 1914 , prior to taking on its first complement of New Zealand cadets , when it was recalled to Wellington Harbour in anticipation of the outbreak of war . Largely crewed by personnel from the Royal Navy , volunteers were brought on board to bring the ship up to full strength and after stocking up with supplies , she departed for Auckland to await further instructions . On 15 August 1914 she formed part of the ocean escort for the New Zealand forces which was dispatched to occupy German Samoa ( now Samoa ) . The escort would have been unlikely to offer much resistance to the German cruisers SMS Scharnhorst and SMS Gneisenau that were known to be in the area . Fortunately , the convoy did not encounter the German ships . Philomel then steamed for the Kingdom of Tonga to deliver news of the hostilities with Imperial Germany before returning to New Zealand . By now the main body of the New Zealand Expeditionary Force , formed for service overseas , were ready to embark from Wellington on a convoy for the Middle East . Philomel escorted the convoy as far as Western Australia . Then , along with Pyramus , she sailed northeastwards for Singapore in search of the German cruiser SMS Emden , which was then carrying out raids in the Indian Ocean . The two ships , which would have been outgunned by the more modern Emden , had reached Christmas Island when they received news of the Emden 's sinking by HMAS Sydney . They arrived in Singapore on 12 November from where Philomel continued onto Port Said , escorting three French troopships . From late 1914 , Philomel , needing maintenance and an update of equipment , was berthed at Malta and underwent an overhaul . This was completed by late January 1915 and she then started operations in the Mediterranean against the Turks . On 8 February she landed an armed party in Southern Turkey where a large force of Turkish soldiers were encountered , resulting in three seamen being killed and three wounded . This action marked the first deaths in the war of New Zealanders serving with a New Zealand formation . Subsequently Philomel was deployed in the Red Sea and in the Persian Gulf for much of the remainder of the year . In December 1915 she sailed to Bombay for maintenance work but was back in the Persian Gulf in January 1916 , continuing her patrolling . By the end of the year , her engines were giving trouble and her stern glands were worn out . A lengthy and costly refit was required and rather than incur this cost for a ship which was nearly at the end of her operational life , the Admiralty decided to gift her to New Zealand and dispatched her home to be paid off . She duly arrived in Wellington Harbour in March 1917 . A large portion of her Royal Navy crew were returned to England to be assigned to other berths . Armament removed , Philomel was recommissioned as a depot ship in Wellington , supporting minesweeping operations until May 1919 . = = = Postwar service = = = In March 1921 , on the creation of the New Zealand Division of the Royal Navy , Philomel was recommissioned as a training base . She steamed from her berth at Wellington to the dockyard at the Devonport Naval Base in Auckland . Moored alongside the training jetty , she was operated as a training facility for new recruits to the naval service , under the command of a series of officers from the Royal Navy including , for nearly six months in 1923 , Commander Augustus Agar VC . Training armament was installed and in 1925 , her boilers and engines were removed to create more accommodation space . Further accommodation , in the form of wooden cabins , was later constructed on her deck . In October 1941 , on the creation of the Royal New Zealand Navy , Philomel was recommissioned as the training base HMNZS Philomel . = = = Fate = = = Philomel was paid off and decommissioned on 17 January 1947 and her name transferred to the Devonport Naval Shore Establishment . On the day of her decommissioning , the New Zealand Naval Board sent a signal to Philomel which stated : " ... their regret at the passing from the service of the first of His Majesty ’ s New Zealand Ships , a ship that has meant so much to all who served in her . She goes as many good ships have gone before her , but when HMNZS Philomel ’ s colours are hauled down at sunset this evening , the tradition which she has established during her long career will live on in the depot to which she has given her name . " The hulk of the Philomel was sold to the Strongman Shipping Company , based in Coromandel . She was towed and deliberately ran aground in Coromandel harbour , near the wharf . After her fittings and parts were removed , she was towed out to sea and sunk near Cuvier Island on 6 August 1949 . Much of the teak timber and some fittings went into a newly built coaster named Coromel , an amalgamation of Coromandel and Philomel . Her crest is mounted to the gate of the Devonport Naval Base . = Personal relationships of Michael Jackson = The personal relationships of Michael Jackson have been the subject of public and media attention for several decades . He was introduced to the topic of sexual activity at age nine while a member of The Jackson 5 . He and his brothers would perform at strip clubs , sharing the bill with female strippers and drag queens , and the sexual adventures of his brothers with groupies further affected Jackson 's early life . The entertainer said his " first real date " was with the child actress Tatum O 'Neal , when he was a teenager in the 1970s ; he called her " my first love - after Diana [ Ross ] . " The pair eventually " cooled off " and Jackson entered into a romance with model Brooke Shields in 1981 . Although the relationship became largely platonic , Shields said there were times he had asked her to marry him . As they grew older , the two saw each other less . Having first been introduced to Lisa Marie Presley by her father , Elvis , in 1974 , Jackson reconnected with Lisa Marie in November 1992 . Shortly after becoming involved with her , in 1993 , Jackson was subjected to his first set of child sexual abuse accusations , followed by similar allegations in 2003 . Presley supported Jackson as he became dependent on pain medication , and eventually helped convince him to enter drug rehabilitation . In a telephone call , he proposed marriage to Presley . She agreed , and the two wed on May 26 , 1994 , at a private ceremony in the Dominican Republic . Married life for the couple was difficult , and the union ended in divorce in August 1996 . Presley and Jackson continued to date , on and off , for four more years after their divorce . Throughout his marriage with Presley , Jackson maintained a friendship with Debbie Rowe . She was the assistant of the pop singer 's dermatologist and had been treating his appearance @-@ changing disease vitiligo since the mid @-@ 1980s . While separated but still married to Presley , Jackson impregnated Rowe , but she suffered a miscarriage and lost their baby in March 1996 . Following the ordeal and the finalization of his first divorce , Jackson wed the pregnant Rowe on November 13 , 1996 , in Sydney , Australia . From the marriage , two of Jackson 's three children were produced : son Michael Joseph " Prince " Jackson , Jr . ( born February 13 , 1997 ) and daughter Paris Michael Katherine Jackson ( born April 3 , 1998 ) . Jackson and Rowe divorced on October 8 , 1999 , with Rowe giving full custody rights of the children to Jackson . His third and final child , son Prince Michael Jackson II , was born to an unnamed surrogate mother on February 21 , 2002 . In July 2009 , it was revealed Jackson 's will named Diana Ross as the next @-@ in @-@ line guardian for his children , after his mother , Katherine . In September 2009 , Rabbi Shmuley Boteach released a book based on taped conversations he had with Jackson in 2001 . It included Jackson 's thoughts on personal relationships in general and specific ones . His romantic feelings for two famous friends were widely cited in the media ; when asked if he got jealous when his long @-@ time friend Elizabeth Taylor dated other men , he replied , " Yes and no . I know that if we ever did anything romantically the press would be so mean and nasty and call us the Odd Couple . It would turn into a circus and that 's the pain of it all . " = = Early sexual and emotional experiences = = = = = Strip clubs = = = From a young age , Jackson was exposed to sex . He received mixed messages on the subject from his parents . His mother Katherine was a devout Jehovah 's Witness and conveyed her thoughts clearly ; lust in thought or deed was sinful outside of marriage , and physical intimacy should be saved for marriage . In contrast to his wife , father Joseph , a steel mill worker , shunned the religion and would have The Jackson 5 perform at strip clubs and seedy bars in the earliest days of their career . He allowed nine @-@ year @-@ old Michael to watch from the wings of the stage as male audience members whistled at women who stripped until nude . In one incident , a fascinated Michael watched as an apparently big breasted female removed all but her underwear . The stripper then proceeded to reach into her bra , removing two large oranges and the wig from her head , to reveal that the person he thought was a female was not a woman at all . While playing at Chicago 's Peppermint Lounge , the brothers made use of a peephole in their dressing room , through which they had a clear view of the women 's bathroom . They would take turns watching the women and , as Marlon recalled , " learned everything there was to know about ladies " . During other residencies , the siblings would perform Joe Tex 's " Skinny Legs and All " . Joseph Jackson would instruct a young Michael to make his way into the audience , crawl under tables , lift up ladies ' skirts and peek at their panties as part of the performance . Though embarrassed by the task , Jackson feigned enjoyment as he knew the audience loved the routine . Following such performances , the Jackson brothers would be tucked in bed by their oblivious mother and reminded of the virtues of being a good Jehovah 's Witness . Katherine remained unaware of her sons ' strip club activities for many years . Journalist J. Randy Taraborrelli reflected on Jackson 's early life and noted that at such a young age , the singer may not have been psychologically equipped to fully understand any sexual stimulation he may have received from such voyeuristic events . The writer further commented that Jackson 's views on sex must have been conflicted between those of his religiously strict mother and his more libertine and promiscuous father . = = = Groupies and prostitutes = = = As members of the increasingly successful Jackson 5 , Michael 's brothers Jermaine and Jackie found fame advantageous . As they toured the country , they had sex with many female fans . Their guide was their father Joseph , who would often organize and arrange sexual encounters for his sons as well as cheat on his wife Katherine with their sons ' groupies . The two brothers would bring girls back to a hotel room , where younger siblings Michael and Marlon were instructed to " play sleep " . One girl , who had sexual relations with Jermaine , recalled such an experience : " I jumped into bed with him and he climbed on top of me . As he climaxed , he shuddered so loudly I was afraid he would wake up Michael and Marlon , who were sleeping three feet away in the next bed . Or at least I thought they were sleeping . As I was slipping out of the room , I heard Michael say to Jermaine , ' Nice job . Now , can we please get some sleep ? ' " While Marlon would correspond with and eventually marry his wife Carol at 18 , Michael never had sex with groupies , finding his brothers ' behavior toward women disgusting . In addition to not touching groupies , Jackson reportedly never had an interest in having any type of sex as a youngster . In one alleged incident , when he was 15 years old , a male family member arranged for two prostitutes to take his virginity . They were told to " work him over " , before being locked in a room with him . Instead Michael picked up a bible and read bible verses to the girls . The girls left in tears . James McField , who worked with The Jackson 5 , stated that the lead singer of the band often needed someone to talk with . It was at these times that women would be introduced to him for companionship . McField asserted that he never witnessed anything sexual , and that such females were not Jackson 's type ; " He liked nice girls , pure girls who appeared to have no street background . " Jackson occasionally admonished and advised the groupies and prostitutes sent to pleasure his siblings . One Jackson fan recalled being selected from the audience to meet with Jackie . Backstage , she was handed a scrap of paper with an address to the location in which they were to meet . Michael approached her from behind and warned her that his brothers did not treat women right and that his brother only wanted to use her for sex . Changing the subject , the female fan asked for the pop star 's autograph , which request he obliged in addition to writing , " Please , don 't go " . The woman ignored Michael 's request and headed to the Jacksons ' apartment complex , where she had sex with Jackie . Afterward , Jackie informed the woman that they would not meet again . Ashamed and upset , the fan left the apartment in tears . On another occasion , a prostitute was brought to Jackson 's room after a concert in Madison Square Garden . There , the pop star interrogated the sex worker , asking why she was a prostitute , whether she wanted to have sex with him , and how much it would cost . The woman responded that she was a prostitute for the money , but that she would have sex with him for free because she wanted him . The prostitute then proceeded to unbutton her blouse , exposing her breasts . Apparently repulsed , Jackson turned his head and begged her to " put them back " . The singer suggested that they talk instead but would still pay her , which the prostitute declined to do ; she was not there to talk . Instead , she gave Jackson her telephone number , urging him to call her when he wanted to " get off " . Jackson acknowledged the prostitute as she left , stating that he would perhaps call her one day , though he never did . = = First relationships = = = = = Tatum O 'Neal = = = One of Jackson 's first documented relationships was with the child actress Tatum O 'Neal in the 1970s . Their friendship was established by the time O 'Neal was 12 and Jackson was 17 , and featured in gossip columns for several years after . Jackson reflected in 1982 that he and O 'Neal had been engaged in a serious relationship , but because both were busy , it had " cooled off " to the point of their remaining just friends . In the documentary Living With Michael Jackson ( 2003 ) , Michael alleged that near the beginning of their relationship , the 12 @-@ year @-@ old actress tried to seduce the then 17 @-@ year @-@ old singer . According to Jackson , the incident happened at her home , where she attempted to unbutton his shirt and talked explicitly about sex . O 'Neal 's behavior apparently proved too much for Jackson , who became scared and covered his face , before she walked away . When confronted with the allegation , O 'Neal claimed to have been " just as shocked as everyone else " . She stated that while having respect for Jackson as an artist and a person , he had " a very vivid imagination " . The actress described his statements as " inaccurate " ; " at 12 years old , there was no way she was capable of being as mature or as sophisticated as he claimed " . O 'Neal released her autobiography A Paper Life in 2004 , a year after the Jackson documentary . In the book , she claimed it was Jackson who attempted to make out with her . The actress wrote , " I was just 12 and not at all ready for a real @-@ life encounter [ ... ] Michael , who was sweating profusely , seemed as intimidated as I was . He jumped up nervously and said , ' Uh ... gotta go . ' " But this contradicted O 'Neal 's own account of the relationship in 1995 in Vibe , where she remembered Jackson as " being so shy " and " one of the nicest , most innocent people I 've ever met " , and , " Once he came into my bedroom , and he wouldn 't even sit on my bed . " She described the relationship as " a really wonderful friendship " where they would dance and " talk on the phone all the time . " She recalled that he found it funny that she could drive at 12 and he couldn 't . And that one time they had a " jam session " at her house where he played the drums and her brother played guitar . She said the relationship ended when she was 12 , after he asked her to go to the premiere of The Wiz with him , but her agent disapproved , " maybe because they thought he wasn 't a big enough star yet " , and she did what she was told because she was a child . While she claimed they never spoke after that , they were actually shown to be together a number of times after this would have happened . Jackson also spoke about O 'Neal in 2001 with Rabbi Shmuley . He described holding hands with her : " I was , like , in heaven . It was the most magical thing . It was better than kissing her , it was better than anything . " He recalled one of the times they held hands : I remember we went to this club , and I don 't go to clubs , which was called the Roxy . And I was watching the band , I was sitting there , and underneath the table , she was holding my hand , and I was , like melting . [ Rabbi Shmuley : She held your hand and you felt love ? ] Fireworks going off . It was all I needed . But that means nothing to kids today . She grew up too fast . She wasn 't into innocence , and I love that . And similar to what he told Bashir , he said , " ... she was 13 . And I was naive . She wanted to do everything and I didn 't want to have sex at all . " = = = Brooke Shields = = = Jackson met 15 @-@ year @-@ old actress / model Brooke Shields in 1981 , at the Academy Awards . From there , the pair enjoyed a close relationship . Speaking in 2009 , she reflected that they were close because sex was never an issue for them . Although the headlines in the media referred to Shields ' talking about an " asexual Jackson " after his death , what she actually said was , “ As he grew older and the more he started to change physically , the more asexual he became to me . ” She also said that as she grew up and started having boyfriends , she would confide in him about her intimate experiences , as he was curious . She said , " he was like a little kid who talked about the bases – what first base was , what second base was " – and his curiosity was understandable given his guarded life . In 2001 , Jackson told Rabbi Shmuley : Shields was " one of the loves of my life . I just wished she loved me as much as I loved her " , and , they " dated a lot . " Before meeting her , he said that he had pictures of her all over his room . He recalled his happiness when they first met in 1981 . He was at the 53rd Academy Awards with Diana Ross , and Shields walked up and introduced herself ; then at the after @-@ party she asked him to dance with her . They exchanged numbers , and he " was up all night , singing , spinning around my room , just so happy . " He also said , “ We had one encounter when she got real intimate and I chickened out . And I shouldn ’ t have . ” In Moonwalk ( 1988 ) , Jackson said his relationship with Shields was " romantically serious for a while . " Shields said that while never formally proposing , he would speak about the two marrying and raising adoptive children together . The suggestions were met with disapproval from Shields , who felt such a move would have " divided [ her ] life too much " . She recalled : " There were times when he would ask me to marry him , and I would say , ' You have me for the rest of your life , you don ’ t need to marry me , I ’ m going to go on ... have my own marriage and my own kids , and you ’ ll always have me . ' I think it made him relax . He didn ’ t want to lose things that meant something to him . " As the couple 's separate lives diverged , the two gradually saw each other less . At the time of Jackson 's death in 2009 , the pair had not seen each other for 16 years . Shields claimed that in the singer 's last years " it was harder to get the right number to get through to him " . In July 2009 , she spoke at the Michael Jackson memorial service , reminiscing about their time together : " Thinking back to when we met and the many times that we spent together and whenever we were out together , there would be a caption of some kind , and the caption usually said something like ' an odd couple ' or ' an unlikely pair , ' but to us it was the most natural and easiest of friendships .... Michael always knew he could count on me to support him or be his date and that we would have fun no matter where we were . We had a bond .... Both of us needed to be adults very early , but when we were together , we were two little kids having fun . " In a June 30 , 2009 interview , Ola Ray also said that she and Jackson " would play like little kids " when working on the Thriller video ( 1983 ) , as she recalled how he was clearly " into Brooke Shields " and kept on teasing her about Shields ' visiting the set . = = Lisa Marie Presley = = = = = First meeting and courtship = = = In 1974 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old Michael Jackson — who would later be dubbed " The King of Pop " — was introduced for the first time to his future wife at the MGM Grand Hotel and Casino in Paradise , Nevada by her father , " The King of Rock ' n ' Roll " , Elvis Presley . Lisa Marie was six at the time , and had been brought to the hotel to watch a show by The Jackson 5 , of whom she was a big fan . The young girl was particularly fascinated by lead singer Michael Jackson and his talent at dancing . According to a friend of Presley 's , " their adult friendship began in November 1992 in L.A. " They met at a private dinner held at the home of their mutual friend the artist Brett @-@ Livingstone Strong . Knowing that Presley had been looking for help within the music industry , Strong had her play tapes for Jackson , who was impressed with the female singer 's voice . The pair talked for the remainder of the night , until it was time for Jackson to leave . At this point , according to Strong , the entertainer gave Presley , who was still married at the time , a penetrating look and said in a conspiratorial voice , " You and me , we could get into a lot of trouble . Think about that , girl . " In the days following this interaction , Presley and Jackson spoke on the telephone almost every day , forging a strong friendship . The two came to realize they had much in common : both had been protected and sheltered from the real world , both felt they had missed out on a normal childhood , both were mistrustful of outsiders having spent most of their lives feeling exploited by them , and both had problems with the media . Presley was raised in Graceland , while Jackson lived at Neverland . In 1993 , he became the subject of child sexual abuse accusations and the female singer , along with a few others , was there for emotional support . Michael would call Presley from overseas as he embarked upon the second leg of the Dangerous World Tour and the child abuse investigation intensified . During such telephone conversations , the female star attempted to reverse Jackson 's sadness with humour and advice . Presley later recalled that she believed in the musician 's innocence and that she could " save him " . Fueled by her past addictions and her father 's death , Presley supported Jackson as he became addicted on painkillers , urging him to settle the allegations out of court and go into rehabilitation . He subsequently did both . = = = Proposal and wedding = = = It was during one of Jackson 's calls to Presley that he proposed marriage . " If I asked you to marry me , would you do it ? " , the singer queried . Though still married to actor Danny Keough , whom she had wed in 1988 and had two children with , Presley replied that she would . After a pause , Jackson exclaimed that he had to use the bathroom . Having apparently relieved himself , the singer explained to his new fiancee that his love for her was genuine and she had to believe him . In 2010 , Presley acknowledged to Oprah Winfrey that Jackson did formally propose one day in the library , taking out a 10 carat diamond ring and getting down on his knees . Following several months engaged , Jackson and Presley wed on May 26 , 1994 , at a ceremony in the Dominican Republic . Presley had divorced Keough only 20 days before . The 15 @-@ minute ceremony was held by Judge Hugo Francisco Alvarez Perez at his home in the La Vega Province . The union was conducted in Spanish and translated for Presley and Jackson by an attorney . Eva Darling , Presley 's friend , served as a witness along with Thomas Keough , her ex @-@ husband 's brother . At the time of their marriage , the press and public were unaware that the two even knew each other . The wedding was kept secret from them , Jackson 's family , and Presley 's mother Priscilla . However , Gotham Chopra recalled that Jackson called him " in a panic " on his wedding night and asked if he had any " sex advice " , wanting " to make sure that Lisa was impressed with his ' moves . ' " Upon being informed of her daughter 's marriage with Jackson a week later , Priscilla became irritated ; she believed the male pop singer was using her child to rehabilitate his image following the child abuse accusations . To the press , however , Priscilla stated that she was " very supportive of Lisa Marie and everything she does " . The union was met with a mixed reaction from the media when it was made public two months later . Some sources described the union of " The King of Pop " and " The Princess of Rock ' n ' Roll " as being " The Marriage of the Century " . One newspaper headline scoffed , " Jackson @-@ Presley Union Sparks Shock , Doubt , Laughs . " Addressing both the media and public , the new Mrs. Presley @-@ Jackson issued a statement : " My married name is Mrs. Lisa Marie Presley @-@ Jackson . My marriage to Michael Jackson took place in a private ceremony outside the United States ( 11 ) weeks ago . It was not formally announced until now for several reasons ; foremost being that we are both very private people living in the glare of the public media . We both wanted a private marriage ceremony without the distraction of a media circus . I am very much in love with Michael , I dedicate my life to being his wife . I understand and support him . We both look forward to raising a family and living happy , healthy lives together . We hope friends and fans will understand and respect our privacy . " = = = Married life and disagreements = = = For the next year of their married life , the newly wedded couple divided their time between Jackson 's 2 @,@ 700 @-@ acre ( 11 km2 ) Neverland Ranch in Santa Ynez , California and Presley 's 1 @-@ acre ( 4 @,@ 000 m2 ) estate , 100 miles ( 160 km ) away in Hidden Hills . Defying the initial thoughts of some of the public , Presley did not move into Jackson 's home upon getting married . According to J. Randy Taraborrelli , this was due to her wanting to remain independent , as well as Presley 's children ( Danielle and Benjamin ) finding their new stepfather " a little strange " . The pair 's first appeared together on television at the 1994 MTV Video Music Awards , in what has been described as a " memorable moment " . Holding hands , the couple walked onto the stage in New York . In front of a television audience of 250 million , Jackson announced , " Just think , nobody thought this would last " , before embracing Presley in a kiss . Afterward , Presley became angered at her husband , feeling he had used her . The male pop singer reasoned that the liplock , which was dubbed " The Kiss of the Century " , would be talked about for decades , with people playing the clip over and over . Jackson 's attempts at placating his wife proved futile ; she told the singer not to " fucking even come near me " and remained angry for several days . In the same week , Jackson and Presley had another argument . Newspaper reports had been suggesting that if Elvis were alive , he would not approve of his daughter 's marriage . Annoyed , Jackson reportedly suggested that the couple could find out by holding a séance to contact the deceased " King of Rock ' n ' Roll " . During the session they would ask his opinion of the union . Presley felt the idea was tasteless and , upon Jackson 's continuing to push the idea , warned , " If you stay on this particular road , they 're gonna need a medium to contact you in the Great Beyond , because I 'm about to put you there , right now . " The two supposedly never spoke of the incident again . = = = Primetime and further marriage difficulties = = = Jackson and Presley appeared on the television show Primetime in June 1995 . In Jackson 's first interview since 1993 and Presley 's first ever , Diane Sawyer quizzed the pair on their private life with , according to Jet , a series of " insensitive " questions . Presley boasted that she and Jackson had regular sex , following Sawyer 's questioning their sex life . When asked if the marriage was a sham , Presley asserted that such rumors were " crap " ; she said she would never marry someone for any other reason than being in love with him , and concluded that if the public thought differently , they could " eat it " . The following day , Presley reflected that the interview had been a disaster ; she had hoped the couple would be perceived as being serious , yet Jackson fooled around during the show , at one point holding two fingers behind his wife 's head to make bunny ears . Presley 's friend Monica Pastelle revealed that it was at this point that the female singer began to wonder whether she had made a mistake in choosing Jackson as a long @-@ term partner . A further problem for the pair was Jackson 's insistence on being around children . Though she never believed he was a pedophile — " I wouldn 't have let him near my kids if I thought that " — she felt her husband was only opening himself up to more rumor and innuendo following the 1993 allegations . One evening at Neverland , Presley confronted the pop star on the issue and was met with a defiant Jackson , resulting in another argument . Upon being called selfish , the male musician pointed to his humanitarian endeavors . Presley countered that his philanthropy was irrelevant , that the issue was about them . Presley also disagreed with having children with the singer . Imagining the future and what would happen if the marriage ended , Presley saw a " custody battle nightmare " . In addition , she felt her husband was too emotionally immature to be a parent , having watched his daily interactions with other people ; she believed he was the one in need of parenting . Jackson explained to his wife over breakfast one morning that she did not have to be the biological mother if she so desired . He explained , " My friend Debbie [ Rowe ] said she will get pregnant and have my baby . If you won 't do it , then she will . How about that ? " Unmoved , Presley replied that it was fine by her . Following several more troubled months , Jackson ended up in the hospital ; he had collapsed while rehearsing for a concert in New York . Presley arrived to meet her ill husband , and yet another heated debate ensued . The argument ended after Jackson warned her that she was making his heart rate go up and asked her to leave . She obliged , and was admonished by a doctor and Jackson 's mother Katherine along the way . Presley subsequently returned to Los Angeles . Upon being discharged from hospital , Jackson went to Disneyland Paris to recover . = = = Divorce = = = Presley filed for divorce in early 1996 , citing " irreconcilable differences " and noting their date of separation as December 10 , 1995 , shortly after the incident in the hospital . The divorce was finalized on August 20 , 1996 . As part of the settlement , the female singer received 10 % of the royalties from HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which album contained the song " You Are Not Alone " , whose music video featured a semi @-@ nude Presley and Jackson frolicking against an ethereal backdrop . As she did not sign a confidentiality agreement , a further clause stated that Presley could write a tell @-@ all book about her time with Jackson . At the time , " The Princess of Rock ' n ' Roll " revealed that she had no wish to write a memoir ; the singer still had respect for Jackson and did not want to speak critically of him . Presley also wanted to preserve her own dignity and keep their life together private . The divorce proved difficult for Jackson , who spent several weeks lamenting his loss . Presley was the first person with whom he had connected on such a high level . She had supported him as he faced allegations and became dependent on pain medication . It was also the first time that the pop singer had had a sexual chemistry with another . Presley was able to make him open up and express himself through their physically intimate moments together . At the time , Jackson was afraid there would never be another who made him feel the way his ex @-@ wife had . He eventually realized he had to move on ; he had a world tour coming up and music to work on . Jackson also knew that Presley would never make him a father , which he longed to be . = = = Aftermath = = = Presley was seen with Jackson in various cities during HIStory World Tour in 1997 ; notably at various functions in South Africa and in London , holding hands backstage and around the city . In February 1998 , they were photographed in an intimate moment together outside a Beverly Hills restaurant on Presley 's birthday . In a 2010 Oprah interview , Presley admitted that they spent four years after the divorce " getting back together and breaking up " , until she felt she " had to push it away . " She described the parallels between the lives of Jackson and her father Elvis , and said Jackson constantly asked her about the details of Elvis ' death because he felt that he was " going to end up the same way . " She had described such a conversation in a blog post the day after Jackson died , wherein she shared her feelings about his death . According to Presley , the last " coherently good conversation " she had with Jackson was in 2005 . She said Jackson told her she had been right about certain people around him , whom she called " vampires . " She replied that she was indifferent when he asked if she still loved him . But Presley also said his death made her realize he loved her . She acknowledged his efforts in the relationship , saying , " He honestly tried so hard and went through so much with me " , but " I didn ’ t appreciate it then and I wish I did . " At the end of the conversation , he reportedly told her " he felt that someone was going to try to kill him to get a hold of his catalog and his estate " and named some names she didn 't want to say in the interview . = = Debbie Rowe = = = = = Background and friendship = = = Debbie Rowe met Michael Jackson in the mid @-@ 1980s , while working as an assistant for the pop star 's dermatologist Dr. Arnold Klein . Rowe treated Jackson 's vitiligo , which he had been diagnosed with in 1986 and which would affect his physical appearance for the remainder of his life . Rowe supported Jackson , providing answers to the questions Jackson asked about his medical condition . The pair became good friends ; the pop star frequently sent autographed merchandise to the woman , who hung it on the walls of her office . According to Rowe 's friend Tanya Boyd , the dermatologist 's assistant would obsess over Jackson , gushing over him and his traits . She would say to her friend , " If people knew him like I knew him , they would not think he was strange . He 's unique , kinky , actually . " The Jackson @-@ Rowe friendship would last for several years , during which time the female assistant married and divorced Richard Edelman , a man she claimed to have felt trapped by . Rowe and the musician would both talk to each other about their unhappy marriages ; his with Presley and hers with Edelman , a teacher at Hollywood High School . Like Jackson 's first wife , Rowe supported the entertainer when he was accused of child sexual abuse . Jackson kept his friendship with Rowe a secret from his wife , who eventually found out but thought nothing of it ; she felt the dermatologist 's assistant was not her husband 's type because she was not glamorous enough . = = = First pregnancy and miscarriage = = = As Presley had refused to carry Jackson 's children , Rowe offered to give birth to a child for the pop singer . Shortly after Presley and Jackson 's separation , Rowe became pregnant but suffered a miscarriage in March 1996 . The event devastated the woman , who feared she would never be able to have a baby . Jackson comforted and consoled Rowe throughout the ordeal , which remained hidden from the media and public . = = = Second pregnancy and reaction = = = Jackson embarked on the first leg of his HIStory World Tour on September 1996 . One month into the tour and several months after his divorce from Presley , Jackson 's personal life made headlines as it was revealed that Debbie Rowe was pregnant with his child . One tabloid newspaper , the News of the World , told the story under the headline " I 'm Having Michael 's Baby " . Rowe reacted furiously to the publication , labeling the editorial staff " bastards " and complaining that they reported the story as if she and Jackson were freaks . J. Randy Taraborrelli later noted that the article , which had been put together from a secret tape recording between Rowe and a friend , had been fairly accurate . It detailed that Jackson was the father of the baby and that he would be raising the child alone . It also stated that Jackson impregnated Rowe artificially with his own sperm cells , a " foolproof " method of insemination . Further reports alleged that the relationship was an " economic " one ; she was in it for the money and he sought a baby . In a statement , Jackson condemned the accusations of being in an economic relationship and using artificial insemination as " completely false and irresponsible " . Despite the denials , it was noted that Rowe had received millions of dollars from Jackson as " gifts " over the years . Among court papers filed against Jackson in 2002 by business manager Myung Ho Lee , a monthly budget for Jackson was detailed and included a $ 1 @.@ 5 million payment to Rowe . The pop musician later bought the woman a $ 1 @.@ 3 million home in 1997 ; he and Rowe never lived together . When the news of Rowe 's pregnancy broke to Jackson 's mother Katherine , the Jackson family matriarch urged her son to wed the mother of his unborn child . Katherine did not want her son to be like his father , who had produced an illegitimate child with a woman while married to Michael 's mother . Katherine first spoke on the telephone to Rowe about the sanctity of marriage and about the Jehovah 's Witness faith . She later spoke to Jackson , telling him to marry " that nice girl , Debbie " and " give your child a name , not like your poor , half @-@ sister , Joh 'Vonnie " . The words resonated with the musician , who did not want to repeat his father 's sins . Prior to Katherine 's words , the view had been for Rowe to act as a surrogate mother ; she would give the baby to Jackson as a friendly favor and he would raise it . Jackson intended to issue a statement following the birth that the identity of the mother was a secret , in the same way that the identities of many surrogates are protected . Katherine 's involvement , however , influenced Jackson to call Rowe and ask her to meet him in Australia , where he was staying , as soon as she could . There , the entertainer announced his plans for them to wed the next day . = = = Wedding = = = Jackson and Rowe wed on November 13 , 1996 , at the Sheraton on the Park Hotel in Sydney , Australia . The night before the wedding , Jackson had called Presley , who gave him and Rowe her blessing . In front of 15 friends , the pair exchanged vows at the hotel . An 8 @-@ year @-@ old boy named Anthony , who was Jackson 's nephew , served as the best man during the ceremony . For the occasion , Jackson had put special effort into his appearance . Media and public reaction to the marriage was negative and cynical . Some commentators believed Jackson was marrying a person he did not love , and Rowe was having a baby who may not have been biologically Jackson 's . The Daily Mirror , a British tabloid newspaper , published a photograph of Rowe on the balcony of an Australian hotel . In it , she is seen holding her head in her hands . One Jackson biographer stated that the woman 's dismayed and exasperated pose was most probably due to the excessive presence of paparazzi below . The Daily Mirror , however , ran the photograph while mockingly proclaiming , " Oh , God ! I 've Just Married Michael Jackson . " = = = Birth of Prince Michael = = = Jackson and Rowe 's first child together , Michael Joseph Jackson , Jr . ( also known as " Prince Michael " ) , was born on February 13 , 1997 , at Cedars @-@ Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles . The baby was named after Michael 's grandfather and great @-@ grandfather , who were both called Prince . After Rowe and Jackson cut the baby 's umbilical cord together , Prince was taken to intensive care , where he spent five hours with only minor problems . He was subsequently taken by his father to Neverland Ranch . Prince 's mother recuperated at a friend 's house upon her release from the hospital . Six weeks after the birth , Rowe saw her son for the first time since his arrival into the world . She had met with Jackson to pose for photographs with their newborn son at a hotel . Upon arriving , Rowe was ushered into the hotel room , where she was given the infant to hold and told to smile for the camera with Michael . Afterward , she was sent on her way . Rowe did not want to become too attached to Prince , as she felt it would make her situation harder to deal with . At Neverland , Prince was cared for by a team of six nannies and six nurses during his first few months . According to one nanny who worked at the Californian ranch , Prince Michael 's mother was not a significant presence in the child 's early life . " I saw her maybe three times and she seemed very sullen . " = = = Second pregnancy and birth of Paris = = = Rowe announced that she was pregnant with Jackson 's second child in November 1997 . The baby was to be a girl and named Paris , after the French city in which her parents said she was conceived . On April 3 , 1998 , blue @-@ eyed Paris @-@ Michael Katherine Jackson was born . Her middle names come from Michael and his mother , Katherine . Jackson later claimed that he was so anxious following the birth of his daughter , that he " snatched " her and ran straight home " with all the placenta and everything all over her " . Rowe later confirmed that Jackson had the placenta frozen . Following the birth , Jackson 's associates contacted Pope John Paul II at the Vatican in Rome , in the hope that the Pontiff would personally baptize the pop star 's daughter . An official for the Pope informed Jackson by letter that the leader of the Catholic Church would not participate in what may be perceived as a publicity stunt . = = = Divorce = = = Feeling uncomfortable with their arrangement , Rowe asked Jackson for a divorce , which he granted on October 8 , 1999 . Rowe received around $ 10 million in a settlement , which started with an immediate payment of $ 1 @.@ 5 million . With the divorce , Rowe gave Jackson full custody rights to her children . At the time , both Rowe and Jackson requested privacy and asked the public not to speculate on the reasons for their divorce . They concluded that despite coming to the end of married life , they would continue to remain friends . = = = After divorce = = = Following the divorce , Jackson would go on to have a third child . Prince Michael II was born on February 21 , 2002 , to an unnamed surrogate mother . Rowe denied being the biological mother of Prince Michael II , who is nicknamed " Blanket " . Jackson stated that the baby was produced through artificial insemination using his own sperm cells . He further claimed that he did not know the mother , and she did not know him . The pop star added that in asking for a surrogate mother , he did not care how old she was or what race she was . It did , however , matter to him that she was intelligent , healthy , and had uncorrected eyesight . In the television documentary , The Michael Jackson Interview : The Footage You Were Never Meant to See , a rebuttal video to Martin Bashir 's Living with Michael Jackson ( 2003 ) interview , Rowe attempted to explain her relationship with Jackson and their two children : " My kids don 't call me Mom because I don 't want them to . They 're Michael 's children . It 's not that they are not my children , but I had them because I wanted him to be a father . People make remarks , ' I can 't believe she left her children . ' Left them ? I left my children ? I did not leave my children . My children are with their father , where they are supposed to be . I didn 't do it to be a mother ... If he called me tonight and said let 's have five more [ children ] , I 'd do it in a heartbeat . " In 2006 , Rowe legally applied for her access to her two children to be reinstated and subsequently reached an agreement with Jackson . Following the singer 's death in 2009 , his mother Katherine was made the permanent guardian of Prince Michael , Paris , and their half @-@ brother Prince Michael II . In addition , a new custody arrangement was made with Rowe , who has visitation rights with her two children and will continue to receive spousal support payments . Questions have frequently arisen as to whether Jackson was the biological father of his three children . Doubts first surfaced after it was reported that his son , Prince , had " white skin " . Jackson insisted in 2003 that the children were biologically his . = = Allegations regarding sexuality = = Despite his relationships with women , Jackson 's sexuality was the subject of speculation and controversy for decades . The pop singer faced allegations of being gay since he was a teenager , as well as later being labelled asexual . One 1970s newspaper story alleged that the then 19 @-@ year @-@ old singer was to have a sex change operation and marry the songwriter Clifton Davis . Jackson found out about the story from a crying fan . The musician reassured the girl that the tale was untrue and condemned it as a " stupid rumor " . The story circulated for many months , during which time Jackson became upset ; he was raised in a family where homosexuality was considered sinful . Jackson would continue to deny being gay throughout his life . In a 1979 interview , the pop star stated that he was not gay and that he would not " have a nervous breakdown because people think I like having sex with men " . He added that if he let the rumor affect him , it would make him cheap and make it sound as if he was prejudice against gay people . He expressed that many of his fans may be gay , and that he did not mind that . " That 's their life and this is mine . " = = = 1993 child sexual abuse allegations = = = In 1993 , Jackson was accused of child sexual abuse by Evan Chandler , on behalf of his then @-@ 13 @-@ year @-@ old child , Jordan Chandler . To the father 's disapproval and concern , his son had become friends with the musician in May 1992 . Allegedly under the influence of a controversial sedative administered by Evan Chandler , a dentist , his son said that Jackson had touched his penis . Evan Chandler was tape @-@ recorded threatening to damage the singer 's music career , and engaged Jackson in unsuccessful negotiations to resolve the issue with a financial settlement . Jordan Chandler then told a psychiatrist and later police that he and Jackson had engaged in acts of kissing , masturbation and oral sex . Jackson settled a civil suit out of court with the Chandler family and their legal team for $ 22 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in January 1994 . After Jordan Chandler refused to testify in the criminal proceedings , the state closed its criminal investigation citing lack of evidence , and Jackson was not charged with a crime . Jordan Chandler later admitted to lying . After Jackson 's death , Evan Chandler committed suicide . = = = 2003 child sexual abuse allegations = = = Further accusations of child sexual abuse were made in 2003 , by 13 @-@ year @-@ old Gavin Arvizo . The allegations came after Jackson and the boy appeared in the documentary Living with Michael Jackson , in which the entertainer stated that he shared his bed with children in a non @-@ sexual fashion . The musician was subsequently indicted on four counts of molesting a minor , four counts of intoxicating a minor , one count of abduction , and one count of conspiring to hold the boy and his family captive at Neverland Ranch . During the five @-@ month trial , Jackson faced allegations of child molestation and assertions that he had attempted to abduct the Arvizo family in a hot air balloon . He denied all the charges and family members proclaimed that he was the victim of an extortion attempt . One friend , Firpo Carr , expressed amazement at the allegations leveled against the singer , who at the time was living at Neverland Ranch . " I 'm surprised they haven 't accused him of bestiality because he also has a zoo there . I mean , it gets ridiculous after a while . " On June 13 , 2005 , the jury found Jackson not guilty on all charges . = = = 2013 and 2014 child sexual abuse allegations = = = In May 2013 , choreographer Wade Robson filed a civil lawsuit against Jackson 's estate for child sexual abuse . The date for the hearing which would determine whether or not Robson could sue Jackson 's estate was scheduled for June 2 , 2014 . Robson met Jackson when he was 5 years old . In 2005 , he had testified in Jackson 's defense during his child molestation trial . At that trial , Jackson 's former housekeeper Blanca Francia had testified that she had witnessed Robson showering with Jackson when Robson was 8 or 9 years old . However , in his 2013 filing , Robson claimed that by the time he was 7 years old , he was regularly having sleepovers at Jackson 's Neverland Ranch and Jackson 's homes in Los Angeles and Las Vegas , which lasted until he was 14 , and that Jackson sexually abused him throughout the 7 @-@ year period . Blanca Francia agreed to testify on Robson 's behalf in the case . The attorney for Jackson 's estate described Robson 's claim as " outrageous and pathetic " . In May 2014 , a second man , Jimmy Safechuck , filed a lawsuit against the Jackson estate alleging that Jackson had sexually abused him between the ages of " 10 to about 15 " . Jackson had met Safechuck in 1987 and Safechuck , then 10 , was featured in the commercial of Jackson 's Pepsi ad advertising his upcoming Bad World Tour at the time . = Westholme House = Westholme House is a historic building in the English market town of Sleaford in Lincolnshire , set in 32 acres of parkland and school grounds . Built around 1849 in the style of a French Gothic mansion by Charles Kirk for his business partner Thomas Parry , it was privately owned until the 1940s , when Kesteven County Council acquired the house and its grounds . It subsequently served as the county library and part of Sleaford Secondary Modern School ( later St George 's Academy ) . The stone house follows an asymmetrical layout and incorporates a range of Gothic elements in its design . In 1974 , it was recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade II listed building , recognising it as of " special interest " . = = History = = Prior to the enclosure of Sleaford in 1794 , the lands that later became the Westholme estate were mostly open fields . The largest was Puddingpan Race behind the houses on Westgate , thought to be named for the muddy puddles that formed there . That field was bounded to the north by Drove Lane , a track running to South Rauceby , and parts of the future estate also included " Millgatemere Furlong " to the north west and claypits to the north east . Following the enclosure , Drove Lane was straightened and moved northwards by a third of a mile ; the old open fields were reorganised within this new space , producing straight , geometric boundary lines . The future Westholme grounds were divided up between several land @-@ owners , including Lord Bristol and Benjamin Handley . = = = Private ownership = = = Thomas Parry ( 1818 − 1879 ) , an architect , builder and future Member of Parliament for Boston employed his business partner and brother @-@ in @-@ law , Charles Kirk the younger , to design Westholme House on the site for him ; their firm Kirk and Parry completed the mansion around 1849 . Parry moved in with his wife , mother and sister , and employed two servants ; by 1871 , two domestic workers had been added to his household . Parry died in 1879 followed by his wife , Henrietta , in 1882 . Henry Peake ( 1821 – 1886 ) was occupying Westholme in 1885 , three years after the death of Parry 's wife . Peake was a solicitor who served as clerk to the county magistrates , and was a partner in the local law firm Peake , Snow and Peake , along with his son Henry Arthur Peake . The partnership had connections with Kirk and Parry , and Peake married Eliza , a daughter of Charles Kirk the elder . After his death , Peake 's sons , George Herbert and Henry Arthur , successively occupied the house in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . During the First World War , Henry Arthur and his wife , Alice Ann , lost three of their sons in battle . In 1923 , Henry Arthur died while staying at Hastings . He and his wife were planning to sell Westholme and move to Guildford before his death ; she did so and died there in 1933 . The businessman and Liberal politician Samuel Pattinson ( 1870 – 1942 ) lived at the house from at least 1924 . His wife , Betsy Sharpley Pattinson , also died in 1942 and their trustees auctioned off the furniture at Westholme two years later . = = = Public ownership = = = Westholme was occupied by the military during the Second World War . Kesteven County Council had acquired the land by 1945 and proposed to use it for educational purposes . The council wanted to convert the house into Kesteven County Library , but it had to wait for the War Department to agree to pay fees for " dilapidations " caused during its occupancy . The Department provisionally agreed on £ 1 @,@ 276 16s in 1947 and the library was operating at the house by 1949 . An Navy , Army and Air Force Institutes ( NAAFI ) canteen supplied school meals after the war ; and in 1947 the council bought a series of huts on the site from the War Department . In 1957 , the council planned to open a new mixed secondary modern at Westholme and , by 1960 , Sleaford Secondary Modern School was operating there alongside its original buildings on Church Lane . In 1983 , an extension to the Westholme block opened , allowing the school to close the old site ; new teaching blocks were then built around the grounds . The school changed its name to St George 's School in 1984 , became a technology college in 1992 and converted to St George 's Academy in 2010 . The house continued to be used as a library into the 1980s , but by the next decade , had become the school 's sixth form base and an adult education centre . As a result of major rebuilding work at St George 's in 2011 – 12 , a new sixth form centre opened and Westholme House was converted into the school 's administrative centre . = = Architecture = = Charles Kirk and Thomas Parry were builders and architects in Sleaford ; their company prospered in the mid @-@ 19th century and was responsible for a number of civic , religious and corporate buildings in the town , including the gas works , Carre 's Grammar School and Carre 's Hospital . Westholme has been called their " most cheerfully inventive " building ; built in the style of a Gothic château , Pevsner described the mansion as " an ebullient essay in French [ 15th century ] domestic Gothic . " The two @-@ storey house is built in coursed stone with steep , Welsh slate roofing . Its asymmetrical design incorporates an eclectic range of Gothic elements , including tall , polygonal chimney stacks , a four @-@ centred arch doorway , dragon motifs and carved pinnacles . The eastern façade includes two gables with a tall four @-@ centred arch window . To the right is a tower of three @-@ storeys with a pointed roof which connects to a projecting bay of two storeys . The bay incorporates a stack of three square windows topped with a Flamboyant arch , two hipped roofs with decorative spikes , and three chimneys . The rear is more simple ; the windows are mullioned and most are square , except for three bay windows . It has two wings laid out like half an " H " , which each have a gable and embattled parapets . The site also houses a Gothic stable @-@ block , which Sir Nikolaus Pevsner considered " charming " , and two Tudor @-@ style lodges . A stretch of wall in the grounds is 100m long and made up of stone fragments , many Gothic , which were most likely taken from church restorations conducted by Kirk and Parry . = 1953 FA Charity Shield = The 1953 Football Association Charity Shield was the 29th FA Charity Shield , an annual football match played between the winners of the previous season 's Football League First Division and FA Cup competitions . It was held at Highbury Stadium on 12 October 1953 . The game was played between Arsenal , champions of the 1952 – 53 Football League and Blackpool , who had beaten Bolton Wanderers to win the 1953 FA Cup Final . This was Blackpool 's first FA Charity Shield appearance to Arsenal 's ninth . In the match , Blackpool started strongly and scored first with Stan Mortensen 's goal in the 30th minute . Against the run of play , however , Arsenal equalised through Tommy Lawton and in the second half they went ahead when Doug Lishman reacted first to a rebounded shot . Lishman scored his second of the match in the 80th minute , which sealed a seventh Charity Shield honour for Arsenal . = = Background = = The FA Charity Shield was founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield . It was a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , and then by 1913 teams of amateur and professional players . In 1921 , it was played by the Football League champions and FA Cup winners for the first time . Arsenal qualified for the 1953 FA Charity Shield as champions of the 1952 – 53 Football League First Division . The other Charity Shield place went to Blackpool who won the 1952 – 53 FA Cup . The final of the competition , which pitted Blackpool against Bolton Wanderers , was best remembered for Stanley Matthews ' performance , and later associated by his name . The 1953 Shield marked Blackpool 's first appearance in the annual contest . By contrast , this was Arsenal 's ninth Charity Shield appearance ; prior to the game they had won six Shields ( 1930 , 1931 , 1933 , 1934 , 1938 and 1948 ) , and lost two ( 1935 and 1936 ) . Arsenal announced their team two days before the match , recalling Cliff Holton who had recovered from injury . Blackpool refused to reveal their team until the evening of 12 October , but manager Joe Smith did confirm to the press that Matthews would start . = = Match = = = = = Summary = = = On a foggy , floodlit night at Highbury , it was the visitors who dominated the early proceedings ; The Times football correspondent assessing that Blackpool 's forward line had " … flowed sweetly , the ball on the ground in the most lovely [ sic ] , sweeping movements . " Matthews was at the heart of their best moves and , in particular , one pass through the Arsenal defence sent Bill Perry clear on goal . He tripped over the incoming Arsenal goalkeeper Jack Kelsey , but quickly managed to get up . With Kelsey out of his line , Perry was presented with the chance to score , but his shot hit the post . Blackpool continued to create chances and went ahead after 30 minutes of play . Breaking forward with the ball from the half @-@ way line , Matthews combined with his team @-@ mate Ernie Taylor , which culminated in Stan Mortensen getting the better of his marker and shooting past Kelsey . Despite Blackpool 's dominance , Arsenal managed to equalise seconds before half @-@ time . From the left wing , Holton got the better of his opponent Eddie Shimwell by taking the ball off him , and proceeded to cross ; the ball found Tommy Lawton who scored from the byline . Once play resumed in the second half , Blackpool struggled to reproduce the same kind of intensity that had merited their earlier lead . Arsenal dictated play the longer the match went on , and looked more assured in defence – The Times singled out Mercer ’ s growing influence , adding " … one noticed the improvement of [ Bill ] Dodgin at centre @-@ half , and the high promise of young [ Len ] Wills , playing only his second game at right back . " Arsenal took the lead in the 65th minute when Jimmy Logie 's pass was collected by Holton . His shot at goal rebounded into the path of Doug Lishman , who was following up , and he scored . Ten minutes before the end , a cross by Don Roper into Blackpool ’ s penalty area was headed down by Lawton ; the ball reached Lishman who scored again to make sure of Arsenal 's win . The Shield was presented to Arsenal by Lord Alexander of Tunis , the Minister of Defence . Gate receipts for the match totalled £ 6 @,@ 589 . In his assessment of the game , The Manchester Guardian 's football correspondent John Woodcock wrote : " The football was not the only thing that had been of a high order . The sportsmanship and spirit in which it was played had been in every way as fine . " Arsenal ended the season 12th in the First Division , and reached the fourth round of the FA Cup . Blackpool finished six positions higher in the league , but progressed no further than the fifth round of the cup competition . = = = Details = = = Source : = Thurstan = This page is about Thurstan of Bayeux ( 1070 – 1140 ) who became Archbishop of York . Thurstan of Caen became the first Norman Abbot of Glastonbury in circa 1077 . Thurstan or Turstin of Bayeux ( c . 1070 – 6 February 1140 ) was a medieval Archbishop of York , the son of a priest . He served kings William II and Henry I of England before his election to the see of York in 1114 . Once elected , his consecration was delayed for five years while he fought attempts by the Archbishop of Canterbury to assert primacy over York . Eventually , he was consecrated by the pope instead and allowed to return to England . While archbishop , he secured two new suffragan bishops for his province . When Henry I died , Thurstan supported Henry 's nephew Stephen of Blois as king . Thurstan also defended the northern part of England from invasion by the Scots , taking a leading part in organising the English forces at the Battle of the Standard ( 1138 ) . Shortly before his death , Thurstan resigned from his see and took the habit of a Cluniac monk . = = Early life = = Thurstan was the son of a canon of St Paul 's in London named Anger , Auger or Ansgar , who held the prebend of Cantlers . Another son of Anger , Audoen , was later Bishop of Évreux . Thurstan 's mother was named Popelina . Thurstan was born sometime about 1070 in Bayeux , in the Bessin region of Normandy . Before 1104 the father was given the prebend of Cantlers by Maurice , Bishop of London , and the family moved to England . Early in his career , Thurstan held the prebendary of Consumpta per mare in the diocese of London , and served both William Rufus and Henry I as a royal clerk . At some point in Thurstan 's early career , he visited Cluny , where he vowed to become a Cluniac monk later in his life . Thurstan also served Henry as almoner , and it was Henry who obtained Thurstan 's election as Archbishop of York in August 1114 . He was ordained a deacon in December 1114 and ordained a priest on 6 June 1115 by Ranulf Flambard , who was Bishop of Durham . = = Controversy and exile = = The Archbishop of Canterbury , Ralph d 'Escures , refused to consecrate Thurstan unless the archbishop @-@ elect made a profession of obedience to the southern see . This was part of the long @-@ running Canterbury @-@ York dispute , which started in 1070 . Thurstan refused to make such a profession , and asked the king for permission to go to Rome to consult Pope Paschal II . Henry I refused to allow him to make the journey , but even without a personal appeal from Thurstan , Paschal decided against Canterbury . At the Council of Salisbury in 1116 the English king ordered Thurstan to submit to Canterbury , but instead Thurstan publicly resigned the archibishopric . On his way to the Council , Thurstan had received letters from Paschal II that supported York and commanded that he should be consecrated without a profession . Similar letters had gone to Ralph d 'Escures from the pope , ordering Ralph , as Archbishop of Canterbury , to consecrate Thurstan . After the news of the letters became public , Thurstan 's resignation was ignored , and he continued to be considered the archbishop @-@ elect . Over the next three years , the new popes , Gelasius II and Calixtus II , championed Thurstan 's case , and on 19 October 1119 he was consecrated by Calixtus at Reims . Calixtus had earlier promised Henry that he would not consecrate Thurstan without the king 's permission , which had still not been granted . Enraged at this , the king refused to allow the newly consecrated archbishop to enter England , and Thurstan remained for some time on the continent in the company of the pope . While he was traveling with the pope , he also visited Adela of Blois , King Henry 's sister , who was also Thurstan 's spiritual daughter . At about this same time , Calixtus issued two bulls in Thurstan 's favor : one released York from Canterbury 's supremacy forever , and the other demanded the king allow Thurstan to return to York . The pope threatened an interdict on England as a punishment if the papal bull was not obeyed . At length , Thurstan 's friends , including Adela , succeeded in reconciling him with Henry , and he rejoined the king in Normandy . At Easter 1120 , he escorted Adela to the monastery of Marcigny , where she retired from active secular affairs . He was recalled to England in early 1121 . = = Archbishop = = One of the main weaknesses of the see of York was its lack of suffragan bishops . Thurstan managed to secure the resurrection of the Diocese of Galloway , or Whithorn , in 1125 . It is possible that he compromised with Fergus of Galloway , who was the lord or sub @-@ king of Galloway , in what is now Scotland . In this Thurstan secured another suffragan , and Fergus gained a bishop in his lordship , where previously ecclesiastical matters in his subkingdom had been handled by Scottish bishops . The first bishop was the native Galwegian – Gilla Aldan . This provoked the wrath of Wimund , Bishop of the Isles , who had previously had jurisdiction over Galloway ; but the new bishopric survived , and York had a new suffragan , an important step in the battle between York and Canterbury over the primacy , which was mainly a battle over the prestige of their respective sees . The number of bishops subject to either archbishop was an important factor in the reputation of each . In 1133 , Thurstan , who had received papal permission to found an entirely new diocese , consecrated Æthelwold as the first bishop of the new see of Carlisle . Thurstan refused to accept that the new Archbishop of Canterbury , William de Corbeil , was his superior , and did not help with William 's consecration . The dispute between the two continued , and both archbishops carried their complaints in person to Rome twice . In 1126 , Pope Honorius II ruled in favour of York . The pope based his decision on the fact that Canterbury 's supporting documents had been forged . Thurstan supported King Stephen after Henry I 's death in 1135 , and appeared at Stephen 's first court at Easter held at Westminster . Thurstan negotiated a truce at Roxburgh in 1138 between England and Scotland . It was Thurstan who mustered the army which defeated the Scots at the Battle of the Standard on 22 August 1138 near Northallerton , Yorkshire . Thurstan did not take direct part in the battle . , but he created the standard that gave the battle its name , by putting a ship 's mast in a cart and hanging the banners of Saint Peter of York , Saint John of Beverley , and Saint Wilfrid of Ripon on the mast . The Scots had invaded attempting to aid the Empress Matilda , the daughter of Henry I and Stephen 's rival for the throne . On 21 January 1140 Thurstan resigned his see and entered the order of the Cluniacs at Pontefract and he died there on 6 February 1140 . He was buried in the church at Pontefract . = = Legacy = = Thurstan gave land to many of the churches of his diocese and founded several religious houses . He founded the first nunnery in Yorkshire when he founded St Clement 's between 1125 and 1133 . He obtained for Whitby Abbey a papal privilege of protection as well as giving his own privilege to the abbey . He also helped found the Cistercian Abbey of Fountains , by giving the site to monks who had been expelled from the Abbey of St. Mary 's , York . Thurstan helped the hermitess Christina of Markyate at several points in her career , and tried to persuade her to become the first prioress of his foundation of St. Clement 's . He was a patron to the Augustinian Hexham Priory , founded by his predecessor at York , as well as helping the foundation of Bridlington Priory , another Augustinian house . He was a sincere reformer , and opposed to the election of unfit men to the episcopacy . When Pope Innocent II asked Thurstan 's opinion on the elevation of Anselm of St Saba , who was Abbot of Bury St. Edmunds , to become Bishop of London , Thurstan replied " If we consider his life and reputation , it would be much more fitting to remove him from his abbacy than to promote him to be bishop of London . " Anselm was not confirmed as bishop . Thurstan 's nephew was Osbert de Bayeux , who became an archdeacon at York , and in 1154 was accused of the murder of William of York , one of Thurstan 's successors at York . = Planescape : Torment = Planescape : Torment is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Black Isle Studios and published by Interplay Entertainment for Microsoft Windows . Released on December 12 , 1999 , the game takes place in locations from the multiverse of Planescape , a Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) fantasy campaign setting . The game 's engine is a modified version of the Infinity Engine , which was used for BioWare 's Baldur 's Gate , a previous D & D game set in the Forgotten Realms . Planescape : Torment is primarily story @-@ driven and combat is not prominent . The protagonist , known as The Nameless One , is an immortal who has lived many lives but has forgotten all about them , even forgetting his own name . The game focuses on his journey through the city of Sigil and other planes to reclaim his memories of these previous lives . Several characters in the game may join The Nameless One on his journey , and most of these characters have encountered him in the past or have been influenced by his actions in some way . The game was not a significant commercial success but received widespread critical praise and has since become a cult classic . It was lauded for its immersive dialogue , for the dark and relatively obscure Planescape setting , and for the protagonist 's unique persona , which shirked many characteristics of traditional role @-@ playing games . It was considered by video game journalists to be the best role @-@ playing game of 1999 , and continues to receive attention long after its release . = = Gameplay = = Planescape : Torment is built on BioWare 's Infinity Engine , which presents the player with a two @-@ dimensional world in which player characters are controlled . The game 's rules are based on those of Advanced Dungeons & Dragons 2nd Edition . The player takes the role of " The Nameless One " , an immortal being on a quest to learn why he cannot die . Exploration around the painted scenery is accomplished by clicking on the ground to move , or on objects and characters to interact with them . Items and spells may be employed through hotkeys , " quick slots " , or a radial menu . An alternative to armor is the use of magical tattoos , which can be applied to The Nameless One and certain other characters to enhance their abilities . The game begins with character creation , where the player assigns attribute points ( such as strength , intelligence , charisma ) to The Nameless One . The Nameless One starts the game as a fighter , but the player may later change his character class to thief or wizard , with the option to also change back to fighter , after finding corresponding tutors . The player may recruit adventuring companions over the course of the game ; there are seven potential party members , but a maximum of five may accompany the player at any one time . Conversation is frequent among party members , occurring both randomly and during conversations with other non @-@ player characters . Planescape : Torment 's gameplay often focuses on the resolution of quests through dialogue rather than combat , and many of the game 's combat encounters can be resolved or avoided through dialogue or stealth ; a review of the game in incite PC Gaming says that " The game is almost entirely story driven , and by asking the right questions you should only have to get violent a handful of times . " The Nameless One carries a journal , which helps the player keep track of the game 's numerous quests and subplots . Death of the player character usually imposes no penalty beyond respawning in a different location . Alignment in D & D — which determines a character 's ethical and moral perspective on the independent axes of " good vs. evil " and " law vs. chaos " — is a static property , chosen by the player at the start of a game . In Planescape : Torment , the character begins as a " true neutral " character ( that is , neither good nor evil , and neither lawful nor chaotic ) and throughout the game , based on the character 's actions , this property is incrementally changed . Non @-@ player characters respond to The Nameless One differently , depending on his alignment . A review in NextGen reported that " the game caters to both the goody @-@ goody player who wants to be nice and lawful , and the evil bastards who just want to kill everything and take no guff from anyone " . = = Synopsis = = = = = Setting = = = Planescape : Torment is set in the Planescape " multiverse " of D & D , a setting which consists of various planes of existence , the creatures which live in them ( such as devils , modrons , and even deities ) , and the properties of the magic that infuses each plane . In a March 2000 article for Game Studies , Diane Carr called the setting " a freak show , a long story , a zoo , and a cabinet of talkative curiosities " and described the creatures and monsters in the game as " grotesque rather than scary " . Planescape : Torment is the first video game to be set in the Planescape universe . The first part of Planescape : Torment takes place in Sigil , a city located atop an infinitely tall spire at the center of the multiverse , that connects the planes with each other via a series of portals . The city is overseen by the powerful Lady of Pain , while fifteen factions control different functions of the city related to each group 's world view . Every faction strives for further control of the city . The Nameless One can even join several of these factions during the game . The story eventually moves on to other planes , such as Baator and Carceri , where The Nameless One continues to discover more about his past . = = = Characters = = = Planescape : Torment 's protagonist is " The Nameless One , " an immortal being who , if killed , will wake up later , sometimes with complete amnesia . Each time The Nameless One dies , another person in the multiverse dies to fuel his resurrection . These dead turn into ghosts that seek revenge on him . When the game starts , The Nameless One wakes in a mortuary with no memories , as a result of his latest death . He sets out on a quest to regain his lost memories and discover why he is immortal . He slowly learns about the personalities of his previous incarnations , and the influence they have had on the world and people that surround him . Over the course of the game , The Nameless One meets seven characters who can join him on his quest : Morte , Annah @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Shadows , Dak 'kon , Ignus , Nordom , Fall @-@ From @-@ Grace , and Vhailor . These playable characters can also interact with the Nameless One to further the game 's plot . Morte is a cynical floating skull originally from the Pillar of Skulls in Baator . He is introduced at the game 's beginning in the mortuary . Morte loyally follows The Nameless One , partly out of guilt for having caused the deaths of some of his previous incarnations . The Nameless One meets Annah @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Shadows , a young and brash tiefling ( a human with fiendish ancestry ) rogue , outside the mortuary , but she does not join the group until a later point in the game . Dak 'kon is a githzerai , who once made an oath to follow The Nameless One until the latter died , not knowing of The Nameless One 's immortality ; this bound him to The Nameless One for eternity . Ignus is a pyromaniacal mage who was the apprentice of one of The Nameless One 's past selves . In the Rubikon Dungeon Construct , the Nameless One can find Nordom , a modron disconnected from its species ' hive mind . Fall @-@ From @-@ Grace is a succubus who acts as proprietress of the Brothel of Slaking Intellectual Lusts in Sigil ; unlike other succubi , she is not interested in seducing mortals . Vhailor , found below the city of Curst on the plane of the Outlands , is essentially an animated suit of armor dedicated to serving merciless justice . = = = Plot = = = The game 's story begins when The Nameless One wakes up in a mortuary . He is immediately approached by a floating skull , Morte , who offers advice on how to escape . Morte also reads the tattoos written on The Nameless One 's back , which were inked there as reminders to himself , that contain instructions to find a man named Pharod . After a conversation with the ghost of his former lover , Deionarra , and passing by various undead , The Nameless One leaves the mortuary to explore the slums of Sigil . He finds Pharod , who is the chief of an underground village of scavengers , and retrieves a magical bronze sphere for him . In return , Pharod gives him further hints to piece together his forgotten past . Later on , The Nameless One learns from a powerful sorcerer named Lothar that the night hag Ravel Puzzlewell caused his immortality , but the hag is currently imprisoned in a magical maze by the Lady of Pain . The Nameless One finds a portal to Ravel 's maze , but realizes that it requires a piece of Ravel to activate it ; for this , he locates Ravel 's daughter and takes drops of her blood . Once in the maze , The Nameless One converses with Ravel , who asks him , " What can change the nature of a man ? " — a question that plays a prominent role throughout the game . Ravel is pleased with The Nameless One 's answer because he offers his own thoughts ; she claims she has killed many men in the past who , instead of giving their own answers , tried to guess what her answer might be . As the conversation progresses , Ravel explains that , in a past life , The Nameless One had asked her to make him immortal ; however , the ritual she performed was flawed , causing him to lose his memory each time he died . She reveals that the mortality she separated from him was not destroyed , and that as long as he was alive , his mortality must still be intact . She does not know where his mortality is , but suggests that the fallen deva Trias might . Ravel then attempts to keep The Nameless One there by force . After the Nameless One and his party leave the maze , Ravel gets up , having actually survived the encounter . The Transcendent One appears , and , after a short conversation , kills Ravel . Following this , The Nameless One travels to the city of Curst , a gate town on the border of the Outlands and Carceri , to meet and free Trias . Through a tip from Trias , who claims not to know where The Nameless One 's mortality lies , The Nameless One then visits the Outlands and Baator , where he learns that his mortality lies in the Fortress of Regrets and that only Trias knows how to access this place . Meanwhile , however , the city of Curst has " slid " from the border of the Outlands to the neighboring chaotic plane Carceri due to the chaos unleashed by Trias after The Nameless One freed him . After a fight , Trias tells The Nameless One that the portal to the Fortress of Regrets is located in Sigil 's mortuary , in the very room where the game began . In the Fortress of Regrets , The Nameless One encounters three of his past incarnations : one practical , one good , and one paranoid . The Nameless One learns that the " good " incarnation is the original , who was made immortal by Ravel . The Nameless One had committed immeasurably terrible deeds in his lifetime , and when he realized there would be retribution on his soul when he died , he sought to postpone death as long as possible in order to atone . After meeting his past incarnations , The Nameless One confronts his mortality , which is embodied as a powerful being called The Transcendent One . The Transcendent One reveals that since being separated from The Nameless One , he has enjoyed his freedom and has been attempting to erase clues that might lead The Nameless One to discover the truth . Depending on the player 's choice , The Nameless One either slays his mortality or convinces it to rejoin with him ; either option finally ends his immortality and allows him to die . In the game 's final scene , The Nameless One awakens near a battleground of the eternal Blood War between demons and devils ; he picks up a mace and walks toward the conflict . = = Development = = In 1997 , the game 's designers produced a 47 @-@ page document that outlined the game 's premise and vision statement , and was used to pitch the idea to management at Interplay . Initially , the game was to be called Last Rites , and they described the game as " avant @-@ garde " fantasy to distinguish it from high fantasy . The document also contained concept artwork for characters and areas of the game . From the outset , Planescape : Torment 's designers intended to challenge traditional role @-@ playing game conventions : the game features no dragons , elves , goblins , or other common fantasy races ; there are only three swords ; the rats faced in the game can be quite challenging to defeat ; and the undead sometimes prove more sympathetic than humans . The designers explained that most RPGs tend to have a " correct " approach to solving problems , which is almost always the morally good approach . They called this " predictable and stupid " and wished to make a game with greater moral flexibility , where a particular problem might have " two wrongs or two rights " . The main quest is not about saving the world , but about understanding The Nameless One and his immortality . Death ( of the protagonist or his companions ) is often just a minor hindrance , and even necessary at times . According to lead designer Chris Avellone , Planescape : Torment was inspired by books , comics , and games , including Archie Comics , The Chronicles of Amber , The Elementals and Shadowrun . The game 's 1997 outline also makes references to The Lord of the Rings to describe some characters . While working on Planescape : Torment , Avellone was simultaneously working on Fallout 2 . In an interview from 2007 , he says that Fallout 2 helped him rethink the possibilities of dialogue in Planescape : Torment ( and in later games he was involved with , including Neverwinter Nights 2 ) . Avellone remarked that many of the ideas in the game " could only have been communicated through text , simply because no one would have the budget or resources to fully realise many of these fantasy works through TV or movies " . Ultimately , Avellone has expressed some regret about the game 's heavy focus on dialogue , as he feels this interfered with the overall game mechanics , particularly the combat system . The game 's script contains around 800 @,@ 000 words , after early previews had indicated that the game would be only about 20 hours long . In several interviews the producer of the game , Guido Henkel , stated that he was increasingly frustrated by the pressure the management of Interplay put on the development team after Interplay 's initial public offering . Although only a few additional subplots and characters had to be discarded to meet the planned release date , he accused the Interplay management of disregarding the development team regarding things like package design and marketing . Henkel said that it was his main goal to prevent the game from being " crippled " before leaving Interplay when the game reached beta status . He also made the claim that his overall influence on the game was greater than that of Chris Avellone , Eric Campanella , or Dave Maldonaldo , but since a producer often has to make unpopular decisions his role was later downplayed . The game used the Infinity Engine , a game engine initially developed by BioWare for Baldur 's Gate . However , Planescape : Torment was being developed using the Infinity Engine before Baldur 's Gate had been	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
released , leaving the engine 's acceptance in the market still unknown . Black Isle made modifications to the engine to suit the game . For example , playable characters were able to run , and both the character sprites and backgrounds were larger and more detailed . The greater size and detail was achieved by bringing the perspective closer to the ground . Magic was also an important part of the game 's design , and a team of four designers worked solely on the visuals and mechanics of spells . In addition to official localizations , for example the one by CD Projekt for the Polish market , fan communities developed Spanish , Hungarian , and Italian fan translations of the game . When Interplay dropped support for Planescape : Torment after the official 1 @.@ 1 patch , several not yet fixed bugs were corrected by fan created unofficial patches . Other mods add back items and quests omitted from the final version of the game or new features such as widescreen support . The game was re @-@ released on DVD in 2009 , and for purchase on GOG.com in September 2010 . Interplay initially hired dark ambient musician Lustmord to create the musical score for Planescape : Torment , although this score was ultimately not used . His music was pulled from the game by the producer so that the game 's music could be taken in a different direction , and Mark Morgan created the game 's final music . The game 's cast of voice actors included Michael T. Weiss , Sheena Easton , Rob Paulsen , Mitch Pileggi , Dan Castellaneta , and Tony Jay . After the game 's release , a reviewer for Game Revolution praised its sound , saying that " When you 're in a crowded city , it sounds like a crowded city . Walk past a bar , and you 'll hear the noise of the drunken patrons inside . Wander near a slave auction , and you 'll hear the auctioneer calling . Go to a party in the festival hall , and it sounds just like a party " . The same reviewer also stated " Planescape has just about the best sound I 've ever heard in a game . " IGN gave the sound 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 and noted that " The game has fantastic speech and sound effects , but what 's more impressive is the way they fade in and out depending on how close you 're standing to them . " = = Adaptations = = A book by the same name was written by Ray and Valerie Vallese and released by Wizards of the Coast in 1999 . The book 's plot follows the game 's only loosely ; for example , in the game , the main character 's lack of a name is a sign of his incomplete state and a source of protection in being anonymous . In the book , the protagonist chooses a proper name . For the game 's re @-@ release on GOG.com a second , more accurate , novelization produced by Rhyss Hess was bundled with the game , based on the game script by Chris Avellone and Colin McComb . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Planescape : Torment received widespread critical acclaim upon its release , but only made a small profit . GameSpot 's reviewer stated " It 's clearly the best traditional computer role @-@ playing game of the year " , a comment which the website would later expand to " one of the greatest ever " . Allen Rausch , writing for GameSpy 's 2004 retrospective " A History of D & D Video Games " , commented that Black Isle Studios " went way over the top for this one , crafting an utterly unique experience that has yet to be equaled by any RPG since " . The gameplay was often compared to Baldur 's Gate , another Interplay game that used the same engine as Planescape : Torment . The game 's premise and writing were warmly received ; a review in the New York Times noted " The game 's level of detail and its emotional impact have prompted some players to cast about for literary peers . " Reviewers were pleased with the ability to shape their character 's journey as they wished . In 2005 , GameSpot stated " Planescape : Torment has quite possibly the best implementation of role @-@ playing an evil character ever to appear in a computer or video game to date " . The heavily tattooed , egocentric and potentially selfish Nameless One was welcomed as a change of pace from the conventional RPG hero , who was considered a predictable do @-@ gooder . Reviewers also approved of the protagonist 's ability to gain new powers by " remembering " past lives . The dark and diversified representation of the D & D setting of Planescape was lauded as a fresh departure from the traditional high fantasy of computer role @-@ playing games . A review in NextGen praised the game , saying that " Torment offers the best RPG gameplay anyone can find on store shelves , hands down . " Uros Jojic of Actiontrip commented that " Planescape : Torment proves that it is possible to make an inventive , fun and refreshing game in this " sea of clones " . Creating a computer edition of Planescape system is another triumph for Black Isle Studios . " [ Planescape Torment 's ] limits are elusive . [ ... ] Even small choices have multiple and unpredictable results , leading players to incidents , to confrontations or to nothing much . The game resists resolution or even comprehension . A rambling text like Planescape Torment bounces when you try and nail it down , it resists totalisation . It has its moments of " rush " and of confrontation , but it wants to be savoured , wandered through , in the company of armed companions . The technical aspects of the game were also praised . Although by the time of its release in late 1999 , Planescape : Torment 's default 640x480 resolution was not considered particularly advanced , reviewers were pleased with the art design and color of the environments . The game 's sound and music were described as " well above the norm " and " superb " , and one reviewer stated that his only complaint about the music was that " there wasn 't enough of it " . Another reviewer stated that Planescape : Torment had " just about the best sound " they had heard in a video game . GamePro stated , " ... the characters talk with the talent of real professional voice actors during crucial bits of dialog " . The game 's graphics were moderately well received , with incite PC Gaming saying that " [ the graphics ] can be a little lackluster , although some of the spell effects certainly look very good " , a statement echoed in NextGen which stated that " mind @-@ blowing spell effects ... will remind you of a two @-@ dimensional Final Fantasy game . " The game 's interface received positive remarks . The US edition of PC Gamer commented on the automap , which automatically marked important locations and allowed the user to add custom notes , and on the journal , which separated completed quests from unfinished quests . PC Gamer also praised the fine @-@ tuning of the Infinity Engine , such as the use of a radial menu , which allowed the player to stay focused on the game instead of managing multiple screens and " messing with windows and buttons " . ... we were swept away by Planescape : Torment . It wasn 't the effective engine , demented characters , or lavish lands that won us . It was the rich storyline . This tale is more a reflection of your true self than any game ever made . Criticism of the game was minimal and problems were generally described as minor , but included complaints about long load times on computers of the day , or the game slowing down during combat . Bugs were responsible for slowing down the game when a high level of graphical assets were on @-@ screen at the same time , but it was reported that a fix was released that solved the problem . Allgame 's Derek Williams considered the game 's combat simplistic ( with a comparison to Diablo ) , which made the game too easy . The most negative major review came from Eurogamer , who gave the game seven out of ten ( and later increased it to eight when the game was patched ) . Their reviewer expressed distaste at the immortality of the player character , saying that it made the lives of characters " cheap and meaningless " , although other reviews welcomed this aspect , saying it was " implemented perfectly " and did not make the game easier . Eurogamer also disapproved of the amount of experience that was awarded for certain dialogues later in the game . However , other reviews cited this as one of the main things that elevated Planescape : Torment above the standard RPG format . Some reviewers also criticized the game 's pathfinding AI as being " less than impressive " . = = = Awards = = = Planescape : Torment was given several Editor 's Choice awards , was named RPG of the Year for 1999 by both GameSpot and Computer Gaming World , and won the Vault Network 's Game of the Year for 1999 . PC Gamer US named Planescape : Torment " Game of the Month " in their March 2000 issue ( the issue in which the game 's review appeared ) . It has since attracted a cult following , and continues to garner respect long after its release — in 2004 , GameSpy added it to their Hall of Fame , and in 2005 GameSpot declared it one of its greatest games of all time . In 2007 , IGN named it 71st on their list of the Top 100 Games of All Time , stating that many have " had their ideas of what an RPG is completely revamped after playing this one " . In 2008 , the UK edition of PC Gamer rated it ninth on its own Top 100 list . In 2006 , The A.V. Club included Planescape : Torment in their list of " 11 of Video Gaming 's Strangest Moments " , due to the game 's use of death as a means to advance the plot . In 2006 , Gamasutra polled video game industry professionals with the question : " Which role playing game over the entire history of the genre do you think has made the biggest ' quantum leap ' , and why ? " . Planescape : Torment was ranked second overall after Fallout , earning it a " Quantum Leap Award " . The game also received an honorable mention for the same awards in the " Storytelling " category . In December 2008 , IGN listed it as 8th out of 10 in a list of " Franchises We Want Resurrected " and praised the game as having " some of the best writing and characterization seen in gaming " . In 2009 , Bit @-@ tech included Planescape : Torment on their list of " 30 PC Games to Play Before You Die " . Chris Avellone was awarded Eurogamer 's " Gaming Globe " award for Best Designer in 2000 for his work on Planescape : Torment , and The Nameless One was considered to be the Best Male Lead Character . In 2009 , Game Informer put the game 188th on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " , saying that it " allowed players to ... influence the plot to an unheard @-@ of degree for 1999 " . In 2010 , UGO ranked it as # 5 on the list of games needing a sequel . A 2011 update of PC Gamer magazine 's top 100 PC games of all @-@ time ranked Planescape : Torment as the 19th greatest PC game . = = Legacy = = Following the announcement of Baldur 's Gate : Enhanced Edition , Overhaul Games announced their intention to make overhauls of more games set in the Dungeons & Dragons universes , at first naming only Planescape : Torment . They said that such a release would depend on the success of Baldur 's Gate : Enhanced Edition . In November 2012 , Penny Arcade Report wrote that Brian Fargo , the head of inXile Entertainment , had acquired the rights to Torment . In January 2013 , Brian Fargo announced that the spiritual successor to Planescape : Torment , titled Torment : Tides of Numenera , was in production and would be set in the Numenera RPG universe created by Monte Cook . = Melbourne Storm = Melbourne Storm is an Australian professional rugby league team based in Melbourne , Victoria that participates in the National Rugby League . The first fully professional rugby league team based in the state , they entered the competition in 1998 . Melbourne Storm was originally a Super League initiative and created in 1997 during the Super League war . The club plays its home games at AAMI Park . The Storm has won two premierships since its inception , in 1999 and 2012 , and has contested several more grand finals . A salary cap breach discovered in 2010 saw the club stripped of two titles by the NRL . Melbourne Storm also competes in the NRL 's Under @-@ 20s competition and has done since the inception of the competition in 2008 . = = History = = = = = 1990s = = = By 1994 , due to the high attendances at recent State of Origin series matches ( including a then Australian rugby league record crowd of 87 @,@ 161 in 1994 at the Melbourne Cricket Ground ) the Australian Rugby League ( ARL ) had planned to establish a Melbourne @-@ based team in the Premiership by 1998 . However , the disruption caused by the Super League war caused great change to the game in Australia . By May 1997 , Super League boss John Ribot pushed for a Melbourne @-@ based club for his competition , which was the rival of the ARL . Former Brisbane Broncos centre Chris Johns became the CEO of the club and Ribot stepped down from the head of Super League to set up the club . In September 1997 , Melbourne announced that Chris Anderson would be their foundation coach , and then Super League announced that the new team would be named the Melbourne Storm . The Melbourne club then went forward with signing players , mainly from folding Super League clubs Perth Reds and Hunter Mariners . Some of these players included Robbie Ross , Glenn Lazarus , Brett Kimmorley and Scott Hill . With the Super League and ARL joining into one competition for the 1998 season , the Melbourne team became part of the National Rugby League ( NRL ) . The Melbourne Storm club was unveiled at a function in the Hyatt in February 1998 . In their first game , they defeated the Illawarra Steelers , with Glenn Lazarus as their inaugural captain . Melbourne , in a complete shock to the rest of the competition , won their first four games , before losing to the Auckland Warriors . They went on to make the finals , but were defeated by the eventual premiers , the Brisbane Broncos . In January 1999 , CEO John Ribot negotiated a deal that saw Melbourne Storm games televised in China every weekend . The club won eight of their first eleven games of the 1999 NRL season , and went on to make the finals in third position on the Premiership ladder . The team was beaten convincingly 34 – 10 in the quarter final by St. George Illawarra . After narrow victories against the Canterbury Bulldogs and the Parramatta Eels however Melbourne once more faced St. George Illawarra , this time winning 20 – 18 and securing their first Premiership . = = = 2000s = = = Melbourne 's Premiership defence began relatively slowly losing their first four games of the 2000 NRL season , the club went on to make the finals ( finishing 6th ) , but were eventually knocked out by Newcastle Knights in the quarter @-@ finals . Between 2001 and 2002 , the club 's on field performances waned , resulting in a 10th @-@ placed finish in 2002 . Cracks were starting to appear between John Ribot and Anderson throughout the period , with Anderson quitting as coach after round 7 , 2001 . He was replaced by Mark Murray . The Melbourne club failed to make the finals in 2001 . Johns left the club as CEO at the end of 2002 and coach Murray was sacked due to Melbourne 's poor form , with the club missing the finals for the second year in a row . Wayne Bennett 's assistant coach at the Brisbane Broncos , Craig Bellamy was announced as the new coach of Melbourne for 2003 . In addition to a new captain in Kiwi international skipper Stephen Kearney , Bellamy 's strict coaching would see the Melbourne Storm get back on track from the previous lean years . Between 2003 and 2005 , Melbourne consistently made the finals , but lost games in the semi finals that prevented them from reaching the grand final . On 17 July 2004 , during round 19 of the 2004 NRL season , Danny Williams king @-@ hit Wests Tigers ' player Mark O 'Neill . Williams defended the incident , using four medical experts to argue on his behalf that he was suffering post @-@ traumatic amnesia when the incident occurred , which he claims was the result of a high tackle by O 'Neill just prior to the incident . Despite Williams ' claim , he was suspended for 18 weeks by the NRL judiciary . After the decision , Williams stated that he was " obviously disappointed with the outcome " . It was the longest suspension in Australian rugby league since Steve Linnane was suspended for twenty weeks for eye @-@ gouging in 1987 . In 2005 , Storm coach Craig Bellamy , in his third season as an NRL coach , gained representative honours when he was selected to start coaching the Country Origin team . Season 2006 saw the retirement of captain Robbie Kearns , the emergence of talented rookie halfback Cooper Cronk , taking the reins from Matt Orford , and the recruitment of hard @-@ man Michael Crocker . Contrary to expectation , 2006 was a standout year for the Melbourne team , winning their first Minor Premiership . Melbourne only lost four games in the season , making them outright leaders by four wins . They went on to win their two finals matches , and were favourites in the 2006 NRL Grand Final , but lost 15 – 8 to the Brisbane Broncos , in a match where controversial refereeing decisions against Melbourne caused much media coverage . In 2007 , the Storm finished the season Minor Premiers by finishing on top of the table again . They progressed through the finals series with wins over Brisbane , 40 – 0 , and then Parramatta 26 – 10 , in the Preliminary final . This secured a berth in the 2007 NRL Grand Final against the Manly Sea Eagles which they won 34 – 8 , with Greg Inglis winning the Clive Churchill Medal for best on ground . In 2008 , foundation player Matt Geyer became the first player to play 250 games for the club . Melbourne finished on top of the ladder after the 26 rounds of regular competition and despite becoming the first minor premiers since the McIntyre Final Eight System was introduced to lose their opening finals game ( 15 – 18 to the New Zealand Warriors ) , they then defeated the Brisbane Broncos 16 – 14 , scoring in the last minute of their semi final . Cameron Smith was suspended for two matches for a grapple tackle on Brisbane 's Sam Thaiday in the match , seeing him miss the rest of the finals , and Craig Bellamy was fined $ 50 @,@ 000 for making scathing remarks against the judiciary 's decision . Melbourne convincingly beat the Cronulla Sharks 28 – 0 to qualify for the Grand Final , but suffered the heaviest Grand Final defeat in league history , beaten 40 – 0 by Manly . Greg Inglis , Billy Slater , Cameron Smith and Israel Folau all won awards at the Dally M Awards , and Slater and Smith finished equal second for the Dally M Medal . Billy Slater was awarded the international player of the year Golden Boot award for 2008 , following on from Cameron Smith in 2007 . In the 2009 season , Melbourne finished 4th on the ladder ; they defeated Manly 40 – 12 in the first week of the finals and Brisbane 40 – 10 in the preliminary finals to qualify for a fourth straight grand final ( the first since Parramatta from 1981 – 1984 ) . Against Parramatta , who had finished eighth in the home @-@ and @-@ away season but had won ten of its last eleven matches , the Storm led at one stage by 16 points , before finishing 23 – 16 winners . Slater won the Clive Churchill Medal , and they were named as the NRL Team of the Decade for the 2000s . In the late 2000s the Melbourne Storm were still running at a loss of up to $ 6M per season . However , they were voted the state of Victoria 's most popular sports team by a national Roy Morgan Poll in October 2009 . = = = 2010s = = = On 11 January 2010 , it was announced that Brian Waldron resigned his position as CEO to take up the same position at the Melbourne Rebels Super Rugby team . He was replaced by Matt Hanson who was the Chief Operating Officer , however following the Salary cap revelations Matt Hanson was then stood down and Ron Gauci appointed . The Storm 's first match of the season was the 2010 World Club Challenge against equally dominant English side , the Leeds Rhinos , in very cold and wet conditions the Storm prevailed 18 – 10 . For the 2010 NRL season , they played their first three home games at Etihad Stadium before unveiling their new purpose built permanent home ground , AAMI Park . On 22 April 2010 the club admitted that it had committed serious and systematic breaches of the salary cap for the last five years by running a well @-@ organized dual contract and bookkeeping system which left the NRL ignorant of $ 3 @.@ 17 million in payments made to players outside of the salary cap , including $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2007 , $ 965 @,@ 000 in 2009 and $ 1 @.@ 03 million in 2010 . As a result , NRL Chief Executive David Gallop stripped the Melbourne Storm of their 2007 and 2009 Premierships and their 2006 , 2007 and 2008 minor Premierships ( all of which were withheld , rather than awarded to the runners @-@ up ) , fined them a then Australian sporting record $ 1 @,@ 689 @,@ 000 , deducted all eight Premiership points they had already received in the 2010 season , and barred them from receiving Premiership points for the rest of the season . The club had won enough matches to make the finals , but automatically finished in last place due to the penalties . The penalty did not have an effect on the players , who remained eligible for Test and State of Origin selection as well as Dally M contention ; ultimately , Melbourne did not figure prominently in the latter awards . The Storm 's 2011 season saw a return to the top of the NRL ladder , winning what after the salary cap penalties was considered the club 's first Minor Premiership . The season included a club record twelve consecutive wins . However , Melbourne did not reach the Grand Final , losing the preliminary final against New Zealand . Billy Slater won the Dally M Medal , and Craig Bellamy and Cameron Smith also won awards on Dally M Medal night . The Storm 's 2012 season started very strongly with nine consecutive wins , the club 's best start to a season up to that time . A five @-@ game losing streak between Rounds 16 and 21 , ( the club 's second worst losing streak to that time ) saw them fall from the top of the ladder . However , from Round 22 forward they recovered their winning form and finished the regular season with five straight wins , ending the regular season in second place on the table . Storm began their finals campaign with a 24 @-@ 6 win over South Sydney Rabbitohs . Storm played its fifth Preliminary Final in six years , this time defeating Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles 40 @-@ 12 at AAMI Park , following this they then went on to claim their second official Premiership defeating the Canterbury Bulldogs 14 - 4 in the Grand Final . The Storm began its 2013 season when they defeated Leeds Rhinos 18 @-@ 14 in the World Club Challenge , to be crowned World Champions for 2013 . In round 5 , they won their 5th consecutive game for the season and their 13th consecutive overall . Setting a new club record , the streak ended at 15 games with a loss in Round 8 . On 21 May 2013 the Storm announced that , effective immediately , News Limited had sold the club to Holding M.S. Australia Pty Limited , an organisation made up of internationally experienced and successful businessmen . This change included replacement of the News Ltd Board and Executive , which included the replacement of Chairman Stephen Rue with Bart Campbell and CEO Ron Gauci with Mark Evans . News Limited had owned the Storm since its inception in 1997 . On 9 June 2013 Captain Cameron Smith played his 250th game for the club . The Storm managed to finish 3rd in 2013 , however successive losses to the South Sydney Rabbitohs and Newcastle Knights in the finals saw the Storm miss the Preliminary Finals for the first time since 2005 ( excluding 2010 ) . On 15 March 2014 Billy Slater reached his 250th game milestone , a feat matched by Cooper Cronk on 30 August 2014 . Craig Bellamy passed 300 games as coach on 16 May 2014 . In mid 2014 the Storm also announced a new feeder partnership with the Sunshine Coast Falcons this would complement their existing relation ship with Brisbane Easts with a view to establishing a permanent footprint in the Sunshine Coast Area . The 2015 season began successfully for the Storm with the club finding itself on top of the ladder following Round 7 . In April Storm CEO Mark Evans announced that he will return to England and complete his tenure as CEO in late June , the club is now in the process of searching for his replacement . An expanded Representative weekend over the 2 – 3 May saw fifteen Storm players selected to play in the various matches . In June 2015 the Club announced that Dave Donaghy will be taking over as CEO from Mark Evans . In Round 19 of the 2015 season Cameron smith played his 300th game becoming only the 24th player in history to do so . In August 2015 the storm formally announce that they would create an Academy on the sunshine Coast to develop and nurture developing talent in the region with a view to progressing through the Storm ranks . Part of the establishment of this Academy meant that the Melbourne Storm Under 20s Team would play all of its home games at the new facility from 2016 onward . The 2016 season began well for the Storm finding themselves in Third place on the ladder after 10 rounds . In Round 5 they scored their 300th NRL win and in Round 9 , Craig Bellamy coached his 350th NRL game . On 23 May the Melbourne Storm announced that it had been one of three successful bidders and the only NRL club to gain a licence to field a Netball side in a new expanded Australian Netball League to commence in 2017 . The Storm were nominated by Netball Australia as a preferred bidder for one of three new team licences under their expansion plans . “ Melbourne Storm have partnered with the University of the Sunshine Coast for this project and we ’ re both very proud and excited to have reached the preferred bidder stage for a license in the new national netball league , ” Smith said at the announcement press conference on Thursday . The Team will be based on the Sunshine Coast at the Storm sports Academy and in effect be a second Queensland Team . The announcement is to establish the Storm as not just a Rugby League club but a sporting and community club . = = Season summaries = = = = Emblem and colours = = Originally , the club favoured the name Melbourne Mavericks with a gunslinger logo holding a fistful of dollars . The club officials were all set to go with this until News Limited 's Lachlan Murdoch told them to go with something else because the Mavericks sounded too American . Trams and Flying Foxes were also some ideas that came up . However co @-@ CEOs Chris Johns and John Ribot decided to go with the themes lightning , power and storm . The club then became known as the Melbourne Storm . The Storm was always going to go with the colours of their state , Victoria ( Navy blue with a white ' V ' ) , but club consultant at the time , Peter McWhirter of the JAG fashion house , suggested that they should also have purple and gold to make their merchandise more attractive . These colours appear in the logo , however , on the home jersey they have varied . Between 1998 and 2004 these four colours also appeared but between 2005 and 2009 , gold was completely removed and silver introduced . Between 2010 - 2012 , gold returned and silver was omitted , purple also became the dominant colour in the jersey . For 2013 a new design was announced featuring a deeper V , with more navy blue in the jersey , gold disappeared along with most of the white , the lightning bolts were also changed to purple . During 2015 the jersey changed again for the first time not featuring a V at all , but the V returned somewhat along with the Lightening bolts in 2016 with a manufacturer change . Over the years and in all variations of the Jersey , Navy Blue and Purple always remain the main colours . Between 1998 – 2001 , Melbourne was the only club to display player names on the back of jerseys . This was because there was no major sponsor for the Storm to display on the chest or back at the time and in addition it helped supporters new to the game identify the players . In 2001 , Melbourne gained its first major sponsor in Adecco , and was displayed on the jersey chest , while maintaining the players names on the back until the end of 2001 . In 2002 , the Storm removed the player 's names and displayed Adecco 's logo on the back . Since then the Storm have had varying sponsors adorning the Jersey . = = Club Song = = The Melbourne Storm 's club song , written by Jon Mol and Phil Wall , is called " We Are the Storm " . The song is played over the public address system following each home victory . = = Rivalries = = St. George Illawarra Dragons The Storm narrowly beat them in their first grand final in 1999 , with a late penalty try putting the Storm in front . The following year Anthony Mundine declared that the Storm were not " worthy premiers " in the run up to their round 5 rematch . The Storm responded by beating the Dragons 70 – 10 . In Round 18 the Dragons added to the rivalry by defeating the Storm 50 – 4 . In 2006 the Storm defeated St. George Illawarra in the Preliminary Final . On 21 July 2008 , the Storm won at Olympic Park 26 – 0 , in a match that was highlighted by several ugly brawls . In 2009 , the Storm beat them in the Round 1 home game 17 – 16 with a field goal in Golden Point . Brisbane Broncos The Melbourne Storm has a strong rivalry with Brisbane , built in large part on the large number of finals games played between the teams , including one final in each year from 2004 to 2009 ; the Storm winning all but one of them . The move of Brisbane assistant coach Craig Bellamy to Melbourne has also been attributed to fueling the rivalry , as well as the wide spread of Queensland Origin players across their squads in the better part of the past decade . " When Bellamy left here and went to Melbourne , the rivalry with them went up a notch then ... their record is good against us . " Every year since Brisbane 's victory over Melbourne in the 2006 Grand Final , Melbourne have ended the Broncos ' season by knocking them out of the finals . Melbourne captain Cameron Smith commented on the rivalry prior to their 2009 Preliminary Final at Etihad Stadium . " A lot of people talk about us and Manly , but I think all the boys for whatever reason would say we take more satisfaction out of beating the Broncos ... we love playing them ... there is always plenty of feeling and intensity in the games ... it probably wouldn 't feel like September if we weren 't playing them at some stage . " The Brisbane Broncos defeated the Storm 15 – 8 in the 2006 NRL Grand Final . The Storm sought revenge through a 40 – 0 thrashing in the 2007 Qualifying Final at Olympic Park Stadium . The 2008 Semi @-@ Final at Suncorp Stadium ended with Melbourne dramatically winning 16 – 14 with a try on the final play of the game . In 2009 Brisbane were again beaten by eventual premiers Melbourne , this time 40 – 10 at Etihad Stadium , catapulting the Storm to their 4th consecutive Grand Final Appearance . Manly @-@ Warringah Sea Eagles The Storm defeated Manly 34 – 8 in the 2007 Grand Final but lost to in the 2008 re @-@ match in a history @-@ making 0 – 40 loss . To add to the rivalry , Melbourne beat Manly 40 – 12 in the opening final of the 2009 finals series , ending their bid to be back @-@ to @-@ back premiers . In September 21 , 2012 , Storm and Manly played each other in the preliminary final for the first time . Storm again thrashed Manly 40 @-@ 12 , again ending their chances of winning back @-@ to @-@ back titles . I haven 't been a part of the matches previous to this year which built that rivalry but you certainly get a sense that interest in the game and the level of excitement and enthusiasm from the players goes up , " As of the 2015 NRL season , the NRL have replaced the Storm 's tradition ANZAC Day game with the New Zealand Warriors with a clash against the Sea Eagles . New Zealand Warriors More of a traditional rivalry due to the large amount of Kiwi internationals Melbourne has fielded in their history . Matches between the two clubs are normally close and low scoring , with the overall head to head ( as of 2016 ) slightly in Melbourne 's favour ( 37 clashes , Storm 19 @-@ Warriors 16 & 2 draws ) . These two sides played an annual ANZAC Day clash each year between 2009 - 2014 . For 2015 it will was played earlier in April before moving back to ANZAC Day for 2016 . = = Stadium and attendances = = Melbourne 's home ground since 2010 has been AAMI Park . Their highest season average attendance for home games was 16 @,@ 302 in 2013 . Their highest regular season attendance of 28 @,@ 716 was set on 25 April 2014 for the ANZAC Day match against New Zealand Warriors at AAMI Park . A home finals attendance record of 33 @,@ 427 was set in 2007 for the Preliminary Final against Parramatta , at the Docklands Stadium . Melbourne previously played the vast majority of their home matches at the city 's Olympic Park Stadium , affectionately coined " The Graveyard " by fans due to the incredible 77 @.@ 2 % winning percentage there . It was there that the club played their inaugural home match in the fourth round of the 1998 season on 3 April 1998 , having come off the back of three successive away victories . The team recorded a 26 – 16 victory over the North Sydney Bears , and the crowd of 20 @,@ 522 was the largest attendance for the club at Olympic Park . The team remained at the ground until the end of the 2000 season . In the 2000 season they attracted an average home attendance of 14 @,@ 622 , which remained their largest average attendance ever until the 2010 season which drew an average on 14 @,@ 670 . They played at Melbourne Cricket Ground for two games in 2000 , and they won both times including the 70 – 10 thrashing of St George Illawarra Dragons in the Grand Final rematch from the previous year . Following steady attendance increases over the three years , it was decided to move home games to the 56 @,@ 347 capacity Docklands Stadium for the following year . Docklands is an oval shaped venue primarily built for use by the Australian Football League ( AFL ) . However , with the team ending up missing the finals , crowd numbers declined and it was decided to move the team back to Olympic Park . Due to the high costs involved , as well as Docklands stadium management ( which included the AFL ) citing damage to the playing surface , the Storm only used the movable seating once in their time at the venue . This came in their Round 21 win over the Brisbane Broncos in 2001 . It also saw the Storm 's largest home attendance of the 2001 season with 15 @,@ 470 fans attending the game . The Storm had their lowest crowd average of 8 @,@ 886 per home game in 2004 , but crowds steadily rose over the following years , breaking the previous record average in 2010 , and then up to an peak of 16 @,@ 302 for the 2013 season , their highest yearly average to date . The Storm played their last game at Olympic Park in round 25 , 29 August 2009 , with a 36 – 4 thrashing of the Sydney Roosters . For the 2010 NRL Premiership season , the Storm 's first three home games ( rounds four , six and seven ) were played at Docklands Stadium , before moving into their new home ground , AAMI Park in round nine ( 9 May 2010 ) against the Brisbane Broncos . The club had anticipated playing its first game at the new ground in round four against the St George Illawarra Dragons , however , a delay in construction required the opening to be pushed back several weeks . Since then all Storm home games , regular season and finals , have been played at AAMI Park . = = Statistics and records = = As of the end of Round 18 of the 2016 NRL season , the Storm have won two legitimate NRL Premierships in 1999 and 2012 and one Minor Premiership in 2011 . Their current wins percentage of 63 @.@ 72 % is the best in the league . The clubs most capped player is Cameron Smith with 325 appearances thus far , Smith is also the clubs highest point scorer with 1916 career points . Fullback Billy Slater is the club 's most prolific try scorer with 173 tries scored so far . Melbourne also has three Dally M medal winners in Cameron Smith ( 2006 ) , Billy Slater ( 2011 ) and most recently Cooper Cronk in 2013 and in addition , the Storm have so far had three Golden Boot award winners ( Smith 2007 , Slater 2008 and Greg Inglis 2009 ) . Melbourne Storm 's current winning streak record for the most consecutive matches won stands at 15 matches , completed between Round 22 of the 2012 NRL season and Round 7 of the 2013 NRL season , this included winning the 2012 NRL Premiership . The club 's all @-@ time highest score is 70 points scored against St. George Illawarra on 3 March 2000 but the highest winning margin is 64 points achieved in a 64 @-@ 0 win over West Tigers in 2001 and equaled in a 68 @-@ 4 win over Canberra Raiders in 2013 . = = Players = = also = = = Current Squad = = = = = = Team of the decade = = = As part of their 10 @-@ year celebrations in 2007 , Melbourne Storm released a team of the decade . The 17 man team was selected by former assistant coach Greg Brentnall , foundation CEO John Ribot , and then board member Frank Stanton ( all 3 were members of the 1982 Kangaroo tour " Invincibles " , Brentnall and Ribot as players with Stanton the coach ) . The trio were joined by The Daily Telegraph ( Sydney ) journalist Steve Mascord . = = Supporters = = The Melbourne Storm 's supporter base grew from almost 500 @,@ 000 in 2004 to almost 800 @,@ 000 in 2009 , making them the fourth most popular rugby team . The club 's supporter group , the " Graveyard Crew " , make an Aussie @-@ rules- ( AFL ) style banner for the team to run through in important matches . = = = Notable Supporters = = = = = Feeder clubs = = In 1998 , the Storm established an affiliation with Queensland Cup side the Norths Devils and used the club as a feeder for their first grade team . The relationship would prove to be a fruitful one as 13 of the 17 players to compete for the Storm in the 2006 NRL Grand Final had played for the Devils in previous years . In 2005 , the Storm also established an affiliation with the North Sydney Bears in the New South Wales Cup . Melbourne severed ties with both the Bears and the Devils in 2007 and aligned themselves with the Central Coast Storm in the New South Wales Cup . The affiliation lasted three seasons before the Storm decided to establish their own team in the NSW Cup in 2010 which would share its namesake . An unsuccessful venture saw the Storm revert to the Queensland Cup in 2011 when it established a feeder relationship with the Easts Tigers . Melbourne established a second feeder relationship with the Sunshine Coast Falcons in 2014 , also from the Queensland Cup . The Storm further committed to the area in 2015 when it was announced their National Youth Competition U20 side would be based out of the Sunshine Coast from 2016 . The Storm justified the decision by stating most of their talent is fostered in Queensland anyway . = The Confessions Tour ( album ) = The Confessions Tour is the second live album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna . It was released on January 26 , 2007 by Warner Bros. Records . Directed by Jonas Åkerlund , the album chronicles Madonna 's 2006 Confessions Tour . It was recorded at Wembley Arena during the London dates of the tour , and was released in both CD and DVD format . The DVD contains the entire concert and the CD includes thirteen live songs only . The album became the first release from Semtex Films , a production company founded by Madonna in 2006 . The Confessions Tour received generally positive reviews from contemporary critics and won the Best Long Form Music Video category at the 50th Grammy Awards . After its release , the release reached number one on the official charts in Australia , Belgium , Czech Republic , Hungary , Italy , Portugal and Spain . It received moderate success in her native country , peaking at number fifteen on the U.S. Billboard 200 albums chart . The Confessions Tour has sold more than 1 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide . = = Background = = Following the 2006 live release I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret , Madonna released her second live album , The Confessions Tour . The album was recorded at Wembley Arena on August 15 and 16 , 2006 , during the London stop of her 2006 Confessions Tour , which was promoting her 2005 studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor . It was the first release from her new production company , Semtex Films and was released in both DVD and CD formats , capturing the tour as directed by Jonas Åkerlund . The DVD release consists of the full twenty @-@ one song set list of the tour , while the CD captures thirteen highlights from the same . The tour was first shown on NBC during the Thanksgiving of 2006 . This broadcast was edited , cutting the likes of " Paradise ( Not For Me ) " . Madonna 's performance of " Live to Tell " , while hanging from a glass embellished crucifix , faced strong reaction from the media and religious groups . " Live to Tell " was followed by the performance of " Forbidden Love " from the Confessions on a Dance Floor album , where Madonna took off a crown made of thorns from her head . Asian media and services company Fridae reported that the album was banned in Singapore , Malaysia and parts of East Asia , because of the inclusion of the performances in the DVD . = = Critical response = = Stephen Thomas Erlewine from Allmusic felt that the CD version of the album was " not all that much fun to hear , even if the reinterpretations of the 20 @-@ year @-@ old hits are interesting . The DVD doesn 't feel as cold thanks entirely to the pizzazz of the visuals and the determined efficiency of the show , but even so , this is primarily of interest to the diehards who don 't mind purchasing another live CD / DVD set just a year after the first . " Ed Gonzalez from Slant Magazine felt that the concert finale in the album " is a reminder that Madonna 's music need not be motivated by sex or politics to be good as long as it displays a smidgen of heart and soul . " Thomas Inskeep from Stylus Magazine also complimented the finale of the tour . According to him , " [ The Confessions Tour ] is almost exclusively up @-@ tempo , staged within an inch of its life yet more vivacious than anything she 's done in years . Its CD companion is a pared @-@ down 13 tracks taken from the live show , and good God it smokes . " However , he felt that the disc loses its momentum during the " Confessions " part , which demonstrates a trio of individuals confessing about their sufferings in life . Tom Young from BBC Music said that he did not see the actual performances on the tour and felt that " some of the magnitude of the performance is lost and the track / scene changes appear needlessly long @-@ winded . [ ... ] As far as live albums go , this is a job well done . " Stephen M. Deusner from Pitchfork Media gave a negative review for the album , stating " Madonna herself is mostly to blame . On stage , she draws from a deep well of amazing pop songs and has the money and power to reinvent this sort of traveling circus . So why not try to break down the wall between performance and audience and hold a gigantic rave ? [ ... ] Åkerlund gives you everything you don 't want from a concert film : incessant quick cuts that you give you no sense of space or stage , overdubbed music and vocals that give you no sense of performance , and only a few shots of the audience to gauge their excitement . " Mini Anthikad @-@ Chhibber The Hindu commented that " Madonna pulls out all stops in this effort turn the world into a dance floor and one just has to doff one 's hat to her energy . " At the 50th Grammy Awards held on February 10 , 2008 at Staples Center in Los Angeles , The Confessions Tour won in the category of Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video . = = Commercial reception = = In the United States , the album debuted at number 15 on the Billboard 200 chart with first week sales of 40 @,@ 000 according to Nielsen Soundscan . In Canada , it debuted at number two on the Canadian Albums Chart . The Confessions Tour was not able to enter the official ARIA Albums Chart , but debuted at number @-@ one on the Australian Top 40 DVD chart , on the issue dated February 12 , 2007 . At the year end Australian chart for 2007 , The Confessions Tour became the 27th best selling DVD in Australia . The album was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipment of 10 @,@ 000 copies in DVD units . In the United Kingdom , it debuted at number seven on the UK Albums Chart . In Japan , the album reached a peak of number ten on the Oricon weekly albums chart and was present on the chart for twelve weeks . In Hong Kong , it was awarded a Gold Disc Award by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry for becoming one of ten biggest @-@ selling international album for 2007 . Across Europe The Confessions Tour reached the top of the charts in Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Italy , Portugal and Spain , while reaching the top ten of the rest of the European nations . In Mexico , New Zealand and Norway , the album just missed the top ten of the charts . The commercial success in Europe enabled the album to debut at position two on Billboard 's European Top 100 Albums chart , behind Norah Jones ' studio album Not Too Late . The DVD of The Confessions Tour has sold more than 1 @.@ 2 million copies worldwide . = = Track listing = = = = = Formats = = = CD / DVD – double disc digipak edition containing the live DVD and the live CD . DVD – DVD keep case packed with the DVD . Digital download – The live performances and the live song with 2 bonus tracks : " Ray of Light " and " Get Together " . = = Credits and personnel = = Director – Jonas Åkerlund Production company – Semtex Films , Semtex TV Productions Producer – Sara Martin Executive producers – Madonna , Angela Becker , Guy Oseary and John Payne Photography – Eric Broms Film editing – Jonas Åkerlund , Philip Richardson , Johan Söderberg and Danny Tull Costume designer – Jean @-@ Paul Gaultier and Arianne Phillips Credits adapted from The Confessions Tour CD liner notes : = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = Lauren Conrad = Lauren Katherine Tell ( née Conrad ; born February 1 , 1986 ) is an American television personality , fashion designer , and author . Born and raised in Laguna Beach , California , she attended Laguna Beach High School . In September 2004 , at the age of 18 , Conrad came to prominence after being cast in the reality television series Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , which documented her life and those of her friends . After moving to Los Angeles to pursue a career in the fashion industry in May 2006 , Conrad was commissioned to star in her own spin @-@ off series The Hills , which chronicled the personal and professional lives of her and friends Heidi Montag , Audrina Patridge , and Whitney Port . During its production , she attended the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising and held positions with Teen Vogue and Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm People 's Revolution . As the series progressed , a widely publicized feud developed between Conrad , Montag and Montag 's boyfriend Spencer Pratt . Consequently , the conflict became the central focus of the series , and was carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appeared . In May 2009 , Conrad left The Hills after five seasons , and was replaced by former Laguna Beach cast member Kristin Cavallari . She filmed an alternate ending for the series finale in July 2010 , which was broadcast in August 2013 . Conrad launched the fashion lines LC Lauren Conrad and Paper Crown in 2009 and 2011 , respectively . She released the L.A. Candy book trilogy in 2010 and the spin @-@ off The Fame Game series in 2012 . Conrad married former musician and law school graduate William Tell in September 2014 . = = Life and career = = = = = 1986 – 2005 : Early life and Laguna Beach = = = Conrad was born in Laguna Beach , California on February 1 , 1986 , to parents Jim , an architect , and Kathy ( née Lawrence ) . She has two younger siblings , a sister named Breanna , also a television personality , and a brother , Brandon . Conrad first expressed an interest in a career in the fashion industry when she was in the sixth grade . Her father added that Conrad " wasn 't a great student [ and ] wasn 't that interested " during her childhood , although noted that " we figured out along the way that she was an artist and her real love was fashion . " Alongside eventual castmates Lo Bosworth , Kristin Cavallari , and Stephen Colletti , Conrad was educated at Laguna Beach High School . In 2004 , they starred in Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , an MTV reality television series which documented their lives during high school . During its production , she was often referred to by the initialism " L.C. " , although she has since expressed her distaste for the nickname . The series proved successful for the network ; she described the lifestyle it imposed on her as being " definitely a different way to grow up " . The first season notably focused on the love triangle between Conrad , Cavallari , and Colletti , and the subsequent feud between the former two . Upon the conclusion of the first season , Conrad appeared on an episode of MTV Cribs . After graduating high school in 2004 , Conrad attended the Academy of Art University in San Francisco for one semester , where she met Heidi Montag . Conrad left the series after the second season , during which period she moved back home and transferred to the Fashion Institute of Design & Merchandising in Los Angeles . After her sister Breanna became a primary cast member , Conrad made a guest appearance on the series during the third season in 2006 . = = = 2006 – 2009 : The Hills = = = After moving to Los Angeles in May 2006 , the spin @-@ off series The Hills was developed to chronicle the lives of Conrad , her housemate Montag , and their friends Audrina Patridge and Whitney Port . During production of the first season , Conrad and Port held internships with Teen Vogue under the direction of West Coast Vogue editor Lisa Love ; she stated that they had to interview successfully for the positions , " regardless of what the cameras wanted " . By the second season , their friendship had deteriorated after Montag began dating Spencer Pratt . After Montag moved in with Pratt , Patridge and Lo Bosworth later became roommates with Conrad . During the third season , Conrad ended her friendship with Montag after she suspected that Montag and Pratt were responsible for rumors of a sex tape involving herself and her former boyfriend Jason Wahler ; the ensuing feud carried through each subsequent season in which Conrad appeared . Conrad briefly dated fellow castmate Brody Jenner , which she commented had been subject to " editing to drag it out " during the series . In January 2007 , Conrad was announced as the inaugural spokeswoman of Avon Products 's " mark . " line , marketed towards young women ; she was succeeded by actress Ashley Greene in June 2010 . Later in 2007 , Conrad appeared as a satirical version of herself in the comedy film Epic Movie . In 2008 , Conrad and Port began employment with Kelly Cutrone 's PR firm , People 's Revolution . Conrad later made a cameo appearance in an episode of Greek and provided her voice for a cartoon version of herself in an episode of Family Guy . In March , she premiered her first fashion line The Lauren Conrad Collection . After underwhelming sales figures , Conrad ended the line the following year to further familiarize herself with the industry . In 2008 , Conrad began dating actor Kyle Howard . Howard expressed concern that appearing on reality television would interfere with his acting career ; consequently , their relationship was not documented on The Hills . ( After three years together , Conrad and Howard ended their relationship in 2011 . ) Upon the conclusion of the fourth season of the series that December , Conrad wished to leave the series to pursue other career opportunities . However , per the producers ' requests , she filmed ten episodes for the following season , in which she closed her storylines . Conrad made her final appearance on the series in May 2009 , attending Montag and Pratt 's wedding after much deliberation during the mid @-@ season finale of the fifth season . However , in the July 2009 issue of Cosmopolitan , she stated that producers had pressured her into a reconciliation with Montag throughout the season , adding that she was displeased when they would not allow otherwise . Conrad was replaced by former Laguna Beach castmate Kristin Cavallari until the series ' conclusion in July 2010 . = = = 2009 – 12 : Expansion into fashion and retail industries = = = Conrad 's first novel L.A. Candy was released in June 2009 , and became a bestseller on The New York Times . It was inspired by her life , focusing on a woman named Jane Roberts who moves to Los Angeles . It was followed by sequels Sweet Little Lies and Sugar and Spice in 2010 . Conrad also released the fashion guide Lauren Conrad Style in 2010 . She later made appearances on the syndicated game show Who Wants to Be a Millionaire , playing for her charity " m.powerment by mark " and Kathy Griffin : My Life on the D @-@ List , and also served as a guest judge on the thirteenth cycle of America 's Next Top Model . In fall 2009 , Conrad collaborated with Kohl 's to launch her second fashion line LC Lauren Conrad , and was later expanded to include a bedding collection . In September 2010 , Conrad was to star in an MTV series that would have focused on her career endeavors , though the network chose not to pick up the program after Conrad preferred not to film her private life . In April 2011 , Conrad launched The Beauty Department with her hairstylist , Kristin Ess , and her makeup artist , Amy Nadine ; she later announced plans to expand the brand to include a line of cosmetics . Looking to target a more upscale audience , Conrad released her third fashion line Paper Crown that August ; Conrad released her fourth novel The Fame Game as a spin @-@ off to the L.A. Candy series in April 2012 @.@ she has since established an account with Nordstrom for the line . In July , she collaborated with BlueAvocado to launch XO ( eco ) , an environmentally @-@ friendly collection of bags . In October 2012 , Conrad released The Fame Game continuation novel Starstruck and the style guide Lauren Conrad Beauty . The final novel Infamous was released in June 2013 . = = = 2013 – present : Marriage and continued career = = = In September 2010 , Conrad revealed that she had filmed an alternate ending for The Hills with Jenner . Upon the conclusion of their month @-@ long morning marathon of the series , titled " RetroMTV Brunch " , MTV aired the footage in August 2013 . The scene depicts Jenner returning to his apartment after seeing Cavallari 's limousine off to Europe . Conrad is revealed to be sitting on his couch , and comforts him that " it 's hard to say goodbye " to a " friend of [ his ] " , before the camera focuses on a smiling Conrad . That month , she also expressed interest in participating in a potential reunion film . In December 2013 , Montag stated that she and Conrad have " talked a few times " since the series ' conclusion , elaborating that " it 's unfortunate things happened the way that it did , but we 're both different people now , older and more mature . " Having begun dating in February 2012 , Conrad and law student and former Something Corporate guitarist William Tell , moved into a shared residence in Westwood , Los Angeles in September 2013 , and announced their engagement the following month . That October , Conrad and her friend Hannah Skvarla opened the online store The Little Market , which distributes handmade pieces from women of varying cultural backgrounds . Conrad and Tell got married on September 13 , 2014 in California . Conrad respectively released limited @-@ run Cinderella , Minnie Mouse , and Bambi @-@ inspired collections for LC Lauren Conrad in February , May , and October 2015 . She also introduced an upscale runway collection for the line during New York Fashion Week that September . = = Public image = = Since appearing on Laguna Beach : The Real Orange County , Conrad has been recognized as being among the first individuals to benefit from the popularity of reality television in the early 2000s . In 2009 , Thomas Rogers from Salon described her as " one of the dullest major characters in reality television history " , but opined that her normalcy compared to her co @-@ stars on The Hills made her " vaguely likable " . An editor from People stated that Conrad " became a full @-@ blown TV phenom " during its third season , which notably introduced the conflict with Montag and Pratt , in addition to controversy regarding scripting allegations . In 2013 , Misty White Sidell from The Daily Beast noted that Conrad established a following based on her respectability instead of " bitch @-@ slaps and drunken sex @-@ capades " , further commenting that her more relatable image made her an " anomaly " among television personalities . Conrad herself commented that The Hills was intended to be an " aspirational " program despite being " laced with scandal and catfights " , stating that the storyline differed from the " shock value " emphasized in recent programming . Conrad has additionally been recognized for originating several now @-@ famous quotes on The Hills , including " He 's a sucky person ! " when criticizing Spencer Pratt during the second season , and " You know what you did ! " when arguing with Heidi Montag over her alleged involvement with sex tape rumors involving herself in the third season . Conrad has been featured on the covers of several magazine 's best @-@ selling issues , including those of People StyleWatch and Cosmopolitan . She appeared on the May 2012 issue of Glamour , which sold approximately 500 @,@ 000 copies and became the magazine 's strongest @-@ selling issue of the year , and was featured on the covers of the second highest @-@ selling issues of Lucky and Marie Claire in 2013 . Lauren Sherman from Fashionista credited Conrad 's success to " her knack for entrepreneurship , her easy style , and her friendliness " . Jim Higgins from Milwaukee Journal Sentinel complimented her pursuit of several different career endeavors , and compared her to a " young Martha Stewart " . However , in August 2012 , Conrad was criticized for destroying a collection of A Series of Unfortunate Events novels for a crafting tutorial posted to YouTube . During its production , Conrad was the highest @-@ paid cast member on The Hills , earning an annual salary of $ 2 @.@ 5 million . In 2008 , her endeavors earned her an additional $ 1 @.@ 5 million . In 2010 , Conrad was named the second highest @-@ paid reality television personality , ranking behind Kim Kardashian . Conrad is a registered member of the Republican Party . She has stated that she has " done several things to [ ... ] encourage people to vote " , but respects the private ballot and " [ doesn 't ] want to ever influence someone 's vote or have [ her ] vote change someone 's opinion of [ her ] " . Conrad collaborated with Seventeen magazine to film a public service announcement for Declare Yourself , a campaign which encouraged young adults to register themselves to vote during the 2008 presidential election . She has additionally expressed her support for same @-@ sex marriage , and on one occasion left a Mexican restaurant after learning of its disapproval of marriage equality . = = Filmography = = = = Published works = = L.A. Candy ( 2009 ) Sweet Little Lies ( 2010 ) Sugar and Spice ( 2010 ) Lauren Conrad Style ( 2010 ) The Fame Game ( 2012 ) Lauren Conrad Beauty ( 2012 ) Starstruck ( 2012 ) Infamous ( 2013 ) Lauren Conrad Celebrate ( 2016 ) = = Awards and nominations = = = Soeara Berbisa = Soeara Berbisa ( [ suˈara bərˈbisa ] ; Perfected Spelling : Suara Berbisa ; Indonesian for Venomous Voice ) is a 1941 film from the Dutch East Indies . Produced by Ang Hock Liem for Union Films and directed by R Hu , this black @-@ and @-@ white film starred Raden Soekarno , Ratna Djoewita , Oedjang , and Soehaena . The story , written by Djojopranoto , follows two young men who compete for the affections of a woman before learning that they are long @-@ lost brothers . Completed between September and October 1941 , Soeara Berbisa featured keroncong music and was shot partly in western Java . It was released to coincide with the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday , and rated for all ages . Advertisements emphasised the film 's appeal to both Native and Dutch audiences , and a review in De Indische Courant was positive . Although the film – Union 's penultimate production – was screened as late as 1949 , it is now likely lost . = = Plot = = The young athlete Mitra and his sweetheart Neng Mardinah are to be wed . However , a young man named Mardjohan has fallen in love with Mardinah , and to win her heart he spreads rumours about Mitra being the son of a convicted criminal . In the backlash over the rumours , Mitra abandons the city and his beloved , hoping to find peace in the countryside . There , Mitra finds work at a factory which is , coincidentally , owned by Mardjohan . Refusing the romantic advances of a worker there , he leaves the factory . One day , he comes across Mardjohan , gravely injured following an accident . Mitra saves the man , then takes him for treatment . Mardjohan 's mother , seeing Mitra , believes that he is her son who went missing when he was aged three . She finds several witnesses who testify of the resemblance , and is ultimately able to prove her suspicions . Meanwhile , Mitra 's name is cleared , and he is reunited with Mardinah . = = Production = = The sixth production of Union Films , Soeara Berbisa was produced by Ang Hock Liem and directed by R Hu , an ethnic Chinese director who had worked for the company since 1940 ; the sound technician Boen Kin Nam served as assistant director . The screenplay was written by Djojopranoto , who replaced Union 's former screenwriter Saeroen after the latter left for rival company Star Film following Wanita dan Satria ( 1941 ) . The film began production by September 1941 , and by October it was nearly complete . Soeara Berbisa starred Raden Soekarno and Ratna Djoewita , and featured the acting talents of Oedjang and Soehaena . Soekarno and Soehana were new hires , whereas Oedjang and Djoewita had previously done work for Union ; the former had been acting for Union since its first production , Kedok Ketawa , in 1940 , and the latter had held a role in Wanita dan Satria . This black @-@ and @-@ white film included several keroncong songs , and was partly shot in the Preanger region of west Java . = = Release and reception = = Union announced that Soeara Berbisa would be released to coincide with the Eid al @-@ Fitr holiday , which began on 22 October 1941 , and advertisements for screenings in Medan , in northern Sumatra , date to early November 1941 . A review in the Surabaya edition of De Indische Courant , however , indicates that the film had only premiered in the east Javan city on 14 January 1942 . That newspaper gave a positive review , describing Soeara Berbisa as a tense film with humorous moments and beautiful scenery . Its review ended with a recommendation that young people and their parents see the film . Soeara Berbisa was open to audiences of all ages . To reach educated audiences , Union claimed to have " paid attention to dialogue , arranged it as best as possible in accordance with the wants of the Indonesian people " . In Dutch @-@ language newspapers , the film was advertised as " an interesting and fascinating tale of two young men in the world of indigenous sports " , which nonetheless was produced in a " civilised " manner such that it could be appreciated by European audiences . = = Legacy = = Union 's final production , Mega Mendoeng , was directed by Boen and released in early 1942 . It again starred Soekarno , though this time alongside the new find Sofiati . The company was closed after the Japanese occupied the Indies in March 1942 , and most of its employees never returned to the film industry . Soekarno was an exception ; he continued to act until the 1970s , though he was generally credited as Rendra Karno . Soeara Berbisa was screened as late as February 1949 . The film is likely lost . Movies in the Indies were recorded on highly flammable nitrate film , and after a fire destroyed much of Produksi Film Negara 's warehouse in 1952 , old films shot on nitrate were deliberately destroyed . As such , American visual anthropologist Karl G. Heider suggests that all Indonesian films from before 1950 are lost . However , JB Kristanto 's Katalog Film Indonesia ( Indonesian Film Catalogue ) records several as having survived at Sinematek Indonesia 's archives , and film historian Misbach Yusa Biran writes that several Japanese propaganda films have survived at the Netherlands Government Information Service . = = Explanatory notes = = = The Long , Hot Summer = The Long , Hot Summer is a 1958 film directed by Martin Ritt . The screenplay was written by Irving Ravetch and Harriet Frank , Jr . , based in part on three works by William Faulkner : the 1931 novella " Spotted Horses " , the 1939 short story " Barn Burning " , and the 1940 novel The Hamlet . The title is taken from The Hamlet , as Book Three is called " The Long Summer " . Some characters , as well as tone , were inspired by Tennessee Williams ' 1955 play , Cat on a Hot Tin Roof , a film adaptation of which - also starring Paul Newman - was released five months after the release of The Long , Hot Summer . The plot follows the conflicts of the Varner family after ambitious drifter Ben Quick ( Newman ) arrives in their small Mississippi town . Will Varner ( Orson Welles ) , the family 's patriarch and the owner of most of the town , has doubts about the abilities of his only son , Jody ( Anthony Franciosa ) , and sees Ben as a better choice to inherit his position . Will therefore tries to push Ben and his daughter Clara ( Joanne Woodward ) into marriage . Clara is initially reluctant to court Ben , and Jody senses that Ben threatens his position . Filmed in Clinton , Louisiana , the film 's cast was composed mostly of former Actors Studio students , whom Ritt met while he was an assistant teacher to Elia Kazan . For the leading role , Warner Brothers loaned Paul Newman to 20th Century Fox . The production was marked by conflicts between Welles and Ritt , which drew media attention . The music score was composed by Alex North , and the title song , " The Long Hot Summer " , written by North and Sammy Cahn , was performed by Jimmie Rodgers . The film was well received by critics but did not score significant results at the box office . Its critical success revitalized the career of Martin Ritt , who had been blacklisted during most of the 1950s , and also earned national fame for Paul Newman , who won the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival . = = Plot = = Ben Quick is on trial , suspected of barn @-@ burning , but when no solid evidence is found , the peace judge expels him from town . Ben then hitches a ride to Frenchman 's Bend , Mississippi , with two young women in a convertible , Clara Varner and her sister @-@ in @-@ law Eula ( Lee Remick ) . Clara 's father , Will Varner , is the domineering owner of most of the town . Ben goes to the Varner plantation . Will is away , but Jody , Will 's only son , agrees to let him become a sharecropper on a vacant farm . When Will returns from a stay in the hospital , he begins to see in Ben a younger version of himself and comes to admire his ruthlessness and ambition , qualities that Jody lacks . Will is also disappointed with the man that his 23 @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Clara , has been seeing for five or six years : Alan Stewart ( Richard Anderson ) , a genteel Southern " blue blood " and a mama 's boy . Will therefore schemes to push his daughter and Ben together , to try to bring fresh , virile blood into the family . However , she is openly hostile to the crude , if magnetic , upstart . Will is determined to have his bloodline go on , so he offers Ben much wealth to marry Clara . Ben is interested , but eventually comes to see something more in Clara . Meanwhile , Minnie Littlejohn ( Angela Lansbury ) , Will 's long @-@ time mistress , is dissatisfied with the arrangement and wants to marry him . Will , a widower , is strongly against the idea . Jody becomes increasingly alarmed and frustrated when he sees his position in the family undermined by Ben . After Ben manages to sell some wild horses , Will offers him the position of clerk in the general store , alongside Jody . Later , Will invites him to live in the family mansion . This is the final straw for Jody . When he finds Ben alone , he pulls a gun on him and threatens to kill him . Ben talks his way out by telling Jody about buried Civil War @-@ era treasure he has supposedly found on a property that Will gave him , a down payment to seal their bargain over Clara . Ben and Jody head to the property , where they start digging . When the two men find a bag of coins , Jody is elated , thinking he might finally get free of his father 's domination ; he buys the land from Ben . Late that night , Will finds his son , still digging . After examining one of the coins , Will notices that it was minted in 1910 . Jody is shattered . Meanwhile , Ben aggressively pursues Clara . She finally asks Alan his intentions , and does not like what she hears . The following day , a crushed and frustrated Jody finds his father alone in their barn . Jody bolts the entrance and sets the barn on fire , but he cannot go through with it and releases Will . The incident leads to a reconciliation between Jody and Will . Meanwhile , some of the men assume Ben is the culprit and start toward him . Clara persuades a defiant Ben to drive away in her car . Will later claims responsibility for accidentally starting the fire by dropping his cigar . The smell of fire brings back bad memories for Ben , who confesses to Clara that his father was a real barn @-@ burner . He tells her how , at the age of ten , he had to warn a farmer that his father was about to set another fire . Ben 's father got away , but Ben never saw him again . Grateful that she saved his life , he tells her he is leaving town . However , Clara makes it clear she has fallen in love with him , so he stays . An elated Will confides to Minnie that life is so good , he may have to live forever . = = Cast = = Paul Newman as Ben Quick . Newman met director Martin Ritt as a student at the Actors Studio , where Ritt was a teacher @-@ assistant for Elia Kazan . Newman , who was under a contract with Warner Brothers , was loaned to 20th Century Fox for a fee of US $ 75 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , his contract earned him US $ 17 @,@ 500 for each ten @-@ week shot . He travelled to Clinton , Louisiana , before the start of filming to study the mannerisms , accent and speech of the Southern men in order to create a proper characterization . Orson Welles as Will Varner . The character was inspired by Big Daddy Pollitt from Tennessee Williams ' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof . Welles ' presence on the film was marked by multiple conflicts with director Martin Ritt . He agreed to take the role due to a tax debt of US $ 150 @,@ 000 ; he stated years later , " I hated making Long Hot Summer . I 've seldom been as unhappy in a picture " . Director Martin Ritt met the three cast members listed below while they were students at the Actors Studio . Joanne Woodward as Clara Varner Anthony Franciosa as Jody Varner Lee Remick as Eula Varner . Remick later admitted that during the shooting she was intimidated by Orson Welles on the set because of his " icon " status . The supporting roles were played by : Angela Lansbury as Minnie Littlejohn Richard Anderson as Alan Stewart Sarah Marshall as Agnes Stewart Mabel Albertson as Elizabeth Stewart J. Pat O 'Malley as Ratliff William " Bill " Walker as Lucius = = Production notes = = Producer Jerry Wald hired former co @-@ worker and Warner Brothers director Martin Ritt to shoot the adaptation of two William Faulkner novels based on a recommendation by script writer Irving Ravetch . Wald convinced the studio executives to pay US $ 50 @,@ 000 for the rights for the novels The Sound and the Fury and The Hamlet . The first to be produced , The Hamlet , was renamed The Long Hot Summer to avoid confusion with William Shakespeare 's play Hamlet . Ravetch and Harriet Frank , Jr. wrote the script , also adding fragments from Faulkner 's short stories " Barn Burning " and " Spotted Horses " . In the new script , the book 's main character , Flem Snopes , and the rest of the Snopes family were removed . The plot was recentered on a minor character , Ben Quick , and the reconciliation of the Varner family . On their first important screenplay , Ravetch and Frank implemented their signature style , using the names of characters and a few details of the plot but significantly modifying the details of the story . The final product was heavily influenced by Tennessee Williams ' play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof , resulting in an " erotically charged " story . The film was shot in Clinton and Baton Rouge , Louisiana , in CinemaScope color , with a budget of US $ 1 @,@ 645 @,@ 000 . A Southern Gothic story , Ritt decided to shoot it on location to capture the characteristics of the area , emphasizing the regional details . Ritt met leading actor Paul Newman while teaching at the Actors Studio . The rest of the main cast also consisted of former Actors Studio alumni , including Joanne Woodward , Anthony Franciosa and Lee Remick . The film attracted attention for the appearance of Orson Welles as Will Varner , the patriarch of the family . 20th Century Fox wanted to avoid the casting of Welles due to his temperament , but the studio was persuaded by Ritt , who considered him the right actor for the role . The director and the actor had several marked differences during the shooting of the movie , which included problems with the interpretation of the lines , costume design and the position of Welles while shooting the scenes . At one point during the production , Welles informed Ritt that he did not want to memorize his lines , requesting instead that they be dubbed afterwards . Part of the cast was intimidated by Welles ' temperamental attitude . The conflicts between Welles and Ritt attracted media attention . Immediately after filming was completed , during an interview with Life , Welles explained that the cause of his behavior was that he did not know what kind of " monkeyshines " his co @-@ stars would be or the " caprices " they would receive from him . He also stated that they overcame the differences and completed the film . Welles later wrote a letter to Ritt praising his work and apologizing for his interference during the making of the movie . Ritt replied , expounding his admiration for Welles . Despite the mutual apologies , during an interview in 1965 , Ritt recalled an incident on the set . While the film was being shot , it was often stopped by bad weather . During a day suitable for shooting , he found Welles not ready for the scene , instead reading a newspaper in Spanish . Ritt decided to skip Welles ' scene and shoot the next one . He attributed Welles ' later cooperation to the incident , which Welles had found humiliating . Ritt thus earned the nickname " the Orson Tamer " throughout the Hollywood community . = = Soundtrack = = Alex North composed the film 's score , which leaned toward a jazz style . " The Long Hot Summer " was the only song written by North to be used as the title track of a film . Composed in a AABA form , it was characterized by its lyricisms and its " tense dissonant " jazz @-@ figures . The lyrics of the song were written by Sammy Cahn , while instrumental variations of the melody were used throughout the film , underlining the progression of the relationship between Ben and Clara . Recorded by Jimmie Rodgers , it was released by Roulette Records , reaching number 77 on Billboard 's Top 100 Sides in June 1958 . The orchestra was conducted by Lionel Newman . Billboard described the soundtrack as " a model of music use in a dramatic film " . On another review , Billboard favored the album , stating that it " makes for good listening out of the cinematic context " and that the financial success of the soundtrack may have been propelled by Jimmie Rodgers ' " smooth vocal treatment " . The publication praised North 's musical understanding of the deep South , and particularly praised the song " Eula " , describing it as a " pure gem of sex @-@ on @-@ wax " . = = Release and reception = = The movie opened to good reviews but did not score a significant profit at the box office , grossing US $ 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . Billboard commended the acting as " first @-@ rate " and " robust " , with particular praise for Woodward , and also praised Ritt 's direction . Meanwhile , The Reporter highlighted the film 's similarities to the play Cat on a Hot Tin Roof and described the cast as " an impressive one " but remarked that the actors and characters " never seem to get together " . The review called Welles ' " great " and " gusty " but described Woodward 's participation in the movie as a " poker bluff " . Time described Newman 's performance as " mean and keen as a cackle @-@ edge scythe " . The publication also praised Woodward , valorating her acting delivered with " fire and grace not often seen in a movie queen " , but decried Welles ' acting as " scarcely an improvement " on his performance in his previous role , in Moby Dick . Variety praised the scriptwriters for the successful merging of the three Faulkner stories that inspired the film . The review also praised Martin Ritt , the camerawork by Joseph LaShelle , and the film 's musical score . Cosmopolitan called the movie a " gutsy melodrama " . = = = Legacy = = = The film reestablished the career of Martin Ritt , who had been on the blacklist for most of the decade for alleged associations with communists . Paul Newman 's performance as Ben Quick brought him national fame , as well as the Best Actor Award at the Cannes Film Festival . During the production , Newman married co @-@ star Joanne Woodward . The film was remade as a television series of the same name , airing between 1965 and 1966 , featuring Dan O 'Herlihy , Roy Thinnes , Nancy Malone , Lana Wood , Ruth Roman , and Edmond O 'Brien . It was remade again for television in 1985 , featuring Jason Robards , Don Johnson , and Cybill Shepherd . This rendition received two Emmy nominations , for Outstanding Miniseries and Outstanding Art Direction for a Miniseries or a Special . = Regina Elena @-@ class battleship = The Regina Elena class was a group of four pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Italian Regia Marina between 1901 and 1908 . The class comprised four ships : Regina Elena , the lead ship , Vittorio Emanuele , Roma , and Napoli . Designed by Vittorio Cuniberti , they were armed with a main battery of two 12 @-@ inch ( 300 mm ) guns and twelve 8 in ( 200 mm ) guns , and were capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) . They were the fastest battleships in the world at the time of their commissioning , faster even than the British turbine @-@ powered HMS Dreadnought . The ships saw service during the Italo @-@ Turkish War of 1911 – 1912 with the Ottoman Empire . They frequently supported Italian ground forces during the campaigns in North Africa and the islands of the eastern Mediterranean Sea . They served during World War I , in which Italy participated from 1915 to 1918 , but they saw no combat as a result of the cautious policies adopted by the Italian and Austro @-@ Hungarian navies . All four ships were discarded between 1923 and 1926 and broken up for scrap . = = Design = = Starting in 1899 , Vittorio Cuniberti began design work on a warship armed with a uniform battery of twelve 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns , armored with 6 in ( 150 mm ) thick belt armor , and capable of a top speed of 22 knots ( 41 km / h ; 25 mph ) , on a displacement of 8 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 7 @,@ 900 long tons ; 8 @,@ 800 short tons ) . This proved to be the genesis of Cuniberti 's later designs , which culminated in the British all @-@ big @-@ gun HMS Dreadnought . When the 1899 design project was not accepted , Cuniberti turned his attention to a new design requirement for a 13 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 13 @,@ 000 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 14 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ) battleship faster than all British and French battleships and stronger than the armored cruisers fielded by both navies . This resulted in a modified version of his earlier design , what came to be the Regina Elena class . = = = General characteristics and machinery = = = The ships of the Regina Elena class were 132 @.@ 6 meters ( 435 ft ) long at the waterline and 144 @.@ 6 m ( 474 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 22 @.@ 4 m ( 73 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 91 to 8 @.@ 58 m ( 26 @.@ 0 to 28 @.@ 1 ft ) . They displaced 12 @,@ 550 to 12 @,@ 658 long tons ( 12 @,@ 751 to 12 @,@ 861 t ) at normal loading and up to 13 @,@ 771 to 13 @,@ 914 long tons ( 13 @,@ 992 to 14 @,@ 137 t ) at full combat load . The ships had a crew of 742 – 764 officers and enlisted men . The ships were initially fitted with two masts , but after refits early in their careers , Regina Elena 's and Napoli 's foremasts were removed . The battleships ' propulsion system consisted of two vertical four @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines rated at 19 @,@ 299 to 21 @,@ 968 indicated horsepower ( 14 @,@ 391 to 16 @,@ 382 kW ) . Steam for the engines was provided by twenty @-@ eight coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers in the first two ships , and 28 Babcock & Wilcox boilers in the last two , split between three boiler rooms . The boilers were trunked into three tall funnels . The ships ' propulsion system provided a top speed in excess of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) ; Napoli , the fastest member of the class , reached 22 @.@ 15 knots ( 41 @.@ 02 km / h ; 25 @.@ 49 mph ) on her speed trials . The ships had a range of approximately 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . At the time of their completion , they were the fastest battleships in the world , faster even than the steam turbine @-@ powered HMS Dreadnought . = = = Armament and armor = = = The Regina Elenas were armed with two 12 in ( 305 mm ) 40 @-@ caliber guns placed in two single gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The turrets were placed well clear of the superstructure , giving them a wide arc of fire , close to 300 degrees of rotation . Electric power was used for training and elevation of the turrets and ammunition handling . The lighter main battery , compared to other pre @-@ dreadnought type battleships that typically carried twice as many heavy guns , was criticized by some observers , but Dr. Philip Alger writing in Proceedings of the United States Naval Institute noted that " it should be borne in mind that a pair of guns in a turret do not make twice as good shooting as a single gun , " and that given the limited displacement of the design , it " was the wisest choice that could be made . " Fire control for the guns was provided by Barr and Stroud rangefinders mounted on the conning tower . The ammunition magazines were fitted with refrigeration systems to minimize the risk of accidental explosions . The ships were also equipped with twelve 8 in ( 203 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns in six twin turrets amidships , which also used electrical operation . The central turrets were placed a deck higher than the others to permit them firing directly ahead and astern . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of sixteen 3 in ( 76 mm ) 40 @-@ cal. guns , though Roma and Napoli both had an additional eight guns of this caliber . All four ships were also equipped with two 17 @.@ 7 in ( 450 mm ) torpedo tubes placed in the hull below the waterline . The ships was protected with Krupp cemented steel manufactured in Terni . The main belt was 9 @.@ 8 in ( 249 mm ) thick amidships , reduced to 6 in ( 152 mm ) abreast of the main battery turrets , and 4 in ( 102 mm ) thick at the bow and stern . The deck was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) thick . The conning tower was protected by 10 in ( 254 mm ) of armor plating . The main battery guns had 8 in ( 203 mm ) thick plating , and the 8 @-@ inch gun turrets had 6 in thick sides . = = Ships of the class = = = = Service histories = = The four ships of the Regina Elena class served in the active duty squadron after their commissioning through 1911 and participated in the peacetime routine of fleet training . On 29 September 1911 , Italy declared war on the Ottoman Empire , starting the Italo @-@ Turkish War . The four ships saw action during the war in the 1st Division of the 1st Squadron . They participated in the operations off North Africa in the first months of the war , including escorting the crossing of the Italian expeditionary army sent to conquer Cyrenaica . Later in the war , they took part in the seizure of Rhodes and the Dodecanese . Italy initially remained neutral during World War I , but by 1915 , had been convinced by the Triple Entente to enter the war against Germany and Austria @-@ Hungary . Both the Italians and Austro @-@ Hungarians adopted a cautious fleet policy in the confined waters of the Adriatic Sea , and so the four Regina Elena @-@ class battleships did not see action . They spent the war rotating between the naval bases at Taranto , Brindisi , and Valona . After the end of the war , the ships of the class were included amongst the battleships that Italy could keep in service ( by the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty ) , but they were retained only for a few years . Between February 1923 and September 1926 , all four ships were stricken from the naval register and broken up for scrap . = Stanisław Staszic = Stanisław Wawrzyniec Staszic [ staˈɲiswaf ˈstaʂit ͡ s ] ( 6 November 1755 – 20 January 1826 ) was a leading figure in the Polish Enlightenment : a Catholic priest , philosopher , geologist , writer , poet , translator and statesman . A physiocrat , monist , pan @-@ Slavist ( after 1815 ) and laissez @-@ fairist , he supported many reforms in Poland . He is particularly remembered for his political writings during the " Great ( Four @-@ Year ) Sejm " ( 1788 – 92 ) and for his support of the Constitution of 3 May 1791 , adopted by that Sejm . He co @-@ founded the Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning ( precursor to the Polish Academy of Sciences ) , of which he became president . He served as a member of the State Council of the Duchy of Warsaw and as minister of trade and industry in Congress Poland . Staszic is seen as the father of Polish geology , statistics , sociology , Tatra Mountains studies and exploration , mining and industry . = = Life = = = = = Early life = = = Stanisław Staszic was born into a burgher family in the town of Piła on 6 November 1755 , the youngest of four siblings . His father , Wawrzyniec Staszic , was mayor of Piła and a royal secretary . Staszic attended secondary school at Wałcz . He studied theology and graduated from a Jesuit school at Poznań in 1778 and was ordained a Catholic priest ( he took lesser Holy Orders in 1774 , and higher orders about 1778 – 79 ) . Between 1779 and 1781 he continued his studies in France at the Collège de France , where he took classes in physics and natural history . On returning to Poland in 1781 , he accepted a position as tutor in the house of Grand Crown Chancellor Andrzej Zamoyski . In 1782 he received a doctorate from the Zamojski Academy . He translated several works from French into Polish and briefly worked at the Academy as a teacher of French language . = = = Reformer = = = His Remarks upon the Life of Jan Zamoyski ( Uwagi nad życiem Jana Zamoyskiego , 1787 ) , published anonymously on the eve of the Great Sejm , transformed the little @-@ known tutor into one of the chief political thinkers of the late 18th @-@ century Commonwealth . It became a model for other similar works and began a flood of political books and pamphlets unprecedented in the Commonwealth 's history . It was reprinted numerous times , including in unauthorized editions . Within his Remarks , Staszic did not portray the life of Jan Zamoyski ( 1542 – 1605 , one of the most prominent statesmen in Polish history ) ; rather , he argued that reforms are needed , and that Zamoyski had already proposed or supported many of them two centuries before . Staszic was a strong partisan of reforms and an ardent advocate for the interests of the lower classes . He advocated the abolition of the serfdom and improvements of the peasants ' fate ( by granting them land and private rights ) . He criticised the szlachta ( Polish nobility ) for inefficient governance , and argued that it showed itself too inept to be allowed to govern alone . He argued for a slight increase in taxes , which should allow the Commonwealth to create an army of 100 @,@ 000 that would at least stand a chance against the still @-@ larger armies of its neighbours . Although he preferred republicanism in theory , in the Commonwealth context he agreed that a strengthening of the central ( royal ) power was the most practical solution for reforming the country , in line with the similar developments elsewhere in Europe . In Remarks he even supported the introduction of an absolute monarchy in Poland . Staszic was a keen observer of the proceedings of the Great Sejm , spending much time in Warsaw since the Sejm began its deliberations in 1788 . He continued publishing new books and pamphlets . His Warnings for Poland , coming from the current European politics and natural laws , by the writer of the remarks upon the life of Jan Zamoyski ( Przestrogi dla Polski z teraźniejszych politycznych Europy związków i z praw natury wypadające przez pisarza uwag nad życiem Jana Zamoyskiego , 1790 ) , together with his previous Remarks , are considered among the most influential works of the Polish Enlightenment . In Warnings , he criticised the magnates of Poland and Lithuania , monastic orders and serfdom , and supported the enfranchisement of the townsfolk . Although he was not a participant of the Sejm , he was an influential onlooker , and through his widely read and discussed writings of the time is recognized as one of the founding fathers of the Constitution of May 3 , 1791 . During 1790 – 1791 he accompanied Zamoyski 's family on a trip abroad , and continued to serve as an adviser to the family , although his relations with the sons ( Aleksander August Zamoyski , Stanisław Kostka Zamoyski ) had become strained ; he would eventually align himself with the daughter of the family , Anna Zamoyska ( Anna Jadwiga Sapieżyna ) . He supported the 1794 Kościuszko Uprising , a failed attempt to liberate Commonwealth from foreign influence following the events of the 1793 Second Partition of Poland , donating money to the insurgents ' cause . Upon the defeat of the Uprising , he accompanied the family on their trip to Vienna . He also made some successful financial investments , including in the stock market . He then served as an economic adviser for the Zamoyski and the Sapieha families , invested in their estates , and lent them money . = = = Late life = = = After the partitions of Poland , in which Russia , Prussia , and Austria seized all of the Commonwealth 's territory , Staszic was active in many scientific and scholarly initiatives . He studied the geology of the Carpathian Mountains . In 1800 he co @-@ founded the Warsaw Society of Friends of Learning ; from 1802 he was one of its most active members . In 1804 he went to France , where he observed the changes wrought by Napoleon . On return to Poland in 1805 , he spent some time in the Tatra Mountains , where he continued his geological studies and conducted ethnographic ones . He worked with Jan Chrystian Hoffmann on a geological map of Poland . In the Duchy of Warsaw he worked with the Ministry of Education ( Izba Edukacyjna Księstwa Warszawskiego ) and was involved in numerous educational reforms and initiatives . He also briefly worked with the Ministry of Treasury . From 1808 he was president of the Society of Friends of Learning ( Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Nauk , or TPN ) , forerunner to the Polish Academy of Sciences ( Polska Akademia Nauk ) ; he would be elected repeatedly as the society 's president until his death . In 1808 he also became referendary to the State Council ( Rada Stanu ) of the Duchy ; in 1810 he became a full member . In the Council , he was active in regard to questions of education and the economy . As TPN president he was active in many initiatives which supported and popularized science in Poland . He oversaw the construction of a headquarters for the TPN , which came to be known as the " Staszic Palace " . From 1814 he supported the Russian Empire , seen as a Pan @-@ Slavist ally of Poland , and favored the idea of a great Slavic monarchy . After the fall of the Duchy of Warsaw in 1815 , he became a member of the government of the newly created small state of Congress Poland ( in personal union with Russia ) , initially in the new Ministry of Education and Religion , in 1816 serving as deputy minister . In 1815 he was decorated with the Order of Saint Stanislaus . In 1819 he endorsed a controversial censorship law , damaging his reputation . His 1815 Polish translation of Homer 's Iliad met with a negative reception . In 1816 – 20 he published many of his writings in a 9 @-@ volume Works ( Dzieła ) . Volumes 7 – 9 comprised his Humankind : A Didactic Poem ( Ród Ludzki . Poema Dydaktyczne ) , a gigantic philosophical essay and poem that is regarded as an important contribution to the history of Polish philosophy . However , the work ran afoul of the new censorship law and was not distributed , much of the edition eventually being destroyed . He also carried out studies on education and on human behavior , in a social @-@ science tradition . Some of his views and theories made him a precursor of evolutionism in the natural and social sciences . In his essays on human nature , he declared for the primacy of science and was relatively critical of the influence of religion . These views gained him some critics , as he was seen as a priest who had abandoned religion . From 1816 he was involved in mining research and projects . He also actively supported industrial development in Poland . He was one of the first to see the importance of coal , and supported the development of metallurgy @-@ related projects , from mines to zinc and steel mills . He was also involved in the development of ceramic and textile industries , and improving the transport infrastructure ( roads , canals ) . He discovered coal deposits in Dąbrowa Górnicza , where he initiated the building of a coal mine . Between 1816 and 1824 he was the de facto minister of industry of the Congress Poland ( styled officially the " director of the Department of Trade , Crafts and Industry " ) and initiated construction of the Old Polish Industrial Area ( Staropolski Okręg Przemysłowy ) . As his projects did not result in quick returns , he incurred increasing criticism , and eventually resigned from his position in 1824 . In 1816 he founded the Hrubieszowskie Towarzystwo Rolnicze ( Hrubieszów Agricultural Society ) , seen by some as the first Polish cooperative . He died in Warsaw on 20 January 1826 , most likely due to a stroke . His funeral gathered 20 @,@ 000 people , including the viceroy of the Congress Poland , Józef Zajączek . He was buried in the cemetery of the Camaldolese Hermit Monastery in Kraków . His testament left his property at Hrubieszów to its tenants , and much of his wealth went to various philanthropic initiatives . = = Private life = = Staszic was remembered by his contemporaries as a loner and not a person who was quick to make friends . He has been described as somewhat miserly ; despite acquiring significant wealth , he was said to wear old clothes and use an old carriage . He was nonetheless widely respected by his contemporaries . He was seen as stern but honest , and had a tendency to speak in a fashion that some found amusing . = = Remembrance = = He is seen as one of the chief representatives of the political activists and writers of the Polish Enlightenment . He is also seen as the father of Polish geology , statistics , sociology , Tatra Mountains studies and exploration , mining and industry . He is one of the figures immortalised in Jan Matejko 's 1891 painting " Constitution of May 3 , 1791 " . He was also the protagonist of the Charles Dickens ' novella " Judge Not " ( 1851 ) , and of Hanna Muszyńska @-@ Hoffmanowa 's novel " Pucharek ze srebra " ( Little chalice of silver ) . Wacław Berent published a biography of Staszic , but it is now lost . In 1926 , on the 100th anniversary of his death , he was celebrated in the Second Polish Republic with several studies , articles and publications . In April 1951 , he was honoured on a postage stamp of the People 's Republic of Poland as part of the set issued for the First Congress of Polish Science . His figure was popular among the Marxist scholars of the People 's Republic , who stressed his materialist , determinist and anti @-@ clerical views . The 150th anniversary of his death in 1976 was also celebrated , with many works dedicated to him , including poems by Jan Czeczot and Jan Lohmann . He has been made a patron of over 200 schools , including the AGH University of Science and Technology in Kraków . There are statues of Stanisław Staszic in Łódź , Kielce , Hrubieszów and Dąbrowa Górnicza . Several geographical landmarks , minerals and a bacterium bear his name as well . In Piła , there is a Museum of Stanisław Staszic , which has gathered various artifacts related to him , and publishes a journal , " Zeszyty Staszicowskie " ( Staszic Notebooks ) . = = Awards = = Order of Saint Stanislaus Knight of the Order of the White Eagle = = Works = = His best @-@ known works include the following : " Remarks upon the Life of Jan Zamoyski " ( Uwagi nad życiem Jana Zamoyskiego , 1787 ) " Warnings for Poland " ( or Warnings to Poland , Przestrogi dla Polski , 1790 ) " On the Origin of Mountains in Former Sarmatia and Later Poland " ( O ziemorództwie gór dawnej Sarmacji , potem Polski , 1815 ) " On the Reasons of Jewish Noxiousness " ( O przyczynach szkodliwości Żydów , 1818 ) " Humankind " ( Ród Ludzki , 1820 ) A Polish translation of Homer 's Iliad ( 1815 ) . = Sound film = A sound film is a motion picture with synchronized sound , or sound technologically coupled to image , as opposed to a silent film . The first known public exhibition of projected sound films took place in Paris in 1900 , but decades passed before sound motion pictures were made commercially practical . Reliable synchronization was difficult to achieve with the early sound @-@ on @-@ disc systems , and amplification and recording quality were also inadequate . Innovations in sound @-@ on @-@ film led to the first commercial screening of short motion pictures using the technology , which took place in 1923 . The primary steps in the commercialization of sound cinema were taken in the mid- to late 1920s . At first , the sound films incorporating synchronized dialogue — known as " talking pictures " , or " talkies " — were exclusively shorts ; the earliest feature @-@ length movies with recorded sound included only music and effects . The first feature film originally presented as a talkie was The Jazz Singer , released in October 1927 . A major hit , it was made with Vitaphone , which was at the time the leading brand of sound @-@ on @-@ disc technology . Sound @-@ on @-@ film , however , would soon become the standard for talking pictures . By the early 1930s , the talkies were a global phenomenon . In the United States , they helped secure Hollywood 's position as one of the world 's most powerful cultural / commercial systems ( see Cinema of the United States ) . In Europe ( and , to a lesser degree , elsewhere ) , the new development was treated with suspicion by many filmmakers and critics , who worried that a focus on dialogue would subvert the unique aesthetic virtues of soundless cinema . In Japan , where the popular film tradition integrated silent movie and live vocal performance , talking pictures were slow to take root . In India , sound was the transformative element that led to the rapid expansion of the nation 's film industry . = = History = = = = = Early steps = = = The idea of combining motion pictures with recorded sound is nearly as old as the concept of cinema itself . On February 27 , 1888 , a couple of days after photographic pioneer Eadweard Muybridge gave a lecture not far from the laboratory of Thomas Edison , the two inventors privately met . Muybridge later claimed that on this occasion , six years before the first commercial motion picture exhibition , he proposed a scheme for sound cinema that would combine his image @-@ casting zoopraxiscope with Edison 's recorded @-@ sound technology . No agreement was reached , but within a year Edison commissioned the development of the Kinetoscope , essentially a " peep @-@ show " system , as a visual complement to his cylinder phonograph . The two devices were brought together as the Kinetophone in 1895 , but individual , cabinet viewing of motion pictures was soon to be outmoded by successes in film projection . In 1899 , a projected sound @-@ film system known as Cinemacrophonograph or Phonorama , based primarily on the work of Swiss @-@ born inventor François Dussaud , was exhibited in Paris ; similar to the Kinetophone , the system required individual use of earphones . An improved cylinder @-@ based system , Phono @-@ Cinéma @-@ Théâtre , was developed by Clément @-@ Maurice Gratioulet and Henri Lioret of France , allowing short films of theater , opera , and ballet excerpts to be presented at the Paris Exposition in 1900 . These appear to be the first publicly exhibited films with projection of both image and recorded sound . Phonorama and yet another sound @-@ film system — Théâtroscope — were also presented at the Exposition . Three major problems persisted , leading to motion pictures and sound recording largely taking separate paths for a generation . The primary issue was synchronization : pictures and sound were recorded and played back by separate devices , which were difficult to start and maintain in tandem . Sufficient playback volume was also hard to achieve . While motion picture projectors soon allowed film to be shown to large theater audiences , audio technology before the development of electric amplification could not project satisfactorily to fill large spaces . Finally , there was the challenge of recording fidelity . The primitive systems of the era produced sound of very low quality unless the performers were stationed directly in front of the cumbersome recording devices ( acoustical horns , for the most part ) , imposing severe limits on the sort of films that could be created with live @-@ recorded sound . Cinematic innovators attempted to cope with the fundamental synchronization problem in a variety of ways . An increasing number of motion picture systems relied on gramophone records — known as sound @-@ on @-@ disc technology ; the records themselves were often referred to as " Berliner discs " , after one of the primary inventors in the field , German @-@ American Emile Berliner . In 1902 , Léon Gaumont demonstrated his sound @-@ on @-@ disc Chronophone , involving an electrical connection he had recently patented , to the French Photographic Society . Four years later , Gaumont introduced the Elgéphone , a compressed @-@ air amplification system based on the Auxetophone , developed by British inventors Horace Short and Charles Parsons . Despite high expectations , Gaumont 's sound innovations had only limited commercial success — though improvements , they still did not satisfactorily address the three basic issues with sound film and were expensive as well . For some years , American inventor E. E. Norton 's Cameraphone was the primary competitor to the Gaumont system ( sources differ on whether the Cameraphone was disc- or cylinder @-@ based ) ; it ultimately failed for many of the same reasons that held back the Chronophone . In 1913 , Edison introduced a new cylinder @-@ based synch @-@ sound apparatus known , just like his 1895 system , as the Kinetophone ; instead of films being shown to individual viewers in the Kinetoscope cabinet , they were now projected onto a screen . The phonograph was connected by an intricate arrangement of pulleys to the film projector , allowing — under ideal conditions — for synchronization . However , conditions were rarely ideal , and the new , improved Kinetophone was retired after little more than a year . By the mid @-@ 1910s , the groundswell in commercial sound motion picture exhibition had subsided . Beginning in 1914 , The Photo @-@ Drama of Creation , promoting Jehovah 's Witnesses ' conception of mankind 's genesis , was screened around the United States : eight hours worth of projected visuals involving both slides and live action were synchronized with separately recorded lectures and musical performances played back on phonograph . Meanwhile , innovations continued on another significant front . In 1907 , French @-@ born , London @-@ based Eugene Lauste — who had worked at Edison 's lab between 1886 and 1892 — was awarded the first patent for sound @-@ on @-@ film technology , involving the transformation of sound into light waves that are photographically recorded direct onto celluloid . As described by historian Scott Eyman , It was a double system , that is , the sound was on a different piece of film from the picture .... In essence , the sound was captured by a microphone and translated into light waves via a light valve , a thin ribbon of sensitive metal over a tiny slit . The sound reaching this ribbon would be converted into light by the shivering of the diaphragm , focusing the resulting light waves through the slit , where it would be photographed on the side of the film , on a strip about a tenth of an inch wide . Though sound @-@ on @-@ film would eventually become the universal standard for synchronized sound cinema , Lauste never successfully exploited his innovations , which came to an effective dead end . In 1914 , Finnish inventor Eric Tigerstedt was granted German patent 309 @,@ 536 for his sound @-@ on @-@ film work ; that same year , he apparently demonstrated a film made with the process to an audience of scientists in Berlin . Hungarian engineer Denes Mihaly submitted his sound @-@ on @-@ film Projectofon concept to the Royal Hungarian Patent Court in 1918 ; the patent award was published four years later . Whether sound was captured on cylinder , disc , or film , none of the available technology was adequate for big @-@ league commercial purposes , and for many years the heads of the major Hollywood film studios saw little benefit in producing sound motion pictures . = = Crucial innovations = = A number of technological developments contributed to making sound cinema commercially viable by the late 1920s . Two involved contrasting approaches to synchronized sound reproduction , or playback : = = = Advanced sound @-@ on @-@ film = = = In 1919 , American inventor Lee De Forest was awarded several patents that would lead to the first optical sound @-@ on @-@ film technology with commercial application . In De Forest 's system , the sound track was photographically recorded onto the side of the strip of motion picture film to create a composite , or " married " , print . If proper synchronization of sound and picture was achieved in recording , it could be absolutely counted on in playback . Over the next four years , he improved his system with the help of equipment and patents licensed from another American inventor in the field , Theodore Case . At the University of Illinois , Polish @-@ born research engineer Joseph Tykociński @-@ Tykociner was working independently on a similar process . On June 9 , 1922 , he gave the first reported U.S. demonstration of a sound @-@ on @-@ film motion picture to members of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers . As with Lauste and Tigerstedt , Tykociner 's system would never be taken advantage of commercially ; however , De Forest 's soon would . On April 15 , 1923 , at New York City 's Rivoli Theater , came the first commercial screening of motion pictures with sound @-@ on @-@ film , the future standard : a set of shorts under the banner of De Forest Phonofilms , accompanying a silent feature . That June , De Forest entered into an extended legal battle with an employee , Freeman Harrison Owens , for title to one of the crucial Phonofilm patents . Although De Forest ultimately won the case in the courts , Owens is today recognized as a central innovator in the field . The following year , De Forest 's studio released the first commercial dramatic film shot as a talking picture — the two @-@ reeler Love 's Old Sweet Song , directed by J. Searle Dawley and featuring Una Merkel . However , phonofilm 's stock in trade was not original dramas but celebrity documentaries , popular music acts , and comedy performances . President Calvin Coolidge , opera singer Abbie Mitchell , and vaudeville stars such as Phil Baker , Ben Bernie , Eddie Cantor and Oscar Levant appeared in the firm 's pictures . Hollywood remained suspicious , even fearful , of the new technology . As Photoplay editor James Quirk put it in March 1924 , " Talking pictures are perfected , says Dr. Lee De Forest . So is castor oil . " De Forest 's process continued to be used through 1927 in the United States for dozens of short Phonofilms ; in the UK it was employed a few years longer for both shorts and features by British Sound Film Productions , a subsidiary of British Talking Pictures , which purchased the primary Phonofilm assets . By the end of 1930 , the Phonofilm business would be liquidated . In Europe , others were also working on the development of sound @-@ on @-@ film . In 1919 , the same year that DeForest received his first patents in the field , three German inventors patented the Tri @-@ Ergon sound system . On September 17 , 1922 , the Tri @-@ Ergon group gave a public screening of sound @-@ on @-@ film productions — including a dramatic talkie , Der Brandstifter ( The Arsonist ) — before an invited audience at the Alhambra Kino in Berlin . By the end of the decade , Tri @-@ Ergon would be the dominant European sound system . In 1923 , two Danish engineers , Axel Petersen and Arnold Poulsen , patented a system that recorded sound on a separate filmstrip running parallel with	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
in any sanatorium again until 1899 . Soon after that second hospitalization , Cantor 's youngest son Rudolph died suddenly ( while Cantor was delivering a lecture on his views on Baconian theory and William Shakespeare ) , and this tragedy drained Cantor of much of his passion for mathematics . Cantor was again hospitalized in 1903 . One year later , he was outraged and agitated by a paper presented by Julius König at the Third International Congress of Mathematicians . The paper attempted to prove that the basic tenets of transfinite set theory were false . Since the paper had been read in front of his daughters and colleagues , Cantor perceived himself as having been publicly humiliated . Although Ernst Zermelo demonstrated less than a day later that König 's proof had failed , Cantor remained shaken , and momentarily questioning God . Cantor suffered from chronic depression for the rest of his life , for which he was excused from teaching on several occasions and repeatedly confined in various sanatoria . The events of 1904 preceded a series of hospitalizations at intervals of two or three years . He did not abandon mathematics completely , however , lecturing on the paradoxes of set theory ( Burali @-@ Forti paradox , Cantor 's paradox , and Russell 's paradox ) to a meeting of the Deutsche Mathematiker – Vereinigung in 1903 , and attending the International Congress of Mathematicians at Heidelberg in 1904 . In 1911 , Cantor was one of the distinguished foreign scholars invited to attend the 500th anniversary of the founding of the University of St. Andrews in Scotland . Cantor attended , hoping to meet Bertrand Russell , whose newly published Principia Mathematica repeatedly cited Cantor 's work , but this did not come about . The following year , St. Andrews awarded Cantor an honorary doctorate , but illness precluded his receiving the degree in person . Cantor retired in 1913 , living in poverty and suffering from malnourishment during World War I. The public celebration of his 70th birthday was canceled because of the war . He died on January 6 , 1918 in the sanatorium where he had spent the final year of his life . = = Mathematical work = = Cantor 's work between 1874 and 1884 is the origin of set theory . Prior to this work , the concept of a set was a rather elementary one that had been used implicitly since the beginning of mathematics , dating back to the ideas of Aristotle . No one had realized that set theory had any nontrivial content . Before Cantor , there were only finite sets ( which are easy to understand ) and " the infinite " ( which was considered a topic for philosophical , rather than mathematical , discussion ) . By proving that there are ( infinitely ) many possible sizes for infinite sets , Cantor established that set theory was not trivial , and it needed to be studied . Set theory has come to play the role of a foundational theory in modern mathematics , in the sense that it interprets propositions about mathematical objects ( for example , numbers and functions ) from all the traditional areas of mathematics ( such as algebra , analysis and topology ) in a single theory , and provides a standard set of axioms to prove or disprove them . The basic concepts of set theory are now used throughout mathematics . In one of his earliest papers , Cantor proved that the set of real numbers is " more numerous " than the set of natural numbers ; this showed , for the first time , that there exist infinite sets of different sizes . He was also the first to appreciate the importance of one @-@ to @-@ one correspondences ( hereinafter denoted " 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence " ) in set theory . He used this concept to define finite and infinite sets , subdividing the latter into denumerable ( or countably infinite ) sets and uncountable sets ( nondenumerable infinite sets ) . Cantor developed important concepts in topology and their relation to cardinality . For example , he showed that the Cantor set is nowhere dense , but has the same cardinality as the set of all real numbers , whereas the rationals are everywhere dense , but countable . Cantor introduced fundamental constructions in set theory , such as the power set of a set A , which is the set of all possible subsets of A. He later proved that the size of the power set of A is strictly larger than the size of A , even when A is an infinite set ; this result soon became known as Cantor 's theorem . Cantor developed an entire theory and arithmetic of infinite sets , called cardinals and ordinals , which extended the arithmetic of the natural numbers . His notation for the cardinal numbers was the Hebrew letter <formula> ( aleph ) with a natural number subscript ; for the ordinals he employed the Greek letter ω ( omega ) . This notation is still in use today . The Continuum hypothesis , introduced by Cantor , was presented by David Hilbert as the first of his twenty @-@ three open problems in his address at the 1900 International Congress of Mathematicians in Paris . Cantor 's work also attracted favorable notice beyond Hilbert 's celebrated encomium . The US philosopher Charles Sanders Peirce praised Cantor 's set theory , and , following public lectures delivered by Cantor at the first International Congress of Mathematicians , held in Zurich in 1897 , Hurwitz and Hadamard also both expressed their admiration . At that Congress , Cantor renewed his friendship and correspondence with Dedekind . From 1905 , Cantor corresponded with his British admirer and translator Philip Jourdain on the history of set theory and on Cantor 's religious ideas . This was later published , as were several of his expository works . = = = Number theory , trigonometric series and ordinals = = = Cantor 's first ten papers were on number theory , his thesis topic . At the suggestion of Eduard Heine , the Professor at Halle , Cantor turned to analysis . Heine proposed that Cantor solve an open problem that had eluded Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet , Rudolf Lipschitz , Bernhard Riemann , and Heine himself : the uniqueness of the representation of a function by trigonometric series . Cantor solved this difficult problem in 1869 . It was while working on this problem that he discovered transfinite ordinals , which occurred as indices n in the nth derived set Sn of a set S of zeros of a trigonometric series . Given a trigonometric series f ( x ) with S as its set of zeros , Cantor had discovered a procedure that produced another trigonometric series that had S1 as its set of zeros , where S1 is the set of limit points of S. If Sk + 1 is the set of limit points of Sk , then he could construct a trigonometric series whose zeros are Sk + 1 . Because the sets Sk were closed , they contained their Limit points , and the intersection of the infinite decreasing sequence of sets S , S1 , S2 , S3 , ... formed a limit set , which we would now call Sω , and then he noticed that Sω would also have to have a set of limit points Sω + 1 , and so on . He had examples that went on forever , and so here was a naturally occurring infinite sequence of infinite numbers ω , ω + 1 , ω + 2 , ... Between 1870 and 1872 , Cantor published more papers on trigonometric series , and also a paper defining irrational numbers as convergent sequences of rational numbers . Dedekind , whom Cantor befriended in 1872 , cited this paper later that year , in the paper where he first set out his celebrated definition of real numbers by Dedekind cuts . While extending the notion of number by means of his revolutionary concept of infinite cardinality , Cantor was paradoxically opposed to theories of infinitesimals of his contemporaries Otto Stolz and Paul du Bois @-@ Reymond , describing them as both " an abomination " and " a cholera bacillus of mathematics " . Cantor also published an erroneous " proof " of the inconsistency of infinitesimals . = = = Set theory = = = The beginning of set theory as a branch of mathematics is often marked by the publication of Cantor 's 1874 article , " Über eine Eigenschaft des Inbegriffes aller reellen algebraischen Zahlen " ( " On a Property of the Collection of All Real Algebraic Numbers " ) . This article was the first to provide a rigorous proof that there was more than one kind of infinity . Previously , all infinite collections had been implicitly assumed to be equinumerous ( that is , of " the same size " or having the same number of elements ) . Cantor proved that the collection of real numbers and the collection of positive integers are not equinumerous . In other words , the real numbers are not countable . His proof differs from diagonal argument that he gave in 1891 . Cantor 's article also contains a new method of constructing transcendental numbers . Transcendental numbers were first constructed by Joseph Liouville in 1844 . Cantor established these results using two constructions . His first construction shows how to write the real algebraic numbers as a sequence a1 , a2 , a3 , .... In other words , the real algebraic numbers are countable . Cantor starts his second construction with any sequence of real numbers . Using this sequence , he constructs nested intervals whose intersection contains a real number not in the sequence . Since every sequence of real numbers can be used to construct a real not in the sequence , the real numbers cannot be written as a sequence – that is , the real numbers are not countable . By applying his construction to the sequence of real algebraic numbers , Cantor produces a transcendental number . Cantor points out that his constructions prove more – namely , they provide a new proof of Liouville 's theorem : Every interval contains infinitely many transcendental numbers . Cantor 's next article contains a construction that proves the set of transcendental numbers has the same " power " ( see below ) as the set of real numbers . Between 1879 and 1884 , Cantor published a series of six articles in Mathematische Annalen that together formed an introduction to his set theory . At the same time , there was growing opposition to Cantor 's ideas , led by Kronecker , who admitted mathematical concepts only if they could be constructed in a finite number of steps from the natural numbers , which he took as intuitively given . For Kronecker , Cantor 's hierarchy of infinities was inadmissible , since accepting the concept of actual infinity would open the door to paradoxes which would challenge the validity of mathematics as a whole . Cantor also introduced the Cantor set during this period . The fifth paper in this series , " Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre " ( " Foundations of a General Theory of Aggregates " ) , published in 1883 , was the most important of the six and was also published as a separate monograph . It contained Cantor 's reply to his critics and showed how the transfinite numbers were a systematic extension of the natural numbers . It begins by defining well @-@ ordered sets . Ordinal numbers are then introduced as the order types of well @-@ ordered sets . Cantor then defines the addition and multiplication of the cardinal and ordinal numbers . In 1885 , Cantor extended his theory of order types so that the ordinal numbers simply became a special case of order types . In 1891 , he published a paper containing his elegant " diagonal argument " for the existence of an uncountable set . He applied the same idea to prove Cantor 's theorem : the cardinality of the power set of a set A is strictly larger than the cardinality of A. This established the richness of the hierarchy of infinite sets , and of the cardinal and ordinal arithmetic that Cantor had defined . His argument is fundamental in the solution of the Halting problem and the proof of Gödel 's first incompleteness theorem . Cantor wrote on the Goldbach conjecture in 1894 . In 1895 and 1897 , Cantor published a two @-@ part paper in Mathematische Annalen under Felix Klein 's editorship ; these were his last significant papers on set theory . The first paper begins by defining set , subset , etc . , in ways that would be largely acceptable now . The cardinal and ordinal arithmetic are reviewed . Cantor wanted the second paper to include a proof of the continuum hypothesis , but had to settle for expositing his theory of well @-@ ordered sets and ordinal numbers . Cantor attempts to prove that if A and B are sets with A equivalent to a subset of B and B equivalent to a subset of A , then A and B are equivalent . Ernst Schröder had stated this theorem a bit earlier , but his proof , as well as Cantor 's , was flawed . Felix Bernstein supplied a correct proof in his 1898 PhD thesis ; hence the name Cantor – Bernstein – Schröder theorem . = = = = One @-@ to @-@ one correspondence = = = = Cantor 's 1874 Crelle paper was the first to invoke the notion of a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence , though he did not use that phrase . He then began looking for a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between the points of the unit square and the points of a unit line segment . In an 1877 letter to Richard Dedekind , Cantor proved a far stronger result : for any positive integer n , there exists a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between the points on the unit line segment and all of the points in an n @-@ dimensional space . About this discovery Cantor wrote to Dedekind : " Je le vois , mais je ne le crois pas ! " ( " I see it , but I don 't believe it ! " ) The result that he found so astonishing has implications for geometry and the notion of dimension . In 1878 , Cantor submitted another paper to Crelle 's Journal , in which he defined precisely the concept of a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence , and introduced the notion of " power " ( a term he took from Jakob Steiner ) or " equivalence " of sets : two sets are equivalent ( have the same power ) if there exists a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence between them . Cantor defined countable sets ( or denumerable sets ) as sets which can be put into a 1 @-@ to @-@ 1 correspondence with the natural numbers , and proved that the rational numbers are denumerable . He also proved that n @-@ dimensional Euclidean space Rn has the same power as the real numbers R , as does a countably infinite product of copies of R. While he made free use of countability as a concept , he did not write the word " countable " until 1883 . Cantor also discussed his thinking about dimension , stressing that his mapping between the unit interval and the unit square was not a continuous one . This paper displeased Kronecker , and Cantor wanted to withdraw it ; however , Dedekind persuaded him not to do so and Weierstrass supported its publication . Nevertheless , Cantor never again submitted anything to Crelle . = = = = Continuum hypothesis = = = = Cantor was the first to formulate what later came to be known as the continuum hypothesis or CH : there exists no set whose power is greater than that of the naturals and less than that of the reals ( or equivalently , the cardinality of the reals is exactly aleph @-@ one , rather than just at least aleph @-@ one ) . Cantor believed the continuum hypothesis to be true and tried for many years to prove it , in vain . His inability to prove the continuum hypothesis caused him considerable anxiety . The difficulty Cantor had in proving the continuum hypothesis has been underscored by later developments in the field of mathematics : a 1940 result by Gödel and a 1963 one by Paul Cohen together imply that the continuum hypothesis can neither be proved nor disproved using standard Zermelo – Fraenkel set theory plus the axiom of choice ( the combination referred to as " ZFC " ) . = = = = Paradoxes of set theory = = = = Discussions of set @-@ theoretic paradoxes began to appear around the end of the nineteenth century . Some of these implied fundamental problems with Cantor 's set theory program . In an 1897 paper on an unrelated topic , Cesare Burali @-@ Forti set out the first such paradox , the Burali @-@ Forti paradox : the ordinal number of the set of all ordinals must be an ordinal and this leads to a contradiction . Cantor discovered this paradox in 1895 , and described it in an 1896 letter to Hilbert . Criticism mounted to the point where Cantor launched counter @-@ arguments in 1903 , intended to defend the basic tenets of his set theory . In 1899 , Cantor discovered his eponymous paradox : what is the cardinal number of the set of all sets ? Clearly it must be the greatest possible cardinal . Yet for any set A , the cardinal number of the power set of A is strictly larger than the cardinal number of A ( this fact is now known as Cantor 's theorem ) . This paradox , together with Burali @-@ Forti paradox , led Cantor to formulate a concept called limitation of size , according to which the collection of all ordinals , or of all sets , was an " inconsistent multiplicity " that was " too large " to be a set . Such collections later became known as proper classes . One common view among mathematicians is that these paradoxes , together with Russell 's paradox , demonstrate that it is not possible to take a " naive " , or non @-@ axiomatic , approach to set theory without risking contradiction , and it is certain that they were among the motivations for Zermelo and others to produce axiomatizations of set theory . Others note , however , that the paradoxes do not obtain in an informal view motivated by the iterative hierarchy , which can be seen as explaining the idea of limitation of size . Some also question whether the Fregean formulation of naive set theory ( which was the system directly refuted by the Russell paradox ) is really a faithful interpretation of the Cantorian conception . = = Philosophy , religion and Cantor 's mathematics = = The concept of the existence of an actual infinity was an important shared concern within the realms of mathematics , philosophy and religion . Preserving the orthodoxy of the relationship between God and mathematics , although not in the same form as held by his critics , was long a concern of Cantor 's . He directly addressed this intersection between these disciplines in the introduction to his Grundlagen einer allgemeinen Mannigfaltigkeitslehre , where he stressed the connection between his view of the infinite and the philosophical one . To Cantor , his mathematical views were intrinsically linked to their philosophical and theological implications – he identified the Absolute Infinite with God , and he considered his work on transfinite numbers to have been directly communicated to him by God , who had chosen Cantor to reveal them to the world . Debate among mathematicians grew out of opposing views in the philosophy of mathematics regarding the nature of actual infinity . Some held to the view that infinity was an abstraction which was not mathematically legitimate , and denied its existence . Mathematicians from three major schools of thought ( constructivism and its two offshoots , intuitionism and finitism ) opposed Cantor 's theories in this matter . For constructivists such as Kronecker , this rejection of actual infinity stems from fundamental disagreement with the idea that nonconstructive proofs such as Cantor 's diagonal argument are sufficient proof that something exists , holding instead that constructive proofs are required . Intuitionism also rejects the idea that actual infinity is an expression of any sort of reality , but arrive at the decision via a different route than constructivism . Firstly , Cantor 's argument rests on logic to prove the existence of transfinite numbers as an actual mathematical entity , whereas intuitionists hold that mathematical entities cannot be reduced to logical propositions , originating instead in the intuitions of the mind . Secondly , the notion of infinity as an expression of reality is itself disallowed in intuitionism , since the human mind cannot intuitively construct an infinite set . Mathematicians such as Brouwer and especially Poincaré adopted an intuitionist stance against Cantor 's work . Citing the paradoxes of set theory as an example of its fundamentally flawed nature , Poincaré held that " most of the ideas of Cantorian set theory should be banished from mathematics once and for all . " Finally , Wittgenstein 's attacks were finitist : he believed that Cantor 's diagonal argument conflated the intension of a set of cardinal or real numbers with its extension , thus conflating the concept of rules for generating a set with an actual set . Some Christian theologians saw Cantor 's work as a challenge to the uniqueness of the absolute infinity in the nature of God . In particular , Neo @-@ Thomist thinkers saw the existence of an actual infinity that consisted of something other than God as jeopardizing " God 's exclusive claim to supreme infinity " . Cantor strongly believed that this view was a misinterpretation of infinity , and was convinced that set theory could help correct this mistake : ... the transfinite species are just as much at the disposal of the intentions of the Creator and His absolute boundless will as are the finite numbers . Cantor also believed that his theory of transfinite numbers ran counter to both materialism and determinism – and was shocked when he realized that he was the only faculty member at Halle who did not hold to deterministic philosophical beliefs . In 1888 , Cantor published his correspondence with several philosophers on the philosophical implications of his set theory . In an extensive attempt to persuade other Christian thinkers and authorities to adopt his views , Cantor had corresponded with Christian philosophers such as Tilman Pesch and Joseph Hontheim , as well as theologians such as Cardinal Johannes Franzelin , who once replied by equating the theory of transfinite numbers with pantheism . Cantor even sent one letter directly to Pope Leo XIII himself , and addressed several pamphlets to him . Cantor 's philosophy on the nature of numbers led him to affirm a belief in the freedom of mathematics to posit and prove concepts apart from the realm of physical phenomena , as expressions within an internal reality . The only restrictions on this metaphysical system are that all mathematical concepts must be devoid of internal contradiction , and that they follow from existing definitions , axioms , and theorems . This belief is summarized in his assertion that " the essence of mathematics is its freedom . " These ideas parallel those of Edmund Husserl , whom Cantor had met in Halle . Meanwhile , Cantor himself was fiercely opposed to infinitesimals , describing them as both an " abomination " and " the cholera bacillus of mathematics " . Cantor 's 1883 paper reveals that he was well aware of the opposition his ideas were encountering : ... I realize that in this undertaking I place myself in a certain opposition to views widely held concerning the mathematical infinite and to opinions frequently defended on the nature of numbers . Hence he devotes much space to justifying his earlier work , asserting that mathematical concepts may be freely introduced as long as they are free of contradiction and defined in terms of previously accepted concepts . He also cites Aristotle , Descartes , Berkeley , Leibniz , and Bolzano on infinity . = = Cantor 's ancestry = = Cantor 's paternal grandparents were from Copenhagen , and fled to Russia from the disruption of the Napoleonic Wars . There is very little direct information on his grandparents . Cantor was sometimes called Jewish in his lifetime , but has also variously been called Russian , German , and Danish as well . Jakob Cantor , Cantor 's grandfather , gave his children Christian saints ' names . Further , several of his grandmother 's relatives were in the Czarist civil service , which would not welcome Jews , unless they converted to Christianity . Cantor 's father , Georg Waldemar Cantor , was educated in the Lutheran mission in Saint Petersburg , and his correspondence with his son shows both of them as devout Lutherans . Very little is known for sure about George Woldemar 's origin or education . His mother , Maria Anna Böhm , was an Austro @-@ Hungarian born in Saint Petersburg and baptized Roman Catholic ; she converted to Protestantism upon marriage . However , there is a letter from Cantor 's brother Louis to their mother , stating : Mögen wir zehnmal von Juden abstammen und ich im Princip noch so sehr für Gleichberechtigung der Hebräer sein , im socialen Leben sind mir Christen lieber ... ( " Even if we were descended from Jews ten times over , and even though I may be , in principle , completely in favour of equal rights for Hebrews , in social life I prefer Christians ... " ) which could be read to imply that she was of Jewish ancestry . There were documented statements , during the 1930s , that called this Jewish ancestry into question : More often [ i.e. , than the ancestry of the mother ] the question has been discussed of whether Georg Cantor was of Jewish origin . About this it is reported in a notice of the Danish genealogical Institute in Copenhagen from the year 1937 concerning his father : " It is hereby testified that Georg Woldemar Cantor , born 1809 or 1814 , is not present in the registers of the Jewish community , and that he completely without doubt was not a Jew ... " It is also later said in the same document : Also efforts for a long time by the librarian Josef Fischer , one of the best experts on Jewish genealogy in Denmark , charged with identifying Jewish professors , that Georg Cantor was of Jewish descent , finished without result . [ Something seems to be wrong with this sentence , but the meaning seems clear enough . ] In Cantor 's published works and also in his Nachlass there are no statements by himself which relate to a Jewish origin of his ancestors . There is to be sure in the Nachlass a copy of a letter of his brother Ludwig from 18 November 1869 to their mother with some unpleasant antisemitic statements , in which it is said among other things : ... ( the rest of the quote is finished by the very first quote above ) . In Men of Mathematics , Eric Temple Bell described Cantor as being " of pure Jewish descent on both sides , " although both parents were baptized . In a 1971 article entitled " Towards a Biography of Georg Cantor , " the British historian of mathematics Ivor Grattan @-@ Guinness mentions ( Annals of Science 27 , pp. 345 – 391 , 1971 ) that he was unable to find evidence of Jewish ancestry . ( He also states that Cantor 's wife , Vally Guttmann , was Jewish ) . In a letter written by Georg Cantor to Paul Tannery in 1896 ( Paul Tannery , Memoires Scientifique 13 Correspondence , Gauthier @-@ Villars , Paris , 1934 , p . 306 ) , Cantor states that his paternal grandparents were members of the Sephardic Jewish community of Copenhagen . Specifically , Cantor states in describing his father : " Er ist aber in Kopenhagen geboren , von israelitischen Eltern , die der dortigen portugisischen Judengemeinde ... " ( " He was born in Copenhagen of Jewish ( lit : " Israelite " ) parents from the local Portuguese @-@ Jewish community . " ) In addition , Cantor 's maternal great uncle , a Hungarian violinist Josef Böhm , has been described as Jewish , which may imply that Cantor 's mother was at least partly descended from the Hungarian Jewish community . In a letter to Bertrand Russell , Cantor described his ancestry and self @-@ perception as follows : Neither my father nor my mother were of German blood , the first being a Dane , borne in Kopenhagen , my mother of Austrian Hungar descension . You must know , Sir , that I am not a regular just Germain , for I am born 3 March 1845 at Saint Peterborough , Capital of Russia , but I went with my father and mother and brothers and sister , eleven years old in the year 1856 , into Germany . = = Historiography = = Until the 1970s , the chief academic publications on Cantor were two short monographs by Schönflies ( 1927 ) – largely the correspondence with Mittag @-@ Leffler – and Fraenkel ( 1930 ) . Both were at second and third hand ; neither had much on his personal life . The gap was largely filled by Eric Temple Bell 's Men of Mathematics ( 1937 ) , which one of Cantor 's modern biographers describes as " perhaps the most widely read modern book on the history of mathematics " ; and as " one of the worst " . Bell presents Cantor 's relationship with his father as Oedipal , Cantor 's differences with Kronecker as a quarrel between two Jews , and Cantor 's madness as Romantic despair over his failure to win acceptance for his mathematics , and fills the picture with stereotypes . Grattan @-@ Guinness ( 1971 ) found that none of these claims were true , but they may be found in many books of the intervening period , owing to the absence of any other narrative . There are other legends , independent of Bell – including one that labels Cantor 's father a foundling , shipped to Saint Petersburg by unknown parents . A critique of Bell 's book is contained in Joseph Dauben 's biography . Writes Dauben : Cantor devoted some of his most vituperative correspondence , as well as a portion of the Beiträge , to attacking what he described at one point as the ' infinitesimal Cholera bacillus of mathematics ' , which had spread from Germany through the work of Thomae , du Bois Reymond and Stolz , to infect Italian mathematics ... Any acceptance of infinitesimals necessarily meant that his own theory of number was incomplete . Thus to accept the work of Thomae , du Bois @-@ Reymond , Stolz and Veronese was to deny the perfection of Cantor 's own creation . Understandably , Cantor launched a thorough campaign to discredit Veronese 's work in every way possible . = Bottlenose dolphin = Bottlenose dolphins , the genus Tursiops , are the most common and well @-@ known members of the family Delphinidae , the family of oceanic dolphin . Recent molecular studies show the genus contains two species , the common bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops truncatus ) and the Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphin ( Tursiops aduncus ) , instead of one . Research in 2011 revealed a third species , the Burrunan dolphin ( Tursiops australis ) . Bottlenose dolphins inhabit warm and temperate seas worldwide . Bottlenose dolphins live in groups typically of 10 – 30 members , called pods , but group size varies from single individuals up to more than 1 @,@ 000 . Their diets consist mainly of forage fish . Dolphins often work as a team to harvest fish schools , but they also hunt individually . Dolphins search for prey primarily using echolocation , which is similar to sonar . They emit clicking sounds and listen for the return echos to determine the location and shape of nearby items , including potential prey . Bottlenose dolphins also use sound for communication , including squeaks and whistles emitted from the blowhole and sounds emitted through body language , such as leaping from the water and slapping their tails on the water surface . Numerous investigations of bottlenose dolphin intelligence have been conducted , examining mimicry , use of artificial language , object categorization , and self @-@ recognition . They can use tools ( sponging ) and transmit cultural knowledge across generations , and their considerable intelligence has driven interaction with humans . Bottlenose dolphins are popular from aquarium shows and television programs such as Flipper . They have also been trained by militaries to locate sea mines or detect and mark enemy divers . In some areas , they cooperate with local fishermen by driving fish into their nets and eating the fish that escape . Some encounters with humans are harmful to the dolphins : people hunt them for food , and dolphins are killed inadvertently as a bycatch of tuna fishing and by getting caught in crab traps . Bottlenose dolphins have the second largest encephalization levels of any mammal on Earth ( humans have the largest ) , sharing close ratios with those of humans and other great apes , which more than likely attributes to their incredibly high intelligence and emotional intelligence . = = Taxonomy = = Scientists were long aware that Tursiops dolphins might consist of more than one species . Molecular genetics allowed much greater insight into this previously intractable problem . The IUCN acknowledges two species , although a third distinct species was described in 2011 : the common bottlenose dolphin ( T. truncatus ) is found in most tropical to temperate oceans , and it has a grey color , with the shade of grey varying among populations , but it can be bluish @-@ grey , brownish @-@ grey , or even nearly black , and is often darker on the back from the rostrum to behind the dorsal fin ; the Black Sea bottlenose dolphin ( T. t. ponticus ) , a subspecies of T. truncatus lives in the Black Sea ; The Pacific bottlenose dolphin ( T. gillii or T. t. gillii ) , another subspecies of T. truncatus , lives in the Pacific , and has a black line from the eye to the forehead ; the Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphin ( T. aduncus ) lives in the waters around India , northern Australia , South China , the Red Sea , and the eastern coast of Africa , with the back being dark @-@ grey and the belly being lighter grey or nearly white with grey spots ; the Burrunan dolphin ( T. australis ) , found in the Port Phillip and Gippsland Lakes areas of Victoria , Australia , was described in September 2011 after research showed it was distinct from T. truncatus and T. aduncus , but is not considered a separate species by the IUCN . The two ecotypes of the common bottlenose dolphin within the western North Atlantic are represented by the shallower water or coastal ecotype and the more offshore ecotype . Their ranges overlap , but they have been shown to be genetically distinct . They are not currently described , however , as separate species or subspecies . In general , genetic variation between populations is significant , even among nearby populations . As a result of this genetic variation , other distinct species currently considered to be populations of common bottlenose dolphin are possible . Old scientific data do not distinguish between the two species , making it useless for determining structural differences between them . The IUCN lists both species as data deficient on their Red List of endangered species because of this issue . Some recent genetic evidence suggests the Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose belongs in the genus Stenella , since it is more like the Atlantic spotted dolphin ( Stenella frontalis ) than the common bottlenose . = = = Hybrids = = = Bottlenose dolphins have been known to hybridize with other dolphin species . Hybrids with Risso 's dolphin occur both in the wild and in captivity . The best known is the wolphin , a false killer whale @-@ bottlenose dolphin hybrid . The wolphin is fertile , and two currently live at the Sea Life Park in Hawaii . The first was born in 1985 to a female bottlenose . Wolphins also exist in the wild . In captivity , a bottlenose dolphin and a rough @-@ toothed dolphin hybridized . A common dolphin @-@ bottlenose dolphin hybrid born in captivity lives at SeaWorld California . Other hybrids live in captivity around the world and in the wild , such as a bottlenose dolphin @-@ Atlantic spotted dolphin hybrid . = = Description = = Bottlenose dolphins are grey , varying from dark grey at the top near the dorsal fin to very light grey and almost white at the underside . This countershading makes them hard to see , both from above and below , when swimming . Adults range from 2 to 4 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 13 @.@ 1 ft ) , and 150 to 650 kilograms ( 330 to 1 @,@ 430 lb ) . Males are , on average , slightly longer and considerably heavier than females . In most parts of the world , the adults are about 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 @.@ 2 ft ) , and 200 to 300 kilograms ( 440 to 660 lb ) . Their size varies considerably with habitat . Except in the eastern Pacific , dolphins in warmer , shallower waters tend to be smaller than those in cooler , pelagic waters . Bottlenose dolphins can live for more than 40 years . = = Anatomy = = Their elongated upper and lower jaws form what is called a rostrum , or snout , which gives the animal its common name . The real , functional nose is the blowhole on top of its head ; the nasal septum is visible when the blowhole is open . Bottlenose dolphins have 18 to 28 conical teeth on each side of each jaw . The flukes ( lobes of the tail ) and dorsal fin are formed of dense connective tissue and do not contain bone or muscle . The animal propels itself by moving the flukes up and down . The pectoral flippers ( at the sides of the body ) are for steering ; they contain bones homologous to the forelimbs of land mammals . A bottlenose dolphin discovered in Japan has two additional pectoral fins , or " hind legs " , at the tail , about the size of a human 's pair of hands . Scientists believe a mutation caused the ancient trait to reassert itself as a form of atavism . = = Physiology and senses = = In colder waters , they have more body fat and blood , and are more suited to deeper diving . Typically , 18 % – 20 % of their bodyweight is blubber . Most research in this area has been restricted to the North Atlantic Ocean . Bottlenose dolphins typically swim at 5 to 11 km / h ( 1 @.@ 4 to 3 @.@ 1 m / s ) , but are capable of bursts of up to 29 to 35 km / h ( 8 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 7 m / s ) . The higher speeds can only be sustained for a short time . = = = Senses = = = The dolphin 's search for food is aided by a form of sonar known as echolocation : it locates objects by producing sounds and listening for the echos . A broadband burst pulse of clicking sounds is emitted in a focused beam in front of the dolphin . To hear the returning echo , they have two small ear openings behind the eyes , but most sound waves are transmitted to the inner ear through the lower jaw . As the object of interest is approached , the echo grows louder , and the dolphins adjust by decreasing the intensity of the emitted sounds . ( This contrasts with bats and sonar , which reduce sensitivity of the sound receptor . ) The interclick interval also decreases as the animal nears the target . Evidently , the dolphin waits for each click 's echo before clicking again . Echolocation details , such as signal strength , spectral qualities , and discrimination , are well @-@ understood by researchers . Bottlenose dolphins are also able to extract shape information , suggesting they are able to form an " echoic image " or sound picture of their targets . Dolphins have sharp eyesight . The eyes are located at the sides of the head and have a tapetum lucidum , or reflecting membrane , at the back of the retina , which aids vision in dim light . Their horseshoe @-@ shaped , double @-@ slit pupils enable dolphins to have good vision both in air and underwater , despite the different indices of refraction of these media . When under water , the eyeball 's lens serves to focus light , whereas in the in @-@ air environment , the typically bright light serves to contract the specialized pupil , resulting in sharpness from a smaller aperture ( similar to a pinhole camera ) . By contrast , a bottlenose 's sense of smell is poor , because its blowhole , the analogue to the nose , is closed when underwater and it opens only for breathing . It has no olfactory nerves or olfactory lobe in the brain . Bottlenose dolphins are able to detect salty , sweet , bitter ( quinine sulphate ) , and sour ( citric acid ) tastes , but this has not been well @-@ studied . Anecdotally , some individuals in captivity have been noted to have preferences for food fish types , although it is not clear if taste mediates this preference . = = = Communication = = = Bottlenose dolphins communicate through burst pulsed sounds , whistles , and body language . Examples of body language include leaping out of the water , snapping jaws , slapping the tail on the surface and butting heads . Sounds and gestures help keep track of other dolphins in the group , and alert other dolphins to danger and nearby food . Lacking vocal cords , they produce sounds using six air sacs near their blow hole . Each animal has a uniquely identifying , frequency @-@ modulated narrow @-@ band signature vocalization ( signature whistle ) . Researchers from the Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute ( BDRI ) , based in Sardinia ( Italy ) have now shown whistles and burst pulsed sounds are vital to the animals ' social life and mirror their behaviors . The tonal whistle sounds ( the most melodious ones ) allow dolphins to stay in contact with each other ( above all , mothers and offspring ) , and to coordinate hunting strategies . The burst @-@ pulsed sounds ( which are more complex and varied than the whistles ) are used " to avoid physical aggression in situations of high excitement " , such as when they are competing for the same piece of food , for example . The dolphins emit these strident sounds when in the presence of other individuals moving towards the same prey . The " least dominant " one soon moves away to avoid confrontation . Other communication uses about 30 distinguishable sounds , and although famously proposed by John Lilly in the 1950s , no " dolphin language " has been found . However , Herman , Richards , and Wolz demonstrated comprehension of an artificial language by two bottlenose dolphins ( named Akeakamai and Phoenix ) in the period of skepticism toward animal language following Herbert Terrace 's critique . = = Intelligence = = = = = Cognition = = = Cognitive abilities that have been investigated include concept formation , sensory skills , and mental representations . Such research has been ongoing since the 1970s . This includes : Acoustic and behavioral mimicry , Comprehension of novel sequences in an artificial language , Memory , Monitoring of self behavior , Discrimination and matching , Comprehension of symbols for various body parts , Comprehension of pointing gestures and gaze ( as made by dolphins or humans ) , Mirror self @-@ recognition , and Numerical values . = = = Tool use and culture = = = At least some wild bottlenose dolphins use tools . In Shark Bay , dolphins place a marine sponge on their rostrum , presumably to protect it when searching for food on the sandy sea bottom . This has only been observed in this bay ( first in 1997 ) , and is predominantly practiced by females . Sea otters are the only other known marine mammalian tool users . A 2005 study showed mothers most likely teach the behavior to their offspring , evincing culture ( behavior learned from other species members ) . Mud plume feeding is a feeding technique performed by a small community of bottlenose dolphins over shallow seagrass beds ( less than 1 m ) in the Florida Keys in the United States . The behavior involves creation of a U @-@ shaped plume of mud in the water column and then rushing through the plume to capture fish . Along the beaches and tidal marshes of South Carolina and Georgia in the United States , bottlenose dolphins cooperatively herd prey fish onto steep and sandy banks in a practice known as " strand feeding " . Groups of between two and six dolphins are regularly observed creating a bow wave to force the fish out of the water . The dolphins follow the fish , stranding themselves briefly , to eat their prey before twisting their bodies back and forth in order to slide back into the water . Some Mauritanian dolphins cooperate with human fishermen . The dolphins drive a school of fish towards the shore , where humans await with nets . In the confusion of casting nets , the dolphins catch a large number of fish as well . Intraspecies cooperative foraging has also been observed . These behaviors may also be transmitted via teaching . Controversially , Rendell and Whitehead have proposed a structure for the study of cetacean culture . Similar cases have been observed in Laguna , Santa Catarina in Brazil since during 19th century as well . Near Adelaide , in South Australia , three bottlenose dolphins ' tail @-@ walk ' , whereby they elevate the upper part of their bodies vertically out of the water , and propel themselves along the surface with powerful tail movements . Tail @-@ walking mostly arises via human training in dolphinaria . In the 1980s , a female from the local population was kept at a local dolphinarium for three weeks , and the scientist suggests she copied the tail @-@ walking behavior from other dolphins . Two other wild adult female dolphins have now copied it from her . = = = Cortical neurons = = = Some researchers theorize mammalian intelligence correlates to the number of nerve cells ( neurons ) in the cortex of the brain . The neocortical neuron number of the bottlenose dolphin is unknown . However , the species with the highest number of neocortical neurons known to date is the Long @-@ finned pilot whale . = = Life history = = = = = Respiration and sleep = = = The bottlenose dolphin has a single blowhole located on the dorsal surface of the head consisting of a hole and a muscular flap . The flap is closed during muscle relaxation and opens during contraction . Dolphins are voluntary breathers , who must deliberately surface and open their blowholes to get air . They can store almost twice as much oxygen in proportion to their body weight as a human can : the dolphin can store 36 milliliters ( ml ) of oxygen per kg of body weight , compared with 20 ml per kg for humans . This is an adaptation to diving . The bottlenose dolphin typically rises to the surface to breathe through its blowhole two to three times per minute , although it can remain submerged for up to 20 minutes . Dolphins can breathe while " half @-@ asleep " . During the sleeping cycle , one brain hemisphere remains active , while the other hemisphere shuts down . The active hemisphere handles surfacing and breathing behavior . The daily sleeping cycle lasts for about 8 hours , in increments of minutes to hours . During the sleeping cycle , they remain near the surface , swimming slowly or " logging " , and occasionally closing one eye . = = = Reproduction = = = Both sexes have genital slits on the underside of their bodies . The male can retract and conceal his penis through his slit . The female 's slit houses her vagina and anus . Females have two mammary slits , each housing one nipple , one on each side of the genital slit . The ability to stow their reproductive organs ( especially in males ) allows for maximum hydrodynamics . The breeding season produces significant physiological changes in males . At that time , the testes enlarge , enabling them to hold more sperm . Large amounts of sperm allow a male to wash away the previous suitor 's sperm , while leaving some of his own for fertilization . Also , sperm concentration markedly increases . Having less sperm for out @-@ of @-@ season social mating means it wastes less . This suggests sperm production is energetically expensive . Males have large testes in relation to their body size . During the breeding season , males compete for access to females . Such competition can take the form of fighting other males or of herding females to prevent access by other males . In Shark Bay , male bottlenose dolphins have been observed working in pairs or larger groups to follow and / or restrict the movement of a female for weeks at a time , waiting for her to become sexually receptive . These coalitions , also known as male reproductive alliances , will fight with other coalitions for control of females . Mating occurs belly to belly . Dolphins have been observed engaging in intercourse when the females are not in their estrous cycles and cannot produce young , suggesting they may mate for pleasure . The gestation period averages 12 months . Births can occur at any time of year , although peaks occur in warmer months . The young are born in shallow water , sometimes assisted by a ( possibly male ) " midwife " , and usually only a single calf is born . Twins are possible , but rare . Newborn bottlenose dolphins are 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 4 m ( 2 @.@ 6 to 4 @.@ 6 ft ) long and weigh 9 to 30 kg ( 20 to 66 lb ) , with Indo @-@ Pacific bottlenose dolphin infants being generally smaller than common bottlenose dolphin infants . To accelerate nursing , the mother can eject milk from her mammary glands . The calf suckles for 18 months to up to 8 years , and continues to closely associate with its mother for several years after weaning . Females sexually mature at ages 5 – 13 , males at ages 9 – 14 . Females reproduce every two to six years . Georgetown University professor Janet Mann argues the strong personal behavior among male calves is about bond formation and benefits the species in an evolutionary context . She cites studies showing these dolphins as adults are inseparable , and that early bonds aid protection , as well as in locating females . = = = Social interaction = = = Adult males live mostly alone or in groups of two to three , and join pods for short periods of time . Adult females and young dolphins normally live in groups of up to 15 animals . However , they live in fission @-@ fusion societies of varying group size , within which individuals change associations , often on a daily or hourly basis . Group compositions are usually determined by sex , age , reproductive condition , familial relations and affiliation histories . In a dolphin community near Sarasota , Florida , the most common group types are adults females with their recent offspring , older subadults of both sexes and adult males either alone or in bonded pairs . Smaller groups can join to form larger groups of 100 or more , and occasionally exceed 1 @,@ 000 . The social strategies of marine mammals such as bottlenose dolphins " provide interesting parallels " with the social strategies of elephants and chimpanzees . Bottlenose dolphins studied by Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute researchers off the island of Sardinia show random social behavior while feeding , and their social behavior does not depend on feeding activity . In Sardinia , the presence of a floating marine fin @-@ fish farm has been linked to a change in bottlenose dolphin distribution as a result of high fish density around the floating cages in the farming area . = = Ecology = = = = = Feeding = = = A dolphin 's diet consists mainly of small fish , crustaceans , and squid . Although this varies by location , many populations share an appetite for fish from the mullet , the tuna and mackerel , and the drum and croaker families . Its cone @-@ like teeth serve to grasp , but do not chew food . When they encounter a shoal of fish , they work as a team to herd them towards the shore to maximize the harvest . They also hunt alone , often targeting bottom @-@ dwelling species . The bottlenose dolphin sometimes hits a fish with its fluke , sometimes knocking it out of the water , using a strategy called " fish whacking " . " Strand feeding " , is an inherited feeding technique used by bottlenose dolphins near and around coastal regions of Georgia and South Carolina . When a pod finds a school of fish , they will circle the school and trap the fish in a mini whirlpool . Then , the dolphins will charge at the school and push their bodies up onto a mud @-@ flat , forcing the fish on the mud @-@ flat , as well . The dolphins then crawl around on their sides , consuming the fish they washed up on shore . One type of feeding behavior seen in bottlenose dolphins is mud ring feeding . Bottlenose dolphins conflict with small @-@ scale coastal commercial fisheries in some Mediterranean areas . Common bottlenose dolphins are probably attracted to fishing nets because they offer a concentrated food source . = = = Relations with other species = = = Dolphins can exhibit altruistic behaviour toward other sea creatures . On Mahia Beach , New Zealand , on March 10 , 2008 , two pygmy sperm whales , a female and calf , stranded on the beach . Rescuers , including Department of Conservation officer Malcolm Smith , attempted to refloat them four times . Shortly , a playful bottlenose dolphin known to local residents as Moko arrived and , after apparently vocalizing at the whales , led them 200 m ( 660 ft ) along a sandbar to the open sea , saving them from imminent euthanasia . The bottlenose dolphin can behave aggressively . Males fight for rank and access to females . During mating season , males compete vigorously with each other through displays of toughness and size , with a series of acts , such as head @-@ butting . They display aggression towards sharks and smaller dolphin species . At least one population , off Scotland , has practiced infanticide , and also has attacked and killed harbour porpoises . University of Aberdeen researchers say the dolphins do not eat their victims , but are simply competing for food . However , Dr. Read of Duke University , a porpoise expert researching similar cases of porpoise killings that had occurred in Virginia in 1996 and 1997 , holds a different view . He states dolphins and porpoises feed on different types of fish , thus food competition is an unlikely cause of the killings . Similar behaviour has been observed in Ireland . In the first half of July , 2014 , four attacks with three Porpoise fatalities were observed and caught on video by the Cardigan Bay Marine Wildlife Centre in the Cardigan Bay . The bottlenose dolphin sometimes forms mixed species groups with other species from the dolphin family , particularly larger species , such as the short @-@ finned pilot whale , the false killer whale and Risso 's dolphin . They also interact with smaller species , such as the Atlantic spotted dolphin and the rough @-@ toothed dolphin . While interactions with smaller species are sometimes affiliative , they can also be hostile . = = = Predators = = = Some large shark species , such as the tiger shark , the dusky shark , the great white shark and the bull shark , prey on the bottlenose dolphin , especially calves . The bottlenose dolphin is capable of defending itself by charging the predator ; dolphin ' mobbing ' behavior of sharks can occasionally prove fatal for the shark . Targeting a single adult dolphin can be dangerous for a shark of similar size . Killer whale populations in New Zealand and Peru have been observed preying on bottlenose dolphins , but this seems rare , and other orcas may swim with dolphins . Swimming in pods allows dolphins to better defend themselves against predators . Bottlenose dolphins either use complex evasive strategies to outswim their predators , or mobbing techniques to batter the predator to death or force it to flee . = = Relation to humans = = = = = Interaction = = = The species sometimes shows curiosity towards humans in or near water . Occasionally , they rescue injured divers by raising them to the surface . They also do this to help injured members of their own species . In November 2004 , a dramatic report of dolphin intervention came from New Zealand . Four lifeguards , swimming 100 m ( 330 ft ) off the coast near Whangarei , were approached by a shark ( reportedly a great white shark ) . Bottlenose dolphins herded the swimmers together and surrounded them for 40 minutes , preventing the shark from attacking , as they slowly swam to shore . In coastal regions , dolphins run the risk of colliding with boats . Researchers of the Bottlenose Dolphin Research Institute first quantified data about solitary bottlenose dolphin diving behavior in the presence and absence of boats . Dolphins responded more to tourist than fishing vessels . Driving behavior , speed , engine type and separation distance all affect dolphin safety . However , dolphins in these areas can also coexist with humans . For example , in the town of Laguna in south Brazil , a pod of bottlenose dolphins drives fish towards fishermen who stand at the beach in shallow waters . One dolphin then rolls over , after which the fishermen throw out their nets . The dolphins feed on the escaping fish . The dolphins were not trained for this behavior ; the collaboration began before 1847 . Similar cooperative fisheries also exist in Mauritania , Africa . Commercial ' dolphin encounter ' enterprises and tours operate in many countries . The documentary film " the Cove " documents how dolphins are captured and sold to these enterprises while the remaining pod is slaughtered . In addition to such endeavors , the individuals swim with and surface near surfers at the beach . Bottlenose dolphins perform in many aquaria , generating much controversy . Animal welfare activists and scientists have claimed that the dolphins do not have adequate space or receive adequate care or stimulation . However , others , notably SeaWorld , counter that the dolphins are properly cared for and enjoy interacting with humans . Eight bottlenose dolphins that lived at the Marine Life Aquarium in Gulfport , Mississippi were swept away from their aquarium pool during Hurricane Katrina . They were later found and returned to captivity from the Gulf of Mexico . The military of the United States and Russia train bottlenose dolphins as military dolphins for wartime tasks , such as locating sea mines and detecting enemy divers . The U.S. ' s program is the U.S. Navy Marine Mammal Program , located in San Diego . = = = Cultural influence = = = The popular television show Flipper , created by Ivan Tors , portrayed a bottlenose dolphin in a friendly relationship with two boys , Sandy and Bud . A seagoing Lassie , Flipper understood English and was a hero : " Go tell Dad we 're in trouble , Flipper ! Hurry ! " The show 's theme song contains the lyric " no one you see / is smarter than he " . The television show was based on a 1963 film , and was remade as a feature film in 1996 , starring Elijah Wood and Paul Hogan , as well as a second series running from 1995 to 2000 , starring Jessica Alba . Other television appearances by bottlenose dolphins include Dolphin Cove , seaQuest DSV , and The Penguins of Madagascar , in which a dolphin , Doctor Blowhole , is a villain . In the HBO movie Zeus and Roxanne , a female bottlenose dolphin befriends a male dog , and in Bermuda Triangle , a girl named Annie ( played by Lisa Jakub ) swims with dolphins . Human and dolphin interaction segments shot on location in the Florida Keys with Dolphin Research Center as seen on a Halloween episode of The Simpsons , Treehouse of Horror XI . Dolphin Tale , directed by Charles Martin Smith , starring Nathan Gamble , Ashley Judd , Harry Connick Jr . , Morgan Freeman , Cozi Zuehlsdorff and Kris Kristofferson , is based on the real @-@ life story of the dolphin Winter , who was rescued from a crab trap in December 2005 and lost her tail , but has learned to swim with a prosthetic one . Dolphin Tale 2 , a sequel to the 2011 film , featured another dolphin named Hope and an appearance by Bethany Hamilton . The sequel was released on September 12 , 2014 . Bottlenose dolphins have appeared in novels . In The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy and one of its sequels , So Long , and Thanks For All the Fish , the dolphins try to warn humans of Earth 's impending destruction , but their behavior was misinterpreted as playful acrobatics . Bottlenose dolphins are central to David Brin 's series of Uplift Universe novels , particularly Startide Rising , where they are one of the four Earth species ( along with chimpanzees , gorillas , and dogs ) to have been ' uplifted ' to sentience . Bottlenose dolphins are primary characters in Anne McCaffrey 's Dragonriders of Pern series , especially The Dolphins of Pern . Bottlenose dolphins are incorporated into the science fiction video game series Ecco the Dolphin . Delphineus , a dolphin , is featured in the video game EcoQuest : The Search for Cetus , helping the boy , Adam , to find the sea king Cetus ( a sperm whale ) , as well as assisting in cleaning up the underwater environment where he lives . T.D. , the Miami Dolphins ' mascot , uses the bottlenose dolphin as its mascot and team logo . Factual descriptions of the dolphins date back into antiquity – the writings of Aristotle , Oppian and Pliny the Elder all mention the species . = = = Threats = = = Bottlenose dolphins are still captured or killed in dolphin drive hunts for their meat , to eliminate competition for fish and for capture for marine parks . Bottlenose dolphins ( and several other dolphin species ) often travel with tuna , and can get caught in tuna nets , which can kill the dolphins . Boycotts of tuna products led to the concept of " dolphin @-@ safe " labeling for fishing methods that avoid endangering dolphins . The man @-@ made chemical perfluorooctanesulfonic acid ( PFOS ) may be compromising the immune system of bottlenose dolphins . PFOS affects the immune system of male mice at a concentration of 91 @.@ 5 ppb , while PFOS has been reported in bottlenose dolphins in excess of 1 ppm . High levels of metal contaminants have been measured in tissues in many areas of the globe . A recent study found high levels of cadmium and mercury in bottlenose dolphins from South Australia , levels which were later found to be associated with kidney malformations , indicating possible health effects of high heavy metal concentrations in dolphins . = = = Conservation = = = Bottlenose dolphins are not endangered . Their future is stable because of their abundance and adaptability . However , specific populations are threatened due to various environmental changes . The population in the Moray Firth in Scotland is estimated to consist of around 190 individuals , and are under threat from from harassment , traumatic injury , water pollution and reduction in food availability . Likewise , an isolated population in Doubtful Sound , New Zealand , is in decline due to calf loss coincident to an increase in warm freshwater discharge into the fjord . Less local climate change , such as increasing water temperature may also play a role but has never been shown to be the case . One of the largest coastal populations of bottlenose dolphins in Shark Bay , Western Australia was forecast to be stable with little variation in mortality over time ( Manlik et al . 2016 ) . In US waters , hunting and harassing of marine mammals is forbidden in almost all circumstances , from the passing of the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 . = 4 : The Remix = 4 : The Remix is an extended play ( EP ) by American R & B singer Beyoncé , released through Columbia Records on April 23 , 2012 . Prior to the release of the extended play , Beyoncé organised a remix competition for her then @-@ upcoming single " End of Time " . The remix was chosen by a judging panel and the winner of the competition was Radzimir " Jimek " Dębski . 4 : The Remix contains six remixes of the songs from Beyoncé 's fourth studio album , 4 , released in 2011 ; a Dave Audé remix of " Run the World ( Girls ) " , Isa Machine remix of " Countdown " , Lars B remix of " Best Thing I Never Had " , DJ Escape and Tony Coluccio remix of " Love on Top " and two remixes of " End of Time " by WAWA and JIMEK . After its release , the EP debuted on the UK R & B Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ eight . It also appeared on Billboard 's component charts , Dance / Electronic Albums and Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums at number eleven and number thirty respectively . = = Background = = On February 8 , 2012 , it was announced through Beyoncé 's website and a press release issued by Parkwood Entertainment and Columbia Records that " End of Time " would be released as the fifth single from her fourth studio album , 4 . Preceding its release , a remix competition for the song began in association with audio sharing site SoundCloud , which enabled public voting on the submission of remixes by participants . The contest was open to entrants in 25 countries from February 8 , 2012 to March 9 , 2012 ; it was announced that the remix winner would win a cash prize of US $ 4 @,@ 000 and that the remix would be included on her then @-@ unspecified upcoming release , which was later titled 4 : The Remix . Over two thousand entries had been uploaded to SoundCloud by March 4 , 2012 , and the following day another press release was issued , announcing the members of the international judging panel who would choose the winner of the competition ; the panel consisted of Beyoncé , British musician Isabella Summers of Florence and the Machine , Dutch music producer and DJ Afrojack , the duo DJ and Polish producing team WAWA , New York premier DJ Jus @-@ Ske , and Oscar @-@ winning producer and composer Giorgio Moroder . The public was able to vote for entries and SoundCloud , and the top 50 ranked remixes were reviewed by the announced panel of judges ; the originality , creativity and musicality of these 50 remixes were taken into consideration when choosing the winner . On April 17 , Radzimir " Jimek " Dębski from Poland was announced as the winner in a press release . = = Release and production = = On April 17 , 2012 , the release of the remix extended play ( EP ) titled 4 : The Remix , along with its cover artwork and US release date of April 24 , 2012 , was announced . The EP was released in digital stores in France , Ireland , United Kingdom , Belgium , Finland , Denmark , Australia , New Zealand , Greece , Netherlands , Sweden , Poland , Malta , Argentina , Colombia , Brazil , Mexico , Canada , and United States on April 23 , 2012 and South Korea on April 27 , 2012 . The album consists of six remixes of songs from Beyoncé 's fourth studio album , 4 ( 2011 ) . It comprises a Dave Audé remix of " Run the World ( Girls ) " , an Isa Machine remix of " Countdown " , a Lars B remix of " Best Thing I Never Had " , a DJ Escape and Tony Coluccio remix of " Love on Top " and two remixes of " End of Time " — one by WAWA and the other by Jimek . = = Chart performance = = 4 : The Remix debuted on the UK R & B Albums Chart at number twenty @-@ eight and number forty @-@ four on the UK Budget Albums for the week of May 5 , 2012 . For the issue of Billboard dated May 12 , 2012 , 4 : The Remix debuted at number eleven on the US Dance / Electronic Albums chart , and number thirty on the R & B / Hip Hop Albums chart . = = Track listing = = Writing credits for the songs are taken from the booklet of 4 . ( * ) Denotes co @-@ producer = = Credits and personnel = = Credits for 4 : The Remix , taken from the liner notes of the EP . = = Charts = = = = Release history = = = French cruiser Edgar Quinet = Edgar Quinet was an armored cruiser of the French Navy , the lead ship of her class . She and her sister ship , Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , were the last class of armored cruiser to be built by the French Navy . Edgar Quinet was laid down in November 1905 , launched in September 1907 , and completed in January 1911 . Armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) guns , she was more powerful than most other armored cruisers , but she had entered service more than two years after the first battlecruiser — HMS Invincible — had rendered armored cruisers obsolescent . At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Edgar Quinet participated in the hunt for the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and then joined the blockade of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy in the Adriatic . She took part in the Battle of Antivari later in August , and the seizure of Corfu in January 1916 , but saw no further action during the war . In 1922 , she evacuated over a thousand civilians from Smyrna during the climax of the Greco @-@ Turkish War . Converted into a training ship in the mid @-@ 1920s , Edgar Quinet ran aground on a rock off the Algerian coast on 4 January 1930 and sank five days later . = = Description = = Edgar Quinet was 158 @.@ 9 meters ( 521 ft ) long overall , with a beam of 21 @.@ 51 m ( 70 @.@ 6 ft ) and a draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 @.@ 6 ft ) . She displaced 13 @,@ 847 metric tons ( 13 @,@ 628 long tons ; 15 @,@ 264 short tons ) . Her power plant consisted of three triple @-@ expansion engines powered by forty coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers , which were trunked into six funnels in two groups of three . Her engines were rated at 36 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and produced a top speed of 23 knots ( 43 km / h ; 26 mph ) . She had a crew of between 859 and 892 officers and enlisted men . Edgar Quinet was armed with a main battery of fourteen 194 mm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) 50 @-@ caliber M1902 guns ; four were in twin gun turrets forward and aft , with three single gun turrets on either broadside . The last four guns were mounted in casemates abreast the main and aft conning towers . Close @-@ range defense against torpedo boats was provided by a battery of twenty 9 @-@ pounder guns in casemates in the ship 's hull . She was also equipped with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . She was protected with a armored belt that was 150 mm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) thick amidships . The gun turrets had 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating , while the casemates had marginally thinner protection , at 194 mm . The main conning tower had 200 mm thick sides . = = Service history = = Edgar Quinet was laid down at Brest in November 1905 and launched on 21 September 1907 . She was completed in January 1911 and commissioned into the French fleet . The ship was the most powerful armored cruiser completed by France , but she entered service two years after the British battlecruiser HMS Invincible , which rendered the armored cruiser obsolescent as a warship type . In 1913 , Edgar Quinet participated in an international naval demonstration in the Ionian Sea to protest the Balkan Wars . Ships from other navies included in the demonstration were the British pre @-@ dreadnought battleship HMS King Edward VII , the Austro @-@ Hungarian pre @-@ dreadnought SMS Zrínyi , the Italian pre @-@ dreadnought Ammiraglio di Saint Bon , and the German light cruiser SMS Breslau . The most important action of the combined flotilla , which was under the command of British Admiral Cecil Burney , was to blockade the Montenegrin coast . The goal of the blockade was to prevent Serbian reinforcements from supporting the siege at Scutari , where Montenegro had besieged a combined force of Albanians and Ottomans . Pressured by the international blockade , Serbia withdrew its army from Scutari , which was subsequently occupied by a joint Allied ground force . = = = World War I = = = At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , Edgar Quinet was anchored off Durazzo with the British cruiser HMS Defence and destroyer HMS Grampus and the German Breslau . The ships were moored there in a show of international support for a conference in Scutari over the status of Albania . Edgar Quinet and the armored cruisers Ernest Renan and Jules Michelet were mobilized as the First Light Division and tasked with hunting down the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben and her consort Breslau . These ships , along with a flotilla of twelve destroyers , were to steam to Philippeville on 4 August , but the German cruisers had bombarded the port the previous day . This attack , coupled with reports that suggested the Germans would try to break out of the Mediterranean into the Atlantic , prompted the French high command to send Edgar Quinet and the First Light Division further west , to Algiers . After the German ships escaped to Constantinople , rather than attack the French troop transports from North Africa as had been expected , Edgar Quinet joined the rest of the French fleet in its blockade of the Adriatic Sea , based out of Navarino . The fleet , commanded by Admiral Augustin Boué de Lapeyrère , had assembled by the night of 15 August ; the following morning , it conducted a sweep into the Adriatic and encountered the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta . In the ensuing Battle of Antivari , Zenta was sunk , with no losses on the French side . The French fleet then withdrew due to the threat of Austro @-@ Hungarian U @-@ boats in the area . On 8 January 1916 , Edgar Quinet , her sister Waldeck @-@ Rousseau , Ernest Renan and Jules Ferry embarked a contingent of Chasseurs Alpins ( mountain troops ) to seize the Greek island of Corfu . The cruisers sent the troops ashore on the night of 10 January ; the Greek officials on the island protested the move but offered no resistance . = = = Later career = = = Edgar Quinet continued her service in the eastern Mediterranean after the end of the war in 1918 . During the culmination of the Greco @-@ Turkish War that immediately followed World War I , Edgar Quinet rescued 1 @,@ 200 people from the Great Fire of Smyrna in 1922 . In 1925 , Edgar Quinet was converted into a training ship . The work lasted until 1927 , and included the reduction of her armament to ten of her 194 mm guns , the removal of two of her funnels , and a reconstruction of her bridge . Then @-@ Captain François Darlan commanded the ship in 1928 . In 1929 , Edgar Quinet underwent an overhaul ; during this modernization she was fitted with equipment to handle floatplanes for reconnaissance purposes . After returning to service , the ship was assigned as a training ship for cadets from the École Navale ( Naval Academy ) . On 4 January 1930 , Edgar Quinet ran aground off the coast of Algeria west of Oran and proved to be a total loss . She sank five days later . = Hammond organ = The Hammond organ is an electric organ , invented by Laurens Hammond and John M. Hanert and first manufactured in 1935 . Various models have been produced , most of which use sliding drawbars to create a variety of sounds . Until 1975 , Hammond organs generated sound by creating an electric current from rotating a metal tonewheel near an electromagnetic pickup , and then strengthening the signal with an amplifier so that it can drive a speaker cabinet . Around two million Hammond organs have been manufactured , and it has been described as one of the most successful organs . The organ is commonly used with , and associated with , the Leslie speaker . The organ was originally marketed and sold by the Hammond Organ Company to churches as a lower @-@ cost alternative to the wind @-@ driven pipe organ , or instead of a piano . It quickly became popular with professional jazz musicians in organ trios , a small group centred on the Hammond organ . Organ trios were hired by jazz club owners , who found that organ trios were a much cheaper alternative to hiring a big band . Jimmy Smith 's use of the Hammond B @-@ 3 , with its additional harmonic percussion feature , inspired a generation of organ players , and its use became more widespread in the 1960s and 1970s in rhythm and blues , rock and reggae , as well as being an important instrument in progressive rock . The Hammond Organ Company struggled financially during the 1970s as they abandoned tonewheel organs and switched to manufacturing instruments using integrated circuits . These instruments were not as popular with musicians as the tonewheels had been , and the company went out of business in 1985 . The Hammond name was purchased by the Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation , which proceeded to manufacture digital simulations of the most popular tonewheel organs . This culminated in the production of the " New B @-@ 3 " in 2002 , which provided an accurate recreation of the original B @-@ 3 organ using modern digital technology . Hammond @-@ Suzuki continues to manufacture a variety of organs for both professional players and churches . Other companies , such as Korg , Roland and Clavia , have also achieved success in providing emulations of the original tonewheel organs . The sound of a tonewheel Hammond can also be emulated using modern software such as Native Instruments B4 . = = Features = = A number of distinctive Hammond organ features are not usually found on other keyboards like the piano or synthesizer . Some are similar to a pipe organ , but others are unique to the instrument . = = = Keyboards and pedalboard = = = Most Hammond organs have two 61 @-@ note ( 5 @-@ octave ) manuals . Each manual is laid out in a similar manner to a piano keyboard , except pressing a key results in the sound continuously playing until it is released . There is no difference in volume regardless of how heavily the key is pressed , so overall volume is controlled by a pedal ( also known as a " swell " or " expression " pedal ) . The keys on each manual have a lightweight action , which allows players to perform rapid passages more easily than on a piano . In contrast to piano and pipe organ keys , Hammond keys have a flat @-@ front profile , commonly referred to as " waterfall " style . Early Hammond console models had sharp edges , but starting with the B @-@ 2 these were rounded , as they were cheaper to manufacture . The M series of spinets also had waterfall keys ( which has subsequently made them ideal for spares on B @-@ 3s and C @-@ 3s ) , but later models had " diving board " style keys which resembled those found on a church organ . Modern Hammond @-@ Suzuki models use waterfall keys . Hammond console organs come with a wooden pedalboard played with the feet , for bass notes . Most Hammond pedalboards have 25 notes , with the top note a middle C , because Hammond found that on traditional 32 @-@ note pedalboards used in churches , the top seven notes were seldom used . The Hammond Concert models E , RT , RT @-@ 2 , RT @-@ 3 and D @-@ 100 had 32 @-@ note American Guild of Organists ( AGO ) pedalboards going up to the G above middle C as the top note . The RT @-@ 2 , RT @-@ 3 and D @-@ 100 also contained a separate solo pedal system that had its own volume control and various other features . Spinet models had 12- or 13 @-@ note miniature pedalboards with stamped steel pedals . = = = Drawbars = = = The sound on a tonewheel Hammond organ is varied through the manipulation of drawbars . A drawbar is a metal slider that controls the volume of a particular sound component , in a similar way to a fader on an audio mixing board . As a drawbar is incrementally pulled out , it increases the volume of its sound . When pushed all the way in , the volume is decreased to zero . The labeling of the drawbar derives from the stop system in pipe organs , in which the physical length of the pipe corresponds to the pitch produced . Most Hammonds contain nine drawbars per manual . The drawbar marked " 8 ' " generates the fundamental of the note being played , the drawbar marked " 16 ' " is an octave below , and the drawbars marked " 4 ' " , " 2 ' " and " 1 ' " are one , two and three octaves above respectively . The other drawbars generate various other harmonics and subharmonics of the note . While each individual drawbar generates a relatively pure sound similar to a flute or electronic oscillator , more complex sounds can be created by mixing the drawbars in varying amounts . Some spinet models do not include the two subharmonic drawbars on the lower manual . Some drawbar settings have become well known and associated with certain musicians . A very popular setting is 888000000 ( i.e. , with the drawbars labelled " 16 ' " , " 51 / 3 ' " and " 8 ' " fully pulled out ) , and has been identified as the " classic " Jimmy Smith sound . = = = Presets = = = In addition to drawbars , many Hammond tonewheel organ models also include presets , which make predefined drawbar combinations available at the press of a button . Console organs have one octave of reverse colored keys ( naturals are black , sharps and flats are white ) to the left of each manual , with each key activating a preset ; the far left key ( C ) , also known as the cancel key , de @-@ activates all presets , and results in no sound coming from that manual . The two right @-@ most preset keys ( B and B ♭ ) activate the corresponding set of drawbars for that manual , while the other preset keys produce preselected drawbar settings that are internally wired into the preset panel . Presets can be changed by rerouting the associated color @-@ coded wires on the rear of the organ . Some spinet models have flip tabs for presets situated above the manuals . = = = Vibrato and chorus = = = Hammond organs have a built @-@ in vibrato effect that provides a small variation in pitch while a note is being played , and a chorus effect where a note 's sound is combined with another sound at a slightly different and varying pitch . The best known vibrato and chorus system consists of six settings , V1 , V2 , V3 , C1 , C2 and C3 ( i.e. , 3 vibrato and 3 chorus ) , which can be selected via a rotary switch . Vibrato / chorus can be selected for each manual independently . = = = Harmonic Percussion = = = The B @-@ 3 and C @-@ 3 models introduced the concept of " Harmonic Percussion " , which was designed to emulate the percussive sounds of the harp , xylophone and marimba . When selected , this feature plays a decaying second- or third @-@ harmonic overtone when a key is pressed . The selected percussion harmonic fades out , leaving the sustained tones the player selected with the drawbars . The volume of this percussive effect is selectable as either Normal or Soft . Harmonic Percussion retriggers only after all notes have been released , so legato passages sound the effect only on the very first note or chord , making Harmonic Percussion uniquely a " single @-@ trigger , polyphonic " effect = = = Leslie speaker controls = = = Hammond organs may have a console or pedal switch for controlling the rotation speed of a Leslie rotating speaker cabinet that is connected to the organ . The switch allows the player to toggle between fast ( tremolo ) and slow ( chorale ) rotation . The most distinctive effect occurs as the speaker rotation speed changes . The tasteful application of the different Leslie speed sound effects to Hammond organ playing is a distinctive part of the characteristic Hammond sound . = = = Start and Run switches = = = Before a Hammond organ can produce sound , the motor that drives the tonewheels must come up to speed . On most models , starting a Hammond organ involves two switches . The " Start " switch turns a dedicated starter motor , which must run for about 12 seconds . Then , the " Run " switch is turned on for about four seconds . The " Start " switch is then released , whereupon the organ is ready to generate sound . The H @-@ 100 and E @-@ series consoles and L @-@ 100 and T @-@ 100 spinet organs , however , had a self @-@ starting motor that required only a single " On " switch . It is possible to create a pitch bend on the Hammond organ by turning the " Run " switch off and on again . This briefly cuts power to the generators , causing them to run at a slower pace and generate a lower pitch for a short time . Hammond 's New B3 contains similar switches to emulate this effect , though it is a digital instrument . = = History = = = = = Background = = = The Hammond organ 's technology derives from the Telharmonium , an instrument created in 1897 by Thaddeus Cahill . The telharmonium used revolving electric alternators which generated tones that could be transmitted over wires . The instrument was bulky , because the alternators had to be large enough to generate high voltage for a loud enough signal . The Hammond organ solved this problem by using an amplifier . Laurens Hammond graduated from Cornell University with a mechanical engineering degree in 1916 . By the start of the 1920s he had designed a spring @-@ driven clock , which provided enough sales for him to start his own business , the Hammond Clock Company , in 1928 . As well as clocks , his early inventions included 3D glasses and an automatic bridge table shuffler . However , as the Great Depression continued into the 1930s , sales of the bridge table declined and he decided to look elsewhere for a commercially successful product . Hammond was inspired to create the tonewheel or " phonic wheel " by listening to the moving gears of his electric clocks and the tones produced by them . He gathered pieces from a second @-@ hand piano he had purchased for $ 15 and combined it with a tonewheel generator in a similar form to the telharmonium , albeit much shorter and more compact . Since Hammond was not a musician , he asked the company 's assistant treasurer , W. L. Lahey , to help him achieve the desired organ sound . To cut costs , Hammond made a pedalboard with only 25 notes , instead of the standard 32 on church organs , and it quickly became a de facto standard . On April 24 , 1934 , Hammond filed U.S. Patent 1 @,@ 956 @,@ 350 for an " electrical musical instrument " , which was personally delivered to the patent office by Hanert , explaining that they could start production immediately and it would be good for local employment in Chicago . The invention was unveiled to the public in April 1935 and the first model , the Model A , was made available in June of that year . Over 1 @,@ 750 churches purchased a Hammond organ in the first three years of manufacturing , and by the end of the 1930s over 200 instruments were being made each month . For all its subsequent success with professional musicians , the original company did not target its products at that market , principally because Hammond did not think there was enough money in it . It has been estimated that the Hammond Organ Company produced about two million instruments in its lifetime ; these have been described as " probably the most successful electronic organs ever made " . In 1966 , it was estimated that about 50 @,@ 000 churches had installed a Hammond . In 1936 , the Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) filed a complaint claiming that the Hammond Company made " false and misleading " claims in advertisements for its organ , including that the Hammond could produce " the entire range of tone coloring of a pipe organ " . The complaint resulted in lengthy hearing proceedings , which featured a series of auditory tests that pitted a Hammond costing about $ 2600 against a $ 75 @,@ 000 Skinner pipe organ in the University of Chicago Rockefeller Chapel . During the auditory tests , sustained tones and excerpts from musical works were played on the electric and pipe organs while a group of musicians and laymen attempted to distinguish between the instruments . While attorneys for Hammond argued that the test listeners were wrong or guessed nearly half the time , witnesses for the FTC claimed that Hammond employees had unfairly manipulated the Skinner organ to sound more like the Hammond . In 1938 , the FTC ordered Hammond to " cease and desist " a number of advertising claims , including that its instrument was equivalent to a $ 10 @,@ 000 pipe organ . After the FTC 's decision , Hammond claimed that the hearings had vindicated his company 's assertions that the organ produced " real " , " fine " , and " beautiful " music , phrases which were each cited in the FTC 's original complaint but not included in the " cease and desist " order . Hammond also claimed that although the hearing was expensive for his company , the proceedings generated so much publicity that " as a result we sold enough extra organs to cover the expense . " A key ingredient to the Hammond organ 's success was the use of dealerships and a sense of community . Several dedicated organ dealers set up business in the United States and there was a bi @-@ monthly newsletter , The Hammond Times , mailed out to subscribers . Advertisements tended to show families centered around the instrument , often with a child playing it , as an attempt to show the organ as a center @-@ point of home life and to encourage children to learn music . = = = Tonewheel organs = = = Hammond organs , as manufactured by the original company , can be divided into two main groups : Console organs have two 61 @-@ note manuals and a pedalboard of at least two octaves . Most consoles do not have a built @-@ in power amplifier or speakers , so an external amplifier and speaker cabinet is required . Spinet organs have two 44 @-@ note manuals and one octave of pedals , plus an internal power amplifier and set of speakers . = = = = Console organs = = = = The first model in production , in June 1935 , was the Model A. It contained most of the features that came to be standard on all console Hammonds , including two 61 @-@ key manuals , a 25 @-@ key pedalboard , an expression pedal , 12 reverse @-@ color preset keys , two sets of drawbars for each manual , and one for the pedals . To address concerns that the sound of the Hammond was not rich enough to accurately mimic a pipe organ , the model BC was introduced in December 1936 . It included a chorus generator , in which a second tonewheel system added slightly sharp or flat tones to the overall sound of each note . The cabinet was made deeper to accommodate this . Production of the old Model A cases stopped , but the older model continued to be available as the AB until October 1938 . Criticism that the Hammond organ was more aesthetically suitable to the home instead of the church led to the introduction of the model C in September 1939 . It contained the same internals as the AB or BC , but covered on the front and sides by " modesty panels " to allow for modesty while playing in a skirt , often a consideration when a church organ was placed in front of the congregation . The model C did not contain the chorus generator , but had space in the cabinet for it to be fitted . The concurrent model D was a model C with a pre @-@ fitted chorus . Development of the vibrato system took place during the early 1940s , and was put into production shortly after the end of World War II . The various models available were the BV and CV ( vibrato only ) and BCV and DV ( vibrato and chorus ) . The B @-@ 2 and C @-@ 2 , introduced in 1949 , allowed vibrato to be enabled or disabled on each manual separately . In 1954 , the B @-@ 3 and C @-@ 3 models were introduced with the additional harmonic percussion feature . Despite several attempts by Hammond to replace them , these two models remained popular and stayed in continuous production through early 1975 . To cater more specifically to the church market , Hammond introduced the Concert Model E in July 1937 , which included a full 32 @-@ note pedalboard and four electric switches known as toe pistons , allowing various sounds to be selected by the feet . The model E was replaced by the model RT in 1949 , which retained the full size pedalboard , but otherwise was internally identical to the B and C models . RT @-@ 2 and RT @-@ 3 models subsequently appeared in line with the B @-@ 2 / C @-@ 2 and B @-@ 3 / C @-@ 3 respectively . In 1959 , Hammond introduced the A @-@ 100 series . It was effectively a self @-@ contained version of the B @-@ 3 / C @-@ 3 , with an internal power amplifier and speakers . The organ was manufactured in a variety of different chassis , with the last two digits of the specific model number determining the style and finish of the instrument . For example , A @-@ 105 was " Tudor styling in light oak or walnut , " while the A @-@ 143 was " warm cherry finish , Early American styling " . This model numbering scheme was used for several other series of console and spinet organs that subsequently appeared . The D @-@ 100 series , which provided a self @-@ contained version of the RT @-@ 3 , followed in 1963 . The E @-@ 100 series was a cost @-@ reduced version of the A @-@ 100 introduced in 1965 , with only one set of drawbars per manual , a reduced number of presets , and a slightly different tone generator . This was followed by the H @-@ 100 series , with a redesigned tonewheel generator and various other additional features . Unfortunately , the organ was not particularly well made , and suffered a reputation for being unreliable . Hammond service engineer Harvey Olsen said " When they [ H @-@ 100s ] work , they sound pretty decent . But die @-@ hard enthusiasts won 't touch it . " = = = = Spinet organs = = = = Though the instrument had been originally designed for use in a church , Hammond realized that the amateur home market was a far more lucrative business , and started manufacturing spinet organs in the late 1940s . Outside of the United States , they were manufactured in greater numbers than the consoles , and hence were more widely used . Several different types of M series instruments were produced between 1948 and 1964 ; they contained two 44 @-@ note manuals with one set of drawbars each , and a 12 @-@ note pedalboard . The M model was produced from 1948 to 1951 , the M @-@ 2 from 1951 to 1955 , and the M @-@ 3 from 1955 to 1964 . The M series was replaced by the M @-@ 100 series in 1961 , which used a numbering system to identify the body style and finish as used on earlier console series . It included the same manuals as the M , but increased the pedalboard size to 13 notes , stretching a full octave , and included a number of presets . The L @-@ 100 series entered production at the same time as the M @-@ 100 . It was an economy version , with various cost cutting changes so the organ could retail for under $ 1000 . The vibrato was a simpler circuit than on other consoles and spinets . Two variations of the vibrato were provided , plus a chorus that mixed various vibrato signals together . The expression pedal , based on a cheaper design , was not as sophisticated as on the other organs . The L @-@ 100 was particularly popular in the UK and sold well , with several notable British musicians using it instead of a B @-@ 3 or C @-@ 3 . The T series , produced from 1968 to 1975 , was the last of the tonewheel spinet organs . Unlike all the earlier Hammond organs , which used vacuum tubes for pre @-@ amplification , amplification , Percussion and Chorus @-@ Vibrato control , the T series used all @-@ solid @-@ state , transistor circuitry , though , unlike the L @-@ 100 , it did include the scanner @-@ vibrato as seen on the B @-@ 3 . Other than the T @-@ 100 series models , all other T @-@ Series models included a built @-@ in rotating Leslie speaker and some included an analog drum machine , while the T @-@ 500 also included a built @-@ in cassette recorder . It was one of the last tonewheel Hammonds produced . = = = Transistor organs = = = In the 1960s , Hammond started making transistor organs . The first organ that bridged the gap between tonewheel and transistor was the X @-@ 66 , introduced in May 1967 . The X @-@ 66 contained just 12 tonewheels , and used electronics for frequency division . It contained separate " vibrato bass " and " vibrato treble " in an attempt to simulate a Leslie speaker . Hammond designed it as the company 's flagship product , in response to market competition and to replace the B @-@ 3 . However , it was considered expensive at $ 9 @,@ 795 and it sold poorly . It did not sound like a B @-@ 3 . Hammond introduced their first integrated circuit ( IC ) model , the Concorde , in 1971 . The company had stopped manufacturing tonewheel organs entirely by 1975 , due to increased financial inefficiency , and switched to making IC models full @-@ time . Console models included the 8000 Aurora ( 1976 ) and 8000M Aurora ( 1977 ) , which contained drawbars and a built @-@ in rotating speaker . Spinet organs included the Romance series , manufactured between 1977 and 1983 . In 1979 , a Japanese offshoot , Nihon Hammond , introduced the X @-@ 5 , a portable solid @-@ state clone of the B @-@ 3 . = = = Hammond @-@ Suzuki = = = Laurens Hammond died in 1973 , and the company struggled to survive , proposing an acquiring of Roland in 1972 , which was turned down . Roland 's Ikutaro Kakehashi did not believe it was practical at that point to move the entire manufacturing operation from Chicago to Japan , and also viewed Hammond 's declining sales figures as a problem . Hammond went out of business in 1985 , though servicing and spares continued to be available after this under the name of The Organ Service Company . In early 1986 , the Hammond brand and rights were acquired by Hammond Organ Australia , run by Noel Crabbe . The name was purchased by the Suzuki Musical Instrument Corporation in 1989 , who rebranded the company as Hammond @-@ Suzuki . Although nominally a Japanese company , founder Manji Suzuki was a fan of the instrument and retained several former Hammond Organ Company staff for research and development , and ensured that production would partially remain in the United States . The new company produced their own brand of portable organs , including the XB @-@ 2 , XB @-@ 3 and XB @-@ 5 . Sound on Sound 's Rod Spark , a longtime Hammond enthusiast , said these models were " a matter of taste , of course , but I don 't think they 're a patch on the old ones " . In 2002 , Hammond @-@ Suzuki relaunched the B @-@ 3 as the ' New B @-@ 3 ' , a re @-@ creation of the original electromechanical instrument using contemporary electronics and a digital tonewheel simulator . The New B @-@ 3 is constructed to appear like the original B @-@ 3 , and the designers attempted to retain the subtle nuances of the familiar B @-@ 3 sound . Hammond @-@ Suzuki promotional material states that it would be difficult for even an experienced B @-@ 3 player to distinguish between the old and new B @-@ 3 organs . A review of the New B @-@ 3 by Hugh Robjohns called it " a true replica of an original B @-@ 3 ... in terms of the look and layout , and the actual sound . " The instrument project nearly stalled after a breakdown in negotiations between Japanese and United States staff , the latter of whom insisted on manufacturing the case in the United States and designing the organ to identical specifications to the original . The company has since released the XK @-@ 3 , a single @-@ manual organ using the same digital tonewheel technology as the New B @-@ 3 . The XK @-@ 3 is part of a modular system that allows an integrated lower manual and pedals to be added . In response to some clones including a variety of vintage keyboards in a single package , Hammond released the SK series of organs , which include grand piano , Rhodes piano , Wurlitzer electronic piano , Hohner Clavinet and samples of wind and brass instruments alongside the standard drawbar and tonewheel emulation . Keyboard Magazine 's Stephen Fortner praised the single manual SK1 , indicated that it gave an accurate sound throughout the range of drawbar settings , and said the organ sound was " fat , warm , utterly authentic " . The XK @-@ 1c model was introduced in early 2014 , which is simply an organ @-@ only version of the SK1 . In the US , Hammond manufactures a number of dedicated console organs , including the B @-@ 3mk2 and the C @-@ 3mk2 , and the A @-@ 405 , a Chapel Console Organ . The company has a dedicated Church Advisory Team that provides a consultancy so that churches can choose the most appropriate instrument . = = Speakers = = = = = Tone cabinet = = = The authorized loudspeaker enclosure to use with a console organ was the Hammond Tone Cabinet , which housed an external amplifier and speaker in a box . The cabinet carried a balanced mono signal along with the necessary mains power directly from the organ , using a six @-@ pin cable . Spinet organs contained a built @-@ in power amplifier and loudspeakers , and so did not require a tone cabinet . The tone cabinet was originally the only method of adding reverb to a Hammond organ ; reverb was not fitted to older organs . The most commercially successful tone cabinets were probably the PR series , particularly the 40 @-@ watt PR40 . = = = Leslie speaker = = = Many players prefer to play the Hammond through a rotating speaker cabinet known , after several name changes , as a Leslie speaker , after its inventor Donald J. Leslie . The Leslie system is an integrated speaker / amplifier combination in which sound is emitted by a rotating horn over a stationary treble compression driver , and a rotating baffle beneath a stationary bass woofer . This creates a characteristic sound because of the constantly changing pitch shifts that result from the Doppler effect created by the moving sound sources . The Leslie was originally designed to mimic the complex tones and constantly shifting sources of sound emanating from a large group of ranks in a pipe organ . The effect varies depending on the speed of the rotors , which can be toggled between fast ( tremolo ) and slow ( chorale ) using a console or pedal switch , with the most distinctive effect occurring as the speaker rotation speed changes . The most popular Leslies were the 122 , which accepted a balanced signal suitable for console organs , and the 147 , which accepted an unbalanced signal and could be used for spinet organs with a suitable adapter . The Pro @-@ Line series of Leslies which were made to be portable for gigging bands using solid @-@ state amps were popular during the 1970s . Leslie initially tried to sell his invention to Hammond , but Laurens Hammond was unimpressed and declined to purchase it . Hammond modified their interface connectors to be " Leslie @-@ proof " , but Leslie quickly engineered a workaround . The Leslie company was sold to CBS in 1965 and was finally bought by Hammond in 1980 . Hammond @-@ Suzuki acquired the rights to Leslie in 1992 ; the company currently markets a variety of speakers under this name . As well as faithful reissues of the original 122 speaker , the company announced in 2013 that they would start manufacturing a standalone Leslie simulator in a stomp box . = = Tone generation = = Although they are sometimes included in the category of electronic organs , the majority of Hammond organs are , strictly speaking , electric or electromechanical rather than electronic organs because the sound is produced by moving parts rather than electronic oscillators . The basic component sound of a Hammond organ comes from a tonewheel . Each one rotates in front of an electromagnetic pickup . The variation in the magnetic field induces a small alternating current ( AC ) at a particular frequency , which represents a signal similar to a sine wave . When a key is pressed on the organ , it completes a circuit of nine electrical switches , which are linked to the drawbars . The position of the drawbars , combined with the switches selected by the key pressed , determines which tonewheels are allowed to sound . Every tonewheel is connected to a synchronous motor via a system of gears , which ensures that each note remains at a constant relative pitch to every other . The combined signal from all depressed keys and pedals is fed through to the vibrato system , which is driven by a metal scanner . As the scanner rotates around a set of pickups , it changes the pitch of the overall sound slightly . From here , the sound is sent to the main amplifier , and on to the audio speakers . The Hammond organ makes technical compromises in the notes it generates . Rather than produce harmonics that are exact multiples of the fundamental as in equal temperament , it uses the nearest @-@ available frequencies generated by the tonewheels . The only guaranteed frequency for a Hammond 's tuning is concert A at 440 Hz . Crosstalk or leakage occurs when the instrument 's magnetic pickups receive the signal from rotating metal tonewheels other than those selected by the organist . Hammond considered crosstalk a defect that required correcting , and in 1963 introduced a new level of resistor – capacitor ( R / C ) filtering to greatly reduce this crosstalk , along with 50 – 60 Hz mains hum . However , the sound of tonewheel crosstalk is now considered part of the signature of the Hammond organ , to the extent that modern digital clones explicitly emulate it . Some Hammond organs have an audible pop or click when a key is pressed . Originally , key click was considered a design defect and Hammond worked to eliminate or at least reduce it with equalization filters . However , many performers liked the percussive effect , and it has been accepted as part of the classic sound . Hammond research and development engineer Alan Young said " the professionals who were playing popular music [ liked ] that the attack was so prominent . And they objected when it was eliminated . " = = Clones and emulation devices = = The original Hammond organ was never designed to be transported regularly . A Hammond B @-@ 3 organ , bench , and pedalboard weighs 425 pounds ( 193 kg ) . This weight , combined with that of a Leslie speaker , makes the instrument cumbersome and difficult to move between venues . Consequently , there has been a demand for a more portable , reliable way of generating the same sound . Electronic and digital keyboards that imitate the sound of the Hammond are often referred to as " clonewheel organs " . The first attempts to electronically copy a Hammond appeared in the 1970s , including the Roland VK @-@ 1 and VK @-@ 9 , the Yamaha YP45D and the Crumar Organiser . The Korg CX @-@ 3 ( single manual ) and BX @-@ 3 ( dual manual ) were the first lightweight organs to produce a comparable sound to the original . Sound on Sound 's Gordon Reid said that the CX @-@ 3 " came close to emulating the true depth and passion of a vintage Hammond , " particularly when played through a Leslie speaker . The Roland VK @-@ 7 , introduced in 1997 , attempted to emulate the sound of a Hammond using digital signal processing technology . An updated version , the VK @-@ 8 , which appeared in 2002 , also provided emulations of other vintage keyboards and provided a connector for a Leslie . Clavia introduced the Nord Electro in 2001 ; this used buttons to emulate the physical action of pulling or pushing a drawbar , with an LED graph indicating its current state . Clavia has released several updated versions of the Electro since then , and introduced the Nord Stage with the same technology . The Nord C2D was Clavia 's first organ with real drawbars . Diversi , founded by former Hammond @-@ Suzuki sales rep Tom Tuson in 2003 , has specialised in Hammond clones , and featured a notable endorsement from Joey DeFrancesco . The Hammond organ has also been emulated in software . The most prominent emulator in this field has been the Native Instruments B4 series , which has been praised for its attention to detail and choice of features . Emagic ( now part of Apple ) has also produced a software emulation , the EVB3 . This has led to a Hammond organ module with all controls and features of the original instrument in the Logic Pro audio production suite . = = Notable users = = Early customers of the Hammond included Dr. Albert Schweitzer , Henry Ford , Eleanor Roosevelt and George Gershwin . The instrument was not initially favored by classical organ purists , because the tones of two notes an octave apart were in exact synchronization , as opposed to the slight variation present on a pipe organ . However , the instrument did gradually become popular with jazz players . One of the first performers to use the Hammond organ was Ethel Smith , who was known as the " first lady of the Hammond Organ " . Fats Waller and Count Basie also started using the Hammond . Organist John Medeski thinks the Hammond became " the poor man 's big band " , but because of that , it became more economical to book organ trios . Jimmy Smith began to play Hammond regularly in the 1950s , particularly in his sessions for the Blue Note label between 1956 and 1963 . He eschewed a bass player , and played all the bass parts himself using the pedals , generally using a walking bassline on the pedals in combination with percussive left hand chords . His trio format , composed of organ , guitar and drums , became internationally famous following an appearance at the Newport Jazz Festival in 1957 . Medeski says musicians " were inspired when they heard Jimmy Smith 's records . " " Brother " Jack McDuff switched from piano to Hammond in 1959 , and toured regularly throughout the 1960s and 70s . Keith Emerson was inspired to take up the Hammond by hearing McDuff 's arrangement of " Rock Candy " . Booker T Jones is cited as being the bridge from rhythm and blues to rock . British organist James Taylor said the Hammond " became popular [ in the UK ] when people such as Booker T & The MGs and artists on the Stax Records label came over to London and played gigs . " Matthew Fisher first encountered the Hammond in 1966 having heard the Small Faces ' Ian McLagan playing one . When Fisher asked if he could play it , McLagan told him " They 're yelling out for Hammond players ; why don 't you go out and buy one for yourself ? " Fisher went on to play the organ lines on Procol Harum 's A Whiter Shade Of Pale , which topped the UK charts in the summer of 1967 . Steve Winwood started his musical career with the Spencer Davis Group playing guitar and piano , but he switched to Hammond when he hired one to record " Gimme Some Lovin ' " . Gregg Allman became interested in the Hammond after Mike Finnigan had introduced him to Jimmy Smith 's music , and started to write material with it . His brother Duane specifically requested he play the instrument when forming the Allman Brothers Band , and he was presented with a brand new B @-@ 3 and Leslie 122RV upon joining . Allman recalls the instrument was cumbersome to transport , particularly on flights of stairs , which often required the whole band 's assistance . Author Frank Moriarty considers Allman 's Hammond playing a vital ingredient of the band 's sound . Deep Purple 's Jon Lord became inspired to play the Hammond after hearing Jimmy Smith 's " Walk on the Wild Side " . He modified his Hammond so it could be played through a Marshall stack to get a growling , overdriven sound , which became known as his trademark and he is strongly identified with it . This organ was later acquired by Joey DeFrancesco . Van der Graaf Generator 's Hugh Banton modified his Hammond E @-@ 100 extensively with customised electronics , including the ability to put effects such as distortion on one manual but not the other , and rewiring the motor . The modifications created , in Banton 's own words , " unimaginable sonic chaos . " The Hammond was a key instrument in progressive rock music . Author Edward Macan thinks this is because of its versatility , allowing both chords and lead lines to be played , and a choice between quiet and clean , and what Emerson described as a " tacky , aggressive , almost distorted , angry sound . " Emerson first found commercial success with the Nice , with whom he used and abused an L @-@ 100 , putting knives in the instrument , setting fire to it , playing it upside down , or riding it across stage in the manner of a horse . He continued to play the instrument in this manner alongside other keyboards in Emerson , Lake and Palmer . Other prominent Hammond organists in progressive rock include the Zombies ' and Argent 's Rod Argent , Yes 's Tony Kaye and Rick Wakeman , Focus 's Thijs van Leer , Uriah Heep 's Ken Hensley , Pink Floyd 's Rick Wright , Kansas 's Steve Walsh , and Genesis 's Tony Banks . Banks later claimed he only used the Hammond because a piano was impractical to transport to gigs . Ska and reggae music made frequent use of the Hammond throughout the 1960s and ' 70s . Junior Marvin started to play the instrument after hearing Booker T & The MGs ' " Green Onions " , although he complained about its weight . Winston Wright was regarded in the music scene of Jamaica as one of the best organ players , and used the Hammond when performing live with Toots and the Maytals , as well as playing it on sessions with Lee " Scratch " Perry , Jimmy Cliff and Gregory Isaacs . Tyrone Downie , best known as Bob Marley and the Wailers ' keyboard player , made prominent use of the Hammond on " No Woman , No Cry " , as recorded at the Lyceum Theatre , London , for the album Live ! The Hammond organ was perceived as outdated by the late 1970s , particularly in the UK , where it was often used to perform pop songs in social clubs . Punk and New Wave bands tended to prefer second @-@ hand combo organs from the 1960s , or use no keyboards at all . Other groups started taking advantage of cheaper and more portable synthesizers that were starting to come onto the market . The Stranglers ' Dave Greenfield was an exception to this , and used a Hammond onstage during the band 's early career . Andy Thompson , better known for being an aficionado of the Mellotron , stated that " the Hammond never really went away . There are a lot of studios that have had a B @-@ 3 or C @-@ 3 sitting away in there since the 70s . " The instrument underwent a brief renaissance in the 1980s with the mod revival movement . Taylor played the Hammond through the 1980s , first with the Prisoners and later with the James Taylor Quartet . The sound of the Hammond has appeared in hip @-@ hop music , albeit mostly via samples . A significant use is the Beastie Boys ' 1992 single " So What 'cha Want " , which features a Hammond mixed into the foreground ( the instrument was recorded live rather than being sampled ) . Jazz musicians continued to use Hammond organs into the 21st century . Barbara Dennerlein has received critical acclaim for her performances on the Hammond , particularly her use of the bass pedals , and has modified the instrument to include samplers triggered by the pedals . Joey DeFrancesco embraced the instrument during the 1990s , and later collaborated with Jimmy Smith . He is positive about the future of the Hammond organ , saying " Everybody loves it . It makes you feel good ... I think it 's bigger now than ever . " Grammy @-@ winning jazz keyboardist Cory Henry learned to play the Hammond organ at age two and used it on 2016 's The Revival . = The Way We Was =	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
" The Way We Was " is the twelfth episode of The Simpsons ' second season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1991 . In the episode , Marge tells the story of how she and Homer first met and fell in love . Flashing back to 1974 , we see how Homer falls in love with Marge in high school and tries to get close to her by enlisting her as his French tutor . After several hours of verb conjugation , Marge falls for Homer too , only to become enraged when he admits that he is not a French student . Marge rejects Homer 's invitation to the prom and goes with Artie Ziff . Artie turns out to be a terrible date and Marge realizes that it is Homer she really wants . The episode was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , and Sam Simon , and directed by David Silverman . It was the first flashback episode of The Simpsons . Jon Lovitz guest starred in it as Artie Ziff . The episode features cultural references to songs such as " The Joker " and " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " , and the television series Siskel & Ebert & the Movies . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 6 , and was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . = = Plot = = When the Simpsons ' television breaks down , Marge tells her children how she and Homer first met . The year is 1974 and Homer and Marge are both in their senior year of high school . Unlike Homer , Marge is a responsible student , but after she burns a bra at a feminist rally , she is sent to detention . Homer is also sent to detention along with his best friend Barney for smoking in the restroom . When Homer sees Marge for the first time as she enters the detention room , he instantly falls in love . Despite his father Abraham 's warning that he is wasting his time , Homer is determined to win Marge 's heart . To impress Marge , Homer joins the debate team , of which Marge is a member . At a debate , Homer finds out that Marge is more interested in the more articulate Artie Ziff . Therefore , Homer pretends to be a French student so that he can be tutored by Marge and when Homer asks Marge to the senior prom she accepts . However , when Homer confesses that he is not really a French student , Marge is furious at him for making her lose sleep for a debate tournament the next morning . She ultimately loses to Artie , who asks her to be his partner to the prom ; she agrees . Homer does not realize that Marge has changed her plans , and so he shows up at her house for prom night to pick her up . Moments later Artie shows up , causing confusion to Marge 's family , and a despondent Homer leaves . Undaunted , he decides to go to the prom alone . At the prom , Artie and Marge are voted prom king and queen , and the two share the first dance . Meanwhile , Homer , heartbroken , leaves and cries in the hallway . After the prom , Artie tries to get romantic with Marge in the backseat of his car : after he pushes his luck too far , she slaps him and demands to be taken home . Meanwhile , Homer 's limousine time has run out , and without any money , he decides to walk home . Along the way Marge and Artie pass by Homer . After Artie drops Marge off at her house , she returns in her car to pick up Homer , realizing that he was the man for her all along . Homer manages to fix up the strap of Marge 's dress with the corsage that he got her after Artie ruined it from his earlier attempt . = = Production = = The episode was written by Al Jean , Mike Reiss , and Sam Simon , and directed by David Silverman . Jon Lovitz guest starred as Artie . It was his first guest appearance on The Simpsons , but he has appeared many times since . Artie 's departing line to Marge after he drops her off was supposed to be " Good night . I 'm Artie Ziff ! " , but short on time , the editors shortened it to just " Good night ? " . Characters making their first appearance on the show in this episode are Wiseguy , Artie , Rainier Wolfcastle ( as the fictional action hero McBain ) , Principal Dondelinger , and Marge ’ s father . Artie 's appearance and body language is based on a man Silverman went to high school with named Mark Eisenberg . Silverman said that when he directed the episode , he went through his high school yearbook for character ideas and designs , because Silverman went to high school in the period that the episode is parodying . Wolfcastle 's voice and design was based on actor Arnold Schwarzenegger . The writers actually invented Wolfcastle for the episode " Oh Brother , Where Art Thou ? " , before " The Way We Was " went into production , but since " The Way We Was " aired before it is still considered his first appearance . The character was originally named McBain , after the film franchise that he stars in . When the film McBain was released in 1991 , after the episode had aired , the films ' producers refused to allow the show to use the name in future episodes , so the name Rainier Wolfcastle , to represent the actor 's real name , was created to use instead . Later , the use of the name McBain returned to the show . " The Way We Was " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 31 , 1991 . The episode was , together with " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " , selected for release in a video collection titled The Best of The Simpsons , that was released May 26 , 1998 . The episode was also included on The Simpsons season two DVD set , which was released on August 6 , 2002 . Jean , Reiss , Silverman , Matt Groening , and James L. Brooks participated in the DVD 's audio commentary . An action figure set based on the episode was released by Winning Moves . It featured the characters Homer , Marge , Artie , Barney , Grampa , Patty , and Selma , all in their flashback designs . In April 2002 , as part of an EB Games exclusive , action figures of Marge and Homer in their prom outfits were released by Playmates Toys . An action figure of Artie was also released in June 2004 as part of the wave sixteen release of the World of Springfield series of action figures by Playmates Toys . = = Cultural references = = The television show that the Simpson family watches at the beginning of the episode , in which the two reviewers discuss the latest McBain film , is a parody of the American television series Siskel & Ebert & the Movies . In the flashback sequence , Homer is seen singing along to the 1973 song " The Joker " by the Steve Miller Band while driving to school . Pink Floyd and Led Zeppelin posters hang on the wall of Homer 's 1974 bedroom . The 1970 song " ( They Long to Be ) Close to You " by The Carpenters is heard when Homer sees Marge for the first time . Homer eats a bucket of Shakespeare Fried Chicken when he reveals his feelings towards Marge to Grampa . At the debate , Homer disagrees about the idea of lowering the United States national speed limit to 55 mph ( 90 km / h ) , arguing that " Sure , it 'll save a few lives , but millions will be late ! " This is a reference to the National Maximum Speed Law provision of the 1974 Emergency Highway Energy Conservation Act that prohibited speed limits higher than 55 mph . Barney asks a girl named Estelle if she wants to go to the prom with him , but she tells him that she would not go to the prom with him even if he were American actor Elliott Gould . Artie says he can think of a dozen highly cogent arguments to why Marge should accept his prom offer , one of which is from a Time magazine titled " America 's Love Affair with the Prom : Even wallflowers can look forward to one date a year , " a reference to the American magazine Time . Songs played in the episode include " The Streak " by Ray Stevens , " Goodbye Yellow Brick Road " by Elton John , " Colour My World " by Chicago , " Pick Up the Pieces " by Average White Band , and " The Hustle " by Van McCoy . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " The Way We Was " finished sixteenth in the ratings for the week of January 28 – February 3 , 1991 , with a Nielsen rating of 15 @.@ 6 , equivalent to 14 @.@ 5 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Since airing , the episode has received positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A superb episode . Some colorful background for Homer and Marge ( and a glimpse of Homer and Barney 's schooldays ) plus our introduction to the world of the McBain films . Excellent . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought the episode was a " fine program " , and added that Lovitz made Artie " amusingly annoying " . Jacobson thought the episode captured the " tone of the mid @-@ Seventies with warmth and insight " , and the courtship " seemed charming but not sappy , and the show worked well overall . " Jacobson 's favorite line of the episode was Grampa 's advice to Homer about Marge , " Oh , son , don ’ t overreach ! Go for the dented car , the dead @-@ end job , the less attractive girl ! " When Homer arrives at the Bouvier house to pick up Marge for the prom , Selma tells Patty " Marge 's dates get homelier all the time , " to which Patty replies " That 's what you get when you don 't put out . " Dawn Taylor of The DVD Journal thought these were the best lines of the episode . IGN ranked Lovitz as the eighth best guest star in the show 's history . In his book Drawn to Television – Prime @-@ time Animation from the Flintstones to Family Guy , Keith Booker wrote : " The episode details in a rather sentimental fashion the early struggles of the irresponsible Homer to support his new family [ ... ] Such background episodes add an extra dimension to the portrayal of the animated Simpson family , making them seem oddly real and adding weight to their status as a family with a long history together . " = Apiary Laboratory = The Apiary Laboratory , more often referred to as the Apiary , is a research laboratory at the University of Massachusetts Amherst . Originally built for the study of honey bees and apiculture , today it is primarily used to study native pollinator species and the chemicals and pathogens impacting their populations . This academic building is unique in that it is credited as being the first in the United States to be erected exclusively for the teaching of beekeeping . Prior to the construction of the building , the Massachusetts Agricultural College had maintained a beekeeping program for a number of years as one of the first land @-@ grant agricultural colleges to teach the subject in the United States . In time , techniques in apiculture progressed , leaving beekeeping as no longer simply a hobby , but rather a viable agricultural business . The college 's program had remained limited to a single short @-@ course for a number of years but was expanded however , when in 1911 , a bill passed establishing the office of " state apiary inspector " . Dr. Burton N. Gates , the man first appointed to this position was also the college beekeeping lecturer at the time , and would oversee the expansion of the program as an asset to the college and a service to the state in the years to come . Construction began on the apiary in February 1911 and with its completion in June of the following year for a total cost of $ 3000 . At the time the building contained a laboratory , a wintering cellar , a wood workshop , an office with a comprehensive library of apicultural books , honey and wax extraction rooms and a two @-@ person apartment used by student tenants . It was also the first structure built in the college orchard , a section of campus now known as the Central housing area . In the time that Gates was there , research focused mainly on honey production , brood diseases , wax extraction and horticultural pollination in the cucumber and cranberry industries . From 1913 to 1920 the laboratory was also operated by a superintendent , John L. Byard , hired on by Gates to maintain the facilities from day to day as well as perform wax extractions and other services to beekeepers from around the state . Following Gates ' resignation in 1918 , the school ceased to offer its summer beekeeping school , many of its state extension services , and the college went through several different professors before hiring Frank R. Shaw as the new professor of beekeeping in 1931 . With Shaw 's retirement in 1969 , the laboratory was rededicated to urban and medical entomology research , with the former beekeeping program falling into relative obscurity . At the present time the apiary is used exclusively for research on native pollinator decline and ecology , with the last beekeeping classes taught at the university nearly a decade ago . The building is currently on the university 's " defer and do not reinvest list " , suggesting that it will ultimately be dismantled at some point in the near future . = = History = = = = = Origins of the beekeeping program = = = Since the early days of its founding as the Massachusetts Agricultural College , UMass Amherst has maintained apiculture and ecological studies of bees throughout much of its history . In 1870 the first short courses on beekeeping were taught at the college by Alonzo Bradley Esq . , an expert on honeybee behavior and the president of the Massachusetts Beekeepers ' Association at the time . These lectures were given for several of the years that followed and appear to be " the first instruction in the subject given in any agricultural college in this country " as indicated by H.T. Fernald in his account of the college 's history . Only two decades earlier western Massachusetts had been home to Lorenzo Langstroth , a man considered to be the father of modern apiculture . Although he had spent much of his time developing his innovative hive ( now considered an international standard ) in Philadelphia , in 1852 he moved to Greenfield , Massachusetts to recover from illness and further his study of honeybee behavior . In the following year he published his widely acclaimed primer , The Hive and the Honey @-@ Bee at the Hopkins , Bridgman & Co. press of Northampton . ; this book , having gone through several editions since , has become a mainstay of American beekeeping literature . One of Langstroth 's own apprentices , James Fitts Wood , would go on to serve as the lecturer of beekeeping at the agricultural college for several years . During this time he continued to make significant contributions in queen @-@ rearing and became known in the apicultural community for developing a strain of notably docile Italian honeybees . Despite his success in academia and apiculture , Wood unfortunately would not live to see the establishment of the college apiary , he died after a period serious illness on February 15 , 1905 at the age of 44 . = = = Construction of the apiary = = = The idea of a campus apiary was first conceived for the sole purpose of pollinating the campus orchard . However , by the time the facilities had been built , President Kenyon L. Butterfield and his administration had seen and realized a much greater purpose and potential in it than was previously considered . Around this time beekeeping was considered a new business venture which had otherwise been thought of as a hobby or side business of farmers for many decades prior . Just as much of the pioneer work in beekeeping originated in New England , Massachusetts was one of the first states to create a " State Inspector of Apiaries . " The man who first led UMass ’ s beekeeping program , a Dr. Burton N. Gates , was also the first to fill this position . As the apiary ’ s first professor , he was originally hired part @-@ time to give a series of lectures as a guest speaker during the spring semester of 1906 . This would continue until 1910 when the administration hired him as a permanent faculty member , and concurrently built the new apicultural laboratory , equipped with all modern amenities of its time . They saw the opportunity they had , to further research on the diseases and ecology of the honey bee , something that up to that point had never been pursued so thoroughly by a public organization of higher education . In 1911 , ground was broken on the site of the " old creamery building " at the foot of Mount Pleasant for the new apiary building and yards , and by June of the following year the building had been completed for a total cost of $ 3000 . At the time of its completion , the grounds contained several species of native nectar @-@ yielding flowers and were home to fifty bee colonies of multiple races . The building itself contained wax and honey extraction rooms , a wintering cellar , an office with an extensive library of beekeeping books , a wood workshop , a laboratory and a two @-@ person apartment occupied by student caretakers . As the apiary became a research laboratory , classroom and an extension service to the state , the demand increased for these services and thus it became necessary to maintain additional hives . It is for these reasons that , in 1913 , Dr. Gates hired John L. Byard as superintendent of the apiary . Some of Byard 's responsibilities included performing wax extractions , running the college 's apicultural exhibit at fairs and maintaining the hive yard from day to day . He would continue to maintain the building , the equipment and the hives until his death in 1920 ; professors Henry T. Fernald and Arthur I. Bourne would continue his work until his successor arrived the following year . Gates had been promoted from an assistant to an associate professor in 1915 , and had continued to work both as a lecturer and as the apiarist of the experimental station . From 1913 to 1914 he was made president of the National Beekeepers ' Association , twice hosting conventions in Amherst concluding the college 's winter and spring sessions of the college beekeeping school . However , in 1918 he left Amherst for a professorship at the Ontario Agricultural College in Guelph , leaving his former position open for the two years that followed . Gates ' and Byard 's duties would be taken up by several different people in the next decade . From 1921 to 1923 all beekeeping and apiology work at the Experimental Station was taken up by Professor Norman Phillips , who soon resigned for a job at a commercial apiary . He was replaced by Professor Morton H. Cassidy , an alumnus of the college , who stayed for 3 more years but ultimately had to resign due to his severe asthma . In 1926 , a Mr. Clayton L. Farrar was made instructor of beekeeping . Farrar , a graduate of Kansas Agricultural College , also performed extensive work on several entomology projects as a research assistant before leaving in 1931 to work at a Federal laboratory . = = = Contemporary history = = = In the span of only a decade the apiary laboratory had been run by 4 different faculty members until finally , in 1931 , a new and more permanent apiology instructor , Frank R. Shaw , was hired . Shaw , a student at the time , had previously been hired on in 1930 as assistant entomologist to the college Experimental Station , but with the resignation of Farrar , his responsibilities would shift as he began to teach courses in beekeeping and pollinator ecology . In 1935 , he was made an " Instructor in Economic Entomology and Beekeeping " while concurrently finishing his Ph.D. of entomology at Cornell University . In 1944 , Shaw left to serve in the Second World War . Eventually , he would be promoted from being an instructor to an assistant professor in 1954 . UMass would continue to offer beekeeping courses and maintain a beekeeping section of the entomology department right up through the 1970s , however it appears there was never another superintendent hired to replace Byard and much of the extension work to state beekeepers seems to have ceased . Professor Shaw went on to coauthor a comprehensive beekeeping and ecology textbook with UC Davis apiologist John Eckert . This textbook , intended to replace the beekeeping text of the same name by renowned apiculturalist E. F. Phillips , would be published for a total of seven editions from 1960 through 1977 . Shaw retired in 1969 at the age of 61 , he would be the first and last " Professor of Beekeeping " to do so as the position was abolished immediately after . Following his retirement , a student scholarship fund for the department of entomology was set up by the department in Shaw 's name . From the late 1970s through the mid @-@ 1990s the laboratory was rededicated to medical and urban entomology , with Professor John Edman running projects on mosquitos as vectors and Professor Ron Prokopy focusing on orchard pest control . In 1982 , the wintering cellar in the basement of the lab was converted into laboratories , and the workshop was relocated to the garage adjacent to the building that was constructed that same year . Since 2005 , the Apiary has housed part of the Laboratory of Medical Zoology ( LMZ ) under direction of Dr. Stephen Rich . LMZ uses the lab space for studies of ticks and mosquito vectors of infectious disease . = = Research = = The department of entomology has done several studies in apiculture , chemical ecology , horticultural pollination , and the behavior of honeybee and bumblebee colonies . Although some research was done in the apiary yards , the majority of data had to be collected with higher numbers of colonies at different experimental stations . Today the laboratory is used to conduct research on native pollinator decline for the Managed Pollinator Coordinated Agricultural Project . = = = Selected publications = = = Gates , Burton Noble ( 1908 ) . Bee Diseases in Massachusetts . Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station . OCLC 632090550 . Ferrar , Clayton Leon ( 1931 ) . A measure of some factors affecting the development of the bee colony . Massachusetts State College . OCLC 14982766 . Shaw , Frank Robert ( 1938 ) . Bees for the beginner ( in Massachusetts ) . Amherst , MA : Massachusetts State College Extension Service . OCLC 18718351 . Savos , Milton George ( 1954 ) . A study of some of the physical factors influencing the sugar concentration of nectar . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 15183228 . Sutherland , Donald J. ( 1957 ) . The effect of certain modern pesticides on Apis mellifera L. and Bombus spp . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 15187508 . Lupien , John R. ( 1960 ) . The effects of Sevin , alone and in fungicidal combinations , and DDT on the honey bee , Apis mellifera L. Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 14960318 . Grahame , Robert Edward ( 1967 ) . The comparative toxicity of selected organic phosphate and carbamate insecticides to the honey bee . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts . OCLC 15037242 . Pan , Zhiliang ( 1997 ) . The culture of bee forage crops . Amherst , MA : University of Massachusetts Amherst . OCLC 39669471 . = = Coursework = = In the decade following the building 's construction , multiple courses were taught in apiculture and honeybee behavior . In 1911 , there were 20 college @-@ owned bee colonies as well as several lent by the faculty , and a five course program taught in the summer semester at the college . Within five years the college had assembled 50 hives and an extensive collection of apicultural books and equipment . In the year that followed , a summer beekeeping school was held , composed of five courses taught in previous years with the addition of a class in horticulture : 1 . Practical beekeeping . Lectures : laboratory practice in the general work of the beekeeper ; beekeeping equipment , practices in the preparation of materials , location of the apiary ; commencing with bees , handling of bees , practice in beeyard procedure ; spring manipulation , fall preparation , wintering ; extracted honey production ; bee diseases and their treatment , apiary sanitation ; making increase , elements of queen rearing , etc . Burton N. Gates , Associate Professor of Beekeeping John L. Byard , Superintendent of the Apiary 2 . Life of the honeybee . Lectures . Henry T. Fernald , Professor of Entomology 3 . Special problems of the beekeeper . Lectures : demonstrations in requeening , the races of bees , the introduction of queens ; swarming and handling swarms , comb honey production , enemies of bees . James B. Paige , Professor of Veterinary Science 4 . Crops foraged by bees . Lectures : field excursions . William P. Brooks , Director of the Experiment Station 5 . The relation of bees to the pollination of plants , including coloration , odor , nectar secretion . Lectures : laboratory work in blossom structure and dissection . A. Vincent Osmun , Associate Professor of Botany 6 . Bees in horticultural practices ; fruit production , market gardening , cranberry culture and greenhouse cucumber growing ; beekeeping as affected by spraying practices . Lectures : field work . Walter W. Chenoweth , Associate Professor of Pomology From the 1920s through the 1970s the laboratory was used mainly for faculty and graduate research , with two courses offered to undergraduate students in introductory and advanced beekeeping as well as a single course offered to the public in the summers . There was a brief time in the spring semesters of 2001 and 2002 that an introductory course in beekeeping was offered , however , with the reorganization of the department of entomology these classes have since ceased . = = Architecture and landscape = = Although now encompassed by trees and other academic buildings , the apiary was surrounded by fields and orchards at the time of its construction . Early photographs show the hive yard was originally 2 acres in size , extending several hundred feet south of the property 's present @-@ day boundaries in what has since been developed into a residential neighborhood . The building itself was built into the side of Mount Pleasant , with the entire east side of its basement completely covered by the ground . This " banked barn " design was likely used to allow pallets of beehives to be transported with ease from the yards to the wintering cellar , while alternatively making the temperature of the building more easily controlled for their storage . The building currently has two dormers on opposite sides of the roof , but neither seems to be part of the original structure . Older photos as late as 1918 show the roof without any windows implying they were added at some later date . Being the building 's most prominent design feature , the Gambrel roof would later influence Louis Warren Ross , architect and an alumnus of the college , in his design of the Butterfield dormitory which , for a time , was the only other building on the hill . Since the Apiary and Butterfield Hall are the only two buildings on campus to exhibit this architectural motif , it seems likely that this was incorporated in the latter 's design to compliment the former . = Requiem for a Species = Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change is a 2010 non @-@ fiction book by Australian academic Clive Hamilton which explores climate change denial and its implications . It argues that climate change will bring about large @-@ scale , harmful consequences for habitability for life on Earth including humans , which it is too late to prevent . Hamilton explores why politicians , corporations and the public deny or refuse to act on this reality . He invokes a variety of explanations , including wishful thinking , ideology , consumer culture and active lobbying by the fossil fuel industry . The book builds on the author 's fifteen @-@ year prior history of writing about these subjects , with previous books including Growth Fetish and Scorcher : The Dirty Politics of Climate Change . Requiem for a Species has been reviewed in Resurgence magazine , Socialist Review , Sydney Morning Herald , The Age , The Common Review , and Times Higher Education , which named it " Book of the Week " . Extracts of the book have appeared in The Guardian and Geographical magazine . The book won a 2010 Queensland Premier 's Literary Award . = = Themes = = Hamilton points out that there have been many reports and books over the years explaining the climate change problem and just how ominous the future looks for humanity . He says Requiem for a Species is primarily about why those warnings have been ignored . Hamilton considers that sometimes an inconvenient truth may be too difficult to bear : Sometimes facing up to the truth is just too hard . When the facts are distressing it is easier to reframe or ignore them . Around the world only a few have truly faced up to the facts about global warming ... It 's the same with our own deaths ; we all " accept " that we will die , but it is only when our death is imminent that we confront the true meaning of our mortality . The most immediate reason for the failure to act on global warming is seen to be the " sustained and often ruthless exercise of political power by the corporations who stand to lose from a shift to low- and zero @-@ carbon energy systems " . Hamilton cites numerous journalists and authors who have documented the influence of large companies such as ExxonMobil , Rio Tinto Group and General Motors . Hamilton makes his argument in three stages : Firstly , he reviews the evidence about how serious the situation is already and how much worse it will get . Secondly , he examines the roots of denial , both in terms of resistance to the evidence and in relation to the actors and agencies motivated to deny climate change . Lastly , he looks at some future scenarios and explains what people should do . Hamilton suggests that the foundations of climate change denial lie in the reaction of American conservatism to the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 . He argues that as the " red menace " receded , conservatives who had put energy into opposing communism sought other outlets . Hamilton contends that the conservative backlash against climate science was led by three prominent physicists -- Frederick Seitz , Robert Jastrow , and William Nierenberg . In 1984 Seitz , Jastrow and Nierenberg founded the George C. Marshall Institute , and in the 1990s the Marshall Institute 's main activity was attacking climate science . When describing climate science , Hamilton says that official numbers published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) are highly cautious , and so the real effects of climate change will likely be even more severe . His conclusion is that it will not be possible to stabilise emissions : ... even with the most optimistic set of assumptions -- the ending of deforestation , a halving of emissions associated with food production , global emissions peaking in 2020 and then falling by 3 per cent a year for a few decades -- we have no chance of preventing emissions rising well above a number of critical tipping points that will spark uncontrollable climate change . The Earth 's climate would enter a chaotic era lasting thousands of years before natural processes eventually establish some sort of equilibrium . Whether human beings would still be a force on the planet , or even survive , is a moot point . One thing seems certain : there will be far fewer of us . In terms of Australia , Hamilton says that " Australians in 2050 will be living in a nation transformed by a changing climate , with widespread doubt over whether we will make it to the end of the century in a land that is recognisably Australian " . = = Reception = = Michael Lynn in The Common Review says that Requiem for a Species explores the gulf between acknowledgment and acceptance of climate change . Lynn explains that the gulf has two main origins and no easy solution : Hamilton ... argues that the gulf has two primary origins : the enormity of its consequences and the way it challenges how we as individuals and as societies have constructed our identities over the past three centuries . In doing so , he suggests that meeting the challenge of climate change requires far more than implementing the right policies and making minor adjustments in our lifestyles . Instead , it implies remaking our psyches and societies on a scale unseen since the dawn of the modern age . The Times Higher Education listed Requiem for a Species as " Book of the week " for 3 June 2010 . Steven Yearley 's review calls it a " provocative and sobering book " . He says the heart of the book are the many explanations that Hamilton puts forward for the everyday , regular denial of the danger of changing climate . Yearley says this is also the most frustrating aspect of Requiem for a Species , because Hamilton proposes so many different explanations but does not make their relative significance clear . David Shearman , in a review for Doctors for the Environment Australia , says that " Clive Hamilton is one of Australia 's most notable public intellectuals , his work is careful and balanced , he presents the facts as they are and has written a book which is uncomfortable for all " . According to Shearman , Hamilton 's treatment of the topic of denial is one of the best available . Mike Hulme , in Resurgence magazine , agrees with the " consumption fetish " and " spiritual malaise " of humanity that Hamilton describes . But , according to Hulme , Hamilton has underestimated the " innovative and creative potential of collective humanity " and he has put too much faith in the infallibility of science 's predictions about future climate risks . Hulme believes that Hamilton " is placing too much weight on the foresight of science to provide his desired revolution , rather than calling for it more honestly and directly through political , psychological or spiritual engagement " . Kelsey Munro reviewed the book in the Sydney Morning Herald and The Age , suggesting that it is pessimistic and does not present any false hope . But he says pessimism is not the same thing as fatalism , and Hamilton believes there is still an urgent need for government intervention to avoid worst @-@ case scenarios by reducing emissions . Munro also points out that some eminent climate scientists , like Princeton University 's Michael Oppenheimer , remain optimistic that humanity will act before it is too late . Camilla Royle reviewed Requiem for a Species in Socialist Review and recommends it for those who want to get a clearer idea of climate change science . She says that Hamilton is understandably angry at the corporate lobbyists who have encouraged climate change denial . Royle suggests that Hamilton accepts that " we should at least try to do something about climate change " , but he " doesn 't give much idea of what that something is " . There was a book launch for Requiem for a Species on 24 March 2010 at The University of Queensland and another on 29 March 2010 at the Australian National University ( ANU ) . An extract of the book appeared in The Guardian on 16 April 2010 . Geographical magazine published another extract in August 2010 . The book won the 2010 " Queensland Premier 's Literary Award for a work Advancing Public Debate " . = = Author = = At the time of publication , Clive Hamilton was Professor of Public Ethics at the Centre for Applied Philosophy and Public Ethics ( CAPPE ) at Australia . Before taking up his position at CAPPE , he was executive director and founder of The Australia Institute , a forward @-@ looking think tank . = = Publishing information = = Hamilton , Clive ( 2010 ) . Requiem for a Species : Why We Resist the Truth about Climate Change . Earthscan . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 84971 @-@ 081 @-@ 7 . The book is available as an eBook document as well as a paper publication . = The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe = " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " is an episode of the British science fiction television series Doctor Who . First broadcast on BBC One on 25 December 2011 , it is the seventh Christmas special since the show 's revival in 2005 . It was written by Steven Moffat and directed by Farren Blackburn . Internationally , the special was shown on BBC America in the United States and on Space in Canada the same day as the British broadcast , with ABC1 in Australia showing it one day later . In the special , alien time traveller the Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is the caretaker of recently widowed Madge Arwell ( Claire Skinner ) and her children Lily ( Holly Earl ) and Cyril ( Maurice Cole ) during their holiday vacation away from the London Blitz . The Doctor plans to take them on a treat to a snowy planet through a portal in a present he has placed under the Christmas tree , but Cyril opens it before Christmas and wanders through . While looking for him , the others learn that the trees of the planet are about to be melted down with acid rain for energy . " The Doctor , the Widow , and the Wardrobe " marked the end of Piers Wenger 's tenure as executive producer , and the debut of Caroline Skinner in the same position . Adapting elements of C.S. Lewis 's children 's novel The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , Moffat intended the episode to be the most " Christmassy " of the Doctor Who Christmas specials , while Blackburn felt there was " magic " in it . It was filmed in September and October 2011 , with some scenes taking place in an authentic Lancaster bomber . " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was watched by 10 @.@ 77 million viewers in the United Kingdom , making it the third most @-@ watched programme on Christmas Day . Critical reception to the episode was mixed , and some felt that the high @-@ profile comedic guest stars Bill Bailey and Arabella Weir were underused . = = Plot = = = = = Prequel = = = On 6 December 2011 , a prequel to the episode was released online . The Doctor ( Matt Smith ) is seen on a spaceship holding a red button which , when he lets go , will cause the space ship to explode . While holding the button , he has phoned the TARDIS to speak to Amy Pond asking her to rescue him , although he does not have his co @-@ ordinates , Amy cannot fly the TARDIS , and she is not on the TARDIS . The Doctor wishes Amy a Merry Christmas before letting go of the button , and the spaceship explodes . = = = Synopsis = = = During the Christmas season of 1938 , an alien spacecraft approaches Earth ready to destroy it when it suddenly explodes courtesy of the Doctor who escapes the ship and then falls to Earth by rapidly donning an impact space suit , though in his haste , the helmet is put on backwards . On crashing to Earth , he is found by Madge Arwell ( Claire Skinner ) , wife of Reg ( Alexander Amstrong ) and mother of two children , Lily ( Holly Earl ) and Cyril ( Maurice Cole ) . She helps the Doctor to his TARDIS , and the Doctor promises to repay her for her kindness . Three years later , during World War II , Reg is reported missing in action when the Lancaster bomber he was piloting disappeared over the English Channel . Madge is told this via telegram just before Christmas , but decides not to tell her children yet , hoping to keep their spirits up through the holiday . Madge and the children evacuate London to a relative 's house in Dorset , where they are greeted by the Doctor , calling himself " the Caretaker " ; Madge does not recognise him from their previous encounter , as his face had been hidden by the backwards helmet . The Doctor has prepared the house specially for the children and the holiday ; though the children are pleased , Madge privately explains about Reg 's death to the Doctor and insists he not overindulge the children . During the first night , Cyril is lured into opening a large glowing present under the Christmas tree , revealing a time portal to a snow @-@ covered forest . The Doctor shortly discovers Cyril 's absence and follows him with Lily ; they eventually track Cyril to a strange lighthouse @-@ like structure . Madge , finding her children missing , soon follows them into the forest , but is met by three miners in space suits from the planet Androzani Major ( Bill Bailey , Paul Bazely , and Arabella Weir ) . She holds them at gunpoint and is taken back to their excavation walker and told that the forest of the planet they are on is scheduled to be melted by acid rain within minutes , killing anything within it . At the lighthouse , Cyril is met by a humanoid creature made of wood ; it places a simple band of metal around his head like a crown . Lily and the Doctor arrive , followed by another wood creature , but find the creatures have rejected Cyril as he is " weak " , as they do the Doctor . The Doctor concludes that the life forces of the trees in the forest are trying to escape through a living creature , the crown acting as an interface . The miners are teleported away safely before the rain starts after helping Madge locate her missing children . Madge , using the limited flying skills taught to her by Reg , directs the walker to the lighthouse and safely reunites with her children as the acid rain starts . The wood creatures identify her as " strong " , and the Doctor realises they consider her the " mothership " , able to carry the life force safely . Donning the band , Madge absorbs the life force of the forest , allowing her to direct the top of the lighthouse as an escape pod away from the acid rain and into the time vortex . To get them home , the Doctor directs her to think of memories of home , allowing Madge to revisit her fond memories of Reg , shown on screens within the pod . The Doctor urges her to continue to show even Reg 's death , revealing to Lily and Cyril what happened to their father . Soon , the escape pod safely leaves the time vortex , landing just outside the house in Dorset , and the life force of the forest have converted themselves to ethereal beings within the time vortex . The Doctor steps outside while Madge starts to explain Reg 's death to Lily and Cyril , but he returns to interrupt her and to tell her to come outside . There stands Reg and his Lancaster ; he had followed the bright light of the escape pod into the time vortex and came out safely along with the pod at Dorset . The family has a tearful reunion as the Doctor watches . As Madge and her family turns to celebrate Christmas , the Doctor attempts to slip away , but Madge catches him , and as she sees the TARDIS realises that he is the man in the space suit from three years before . She insists on his staying for Christmas dinner , but the Doctor reveals he has other friends who believe he is dead . Madge convinces him to go to see them . The Doctor offers Madge his help if she ever needs it again . Later , the Doctor arrives outside the home of Amy ( Karen Gillan ) and Rory ( Arthur Darvill ) , two years since he left them there ( " The God Complex " ) . They invite him to have Christmas dinner , as they had always set him a place at the dinner table . Unseen by them , the Doctor wipes away a tear of joy . = = Production = = " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was written by head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat , who wanted it to be " the most Christmassy Christmas special ever " . He stated that " nothing is more fun to write " than the Doctor at Christmas , as he considered it " his kind of day . Everything 's bright and shiny , everybody 's having a laugh , and nobody minds if you wear a really stupid hat " . The story is partly inspired by The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe ( from The Chronicles of Narnia ) by C. S. Lewis . Moffat said that Doctor Who and the Narnia stories " come from the same impulse that children have of escaping to another world . " The scene in which the Doctor is showing the Arwells around the house originally included a scene in a " haunted coal cellar " . The characters of Ven @-@ Garr and Billis are named after outgoing executive producers Piers Wenger and Beth Willis , both of whom served with Moffat . The three tree harvesters are from Androzani Major in the year 5345 , a planet which features in the serial The Caves of Androzani ( 1984 ) . The Doctor mentions the Forest of Cheem , which appeared in the Ninth Doctor episode " The End of the World " . He mentions that one of them fancied him , and during that episode one sacrificed her life for him . " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " marks the debut of Caroline Skinner and sees the end of Wenger as executive producers . The two had previously worked together ; Moffat commented it " will be the smoothest hand @-@ over we 've done " . The special was directed by Farren Blackburn , who had previously worked with Skinner on The Fades . Blackburn stated that he was " daunted , thrilled and excited at the same time " about the job and that it was " tough " . Blackburn 's favorite sequences to direct was the opening sequence and the scenes set on the winter planet , where he " really felt like [ he ] was making a movie " . When asked about the tone he wished to create , Blackburn replied , I would say there is a kind of mix . It goes through several worlds . It 's most definitely a classic action @-@ adventure but I think it merges into the Edwardian children 's story and there 's a sort of Tim Burton @-@ esque magic about it as well . I think there 's a magic throughout the episode , but there is an underlying suspense and tension and darkness to it as well . So I think it merges those three things with an awful lot of Christmas about it . The British Broadcasting Corporation ( BBC ) announced in September 2011 that production had started for the special and filming was due to be complete by mid October 2011 . Filming was disrupted on 30 September due to a 24 @-@ hour protest at BBC Wales because of compulsory redundancies . The opening sequence set in the corridors of a spaceship was filmed on 20 September 2011 at Uskmouth Power Station . As the conditions were very noisy , the crew had to wear ear protectors . Filming of some scenes involving Alexander Armstrong took place in and around the Lancaster bomber Just Jane at the Lincolnshire Aviation Heritage Centre on 3 October 2011 . External footage of the lighthouse building took place in the Forest of Dean , Gloucestershire . Smith stated , " It was a really tough shoot . Out in a forest , at night , and because there were children involved , some shooting schedules had to change radically , we 'd often have to shoot through , no breaks – you get lunch at midnight or something . " = = = Casting = = = Alexander Armstrong was a regular on the Doctor Who spin @-@ off The Sarah Jane Adventures as the voice of alien computer Mr Smith . Mr Smith appeared in Doctor Who in the crossover episodes " The Stolen Earth " and " Journey 's End " . Paul Kasey is credited as the Wooden Queen ; Kasey has appeared in many Doctor Who episodes as various monsters , including Ood Sigma in The End of Time , Nephew in " The Doctor 's Wife " , and a Cyberman in " Closing Time " . Doctor Who Magazine , in its preview of the special , refers to as Madge , Cyril and Lily as companions , with nine @-@ year @-@ old Maurice Cole 's Cyril Arwell defined as the youngest companion in the history of the franchise . Arabella Weir previously appeared as an alternate incarnation of the Third Doctor in the Doctor Who Unbound audio drama Exile . Weir was " genuinely surprised and completely thrilled " to be offered the part . Bill Bailey was pleased to be given a comedic human character , explaining , " The fact that I am almost playing a human means the expressions are easier to do . If I was an Ood , with a face full of tentacles , that would have been harder to bring the funny " . = = Broadcast and reception = = " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on 25 December 2011 , Christmas Day , on BBC One and on the same date on BBC America in the United States , and Space in Canada . In Australia it was shown on 26 December on ABC1 . In the UK , overnight ratings showed that the special was watched by 8 @.@ 9 million , coming in fourth for Christmas Day . The final consolidated rating was 10 @.@ 77 million viewers , ranking Doctor Who third for both Christmas Day and the entire week . On BBC 's online iPlayer , " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " was watched 434 @,@ 000 times by 6 January 2012 . The special received an Appreciation Index of 84 . = = = Critical reception = = = The special has received generally good reviews . Dan Martin of The Guardian noted that it was " the smallest – yet perhaps the most enchanting – Christmas special we 've had to date " . Noting that it featured a typical " doomed spaceship " , the threat was not to the universe but one family 's happiness , and the only enemies were " some misguided and underdeveloped polluters " , he concluded that " Any other time of year I would gnaw holes all over this , but it 's Christmas , and today it felt perfect " . He felt that Skinner held the episode together and the appearance of Amy " made Christmas all the more special " . However , his " major niggle " was that everything was the Doctor 's fault , as he left the present while knowing that most children would open their presents before Christmas . Michael Hogan , writing for The Telegraph , gave the special four and a half out of five stars . He thought that the cast of comedians were " rather under @-@ utilised " but thought that Skinner " excelled " and Smith was also " brilliant " . Neela Debnath of The Independent described the episode as " the perfect recipe for a Christmas special " , particularly praising the touching moments . In the same paper 's DVD review , Ben Walsh gave " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " four out of five stars , calling it " best Doctor Who Christmas Special for some years " . He commented that " the eco @-@ message is a bit laboured , but the central tragedy that powers this scatty episode is a poignant one " . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern was pleased , despite noting that he had low expectations for the special . He particularly praised Smith 's performance , although he noted that the " heart @-@ warming " scene with Amy and Rory called for a " companions shake @-@ up " next series . Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club gave " The Doctor , the Widow and the Wardrobe " an A- , feeling that it could stand proudly beside " A Christmas Carol " , the previous Christmas special . IGN 's Matt Risley rated the episode an 8 out of 10 , calling it more " classically , indulgently , infectiously Christmassy " than the previous Christmas specials . He praised the production design and special effects teams for " creating some dazzlingly memorable special effects , and a winter wonderland that was both recognisably , fuzzily Christmas incarnate and unerringly , tensely alien " but thought the supporting cast " triumphed above and beyond " the plot devices . Like Hogan , Risley commented that the comedian cast of Bailey and Weir as well as Armstrong " felt lacking " . However , the next year , Risley wrote that he " got a little carried away with the festive funtimes ... On reflection , the overwhelming Christmassyness of it all was overcompensating for a pretty flimsy , frivolous plot . " Nick Setchfield of SFX gave the special four out of five stars , praising Smith 's acting and Blackburn 's Doctor Who directing debut as well as the special effects . However , he thought that the lack of a villain was an " interesting experiment , but maybe not ideal for Christmas Day " and Bailey and Weir 's forest rangers " felt like bolt @-@ on comic relief " . = = = DVD release = = = The ten Christmas specials between " The Christmas Invasion " and " Last Christmas " inclusive were released in a boxset titled Doctor Who – The 10 Christmas Specials on 19 October 2015 . = = Soundtrack = = Selected pieces of score from " The Doctor , the Widow , and the Wardrobe " and the following Christmas special , as composed by Murray Gold , were included on a soundtrack released on 21 October 2013 by Silva Screen Records . = Stephen Báthory = Stephen Báthory ( Hungarian : Báthory István ; Polish : Stefan Batory ; Belarusian : Sciapan Batura ; Lithuanian : Steponas Batoras ; Romanian : Ştefan Báthory ; 27 September 1533 – 12 December 1586 ) was Voivode of Transylvania ( 1571 – 76 ) , Prince of Transylvania ( 1576 – 86 ) , from 1576 Queen Anna Jagiellon 's husband and jure uxoris King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania ( 1576 @-@ 1586 ) . The son of Stephen VIII Báthory and a member of the Hungarian Báthory noble family , Báthory was a ruler of Transylvania in the 1570s , defeating another challenger for that title , Gáspár Bekes . In 1576 Báthory became the third elected king of Poland . He worked closely with chancellor Jan Zamoyski . The first years of his reign were focused on establishing power , defeating a fellow claimant to the throne , Maximilian II , Holy Roman Emperor , and quelling rebellions , most notably , the Danzig rebellion . He reigned only a decade , but is considered one of the most successful kings in Polish history , particularly in the realm of military history . His signal achievement was his victorious campaign in Livonia against Russia in the middle part of his reign , in which he repulsed a Russian invasion of Commonwealth borderlands and secured a highly favorable treaty of peace ( the Peace of Jam Zapolski ) . = = Life = = Stephen Báthory was born on 27 September 1533 in the castle at Somlyó , also known as Szilágysomlyó ( today 's Şimleu Silvaniei ) . He was the son of Stephen VIII Báthory ( d . 1534 ) of the noble Hungarian Báthory family and his wife Catherine Telegdi . He had at least five siblings : two brothers and three sisters . Little is known about his childhood . Around 1549 @-@ 1550 he briefly visited Italy and likely spent a few months attending lectures at the Padua University . Upon his return , he joined the army of Ferdinand I , Holy Roman Emperor , and took part in his military struggle against the Turks . Some time after 1553 Báthory was captured by the Turks , and after Ferdinand I refused to pay his ransom , Báthory joined the opposing side , supporting John II Sigismund Zápolya in his struggle for power in the Eastern Hungarian Kingdom . As Zápolya 's supporter , Báthory acted both as a feudal lord , military commander and a diplomat . During one of his trips to Vienna he was put under house arrest for two years . During this time Báthory fell out of favour at Zápolya 's court , and his position was largely assumed by another Hungarian noble , Gáspár Bekes . Báthory briefly retired from politics , but he still wielded considerable influence and was seen as a possible successor to Zápolya . After Zápolya 's death in 1571 , the Transylvanian estates elected Báthory Voivode of Transylvania . Bekes , supported by the Habsburgs , disputed his election , but by 1573 Báthory emerged victorious in the resulting civil war and drove Bekes out of Transylvania . He subsequently attempted to play the Ottomans and the Holy Roman Empire against one another in an attempt to strengthen the Transylvania position . = = Elected king = = In 1572 , the throne of the Polish – Lithuanian Commonwealth , at the time the largest and one of the most populous states in Europe , was vacated when King Sigismund II of Poland died without heirs . The Sejm was given the power to elect a new king , and in the Polish – Lithuanian royal election , 1573 chose Henry of France ; Henry soon ascended the French throne and forfeited the Polish one by returning to France . Báthory decided to enter into the election ; in the meantime he had to defeat another attempt by Bekes to challenge his authority in Transylvania , which he did by defeating Bekes at the Battle of Sinpaul . On 12 December 1575 , after an interregnum of roughly one and a half years , primate of Poland Jakub Uchański , representing a pro @-@ Habsburg faction , declared Emperor Maximilian II as the new monarch . However , chancellor Jan Zamoyski and others opponents of Habsburgs persuaded many of the lesser nobility to demand a Piast king , a Polish king . After a heated discussion , it was decided that Anna Jagiellon , sister of former King Sigismund II Augustus , should be elected King of Poland and marry Stephen Báthory . In January 1576 Báthory passed the mantle of Voivode of Transylvania to his brother Christopher Báthory and departed for Poland . On 1 May 1576 Báthory married Anna and was crowned King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania . After being chosen as king in the Polish – Lithuanian royal election , 1576 , Báthory also began using the title of the Prince of Transylvania . = = Establishing power = = Báthory 's position was at first extremely difficult , as there was still some opposition to Báthory 's election . Emperor Maximilian , insisting on his earlier election , fostered internal opposition and prepared to enforce his claim by military action . At first the representatives of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania refused to recognize Báthory as Grand Duke , and demanded concessions - that he return the estates of his wife Anne to the Lithuanian treasury , hold Sejm conventions in both Lithuania and Poland , and reserve the highest governmental official offices in Lithuania for Lithuanians . He accepted the conditions . In June Báthory was recognized as Grand Duke of Lithuania , Duke of Ruthenia and Samogitia . With Lithuania secure , the other major region refusing to recognize his election was Prussia . Maximilian 's sudden death improved Báthory 's situation , but the city of Danzig ( Gdańsk ) still refused to recognize his election without significant concessions . The Hanseatic League city , bolstered by its immense wealth , fortifications , and the secret support of Maximilian , had supported the Emperor 's election and decided not to recognize Báthory as legitimate ruler . The resulting conflict was known as the Danzig rebellion . Most armed opposition collapsed when the prolonged Siege of Danzig by Báthory 's forces was lifted as an agreement was reached . The Danzig army was utterly defeated in a field battle on 17 April 1577 . However , since Báthory 's armies were unable to take the city by force , a compromise was reached . In exchange for some of Danzig 's demands being favorably reviewed , the city recognised Báthory as ruler of Poland and paid the sum of 200 @,@ 000 zlotys in gold as compensation . Tying up administration of the Commonwealth northern provinces , in February 1578 he acknowledged George Frederick as the ruler of Duchy of Prussia , receiving his feudal tribute . = = Policies = = After securing control over Commonwealth , Báthory had a chance to devote himself to strengthening his authority , in which he was supported by his chancellor Jan Zamoyski , who would soon become one of the king 's most trusted advisers . Báthory reorganised the judiciary by formation of legal tribunals ( the Crown Tribunal in 1578 and the Lithuanian Tribunal in 1581 ) . While this somewhat weakened the royal position , it was of little concern to Báthory , as the loss of power was not significant in the short term , and he was more concerned with the hereditary Hungarian throne . In exchange , the Sejm allowed him to raise taxes and push a number of reforms strengthening the military , including the establishment of the piechota wybraniecka , an infantry formation composed of peasants . Many of his projects aimed to modernize the Commonwealth army , reforming it in a model of Hungarian troops of Transylvania . He also founded the Academy of Vilna , the third university in the Commonwealth , transforming a prior Jesuit college into a major university . He founded several other Jesuit colleges , and was active in propagating Catholicism , while at the same time being respectful of the Commonwealth policy of religious tolerance , issuing a number of decrees offering protection to Polish Jews , and denouncing any religious violence . In external relations , Báthory sought peace through strong alliances . Though Báthory remained distrustful of the Habsburgs , he maintained the tradition of good relations that the Commonwealth had with its Western neighbor and confirmed past treaties between the Commonwealth and Holy Roman Empire with diplomatic missions received by Maximilian 's successor , Rudolf II . The troublesome south @-@ eastern border with the Ottoman Empire was temporarily quelled by truces signed in July 1577 and April 1579 . The Sejm of January 1578 gathered in Warsaw was persuaded to grant Báthory subsidies for the inevitable war against Muscovy . A number of his trusted advisers were Hungarian , and he remained interested in the Hungarian politics . He wished to recreate his native country into an independent , strong power , but the unfavorable international situation did not allow him to significantly advance any of his plans in that area . In addition to Hungarian , he was well versed in Latin , and spoke Italian and German ; he never learned the Polish language . In his personal life , he was described as rather frugal in his personal expenditures , with hunting and reading as his favorite pastimes . = = War with Muscovy = = Before Báthory 's election to the throne of the Commonwealth , Ivan the Terrible of Russia had begun encroaching on its sphere of interest in the northeast , eventually invading the Commonwealth borderlands in Livonia ; the conflict would grow to involve a number of nearby powers ( outside Russia and Poland @-@ Lithuania , also Sweden , the Kingdom of Livonia and Denmark @-@ Norway ) . Each of them was vying for control of Livonia , and the resulting conflict , lasting for several years , became known as the Livonian War . By 1577 Ivan was in control of most of the disputed territory , but his conquest was short @-@ lived . In 1578 Commonwealth forces scored a number of victories in Liviona and begun pushing Ivan 's forces back ; this marked the turning point in the war . Báthory , together with his chancellor Zamoyski , led the army of the Commonwealth in a series of decisive campaigns taking Polotsk in 1579 and Velikiye Luki in 1580 . In 1581 Stephen penetrated once again into Russia and , on 22 August , laid siege to the city of Pskov . While the city held , on 13 December 1581 Ivan the Terrible began negotiations that concluded with the Truce of Jam Zapolski on 15 January 1582 . The treaty was favorable to the Commonwealth , as Ivan ceded Polatsk , Veliz and most of the Duchy of Livonia in exchange for regaining Velikiye Luki and Nevel . = = Final years = = In 1584 Báthory allowed Zamoyski to execute Samuel Zborowski , whose death sentence for treason and murder had been pending for roughly a decade . This political conflict between Báthory and the Zborowski family , framed as the clash between the monarch and the nobility , would be a major recurring controversy in internal Polish politics for many years . In external politics , Báthory was considering another war with Russia , but his plans were delayed to the lack of support from the Sejm , which refused to pass requested tax raises . Báthory 's health had been declining for several years . He died on 12 December 1586 . He had no legitimate children , though contemporary rumours suggested he might have had several illegitimate children . None of these rumours have been confirmed by modern historians . His death was followed by an interregnum of one year . Maximilian II 's son , Archduke Maximilian III , was elected king but was contested by the Swedish Sigismund III Vasa , who defeated Maximilian at the Byczyna and succeeded as ruler of the Commonwealth . = = Remembrance = = Báthory actively promoted his own legend , sponsoring a number of works about his life and achievements , from historical treatises to poetry . In his lifetime , he was featured in the works of Jan Kochanowski , Mikołaj Sęp Szarzyński and many others . He became a recurring character in Polish poetry and literature and featured as a central figure in poems , novels and drama by Jakub Jasiński , Józef Ignacy Kraszewski , Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz , Henryk Rzewuski and others . He has been a subject of numerous paintings , both during his life and posthumously . Among the painters who took him as a subject were Jan Matejko and Stanisław Wyspiański . A statue of Báthory by Giovanni Ferrari was raised in 1789 in Padua , Italy , sponsored by the last king of the Commonwealth , Stanisław August Poniatowski . Other monuments to him include one in the Łazienki Palace ( 1795 by Andrzej Le Brun ) and one in Sniatyn ( 1904 , destroyed in 1939 ) . He was a patron of the Vilnius University ( then known as the Stefan Batory University ) and several units in the Polish Army from 1919 to 1939 . His name was borne by two 20th @-@ century passenger ships of the Polish Merchant Navy , the MS Batory and TSS Stefan Batory . In modern Poland , he is the namesake of the Batory Steelmill , a nongovernmental Stefan Batory Foundation , the Polish 9th Armored Cavalry Brigade , and numerous Polish streets and schools . One of the districts of the town of Chorzów is named after him . Immediately after his death , he was not fondly remembered in the Commonwealth . Many nobles took his behavior in the Zborowski affair and his domestic policies as indicating an interest in curtailing the nobility 's Golden Freedoms and establishing an absolute monarchy . His contemporaries were also rankled by his favoritism toward Hungarians over nationals of the Commonwealth . He was also remembered , more trivially , for his Hungarian @-@ style cap and saber ( szabla batorówka ) . His later resurgence in Polish memory and historiography can be traced to the 19th @-@ century era of partitions of Poland , when the Polish state lost its independence . He was remembered for his military triumphs and praised as an effective ruler by many , including John Baptist Albertrandi , Jerzy Samuel Bandtkie , Michał Bobrzyński , Józef Szujski and others . Though some historians like Tadeusz Korzon , Joachim Lelewel and Jędrzej Moraczewski remained more reserved , in 1887 Wincenty Zakrzewski noted that Báthory is " the darling of both the Polish public opinion and Polish historians " . During the interwar period in the Second Polish Republic he was a cult figure , often compared - with the government 's approval - to the contemporary dictator of Poland , Józef Piłsudski . After the Second World War , in the communist People 's Republic of Poland , he became more of a controversial figure , with historians more ready to question his internal politics and attachment to Hungary . Nonetheless his good image remained intact , reinforced by the positive views of a popular Polish historian of that period , Paweł Jasienica . = = Ancestry = = = Stronger ( Britney Spears song ) = " Stronger " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her second studio album , Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) . It was released on November 13 , 2000 , by JIVE Records as the third single of the album . After meeting with producers Max Martin and Rami in Sweden , the singer recorded several songs for the album , including " Stronger " . The teen pop and dance @-@ pop song has self @-@ empowerment lyrics about a girl who is tired of her cheating boyfriend and decides to live without him . It received acclaim from music critics , who described the song as both musically and lyrically innovative and considered it the best dance track from the album . " Stronger " achieved commercial success worldwide , reaching the top five in Austria , Germany and Sweden , while reaching the top ten in Finland , Ireland , Switzerland and United Kingdom . " Stronger " peaked at number eleven in the United States ' Billboard Hot 100 , and was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for selling over 500 @,@ 000 units of the single . An accompanying music video was directed by Joseph Kahn , who considered it as a thematic departure from Spears ' previous music videos . The music video received a nomination on the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Pop Video . Spears has performed " Stronger " in a number of live appearances , including at the Radio Music Awards of 2000 , American Music Awards of 2001 , a Fox special titled " Britney in Hawaii " , and in two of her concert tours . It was first performed on the Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour ( 2000 – 01 ) , as the first song from the show and at the Dream Within a Dream Tour ( 2001 – 02 ) . Also , in 2013 Spears performed the song for the first time in eleven years on her Las Vegas residency concert Britney : Piece of Me . In 2010 , " Stronger " was covered by actor Kevin McHale for an episode of TV series Glee titled " Britney / Brittany " . The cover received positive reviews from contemporary music critics . = = Background and composition = = In 1999 Spears began work on her second studio album Oops ! ... I Did It Again ( 2000 ) , in Sweden and Switzerland . After meeting with Max Martin and Rami Yacoub in Sweden , Spears recorded several songs for the album , including " Stronger " , which was co @-@ written and co @-@ produced by Martin and Rami . Upon returning to the United States , the singer revealed in an interview with MTV News that : " I just got back from Sweden , and did half [ of ] the material [ for Oops ! ] over there . I was really , really happy with the material , but we had [ such ] limited time to get so much done . So I 've just really been in the studio nonstop , which is cool , though . " Spears recorded her vocals for the song in early November 1999 at Cheiron Studios in Stockholm , Sweden . " Stronger " was released on November 13 , 2000 as the third single from the album . " Stronger " is a teen pop and dance @-@ pop song that features a heavy dance beat , and lasts 3 minutes and 23 seconds . According to the digital music sheet published at Musicnotes.com , the song is composed in the key of G @-@ sharp minor and is set in time signature of common time with a tempo of 108 beats per minute , while Spears vocal range spans from C ♯ 3 to C ♯ 5 . Music critics noticed the song as Spears ' declaration of independence , which is perceived in self @-@ empowerment lines such as " I 'm not your property " and " I don 't need nobody " . Its lyrics also quote Spears ' iconic debut hit " ... Baby One More Time " , which was also co @-@ written and produced for Spears by Martin and Yacoub and released two years earlier ; the latter 's famous chorus , " My loneliness is killing me " , is answered in " Stronger " with the lyric , " My loneliness ain 't killin ' me no more " . Despite not being written by the singer , it was speculated that the song is directed to the singer 's record label and her management . In a review for the album , David Browne of Entertainment Weekly noted that " Stronger " together with " Don 't Go Knockin ' on My Door " is reminiscent of Rolling Stones ' " The Last Time " ( 1965 ) . = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = " Stronger " received widespread acclaim from music critics . Stephanie McGrath of Jam ! considered the song " the best dance track " of Oops ! , deeming the song " every bit as good as * Nsync 's ' Bye , Bye , Bye ' or The Backstreet Boys ' ' The One ' . " Tracy E. Hopkins of Barnes & Noble , while reviewing the album , said , " Spears shines on the tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek lead single , the triumphant ' Stronger ' ... " David Veitch of Calgary Sun considered " Stronger " to be as " another boom @-@ bastic upbeat track " , while saying the song is " notable for its foghorn synth , fabulous rhythm track and heavy effects applied to Britney 's voice . Why she 's panting at the end of the bridge is anybody 's guess . " A review by the NME staff compared " Stronger " to songs recorded by ABBA , saying , " there 's the deranged helium synth pop of ' Stronger ' with the huge ABBA chord change in the chorus that sounds scarier and more robotic than the Backstreet Boys . " Andy Battaglia from online magazine Salon said " Stronger " " could crush the entire self @-@ help industry with its melody alone . " = = = Chart performance = = = In the United States , " Stronger " peaked at number 11 on the Billboard Hot 100 on the date of January 27 , 2001 , after entering the top 40 at number 29 on December 30 , 2000 . It also peaked at number 17 on the Top 40 Mainstream chart . It was also certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . " Stronger " also peaked at number two on the Hot Dance Music / Maxi @-@ Singles Sales component chart , and number 37 on Rhythmic Top 40 . As of June 2012 , " Stronger " has sold 415 @,@ 000 physical units , with 270 @,@ 000 paid digital downloads in the United States . It is Spears ' third best @-@ selling physical single in the country . " Stronger " also achieved commercial success worldwide , reaching number four in Austria and Sweden , six in Ireland and Switzerland , and eight in Finland , while reaching the top 20 in several European countries . On the week of December 16 , 2000 , " Stronger " debuted at number seven in The Official Charts Company from the United Kingdom , falling to number 11 in the following week . In Australia , the song peaked at number 13 , and was later certified Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , for shipments of more than 70 @,@ 000 units of the single . In France , " Stronger " reached number 20 , making it the lowest chart position for the song worldwide . However , it was certified Silver by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) , for selling over 125 @,@ 000 units of the single . In Germany , the song reached number four on the Media Control Charts , being certified Gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie ( BVMI ) for shipping over 250 @,@ 000 units of the single . = = Music video = = The music video for the song was directed by Joseph Kahn , who revealed that the concept for the music video was created by Spears herself , by saying " I would like to dance in a chair and drive in a car and break up with [ my ] boyfriend . [ ... ] Those are your three elements . " Kahn ended up creating , according to Jocelyn Vena of MTV , " a semi @-@ futuristic world in which Spears walks into a club , breaks up with her cheating boyfriend and triumphantly walks in the rain , knowing her life is better off without him . " Kahn also considered the music video as very sophisticated , saying that it is " definitely a departure from the sort of candy @-@ colored videos she was doing before , so I always thought this was the transition between Britney the teenage pop star and Britney the sort of diva she became . " An alternate footage of the video can be found on the DVD of Spears first compilation album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . Kahn revealed that Spears ' referenced Janet Jackson 's " The Pleasure Principle " and " Miss You Much " music videos for the video 's chair routine , saying her idea was inspired by " Janet Jackson 's ' Pleasure Principle ' — the iconic chair sequence in that " . A review of the video also commented " Ms. Spears gives us her best Janet Jackson impression ( “ Miss You Much “ ) with a dizzying chair @-@ dance routine . " Spears also referenced and draws inspiration from Janet in several other music videos , including " Don 't Let Me Be the Last to Know " . " Overprotected ( Darkchild Remix ) " , " Circus " , and " Womanizer " . The video begins with a closed caption that reads " Britney Spears – Stronger " , amidst the sound of a storm . It then cuts to a close up of Spears looking at her boyfriend , who is smiling with another woman holding him . She realizes she is better without him and walks away , after saying , " Whatever , " to the audience . There is a shot of the tower hotel they were in , in an apparent semi @-@ futuristic world , having a party in the restaurant in the hotel tower at the top , and then the hotel tower explodes and blows up . At the beginning of the first chorus , Spears starts dancing with an Emeco 1006 @-@ style chair in front of a black background . The second half of the video finds Spears driving away from the party in a classic Ford Mustang car during a thunderstorm ; however , before long , her car goes into a spin out , then stops on the very edge of the bridge . After recovering from the shock of it , she 's forced to continue walking on in the rain . Cuts of her dancing with a cane , transformed from the chair , are also included . The video ends with Spears walking across a bridge . Two versions of the video exist , one in which at the end of video , Spears stands in mid @-@ air above the spinning chair , and in the other a close up of her singing . Nuzhat Naoreen of MTV praised the music video , saying , " few performers can work an entire routine on and around a chair as well as Britney did in ' Stronger ' " . The music video received a nomination on the 2001 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Pop Video . = = Live performances and covers = = Spears first performed the song live on 2000s Oops ! ... I Did It Again World Tour . The show began with the video introduction " The Britney Spears Experience " , in which three images of Spears welcomed spectators to the show . Then , a giant metal orb was lowered onstage and lifted again to reveal Spears standing behind it . Wearing a glittery jeans and an orange halter top , she opened the show with a dance @-@ oriented performance of the song . " Stronger " was last performed on 2002 's Dream Within a Dream Tour . After a dance @-@ oriented performance of " Boys " , Spears performed the song , in which she wore a paint @-@ covered robe and in some shows a bowler hat . Spears also performed the song on several television appearances , including on the American Music Awards of 2001 , and on a MTV special titled " Total Britney Live " . A Fox special titled " Britney In Hawaii " , aired on June 8 , 2000 , included an exclusive performance of the song . A performance of " Stronger " live from Germany was broadcast on Radio Music Awards of 2000 , since Spears was on tour by the time of the awards . " Stronger " was not included on the set lists of any of Spears ' tours until it was included in her Las Vegas residency show Britney : Piece of Me . " Stronger " was covered by Kevin McHale on TV series Glee , on an episode titled " Britney / Brittany " , that was dedicated to the singer . In the episode , McHale 's character Artie has a hallucination of himself singing " Stronger " during a dental visit . The cover received positive reviews from contemporary music critics . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal enjoyed the cover version , appreciating the twist of having males sing a feminist empowerment song , while Tim Stack of Entertainment Weekly deemed " Stronger " his favorite performance of the episode , as well as the best incorporation of Spears ' music , as the song served Artie 's storyline . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Britney Spears – lead vocals , background vocals Max Martin – production , songwriting , audio mixing , keyboards , programming , background vocals Rami Yacoub – production , songwriting , keyboards Nana Hedin – background vocals John Amatiello – Pro Tools engineering Tom Coyne – audio mastering Source : = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = = Amphetamine = Amphetamine ( contracted from alpha ‑ methylphenethylamine ) is a potent central nervous system ( CNS ) stimulant that is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , narcolepsy , and obesity . Amphetamine was discovered in 1887 and exists as two enantiomers : levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine . Amphetamine properly refers to a specific chemical , the racemic free base , which is equal parts of the two enantiomers , levoamphetamine and dextroamphetamine , in their pure amine forms . However , the term is frequently used informally to refer to any combination of the enantiomers , or to either of them alone . Historically , it has been used to treat nasal congestion and depression . Amphetamine is also used as an athletic performance enhancer and cognitive enhancer , and recreationally as an aphrodisiac and euphoriant . It is a prescription drug in many countries , and unauthorized possession and distribution of amphetamine are often tightly controlled due to the significant health risks associated with recreational use . The first pharmaceutical amphetamine was Benzedrine , a brand which was used to treat a variety of conditions . Currently , pharmaceutical amphetamine is prescribed as racemic amphetamine , Adderall , dextroamphetamine , or the inactive prodrug lisdexamfetamine . Amphetamine , through activation of a trace amine receptor , increases monoamine and excitatory neurotransmitter activity in the brain , with its most pronounced effects targeting the catecholamine neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine . At therapeutic doses , amphetamine causes emotional and cognitive effects such as euphoria , change in desire for sex , increased wakefulness , and improved cognitive control . It induces physical effects such as decreased reaction time , fatigue resistance , and increased muscle strength . Larger doses of amphetamine may impair cognitive function and induce rapid muscle breakdown . Drug addiction is a serious risk with large recreational doses but is unlikely to arise from typical long @-@ term medical use at therapeutic doses . Very high doses can result in psychosis ( e.g. , delusions and paranoia ) which rarely occurs at therapeutic doses even during long @-@ term use . Recreational doses are generally much larger than prescribed therapeutic doses and carry a far greater risk of serious side effects . Amphetamine belongs to the phenethylamine class . It is also the parent compound of its own structural class , the substituted amphetamines , which includes prominent substances such as bupropion , cathinone , MDMA ( ecstasy ) , and methamphetamine . As a member of the phenethylamine class , amphetamine is also chemically related to the naturally occurring trace amine neuromodulators , specifically phenethylamine and N @-@ methylphenethylamine , both of which are produced within the human body . Phenethylamine is the parent compound of amphetamine , while N @-@ methylphenethylamine is a constitutional isomer that differs only in the placement of the methyl group . = = Uses = = = = = Medical = = = Amphetamine is used to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) , narcolepsy ( a sleep disorder ) , and obesity , and is sometimes prescribed off @-@ label for its past medical indications , such as depression . Long @-@ term amphetamine exposure at sufficiently high doses in some animal species is known to produce abnormal dopamine system development or nerve damage , but , in humans with ADHD , pharmaceutical amphetamines appear to improve brain development and nerve growth . Reviews of magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) studies suggest that long @-@ term treatment with amphetamine decreases abnormalities in brain structure and function found in subjects with ADHD , and improves function in several parts of the brain , such as the right caudate nucleus of the basal ganglia . Reviews of clinical stimulant research have established the safety and effectiveness of long @-@ term amphetamine use for ADHD . Controlled trials spanning two years have demonstrated treatment effectiveness and safety . One review highlighted a nine @-@ month randomized controlled trial in children with ADHD that found an average increase of 4 @.@ 5 IQ points , continued increases in attention , and continued decreases in disruptive behaviors and hyperactivity . Current models of ADHD suggest that it is associated with functional impairments in some of the brain 's neurotransmitter systems ; these functional impairments involve impaired dopamine neurotransmission in the mesocorticolimbic projection and norepinephrine neurotransmission in the locus coeruleus and prefrontal cortex . Psychostimulants like methylphenidate and amphetamine are effective in treating ADHD because they increase neurotransmitter activity in these systems . Approximately 80 % of those who use these stimulants see improvements in ADHD symptoms . Children with ADHD who use stimulant medications generally have better relationships with peers and family members , perform better in school , are less distractible and impulsive , and have longer attention spans . The Cochrane Collaboration 's reviews on the treatment of ADHD in children , adolescents , and adults with pharmaceutical amphetamines stated that while these drugs improve short @-@ term symptoms , they have higher discontinuation rates than non @-@ stimulant medications due to their adverse side effects . A Cochrane Collaboration review on the treatment of ADHD in children with tic disorders such as Tourette syndrome indicated that stimulants in general do not make tics worse , but high doses of dextroamphetamine could exacerbate tics in some individuals . = = = Enhancing performance = = = In 2015 , a systematic review and a meta @-@ analysis of high quality clinical trials found that , when used at low ( therapeutic ) doses , amphetamine produces modest , unambiguous improvements in cognition , including working memory , episodic memory , inhibitory control and some aspects of attention , in normal healthy adults ; the cognition @-@ enhancing effects of amphetamine are known to occur through its indirect activation of both dopamine receptor D1 and adrenoceptor α2 in the prefrontal cortex . A systematic review from 2014 noted that low doses of amphetamine also improve memory consolidation , in turn leading to improved recall of information . Therapeutic doses of amphetamine also enhance cortical network efficiency , an effect which mediates improvements in working memory in all individuals . Amphetamine and other ADHD stimulants also improve task saliency ( motivation to perform a task ) and increase arousal ( wakefulness ) , in turn promoting goal @-@ directed behavior . Stimulants such as amphetamine can improve performance on difficult and boring tasks and are used by some students as a study and test @-@ taking aid . Based upon studies of self @-@ reported illicit stimulant use , 5 – 35 % of college students use diverted ADHD stimulants , which are primarily used for performance enhancement rather than as recreational drugs . However , high amphetamine doses that are above the therapeutic range can interfere with working memory and other aspects of cognitive control . Amphetamine is used by some athletes for its psychological and athletic performance @-@ enhancing effects , such as increased endurance and alertness ; however , non @-@ medical amphetamine use is prohibited at sporting events that are regulated by collegiate , national , and international anti @-@ doping agencies . In healthy people at oral therapeutic doses , amphetamine has been shown to increase muscle strength , acceleration , athletic performance in anaerobic conditions , and endurance ( i.e. , it delays the onset of fatigue ) , while improving reaction time . Amphetamine improves endurance and reaction time primarily through reuptake inhibition and effluxion of dopamine in the central nervous system . Amphetamine and other dopaminergic drugs also increase power output at fixed levels of perceived exertion by overriding a " safety switch " that allows the core temperature limit to increase in order to access a reserve capacity that is normally off @-@ limits . At therapeutic doses , the adverse effects of amphetamine do not impede athletic performance ; however , at much higher doses , amphetamine can induce effects that severely impair performance , such as rapid muscle breakdown and elevated body temperature . = = Contraindications = = According to the International Programme on Chemical Safety ( IPCS ) and United States Food and Drug Administration ( USFDA ) , amphetamine is contraindicated in people with a history of drug abuse , heart disease , severe agitation , or severe anxiety . It is also contraindicated in people currently experiencing arteriosclerosis ( hardening of the arteries ) , glaucoma ( increased eye pressure ) , hyperthyroidism ( excessive production of thyroid hormone ) , or moderate to severe hypertension . People who have experienced allergic reactions to other stimulants in the past or who are taking monoamine oxidase inhibitors ( MAOIs ) are advised not to take amphetamine , although safe concurrent use of amphetamine and monoamine oxidase inhibitors has been documented . These agencies also state that anyone with anorexia nervosa , bipolar disorder , depression , hypertension , liver or kidney problems , mania , psychosis , Raynaud 's phenomenon , seizures , thyroid problems , tics , or Tourette syndrome should monitor their symptoms while taking amphetamine . Evidence from human studies indicates that therapeutic amphetamine use does not cause developmental abnormalities in the fetus or newborns ( i.e. , it is not a human teratogen ) , but amphetamine abuse does pose risks to the fetus . Amphetamine has also been shown to pass into breast milk , so the IPCS and USFDA advise mothers to avoid breastfeeding when using it . Due to the potential for reversible growth impairments , the USFDA advises monitoring the height and weight of children and adolescents prescribed an amphetamine pharmaceutical . = = Side effects = = The side effects of amphetamine are varied , and the amount of amphetamine used is the primary factor in determining the likelihood and severity of side effects . Amphetamine products such as Adderall , Dexedrine , and their generic equivalents are currently approved by the USFDA for long @-@ term therapeutic use . Recreational use of amphetamine generally involves much larger doses , which have a greater risk of serious side effects than dosages used for therapeutic reasons . = = = Physical = = = At normal therapeutic doses , the physical side effects of amphetamine vary widely by age and from person to person . Cardiovascular side effects can include hypertension or hypotension from a vasovagal response , Raynaud 's phenomenon ( reduced blood flow to extremities ) , and tachycardia ( increased heart rate ) . Sexual side effects in males may include erectile dysfunction , frequent erections , or prolonged erections . Abdominal side effects may include abdominal pain , appetite loss , nausea , and weight loss . Other potential side effects include blurred vision , dry mouth , excessive grinding of the teeth , nosebleed , profuse sweating , rhinitis medicamentosa ( drug @-@ induced nasal congestion ) , reduced seizure	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
features a four @-@ page description and game statistics for Drizzt and Guenhwyvar , written by R. A. Salvatore . The Heroes ' Lorebook accessory , published in 1996 and written by Dale Donovan and Paul Culotta , features an update and revision of Drizzt 's information from Hall of Heroes . The 1999 accessory Drizzt Do 'Urden 's Guide to the Underdark by Eric L. Boyd , details the cities and civilizations of Faerûn 's Underdark through the perspective of the title character . The Forgotten Realms Campaign Setting hardcover for the game 's third edition features a brief description and game statistics for Drizzt for this edition , under the section on the Sword Coast North . Drizzt has also appeared in a number of graphic novels and video games , and as a miniature figure . Beginning in 2005 , Devil 's Due Publishing began releasing comic book adaptations of the Drizzt novels , covering each book in a three @-@ issue mini @-@ series along with a trade paperback collection . To date , Homeland , Exile , Sojourn , The Crystal Shard , Streams of Silver , The Halfling 's Gem , The Legacy , and Starless Night have been released . The character has appeared in several video games . He is part of the story and a party member the 1994 SSI game for PC Menzoberranzan . In Forgotten Realms : Demon Stone he is a playable character in the game 's seventh stage , described by a writer for Imagine Games Network ( IGN ) as " cool but utterly ineffective . " He is also an unlockable playable character in Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance and Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance II . Drizzt appears in Baldur 's Gate fighting some gnolls ; it is possible for a skilled player to kill him and steal his items , and a friendly or hostile version of Drizzt can be spawned with a cheat code . Drizzt also appears in the sequel Baldur 's Gate II and will react negatively if the player has imported characters from the first game that killed Drizzt or have any of his unique items . He will also react negatively to any elven character with a low reputation with the same name , challenging them to a duel of honor . Drizzt is also included in the Dungeons and Dragons Miniatures game , in the Legend of Drizzt Scenario Pack that also includes Wulfgar and the dragon Icingdeath . An enclosed booklet lets players recreate the battle between Drizzt , Wulfgar , and the dragon . The boxed set was nominated for Best Miniature Product at the 2008 ENnies . Drizzt features prominently in the D & D Adventure System Cooperative Play board game The Legend of Drizzt , released October 18 , 2011 . = Operation Deny Flight = Operation Deny Flight was a North Atlantic Treaty Organization ( NATO ) operation that began on 12 April 1993 as the enforcement of a United Nations ( UN ) no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia and Herzegovina . The United Nations and NATO later expanded the mission of the operation to include providing close air support for UN troops in Bosnia and carrying out coercive air strikes against targets in Bosnia . Twelve NATO members contributed forces to the operation and , by its end on 20 December 1995 , NATO pilots had flown 100 @,@ 420 sorties . The operation played an important role in shaping both the Bosnian War and NATO . The operation included the first combat engagement in NATO 's history , a 28 February 1994 air battle over Banja Luka , and in April 1994 , NATO aircraft first bombed ground targets in an operation near Goražde . These engagements helped show that NATO had adapted to the post @-@ Cold War era and could operate in environments other than a major force on force engagement on the plains of Central Europe . Cooperation between the UN and NATO during the operation also helped pave the way for future joint operations . Although it helped establish UN @-@ NATO relations , Deny Flight led to conflict between the two organizations . Most notably , significant tension arose between the two after UN peacekeepers were taken as hostages in response to NATO bombing . The operations of Deny Flight spanned more than two years of the Bosnian War and played an important role in the course of that conflict . The no @-@ fly zone operations of Deny Flight proved successful in preventing significant use of air power by any side in the conflict . Additionally , the air strikes flown during Deny Flight led to Operation Deliberate Force , a massive NATO bombing campaign in Bosnia that played a key role in ending the war . = = Background and Operation Sky Monitor = = In October 1992 , at the beginning of the Bosnian War , the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 781 . This resolution prohibited unauthorized military flights in Bosnian airspace . Following the resolution , NATO began Operation Sky Monitor during which NATO forces monitored violations of the no @-@ fly zone , without taking any military action against violators . By April 1993 , NATO forces had documented more than 500 violations of the no @-@ fly zone . In response to these " blatant " violations of Bosnian air space , and implicitly of resolution 781 , the UN Security Council issued Resolution 816 . While Resolution 781 prohibited only military flights , Resolution 816 prohibited all flights in Bosnian air space , except for those expressly authorized by the UN Flight Coordination Center in Zagreb . The resolution also authorized UN member states to " take all necessary measures ... to ensure compliance " with the no @-@ fly zone restrictions . In response to this resolution , NATO commenced Operation Deny Flight on 12 April 1993 . Initially Deny Flight was intended only to enforce the no @-@ fly zone ; however several NATO members , including the United States , were eager to find ways to end the war and improve the situation of civilians , and hoped that military action could do so . The US had already taken unilateral actions to aid civilians caught in the conflict by dropping humanitarian supplies into Bosnia under Operation Provide Promise , and many US officials argued for the use of military force . These officials were eager to expand US air operations through Deny Flight , hoping that an aggressive no @-@ fly zone and possible air strikes would end the conflict more quickly . NATO forces suffered its first loss on the second day of operations , when a French Mirage 2000 crashed in the Adriatic Sea due to mechanical failure . The pilot ejected safely . = = Enforcement of no @-@ fly zone = = After its adoption , Operation Deny Flight was relatively successful in preventing fixed @-@ wing aircraft from flying over restricted air space in Bosnia . During the monitoring phase of Operation Sky Monitor , unauthorized fixed @-@ wing flights averaged twenty per month , but during Deny Flight , the average was three . During the conflict , there were only an estimated 32 fixed @-@ wing military aircraft in Bosnia , all of them former Yugoslav National Army planes under the control of the Bosnian Serbs . Thus , NATO primarily needed to prevent incursions into Bosnian airspace from Croatia and Serbia . The first serious violation to the no @-@ fly zone came on 28 February 1994 , when six Serb J @-@ 21 Jastreb jets bombed a Bosnian factory . US Air Force F @-@ 16s shot down four of the six Serb jets over Banja Luka . This engagement was the first combat engagement of Operation Deny Flight , and its only significant air @-@ to @-@ air combat engagement . Perhaps more importantly , the Banja Luka incident was also the first combat engagement in the history of NATO . The Serbs acknowledged the loss of a fifth aircraft in the incident . While Deny Flight was relatively successful in stopping flights of fixed @-@ wing aircraft , NATO forces found it very difficult to stop helicopter flights , which presented a more complicated challenge . All sides in the conflict used helicopters extensively for non @-@ military purposes , and some of these flights were authorized by the UN . Under the operation 's rules of engagement , NATO fighters were only authorized to shoot down helicopters that committed a hostile act . Otherwise , NATO fighters issued orders to " land or exit " , in other words , land the aircraft or leave the no @-@ fly zone . Typically , helicopters in Bosnian airspace complied with these orders by landing , but then took off again after NATO forces departed . None of the parties in the conflict respected the ban on helicopter flights , as evidenced when Ratko Mladić responded to a BBC journalist 's question about his violation of the ban with the statement , " The commander of the Bosnian Serb armed forces does not ride on a donkey . " Deceptive markings on helicopters further complicated matters for NATO pilots . Many of the combatants painted their helicopters to look like those of organizations that the UN 's Zagreb Flight Coordination Center had authorized to fly in restricted space . For example , the army of the Republika Srpska often painted a Red Cross logo on their helicopters , and Croatian helicopters were given markings similar to those of UN humanitarian aid helicopters . The questionable identity of these helicopters became particularly problematic after the Black Hawk Incident in Iraq , because NATO pilots became more reluctant to engage potential belligerents without clear identification . As a result of the rules of engagement and difficulties in aircraft identification , NATO forces proved unable to stop most unauthorized helicopter flights , resulting in a documented total of 5711 unauthorized flights during the conflict . = = Close air support and air strikes = = Even before Operation Deny Flight began , a number of US officials lobbied for a large role for NATO air power in Bosnia . In particular , as part of Bill Clinton 's platform during his 1992 campaign for President of the United States he promised a " lift and strike " policy , which included the use of air strikes against Bosnian Serb forces . After the commencement of Operation Deny Flight , US officials , including President Clinton , pushed for an expanded mission . After the Bosnian Serbs rejected the Vance @-@ Owen Plan on 6 May 1993 , Clinton and other US officials intensified these calls and they discussed the possibility of using large @-@ scale strikes to coerce the Serbs into acceptance . Ultimately , no such strikes were approved or carried out , but American officials became more open to the idea of using air power for coercion . In June 1993 , partly in response to pressure from the United States , the Security Council passed Resolution 836 which authorized NATO forces to provide close air support for UNPROFOR forces upon request . The procedure to request air support was quite difficult , as it involved the " dual key " of both UN and NATO approval . UN approval required contact with the United Nations headquarters in New York City , making effective coordination nearly impossible given the difference in time zones . The UN approval process was later somewhat streamlined when UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali delegated the authority to authorize air strikes to his special representative in Bosnia , Yasushi Akashi . Even after this simplification , however , " dual key " remained a problem as all requests first had to be processed through the UN Air Operations Center in Kiseljak then pass up the entire UNPROFOR chain of command to Akashi . After Akashi approved the request , he would make a request to NATO commanders who then had to pass orders back down their chain of command and coordinate with forces on the ground . Due to the difficult " dual key " authorization measure , NATO did not fulfill its close air support mission for several months . Nonetheless , NATO soon began further planning for a third mission : coercive air strikes as advocated by the United States . NATO first prepared to use Deny Flight to carry out air strikes in August 1993 as part of a plan to end the Siege of Sarajevo . After diplomatic intervention , the plan was not executed , but a precedent was established for the possible use of air strikes . Thus , in February 1994 , after the Sarajevo Marketplace Bombing , NATO issued an ultimatum to the Serbs to withdraw all heavy weapons from an exclusion zone around Sarajevo or face bombing . The Bosnian Serbs complied with NATO demands and no strikes were carried out . = = = Attack on Goražde = = = In April 1994 , Bosnian Serbs forces launched an attack on the UN Safe Area of Goražde . Initially , US Secretary of Defense William Perry told reporters that the United States would " not enter the war to stop " the Serbs from overrunning Goražde , and other senior officials publicly downplayed the possibility of using air strikes . Several days into the attack , however , a number of UNPROFOR soldiers were injured , and one was killed by Serb fire . Thus , General Michael Rose , the UNPROFOR Commander , requested NATO strikes under the mandate of UNSCR 836 . On 10 April , in response to the request , two US Air Force F @-@ 16s dropped bombs on Serb targets , including a tank and a command post . The next day , two US Marine Corps F / A @-@ 18C aircraft strafed additional targets in the area . That same day , General Ratko Mladić , the commander of the Bosnian Serb army , called General Rose and threatened the safety of his forces , saying " one more attack and I will shoot down aircraft – cannot guarantee safety of UNPROFOR and will attack UNPROFOR and your headquarters " . Making good on his threat , from 12 April to 14 April , Mladić ordered his forces to surround 150 UNPROFOR peacekeepers , effectively taking them hostage . Mladić then telephoned General Rose and told him " that if NATO did not stop its actions , not one UN soldier would leave alive " . Some of the UNPROFOR hostages were from NATO member states , notably the United Kingdom and France , who pushed for an immediate end to the strikes out of fear for the safety of their personnel . In response to the British and French concerns , NATO temporarily recalled its forces , but on 15 April , in response to increased Serb attacks , aircraft were again deployed to the area . As Mladić had promised , the Bosnian Serb army around Goražde attempted to shoot down NATO aircraft . On 15 April 1994 , a French Dassault Étendard IV jet was hit by ground fire while conducting a reconnaissance mission in the area . The jet was damaged , but returned safely to its carrier , the Clemenceau . On 16 April , a British Sea Harrier from the carrier HMS Ark Royal was called in by UN forces to strike a tank . After making several unsuccessful passes at the target , the Sea Harrier was targeted by a Bosnian Serb shoulder @-@ launched surface @-@ to @-@ air missile and was subsequently shot down . The pilot ejected safely and was rescued , but his plane was destroyed . After the Harrier shootdown , NATO did not carry out any further strikes around Goražde , and on 17 April , Mladić released most of the hostages he had taken . Over the next several days , the Serbs agreed to , and then broke , several ceasefires in the Goražde area . In an effort to secure Goražde and to force the Serbs to honor agreements , NATO and the UN issued an ultimatum for Bosnian Serb forces to cease their attacks and withdraw their forces or face additional air strikes on 22 April . The Serbs complied with the ultimatum , requiring a withdrawal of heavy weapons from a 20 kilometers ( 12 mi ) zone and all forces from a 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) zone . Because of the Serb compliance , NATO ceased its operations around Goražde . = = = Sarajevo = = = In February 1994 ( when air strikes were originally threatened ) , NATO had created a heavy weapons exclusion zone around Sarajevo , and collected weapons at a number of sites . On 5 August , the VRS seized several weapons from the Illidža Weapons Collection site in clear violation of the exclusion zone agreement . During the seizure , Serb forces injured a Ukrainian UNPROFOR peacekeeper . In response to the attack , the UN once again requested NATO air support . Two U.S. A @-@ 10 aircraft repeatedly strafed Serb targets , and the Serbs returned the seized weapons to the collection site . On 22 September , UNPROFOR again requested NATO air support in the Sarajevo area after Serb forces attacked a French armored personnel carrier . In response , two British SEPECAT Jaguar aircraft struck near a Serb tank , destroying it . = = = Banja Luka incident = = = On 28 February 1994 , a NATO Airborne Early Warning aircraft flying over Hungary vectored two US F @-@ 16s to an area south of Banja Luka , where six J @-@ 21 Jastreb and two J @-@ 22 Orao were flying back to their base after bombing the " Bratstvo " military factory at Novi Travnik , in blatant violation of the non @-@ fly zone . Four Serb aircraft were shot down and another crashed while trying to escape in low @-@ level flight . This marked the first combat mission in NATO 's history . = = = Attack on Bihać , bombing of Udbina and hostages = = = In October and November 1994 , during the Siege of Bihać , the Muslim @-@ Croat Federation launched a large offensive around the town of Bihać , in far northwestern Bosnia . The Serbs soon launched a counterattack , and in support of their operations , launched air strikes with aircraft based at a former JNA military airport in Udbina , south of Bihać , located in the Republic of Serbian Krajina . The Serb aircraft dropped napalm and cluster bombs . Although most of the ordnance came from old , unreliable stocks and failed to explode , the attacks were a clear violation of the no @-@ fly zone , and a challenge to NATO . NATO immediately looked for ways to respond , but its forces were not permitted to carry out operations in Croatian airspace , and due to Bihać 's proximity to the border , Serb aircraft could attack into Bosnia , then cross back into Croatia before being intercepted . As such , NATO was powerless to stop the incursions . In recognition of the situation , the Security Council passed Resolution 958 , which allowed NATO aircraft to operate in Croatia . On 21 November , NATO acted under its new authority with a strike on the Udbina airfield . The strike , which involved 39 aircraft , was the largest combat operation in NATO 's history up to that time ; nonetheless , it was criticized as a " pinprick " that did little real damage to Serb capabilities , only temporarily disabling runways . The NATO forces deliberately refrained from attacking Serb planes at the airfield , and only targeted runways and anti @-@ air capabilities . Following the Udbina strike , NATO continued to launch strikes in the area , and on 23 November , after a NATO reconnaissance plane was illuminated by the radar of a surface @-@ to @-@ air missile ( SAM ) system , NATO planes attacked SAM sites at Otoka and Dvor with AGM @-@ 88 HARM anti @-@ radiation missiles . The Serbs reacted to these strikes by immediately seizing 250 UNPROFOR hostages , and a total of 500 by early December . While the hostages were treated fairly well , some were used as human shields , including three who were forced to lie on the tarmac at the Bosnian Serb airbase in Banja Luka . After the strikes at Otoka and Dvor , Bosnian Serb forces continued to target NATO aircraft with surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , while advancing against the Bihać enclave . On 24 November , Serb forces fired radar @-@ guided missiles at two British Tornado F3 aircraft . The next day , Serb forces fired on two NATO F @-@ 16s . In response to this growing SAM threat , and the UNPROFOR hostages , NATO suspended flights in Bosnian airspace on 2 December . Shortly after the suspension of NATO flights , former US President Jimmy Carter personally negotiated a four @-@ month ceasefire in Bosnia . Although there were some violations of this ceasefire , most of the parties in the conflict heeded it . NATO ordered its planes back in the air , but due to the diminished hostilities , they did not engage in any significant operations for the next several months . The reduced tensions resulting from the Carter ceasefire and the cessation of NATO air operations also led to the release of most of the UNPROFOR hostages over the next several weeks . = = Expansion of the air campaign in 1995 = = Although 1994 ended peacefully with the Carter ceasefire , NATO continued planning for new operations . Both NATO and UN officials believed that after the ceasefire expired in March , the fighting would resume . As such , planners at the Balkans Combined Air Operations Center ( CAOC ) began drawing up plans for new air operations . By late December , the planners developed a plan called " Dead Eye " , designed to eliminate Serb SAM capabilities , so that NATO could regain uncontested air superiority . Over the next several months , the planning for " Dead Eye " gradually evolved into the plan for Operation Deliberate Force , a massive bombing of Serb targets that was eventually executed in August and September 1995 . = = = Bombing of Pale and the hostage crisis = = = While NATO was planning its new strategy , the ceasefire expired , and , as predicted , fighting resumed . As the fighting gradually widened , Bosnian Muslim forces launched a large @-@ scale offensive in the area of Sarajevo . In response to the attack , the Bosnian Serbs seized heavy weapons from a UN @-@ guarded depot , and began shelling targets . As a retaliation for these actions , the UN commander , Lt. General Rupert Smith requested NATO air strikes . NATO honored the request on 25 and 26 May 1995 by bombing a Serb ammunition dump at Pale . The mission was carried out by USAF F @-@ 16s and Spanish Air Force EF @-@ 18As Hornet armed with laser @-@ guided bombs . The Serbs then seized 377 UNPROFOR hostages and used them as human shields for a variety of targets in Bosnia , forcing NATO to end its strikes . Facing a second hostage crisis , General Smith and other top UN commanders began shifting strategies . The UN began to redeploy its forces to more defensible locations , so that they would be harder to attack or take hostage . More importantly , Gen. Rose established the UN Rapid Reaction Force , a heavily armed unit with more aggressive rules of engagement , designed to take offensive action if necessary to prevent hostage @-@ taking and enforce peace agreements . = = = Downing of Scott O 'Grady = = = After the seizure of the 377 hostages , NATO did not carry out further air strikes , but it did continue regular air patrol operations in support of the no @-@ fly zone . On 2 June 1995 , Captain Scott O 'Grady of the United States Air Force was sent on a routine no @-@ fly zone patrol in his F @-@ 16 . While on patrol , O 'Grady 's F @-@ 16 was shot down by a Serb SA @-@ 6 surface @-@ to @-@ air missile system near Mrkonjić Grad . O 'Grady ejected safely , but found himself trapped in Serb @-@ controlled territory . According to many US officials , he may have been deliberately targeted so that the Serbs could take an American hostage . After O 'Grady was shot down , tensions increased greatly between NATO and the Bosnian Serbs . A number of US commanders called for immediate retaliatory air strikes ; however , the Serbs still held the majority of the hostages seized after the bombing of Pale . The threat to the hostages prevented NATO from acting more forcefully , and the Serbs released 121 hostages immediately after the incident in an effort to cool tensions . Nonetheless , the situation remained explosive for the next six days until O 'Grady was rescued on 8 June by the 3rd Battalion 8th Marines 2nd Marine Division , ending the calls for immediate offensive action . Shortly thereafter , the Serbs released the remaining hostages . As a result of the incident , NATO ordered that all further sorties be accompanied by aircraft designed for suppression of enemy air defenses ( SEAD ) . On 11 August , a USAF MQ @-@ 1 Predator UAV was shot down by Serb antiarcraft fire in the same area , while another was lost to mechanical failure on 14 August . = = = Response to Srebrenica = = = A month after the O 'Grady incident , on 6 July , the VRS launched an offensive against the UN safe- area of Srebrenica . Dutch peacekeepers in the area considered calling for NATO air strikes in response to the attack , but they decided against them because the Serbs were not using heavy weapons , and out of fear of another hostage crisis . On 10 July , as the fighting intensified , the Dutch troops finally requested close air support from NATO , but due to communication problems in the " dual key " system , the request was not authorized until the next day . On 11 July , NATO prepared for a large @-@ scale mission in Srebrenica involving 60 aircraft . At 2 : 30 PM , the first wave of the assault , two Dutch F @-@ 16s , bombed two Serb tanks on the outskirts of the town . Two USAF F @-@ 16s were dispatched next to attack an artillery piece , but they failed to find their target . Soon thereafter , Bosnian Serb troops seized several Dutch peacekeepers as hostages and threatened to kill them if NATO did not call off its attacks . The Dutch commander reported this back to his government , and Dutch Defense Minister Joris Voorhoeve immediately telephoned the NATO operations center and ordered an end to the attacks . By the end of the day , Srebrenica had fallen to Bosnian Serb forces , who began a brutal campaign of ethnic cleansing that left roughly 7 @,@ 000 men dead . In the wake of this tragedy , many observers blamed NATO for failing to use its airpower more forcefully . David Rohde , a journalist , later wrote that " if NATO close air support had been used earlier ... the 7 @,@ 079 missing might still be alive today " . This feeling that NATO could have prevented thousands of deaths by acting more strongly led to increased planning for Operation Deliberate Force . = = = The London Conference = = = After the events at Srebrenica , sixteen nations met at the London Conference , which began on 21 July 1995 , to consider new options for Bosnia . As a result of the conference , UN Secretary @-@ General Boutros Boutros @-@ Ghali gave General Bernard Janvier , the UN military commander , the authority to request NATO airstrikes without consulting civilian UN officials . The North Atlantic Council , NATO 's top political body , and the UN also agreed to use NATO air strikes in response to attacks on any of the other safe areas in Bosnia . The participants at the conference also agreed in principle to the use of large @-@ scale NATO air strikes in response to future acts of Serb aggression . = = Operation Deliberate Force = = On 28 August 1995 , a mortar shell slammed into a Sarajevo marketplace , killing 37 people . The United States subsequently blamed Bosnian Serb forces for the attack . Admiral Leighton Smith , the NATO commander , recommended that NATO launch retaliatory air strikes against the Serbs under the plan established for Operation Deliberate Force . On 30 August 1995 , NATO officially launched Operation Deliberate Force with large @-@ scale bombing of Serb targets . This bombing superseded Operation Deny Flight 's role for air strikes and close air support , but Deny Flight remained an active operation , still enforcing the no @-@ fly zone over Bosnia . Until 20 September 1995 , when Operation Deliberate Force ended , the role played by Deny Flight was minimal . After the suspension of Operation Deliberate Force ; however , several further operations were carried out under Deny Flight . On 4 October 1995 , Deny Flight aircraft fired HARM missiles after being targeted by surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . On 8 October 1995 , the UN requested close air support near Tuzla . Due to bad weather conditions , NATO aircraft were unable to locate their targets , but on 9 October , in the final combat engagement of Deny Flight , NATO aircraft returned and destroyed a Serb command and control bunker . = = Termination of Deny Flight = = After the adoption of the Dayton Accords , a peace agreement for Bosnia , Deny Flight 's mission was no longer necessary . On 15 December 1995 , the United Nations Security Council officially terminated the resolutions that had authorized the operation , and on 16 December , the North Atlantic Council agreed to terminate Operation Deny Flight , effective 20 December . On 21 December 1995 , NATO held a formal closure ceremony for Deny Flight in Vicenza . Many of the forces assigned to Deny Flight were transferred to Operation Decisive Endeavor , to provide support for new IFOR peacekeepers in Bosnia . = = Structure of forces = = Throughout the course of its operation , Deny Flight was directed by Allied Forces Southern Europe ( AFSOUTH ) in Naples , under the command of the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of Allied Forces Southern Europe . At the beginning of the operation , Admiral Jeremy Boorda served as the commanding officer ; he was replaced by Admiral Leighton Smith in 1994 . Smith and Boorda , however , delegated day to day authority to Allied Air Forces Southern Europe ( AIRSOUTH ) commanded by Lieutenant General Joseph W. Ashy ( until 1994 ) and then Lt. Gen Michael Ryan . While AIRSOUTH maintained day to day command , " mission tasking and operational control " were delegated to the commander of the NATO 5th Allied Tactical Air Force ( 5ATAF ) , initially Lt Gen Antonio Rosetti and later Lt Gen Andrea Fornaserio , both of the Italian Air Force . To simplify the chain of command and coordinate activities , NATO established the Combined Air Operations Center ( CAOC ) in Vicenza , Italy , which assumed practical day @-@ to @-@ day control of Deny Flight and reported to the commander of the 5ATAF . Each squadron participating in the operation sent a liaison officer to the CAOC to ensure coordination . The initial director of the CAOC was Lt Gen James Chambers of the US Air Force . In November 1994 , Major General Hal Hornburg replaced him . In practice , most tactical level decisions about Deny Flight were made by the director of the CAOC , and he had the authority to order NATO pilots to engage violators of the no @-@ fly zone . Twelve NATO countries provided forces to Operation Deny Flight : Belgium , Canada , Denmark , France , Germany , Italy , the Netherlands , Norway , Spain , Turkey , the United Kingdom and the United States . Together , these twelve states contributed a total of 4 @,@ 500 personnel who were based at air bases in five countries : France , Germany , Greece , Italy , and the United Kingdom and on aircraft carriers in the region . Eight of the participating countries contributed a total of 239 aircraft to the operation , of which nearly half , 108 , came from the United States . Within the United States , the US Navy and US Marine Corps provided the most support for the operation , and together they flew 70 % of all of the air defense sorties flown during Deny Flight . American aircraft also provided the majority of the airstrikes during the conflict ; of the 1 @,@ 150 bombs dropped by NATO forces , 88 % came from American aircraft . = = Impact and legacy = = Operation Deny Flight lasted for 983 days and included 100 @,@ 420 sorties carried out by 4 @,@ 500 personnel from 12 NATO countries . It included the first combat engagement in NATO history , the Banja Luka incident , and many of NATO 's first out of area operations . As such , Deny Flight " represented a momentous act , if only in symbolic terms , in that the alliance assumed a combat mission in a nondefensive capacity and out @-@ of @-@ area " . Beyond this symbolic effect , Deny Flight had important consequences for NATO military policy , international relations , and the war in Bosnia . = = = Effect on military policy = = = As one of the first major combat tests of NATO airforces , Deny Flight provided several important military lessons . Most importantly , Deny Flight helped to prove the effectiveness , or drive the development of several technologies . For example , during the operation , the F / A @-@ 18D Hornet was proven to be a " highly resourceful multirole platform " for the United States Marine Corps . Deny Flight was also important in the move towards precision @-@ guided munitions , as nearly 70 % of the munitions dropped by NATO during the conflict were precision @-@ guided , versus only 8 % during the Gulf War . For the Royal Navy , Deny Flight led to a re @-@ evaluation of the Sea Harrier and a number of upgrades to it . In particular , the Royal Navy added the Paveway II laser @-@ guided bomb to the Harrier , giving it a precision capability , and upgraded electronics aboard the aircraft in response to the necessities of combat in Bosnia . The lessons of Bosnia also led the Royal Air Force to deploy the Harrier GR7 aboard Royal Navy carriers for future operations in order to deliver more offensive force projection capability . The four NATO aircraft shot down during Operation Deny Flight also forced NATO members to consider new defensive measures for their aircraft , including increased stealth capabilities . Deny Flight also demonstrated the necessity of better communications and integration among forces operating together , and led to some calls for technical training of UN personnel to work with NATO military systems . Finally , the rules of engagement established under Deny Flight also played an important role in shaping the rules of engagement for later NATO operations other than war , including Operation Joint Endeavor , and even NATO operations in Afghanistan . = = = Effect on the Atlantic relationship = = = Operation Deny Flight , and other NATO operations during the Bosnian War , resulted in significant tension within NATO and the Atlantic relationship . Deny Flight and other early operations " forced the Allies to consider the question of NATO 's military responsibility for territory outside of its traditional defense perimeter , and it was one over which they were deeply divided " . Disagreements between the United States and its European allies over when and how to use air power " made intra @-@ alliance diplomacy more problematic " during the period . Many of these problems in the relationship were the result of concerns from European nations who had forces on the ground in UNPROFOR that might be taken hostage . The fact that the United States pushed for air strikes without placing its own forces on the ground in Bosnia greatly exacerbated this problem . Deny Flight also helped set the path for future UN @-@ NATO relations . Throughout the operation , NATO " felt the frustration of having its wings clipped by a parallel UN authority " , while United Nations officials worried about the effect that NATO air strikes would have on the perceived neutrality of the United Nations . Frustration with the " dual key " procedure of authorization for NATO action also led NATO officers to reject such an arrangement in the future . Admiral Leighton Smith , the commander of NATO 's forces during Deny Flight , expressed this sentiment quite bluntly , saying " Don 't ever have another dual key . " These difficulties in negotiating the UN @-@ NATO relationship during Deny Flight were a major factor in the decision to place later NATO forces in the Balkans under the sole control of the NATO chain of command . While many of these effects on UN @-@ NATO relations were negative , Deny Flight also had positive implications . During the operation , NATO and the UN exchanged liaison officers for the first time in their respective histories , establishing a precedent for military cooperation between the two . The communication and coordination failures during Deny Flight also instilled " a desire for mutual understanding and common solutions " between the two organizations . This desire for cooperation was crucial to the establishment of IFOR , and later UN @-@ NATO cooperation in Bosnia and elsewhere . = = = Effect on the Bosnian War = = = Deny Flight also played a significant role in shaping the war in Bosnia , although its exact impact is debated . While Richard Holbrooke , the American special envoy for Bosnia , recognized Operation Deliberate Force as " a historic development in post @-@ Cold War relations " and as a crucial element in ending the war in Bosnia , the actual impact of Deny Flight on the course of the conflict was more muted . None of the air strikes in Deny Flight were on the scale of those in Deliberate Force , and they did not significantly change the balance of power . Notably , however , Deny Flight was successful in that it " neutralised the Bosnian Serbs ' advantage in fixed @-@ wing air @-@ power " . Deny Flight also paved the way for Operation Deliberate Force . According to Robert E. Hunter , then the US Ambassador to NATO , Deny Flight was crucial to the process of building " consensus support for increasingly robust use of airpower over Bosnia " , which eventually culminated in Operation Deliberate Force . While the material impact of Deny Flight was minimal , it did have a significant political impact . From the very beginning , according to Michael Beale , " the operation 's implied objective was to demonstrate UN and NATO determination to stabilize the situation in Bosnia so that a peaceful settlement could be achieved " . Given the many violations of Deny Flight by helicopters , and the frequent failure of coordination between NATO and the UN , it is uncertain whether Deny Flight accomplished this mission . Nonetheless , NATO 's limited air strikes under Deny Flight " demonstrated its determination to protect United Nations personnel " and Bosnian civilians , according to Michael R. Gordon , chief military correspondent for The New York Times . This determination eventually held the key to peace . = = = Books = = = Beale , Michael ( 1997 ) . Bombs over Bosnia : The Role of Airpower in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Maxwell Air Force Base , Montgomery : Air University Press . OCLC 39892597 . Boot , Max ( 2006 ) . War Made New . New York : Gotham Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 59240 @-@ 222 @-@ 4 . OCLC 69104262 . Bucknam , Mark ( 2003 ) . Responsibility of Command . Maxwell Air Force Base : Air University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58566 @-@ 115 @-@ 5 . OCLC 52199670 . Burg , Steven ; Shoup , Paul ( 1999 ) . The War in Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina . Armonk : M.E. Sharper . ISBN 1 @-@ 56324 @-@ 308 @-@ 3 . OCLC 44955248 . Davis , Bradley ( 2000 ) . " The Planning Background " . Deliberate Force . Maxwell Air Force Base : Air University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 58566 @-@ 076 @-@ 0 . OCLC 43095788 . Foster , Edward ( 1995 ) . NATO 's Military in the Age of Crisis Management . London : Royal United Services Institute for Defence Studies . ISBN 0 @-@ 85516 @-@ 099 @-@ 3 . OCLC 32775929 . Holbrooke , Richard ( 1999 ) . To End a War . New York : Modern Library . ISBN 0 @-@ 375 @-@ 75360 @-@ 5 . OCLC 40545454 . Moore , Rebecca ( 2007 ) . NATO 's New Mission . Westport : Praeger Security International . ISBN 0 @-@ 275 @-@ 99296 @-@ 9 . OCLC 74966600 . National Defense University ( April 1997 ) . Allied command structures in the new NATO . National Defense University Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 57906 @-@ 033 @-@ 1 . Ripley , Tim ( 2001 ) . Conflict in the Balkans , 1991 – 2000 . London : Osprey Publishing . ISBN 1 @-@ 84176 @-@ 290 @-@ 3 . Rohde , David ( 1997 ) . A Safe Area , Srebrenica : Europe 's Worst Massacre Since the Second World War . London : Pocket Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 00499 @-@ 9 . OCLC 37329422 . = = = Articles = = = Allin , Dana ( 2002 ) . NATO 's Balkan Interventions . Adelphi Paper 347 . International Institute for Strategic Studies . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 851676 @-@ 2 . " Bosnian Serb leader parlays with Carter , promises peace moves " . Deutsche Presse @-@ Agentur . December 15 , 1994 . Cohen , Roger ( November 22 , 1994 ) . " NATO , Expanding Bosnia Role , Strikes a Serbian Base in Croatia " . The New York Times . Cohen , Roger ( December 9 , 1995 ) . " Serbs Release 55 Canadians But Renew Attack on Enclave " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 28 . " Deny Flight shootdown may put USAF on the offensive " . Jane 's Defence Weekly . June 24 , 1995 . " Flexing Joint Muscle : Mixed air groups aboard carriers " . Jane 's Navy International . December 1997 . Gordon , Michael ( April 11 , 1994 ) . " Conflict in the Balkans : NATO ; Modest Air Operation in Bosnia Crosses a Major Political Frontier " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 17 . Gordon , Michael ( April 5 , 1994 ) . " No ' Green Light ' for Serb Attacks , Clinton Says " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 17 . Gordon , Michael R. ( 1 March 1994 ) . " Conflict in the Balkans : NATO Craft Down 4 Serb Warplanes Attacking Bosnia " . The New York times . Retrieved 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 17 . Leurdijk , Dick ( 1997 ) . " Before and after Dayton : The UN and NATO in the former Yugoslavia " . Third World Quarterly . Owen , Robert ( Summer 1997 ) . " The Balkans Air Campaign Study : Part 1 " . Airpower Journal . " RAF Harriers could add teeth to RN carriers " . Jane 's Defense Weekly . June 26 , 1996 . " Ratko Mladic 's very personal war " . BBC World Service . July 26 , 2008 . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 03 @-@ 08 . Safire , William ( November 23 , 1995 ) . " Essay : Biting Bosnia 's Bullet " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 16 . Cohen , Roger ( 29 August 1995 ) . " Shelling Kills Dozens in Sarajevo ; U.S. Urges NATO to Strike Serbs " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2012 @-@ 11 @-@ 16 . Simmons , Dean ( May 1997 ) . " Air operations over Bosnia " . United States Naval Institute Proceedings . Slick , Anthony ( May 1995 ) . " Working the swing role into the 21st century--The F / A @-@ 18D " . Marine Corps Gazette . Spence , Mike ( October 2000 ) . " Lessons for combined rules of engagement " . United States Naval Institute . Proceedings . Starr , Barbara ( August 14 , 1993 ) . " Deny Flight forces poised for Bosnia strikes " . Jane 's Defence Weekly . Starr , Barbara ( January 28 , 1995 ) . " The Jane 's Interview " . Jane 's Defence Weekly . Sudetic , Chuck ( November 19 , 1994 ) . " Napalm and Cluster Bombs Dropped on Bosnian Town " . The New York Times . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 04 @-@ 28 . Williams , Daniel ; Devroy , Ann ( December 15 , 1994 ) . " Carter Undertakes Bosnia Peace Initiative " . The Washington Post . Wallander , Celeste ( Autumn 2000 ) . " Institutional Assets and Adaptability : NATO After the Cold War " . International Organization . ( subscription required for viewing ) = = = Web resources = = = " Operation Deny Flight " . AFSOUTH Fact Sheets . NATO Regional Headquarters Allied Forces Southern Europe . Retrieved 2011 @-@ 04 @-@ 17 . " Resolution 816 " ( PDF ) . United Nations Security Council Resolutions . UN Security Council . Retrieved 2009 @-@ 02 @-@ 17 . = Blue @-@ faced honeyeater = The blue @-@ faced honeyeater ( Entomyzon cyanotis ) , also colloquially known as the bananabird , is a passerine bird of the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae . It is the only member of its genus , and it is most closely related to honeyeaters of the genus Melithreptus . Three subspecies are recognised . At around 29 @.@ 5 cm ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) in length , the blue @-@ faced species is large for a honeyeater . Its plumage is distinctive , with olive upperparts , white underparts , and a black head and throat with white nape and cheeks . Males and females are similar in external appearance . Adults have a blue area of bare skin on each side of the face readily distinguishing them from juveniles , which have yellow or green patches of bare skin . Found in open woodland , parks and gardens , the blue @-@ faced honeyeater is common in northern and eastern Australia and southern New Guinea . It appears to be sedentary in parts of its range and locally nomadic in other parts ; however , the species has been little studied . Its diet is mostly composed of invertebrates , supplemented with nectar and fruit . They often take over and renovate old babbler nests , in which the female lays and incubates two or rarely three eggs . = = Taxonomy and naming = = The blue @-@ faced honeyeater was first described by ornithologist John Latham in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici , sive Systematis Ornithologiae . However , he described it as three separate species , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : The blue @-@ eared grackle ( Gracula cyanotis ) , the blue @-@ cheeked bee @-@ eater ( Merops cyanops ) , and as the blue @-@ cheeked thrush ( Turdus cyanous ) . It was as the blue @-@ cheeked bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1788 and 1797 by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter . It was reclassified in the genus Entomyzon , which was erected by William Swainson in 1825 , who observed the " Blue @-@ faced Grakle " as the only insectivorous member of the genus and posited it was a link between the smaller honeyeaters and the riflebirds of the genus Ptiloris . The generic name is derived from the Ancient Greek ento- / εντο- ( " inside " ) and myzein / μυζειν " to drink " or " suck " . The specific epithet , cyanotis , means " blue @-@ eared " and combines cyano- / κυανο- " blue " with otis , a Latinised form of ωτος , the Greek genitive of ous / ους " ear " . Swainson spelt it Entomiza in an 1837 publication , and George Gray wrote Entomyza in 1840 . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater is generally held to be the only member of the genus , although its plumage suggests an affinity with honeyeaters of the genus Melithreptus . It has been classified in that genus by Glen Storr , although others felt it more closely related to wattlebirds ( Anthochaera ) or miners ( Manorina ) . A 2004 molecular study has resolved it as close to Melithreptus after all . Molecular clock estimates indicate the blue @-@ faced honeyeater diverged from the Melithreptus honeyeaters somewhere between 12 @.@ 8 and 6 @.@ 4 million years ago , in the Miocene epoch . It differs from them in its much larger size , brighter plumage , more gregarious nature and larger patch of bare facial skin . Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily . Early naturalist George Shaw had called it the blue @-@ faced honey @-@ sucker in 1826 . Other common names include white @-@ quilled honeyeater , and blue @-@ eye . Its propensity for feeding on the flowers and fruit of bananas in north Queensland has given it the common name of banana @-@ bird . A local name from Mackay in central Queensland is pandanus @-@ bird , as it is always found around Pandanus palms there . It is called morning @-@ bird from its dawn calls before other birds of the bush . Gympie is a Queensland bushman 's term . Thomas Watling noted a local indigenous name was der @-@ ro @-@ gang . John Hunter recorded the term gugurruk ( pron . " co @-@ gurrock " ) , but the term was also applied to the black @-@ shouldered kite ( Elanus axillaris ) . It is called ( minha ) yeewi , where minha is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' , in Pakanh and ( inh- ) ewelmb in Uw Oykangand and Uw Olkola , where inh- is a qualifier meaning ' meat ' or ' animal ' , in three aboriginal languages of central Cape York Peninsula . Three subspecies are recognised : E. c. albipennis was described by John Gould in 1841 and found in north Queensland , west though the Gulf of Carpentaria in the Northern Territory and across into the top of Western Australia . It has white on the wings and a discontinuous stripe on the nape . The wing patch is pure white in the western part of its range and is more cream towards the east . It has a longer bill and shorter tail than the nominate race . Birds also decrease in size with decreasing latitude , consistent with Bergmann 's rule . Molecular work supports the current classification of this subspecies as distinct from the nominate subspecies cyanotis . E. c. cyanotis , the nominate form , is found from Cape York Peninsula south through Queensland and New South Wales , into the Riverina region , Victoria , and southeastern South Australia . E. c. griseigularis is found in southwestern New Guinea and Cape York , and was described in 1909 by Dutch naturalist Eduard van Oort . It is much smaller than the other subspecies . The original name for this subspecies was harteri , but the type specimen , collected in Cooktown , was found to be an intergrade form . The new type was collected from Merauke . This subspecies intergrades with cyanotis at the base of the Cape York Peninsula , and the zone of intermediate forms is narrow . The white wing patch is larger than that of cyanotis and smaller than that of albipennis . Only one bird ( from Cape York ) of this subspecies was sampled in a molecular study , and it was shown to be genetically close to cyanotis . = = Description = = A large honeyeater ranging from 26 to 32 cm ( 10 to 12 @.@ 5 in ) and averaging 29 @.@ 5 cm ( 11 @.@ 6 in ) in length , the adult blue @-@ faced honeyeater has a wingspan of 44 cm ( 17 @.@ 5 in ) and weighs around 105 g ( 3 @.@ 7 oz ) . In general shape , it has broad wings with rounded tips and a medium squarish tail . The sturdy slightly downcurved bill is shorter than the skull , and measures 3 to 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) in length . It is easily recognised by the bare blue skin around its eyes . The head and throat are otherwise predominantly blackish with a white stripe around the nape and another from the cheek . The upperparts , including mantle , back and wings , are a golden @-@ olive colour , and the margins of the primary and secondary coverts a darker olive @-@ brown , while the underparts are white . Juveniles that have just fledged have grey head , chin and central parts of their breasts , and brown upperparts , and otherwise white underparts . After their next moult , they more closely resemble adults and have similar plumage , but are distinguished by their facial patches . The bare facial skin of birds just fledged is yellow , sometimes with a small patch of blue in front of the eyes , while the skin of birds six months and older has usually become more greenish , and turn darker blue beneath the eye , before assuming the adult blue facial patch by around 16 months of age . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater begins its moult in October or November , starting with its primary flight feathers , replacing them by February . It replaces its body feathers anywhere from December to June , and tail feathers between December and July . 422 blue @-@ faced honeyeaters have been banded between 1953 and 1997 to monitor movements and longevity . Of these , 109 were eventually recovered , 107 of which were within 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of their point of banding . The record for longevity was a bird banded in May 1990 in Kingaroy in central Queensland which was found dead on a road after 8 years and 3 @.@ 5 months in September 1998 , around 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater produces a variety of calls , including a piping call around half an hour before dawn , variously described as ki @-@ owt , woik , queet , peet , or weet . Through the day , it makes squeaking noises while flying , and harsh squawks when mobbing . Its calls have been likened to those of the yellow @-@ throated miner ( Manorina flavigula ) , but are deeper . Blue @-@ faced honeyeaters make a soft chirping around nestlings and family members . A distinctive bird , the blue @-@ faced honeyeater differs in coloration from the duller @-@ plumaged friarbirds , miners and wattlebirds , and it is much larger than the similarly coloured Melithreptus honeyeaters . Subspecies albipennis with its white wing patch has been likened to a khaki @-@ backed butcherbird in flight . = = Distribution and habitat = = The blue @-@ faced honeyeater is found from the Kimberleys in northwestern Australia eastwards across the Top End and into Queensland , where it is found from Cape York south across the eastern and central parts of the state , roughly east of a line connecting Karumba , Blackall , Cunnamulla and Currawinya National Park . It has a patchy distribution in New South Wales , occurring in the Northern Rivers and Northern Tablelands regions , and along the coast south to Nambucca Heads . To the south it is generally absent from the Central and South Coast , and is instead found west of the Great Divide across South West Slopes and Riverina and to the Murray River . It is common in northern Victoria and reaches Bordertown in southeastern South Australia , its range continuing along the Murray . It is also found in the Grampians region , particularly in the vicinity of Stawell , Ararat and St Arnaud , with rare reports from southwestern Victoria . The species occasionally reaches Adelaide , and there is a single record from the Eyre Peninsula . The altitude ranges from sea level to around 850 m ( 2 @,@ 790 ft ) , or rarely 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . In New Guinea , it is found from Merauke in the far southeast of Indonesia 's Papua province and east across the Trans @-@ Fly region of southwestern Papua New Guinea . It has also been recorded from the Aru Islands . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater appears to be generally sedentary within its range , especially in much of the Northern Territory , Queensland and New South Wales . However , in many places ( generally south of the Tropic of Capricorn ) , populations may be present or absent at different times of the year , although this appears to result from nomadic rather than seasonal migratory movements . Around Wellington in central New South Wales , birds were recorded over winter months , and were more common in autumn around the Talbragar River . Birds were present all year round near Inverell in northern New South Wales , but noted to be flying eastwards from January to May , and westwards in June and July . In Jandowae in southeastern Queensland , birds were regularly recorded flying north and east from March to June , and returning south and west in July and August , and were absent from the area in spring and summer . They live throughout rainforest , dry sclerophyll ( Eucalyptus ) forest , open woodland , Pandanus thickets , paperbarks , mangroves , watercourses , and wetter areas of semi @-@ arid regions , as well as parks , gardens , and golf courses in urban areas . The understory in eucalypt @-@ dominated woodland where the blue @-@ faced honeyeater is found is most commonly composed of grasses such as Triodia , but sometimes it is made up of shrubs or small trees such as grevilleas , paperbarks , wattles , Cooktown ironwood ( Erythrophleum chlorostachys ) or billygoat plum ( Terminalia ferdinandiana ) . One study in Kakadu National Park found that blue @-@ faced honeyeaters inhabited mixed stands of eucalypts and Pandanus but were missing from pure stands of either plant . = = Behaviour = = The social organisation of the blue @-@ faced honeyeater has been little studied to date . Encountered in pairs , family groups or small flocks , blue @-@ faced honeyeaters sometimes associate with groups of yellow @-@ throated miners ( Manorina flavigula ) . They mob potential threats such as goshawks ( Accipiter spp . ) , rufous owls ( Ninox rufa ) , and Pacific koels ( Eudynamys orientalis ) . There is some evidence of cooperative breeding , with some breeding pairs recorded with one or more helper birds . Parents will dive at and harass intruders to drive them away from nest sites , including dogs , owls , goannas , and even a nankeen night heron ( Nycticorax caledonicus ) . A study published in 2004 of remnant patches of forest in central Queensland , an area largely cleared for agriculture , showed a reduced avian species diversity in areas frequented by blue @-@ faced honeyeaters or noisy miners . This effect was more marked in smaller patches . The study concluded that conserved patches of woodland containing the two aggressive species should be larger than 20 ha ( 44 acres ) to preserve diversity . Social birds , blue @-@ faced honeyeaters can be noisy when they congregate . When feeding in groups , birds seem to keep in contact with each other by soft chirping calls . In Mackay , a bird would fly up 10 or 12 metres ( 33 or 39 ft ) above the treetops calling excitedly to its flock , who would follow and fly around in what was likened to an aerial corroboree , seemingly at play . A single bird was recorded aping and playing with an immature Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) in Proserpine , Queensland . The blue @-@ faced honeyeater has been reported to be fond of bathing ; a flock of 15 – 20 birds were observed diving into pools one bird at a time , while others were perched in surrounding treetops preening . The parasite Anoncotaenia globata ( a worldwide species not otherwise recorded from Australia ) was isolated from a blue @-@ faced honeyeater collected in North Queensland in 1916 . The habroneme nematode Cyrnea ( Procyrnea ) spirali has also been isolated from this among other honeyeater species . The nasal mite Ptilonyssus philemoni has been isolated from the noisy friarbird ( Philemon corniculatus ) and blue @-@ faced honeyeater . = = = Feeding = = = The blue @-@ faced honeyeater generally forages in the branches and foliage of trees , in small groups of up to seven birds . Occasionally larger flocks of up to 30 individuals have been reported , and the species has been encountered in a mixed @-@ species foraging flock with the little friarbird ( Philemon citreogularis ) . The bulk of their diet consists of insects , including cockroaches , termites , grasshoppers , bugs such as lerps , scale ( Coccidae ) and shield bugs ( Pentatomidae ) , beetles such as bark beetles , chafers ( subfamily Melolonthinae ) , click beetles ( genus Xanthophaea ) , darkling beetles ( genera Chalcopteroides and Homotrysis ) , leaf beetles ( genus Paropsis ) , ladybirds of the genus Scymnus , weevils such as the pinhole borer ( Platypus australis ) , and members of the genera Mandalotus , Polyphrades and Prypnus , as well as flies , moths , bees , ants and spiders . Birds have been reported preying on small lizards . Prey are caught mostly by sallying , although birds also probe and glean . In Kakadu National Park , birds prefer to hunt prey between the leaf bases of the screw palm Pandanus spiralis . The remainder of their diet is made up of plant material such as pollen , berries , nectar , from such species as grasstrees ( Xanthorrhoea ) and scarlet gum ( Eucalyptus phoenicea ) , and cultivated crops such as bananas or particularly grapes . In general , birds prefer feeding at cup @-@ shaped sources such as flowers of the Darwin woollybutt ( Eucalyptus miniata ) , Darwin stringybark ( E. tetrodonta ) and long @-@ fruited bloodwood ( Corymbia polycarpa ) , followed by brush @-@ shaped inflorescences , such as banksias or melaleucas , gullet @-@ shaped inflorescences such as grevilleas , with others less often picked . Usually very inquisitive and friendly birds , they will often invade a campsite , searching for edible items , including fruit , insects , and remnants from containers of jam or honey , and milk is particularly favoured . Parent birds feed the young on insects , fruit and nectar , and have been recorded regurgitating milk to them as well . = = = Breeding = = = The blue @-@ faced honeyeater probably breeds throughout its range . The breeding season is from June to January , with one or two broods raised during this time . The nest is an untidy deep bowl of sticks and bits of bark in the fork of a tree , Staghorn or bird 's nest ferns , or grasstree . Pandanus palms are a popular nest site in Mackay . They often renovate and use the old nests of other species , most commonly the grey @-@ crowned babbler ( Pomatostomus temporalis ) , but also the chestnut @-@ crowned babbler ( P. ruficeps ) , other honeyeaters including noisy ( Philemon corniculatus ) , little and silver @-@ crowned friarbirds ( P. argenticeps ) , the noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) and the red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) , and artamids such as the Australian magpie and butcherbird species , and even the magpie @-@ lark . In Coen , an old babbler nest in a paperbark ( Melaleuca ) which had been lined with messmate bark had been occupied by blue @-@ faced honeyeaters and re @-@ lined with strips of paperbark . Two or rarely three eggs are laid , 22 × 32 mm ( 1 × 1 ⅓ in ) and buff @-@ pink splotched with red @-@ brown or purplish colours . The female alone incubates the eggs , over a period of 16 or 17 days . Like those of all passerines , the chicks are altricial ; they are born blind and covered only by sparse tufts of brown down on their backs , shoulders and parts of wings . By four days they open their eyes , and pin feathers emerge from their wings on day six , and the rest of the body on days seven and eight . Both parents feed the young , and are sometimes assisted by helper birds . The Pacific koel and pallid cuckoo ( Cuculus pallidus ) have been recorded as brood parasites of the blue @-@ faced honeyeater , and the laughing kookaburra recorded as preying on broods . = = Aviculture = = Keeping blue @-@ faced honeyeaters in an aviary in New South Wales requires a Class 2 Licence . Applicants must show they have appropriate housing , and at least two years ' experience of keeping birds . Blue @-@ faced honeyeaters are exhibited at Lincoln Park Zoo in Chicago , Philadelphia Zoo , and Birmingham Zoo ( Alabama ) in the United States , Chessington Zoo in England , Edinburgh Zoo in Scotland and Taronga Zoo in Sydney , Australia . = Sexuality of Adolf Hitler = Adolf Hitler 's sexuality has long been a matter of historical and scholarly debate . There is evidence that he had romantic encounters with a number of women during his lifetime , as well as evidence of his antipathy to homosexuality , and no evidence of homosexual encounters . His name has been linked to a number of possible female lovers , two of whom committed suicide . Another died of complications eight years after a suicide attempt , and one made a failed suicide attempt . Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life , dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation . His relationship with Eva Braun , which lasted nearly 14 years , was hidden from the public and all but his inner circle . Braun biographer Heike Görtemaker notes that the couple enjoyed a normal sex life . Hitler and Braun married in late April 1945 , less than 40 hours before committing suicide together . Two wartime reports by the Allies attempted to analyze Hitler psychologically . Walter C. Langer 's 1943 report for the American Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) describes Hitler as having repressed homosexual tendencies and opined that he was an impotent coprophile . Psychologist Henry Murray wrote a separate psychoanalytical report for the OSS in 1943 that drew similar conclusions . Otto Strasser , one of Hitler 's opponents in the Nazi Party , also told his post @-@ war interrogators a similar story . British historian Sir Ian Kershaw describes Strasser 's statement as " anti @-@ Hitler propaganda " . In research following Hitler 's death , a variety of claims have been made about Hitler 's sexual orientation : that he was gay , bisexual , or asexual . Conclusive evidence is lacking , but most historians believe he was heterosexual . There is at least one claim that Hitler had an illegitimate child ( named Jean @-@ Marie Loret ) with one of his lovers . Mainstream historians , such as Ian Kershaw , dismiss this as unlikely or impossible . = = Historical accounts = = Hitler 's sex life has long been the subject of speculation and rumours , many of which were invented or " spiced up " by his political enemies . While the sexual preferences of many members of Hitler 's inner circle are known , conclusive evidence of Hitler 's sexuality is lacking . The evidence that exists about Hitler 's private life is largely from people in his inner circle , such as his adjutants , his secretaries , Albert Speer , the Richard Wagner family , and others . There is evidence that he had infatuations with a number of women during his lifetime , as well as evidence of his antipathy to homosexuality , and no evidence that he engaged in homosexual behavior . British historian Sir Ian Kershaw describes him as being repelled by personal contact and sexual activity , including homosexuality and prostitution , especially as a young man in Vienna . He was afraid of contracting a sexually transmitted infection . Hermann Rauschning claimed to have seen in Hitler 's First World War military record an item concerning a court martial that found Hitler guilty of pederastic practices with an officer . Rauschning also claimed that in Munich Hitler was found guilty of a violation of Paragraph 175 , which dealt with pederasty . No evidence of either of these two charges has been found . Hitler had a few brief relationships when young . He was deeply attached to his half @-@ niece Geli Raubal , 19 years his junior . She began living at his residence after her mother became Hitler 's housekeeper in 1925 . Although the exact nature and extent of their relationship is unknown , Kershaw describes it as a latent " sexual dependence " . It was rumoured among contemporaries that they were in a romantic relationship . Geli committed suicide with Hitler 's gun in his Munich apartment in September 1931 . Her death was a source of deep , lasting pain for Hitler . Ernst Hanfstaengl , one of the members of Hitler 's inner circle in the early years in Munich , wrote that " I felt Hitler was a case of a man who was neither fish , flesh nor fowl , neither fully homosexual nor fully heterosexual ... I had formed the firm conviction that he was impotent , the repressed , masturbating type . " Nevertheless , Hanfstaengl was convinced enough of Hitler 's heterosexuality that he unsuccessfully tried to encourage a romantic relationship between Hitler and Martha Dodd , daughter of the American ambassador . According to Hanfstaengl , filmmaker Leni Riefenstahl tried to begin a relationship with Hitler early on , but he turned her down . Hitler 's regime persecuted homosexuals , sending an estimated 5 @,@ 000 to 15 @,@ 000 to concentration camps ; some 2 @,@ 500 to 7 @,@ 500 of these died . After the Night of the Long Knives ( 1934 ) , Hitler described the homosexuality of Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders as corrupt and immoral . In August 1941 Hitler declared that " homosexuality is actually as infectious and as dangerous as the plague " , and supported Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler 's efforts to remove gay men from the military and the SS . Male homosexuality was illegal , and offenders were sent to prison or directly to concentration camps . Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life , dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation . He considered himself to be attractive to women , partly because of his position of power . Hitler 's friend Albert Speer recalled him stating a preference for unintelligent women who would not challenge him about his work or prevent him from relaxing in his leisure time . Kershaw speculates that Hitler preferred younger women who were easy to dominate and mold . He notes that at least three of Hitler 's close female associates ( Eva Braun , Geli Raubal , and Maria Reiter ) were far younger than himself : Braun was 23 years younger , Raubal was 19 years younger , and Reiter was 21 years his junior . His relationship with Braun , which lasted nearly 14 years , was hidden from the public and all but his inner circle . Within that circle ( most of whom survived the war ) , he was open about Braun , and they lived together at Berchtesgaden as a couple . Hitler 's valet , Heinz Linge , stated in his memoirs that Hitler and Braun had two bedrooms and two bathrooms with interconnecting doors at the Berghof , and Hitler would end most evenings alone with her in his study before they retired to bed . She would wear a " dressing gown or house @-@ coat " and drink wine ; Hitler would have tea . Braun biographer Heike Görtemaker notes that the couple enjoyed a normal sex life . Braun 's friends and relatives described her giggling over a 1938 photograph of Neville Chamberlain sitting on a sofa in Hitler 's Munich flat with the remark : " If only he knew what goings @-@ on that sofa has seen . " Hitler 's letters provide evidence that he was fond of her , and worried when she participated in sports or was late returning for tea . His secretary Traudl Junge stated that during the war , Hitler telephoned Braun every day . He was concerned for her safety when she was staying in the Munich home he had bought her . Junge further asked Hitler once why he never married . Hitler replied , " ... I wouldn 't have been able to give enough time to my wife " . Hitler told her that he didn 't want children , as they would have had " ... a very hard time , because they 're expected to possess the same gifts as their famous parents and they can 't be forgiven for being mediocre " . In the end , Hitler and Braun married in the Berlin Führerbunker in late April 1945 , less than 40 hours before committing suicide together . = = Langer 's and Murray 's wartime OSS reports = = In 1943 , the American Office of Strategic Services ( OSS ) received A Psychological Analysis of Adolf Hitler : His Life and Legend by Walter C. Langer , commissioned to help the Allies understand the dictator . The report , later expanded into book form as The Mind of Adolf Hitler : The Secret Wartime Report ( 1972 ) , describes Hitler as having repressed homosexual tendencies and states that he was an impotent coprophile . Psychologist Henry Murray wrote a separate psychoanalytical report for OSS also in 1943 , entitled Analysis of the Personality of Adolph Hitler : With Predictions of His Future Behavior and Suggestions for Dealing with Him Now and After Germany 's Surrender . He also dealt with Hitler 's alleged coprophilia , but overall diagnosed Hitler a schizophrenic . One of Hitler 's opponents in the Nazi Party , Otto Strasser , told OSS interrogators that the Nazi dictator forced Geli Raubal to urinate and defecate on him . Kershaw contends that stories circulated by Strasser as to alleged " sexual deviant practices ought to be viewed as ... anti @-@ Hitler propaganda " . = = Recent allegations = = In research following his death , a variety of claims have been made about Hitler 's sexuality : that he was gay , bisexual , or asexual , or may have engaged sexual activity with his half @-@ niece , Geli Raubal . The 1995 book The Pink Swastika , by Scott Lively and Kevin Abrams , asserts that most of the top Nazis were homosexual and that there is evidence that homosexuals are violent and dangerous . Mainstream historians have criticized the book for its inaccuracies and manipulation of facts . Bob Moser , writing for the Southern Poverty Law Center , says the book was promoted by anti @-@ gay groups and that historians agree its premise is " utterly false " . Jack Nusan Porter of the University of Massachusetts Lowell wrote in 1998 : " Did Hitler despise homosexuals ? Was he ashamed of his own homosexual identity ? These are areas of psychohistory that are beyond known knowledge . My own feelings are that Hitler was asexual in the traditional sense and had bizarre sexual fetishes " . Historian Lothar Machtan argues in The Hidden Hitler ( 2001 ) that Hitler was homosexual . The book speculates about Hitler 's experiences in Vienna with young friends , his adult relationships with ( among others ) Röhm , Hanfstaengl , and Emil Maurice , and includes a study of the Mend Protocol , a series of allegations made to the Munich Police in the early 1920s by Hans Mend , who served with Hitler during World War I. The American journalist Ron Rosenbaum is highly critical of Machtan 's work , saying his " evidence falls short of being conclusive and often falls far short of being evidence at all " . Most scholars dismiss Machtan 's claims , and believe Hitler was heterosexual . In 2004 , HBO produced a documentary film based on Machtan 's theory , titled Hidden Fuhrer : Debating the Enigma of Hitler 's Sexuality . = = Possible relationships = = Adolf Hitler 's name has been linked romantically with a number of women other than Eva Braun . = Drink You Away = " Drink You Away " is a song recorded by American singer and songwriter Justin Timberlake for his fourth studio album , The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 ( 2013 ) . It was written and produced by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley and Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon , with additional writing from James Fauntleroy . It was sent to US country radio stations on November 23 , 2015 as the fourth and final single from the album . Musically , it was defined by critics as a multi @-@ genre song including classic @-@ rock , country @-@ pop , gospel @-@ blues and Memphis soul . Lyrically , on the track , Timberlake compares love to alcoholism while making references to several alcoholic brands including Jack Daniel 's and Jim Beam . As of May 2016 , the song has sold over 600 @,@ 000 copies in the US . " Drink You Away " received generally positive response from contemporary critics , with some of them labeling the song as a highlight and one of the most impressive moments on the album . Timberlake performed the song at the 2013 American Music Awards and it was part of the set list of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . In November 2015 , the singer together with Chris Stapleton gave a rendition of track at the 2015 Country Music Association Awards ; following it , " Drink You Away " sold 76 @,@ 000 digital copies and debuted at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart . It also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . = = Production and release = = " Drink You Away " was written by Timberlake , Timothy " Timbaland " Mosley , Jerome " J @-@ Roc " Harmon and James Fauntleroy . The song was produced by Timbaland , Timberlake and Harmon while Jones provided additional production . It was recorded the Larrabee Studios in North Hollywood , Los Angeles . Timberlake arranged and produced his vocals . Harmon provided keyboards for the song , while Ives played the guitar . The track was engineered by Chris Godbey and mixed by Jimmy Douglass , Godbey and Timberlake ; for the process they were assisted by Alejandro Baima . The keyboards were provided by Harmon . It was sent to country radio in the United States on November 23 , 2015 , as the fourth and final single from the The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 ( 2013 ) . Regarding the single release , Sony Music Nashville executive vice president , promotion / artist development Steve Hodges stated , " we received several requests from key programmers and we decided to get them a shortened version [ of " Drink You Away " ] so they didn 't have to air the longer cut from the album , " adding " our promotion staffs will not be actively working the single , we simply wanted to make the song easily accessible for country radio . Now they have it and can play it if they 'd like " in an interview for Billboard . = = Composition and lyrical interpretation = = " Drink You Away " runs for a duration of five minutes and thirty @-@ one seconds , while its radio edit lasts for four minutes and fifteen seconds . Chris Bosman of Time magazine described the track as a country @-@ pop . On the other hand , Greg Kot of Chicago Tribune thought that it was a gospel @-@ blues song , while according to The A.V. Club 's Annie Zaleski it is a classic @-@ rock " homage " . Kira Willis of Starpulse.com noted that " Drink You Away " is an " unabashed " Memphis soul song , " steeped in a gritty country riff . " Its instrumentation includes organ and acoustic guitar ; elements of pop and rock music can be heard in the song 's guitar . Lyrically , the song features references to several alcoholic drinks which can be seen in the lyrics , " I can 't drink you away . I 've tried Jack , I 've tried Jim ... Now , tell me baby , do they make a medicine for heartbreak . " Brad Stern of MTV News described it as a " plethora of alcohol references , and a whole lot of bluesy sorrow . " According to Stacy @-@ Ann Ellis of Vibe magazine , the song 's lyrics continue the " druggy love analogy " which Timberlake started with some of the lyrical themes on The 20 / 20 Experience ( 2013 ) most particularly on , " Pusher Love Girl " ; she noted that he is " trying to drown a bitter memory of her by opening up a bar tab and taking Tennessee whiskies to the head . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine described " Drink You Away " as a " honky @-@ tonking " song on which the singer compares his love to alcoholism . = = Reception = = = = = Critical = = = HitFix 's Melinda Newman gave " Drink You Away " an A grade and called it " the best " and " the most captivating track " on The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 , " with potential to be ' 2 of 2 's ' " " Mirrors " . Similarly , Stern of MTV News thought that the song was one of the biggest surprises and one of the most impressive tracks on the album . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy labeled it as a " highlight " on the album and encouraged Timberlake to further explore the " Tennessee swagger " present on the track . PopMatters ' Brice Ezell called the song a " hat trick " on the album and also described it as one of its most " weirdest " and " successful " moments . According to him , the way Timberlake lists the beverages in the lyrics it 's an unorthodox style for the singer and in addition it differs musically from the rest of the material on the album , however , " for whatever reason , though , it works " . He also noted that the song would suit better on a Montgomery Gentry LP . Kory Grow of Rolling Stone described it as a " a big genre @-@ bending , feel @-@ good sing @-@ along that really actually does feels good . " Jason King for Spin called the song " organ @-@ laced " and thought it was " a surefire hit , a country twanger lifted to heaven by Timberlake ’ s quilted , hermetic harmonies . " Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork Media thought that " his heartbrokenness falls flat " on the song which he further described as " plastic blues " and compared it to the works of the American country singer , Kid Rock . Variety 's Andrew Barker described " Drink You Away " as one of the " lows " on the album and compared it to the music of Rock and Lynyrd Skynyrd . Stephen Carlick of Exclaim ! concluded that the track , " relies too heavily on repetition " . = = = Commercial = = = Following Timberlake 's performance at the Country Music Association Awards , for the issue dated November 21 , 2015 , the song sold 76 @,@ 000 digital copies and appeared at number five on the US Hot Digital Songs chart . It has since peaked at number 5 . For the chart dated February 6 , 2016 , the song debuted at number 60 on Billboard 's Country Airplay chart and climbed 38 @-@ 36 on the Mainstream Top 40 radio airplay chart . The single is his 26th entry on the latter as a solo artist . It has also peaked at number 17 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . AS of May 2016 , it has sold 609 @,@ 085 copies in the United States . " Drink You Away " also peaked at number 85 on the Canadian Hot 100 chart . In South Korea , following the release of the parent album , the song sold 2 @,@ 358 digital copies and peaked at number 96 on the Gaon Digital Chart . = = Live performances and covers = = Timberlake performed " Drink You Away " for the first time at the 2013 American Music Awards held at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles ; Rolling Stone 's Grow ranked the performance at number five out of 16 performances that night . The song was part of the setlist of The 20 / 20 Experience World Tour ( 2013 – 15 ) . Timberlake and Chris Stapleton performed the song together along with the latter 's " Tennessee Whiskey " at the Country Music Association Awards on November 4 , 2015 . Rolling Stone magazine praised it as " the best performance of the entire show " , while The New York Times editor Katie Rogers highlighted Timberlake 's crossover appeal . Entertainment Weekly declared it as one of the best performances of 2015 and wrote , " In an unapologetic display of talent , Nashville met Motown during country music ’ s biggest night for a hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air , take @-@ us @-@ to @-@ church mash @-@ up that was everything you hope for from an all @-@ star duet . " American country music artist Craig Morgan has performed the song at several of his concerts . David Fanning 's cover of " Drink You Away " peaked at number 58 on the Country Airplay chart . = = Credits and personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of The 20 / 20 Experience – 2 of 2 . Locations Vocals recorded and mixed at Larrabee , North Hollywood Personnel = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = = Banksia ericifolia = Banksia ericifolia , the heath @-@ leaved banksia ( also known as the lantern banksia or heath banksia ) , is a species of woody shrub of the Proteaceae family native to Australia . It grows in two separate regions of Central and Northern New South Wales east of the Great Dividing Range . Well known for its orange or red autumn inflorescences , which contrast with its green fine @-@ leaved heath @-@ like foliage , it is a medium to large shrub that can reach 6 m ( 20 ft ) high and wide , though is usually half that size . In exposed heathlands and coastal areas it is more often 1 – 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . Banksia ericifolia was one of the original Banksia species collected by Joseph Banks around Botany Bay in 1770 and was named by Carl Linnaeus the Younger , son of Carolus Linnaeus , in 1782 . A distinctive plant , it has split into two subspecies : Banksia ericifolia subspecies ericifolia of the Sydney region and Banksia ericifolia subspecies macrantha of the New South Wales Far North Coast which was recognized in 1996 . Banksia ericifolia has been widely grown in Australian gardens on the east coast for many years , and is used to a limited extent in the cut flower industry . Compact dwarf cultivars such as Banksia ' Little Eric ' have become more popular in recent years with the trend toward smaller gardens . = = Description = = Banksia ericifolia grows as a large shrub up to 6 metres ( 20 feet ) in height , though often smaller , around 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) , in exposed places such as coastal or mountain heathlands . The grey @-@ coloured bark is smooth and fairly thin with lenticels ; however it can thicken significantly with age . The linear dark green leaves are small and narrow , 9 – 20 mm ( 1 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and up to 1 mm wide , generally with two small teeth at the tips . The leaves are crowded and alternately arranged on the branches . New growth generally occurs in summer and is an attractive lime green colour . Flowering is in autumn , or in winter in cooler areas ; the inflorescences are flower spikes 7 – 22 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 8 @.@ 7 in ) high and 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) broad or so . Each individual flower consists of a tubular perianth made up of four fused tepals , and one long wiry style . Characteristic of the taxonomic section in which it is placed , the styles are hooked rather than straight . The styles ' ends are initially trapped inside the upper perianth parts , but break free at anthesis , when the flowers open . The spikes are red or gold in overall colour , with styles golden , orange , orange @-@ red or burgundy . Some unusual forms have striking red styles on a whitish perianth . Very occasionally , forms with all yellow inflorescences are seen . Though not terminal , the flower spikes are fairly prominently displayed emerging from the foliage ; they arise from two- to three @-@ year @-@ old nodes . Old flower spikes fade to brown and then grey with age ; old flower parts soon fall , revealing numerous small dark grey to dull black finely furred follicles . Oblong in shape and 15 – 20 mm ( 9 ⁄ 16 – 13 ⁄ 16 in ) in diameter , the follicles are ridged on each valve and remain closed until burnt by fire . Banksia ericifolia responds to fire by seeding , the parent plant being killed . As plants take several years to flower in the wild , it is very sensitive to too @-@ frequent burns and has been eliminated in some areas where these occur . With time and the production of more cones with seed @-@ containing follicles , however , plants can store up to 16 @,@ 500 seeds at eight years of age . Some plants produce multiple flower spikes , possibly of varying sizes , from a single point of origin . = = Taxonomy = = B. ericifolia was first collected at Botany Bay on 29 April 1770 , by Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Daniel Solander , naturalists on the Endeavour during Lieutenant ( later Captain ) James Cook 's first voyage to the Pacific Ocean . However , the species was not published until April 1782 , when Carolus Linnaeus the Younger described the first four Banksia species in his Supplementum Plantarum . Linnaeus distinguished the species by their leaf shapes and named them accordingly . Thus the species with leaves reminiscent of heather ( at the time classified in the genus Erica ) was given the specific name ericaefolia , from the Latin erica , meaning " heather " , and folium , meaning " leaf " . This spelling was later adjusted to " ericifolia " ; thus the full name for the species is Banksia ericifolia L.f. , with the initials L.f. identifying Carolus Linnaeus the Younger . While many Banksia species have undergone much taxonomic change since publication , the distinctive B. ericifolia has remained largely unchanged as a species concept . Consequently , the species has no taxonomic synonyms ; it does , however , have three nomenclatural synonyms . The first synonym , Banksia phylicaefolia Salisb , was published by the English botanist Richard Anthony Salisbury in his 1796 Prodromus stirpium in horto ad Chapel Allerton vigentium . It was intended as a replacement name for B. ericaefolia , but Salisbury gave no reason why such a replacement was necessary . The name was therefore superfluous , and hence illegitimate . The second synonym arose from Otto Kuntze 's 1891 challenge of the name Banksia L.f. , on the grounds that Banksia J.R.Forst & G. Forst had been published before it , for the genus now known as Pimelea . Kuntze transferred all Banksia species to the new genus name Sirmuellera , in the process publishing Sirmuellera ericifolia ( L.f. ) Kuntze . The challenge failed , however ; indeed , his entire treatise was widely rejected . Finally , in 1905 James Britten mounted a similar challenge , proposing to transfer all Banksia species into Isostylis ; B. ericifolia L.f. thus becoming Isostylis ericifolia L.f. ( Britten ) . This challenge also failed . A recent change to the species ' taxonomy is the recognition , in 1981 , of an infraspecific taxon . The existence of different forms of B. ericifolia was first recognised in 1979 by the amateur botanist Alf Salkin , who noted three distinct forms of the species , with one being a possible hybrid with Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii . Salkin gave his northern form the provisional infraspecific name " microphylla " , but when Alex George published a formal description in his 1981 The genus Banksia L.f. ( Proteaceae ) , he named it B. ericifolia var. macrantha . In 1996 , it was promoted to subspecific rank as B. ericifolia subsp. macrantha . = = = Placement within Banksia = = = Banksia ericifolia has traditionally been described as lying within series Spicigerae of Banksia , together with Banksia spinulosa and various western Hairpin @-@ like Banksias such as B. seminuda and B. brownii . This series is placed in Banksia sect . Oncostylis according to Alex George 's taxonomy of Banksia , but directly into Banksia subg . Banksia in Thiele 's arrangement based on cladistic analysis . Kevin Thiele additionally placed it in a subseries Ericifoliae , but this was not supported by George . Under George 's taxonomic arrangement of Banksia , B. ericifolia 's placement may be summarised as follows : Genus Banksia Subgenus Banksia Section Banksia Section Coccinea Section Oncostylis Series Spicigerae B. spinulosa - B. ericifolia - B. verticillata - B. seminuda - B. littoralis - B. occidentalis - B. brownii Series Tricuspidae Series Dryandroidae Series Abietinae Subgenus Isostylis Molecular research by American botanist Austin Mast suggests that B. spinulosa and B. ericifolia may be more closely related to Banksia ser . Salicinae , with includes Banksia integrifolia and its relatives . In 2005 , Mast , Eric Jones and Shawn Havery published the results of their cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for Banksia . They inferred a phylogeny markedly different from the accepted taxonomic arrangement , including finding Banksia to be paraphyletic with respect to Dryandra . A full new taxonomic arrangement was not published at the time , but early in 2007 Mast and Australian botanist Kevin Thiele initiated a rearrangement by transferring Dryandra to Banksia , and publishing B. subg . Spathulatae for the species having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; in this way they also redefined the autonym B. subg . Banksia . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. ericifolia is placed in B. subg . Spathulatae . Hybrids with B. spinulosa var. spinulosa have been recorded in the wild , at Pigeon House Mountain in Morton National Park . Banksia ' Giant Candles ' was a chance garden hybrid between B. ericifolia and B. spinulosa var. cunninghamii . = = = Subspecies = = = Two geographically distinct forms are recognised : Banksia ericifolia subsp. ericifolia The nominate race is found in the Sydney basin , south to the Illawarra and north to Collaroy , as well as the Blue Mountains . The seedling leaves have 2 – 6 teeth on each margin , while the perianths are 19 – 22 mm ( 3 ⁄ 4 – 3 ⁄ 4 in ) long and pistils are 30 – 35 mm ( 1 1 ⁄ 4 – 1 1 ⁄ 2 in ) long . Salkin noted that this subspecies often grew in association with Banksia spinulosa var. cunninghamii and that there were plants with longer leaves some 20 – 25 mm ( ¾ – 1 in ) long with entire , curled margins . He gave them the name " longifolia " and suspected these may have been hybrids . Banksia ericifolia subsp. macrantha The northern race is found on the New South Wales north coast , from Crowdy Head northwards to the Queensland border . Described as a distinct subspecies in 1996 by Alex George from material he collected at Byron Bay in 1975 , it is distinguished by finer foliage , more crowded leaves and larger flowers , with the perianths 26 – 28 mm ( 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 1 in ) long and pistils 46 – 48 mm ( 1 3 ⁄ 4 – 2 in ) long . The seedling leaves have one , or occasionally two teeth on each margin . Salkin observed that the inflorescences tended to be terminal rather than axial , and others have noted them to be sometimes taller than the nominate subspecies . Crowdy Bay , in particular , hosts specimens with spikes up to 26 cm ( 10 in ) in height . = = = Name and symbolism = = = In 1992 , B. ericifolia was adopted as the official plant of Sydney , and is sometimes seen in amenity plantings and parks around the city . It was known as wadanggari ( pron . " wa @-@ tang @-@ gre " ) to the local Eora and Darug inhabitants of the Sydney basin . = = Distribution and habitat = = In nature , the variety ericifolia is found on acidic sandstone @-@ based soils ; either in elevated heathland within 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of the coast around the Sydney basin , from Collaroy south to Jervis Bay , or elevated sandstone soils in mountainous areas such as the Blue Mountains and the Budawangs . These heathlands are often moist , with access to some form of underground water , and can even be quite swampy . It can form dense thickets with the Dagger Hakea ( Hakea teretifolia ) and Scrub She @-@ oak ( Allocasuarina distyla ) . Other plants it associates with include the Coast Tea @-@ tree ( Leptospermum laevigatum ) and smaller plants such as Woollsia pungens . The inflorescences are a feature of autumn bushwalking in sandstone areas , such as the Kings Tableland walk in the Blue Mountains , Jennifer Street Boardwalk in Little Bay , and Royal National Park . The northern subspecies macrantha is found in two distinct regions on the far north coast of New South Wales ; the first from Crowdy Bay on the Mid North Coast northwards to Hat Head National Park north of Port Macquarie , and then from Yuraygir National Park north to Kingscliff just south of the Queensland border . This variety is more strictly coastal with most populations being found within two kilometres of the coast , or in swampy areas . It may be associated with Banksia oblongifolia . = = Ecology = = Like other banksias , B. ericifolia plays host to a wide variety of pollinators and is a vital source of nectar in autumn , when other flowers are scarce . It has been the subject of a number of studies on pollination . A 1998 study in Bundjalung National Park in Northern New South Wales found that B. ericifolia inflorescences are foraged by a variety of small mammals , including marsupials such as Antechinus flavipes ( yellow @-@ footed antechinus ) , and rodents such as Rattus tunneyi ( pale field rat ) and Melomys burtoni ( grassland mosaic @-@ tailed rat ) . These animals carry pollen loads comparable to those of nectarivorous birds , making them effective pollinators . A 1978 study found Rattus fuscipes ( bush rat ) to bear large amounts of pollen from B. ericifolia and suggested the hooked styles may play a role in pollination by mammals . Other visitors recorded include Apis mellifera ( European honeybee ) . A great many bird species have been observed visiting this Banksia species . A 1985 study in the Sydney area of B. ericifolia var. ericifolia found numerous birds visiting the inflorescences , including the honeyeaters eastern spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus tenuirostris ) , white @-@ cheeked honeyeater ( Phylidonyris nigra ) , New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) , white @-@ naped honeyeater ( Melithreptus lunatus ) , yellow @-@ faced honeyeater ( Lichenostomus chrysops ) , red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) and little wattlebird ( Anthochaera chrysoptera ) , as well as the Silvereye ( Zosterops lateralis ) . The beautiful firetail ( Stagonopleura bella ) also associates with this species . Some mammals were recorded in this study but were found to bear no pollen . Exclusion of certain pollinators showed that birds and insects were important for fertilisation . Additional species seen in The Banksia Atlas survey include white @-@ eared honeyeater ( Lichenostomus leucotis ) , white @-@ plumed honeyeater ( Lichenostomus penicillatus ) , crescent honeyeater ( Phylidonyris pyrrhoptera ) , noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) , and species of friarbird for B. ericifolia var. ericifolia and brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) , tawny @-@ crowned honeyeater ( Gliciphila melanops ) and black @-@ faced cuckoo @-@ shrike ( Coracina novaehollandiae ) for B. ericifolia var. macrantha . Insects recovered from inflorescences include the banksia boring moth ( Arotrophora canthelias ) , younger instars of which eat flower and bract parts before tunneling into the rachis as they get older and boring into follicles and eating seeds . This tunneling itself damages the architecture of the spike and prevents seed development . Other seed predators include unidentified species of moth of the genus Cryptophasa , as well as Scieropepla rimata , Chalarotona intabescens and Chalarotona melipnoa , Brachmia trinervis , Carposina hyperlopha and an unidentified weevil species . Like most other Proteaceae , B. ericifolia has proteoid roots — roots with dense clusters of short lateral rootlets that form a mat in the soil just below the leaf litter . These enhance solubilisation of nutrients , allowing nutrient uptake in low @-@ nutrient soils such as the phosphorus @-@ deficient native soils of Australia . The species lacks a lignotuber , and so is killed by fire and regenerates from seed . Banksia ericifolia depends on fire for regeneration ; if fires are too infrequent , populations age and eventually die out . However , too @-@ frequent fires also threaten this species , which takes around six years to reach maturity and flower . One study estimated an optimum fire interval of 15 – 30 years . For a large part of its distribution Banksia ericifolia grows near areas of human habitation on Australia 's eastern coastline . Bushland near urban areas is subject to both arson and prescribed burns , drastically reducing fire intervals and resulting in the disappearance of the species from some areas . The hotter a fire the more quickly seed is released ; timing of rains afterwards is also critical for seedling survival . Banksia ericifolia is listed in Part 1 Group 1 of Schedule 13 of the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 ; this means that as a common and secure species it is exempted from any licensing or tagging requirements under the 2002 – 2005 management plan to minimise and regulate the use of protected and threatened plants in the cut @-@ flower industry in New South Wales . = = Cultivation = = Banksia ericifolia was one of the first Banksia species to be cultivated , having been introduced into cultivation in England in 1788 . By 1804 , it had flowered in several collections . That year a painting of the plant by Sydenham Edwards was featured in Curtis 's Botanical Magazine , accompanied by text describing the species as " a handsome shrub [ that ] thrives freely " . Banksia ericifolia inflorescences attract a variety of birds to the garden . Tough enough to be used as a street plant in parts of Sydney , B. ericifolia is a fairly easy plant to grow in the conditions it likes , namely a sandy , well drained soil and a sunny aspect . It requires extra water over dryer periods until established , which may take up to two years , as it comes from an area with rainfall in predominantly warmer months . It is resistant to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback , like most eastern banksias As it grows naturally on acid soils , Banksia ericifolia is particularly sensitive to iron deficiency . Known as chlorosis , this problem manifests as yellowing of new leaves with preservation of green veins ; it can occur on plants grown in soils of high pH . This can happen especially where soil contains quantities of cement , either as landfill or building foundations , and can be treated with iron chelate or sulfate . Flowering may take some years from seed ; a minimum of four years is average . Buying an advanced plant may hasten this process , as will getting a cutting @-@ grown plant . Banksia ericifolia can be propagated easily by seed , and is one of the ( relatively ) easier banksias to propagate by cutting . Named cultivars are by necessity propagated by cuttings as this ensures that the plant produced bears the same attributes as the original plant . Regular pruning is important to give the plant an attractive habit and prevent it from becoming leggy . Hard @-@ pruning below green growth is not advisable with this banksia ; since it lacks a lignotuber , it does not have dormant buds below the bark that respond to pruning or fire and therefore is unable to sprout from old wood as readily as commonly cultivated lignotuberous species , such as B. spinulosa and B. robur . = = = Cultivars = = = For many years the horticulture industry focussed on registered selections of Banksia spinulosa , but since the late 1990s more and more cultivars of Banksia ericifolia have come on the market , including colour variants and dwarf forms . The latter are particularly attractive as the original plant may reach 6 metres in height , and the new cultivars help enthusiasts choose a plant that is right for their conditions and tastes . Banksia ericifolia is also grown for the cut flower industry in Australia , though not to the degree that the western Australian species such as B. coccinea and B. menziesii are . There are a number of commercial varieties available from Australian retail nurseries ; however none have yet been registered under plant breeders ' rights legislation , and only one ( ' Limelight ' ) is registered with the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority . The lack of official names has led to some varieties bearing several different names . Banksia ericifolia ' Bronzed Aussie ' is a white @-@ budded terminal @-@ flowering form to 2 m with bronzed foliage ; the inflorescences have honey @-@ coloured pistils . It has been propagated by Victorian nurseryman Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery in Hoddles Creek . A new release in 2003 , its provenance is unknown ; seed had been given to Rod 's father by an SGAP member many years ago . Banksia ericifolia ' Golden Girl ' is a golden yellow @-@ flowered form which grows to 1 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 8 m ( 4 @.@ 9 – 5 @.@ 9 ft ) in height with blue @-@ grey foliage . It has hidden wide fat flowers to 8 cm high and has been propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery . Released in 2003 , its provenance is unknown ( seed donated to Rod 's father by an SGAP member many years ago . ) Banksia ericifolia ' Kanangra Gold ' , propagated by Kuranga Nursery in Melbourne , is a gold flowered form to 4 m ( 13 ft ) from the Kanangra @-@ Boyd region of the Blue Mountains . It is bushy and flowers are much paler than the regular orange or red forms . Banksia ericifolia ' Limelight ' , registered with Australian Cultivar Registration Authority ( ACRA ) in 1987 , is a large plant to 5 m ( 16 ft ) with bright lime green foliage and orange blossoms . It is seldom seen due to the current focus on smaller forms for smaller gardens . Banksia ericifolia ' Little Eric ' is a dwarf form reaching 1 or 2 m ( 3 @.@ 3 or 6 @.@ 6 ft ) ; the inflorescences have maroon styles and whitish perianth . It is propagated by Richard Anderson of Merricks Nursery on the Mornington Peninsula southeast of Melbourne , the original having arisen as a chance garden seedling . Banksia ericifolia ' Purple Pygmy ' , also called B. ' Port Wine ' , is a dwarf form propagated by Kuranga Nursery that grows to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) with purplish foliage with claret flowers . It only flowers rarely and is difficult to propagate . Also , due to low demand it is only propagated in low numbers . Banksia ericifolia ' Red Rover ' is a dwarf cultivar reaching 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) with a more open habit than other forms of similar size . This form has lime green foliage and scarlet @-@ red flowers and was propagated by Rod Parsons of Carawah Nursery from a garden selection and released in 2004 . Banksia ericifolia ' St Pauls ' is a dwarf form that grows to 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) with conspicuous red inflorescences which has been available from time to time from Cranebrook Nursery in Sydney 's western suburbs . It was originally propagated from a plant cultivated at St Pauls ' secondary school ( a local high school ) . Banksia ericifolia ' White Candles / Christmas Candles ' , also known as B. ericifolia ' Ruby Clusters ' , originated from a plant growing in the Sutherland Shire in Sydney 's south . It has an unusual red style / white body colour combination somewhat reminiscent of B. coccinea . The buds are white and contrast with the red styles that emerge through them . It is an open shrub to 3 – 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) . Banksia ericifolia macrantha ' Creamed Honey ' , so called because its flowers are the colour of creamed honey , is a pale flowered variant originally found at Crowdy Head on the New South Wales north coast . Propagated by Kuranga nursery , it grows to 4 or 5 m ( 13 or 16 ft ) with a more open habit . It is notable in that it is the only cultivar of the northern subspecies of Banksia ericifolia currently available . = FN P90 = The FN P90 is a personal defense weapon ( PDW ) designed and manufactured by FN Herstal in Belgium . Created in response to NATO requests for a replacement for 9 × 19mm Parabellum firearms , the P90 was designed as a compact but powerful firearm for vehicle crews , operators of crew @-@ served weapons , support personnel , special forces and counter @-@ terrorist groups . Designed by FN in conjunction with the FN Five @-@ seven pistol and FN 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition , development of the weapon began in 1986 , and production commenced in 1990 ( from which the " 90 " in its name is derived ) , whereupon the 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition was redesigned and shortened . A modified version of the P90 with a magazine adapted to use the new ammunition was introduced in 1993 , and the Five @-@ seven pistol was subsequently introduced as a companion weapon using the same 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . Featuring a compact bullpup design with an integrated reflex sight and fully ambidextrous controls , the P90 is an unconventional weapon with a futuristic appearance . Its design incorporates several innovations such as a unique top @-@ mounted magazine and FN 's small @-@ caliber , high @-@ velocity 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition . The P90 is currently in service with military and police forces in over 40 nations , such as Austria , Brazil , Canada , France , Greece , India , Malaysia , Poland , and the United States . In the United States , the P90 is in use with over 200 law enforcement agencies , including the U.S. Secret Service . While developed and initially marketed as a PDW , it can also be considered a submachine gun or compact assault rifle . The standard selective fire P90 is restricted to military and law enforcement customers , but since 2005 , a semi @-@ automatic version has been offered to civilian shooters as the PS90 . = = History = = = = = Development = = = The P90 and its 5 @.@ 7 × 28mm ammunition were developed by FN Herstal in response to NATO requests for a replacement for the 9 × 19mm Parabellum cartridge and associated pistols and submachine guns . NATO called for two types of weapons chambered for a new cartridge — one a shoulder @-@ fired weapon , and the other a handheld weapon . According to NATO , these new weapons , termed personal defense weapons ( PDWs ) , were to provide " personal protection in last @-@ resort situations when the user is directly endangered by the enemy [ ... ] . " In 1989 , NATO published document D / 296 , outlining a number of preliminary specifications for these weapons : The new cartridge was to have greater range , accuracy , and terminal performance than the 9 × 19mm cartridge . Additionally , it was to be capable of penetrating body armor . The shoulder @-@ fired personal defense weapon was to weigh less than 3 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) , with a magazine capacity of at least 20 rounds . The handheld personal defense weapon ( pistol ) was to weigh less	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
five of the record charts of countries including Austria , Belgium , France , Hungary and Italy . The Spanish version peaked atop the charts of Spain and Switzerland , and became a hit on the Latin record charts in the United States , topping the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , Latin Pop Airplay , and Tropical Songs charts . " Loca " received record certifications in various countries around the world , including a diamond certification in Colombia and multi @-@ platinum certifications in Italy , Mexico , and Spain . Its accompanying music video was filmed in Barcelona , Spain in August 2010 , and was released the following month . It features Shakira interacting with a beach crowd , and dancing in front of the sea wearing a golden bikini . It generated a favourable response from critics , many of whom praised its concept for matching the vibe of the song . For additional promotion , Shakira performed " Loca " on several television shows and on her The Sun Comes Out World Tour . = = Background and composition = = " Loca " was written by American rapper Armando Pérez , better known by his stage name Pitbull , Dominican rapper Edward Bello , and Shakira , for the singer 's ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . The album marked the first time she worked with Bello , who is better known by his stage name El Cata , and their collaboration started after Shakira expressed her desire to experiment with merengue music , saying " I grew up listening to merengue — that was a big part of my life , and I was missing it " . Merengue is a type of music and dance originating in the Dominican Republic , and after being referred to Bello by Pitbull , Shakira travelled to the country and began recording sessions with him in his " tiny " studio in Santo Domingo . Bello talked about his collaboration with Shakira , saying " If I was thinking that this little studio was going to be in the world ’ s vision at this time , I wouldn 't believe it " . " Loca " is a Latin @-@ pop song composed of horn @-@ laden merengue beats combined with techno dance percussion beats . Lyrically , the song is about Shakira expressing her erratic and obsessive behaviour towards her lover , more so than his other leading lady , prominently heard in the lines " She 'd die for your love / But your love 's only mine , boy " and " I 'm crazy but you like it " . Two versions of the song are present on the album ; the English @-@ language version features vocals from English rapper Dizzee Rascal ( who also wrote the lyrics of his parts ) , while the Spanish @-@ language version features El Cata . Speaking about the collaboration , Dizzee Rascal said that " I know it sounds a bit mad now , but you 'll see it and see what 's going on " . He further said " It 's me doing something different man , on a merengue tip . " In an interview with Billboard , Dizzee Rascal said about Shakira that , " she 's a bit of a trendsetter -- she does loads of different things on a major scale " and added " You 'd expect her to use an American rapper [ for the song ] , but she chose me . It meant a lot . " He then commented about the song that , " I 'd like to be in that Spanish market . I got into the whole reggaeton thing when it came out , so I always wanted to get around to something like that " . " Loca " served as the lead single from Sale el Sol . The Spanish version of the song , featuring El Cata , was released on 10 September 2010 . The English version , featuring Dizzee Rascal , debuted later on 13 September 2010 . = = = Plagiarism case = = = On 19 August 2014 , Alvin Hellerstein , senior judge of the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York , concluded that the Spanish version of " Loca " had been indirectly plagiarised from " Loca con su Tiguere " , a mid @-@ 1990s song composed by Dominican songwriter Ramon " Arias " Vasquez . He testified that he had met Bello in 2006 and had introduced him to two of his songs , including " Loca con su Tiguere " . According to Vasquez , Bello was impressed by the song and asked him to record it . However , Bello claimed that the song was originally his and was based on his relationship with his ex @-@ wife as opposed to Vasquez 's claim that " Loca con su Tiguere " was based on his sister 's relationship with a street @-@ tough boyfriend . Hellerstein ruled in favour of Vasquez and found the two songs to be similar in structure and rhythm . As the Spanish version of " Loca " features Bello singing numerous portions , the judge reasoned that it too was plagiarised from Vasquez 's song . After a trial phase , SonyATV Latin and Sony / ATV Discos ( the distributors of the Spanish version of " Loca " in the United States ) will pay damages to Mayimba Music , the owner of the rights to Vasquez 's song and the plaintiff in the lawsuit . On 10 August 2015 , the case was dismissed by Hellerstein after Sony Music brought forth new evidence suggesting that Vasquez had fabricated the cassette tape that he had earlier produced in court to prove that the song was originally recorded by him . Hellerstein said the evidence given by Sony Music provided " competent and substantial proof " that the cassette tape was fake . = = Critical reception = = Upon its release , " Loca " received generally favourable reviews from music critics . A reviewer from Billboard complimented Shakira for displaying her unpredictable musical choices by having Dizzee Rascal sing over a merengue beat , which they termed as a " jarring combination " . Robert Copsey from Digital Spy also reviewed the song positively , and labelled the song " bizarre yet thoroughly enjoyable " . Jennifer Schaffer from Stanford Daily marked Dizzee Rascal 's rap as the highlight of the song . James Reed from The Boston Globe termed it as an " irresistible merengue hybrid " and deemed the Spanish version of the song as an album essential . Michelle Morgante , again from The Boston Globe , was impressed by the song 's effectiveness in both its Spanish and English version , which she commented is " lost in some of Shakira 's other attempts at language switching " . Allison Stewart from The Washington Post , however , claimed that there was " little appreciable difference " between the two versions of the song . The Spanish version of the song was nominated for " Top Latin Song " at the 2011 Billboard Music Awards . Two other songs by Shakira , " Gypsy " and " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , were also nominated , and the award was won by the latter song . In the same year , at the Latin Billboard Music Awards , the Spanish version was nominated for " Hot Latin Song of the Year , Vocal Event " and " Latin Digital Download of the Year " , but lost both . At the 2011 Premios 40 Principales awards ceremony , the Spanish version of the song was nominated for " Mejor Canción Internacional en Español " ( " Best International Song in Spanish " ) . The Spanish version of the song was nominated for " La Más Pegajosa " ( " Catchiest Tune " ) and " Mi Ringtone " ( " My Ringtone " ) at the 2011 Premios Juventud awards , but lost both categories to American rapper Pitbull 's song " Bon , Bon " . The English version of the song received a nomination in the category of " Best Latin / Reggaeton Track " at the 26th Annual International Dance Music Awards in 2011 . = = Commercial performance = = The English version of " Loca " became a worldwide commercial success . After debuting at number 17 on the Austrian Singles Chart , it peaked at number two and spent a total of 20 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for selling 15 @,@ 000 units . In the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of Belgium , the song peaked atop the Ultratop chart for two weeks , and spent a total of 26 weeks in the region . It was Shakira 's fourth single to reach number one in the country . The Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) certified it gold for sales of 10 @,@ 000 units . " Loca " also reached number one on the Czech Airplay Chart for a total of seven consecutive weeks . In France , the song entered the singles chart at number four and peaked at number two , spending a total of 49 weeks in the region . However , it managed to reach number one on the French digital songs chart . It was the eighth best @-@ selling single in 2010 in France , with sales of 143 @,@ 337 units . " Loca " peaked at number four on both the Hungarian Singles and Dance charts . The song entered the top 20 of the Italian Singles Chart at number one , becoming Shakira 's first single since " Beautiful Liar " to accomplish the feat , and stayed atop the chart for six weeks . In this region , it was certified double @-@ platinum by the Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for selling 60 @,@ 000 units . In the United States , " Loca " peaked at number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . On the Hot Dance Club Songs chart , it became Shakira 's first single since " Did It Again " to peak at number one . The Spanish version of " Loca " peaked at number two on the Monitor Latino chart in Mexico , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Asociación Mexicana de Productores de Fonogramas y Videogramas ( AMPROFON ) for selling 120 @,@ 000 units . It entered the Spanish Singles Chart at number 10 and peaked at number one for 12 weeks . It stayed on the chart for a total of 47 weeks , and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Productores de Música de España ( PROMUSICAE ) for sales of 80 @,@ 000 units . The song entered the Swiss Singles Chart at number two and peaked at number one for four weeks ; it spent a total of 40 weeks on the chart . In this region , IFPI certified " Loca " platinum for selling 30 @,@ 000 units . The Spanish version became a huge hit on the Latin record charts in the United States . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , and also peaked atop the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs chart . " Loca " was Shakira 's eighteenth top 10 single on the Hot Latin Songs chart , making her the third @-@ ranking female artist with the highest number of top 10 singles on the chart , behind Gloria Estefan and Ana Gabriel . = = Music video = = The music video was filmed near the beaches in Barcelona , Spain in August 2010 , and was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , who had previously worked with Shakira on the videos for the songs " No " and " Gypsy " . The music video was shot in " guerrilla @-@ style " , utilizing hand @-@ held cameras to shoot many of the scenes . Shakira talked about the video , saying " I decided to just do something more spontaneous , and be myself and be free and feel free about it because that is what this song is about " . The music video was released on 29 September 2010 , and the Spanish and English versions of the video were individually released on iTunes on 11 October 2010 , and 13 October 2010 , respectively . The video starts with Shakira roller @-@ skating with many fans surrounding her . After roaming about the city , including numerous scenes of dancing , she publicly changes her wardrobe and hitches a ride on a motorbike . Further on , she dances and jumps into a fountain . During the next verse , she is seen belly dancing with a man by the beach and , near the end of the video , she dives into the sea along with many fans and celebrates . Scenes of Shakira dancing wearing a gold triangle bikini and gold sequined pants are also interspersed throughout the video . Dizzee Rascal also makes an appearance during his part of the song . Walter Frazier from Billboard reviewed the video positively , and appreciated Shakira 's craziness in the video . James Montgomery from MTV gave the video a very positive review , calling it a " rare video " which perfectly complimented the nature of the song . The music video was nominated for " Best Short Form Music Video " at the 12th Latin Grammy Awards in 2011 , but lost to the video of Calle 13 's " Calma Pueblo " . At the 2011 Premios Nuestra Tierra award ceremony , the music video won the award for " Mejor Video Musical Para Artista Colombiano " ( " Best Music Video for Colombian Artist " ) . It was nominated at the 2011 Premios Juventud for Mi Video Favorito ( My Favorite Video ) . Having received 100 million views on YouTube , the music video was given a VEVOCertified Award . = = Live performances = = Shakira performed the English version of " Loca " first on 23 September 2010 on the Late Show with David Letterman . Shakira appeared on Lopez Tonight to talk about " Loca " and taught host George Lopez the dance steps of the song . She performed it on Dancing With The Stars on 19 October - the release date of the album . Shakira also performed the song on November 9 at the finale of the German version of the X @-@ Factor . Shakira performed the song with Dizzee Rascal together for the first time on the MTV Europe Music Awards 2010 on 7 November . Gabi Gregg from MTV chose the performance as the best on the show , praising Shakira 's dance moves and noting that " she actually sounds the same live as she does recorded " . Jillian Mapes from Billboard included the performance on her list of " 5 Must @-@ See Moments at the 2010 MTV European Music Awards " . Shakira performed the Spanish version of the song live during the 12th Latin Grammy awards ceremony . The song was included on the setlist of The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 . During the performances , Shakira wore a pair of neon leopard @-@ print pants and performed a dance routine with " intricate and urban choreographies " . On 25 October 2010 , Shakira was leaving the Honda Centre parking lot in California after a concert , but got out of her limo and performed " Loca " with two dancers on top of a car . = = Formats and track listings = = Digital download ( English Version ) " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) – 3 : 11 Digital download ( Spanish Version ) " Loca " ( featuring El Cata ) – 3 : 04 CD single " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) – 3 : 11 " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Gucci Vump aka Brodinski & The Shoes Discothèque Remix ) – 4 : 07 Digital EP " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( JS Mix ) - 3 : 13 " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Sticky Drums Remix By Gucci Vump Aka Brodinski and the Shoes ) - 3 : 14 " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Freemasons Radio Edit ) - 3 : 01 " Loca " ( featuring Dizzee Rascal ) ( Music Video ) - 3 : 24 = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = = HTC First = The HTC First is an Android smartphone released by HTC on April 12 , 2013 . It was unveiled on April 4 , 2013 , as part of a press event held by Facebook — serving as a successor to a pair of Facebook @-@ oriented devices HTC released in 2011 , it is the first Android device to be pre @-@ loaded with Facebook 's own user interface layer , Facebook Home in lieu of HTC 's own Sense . While considered compelling by critics for a mid @-@ range phone due to its display quality and its optional use of stock Android beneath the default Facebook Home overlay , the HTC First was panned by critics for its poor camera and lack of removable storage , and was also affected by the similarly underwhelming reception faced by the Facebook Home software . AT & T , the exclusive U.S. carrier of the First , only reportedly sold over 15 @,@ 000 units of the device , while both ReadWrite and Time named it among the biggest failures in the technology industry for 2013 . = = Development = = In 2011 , HTC released two low @-@ end smartphones that provided integration with the social networking service Facebook , the keyboard @-@ equipped HTC Status , and the larger slate HTC Salsa . The two phones featured Facebook 's apps pre @-@ loaded , along with Facebook integration within the HTC Sense interface and a dedicated Facebook key that could be used to provide quick access to sharing functions . Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg endorsed the two devices in a pre @-@ taped statement during their unveiling , and promised the possibility of more " Facebook phones " in the near future . Later that year , details began surfacing about a collaboration between Facebook and HTC known as " Buffy " ( after the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) , a fork of Android that would be " deeply social " . The specifications of the phone was first leaked out by an HTC insider towards the end of 2012 that had claimed the device was then called " Opera UL " with a 1280x720 screen , and an Adreno 305 graphics processor with the Snapdragon 1 @.@ 4 GHz CPU system on chip , which was later known to match the actual specifications of the final device . In early 2013 , reports indicated that HTC was preparing to unveil a Facebook @-@ oriented smartphone with the revised codename " Myst " ; this mid @-@ range device was reportedly pre @-@ loaded with a new Facebook @-@ developed user interface layer known as " Facebook Home " . Renderings of the new device leaked on April 3 , 2013 , revealing the design of the phone and its official name as the HTC First . Both Facebook Home and the HTC First were unveiled at a Facebook news conference held the following day on April 4 , 2013 . AT & T exclusively released the device in the United States on April 12 , 2013 . = = Specifications = = = = = Hardware = = = The HTC First is a mid @-@ range smartphone which uses a dual @-@ core , 1 @.@ 4 GHz Qualcomm Snapdragon 400 processor with support for LTE , a 2000 mAh battery , 1 GB of RAM and 16 GB of non @-@ expandable storage . The First uses a 4 @.@ 3 @-@ inch 720p Super LCD display , and includes a 5 @-@ megapixel rear @-@ facing camera , and a 1 @.@ 6 @-@ megapixel front @-@ facing camera . The HTC First 's exterior uses a rounded , minimal design with three capacitive buttons below its screen , and was available in black , light blue , red , and white color finishes . = = = Software = = = The HTC First runs Android 4 @.@ 1 @.@ 2 " Jelly Bean " and Facebook Home , a new interface layer developed by Facebook that heavily integrates with the service . Facebook Home consists of a home screen and lock screen replacement known as Cover Feed ( which aggregates content posted by friends on Facebook along with notifications from other apps ) , the ability to message users ( via either Facebook or SMS ) from any app using the " Chat Heads " overlay , and an overall experience that is oriented towards social interaction . The HTC First was also the first smartphone to include the recently acquired Instagram as a pre @-@ loaded app . Although support for Facebook Home is not limited to the HTC First ( it was also released for select HTC and Samsung models as well , and the Chat Heads feature was added to the standalone Facebook Messenger app ) , integration with certain system functions ( such as the ability to display non @-@ Facebook notifications on the lock screen ) is exclusive to the First due to technical limitations . If Facebook Home is disabled , the device reverts to a stock Android 4 @.@ 1 experience ; the First was the first HTC device since the T @-@ Mobile G2 to offer a stock Android interface and not ship with the company 's HTC Sense software . = = Reception = = The HTC First was released to mixed reviews . Dieter Bohn of The Verge gave the HTC First a 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 , receiving high marks in most categories except for its camera . Its design was considered to have a comfortable size and shape by contrast to larger flagship Android phones , and a display that was noted for its high resolution , good color reproduction and " ridiculous " viewing angles ( but still being hard to use in direct sunlight ) . The First 's camera was considered to be better than expected for a low @-@ end phone , but produced " muddy " photos and " [ felt ] like a throwback to an earlier age when smartphones were nigh @-@ useless in the dark . " Facebook Home 's functionality was considered to be good for casual users , but the ability to switch back to a stock Android 4 @.@ 1 interface was considered " stunning " and a good compromise for the lack of Nexus devices with LTE support at the time . Alex Roth of TechRadar gave the HTC First a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , praising its build quality and operating system ( feeling that the First could " develop a sort of second life as the mid @-@ range of choice among Google geeks " due to its use of stock Android and LTE support ) and considering it to possibly be " the last decent dual @-@ core handset ever made " , but considered Facebook Home to be a " glorified screensaver " , and also criticized the camera 's low quality and the lack of a dedicated shutter button ( which Roth believed would have made sense on a Facebook @-@ oriented phone ) . On May 13 , 2013 , reports surfaced that AT & T had only sold 15 @,@ 000 units of the First since its launch , and was planning to discontinue the device in response to the poor reception of Facebook Home from both users and AT & T 's sales representatives . The reports came shortly after AT & T had lowered the First 's price from $ 99 @.@ 99 to $ 0 @.@ 99 on a two @-@ year contract as a promotion ; however , AT & T denied any possible connection to the device being possibly discontinued . In response to the issues , the release of the First on the British carriers EE and Orange was indefinitely delayed so Facebook could focus on making improvements to the Home software . In December 2013 , Time named the HTC First as one of the 47 " lamest moments in tech " for 2013 , and ReadWrite similarly named it one of the " Top 10 Tech Failures " of 2013 , stating that " like Carrie Underwood in the remade Sound of Music Live ! , the HTC First smartphone started out as an intriguing concept that attempted to shoehorn something very popular ( Facebook ) into a familiar vehicle ( a smartphone ) . And like that live television event , it wound up being an undeniable disaster . " = The Hunting Party ( album ) = The Hunting Party is the sixth studio album by American rock band Linkin Park . The album , produced by band members Mike Shinoda and Brad Delson , was released by Warner Bros. Records and Machine Shop on June 13 , 2014 . It is the first album since Meteora ( 2003 ) not to be produced with Rick Rubin , after producing the band 's previous three studio albums . The title The Hunting Party is a contextual metaphor : Linkin Park is the party that is hunting to bring back the energy and soul of rock . The Hunting Party is a departure from the electronic rock sound of the band 's previous two studio albums . The album , described by Shinoda as simply " a rock record " , serves a statement by the band against contemporary mainstream and active rock bands , accused by him as " trying to be other bands and playing it safe " . Packaged by an artwork by Brandon Parvini based on an original drawing by James Jean , the album took under a year to record and produce , with material being improvisationally written by the band . The album also features guest appearances from Page Hamilton of Helmet , Daron Malakian of System of a Down , Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine , and Rakim , marking the first time Linkin Park has collaborated with other artists on a studio album . The album was promoted by the band and Warner Bros , with multiple promotional teasers and interviews produced and published in the lead @-@ up to the album 's release and listening parties of the album being held worldwide on multiple dates . The band embarked on the Carnivores Tour , a double @-@ headline tour with Thirty Seconds to Mars , as well as The Hunting Party Tour , in support of the album . Five singles from The Hunting Party have been released ; " Guilty All the Same " in March 2014 , " Until It 's Gone " in May 2014 , and " Wastelands " , " Rebellion " and " Final Masquerade " in June 2014 . The album has received generally positive reviews , where it has been praised as bringing back the heavier rock sound resembling their older albums . It debuted at number three on Billboard 200 , and has placed at number four on Revolver 's list of " The 20 Best Albums of 2014 " . = = Background = = In 2010 and 2012 respectively , Linkin Park released their fourth and fifth studio albums A Thousand Suns and Living Things . The albums , both produced by Rick Rubin and Mike Shinoda , marked a shift in the band 's musical direction from a nu metal @-@ oriented sound , recognized with Hybrid Theory ( 2000 ) and Meteora ( 2003 ) , to a more experimental and " cutting edge " sound . The electronica @-@ influenced albums were commercially successful . Production on the band 's sixth studio album began as a result of a series of events in which Shinoda decided to drop the electronic and experimental sound of the band 's previous two studio albums . Shinoda had originally recorded and produced demos , which continued the sound of A Thousand Suns and Living Things , for the band 's sixth studio album during the band 's Living Things World Tour in 2013 . He presented the demos to his bandmates , which received positive reception from the rest of the band , and to Rubin , who was also positive towards the demos , though describing them to Shinoda as more " poppy " than he expected . However , Shinoda , after listening to the demos again after the end of the tour , felt a strong negativity towards his material , especially after Rubin 's statements . In a Warner Music interview , Shinoda stated that " I don 't even believe in this music . This is a mistake ; I don 't like what I 'm making . I kind of went backwards into the process and scrapped all of it and started new stuff . " Following A Thousand Suns and Living Things , albums which were created with leaving behind a sound that was " not new and not cool anymore " in mind , the band 's sixth studio album was approached as a return to the band 's early sound , with the electronic sounds of their previous two studio albums being dropped in favor of the band 's traditional rock instrumentation . Using Hybrid Theory as a template , the band composed and recorded it in context of modern times , in 2014 rather than 2000 . Guitarist Brad Delson jokingly stated that the album was an " alternative Hybrid Theory " and " maybe its prequel " , with the album being inspired by artists the band listened to before they started their musical career . Shinoda told Rolling Stone about the ideas surrounding The Hunting Party : " We 're not 18 @-@ year @-@ old kids making a loud record – we 're 37 @-@ year @-@ old adults making a loud record . And what makes a 37 @-@ year @-@ old angry is different than what made us angry back in the day . " = = Composition = = The band took a different method in writing new material for The Hunting Party as opposed to their previous albums . While for all their previous albums they used the traditional method of writing , demoing and rerecording in the studio , songs were instead written and composed in the studio itself , with no material being written or composed beforehand . Delson spoke about the methods used on the album in an interview with Premier Guitar , saying that " Something unintentional might be the coolest sound I make all day , and knowing how to allow those mistakes to happen and to shape them potentially makes for some great music . " The album has been described as alternative metal , nu metal , hard rock and rap rock by professional reviewers . Shinoda described the album 's sound as a 1990s style of rock record " It 's a Rock record ; " it 's loud and it 's Rock , but not in the sense of what you 've heard before , which is more like ' 90s Hardcore @-@ Punk – Thrash " . He described the " weak " status of modern rock in the music industry as an inspiration in recording a heavier rock album ; to try to bring the sound of the 1990s back to the forefront . In an interview with MusicRadar , Delson stated that the album would feature more guitar solos . He further stated that " this is from someone who was quoted early on as saying I hated them . Not that I hated them as a listener ; I just don ’ t want to play any ; I shirked guitar solos . Early on , I felt as though the songs we were making aesthetically didn 't want them . This new batch of songs , to me , always want solos . I feel like every song has one . " = = Recording = = The Hunting Party was recorded at the Larrabee Sound Studios , located in Hollywood , Los Angeles . During the recording for the band 's sixth studio album , the band would spend five or six days a week at the Larrabee Studios working on the record . The Hunting Party was also recorded in part at EastWest Studios , also located in Hollywood . There , drummer Rob Bourdon and Shinoda would record drums and percussion for the album . The band would also record other material for the album at EastWest on occasion . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Shinoda said that the album was difficult for drummer Rob Bourdon , where he had to push himself to meet the music speed and style . He commented that " It 's probably the hardest stuff he 's ever played on one of our albums . He had to physically work his way up to it . He had to go running , lift weights , work with a trainer " , eventually Bourdon feels that he had become a better drummer at the end of each day after recording . Shinoda later told Q magazine that Bourdon had to seek help from a chiropractor after he had broken his back recording material for the new album . Shinoda told Q that " Rob was killing himself . He played 10 hours a day for seven days straight and blew his back . " Orange , Bogner and ENGL brand amplifiers were used on the record by Delson , providing a " core sound " described by engineer Ethan Mates as " a small collection of core tones to be used in a sonically consistent way throughout the record " . Chandler brand amps were also used for overdubs and " higher parts " . Delson spoke about his studio setup for The Hunting Party , stating that " It 's great to have a setup where I can run combinations of heads and cabs simultaneously to get the most appropriate tone , or do something more straightforward like record just one cabinet with two mikes " . Lead singer Chester Bennington arrived late in the recording process of the album , having been chosen to replace Scott Weiland in the band Stone Temple Pilots , and then proceeded to record High Rise and tour with the band for most of 2013 . When he eventually joined the band in the studio , he was surprised to find the band had reverted to their heavier rock @-@ centric sound . Bennington stated in an interview with Kerrang ! : " Mike wrote tons while I was touring with Stone Temple Pilots last year . When I got home , there was a lot for me to catch up with , and he was playing me things and I was like , ' Dude , this is fucking awesome ! ' I was really surprised how heavy it was " . The album features four guest artists ; Rakim from the hip hop duo Eric B. & Rakim on " Guilty All the Same " , Page Hamilton from the American alternative metal band Helmet on " All for Nothing " , Daron Malakian from System of a Down for the song " Rebellion " and Tom Morello of Rage Against the Machine fame on the song " Drawbar " . Bennington commented on the collaborations , stating that " We really felt like if we need to be inspired and move in another direction . I think when we got Page in , Mike had written this chorus and sang it , and his voice had this tone , and it was unlike anything I 'd heard from him before . And I was like , " Dude this is crazy , this sounds like a Helmet song ! It 's cool ! " And we were like , " Dude , why don 't we see if we can get like Page in here ? " You know ? And if that 's why the song says it 's feeling like it should be , then why don 't we just go straight to the source " . = = Packaging = = = = = Artwork = = = The album cover for The Hunting Party features a 3D modeled artwork by Brandon Parvini , who had previously designed the artworks for Living Things and the band 's singles during the album 's release cycle . The artwork was based off an original drawing , entitled " Archer " , by visual artist James Jean that was created for the album . It is one of many artworks by Jean to be used in the packaging of the album , which also features , in deluxe editions of the album , a lithograph , T @-@ shirt and a 36 @-@ page art book by him . Jean 's traditional style , notably different to the artwork created for The Hunting Party had been previously described by Dana Jennings of The New York Times as " suffused with a dreamy romanticism and lyricism worthy of Maxfield Parrish , even as Mr. Jean subverts those and other isms . " Linkin Park had professed that they have been fans of James Jean 's art for a while , describing discussions between the band and Jean as having " started naturally " . Joe Hahn served as a creative director for the artwork of The Hunting Party , instructing Jean to " create a universe inhabited by powerful characters and defined by strange landscapes " , with a general concept of having a unique " character " for each track on the album . Delson also contributed ideas of " internal and external struggles " , metaphorically depicted on a battlefield , where images such as " flesh tearing and transforming into different forms and brittle shards of crystal erupting from organic matter " would recur . Shinoda explained : " We try to approach our art — packaging , merchandise , tour visuals , videos , anything — in a holistic way . All the parts are interconnected , and by creating great imagery that can be used in multiple contexts , we can immerse the fans in a universe that is consistent and unique to each release . It 's always a work in progress , but I feel like we 've learned a lot and continue to make it better each time . " James Jean was invited by Shinoda and Delson to listen to the band 's rough material created early on during the recording sessions for The Hunting Party . He acknowledged the band 's change of musical direction from A Thousand Suns and Living Things , and was inspired by the material to create artworks that were " charged with [ the band 's ] intensity as well as their rationale for that change " . However , Joe Hahn banned Jean from listening to any more material after Jean had performed some of the songs from memory on his piano . Jean originally sketched each individual artwork for The Hunting Party in a personal sketchbook , where it felt more intimate and less precious to Jean . The minimality of the images was intentional , as the artworks would eventually be made into 3D @-@ modelled artworks where lighting and texture would be added to each character . 20 artworks were made in the space of a month by Jean for Brandon Parvini and his team to transform into 3D @-@ modelled artworks , with Parvini choosing exactly which artworks would be modelled for The Hunting Party . = = = Title = = = The title of the album , The Hunting Party , is a contextual metaphor . The album , a return to the band 's original harder rock @-@ centric sounds , represents the band 's desire to not only create something different from other rock bands , but to also bring back the " energy and soul " of rock itself , and that Linkin Park are the party that will hunt for that energy and soul . Shinoda elaborated on the title of the album in an interview with Kerrang ! explaining : " We got so sick of other bands trying to be other bands and playing it safe the whole time , so the album name comes from a theory about culture becoming too passive , everyone just standing around waiting for opportunities to come to them instead of going out and getting theirs . I 'm aware there are always going to be heavier bands than us , but The Hunting Party is Linkin Park going out and getting it for ourselves . " The inspiration for the title came from a news article Shinoda read online about a Japanese writer 's concerns about today 's growing society . The writer described the young men of today as " herbivores " , and explained how they are essentially grazing , waiting for an opportunity to come to them , rather than hunting for it . = = Promotion = = On March 6 , 2014 , the band premiered " Guilty All the Same " , which features Rakim , from the album through Shazam . The track was later released by Warner Bros. on March 7 , 2014 as the lead single promoting the then @-@ unannounced sixth studio album by the band . A music video for " Guilty All the Same " also premiered on YouTube on March 25 , 2014 . The music video , a continuation of the band 's collaboration with Xbox , was made entirely with the in @-@ game engine of Team Dakota 's 2014 sandbox video game Project Spark . Additionally , the course made for the music video was made openly available by the band , giving players of Project Spark on Microsoft Windows and the Xbox One the opportunity of editing and remixing the course . While information about Linkin Park 's sixth studio album had leaked beforehand , including the album 's title and release date , The Hunting Party was officially unveiled by the band and Warner Bros. Records on April 9 , 2014 . The track listing of the album was additionally unveiled by Shinoda and Linkin Park 's management team on April 27 , 2014 . " Until It 's Gone " became the second track to be unveiled , and was released as the album 's second single on May 6 , 2014 . Pre @-@ orders for the album were also opened on the same day , with " Guilty all the Same " and " Until It 's Gone " released early on the album 's iTunes Store page . A music video for " Until It 's Gone " was then released on June 11 , 2014 . " Wastelands " was released on the iTunes Store on June 1 , 2014 , and later as a single on June 2 . On June 3 , 2014 , Bennington appeared on Zane Lowe 's BBC Radio 1 to premiere the song , " Rebellion " . An official lyric video was released alongside a release of the track on the iTunes Store the same day . It was later released as a single on June 4 , and was released as the album 's fourth retail single on October 13 . On June 8 , 2014 , Linkin Park premiered the third single " Final Masquerade " on MTV . A listening session for the album took place on May 23 , 2014 in Los Angeles . Further listening sessions for Linkin Park Underground members were announced for June 4 , 2014 in various locations worldwide . The band , additionally , hosted the tenth and eleventh editions of the LPU summit , a convention for Underground members , during the album cycle . The tenth edition was held at the Darien Lake Performing Arts Center in Darien , New York on August 21 , 2014 , and the eleventh edition was held at the Cynthia Woods Mitchell Pavilion in The Woodlands , Texas on September 5 , 2014 . The band 's first live performance of the The Hunting Party album cycle was on May 24 , 2014 at the KMFA Day music festival , in which they headlined . The band performed " Guilty All the Same " , " Until It 's Gone " and " Wastelands " for the first time . The band also performed as headliners at Rock in Rio Lisboa VI on May 30 , 2014 . During the performance , Shinoda tossed promotional singles containing the studio version of " Wastelands " out into the open audience , days before the song 's official single release . Linkin Park are also set to embark on a double @-@ headline tour of North America with Thirty Seconds to Mars in support of both The Hunting Party and Thirty Seconds to Mars ' 2013 album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . The tour , dubbed the Carnivores Tour , spanned 25 dates in August and September 2014 , with American rock band AFI serving as opening act during the entire tour . The band is currently holding another tour named as " The Hunting Party Tour " , which started in May 30 , 2014 . However , some of the shows on the tour were cancelled due to Bennington breaking his leg . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Upon its release , The Hunting Party received generally positive reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , the album has received an aggregated score of 65 / 100 , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " , based on 15 reviews . Dave Simpson of The Guardian gave the album a positive review . Upon giving the album three stars , he praised the band 's return to their original sound , stating that " Shinoda 's desire to make a punk rock record and Bennington 's more ethereal electropop segments don 't always make comfortable bedfellows , but Rob Bourdon 's terrific drumming means the energy never lets up " . Despite labeling some tracks of the record like " Until It 's Gone " as cliché , he commented positively on the music and writing of others such as " Drawbar " and " Rebellion " . He further wrote , " Linkin Park certainly know their audience , and here delicately navigate the gulf between their own aspirations and a fanbase who will celebrate the band 's loud return to rocking hard . " Chris Schulz of The New Zealand Herald also gave the album a positive review , describing the record as " Loud , spontaneous and free " , attributes that , he states , " aren 't normally associated with Linkin Park , but The Hunting Party takes just seconds to prove the sixth release from the Californian precision @-@ metal act is a different beast " . He continues to compare the album with the band 's recent discography , describing their previous three albums as having " sagged with overwrought ballads and pretentious soft @-@ rock " , while The Hunting Party " gets on with the task of rap @-@ rocking like it 's 1999 all over again . " David Renshaw at NME opined that " It might not kill the Mumford and Butler clones , but The Hunting Party is an energetic effort at least . " Renshaw also praises Daron Malakian 's guest spot , but considers Tom Morello 's contribution a disappointment . AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine observes " Far from sounding as if they 're grasping at straws , Linkin Park seem rejuvenated , proving there is value in the cliché of returning to roots . " Dan Epstein from Revolver described the album as " ... not only the hardest and heaviest thing they 've ever released , but it 's also their first album to pack the sort of guitar firepower that would actually appeal to your average headbanger . " Epstein concludes by stating that it 's proof that bands don 't need to get softer in order to mature . At Billboard , Kenneth Partridge states " ... these Cali rap @-@ rock commandos go rogue , flinging missiles in all directions . They attack record companies , politicians , rule makers , exes , and anyone else in sight , all the while rediscovering the savage fun of super @-@ loud guitars . " Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph stated " ... it is sleek , exciting and committed enough to suggest there is life in the rock beast yet . " Jordan Blum at PopMatters rated it a 5 / 10 , describing it as a " solid album " , but considers it " too repetitive , uninspired , and generic " , compared to the three previous albums . Rolling Stone reviewer Jon Dolan states that " on Album Six they 're back with a retro @-@ neo @-@ aggro sound that would 've been too intense for modern @-@ rock radio in 1999 ... these dudes can still bring it like backward @-@ ball @-@ cap warriors hopped up on Mountain Dew and Dad 's fourth divorce . " = = = Commercial performance = = = The album debuted at number three on the Billboard 200 chart behind Lana Del Rey 's Ultraviolence and Sam Smith 's In the Lonely Hour , with first @-@ week sales of 110 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . This was the first week of 2014 where three albums sold more than 100 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . In its second week , the album dropped to number nine on the chart , selling 29 @,@ 000 copies . In its third week the album sold 16 @,@ 000 more copies bringing its total album sales to 155 @,@ 000 in the United States . As of December 2014 , the album has sold 274 @,@ 000 copies in the United States and 900 @,@ 000 copies worldwide . = = = Accolades = = = The Hunting Party was featured in a number of year end " best of " lists . The album also was nominated for the " 2014 Rock Album of the Year " by Loudwire , but lost to " Islander " ' s Violence & Destruction by a close margin of 0 @.@ 29 % of votes . Whereas the band won the " Best Rock Band of 2014 " and " Best Live Act of 2014 " . The song Rebellion from the album got a nomination for " 2014 Rock Song of the Year " where it lost to Three Days Grace 's " Painkiller " . = = Track listing = = All songs written and composed by Linkin Park , except where noted . Notes ^ a Live from Mexico is Linkin Park 's 2012 live performance in Monterrey , Mexico , originally recorded for MTV World Stage . = = The Hunting Party ( Acapellas + Instrumentals ) = = The Hunting Party ( Acapellas + Instrumentals ) is the second instrumental and a cappella tracks performed by Linkin Park , taken from The Hunting Party . The album was released on iTunes and Amazon through Warner Bros. and Machine Shop on August 12 , 2014 . Produced by Shinoda and Delson , the album serves as a sequel to Living Things ( Acapellas and Instrumentals ) ( 2012 ) . = = = Track listing = = = = = Personnel = = = = Charts and certifications = = = = = Singles = = = = = = Other charted songs = = = = = Release history = = = Letters from an American Farmer = Letters from an American Farmer is a series of letters written by French American writer J. Hector St. John de Crèvecœur , first published in 1782 . The considerably longer title under which it was originally published is Letters from an American Farmer ; Describing Certain Provincial Situations , Manners , and Customs not Generally Known ; and Conveying Some Idea of the Late and Present Interior Circumstances of the British Colonies in North America . The twelve letters cover a wide range of topics , from the emergence of an American identity to the slave trade . Crèvecœur wrote Letters during a period of seven years prior to the American Revolutionary War , while farming land near Orange County , New York . It is told from the viewpoint of a fictional narrator in correspondence with an English gentleman , and each letter concerns a different aspect of life or location in the British colonies of America . The work incorporates a number of styles and genres , including documentary , as well as sociological observations . Although only moderately successful in America , Letters was immediately popular in Europe upon its publication in 1782 . Prompted by high demand , Crèvecœur produced an expanded French version that was published two years later . The work is recognised as being one of the first in the canon of American literature , and has influenced a diverse range of subsequent works . = = Biographical background = = Born in Caen , Normandy to an aristocratic family , Michel @-@ Guillaume Hector St. John de Crèvecœur received a Jesuit education at the Jesuit Collège Royal de Bourbon . In 1754 , having left school , Crèvecœur visited relatives in England where he became engaged ; this visit would mark the beginning of a lifelong admiration for the culture and politics of the country . Shortly after this , possibly due to the death of his fiancée , he joined a French regiment in Canada engaged in the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) . After being wounded in the Battle of the Plains of Abraham ( 1759 ) , Crèvecœur resigned his commission and began traveling widely across Pennsylvania and New York . In 1765 , Crèvecœur became an official resident of New York and naturalized as a British subject , adopting the name J. Hector St. John . After working as a surveyor and trader during the subsequent four years , in which he traveled extensively , he purchased farm @-@ land in Orange County , New York and married Mehitabel Tippett . During the following seven years , Crèvecœur wrote Letters from an American Farmer and corresponded with William Seton ( possibly referenced in the book as " Mr F. B. " , and to whom the French edition was dedicated ) . As local hostilities between the loyalists and revolutionaries escalated in the build @-@ up to the American Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) , Crèvecœur decided to return to France ; scholars have suggested that he did so in order to secure his legal claim to his patrimony . Upon his arrival in New York City in 1778 , Crèvecœur found himself under suspicion of being a Revolutionary spy and was detained ; whilst in detention , he suffered a nervous collapse . He was released to travel in September 1780 , and traveled to London after landing in Ireland . There , he sold the manuscript of Letters to publishers Davies & Davis before leaving for France . = = Summary = = Letter I : " Introduction " — Introduction of the fictional persona of James , an American farmer , and the commencement of his correspondence via letters with ' Mr F. B. ' , an English gentleman . Doubting his writing abilities , he receives advice from his wife and the local minister . Letter II : " On the Situation , Feelings , and Pleasures of an American Farmer " — Description of the creatures , plants , and activities on and around the farm owned by James . It comments on the differences between the American model of society and that of European countries . Letter III : " What Is an American ? " — Comparison between the physical environment and the societies that emerge from it . Explores the conditions and aspects of the new American country and what constitutes the identity of its citizens . Letters IV – VIII — Widely referred to as the " Nantucket sequence " or " Nantucket letters " . These letters describe various aspects of the Quaker society on the island of Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard : Letter IV : " Description of the island of Nantucket ; with the manners , customs , policy and trade , of the inhabitants " Letter V : " Customary education and employment of the inhabitants of Nantucket " Letter VI : " Description of the island of Martha 's Vineyard , and of the whale @-@ fishery " Letter VII : " Manners and customs at Nantucket " Letter VIII : " Peculiar customs at Nantucket " Letter IX : " Description of Charles Town ; Thoughts on Slavery ; on Physical Evil ; a Melancholy Scene " — An account of " Charles Town " ( now Charleston ) , particularly on the institution of slavery in the town and in the Southern United States . It argues about the destruction that revolves around the slave @-@ master relationships and makes an appeal to the North , in particular , that slavery is a truly evil practice in the midst of the new nation of America . Letter X : " On snakes and on the humming @-@ bird " — Extensive detailing of a wide variety of snakes , including the cultural practices surrounding them ; it also mentions their habits and stories that have been told in America , warning people about certain ones . At the end of this letter , the discussion turns to the hummingbirds found around James ' land and their habits and varieties . Letter XI : " From Mr. Iw — — n Al — — z , a Russian gentleman describing a visit he paid , at my request , to Mr. John Bertram , the celebreated Pennsylvanian botanist " — Narrated by a Russian gentleman , describing his visit to the famous Pennsylvanian botanist , Mr. John Bertram . The narrator tells of the new methods of fertilizing and irrigation that Bertram has invented and used on his own plants . Letter XII : " Distresses of a Frontier Man " — Description of the impending American Revolutionary War and James ' turmoil at being caught between forces — American and British — beyond his own control , including anxiety over to whom he owes his allegiance . Also considered is the way of life of Native Americans , with whom James and his family intend to live at the close of the book . = = Structure , genre and style = = Letters is structured around the fictional correspondence via letters between James — an American farmer living in the Quaker colony of Pennsylvania — and an English gentleman , Mr F. B. However , it 's only James ' letters that are presented , as the addressee 's answers are absent . The work consists of twelve letters that address a wide range of issues concerning life in the British colonies in America in the years prior to the American Revolutionary War . The " Introductory Letter " ( Letter I ) introduces the fictional narrator James , and each subsequent letter takes as its subject matter either a certain topic ( Letter III " What is an American ? " ) or a particular location that James visits ( Letters IV , VI and IX describe Nantucket , Martha 's Vineyard and Charles Town respectively ) , though certain themes span or are referred to within several letters . The exception to this is Letter XI , which is written by a Russian gentleman ( " Mr. Iw — — n Al — — z " ) describing his visit to the botanist John Bartram , but who is presumed to also be writing to Mr F. B. Arranged as a series of discontinuous letters , the work can appear superficially disconnected , although critics have identified various levels of coherence and organization . The text incorporates a broad range of genres , ranging from documentary on local agricultural practices to sociological observations of the places visited and their inhabitants ; Norman Grabo describes it as " an example of the American tradition of book @-@ as @-@ anthology and authorship @-@ as @-@ editing " . Whereas early readings of the text tended to consider it " as a straightforward natural and social history of young America " , critics now see it as combining elements of fiction and non @-@ fiction in what Thomas Philbrick has termed a " complex artistry " . In addition to its usual classification as a form of epistolary , philosophical travel narrative — comparable to Montesquieu 's Persian Letters — the text has been considered as a Novel , and as a romance . = = Themes = = = = = Shift of tone = = = Letters has been said to exhibit a " model of decline " , as the optimistic tone of the early letters is disrupted and the text become increasingly pessimistic ; there is a movement from a " joy , pride , wonder " at the spectacle of America , to the " images of the inhuman brutality of slavery " . However , there is disagreement over whether this model of decline is produced by James ' own disillusionment , or whether it is evidence of Crèvecœur 's voice interceding into the narrative ; further , critics disagree over where in the narrative the disillusionment occurs , variably placing it in the third , eighth and ninth letters . = = = Relationship with the environment = = = Among the most significant and recurring themes of Letters is that of the individual and society 's relationship with their environment ; the work has been read as an " impassioned , unqualified defense of American agrarianism " . The theme appears especially in Letter II , III and in the letters describing Nantucket and Martha 's Vineyard , where James ' views are expressive of the doctrine of environmental determinism , that human growth , development and activities are controlled by the physical environment . In Letter III he says : Men are like plants : the goodness and flavour of the fruit proceeds from the peculiar soil and exposition in which they grow . We are nothing but what we derive from the air we breathe , the climate we inhabit , the government we obey , the system of religion we profess , and the nature of our employment . Anna Carew @-@ Miller suggests that what the text articulates on this subject is " the [ cultural ] myth that a man 's relationship with the land confirms his masculinity and dignity as a citizen . " = = Reception and legacy = = When Crèvecœur offered his manuscript essays to the London publishers Davies & Davis in 1782 , they were initially skeptical about the potential for the Letters to be successful . However , the work proved to be instantly popular in England for a variety of reasons . Proponents of political reform such as William Godwin and Thomas Paine approved of the radical anti @-@ government implications of its message . Romantic writers admired , and were influenced by , its evocation of the natural landscape and the individual 's relationship to it . More widely , in the final years of the Revolutionary War , the public was eager for the documentary detail Letters provided about America . The popularity of the book led to a second edition being called for only a year later . In continental Europe , Letters proved equally popular . Dutch and German translations were rapidly produced , and prompted by constant demand , editions appeared in such places as Dublin , Paris and Maastricht . In lieu of a second volume of letters , Crèvecœur produced an expanded French version ( Lettres d 'un cultivateur américain ) that was published in 1784 . The French version , which removed the fictional persona of James , is presented as a series of documents that have been neutrally edited , providing greater documentary detail but at the expense of artistry . In the twentieth century there was a revival of interest in the text . Critic David Carlson suggests that it was " Not aesthetics , but the politics of nationalism appears to have been the primary force behind Crevecoeur 's critical resurrection " — the Letters being among the first works to depict an American " melting pot " . Letters , particularly Letter III ( " What is an American ? " ) , is frequently anthologized , and the work is recognized as being one of the first in the canon of American literature . = = = Modern editions = = = = Rogue River ( Oregon ) = The Rogue River ( Tolowa : yan @-@ shuu @-@ chit ’ taa @-@ ghii ~ -li ~ ’ , Takelma : tak @-@ elam ) in southwestern Oregon in the United States flows about 215 miles ( 346 km ) in a generally westward direction from the Cascade Range to the Pacific Ocean . Known for its salmon runs , whitewater rafting , and rugged scenery , it was one of the original eight rivers named in the Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 . Beginning near Crater Lake , which occupies the caldera left by the explosive volcanic eruption of Mount Mazama , the river flows through the geologically young High Cascades and the older Western Cascades , another volcanic province . Further west , the river passes through multiple exotic terranes of the more ancient Klamath Mountains . In the Kalmiopsis Wilderness section of the Rogue basin are some of the world 's best examples of rocks that form the Earth 's mantle . Near the mouth of the river , the only dinosaur fragments ever discovered in Oregon were found in the Otter Point Formation , along the coast of Curry County . People have lived along the Rogue River and its tributaries for at least 8 @,@ 500 years . European explorers made first contact with Native Americans ( Indians ) toward the end of the 18th century and began beaver trapping and other activities in the region . Clashes , sometimes deadly , occurred between the natives and the trappers and later between the natives and European @-@ American miners and settlers . These struggles culminated with the Rogue River Wars of 1855 – 56 and removal of most of the natives to reservations outside the basin . After the war , settlers expanded into remote areas of the watershed and established small farms along the river between Grave Creek and the mouth of the Illinois River . They were relatively isolated from the outside world until 1895 , when the Post Office Department added mail @-@ boat service along the lower Rogue . As of 2010 , the Rogue has one of the two remaining rural mail @-@ boat routes in the United States . Dam building and removal along the Rogue has generated controversy for more than a century ; an early fish @-@ blocking dam ( Ament ) was dynamited by vigilantes , mostly disgruntled salmon fishermen . By 2009 all but one of the main @-@ stem dams downstream of a huge flood @-@ control structure 157 miles ( 253 km ) from the river mouth had been removed . Aside from dams , threats to salmon include high water temperatures . Although sometimes too warm for salmonids , the main stem Rogue is relatively clean , ranking between 85 and 97 ( on a scale of 0 to 100 ) on the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) . Although the Rogue Valley near Medford is partly urban , the average population density of the Rogue watershed is only about five people per square mile ( 12 per km2 ) . Several historic bridges cross the river near the more populated areas . Many public parks , hiking trails , and campgrounds are near the river , which flows largely through forests , including national forests . Biodiversity in many parts of the basin is high ; the Klamath @-@ Siskiyou temperate coniferous forests , which extend into the southwestern Rogue basin , are among the four most diverse of this kind in the world . = = Course = = The Rogue River begins at Boundary Springs on the border between Klamath and Douglas counties near the northern edge of Crater Lake National Park . Although it changes direction many times , it flows generally west for 215 miles ( 346 km ) from the Cascade Range through the Rogue River – Siskiyou National Forest and the Klamath Mountains to the Pacific Ocean at Gold Beach . Communities along its course include Union Creek , Prospect , Trail , Shady Cove , Gold Hill , and Rogue River , all in Jackson County ; Grants Pass , and Galice in Josephine County , and Agness , Wedderburn , and Gold Beach in Curry County . Significant tributaries include the South Fork Rogue River , Elk Creek , Bear Creek , the Applegate River , and the Illinois River . Arising at 5 @,@ 320 feet ( 1 @,@ 622 m ) above sea level , the river loses more than 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in elevation by the time it reaches the Pacific . It was one of the original eight rivers named in the National Wild and Scenic Rivers Act of 1968 , which included 84 miles ( 135 km ) of the Rogue , from 7 miles ( 11 @.@ 3 km ) west of Grants Pass to 11 miles ( 18 km ) east of the mouth at Gold Beach . In 1988 , an additional 40 miles ( 64 km ) of the Rogue between Crater Lake National Park and the unincorporated community of Prospect was named Wild and Scenic . Of the river 's total length , 124 miles ( 200 km ) , about 58 percent is Wild and Scenic . The Rogue is one of only three rivers that start in or east of the Cascade Range in Oregon and reach the Pacific Ocean . The others are the Umpqua River and Klamath River . These three Southern Oregon rivers drain mountains south of the Willamette Valley . The Willamette River and its tributaries drain north along the Willamette Valley into the Columbia River , which starts in British Columbia rather than Oregon . = = = Discharge = = = The United States Geological Survey ( USGS ) operates five stream gauges along the Rogue River . They are located , from uppermost to lowermost , near Prospect , Eagle Point , Central Point , Grants Pass , and Agness . Between 1960 and 2007 , the average discharge recorded by the Agness gauge at river mile ( RM ) 29 @.@ 7 or river kilometer ( RK ) 47 @.@ 8 was 6 @,@ 622 cubic feet per second ( 188 m3 / s ) . The maximum discharge during this period was 290 @,@ 000 cubic feet per second ( 8 @,@ 200 m3 / s ) on December 23 , 1964 , and the minimum discharge was 608 cubic feet per second ( 17 m3 / s ) on July 9 and 10 , 1968 . This was from a drainage basin of 3 @,@ 939 square miles ( 10 @,@ 202 km2 ) , or about 76 percent of the entire Rogue watershed . The maximum flow occurred between December 1964 and January 1965 during the Christmas flood of 1964 , which was rated by the National Weather Service as one of Oregon 's top 10 weather events of the 20th century . = = Watershed = = Draining 5 @,@ 156 square miles ( 13 @,@ 350 km2 ) , the Rogue River watershed covers parts of Jackson , Josephine , Curry , Douglas , and Klamath counties in southwestern Oregon and Siskiyou and Del Norte counties in northern California . The steep , rugged basin , stretching from the western flank of the Cascade Range to the northeastern flank of the Siskiyou Mountains , varies in elevation from 9 @,@ 485 feet ( 2 @,@ 891 m ) at the summit of Mount McLoughlin in the Cascades to 0 feet ( 0 m ) , where the basin meets the ocean . The basin borders the watersheds of the Williamson River , Upper Klamath Lake , and the upper Klamath River on the east ; the lower Klamath , Smith , and Chetco rivers on the south ; the North Umpqua , South Umpqua , Coquille , and Sixes rivers on the north , and the Pacific Ocean on the west . In 2000 , Jackson County had a population of about 181 @,@ 300 , most of them living in the Bear Creek Valley cities of Ashland ( 19 @,@ 500 ) , Talent ( 5 @,@ 600 ) , Phoenix ( 4 @,@ 100 ) , Medford ( 63 @,@ 200 ) , Central Point ( 12 @,@ 500 ) , and Jacksonville ( 2 @,@ 200 ) . Others in Jackson County lived in the cities of Shady Cove ( 2 @,@ 300 ) , Eagle Point ( 4 @,@ 800 ) , Butte Falls ( 400 ) and Rogue River ( 1 @,@ 800 ) . Josephine County had a population of 75 @,@ 700 , including the cities of Grants Pass ( 23 @,@ 000 ) and Cave Junction ( 1 @,@ 400 ) . Gold Beach ( 1 @,@ 900 ) is the only city in Curry County ( 21 @,@ 100 ) in the Rogue River basin . Only small , sparsely inhabited parts of the watershed are in Klamath and Douglas counties in Oregon and Siskiyou and Del Norte counties in California . The watershed 's average population density is about 32 people per square mile ( 12 @.@ 4 / km2 ) . Many overlapping entities including city , county , state , and federal governments share jurisdiction for parts of the watershed . About 60 percent of the basin is publicly owned and is managed by the United States Forest Service , the Bureau of Land Management ( BLM ) , and the United States Bureau of Reclamation . Under provisions of the federal Clean Water Act , the Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) , assisted by the Oregon Department of Environmental Quality ( DEQ ) and other agencies in both states are charged with controlling water pollution in the basin . United States National Forests and other forests cover about 83 percent of the basin ; another 6 percent is grassland , 3 percent shrub , and only 0 @.@ 2 percent wetland . Urban areas account for slightly less than 1 percent and farms for about 6 percent . Precipitation in the Rogue basin varies greatly from place to place and season to season . At Gold Beach on the Pacific Coast it averages about 80 inches ( 2 @,@ 000 mm ) a year , whereas at Ashland , which is inland , it averages about 20 inches ( 510 mm ) . The average annual precipitation for the entire basin is about 38 inches ( 970 mm ) . Most of this falls in winter and spring , and summers are dry . At high elevations in the Cascades , much of the precipitation arrives as snow and infiltrates permeable volcanic soils ; snowmelt contributes to stream flows in the upper basin during the dry months . Along the Illinois River in the lower basin , most of the precipitation falls as rain on shallow soils ; rapid runoff leads to high flows during winter storms and low flows during the dry summer . Average monthly temperatures for the whole basin range from about 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) in July and August to about 40 ° F ( 4 ° C ) in December . Within the basin , local temperatures vary with elevation . = = Geology = = = = = High and Western Cascades = = = Arising near Crater Lake , the Rogue River flows from the geologically young High Cascades through the somewhat older Western Cascades and then through the more ancient Klamath Mountains . The High Cascades are composed of volcanic rock produced at intervals from about 7 @.@ 6 million years ago through geologically recent events such as the catastrophic eruption of Mount Mazama in about 5700 BCE . The volcano hurled 12 to 15 cubic miles ( 50 to 63 km3 ) of ash into the air , covering much of the western U.S. and Canada with airfall deposits . The volcano ’ s subsequent collapse formed the caldera of Crater Lake . Older and more deeply eroded , the Western Cascades are a range of volcanoes lying west of and merging with the High Cascades . They consist of partly altered volcanic rock from vents in both volcanic provinces , including varied lavas and ash tuffs ranging in age from 0 to 40 million years . As the Cascades rose , the Rogue maintained its flow to the ocean by down @-@ cutting , which created steep narrow gorges and rapids in many places . Bear Creek , a Rogue tributary that flows south to north , marks the boundary between the Western Cascades to the east and the Klamath Mountains to the west . = = = Klamath Mountains = = = Much more ancient than the upstream mountains are the exotic terranes of the Klamath Mountains to the west . Not until plate tectonics separated North America from Europe and North Africa and pushed it westward did the continent acquire , bit by bit , what became the Pacific Northwest , including Oregon . The Klamath Mountains consist of multiple terranes — former volcanic islands and coral reefs and bits of subduction zones , mantle , and seafloor — that merged offshore over vast stretches of time before colliding with North America as a single block about 150 to 130 million years ago . Much of the Rogue River watershed , including the Rogue River canyon , the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , the Illinois River basin , and Mount Ashland , are composed of exotic terranes . Among the oldest rocks in Oregon , some of the formations in these terranes date to the Triassic , nearly 250 million years ago . Between 165 and 170 million years ago , in the Jurassic , faulting consolidated the Klamath terranes offshore during what geologists call the Siskiyou orogeny . This three- to five @-@ million @-@ year episode of intense tectonic activity pushed sedimentary rocks deep enough into the mantle to melt them and then forced them to the surface as granitic plutons . Belts of plutons , which contain gold and other precious metals , run through the Klamaths and include the Ashland pluton , the Grayback batholith east of Oregon Caves National Monument , the Grants Pass pluton , the Gold Hill pluton , the Jacksonville pluton , and others . Miners have worked rich deposits of gold , silver , copper , nickel , and other metals in several districts of the Klamaths . Placer mining in the mid @-@ 19th century soon led to lode mining for gold . Aside from a mine in eastern Oregon , the Greenback Mine along Grave Creek , a Rogue tributary , was the most productive gold mine in Oregon . In Curry County , the lower Rogue passes through the Galice Formation , metamorphosed shale and other rocks formed when a small oceanic basin in the merging Klamath terranes was thrust over other Klamath rocks about 155 million years ago . The lowest part of the seafloor of the Josephine Basin , as this ancient sea came to be called , rests on top of the Kalmiopsis Wilderness , where it is known as the Josephine ophiolite . Some of its rocks are peridotite , reddish @-@ brown when exposed to oxygen but very dark green inside . According to geologist Ellen Morris Bishop , " These odd tawny peridotites in the Kalmiopsis Wilderness are among the world ’ s best examples of rocks that form the mantle . " Metamorphosed peridotite appears as serpentine along the west side of the Illinois River . Chemically unsuited for growing plants , widespread serpentinite in the Klamaths supports sparse vegetation in parts of the watershed . The Josephine peridotite was a source of valuable chromium ore , mined in the region between 1917 and 1960 . At the mouth of the Rogue River , along the coast of Curry County , is the Otter Point Formation , a mélange of metamorphosed sedimentary rocks such as shales , sandstones , and chert . Although the rocks formed in the Jurassic , evidence suggests that they faulted north as part of the Gold Beach Terrane after the Klamaths merged with North America . Oregon ’ s only dinosaur fragments , those of a hadrosaur or duck @-@ billed dinosaur , were found here . In the mid @-@ 1960s , a geologist also discovered the beak and teeth of an ichthyosaur in the Otter Point Formation . = = History = = = = = First peoples = = = Archeologists believe the first humans to inhabit the Rogue River region were nomadic hunters and gatherers . Radiocarbon dating suggests that they arrived in southwestern Oregon at least 8 @,@ 500 years ago , and at least 1 @,@ 500 years before the first contact with whites the natives established permanent villages along streams . The home villages of various groups shared many cultural elements , such as food , clothing , and shelter types . Intermarriage was common , and many people understood dialects of more than one of the three language groups spoken in the region . The Native Americans ( Indians ) included Tututni people near the coast and , further upstream , groups of Shasta Costa , Dakubetede , Takelma , Shasta , and Latgawa . Houses in the villages varied somewhat , but were often about 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide and 15 to 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 to 6 @.@ 1 m ) long , framed with posts sunk into the ground , and covered with split sugar pine or red cedar planks . People left the villages during about half of the year to gather camas bulbs , sugar @-@ pine bark , acorns , and berries , and hunted deer and elk to supplement their main food , salmon . The total early @-@ 1850s native population of southern Oregon , including the Umpqua , Coos , Coquille , and Chetco watersheds as well as the Rogue , is estimated to have been about 3 @,@ 800 . The population before the arrival of explorers and European diseases is thought to have been at least one @-@ third larger , but " there is insufficient evidence to estimate aboriginal populations prior to the time of first white contact ... " . = = = Culture clash = = = The first recorded encounter between whites and coastal southwestern Oregon Indians occurred in 1792 when British explorer George Vancouver anchored off Cape Blanco , about 30 miles ( 48 km ) north of the mouth of the Rogue River , and Indians visited the ship in canoes . In 1826 , Alexander Roderick McLeod of the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) led an overland expedition from HBC 's regional headquarters in Fort Vancouver to as far south as the Rogue . In 1827 an HBC expedition led by Peter Skene Ogden made the first direct contact between whites and the inland Rogue River natives when he crossed the Siskiyou Mountains to look for beaver . Friction between Indians and whites was relatively minor during these early encounters ; however , in 1834 an HBC expedition led by Michel Laframboise was reported to have killed 11 Rogue River natives , and shortly thereafter a party led by an American trapper , Ewing Young , shot and killed at least two more . The name Rogue River apparently began with French fur trappers who called the river La Riviere aux Coquins because they regarded the natives as rogues ( coquins ) . In 1835 , Rogue River people killed four whites in a party of eight who were traveling from Oregon to California . Two years later , two of the survivors and others on a cattle drive organized by Young killed the first two Indians they met north of the Klamath River . The number of whites entering the Rogue River watershed greatly increased after 1846 , when a party of 15 men led by Jesse Applegate developed a southern alternative to the Oregon Trail ; the new trail was used by emigrants headed for the Willamette Valley . Later called the Applegate Trail , it passed through the Rogue and Bear Creek valleys and crossed the Cascade Range between Ashland and south of Upper Klamath Lake . From 90 to 100 wagons and 450 to 500 emigrants used the new trail later in 1846 , passing through Rogue Indian homelands between the headwaters of Bear Creek and the future site of Grants Pass and crossing the Rogue about 4 @.@ 5 miles ( 7 @.@ 2 km ) downstream of it . Despite fears on both sides , violence in the watershed in the 1830s and 1840s was limited ; " Indians seemed interested in speeding whites on their way , and whites were happy to get through the region without being attacked . " In 1847 , the Whitman massacre and the Cayuse War in what became southeastern Washington raised fears among white settlers throughout the region and led to the formation of large volunteer militias organized to fight Indians . Along the Rogue , tensions intensified in 1848 at the start of the California Gold Rush , when hundreds of men from the Oregon Territory passed through the Rogue Valley on their way to the Sacramento River basin . After Indians attacked a group of returning miners along the Rogue in 1850 , former territorial governor Joseph Lane negotiated a peace treaty with Apserkahar , a leader of the Takelma Indians . It promised protection of Indian rights and safe passage through the Rogue Valley for white miners and settlers . The peace did not last . Miners began prospecting for gold in the watershed , including a Bear Creek tributary called Jackson Creek , where they established a mining camp in 1851 at the site of what later became Jacksonville . Indian attacks on miners that year led to U.S. Army intervention and fighting near Table Rock between Indians and the combined forces of professional soldiers and volunteer miner militias . John P. Gaines , the new territorial governor , negotiated a new treaty with some but not all of the Indian bands , removing them from Bear Creek and other tributaries on the south side of the main stem . At about the same time , more white emigrants , including women and children , were settling in the region . By 1852 , about 28 donation land claims had been filed in the Rogue Valley . Further clashes in 1853 led to the Treaty with the Rogue River ( 1853 ) that established the Table Rock Indian Reservation across the river from the federal Fort Lane . As the white population increased and Indian losses of land , food sources , and personal safety mounted , bouts of violence upstream and down continued through 1854 – 55 , culminating in the Rogue River War of 1855 – 56 . Suffering from cold , hunger , and disease on the Table Rock Reservation , a group of Takelma returned to their old village at the mouth of Little Butte Creek in October 1855 . After a volunteer militia attacked them , killing 23 men , women , and children , they fled downriver , attacking whites from Gold Hill to Galice Creek . Confronted by volunteers and regular army troops , the Indians at first repulsed them ; however , after nearly 200 volunteers launched an all @-@ day assault on the remaining natives , the war ended at Big Bend ( at RM 35 or RK 56 ) on the lower river . By then , fighting had also ended near the coast , where , before retreating upstream , a separate group of natives had killed about 30 whites and burned their cabins near what later became Gold Beach . Most of the Rogue River Indians were removed in 1856 to reservations further north . About 1 @,@ 400 were sent to the Coast Reservation , later renamed the Siletz Reservation . To protect 400 natives still in danger of attack at Table Rock , Joel Palmer , the Oregon Superintendent of Indian Affairs , ordered their removal , involving a forced march of 33 days , to the newly established Grande Ronde Reservation in Yamhill County , Oregon . = = = Mail boats = = = After the Rogue River War , a small number of newcomers began to settle along or near the Rogue River Canyon . These pioneers , some of whom were white gold miners married to native Karok women from the Klamath River basin , established gardens and orchards , kept horses , cows , and other livestock , and received occasional shipments of goods sent by pack mule over the mountains . Until the 1890s , these settlers remained relatively isolated from the outside world . In 1883 , one of the settlers , Elijah H. Price , proposed a permanent mail route by boat up the Rogue River from Ellensburg ( later renamed Gold Beach ) to Big Bend , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) upstream . The route , Price told the government , would serve perhaps 11 families and no towns . Although the Post Office Department resisted the idea for many years , in early 1895 it agreed to a one @-@ year trial of the water route , established a post office at Price 's log cabin at Big Bend , and named Price postmaster . Price 's job , for which he received no pay during the trial year , included running the post office and making sure that the mail boat made one round @-@ trip a week . He named the new post office Illahe . The name derives from the Chinook Jargon word ilahekh , meaning " land " or " earth " . Propelled by rowing , poling , pushing , pulling , and sometimes by sail , the mail boat delivered letters and small packages , including groceries from Wedderburn , where a post office was established later in 1895 . In 1897 , the department established a post office near the confluence of the Rogue and the Illinois rivers , 8 miles ( 13 km ) downriver from Illahe . The postmaster named the office Agnes after his daughter , but a transcription error added an extra " s " and the name became Agness . Upriver , a third post office , established in 1903 , was named Marial after another postmaster 's daughter . Marial , at ( RM ) 48 ( RK 77 ) , is about 13 miles ( 21 km ) upriver from Illahe and 21 miles ( 34 km ) from Agness . To avoid difficult rapids , carriers delivered the mail by mule between Illahe and Marial , and after 1908 most mail traveling beyond Agness went by mule . The Illahe post office closed in 1943 , and when the Marial post office closed in 1954 , " it was the last postal facility in the United States to still be served only by mule pack trains . " The first mail boat was an 18 @-@ foot ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , double @-@ ended craft made of cedar . By 1930 , the mail @-@ boat fleet consisted of three 26 @-@ foot ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) boats , equipped with 60 @-@ horsepower Model A Ford engines and designed to carry 10 passengers . By the 1960s , rudderless jetboats powered by twin or triple 280 @-@ horsepower engines , began to replace propeller @-@ driven boats . The jetboats could safely negotiate shallow riffles , and the largest could carry nearly 50 passengers . Rogue mail @-@ boat excursions , which had been growing more popular for several decades , began in the 1970s to include trips to as far upriver as Blossom Bar , 20 miles ( 32 km ) above Agness . As of 2010 , jet boats , functioning mainly as excursion craft , still deliver mail between Gold Beach and Agness . The Rogue River mail boat company is " one of only two mail carriers delivering the mail by boat in the United States " ; the other is along the Snake River in eastern Oregon . = = = Commercial fishing = = = For thousands of years , salmon was a reliable food source for Native Americans living along the Rogue . Salmon migrations were so huge that early settlers claimed they could hear the fish moving upstream . These large runs continued into the 20th century despite damage to spawning beds caused by gold mining in the 1850s and large @-@ scale commercial fishing that began shortly thereafter . The fishing industry fed demands for salmon in the growing cities of Portland and San Francisco and for canned salmon in England . By the 1880s , Robert Deniston Hume of Astoria , had bought land on both sides of the lower Rogue River and established such a big fishing business that he became known as the Salmon King of Oregon . His fleet of gillnetting boats , controlling most of the anadromous fish population of the river , plied its lower 12 miles ( 19 km ) . During his 32 @-@ year tenure , Hume 's company caught , processed , and shipped hundreds of tons of salmon from the Rogue . Upriver commercial fishermen also captured large quantities of fish . On a single day in 1913 , Grants Pass crews using five drift boats equipped with gill nets caught 5 @,@ 000 pounds ( 2 @,@ 300 kg ) of salmon . In 1877 , in connection with his commercial fishery , Hume built a hatchery at Ellensburg ( Gold Beach ) , which released fish into the river . In its first year of operation , Hume collected 215 @,@ 000 salmon eggs and released about 100 @,@ 000 fry . After the first hatchery was destroyed by fire in 1893 , Hume he built a new hatchery in 1895 , and in 1897 he co @-@ operated with the United States Fish Commission in building and operating an egg @-@ collecting station at the mouth of Elk Creek on the upper Rogue . In 1899 , he built a hatchery near Wedderburn , across the river from Gold Beach , and until the time of his death in 1908 he had salmon eggs shipped to it from the Elk Creek station . Based on variations in the size of the yearly catch , Hume and others believed his methods of fish @-@ propagation to be successful . However , as salmon runs declined over time despite the hatcheries , recreational fishing interests began to oppose large @-@ scale operations . In 1910 , a state referendum banned commercial fishing on the Rogue , but this decision was reversed in 1913 . As fish runs continued to dwindle , the state legislature finally closed the river to commercial fishing in 1935 . As of 2010 , the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife ( ODFW ) operates the Cole M. Rivers Hatchery near the base of the dam at Lost Creek Lake , slightly upstream of the former Rogue – Elk Hatchery built by Hume . It raises rainbow trout ( steelhead ) , Coho salmon , spring and fall Chinook salmon , and summer and winter steelhead . The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) built the hatchery in 1973 to offset the loss of fish habitat and spawning grounds in areas blocked by construction of the Lost Creek Dam on the main stem and the Applegate and Elk Creek dams on Rogue tributaries . It is the third @-@ largest salmon and steelhead hatchery in the United States . = = = Celebrities = = = In 1926 , author Zane Grey bought a miner 's cabin at Winkle Bar , near the river . He wrote Western books at this location , including his 1929 novel Rogue River Feud . Another of his books , Tales of Fresh Water Fishing ( 1928 ) , included a chapter based on a drift @-@ boat trip he took down the lower Rogue in 1925 . The Trust for Public Land bought the property at Winkle Bar and transferred it in 2008 to the BLM , which made it accessible to the public . In the 1930s and 1940s many other celebrities , attracted by the scenery , fishing , rustic lodges , and boat trips , visited the lower Rogue . Famous visitors included actors Clark Gable , Tyrone Power , and Myrna Loy , singer Bing Crosby , author William Faulkner , journalist Ernie Pyle , radio comedians Freeman Gosden and Charles Correll , circus performer Emmett Kelly , and football star Norm van Brocklin . Bobby Doerr , a Hall of Fame baseball player , married a teacher from Illahe , and made his home along the Rogue . From 1940 to 1990 , actress and dancer Ginger Rogers owned the 1 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 400 ha ) Rogue River Ranch , operated for many years as a dairy farm , near Eagle Point . The historic Craterian Ginger Rogers Theater in Medford was named after her . Actress Kim Novak and her veterinarian husband bought a home and 43 acres ( 17 ha ) of land in 1997 near the Rogue River in Sams Valley , where they raise horses and llamas . = = Dams = = The William L. Jess Dam , a huge flood @-@ control and hydroelectric structure , blocks the Rogue River 157 miles ( 253 km ) from its mouth . Built by the USACE between 1972 and 1976 , it impounds Lost Creek Lake . The dam , which is 345 feet ( 105 m ) high and 3 @,@ 600 feet ( 1 @,@ 100 m ) long , prevents salmon migration above this point . When the lake is full , it covers 3 @,@ 428 acres ( 1 @,@ 387 ha ) and has an average depth of 136 feet ( 41 m ) . Ranked by storage capacity , its reservoir is the seventh @-@ largest in Oregon . Other dams have impeded fish passage at one time or another between the William L. Jess Dam and Grants Pass . After decades of controversy about water rights , costs , migratory fish , and environmental impacts , removal or modification of remaining middle @-@ reach dams as well as a partly finished dam on Elk Creek , a major tributary of the Rogue , began in 2008 . The de @-@ construction projects were all meant to improve salmon runs by allowing more fish to reach suitable spawning grounds . In 1904 , brothers C.R. and Frank Ray built the Gold Ray Dam , a log structure , to generate electricity near Gold Hill . They installed a fish ladder . The California @-@ Oregon Power Company , which later became Pacific Power , acquired the dam in 1921 . Replacing the log dam in 1941 with a concrete structure 35 feet ( 11 m ) high , it added a new fish ladder and a fish @-@ counting station . The company closed the hydroelectric plant in 1972 , although the fish ladder remained , and biologists from the Oregon Department of Fish and Wildlife used the station to count migrating salmon and steelhead . Jackson County , which owned the dam , had it removed with the help of a $ 5 million federal grant approved in June 2009 . The dam was demolished in the summer of 2010 . In 2008 , the city of Gold Hill removed the last of the Gold Hill Dam , a diversion dam slightly downstream of the Gold Ray Dam . Originally built to provide power for a cement company , it was 3 to 14 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 to 4 @.@ 27 m ) high and 900 feet ( 270 m ) long . The dam and a diversion canal later delivered municipal water to the city until Gold Hill installed a pumping station to supply its water . Savage Rapids Dam was 5 miles ( 8 km ) upstream from Grants Pass . Built in 1921 to divert river flows for irrigation , the dam was 39 feet ( 12 m ) tall and created a reservoir that seasonally extended up to 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) upstream . Its removal began in April 2009 , and was completed in October 2009 . Twelve newly installed pumps provide river water to the irrigation canals serving 7 @,@ 500 acres ( 3 @,@ 000 ha ) of the Grants Pass Irrigation District ( GPID ) . In 2008 , USACE removed part of the Elk Creek Dam and restored Elk Creek to its original channel . Construction on the dam had been halted by a court injunction in the 1980s after about 80 feet ( 24 m ) of the proposed height of 240 feet ( 73 m ) was reached . Further controversy delayed the notching for two decades . Elk Creek enters the Rogue River 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) downstream from Lost Creek Lake . Historically , other dams along the river 's middle reaches were removed or destroyed during the first half of the 20th century . The Ament Dam , built in 1902 by the Golden Drift Mining Company to provide water for mining equipment , was slightly upriver of Grants Pass . After the company failed to keep promises to provide irrigation and electric power to the vicinity and because the dam was a " massive fish killer " , vigilantes destroyed part of the dam with dynamite in 1912 . The damaged dam was completely removed before construction of the Savage Rapids Dam in 1921 . In 1890 , the Grants Pass Power Supply Company had built a log dam 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) high , across the river near the city . Salmon could pass the dam during high water , but most were blocked : " For half a mile below the dam , the river was crowded with fish throughout the summer . " After a flood destroyed this dam in 1905 , it was replaced by a 6 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) dam that , like its predecessor , lacked a fish ladder . By 1940 , the dam had deteriorated to the point that it no longer blocked migratory fish . In addition to the dams on the Rogue main stem , at one time or another " several hundred dams were built on tributaries within the range of salmon migration " , most of which supplied water for mining or irrigation . Before 1920 , many of these dams made no provision for fish passage ; public pressure as well as efforts by turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century cannery owner R.D. Hume led to the installation of fish ladders on the most destructive dams . As of 2005 , there were about 80 non @-@ hydroelectric dams , mostly small irrigation structures , in the Rogue basin . In addition to Lost Creek Lake on the main stem , large reservoirs in the basin include Applegate Lake , Emigrant Lake , and Fish Lake . The only artificial barrier on the main stem of the Rogue upstream of Lost Creek Lake is a diversion dam at Prospect at RM 172 ( RK 277 ) . The concrete dam , 50 feet ( 15 m ) high and 384 feet ( 117 m ) wide , impounds water from the Rogue and nearby streams and diverts it to power plants , which return the water to the river further downstream . PacifiCorp operates this system , called The Prospect Nos. 1 , 2 , and 4 Hydroelectric Project . Built in pieces between 1911 and 1944 , it includes separate diversion dams on the Middle Fork Rogue River and Red Blanket Creek , and a 9 @.@ 25 @-@ mile ( 14 @.@ 89 km ) water @-@ transport system of canals , flumes , pipes , and penstocks . = = Bridges = = Among the many bridges that cross the Rogue River is the Isaac Lee Patterson Bridge , which carries U.S. Route 101 over the river at Gold Beach . Designed by Conde B. McCullough and built in 1931 , it is " one of the most notable bridges in the Pacific Northwest " . Named a National Historic Civil Engineering Landmark in 1982 by the American Society of Civil Engineers , the 1 @,@ 898 @-@ foot ( 579 m ) structure was the first in the U.S. to use the Freyssinet method of stress control in concrete bridges . It features 7 open @-@ spandrel 230 @-@ foot ( 70 m ) arch spans , 18 deck @-@ girder approach spans , and many ornate decorative features such as Art Deco entrance pylons . Several historic bridges cross the Rogue between Gold Hill and Grants Pass . The Gold Hill Bridge , designed by McCullough and built in 1927 , is the only open @-@ spandrel , barrel @-@ arch bridge in Oregon . Its main arch is 143 feet ( 44 m ) long . Also designed by McCullough , the Rock Point Bridge carries U.S. Route 99 and Oregon Route 234 over the river near the unincorporated community of Rock Point . The 505 @-@ foot ( 154 m ) structure has a single arch . Built in 1920 for $ 48 @,@ 400 , it replaced a wooden bridge at the same site . The bridge was closed in September 2009 for repairs to its deck and railings . The project is expected to cost $ 3 @.@ 9 million . Caveman Bridge in Grants Pass is a 550 @-@ foot ( 170 m ) , three @-@ arch concrete structure . Designed by McCullough and built in 1931 , it replaced the Robertson Bridge . The city calls the structure Caveman because the Redwood Highway ( U.S. Route 199 ) that crosses the bridge passes near Oregon Caves National Monument , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) south of Grants Pass . Slightly downstream of Grants Pass , the Robertson Bridge , built around 1909 , is a 583 @-@ foot ( 178 m ) three @-@ span , steel , through @-@ truss structure moved downriver in 1929 to make way for the Caveman Bridge . It carries the Rogue River Loop Highway ( Oregon Route 260 ) over the river west of the city . The bridge was named for pioneers who settled in the area in the 1870s . = = Pollution = = To comply with section 303 ( d ) of the federal Clean Water Act , the EPA or its state delegates must develop a list of the surface waters in each state that do not meet approved water @-@ quality criteria . To meet the criteria , the DEQ and others have developed Total Maximum Daily Load ( TMDL ) limits for pollutants entering streams and other surface waters . The Oregon 303 ( d ) list of pollutants for 2004 – 06 indicated that some reaches of the surface waters in the Rogue River Basin did not meet the standards for temperature , bacteria , dissolved oxygen , sedimentation , pH and nuisance weeds and algae . All of the listed stream reaches were in Oregon ; none in the California part of the basin was listed as impaired on that state 's 303 ( d ) list in 2008 . The EPA approved temperature TMDLs for three Rogue River tributaries : Upper Sucker Creek in 1999 , Lower Sucker Creek in 2002 , and Lobster Creek in 2002 . It approved temperature , sedimentation , and biological criteria TMDLs for the Applegate River basin in 2004 , and temperature , sedimentation , fecal coliform , and Escherichia coli ( E. coli ) TMDLs for the Bear Creek watershed in 2007 . In 1992 it had approved pH , aquatic weeds and algae , and dissolved oxygen TMDLs for the Bear Creek watershed . In December 2008 , DEQ developed two TMDLs for the Rogue River basin ( except the tributaries with their own TMDLs ) ; a temperature TMDL was meant to protect salmon and trout from elevated water temperatures , and a fecal contamination TMDL was intended to safeguard people using surface waters for recreation . The DEQ has collected water @-@ quality data in the Rogue basin since the mid @-@ 1980s and has used it to generate scores on the Oregon Water Quality Index ( OWQI ) . The index is meant to provide an assessment of water quality for general recreational uses ; OWQI scores can vary from 10 ( worst ) to 100 ( ideal ) . Of the eight Rogue basin sites tested during the water years 1997 – 2006 , five were ranked good , one was excellent , and two — Little Butte Creek and Bear Creek , in the most populated part of the Rogue basin — were poor . On the Rogue River itself , scores varied from 92 at RM 138 @.@ 4 ( RK 222 @.@ 7 ) declining to 85 at RM 117 @.@ 2 ( RK 188 @.@ 6 ) but improving to 97 at RM 11 @.@ 0 ( RK 17 @.@ 7 ) . By comparison , the average OWQI score for the Willamette River in downtown Portland , the state 's largest city , was 74 between 1986 and 1995 . = = Flora and fauna = = Most of the Rogue River watershed is in the Klamath Mountains ecoregion designated by the EPA , although part of the upper basin is in the Cascades ecoregion , and part of the lower basin is in the Coast Range ecoregion . Temperate coniferous forests dominate much of the basin . The upper basin , in the High Cascades and Western Cascades , is in places " identified as containing extremely high species richness within many groups of plants and animals " . Common tree species in the forests along the upper Rogue include incense cedar , white fir , and Shasta red fir . Further downstream a diverse mix of conifers , broadleaf evergreens , and deciduous trees and shrubs grow in parts of the basin . In more populated areas , orchards , cropland , and pastureland have largely replaced the original vegetation , although remnants of oak savanna , prairie vegetation , and seasonal ponds survive at Table Rocks north of Medford . Oak woodlands , grassland savanna , ponderosa pine , and Douglas @-@ fir thrive in the relatively dry foothills east of Medford ; areas in the foothills of the Illinois Valley support Douglas @-@ fir , madrone , and incense cedar . Parts of the Illinois River watershed have sparse vegetation including Jeffrey pine and oak and ceanothus species that grow in serpentine soils . The Klamath @-@ Siskiyou region of northern California and southwestern Oregon , including parts of the southwestern Rogue basin , is among the four most diverse temperate coniferous forests in the world . Considered one of the global centers of biodiversity , it contains about 3 @,@ 500 different plant species . The Klamath @-@ Siskiyou region is one of seven International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) areas of global botanical significance in North America and has been proposed as a World Heritage Site and UNESCO Biosphere Reserve . The lower Rogue passes through the Southern Oregon Coast Range , where forests include Douglas @-@ fir , western hemlock , tanoak , Port Orford cedar , and western redcedar , and at lower elevations Sitka spruce . Coastal forests extending from British Columbia in the north to Oregon ( and the Rogue ) in the south are " some of the most productive in the world " . The coastal region , where it has not been altered by humans , abounds with ferns , lichens , mosses , and herbs , as well as conifers . The Rogue River contains " extremely high @-@ quality salmonid habitat and has one of the finest salmonid fisheries in the west . However , most stocks are less abundant than they were historically ... " . Salmonids found in the Rogue River downstream of Lost Creek Lake include Coho salmon , spring and fall Chinook salmon , and summer and winter steelhead . Other native species of freshwater fish found in the watershed include coastal cutthroat trout , Pacific lamprey , green sturgeon , white sturgeon , Klamath smallscale sucker , speckled dace , prickly sculpin , and riffle sculpin . Nonnative species include redside shiner , largemouth bass , smallmouth bass , black crappie , bluegill , catfish , brown bullhead , yellow perch , carp , goldfish , American shad , Umpqua pikeminnow , and species of trout . Coho salmon in the watershed belong to an Evolutionarily Significant Unit ( ESU ) that was listed by the National Marine Fisheries Service as a threatened species in 1997 and reaffirmed as threatened in 2005 . The state of Oregon in 2005 listed Rogue spring Chinook salmon as potentially at risk . Trees and shrubs growing in the riparian zones along the Rogue River include willows , red alder , white alder , black cottonwood , and Oregon ash . A few of the common animal and bird species seen along the river are American black bear , North American river otter , black @-@ tailed deer , bald eagle , osprey , great blue heron , water ouzel , and Canada goose . = = Recreation = = = = = Boating = = = Soggy Sneakers : A Paddler 's Guide to Oregon 's Rivers lists several whitewater runs of varying difficulty along the upper , middle , and lower Rogue River and its tributaries . The longest run , on the main stem of the river downstream of Grants Pass , is " one of the best @-@ known whitewater runs in the United States " . Popular among kayakers and rafters , the 35 @-@ mile ( 56 km ) run consists of class 3 + rapids separated by more gentle stretches and deep pools . Its entire length is classified Wild and Scenic . The Wild section of the lower Rogue River runs for 33 @.@ 8 miles ( 54 @.@ 4 km ) between Grave Creek and Watson Creek . To protect the river from overuse , a maximum of 120 commercial and noncommercial users a day are allowed to run this section . To enter it , boaters must obtain a special @-@ use permit allocated through a random @-@ selection process and pick it up at the Smullin Visitor Center , about 20 miles ( 32 km ) west of Interstate 5 on the Merlin – Galice Road , at the Rand Ranger Station downstream of Galice . Other sections of the river are open to jetboats . A Gold Beach company offers commercial jetboat trips of up to 104 miles ( 167 km ) round @-@ trip on the lower Rogue River . Another company offers jetboat excursions on the Hellgate section of the river below Grants Pass . = = = Hiking = = = The Upper Rogue River Trail , a National Recreation Trail , closely follows the river for about 40 miles ( 64 km ) from its headwaters at the edge of Crater Lake National Park to the boundary of the Rogue River National Forest at the mountain community of Prospect . Highlights along the trail include a river canyon cut through pumice deposited by the explosion of Mount Mazama about 8 @,@ 000 years ago ; the Rogue Gorge , lined with black lava , and Natural Bridge , where the river flows through a 250 @-@ foot ( 76 m ) lava tube . Between Farewell Bend and Natural Bridge , the trail passes through the Union Creek Historic District , a site with early 20th @-@ century resort buildings and a former ranger station that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places . The Lower Rogue River Trail , a National Recreation Trail of 40 miles ( 64 km ) , runs parallel to the river from Grave Creek to Illahe , in the Wild Rogue Wilderness , 27 miles ( 43 km ) northwest of Grants Pass . The roadless area through which the trail runs is managed by the Siskiyou National Forest and the Medford District of the federal Bureau of Land Management and covers 224 square miles ( 580 km2 ) including 56 square miles ( 150 km2 ) of designated federal wilderness . Backpackers use the trail for multiple @-@ day trips , while day hikers take shorter trips . In addition to scenery and wildlife , features include views of rapids and " frantic boaters " , lodges at Illahe , Clay Hill Rapids , Paradise Creek , and Marial , and the Rogue River Ranch and museum . Hikers can take jet boats from Gold Beach to some of the lodges between May and November . The trail connects to many shorter side trails as well as to the 27 @-@ mile ( 43 km ) Illinois River Trail south of Agness . Hikers can also take trips along the Rogue that combine backpacking and rafting . Rogue River Trail 1168 continues west 12 miles ( 19 km ) along the north side of the river from Agness to the Morey Meadow Trailhead . Forest Road 3533 provides a hiking route between the trailhead and the Lobster Creek Bridge , 5 miles ( 8 km ) further west . The Rogue River Walk , a 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) trail along the south side of the river continues west to a trailhead about 5 miles ( 8 km ) east of Gold Beach . = = = Fishing = = = Sport fishing on the Rogue River varies greatly depending on the location . In many places , fishing is good from stream banks and gravel bars , and much of the river is also fished from boats . Upstream of Lost Creek Lake , the main stem , sometimes called the North Fork , supports varieties of trout . Between Lost Creek Lake and Grants Pass there are major fisheries for spring and fall Chinook salmon , and Coho salmon from hatcheries , summer and winter steelhead , and large resident rainbow trout . The river between Grants Pass and Grave Creek has productive runs of summer and winter steelhead and Chinook , as well as good places to fish for trout . From Grave Creek to Foster Bar , all but the lower 15 miles ( 24 km ) of which is closed to jetboats , anglers fish for summer and winter steelhead , spring and fall Chinook , and Coho . Near Agness , the river produces large catches of immature steelhead known as " half @-@ pounders " that return from the ocean to the river in August in large schools . The lower river has spring and fall Chinook , as well as perch , lingcod , and crab near the ocean . = = = Parks = = = Parks along the Rogue River , which begins in the northwest corner of Crater Lake National Park , include Prospect State Scenic Viewpoint , a forested area 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of Prospect with a hiking trail leading to waterfalls and the Rogue River . The Joseph H. Stewart State Recreation Area has campsites overlooking Lost Creek Lake . Casey State Recreation Site offers boating , fishing , and picnic areas along the river 29 miles ( 47 km ) northeast of Medford . TouVelle State Recreation Site is a day @-@ use park along the river at the base of Table Rocks and adjacent to the Denman Wildlife Area , about 9 miles ( 14 km ) north of Medford . Valley of the Rogue State Park , 12 miles ( 19 km ) east of Grants Pass , is built around 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of river shoreline . Between Grants Pass and the Hellgate Recreation Area , Josephine County manages two parks , Tom Pearce and Schroeder , along the river . Hellgate , 27 miles ( 43 km ) long , begins at the confluence of the Rogue and Applegate rivers about 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Grants Pass . This stretch of the Rogue , featuring class I and II rapids , 11 access points for boats , 4 parks and campgrounds managed by Josephine County , ends at Grave Creek , where the Wild Rogue Wilderness begins . Indian Mary Park , part of the Josephine County park system , has tent sites , yurts , and spaces for camping vehicles on 61 acres ( 25 ha ) along the Merlin – Galice road at Merlin . The other three Josephine County parks in the Hellgate Recreation Area are Whitehorse , across from the mouth of the Applegate River ; Griffin , slightly downstream of Whitehorse , and Almeda , downstream of Indian Mary . = HMS Diamond ( H22 ) = HMS Diamond was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship spent the bulk of her career on the China Station . She was briefly assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet in 1939 before she was transferred to West Africa for convoy escort duties . Diamond returned to the Mediterranean Fleet in early 1940 where she generally escorted convoys to and from Malta . The ship participated in the Battle of Cape Spartivento in November . Diamond was sunk by German aircraft on 27 April 1941 whilst evacuating Allied troops from Greece . = = Description = = Diamond displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Diamond carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men . The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Diamond had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . = = Career = = Diamond was ordered on 2 February 1931 under the 1930 Naval Estimates , and was laid down at Vickers @-@ Armstrong 's yard at Barrow @-@ in @-@ Furness on 29 September 1931 . She was launched on 8 April 1932 and completed on 3 November 1933 , at a total cost of £ 223 @,@ 509 , excluding equipment supplied by the Admiralty , such as weapons , ammunition and wireless equipment . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 . Diamond was refitted at Devonport Dockyard between 3 September and 27 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived there in January 1935 , where she remained for the next four years . The ship began a refit at Singapore on 7 August 1939 and she was transferred to the Mediterranean Fleet after it was completed in November . Diamond arrived at Malta on 19 December , but she was transferred to the South Atlantic Station the following month . She departed Malta on 8 January 1940 , bound for Freetown where she joined the 20th Destroyer Division for escort duties . In April the ship returned to the Mediterranean where Diamond was assigned to the newly formed 10th Destroyer Flotilla after a short refit at Malta . She was slightly damaged by air attacks on 11 and 17 June near Malta after the Italians declared war on the Allies on 10 June . Together with her sisters Dainty , Defender , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the light cruisers Capetown and Liverpool , she escorted Convoy AN.2 from Egypt to various ports in the Aegean Sea in late July . Diamond bombarded the Italian seaplane base at Bomba , Libya on 23 August . A week later she escorted four transports to Malta with Dainty and the destroyers Jervis and Juno as part of Operation Hats . The ship escorted Convoy MB.8 during Operation Collar . After reaching Malta on 26 November , Diamond joined Force D and sailed to rendezvous with Force H , coming from Gibraltar . The next day , after the British forces had combined , they were spotted by the Italians and the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento was fought . During Operation Excess , Diamond and Defender escorted Convoy MW.5 to Malta in January 1941 . In mid @-@ April she escorted a convoy of four freighters from Malta to Alexandria . = = Loss = = On the evening of 26 April , Diamond was in the Argolic Gulf with three light cruisers , three other destroyers and two troopships . The force began evacuating British , Australian and New Zealand troops from Nauplia . The cruisers HMS Calcutta and HMS Orion and destroyers HMS Hotspur and HMS Isis embarked nearly 2 @,@ 500 troops and , at 03 : 00 the next morning , Calcutta ordered the evacuation force to sail . One of the troop ships , the Dutch ocean liner Slamat , disobeyed and continued to embark troops . Slamat embarked 500 troops before she eventually obeyed orders at 04 : 15 , and the convoy sailed for Crete . Near the mouth of the Argolic Gulf a Staffel of nine Luftwaffe Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers from Jagdgeschwader 77 attacked the convoy at either 06 : 45 or 07 : 15 . Slamat was hit , set afire and began to abandon ship . Calcutta ordered Diamond to go alongside Slamat to rescue survivors while the rest of the convoy continued to try to reach Souda Bay in Crete . At 08 : 15 Diamond reported that she was still rescuing survivors and still under air attack . By then three destroyers had reinforced the convoy so Calcutta sent one of them , HMS Wryneck , to assist Diamond . Slamat was afire from stem to stern when Diamond fired a torpedo that sank her in a coup de grâce . Diamond reported at 09 : 25 that she had rescued most of the survivors and was proceeding to Souda Bay . An hour later Wryneck signalled a request for aircraft cover . At about 13 : 15 , an air attack by German Messerschmitt Bf 109 fighters and Junkers Ju 88 bombers sank both destroyers within minutes . Wryneck launched her whaler , and each destroyer launched her three Carley floats . Survivors in the whaler set off east past Cape Maleas , towing two Carley floats and their occupants . In the evening the wind increased , causing the floats to strike the boat , so Waldron reluctantly cast them adrift . After 1900 hrs on 27 April the Vice Admiral , Light Forces , Henry Pridham @-@ Wippell , became concerned that Diamond had not returned to Souda Bay and was not answering radio signals . Wryneck had been ordered to keep radio silence so no attempt was made to radio her . Pridham @-@ Wippell sent the destroyer HMS Griffin to the position where Slamat had been lost . She found 14 survivors in two Carley floats that night , more floats and another four survivors in the morning , and took the survivors to Crete . The last living survivor from Slamat , Royal Army Service Corps veteran George Dexter , states that after Wryneck was sunk he and three other men were rescued by the cruiser HMS Orion . Survivors in Wryneck 's whaler reached Crete in three stages . On 28 April they aimed for the island of Milos in the Aegean Sea , but were too exhausted so they landed at Ananes Rock , about 13 nautical miles ( 24 km ) southeast of Milos . There they met a caïque full of Greek refugees and British soldiers evacuated from Piraeus , who were sheltering by day and sailing only by night to avoid detection . In the evening everyone left Ananes and headed south for Crete , with most people in the caïque and five being towed in the whaler . On 29 April the caïque sighted a small landing craft that had left Porto Rafti near Athens . She took aboard everyone from the caïque and whaler , and the next day they reached Souda Bay . = Glenn Anderson = Glenn Chris Anderson ( born October 2 , 1960 ) is a retired Canadian professional ice hockey player who played 16 seasons in the National Hockey League ( NHL ) for the Edmonton Oilers , Toronto Maple Leafs , New York Rangers , and St. Louis Blues . Anderson was known to have a knack for stepping up in big games , which garnered him the reputation of a " money " player . His five playoff overtime goals rank third in NHL history , while his 17 playoff game @-@ winning goals put him fifth all @-@ time . During the playoffs , Anderson accumulated 93 goals , 121 assists , and 214 points , the fourth , ninth , and fourth most in NHL history . Anderson is also first all @-@ time in regular season game winning goals in Oilers history with 72 . At a young age , Anderson admired the European aspects of the game . He was known to have a liking for participating in international tournaments , more so than his NHL contemporaries . When he was drafted by the Oilers in 1979 , he chose to play for Team Canada at the 1980 Winter Olympics instead of immediately joining the Oilers . Anderson won gold at the 1984 and the 1987 Canada Cup and he was a silver medalist at the 1989 Ice Hockey World Championships . During his NHL career , Anderson was part of six Stanley Cup winning teams ( he won five as a member of the Oilers and one as a member of the Rangers ) and he was a participant at four All @-@ Star Games . He is one of only seven Oilers players to have won all five Cups in franchise history . Anderson was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame on November 10 , 2008 and his jersey number , 9 , was retired by the Oilers on January 18 , 2009 . = = Background = = Anderson was born in Vancouver , but was raised in Burnaby , British Columbia . His father , Magnus , is the son of a Norwegian immigrant , and his mother , Anne , is of Ukrainian origin . He has two brothers ( Allan and David ) and a sister ( Pam ) . As a young child , Anderson did not enjoy the game of ice hockey . His first ever goal came against his own team . However , as he grew older , and better at the game , Anderson 's love of the game increased . Growing up , Anderson played hockey against his neighbours , most notably the Berrys . Anderson and his brothers had a friendly rivalry against the Berry brothers and their father . The father , Don Berry , was a player with the Penticton Vees when they won gold at the 1955 World Ice Hockey Championships . Unusual for a boy born and raised in Canada , Anderson 's hockey idol was not Canadian . Instead , his favourite player was Russian Alexander Yakushev , whom he had watched play during the 1972 Summit Series . = = Playing career = = = = = Early career = = = Anderson and one of the Berrys , Ken Berry , began their junior hockey career together with the Bellingham Blazers of the British Columbia Junior Hockey League ( BCJHL ) during the 1977 – 78 season . In 64 games , Anderson recorded 62 goals , 69 assists , and 131 points , the third most goals and eighth most points in the league . To top off his lone season in the BCJHL , he was named to the league 's Second All @-@ Star Team . In 1978 – 79 , Anderson and Berry were recruited to play for the hockey team of the University of Denver in the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) by Marshall Johnston , the university team 's head coach . Anderson played in 41 games , and led the team in points with 55 . During his time in university , Anderson struggled with his schoolwork and was , at times , stopped from participating in tournaments . However , at the end of the year , Anderson managed to pass his courses . During the 1979 NHL Entry Draft , Anderson was drafted 69th overall by the Edmonton Oilers of the National Hockey League ( NHL ) . Anderson opted to not join the Oilers immediately as he wished to play for Team Canada during the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid . Father David Bauer , who was in charge of the national team program , accepted both Anderson and Berry to the team . The influence that Father David Bauer had on Anderson was significant as Anderson would cite him as a major reason for his future success . The team toured around the world playing against different opponents in preparation for the Olympics . The practice Anderson received during this time helped " greatly improve " his skills . Anderson scored four points in six games during the tournament as Canada was eliminated by the Soviet Union by a score of 6 – 4 . Canada finished 6th and the loss deeply saddened Anderson as he " cried for two hours straight " . = = = Edmonton Oilers ( 1980 – 1991 ) = = = The Canadian National Team program was discontinued in the fall of 1980 . Facing a choice of whether to rejoin the University of Denver , or to join the Oilers , Anderson chose the latter , signing a contract worth $ 250 @,@ 000 with the team . Making his professional debut with the Oilers , Anderson recorded 30 goals , 23 assists , and 53 points in 58 games in his first season . The Oilers made the playoffs that year where they defeated the Montreal Canadiens in the preliminary round , three games to none . This was deemed a huge upset since the Canadiens had finished eleven spots higher than the Oilers in the overall standings . The Oilers moved on to the quarter @-@ finals where they were defeated in six games by the eventual Stanley Cup champions , New York Islanders . During the playoff run , Anderson scored 12 points in 9 games , establishing himself as a " fierce " playoff performer . Anderson 's sophomore season saw him record career highs in both assists and points with 67 and 105 , respectively . His team jumped from fourth place to first place in the Smythe Division . In the playoffs , the Oilers were the victims of one of the biggest upsets in hockey history . Facing the Los Angeles Kings , a team they had finished 48 points ahead in the regular season , the Oilers were defeated in five games in a best of five series . The following season , Anderson tallied 48 goals and 56 assists for a total of 104 points to help the Oilers remain atop their division . In the playoffs , the Oilers managed to advance to the Stanley Cup Finals for the first time in franchise history . Anderson and his team were matched up against the Islanders who were looking for a fourth consecutive Stanley Cup victory . During the Finals , Anderson had several noted run @-@ ins with Islanders goaltender Billy Smith . During game one , a slash on Anderson 's knee earned Smith a two @-@ minute slashing penalty . Anderson 's knee swelled up and prevented him from practicing the next day . In game four , when the two crashed into each other , Smith 's dive resulted in referee Andy Van Hellemond handing a five @-@ minute penalty to Anderson . Van Hellemond later said that Smith was making a fool of him . The season ended in disappointment for the Oilers as they were defeated in four games in a best of seven series . Anderson 's team would cite the loss as a valuable lesson in their quest for their first Stanley Cup . The Oilers again repeated as division champions in 1983 – 84 . Anderson set a career high in goals with 54 and he made his first All @-@ Star Game appearance . In the playoffs , the Oilers made their second consecutive Finals appearance . Once again , Anderson and his team faced the Islanders who were now looking to become the second team in NHL history to win five consecutive Stanley Cups . This time though , the Oilers emerged victorious in five games . This	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
the March Hare in the 1966 TV play of the book . Christopher Lee voiced the Jabberwocky . While it only had two lines , Burton said that he felt Lee to be a good match for the iconic character because he is " an iconic guy " . For the character , Lee had originally tried to make his voice ' burble ' ( as described in the poem " Jabberwocky " ) . However , Tim Burton convinced him to use his actual voice , as he found it more intimidating . Imelda Staunton voiced the Tall Flower Faces . Though there are many flowers that appear around Wonderland , only one of them speaks and one of them is clearly a caricature of Staunton . Staunton only speaks three lines that are heard very briefly at the beginning of the film . Jim Carter voiced the Red Queen 's executioner . The Executioner only speaks one line and appears extremely briefly , though Carter also voiced several other servants to the Red Queen . Frank Welker provided additional voices and vocal effects ; including roars of the Jabberwocky and Bandersnatch , squawks for the Jubjub bird , and Bayard barking . Rickman , Windsor , Fry , Gough , Lee , Staunton and Carter each took only a day to record their dialogue . Burton and Bonham Carter 's children Billy and Nell made cameo appearances as a boy and baby at the dock in the end of the film . = = Production = = Tim Burton signed with Walt Disney Pictures to direct two films in Disney Digital 3D , which included Alice in Wonderland and his remake of Frankenweenie . Burton developed the story because he never felt an emotional tie to the original book . He explained " the goal is to try to make it an engaging movie where you get some of the psychology and kind of bring a freshness but also keep the classic nature of Alice . " On prior versions , Burton said " It was always a girl wandering around from one crazy character to another , and I never really felt any real emotional connection . " His goal with the new movie is to give the story " some framework of emotional grounding " and " to try and make Alice feel more like a story as opposed to a series of events . " Burton focused on the poem " Jabberwocky " as part of his structure , and refers to the described creature by the name of the poem rather than by the name " Jabberwock " used in the poem . Burton also stated that he does not see his version as either a sequel to any existing Alice film nor as a " re @-@ imagining " . However , the idea of the climax of the story being Alice 's battle with the Queen 's champion , the Jabberwocky , was first added in the video game American McGee 's Alice , and the landscape , tower , weapons and appearance of Alice in those scenes of the movie are very reminiscent of the same scenes in the game . This film was originally set to be released in 2009 but was pushed back to March 5 , 2010 . Principal photography was scheduled for May 2008 , but did not begin until September and concluded in three months . Scenes set in the Victorian era were shot at Torpoint and Plymouth from September 1 to October 14 . Two hundred and fifty local extras were chosen in early August . Locations included Antony House in Torpoint , Charlestown , Cornwall and the Barbican , however , no footage from the Barbican was used . Motion capture filming began in early October at Sony Pictures Studios in Culver City , California , though the footage was later discarded . Filming also took place at Culver Studios . Burton said that he used a combination of live action and animation , without motion capture . He also noted that this was the first time he had filmed on a green screen . Filming of the green screen portions , comprising 90 % of the film , was completed after only 40 days . Many of the cast and crew felt nauseated as a result of the long hours surrounded by green , and Burton had lavender lenses fitted into his glasses to counteract the effect . Due to the constant need for digital effects to distort the actors ' physical appearances , such as the size of the Red Queen 's head or Alice 's height , visual effects supervisor Ken Ralston cited the film as being exhausting , saying it was " The biggest show I 've ever done , [ and ] the most creatively involved I 've ever been . " Sony Pictures Imageworks designed the visual effects sequences . Burton felt 3D was appropriate to the story 's environment . Burton and Zanuck chose to film with conventional cameras , and convert the footage into 3D during post @-@ production ; Zanuck explained 3D cameras were too expensive and " clumsy " to use , and they felt that there was no difference between converted footage and those shot in the format . James Cameron , who released his 3D film Avatar in December 2009 , criticized the choice , stating , " It doesn 't make any sense to shoot in 2 @-@ D and convert to 3 @-@ D " . = = Music = = = = = Score = = = Longtime Burton collaborator Danny Elfman 's score was released March 2 , 2010 . It debuted at # 89 on the Billboard Top 200 albums chart . = = = Almost Alice = = = Almost Alice is a collection of various artists ' music inspired by the film . The lead single , " Alice " by Avril Lavigne , premiered on January 27 , 2010 on Ryan Seacrest 's radio program . Other singles include " Follow Me Down " by 3OH ! 3 , " Her Name Is Alice " by Shinedown , and " Tea Party " by Kerli . The album was released on March 2 , 2010 . = = Release = = On February 12 , 2010 , major UK cinema chains , Odeon , Vue and Cineworld , had planned to boycott the film because of a reduction of the interval between cinema and DVD release from the usual 17 weeks to 12 ( possibly to avoid the release of the DVD clashing with the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which was Disney 's pretext for cutting short Alice 's theatrical run but UK exhibitors protested that Alice would be less threatened by the World Cup than other titles ) . A week after the announcement , Cineworld , who has a 24 % share of UK box office , chose to play the film on more than 150 screens . Cineworld 's chief executive Steve Wiener stated , " As leaders in 3D , we did not want the public to miss out on such a visual spectacle . As the success of Avatar has shown , there is currently a huge appetite for the 3D experience " . Shortly after , the Vue cinema chain also reached an agreement with Disney , but Odeon had still chosen to boycott in Britain , Ireland and Italy . On February 25 , 2010 Odeon had reached an agreement and decided to show the film on March 5 , 2010 . The Royal premiere took place at the Odeon Leicester Square in London on February 25 , 2010 for the fundraiser The Prince 's Foundation for Children and The Arts where the Prince of Wales and the Duchess of Cornwall attended . It also did not affect their plans to show the film in Spain , Germany , Portugal and Austria . The film was released in the U.S. and UK , in both Disney Digital 3D and IMAX 3D , as well as regular theaters on March 5 , 2010 . = = = Marketing = = = On June 22 , 2009 , the first pictures of the film were released , showing Depp as the Mad Hatter , Hathaway as the White Queen , Bonham Carter as the Red Queen and Lucas as Tweedledee and Tweedledum . A new image of Alice was also released . In July , new photos emerged of Alice holding a white rabbit , the Mad Hatter with a hare , the Red Queen holding a pig , and the White Queen with a mouse . On July 22 , 2009 , a teaser trailer from the Mad Hatter 's point of view was released on IGN but was shortly taken down because Disney claimed that the trailer was not supposed to be out yet . The teaser was also planned to premiere along with a trailer of Robert Zemeckis ' film adaptation of A Christmas Carol on July 24 , 2009 for G @-@ Force . The following day , the teaser trailer premiered at Comic @-@ Con but the trailer shown was different from the one that leaked . The ComicCon version didn 't have the Mad Hatter 's dialogue . Instead , it featured " Time to Pretend " by MGMT , and the clips shown were in different order than in the leaked version . The leaked version was originally to be shown to one of the three Facebook groups used to promote the film that had the most members . The groups used to promote the film are " The Loyal Subjects of the Red Queen " , " The Loyal Subjects of the White Queen " and " The Disloyal Subjects of the Mad Hatter " . Also at ComicCon , props from the film were displayed in an " Alice in Wonderland " exhibit . Costumes featured in the exhibit included the Red Queen 's dress , chair , wig , spectacles and scepter ; the White Queen 's dress , wig and a small model of her castle ; the Mad Hatter 's suit , hat , wig , chair and table ; Alice 's dress and battle armor ( to slay the Jabberwocky ) . Other props included the " DRINK ME " bottles , the keys , an " EAT ME " pastry and stand @-@ in models of the White Rabbit and March Hare . A nighttime party area at the Disney 's California Adventure theme park was created , called " Mad T Party " . = = = Video games = = = On July 23 , 2009 , Disney Interactive Studios announced that an Alice in Wonderland video game , developed by French game studio Étranges Libellules , would be released in the same week as the film for the Wii , Nintendo DS and Microsoft Windows . The soundtrack was composed by video games music composer Richard Jacques . The Wii , DS and PC versions were released on March 2 , 2010 . Disney Interactive released in 2013 the game Alice in Wonderland : A New Champion for iOS . = = = Home media = = = Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released a 3 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray combo pack ( which includes the Blu @-@ ray , DVD and a digital copy ) , 1 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray and 1 @-@ disc DVD on June 1 , 2010 in the US and July 1 , 2010 in Australia . All versions are presented in 1080p with a 16 : 9 aspect ratio and Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 HD surround sound . The DVD release includes three short features about the making of the film , focusing on Burton 's vision for Wonderland and the characters of Alice and the Mad Hatter . The Blu @-@ ray version has nine additional featurettes centered on additional characters , special effects and other aspects of the film 's production . In some confusion , a small number of copies were put on shelves a week before schedule in smaller stores , but were quickly removed , although a handful of copies were confirmed purchased ahead of schedule . In its first week of release ( June 1 – 6 , 2010 ) , it sold 2 @,@ 095 @,@ 878 DVD units ( equivalent to $ 35 @,@ 441 @,@ 297 ) and topped the DVD sales chart for two continuous weeks . By May 22 , 2011 , it had sold 4 @,@ 313 @,@ 680 units ( $ 76 @,@ 413 @,@ 043 ) . It failed to crack the 2010 top ten DVDs list in terms of units sold , but reached 10th place on that chart in terms of sales revenue . = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = Alice in Wonderland earned $ 334 @,@ 191 @,@ 110 in North America , as of July 8 , 2010 , and $ 691 @,@ 276 @,@ 000 in other territories , as of July 10 , 2011 , for a worldwide total of $ 1 @,@ 025 @,@ 467 @,@ 110 . Worldwide , it is currently the twenty @-@ third highest @-@ grossing film and the second highest @-@ grossing 2010 film . It is the third highest @-@ grossing film starring Johnny Depp , the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Tim Burton and the second highest @-@ grossing children 's book adaptation ( worldwide , as well as in North America and outside North America separately ) . On its first weekend , the film made $ 220 @.@ 1 million worldwide , marking the second @-@ largest opening ever for a movie not released during the summer or the holiday period ( behind The Hunger Games ) , the fourth largest for a Disney @-@ distributed film and the fourth largest among 2010 films . It dominated for three consecutive weekends at the worldwide box office . On May 26 , 2010 , its 85th day of release , it became the sixth film ever to surpass the $ 1 @-@ billion @-@ mark and the second film that had been released by Walt Disney Studios that did so . = = North America = = Alice in Wonderland is the forty @-@ fourth highest @-@ grossing film but out of the top 100 when adjusted for inflation . It is also the second highest @-@ grossing 2010 film , behind Toy Story 3 , the second highest @-@ grossing film starring Johnny Depp and the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Tim Burton . The film opened on March 5 , 2010 , on approximately 7 @,@ 400 screens at 3 @,@ 728 theaters with $ 40 @,@ 804 @,@ 962 during its first day , $ 3 @.@ 9 million of which came from midnight showings , ranking number one and setting a new March opening @-@ day record . Alice earned $ 116 @.@ 1 million on its opening weekend , breaking the record for the largest opening weekend in March ( previously held by 300 ) , the record for the largest opening weekend during springtime ( previously held by Fast and Furious ) , the largest opening weekend for a non @-@ sequel ( previously held by Spider @-@ Man ) and the highest one for the non @-@ holiday , non @-@ summer period . However , all of these records were broken by The Hunger Games ( $ 152 @.@ 5 million ) in March 2012 . Alice made the seventeenth highest @-@ grossing opening weekend ever and the fifth largest among 3D films . Opening @-@ weekend grosses originating from 3D showings were $ 81 @.@ 3 million ( 70 % of total weekend gross ) . This broke the record for the largest opening @-@ weekend 3D grosses but it was topped by Marvel 's The Avengers ( $ 108 million ) . It had the largest weekend per theater average of 2010 ( $ 31 @,@ 143 per theater ) and the largest for a PG @-@ rated film . It broke the IMAX opening @-@ weekend record by earning $ 12 @.@ 2 million on 188 IMAX screens , with an average of $ 64 @,@ 197 per site . The record was first overtaken by Deathly Hallows – Part 2 ( $ 15 @.@ 2 million ) . Alice remained in first place for three consecutive weekends at the North American box office . Alice closed in theaters on July 8 , 2010 with $ 334 @.@ 2 million . = = = Outside North America = = = Outside North America , Alice is the thirteenth highest @-@ grossing film , the highest @-@ grossing 2010 film , the fourth highest @-@ grossing Disney film , the second highest @-@ grossing film starring Johnny Depp and the highest @-@ grossing film directed by Tim Burton . It began with an estimated $ 94 million , on top of the weekend box office , and remained at the summit for four consecutive weekends and five in total . Japan was the film 's highest @-@ grossing country after North America , with $ 133 @.@ 7 million , followed by the UK , Ireland and Malta ( $ 64 @.@ 4 million ) , and France and the Maghreb region ( $ 45 @.@ 9 million ) . = = = Critical reaction = = = Review aggregate Rotten Tomatoes reports that 52 % of critics have given the film a positive review based on 262 reviews ; the average score is 5 @.@ 7 / 10 . The consensus is : " Tim Burton 's Alice sacrifices the book 's minimal narrative coherence — and much of its heart — but it 's an undeniable visual treat " . Metacritic rated it 53 / 100 based on 38 reviews . Todd McCarthy of Variety praised it for its " moments of delight , humor and bedazzlement " , but went on to say , " But it also becomes more ordinary as it goes along , building to a generic battle climax similar to any number of others in CGI @-@ heavy movies of the past few years " . Michael Rechtshaffen of The Hollywood Reporter said " Burton has delivered a subversively witty , brilliantly cast , whimsically appointed dazzler that also manages to hit all the emotionally satisfying marks " , while as well praising its computer @-@ generated imagery ( CGI ) , saying " Ultimately , it 's the visual landscape that makes Alice 's newest adventure so wondrous , as technology has finally been able to catch up with Burton 's endlessly fertile imagination . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly said , " But Burton 's Disneyfied 3 @-@ D Alice in Wonderland , written by the girl @-@ power specialist Linda Woolverton , is a strange brew indeed : murky , diffuse , and meandering , set not in a Wonderland that pops with demented life but in a world called Underland that 's like a joyless , bombed @-@ out version of Wonderland . It looks like a CGI head trip gone post apocalyptic . In the film 's rather humdrum 3 @-@ D , the place doesn 't dazzle — it droops . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times awarded the film three out of four stars and wrote in his review that , " Alice plays better as an adult hallucination , which is how Burton rather brilliantly interprets it until a pointless third act flies off the rails . " The market research firm CinemaScore found that audiences gave the film an average rating of " A- " . Several reviews criticized the decision to turn Alice into a " colonialist entrepreneur " at the end of the film setting sail for China . Given Britain 's role in the First and Second Opium Wars during the Victorian era and the foreign domination of China through " unequal treaties " , China expert Kevin Slaten writes , " Not only is it troubling imagery , for a female role model in a Disney movie , but it 's also a celebration of the exploitation that China suffered for a century . " Game developer American McGee , best known for creating Alice and Alice : Madness Returns , was asked in a 2011 interview about Tim Burton 's interpretation of the title character since both versions share almost similar dark and twisted tone of Wonderland . McGee praised the film 's visuals and audio but criticized the lack of screen time Alice had compared to the other characters . He felt Alice did not have any purpose in the story and that she was merely used as a " tool . " = = = Accolades = = = = = Possible stage adaptation = = Walt Disney Theatrical is in early talks with Burton and screenwriter Linda Woolverton to develop the property as a Broadway musical . Woolverton authored the screenplay for Disney 's The Lion King and is also the Tony Award @-@ nominated book writer of Beauty and the Beast , Aida and Lestat . Burton will also render the overall designs for the stage musical . Woolverton will adapt her screenplay for the stage production . Neither a composer nor songwriting team has been chosen yet . Direction and choreography will be done by Rob Ashford . The musical is aiming to make its world @-@ premiere in London . = = Sequel = = On December 7 , 2012 , Variety announced the development of a sequel to Alice in Wonderland . Linda Woolverton returned to write a screenplay . On May 31 , 2013 , James Bobin began talks to direct the sequel under the working title Alice in Wonderland : Into the Looking Glass . Johnny Depp returned as The Hatter , Mia Wasikowska reprised the role of Alice , and Helena Bonham Carter returned as the Red Queen . Several other cast @-@ members from the 2010 film also reprised their roles in the sequel . On November 22 , 2013 , it was announced that the sequel will be released on May 27 , 2016 and that Bobin would direct the film . Rhys Ifans and Sacha Baron Cohen will be featured in the film . On January 21 , 2014 , the film was again retitled to Alice in Wonderland : Through the Looking Glass . The title was later reworked once again to Alice Through the Looking Glass . = I Got a Boy ( song ) = " I Got a Boy " is a song recorded in Korean language by South Korean girl group Girls ' Generation for their fourth Korean @-@ language studio album of the same name . It was released on January 1 , 2013 by S.M. Entertainment and KT Music . Produced by the group 's long @-@ time collaborator Yoo Young @-@ jin and Will Simms , the song is described as a hybrid of various genres including bubblegum pop , dance , and electropop . " I Got a Boy " was a success domestically , debuting atop the Gaon Digital Chart and has sold over 1 @.@ 3 million digital copies in South Korean in 2013 . Internationally , the song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised its eclectic sound and noted it as a " phenomenon " that could challenge popular Western singers like Katy Perry or One Direction . The single peaked at number 98 on the Japan Hot 100 and number 3 on the US World Digital Songs . A music video for the song was filmed in October 2012 . It features hip hop @-@ inspired dance moves choreographed by renowned American choreographers Nappytabs . It won the award for Video of the Year at the first YouTube Music Awards in 2013 , which generated much attention for beating other popular nominees like Justin Bieber and Psy despite the fact that the group was considered lesser @-@ known to the Western audience at the time . = = Background and composition = = “ I Got a Boy ” was written by European composers Will Simms , Sarah Lundbäck Bell , Anne Judith Wik with additional writing by Korean composer Yoo Young @-@ jin , who is also Girls ' Generation 's longtime collaborater . The song was recorded at S.M. Entertainment studio Boomingsystem and was produced by Will Simms and Yoo Young @-@ jin . " I Got a Boy " is a K @-@ pop song that is described as an eclectic mix of various genres . According to U.S. magazine Billboard , the track features elements of electropop and minimal drum and bass . On reviewing I Got a Boy album for the same publication , Jeff Benjamin noted dubstep elements on the song . Meanwhile , Rolling Stone 's Nick Catucci opined that " I Got a Boy " was made up of a range of genres from minimal R & B to " high @-@ BPM " dance . Writing for Time , Douglas Wolk described the track as a " monomaniacally charming " hybrid of bubblegum pop , dubstep , and hard rock . Meanwhile , AllMusic 's David Jefferies characterized " I Got a Boy " as a mix of dubstep , EDM , and pop @-@ rap . = = Promotion = = On January 1 , 2013 , Girls ' Generation performed " I Got a Boy " for the first time on their MBC comeback special Girls ’ Generation ’ s Romantic Fantasy . To further promote the song , the group appeared on several South Korean shows in 2013 including Mnet 's M ! Countdown , KBS ' Music Bank , MBC 's Music Core , and SBS 's Inkigayo . The music video for the song was directed by Hong Won @-@ ki for Zanybros , and was choreographed by Nappytabs , who had worked with the group 's label mates TVXQ and BoA . It aired on Mnet and was released on S.M. Entertainment 's YouTube channel on January 1 , 2013 . According to MTV 's Liza Darwin , the costumes featured in the music video included streetwear fashion such as Kenzo x Opening Ceremony , Adidas Collection by Jeremy Scott and printed leggings ; Stussy 's " Good Vibe " T @-@ shirt , Obey 's " OG Basic " crewneck , and Joyrich varsity jacket . In the sleepover scene , the girls are seen wearing clothes by UK independent label Lazy Oaf , such as a Batman shirt , a " fruity " T @-@ shirt , and a " pizza crewneck " . The fashion style in the visual was hailed as " a kaleidoscopic streetwear explosion " , and the music video itself " a fashion whirlwind ... jam @-@ packed with rad clothes " . Clyde Barretto from Prefix magazine opined that the video was " more colorful than a rainbow " and featured " alluring " and " bombastic " dance moves . The video became an instant success on YouTube , achieving over 20 million views within six days and becoming the fastest K @-@ pop video to achieve such a feat at its time of release . It has since attracted over 100 million views on YouTube , becoming the group 's second music video to do so following " Gee " . = = Reception = = = = = Domestic reception = = = " I Got a Boy " was a success in the group 's home country South Korea . It debuted atop the South Korean Gaon Singles Chart on the week commencing December 30 , 2013 , selling 319 @,@ 824 copies within its first week of release . The following week , the single dropped to number 4 , selling 242 @,@ 803 copies . The single sold over 1 @.@ 35 million copies in South Korea in 2013 , becoming the 13th best @-@ selling single of the year in the country . On the Korea K @-@ Pop Hot 100 , " I Got a Boy " debuted at number 36 on the week of January 12 , 2013 . The following week , the single charted at number one on the chart and remained its peak for a further week . The song was nominated for Song of the Year at the 2013 Mnet Asian Music Awards . It was a success on South Korea 's music programs , achieving the top spot on M Countdown ( three consecutive weeks ) , and Music Bank ( three consecutive weeks ) . = = = International reception = = = Internationally , " I Got a Boy " received generally positive reviews from music critics . The Los Angeles Times ' music critic Randall Roberts called it a " scattered anthem " and a " gleefully chaotic " song that could " indicate pop music 's future trajectory . " Billboard K @-@ Town columnist Jeff Benjamin praised the song as " one of the most @-@ forward thinking lead pop singles heard in any country " for its intense mix of different sounds and melodies , and commended Girls ’ Generation for " [ setting ] the bar truly high for pop in 2013 . " Staff writers of Entertainment Weekly picked " I Got a Boy " as Girls ' Generation " key track " and recommended the group as one of the fifteen " artists to watch " in 2013 . Rolling Stone 's contributor Nick Catucci described the song as a " musical gymnastics routine . " Upon reviewing I Got a Boy album for AllMusic , David Jefferies named " I Got a Boy " a highlight on the album . Time named " I Got a Boy " the 5th best song on their Top 10 Songs of the Year list , calling it a " pop phenomenon " that rivals the likes of One Direction and Katy Perry . In August 2014 , Pitchfork Media 's Jakob Dorof listed the song as part of his 20 Essential K @-@ Pop Songs Lists , writing that " I Got a Boy " helped " prove the adventurousness of K @-@ pop ’ s listenership . " " I Got a Boy " became the fourth best @-@ selling K @-@ pop single in the United States in 2013 , behind Psy 's " Gangnam Style " and " Gentleman " and Big Bang 's " Fantastic Baby " . The music video for " I Got a Boy " won the award for Video of the Year at the first YouTube Music Awards , held on November 3 , 2013 at Pier 36 in New York City . Following the event , Girls ' Generation received a considerable amount of negative feedback from Western audience as the group was not well known in the United States compared to other nominees for the same category including Psy , Justin Bieber and Lady Gaga . As a result of the controversial event , the music video gained 86 @,@ 000 views on the awards day , up from 25 @,@ 000 the day before . The following five days , it achieved an increase of 327 % in viewership . = = Charts = = = = = Year @-@ end charts = = = = = Credits = = Credits adapted from I Got a Boy album liner notes = Soviet cruiser Kalinin = Kalinin ( Russian : Калинин ) was a Project 26bis2 Kirov @-@ class cruiser of the Soviet Navy that was built during World War II . She was built in Siberia from components shipped from European Russia . She saw no action during the war and served into the Cold War . Her post @-@ war career was uneventful until she was disarmed and converted into a floating barracks in 1960 . She was sold for scrap in 1963 . = = Description = = Kalinin was 187 m ( 613 ft 6 in ) long at the waterline , and 191 @.@ 2 m ( 627 ft 4 in ) long overall . She had a beam of 17 @.@ 66 m ( 57 ft 11 in ) and had a draft between 5 @.@ 88 to 6 @.@ 3 m ( 19 ft 3 in to 20 ft 8 in ) . Kalinin displaced 8 @,@ 400 tonnes ( 8 @,@ 267 long tons ) at standard load and 10 @,@ 040 tonnes ( 9 @,@ 881 long tons ) at full load . Her geared steam turbines produced a total of 126 @,@ 900 shaft horsepower ( 94 @,@ 629 kW ) on trials , but she fell somewhat short of her designed speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) , only reaching 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) on trials , because she was over 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 181 long tons ) overweight . The ship normally carried 650 tonnes ( 640 long tons ) of fuel oil , 1 @,@ 660 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 634 long tons ) at full load and 1 @,@ 750 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 722 long tons ) at overload . This gave her an endurance of 5 @,@ 590 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 350 km ; 6 @,@ 430 mi ) at 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) with overload fuel . Kalinin carried nine 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 1 @-@ P guns in three electrically powered MK @-@ 3 @-@ 180 triple turrets . The turrets were very small ; they were designed to fit into the limited hull space available and were so cramped that their rate of fire was much lower than designed — only two rounds per minute instead of six . The guns were mounted in a single cradle to minimize space and were so close together that their shot dispersion was very high because the muzzle blast from adjacent barrels affected each gun . Unlike her half @-@ sisters built in European Russia , her secondary armament initially consisted of eight single 76 @.@ 2 mm ( 3 @.@ 00 in ) 55 @-@ caliber 34 @-@ K anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns mounted on each side of the rear funnel because the 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) B @-@ 34 guns originally intended to be used had run into production problems . The 34 @-@ K guns were a stop @-@ gap until the Army 85 mm ( 3 @.@ 3 in ) 52 @-@ K anti @-@ aircraft gun could be mated with the mount of the 34 @-@ K and put into production as the 90 @-@ K. They replaced the 34 @-@ K guns in May 1943 . Light AA guns initially consisted of six semi @-@ automatic 45 mm ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) 21 @-@ K AA guns with 600 rounds per gun , ten fully automatic 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K AA guns with a thousand rounds per gun , and six DK 12 @.@ 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) machine guns with 12 @,@ 500 rounds per gun , but were significantly increased during the war . By 1945 Kalinin had exchanged her 45 mm guns for nine additional 70 @-@ K AA guns . By 1957 her light anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of only nine powered 37 mm V @-@ 11 mounts . Six 533 @-@ millimeter ( 21 in ) 39 @-@ Yu torpedo tubes were fitted in two triple mountings , one on each side . She received the Lend @-@ Lease ASDIC @-@ 132 sonar system , which the Soviets called Drakon @-@ 132 , as well as the experimental Soviet Mars @-@ 72 system . As built Kalinin lacked any radars , but by 1944 she was equipped with British and American Lend @-@ Lease radars as well as Soviet @-@ designed systems . A British Type 291 and an American SG radar were used for air search . Two Soviet Yupiter @-@ 1 radars were used for main battery fire control while anti @-@ aircraft fire control was provided by two British Type 282 radars . = = Service = = Kalinin was one of the Project 26bis2 cruisers , the third pair of the Kirov @-@ class cruisers . She was larger and had a more powerful anti @-@ aircraft armament than her half @-@ sisters . She was assembled at the newly constructed Shipyard 199 , Komsomolsk @-@ on @-@ Amur , from components built at the Shipyard 198 ( Marti South ) in Nikolayev . She was laid down on 12 August 1938 , launched from drydock on 8 May 1942 and was completed on 31 December 1942 after being towed down the Amur River to Vladivostok . Her construction was prolonged by late deliveries from western factories . For example , her propellers had to be shipped from Leningrad after it had been surrounded by the Germans and her propeller shafts had to be removed from the Barrikada factory in Stalingrad in 1942 before it was destroyed by the Germans . She was commissioned into the Pacific Fleet in 1943 . She was ordered to prepare for transfer to the Soviet Northern Fleet via the Northern Sea Route on 24 April 1943 and extensive preparations were made for the voyage . They included the installation of special propellers with removable blades and the strengthening of her hull to withstand ice pressure . The transfer was canceled without explanation on 1 June 1943 , but the alterations remained in place until 1944 . She remained inactive during the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in 1945 . Kalinin hosted the State Commissariat for Defence ( Russian : Narodnyy Komissariaht Oborony — NKO ) during their visit to the Pacific Fleet in October 1954 and demonstrated her main guns while they were aboard . She spent the post @-@ war period on routine training missions until she was placed in reserve on 1 May 1956 . She was reactivated on 1 December 1957 before being disarmed and converted into floating barracks PKZ @-@ 21 on 6 February 1960 . Kalinin was finally sold for scrap on 12 April 1963 . = Battle of Longue @-@ Pointe = The Battle of Longue @-@ Pointe was an attempt by Ethan Allen and a small force of American and Quebec militia to capture Montreal from British forces on September 25 , 1775 , early in the American Revolutionary War . Allen , who had been instructed only to raise militia forces among the local inhabitants , had long had thoughts of taking the lightly defended city . When he reached the southern shore of the St. Lawrence River with about 110 men , he seized the opportunity to try . Major John Brown , who Allen claimed was supposed to provide additional forces , did not appear as they had planned , isolating Allen and his men on the north side of the river . British General Guy Carleton sent a force composed mostly of Quebec militia in response to news of Allen 's crossing of the St. Lawrence . This force cut off Allen 's escape route , and eventually surrounded and captured Allen and a number of his men . Carleton eventually abandoned Montreal , which fell without battle to Continental Army forces on November 13 . Allen was sent first to England and then New York City as a prisoner , and was eventually exchanged in 1778 . = = Background = = In the 18th century , the city of Montreal occupied only a small portion of the island of Montreal , centered on what is now called Old Montreal . The eastern tip of the island was called Longue @-@ Pointe , and there was at one time a fortification called Fort Longue Pointe on the island , across the river from Longueuil . This area , annexed to Montreal in 1910 , and now the Mercier @-@ Est neighborhood of Mercier @-@ Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve , a borough of the city , is near where the action described here took place . With the American Revolutionary War beginning , many thought it would be easy to spread the rebellion to the Province of Quebec , which had only been conquered by the British in 1759 , and whose population was seen as resentful of British rule . The American invasion of Quebec began with the arrival at Île aux Noix of the Continental Army under the command of General Philip Schuyler on September 4 , 1775 . Schuyler , who was ill at the time , eventually turned command of the army over the General Richard Montgomery , who ordered the army to besiege Fort Saint @-@ Jean , which they did on September 18 . At this fort , south of Montreal on the Richelieu River , General Guy Carleton had concentrated the few British regulars at his disposal following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May . = = = American situation = = = Before turning command over to Montgomery , Schuyler drafted a proclamation addressed to the people of Quebec , encouraging them to oppose the British and assist the American cause . On September 8 Ethan Allen and Major John Brown went into the countryside between Saint @-@ Jean and Montreal with a small detachment of Americans to circulate this proclamation , meeting with James Livingston , a Patriot sympathizer at Chambly as well as with the local Caughnawaga Mohawk . Livingston eventually raised about 300 local militia , which he encamped at Pointe @-@ Olivier , below Fort Chambly . Allen and Brown returned to Île aux Noix following this tour . Allen had long harboured the goal of taking Montreal . After he and Benedict Arnold captured Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 , he had taken a few hundred men north from Ticonderoga to Saint @-@ Jean with the idea of capturing the fort there by surprise , and then taking Montreal . This effort was frustrated by the timely arrival of British troops at Saint @-@ Jean ; the exploit made Allen a well @-@ known figure in Montreal and the Richelieu valley . = = = Montreal situation = = = Following the capture of Fort Ticonderoga in May 1775 , General Carleton , with only 800 regular troops available to defend the entire province , had concentrated those troops at Fort Saint @-@ Jean , placing about 500 troops , along with about 250 militia and natives , at the fort . The remaining forces were distributed among the frontier forts along the Great Lakes , with relatively small garrisons at Montreal , Trois @-@ Rivières , and Quebec City . During the summer of 1775 he attempted to raise substantial additional militia forces from the population . These attempts met with limited success , in part because of successful American propaganda and agitation by Patriot sympathizers , especially Thomas Walker , James Price , and James Livingston . By July , Carleton was apparently satisfied with the level of militia support near Montreal , but he did little to stop the activities of the agitators , who also sent reports detailing British military preparations to the Americans . = = Prelude = = When Montgomery finally began the siege of Fort Saint @-@ Jean , he ordered Allen and about 30 Americans to join with Livingston 's Canadians to secure the south bank of the St. Lawrence River against attempts by Carleton in Montreal to relieve the siege . He also ordered a larger force under Brown 's command to secure the area north of the fort , and to cover the road between Saint @-@ Jean and Montreal . Allen traveled along the southeastern banks of the Richelieu River , up to Sorel , where he crossed that river and continued up the southern shore of the St. Lawrence to Longueuil . According to Allen 's account , he met Brown there , and the two of them then hatched a plan to attack Montreal . Brown would cross the river with 200 men at La Prairie , upriver from Montreal , and Allen , with his Americans and 80 Canadians under the command of Loiseau and Duggan , two of Livingston 's captains , would cross the river at Longueuil , below the city , and the two forces would , after a prearranged signal , converge on the city itself . = = Action = = Allen and his men crossed the St. Lawrence on the night of the 24th , landing at Longue @-@ Pointe . The inhabitants he met there were friendly , but he posted guards on the road to Montreal to prevent news of their crossing from reaching the city . However , one man they detained managed to escape to the city and inform Carleton of Allen 's presence on the island . Brown did not cross the river . While no sources indicate why Brown failed to act , historian Justin Smith suggests that Allen in fact acted alone , and only later sought to blame Brown for the endeavour 's failure . This left Allen 's force alone and vulnerable , as it had taken three round trips with the available boats to ferry his men across the river . Realizing he would not be able ferry everyone back across the river before troops arrived from the city , Allen chose a wooded area near the Ruisseau @-@ des @-@ Sœurs ( labelled on the map above as Ruisseau de la Gde Prairie ) , between Longue @-@ Pointe and Montreal , to make a stand . He also sent word to Thomas Walker , a British merchant and known Patriot sympathizer with a house in nearby L 'Assomption , for assistance . Walker was able to muster some men , but Allen was captured before they could lend any assistance . When General Carleton received word that the notorious Ethan Allen was at the gates of the city , he raised the alarm . As the news spread , large numbers of people turned out . Captain John Campbell assembled a force of 34 regulars from the 26th Foot ( the entire garrison in Montreal ) , 120 Canadien and 80 English militia , 20 British Indian agents , and a few Indians , and led them out to face Allen 's force . As Campbell 's force approached , Allen instructed 10 Canadians to cover his left flank , while Duggan and another 50 Canadians were placed on the right flank . Both of these detachments fled instead of holding their positions , leaving Allen with about 50 men . Over the course of the next 90 minutes , fire was exchanged between the forces . Allen 's remaining forces were eventually broken , and , after trying to outrun the enemy , he surrendered . = = Aftermath = = The abortive attack on Montreal led to the full mobilization of local militia in Montreal , raising nearly 1 @,@ 000 men , but they soon began to drift away . Carleton refused to organize an expedition in relief of Fort Saint @-@ Jean , and the militia members from rural parishes eventually disbanded to attend to their harvests and the defense of their own homes . In November , the besieged fort 's commander capitulated , opening the Americans ' way to Montreal . Carleton fled the city , making his way to Quebec City , and Montgomery occupied Montreal without firing a shot on November 13 . Allen and the other captives were brought to the city . Allen , in his account of the encounter , claims that Colonel Richard Prescott was intent on killing the captured Canadiens , but Allen interceded on their behalf , saying " I am the sole cause of their taking up arms . " Allen was imprisoned in a ship 's hold , and eventually sent to England . He spent about a year , mostly on prison ships , before he was released on parole in British @-@ occupied New York City in November 1776 , as the British authorities feared hanging him would create a martyr . He was eventually exchanged in May 1778 for Archibald Campbell , a British officer , and resumed military and political service for the nascent Republic of Vermont in 1778 . Thomas Walker , the merchant to whom Allen had applied for assistance , was arrested in early October 1775 when twenty regulars and a dozen militia came from Montreal to his house in L 'Assomption . Walker 's house was destroyed , and he was imprisoned with the intent of sending him to England for trial . Walker was eventually freed when the Americans captured Montreal and most of the British fleet trying to escape the city . = = Legacy = = Ethan Allen wrote a memoir recounting his version of the circumstances of his capture , and the time of his imprisonment . This work , along with Allen 's other memoirs , were quite popular in the 19th century , going through numerous printings . A city park in the Montreal borough of Mercier @-@ Hochelaga @-@ Maisonneuve , where the action took place , is called Parc de la Capture @-@ d 'Ethan @-@ Allen . = Her Story ( video game ) = Her Story is an interactive movie video game written and directed by Sam Barlow . It was released on 24 June 2015 for Microsoft Windows , OS X and iOS . In the game , players search and sort through a database of video clips from fictional police interviews , and use the clips to solve the case of a missing man . The police interviews focus on the man 's wife , Hannah Smith , portrayed by British musician Viva Seifert . The game is Barlow 's first project since his departure from Climax Studios , after which he became independent . He wanted to develop a game that was dependent on the narrative , and avoided working on the game until he was settled on an idea that was possible to execute . Barlow eventually decided to create a police procedural game , and incorporate live action footage . He conducted research for the game by watching existing police interviews . Upon doing so , he discovered recurring themes in the suspects ' answers , and decided to incorporate ambiguity to the investigation in the game . At release , Her Story was acclaimed by many reviewers , with praise particularly directed at the narrative , character performance , and unconventional gameplay mechanics . The game has sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies , and was nominated for multiple year @-@ end accolades , including Game of the Year awards from several gaming publications . = = Gameplay = = Her Story is an interactive movie game , focusing on a series of seven fictional police interviews from 1994 . As the game begins , players are presented with an old desktop , which contains several files and programs . Among the programs are instructional text files , which explain the game 's mechanics . One of the programs automatically open on the desktop is the " L.O.G.I.C. Database " , which allows players to search and sort video clips within the database , of which there are 271 . The video clips are police interviews with a British woman : Hannah Smith . The interviews are unable to be watched in their entirety , forcing players to view short clips . In the interviews , Hannah answers unknown questions to an off @-@ screen detective , prompting players to decipher the context of the answers . Hannah 's answers are transcribed , and players find clips by searching in the database for words from the transcriptions , attempting to solve the case by piecing together information . As players select clips , they can enter user tags , which are then available as searchable terms . One of the files on the desktop is a database checker , which allows players to review the amount of clips that have been viewed ; as a clip is viewed , the red box in the database checker changes to green . The desktop also features the minigame Mirror Game , based on the strategy board game Reversi . = = Plot = = The interview tapes feature a woman who introduces herself as Hannah Smith ( Viva Seifert ) , whose husband , Simon , has gone missing , and is later found murdered . Hannah admits that the two had a difficult relationship , but has an alibi placing her in Glasgow at the time after an argument . As more pieces of the interviews are discovered , it is revealed that " Hannah " is actually two women : Hannah and Eve , identical twins separated at birth by the midwife . The twins were unaware of each other 's existence until years later , at which point they decided to act as a single person , keeping a common diary and a set of rules defining their actions as " Hannah " . Hannah eventually began dating Simon , whom she met at a glazier where they both work . Despite their rules , Hannah sleeps with Simon and becomes pregnant , which upsets Eve , who makes an effort to get pregnant but is unable to do so ; Hannah miscarries in the eighth month . Years later , Simon meets Eve in a bar . The two begin an affair , and Eve becomes pregnant ; by this time , Hannah is infertile . On their birthday , Simon gives a handmade mirror to Hannah , but they have an argument , and Hannah reveals that she has a sister who is pregnant ; Simon realises he is the father . The following day , Eve has an argument and flees to Glasgow . Hannah , wearing Eve 's wig , confronts Simon . Unaware that she is Hannah , Simon gifts her another mirror . Hannah becomes furious , shattering the mirror and accidentally lodging it in Simon 's throat , killing him . When Eve returns , the two agree to hide Simon 's body , and use Eve 's trip to Glasgow as an alibi . At the end of the interview , Eve notes that Hannah is " gone " , and asks to speak to a lawyer . As players uncover enough of the story , a chat window appears asking if they are finished . Once players answer affirmatively , it is revealed that they are Sarah , Eve 's daughter . The chat asks Sarah if she understands her mother 's actions , and asks to meet her outside . = = Development = = Her Story was developed by Sam Barlow , who previously worked on games such as Silent Hill : Origins ( 2007 ) and Silent Hill : Shattered Memories ( 2009 ) at Climax Studios . Barlow had conceived the idea of a police procedural game while working at Climax Studios , but decided to become independent to create the game , in order to develop a game that is " deep on story " . He became frustrated by publishers using kitchen sink realism as the reason behind rejecting game pitches , and found that becoming independent allowed him to create his own game of the sort . He also wished to become independent after playing games like Year Walk ( 2013 ) and 80 Days ( 2014 ) . Barlow avoided development until he had an idea that was possible to execute . " I could probably quite easily have gone and made an exploration horror game ... but I kind of knew that there would be big compromises there because of budget , " he said . Barlow spent his savings to work on the game , allowing him a year of development time . He followed through with the concept of Her Story , as it focused on an " intimate setting , dialogue and character interaction " , which he found was often dismissed in larger titles . Barlow felt particularly inspired to develop Her Story after seeing the continuous support of his 1999 game Aisle . When referring to how Her Story challenges typical game conventions , Barlow compares it to the Dogme 95 filmmaking movement , and Alfred Hitchcock 's 1948 film Rope . Her Story was approved through Steam Greenlight , and was crowdfunded by Indie Fund . It was released on 24 June 2015 for Microsoft Windows , OS X and iOS . Barlow wanted to launch the game on all platforms simultaneously , as he was unsure where the audience would be . " If I 'd just gone for just one I 'd have lost a lot of the potential audience , " he commented . Barlow found that playing Her Story on mobile devices is a " ' sofa ' experience " . He also noted that it felt " natural " for it to be released on mobile devices , as they are regularly used to watch videos and search the internet ; similar tasks are used as gameplay mechanics in Her Story . The iPhone 's smaller pixel size of 640 × 480 as opposed to 800 × 600 led to Barlow 's doubts of a release on the platform , but he was influenced to release it upon receiving positive feedback through testing . As development neared completion , the game underwent testing , which allowed Barlow to " balance some aspects " and " polish items together " . An Android version was released on June 29 , 2016 . Her Story runs on the Unity game engine . = = = Gameplay design = = = Barlow 's immediate idea was to create a game involving police interviews , but he " didn 't know exactly what that meant " . He then conceived the idea to involve real video footage , and the ability to access the footage through a database interface ; he described the interface as being " part Apple II , part Windows 3 @.@ 1 and part Windows 98 " . The interface design was inspired by Barlow 's appreciation of the police procedural genre , commenting that " the conceit of making the computer itself a prop in the game was so neat " . He also compared the searching mechanic to the Google search engine , and wanted to " run with the idea " that players are " essentially Googling " . The game 's concept was inspired by the TV series Homicide : Life on the Street ( 1993 – 1999 ) , which Barlow found depicted police interviews being a " gladiatorial arena for detectives " . Barlow intentionally made the game 's opening screen to be " slightly too long " , to immediately notify players of the slow pacing that would follow . Inspiration to work on Her Story stemmed from Barlow 's disappointment of other detectives games : he felt that L.A. Noire ( 2011 ) never allowed him to feel like " the awesome detective who was having to read things and follow up threads of investigation " , and he called the Ace Attorney series ( 2001 – present ) " rigidity " . When Barlow began development on Her Story , he added more typical game aspects , but the game mechanics became more minimalist as development progressed . The initial plan for the game was for players to work towards a definitive resolution , ultimately solving the crime . However , when Barlow tested the concept on pre @-@ existing interview transcripts of convicted murderer Christopher Porco , he began to discover themes surfacing within the interviews , particularly relating to the concept of money , which was ultimately a large factor in Porco 's trial . He took this concept of recurring themes and threads , and decided to " move beyond the clearly scripted stuff " when developing Her Story . Barlow felt that the story 's appeal was the ambiguity of the investigation , comparing Her Story to the podcast Serial ( 2014 – present ) , which he listened to late in development . He found that the attraction of Serial was the lack of a definitive solution , noting that " people lean towards certain interpretations ... what makes it interesting is the extent to which it lives on in your imagination " . = = = Story and characters = = = Barlow decided to feature live action footage in the game after becoming frustrated with his previous projects , particularly with the technical challenge of translating an actor 's performance into a game engine . Barlow set out to work with an actor on Her Story , having enjoyed the process while working at Climax Studio , albeit with a larger budget . He contacted Viva Seifert , whom he had intermittently worked with on Legacy of Kain : Dead Sun for a year , before its cancellation . He felt that Seifert is " very good at picking up a line and intuitively pulling a lot of the subtext into her performance " , which led him to believe that she was " perfect " for the role in Her Story . When Barlow asked Seifert to audition , he sent her a 300 @-@ page script , which he managed to reduce to 80 pages , by altering font size , as well as some dialogue ; she accepted the role . Seifert began to feel pressure midway through filming , when she realised that " the whole game is hinging " on her performance . She described the shoot as " intense " and " rather exhausting " , and felt as if she was " subtly being scrutinised " by Barlow , which helped her performance . Barlow also felt that the intensity helped Seifert 's performance , taking cues from director Alfred Hitchcock , who would upset his actors in order to achieve the greatest performance . Seifert felt that there were small nuances in her performance that may have " added some twists and turns " for players that Barlow had not anticipated . The game 's seven police interviews were filmed roughly in chronological order over five days , in a process that Barlow called " natural " . Barlow travelled to Seifert 's home county of Cornwall to film . He felt that finding the locations for the interrogation rooms was the simplest part of production , because " everywhere has crappy looking rooms " , with footage being recorded in a council building in Truro . When filming was complete , Barlow wanted to give the impression that the videos had been recorded in 1994 , but found digital filters were unable to capture this time frame appropriately . Instead , he recorded the footage through two VHS players to create imperfections in the video before digitising the video into the game . Barlow played the part of the detectives during filming , asking scripted questions to Seifert 's character , but is never featured in Her Story . When watching police interviews for research , Barlow found himself empathising with the interviewee , which inspired him to exclude the detective from the game . He stated that the interviews typically feature " double betrayal " , in which the detectives are " pretending to be the best friend " . Barlow felt that removing the detective from the game empowers Seifert 's character , allowing players to empathise . When conducting research for Her Story , Barlow looked at the case regarding the murder of Travis Alexander , which made him consider the manner that female murder suspects are treated in interrogations , stating that they " tend to be fetishised , more readily turned into archetypes " . This was further proved to Barlow when studying the interviews of Casey Anthony and Amanda Knox ; he found that media commentary often ignored the evidence of the investigation , instead focusing on the expressions of the suspects during the interviews . Barlow conducted further research by studying texts about psychology , and the use of language . After conceiving the game 's main mechanics , Barlow began developing the story , conducting research and " letting [ the story ] take on a life of its own " . To develop the story , Barlow placed the script into a spreadsheet , which became so large it often crashed his laptop upon opening it . He mapped out every character involved in the investigation , including their backstories and agendas . He spent about half of development creating detailed documents charting the story 's characters and events . He also determined the dates on which the police interviews would take place , and what the suspect was doing in the interim . Once he had determined the game 's concept more precisely , Barlow ensured the script contained " layers of intrigue " , in order to interest players to finish the game . Barlow often replaced words of the script with synonyms , to ensure that some clips were not associated with irrelevant words . When writing the script , Barlow generally avoided supernatural themes , but realised that it would involve a " slight dreamlike surreal edge " . Working on the script , he often found that he was " very much in the moment , writing from inside the characters ' heads " . He found it difficult to create a new idea for the story , as detective fiction has been explored many times before . = = = Audio = = = When searching for music to use in Her Story , Barlow looked for songs that sounded " slightly out @-@ of @-@ time " . He ultimately used eight tracks from musician Chris Zabriskie , and found that his music invoked nostalgia , and had a " modern edge " . He felt that the music " highlights the gap between the ' fake computer world ' " and the game . The " emotional intensity " of the clips also influences the music changes in Her Story . Barlow also intended to feature a song for Seifert to sing in some of the clips that fit within the game . He settled on the murder ballad " The Twa Sisters " , which he felt would trigger the mythical elements of the game . Seifert and Barlow both altered the ballad , to fit the game . Barlow intended for the sound design to be " all about authenticity " . He used an old keyboard to provide sound effects for the computer , using stereo panning for the keys to have the correct 3D position in playback . = = = Sequel = = = In January 2016 , Barlow confirmed that a sequel was in development , under the working title Her Story 2 . Barlow considered it a " spiritual successor " to Her Story , with a narrative unrelated to the first game , though it will continue to use full @-@ motion video as its central gameplay element . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reception = = = Her Story was well received by critics . Review aggregator Metacritic calculated an average score of 91 out of 100 based on 10 reviews for the iOS version , indicating " universal acclaim " , and 86 out of 100 based on 49 reviews for the Windows version , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . Metacritic ranks the game within the top 20 iOS and Windows games released in 2015 , and GameRankings ranks Her Story within its top 100 iOS games of all time . Praise was particularly directed at the game 's narrative , Seifert 's performance , and gameplay mechanics . IGN 's Brian Albert called Her Story " the most unique game I 've played in years " , and Steven Burns of VideoGamer.com named it " one of the year 's best and most interesting games " . Adam Smith of Rock , Paper , Shotgun remarked that it " might be the best FMV game ever made " ; Michael Thomsen of The Washington Post declared it " a beautiful amalgam of the cinema and video game formats " . Critics lauded the game 's narrative . Kimberley Wallace of Game Informer wrote that the " fragmented " delivery of the story " works to its benefit " . She appreciated the subtlety of the narrative , and the ambiguity surrounding the ending . Polygon 's Megan Farokhmanesh noted that Her Story " nails the dark , voyeuristic nature of true crime " . Chris Schilling of The Daily Telegraph was impressed by the coherence of the narrative , " even when presented out of order " . Eurogamer 's Simon Parkin found the effects of the narrative to be similar to well @-@ received HBO thrillers , particularly in terms of audience attention . Stephanie Bendixsen of Good Game was disappointed that large plot points were revealed early in the game , but attributed this to the uniqueness of each players ' experience . Seifert 's performance in the game received high praise from reviewers . GameSpot 's Justin Clark felt that the performance " anchored " the game . Katie Smith of Adventure Gamers wrote that Seifert is convincing in the role , particularly with small details such as body language , but was startled by the lack of emotion . Game Informer 's Wallace echoed similar remarks , noting that Seifert " nailed the role " . Rock , Paper , Shotgun 's Smith wrote that " the whole thing might collapse " without Seifert 's " convincing " performance . IGN 's Albert named the acting " believable " , stating that Seifert 's performance is " appropriately both grounded and absurd " . Joe Donnelly of Digital Spy wrote that Seifert 's performance has the potential to inspire similar games , and Andy Kelly of PC Gamer called the performance " understated , realistic , and complex " . Burns of VideoGamer.com felt generally impressed by Seifert 's performance , but noted some " occasional bad acting " . The unconventional gameplay mechanics also received positive remarks from critics . Destructoid 's Laura Kate Dale felt that the game 's pacing and structure assisted the narrative , and Wallace of Game Informer found that making a connection between key points in the narrative was entertaining . Burns of VideoGamer.com praised the game 's ability to make players realise their own biases , and challenge their " sense of self " . Albert of IGN felt that the searching tool was " gratifying " , and positively contributes to the pacing of the game , while The Washington Post 's Thomsen wrote that the database mechanic created " contemplative gaps between scenes " , allowing for " poignance and power " within the narrative . Bendixsen of Good Game described the desktop as " appropriately retro " , noting that she was " drawn in immediately " . The game sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies by 10 August 2015 ; about 60 @,@ 000 copies were sold on Windows , with the remaining 40 @,@ 000 sold on iOS . = = = Accolades = = = Her Story has received multiple nominations and awards from gaming publications . It won Game of the Year from Polygon , as well as Game of the Month from Rock , Paper , Shotgun and GameSpot . It received the Breakthrough Award at the 33rd Golden Joystick Awards , Debut Game and Game Innovation at the 12th British Academy Games Awards , the award for Most Original game from PC Gamer , and the Seumas McNally Grand Prize at the Independent Games Festival Awards . At The Game Awards 2015 , Her Story won Best Narrative , and Seifert won Best Performance for her role in the game . The game won Mobile Game of the Year at the SXSW Gaming Awards , the award for Mobile & Handheld at the British Academy Games Awards , awards for excellence in story and innovation at the International Mobile Gaming Awards , and Best Emotional Mobile & Handheld Game at the Emotional Games Awards , while The Guardian named it the best iOS game of 2015 @,@ = Acrobat ( song ) = " Acrobat " is a song by rock band U2 . It is the eleventh track on their 1991 album Achtung Baby . The critical failure of Rattle and Hum ( 1988 ) led the band to seek a harder sound in their music . The song developed from a riff created by guitarist The Edge , and is played in a 12 ⁄ 8 time signature . Thematically the song contains elements of hypocrisy , alienation , and moral confusion . " Acrobat " has never been performed live , although it was rehearsed prior to the third leg of the Zoo TV Tour . = = Inspiration , writing , and recording = = Lead singer Bono was influenced by the work of Delmore Schwartz when writing the lyrics of " Acrobat " , to whom the song is dedicated . The title of one of his short stories , In Dreams Begin Responsibilities , is quoted in the final verse . Bono noted the book " was on my mind when I was writing the words ... It 's hard to wrap the book up in a few lines , but Delmore Schwartz is kind of a formalist ... I 'm the opposite . I 'm in the mud as a writer , so I could do with a bit of [ Schwartz ] , and that 's why I enjoy him . " The song was developed from a riff guitarist The Edge developed during a soundcheck in Auckland , New Zealand , on the Lovetown Tour in 1989 . He noted that the beat is unusual for a U2 song , saying it " was the jumping off point , to try and do something with an unusual beat . " Producer Daniel Lanois became disoriented with the direction U2 took " Acrobat " during its recording . Bono noted " Daniel had such a hard time on that ... he was trying to get us to play to our strengths and I didn 't want to . I wanted to play to our weaknesses . I wanted to experiment . " Bono noted that the end product " doesn 't quite get off the ground the way I 'd hoped it would . " An early mix of the track was included on some versions of the 20th anniversary reissue of Achtung Baby . The mix , titled " ' Baby ' Acrobat " , contained lyrics that were later modified to a different perspective ( " You know I 'd hit out if I only knew who to hit " instead of the final " I know you 'd hit out if you only knew who to hit " ) or scrapped entirely ( " If the sky turns to purple and the moon turns to blood / Will you dig me out when I 'm face down in the mud " ) . The song has never been performed live , although it was rehearsed extensively in an acoustic form prior to the third leg of the Zoo TV Tour in 1992 . The end of the song segued into the beginning of " Zoo Station " , leading concert historian Pimm Jal de la Parra to speculate that it was being considered to open the set . In 2006 , The Edge said " it never became a live favourite ... I don 't think that is what people come to U2 for . " In 2012 , Willie Williams , U2 's lighting designer and concert director , described the rehearsed version as " extremely dramatic " , saying " in a stadium situation it could be argued that it might have the same dramatic impact as walking out on stage and telling the audience to fuck off . " = = Composition and theme = = " Acrobat " is played in a 12 ⁄ 8 time signature . The Edge noted " it 's a very Irish time signature , it 's used in a lot of traditional Irish music , but in rock and roll you don 't really hear it that much . " U2 's 1987 album The Joshua Tree and the supporting Joshua Tree Tour brought them critical acclaim and commercial success . However , their 1988 album and motion picture Rattle and Hum precipitated a critical backlash . Although the record sold 14 million copies and performed well on music charts , critics were dismissive of it and the film . Hot Press editor Niall Stokes commented " having started out as a band in the slipstream of punk , U2 remembered what they had felt about the supergroups of the late ' 70s . Were they now about to become what they had despised ? " In the time leading up to the start of the Achtung Baby sessions , U2 listened to records which had a " hard @-@ edged industrial kind of sound " , including works by KMFDM and Sonic Youth , as well as artists such as Roy Orbison and Jacques Brel . These influences led the band to seek the creation of songs which were harder musically than their previous work , while remaining personal lyrically . " Acrobat " is one of the most personal songs on Achtung Baby with Bono acknowledging personal weakness , contradictions , and inadequacy . The Edge noted that the song contained " a bit of venom " , likening it to " the bitter , John Lennon tradition of ' Working Class Hero ' , slightly snarling and cynical . " Bono stated " as we moved from the eighties to the nineties , I stopped throwing rocks at the obvious symbols of power and the abuse of it . I started throwing rocks at my own hypocrisy ... ' Acrobat ' [ goes ] ' Don 't believe what you hear , don 't believe what you see / If you just close your eyes / You can feel the enemy ... ' I can 't remember it , but the point is : you start to see the world in a different way , and you 're part of the problem , not just part of the solution " . In 2006 , he noted it was " a song about being a hypocrite , and I think we all can be and I certainly have been . And you know , you exact very high standards on people in the world but then you don 't live them personally " , noting the theme was most evident in the lyric " I must be an acrobat to talk like this and act like that " . Hot Press editor Niall Stokes felt The Edge 's guitar playing combined elements of " Where the Streets Have No Name " with " Bullet the Blue Sky " . Speaking of its theme he said " at its heart is an awareness of the ravages of time , and what it does to people and to relationships . But beyond that , there is the self @-@ awareness that , itself , comes only with experience ... Bono acknowledges his own weakness and inadequacy . He is more conscious now than ever before of the contradictions in his own position . " Andy Greene of Rolling Stone believed the " aggressive and venomous " song reflected Bono 's thoughts during the album sessions , saying " Nearly every lyric brims with rage ... It was a new decade and it was quite possible they were about to be dismissed as a relic of the past . " U2 biographer Bill Flanagan credits Bono 's habit of keeping his lyrics " in flux until the last minute " with providing a narrative coherence to the album . Flanagan interpreted Achtung Baby as using the moon as a metaphor for a dark woman seducing the singer away from his virtuous love , the sun ; he is tempted away from domestic life by an exciting nightlife and tests how far he can go before returning home . For Flanagan , the final three songs on Achtung Baby — " Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " , " Acrobat " , and	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
" Love Is Blindness " — are about how the couple deal with the suffering they have forced on each other . Hot Press writer Joe Jackson felt that the song was dominated by a theme of moral confusion . Author John Luerssen believed the song was about " the fight to persevere " . He added it " was long on piss and vinegar , as evidenced by its snarling , cynical approach . " Craig Delancey , an Assistant Professor of Philosophy at the State University of New York , cited the conclusion of " Acrobat " as an example of how rock music can be " profoundly successful at evoking the mixture of anger and contempt that can keep you going in the face of seemingly overwhelming opposition . " He noted that " the powerful closing sentiments of Achtung Baby 's ' Acrobat ' can help us feel motivated and empowered in the face of powers that want us to feel powerless . " Timothy Cleveland , the Head of the Philosophy Department at New Mexico State University , wrote that the opening lyric was an introspection of the self . He noted " here feeling is contrasted with perceptual states that make one aware of the world around them . The ' enemy ' that one can feel is oneself . ' To feel ' in this case refers to a kind of awareness one has of oneself independent of the sensations of the outside world ... Like perceptual feeling it is a kind of direct awareness and so a kind of knowledge by acquaintance . " Robyn Brothers felt the line " I 'd break bread and wine / If there was a church I could receive in " referenced feelings of spiritual alienation . She compared the song to " Zooropa " , stating that both reference a response to uncertainty and an unavoidable feeling of alienation . Writing for Uncut , Gavin Martin wondered if the lyric " What are going to do now it 's all been said ? / No new ideas in the house , and every book has been read " was an examination of the band 's longevity , stating " Bono sounded fragile , wounded , seeming even to ponder the band 's usefulness . " He noted that it contained references to both Holy Communion and oral sex , and compared it to " The Fly " , noting that both songs were " delivered in an amoral voice " and helped to deconstruct the prevailing image of the band . Artist Gavin Friday , a childhood friend of Bono , thought the chorus line " Don 't let the bastards grind you down " was a retaliation to the criticism of the press . Elizabeth Wurtzel of The New Yorker felt the line gave the song a political , martyr @-@ complex . She noted that it eventually " unfurls as a song about love facing the long run . It comes as a relief to discover , after all this time , that the guys in U2 are as hormonally charged and concerned with love as the rest of us . " = = Reception = = " Acrobat " received mixed reception from critics . The Kitchener Record felt that the song added to the band 's " tremendous presence " , saying that it showed the band 's commitment to each individual song and that it " indicates a very clear evolution in Bono 's lyricism and the band 's clear artistic focus . " Bono named it one of his favourite U2 songs , a sentiment that The Edge agreed with . Stokes said " For most writers , ' Acrobat ' would have been a slow song ... it was a brave attempt by a rock ' n ' roll band to find a distinctive , hard edge , for what was essentially another love song . " Martin rated the track 4 stars , describing it as " deliciously dark " . Steve Morse of the Boston Globe felt it was one of the album 's " exceptional love songs " . Greg Potter of The Vancouver Sun believed it " sums up Bono 's lyrical direction and mindset better than any song on the album ... alluding to the theory that true contentment must begin from within . " Jon Pareles of the New York Times had a more negative opinion of the song , calling the lyrics " pompous " . Bill Wyman of Entertainment Weekly was similarly dissenting , stating " ' Acrobat ' — formless and overwrought — is just a mess . " The theme of moral confusion cited by Jackson was later used in U2 's song " Zooropa " , from the 1993 album of the same name . The coda in " Zooropa " features the lyric " dream out loud " , which Bono included as a reference to " Acrobat " . The phrase " dream out loud " was first used by Bono during the Lovetown Tour in 1989 , and has appeared several times in U2 's work since then , including the song " Always " — a B @-@ side to the " Beautiful Day " single released in 2000 — and being spoken by Bono in the PopMart : Live from Mexico City concert release . During the fifth episode of the fifteenth series of Top Gear , presenter Jeremy Clarkson used " Acrobat " in his film commemorating the life of the late Formula One champion Ayrton Senna . The piece was set against a montage of Senna duelling with Nigel Mansell , including their close battle in the final laps of the 1992 Monaco Grand Prix . The song was covered by the Dutch band Kane on their 2000 live album With or Without You . A rendition by Glasvegas appears on the 2011 tribute album AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered . = = Covers = = Glasvegas reworked the song for the 2011 tribute album AHK @-@ toong BAY @-@ bi Covered . " Doing this , I was fantasising I was Bono , shades and all , " remarked singer James Allan . " I was singing the line , ' Don 't let the bastards drag you down , ' feeling determined rather than angry . Before we started , Rab ( Allan , guitarist ) said , ' What are you thinking about this U2 cover ? ' I said , ' Ach , it 'll be easy : just make it sound bigger than U2 . ' . = = Personnel = = = Watford Gap services = Watford Gap services are motorway services on the M1 motorway in Northamptonshire , England . They opened on 2 November 1959 , the same day as the M1 , making them the oldest motorway services in Britain . The facilities were originally managed by Blue Boar , a local company that had run a nearby petrol station before the M1 opened . Roadchef bought the services from Blue Boar in 1995 . The main building was designed by Harry Weedon , the architect for Odeon Cinemas , while the layout and general buildings were designed by coordinating architect Owen Williams . The main building was not ready on opening , so food was served from temporary sheds . The restaurant opened in September 1960 , but due to the site 's reputation as a truck stop , was redesigned in 1964 to accommodate a waitress service . The services became a meeting place for rock bands in the 1960s , including the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , Pink Floyd and Jimi Hendrix , as it provided a convenient place to sit down and eat a meal in the early hours of the morning . In the 1970s , the quality of the services declined and the food came in for harsh criticism from journalists and artists , such as Roy Harper . Since purchase in 1995 , Roadchef have refurbished the premises . They have promoted its history , including the association with a north / south divide , and its regular use by 1960s rock musicians . A number of events took place to celebrate the 50th anniversary in November 2009 , including a musical about the services . The services are named after the nearby Watford Gap , a crossing point of the limestone ridge just north of the village of Watford ; the name is unrelated to the town of Watford in Hertfordshire . Watford Gap is considered by some to be on a dividing line that separates the north and the south of England . = = Location = = The services are in Northamptonshire , England close to the village of Watford about 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the south east of Rugby and about 75 miles ( 121 km ) to the north west of London . They are situated between junctions 16 and 17 of the M1 with a single site for each direction on the motorway linked by a footbridge . The name comes from the nearby Watford Gap , the narrowest and lowest point in the limestone ridge that crosses England diagonally from the Cotswolds to Lincoln Edge . In Roman Britain , Iter II , later named Watling Street , crossed the gap ; Thomas Telford considered the route unsuitable for coach traffic due to the presence of quicksand . Today , this is reflected in the modern road network by the A5 suddenly turning left towards Kilsby near the services . Similarly , the Grand Union Canal avoided the gap by the Crick Tunnel . Consequently , the Roman Road at Watford Gap was largely untouched by previous engineering works when the M1 was constructed , and the engineers were able to build over it . In popular culture , the Watford Gap is often considered to be a dividing line that separates the north and the south of England . The phrase " north of the Watford gap " may be shortened to " north of Watford " , inviting confusion with the larger town of Watford further south in Hertfordshire . Roadchef have suggested that the services ' name should be included in the Oxford English Dictionary as an expression of the divide between the north and south . = = History = = The services , the first of its kind in the UK , opened at the same time as the new motorway on 2 November 1959 . They evolved from discussions during 1955 and 1956 by the Ministry of Transport over what facilities should be present on new motorways . Civil engineer Owen Williams visited the United States to see what existing rest areas were available , and based his designs on these . Watford Gap was chosen as one of four pilot sites , though by 1958 the Ministry had decided only this and Newport Pagnell services would open with the motorway . The land on which the services were built belonged to the Thorntons of Brock Hall , who had owned the manor since 1625 . The family had previously attempted to block the Grand Union Canal and the main London - Birmingham railway across the gap , without success . Brock Hall was eventually sold in 1969 and converted into flats . The structure was built on the site of derelict farm buildings . There were different designers for different parts of the service area , with Owen Williams as the coordinating architect . An ornate design for a footbridge by Clough Williams @-@ Ellis was rejected in favour of a more functional and conservative modernist design by Owen Williams . When the services opened the new buildings were incomplete so the food was served from temporary sheds . The original plan had been for trucks to use this service station and for cars to use Newport Pagnell . In practice , however , both service areas were unrestricted . The first owners of the services were Blue Boar Limited , a family company that owned a nearby petrol station on the A5 . Although the official name has always been Watford Gap , the services were colloquially called Blue Boar for some time after opening . The original buildings at Watford Gap were designed by Harry W Weedon and Partners , already well known for their work for Odeon Cinemas . The restaurant opened in September 1960 , but the Ministry were unhappy about the services ' reputation as a truck @-@ stop , dating back to Blue Boar 's popularity with HGV drivers . They consequently redesigned the restaurant in 1964 to accommodate a waitress service , which they hoped would " lose at least some of the stigma of having been started in 1959 as primarily a commercial driver 's facility " . Food was criticised for being expensive , though Tam Galbraith disputed this , noting he could buy steak and kidney pie with chips , buttered roll and a cup of tea at Watford Gap for 4s 2d ( £ 3 @.@ 81 today ) . By the 1970s , a combination of the recession , overpriced food , and fear of football hooligans had greatly reduced the services ' popularity . The quality of the food declined substantially and , because of its prominent location , the services became a byword for poor catering . Roy Harper wrote a song criticising the food at the Watford Gap on his 1977 album , Bullinamingvase , writing : " Watford Gap , Watford Gap / A plate of grease and a load of crap " . The owners of Watford Gap service station objected to criticism of their food , as did an EMI board member who was also a non @-@ executive director of Blue Boar . Harper defended his decision to write the song , claiming the food was " junk . Absolute junk " . In 1989 , one journalist claimed the services had some of the worst food found on the road network , adding " if I threw the toast out of the window , it would probably still be bouncing up the M1 . " Roadchef purchased the motorway businesses from Blue Boar in 1995 and have since improved facilities . In 2011 and 2012 it was rated as 3 stars by quality assessors at Visit England . Roadchef celebrated the services ' 50th anniversary on 2 November 2009 by selling cups of tea at 1959 prices . A road sign was erected pointing to " The North " and " The South " on the same day . As part of the anniversary celebrations , local film @-@ maker and composer Benjamin Till created a musical about Watford Gap . The show featured stories from 80 people who had worked or been associated with the services , including local residents who remembered the services opening . = = Notable visitors = = Though the Ministry of Transport was adamant that the services should not be destinations in their own right , they did acquire a reputation for being a popular place for motorists to visit . During the 1960s , the services were a regular stopping venue for bands such as Pink Floyd and the Rolling Stones . The Beatles stopped at Watford Gap while travelling from Liverpool to gigs in the south in the early stage of their career . Jimi Hendrix heard so much about " Blue Boar " , as the services were then popularly known , that he thought it was a London nightclub . Gerry Marsden , leader of the Pacemakers regularly visited the services when touring , saying it was good for " a quick stop and a quick nosh . " The Floyd 's Nick Mason recalls Hendrix stopping off at the services at 2am , while The Zombies ' Chris White thought the services were " the feeding trough of the beat boom " . Harper claimed " everybody would meet at Watford Gap because it was the one place after a show where you were guaranteed a bit of a sit @-@ down at 2am " . The services ' association with 1960s musicians is remembered in a set of photographs published in 2008 of the Stones stopping at Watford Gap on the way to ATV Studios , Birmingham in 1963 . In 2009 , Roadchef paid a former employee £ 1 @,@ 000 for autographs he had collected while working there , including those of Paul McCartney , Mick Jagger , Keith Richards , Brian Jones , Dusty Springfield and Cliff Richard . In July 2011 , music journalist Peter Paphides presented Late Nights at the Blue Boar , a BBC Radio 4 documentary about the connection between the services and Britain 's 1960s rock bands . = Walter Potter = Walter Potter ( 2 July 1835 – 21 May 1918 ) was an English taxidermist noted for his anthropomorphic dioramas featuring mounted animals mimicking human life , which he displayed at his museum in Bramber , Sussex , England . The exhibition was a well @-@ known and popular example of " Victorian whimsy " for many years , even after Potter 's death ; however enthusiasm for such entertainments waned in the twentieth century , and his collection was finally dispersed in 2003 . = = Early life and popularity = = Potter 's family ran The White Lion pub in Bramber , and as a teenager , his first attempt at taxidermy was to preserve the body of his own pet canary . At the age of 19 , inspired by his sister , Jane , who showed him an illustrated book of nursery rhymes , Potter produced what was to become the centrepiece of his museum , a diorama of " The Death and Burial of Cock Robin " , which included 98 species of British birds . This was so well @-@ received that in 1861 , he opened a separate display in the summer house of the pub . While satisfying the Victorian demand for traditional stuffed animals to earn a living , Potter continued creating his dioramas and expanded into new premises in 1866 , and again in 1880 . As his museum expanded , Potter married a local girl , Ann Stringer Muzzell , and they had three children , Walter , Annie and Minnie . Amongst his scenes were " a rats ' den being raided by the local police rats ... [ a ] village school ... featuring 48 little rabbits busy writing on tiny slates , while the Kittens ' Tea Party displayed feline etiquette and a game of croquet . A guinea pigs ' cricket match was in progress , and 20 kittens attended a wedding , wearing little morning suits or brocade dresses , with a feline vicar in white surplice . " Potter 's attention to detail in these scenes has been noted , to the extent that " The kittens even wear frilly knickers under their formal attire ! " Apart from the simulations of human situations , he had also added examples of bizarrely deformed animals such as two @-@ headed lambs and four @-@ legged chickens . Potter 's collection , billed as " Mr Potter 's Museum of Curiosities " was to build into a " world @-@ famous example of Victorian whimsy " , with special coach trips from Brighton being arranged ; and the village and Potter 's museum were so popular that an extension was built to the platform at Bramber railway station . = = Later life , death and decline of the museum = = Potter suffered a stroke in 1914 , from which he never fully recovered , and died at the age of 82 ; he was buried in Bramber churchyard . His museum , which by that time contained about 10 @,@ 000 specimens , was taken over by his daughter and grandson . The Victorian enthusiasm for stuffed animals had waned by the museum 's later days , and it deflected claims of animal cruelty by displaying notices stating that all the animals had died naturally and that " in any case , they were all over 100 years old " . The " Kittens ' Wedding " scene , the last created by Potter in 1890 , was shown at the Victoria and Albert Museum in 2001 as part of " The Victorian Vision " exhibition . = = Sale of the collection = = The museum closed in the 1970s , and , after having been moved to Brighton and then to Arundel , was sold in 1984 to the owners of Jamaica Inn , Bolventor , Cornwall , where it attracted more than 30 @,@ 000 visitors each year . The death of their taxidermist and economic considerations sapped the venture of its viability , and , when a buyer to maintain the collection intact did not come forward , it was auctioned by Bonhams in 2003 , realizing over £ 500 @,@ 000 . " The Kittens ' Wedding " was sold for £ 21 @,@ 150 , and " The Death and Burial of Cock Robin " was the highest @-@ selling item of the sale , raising £ 23 @,@ 500 . Present at the auction were Peter Blake , Harry Hill and David Bailey . A bid of £ 1m offered by Damien Hirst for the entire collection had apparently been rejected by the auctioneers , and the owners sued Bonhams , arguing that this offer should have been accepted . Shortly after the auction , Hirst wrote to The Guardian citing some of Potter 's limitations as a taxidermist , saying " You can see he knew very little about anatomy and musculature , because some of the taxidermy is terrible — there 's a kingfisher that looks nothing like a kingfisher " He also showed appreciation for the displays : " My own favourites are these tableaux : there 's a kittens ' wedding party , with all these kittens dressed up in costumes , even wearing jewellery . The kittens don 't look much like kittens , but that 's not the point . There 's a rats ' drinking party , too which puts a different construction on Wind in the Willows . And a group of hamsters playing cricket . " About the auction , Hirst said , " I 've offered £ 1m and to pay for the cost of the auctioneer 's catalogue – just for them to take it off the market and keep the collection intact – but apparently , the auction has to go ahead . It is a tragedy . " The White Lion pub , home of Potter 's collection , has now been renamed The Castle Hotel . = Welcome to Our Neighborhood = Welcome to Our Neighborhood is the first video album by American metal band Slipknot . It was released on November 9 , 1999 by Roadrunner Records and later reissued in DVD format on November 18 , 2003 . Characterized as a band 's home video , it features a mixture of live performances footage of the songs " Surfacing " , " Wait and Bleed " , and " Scissors " , interviews , and music video of " Spit It Out " . Additional concept imagery and interview footage is included on the film , while the DVD version features more bonus material . The video was well received by fans and entered number one on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart , and was certified platinum in February 2000 . = = Production and release = = Following the band 's highly successful breakthrough 1999 tour on Ozzfest , Slipknot decided to produce Welcome to Our Neighborhood with Doom Films Production . The video was directed by Thomas Mignone , and released on VHS through Roadrunner Records on November 9 , 1999 . It features the bands ' earliest videos : live performances of " Surfacing " and " Wait and Bleed " , and the " banned from MTV " video clip of " Spit It Out " — all tracks from the band 's self @-@ titled debut were released earlier that year . It also features additional concept imagery and interview footage with new lead singer Corey Taylor , guitarist Mick Thomson and percussionist Shawn Crahan , to a total of 20 minutes of video . The publisher , Roadrunner Records , promotes the video as " a study in the roots of Slipknot " as a response to fans wanting to see what made the band " tick " . In the video , band members themselves explain in the video that " [ Welcome to Our Neighborhood ] basically [ it ’ s ] nine people working out every poison that ever affected them in their life and putting it on tape . " A DVD version was released on November 18 , 2003 , and features bonus material of the band performing " Scissors " , behind @-@ the @-@ scenes material , and home footage filmed by the band in their hometown of Des Moines , Iowa . The seven minutes @-@ long concert footage of the track " Scissors " was filmed during the band 's appearance at Ozzfest 1999 , but has the studio version dubbed over . = = Reception = = The video was well received by fans and entered number one on the Billboard Top Music Videos chart , where it remained in the charts for 54 weeks . In the Billboard Top VHS Sales chart , the video peaked at number four , and remained in for 45 weeks . The video was certified gold by RIAA on December 21 , 1999 , and platinum on February 16 , 2000 . In Canada it sold over 50 @,@ 000 units , and thus it was certified gold on February 1 , 2000 . On allmovie.com , the video was described as " killer " and having a sound " as disturbing as the horrific masks they don to hide their true identities " . The video remains unrated in the US , while in it received a mature audience @-@ rating , and in the UK an over 15 one . = = Contents = = = = Personnel = = Aside from their real names , members of the band are referred to by numbers zero through eight . = = Chart positions = = = = Release history = = = Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn , BWV 23 = Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn ( You true God and Son of David ) , BWV 23 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Köthen between 1717 and 1723 for Quinquagesima Sunday and performed it as an audition piece for the position of Thomaskantor in Leipzig on 7 February 1723 . The Sunday was the last occasion for music at church before the quiet time of Lent . Bach had at least the first three movements ready for the audition in Leipzig and may have added the substantial last movement , derived from the lost Weimarer Passion , rather late . The cantata deals with healing the blind near Jericho . An anonymous author stayed close to the gospel , having the blind man call Jesus in the first movement , and begging Jesus not to pass in the second . In the last movement Bach presents an extended version of " Christe , du Lamm Gottes " , the German Agnus Dei of the Lutheran mass . He scored the cantata for three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble with oboes , strings and continuo . Bach possibly led the audition performance of the work in Leipzig in the Thomaskirche on 7 February 1723 , probably after the sermon . He performed the cantata again for the same occasion on 20 February 1724 , this time reinforcing the voices by a brass choir in the final movement . = = History and words = = Bach probably composed the cantata in Köthen between 1717 and 1723 for Quinquagesima Sunday , the last Sunday before Lent , also known as Estomihi . He revised it , transposing it from C minor to B minor and possibly adding the last movement , to be a test piece , together with Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe , BWV 22 , for his application for the position of Thomaskantor , director of church music in Leipzig . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , " praise of love " ( 1 Corinthians 13 : 1 – 13 ) , and from the Gospel of Luke , healing the blind near Jericho ( Luke 18 : 31 – 43 ) . The authorship of the poetry is unknown . The Sunday was meaningful because it was the last chance to perform cantata music before the quiet time of Lent began . The chorale theme assigned to Christe , du Lamm Gottes , first appeared in print in Johannes Bugenhagen 's Braunschweig church order , published in Wittenberg in 1525 . Luther assigned it then to the Kyrie eleison of his Deutsche Messe . Bach possibly led the audition performance of the work in Leipzig in the Thomaskirche on 7 February 1723 , probably after the sermon . It is unclear whether a " test " performance of the 1723 revised version took place in Köthen before Bach 's audition . Bach performed the cantata again for the same occasion on 20 February 1724 , reinforcing the voices by a brass choir in the final movement . When he performed the cantata again between 1728 and 1731 , he returned to the original Köthen key and performed without brass . = = Structure and scoring = = Bach structured the cantata in four movements : a duet for soprano ( S ) and alto ( A ) , a recitative for tenor ( T ) , a chorus , and a closing chorale . He scored it for the three vocal soloists , a four @-@ part choir and a Baroque instrumental ensemble . The duration is given as 20 minutes . In the following table of the movements , the scoring and keys follow the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe for the version performed in 1724 , which is in B minor , uses oboes d 'amore in the first movement and brass playing colla parte with the voices in the last movement , a choir of cornett ( Ct ) and three trombones ( Tb ) ( or trombe ( Tr ) ) . According to the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , the audition version of 1723 had no reinforcement by brass , matching the scoring of the other audition piece . The originally composed version , which was not performed until 1728 , was in C minor , had oboes in the opening movement and no brass . The time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , played throughout , is not shown . = = Music = = In this cantata , Bach combines elements of ritornello and concerto writing to expand his range of structural experimentation . Although the closing chorale was a later addition , its melody is incorporated earlier in the piece , unifying the form . The theme of the text is optimistic , but the music throughout has a sense of underlying sadness . Craig Smith describes the cantata as " one of the densest and greatest " . The Bach scholar Christoph Wolff notes that the opening duet and also the duet passages on the chorus are in the style of Bach 's secular cantatas written in Köthen . = = = 1 = = = The opening movement , " Du wahrer Gott und Davids Sohn " ( You true God and Son of David ) , is " a sinewy and somewhat enigmatic quintet " for soprano and alto voices ( assuming the role of the blind man addressing Jesus ) with low active oboes and continuo . The movement is in adapted ternary form with an opening and closing " Italianate " ritornello . The soprano line includes a " drooping " motive , hinting at later harmonic and emotional development . There is a " thorny , even awkward juxtaposition of triple and duple meters " throughout the duet . = = = 2 = = = The tenor recitative , " Ach ! gehe nicht vorüber " ( Ah ! do not pass by ) , is similar to that for bass in Jesus nahm zu sich die Zwölfe : they are both in major mode and accompanied by chordal strings underlying the vocal line . This movement adds an instrumental rendition of the melody of the closing chorale in oboe and violin . = = = 3 = = = The chorus , " Aller Augen warten , Herr " ( All eyes wait , Lord ) , is , according to the musicologist Julian Mincham , " dance @-@ like but not toe @-@ tapping , major but not ebulliently so , employing the full chorus but restrained throughout " . The form is a free rondo with interspersed extended episodes of tenor and bass duet . The opening includes the BACH motif . = = = 4 = = = The last movement , " Christe , du Lamm Gottes " ( Christ , Lamb of God ) , is probably older than the first three movements and may have originated in the lost Weimarer Passion from 1717 . The three calls of the Agnus Dei are all set differently , with an independent prelude and interludes by the oboes and strings , between the verses . The first verse is marked " adagio " . Instrumental motifs are derived from the hymn tune , which appears in the soprano and mostly chordal support by the lower voices . In the second verse , marked " andante " , the tune appears in a three @-@ part canon in soprano , oboes and first violin . The third verse returns to B minor . It has the tune in the soprano with polyphony in the lower voices and the instruments . The oboes play a syncopated independent role , while the strings support the voices , and the oboes in the interludes . The complex artful composition is a good preparation for Lent , the time of the Passion . Bach used it again to conclude the second version of his St John Passion in 1725 . = = Recordings = = The selection is taken from the listing on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . = History of the metric system = Concepts similar to those behind the metric system had been discussed in the 16th and 17th centuries . Simon Stevin had published his ideas for a decimal notation and John Wilkins had published a proposal for a decimal system of measurement based on natural units . The first practical realisation of the metric system came in 1799 , during the French Revolution , when the existing system of measure , which had fallen into disrepute , was temporarily replaced by a decimal system based on the kilogram and the metre . The work of reforming the old system of weights and measures had the support of whoever was in power , including Louis XVI . The metric system was to be , in the words of philosopher and mathematician Condorcet , " for all people for all time " . In the era of humanism , the basic units were taken from the natural world : the unit of length , the metre , was based on the dimensions of the Earth , and the unit of mass , the kilogram , was based on the mass of water having a volume of one litre or one thousandth of a cubic metre . Reference copies for both units were manufactured and placed in the custody of the French Academy of Sciences . By 1812 , due to the unpopularity of the new metric system , France had reverted to a measurement system using units similar to those of their old system . In 1837 the metric system was re @-@ adopted by France , and also during the first half of the 19th century was adopted by the scientific community . In the middle of the century , James Clerk Maxwell put forward the concept of a coherent system where a small number of units of measure were defined as base units , and all other units of measure , called derived units , were defined in terms of the base units . Maxwell proposed three base units : length , mass and time . This concept worked well with mechanics , but attempts to describe electromagnetic forces in terms of these units encountered difficulties . By the end of the 19th century , four principal variants of the metric system were in use for the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena : three based on the centimetre @-@ gram @-@ second system of units ( CGS system ) , and one on the metre @-@ kilogram @-@ second system of units ( MKS system ) . This impasse was resolved by Giovanni Giorgi , who in 1901 proved that a coherent system that incorporated electromagnetic units had to have an electromagnetic unit as a fourth base unit . Until 1875 , the French government owned the prototype metre and kilogram , but in that year the Convention of the metre was signed , and control of the standards relating to mass and length passed to a trio of inter @-@ governmental organisations , the senior of which was the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( in French the Conférence générale des poids et mesures or CGPM ) . During the first half of the 20th century , the CGPM cooperated with a number of other organisations , and by 1960 it had responsibility for defining temporal , electrical , thermal , molecular and luminar measurements , while other international organisations continued their roles in how these units of measurement were used . In 1960 , the CGPM launched the International System of Units ( in French the Système international d 'unités or SI ) which had six " base units " : the metre , kilogram , second , ampere , degree Kelvin ( subsequently renamed the " kelvin " ) and candela ; as well as 22 further units derived from the base units . The mole was added as a seventh base unit in 1971 . During this period , the metre was redefined in terms of the wavelength of the waves from a particular light source , and the second was defined in terms of the frequency of radiation from another light source . Since the end of the 20th century , an effort has been undertaken to redefine the ampere , kilogram , mole and kelvin in terms of the basic constants of physics . = = Development of underlying principles = = The first practical implementation of the metric system was the system implemented by French Revolutionaries towards the end of the 18th century . Its key features were that : It was decimal in nature . It derived its unit sizes from nature . Units that have different dimensions are related to each other in a rational manner . Prefixes are used to denote multiples and sub @-@ multiples of its units . These features had already been explored and expounded by various scholars and academics in the two centuries prior to the French metric system being implemented . Simon Stevin is credited with introducing the decimal system into general use in Europe . Twentieth @-@ century writers such Bigourdan ( France , 1901 ) and McGreevy ( United Kingdom , 1995 ) credit the French cleric Gabriel Mouton ( 1670 ) as the originator of the metric system . In 2007 a proposal for a coherent decimal system of measurement by the English cleric John Wilkins ( 1668 ) received publicity . Since then writers have also focused on Wilkins ' proposals : Tavernor ( 2007 ) gave both Wilkins and Mouton equal coverage while Quinn ( 2012 ) makes no mention of Mouton but states that " he [ Wilkins ] proposed essentially what became ... the French decimal metric system " . = = = Work of Simon Stevin = = = During the early medieval era , Roman numerals were used in Europe to represent numbers , but the Arabs represented numbers using the Hindu numeral system , a positional notation that used ten symbols . In about 1202 , Fibonacci published his book Liber Abaci ( Book of Calculation ) which introduced the concept of positional notation into Europe . These symbols evolved into the numerals " 0 " , " 1 " , " 2 " etc . At that time there was dispute regarding the difference between rational numbers and irrational numbers and there was no consistency in the way in which decimal fractions were represented . In 1586 , Simon Stevin published a small pamphlet called De Thiende ( " the tenth " ) which historians credit as being the basis of modern notation for decimal fractions . Stevin felt that this innovation was so significant that he declared the universal introduction of decimal coinage , measures , and weights to be merely a question of time . = = = Work of John Wilkins = = = In the mid seventeenth century John Wilkins , the first secretary of England 's Royal Society , was asked by the society to devise a " universal standard of measure " . In 1668 he attempted to codify all knowledge in his 621 @-@ page book An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language . Four pages of Part II in Chapter VII were devoted to physical measurement . Here Wilkins also proposed a decimal system of units of measure based on what he called a " universal measure " that was derived from nature for use between " learned men " of various nations . Wilkins considered the earth 's meridian , atmospheric pressure and , following a suggestion by Christopher Wren and demonstrations by Christiaan Huygens , the pendulum as the source for his universal measure . He discarded atmospheric pressure as a candidate – it was described by Torricelli in 1643 as being susceptible to variation ( the link between atmospheric pressure and weather was not understood at the time ) and he discarded a meridian as being too difficult to measure ; leaving the pendulum as his preferred choice . He proposed that the length of a " seconds pendulum " ( approximately 993 mm ) which he named the " standard " should be the basis of length . He proposed further that the " measure of capacity " ( base unit of volume ) should be defined as a cubic standard and that the " measure of weight " ( base unit of weight [ mass ] ) should be the weight of a cubic standard of rainwater . All multiples and sub @-@ multiples of each of these measures would be related to the base measure in a decimal manner . In short , Wilkins " proposed essentially what became ... the French decimal metric system " . = = = Work of Gabriel Mouton = = = In 1670 , Gabriel Mouton , a French abbot and astronomer , published the book Observationes diametrorum solis et lunae apparentium in which he proposed a decimal system of measurement of length for use by scientists in international communication , to be based on the dimensions of the Earth . The milliare would be defined as a minute of arc along a meridian and would be divided into 10 centuria , the centuria into 10 decuria and so on , successive units being the virga , virgula , decima , centesima , and the millesima . Mouton used Riccioli 's estimate that one degree of arc was 321 @,@ 185 Bolognese feet , and his own experiments showed that a pendulum of length one virgula would beat 3959 @.@ 2 times in half an hour . Current pendulum theory shows that such a pendulum would have had an equivalent length of 205 @.@ 6 mm – using today 's knowledge of the size of the earth , the virgula would have been approximately 185 @.@ 2 mm . He believed that with this information scientists in a foreign country would be able to construct a copy of the virgula for their own use . = = = 17th @-@ century developments = = = Communication of metrological information was one of the issues facing mid @-@ seventeenth century savants ; many discussed the possibility of scholarly communication using a so @-@ called " universal measure " that was not tied to a particular national system of measurement . Mouton 's ideas attracted interest at the time ; Picard in his work Mesure de la Terre ( 1671 ) and Huygens in his work Horologium Oscillatorium sive de motu pendulorum ( 1673 ) both proposing that a standard unit of length be tied to the beat frequency of a pendulum . The French Academy of Sciences ( Académie Royale des Sciences ) interest in the pendulum experiments were effectively announced by Picard in his work Mesure de la Terre . The length of a " second pendulum " was measured at a number of locations outside France , in 1671 at Uraniborg , an island 26 km north of Copenhagen and in 1672 Jean Richer measured one at Cayenne in French Guiana , 5 ° north of the equator . There was no discernible difference between the Uraniborg pendulum and the Paris one , but there was a 2 @.@ 81 mm difference between the lengths of the Cayenne pendulum and that from Paris . Cooperation with the English Royal Society showed no discernible difference between pendulums measured in London and Paris , but measurements taken at Gorée in Senegal , in West Africa were more in line with those taken at Cayenne . Meanwhile , in England , Locke , in his work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding ( 1689 ) , made references to the " philosopher 's foot " which he defined as being one third of a " second pendulum " at 45 ° latitude . In 1686 Englishman Newton , in his book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica , gave a theoretical explanation for the " bulging equator " which also explained the differences found in the lengths of the " second pendulums " , theories that were confirmed by the Académie 's expedition to Peru in 1735 . = = = 18th @-@ century international cooperation = = = In the late eighteenth century proposals , similar to those of the seventeenth century for a universal measure , were made for a common international system of measure in the spheres of commerce and technology ; when the French Revolutionaries implemented such a system , they drew on many of the seventeenth @-@ century proposals . In the early ninth century , when much of what later became France was part of the Holy Roman Empire , units of measure had been standardised by the Emperor Charlemagne . He had introduced standard units of measure for length and for mass throughout his empire . As the empire disintegrated into separate nations , including France , these standards diverged . It has been estimated that on the eve of the Revolution , a quarter of a million different units of measure were in use in France ; in many cases the quantity associated with each unit of measure differed from town to town , and even from trade to trade . Although certain standards , such as the pied du roi ( the King 's foot ) had a degree of pre @-@ eminence and were used by scientists , many traders chose to use their own measuring devices , giving scope for fraud and hindering commerce and industry . These variations were promoted by local vested interests , but hindered trade and taxation . In contrast , in England the Magna Carta ( 1215 ) had stipulated that " there shall be one unit of measure throughout the realm " . By the mid @-@ eighteenth century , it had become apparent that standardisation of weights and measures between nations who traded and exchanged scientific ideas with each other was necessary . Spain , for example , had aligned her units of measure with the royal units of France , and Peter the Great aligned the Russian units of measure with those of England . In 1783 the British inventor James Watt , who was having difficulties in communicating with German scientists , called for the creation of a global decimal measurement system , proposing a system which , like the seventeenth @-@ century proposal of Wilkins , used the density of water to link length and mass , and in 1788 the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier commissioned a set of nine brass cylinders — a [ French ] pound and decimal subdivisions thereof for his experimental work . In 1789 French finances were in a perilous state , several years of poor harvests had resulted in hunger among the peasants and reforms were thwarted by vested interests . On 5 May 1789 Louis XVI summoned the Estates @-@ General which has been in abeyance since 1614 , triggering a series of events that were to culminate in the French Revolution . On 20 June 1789 the newly formed Assemblée nationale ( National Assembly ) took an oath not to disband until a constitution had been drafted , resulting in the setting up , on 27 June 1789 , of the Assemblée nationale constituante ( Constituent Assembly ) . On the same day , the Académie des sciences ( Academy of Sciences ) set up a committee to investigate the reform of weights and measures which , due to their diverse nature , had become a vehicle for corruption . On 4 August 1789 , three weeks after the storming of the Bastille , the nobility surrendered their privileges , including the right to control local weights and measures . Talleyrand , Assemblée representative of the clergy , revolutionary leader and former Bishop of Autun , at the prompting of the mathematician and secretary of the Académie Condorcet , approached the British and the Americans in early 1790 with proposals of a joint effort to define a common standard of length based on the length of a pendulum . Great Britain , represented by John Riggs Miller and the United States represented by Thomas Jefferson agreed in principle to the proposal , but the choice of latitude for the pendulum proved to be a sticking point : Jefferson opting for 38 ° N , Talleyrand for 45 ° N and Riggs @-@ Miller for London 's latitude . On 8 May 1790 Talleyrand 's proposal in the Assemblée that the new measure be defined at 45 ° N " or whatever latitude might be preferred " won the support of all parties concerned . On 13 July 1790 , Jefferson presented a document Plan for Establishing Uniformity in the Coinage , Weights , and Measures of the United States to the U.S. Congress in which , like Wilkins , he advocated a decimal system in which units that used traditional names such as inches , feet , roods were related to each by the powers of ten . Again , like Wilkins , he proposed a system of weights based around the weight of a cubic unit of water , but unlike Wilkins , he proposed a " rod pendulum " rather than a " bob pendulum " . Riggs @-@ Miller promoted Talleyrand 's proposal in the British House of Commons . In response to Talleyrand 's proposal of 1790 , the Assemblée set up a new committee under the auspices of the Académie to investigate weights and measures . The members were five of the most able scientists of the day — Jean @-@ Charles de Borda , Joseph @-@ Louis Lagrange , Pierre @-@ Simon Laplace , Gaspard Monge and Condorcet . The committee , having decided that counting and weights and measures should use the same radix , debated the use of the duodecimal system as an alternative to the decimal system . Eventually the committee decided that the advantages of divisibility by three and four was outweighed by the complications of introducing a duodecimal system and on 27 October 1790 recommended to the Assemblée that currency , weights and measures should all be based on a decimal system . They also argued in favour of the decimalization of time and of angular measures . The committee examined three possible standards for length – the length of pendulum that beat with a frequency of once a second at 45 ° latitude , a quarter of the length of the equator and a quarter of the length of a meridian . The committee also proposed that the standard for weight should be the weight of distilled water held in cube with sides a decimal proportion of the standard for length . The committee 's final report to the Assemblée on 17 March 1791 recommended the meridional definition for the unit of length . Borda , inventor of the repeating circle was appointed chairman . The proposal was accepted by the Assemblée on 30 March 1791 . Jefferson 's report was considered but not adopted by the U.S. Congress , and Riggs @-@ Miller lost his British Parliamentary seat in the election of 1790 . When the French later overthrew their monarchy , Britain withdrew her support. and France decided to " go it alone " . = = = Roles of Wilkins and Mouton = = = In the past many writers such as Bigourdan ( France , 1903 ) and McGreevy ( United Kingdom , 1995 ) credited Mouton as the " founding father " of the metric system . In 2007 the late Australian metric campaigner Pat Naughtin investigated Wilkins ' proposal for a universal system of measurement in Wilkins ' essay , a work that pre @-@ dated Mouton 's proposal by two years . Wilkins ' proposal , unlike Mouton 's , discussed an integrated measurement system that encompassed length , volume and mass rather than just length . Wilkins ' Essay was widely circulated at the time , but the main interest in the Essay was his proposal for a philosophical language in general rather than just a universal standard for units of measure . Subsequent interest in Wilkins ' Essay was confined mainly to those interested in the field of onomasiology rather than metrology : for example , Roget in the introduction of his Thesaurus ( 1852 ) , noted Wilkins ' Essay as being one of the leading seventeenth @-@ century works in onomasiology . British commentators of the Essay devoted little space to Wilkins ' proposals of measurement ; Vernon et al . ( 1802 ) made a passing comment on the section on measurements in an eight @-@ page study of the Essay while Wright @-@ Henderson ( 1910 ) , in a four @-@ page study of the Essay , made no comments about measurements at all . Mouton 's proposals were taken seriously by , amongst others , the seventeenth @-@ century scientists Jean Picard and Christiaan Huygens , but a hundred years were to elapse before the French again took interest in the underlying theory of the development of systems of measure . Shortly after the introduction of the metric system by the French , a letter by an anonymous but regular contributor to The Philosophical Magazine ( 1805 ) noted the lack of acknowledgement by the French of Wilkins ' publication . The writer accused the editors of the Encyclopédie of giving unwarranted attention to the work of Mouton and Huygens at the expense of Edward Wright who , in 1599 had proposed using the earth 's meridian as a standard , and of Wilkins who had proposed a measurement system . He took British writers to task for not " defending their countrymen " . He went on to note that there was considerable communication between scientists on either side of the Channel , particularly with Huygens and Leibniz either visiting or being members of both the Royal Society and the Académie Royale des Sciences . = = Implementation in Revolutionary France ( 1792 – 1812 ) = = When the National Assembly accepted the committee 's report on 30 March 1791 , the Académie des sciences was instructed to implement the proposals . The Académie broke the tasks into five operations , allocating each part to a separate working group : Measuring the difference in latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona and triangulating between them ( Cassini , Méchain , and Legendre ) Measuring the baselines used for the survey ( Monge , Meusnier ) Verifying the length of the second pendulum at 45 ° latitude ( de Borda and de Coulomb ) . Verifying the weight in vacuo of a given volume of distilled water ( Antoine Lavoisier and René Just Haüy ) . Publishing conversion tables relating the new units of measure to the existing units of measure ( Tillet ) . On 19 June 1791 - the day before Louis XVI 's flight to Varennes - Cassini , Méchain , Legendre and Borda obtained a royal audience where the king agreed to fund both the measurement of the meridian and repeating the measurements made by Cassini 's father . The king 's authorization arrived on 24 June 1791 . During the political turmoil that followed the king 's flight to Varennes , the reform of weights and measures and in particular the measurement of the meridian continued albeit with interruptions , though the structure of the commission changed with the changing political climate . In May 1792 Cassini , loyal to Louis XVI but not to the Revolution was replaced by Delambre and on 11 July 1792 the Commission formally proposed the names " metre " , " litre " and multipliers " centi " , " kilo " etc. to the Assembly . Louis XVI was executed on 21 January 1793 and on 8 August of that year , on the eve of the Reign of Terror the new de facto government executive , the Committee of Public Safety suppressed all academies and with it the commission , requiring them to justify their existence . Antoine François , comte de Fourcroy , a member of the convention argued that the importance of reforming weights and measures was such that the work of the commission should be allowed to continue . On 11 September 1793 the commission was reconstituted as the commission temporaire . On 7 April 1795 the metric system was formally defined in French law and provisional standards based on Cassini 's survey of 1740 adopted . On 22 October 1795 the work of the commission ( since reconstituted as a three @-@ man agence temporaire under Legendre 's directorship ) was taken over by the newly formed National Institute of Arts and Science and under the new government , the Directory , was transferred to the " Office for Weights and Measures " under the Minister of the Interior . On 15 November 1798 Delambre and Méchain returned to Paris with their data , having completed the survey of the Dunkirk @-@ Barcelona meridian . The data was analysed and a prototype metre constructed from platinum with a length of 443 @.@ 296 lignes . At the same time a prototype kilogram was constructed – the mass of a cube of water at 4 ° C , each side of the cube being 0 @.@ 1 metres . The prototype metre was presented to the French legislative assemblies on 22 June 1799 . = = = Decimal time ( 1793 ) = = = The decree of 5 October 1793 introduced the Republican Calendar into France and with it decimalised time . The day was divided into 10 " decimal hours " , the " hour " into 100 " decimal minutes " and the " decimal minute " into 100 " decimal seconds " . The " decimal hour " corresponded to 2 hr 24 min , the " decimal minute " to 1 @.@ 44 min and the " decimal second " to 0 @.@ 864 s . The revolutionary week was 10 days , but there were still twelve months in a year , each month consisting of three " weeks " . Each year had five or six intercalary days to make up the total of 365 or 366 days . The implementation of decimal time proved an immense task and under the article 22 of the law of 18 Germinal , Year III ( 7 April 1795 ) , the use of decimal time was no longer mandatory , though the Republican Calendar was retained . On 1 January 1806 , France reverted to the traditional timekeeping . = = = Angular measure ( c . 1793 ) = = = Although there was no specific decree regarding angular measure which was also decimalised during the 1790s , it is reported to have been used in 1794 , but was not mentioned in the metric system decree of 1795 . In particular , the repeating circle , invented in about 1787 by Borda , himself a strong proponent of decimalization , was adapted to use decimal angles . A grade ( or gon ) was defined as being 1 ⁄ 100 of a quadrant , making 400 grades in a full circle . Fractions of the grade used the standard metric prefixes , thus one centigrade was 1 ⁄ 10000 of a quadrant , making one centigrade of longitude approximately one kilometre . The adoption of the grade by the cartographic community was sufficient to warrant a mention in the Lexicographia @-@ neologica Gallica in 1801 and its use continued on military maps through the nineteenth century into the twentieth century . It appears not to have been widely used outside cartography . The centigrade , as an angular measure , was adopted for general use in a number countries , so in 1948 the General Conference on Weights and Measures ( CGPM ) recommended that the degree centigrade , as used for the measurement of temperature , be renamed the degree Celsius . The SI Brochure ( 2006 ) notes that the gon is now a little @-@ used alternative to the degree . = = = Draft metric system ( 1795 ) = = = In France , the metric system of measure was first given a legal basis in 1795 by the French Revolutionary government . Article 5 of the law of 18 Germinal , Year III ( 7 April 1795 ) defined six new decimal units . The units and their preliminary values were : The metre , for length – defined as being one ten millionth of the distance between the North Pole and the Equator through Paris The are ( 100 m2 ) for area [ of land ] The stère ( 1 m3 ) for volume of firewood The litre ( 1 dm3 ) for volumes of liquid The gramme , for mass – defined as being the mass of one cubic centimetre of water The franc , for currency Decimal multiples of these units were defined by Greek prefixes : " myria- " ( 10 @,@ 000 ) , " kilo- " ( 1000 ) , " hecta- " ( 100 ) and " deka- " ( 10 ) and submultiples were defined by the Latin prefixes " deci- " ( 0 @.@ 1 ) , " centi- " ( 0 @.@ 01 ) and " milli- " ( 0 @.@ 001 ) . Using Cassini 's survey of 1744 , a provisional value of 443 @.@ 44 lignes was assigned to the metre which , in turn , defined the other units of measure . The final value of the metre was defined in 1799 when Delambre and Méchain presented the results of their survey between Dunkirk and Barcelona which fixed the length of the metre at 443 @.@ 296 lignes . The law 19 Frimaire An VIII ( 10 December 1799 ) defined the metre in terms of this value and the kilogramme as being 18827 @.@ 15 grains . These definitions enabled reference copies of the kilograms and metres to be constructed and these were used as the standards for the next 90 years . = = = Meridianal definition = = = The question of measurement reform in France was placed in the hands of the French Academy of Sciences who appointed a commission chaired by Jean @-@ Charles de Borda . Borda could be said to have been a fanatic for decimalization : he had designed the repeating circle , a surveying instrument which allowed a much @-@ improved precision in the measurement of angles between landmarks , but insisted that it be calibrated in " grades " ( 1 ⁄ 100 of a quarter @-@ circle ) rather than degrees , with 100 minutes to a grade and 100 seconds to a minute . The instrument was manufactured by Étienne Lenoir . For Borda , the seconds pendulum was a poor choice for a standard because the second ( as a unit of time ) was insufficiently decimal : he preferred the new system of 10 hours to the day , 100 minutes to the hour and 100 seconds to the minute . Instead , the commission – whose members included Lagrange , Laplace , Monge and Condorcet – decided that the new measure should be equal to one ten @-@ millionth of the distance from the North Pole to the Equator ( the quadrant of the Earth 's circumference ) , measured along the meridian passing through Paris . Apart from the obvious nationalistic considerations , the Paris meridian was also a sound choice for practical scientific reasons : a portion of the quadrant from Dunkerque to Barcelona ( about 1000 km , or one @-@ tenth of the total ) could be surveyed with start- and end @-@ points at sea level , and that portion was roughly in the middle of the quadrant , where the effects of the Earth 's oblateness were expected to be the largest . The task of surveying the meridian arc , which was authorized by Louis XVI and which was estimated to take two years , fell to Pierre Méchain and Jean @-@ Baptiste Delambre . The task eventually took more than six years ( 1792 – 1798 ) with delays caused not only by unforeseen technical difficulties but also by the convulsed period of the aftermath of the Revolution . In the meantime , the commission calculated a provisional value from older surveys of 443 @.@ 44 lignes . The project was split into two parts – the northern section of 742 @.@ 7 km from the Belfry , Dunkirk to Rodez Cathederal which was surveyed by Delambre and the southern section of 333 @.@ 0 km from Rodez to the Montjuïc Fortress , Barcelona which was surveyed by Méchain . Delambre used a baseline of about 10 km in length along a straight road , located close to Melun . In an operation taking six weeks , the baseline was accurately measured using four platinum rods , each of length two toise ( about 3 @.@ 9 m ) . Thereafter he used , where possible , the triangulation points used by Cassini in his 1744 survey of France . Méchain 's baseline , of a similar length , and also on a straight section of road was in the Perpignan area . Although Méchain 's sector was half the length of Delambre , it included the Pyrenees and hitherto unsurveyed parts of Spain . After the two surveyors met , each computed the other 's baseline in order to cross @-@ check their results and they then recomputed the kilometre . Their result came out at 0 @.@ 144 lignes shorter than the provisional value , a difference of about 0 @.@ 03 % . = = = Mètre des Archives = = = While Méchain and Delambre were completing their survey , the commission had ordered a series of platinum bars to be made based on the provisional metre . When the final result was known , the bar whose length was closest to the meridianal definition of the metre was selected and placed in the French National Archives on 22 June 1799 ( 4 messidor An VII in the Republican calendar ) as a permanent record of the result : this standard metre bar became known as the mètre des Archives . The metric system , that is the system of units based on the metre , was officially adopted in France on 10 December 1799 ( 19 frimaire An VIII ) and became the sole legal system of weights and measures there from 1801 . It soon became apparent that Méchain and Delambre 's result ( 443 @.@ 296 lignes ) was slightly too short for the meridianal definition of the metre . Arago and Biot extended the survey to the island of Formentera in the western Mediterranean Sea in 1806 – 1809 , and found that one ten @-@ millionth of the Earth 's quadrant should be 443 @.@ 31 lignes : later work increased the value to 443 @.@ 39 lignes . The modern value , for the WGS 84 reference spheroid , is 1 @.@ 000 196 57 m or 443 @.@ 383 08 lignes . Nevertheless , the mètre des Archives remained the legal and practical standard for the metre in France , even once it was known that it did not exactly correspond to the meridianal definition . When , in 1867 , it was proposed that a new international standard metre be created , the length was taken to be that of the mètre des Archives " in the state in which it shall be found " . = = = Kilogramme des Archives = = = On 7 April 1795 , the gramme , upon which the kilogram is based , was decreed to be equal to " the absolute weight of a volume of pure water equal to a cube of one hundredth of a metre , and at the temperature of the melting ice " . Although this was the definition of the gram , the regulation of trade and commerce required a " practical realisation " : a single @-@ piece , metallic reference standard that was one thousand times more massive that would be known as grave . This mass unit , whose name is derived from the word " gravity " , defined by Lavoisier and René Just Haüy had been in use since 1793 . Notwithstanding that the definition of the base unit of mass was the gramme ( alternatively " gravet " ) , this new , practical realisation would ultimately become the base unit of mass . A provisional kilogram standard was made and work was commissioned to determine the precise mass of a cubic decimetre ( later to be defined as equal to one litre ) of water . Although the decreed definition of the kilogramme specified water at 0 ° C — a highly stable temperature point — the scientists tasked with producing the new practical realisation chose to redefine the standard and perform their measurements at the most stable density point : the temperature at which water reaches maximum density , which was measured at the time as 4 ° C. They concluded that one cubic decimetre of water at its maximum density was equal to 99 @.@ 92072 % of the mass of the provisional kilogram made earlier that year . Four years later in 1799 , an all @-@ platinum standard , the " Kilogramme des Archives " , was fabricated with the objective that it would equal , as close as was scientifically feasible for the day , to the mass of cubic decimetre of water at 4 ° C. The kilogramme was defined to be equal to the mass of the Kilogramme des Archives and this standard stood for the next ninety years . Note that the new metric system did not come into effect in France until after the French Revolution , when the new revolutionary government captured the idea of the metric system . The decision of the Republican government to name this new unit the " kilogramme " had been mainly politically motivated , because the name " grave " was at that time considered politically incorrect as it resembled the aristocratic German title of the Graf , an alternative name for the title of Count that , like other nobility titles , was inconsistent with the new French Republic notion of equality ( égalité ) . Accordingly , the name of the original , defined unit of mass , " gramme " , which was too small to serve as a practical realisation , was adopted and the new prefix " kilo " was appended to it to form the name " kilogramme " . Consequently , the kilogram is the only SI base unit that has an SI prefix as part of its unit name . = = Adoption of the metric weights and measures = = During the nineteenth century the metric system of weights and measures proved a convenient political compromise during the unification processes in the Netherlands , Germany and Italy . In 1814 , Portugal became the first country not part of the French Empire to officially adopt a metric system . Spain found it expedient in 1858 to follow the French example and within a decade Latin America had also adopted the metric system . There was considerable resistance to metrication in the United Kingdom and in the United States , though once the United Kingdom announced its metrication program in 1965 , the Commonwealth followed suit . = = = France = = = The introduction of the metric system into France in 1795 was done on a district by district basis with Paris being the first district , but by modern standards the transition was poorly managed . Although thousands of pamphlets were distributed , the Agency of Weights and Measures who oversaw the introduction underestimated the work involved . Paris alone needed 500 @,@ 000 metre sticks , yet one month after the metre became the sole legal unit of measure , they only had 25 @,@ 000 in store . This , combined with other excesses of the Revolution and the high level of illiteracy made the metric system unpopular . Napoleon himself ridiculed the metric system , but as an able administrator , recognised the value of a sound basis for a system of measurement and under the décret impérial du 12 février 1812 ( imperial decree of 12 February 1812 ) , a new system of measure – the mesures usuelles or " customary measures " was introduced for use in small retail businesses – all government , legal and similar works still had to use the metric system and the metric system continued to be taught at all levels of education . The names of many units used during the ancien regime were reintroduced , but were redefined in terms of metric units . Thus the toise was defined as being two metres with six pied making up one toise , twelve pouce making up one pied and twelve lignes making up one pouce . Likewise the livre was defined as being 500 g , each livre comprising sixteen once and each once eight gros and the aune as 120 centimetres . Louis Philippe I by means of the La loi du 4 juillet 1837 ( the law of 4 July 1837 ) effectively revoked the use of mesures uselles by reaffirming the laws of measurement of 1795 and 1799 to be used from 1 May 1840 . However , many units of measure , such as the livre ( for half a kilogram ) , remained in colloquial use for many years . = = = The Portuguese metric system = = = In August 1814 , Portugal officially adopted the metric system but with the names of the units substituted by Portuguese traditional ones . In this system the basic units were the mão @-@ travessa ( hand ) = 1 decimetre ( 10 mão @-@ travessas = 1 vara ( yard ) = 1 metre ) , the canada = 1 liter and the libra ( pound ) = 1 kilogram . = = = The Dutch metric system = = = The Netherlands first used the metric system and then , in 1812 , the mesures usuelles when it was part of the First French Empire . Under the Royal decree of 27 March 1817 ( Koningklijk besluit van den 27 Maart 1817 ) , the newly formed Kingdom of the Netherlands abandoned the mesures usuelles in favour of the " Dutch " metric system ( Nederlands metrisch stelsel ) in which metric units were given the names of units of measure that were then in use . Examples include the ons ( ounce ) which was defined as being 100 g . = = = The German Zollverein = = = At the outbreak of the French Revolution , much of modern @-@ day Germany and Austria were part of the Holy Roman Empire which has become a loose federation of kingdoms , principalities , free cities , bishoprics and other fiefdoms , each with its own system of measurement , though in most cases such system were loosely derived from the Carolingian system instituted by Charlemagne a thousand years earlier . During the Napoleonic era , there was a move among some of the German states to reform their systems of measurement using the prototype metre and kilogram as the basis of the new units . Baden , in 1810 , for example , redefined the Ruthe ( rods ) as being 3 @.@ 0 m exactly and defined the subunits of the Ruthe as 1 Ruthe = 10 Fuß ( feet ) = 100 Zoll ( inches ) = 1 @,@ 000 Linie ( lines ) = 10 @,@ 000 Punkt ( points ) while the Pfund was defined as being 500 g , divided into 30 Loth , each of 16 @.@ 67 g . Bavaria , in its reform of 1811 , trimmed the Bavarian Pfund from 561 @.@ 288 g to 560 g exactly , consisting of 32 Loth , each of 17 @.@ 5 g while the Prussian Pfund remained at 467 @.@ 711 g . After the Congress of Vienna there was a degree of commercial cooperation between the various German states resulting in the setting of the German Customs Union ( Zollverein ) . There were however still many barriers to trade until Bavaria took the lead in establishing the General German Commercial Code in 1856 . As part of the code the Zollverein introduce the Zollpfund ( Customs Pound ) which was defined to be exactly 500 g and which could be split into 30 ' lot ' . This unit was used for inter @-@ state movement of goods , but was not applied in all states for internal use . Although the Zollverein collapsed after the Austro @-@ Prussian War of 1866 , the metric system became the official system of measurement in the newly formed German Empire in 1872 and of Austria in 1875 . The Zollpfund ceased to be legal in Germany after 1877 . = = = Italy = = = The Cisalpine Republic , a North Italian republic set up by Napoleon in 1797 with its capital at Milan first adopted a modified form of the metric system based in the braccio cisalpino ( Cisalpine cubit ) which was defined to be half a metre . In 1802 the Cisalpine Republic was renamed the Italian Republic , with Napoleon as its head of state . The following year the Cisalpine system of measure was replaced by the metric system . In 1806 , the Italian Republic was replaced by the Kingdom of Italy with Napoleon as its emperor . By 1812 , all of Italy from Rome northwards was under the control of Napoleon , either as French Departments or as part of the Kingdom of Italy ensuring the metric system was in use throughout this region . After the Congress of Vienna , the various Italian states reverted to their original system of measurements , but in 1845 the Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia passed legislation to introduce the metric system within five years . By 1860 , most of Italy had been unified under the King of Sardinia Victor Emmanuel II and under Law 132 of 28 July 28 , 1861 the metric system became the official system of measurement throughout the kingdom . Numerous Tavole di ragguaglio ( Conversion Tables ) were displayed in shops until 31 December 1870 . = = = Spain = = = Until the ascent of the Bourbon monarchy in Spain in 1700 , each of the regions of Spain retained its own system of measurement . The new Bourbon monarchy tried to centralise control and with it the system of measurement . There were debates regarding the desirability of retaining the Castilian units of measure or , in the interests of harmonisation , adopting the French system . Although Spain assisted Méchain in his meridian survey , the Government feared the French revolutionary movement and reinforced the Castilian units of measure to counter such movements . By 1849 however , it proved difficult to maintain the old system and in that year the metric system became the legal system of measure in Spain . = = = United Kingdom and the Commonwealth = = = In 1824 the Weights and Measures Act imposed one standard ' imperial ' system of weights and measures on the British Empire . The effect of this act was to standardise existing British units of measure rather than to align them with the metric system . During the next eighty years a number of Parliamentary select committees recommended the adoption of the metric system each with a greater degree of urgency , but Parliament prevaricated . A Select Committee report of 1862 recommended compulsory metrication , but with an " Intermediate permissive phase " , Parliament responded in 1864 by legalising metric units only for ' contracts and dealings ' . Initially the United Kingdom declined to sign the Treaty of the Metre , but did so in 1883 . Meanwhile , British scientists and technologists were at the forefront of the metrication movement – it was the British Association for the Advancement of Science that promoted the CGS system of units as a coherent system and it was the British firm Johnson Matthey that was accepted by the CGPM in 1889 to cast the international prototype metre and kilogram . In 1895 another Parliamentary select committee recommended the compulsory adoption of the metric system after a two @-@ year permissive period , the 1897 Weights and Measures Act legalised the metric units for trade , but did not make them mandatory . A bill to make the metric system compulsory in order to enable British industrial base to fight off the challenge of the nascent German base passed through the House of Lords in 1904 , but did not pass in the House of Commons before the next general election was called . Following opposition by the Lancashire cotton industry , a similar bill was defeated in 1907 in the House of Commons by 150 votes to 118 . In 1965 Britain commenced an official program of metrication that , as of 2012 , had not been completed . The British metrication program signalled the start of metrication programs elsewhere in the Commonwealth , though India had started its program before in 1959 , six years before the United Kingdom . South Africa ( then not a member of the Commonwealth ) set up a Metrication Advisory Board in 1967 , New Zealand set up its Metric Advisory Board in 1969 , Australia passed the Metric Conversion Act in 1970 and Canada appointed a Metrication Commission in 1971 . Metrication in Australia , New Zealand and South Africa was essentially complete within a decade while metrication in India and Canada is not complete . In addition the lakh and crore are still in widespread use in India . Most other Commonwealth countries adopted the metric system during the 1970s . = = = United States = = = The United States government acquired copies of the French metre and kilogram for reference purposes in 1805 and 1820 respectively . In 1866 the United States Congress passed a bill making it lawful to use the metric system in the United States . The bill , which was permissive rather than mandatory in nature , defined the metric system in terms of customary units rather than with reference to the international prototype metre and kilogram . By 1893 , the reference standards for customary units had become unreliable . Moreover , the United States , being a signatory of the Metre Convention was in possession of national prototype metres and kilograms that were calibrated against those in use elsewhere in the world . This led to the Mendenhall Order which redefined the customary units by referring to the national metric prototypes , but used the conversion factors of the 1866 act . In 1896 a bill that would make the metric system mandatory in the United States was presented to Congress . Of the 29 people who gave evidence before the congressional committee who were considering the bill , 23 were in favour of the bill , but six were against . Four of the six dissenters represented manufacturing interests and the other two the United States Revenue service . The grounds cited were the cost and inconvenience of the change @-@ over . The bill was not enacted . Subsequent bills suffered a similar fate . = = Development of a coherent metric system = = From its inception , the metric system was designed in such a manner that the various units of measure were linked to each other . At the start of the nineteenth century , length , mass , time and temperature were the only base unit units that were defined in terms of formal standards . The beginnings of a coherent system were in place with the units of area and volume linked to the unit of length , though at the time science did not understand the concepts of base units and derived units , nor how many physical quantities were inter @-@ related . This concept , which enabled thermal , mechanical , electrical and relativistic systems to be interlinked was first formally proposed in 1861 using length , mass and time as base units . The absence of an electrical base unit resulted in a number of different electrical systems being developed in the latter half of the nineteenth century . The need for such a unit to resolve these problems was identified by Giorgi in 1901 . The SI standard which was published in 1960 defined a single coherent system based on six units . = = = Time , work and energy = = = In 1832 Carl @-@ Friedrich Gauss made the first absolute measurements of the Earth 's magnetic field using a decimal system based on the use of the millimetre , milligram , and second as the base unit of time . In his paper , he also presented his results using the metre and gram instead of the millimetre and milligram , also using the Parisian line and the Berlin pound instead of the millimetre and milligram . In a paper published in 1843 , James Prescott Joule first demonstrated a means of measuring the energy transferred between different systems when work is done thereby relating Nicolas Clément 's calorie , defined in 1824 , to mechanical work . Energy became the unifying concept of nineteenth century science , initially by bringing thermodynamics and mechanics together and later adding electrical technology and relativistic physics leading to Einstein 's equation <formula> . The CGS unit of energy was the " erg " , while the SI unit of energy was named the " joule " in honour of Joule . In 1861 a committee of the British Association for Advancement of Science ( BAAS ) including William Thomson ( later Lord Kelvin ) , James Clerk Maxwell and Joule among its members was tasked with investigating the " Standards of Electrical Resistance " . In their first report ( 1862 ) they laid the ground rules for their work – the metric system was to be used , measures of electrical energy must have the same units as measures of mechanical energy and two sets of electromagnetic units would have to be derived – an electromagnetic system and an electrostatic system . In the second report ( 1863 ) they introduced the concept of a coherent system of units whereby units of length , mass and time were identified as " fundamental units " ( now known as base units ) . All other units of measure could be derived ( hence derived units ) from these base units . The metre , gram and second were chosen as base units . In 1873 , another committee of the BAAS that also counted Maxwell and Thomson among its members and tasked with " the Selection and Nomenclature of Dynamical and Electrical Units " recommended using the CGS system of units . The committee also recommended the names of " dyne " and " erg " for the CGS units of force and energy . The CGS system became the basis for scientific work for the next seventy years . = = = Electrical units = = = In the 1820s Georg Ohm formulated Ohms Law which can be extended to relate power to current , potential difference ( voltage ) and resistance . During the following decades the realisation of a coherent system of units that incorporated the measurement of electromagnetic phenomena and Ohm 's law was beset with problems – at least four different systems of units were devised . In the three CGS systems , the constants <formula> and <formula> and consequently <formula> and <formula> were dimensionless . Electromagnetic system of units ( EMU ) The Electromagnetic system of units ( EMU ) was developed from André @-@ Marie Ampère 's discovery in the 1820s of a relationship between the force between two current @-@ carrying conductors . This relationship is now known as Ampere 's law which can be written <formula> where <formula> ( SI units ) In 1833 Gauss pointed out the possibility of equating this force with its mechanical equivalent . This proposal received further support from Wilhelm Weber in 1851 . The electromagnetic ( or absolute ) system of units was one of the two systems of units identified in the BAAS report of 1862 and defined in the report of 1873 . In this system , current is defined by setting the magnetic force constant <formula> to unity and potential difference is defined in such a way as to ensure the unit of power calculated by the relation <formula> is identical to the unit of power required to move a mass of one gram a distance of one centimetre in one second when opposed by a force of one dyne . The electromagnetic units of measure were known as the abampere , the abvolt , the abcoulomb and so on . Electrostatic system of units ( ESU ) The Electrostatic system of units ( ESU ) was based on Coulomb 's discovery in 1783 of the relationship between the force exerted between two charged bodies . This relationship , now known as Coulomb 's law can be written <formula> where <formula> ( SI units ) The electrostatic system was the second of the two systems of units identified in the 1862 BAAS report and defined in the report of 1873 . In this system unit for charge is defined by setting the Coulomb force constant ( <formula> ) to unity and the unit for potential difference were defined to ensure the unit of energy calculated by the relation <formula> is one erg . The electrostatic units of measure are now known as the statampere , the statvolt , the statcoulomb and so on . Gaussian system of units The Gaussian system of units was based on Heinrich Hertz realization , made in 1888 while verifying Maxwell 's Equations , that the CGS system of electromagnetic units to were related to the CGS system of electrostatic units by the relationship : <formula> Using this relationship , he proposed merging the EMU and the ESU systems into one system using the EMU units for magnetic quantities ( subsequently named the gauss and maxwell ) and ESU units elsewhere . He named this combined set of units " Gaussian units " . This set of units has been recognised as being particularly useful in theoretical physics . Practical system of units The CGS units of measure used in scientific work were not practical when used in engineering leading to the development of the practical system of electric units . At the time that this system of units was proposed , the dimension of electrical resistance was modelled in the EMU system as the ratio L / T and in the ESU system as its inverse – T / L. The unit of length adopted for the practical system was 107 m ( approximately the length of the Earth 's quadrant ) , the unit of time was the second and the unit of mass an unnamed unit equal to 10 − 11 g and the definitions of electrical units were based on those of the EMU system . The names , but not the values , amp , volt , farad and ohm were carried over from the EMU system . The system was adopted at the First International Electrical Congress ( IEC ) in 1881 . The second IEC congress ( 1889 ) defined the joule and the watt at the practical units of energy and power respectively . The units were formalised as the International System of Electrical and Magnetic Units at the 1893 congress of the IEC in Chicago where the volt , amp and ohm were formally defined . The SI units with these names are very close , but not identical to the " practical units " . = = = A coherent system = = = The electrical units of measure did not easily fit into the coherent system using length , mass and time as its base units as proposed in the 1861 BAAS paper . Using dimensional analysis the dimensions of voltage as defined by the ESU system of units was identical to the dimensions of current as defined by the EMU system of units <formula> while resistance had the same dimensions as velocity in the EMU system of units , but had the dimensions of the inverse of velocity in the ESU system of units . From the mid @-@ 1890s onwards Giovanni Giorgi and Oliver Heaviside corresponded with each other regarding these anomalous results . This led to Giorgi presenting a paper to the congress of the Associazione Elettrotecnica Italiana ( A.E.I. ) in October 1901 in which he showed that a coherent electro @-@ mechanical system of units could be obtained by adding a fourth base unit of an electrical nature ( ampere , volt or ohm ) to the three base units proposed in the 1861 BAAS report . This gave the constants ke and km physical dimensions and hence the electro @-@ mechanical quantities ε0 and µ0 were also given physical dimensions . His work also recognized the unifying concept that energy played in the establishment of a coherent , rational system of units with the joule as the unit of energy and the electrical units in the practical system of units remaining unchanged . The 1893 definitions of the ampere and the ohm by the IEC led to the joule as being defined in accordance with the IEC resolutions being 0 @.@ 02 % larger than the joule as defined in accordance with the artefacts helds by the BIPM . In 1908 , the IEC prefixed the units of measure that they had defined with the word " international " , hence the " international ampere " , " international volt " etc . It took more than thirty years before Giorgi 's work was accepted in practice by the IEC . In 1946 the CIPM formally adopted a definition of the ampere based on the original EMU definition and redefined the ohm in terms of other base units . In 1960 , Giorgi 's proposals were adopted as the basis of the Système International d 'Unités ( International System of Units ) , the SI . = = = Naming the units of measure = = = In 1861 , Charles Bright and Latimer Clark proposed the names of ohm , volt , and farad in honour of Georg Ohm , Alessandro Volta and Michael Faraday respectively for the practical units based on the centimetre @-@ gramme @-@ second absolute system . This was supported by Thomson ( Lord Kelvin ) These names were later scaled for use in the Practical System . The concept of naming units of measure after noteworthy scientists was subsequently used for other units . = = Convention of the metre = = With increasing international adoption of the metre , the short @-@ comings of the mètre des Archives as a standard became ever more apparent . Countries which adopted the metre as a legal measure purchased standard metre bars that were intended to be equal in length to the mètre des Archives , but there was no systematic way of ensuring that the countries were actually working to the same standard . The meridianal definition , which had been intended to ensure international reproducibility , quickly proved so impractical that it was all but abandoned in favour of the artefact standards , but the mètre des Archives ( and most of its copies ) were " end standards " : such standards ( bars which are exactly one metre in length ) are prone to wear with use , and different standard bars could be expected to wear at different rates . The International Conference on Geodesy in 1867 called for the creation of a new , international prototype metre and to arrange a system where national standards could be compared with it . The international prototype would also be a " line standard " , that is the metre was defined as the distance between two lines marked on the bar , so avoiding the wear problems of end standards . The French government gave practical support to the creation of an International Metre Commission , which met in Paris in 1870 and again in 1872 with the participation of about thirty countries . On 20 May 1875 an international treaty known as the Convention du Mètre ( Metre Convention ) was signed by 17 states . This treaty established the following organisations to conduct international activities relating to a uniform system for measurements : Conférence générale des poids et mesures ( CGPM or General Conference on Weights and Measures ) , an intergovernmental conference of official delegates of member nations and the supreme authority for all actions ; Comité international des poids et mesures ( CIPM or International Committee for Weights and Measures ) , consisting of selected scientists and metrologists , which prepares and executes the decisions of the CGPM and is responsible for the supervision of the International Bureau of Weights and Measures ; Bureau international des poids et mesures ( BIPM or International Bureau of Weights and Measures ) , a permanent laboratory and world centre of scientific metrology , the activities of which include the establishment of the basic standards and scales of the principal physical quantities , maintenance of the international prototype standards and oversight of regular comparisons between the international prototype and the various national standards . The international prototype metre and kilogram were both made from a 90 % platinum , 10 % iridium alloy which is exceptionally hard and which has good electrical and thermal conductivity properties . The prototype had a special X @-@ shaped ( Tresca ) cross section to minimise the effects of torsional strain during length comparisons. and the prototype kilograms were cylindrical in shape . The London firm Johnson Matthey delivered 30 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms . At the first meeting of the CGPM in 1889 bar No. 6 and cylinder No . X were accepted as the international prototypes . The remainder were either kept as BIPM working copies or distributed to member states as national prototypes . = = Twentieth century = = At the beginning of the twentieth century , the BIPM had custody of two artefacts – one to define length and the other to define mass . Other units of measure which did not rely on specific artefacts were controlled by other bodies . In the scientific world , quantum theory was in its infancy and Einstein had yet to publish his theories of relativity . By the end of the century , a coherent system of units was in place under the control of the bodies set up by the Treaty of the Metre , the definition of the second relied on quantum theory , the definition of the metre relied on the theory of relativity , and plans were being made to relegate the international prototype kilogram to the archives . = = = Metre = = = The first ( and only ) follow @-@ up comparison of the national standards with the international prototype metre was carried out between 1921 and 1936 , and indicated that the definition of the metre was preserved to within 0 @.@ 2 µm . During this follow @-@ up comparison , the way in which the prototype metre should be measured was more clearly defined — the 1889 definition had defined the metre as being the length of the prototype at the definition of melting ice , but in 1927 the 7th CGPM extended this definition was to specify that the prototype metre shall be " supported on two cylinders of at least one centimetre diameter , symmetrically placed in the same horizontal plane at a distance of 571 mm from each other " . The choice of 571 mm represents the Airy points of the prototype — the points at which the bending or droop of the bar is minimized . In 1887 Michelson proposed the use of optical interferometers for the measurement of length , work which contributed to him being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1907 . In 1952 the CIPM proposed the use of wavelength of a specific light source as the standard for defining length and in 1960 the CGPM accepted this proposal using radiation corresponding to a transition between specified energy levels of the krypton 86 atom as the new standard for the metre . By 1975 , when the second had been defined in terms of a physical phenomenon rather than the earth 's rotation and Einstein 's assertion that the speed of light was constant , the CGPM authorised the CIPM to investigate the use of the speed of light as the basis for the definition of the metre . This proposal was accepted in 1983 . = = = Kilogram = = = Although the definition of the kilogram remained unchanged throughout the twentieth century , the 3rd CGPM in 1901 clarified that the kilogram was a unit of mass , not of weight . The original batch of 40 prototypes ( adopted in 1889 ) were supplemented from time to time with further prototypes for use by new signatories to the Metre Convention . During the course of the century , the various national prototypes of the kilogram were recalibrated against the International Prototype Kilogram ( IPK ) and therefore against each other . The initial 1889 starting @-@ value offsets of the national prototypes relative to the IPK were nulled. and any subsequent mass changes being relative to the IPK . A technique for steam cleaning the prototypes to remove any contaminants was developed in 1946 as part of the second recalibration . The third periodic recalibration in 1988 @-@ 1989 revealed that the average difference between the IPK and adjusted baseline for the national prototypes was 50 μg – in 1889 the baseline of the national prototypes had been adjusted so that the difference was zero . As the IPK is the definitive kilogram , there is no way of telling whether the IPK had been losing mass or the national prototypes had been gaining mass . = = = Time = = = Until the advent of the atomic clock , the most reliable timekeeper available to mankind was the earth 's rotation . It was natural therefore that the astronomers under the auspice of the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) took the lead in maintaining the standards relating to time . In 1988 , responsibility for timekeeping passed to the BIPM who took on the role of coordinating a number of atomic clocks scattered around the globe . During the twentieth century it became apparent that the earth 's rotation was slowing down resulting in days becoming 1 @.@ 4 milliseconds longer each century – this was verified by comparing the calculated timings of eclipses of the sun with those observed in antiquity going back to Chinese records of 763 BC . In 1956 the 10th CGPM instructed the CIPM to prepare a definition of the second ; in 1958 the definition was published stating that the second would be calculated by extrapolation using earth 's rotational speed in 1900 . Astronomers from the US Naval Observatory ( USNO ) and the National Physical Laboratory determined a relationship between the frequency of radiation corresponding to the transition between the two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom and the estimated rate of rotation of the earth in 1900 . Their value was adopted in 1968 by the 13th CGPM . = = = Electrical units = = = In 1921 the Treaty of the Metre was extended to cover electrical units with the CGPM merging its work with that of the IEC . At the 8th CGPM in 1933 the need to replace the " International " electrical units with " absolute " units was raised . The IEC proposal that Giorgi 's proposal be adopted was accepted , but no decision was made as to which electrical unit should be the fourth base unit . In 1935 Sears proposed that this should be the ampere , but World War II prevented this being formalised until 1946 . The definitions for absolute electrical system based on the ampere was formalized in 1948 . = = = Temperature = = = At the start of the twentieth century , the fundamental macroscopic laws of thermodynamics had been formulated and although techniques existed to measure temperature using empirical techniques , the scientific understanding of the nature of temperature was minimal . Maxwell and Boltzmann had produced theories describing the inter @-@ relational of temperature , pressure and volume of a gas on a microscopic scale but otherwise , in 1900 , there was no understanding of the microscopic or quantum nature of temperature . Within the metric system , temperature was expressed in degrees Centigrade with the definition that ice melted at 0 ° C and at standard atmospheric pressure , water boiled at 100 ° C. A series of lookup tables defined temperature in terms of inter @-@ related empirical measurements made using various devices . When , in 1948 the CGPM was charged with producing a coherent system of units of measure , definitions relating to temperature had to be clarified . At the 9th CGPM , the centigrade temperature scale was renamed the Celsius temperature scale and the scale itself was fixed by defining the triple point of water as 0 @.@ 01 ° C , though the CGPM left the formal definition of absolute zero until the 10th GCPM when the name " Kelvin " was assigned to the absolute temperature scale and triple point of water was defined as being 273 @.@ 16 ° K. In 1967 , at the 13th GCPM the degree Kelvin ( ° K ) was renamed the " kelvin " ( K ) . Over the ensuing years , the BIPM developed and maintained cross @-@ correlations relating various measuring devices such as thermocouples , light spectra and the like to the equivalent temperatures . Increasingly the use of the Boltzmann Relationship was used as the reference point and it appears likely that in 2015 the CGPM will redefine temperature in terms of the Boltzmann constant rather than the triple point of water . = = = Luminosity = = = Prior to 1937 , the International Commission on Illumination ( CIE from its French title , the Commission Internationale de l 'Eclairage ) in conjunction with the CIPM produced a standard for luminous intensity to replace the various national standards . This standard , the candela ( cd ) which was defined as " the brightness of the full radiator at the temperature of solidification of platinum is 60 new candles per square centimetre " . was ratified by the GCPM in 1948 and in 1960 was adopted as an SI base unit . The definition proved difficult to implement so in 1967 , the definition was revised and the reference to the radiation source was replaced by defining the candles in terms of the power of a specified wavelength of visible light . In 2007 the CIPM and the CIE agreed a program of cooperation with the CIPM taking the lead in defining the use of units of measure and the CIE taking the lead in defining the behaviour of the human eye . = = = Mole = = = The mole was originally known as a gram @-@ atom or a gram @-@ molecule – the amount of a substance measured in grams divided by its atomic weight . Originally chemists and physicists had differing views regarding the definition of the atomic weight – both assigned a value of 16 atomic mass units ( amu ) to oxygen , but physicists defined oxygen in terms of the 16O isotope whereas chemists assigned 16 amu to 16O , 17O and 18O isotopes mixed in the proportion that they occur in nature . Finally an agreement between the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics ( IUPAP ) and the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) brought this duality to an end in 1959 / 60 , both parties agreeing to define the atomic weight of 12C as being exactly 12 amu . This agreement was confirmed by ISO and in 1969 the CIPM recommended its inclusion in SI as a base unit . This was done in 1971 at the 14th CGPM . = = International System of Units ( SI ) = = The 9th CGPM met in 1948 , fifteen years after the 8th CGPM . In response to formal requests made by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics and by the French government to establish a practical system of units of measure , the CGPM requested the CIPM to prepare recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement , suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention . At the same time the CGPM formally adopted a recommendation for the writing and printing of unit symbols and of numbers . The recommendation also catalogued the recommended symbols for the most important MKS and CGS units of measure and for the first time the CGPM made recommendations concerning derived units . The CIPM 's draft proposal , which was an extensive revision and simplification of the metric unit definitions , symbols and terminology based on the MKS system of units , was put to the 10th CGPM in 1954 . In accordance with Giorgi 's proposals of 1901 , the CIPM also recommended that the ampere be the base unit from which electromechanical would be derived . The definitions for the ohm and volt that had previously been in use were discarded and these units became derived units based on the metre , ampere , second and kilogram . After negotiations with the CIS and IUPAP , two further base units , the degree kelvin and the candela were also proposed as base units . The full system and name " Système International d 'Unités " were adopted at the 11th CGPM . During the years that followed the definitions of the base units and particularly the mise en pratique to realise these definitions have been refined . = = = Proposed revision of unit definitions = = = After the metre was redefined in 1960 , the kilogram remained the only SI base defined by a physical example or artefact . Moreover , after the 1996 – 1998 recalibration a clear divergence between the various prototype kilograms was observed . At its 23rd meeting ( 2007 ) , the CGPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artefacts that were then in use . At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading , United Kingdom in September 2010 , a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle . The proposals that the CCU put forward were that : in addition to the speed of light , four constants of nature — Planck 's constant , an elementary charge , Boltzmann constant and Avogadro 's number — be defined to have exact values ; the international prototype kilogram be retired ; the current definitions of the kilogram , ampere , kelvin and mole be revised ; the wording of the definitions of all the base units be tightened up . The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found that " the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met . For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time " ; however the CIPM presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM ( 17 – 21 October 2011 ) to agree the new definitions in principle , but not to implement them until the details have been finalised . This resolution was accepted by the conference and in addition the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014 . = Sustainability = In ecology , sustainability is the combination of the words sustain and ability . This concept makes reference to how biological systems remain diverse and productive indefinitely . Long @-@ lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems . In more general terms , sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes . The organizing principle for sustainability is sustainable development , which includes the four interconnected domains : ecology , economics , politics and culture . Sustainability science is the study of sustainable development and environmental science . Sustainability can also be defined as a socio @-@ ecological process characterized by the pursuit of a common ideal . An ideal is by definition unattainable in a given time / space but endlessly approachable and it is this endless pursuit what builds in sustainability in the process ( ibid ) . Healthy ecosystems and environments are necessary to the survival of humans and other organisms . Ways of reducing negative human impact are environmentally @-@ friendly chemical engineering , environmental resources management and environmental protection . Information is gained from green chemistry , earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . Ecological economics studies the fields of academic research that aim to address human economies and natural ecosystems . Moving towards sustainability is also a social challenge that entails international and national law , urban planning and transport , local and individual lifestyles and ethical consumerism . Ways of living more sustainably can take many forms from reorganizing living conditions ( e.g. , ecovillages , eco @-@ municipalities and sustainable cities ) , reappraising economic sectors ( permaculture , green building , sustainable agriculture ) , or work practices ( sustainable architecture ) , using science to develop new technologies ( green technologies , renewable energy and sustainable fission and fusion power ) , or designing systems in a flexible and reversible manner , and adjusting individual lifestyles that conserve natural resources . Despite the increased popularity of the use of the term " sustainability " , the possibility that human societies will achieve environmental sustainability has been , and continues to be , questioned — in light of environmental degradation , climate change , overconsumption , population growth and societies ' pursuit of indefinite economic growth in a closed system . = = Etymology = = The name sustainability is derived from the Latin sustinere ( tenere , to hold ; sub , up ) . Sustain can mean “ maintain " , " support " , or " endure ” . Since the 1980s sustainability has been used more in the sense of human sustainability on planet Earth and this has resulted in the most widely quoted definition of sustainability as a part of the concept sustainable development , that of the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations on March 20 , 1987 : “ sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs . ” = = Components = = = = = Three pillars of sustainability = = = The 2005 World Summit on Social Development identified sustainable development goals , such as economic development , social development and environmental protection . This view has been expressed as an illustration using three overlapping ellipses indicating that the three pillars of sustainability are not mutually exclusive and can be mutually reinforcing . In fact , the three pillars are interdependent , and in the long run none can exist without the others . The three pillars have served as a common ground for numerous sustainability standards and certification systems in recent years , in particular in the food industry . Standards which today explicitly refer to the triple bottom line include Rainforest Alliance , Fairtrade and UTZ Certified . Some sustainability experts and practitioners have illustrated four pillars of sustainability , or a quadruple bottom line . One such pillar is future generations , which emphasizes the long @-@ term thinking associated with sustainability . Sustainable development consists of balancing local and global efforts to meet basic human needs without destroying or degrading the natural environment . The question then becomes how to represent the relationship between those needs and the environment . A study from 2005 pointed out that environmental justice is as important as is sustainable development . Ecological economist Herman Daly asked , " what use is a sawmill without a forest ? " From this perspective , the economy is a subsystem of human society , which is itself a subsystem of the biosphere , and a gain in one sector is a loss from another . This perspective led to the nested circles figure of ' economics ' inside ' society ' inside the ' environment ' . The simple definition that sustainability is something that improves " the quality of human life while living within the carrying capacity of supporting eco @-@ systems " , though vague , conveys the idea of sustainability having quantifiable limits . But sustainability is also a call to action , a task in progress or “ journey ” and therefore a political process , so some definitions set out common goals and values . The Earth Charter speaks of “ a sustainable global society founded on respect for nature , universal human rights , economic justice , and a culture of peace . ” This suggested a more complex figure of sustainability , which included the importance of the domain of ' politics ' . More than that , sustainability implies responsible and proactive decision @-@ making and innovation that minimizes negative impact and maintains balance between ecological resilience , economic prosperity , political justice and cultural vibrancy to ensure a desirable planet for all species now and in the future . Specific types of sustainability include , sustainable agriculture , sustainable architecture or ecological economics . Understanding sustainable development is important but without clear targets an unfocused term like " liberty " or " justice " . It has also been described as a " dialogue of values that challenge the sociology of development " . = = = Circles of sustainability = = = While the United Nations Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development , including economic development , social development and environmental protection it continued using three domains : economics , environment and social sustainability . More recently , using a systematic domain model that responds to the debates over the last decade , the Circles of Sustainability approach distinguished four domains of economic , ecological , political and cultural sustainability . This in accord with the United Nations Agenda 21 , which specifies culture as the fourth domain of sustainable development . The model is now being used by organizations such as the United Nations Cities Programme. and Metropolis = = = Shaping the future = = = Integral elements of sustainability are research and innovation activities . A telling example is the European environmental research and innovation policy . It aims at defining and implementing a transformative agenda to greening the economy and the society as a whole so to make them sustainable . Research and innovation in Europe are financially supported by the programme Horizon 2020 , which is also open to participation worldwide . = = Resiliency = = Resiliency in ecology is the capacity of an ecosystem to absorb disturbance and still retain its basic structure and viability . Resilience @-@ thinking evolved from the need to manage interactions between human @-@ constructed systems and natural ecosystems in a sustainable way despite the fact that to policymakers a definition remains elusive . Resilience @-@ thinking addresses how much planetary ecological systems can withstand assault from human disturbances and still deliver the services current and future generations need from them . It is also concerned with commitment from geopolitical policymakers to promote and manage essential planetary ecological resources in order to promote resilience and achieve sustainability of these essential resources for benefit of future generations of life ? The resiliency of an ecosystem , and thereby , its sustainability , can be reasonably measured at junctures or events where the combination of naturally occurring regenerative forces ( solar energy , water , soil , atmosphere , vegetation , and biomass ) interact with the energy released into the ecosystem from disturbances . A practical view of sustainability is closed systems that maintain processes of productivity indefinitely by replacing resources used by actions of people with resources of equal or greater value by those same people without degrading or endangering natural biotic systems . In this way , sustainability can be concretely measured in human projects if there is a transparent accounting of the resources put back into the ecosystem to replace those displaced . In nature , the accounting occurs naturally through a process of adaptation as an ecosystem returns to viability from an external disturbance . The adaptation is a multi @-@ stage process that begins with the disturbance event ( earthquake , volcanic eruption , hurricane , tornado , flood , or thunderstorm ) , followed by absorption , utilization , or deflection of the energy or energies that the external forces created . In analysing systems such as urban and national parks , dams , farms and gardens , theme parks , open @-@ pit mines , water catchments , one way to look at the relationship between sustainability and resiliency is to view the former with a long @-@ term vision and resiliency as the capacity of human engineers to respond to immediate environmental events . = = History = = The history of sustainability traces human @-@ dominated ecological systems from the earliest civilizations to the present time . This history is characterized by the increased regional success of a particular society , followed by crises that were either resolved , producing sustainability , or not , leading to decline . In early human history , the use of fire and desire for specific foods may have altered the natural composition of plant and animal communities . Between 8 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 years ago , agrarian communities emerged which depended largely on their environment and the creation of a " structure of permanence . " The Western industrial revolution of the 18th to 19th centuries tapped into the vast growth potential of the energy in fossil fuels . Coal was used to power ever more efficient engines and later to generate electricity . Modern sanitation systems and advances in medicine protected large populations from disease . In the mid @-@ 20th century , a gathering environmental movement pointed out that there were environmental costs associated with the many material benefits that were now being enjoyed . In the late 20th century , environmental problems became global in scale . The 1973 and 1979 energy crises demonstrated the extent to which the global community had become dependent on non @-@ renewable energy resources . In the 21st century , there is increasing global awareness of the threat posed by the human greenhouse effect , produced largely by forest clearing and the burning of fossil fuels . = = Principles and concepts = = The philosophical and analytic framework of sustainability draws on and connects with many different disciplines and fields ; in recent years an area that has come to be called sustainability science has emerged . The United Nations Millennium Declaration identified principles and treaties on sustainable development , including economic development , social development and environmental protection . The Circles of Sustainability approach distinguishes the four domains of economic , ecological , political and cultural sustainability . This in accord with the United Nations Agenda 21 , which specifies culture as the fourth domain of sustainable development . = = = Scale and context = = = Sustainability is studied and managed over many scales ( levels or frames of reference ) of time and space and in many contexts of environmental , social and economic organization . The focus ranges from the total carrying capacity ( sustainability ) of planet Earth to the sustainability of economic sectors , ecosystems , countries , municipalities , neighbourhoods , home gardens , individual lives , individual goods and services , occupations , lifestyles , behaviour patterns and so on . In short , it can entail the full compass of biological and human activity or any part of it . As Daniel Botkin , author and environmentalist , has stated : " We see a landscape that is always in flux , changing over many scales of time and space . " The sheer size and complexity of the planetary ecosystem has proved problematic for the design of practical measures to reach global sustainability . To shed light on the big picture , explorer and sustainability campaigner Jason Lewis has drawn parallels to other , more tangible closed systems . For example , he likens human existence on Earth — isolated as the planet is in space , whereby people cannot be evacuated to relieve population pressure and resources cannot be imported to prevent accelerated depletion of resources — to life at sea on a small boat isolated by water . In both cases , he argues , exercising the precautionary principle is a key factor in survival . = = = Consumption = = = A major driver of human impact on Earth systems is the destruction of biophysical resources , and especially , the Earth 's ecosystems . The environmental impact of a community or of humankind as a whole depends both on population and impact per person , which in turn depends in complex ways on what resources are being used , whether or not those resources are renewable , and the scale of the human activity relative to the carrying capacity of the ecosystems involved . Careful resource management can be applied at many scales , from economic sectors like agriculture , manufacturing and industry , to work organizations , the consumption patterns of households and individuals and to the resource demands of individual goods and services . One of the initial attempts to express human impact mathematically was developed in the 1970s and is called the I PAT formula . This formulation attempts to explain human consumption in terms of three components : population numbers , levels of consumption ( which it terms " affluence " , although the usage is different ) , and impact per unit of resource use ( which is termed " technology " , because this impact depends on the technology used ) . The equation is expressed : I = P × A × T Where : I = Environmental impact , P = Population , A = Affluence , T = Technology = = Measurement = = Sustainability measurement is a term that denotes the measurements used as the quantitative basis for the informed management of sustainability . The metrics used for the measurement of sustainability ( involving the sustainability of environmental , social and economic domains , both individually and in various combinations ) are evolving : they include indicators , benchmarks , audits , sustainability standards and certification systems like Fairtrade and Organic , indexes and accounting , as well as assessment , appraisal and other reporting systems . They are applied over a wide range of spatial and temporal scales . Some of the best known and most widely used sustainability measures include corporate sustainability reporting , Triple Bottom Line accounting , World Sustainability Society , Circles of Sustainability , and estimates of the quality of sustainability governance for individual countries using the Environmental Sustainability Index and Environmental Performance Index . = = = Population = = = According to the 2008 Revision of the official United Nations population estimates and projections , the world population is projected to reach 7 billion early in 2012 , up from the current 6 @.@ 9 billion ( May 2009 ) , to exceed 9 billion people by 2050 . Most of the increase will be in developing countries whose population is projected to rise from 5 @.@ 6 billion in 2009 to 7 @.@ 9 billion in 2050 . This increase will be distributed among the population aged 15 – 59 ( 1 @.@ 2 billion ) and 60 or over ( 1 @.@ 1 billion ) because the number of children under age 15 in developing countries is predicted to decrease . In contrast , the population of the more developed regions is expected to undergo only slight increase from 1 @.@ 23 billion to 1 @.@ 28 billion , and this would have declined to 1 @.@ 15 billion but for a projected net migration from developing to developed countries , which is expected to average 2 @.@ 4 million persons annually from 2009 to 2050 . Long @-@ term estimates in 2004 of global population suggest a peak at around 2070 of nine to ten billion people , and then a slow decrease to 8 @.@ 4 billion by 2100 . Emerging economies like those of China and India aspire to the living standards of the Western world as does the non @-@ industrialized world in general . It is the combination of population increase in the developing world and unsustainable consumption levels in the developed world that poses a stark challenge to sustainability . = = = Carrying capacity = = = At the global scale , scientific data now indicates that humans are living beyond the carrying capacity of planet Earth and that this cannot continue indefinitely . This scientific evidence comes from many sources but is presented in detail in the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment and the planetary boundaries framework . An early detailed examination of global limits was published in the 1972 book Limits to Growth , which has prompted follow @-@ up commentary and analysis . A 2012 review in Nature by 22 international researchers expressed concerns that the Earth may be " approaching a state shift " in its biosphere . The Ecological footprint measures human consumption in terms of the biologically productive land needed to provide the resources , and absorb the wastes of the average global citizen . In 2008 it required 2 @.@ 7 global hectares per person , 30 % more than the natural biological capacity of 2 @.@ 1 global hectares ( assuming no provision for other organisms ) . The resulting ecological deficit must be met from unsustainable extra sources and these are obtained in three ways : embedded in the goods and services of world trade ; taken from the past ( e.g. fossil fuels ) ; or borrowed from the future as unsustainable resource usage ( e.g. by over exploiting forests and fisheries ) . The figure ( right ) examines sustainability at the scale of individual countries by contrasting their Ecological Footprint with their UN Human Development Index ( a measure of standard of living ) . The graph shows what is necessary for countries to maintain an acceptable standard of living for their citizens while , at the same time , maintaining sustainable resource use . The general trend is for higher standards of living to become less sustainable . As always , population growth has a marked influence on levels of consumption and the efficiency of resource use . The sustainability goal is to raise the global standard of living without increasing the use of resources beyond globally sustainable levels ; that is , to not exceed " one planet " consumption . Information generated by reports at the national , regional and city scales confirm the global trend towards societies that are becoming less sustainable over time . Romanian American economist Nicholas Georgescu @-@ Roegen , a progenitor in economics and a paradigm founder of ecological economics , has argued that the carrying capacity of Earth — that is , Earth 's capacity to sustain human populations and consumption levels — is bound to decrease sometime in the future as Earth 's finite stock of mineral resources is presently being extracted and put to use . Leading ecological economist and steady @-@ state theorist Herman Daly , a student of Georgescu @-@ Roegen , has propounded the same argument . = = = Global human impact on biodiversity = = = At a fundamental level energy flow and biogeochemical cycling set an upper limit on the number and mass of organisms in any ecosystem . Human impacts on the Earth are demonstrated in a general way through detrimental changes in the global biogeochemical cycles of chemicals that are critical to life , most notably those of water , oxygen , carbon , nitrogen and phosphorus . The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment is an international synthesis by over 1000 of the world 's leading biological scientists that analyzes the state of the Earth ’ s ecosystems and provides summaries and guidelines for decision @-@ makers . It concludes that human activity is having a significant and escalating impact on the biodiversity of world ecosystems , reducing both their resilience and biocapacity . The report refers to natural systems as humanity 's " life @-@ support system " , providing essential " ecosystem services " . The assessment measures 24 ecosystem services concluding that only four have shown improvement over the last 50 years , 15 are in serious decline , and five are in a precarious condition . = = Sustainable development goals = = The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) are the current harmonized set of seventeen future international development targets . The Official Agenda for Sustainable Development adopted on 25 September 2015 has 92 paragraphs , with the main paragraph ( 51 ) outlining the 17 Sustainable Development Goals and its associated 169 targets . This included the following seventeen goals : Poverty – End poverty in all its forms everywhere Food – End hunger , achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture Health – Ensure healthy lives and promote well @-@ being for all at all ages Education – Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all Women – Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls Water – Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all Energy – Ensure access to affordable , reliable , sustainable and modern energy for all Economy – Promote sustained , inclusive and sustainable economic growth , full and productive employment and decent work for all Infrastructure – Build resilient infrastructure , promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation Inequality – Reduce inequality within and among countries Habitation – Make cities and human settlements inclusive , safe , resilient and sustainable Consumption – Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns Climate – Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts Marine @-@ ecosystems – Conserve and sustainably use the oceans , seas and marine resources for sustainable development Ecosystems – Protect , restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems , sustainably manage forests , combat desertification , and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss Institutions – Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development , provide access to justice for all and build effective , accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels Sustainability – Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development As of August 2015 , there were 169 proposed targets for these goals and 304 proposed indicators to show compliance . The Sustainable Development Goals ( SDGs ) replace the eight Millennium Development Goals ( MDGs ) , which expired at the end of 2015 . The MDGs were established in 2000 following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations . Adopted by the 189 United Nations member states at the time and more than twenty international organizations , these goals were advanced to help achieve the following sustainable development standards by 2015 . To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger To achieve universal primary education To promote gender equality and empower women To reduce child mortality To improve maternal health To combat HIV / AIDS , malaria , and other diseases To ensure environmental sustainability ( one of the targets in this goal focuses on increasing sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation ) To develop a global partnership for development = = = Sustainable development = = = According to the data that member countries represented to the United Nations , Cuba was the only nation in the world in 2006 that met the World Wide Fund for Nature 's definition of sustainable development , with an ecological footprint of less than 1 @.@ 8 hectares per capita , 1 @.@ 5 , and a Human Development Index of over 0 @.@ 8 , 0 @.@ 855 . = = Environmental dimension = = Healthy ecosystems provide vital goods and services to humans and other organisms . There are two major ways of reducing negative human impact and enhancing ecosystem services and the first of these is environmental management . This direct approach is based largely on information gained from earth science , environmental science and conservation biology . However , this is management at the end of a long series of indirect causal factors that are initiated by human consumption , so a second approach is through demand management of human resource use . Management of human consumption of resources is an indirect approach based largely on information gained from economics . Herman Daly has suggested three broad criteria for ecological sustainability : renewable resources should provide a sustainable yield ( the rate of harvest should not exceed the rate of regeneration ) ; for non @-@ renewable resources there should be equivalent development of renewable substitutes ; waste generation should not exceed the assimilative capacity of the environment . = = = Environmental management = = = At the global scale and in the broadest sense environmental management involves the oceans , freshwater systems , land and atmosphere , but following the sustainability principle of scale it can be equally applied to any ecosystem from a tropical rainforest to a home garden . = = = = Atmosphere = = = = At a March 2009 meeting of the Copenhagen Climate Council , 2 @,@ 500 climate experts from 80 countries issued a keynote statement that there is now " no excuse " for failing to act on global warming and that without strong carbon reduction " abrupt or irreversible " shifts in climate may occur that " will be very difficult for contemporary societies to cope with " . Management of the global atmosphere now involves assessment of all aspects of the carbon cycle to identify opportunities to address human @-@ induced climate change and this has become a major focus of scientific research because of the potential catastrophic effects on biodiversity and human communities ( see Energy below ) . Other human impacts on the atmosphere include the air pollution in cities , the pollutants including toxic chemicals like nitrogen oxides , sulfur oxides , volatile organic compounds and airborne particulate matter that produce photochemical smog and acid rain , and the chlorofluorocarbons that degrade the ozone layer . Anthropogenic particulates such as sulfate aerosols in the atmosphere reduce the direct irradiance and reflectance ( albedo ) of the Earth 's surface . Known as global dimming , the decrease is estimated to have been about 4 % between 1960 and 1990 although the trend has subsequently reversed . Global dimming may have disturbed the global water cycle by reducing evaporation and rainfall in some areas . It also creates a cooling effect and this may have partially masked the effect of greenhouse gases on global warming . = = = = Freshwater and oceans = = = = Water covers 71 % of the Earth 's surface . Of this , 97 @.@ 5 % is the salty water of the oceans and only 2 @.@ 5 % freshwater , most of which is locked up in the Antarctic ice sheet . The remaining freshwater is found in glaciers , lakes , rivers , wetlands , the soil , aquifers and atmosphere . Due to the water cycle , fresh water supply is continually replenished by precipitation , however there is still a limited amount necessitating management of this resource . Awareness of the global importance of preserving water for ecosystem services has only recently emerged as , during the 20th century , more than half the world ’ s wetlands have been lost along with their valuable environmental services . Increasing urbanization pollutes clean water supplies and much of the world still does not have access to clean , safe water . Greater emphasis is now being placed on the improved management of blue ( harvestable ) and green ( soil water available for plant use ) water , and this applies at all scales of water management . Ocean circulation patterns have a strong influence on climate and weather and , in turn , the food supply of both humans and other organisms . Scientists have warned of the possibility , under the influence of climate change , of a sudden alteration in circulation patterns of ocean currents that could drastically alter the climate in some regions of the globe . Ten per cent of the world 's population – about 600 million people – live in low @-@ lying areas vulnerable to sea level rise . = = = = Land use = = = = Loss of biodiversity stems largely from the habitat loss and fragmentation produced by the human appropriation of land for development , forestry and agriculture as natural capital is progressively converted to man @-@ made capital . Land use change is fundamental to the operations of the biosphere because alterations in the relative proportions of land dedicated to urbanisation , agriculture , forest , woodland , grassland and pasture have a marked effect on the global water , carbon and nitrogen biogeochemical cycles and this can impact negatively on both natural and human systems . At the local human scale , major sustainability benefits accrue from sustainable parks and gardens and green cities . Since the Neolithic Revolution about 47 % of the world ’ s forests have been lost to human use . Present @-@ day forests occupy about a quarter of the world ’ s ice @-@ free land with about half of these occurring in the tropics . In temperate and boreal regions forest area is gradually increasing ( with the exception of Siberia ) , but deforestation in the tropics is of major concern . Food is essential to life . Feeding more than seven billion human bodies takes a heavy toll on the Earth ’ s resources . This begins with the appropriation of about 38 % of the Earth ’ s land surface and about 20 % of its net primary productivity . Added to this are the resource @-@ hungry activities of industrial agribusiness – everything from the crop need for irrigation water , synthetic fertilizers and pesticides to the resource costs of food packaging , transport ( now a major part of global trade ) and retail . Environmental problems associated with industrial agriculture and agribusiness are now being addressed through such movements as sustainable agriculture , organic farming and more sustainable business practices . = = = Management of human consumption = = = The underlying driver of direct human impacts on the environment is human consumption . This impact is reduced by not only consuming less but by also making the full cycle of production , use and disposal more sustainable . Consumption of goods and services can be analysed and managed at all scales through the chain of consumption , starting with the effects of individual lifestyle choices and spending patterns , through to the resource demands of specific goods and services , the impacts of economic sectors , through national economies to the global economy . Analysis of consumption patterns relates resource use to the environmental , social and economic impacts at the scale or context under investigation . The ideas of embodied resource use ( the total resources needed to produce a product or service ) , resource intensity , and resource productivity are important tools for understanding the impacts of consumption . Key resource categories relating to human needs are food , energy , materials and water . In 2010 , the International Resource Panel , hosted by the United Nations Environment Programme ( UNEP ) , published the first global scientific assessment on the impacts of consumption and production and identified priority actions for developed and developing countries . The study found that the most critical impacts are related to ecosystem health , human health and resource depletion . From a production perspective , it found that fossil @-@ fuel combustion processes , agriculture and fisheries have the most important impacts . Meanwhile , from a final consumption perspective , it found that household consumption related to mobility , shelter , food and energy @-@ using products cause the majority of life @-@ cycle impacts of consumption . = = = = Energy = = = = The Sun 's energy , stored by plants ( primary producers ) during photosynthesis , passes through the food chain to other organisms to ultimately power all living processes . Since the industrial revolution the concentrated energy of the Sun stored in fossilized plants as fossil fuels has been a major driver of technology which , in turn , has been the source of both economic and political power . In 2007 climate scientists of the IPCC concluded that there was at least a 90 % probability that atmospheric increase in CO2 was human @-@ induced , mostly as a result of fossil fuel emissions but , to a lesser extent from changes in	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
6 @.@ 5 / 16 in the key adults 18 – 49 demographic . In Canada , it ranked sixth for the week with 1 @.@ 702 million viewers . In the United Kingdom , Lost was watched by 1 @.@ 2 million viewers – a larger audience than that of the season premiere . In Australia , " Confirmed Dead " brought in 853 @,@ 000 viewers , ranking seventy @-@ first for the week . American critics were sent screener DVDs of " The Beginning of the End " and " Confirmed Dead " on January 28 , 2008 with instructions not to reveal major plot points in reviews . Among the journalists who gave vague and positive reviews were Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times , Adam Buckman of the New York Post , Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune , Diane Werts of Newsday and Tim Goodman of the San Francisco Chronicle . According to Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV , " Confirmed Dead " " was met with almost universal love from the Lost fan base " and according to Jon Lachonis of UGO , the new characters were well received by the fan scene . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger wrote that " after an underwhelming pre @-@ credits sequence ... this sucker moved , and lots of things happened . We met our four new regulars , squeezed in useful flashbacks about [ them ] and even found out the real reason they 're on the island ... The flipside of all this business is that ' Confirmed Dead ' didn 't have the same emotional resonance as ' [ The ] Beginning of the End ' ... but you clearly can 't have everything in every episode . " Time 's James Poniewozik said that " What amazed [ him ] about this episode was the economy and precision with which it introduced ... the crew of the downed chopper from [ the freighter ] . Each got just one flashback and a little time on the island , and yet by the end of the episode , I felt I had a true handle on what they were like as individuals . " Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly thought that " Confirmed Dead " " was downright alive with fascinating new characters , mind @-@ blowing new possibilities , and exciting new theory fodder " ; however , he had heard complaints from others who received the preview screeners that they found the episode to be flawed . They considered the scene where 815 is found to be cheating the flashback formula because Daniel only experiences it by watching it on television , Frank 's safe landing of the helicopter to be a mystery , Naomi 's flashback to be cheating Lost rules because she is dead and Ben 's manipulation of Locke to be an overused storyline . E ! ' s Kristin Dos Santos exclaimed " hot damn ! " in response to the scene where 815 is found in the Sunda Trench . She also thought that " Juliet and Kate giggling at Jack 's ' wink thing ' was hilarious " and it was " awesome to see [ the pilot ] again " . Nikki Stafford of Wizard highlighted " watching Dan 's landing from his point of view . You can feel his panic as he 's free @-@ falling through the air , looks up at his parachute , looks down to see himself about to hit the trees ... it was amazing . " IGN 's Chris Carabott gave " Confirmed Dead " an 8 / 10 , writing that it " isn 't a disappointing episode by any means but it definitely suffers from being a ' setup ' episode for these four new characters " and praising the new actors by writing that " Leung does an adequate job of getting Miles ' arrogant brand of confidence across while Davies presents Faraday 's awkward mannerisms well . Fahey 's Lapidus has exceptional screen presence that even overshadows the regular cast members to an extent . " Erin Martell of AOL 's TV Squad said that " Watching ' Confirmed Dead ' was like watching my dream episode of Lost [ because ] people asked direct questions for once ... [ and ] this episode was all about the Freighties . " A day after the original broadcast , BuddyTV 's Dahl claimed that " [ the audience is ] on an epic journey , one that has been as entertaining and engrossing as any TV series has ever been " . In contrast , TV Guide 's Michael Ausiello of said that it " was thirty @-@ one flavors of awesome ... [ however ] the negatives outweighed the positives " . He had problems with Claire 's lack of grief for Charlie Pace 's ( Dominic Monaghan ) death and Jack waiting so long to find out the freighter folk 's main objective . Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave " Confirmed Dead " three out of five stars , calling it " so @-@ so " , but commenting that " the new revelations in the episode are fairly startling and provide a momentary distraction from the frustrations . " = Battle of Block Island = The Battle of Block Island ( April 6 , 1776 ) was a nighttime naval encounter between the Continental Navy , returning from a successful raid on Nassau in The Bahamas on its maiden voyage , and HMS Glasgow , a Royal Navy dispatch boat . Glasgow successfully escaped capture by a fleet of seven ships under the command of Commodore Esek Hopkins , although she sustained significant damage in the encounter . Several of the ship captains of the Continental fleet were criticized for their actions in the engagement , and one was dismissed as a result . Commodore Hopkins was criticized for other actions pertaining to the cruise , including the distribution of seized goods , and was eventually also dismissed from the Navy . = = Background = = HMS Glasgow was a sixth @-@ rate 20 @-@ gun frigate of the Royal Navy . In early April 1776 , under the command of navy captain Tryingham Howe , she was carrying dispatches from Newport , Rhode Island to the British fleet off Charleston , South Carolina . ( This fleet had been assembled to launch an assault on Charleston , which ultimately failed in the June Battle of Sullivan 's Island . ) The Second Continental Congress had established the Continental Navy in late 1775 . By February 1776 the first ships of the fleet were ready for their maiden voyage , and Commodore Esek Hopkins led a fleet of eight ships on an expedition to the Bahamas , where the British were known to have military stores . In early March , the fleet ( reduced by one due to tangled riggings en route ) landed marines on the island of New Providence and captured the town of Nassau . After loading the fleet 's ships , enlarged to include two captured prize ships , with military stores , the fleet sailed north on March 17 , with one ship dispatched to Philadelphia , while the rest of the fleet sailed for the Block Island channel . The fleet 's cruise was marked by outbreaks of a variety of diseases , including fevers and smallpox , resulting in significant reductions in crew effectiveness . By April 4 the fleet had reached the waters off Long Island , and captured a prize , HMS Hawk , which was also laden with supplies . The next day brought a second prize , the Bolton . Hoping to catch more easy prizes , Hopkins continued to cruise off Block Island that night , forming the fleet into a scouting formation of two columns . The right , or eastern , column was headed by the USS Cabot , followed by Hopkins ' flagship , the USS Alfred , at 20 guns the largest ship of the fleet , and the left column was headed by the USS Andrew Doria , followed by the USS Columbus . Behind these came the USS Providence , with USS Fly and USS Wasp trailing further behind as escorts for the prizes . The need to provide crews for the prizes further reduced the fighting effectiveness of the fleet 's ships . = = Battle = = That night was an exceptionally clear night with a nearly full moon . Between 1 and 2 am on April 6 , with the fleet headed in a generally southerly direction , Andrew Doria and Glasgow spotted each other about 8 leagues ( 20 to 24 nautical miles ) southeast of Block Island . Glasgow was heading westerly , destined for Charleston . Captain Howe came about to investigate the fleet , and over the next 30 minutes closed to within hailing distance . Commodore Hopkins gave no signals during this time , so the fleet formed no battle line which resulted in a battle that Captain Nicholas Biddle of the Andrew Doria later described as " helter @-@ skelter " . Howe first came upon the Cabot , whose captain was Esek Hopkins ' son , John . The younger Hopkins , when hailed for identification , replied , " The Columbus and Alfred , a 22 @-@ gun frigate . " An overzealous seaman on his ship then tossed a grenade onto the Glasgow 's deck , and the battle was engaged . Cabot , a lightly armed brig , fired one ineffective broadside of six @-@ pounders . Glasgow countered with two broadsides with its heavier weaponry , killing Cabot 's master , wounding Hopkins , and disabling her steering . As she drifted away , the Alfred came up to engage Glasgow , and the two engaged in a broadside duel . A shot from Glasgow early in the action broke the lines to Alfred 's tiller ; her temporary loss of steering exposed her to raking fire . Her drift also made it difficult for the Andrew Doria to join the action , who also had to maneuver to avoid the drifting Cabot . The Providence held back , and Columbus was eventually able to join the action late , but her fire was so wild that little to no damage was done to Glasgow . With Glasgow now exposed to fire from three ships , Howe decided to break off the battle in order to avoid being boarded , and made sail for Newport . Despite extensive damage to sail and rigging , he pulled away from the pursuing fleet , which was fully laden with its captured goods . After several hours of chase , lasting into daylight , Hopkins called off the chase to avoid an encounter with the British squadron at Newport . His only prize was Glasgow 's tender , which the fleet brought to anchor in New London , Connecticut on April 8 . = = Aftermath = = The Glasgow suffered only four casualties , one killed and three wounded . This count demonstrated the poor quality of the Continental fleet 's gunnery : all of the casualties were due to musket fire . Aboard the Cabot there were four killed and seven wounded , and the Alfred had six each killed and wounded ; Andrew Doria 's drummer was also wounded . Although Continental Congress President John Hancock praised Hopkins for the fleet 's performance , its failure to capture the Glasgow gave opponents of the Navy in and out of Congress opportunities for criticism . Nicholas Biddle wrote of the action , " A more imprudent , ill @-@ conducted affair never happened . " Abraham Whipple , captain of the Columbus , endured rumors and accusations of cowardice for a time , but eventually asked for a court martial to clear his name . Held on May 6 by a panel consisting of officers who had been on the cruise , he was cleared of cowardice , although he was also criticized for errors of judgment . John Hazard , captain of the Providence , was not so fortunate . Charged with a variety of offenses by his subordinate officers , including neglect of duty during the Glasgow action , he was convicted by court martial and forced to surrender his commission . Commodore Hopkins came under scrutiny from Congress over matters unrelated to this action . He had violated his written orders in sailing to Nassau instead of Virginia and the Carolinas , and he had distributed the goods taken during the cruise to Connecticut and Rhode Island without consulting Congress . He was censured for these transgressions , and dismissed from the Navy in January 1778 after further controversies , including the fleet 's failure to sail again ( a number of its ships suffered from crew shortages , and also became trapped at Providence , Rhode Island by the British occupation of Newport late in 1776 ) . Glasgow , suffering from the battle and having dumped her dispatches , returned to Newport . She was found to be in bad enough shape that she was made as seaworthy as possible and sent to Portsmouth for repairs . Her mission was reassigned to Nautilus , another ship in the Newport squadron . = Celebration ( Madonna album ) = Celebration is the third greatest hits album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , and the final release under her contract with Warner Bros. Records , her record company since 1982 . The release follows her two previous greatest hits albums , The Immaculate Collection ( 1990 ) and GHV2 ( 2001 ) . The compilation was released in many different formats including a one @-@ disc edition and a deluxe double disc . A compilation DVD , entitled Celebration : The Video Collection , was released to accompany the audio versions . The album includes three new tracks , the title track which is included on all versions , " Revolver " which is included on the deluxe editions and " It 's So Cool " which is included as a bonus track on some of the iTunes Store deluxe digital versions . A fourth track , " Broken " , was recorded for the album but not used ; eventually it was released in 2012 as a limited edition promotional vinyl single for fanclub members . Celebration was appreciated by contemporary critics who noted the vastness of Madonna 's back @-@ catalogue . The album debuted at the top of the charts in Belgium , Canada , Ireland , Italy , Mexico and the United Kingdom . Madonna became tied with Elvis Presley as the solo artist with the most number @-@ one albums in the United Kingdom . In the United States , it debuted at number seven in the Billboard 200 ; in other nations , it also debuted within the top ten , peaking in the top three in most of them . The title track was released as the first single of the album . It became Madonna 's 40th number @-@ one song on Billboard 's Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " Revolver " was released as the second single from the album in some territories , but did not achieve significant commercial success . = = Background = = On March 18 , 2009 , Madonna 's publicist Liz Rosenberg announced the plans for the release of a greatest hits package by September . She also added that Madonna had plans to go to the studio and record new material for the album . The next day , Madonna 's manager , Guy Oseary , asked fans on his Twitter for input regarding the track listing of the greatest hits album . It was later confirmed that she wrote three new tracks for the album , with Paul Oakenfold being confirmed as producer for two of the new songs . Attitude magazine reported in an interview with Oakenfold that the tracks he produced with Madonna are called " Broken ( I 'm Sorry ) " and " Celebrate " . He stated that the new music is " lyrically classic Madonna with an edgy modern sound . " Her official website also confirmed the presence of the track " Revolver " , featuring rapper Lil Wayne , when they announced the final track listing for the CD and DVD on August 26 , 2009 . With The Times , Madonna shared her thoughts on the release : The song comes first . And all of those other things that people remember , the imagistic things , are secondary , or certainly not as important . But I think I ’ ve become pretty good at sussing out when people 's opinions of my work are coming from what they think of me personally . You just have to do your thing and then let it go out into the world . The rest , you 're not in control . On July 22 , 2009 , Warner Bros. Records officially announced the release date as September 28 , 2009 and confirmed the name of the album as Celebration through Madonna 's official website . The compilation was available in a case of two , as well as a single CD . The songs on the album were re @-@ mastered and chosen by Madonna and her fans , while covering the whole expanse of her career . A DVD titled Celebration : The Video Collection was released which included several music videos of Madonna that have never appeared on a DVD before . It includes the completed video of the single " Celebration " . The cover for Celebration was created by street pop artist Mr. Brainwash who is best known for " throwing modern cultural icons into a blender and turning it up to eleven " . Celebration was made available for pre @-@ order on iTunes Store on September 1 , 2009 , to coincide with the music video release of " Celebration " . The standard ( 1 disc ) and deluxe editions ( 2 discs ) are available , as well as an iTunes exclusive Premium Edition which includes each track available on the 2 @-@ Disc Edition , as well as a new track entitled " It 's So Cool " , and thirty MP4 music videos . = = Critical reception = = Celebration received a score of 84 / 100 at Metacritic , indicating " universal acclaim " from music critics . Sarah Crompton from The Daily Telegraph gave the collection four out of five stars and said : " Madonna 's Celebration shows just how consistently she delivers the goods , with tracks such as ' Music ' , ' Ray of Light ' , ' Frozen ' and ' Don 't Tell Me ' " , with " only a couple of [ songs ] which feel dispensable . " Eric Henderson of Slant Magazine gave the compilation four out of five stars and commented that " functionally , what Madonna and fans are really celebrating with the release of Celebration is the hard proof that Madonna 's back catalogue is now so immense and so varied that she can release a behemoth , two @-@ disc greatest hits package that shoehorns in 36 songs and still manages to significantly short @-@ change the singer 's legacy " , though also noticing that " the album is missing songs , doesn 't always include the right ones , [ and ] seems to have been sequenced by a not particularly intuitive Genius playlist . " Tim Sendra from Allmusic praised that " the collection does a fine job of living up to the title — it 's certainly a celebration of Madonna 's career and includes some of the most celebratory and thrilling pop music ever created . " While reviewing the double @-@ disc deluxe edition version of the album , he commented : " The 34 @-@ track double @-@ disc Deluxe Edition has an easier time of it than the single @-@ disc 18 @-@ track release does . " Rob Sheffield from Rolling Stone noted that " Celebration kicks off with pure bliss and never lets up . It 's a dizzying , nonchronological spin through the Madonna years , years it makes you feel lucky to be living through . Her hitmaking genius is unmatched and [ ... ] undiminished . " , though calling the omission of " Angel " " just plain crazypants . " Lean Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly commented that the album " holds up surprisingly well " . Joey Guerra from Houston Chronicle praised the album saying " every song on Celebration defines a moment in time , a radio sing @-@ along , a twirl under the glitterball . It 's a pulsing testament to Madonna 's often @-@ overlooked pop prowess , from the scrappy electro beginnings of ' Everybody ' and ' Burning Up ' to the retro @-@ disco swirl of ' Beautiful Stranger ' and ' Hung Up ' , still a hands @-@ in @-@ the @-@ air highlight . " Alan Woodhouse from NME was unfavorable in his review about the compilation , reckoning Madonna 's career as two distinct phases , them being her " 80s output " and her later career , or " phaze two " , summarising by saying that " Madonna clearly thinks this collection represents a celebration of her longevity [ ... ] in reality all it does it expose her more recent failings " , though Woodhouse also called it " unfair to say Madge hasn ’ t touched magic since 1990 " before naming " Hung Up " and " Ray of Light " . Douglas Wolk , from Pitchfork Media , reviewed the album in the same light , also comparing her early work with the later days , stating that " ' Hung Up ' is really the only song from the post @-@ GHV2 period that 's lodged in the American pop consciousness " , concluding with saying that " [ Madonna ] deserves a retrospective more interesting than this haphazard piece of contract @-@ filling product . " , though being positive about the opening sequence , calling that " incredibly strong , a convincing argument for her genius . " = = Chart performance = = In the United States , Celebration debuted at number seven , with 72 @,@ 000 copies sold in its first week . It was present on the chart for a total of 12 weeks and was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on November 23 , 2009 , indicating shipment of 500 @,@ 000 units . In April 2010 , the album got a boost in sales from the Glee episode titled The Power of Madonna . The album re @-@ entered the Billboard 200 at position 85 with sales of 6 @,@ 000 and a 219 % gain . In February 2012 after her appearance on the Super Bowl XLVI halftime show , the album again entered the Billboard 200 at number 24 with sales of 16 @,@ 000 copies and a 1 @,@ 341 % gain from previous week . In Canada , the album debuted at the top of the Canadian Albums Chart , with sales of 17 @,@ 000 copies . In Australia and New Zealand , Celebration debuted at numbers eight and two on the official charts , respectively . It was certified gold in both Australia and New Zealand , by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , indicating shipements of 35 @,@ 000 and 7 @,@ 500 copies respectively . The album also debuted at number one position on the Gfk Chart @-@ Track albums chart in Ireland , earning a platinum certification from the Irish Recorded Music Association ( IRMA ) for shipment of 15 @,@ 000 copies of the album . In the United Kingdom , Celebration debuted at number one , selling 77 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . It became Madonna 's eleventh number @-@ one release on the UK Albums Chart , tying her with Elvis Presley as the solo act with the most number @-@ one albums in the British chart history . The album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for shipment of 300 @,@ 000 copies across the United Kingdom . According to the Official Charts Company , Celebration has sold 370 @,@ 231 copies in the United Kingdom as of February 2013 . From 2009 to 2012 , the album had three separate chart runs within the top 100 of the albums chart . It re @-@ entered the chart again on March 1 , 2015 , at number 38 with sales of 2 @,@ 476 copies , following the release of her single " Living for Love " from 13th studio album , Rebel Heart . The album also reached the top of the charts in Belgium ( Flanders ) , Denmark , Germany and Italy , while in Austria , Belgium ( Wallonia ) , Finland , Netherlands , Norway , Portugal , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland the album debuted within the top ten of the official charts . In France the album debuted atop the French Compilation Albums Chart , and receiving a platinum certification from Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for shipment of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It also debuted at number one on Billboard 's European Top 100 Albums chart , topping the chart for four consecutive weeks . Celebration was certified double platinum by Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) for shipments of 120 @,@ 000 copies . In total , Celebration sold over a million copies across Europe , earning a platinum certification from the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) . In Japan , Celebration reached a peak of number three on the Oricon albums chart and was placed at number 47 on the Oricon year end rankings , selling 177 @,@ 194 copies , and earning a gold certification . In terms of units , it is estimated that Celebration has sold about four million copies worldwide . = = Singles = = " Celebration " was the first single from the compilation . A first preview of the song was added on the performance for " Holiday " on her 2009 leg of the Sticky & Sweet Tour . It was to be released to radio stations on August 3 , 2009 . However , the single leaked on to the internet , so the date was changed to July 31 , 2009 . The digital download was also released on this date due to the leak . Remixes of the song were released to dance clubs on July 24 , 2009 . " Celebration " received mixed reviews from contemporary critics . The song reached the top of the charts in countries like Finland , Italy and Sweden , while reaching the top @-@ ten in other European nations . It became Madonna 's fifty @-@ fifth entry to the Billboard Hot 100 and her fortieth number @-@ one song on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . On December 11 , 2009 it was confirmed by Madonna 's official website that " Revolver " would be released as the second and final single off the album in some territories . The digital maxi single was released in many countries on December 29 , 2009 , followed by a CD maxi single in the US in late January 2010 and a 12 " vinyl single in early February 2010 . Contemporary critics gave a mixed review of the song . Some praised the chorus line " My love 's a revolver " while others felt that it was underwhelming and not on par with Madonna 's previous songs . " Revolver " has charted in the lower regions of the official charts of Belgium , Canada , Finland and the United Kingdom while reaching number four on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart of United States . This was Madonna 's last single of the 2000s . The track , " It 's So Cool " , debuted on the official charts of Finland , Italy and Sweden at numbers 8 , 20 and 30 respectively , due to digital downloads . " Broken " , the fourth song recorded for the album but not used , was written and produced by Madonna and Oakenfold , with additional writing from Ian Green and Ciaran Gribbin . " Broken " was given to Madonna 's fanclub Icon 's official members as a free 12 " vinyl , as a part of their membership . It was eventually given to members in late 2012 . = = Track listings = = = = Formats = = CD Standard edition – 18 tracks edition , this version contains the album edit version of " Frozen " and not the full album version which is on the deluxe edition CD Deluxe edition – 36 tracks edition on two discs LP – 36 tracks edition on four LP vinyl discs Digital download – 18 tracks edition , this version contains the album edit version of " Frozen " and not the full album version which is on the deluxe edition Digital Deluxe – 37 tracks edition with bonus remix of " Celebration " iTunes Store Deluxe edition – 38 tracks edition including a bonus track remix of " Celebration " and " It 's So Cool " iTunes Deluxe video edition – 68 tracks edition , including 38 audio tracks ( including bonus material : " It 's So Cool " and a remix of " Celebration " ) and 30 music videos Amazon Deluxe edition – 38 tracks edition with two bonus remixes of " Celebration " DVD – 47 music videos on two DVD discs = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = = Uncanny Stories ( magazine ) = Uncanny Stories was a pulp magazine which published a single issue , dated April 1941 . It was published by Abraham and Martin Goodman , who were better known for " weird @-@ menace " pulp magazines that included much more sex in the fiction than was usual in science fiction of that era . The Goodmans published Marvel Science Stories from 1938 to 1941 , and Uncanny Stories appeared just as Marvel Science Stories ceased publication , perhaps in order to use up the material in inventory acquired by Marvel Science Stories . The fiction was poor quality ; the lead story , Ray Cummings ' " Coming of the Giant Germs " , has been described as " one of his most appalling stories " . = = Publication history = = Although science fiction had been published before the 1920s , it did not begin to coalesce into a separately marketed genre until the appearance in 1926 of Amazing Stories , a pulp magazine published by Hugo Gernsback . After 1931 , when Miracle Science and Fantasy Stories was launched , no new science fiction magazines appeared until August1938 , when Abraham and Martin Goodman , two brothers who owned a publishing company with multiple imprints , launched Marvel Science Stories . The Goodmans ' magazines included several " weird @-@ menace " pulps — a genre known for incorporating sex and sadism , with story lines that placed women in danger , usually because of a threat that appeared to be supernatural but was ultimately revealed to be the work of a human villain . The influence of the " sex and sadism " side of the Goodman 's portfolio of magazines was apparent in Marvel Science Stories : it was not strictly a weird @-@ menace pulp , but authors were sometimes asked to add more sex to their stories than was usual in the science fiction field at the time . Marvel Science Stories ceased publication with its April 1941 issue , and the Goodmans brought out the only issue of Uncanny Stories the same month . Like Marvel Science Stories , it was edited by Robert O. Erisman . The quality of the fiction was very poor — sf historian Mike Ashley comments that Ray Cummings ' lead story , " Coming of the Giant Germs " , was " one of his most appalling stories " . Ashley speculates that the only reason the magazine was issued was to use up some remaining material that had been acquired for Marvel Science Stories , perhaps because at this time the Goodmans were beginning to focus much more on the growing comic @-@ book market . In addition to Ray Cummings , contributors included David H. Keller , F.A. Kummer , R. DeWitt Miller , and Denis Plimmer . The story titles were not as strongly oriented towards sex as some of the other Goodman publications , which included titles such as " Blood @-@ Brides of the Lusting Corpses " , but Erisman did spice up some of the titles : for example , he changed Keller 's story " The Chestnut Mare " to " Speed Will Be My Bride " . = = Bibliographic details = = Uncanny Stories was in pulp format , 112 pages , and priced at 15 cents ; the only issue was numbered volume 1 , number 1 . The publisher was Manvis Publications of New York ; the editor was Robert O. Erisman . = Paper Dove = " ' Paper Dove " is the twenty @-@ second and final episode of the first season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on May 16 , 1997 . The episode was written by Ted Mann and Walon Green , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " Paper Dove " featured guest appearances by Barbara Williams and Mike Starr . Millennium Group consultant Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) takes his family for holiday in Virginia , not realizing that he has been followed by an old stalker who is manipulating a local serial killer to lure Black into action . " Paper Dove " is a two @-@ part episode , with the story continuing in the second season opening episode " The Beginning and the End " . " Paper Dove " features the first appearances of Maxine Miller and Ken Pogue , who would become minor recurring guests in the series ' third season ; it also marks the first on @-@ screen appearance of the " Polaroid Man " , credited as " The Figure " , who had been an unseen presence since " Pilot " . The episode 's central antagonist is based on a composite of several real life murders , including Edmund Kemper and Jeffrey Dahmer . = = Plot = = Millennium Group member Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) travels with his wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) and daughter Jordan ( Brittany Tiplady ) to visit Catherine 's parents in Arlington County , Virginia . Also present are Catherine 's sister Dawn ( Barbara Williams and her husband Gil . In Maryland , Henry Dion ( Mike Starr ) follows a woman home and murders her ; he is later visited by a strange man hiding his face behind dark glasses — it becomes apparent that this is the man who has been sending Black threatening polaroid pictures . Dion thanks the man ( Paul Raskin ) for finding the victim for him , but is chided for not committing the murder while Black was in the area . Dion takes the corpse into the woods to bury it , all the while speaking to it as though in conversation . Catherine 's father , Tom Miller ( Ken Pogue ) , tells Black about two friends of his whose son was convicted of killing his wife . The father , C. R. Hunziger , is dying of pancreatic cancer , but maintains his distance from his son over the crime ; his wife Adele , however , still believes her son to be innocent . Black visits the terminal Hunziger , hoping to change his mind , but the elderly man holds his position . Adele gives Black a folder full of documents relating to the case , which Black reviews . His knowledge of offender profiling leads him to believe that the convicted man , Malcom , is innocent ; however the conviction was secured with a substantial level of physical evidence . Black also learns of the murder in Maryland , and connects it to the killings of four other women in the locale . Ignoring the protestations of his wife , Black leaves to investigate the parkland where one of the earlier bodies was uncovered . A park ranger discusses that case with him , telling Black that the body was found by an unidentified rambler . Black believes this man was the murderer . Elsewhere , Dion returns home , where he is belittled and emasculated by his overbearing mother , Marie ( Linda Sorensen ) . Black and several former colleagues of his from the Federal Bureau of Investigation decide to taunt the killer into coming forward , giving a press release describing him as cowardly . A furious Dion calls the police to rebut this , betraying his identity . Police arrive at his home to arrest him , finding him sitting , covered in blood , on the kitchen floor beside his mother 's body . He is apprehended , clearing Malcom Hunziger of wrongdoing . Black and his family return home to Seattle . Black carries his daughter from the airport to their car , while Catherine waits to collect their luggage . The man who had helped Dion stands to one side , watching the family . As Black returns to help Catherine with the suitcases , she has disappeared , leaving behind only an origami dove given to her by her mother . = = Production = = " Paper Dove " was written by Ted Mann and Walon Green , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . Wright had previously directed four episodes of the first season — " Dead Letters " , " The Wild and the Innocent " , " The Thin White Line " and " Powers , Principalities , Thrones and Dominions " — and would go on to direct a further twenty @-@ one episodes over the series ' run . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files . " Paper Dove " was Mann 's last script for the series , having penned three others earlier in the season ; the episode was also the only one to have been written by Green . The character of Henry Dion appears to be a composite of several real life serial killers . His fondness for conversing with his victims ' bodies and the gregarious demeanour shown during this seems to be based on Milwaukee @-@ based murderer Jeffrey Dahmer , who would also , like Dion , document his victims photographically . The habit of photographing victims , and the notion of killing women to use them as props , stems from killer Henri Nadeau , who murdered several women in order to use them as mannequins for his photography . The use of an overbearing matriarchal figure as a stressor harkens to Edmund Kemper , who was driven to kill young women by his hatred of his mother , who he eventually murdered before turning himself in ; both Dion and Kemper cut their mother 's vocal folds from their throats after killing them . Maxine Miller and Ken Pogue both make their first appearances as Catherine Black 's parents Justine and Tom Miller in this episode ; the pair would later reprise their respective roles in several episodes of the third season , including " The Innocents " , " Exegesis " , and " Seven and One " . The character played by Paul Raskin , credited here as " The Figure " , would return in the second season opening episode " The Beginning and the End " , which continues the storyline from " Paper Dove " , although the character would by then be credited as " Polaroid Man " , played instead by Doug Hutchison . The character had been a presence in the series since " Pilot " , but had previously only been alluded to without being seen . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Paper Dove " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on May 16 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 6 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 6 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 4 million households , and left the episode the sixty @-@ third most @-@ viewed broadcast that week . The episode received mostly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a B + , calling it " a damned odd episode to end a season on , if still an effective one " . VanDerWerff felt that " Paper Dove " represented " the deepest the show has pulled us into a killer ’ s subconscious " , making it " one of the most bone @-@ chilling episodes Millennium has come up with so far " . VanDerWerff compared elements of the episode , most notably the relationship between the character of Henry Dion and his mother , to the works of filmmaker David Lynch , particularly his television series Twin Peaks . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , noting that it " caps off the series sensationally " . Gibron also praised Starr 's guest role , describing it as " a stellar interpretation " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Paper Dove " four stars out of five . Shearman felt that the series found a comfortable " tonal nuance " in the episode that worked for it , but felt that by the end of the first season none of the supporting cast had been developed well enough to play against Henriksen 's Frank Black , noting " there are half a dozen actors who could be termed regulars ... but without exception they remain functional ciphers " . = Dunnottar Castle = Dunnottar Castle ( Scottish Gaelic : Dùn Fhoithear , " fort on the shelving slope " ) is a ruined medieval fortress located upon a rocky headland on the north @-@ east coast of Scotland , about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Stonehaven . The surviving buildings are largely of the 15th and 16th centuries , but the site is believed to have been fortified in the Early Middle Ages . Dunnottar has played a prominent role in the history of Scotland through to the 18th @-@ century Jacobite risings because of its strategic location and defensive strength . Dunnottar is best known as the place where the Honours of Scotland , the Scottish crown jewels , were hidden from Oliver Cromwell 's invading army in the 17th century . The property of the Keiths from the 14th century , and the seat of the Earl Marischal , Dunnottar declined after the last Earl forfeited his titles by taking part in the Jacobite rebellion of 1715 . The castle was restored in the 20th century and is now open to the public . The ruins of the castle are spread over 1 @.@ 4 hectares ( 3 @.@ 5 acres ) , surrounded by steep cliffs that drop to the North Sea , 50 metres ( 160 ft ) below . A narrow strip of land joins the headland to the mainland , along which a steep path leads up to the gatehouse . The various buildings within the castle include the 14th @-@ century tower house as well as the 16th @-@ century palace . Dunnottar Castle is a scheduled monument , and twelve structures on the site are listed buildings . = = History = = = = = Early Middle Ages = = = A chapel at Dunnottar is said to have been founded by St Ninian in the 5th century , although it is not clear when the site was first fortified , but in any case the legend is late and highly implausible . Possibly the earliest written reference to the site is found in the Annals of Ulster which record two sieges of " Dún Foither " in 681 and 694 . The earlier event has been interpreted as an attack by Brude , the Pictish king of Fortriu , to extend his power over the north @-@ east coast of Scotland . The Scottish Chronicle records that King Domnall II , the first ruler to be called rí Alban ( King of Alba ) , was killed at Dunnottar during an attack by Vikings in 900 . King Aethelstan of Wessex led a force into Scotland in 934 , and raided as far north as Dunnottar according to the account of Symeon of Durham . W. D. Simpson speculated that a motte might lie under the present caste , but excavations in the 1980s failed to uncover substantive evidence of early medieval fortification . The discovery of a group of Pictish stones at Dunnicaer , a nearby sea stack , has prompted speculation that " Dún Foither " was actually located on the adjacent headland of Bowduns , 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) to the north . = = = Later Middle Ages = = = During the reign of King William the Lion ( ruled 1165 – 1214 ) Dunnottar was a center of local administration for The Mearns . The castle is named in the Roman de Fergus , an early 13th @-@ century Arthurian romance , in which the hero Fergus must travel to Dunnottar to retrieve a magic shield . In May 1276 a church on the site was consecrated by William Wishart , Bishop of St Andrews . The poet Blind Harry relates that William Wallace captured Dunnottar from the English in 1297 , during the Wars of Scottish Independence . He is said to have imprisoned 4 @,@ 000 defeated English soldiers in the church and burned them alive . In 1336 Edward III of England ordered William Sinclair , 8th Baron of Roslin , to sail eight ships to the partially ruined Dunnottar for the purpose of rebuilding and fortifying the site as a forward resupply base for his northern campaign . Sinclair took with him 160 soldiers , horses , and a corps of masons and carpenters . Edward himself visited in July , but the English efforts were undone before the end of the year when the Scottish Regent Sir Andrew Murray led a force that captured and again destroyed the defences of Dunnottar . In the 14th century Dunnottar was granted to William de Moravia , 5th Earl of Sutherland ( d.1370 ) , and in 1346 a licence to crenellate was issued by David II . Around 1359 William Keith , Marischal of Scotland , married Margaret Fraser , niece of Robert the Bruce , and was granted the barony of Dunnottar at this time . Keith then gave the lands of Dunnottar to his daughter Christian and son @-@ in @-@ law William Lindsay of Byres , but in 1392 an excambion ( exchange ) was agreed whereby Keith regained Dunnottar and Lindsay took lands in Fife . William Keith completed construction of the tower house at Dunnottar , but was excommunicated for building on the consecrated ground associated with the parish church . Keith had provided a new parish church closer to Stonehaven , but was forced to write to the Pope , Benedict XIII , who issued a bull in 1395 lifting the excommunication . William Keith 's descendents were created Earls Marischal in the mid 15th century , and they held Dunottar until the 18th century . = = = 16th century rebuilding = = = Through the 16th century the Keiths improved and expanded their principal seats : at Dunnottar and also at Keith Marischal in East Lothian . James IV visited Dunnottar in 1504 , and in 1531 James V exempted the Earl 's men from military service on the grounds that Dunnottar was one of the " principall strenthis of our realme " . Mary , Queen of Scots , visited in 1562 after the Battle of Corrichie , and returned in 1564 . James VI stayed for 10 days in 1580 , as part of a progress through Fife and Angus , during which a meeting of the Privy Council was convened at Dunnottar . During a rebellion of Catholic nobles in 1592 , Dunnottar was captured by a Captain Carr on behalf of the Earl of Huntly , but was restored to Lord Marischal just a few weeks later . In 1581 George Keith succeeded as 5th Earl Marischal , and began a large scale reconstruction that saw the medieval fortress converted into a more comfortable home . The founder of Marischal College in Aberdeen , the 5th Earl valued Dunnottar as much for its dramatic situation as for its security . A " palace " comprising a series of ranges around a quadrangle was built on the north @-@ eastern cliffs , creating luxurious living quarters with sea views . The 13th @-@ century chapel was restored and incorporated into the quadrangle . An impressive stone gatehouse was constructed , now known as Benholm 's Lodging , featuring numerous gun ports facing the approach . Although impressive , these are likely to have been fashionable embellishments rather than genuine defensive features . = = = Civil wars = = = In 1639 William Keith , 7th Earl Marischal , came out in support of the Covenanters , a Presbyterian movement who opposed the established Episcopal Church and the changes which Charles I was attempting to impose . With James Graham , 1st Marquess of Montrose , he marched against the Catholic James Gordon , 2nd Viscount Aboyne , Earl of Huntly , and defeated an attempt by the Royalists to seize Stonehaven . However , when Montrose changed sides to the Royalists and marched north , Marischal remained in Dunnottar , even when given command of the area by Parliament , and even when Montrose burned Stonehaven . Marischal then joined with the Engager faction , who had made a deal with the king , and led a troop of horse to the Battle of Preston ( 1648 ) in support of the royalists . Following the execution of Charles I in 1649 , the Engagers gave their allegiance to his son and heir : Charles II was proclaimed king , arriving in Scotland in June 1650 . He visited Dunnottar in July 1650 , but his presence in Scotland prompted Oliver Cromwell to lead a force into Scotland , defeating the Scots at Dunbar in September 1650 . = = = The Honours of Scotland = = = Charles II was crowned at Scone Palace on 1 January 1651 , at which the Honours of Scotland ( the regalia of crown , sword and sceptre ) were used . However , with Cromwell 's troops in Lothian , the honours could not be returned to Edinburgh . The Earl Marischal , as Marischal of Scotland , had formal responsibility for the honours , and in June the Privy Council duly decided to place them at Dunnottar . They were brought to the castle by Katherine Drummond , hidden in sacks of wool . Sir George Ogilvie ( or Ogilvy ) of Barras was appointed lieutenant @-@ governor of the castle , and given responsibility for its defence . In November 1651 Cromwell 's troops called on Ogilvie to surrender , but he refused . During the subsequent blockade of the castle , the removal of the Honours of Scotland was planned by Elizabeth Douglas , wife of Sir George Ogilvie , and Christian Fletcher , wife of James Granger , minister of Kinneff Parish Church . The king 's papers were first removed from the castle by Anne Lindsay , a kinswoman of Elizabeth Douglas , who walked through the besieging force with the papers sewn into her clothes . Two stories exist regarding the removal of the honours themselves . Fletcher stated in 1664 that over the course of three visits to the castle in February and March 1652 , she carried away the crown , sceptre , sword and sword @-@ case hidden amongst sacks of goods . Another account , given in the 18th century by a tutor to the Earl Marischal , records that the honours were lowered from the castle onto the beach , where they were collected by Fletcher 's servant and carried off in a creel ( basket ) of seaweed . Having smuggled the honours from the castle , Fletcher and her husband buried them under the floor of the Old Kirk at Kinneff . Meanwhile , by May 1652 the commander of the blockade , Colonel Thomas Morgan , had taken delivery of the artillery necessary for the reduction of Dunnottar . Ogilvie surrendered on 24 May , on condition that the garrison could go free . Finding the honours gone , the Cromwellians imprisoned Ogilvie and his wife in the castle until the following year , when a false story was put about suggesting that the honours had been taken overseas . Much of the castle property was removed , including twenty @-@ one brass cannons , and Marischal was required to sell further lands and possessions to pay fines imposed by Cromwell 's government . At the Restoration of Charles II in 1660 , the honours were removed from Kinneff Church and returned to the king . Ogilvie quarrelled with Marischal 's mother over who would take credit for saving the honours , though he was eventually rewarded with a baronetcy . Fletcher was awarded 2 @,@ 000 merks by Parliament but the sum was never paid . = = = Whigs and Jacobites = = = Religious and political conflicts continued to be played out at Dunnottar through the 17th and early 18th centuries . In 1685 , during the rebellion of the Earl of Argyll against the new king James VII , 167 Covenanters were seized and held in a cellar at Dunnottar . The prisoners included 122 men and 45 women associated with the Whigs , an anti @-@ Royalist group within the Covenanter movement , and had refused to take an oath of allegiance to the new king . The Whigs were imprisoned from 24 May until late July . A group of 25 escaped , although two of these were killed in a fall from the cliffs , and another 15 were recaptured . Five prisoners died in the vault , and 37 of the Whigs were released after taking the oath of allegiance . The remaining prisoners were transported to Perth Amboy , New Jersey , as part of a colonisation scheme devised by George Scot of Pitlochie . Many , like Scot himself , died on the voyage . The cellar , located beneath the " King 's Bedroom " in the 16th @-@ century castle buildings , has since become known as the " Whigs ' Vault " . Both the Jacobites ( supporters of the exiled Stuarts ) and the Hanoverians ( supporters of George I and his descendents ) used Dunnottar Castle . In 1689 during Viscount Dundee 's campaign in support of the deposed James VII , the castle was garrisoned for William and Mary with Lord Marischal appointed captain . Seventeen suspected Jacobites from Aberdeen were seized and held in the fortress for around three weeks , including George Liddell , professor of mathematics at Marischal College . In the Jacobite Rising of 1715 George Keith , 10th Earl Marischal , took an active role with the rebels , leading cavalry at the Battle of Sheriffmuir . After the subsequent abandonment of the rising Lord Marischal fled to the Continent , eventually becoming French ambassador for Frederick the Great of Prussia . Meanwhile , in 1716 , his titles and estates including Dunnottar were declared forfeit to the crown . = = = Later history = = = The seized estates of the Earl Marischal were purchased in 1720 for £ 41 @,@ 172 , by the York Buildings Company who dismantled much of the castle . In 1761 the Earl briefly returned to Scotland and bought back Dunnottar only to sell it five years later to Alexander Keith , an Edinburgh lawyer who served as Knight Marischal of Scotland . Dunnottar was inherited in 1852 by Sir Patrick Keith @-@ Murray of Ochtertyre , who in turn sold it in July 1873 to Major Alexander Innes of Cowie and Raemoir for about £ 80 @,@ 000 . It was purchased by Weetman Pearson , 1st Viscount Cowdray , in 1925 after which his wife embarked on a programme of repairs . Since that time the castle has remained in the family , and has been open to the public , attracting 52 @,@ 500 visitors in 2009 . Dunnottar Castle , and the headland on which is stands , was designated as a scheduled monument in 1970 . In 1972 twelve of the structures at Dunnottar were listed . Three buildings are listed at category A as being of " national importance " : the keep ; the entrance gateway ; and Benholm 's Lodging . The remaining listings are at category B as being of " regional importance " . The Hon. Charles Anthony Pearson , the younger son of the 3rd Viscount Cowdray , currently owns and runs Dunnottar Castle which is part of the 210 @-@ square @-@ kilometre ( 52 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ) Dunecht Estates . Portions of the 1990 film Hamlet , starring Mel Gibson and Glenn Close , were shot there . = = Description = = Dunnottar 's strategic location allowed its owners to control the coastal terrace between the North Sea cliffs and the hills of the Mounth , 3 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 2 mi ) inland , which enabled access to and from the north @-@ east of Scotland . The site is accessed via a steep , 800 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) footpath ( with modern staircases ) from a car park on the coastal road , or via a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) cliff @-@ top path from Stonehaven . Dunnottar 's several buildings , put up between the 13th and 17th centuries , are arranged across a headland covering around 1 @.@ 4 hectares ( 3 @.@ 5 acres ) . The dominant building , viewed from the land approach , is the 14th @-@ century keep or tower house . The other principal buildings are the gatehouse ; the chapel ; and the 16th @-@ century " palace " which incorporates the " Whigs ' Vault " . = = = Defences = = = The approach to the castle is overlooked by outworks on the " Fiddle Head " , a promontory on the western side of the headland . The entrance is through the well @-@ defended main gate , set in a curtain wall which entirely blocks a cleft in the rocky cliffs . The gate has a portcullis and has been partly blocked up . Alongside the main gate is the 16th @-@ century Benholm 's Lodging , a five @-@ storey building cut into the rock , which incorporated a prison with apartments above . Three tiers of gun ports face outwards from the lower floors of Benholm 's Lodging , while inside the main gate , a group of four gun ports face the entrance . The entrance passage then turns sharply to the left , running underground through two tunnels to emerge near the tower house . Simpson contends that these defences are " without exception the strongest in Scotland " , although later writers have doubted the effectiveness of the gun ports . Cruden notes that the alignment of the gun ports in Benholm 's Lodging , facing across the approach rather than along , means that they are of limited efficiency . The practicality of the gun ports facing the entrance has also been questioned , though an inventory of 1612 records that four brass cannons were placed here . A second access to the castle leads up from a rocky cove , the aperture to a marine cave on the northern side of the Dunnottar cliffs into which a small boat could be brought . From here a steep path leads to the well @-@ fortified postern gate on the cliff top , which in turn offers access to the castle via the Water Gate in the palace . Artillery defences , taking the form of earthworks , surround the north @-@ west corner of the castle , facing inland , and the south @-@ east , facing seaward . A small sentry box or guard house stands by the eastern battery , overlooking the coast . = = = Tower house and surrounding buildings = = = The late 14th @-@ century tower house has a stone @-@ vaulted basement , and originally had three further storeys and a garret above . Measuring 12 by 11 metres ( 39 by 36 ft ) , the tower house stood 15 metres ( 49 ft ) high to its gable . The principal rooms included a great hall and a private chamber for the lord , with bedrooms upstairs . Beside the tower house is a storehouse , and a blacksmith 's forge with a large chimney . A stable block is ranged along the southern edge of the headland . Nearby is Waterton 's Lodging , also known as the Priest 's House , built around 1574 , possibly for the use of William Keith ( died 1580 ) , son of the 4th Earl Marischal . This small self @-@ contained house includes a hall and kitchen at ground level , with private chambers above , and has a projecting spiral stair on the north side . It is named for Thomas Forbes of Waterton , an attendant of the 7th Earl . = = = The palace = = = The palace , to the north @-@ east of the headland , was built in the late 16th century and early to mid @-@ 17th century . It comprises three main wings set out around a quadrangle , and for the most part is probably the work of the 5th Earl Marischal who succeeded in 1581 . It provided extensive and comfortable accommodation to replace the rooms in the tower house . In its long , low design it has been compared to contemporary English buildings , in contrast to the Scottish tradition of taller towers still prevalent in the 16th century . Seven identical lodgings are arranged along the west range , each opening onto the quadrangle and including windows and fireplace . Above the lodgings the west range comprised a 35 @-@ metre ( 115 ft ) gallery . Now roofless , the gallery originally had an elaborate oak ceiling , and on display was a Roman tablet taken from the Antonine Wall . At the north end of the gallery was a drawing room linked to the north range . The gallery could also be accessed from the Silver House to the south , which incorporated a broad stairway with a treasury above . The basement of the north range incorporates kitchens and stores , with a dining room and great chamber above . At ground floor level is the Water Gate , between the north and west ranges , which gives access to the postern on the northern cliffs . The east and north ranges are linked via a rectangular stair . The east range has a larder , brewhouse and bakery at ground level , with a suite of apartments for the Countess above . A north @-@ east wing contains the Earl 's apartments , and includes the " King 's Bedroom " in which Charles II stayed . In this room is a carved stone inscribed with the arms of the 7th Earl and his wife , and the date 1654 . Below these rooms is the Whigs ' Vault , a cellar measuring 16 by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 52 by 15 ft ) . This cellar , in which the Covenanters were held in 1685 , has a large eastern window , as well as a lower vault accessed via a trap @-@ door in the floor . Of the chambers in the palace , only the dining room and the Silver House remain roofed , having been restored in the 1920s . The central area contains a circular cistern or fish pond , 16 metres ( 52 ft ) across and 7 @.@ 6 metres ( 25 ft ) deep , and a bowling green is located to the west . At the south @-@ east corner of the quadrangle is the chapel , consecrated in 1276 and largely rebuilt in the 16th century . Medieval walling and two 13th @-@ century windows remain , and there is a graveyard to the south . = Raid on Griessie = The Raid on Griessie was a British attack on the Dutch port of Griessie ( later renamed Gresik ) on Java in the Dutch East Indies in December 1807 during the Napoleonic Wars . The raid was the final action in a series of engagements fought by the British squadron based in the Indian Ocean against the Dutch naval forces in Java , and it completed the destruction of the Dutch squadron with the scuttling of three ships of the line , the last Dutch warships in the region . The British squadron — under the command of Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew — sought to eliminate the Dutch in an effort to safeguard the trade route with China , which ran through the Straits of Malacca and were in range of Dutch raiders operating from the principal Javan port of Batavia . In the summer of 1806 , British frigates reconnoitred Javan waters and captured two Dutch frigates , encouraging Pellew to lead a major attack on Batavia that destroyed the last Dutch frigate and several smaller warships . Prior to the Batavia raid however , Dutch Rear @-@ Admiral Hartsinck had ordered his ships of the line to sail eastwards , where they took shelter at Griessie , near Sourabaya . On the morning of 5 December 1807 , a second raiding squadron under Pellew appeared off Griessie and demanded that the Dutch squadron in the harbour surrender . The Dutch commander — Captain Cowell — refused , and seized the boat party that had carried the message . Pellew responded by advancing up the river and exchanging fire with a Dutch gun battery on Madura Island , at which point the governor in Surabaya overruled Captain Cowell , released the seized boat party and agreed to surrender the ships at anchor in Gresik harbour . By the time Pellew reached the anchorage , however , Cowell had scuttled all of the ships in shallow water , and Pellew was only able to set the wreckage on fire . Landing shore parties , the British destroyed all military supplies in the town and demolished the battery on Madura . With the destruction of the force in Griessie , the last of the Dutch naval forces in the Pacific were eliminated . British forces returned to the region in 1810 with a large scale expeditionary force that successfully invaded and captured Java in 1811 , temporary removing the last Dutch colony east of Africa . = = Background = = In 1804 , at the start of the Napoleonic Wars , a powerful French squadron operating from Batavia harbour on the Dutch island colony of Java attacked a large and valuable British merchant convoy sailing from China near the Straits of Malacca in the Battle of Pulo Aura . The French attack was a failure , but the threat posed to British trade passing through the Strait of Malacca by French or Dutch warships had been clearly demonstrated . Determined to eliminate this threat , the commander of Royal Navy forces in the Indian Ocean — Rear @-@ Admiral Sir Edward Pellew — ordered frigates to reconnoitre Dutch naval activity in the East Indies during the summer of 1806 . The Dutch maintained a small squadron in the region under Rear @-@ Admiral Hartsinck , principally intended to operate against pirates , consisting of three 68 @-@ gun ships of the line , three frigates and a number of smaller vessels . Despite the obsolete nature of many of these ships , they nevertheless constituted a threat to British trade and Pellew 's frigates raided Dutch harbours and merchant shipping extensively during their patrols . At the Action of 26 July 1806 , a Dutch convoy sailing along the southern coast of Celebes was attacked and defeated by one of Pellew 's reconnaissance frigates , HMS Greyhound . Among the captured ships was the Dutch frigate Pallas and two large merchant vessels . Three months later , the frigate HMS Caroline entered Batavia harbour itself , seizing the Dutch frigate Maria Riggersbergen at the Action of 18 October 1806 . These successes encouraged Pellew to conduct a larger scale operation , launching a major Raid on Batavia harbour on 27 November 1806 . As his large squadron sailed into the bay , the surviving Dutch ships were driven on shore to avoid capture , boarding parties under Admiral Pellew 's son Captain Fleetwood Pellew completing the destruction by setting the wrecks on fire . A number of vessels , including all of the Dutch ships of the line , had escaped the raid . Hartsinck had sought to divide his forces shortly before Pellew 's attack and consequently sent a number of vessels eastwards along the Javan coast under an American @-@ born Dutch officer named Captain Cowell . Cowell 's force eventually sheltered in a protected anchorage at the town of Griessie near Sourabaya , 570 mi ( 500 nmi ; 920 km ) to the west of Batavia . There the squadron rapidly deteriorated so that one ship of the line — Kortenaar — had to be broken down into a sheer hulk and two others — Pluto and Revolutie — were disarmed , their cannon transferred into batteries on shore . Admiral Pellew was unable to return to Java early in 1807 , as his ships were dispersed on separate operations across the Indian Ocean , some deploying as far west as the Red Sea . However , during the summer responsibility for the blockade of the French island bases of Île Bonaparte and Isle de France ( now Mauritius ) passed from Pellew to Rear @-@ Admiral Albemarle Bertie at the Cape of Good Hope and Pellew was once again free to concentrate against the remainder of the Dutch squadron . During the absence of his main force , Admiral Pellew had sent two frigates into Javan waters : Caroline under Captain Peter Rainier and HMS Psyche under his son Captain Fleetwood Pellew . These ships rapidly established the location and the state of the Dutch ships of the line , and then separated to raid Dutch merchant shipping , Psyche having considerable success at Semarang on 31 August when Captain Pellew destroyed two Dutch vessels , and captured three , including the Dutch 24 @-@ gun corvette Scipio , which the British renamed Samarang . = = Pellew at Griessie = = When news of the Dutch whereabouts reached Admiral Pellew at Malacca , he immediately assembled a force from nearby warships , including his flagship HMS Culloden under Commander George Bell , ship of the line HMS Powerful under Fleetwood Pellew , [ Note A ] the frigates Caroline under Commander Henry Hart and HMS Fox under Captain Archibald Cochrane and the small vessels HMS Victor under Lieutenant Thomas Groube , HMS Samarang under Lieutenant Richard Buck , HMS Seaflower under Lieutenant William Fitzwilliam Owen and HMS Jaseur under Lieutenant Thomas Langharne . The squadron was accompanied by the transport Worcester , which carried 500 men from the 30th Regiment of Foot under Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Lockhart for any landing operations that might be required . Sailing from Malacca on 20 November , Pellew 's squadron passed along the Javan coast for 15 days , reaching Panka Point on 5 December and sending a boat under a flag of truce into Griessie with instructions for the Dutch commander to surrender his ships . Captain Cowell refused , and ordered the boat party to be arrested . He then sent a Dutch officer aboard Culloden to inform Pellew of his actions . In response , Pellew determined to attack the port and ordered that Culloden and Powerful be lightened by the removal of unnecessary stores to enable them to sail into the shallow straits . On 6 December , the British squadron moved steadily towards Griessie through the Madura Strait , coming under fire from heated cannonballs from a battery of nine cannon situated at Sambelangan on Madura Island . Returning fire with his full squadron , Pellew rapidly silenced the battery without loss or significant damage to his ships and as the squadron approached Griessie , a message from the civilian governor in Sourabaya reached Pellew , reversing Cowell 's orders , releasing the captured boat party and unconditionally surrendering the ships in the harbour . On 7 December , Pellew agreed formal terms for the surrender of Revolutie , Pluto , Kortenaar and the Dutch East Indiaman Rustloff that were anchored in Griessie . However , when British boats entered the harbour it was discovered that Cowell had issued orders for all four ships to be scuttled , their wrecks protruding from the shallow water . Unable to remove the ships , Pellew ordered their remains burnt , while British landing parties spread throughout the town , burning the military stores and destroying the cannon that had been removed from the ship . Another landing party took possession of the remains of the battery at Sambelangan and demolished it . British operations were complete by 11 December and Pellew then ordered the squadron to withdraw and return to India . = = Aftermath = = The final operation of Pellew 's Java campaign , completed with minimal casualties on either side , saw the eradication of the Dutch naval presence in the East Indies for the remainder of the war . With the Dutch removed , British attention turned to the French Indian Ocean islands , which were blockaded and captured during the Mauritius campaign of 1809 – 1811 . Once Mauritius had been captured , British forces returned to the East Indies , expeditionary forces overwhelming the Dutch defenders on several islands , Java falling last . By that time , Pellew was serving in the Mediterranean and British control of the Indian Ocean was assured , the British remaining in possession of the East Indies until they were returned to the Netherlands following the capture of Napoleon and the Anglo @-@ Dutch Treaty of 1814 signed at the Convention of London . The East Indies were handed over in 1816 after Napoleons final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 . = El Hatillo Municipality , Venezuela = El Hatillo Municipality ( Spanish : Municipio El Hatillo ) is an administrative division of the State of Miranda , Venezuela ; along with Baruta , Chacao , Libertador and Sucre , it is one of the five municipalities of Caracas , the capital of Venezuela . It is located in the southeastern area of Caracas , and in the northwestern part of the State of Miranda . The seat of the municipal government is El Hatillo Town , founded in 1784 by Don Baltasar de León , who was instrumental in the area 's development . Although the town had its origins during the Spanish colonisation , the municipality was not established until 1991 . In 2000 – the year after a new constitution was enacted in Venezuela – some of the municipality functions were delegated to a consolidated mayor 's office called Alcaldía Mayor , which also has some authority over the other four municipalities of Caracas . El Hatillo preserves some of its colonial architecture , including an 18th @-@ century parish church and a unique Romanian Orthodox Church . The municipality also has a rich artistic culture , with at least two important musical festivals celebrated yearly , and numerous holiday celebrations reflecting the heritage of El Hatillo . The culture , the pleasant temperature , the rural landscape , and the gastronomy of the municipality have made it a place of interest for visitors to the city , and a desirable place to live . The municipality receives a part of its income from tourism , an activity that is promoted by the government . Although commercial areas are growing rapidly , agriculture remains a foundation of the economy in the rural areas of the southern part of El Hatillo . The business sector remains mostly underdeveloped , causing heavy employee movement in and out of the municipality – a problem that has made the transportation infrastructure of El Hatillo very congested . = = History = = In the 16th century , when the Spanish colonisation in the area began , El Hatillo was inhabited by the Mariches , an indigenous people possibly related to the Kalina ( Caribs ) . Cacique Tamanaco was the leader of these tribes , known for resisting the Spanish colonisation . As the colonisation developed , the indigenous inhabitants were killed ; by order of Caracas 's founder Diego de Losada , Tamanaco was also murdered . In 1752 , Don Baltasar de León García arrived to El Hatillo from Cádiz , Spain , having just completed a prison term at La Carraca , Spain , for opposing ( with his father ) the monopoly rules of Guipuzcoana Company , which was in charge of maintaining exclusive trade between Spain and Venezuela . Don Baltasar founded El Hatillo Town , becoming one of the most significant contributors to its early development . Don Baltasar focused on making El Hatillo a strong , united and independent community , aiming to establish the area as a distinct parish from Baruta , on which El Hatillo depended . He accomplished this on June 12 , 1784 , when the governor and the bishop agreed to declare El Hatillo autonomous and under the direction of Don Baltasar , in front of 180 Canary @-@ descendant families ; this date is accepted as the foundation date of El Hatillo Town . That same year , Don Baltasar and his brother @-@ in @-@ law donated their properties to the town , and an engineer assisted in the urban planning , which included grid streets and a parish church . The church was built to honor Santa Rosalía de Palermo , who Baltasar believed had saved him from a plague that killed his father in prison . In 1803 , at the age of 79 , Don Baltasar was unexpectedly killed in a horse accident . In 1809 , landlord and Lieutenant Colonel Manuel Escalona achieved the separation of El Hatillo from Petare , another suburb of Caracas , making it a different Tenientazgo de Justicia – a type of administrative division at the time . On April 19 , 1810 , Escalona enjoined the town to the movement of independence under Simón Bolívar , becoming another important person in the history of the municipality . Ana Francisca Pérez García , Don Baltasar 's wife , was a noteworthy woman in El Hatillo , attending to community children , elders and ill citizens . She donated a considerable amount of money for the construction of a hospital in Petare after the 1812 earthquake ; this hospital is currently known as the Pérez de León de Petare Hospital . One of the most ambitious urbanisation projects in El Hatillo since its founding was the neighborhood called La Lagunita . In the 1950s and 1960s , La Lagunita S.A. constructed a " functional , futuristic and comfortable " residential zone . To encourage people to settle in the area , each parcel included a membership to Lagunita Country Club , which was officially opened in 1964 . Brazilian landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx contributed to this project , constructed on the 4 @.@ 3 million m ² hacienda that once belonged to former Venezuelan president , Eleazar López Contreras . La Lagunita has since become a wealthy neighborhood of El Hatillo . Although El Hatillo has been independent from Petare since 1809 , it later became part of Sucre Municipality , where Petare is located . On November 19 , 1991 , Miranda 's Legislative Assembly gave El Hatillo full autonomy , making it an independent municipality ; this decision was issued in Gaceta Oficial on January 17 , 1992 . In 1993 , Mercedes Hernández de Silva was elected the first mayor of El Hatillo . Since 2000 , the Alcaldía Mayor manages some of the functions of the municipality . = = Geography = = El Hatillo Municipality lies at the southeast area of the city of Caracas and at the northwest corner of the State of Miranda ; it is one of the state 's 21 municipalities . El Hatillo is also within the jurisdiction of the Alcaldía Mayor , which has power over three adjacent municipalities of Miranda , and over Libertador Municipality in the Capital District . These five municipalities make up the city of Caracas . El Hatillo has a land size of 114 square kilometres ( 44 sq mi ) – the third largest municipality in the capital . The municipality 's natural southern boundary is the Turgua range , spanning east to west and separating El Hatillo from the Baruta and Paz Castillo municipalities . Parallel to Turgua in the north is the Sabaneta range ; the Prepo stream runs between the two ranges . North of the Sabaneta range , the Prepo stream feeds into the Tusmare stream , which ends in the Guaire river . La Guairita stream flows into the Guaire in northeastern El Hatillo . The Guaire river is the eastern limit of the municipality , separating it from Sucre and Paz Castillo in the southeastern sector of El Hatillo . La Guairita serves as the northern boundary between El Hatillo and the municipalities of Baruta and Sucre . Limiting Baruta to the west , the boundaries of the municipality follow El Volcán , Pariaguán , La Mata and other peaks until they meet Turgua range in southeastern El Hatillo . The tallest peak in El Hatillo is Picacho de El Volcán ( Spanish for " Peak of the Volcano " ) , at 1 @,@ 490 meters ( 4 @,@ 888 ft ) above sea level , from where radio , television and telecommunication antennas serve Caracas . Despite its name , the mountain has had no recorded volcanic history . Other significant mountains in El Hatillo are Gavilán at 1 @,@ 148 metres ( 3 @,@ 766 ft ) , Topo de El Paují at 1 @,@ 245 metres ( 4 @,@ 085 ft ) and Topo de Piedras Pintadas at 1 @,@ 196 metres ( 3 @,@ 924 ft ) . = = = Environment = = = El Hatillo , at a higher altitude than the neighboring municipalities of Caracas , has slightly cooler weather than nearby downtown Caracas . The average temperature is between 21 and 24 degrees Celsius ( 70 – 75 ° F ) . At the highest elevations , the temperature can decrease to 18 ° C ( 64 ° F ) and the atmosphere may have constant fog . The mean precipitation is 997 @.@ 3 millimeters a year ( 39 inches ) ; annual values can range from 800 to 1 @,@ 500 millimeters ( 32 in to 59 in ) . The average humidity index is 75 % ; similar to the rest of Venezuela , the rainy season is May through November , while all other months are considered the dry season . The winds are north alizé trade winds . Concentrated near water bodies , the vegetation in most of El Hatillo is dense forests , occupying around 30 % of the surface . Smaller plants like shrubs take around 9 % and herbs occupy a similar percentage . In 1972 , the forests of El Hatillo were declared a protected zone of the metropolitan area of Caracas . The municipality is home to a wide range of bird species , with more than two hundred registered , including sparrowhawks , eagles , falcons , and owls . Birdwatching in the area is promoted by the authorities of Miranda , who have also supported conservation of these species . = = Demographics = = In the 16th century , the indigenous Mariches were killed by the explorers ; when the development of El Hatillo began , Spaniards from the Canary Islands settled in the area . Families from Madeira , Portugal also immigrated to El Hatillo , working largely in agriculture in La Unión neighborhood . As of 2001 , 86 % of the inhabitants of El Hatillo were born in Venezuela ; the largest group not born in Venezuela was from Colombia with 4 @.@ 2 % of the population , followed by Spain with 2 @.@ 0 % , Italy with 1 @.@ 0 % , the United States with 1 @.@ 0 % , and Portugal with 0 @.@ 8 % . In the 2001 National Institute of Statistics census , El Hatillo Municipality had 54 @,@ 225 inhabitants , but demographics show a rapidly rising population . With the progressive demographic increase , El Hatillo 's population is no longer exclusive to any particular ethnic group . In 2001 there were 997 births in El Hatillo , equivalent to a rate of 18 @.@ 4 births per one thousand citizens . The death rate for that same year was 2 @.@ 9 per one thousand citizens . 2001 data shows that there is an average of 21 @.@ 3 years of potential life lost . The main cause of death according to 1999 data was cancer , followed by heart disease and murder . Data for 2000 shows that the largest age group to be 15- to 19 @-@ year @-@ olds , representing 9 @.@ 5 % of El Hatillo 's population ; for every 100 females there are 94 @.@ 2 males . The unemployment rate in 2001 was 6 @.@ 1 % , ranking fourth lowest among the twenty @-@ one municipalities in Miranda . As of 2001 , there were 18 @,@ 878 homes in El Hatillo , of which 13 @,@ 545 were occupied ; the remaining homes were either unoccupied , occasionally used , under construction , or for sale . An average of four people made up each household . Regarding wealth , 74 @.@ 7 % of the population was above poverty level , 21 @.@ 5 % was poor , and 3 @.@ 8 % were extremely poor . According to the 2001 census , each household in the municipality received an average of 1 @,@ 316 @,@ 906 Venezuelan bolívares ( 1316 @.@ 906 bolívares fuertes ) per month , equal to US $ 1 @,@ 832 at the time , or US $ 21 @,@ 984 per year . = = = Neighborhoods = = = Although there are no defined limits for the neighborhoods of El Hatillo , the government website divides the municipality into urban and rural . Concentrated in the northern region of the municipality , the urban neighborhoods are El Hatillo Town , El Calvario , La Lagunita , Alto Hatillo , La Boyera , Las Marías , Oripoto , Los Pomelos , Los Naranjos , Los Geranios , La Cabaña , Cerro Verde , Llano Verde , Colinas , Vista El Valle , Los Olivos , and El Cigarral . The rural localities of the municipality are located in southern El Hatillo ; these are La Unión , Corralito , Turgua , La Hoyadita , Sabaneta , La Mata , Caicaguana , and Altos de Halcón . = = Economy = = The economy of El Hatillo Municipality consists of three sectors : the commercial sector , which has been growing along with the population increase and is primarily represented by shopping malls and retail stores around the urban areas ; agricultural , in the southern half of the municipality and existing since the founding of El Hatillo ; and tourism , which contributes significantly to El Hatillo 's income and is promoted by the government . El Hatillo is an accessible day visit destination for people from Caracas ; the municipality is only 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) southeast of downtown Caracas but in the mountains removed from the congested Caracas valley ; thus , development has focused on day tourism . The central town square – Plaza Bolívar – and its surroundings are well maintained , and the municipal government offers bus trips around the narrow streets for viewing the colonial architecture of the town . Handcrafted souvenirs and products are popular purchases , offered at local artisan shops , and there are numerous restaurants . There are at least three cultural centers in the municipality that attract tourists and residents to music festivals and art expositions . To support the increasing population , numerous shopping malls have been built in the municipality . Neighborhoods like La Lagunita , Los Naranjos and El Hatillo Town now offer large scale shopping malls with multiplex movie theaters . Since the 1980s , the older typical houses of El Hatillo Town have been converted to shops and restaurants , while preserving their colonial architecture . Employment possibilities within El Hatillo – a bedroom community of Caracas – are reduced ; businesses in the municipality are almost strictly commercial , and the economy has not expanded in other directions . Office space underdevelopment has resulted from a lack of land for large scale office construction , making it costly to locate large offices or businesses in the area . Those seeking employment in offices or larger businesses must look outside of El Hatillo , contributing to the high traffic to , from , and in El Hatillo . = = Law and government = = Venezuelan law specifies that municipal governments have four main functions : executive , legislative , comptroller , and planning . The executive function is managed by the mayor , who is in charge of representing the municipality 's administration . The legislative branch is represented by the Municipal Council , composed of seven councillors , charged with the deliberation of new decrees and local laws . The comptroller tasks are managed by the municipal comptroller 's office , which oversees accountancy . Finally , planning is represented by the Local Public Planning Council , which manages development projects for the municipality . El Hatillo has had five mayors through 2014 . Mercedes Hernández de Silva was the first mayor of the municipality , serving from 1993 until 1996 . Succeeding her , Flora Aranguen was Mayor from 1996 until 2000 . That same year , Alfredo Catalán was elected mayor and reelected in 2004 . On November 23 , 2008 Myriam Do Nascimento was elected mayor . She served in that capacity until 2013 , when David Smolansky succeeded her as mayor . The 2007 president of the Municipal Council is Leandro Pereira , supported by the political party Justice First . All but one of the seven councillors belong to political parties opposed to President Hugo Chávez 's administration . There is also a Legislative Commission , presided over by councillor Salvador Pirrone in 2007 . The commission 's job is to assist the municipality in legal matters , such as the creation of new laws and decrees . On March 8 , 2000 – the year after a new constitution was introduced in Venezuela – it was decreed that the Metropolitan District of Caracas would be created , and that some of the powers of El Hatillo Municipality would be delegated to the Alcaldía Mayor , which would also govern the Baruta , Libertador , Sucre and Chacao municipalities . Each of the five municipalities is divided into parishes ; El Hatillo has only one , the Santa Rosalía de Palermo Parish , sometimes called Santa Rosalía de El Hatillo Parish or simply El Hatillo Parish . In December 2006 , as a part of a constitutional reform , Chávez proposed a reorganisation of the municipal powers . Chávez mentioned his reform plans again in his January 2007 presidential inauguration , suggesting a new form of subdivision — communal cities — in which mayors and municipalities would be replaced by communal powers . = = = Crime = = = Relative to the other Caracas municipalities , El Hatillo has the region 's lowest crime rate . Data from 2003 shows that 53 @,@ 555 crimes occurred within the five municipalities of Caracas , but only 418 ( about 0 @.@ 78 % ) took place within El Hatillo . El Hatillo 's population is significantly lower than that of its sister municipalities ; viewing 2003 crime data relative to 2001 census data , El Hatillo had an annual rate of 7 @.@ 7 crimes for every one thousand citizens , while the average of the five Caracas municipalities was 19 @.@ 4 for every one thousand citizens . The main police force in El Hatillo is the municipal police , sometimes referred to as Poli @-@ Hatillo . Other police forces can also intervene in the municipality , including the Metropolitan Police , and the Miranda State Police . = = Education = = The municipality has one higher education facility – Nueva Esparta University , a 30 @,@ 000 square meters ( 323 @,@ 000 sq ft ) institution located in Los Naranjos . Nueva Esparta school was founded in 1954 , but the private university was not constructed until 1989 . El Hatillo offers free public education , with a total of seventeen primary education schools ; eleven are public and six are private . Nineteen preschools exist : ten public and nine private . Data for secondary education is incomplete ; there are five private secondary schools in the municipality , but the number of public secondary schools is unavailable . Government data shows each educational stage separately , but an individual facility may contain preschool , primary and secondary education . The 2001 census shows enrollment of 8 @,@ 525 students during the 2000 – 2001 school year ; by the end of the school year , 8 @,@ 149 had passed . = = Culture = = The most significant icon in the culture of El Hatillo is Santa Rosalía de Palermo . The church adjacent to the plaza in the center block of El Hatillo Town is named after this saint , and the only parish in the municipality also carries her name . The community is largely Catholic ; local shops carry many religious handcrafted products , and the municipality is the site of the Santa Rosa de Lima Seminary , formerly San José Seminary . In El Hatillo – and throughout Venezuela – images of Jesus and Mary are part of the art and culture . Don Baltasar de León and his wife , Ana Francisca , are remembered for founding and developing El Hatillo . Manuel Escalona is recognised for including El Hatillo in the 19th century independence movement ; as in the rest of Venezuela , Simón Bolívar is considered a hero . = = = Heritage = = = Santa Rosalía de Palermo – born in Palermo , Italy – is the patron saint of El Hatillo . Rosalía was recognised in 1624 when her remains were discovered in a cave , brought to the Cathedral of Palermo , and displayed through the streets of Palermo during a plague . Within three days , the plague ended ; Rosalía was credited with saving many from the plague and proclaimed patron saint of the city . Years later , El Hatillo 's founder also believed that Santa Rosalía had protected him from an infection . During the Guipuzcoana scandal in Venezuela , Baltasar 's father , Juan Francisco de León , and his sons were held prisoners in Cádiz . Juan Francisco died as a consequence of smallpox , but Don Baltasar completed his years in prison and then moved to El Hatillo . Baltasar brought the legacy of Santa Rosalía de Palermo to El Hatillo , believing she protected him from the pestilence that killed his father in Cádiz . Part of El Hatillo 's culture has grown around Santa Rosalía ; she is believed to be the one who takes care of the people and protects El Hatillo from any pandemic that could hit the area . Don Baltasar 's most evident inclusion of Rosalía into El Hatillo 's culture occurred at least twice : first in 1776 , when El Calvario chapel was built and dedicated to the Saint ; and then in 1784 , when a bigger parish church named Iglesia Santa Rosalía de Palermo was constructed . = = = Regional celebrations = = = In addition to the nationwide activities celebrating Christmas , the New Year , Carnival , and Easter , El Hatillo has a number of celebrations unique to the region . Since the 1766 founding of El Hatillo , a week @-@ long festival honoring Santa Rosalía de Palermo ( Spanish : Fiestas Patronales en honor a Santa Rosalía de Palermo ) is held in September featuring parades , Catholic masses , and traditional games , concluding with the traditional release of balloons accompanied by fireworks . On Holy Thursday , an image of the crucified Christ is decorated with flowers and paraded around El Hatillo 's Plaza Bolívar in the Jesus Christ Procession . Since 1938 , Carnival has been celebrated in El Hatillo with dancing , parades , and the election of a Carnival Queen in Plaza Bolívar . The founding of El Hatillo is commemorated on June 12 with organised activities including traditional games , mass , and balloons . A tradition having religious and agricultural significance has been celebrated every May since the beginning of the twentieth century . The third Sunday of May is the festival of Dama antañona , in which residents pay homage to the women of El Hatillo , with typical food	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
around ninety minutes . = Tabloid Junkie = " Tabloid Junkie " is a pop song performed by American recording artist Michael Jackson . The song appeared as the eleventh track on Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set . The song was written , composed , and produced by Michael Jackson , Jimmy Jam ( James Harris III ) and Terry Lewis . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics . " Tabloid Junkie " is a pop @-@ rock song , with lyrics that pertain to media bias and negative coverage of rumors about Jackson and his personal life , similar to previous songs recorded by Jackson . " Tabloid Junkie " is the seventh song on HIStory : Past , Present And Future , Book I to be aimed at the media . The track was not released as a single . = = Background = = Similarly to " Leave Me Alone " ( 1987 ) and HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I album tracks , " They Don 't Care About Us " , " Scream " and " This Time Around " , amongst others , " Tabloid Junkie " , co @-@ written by Jackson , shows Jackson 's dissatisfaction with the media , particularly the tabloids , because of the bias and negative media coverage of false rumors and the 1993 child sexual abuse accusations made against him . Ever since the late 1980s , Jackson and the press did not have a good relationship . In 1986 , the tabloids ran a story claiming that Jackson slept in a hyperbaric oxygen chamber to slow the aging process , with a picture of him lying down in a glass box ; Jackson stated that the story was untrue . When Jackson bought a pet chimpanzee Bubbles , the media viewed it as evidence of Jackson 's increasing detachment from reality . It was reported that Jackson had offered to buy the bones of Joseph " The Elephant Man " Merrick ; Jackson stated that the story was false . These stories inspired the nickname " Wacko Jacko " , which Jackson acquired the following year , and would come to despise . Jackson stopped leaking untrue stories to the press , so the media began making up their own . In 1989 , Jackson released the song and music video " Leave Me Alone " , a song about his perceived victimization at the hands of the press . The video shows Jackson poking fun at both the press and himself . In the video , there are newspapers with bizarre headlines , Jackson dancing with the bones of " The Elephant Man " , and an animated nose with a scalpel chasing it across the screen . In August 1993 , the relationship between Jackson and the press soured entirely when he was accused of child sexual abuse . Although never charged with a crime , Jackson was subject to intense media scrutiny while the criminal investigation took place . Complaints about the coverage included the media using sensational headlines to draw in readers and viewers when the content itself did not support the headline , accepting leaked material from the police investigation and of Jackson 's alleged criminal activity in return for money , a lack of objectivity and using headlines that strongly implied Jackson 's guilt . At the time , Jackson said of the media coverage , " I will say I am particularly upset by the handling of the matter by the incredible , terrible mass media . At every opportunity , the media has dissected and manipulated these allegations to reach their own conclusions . " Jackson began taking painkillers , Valium , Xanax and Ativan to deal with the stress of the allegations made against him . When he left the United States to go into rehabilitation , the media showed him little sympathy . = = Composition = = " Tabloid Junkie " is credited as a pop — funk song , that is similar to New Jack Swing . Throughout the song , Jackson sings in a quick @-@ voice , which some music critics viewed as Jackson " not singing " but " harrumphing " . It is a plea to the public to not believe everything in the tabloids ; and the lyrics are about media bias and sensational journalism about Jackson and in general . This can be heard in lyrics such as , " Just because you read it in the magazine or see it on the TV screen don 't make it factual " . Jackson uses the song to criticize journalists , commenting " with your pen you torture men " , describing how he was affected by the media coverage about him , and " speculate to break the one you hate " , describing how reporters used sensational writing to mislead people and cast him in a negative view . " Tabloid Junkie " is played in the key of A ♭ minor and in common time signature . It has heavy beats throughout with Jackson beatboxing throughout . Jackson 's voice range is from C ♭ 4 to B ♭ 7 . The songs tempo is moderate and its metronome is 111 beats per minute . = = Reception = = " Tabloid Junkie " received primarily positive reviews from contemporary music critics . James Hunter , a writer for Rolling Stone , described " Tabloid Junkie " , as well as " Scream " , another track from the album , as being " two adventurous Jam and Lewis thumpers " that " work completely " , commenting that " Jackson 's slippery voice is caught in mammoth funk @-@ rock constructions " . Hunter noted that the " choruses of ' Tabloid Junkie ' in particular sing out with quick @-@ voiced warnings about the failings of media truth . " Robert Christgau , a film and music critic , who gave the album * * Honorable Mention ( ) , listed " Tabloid Junkie " as being one out of two of the albums highlights . Jim Farber , of the New York Daily News , commented that " Tabloid Junkie " sounded " like virtual satires " of the " beat @-@ heavy sound devised " by Jam and Lewis in the 1980s . David Browne , of Entertainment Weekly , noted that " Tabloid Junkie , " comes as " close to transcendence as anywhere on the album " and described the chorus , " Just because you read it in the magazine or see it on the TV screen don 't make it factual " as Jackson 's " grabbiest , most driven refrain in years . " Although Browne praised the song , he commented , " The rest of the song , however , is mucked up with fake tabloid @-@ TV snippets about his ' life , ' and on the verses Jackson 's delivery is so terse ( he 's not singing , he 's harrumphing ) that his lyrics are all but obliterated . Handed a golden opportunity , he throws it all away — but then , it wouldn 't be the first time . " Deepika Reedy , of The Daily Collegian , described the " rust in songs " like " Tabloid Junkie " as having a " raw aspect " that Jackson " hasn 't approached since a near @-@ miss with ' Billie Jean ' . " Patrick Macdonald , of The Seattle Times , noted that " Tabloid Junkie " was a " disingenuous attack on sensational news stories " about Jackson , remarked that most of stories were " planted " by Jackson himself . = = Track listing = = Album track : " Tabloid Junkie " - 4 : 32 = Slade 's Case = Slade 's Case was a case in English contract law that ran from 1596 to 1602 . Under the medieval common law , claims seeking the repayment of a debt or other matters could only be pursued through a writ of debt in the Court of Common Pleas , a problematic and archaic process . By 1558 the lawyers had succeeded in creating another method , enforced by the Court of King 's Bench , through the action of assumpsit , which was technically for deceit . The legal fiction used was that by failing to pay after promising to do so , a defendant had committed deceit , and was liable to the plaintiff . The conservative Common Pleas , through the appellate court the Court of Exchequer Chamber , began to overrule decisions made by the King 's Bench on assumpsit , causing friction between the courts . In Slade 's Case , a case under assumpsit , which was brought between judges of the Common Pleas and King 's Bench , was transferred to the Court of Exchequer Chamber where the King 's Bench judges were allowed to vote . The case dragged on for five years , with the judgment finally being delivered in 1602 by the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench , John Popham . Popham ruled that assumpsit claims were valid , a decision called a " watershed " moment in English law , with archaic and outdated principles being overwritten by the modern and effective assumpsit , which soon became the main course of action in contract cases . This is also seen as an example of judicial legislation , with the courts making a revolutionary decision Parliament had failed to make . = = Background = = Under the medieval common law , there was only one way to resolve a dispute seeking the repayment of money or other contract matters ; a writ of debt , which only the Court of Common Pleas could hear . This was archaic , did not work against the executors of a will and involved precise pleading ; a minor flaw in the documents put to the court could see the case thrown out . By the middle of the 16th century lawyers had attempted to devise an alternative using the action of assumpsit , which was technically a type of trespass due to deceit . The argument was based on the idea that there was an inherent promise in a contract to pay the money , and that by failing to pay the defendant had deceived the plaintiff . By 1558 the lawyers had succeeded , with the Court of King 's Bench agreeing to hear cases under this piece of legal fiction . The judges of the Common Pleas , however , a more traditional group , rejected this argument and only accepted cases where an actual promise had been made in addition to the contract . The action of assumpsit had several advantages over a writ of debt ; the plaintiff could count on always having a jury , while in writs of debt the defendant could rely on wager of law , where he produced twelve people to swear he did not owe the plaintiff money and had the case dismissed . In addition , it worked for executory agreements , not just normal contracts . In 1585 a new form of the Court of Exchequer Chamber was set up , an appellate court where the Common Pleas judges held a majority , and regularly began to reverse King 's Bench judgments which were based on assumpsit . This , and the conflict between the King 's Bench and the Common Pleas as a whole , was problematic ; a plaintiff at assizes could not be sure which sort of judge his case would come before , lending uncertainty to the law . Boyer suggests that , in this environment , the Chief Justice of the King 's Bench John Popham deliberately provoked the Common Pleas to resolve the matter , and did so through Slade 's Case . = = Facts = = John Slade was a grain merchant , who claimed that Humphrey Morley had agreed to buy a crop of wheat and rye from him , paying £ 16 , and had reneged on the agreement . He brought the case before the Assizes in 1596 , where it was heard by two judges ; one of the Common Pleas , and one of the King 's Bench . It was heard under assumpsit , and the jury found that Morley indeed owed Slade money . Before a judgment could be issued , Popham had the case transferred to an older version of the Court of Exchequer Chamber , which , sitting in Serjeant 's Inn , allowed the King 's Bench judges to sit . Edward Coke was counsel for Slade , arguing that the King 's Bench had the power to hear assumpsit actions , along with Laurence Tanfield , while Francis Bacon and John Doddridge represented Morley . The quality of legal argument was high ; Bacon was a " skillful , subtle intelect " capable of distinguishing the precedent brought up by Coke , while Doddridge , a member of the Society of Antiquaries , knew the records even better than Coke did . Coke , rather than directly confronting opposing counsel , made a twofold argument ; firstly , that the fact that the King 's Bench had been allowed to hear assumpsit actions for so long meant that it was acceptable , based on institutional inertia , and second that , on the subject of assumpsit being used for breaches of promise , that the original agreement included an implied promise to make payment . The case continued for five years ; at one point , the judges let the matter continue for three years because they could not reach a decision . Eventually , in November 1602 , Popham issued a judgment on behalf of the court which stated " Firstly , that every contract executory implies in itself a promise or asumpsit . Secondly , that although upon such a contract an action of debt lies , the plaintiff may well have an action in the case upon the assumpsit . " Coke , in his report of the case ( published in 1604 ) reports that the judgment was unanimous , while more modern commentators such as Boyer assert that it was narrow , most likely 6 to 5 , with the dividing line being between the King 's Bench judges and Common Pleas . = = Judgment = = Lord Popham CJ held that Slade could sue , and was successful . He said the following . = = Significance = = The impact of the case was immediate and overwhelming . Ibbetson considers Slade 's Case to be a " watershed " moment , in which the archaic and conservative form of law was overwritten by a modern , more efficient method . Assumpsit became the dominant form of contract cases , with the door " opened wide " to plaintiffs ; Boyer suggests this was perhaps " too wide " . In his Commentaries on the Laws of England , William Blackstone explained that this was the reason why the Statute of Frauds was subsequently passed in 1677 : The case is particularly notable as an example of judicial legislation , with the judges significantly modernising the law and moving it forward in a way Parliament had not considered . As a side impact , Coke 's arguments were the first to define consideration . The conservative outlook of the Common Pleas soon changed ; after the death of Edmund Anderson , the more activist Francis Gawdy became Chief Justice of the Common Pleas , and other Common Pleas judges , many of whom were uncertain but had followed Anderson 's lead in the case , changed their mind . = The Last of Us Remastered = The Last of Us Remastered is an action @-@ adventure survival horror video game developed by Naughty Dog and published by Sony Computer Entertainment . An enhanced port of 2013 's The Last of Us , Remastered was released for the PlayStation 4 worldwide in July 2014 . Among minor gameplay additions , the game features enhanced graphics and rendering upgrades including increased draw distance , an upgraded combat mechanic and higher frame rate . The game is set twenty years after an outbreak destroyed much of civilization , exploring the possibility of a fungus infecting humans . The single @-@ player story follows Joel , tasked with escorting the young Ellie across a post @-@ apocalyptic United States , in an attempt to create a potential cure against the infection to which Ellie is immune . Players make their way through various locations , fighting against the Infected and hostile human survivors . The multiplayer lets up to eight players engage in cooperative or competitive game matches . To accommodate Remastered 's technical enhancements , Naughty Dog spent months developing the game , beginning upon the release of The Last of Us . The game received critical acclaim . Reviewers were impressed with the graphics upgrades , praising all of the enhancements and additions . It also became a commercial success , selling over one million units within its first month . = = Gameplay = = The Last of Us Remastered changes little from the basic gameplay of the original version . As such , it is an action @-@ adventure survival horror game that uses a third @-@ person perspective . The game involves gunfights , melee combat and a cover system . For most of the game , players control Joel ; Ellie and other companions are controlled by the artificial intelligence . Remastered uses the DualShock 4 's touchpad to navigate inventory items , and the light bar signals health , scaling from blue to orange and red when taking damage . In addition , audio recordings found in the game world can be heard through the controller 's speaker ; the original version forced players to remain in a menu while the recordings were played . The game 's Photo Mode allows players to capture images of the game by pausing gameplay and adjusting the camera freely . In the menu , players have the ability to watch all cutscenes with audio commentary featuring creative director Neil Druckmann , Troy Baker and Ashley Johnson , who portrayed Joel and Ellie , respectively . = = Development = = In March 2014 , information concerning a release of The Last of Us on PlayStation 4 was leaked . This was followed by the appearance of the game , titled The Last of Us Remastered on the PlayStation Store on April 9 , 2014 ; Naughty Dog announced the game on the same day . This enhanced version of the game features an increased draw distance , character models of higher resolution , improved lighting and shadows , and an upgraded combat mechanic . It runs a native 1080p resolution at 60 frames per second , with the option to lock the game at 30 frames per second . At E3 2014 , Sony announced that the game would be released on July 29 , 2014 . Some of the downloadable content from The Last of Us is bundled with Remastered , including Left Behind and some multiplayer maps , while others require a separate purchase . In Remastered , character textures were increased by a factor of four , shadows were doubled and a new lighting process was implemented . The motion blur when turning the camera , used to hide slower loading textures , was reduced , and the game 's environments look " crisper " . In addition , new settings were introduced to allow players to customize the game 's audio channels , and the loading times were reduced , due to the game streaming from the hard drive as opposed to the disc . One of the biggest developmental challenges was fitting all content onto one Blu @-@ ray Disc . The changing of the in @-@ game textures , and the inclusion of Left Behind , were the cause for this difficulty . According to lead developer Christian Gyrling , Remastered " looked broken up until a week before shipping " . Development on Remastered began shortly following the release of The Last of Us in June 2013 . Though initially under light development , the team began working harder on Remastered when they saw the demand for it ; work on the game 's code did not begin until a larger team was introduced to Remastered in February 2014 . As development on the original game ended , the programmers expected that the game would be ported to the PlayStation 4 , but planning and preparation did not begin until The Last of Us had launched . The team aimed at creating a " true " remaster , maintaining the " same core experience " and not changing any large story or gameplay elements . For the game 's frame rate , the team was initially split , with some preferring 30 frames per second rather than 60 ; when the game was running at the latter , the whole team became convinced . The team that worked on Remastered was significantly smaller than the team for The Last of Us ; in particular , the team did not include any designers , which led to various design issues remaining from the original game . Druckmann attributed this to the fact that Remastered was developed as a recreation of the original , altering only technical and graphical aspects . = = Reception = = Like the original version , The Last of Us Remastered was met with critical acclaim . Metacritic calculated an average score of 95 out of 100 , indicating " universal acclaim " , based on 69 critics . GameRankings assigned an average score of 96 % based on 43 reviews . The game 's enhanced graphics received positive reactions . Colin Moriarty of IGN felt that the graphical fidelity of Remastered was an improvement over The Last of Us , despite the latter being " the most beautiful game [ he 'd ] seen on any console " . GamesRadar 's David Houghton echoed this statement , calling the visuals " jaw @-@ dropping " . VideoGamer.com reiterated the graphical improvement over the original game , particularly praising the increased draw distance and improved lighting technology . Liam Martin of Digital Spy also felt that the lighting system improves the gameplay and makes the game " feel even more dangerous " . Game Informer 's Tim Turi stated that the game is " even more breathtaking " than The Last of Us . Matt Swider of TechRadar appreciated the minor detail changes and the technical improvements . The Independent 's Jack Fleming felt that the original game 's visual flaws were enhanced in Remastered , but greatly complimented the updated graphics regardless . Many reviewers considered the technical enhancements , such as the increased frame rate , a welcome advancement from the original game . Turi of Game Informer felt that the frame rate " dramatically elevate [ s ] " the game above the original . Jim Sterling of The Escapist complimented the upgraded frame rate , commenting that the original frame rate is a " noticeably inferior experience " . IGN 's Moriarty stated that , though the change was initially " jarring " , he appreciated it through further gameplay . Tom Hoggins of The Daily Telegraph echoed these statements , feeling as though the increased frame rate heightened the intensity of the gameplay . Metro 's David Jenkins felt that the increased frame rate is almost imperceptible , though stating that it is " definitely an improvement " . Philip Kollar of Polygon appreciated the game 's improved textures and loading times . The addition of Photo Mode was well received . TechRadar 's Swider named the mode as a standout feature , while IGN 's Moriarty complimented the availability to capture " gorgeous " images using the feature . The adjustment of the controls received praise , with Moriarty of IGN particularly approving the DualShock 4 's triggers . Swider of TechRadar felt that the additional controls result in a better functioning game , while Digital Spy 's Martin felt that it improves the game 's combat , commenting that it " increase [ s ] this sense of immersion " . Reviewers also appreciated the inclusion of the DLC and the audio commentary . These features led The Escapist 's Sterling to dub Remastered as " the definitive version of the game " . By August 2014 , The Last of Us Remastered had sold one million copies . It is one of the best @-@ selling PlayStation 4 games . The game was nominated for Best Remaster at The Game Awards 2014 , and received an honorable mention for Best Technology at the 15th Annual Game Developers Choice Awards . = Leigh , Greater Manchester = Leigh is a town in the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , Greater Manchester , England , 7 @.@ 7 miles ( 12 km ) southeast of Wigan and 9 @.@ 5 miles ( 15 @.@ 3 km ) west of Manchester city centre . Leigh is situated on low @-@ lying land to the north west of Chat Moss . Historically a part of Lancashire , Leigh was originally the centre of a large ecclesiastical parish covering six vills or townships . When the three townships of Pennington , Westleigh and Bedford merged in 1875 forming the Leigh Local Board District , Leigh became the official name for the town although it had been applied to the area of Pennington and Westleigh around the parish church for many centuries . The town became an urban district in 1894 when part of Atherton was added . In 1899 Leigh became a municipal borough . The first town hall was built in King Street and replaced by the present building in 1907 . Originally an agricultural area noted for dairy farming , domestic spinning and weaving led to a considerable silk and , in the 20th century , cotton industry . Leigh also exploited the underlying coal measures particularly after the town was connected to the canals and railways . Leigh had an important engineering base . The legacy of Leigh 's industrial past can be seen in the remaining red brick mills – some of which are listed buildings – although it is now a mainly residential town , with Edwardian and Victorian terraced housing packed around the town centre . Leigh 's present @-@ day economy is based largely on the retail sector . = = History = = = = = Toponymy = = = Leigh is derived from the Old English leah which meant a place at the wood or woodland clearing , a glade and subsequently a pasture or meadow , it was spelt Legh in 1276 . Other recorded spellings include Leech , 1264 ; Leeche , 1268 ; Leghthe , 1305 ; Leght , 1417 ; Lech , 1451 ; Legh , 16th century . As its name denotes it was a district rich in meadow and pasture land , and the produce of its dairies , the Leigh cheese , was formerly noted for its excellence . Westleigh , the west clearing , has been named Westeley in 1237 , Westlegh in 1238 and also Westlay in Legh in 1292 . Pennington has been spelt Pininton and Pynynton in 1246 and 1360 , Penynton in 1305 , Pynyngton in 1351 and 1442 and Penyngton in 1443 , the ending ton or tun denotes an enclosure , farmstead or manor in Old English . Bedford , the ford of Beda , probably through Pennington Brook gave its name to this part of Leigh . Spellings include Beneford from 1200 – 21 and Bedeford in 1200 and 1296 . = = = Early history = = = The earliest signs of human activity in Leigh are evidenced by a Neolithic stone axe found in Pennington and a bronze spearhead from south of Gas Street . A single Roman coin was found at Butts in Bedford . After the Roman departure from Britain , and into the history of Anglo @-@ Saxon England , nothing was written about Leigh . However evidence for the presence of Saxons in what was a sparsely populated and isolated part of the country is provided by local township place names that incorporate the Old English suffix leah , such as Leigh , Tyldesley , Shakerley and Astley . = = = Townships = = = In the 12th century the ancient parish of Leigh was made up of six townships , including Pennington , Bedford , Westleigh , Atherton , Astley , and Tyldesley cum Shakerley . Weekly markets were held by the parish church and a cattle fair held twice @-@ yearly . Bedford manor was mentioned in documents in 1202 when it was held by Sir Henry de Kighley whose family held it until the 16th century , but never actually lived there . The Shuttleworths , landowners from the 14th century , were another prominent Bedford family . Richard Shuttleworth married a daughter of the Urmstons from Westleigh and brought part of the Westleigh inheritance to Bedford . This family lived at Shuttleworth House , or Sandypool Farm as it is also known , which is south of the Bridgewater Canal near to the old manor house , Bedford Hall , which survives today as a Grade II listed building . Another prominent Bedford family , the Sales of Hope Carr Hall , had a great deal of influence in Bedford for over 400 years , and owned more land than the Shuttleworths . The family were recusants and secretly kept the " old faith " when Roman Catholicism was subject to civil or criminal penalties . Hope Carr Hall was moated as was nearby Brick House . The manor house of Westleigh was at Higher Hall and existed in Richard I 's time ( 1189 – 1199 ) . In 1292 Sigreda , the heiress of the manor , married Richard de Urmston , and the manor passed to the Urmston family and remained there until the last of the male Urmstons died in 1659 . It was later abandoned because of mining subsidence and Westleigh Old Hall became the manor by repute . The Ranicars and the Marsh families lived here . Westleigh Old Hall was another Leigh hall that had a moat . The Pennington family owned Pennington Hall from about 1200 until they were replaced by the family of Bradshaw or Bradshaigh in 1312 . The Bradshaws held the manor until 1703 when John , the last of the male line died . Pennington Hall was rebuilt in 1748 by the then owner Samuel Hilton and in 1807 sold to the Gaskell family of Thornes , Wakefield , who let it to a succession of tenants . Around 1840 James Pownall , one of the founder members of the silk manufacturing firm of Bickam and Pownall was tenant . Later occupants were Charles Jackson , cotton manufacturer , Jabez Johnson , and F.W. Bouth founder of Bouth 's Mill in 1862 , The last resident was brewer , George Shaw . On 3 December 1919 George Shaw & Co Ltd offered the hall and grounds to the people of Leigh . The gift was accepted and opened to the public on 25 August 1920 . The hall was converted to a museum and art gallery in 1928 but was demolished in 1963 . The grounds are now Pennington Park . = = = Civil War = = = Leigh was divided in its allegiance during the English Civil War , some of the population supporting the Royalists ' cause while others supported the Parliamentarians . A battle was fought in the town on 2 December 1642 , when a group of Chowbenters , men from neighbouring Atherton , beat back and then routed Cavalier troops under the command of James Stanley , the 7th Earl of Derby . Sir Thomas Tyldesley of Myerscough and Morleys Hall , Astley , was killed on 25 August 1651 at the Battle of Wigan Lane and is buried in the Tyldesley Chapel in Leigh Parish Church . The Earl of Derby passed through Leigh again in 1651 , when he spent his last night in the King 's Arms , before going on to his execution outside Ye Olde Man & Scythe Inn in Bolton . = = = Industrial Revolution = = = At the end of the 16th century , although agriculture and the dairy industry , particularly the production of Leigh cheese , sometimes known as Leigh Toaster , were important , spinning and weaving began to develop as a cottage industry . Work was brought from Manchester by agents who brought work weekly often to an inn , and where they collected the finished cloth . At first this work was done to supplement the income of local farmers and their families . The cloth woven in Leigh was fustian , a sort of rough corduroy , and by the end of the 17th century middlemen , fustian masters , were dealing directly with weavers and selling the finished cloth in Manchester . It is a tradition in the town that a local man , Thomas Highs , was the inventor of a spinning jenny and the water frame in the 1760s , the latter invention being pirated by Richard Arkwright , who subsequently made a fortune from the patent royalties . These 18th @-@ century improvements to the spinning process meant that weavers were in great demand. but as power looms were introduced in factories in Manchester there was less work for the handloom weavers and there was serious unemployment in the town . In 1827 silk weaving began in Leigh , either as the result of a dispute or a labour shortage in the Middleton silk industry . William Walker was a middleman who opened the first silk mill in Leigh in 1828 , and others quickly followed , including James Pownall and Henry Hilton , whose mill survived until 1926 . Several cotton mills were built in Leigh after the mid @-@ 1830s , and some silk mills converted to cotton after 1870 . The Leigth Feight took place on 14 August 1839 . The chartists had called for a strike at a time when there was social unrest over high levels of unemployment and the high cost of living . A mob of at least 2 @,@ 000 gathered in Leigh . About 400 – 500 workers from Chowbent threatened to burn down Hayes Mill . A detachment of troops from Haydock was called out and special constables sworn in by the local magistrate . The Riot Act was read by Squire Thomas Withington of Culcheth Hall and for a while the mob dispersed but reassembled later . Many were injured in the fighting that took place and arrests were made . Those arrested were severely punished , while others ensured that radicalism continued in Leigh , leading eventually to electoral reform and universal suffrage . The large multi @-@ storey spinning mills came later , and five survive today . There were mill complexes at Kirkhall Lane and Firs Lane in Westleigh , Pennington and Bedford . Leigh Spinners is a Grade II * listed building . Mather Lane Mill close to the Bridgewater Canal is a Grade II listed building . More than 6 @,@ 000 people were employed in textiles in Leigh in 1911 . = = = Coal mining = = = There had been drift mines in Westleigh since the 12th century but during the second half of the 19th century it became possible to mine the deeper seams and coal began to be an important industry and coal mining became the largest user of labour after the textile industry in Leigh . Parsonage Colliery , the last mine to be sunk in Leigh , was one of the deepest mines in the country , going down to over 3 @,@ 000 ft ( 900 m ) . The extent of the mining in Parsonage Colliery increased in the 1960s with the driving of a tunnel ( the Horizon Tunnel ) , which accessed previously inaccessible seams around 6 ft ( 2 m ) high that were easy to work on compared to the previous seams of coal of 3 ft ( 1 m ) or less . The seams were wet , and a series of pumps was used to remove the water into underground canals before it was finally pumped into the canal at Leigh . The winding engine at Parsonage was a steam engine , fuelled by methane extracted from the mine , while the neighbouring Bickershaw Colliery had a superior electric system . In 1974 , the two were linked underground , and all coal was wound up at Bickershaw , which had better winding facilities , while Parsonage was used for supplies . The entire Lancashire Coalfield is now closed to deep mining , although several open @-@ cast mines are still in operation elsewhere in the county . Mining disasters in Leigh included the explosion of firedamp which caused the deaths of 38 miners at Bedford Colliery on 13 August 1886 . There were several accidents at Bickershaw Colliery , but the most serious was in 1932 , when 19 men were drowned in the sump at the bottom of the shaft after an overwind of the cage . List of coal mines operating in Leigh = = = Manufacturing = = = Other notable industry included the tractor factory of David Brown Limited , which was located in Leigh following the acquisition in 1955 of Harrison , McGregor and Guest 's Albion range of farm machinery products . Rope @-@ manufacture was another local industry : Mansley 's Rope works on Twist Lane made rope by hand , using a rope walk . The factory burnt down in 1912 . Anchor Cables had a large works close to the Bridgewater Canal . The company was bought by Callender 's Cables , in 1903 , later to become British Insulated Callender 's Cables ( BICC ) , and now part of Balfour Beatty . Another major 20th century employer was Sutcliffe Speakman , which made activated carbon and brick @-@ making equipment . = = Governance = = Leigh is covered by four electoral wards , Atherleigh , Leigh East , Leigh South and Leigh West , of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan . Each ward elects three councillors to the 75 @-@ member metropolitan borough council , Wigan 's local authority . As of 2009 , all twelve ward councillors for Leigh , including Leader of the Council , Lord Smith of Leigh , are members of the Labour Party who control the council . Historically , Leigh 's townships formed part of the Hundred of West Derby , a judicial division of southwest Lancashire . Pennington , Westleigh and Bedford were three of the six townships or vills that made up the ancient parish of Leigh . The townships existed before the parish . Under the terms of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1834 the townships formed part of the Leigh Poor Law Union , which was established on 26 January 1837 and was responsible for an area covering the whole of the ancient parish of Leigh and part of Winwick . There were workhouses in Pennington , Culcheth , Tyldesley and Lowton , but they were replaced by Leigh Union workhouse at Atherleigh in the 1850s . In 1875 Leigh Local Board of Health was established , covering the areas of the former Bedford , Pennington and Westleigh Local Boards of Health . In 1894 the area of the Local Board , together with part of Atherton township , became Leigh Urban District , which was granted honorific borough status in 1899 becoming the Municipal Borough of Leigh . In 1969 there was an exchange of very small areas with Golborne Urban District . Following the Local Government Act 1972 , the Municipal Borough of Leigh was abolished and its territory granted as part of the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan , a local government district of Greater Manchester . In 1998 , an area ( Lately Common ) was further ceded to the Warrington borough – one of the few parts of England to have been in three different counties since the mid @-@ 20th century : Lancashire , then Greater Manchester , then Cheshire . Leigh 's MP is Andy Burnham who has represented the parliamentary seat for Leigh for the Labour Party since the 2001 General Election . Between 10 June 2009 and the 2010 General Election he was Secretary of State at the Department of Health . At the 2010 General Election Burnham retained the Leigh seat with 24 @,@ 295 votes and a majority of 15 @,@ 011 , representing 51 @.@ 3 % of the vote . Burnham was re @-@ elected MP for the Leigh constituency in 2015 with 24 @,@ 312 votes which was 53 @.@ 9 % of the total vote cast . = = Geography = = Leigh is low @-@ lying ; land to the south and east , close to Chat Moss , is 50 feet ( 15 m ) above mean sea level . The highest land , to the north and west , rises gently to 125 feet ( 38 m ) . Astley and Bedford Mosses are fragments of the raised bog that once covered a large area north of the River Mersey and along with Holcroft and Risley Mosses are part of Manchester Mosses , a European Union designated Special Area of Conservation . The area is in the River Mersey Basin ; drained into the Mersey by several streams , including the Westleigh and Pennington Brooks that join others flowing through Bedford to form the Glaze Brook . The southeast of the town has alluvial and peaty soils , but the rest is loam overlaying sandstone , or coal measures in the north . There is magnesian limestone in Bedford and neighbouring Astley . Mining subsidence and flooding have caused the formation of " flashes " to the south and west of the town , the largest of which is south of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal in Pennington . Pennington Flash Country Park is a 490 @-@ acre ( 200 ha ) country park and nature reserve with a 170 @-@ acre ( 69 ha ) flash or lake . Leigh is crossed by the Bolton to St Helens Road high road , an old packhorse route that became a Turnpike Trust in 1762 . The A579 road bypasses the town centre using the line of the Bolton and Leigh Railway . The Bridgewater Canal and the Leigh Branch of the Leeds and Liverpool Canal cross the town west to east , the canals meeting at Leigh Bridge just south of the town centre . In the 1930s the A580 " East Lancashire Road " was built crossing to the south of the town . = = Demography = = At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , according to the Office for National Statistics , the Urban Subdivision of Leigh was part of the Greater Manchester Urban Area and had a total resident population of 43 @,@ 006 , of which 20 @,@ 990 ( 48 @.@ 8 % ) were male and 22 @,@ 016 ( 51 @.@ 2 % ) were female , with 18 @,@ 270 households . The settlement occupied 884 hectares ( 3 @.@ 41 sq mi ) , compared with 858 hectares ( 3 @.@ 31 sq mi ) in the 1991 census . Its population density was 48 @.@ 65 people per hectare compared with an average of 40 @.@ 20 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . The median age of the population was 37 , compared with 36 within the Greater Manchester Urban Area and 37 across England and Wales . The majority of the population of Leigh were born in England ( 95 @.@ 92 % ) ; 2 @.@ 10 % were born elsewhere within the United Kingdom , 0 @.@ 95 % within the rest of the European Union , and 1 @.@ 47 % elsewhere in the world . Data on religious beliefs across the town in the 2001 census show that 85 @.@ 5 % declared themselves to be Christian , 7 @.@ 6 % said they held no religion , and 0 @.@ 6 % reported themselves as Muslim . Most of Leigh is within the Warrington & Wigan Travel to Work Area ( TTWA ) , whilst part of the eastern side of the town is within the Manchester TTWA . The entire town is within the Manchester Larger Urban Zone . At the time of the 2001 Census , there were 19 @,@ 051 people ( 44 @.@ 3 % ) in employment who were resident within Leigh . Of these , 18 @.@ 36 % worked within the wholesale and retail trade , including repair of motor vehicles ; 21 @.@ 60 % worked within manufacturing industry ; and 11 @.@ 99 % worked within the health and social work sector . 45 @.@ 16 % of households owned a single car or van , with 30 @.@ 77 % owning none . The average car ownership per household was 0 @.@ 98 , compared with 0 @.@ 93 across the Greater Manchester Urban Area . = = = Population change = = = = = Economy = = Leigh has a traditional town centre with daily outdoor and indoor markets . Part of the town centre is pedestrianised and there are local independent and multiple retailers . The Spinning Gate Centre in the centre of town has about thirty retail units . A retail park developed on the old Parsonage Colliery site is within walking distance of the town centre . Opened in 2008 Leigh Sports Village has an 11 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stadium ( anchored by Leigh Centurions and shared with the reserves of Blackburn Rovers ) , an athletics arena for Leigh Harriers , facilities for Leigh East Rugby League Club , a college campus , hotel , leisure retail and business facilities for the community . In 2011 a Morrisons store opened at the sports village . Another regeneration project on the site of the former Bickershaw Colliery complex which closed in 1992 will redevelop the site and canal side with a country park and housing . In 2011 " The Loom " a £ 50million retail development opened on the north side of the Bridgewater Canal with a seven @-@ screen cinema , Tesco Extra store , Nando 's , Frankie and Benny 's and The Real China restaurants . = = Landmarks = = Major landmarks in Leigh are the red sandstone parish church and across the civic square , Leigh Town Hall and its associated shops on Market Street . The Grade II listed Obelisk that replaced the original market cross is also situated here . Many town centre buildings including the Boar 's Head public house are in red Ruabon or Accrington bricks , often with gables and terracotta dressings . There are several large multi @-@ storey cotton mills built along the Bridgewater Canal that are a reminder of Leigh 's textile industry but most are now underused and deteriorating despite listed building status . Leigh 's War Memorial by local architect J.C. Prestwich is at the junction of Church Street and Silk Street and is a Grade II listed structure . St Joseph 's Church and St Thomas 's Church on opposite sides of Chapel Street are both imposing churches using different materials and styles . = = Transport = = Historically Leigh was well connected to the local transport infrastructure , but with the closure of the railway in 1969 this is no longer the case . Public transport is co @-@ ordinated by the Transport for Greater Manchester . There are bus services operated by First Greater Manchester , Jim Stones , Maytree Travel , Diamond Bus North West , Stagecoach Manchester and Network Warrington from Leigh bus station to many local destinations including Wigan , Bolton , Warrington , Manchester and St Helens . There had been suggestions to reopen the railway via Tyldesley to Manchester , but a guided busway scheme was chosen for the route ; this decision was not universally popular . = = = Canals = = = The Bridgewater Canal was extended from Worsley to the middle of Leigh in 1795 . In 1819 the fifth Leeds and Liverpool Canal Act was passed for the construction of the Leigh Branch and by 1820 the Leigh branch canal was cut from the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Poolstock , Wigan to meet the Bridgewater at Leigh Bridge , giving access from Leigh to all parts of Lancashire , Yorkshire and the Midlands . = = = Railways = = = Leigh was the southern terminus of the 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 km ) long Bolton and Leigh Railway . George Stephenson carried out the survey for the line . It opened between Bolton and William Hulton 's coal mines at Chequerbent for freight on 1 August 1828 and to the terminus at the Leeds and Liverpool Canal at Leigh in March 1830 . Passengers were carried from 13 June 1831 . The first locomotive on the line was an 0 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 called the Lancashire Witch . The railway station was at Westleigh . Later the line was extended southwards to Pennington . Atherleigh opened in 1935 . The line was closed to passenger traffic on 29 March 1954 , and later closed completely . In 1861 the London and North Western Railway revived powers granted to the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway to build a railway from Manchester via Eccles and Tyldesley to Wigan with a branch to Kenyon Junction on the Liverpool to Manchester Line via Leigh and Pennington . There was a station , originally named Bedford Leigh to serve the town . The railway crossed the town on a viaduct which has since been largely demolished . It was closed in May 1969 , leaving the town without a railway : after the reopening of Mansfield and Corby railway stations , Leigh is now one of the largest towns in Great Britain without a railway station . Numerous colliery lines crossed the town , but with the closure of the collieries these were no longer required . The nearest railway station is at Atherton , 3 miles ( 5 km ) miles to the north , with trains to Wigan and Manchester operated by Northern , leaving the bus station as Leigh 's only public transport link . = = = Trams and trolley buses = = = In 1900 , a Bill authorising the South Lancashire Tramways Company to construct over 62 miles ( 100 km ) of tramway in southern Lancashire was given Royal Assent . However , by November 1900 the South Lancashire Electric Traction and Power Company had acquired the shares . The first section of tramway opened on 20 October 1902 between Lowton and Four Lanes Ends via Leigh and Atherton . The company got into financial difficulty and in turn became Lancashire United Tramways later Lancashire United Transport . On 16 December 1933 , the last tram service ran from Leigh to Four Lane Ends and the next day trolley buses took over . An Act of 4 August 1920 authorised Leigh Municipal Borough to run buses . A garage built on Windermere Road was soon outgrown and replaced by one on Holden Road . The corporation had a fleet of 70 vehicles during World War II . Work on the Leigh @-@ Salford @-@ Manchester Bus Rapid Transit guided busway commenced in 2012 and the busway opened in 2016 . = = Education = = Leigh Grammar School existed in 1655 but its foundation is unclear . The building was next to the churchyard , but the school moved to Manchester Road in 1931 . Leigh Girls ' Grammar School was established in 1921 , but both schools were abolished by the then Secretary of State for Education , Shirley Williams , in the 1976 Education Act . Leigh high schools include Bedford High School , and Westleigh High School . Pupils also attend schools in Atherton , Lowton , Golborne and Astley . Wigan and Leigh College provides post @-@ 16 education . = = Religion = = The St Mary the Virgin Church has been in existence since the 12th century and probably much earlier . It was once known as the Church of St Peter at Westleigh in Leigh , and straddles the boundary between the old townships of Westleigh and Pennington , the nave and churchyard being in Westleigh and the chancel in Pennington . Its early history is tied up with the Westleigh and Urmston families . The dedication changed to St Mary the Virgin in the 14th century . The church tower , said to have been built in 1516 , is all that remains of the medieval structure , which was replaced by the present church after becoming unsafe . Paley and Austin of Lancaster designed the present church , the foundation stone was laid in 1871 and the church consecrated in 1873 . The church is built in red sandstone it is a Grade II listed building . There are now parish churches in each of the old townships . The first St Thomas 's Church in Bedford was consecrated in 1840 and replaced by the present church in 1909 . The church is built of Accrington red brick with Runcorn red sandstone facings , it was designed by J. S. Crowther . Christ Church , Pennington , designed by architect E. H. Shellard , was built in Yorkshire stone and was consecrated in 1854 . The site to the south of the canal was a rapidly growing area at this time . It is Grade II listed . Westleigh St Paul , founded in 1847 is on Westleigh Lane . Westleigh St Peter , a Grade II * listed building by Paley and Austin , built in brick with red sandstone dressings , was founded 1881 is on Firs Lane . The first Catholic chapel was built in Bedford on the corner of Mather Lane and Chapel Street in 1778 and this lasted until it was replaced in 1855 by St Joseph 's Church by architect Joseph Hansom . A growing Catholic population in the area led to the building of Our Lady of the Rosary in Plank Lane in 1879 , Twelve Apostles in 1879 and Sacred Heart in 1929 . Other denominations catered for include Wesleyan , Independent , Primitive , Welsh and United Methodists . There are also Unitarian , Baptist and Jehovah 's Witness places of worship in the town . = = Sport = = Leigh has a professional rugby league team – Leigh Centurions – whose main claim to fame is beating Leeds 24 – 7 in the 1971 Challenge Cup final at Wembley Stadium . The club played in the Super League in the 2005 season . Leigh has several amateur clubs , including Leigh East and Leigh Miners Rangers . The town had a semi @-@ professional football team , Leigh Genesis ( formerly Leigh RMI ) , which ceased operations at a senior level in June 2011 . The most successful amateur club is Leigh Athletic , which currently plays in the Manchester Football League . Leigh also has an athletics club , Leigh Harriers AC , founded in 1909 , and a Rugby Union club , Leigh RUFC , based at Round Ash Park , which gained promotion in 2007 , to RFU league North 2 ( West ) , and is current holder of the Lancashire Trophy which it won in May 2008 for the third consecutive year . Attached to the club is a crown green bowling section which runs several teams in local bowling leagues . Leigh has two cricket clubs : Leigh Cricket Club play in the ECB Premier League Liverpool Competition , and Westleigh Cricket Club , have two senior and 4 junior teams playing in the Bolton and District Cricket Association . = = Culture = = Many of Leigh 's old halls have been demolished but the sites of Lilford Park , once the grounds of Atherton Hall , a gift to Leigh from Lord Lilford in 1914 and Pennington Park , the grounds of Pennington Hall which was demolished in 1963 after being used as a museum , are open to the public . Leigh 's wealth as an industrial town resulted in many outlets for the entertainment of its population , including theatres , cinemas and public houses . In 1908 the Hippodrome Theatre on Leigh Road was built on the site of Walker 's silk mill of 1827 , this subsequently became a cinema , first the Odeon , later the Classic . Another theatre , the Theatre Royal , was built on Lord Street which later became the Leigh Casino Club . The Palace Cinema was built in 1913 on Railway Road and the assembly rooms above the Conservative Club , were converted to a cinema known as the Sems in 1908 . Brewery Lane is a reminder that there was once a brewery in Bedford belonging to George Shaw & Co . The old Leigh College and Library on Railway Road was built between 1894 and 1896 by the Leigh Literary Society to designs by J. C. Prestwich and J. H. Stephen . The present library was built in 1971 between the parish church and town hall . = = Notable people = = Sir John Lennard @-@ Jones , Sir Peter Maxwell Davies and Pete Shelley were old pupils of Leigh Grammar School . Rhythm and blues singer and musician Georgie Fame was born in Leigh in 1943 . Thomas Burke , operatic tenor , was born in 1890 and attended St Joseph 's School . The author of " Goodbye , Mr Chips " , James Hilton was also born in Leigh . A local businessman of the same name became chairman of Leigh RLFC after World War II and the club 's former ground , Hilton Park , was named after him . The female sculptor Mary Pownall ( 1862 @-@ 1937 ) was born and raised in Leigh . = 2006 Riga summit = The 2006 Riga summit or the 19th NATO Summit was a NATO summit held in the Olympic Sports Centre , Riga , Latvia from 28 to 29 November 2006 . The most important topics discussed were the War in Afghanistan and the future role and borders of the alliance . Further , the summit focused on the alliance 's continued transformation , taking stock of what has been accomplished since the 2002 Prague Summit . NATO also committed itself to extend further membership invitations in the upcoming 2008 Bucharest Summit . This summit was the first NATO summit held on territory of a former USSR republic . = = Security measures = = The summit was held in the Olympic Sports Centre , Riga . Roads in the center of Riga were closed down and parking was not allowed at the airport or at several roads , out of fear for car bombs . About 9000 Latvian police officers and soldiers took care of the Summit 's security , while more than 450 other airmen from seven European NATO countries were called upon to ensure a no @-@ fly zone above the summit in an operation called Operation Peaceful Summit . This enhanced ongoing Baltic Air Policing activities with additional aircraft , communications and maintenance support . = = Summit = = All agreements were not actually made in the North Atlantic Council meeting , but in fact it was made in Istanbul Summit , 2003 , except for the signing of the missile defense contract which happened on 28 November . The Council meeting was held on 29 November . = = = Main topics = = = While the tensions between NATO members from the build @-@ up to the invasion of Iraq had dissipated , the NATO summit , and the months preceding the summit , were marked by divisions between the United States and the United Kingdom on the one side and France , Germany , Italy and Spain on the other . Two rifts existed , one about the military contributions to the war in Afghanistan , and the other concerning whether or not NATO should assume a more global role . = = = = War in Afghanistan = = = = Before and during the summit US president George W. Bush , British prime minister Tony Blair , Canadian prime minister Stephen Harper and Dutch Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende made a plea to European NATO members to make more troops available for deployment in Afghanistan , remove the national caveats ( i.e. national restrictions on how , when and where forces can be used ) and start sending its troops into the conflict @-@ ridden south of the country . According to Supreme Allied Commander Europe ( SACEUR ) General James L. Jones it was not the lack of combat troops and the caveats were the problem , but the lack of adequate helicopters and military intelligence to support airlift and on @-@ the @-@ ground operations . While the NATO countries in question refused to participate in the fighting in the south , they agreed to remove some of these national caveats , and in an emergency situation all national caveats should cease to exist , meaning that every ally should come to the aid of the forces that require assistance . A number of NATO member states also pledged to provide additional assets , including fighters , helicopters , infantry companies as well as training teams that will mentor the Afghan National Army . NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that the removal of some of the caveats meant that some 20 @,@ 000 of the 32 @,@ 000 NATO troops in ISAF are made " more usable " for combat duties and that 90 % of the formal mission requirements were now filled . Military sources however told reporters at the summit that these caveats never existed in emergency situations , adding that it would be a strange alliance where one country 's soldiers refused to support their allies in an emergency . NATO leaders also backed a French proposal to set up a " contact group " to coordinate action concerning Afghanistan , but the United States had reservations about France 's proposal to include Iran , which has considerable influence over the west of Afghanistan , in the proposed contact group due to the dispute over Iran 's nuclear programme . The group was modelled on the one set up for the Yugoslav Wars in the 1990s . Political scientist Joseph Nye commented that " while the Riga summit relaxed some of these caveats to allow assistance to allies in dire circumstances , Britain , Canada , the Netherlands , and the US are doing most of the fighting in southern Afghanistan , while French , German , and Italian troops are deployed in the quieter north . It is difficult to see how NATO can succeed in stabilizing Afghanistan unless it is willing to commit more troops and give commanders more flexibility . " The controversy surrounding the differences in contributions to Afghanistan indeed remained after the summit . For instance , during March 2007 British commanders accused the NATO members that refused to fight in the conflict @-@ ridden south ( in non @-@ emergency situations ) as causing " huge resentment " and a sense of betrayal , and undermined the credibility of the alliance . They added that despite the earlier pleas for reinforcements or to have " operational caveats " removed , some countries , notably France and Germany , were still not heeding their requests . Besides the above discussion about contributions and caveats , the summit was noticed to paint an optimistic picture of the war in Afghanistan and Afghanistan 's future . For instance , NATO Secretary @-@ General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer said that " real progress " had been made in Afghanistan and that this was the main highlight of the summit . He strongly disagreed with visions of " doom and gloom , " and added that five years after the defeat of the Taliban regime , Afghanistan had become a democratic society that is " no longer a threat to the world . " He also believed that the defeat of the insurgency was only a matter of time , stating that the war in Afghanistan " is winnable , it is being won , but it is not yet won because , of course , we have many challenges in Afghanistan . " In his opinion , these challenges included besides military engagement mainly reconstruction and development work . = = = = Role of NATO = = = = The second , more fundamental rift , concerned a discussion about whether NATO should form close relationships with countries far beyond NATO 's borders , in particular Australia , Japan and South Korea . The United States and some other NATO members pressed for a closer relationship with these countries . R. Nicholas Burns , Under Secretary for Political Affairs explained the US proposal : " We seek a partnership with them so that we can train more intensively ( ... ) and grow closer to them because we are deployed with them . Australia , South Korea and Japan are in Afghanistan . They have all been in Iraq ( ... ) [ and ] in the Balkans . " It was however not clear how far this plan would have gone in practice , but the US insisted they were not seeking to turn NATO into a global alliance : membership would not be offered to the prospective new partners . The idea of a " global " NATO however was strongly opposed by France , which considers NATO a regional defence alliance that should not spread its wings too far over the globe . The French Defence Minister Michele Alliot @-@ Marie summarized the position of France as follows : " The development of a global partnership could ... dilute the natural solidarity between Europeans and North Americans in a fuzzy entity [ and it would ] send a bad political message , that of a campaign launched by the West against those who don 't share their ideas . What a pretext we would offer to those who promote the idea of a clash of civilisations . " The summit did not reach a satisfying consensus on the future role of NATO and it was considered an exercise in " papering over cracks " , much more than it was ever a serious effort to decide on the future borders and core purposes . As a consequence the debate continued after the summit . = = = Other topics = = = = = = = Kosovo = = = = At the Riga summit , NATO members confirmed the role of NATO @-@ led KFOR in the ensuring of a stable security environment there . This is perceived to be a reference to the possible United Nations decision in favour of independence . Because Serbia strongly opposes the break @-@ away of Kosovo , the resulting tensions between Serbia and Kosovo could create instability in the region . = = = = Enhanced cooperation with non @-@ members = = = = Enhanced cooperation with non @-@ member states closer at home was less controversial and two offers were made : an extension of Partnership for Peace membership , and a training initiative . Partnership for Peace ( PfP ) membership was offered to Bosnia and Herzegovina , Montenegro and Serbia . NATO hoped that this would bring these countries more into the Euro @-@ Atlantic community as the PfP is a programme of practical bilateral cooperation between individual Partner countries and NATO , thereby allowing Partner countries to choose their own priorities for cooperation . It is expected that PfP membership is for these three countries the first step towards NATO membership . As a result , the PfP offer sparked the anger of the UN tribunal trying suspected war criminals from the Balkans . NATO launched a Training Cooperation Initiative offering to share NATO training expertise with its Mediterranean Dialogue ( MD ) countries ( Mauritania , Morocco , Algeria , Tunisia , Egypt , Israel and Jordan ) and Istanbul Cooperation Initiative ( ICI ) countries . The initial phase included expanding those countries ' participation in relevant existing NATO training and education programmes , and the establishment of a Middle East faculty at the NATO Defense College in Rome . As a second phase , NATO would consider supporting the establishment of a Security Cooperation Centre in the region , to be owned by the MD and ICI countries , with regional funding and NATO assistance . Senior NATO staff have tended to highlight this project as evidence of NATO 's forward thinking and its desire to avoid becoming party to a " clash of civilizations " . = = = = Comprehensive Political Guidance = = = = Comprehensive Political Guidance ( CPG ) , a policy document that had been agreed by Defence Ministers in June 2006 and an addition to the 1999 Strategic Concept document , was formally endorsed during the summit . The CPG intends to provide a framework and political direction for NATO 's continuing transformation in the coming 10 to 15 years . More specifically , the document expresses the belief that the principal threats to the Alliance in the coming decades are terrorism , proliferation , failing states , regional crises , misuse of new technologies , and disruption of the flow of vital resources . According to this document , the Alliance should adapt to these new threats and sets out the Alliance vis @-@ a @-@ vis capability issues , planning disciplines and intelligence for the next 10 to 15 years , including among others the need for joint expeditionary forces and the capability to deploy and sustain them over long periods of time . The document further underlined that NATO 's forces should be able to conduct a variety of missions , from high to low intensity , and emphasized the likelihood that NATO will need to carry out a greater number and range of smaller operations . The CPG also confirmed the principle that 40 % of the member states ' military forces must be redeployable , and 8 % must constantly be on operations abroad . This principle makes it , among other things , possible to effectively compare the contributions made by various states , irrespective of the size of their populations . The CPG policy document is regarded as self @-@ contradictory for at least two reasons . Firstly , it identified the two greatest threats to NATO as terrorism and the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction ( WMD ) , whilst simultaneously reaffirming the 1999 Strategic Concept as " remaining valid " despite the fact that it barely mentioned these threats . Secondly , the document states that collective defence remains the core purpose of NATO , but at the same time emphasizes potential NATO contributions to conflict prevention and crisis management , and the potential planning and management of missions like that in Afghanistan . The Riga Declaration even described the capability for such missions as NATO 's " top priority " . Additionally , Jaap de Hoop Scheffer wanted and expected a new Strategic Concept to be debated and agreed upon by 2008 , reinforcing already existing views that the CPG will most likely last much less than the 10 to 15 years as the guiding policy document . = = = = Energy security = = = = The Riga summit was the first NATO summit which underscored the need for energy security , following the Russia @-@ Ukraine gas dispute . The " Riga Summit Declaration " ( par . 45 ) stated that " Alliance security interests can also be affected by the disruption of the flow of vital resources " and that it supported " a coordinated , international effort to assess risks to energy infrastructures and to promote energy infrastructure security . " It further states that NATO leaders " direct the Council in Permanent Session to consult on the most immediate risks in the field of energy security , in order to define those areas where NATO may add value to safeguard the security interests of the Allies and , upon request , assist national and international efforts . " Radio Free Europe reports that an unnamed diplomatic source told that several NATO leaders , including Latvian president Vaira Vike @-@ Freiberga , had tried to make arrangements for bilateral talks concerning this topic with Russian president Vladimir Putin during the summit , but Putin instead attended the CIS energy summit in Minsk , Belarus on 28 November 2006 . In contrast , The Independent reported that the summit was marred by a diplomat fracas over an invitation to President Vladimir Putin and that he was eventually not invited , and that Putin as a result threatened that he would visit Latvia for the first time since independence during the summit in order to upstage the summit . It was even proposed that Putin could honour French president Jacques Chirac , who was at the summit and whose 74th birthday coincided with the summit , by visiting Latvia . He later made clear that this would not go ahead . = = = = 2008 membership invitations = = = = The NATO Heads of State and Government congratulated the efforts of the three Balkan states currently in NATO 's Membership Action Plan : Albania , Croatia and Macedonia , and declared that the Alliance intends to extend further invitations to these countries during the 2008 Bucharest Summit , on condition that these countries meet NATO standards . The Alliance also affirmed that NATO remained open to new European members under Article X of the North Atlantic Treaty , but remained largely silent on the prospects of Georgia and Ukraine , two countries that had declared membership as a goal , as the summit limited itself to noting the efforts of both countries to conduct an " intensified dialogue " with NATO . Nevertheless , Estonian Prime Minister Andrus Ansip said after the summit that he had discussed Georgia 's membership with US president Bush on 28 November . He further added that in his view Georgia had " very good chances " to join NATO if the planned reforms would continue and that a Membership Action Plan , the next necessary step on Georgia 's way towards membership , was only " a small step away " . Preceding the summit , it was expected that Ukraine was on a fast track to membership : it was believed that Ukraine would have received an invitation to a Membership Action Plan during the summit , followed by an invitation to join in 2008 and membership in 2010 . According to political scientist Taras Kuzio the summit showed that Georgia rapidly moved ahead of Ukraine in its drive to join NATO , even though it joined the Intensified Dialogue program a year later than Ukraine , because president of Ukraine Viktor Yushchenko failed to support a pro @-@ Western Orange revolution coalition following the Ukraine 's parliamentary elections of March 2006 . In other words , Ukraine showed more ambivalence in its desire to join NATO , whereas in Georgia the pro @-@ Western Rose Revolution coalition remained united . = = = = NATO Response Force = = = = NATO Secretary General Jaap de Hoop Scheffer announced that the NATO Response Force was finally fully operational since all capabilities necessary were in place . The force is believed to be capable of performing missions worldwide across the whole spectrum of operations ( such as evacuations , disaster management , counterterrorism , and acting as " an initial entry force " ) and can number up to 25 @,@ 000 troops and should be able to start to deploy after five days ' notice and sustain itself for operations lasting 30 days or longer if resupplied . The heads of state and government also agreed to share the costs of airlift for the short notice deployments of the Response Force . = = = = 2010 Theatre Missile Defence = = = = In September 2006 , NATO selected an international consortium led by Science Applications International Corporation ( SAIC ) to build an Integration Test Bed for the Alliance 's future Active Layered Theatre Missile Defence ( ALTBMD ) capability . After two months of negotiations , ALTBMD Programme Manager , General ( Ret ) Billard , and SAIC contracting Officer , Mr. Robert Larrick , signed the contract on the first day of NATO 's Riga Summit . This decision was based on an unpublished report agreed upon earlier by NATO ministers following a study into the feasibility of theatre missile defences . This programme is one of three programmes that NATO is pursuing in the area of missile defence . The contract puts the Alliance on track for having , by 2010 , a system to protect troops on missions against ballistic missiles . The contract is worth approximately 75 million EUR for work that would be conducted over a period of six years . The theatre missile defence would be a multi @-@ layered system of systems , comprising early warning system sensors , radar and various interceptors . While NATO member countries would provide the sensors and weapon systems , NATO itself would develop a commonly funded NATO architecture to integrate all of these elements . The development of the ALTBMD system was agreed by NATO members in large part because it is limited . NATO members are deeply divided about the multi @-@ tiered BMD architecture promoted by the US Missile Defense Agency ( MDA ) . = = Views on the summit = = For the three former USSR republics Latvia , Estonia and Lithuania such a high @-@ level event was held for the first time in the region . As a consequence it held a symbolic meaning . It is perceived to have increased the visibility of these three Baltic states as NATO members . = Chicago bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics = The Chicago bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics and Paralympics was an unsuccessful bid , first recognized by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) on September 14 , 2007 . The IOC shortlisted four of the seven applicant cities — Madrid , Spain ; Tokyo , Japan ; Rio de Janeiro , Brazil ; and Chicago , United States ; over Baku , Azerbaijan ; Doha , Qatar ; and Prague , Czech Republic — on June 4 , 2008 , during a meeting in Athens , Greece . This was followed by an intensive bidding process which finished with the election of Rio de Janeiro at the 121st IOC Session in Copenhagen , Denmark , on October 2 , 2009 . In Chicago 's bid , the games would have been held from July 22 to August 7 , with the Paralympics held between August 12 and August 28 . The bid plan emphasized use of Chicago Park District parks to host the games , but other existing facilities such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place would have hosted events . The bid included a plan for North Side , Downtown Loop and South Side celebration locations that would have had high @-@ definition LED screens for unticketed visitors . The bid noted that there was a very high concentration of event locations and training facilities close to each other and that the majority of event sites were clustered together . Thus , the vast majority of athletes would have been close to their competitions . Chicago earned a general score of 7 @.@ 0 during the Applicant phase , after a detailed study of the Applicant Files received by the IOC Working Group on January 14 , 2008 . Between April 4 and April 7 , 2009 , the IOC Evaluation Commission , led by Nawal El Moutawakel , arrived in Chicago to assess the conditions of the city . The Commission attended technical presentations , participated in question @-@ and @-@ answer sessions about the Candidature File , and made inspections in all the existing venues across the city . Though considered a favorite entering the voting process , and despite personal appeals from such high @-@ profile Chicagoans as U.S. President Barack Obama , Michelle Obama , Hillary Clinton , and Oprah Winfrey , Chicago was eliminated on the first ballot in IOC voting on October 2 , 2009 , with 18 votes in a three @-@ round exhaustive ballot of the IOC . The United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) selected Chicago over Houston , Los Angeles , Philadelphia and San Francisco as its candidate city to host the 2016 Summer Olympics and 2016 Summer Paralympics on April 14 , 2007 . This is the city 's third failure , after two failed attempts for the 1952 and the 1956 Summer Olympics ( and fourth overall attempt , as Chicago won the 1904 Olympics , but they were moved to St Louis as the World 's Fair was there and threatened to host a competing competition if the Olympics were not moved ) . Numerous Olympic Games in North America , including the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , Canada , hurt Chicago 's bid . It would have been the ninth Olympics hosted in the United States , after the 1904 , 1932 , 1984 and 1996 Summer Olympics ; and the 1932 , 1960 , 1980 and 2002 Winter Olympics . = = USOC city selection = = Initially , five American cities vied for the 2016 Olympics : Chicago , Houston , Los Angeles , Philadelphia , and San Francisco . The USOC 's chairman at the time , Peter Ueberroth , visited all potential host cities during April and May 2006 . He visited Chicago on May 10 . On July 26 , 2006 , the United States Olympic Committee ( USOC ) narrowed its list of American applicant cities to three : Chicago , Los Angeles and San Francisco . San Francisco withdrew its application on November 13 , 2006 after the San Francisco 49ers pulled out of a deal for the construction of a new stadium that would be the centerpiece of the games . The final stage of the USOC internal selection occurred on April 14 , 2007 , at Washington , D.C. ' s Embassy Row Hotel , where the two remaining bid cities , Chicago and Los Angeles , made a last 40 @-@ minute presentation to the USOC board members . At about 21 : 00 UTC , Chicago was announced as the winner of the United States bid for the 2016 Olympic Games by Ueberroth . = = Bid details = = Chicago has had prior experience with Olympic bids . In 1901 , the city was unanimously chosen by the IOC to stage the 1904 Summer Olympics , but the Games were moved to St. Louis to coincide with the 1904 World 's Fair . Chicago also bid for the 1952 and 1956 Summer Olympics , without success . Mayor of Chicago Richard M. Daley visited Beijing – host city of the 2008 Summer Olympics – on May 15 , 2006 , where he collected information on hosting . The bidding process for the 2016 Olympic Games was officially launched on May 16 , 2007 . In June 2007 , Olympic bid committee Chairman and CEO , Patrick G. Ryan announced that David P. Bolger was appointed chief operating officer and Rick Ludwig as chief financial officer . The Chicago 2016 Olympic bid committee announced the details of the Olympic bid application on January 15 , 2008 . 22 of the 27 Olympic venues will be in four clusters within 15 km of the Olympic Village . Five new venues and eleven temporary venues would have been built for the games at a cost $ 49 @.@ 3 million ; these construction costs , and the costs of the games were to be borne by the private sector , with the government financing the infrastructure . The bid committee filed a 600 @-@ page candidacy file with the IOC in Lausanne , Switzerland on February 12 , 2009 . The file responded to 227 questions given to each candidate city . On February 13 , the candidacy file with the final version of Chicago 's 2016 Olympic plan was publicly released . Chicago 's bid was supported by major preliminary corporate commitments , philanthropic efforts by wealthy Chicagoans , promised planning participation by a wide range of community and government leaders , and the enthusiasm of the citizenry . Local support for the bid on the South Side , particularly in the Washington Park and Woodlawn community areas , was divided . Ben Joravsky , a Chicago Reader columnist , was one of the strongest critics of the Chicago 2016 bid . However , 2007 opinion polls indicated 76 percent public support . In 2009 , as the final selection approached , opponents of the bid became vocal even though organizers seemed to be pleased with the bid 's progress and presentation . Peter Ueberroth stated , " Chicago is going in the right direction , and we are impressed by that . " Long @-@ time Chicago resident and current President of the United States Barack Obama was a supporter of Chicago 's bid since its inception and noted his support during his Presidential election victory speech in Grant Park . President Barack Obama and First Lady Michelle Obama traveled to Denmark to support Chicago 's bid for the 2016 Summer Olympics . Michael Jordan was an unofficial spokesman for Chicago 's bid . Chicago media mogul Oprah Winfrey and Olympic champion Michael Phelps had been widely promoting the bid since the 2008 Summer Olympics . The bid plan emphasized use of Chicago Park District parks ( Washington Park , Burnham Park , Lincoln Park , Douglas Park and Grant Park ) . In addition , existing facilities such as Soldier Field and McCormick Place would have hosted events . In addition to the event sites , the bid included North side , downtown Loop and South Side celebration locations in Lincoln and Grant Parks as well as the Midway Plaisance respectively that would have had JumboTrons for unticketed visitors . The bid noted the high concentration of event locations ; the majority of event sites would have been clustered together . = = = Financing = = = Ueberroth and members of the national committee met with Daley on May 10 , 2006 , for the initial assessment . Daley appointed business executive Patrick G. Ryan of Aon Corporation , part @-@ owner of the Chicago Bears , to lead the city 's bid process , especially in areas of corporate participation in fundraising . Mayor Daley said on May 10 , 2006 that the Olympics " cannot become a financial burden to the taxpayers of Chicago and Illinois . " " The goal is to have the Olympics be totally privately funded and we have unparalleled support from the business community , " a mayoral spokeswoman said in July 2006 . Daley insisted that no tax money would be used to pay for the city to host the 2016 Summer Olympic Games and said funding from the private sector and federal dollars for security and infrastructure would cover the costs . " Tax money isn 't paying for it , " Daley said on February 7 , 2009 . " The federal government pays for security , which is the highest cost of the Olympics ... The other thing they pay for is infrastructure ... There 's no city tax money whatsoever ... We are very strong in that position ... in the regard to having that be sponsored by the private sector and others . " In previous years , Daley opposed possible bids for the 2008 and 2012 Olympic Games owing to former international committee financial @-@ guarantee requirements . The 2016 financial guarantee requirements were not initially formalized . Early cost estimates hovered at $ 5 billion , with $ 1 @.@ 1 billion for the lakeside Olympic Village and an additional estimated $ 366 million for a temporary 80 @,@ 000 seat Olympic Stadium to be built in Washington Park . Nonetheless , the proposed budget was small in comparison to the Beijing Olympics , which are estimated to have cost $ 40 billion . Further , the 2004 Olympic games in Athens , initially budgeted to cost $ 2 @.@ 4 billion , in fact cost $ 9 billion . On April 11 , 2007 , former Governor of Illinois Rod Blagojevich proposed $ 150 million in state funding to help secure the bid to the USOC for Chicago . Current Governor Pat Quinn stated that he would be willing to support any funding necessary to secure the Olympics for Chicago . By April 14 , over $ 35 million in cash and $ 13 million in goods had been pledged , including donations in excess of $ 100 @,@ 000 from at least 225 individuals and corporations . Chicago had strong allies to pursue federal funds for security and transportation : U.S. Senator Dick Durbin was the second in command among Democratic Senators as the Whip , and former Senator Barack Obama had become the President of the United States . The city announced a $ 500 million insurance policy against cost overruns and revenue shortfalls . = = = Venues = = = Despite the current lack of an Olympic stadium , Chicago has dozens of existing sport venues : Soldier Field , United Center , U.S. Cellular Field , Wrigley Field , Allstate Arena in Rosemont , Sears Centre in Hoffman Estates , and Toyota Park in Bridgeview . Venues at Loyola University Chicago , Northwestern University , the University of Chicago , the University of Illinois at Chicago , Chicago State University , Northern Illinois University , and the University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign , among others , were also available and had been mentioned in early news reports as possibilities . Northerly Island and the lakefront along Lake Michigan would have hosted all beach and water events . The McCormick Place convention center , the second largest in the world , was the planned venue for indoor events like judo and weightlifting , as well as hosting all press offices , while Archery and the medals podium were slated for Grant Park . Preliminary soccer matches would have been played in several venues , of which a few were slated to have been temporarily renamed in line with the IOC prohibition against corporate naming rights sponsorships to be used for venue names . These venues included MetLife Stadium in East Rutherford , New Jersey ( which would have been temporarily renamed " New York Field " for the Olympics ) ; the Rose Bowl in Pasadena , California ; Lincoln Financial Field ( " Philadelphia Field " ) in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania ; the Edward Jones Dome in St. Louis , Missouri ( " St. Louis Dome " ) ; FedExField in Landover , Maryland ( " Landover Field " ) ; and TCF Bank Stadium ( " Minneapolis Stadium " ) , a new stadium which opened in September 2009 on the campus of the University of Minnesota in Minneapolis , Minnesota . Swimming events were originally planned to be held in the West Side 's Douglas Park , but in a December 2008 plan revision the swimming events would have moved to Washington Park and a velodrome for track and BMX cycling events would have moved from Northerly Island to Douglas Park . The Cycling hub will be in Madison , Wisconsin . While some venues might have changed at short notice , the Chicago 2016 Bid Book indicated that the following venues would have been permanently constructed : an Aquatic Center , the Olympic Stadium ( to a limited long @-@ term degree ) , a Canoe / Flatwater / Rowing area at Monroe Harbor , a Canoe / Kayak @-@ Slalom Course , a velodrome in Douglas Park , and Field Hockey Fields in Jackson Park . = = = = Rowing = = = = The Monroe Harbor would have been enlarged with a $ 60 @-@ million breakwater to accommodate an approximately 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) course for rowing events . This would have enabled rowing competitions to take place on a course running from Northerly Island to about Randolph Street . This course would have featured a picturesque Chicago Loop skyline backdrop for television viewing , which by 2016 might have included the Chicago Spire , if it was completed . In order to accommodate the Olympics , all non @-@ Olympic watercraft would have been required to vacate Monroe Harbor for a year . Canoeing events would have been held in the former location of Meigs Field on Northerly Island near the Adler Planetarium . Historically , this site staged some venues for the 1933 World 's Fair . = = = = Stadium = = = = The Olympic Stadium would have been built in Washington Park , a site listed on the National Register of Historic Places in the Washington Park community area of the same name on the city 's south side . Chicago initially proposed building a temporary 80 @,@ 000 @-@ seat track stadium adjacent to Soldier Field and having the two stadiums host dual Opening and Closing Ceremonies . However , the final proposal called for a $ 366 million temporary stadium to be built in Washington Park . The stadium would have been replaced by a 10 @,@ 000 seat multi @-@ use venue after the games . The smaller post @-@ Olympic stadium would have been more in line with public interest in restoring the historic park after the games . The new stadium would have featured a high @-@ tech reflective sheathing material to accommodate huge TV picture projections on its outside walls . The temporary stadium would not have had concessions inside the stadium , unlike permanent local venues , although concessions were planned outside the stadium . The stadium would have featured a basic oval shape , but it would also have adhered to Olympic design rules which dictate that there must be an overhanging lip at one end to cover dignitaries and the media . IOC president Jacques Rogge praised Chicago 's design in November 2007 as a possible " blueprint for the future " , reflecting the desire of the IOC to make the games both more affordable and to have a smaller ecological footprint on the host city . = = = = Olympic Village = = = = The Olympic Village for housing athletes during the games would have been a $ 1 @.@ 1 @-@ billion series of newly constructed lakefront buildings that would have been converted to rental and condominium units after the games . The village was to be located immediately south of McCormick Place , which was expected to host 11 event venues , on a current truck parking lot between South Lake Shore Drive and the Illinois Central Railroad tracks in the Near South Side and Douglas community areas . At the time , the parking lot was being used to stage events at McCormick Place . The village was slated to have pedways over Lake Shore Drive . This location was meant to enable 88 % of the Olympic athletes to be within 15 minutes of their competition venue . Initially , the Olympic Village was to be located entirely on the McCormick Place truck yards , but in November 2006 , The Michael Reese Hospital site became listed for sale . Planners determined that the Hospital site would likely have been superior in terms of lower cost and more successful urban planning implementation . In November 2007 , Mayor Daley announced a plan to acquire the 37 @-@ acre ( 150 @,@ 000 m2 ) site , and the following June the hospital decided that it would cease operations . In July 2008 the city announced its official bid for the property : The city planned to borrow $ 85 million to buy the Michael Reese Hospital campus , near 31st and King Drive , from its current owner , Medline Industries . Medline would only get $ 65 million , because the company agreed to make a $ 20 million “ charitable contribution ” back to the city . The city would use that $ 20 million to pay up to five years of interest on its $ 85 million debt , demolish the hospital , and clean up the site . Then sometime in the next couple years it planned to sell the site for at least $ 85 million to a developer or developers , who in turn were expected to build a complex big enough to house about 15 @,@ 000 Olympians . After the games the developer would sell or rent out the units . In September 2008 , the city realized it had underestimated demolition and environmental cleanup costs , which put the transaction at risk . Additionally in September the Associated Press reported a recalcitrant property owner may force the hospital site to be abandoned . These problems needed resolution by the bid committee by February 2009 , the date which bid books were due . That month , the city requested a renegotiation of terms and within a week Michael Reese hospital filed for chapter 11 bankruptcy . In December 2008 , new terms for the deal became public . Although original financing plans included no taxpayer funding , the late deal was only possible with $ 500 million of taxpayer participation via a guarantee by the city to cover possible revenue shortfall and $ 45 million for Chicago Police Department costs . In addition , in early 2008 , records were uncovered that show the campus of Michael Reese Hospital to have been designed , in large part , by one of the twentieth century 's most well @-@ respected modernist architects , Walter Gropius . Thus , the plan for the Olympic Village battled the growing belief that preserving the old hospital campus would be better from an urban planning and historic preservation standpoint , and also rose questions about financing the village . In addition , the planned demolition of 28 buildings put the sustainability record the city was attempting to create in question . = = = Sports culture = = = Chicago benefited from a strong sports culture . On August 1 , 2006 , it was named Best Sports City in the US by Sporting News . Chicagoans are famous for their rabid support of their home teams : the Chicago Bears , Chicago Bulls , Chicago Cubs , Chicago White Sox , Chicago Blackhawks , Chicago Wolves , and more recently , Chicago Sky ( WNBA ) , Chicago Fire , the Chicago Red Stars ( the new women 's soccer team ) , and the Chicago Machine . Other events such as the Chicago Marathon , one of the five World Marathon Majors , will also play a part in Chicago 's Olympic @-@ planning process . = = = Experience = = = Chicago has hosted major and historic world gatherings in the past , including the famous 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition , the 1933 Century of Progress Exposition and the 1959 Pan American Games , as well as matches for the 1994 FIFA World Cup soccer tournament . Chicago has also hosted the most United States presidential nominating conventions . Chicago was scheduled to host the 1904 Summer Olympics , but the games were instead relocated to St. Louis to coincide with its Louisiana Purchase Exposition , more commonly known as the Saint Louis World 's Fair . Chicago was also the first host of the Special Olympics in 1968 . More recently , Chicago hosted the Gay Games VII in July 2006 , and the 2007 AIBA Boxing Championships in October 2007 . The championships were a qualifying event for the 2008 Summer Olympics and a chance for Chicago to showcase its staging skills to IOC members . AIBA head Dr. Ching @-@ kuo Wu enthused the tournament was the " best ever " , especially considering the short six @-@ month lead time Chicago had to organize the games . = = = Logo = = = On May 16 , 2007 , Chicago was informed that its logo , a representation of a torch with the flames reminiscent of Chicago 's skyline , violated IOC rules against using Olympic torch imagery . Bidding rules prohibit logos containing the Olympic symbol , motto , flag or other imagery including a flame , torch or medal . Chicago agreed to revise the logo . The current redesigned logo was released on September 19 , 2007 . Using the same color palette , a unique six @-@ pointed Chicago star represents a compass pointing in all directions reaching out to the world . Each point represents an Olympic value : Hope , Respect , Harmony , Friendship , Excellence and Celebration . The warm colors initially represented in the flame ( or top ) of the image refer to the sun , the cool colors represent the green parklands and blue waters of Lake Michigan . Initially beneath the logo were the words " Applicant City " . Both logos were designed by Chicago @-@ based design firm VSA Partners . Chicago not only changed its logo , but relaunched its campaign . It changed its motto from " Stir the soul " to " Let friendship shine " . Chicago used social media more than any other city bidding , and was keen to make 2016 a ‘ New Media Olympics ’ . It established a number of groups on Facebook , and on September 29 , 2009 the bid 's official page surpassed 100 @,@ 000 members ; it also used Flickr and Twitter . Chicago City Council alderman Edward M. Burke proposed that a fifth star be added to the Flag of Chicago if the city won its bid for the Olympic games in 2016 . = = = Bid factors = = = The bid relied on Chicago 's strength in medical services and doping control , security , accommodations , transportation , technology and media operations . The city 's transportation infrastructure includes the Chicago Transit Authority , which operates a vast network of buses and elevated / subway ' L ' trains , and the Metra and South Shore Line commuter rail services that connects more than 230 suburban destinations to Chicago . These transportation options would have allowed public transit access to the Games for city residents and people throughout northeastern Illinois into northern Indiana and southern Wisconsin . Chicago 's main airport , O 'Hare International Airport is the second @-@ busiest airport in the world . The Chicago region is served by two other major commercial airports , Midway and Milwaukee 's General Mitchell International Airport , along with several smaller airports . The city is served by all major worldwide airlines , and O 'Hare is an international hub for both American and United Airlines , while Midway is a hub for domestic carrier Southwest Airlines . There is also a considerable network of rail lines and interstate highways in the region . Chicago has over 30 @,@ 000 hotel rooms in the immediate downtown area alone , and it has the largest skilled @-@ labor workforce in the US catering to conventions and other large @-@ scale media events . Chicago is in the Central Time Zone ( UTC − 5 during the summer months ) , which is very is well @-@ suited to North American television coverage . The NBC television network with its sister cable broadcasters is by far the largest media vendor and contract purchaser of the Olympic Games . = = Domain name dispute = = Trademark controversies arose for " Chicago2016.com " and " Tokyo2016.com " , when both were registered in 2004 by entrepreneur Stephen Frayne Jr . , an MBA student at the Kellogg School of Management ; he also claimed around 40 other domain names whose city / year format mimicked the way Olympic Games are marketed . Frayne 's stated intent for the site was a " comprehensive , balanced discussion " of the benefits and pitfalls of holding the Olympics in Chicago ; the Chicago 2016 committee contended that his real intent was to profit from cybersquatting . The Chicago Olympic bid organization , which had been using Chicago2016.org as its official web site , sought control of Chicago2016.com through a complaint filed with an international arbitration organization . Attempts by the USOC to have the World Intellectual Property Organization ( WIPO ) release the names failed . Frayne sued in the U.S. District Court in Chicago , seeking an injunction against the arbitration proceedings . On September 25 , 2008 , the WIPO arbitration panel granted Frayne 's motion to suspend and terminate proceedings setting up a battle in the federal court in the Northern District of Illinois . The Olympic bid candidature documentation published by the International Olympic Committee ( IOC ) states that each bid must " ... provide documentation indicating that appropriate measures have been taken to register domain names that are of value to your candidature such as ' [ City ] 2016 ' followed by extensions .com .net .org as well as the country code concerned . " = = Outcome = = = = = Outlook = = = Chicago made the Candidate city shortlist in June 2008 as one of four finalists to host the 2016 Olympic games . Its technical ranking by the IOC was 7 @.@ 0 ; generally beyond the 6 @.@ 0 minimum threshold , but trailing behind Tokyo and Madrid 's bids . ( Technical qualities are only part of the final selection process . ) The final selection from Madrid , Spain ; Rio de Janeiro , Brazil was made on October 2 , 2009 , in Copenhagen , Denmark . In 2007 , USOC head Peter Ueberroth contended that Chicago was in " third or fourth place " , with a need to focus more on the international relations rather than just having a stronger technical bid . In September 2009 , the IOC gave a written evaluation of the venues , budgets , transportation plans and public support . Chicago 's bid was not federally underwritten , unlike other bid cities , which concerned the IOC , given declining tax revenue during a major recession in the US economy . Nevertheless , with Chicago 's strong hosting of the AIBA Boxing Championships which exposed the city to many IOC members , the city was cited as a current favorite , and one member claimed the Games were " theirs to lose . " Chicago also successfully hosted the 2006 Gay Games , another multinational sporting event . Both events were planned with short lead times . In April 2009 , the Chicago 2016 bid committee was the first of the four finalists to host the 13 @-@ member IOC Evaluation Commission . They presented twenty films to the committee . Among the video spokespersons were Hillary Clinton ( raised in suburban Chicago ) and Michael Jordan . In addition to meeting with bid organizers , the IOC commission met with bid opposition groups when they visited . After the IOC commission left Chicago , the Chicago City Council approved an Olympic Community Agreement ordinance that was drafted by Alderman Toni Preckwinkle . The agreement committed 30 percent of Olympic Village units to affordable housing conversion and guarantees women and minorities a portion of Olympic @-@ related contracts . Former Illinois Senate President Emil Jones derided the agreement as an inadequate deal . Some Chicago residents opposed to the Chicago bid , particularly because of the financial implications of the undertaking to Chicago residents , launched a website called " chicagoansforrio.com " to persuade the IOC to give the Olympics to Rio instead . In a public poll , Chicago residents were almost evenly divided on the bid , with 47 % supporting and 45 % not supporting . = = = IOC vote = = = On October 2 , 2009 , Chicago was knocked out in the first round of voting , and the Olympics went to Rio de Janeiro , despite some high profile backers , such as US President Barack Obama and Chicago @-@ based television hostess Oprah Winfrey , going to Copenhagen to support the bid . Since balloting is secret and IOC members rarely share their voting tendencies , there has been much speculation as to why Chicago lost the Olympic bid so early in the process . Michelle Higgins on The New York Times blog argued that an overly restrictive passport and visa policy was one such reason . CBS 2 Chicago 's website suggested that anti @-@ Americanism may have contributed . Bid CEO Patrick Ryan was quoted in the Chicago Sun @-@ Times as saying " bloc voting " and assumptions by others in the IOC that Chicago had enough votes to make it to the second round of voting led to its early demise . The same article hinted at fractious relations , noted by The Seattle Times , between the IOC and USOC over the corporate background of the USOC executives and the " inordinate " share of revenue that they receive . = Interstate 470 ( Kansas ) = Interstate 470 ( I @-@ 470 ) is a 13 @.@ 72 @-@ mile ( 22 @.@ 08 km ) loop highway that bypasses the downtown area of Topeka , Kansas . I @-@ 470 begins at an interchange with Interstate 70 in western Topeka and heads generally southeast , running concurrent with U.S. Route 75 ( US @-@ 75 ) . The concurrency with US @-@ 75 ends 5 @.@ 74 miles ( 9 @.@ 24 km ) later at the Burlingame Road interchange . I @-@ 470 becomes part of the Kansas Turnpike at its junction with Interstate 335 . From there , the highway heads generally northeast through the southeastern sections of Topeka . After traveling 7 @.@ 03 miles ( 11 @.@ 31 km ) as the Kansas Turnpike , I @-@ 470 reaches its eastern terminus with Interstate 70 . The highway has annual average daily traffic values as high as 43 @,@ 000 west of Gage Boulevard to as low as 10 @,@ 370 near the eastern terminus with Interstate 70 . As an interstate highway , Interstate 470 is a part of the United States National Highway System . The non @-@ turnpike portions of the highway are maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation , while the turnpike portion is maintained by the Kansas Turnpike Authority . The Kansas Turnpike was opened in the 1950s , comprising the eastern portion of the route . In the late 1950s construction began on the western portion of I @-@ 470 , and on October 21 , 1960 , the western section of I @-@ 470 was dedicated and opened to traffic . In 1982 , Interstate 470 was designated as " Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial Highway " . The routing of I @-@ 470 has not changed since the completion of the highway . = = Route description = = = = = Free segment = = = Interstate 470 begins on the west side of Topeka at an interchange with I @-@ 70 , US @-@ 40 , and K @-@ 4 . US @-@ 75 approaches the interchange from the east and joins I @-@ 470 . The two routes head southeastward along the western edge of the city . Along this stretch of the Interstate , there are three interchanges ; Huntoon / Wanamaker , 21st , and 29th / Fairlawn . Because of both the southeast @-@ to @-@ northwest alignment of the road and the proximity of two cross @-@ streets , the Huntoon / Wanamaker and 29th / Fairlawn interchanges are each made up of two half @-@ diamond interchanges , with entrances and exits on two different streets depending on direction . At the Huntoon / Wanamaker interchange , traffic leaving eastbound I @-@ 470 is deposited onto Huntoon Street . Vehicles merging onto eastbound I @-@ 470 must access the entrance ramp from Wanamaker Road . The intersection of Huntoon and Wanamaker is adjacent to the freeway . The 29th / Fairlawn interchange is constructed similarly to the Huntoon / Wanamaker interchange , while the 21st Street interchange is a standard diamond interchange . Through southern Topeka , I @-@ 470 / US @-@ 75 curve to the east @-@ southeast where they intersect Gage Boulevard . Further southeast , US @-@ 75 splits away from I @-@ 470 at a complex interchange with Burlingame Road . Just east of the US @-@ 75 interchange , a trumpet interchange provides access to Topeka Boulevard . = = = Kansas Turnpike segment = = = The highway then passes through a toll plaza and merges onto the Kansas Turnpike , starting the tolled portion of the highway . This junction also marks the northern end of I @-@ 335 . I @-@ 470 and the Kansas Turnpike head northeast towards I @-@ 70 . The tollway continues northeastward through southeastern Topeka , passing near to Lake Shawnee and eventually reaching I @-@ 470 's terminus at I @-@ 70 , which the turnpike carries east . = = Maintenance = = The non @-@ turnpike portion of the freeway is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . As part of this role , KDOT surveys traffic on Kansas highways in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . In 2011 , KDOT calculated that as few as 10 @,@ 400 vehicles used I @-@ 470 daily along the Kansas Turnpike near the I @-@ 70 interchange and as many as 41 @,@ 300 vehicles used I @-@ 470 daily between the Gage Boulevard interchange and the 29th Street interchange . The portions of I @-@ 470 that are part of the Kansas Turnpike fall under the purview of the Kansas Turnpike Authority , which is responsible for operating and maintaining the Kansas Turnpike . Being part of the Interstate Highway System , the entirety of I @-@ 470 is listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads that are important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = The section of I @-@ 470 that now runs along the Kansas Turnpike was opened in 1956 , and was the first part of I @-@ 470 to be built . After the founding of the Interstate Highway System that same year , several Interstate freeways were planned through Topeka , including I @-@ 70 and I @-@ 470 . Construction began on I @-@ 470 after I @-@ 70 's completion to Topeka . The segment of the I @-@ 470 freeway from the I @-@ 70 interchange to the Kansas Turnpike , most of which is concurrent with US @-@ 75 , was built by Koss Construction Company and was under construction until 1960 . On October 21 , 1960 , the western section of I @-@ 470 was dedicated by the state highway department and the Kansas Turnpike Authority and opened to traffic . Since completion of the freeway , the route has not been changed . In 1982 , Interstate 470 was dedicated as " Martin Luther King Jr . Memorial Highway " . = = Exit list = = The exits on the Kansas Turnpike portion of I @-@ 470 follow the Turnpike 's mileposts . The entire route is in Topeka , Shawnee County . = Pizza cheese = Pizza cheese encompasses several varieties and types of cheeses and dairy products that are designed and manufactured for use specifically on pizza . These include processed and modified cheese such as mozzarella @-@ like processed cheeses and mozzarella variants . The term can also refer to any type of cheese suitable for use on pizza . The most popular cheeses used in the preparation of pizza are mozzarella ( accounting for about 30 % ) , provolone , cheddar and Parmesan . Emmental , Romano and ricotta are often used as toppings , and processed pizza cheeses manufactured specifically for pizza are mass @-@ produced . Some mass @-@ produced pizza cheeses are frozen after manufacturing and shipped frozen . Processed pizza cheese is manufactured to produce optimal qualities in browning , melting , stretchiness and fat and moisture content . Several studies and experiments have analyzed the impact of vegetable oil , manufacturing and culture processes , denatured whey proteins and other changes to create ideal and economical pizza cheeses . In 1997 it was estimated that annual production of pizza cheese products was 2 billion pounds in the United States and 200 million pounds in Europe , and in 2000 demand for the product in Europe was increasing by 8 % per year . The trend of steadily @-@ increasing production and consumption of mozzarella and pizza cheese continued into the first decade of the 21st century in the United States . = = Varieties and types = = The International Dictionary of Food and Cooking defines pizza cheese as " a soft spun @-@ curd cheese similar to Mozzarella made from cow 's milk ... " that is " ... used particularly for pizzas and contains somewhat less water than real Mozzarella ... " Most are at least 95 percent Mozzarella , with different moisture and fat densities . Cheese for frozen pizzas may be comminuted , in which the cheese is processed into minute granules or fragments . Low @-@ moisture Mozzarella can be formulated specifically for pizza . Cheese may be processed into blocks , from which the product can be grated , made into granules or sliced for use on pizza or other foods . Pizza cheese frequently consists of a blend of two or more cheeses , such as low @-@ moisture Mozzarella or Provolone . Low @-@ moisture Mozzarella was first manufactured in dairy factories in the Midwestern United States , and was originally called " pizza cheese " . Compared to standard Mozzarella , low @-@ moisture Mozzarella has a firmer texture , is easier to grate , has better browning and melting characteristics , and is less perishable . Globally , Mozzarella is the most popular pizza cheese . However , it has been estimated that in the United States only 30 % of all pizza cheese used is actual Mozzarella . Provolone is the second most popular one . Cheddar may be mixed with Mozzarella to preserve chewiness . Grated Parmesan may be added to the top of a pizza , and typically does not melt well when cooked . A diverse variety of processed pizza cheeses are produced , including analogue cheese . Provel is one example . Other pizza cheeses include Emmental , Romano and Ricotta for calzones or as a topping . Several cheeses may be mixed together in its formulation , and each has individual browning and blistering characteristics . For example , a combination of Mozzarella and Cheddar may blister less when cooked compared to other combinations , because cheddar has less elasticity , while Mozzarella and provolone may brown less compared to other combinations . = = = Processed pizza cheeses = = = Pasteurized and processed pizza cheese dairy products that are designed to melt well and remain chewy are used on many mass @-@ produced pizzas in North America and the United Kingdom . These types of cheeses are referred to as analogue ( or analog ) pizza cheese In the book Technology of Cheesemaking , editors Law and Tamimethat state that analogue pizza cheese appears to be the leading type of cheese analogue produced globally . Each year in the United States , 700 million frozen pizzas are sold , three @-@ quarters of which contain cheese substitutes . Analogue pizza cheeses may be formulated for processing with less sophisticated cheese @-@ making equipment than is required for Mozzarella cheese , such as using simple mixing and molding . They tend to have a soft texture and once melted , may have a slightly " stringy " quality when pulled or bitten into . They may lack in a fusion , or melting together of the shredded product when cooked , in which the cheese gels together . New stabilizer systems have been developed that have helped to enable the creation of analogue pizza cheeses . An example of a processed pizza cheese is Provel , which uses Cheddar , Swiss , and Provolone cheeses as flavorants . Some analogue types are made with casein , a by @-@ product of milk , and vegetable oil , rather than milk fat . Casein @-@ based Mozzarella @-@ like imitation processed cheeses prepared using rennet are also used as a Mozzarella substitute on frozen pizzas . In some instances , the production of analogue pizza cheese can be similar to the production of cream cheese , although production may be different and homogenization may be avoided . In some varieties , the product is heated to remain at a specific temperature and for a specific amount of time , which causes the proteins in the mix to gelatinize . During this process , salts in the mix serve to emulsify it and thus improve the meltability of the final product . The heated product is then placed in packaging such as bags @-@ in @-@ boxes while still hot , as it is more easily handled in this state compared to when in a solid state . During packaging , these types of pizza cheeses are then quick @-@ cooled to avoid browning of the product , which can occur vis @-@ a @-@ vis the Maillard reaction . = = Research and development = = Manufacturers and academics have conducted studies and experiments in an effort to improve the stretchiness , melting characteristics , browning , fat content and water retention of pizza cheese . Several patents exist for specialized varieties of pizza cheese and for its processing . A study by Rudan and Barbano found that the addition of a thin layer of vegetable oil atop low- and reduced @-@ fat pizza cheese increased meltability and reduced browning and dehydration when the product was cooked , but the texture remained overly chewy and tough . A study by Perry ( et al . ) found various methods to heighten the melt of low @-@ fat pizza cheese by increasing its moisture , including the use of pre @-@ acidification , fat @-@ replacers	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
thunderstorms are steered by winds closer to the Earth 's surface than more mature thunderstorms as they tend not to be as tall . If the gust front , or leading edge of the outflow boundary , moves ahead of the thunderstorm , the thunderstorm 's motion will move in tandem with the gust front . This is more of a factor with thunderstorms with heavy precipitation ( HP ) , such as air @-@ mass thunderstorms . When thunderstorms merge , which is most likely when numerous thunderstorms exist in proximity to each other , the motion of the stronger thunderstorm normally dictates future motion of the merged cell . The stronger the mean wind , the less likely other processes will be involved in storm motion . On weather radar , storms are tracked by using a prominent feature and tracking it from scan to scan . = = Convective precipitation = = Convective rain , or showery precipitation , occurs from cumulonimbus clouds . It falls as showers with rapidly changing intensity . Convective precipitation falls over a certain area for a relatively short time , as convective clouds such as thunderstorms have limited horizontal extent . Most precipitation in the tropics appears to be convective . Graupel and hail are good indicators of convective precipitation and thunderstorms . In mid @-@ latitudes , convective precipitation is intermittent and often associated with baroclinic boundaries such as cold fronts , squall lines , and warm fronts . High rainfall rates are associated with thunderstorms with larger raindrops . Heavy rainfall leads to fading of microwave transmissions starting above the frequency of 10 gigahertz ( GHz ) , but is more severe above frequencies of 15 GHz . = = Lightning = = Relationships between lightning frequency and the height of precipitation within thunderstorms have been found . Thunderstorms which show radar returns above 14 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 7 mi ) in height are associated with storms which have more than ten lightning flashes per minute . There is also a correlation between the total lightning rate and the size of the thunderstorm , its updraft velocity , and amount of graupel over land . The same relationships fail over tropical oceans , however . Lightning from low precipitation ( LP ) thunderstorms is one of the leading causes of wildfires . = = Aviation concerns = = In areas where these thunderstorms form in isolation and horizontal visibility is good , pilots can evade these storms rather easily . In more moist atmospheres which become hazy , pilots navigate above the haze layer in order to get a better vantage point of these storms . Flying under the anvil of thunderstorms is not advised , as hail is more likely to fall in such areas outside the thunderstorm 's main rain shaft . When an outflow boundary forms due to a shallow layer of rain @-@ cooled air spreading out near ground level from the parent thunderstorm , both speed and directional wind shear can result at the leading edge of the three @-@ dimensional boundary . The stronger the outflow boundary is , the stronger the resultant vertical wind shear will become . = Ontario Highway 19 = King 's Highway 19 , commonly referred to as Highway 19 , is a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario , connecting Highway 3 in Tillsonburg with Highway 401 southeast of Ingersoll . Highway 19 is 18 @.@ 8 km ( 11 @.@ 7 mi ) long , starting at Highway 3 in the south and ending at Highway 2 in the north ; this is similar to its original route and length of 25 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 15 @.@ 6 mi ) in 1930 . The highway began as the Plank and Gravel Road , a toll road formed by the Ingersoll and Port Burwell Road Company . It was first assigned in 1930 . Several extensions in the early 1930s took the route north to Highway 86 at Tralee . However , a significant amount of Highway 19 was decommissioned and turned over to local and county governments in 1997 and 1998 . = = Route description = = The southern end of Highway 19 begins at Highway 3 in Tillsonburg , while the northern end terminates 400 metres north of the centreline of Highway 401 , southeast of the Ingersoll town limits . Highway 19 is situated entirely in Oxford County and serves the communities of Ostrander , Mount Elgin and Salford . Prior to 1998 , it began in Port Burwell on the shores of Lake Erie , while the northern terminus extended to Highway 86 east of Listowel in the community of Tralee . The route begins on the southern edge of Tillsonburg at Highway 3 ( Talbot Road ) , travelling north along the eastern side of Big Otter Creek . This section of the highway , known as Vienna Road , lies next to a business / industrial park . At County Road 51 ( Simcoe Street ) , Vienna Road ends and Highway 19 turns west , becoming Oxford Street and crossing Big Otter Creek . At Broadway Street , Highway 19 turns northwest and passes through the downtown strip as well as beside Tillsonburg Town Centre . It continues into residential subdivisions , eventually exiting the town into the municipality of South @-@ West Oxford as it turns north at Quarter Town Line and becomes Plank Line . The route enters farmland , but bisects the hamlet of Ostrander shortly thereafter . It crosses the Ontario Southland Railway , which lies roughly parallel to the entire length of the highway , before passing west of Tillsonburg Airport and curving northwest . After travelling through farmland , the route enter Mount Elgin and intersects County Road 18 ( Mt . Elgin Road ) . After , it continues through more farmland to the community of Salford , where it encounters County Road 46 ( Salford Road ) . It turns northward briefly , emerging back into agricultural surroundings for the final stretch of the route . Just southeast of Ingersoll , it encounters an interchange with Highway 401 ( Exit 218 ) ; Highway 19 ends immediately north of the westbound ramps . County Road 119 ( Harris Street ) continues northwest into the town to meet former Highway 2 . = = History = = The history of Highway 19 dates back to 1849 , when the Baldwin Act and the Act to Authorize Formation of Joint Stock Companies were passed . George Tillson , his sons , and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Benjamin Van Norman were the principal stockholders of the Ingersoll and Port Burwell Road Company , which they formed along with approximately 200 shareholders in September 1849 . Proceeding quickly , the company established eight toll booths along the new route , which became known as the Plank and Gravel Road due to the materials with which it was constructed . However , the greed of toll road operators resulted in diminishing upkeep , which forced the province to enact legislature allowing counties to assume ownership of the roads . It took until 1907 for Oxford County to assume the toll road ; the proprietors were compensated with $ 15 @,@ 500 ( $ 293 @,@ 300 when adjusted for inflation from 1916 ) . The gradual implementation of various legislation over the following decade allowed many counties to vastly improve roads under their jurisdiction . By the time the Department of Highways ( DHO ) assumed the road from Highway 3 in Tillsonburg to Highway 2 in Ingersoll on March 12 , 1930 as King 's Highway 19 , it was once again a gravel road . A year later , on May 27 , 1931 , the highway was extended north from Woodstock to Shakespeare . As a result of this , a concurrency with Highway 2 was created between Ingersoll and Woodstock . Several months later , on July 1 , the department assumed the remainder of the Ingersoll to Port Burwell Road , extending Highway 19 south of Tillsonburg . As part of a depression relief program , the DHO and Department of Labour undertook several projects in 1933 and 1934 , one of which included the Stratford to Tralee Road . On July 4 , 1934 , the DHO assumed the road as part of Highway 19 . To remedy the discontinuity , a 12 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) concurrency with Highway 7 was established . At this point , Highway 19 had grown from its original length of 25 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 15 @.@ 6 mi ) to 148 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 92 @.@ 2 mi ) . The route remained unchanged until the early 1960s , when several highways were renumbered . Highway 19 between Woodstock and Shakespeare was redesignated as Highway 59 , while Highway 100 between Thamesford and St. Marys was redesignated as Highway 19 . The concurrencies with Highway 2 and Highway 7 were relocated as a result of this renumbering ; Highway 19 became concurrent with Highway 2 between Ingersoll and Thamesford , and with Highway 7 between St. Marys and Stratford . While the length of the route was reduced insignificantly as a result of this renumbering , it became more direct . Between then and 1997 , no changes were made to Highway 19 . On April 1 , 1997 , the section from Highway 3 south to Port Burwell was transferred to Elgin County , Oxford County and Haldimand – Norfolk . This was followed by a second round of transfers on January 1 , 1998 , which resulted in the section north of Highway 401 being decommissioned and assumed by Oxford County and Perth County . Today , the majority of the Port Burwell to Tillsonburg segment is designated as Elgin County Road 19 . A short segment in Haldimand – Norfolk and Oxford County immediately south of Tillsonburg is designated as County Highway 19 . The Ingersoll to St. Marys segment is now known as Oxford County Road 119 , while the segment north of Stratford is designated as Perth County Road 119 through Brunner , then Perth County Road 131 through Milverton . = = Major intersections = = The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 19 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario . The entire route is located in the Regional Municipality of Oxford . = Hurricane Cristobal ( 2014 ) = Hurricane Cristobal was a moderately strong Atlantic tropical cyclone that affected multiple landmasses from Puerto Rico to Iceland in late August and early September 2014 . It was also the strongest Atlantic hurricane in terms of pressure since Hurricane Sandy in 2012 . Slow to develop , and plagued by unfavorable wind shear for most of its life , the storm formed on August 23 near the Caicos Islands from a long @-@ tracked tropical wave . Moving generally northward , Cristobal gradually intensified despite a ragged appearance on satellite imagery , and passed midway between Bermuda and North Carolina on August 27 . While accelerating toward the northeast the next day , Cristobal achieved its peak strength as a Category 1 hurricane . A colder environment converted Cristobal into an extratropical cyclone on August 29 , but it retained much of its strength as it sped across the northern Atlantic and struck Iceland on September 1 . Before its classification as a tropical cyclone , the disturbance that would become Cristobal dropped heavy rainfall over Puerto Rico , locally reaching 13 @.@ 21 in ( 336 mm ) . Widespread flooding and scattered landslides affected the territory , with 19 major rivers exceeding minor flood stage . The system went on to douse the island of Hispaniola with torrential rains , leading to at least four drowning deaths in Haiti and the Dominican Republic . Floodwaters damaged or destroyed over 800 houses and temporarily isolated 23 communities in the Dominican Republic , while about 640 families were displaced in Haiti . Another person was killed by floodwaters in the Turks and Caicos . The hurricane generated strong surf and dangerous rip currents along the U.S. East Coast , killing two swimmers in Maryland and New Jersey and leading to large numbers of lifeguard rescues . Later , the extratropical remnants of Cristobal buffeted Iceland with heavy rain and gusty winds , causing flooding around the capital city of Reykjavík . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Cristobal originated from a westward @-@ tracking tropical wave which emerged from the western coast of Africa on August 14 , accompanied for several days by an expanse of clouds . Some cyclonic turning was evident as the disturbance approached the Leeward Islands by August 21 , but a Hurricane Hunters flight tasked with investigating the system did not reveal a strong circulation at the surface . The system failed to consolidate as it traversed Puerto Rico and Hispaniola , but on August 23 , further reconnaissance data confirmed the formation of a tropical depression just south of the Caicos Islands . The nascent cyclone slowly moved north @-@ northwestward toward a weakness in the subtropical ridge . Moderate wind shear in the area kept convection over the depression disorganized and outflow limited , and the storm only gradually intensified . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Cristobal at 06 : 00 UTC on August 24 , while located just north of Mayaguana in the Bahamas , but its structure was vertically tilted and suboptimally broad . Weak steering currents kept Cristobal 's forward motion slow and erratic , and the storm remained heavily affected by shear , with most deep convection displaced from the center . On August 25 , the system turned toward the north @-@ northeast in response to a mid @-@ level trough to the north . Despite a ragged cloud pattern characterized by an exposed low @-@ level center and a distinct lack of banding features , Cristobal intensified into a Category 1 hurricane at 00 : 00 UTC on August 26 , as indicated by aircraft observations . The newly upgraded hurricane headed along a general northward path , and for the next couple days , pockets of dry air kept prevented further intensification . Convection fluctuated in intensity and coverage , and early on August 27 the National Hurricane Center remarked that " the satellite presentation resembles a subtropical cyclone " . However , later that same day , the hurricane showed signs of increased development while located midway between Bermuda and Cape Hatteras , North Carolina . In particular , its cloud pattern became much more symmetric , and some cloud tops cooled to – 70 ° C ( – 95 ° F ) . Around the same time , Cristobal accelerated toward the northeast as it became embedded within the mid @-@ latitude westerlies ahead of an advancing shortwave trough . An area of relatively warm cloud tops at the center of a central dense overcast gave way to an eye feature evident on visible satellite imagery on August 28 . Rapidly gaining latitude , Cristobal reached its peak intensity at 18 : 00 UTC , with winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) , roughly 490 mi ( 790 km ) due south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . Shortly thereafter , the hurricane began to degrade as it moved over significantly colder waters and began to encounter further dry air , signalling the beginning of its transition to an extratropical cyclone . Cristobal 's circulation soon began to interact with a frontal boundary , and deep convection became distanced well to the north of the center . Consequently , the hurricane lost its tropical identity by 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 , just north of 44 ° N. Baroclinic processes preserved much of the extratropical cyclone 's intensity , allowing it to maintain hurricane @-@ force winds until August 30 . Speeding generally northeastward , the storm slowly weakened over the northern Atlantic , making landfall on Iceland on September 1 . It merged with another storm system north of the country by the next day . = = Impact = = = = = Antilles = = = As Cristobal 's parent wave moved over Puerto Rico , it engaged with an abnormally moist air mass to produce torrential rains totaling more than 10 in ( 250 mm ) . The highest rainfall totals were enhanced by orographic lift over mountainous terrain . A rain gauge near Tibes recorded a peak total of 13 @.@ 21 in ( 336 mm ) , the majority of which fell on August 24 . Luis Muñoz Marín International Airport near San Juan reported 5 @.@ 52 in ( 140 mm ) of precipitation . In total , 19 rivers reached minor flood stage and five reached moderate flood stage ; some of them inundated adjacent roadways and urban areas . The heavy rains triggered multiple landslides , at least one of which forced a family to evacuate . The floods cut electricity to nearly 17 @,@ 000 customers and left 7 @,@ 000 without clean drinking water after putting some 18 filtration plants out of service . In some cases , however , the rains proved beneficial , refilling reservoirs after an abnormally dry summer . Only the northwest corner of Puerto Rico escaped hydrological issues . Gusty winds caused minor damage to trees and tree branches in the territory . Moderate to heavy rainfall also affected the U.S. Virgin Islands , amounting to 5 @.@ 27 in ( 134 mm ) on Saint Thomas and 2 @.@ 22 in ( 56 mm ) on Saint Croix . The island of Hispaniola also received damaging rains from the slow @-@ moving storm . La Romana , Dominican Republic , recorded 5 @.@ 04 in ( 128 mm ) of rain in 24 hours on August 23 and 24 , the result being destructive flooding . The floods isolated 23 towns from the outside world and damaged or destroyed more than 800 dwellings , especially in eastern and northeastern parts of the nation . Just over 4 @,@ 100 individuals were forced to leave their homes and seek refuge with friends and family . In Santo Domingo Province , three people required rescue from their stricken car after trying to cross the swollen Isabela River . Two people were killed in the Dominican Republic , one of them after trying to drive across a flooded river in the Hato Mayor Province . In neighboring Haiti , flooding totally destroyed four homes and heavily damaged 28 others , with a total of about 640 families left temporarily homeless . At least two people in the country were swept away by rushing waters , and many others sustained injuries . Shortly after the storm 's genesis , tropical storm warnings were issued for the central and southeastern Bahamas and the Turks and Caicos Islands . The advisories were discontinued by August 25 . Heavy rain fell over the region , reaching 10 @.@ 9 in ( 280 mm ) on the island of Providenciales , where one person drowned in the ensuing floods . Floodwaters on North Caicos ran 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) deep , blocking access to some communities . Governor Peter Beckingham reported " extensive damage to people 's property and possessions " throughout the overseas territory . = = = Elsewhere = = = A tropical storm watch was issued for Bermuda on August 25 , and ultimately discontinued about three days later . Two cruise ships left Bermuda early to avoid the storm , and another two postponed their scheduled stops there . The threat of the storm , combined with a lack of passengers due to cruise ship diversions , resulted in the suspension of ferry service . Cristobal ultimately passed well to the northwest of the island , producing breezy conditions and heightened surf . The offshore hurricane lashed the East Coast of the United States with high swells and rip currents , prompting widespread swimming restrictions and bans . A teenaged male Virginia resident died in a drowning incident at Ocean City , Maryland , less than an hour after lifeguards went off @-@ duty . In a 24 @-@ hour period , the Ocean City Beach Patrol rescued about 120 people caught in rip currents . Just off the coast , the rough seas capsized a 17 ft ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) boat , forcing the Coast Guard to rescue its three occupants . Another young male drowned at Sandy Hook , New Jersey ; a wave reportedly knocked him down in shallow water before a rip current pulled the inexperienced swimmer farther out . Dangerous swimming conditions extended north to New England beaches , leading to numerous lifeguard rescues . In southern Iceland , the extratropical remnants of Cristobal produced gusty winds and heavy rainfall , leading to extensive flooding in the capital city of Reykjavík . The fire department there responded to 37 calls for flooded buildings . Reykjavík Airport and Keflavík International Airport recorded wind gusts to 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) and 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) , respectively . The adverse conditions impeded aerial surveillance of the ongoing volcanic eruptions at Bárðarbunga . = Elizabeth Dilling = Elizabeth Dilling ( April 19 , 1894 – May 26 , 1966 ) was an American writer and political activist . In 1934 , she published The Red Network — A Who 's Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots , which catalogs over 1 @,@ 300 suspected communists and their sympathizers . Her books and lecture tours established her as the pre @-@ eminent female right @-@ wing activist of the 1930s , and one of the most outspoken critics of the New Deal . Dilling was the best @-@ known leader of the World War II women 's isolationist movement , a grass @-@ roots campaign that pressured Congress to refrain from helping the Allies . She was among 28 anti @-@ war campaigners charged with sedition in 1942 ; the charges were dropped in 1946 . While academic studies have customarily ignored both the anti @-@ war " Mothers ' movement " and right @-@ wing activist women in general , Dilling 's writings secured her a lasting influence among right @-@ wing groups . = = Early life and family = = Dilling was born Elizabeth Eloise Kirkpatrick in Chicago , Illinois . Her father , Lafayette Kirkpatrick , was a surgeon of Scotch @-@ Irish ancestry ; her mother , Elizabeth Harding , was of English and French ancestry . Her father died when she was six weeks old , after which her mother added to the family income by selling real estate . Dilling 's brother , Lafayette Harding Kirkpatrick , who was seven years her senior , became wealthy by the age of 23 after developing properties in Hawaii . Dilling had an Episcopalian upbringing , and attended a Catholic girls ' school , the Academy of Our Lady . She was highly religious , and was known to send her friends 40 @-@ page letters about Christian scripture . Prone to bouts of depression , she went on vacations in the US , Canada , and Europe with her mother . In 1912 , she enrolled at the University of Chicago , where she studied music and languages , intending to become an orchestral musician . She left after three years before graduating , lonely and bitterly disillusioned . In 1918 , she married Albert Dilling , an engineer studying law , who attended the same Episcopalian church as Elizabeth . The couple were well off financially , thanks to Elizabeth 's inherited money and Albert 's job as chief engineer for the Chicago Sewerage District . They lived in Wilmette , a Chicago suburb , and had two children : Kirkpatrick , born in 1920 , and Elizabeth Jane , born in 1925 . Their relationship was turbulent ; when Dilling discovered her husband was having an affair with another woman , she broke into the latter 's home at gunpoint and threatened her . Albert gave his wife $ 100 @,@ 000 not to divorce him , and although he promised not to commit adultery again , he had two further extra @-@ marital relationships before their eventual divorce . The family travelled abroad at least ten times between 1923 and 1939 , an experience that focussed Dilling 's political outlook and served to convince her of American superiority . In 1923 , they visited Britain , France and Italy . Offended by the lack of gratitude from the British for American intervention in World War I , Dilling vowed to oppose any future American involvement in European conflict . They spent a month in the Soviet Union in 1931 , where local guides , who Dilling claimed were Jews , warned her that communism would take over the world and showed her a map of the US in which the cities were named after Soviet heroes . She documented her travels in home movies , filming such scenes as bathers swimming nude in a river beneath a Moscow church . She was appalled by communism 's " atheism , sex degeneracy , broken homes [ and ] class hatred " . She visited Germany in 1931 , and returned in 1938 , noting a " great improvement of conditions " . She attended Nazi Party meetings , and the German government paid her expenses . She wrote that " The German people under Hitler are contented and happy . ... don 't believe the stories you hear that this man has not done a great good for this country . " In 1938 , she toured Palestine , where she filmed what she described as Jewish immigrants ruining the country , and Spain — then embroiled in the Spanish Civil War — where she filmed " Red torture chambers " and burnt @-@ out churches , " ruined by the Reds with the same satanic Jewish glee shown in Russia " . She visited Japan , which she viewed as the only Christian nation in Asia , and in 1939 , she returned to visit Spain , for a second time . = = Anti @-@ communism = = Our family trip to Red Russia in 1931 started my dedication to anti @-@ Communism . We were taken behind the scenes by friends working for the Soviet Government and saw deplorable conditions , first hand . We were appalled , not only at the forced labor , the squalid crowded living quarters , the breadline ration card workers ’ stores , the mothers pushing wheelbarrows and begging children of the State nurseries besieging us . The open virulent anti @-@ Christ campaign , every @-@ where , was a shock . In public places were the tirades by loud speaker , in Russian , ( our friends translated ) . Atheist cartoons representing Christ as a villain , a drunk , and the object of a cannibalistic orgy ( Holy Communion ) : as an oppressor of labor ; again as trash being dumped from a wheelbarrow by the Soviet Five @-@ Year @-@ Plan – these lurid cartoons filled the big bulletin boards in the churches our Soviet guides took us to visit . Dilling 's political activism was spurred by the " bitter opposition " she encountered upon her return to Illinois in 1931 , " against my telling the truth about Russia ... from suburbanite ' intellectual ' friends and from my own Episcopal minister . " She began public speaking as a hobby , following her doctor 's advice . Iris McCord , a Chicago radio broadcaster who taught at the Moody Bible Institute , arranged for her to address local church groups . Within a year she was touring the Midwest , the Northeast and occasionally the West coast , accompanied by her husband . She showed her home movies of the Soviet Union and made the same speech several times a week to audiences sometimes as large as several hundred , hosted by organizations like the Daughters of the American Revolution ( DAR ) and the American Legion . In 1932 , she co @-@ founded the Paul Reveres , an anti @-@ communist organization with headquarters in Chicago which eventually had 200 local chapters . She left in 1934 , and it folded soon after due to lack of interest . With McCord 's encouragement , her lectures were published in a local Wilmette newspaper in 1932 , and then collected in a pamphlet entitled Red Revolution : Do We Want It Here ? Dilling claimed that the DAR printed and distributed thousands of copies . Beginning in early 1933 , Dilling spent twelve to eighteen hours a day for eighteen months researching and cataloging suspected subversives . Her sources included the 1920 four @-@ volume report of the Joint Legislative Committee to Investigate Seditious Activities , and Representative Hamilton Fish 's 1931 report of an anti @-@ communist investigation . The result was The Red Network — A Who 's Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots , hailed with irony in The New Republic as a " handy , compact reference work " . The first half of the 352 @-@ page book was a collection of essays , mostly copied from Red Revolution . The second half contained descriptions of more than 1 @,@ 300 " Reds " ( including international figures like Albert Einstein and Chiang Kai @-@ shek ) , and more than 460 organizations described as " Communist , Radical Pacifist , Anarchist , Socialist , [ or ] I.W.W. controlled " . Far more than the Spider @-@ Web chart of the 1920s – a chart composed by a member of the DAR that plotted suspected red @-@ affiliated organisations with progressive individuals – The Red Network revealed the power of " guilt by association , " a tactic that would be used all too often by future Red baiters with devastating effectiveness . The book was reprinted eight times and sold more than 16 @,@ 000 copies by 1941 . Thousands more were given away . It was sold in Chicago book stores and mail order from Dilling 's house . It was distributed by the KKK , the Knights of the White Camellia , the German @-@ American Bund and the Aryan Bookstores . Subscribers to Gerald Winrod 's new journal The Revealer received a copy , fundamentalist preacher and president of the Northwest Bible Training School W. B. Riley claimed he had given away hundreds of copies , and it was advertised and sold by the Moody Bible Institute . It was endorsed by officials in the DAR and the American Legion . Copies were bought by the Pinkerton Detective Agency , the New York Police Department , the Chicago Police Department and the Federal Bureau of Investigation . A Los Angeles arms manufacturer bought and distibuted 150 copies , and a tear gas manufacturer bought 1 @,@ 500 copies which it distributed to the Standard Oil Company , the National Guard and hundreds of police departments . In 1935 , Dilling returned to her alma mater to accuse such people as university president Robert Maynard Hutchins , educational reformer John Dewey , activist Jane Addams and Republican Senator William Borah as communist sympathizers . Retail tycoon Charles R. Walgreen asked for her help to obtain a public hearing after his niece complained that professors at the university were communists . They demanded the closure of the university . The Illinois legislature convened to discuss the matter , ultimately deciding that the claims were unfounded . Dilling delivered a frenetic half @-@ hour speech at the Assembly , with calls from the audience to " kill every communist " . She declared , " It is certain that the University of Chicago is diseased with Communism and that its contagion is a menace to the community and the Nation . " Dilling 's next book , The Roosevelt Red Record and Its Background , published two weeks before the 1936 presidential election , was less successful . Like much of her later writing , it was largely a disjointed series of quotations . Roosevelt 's " Jew Deal " ( as many including Dilling were calling the New Deal ) was already a central theme of The Red Network , and it was already being debated elsewhere . Dilling later claimed that the House Un @-@ American Activities Committee was founded largely thanks to her two books . She wrote a pamphlet attacking Borah entitled Borah : " Borer from Within " the G.O.P. , fearing that if he won the presidential nomination voters would be forced to choose between two communists . She distributed 5 @,@ 000 copies at the Republican National Convention , and claimed credit for his defeat . In 1938 , Dilling founded the Patriotic Research Bureau , a vast archive in Chicago with a staff of " Christian women and girls " from the Moody Bible Institute . She began regular publication of the Patriotic Research Bulletin , a newsletter outlining her political and personal views , which she mailed free of charge to her supporters . Editions were often 25 to 30 pages long , with a youthful photograph of the author on the cover conveying a personal touch . The masthead of early issues reads : " Patriotic Research Bureau . For the defense of Christianity and Americanism " Dilling was paid $ 5000 in 1939 by industrialist Henry Ford to investigate communism at the University of Michigan . As well as funding the Nazi Party and distributing his anti @-@ semitic newspaper The Dearborn Independent during the 1920s , Ford was a financial supporter of dozens of anti @-@ semitic propagandists . Dilling discovered hundreds of books at the university library written by " radicals " . Her 96 @-@ page report stated that the university was " typical of those American colleges which have permitted Marxist @-@ bitten , professional theorists to inoculate wholesome American youths with their collectivist propaganda . " She reached a similar conclusion when the Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce paid her to investigate UCLA , and when she investigated her children 's universities , Cornell and Northwestern . In 1940 , hoping to influence the presidential election , Dilling published The Octopus , setting out her Jewish Communism theories . The book was published under the pseudonym " Rev. Frank Woodruff Johnson " . Avedis Derounian reported Dilling claiming that " The Jews can never prove that I 'm anti @-@ semitic , I 'm too clever for them . " Her husband feared that allegations of anti @-@ semitism would damage his law practice . She admitted that she was the author at her divorce trial in 1942 . She explained that it was written as a response to B 'nai B 'rith . She stated : " It airs their dirty lying attempts to shut every Christian mouth and prevent anyone from getting a fair trial in this country " ( for which she was cited for contempt ) . = = Isolationism = = Besides relying on a gendered appeal to patriotic duty , Dilling enjoyed portraying herself as a helpless victim confronted by diabolical evil . One telling example was when a federal subpoena in 1941 , issued by the Justice Department , ordered her to Washington DC to explain her alleged affiliations with Nazi sympathizers . She described her experiences at the " New Deal O.G.P.U. , " an unsubtle reference to Stalin 's secret police , in the format of a play , in which she acted the part of the victim interrogated by an agent of the New Deal . The dramatic scene overflowed with " sinister glower [ s ] , " " sarcastic questions " and " long harangue [ s ] . " The victim , " a bit weary with the endless hectoring , " answered unfair questions with righteous indignation . Throughout this little skit , Dilling downplayed her public role and denied the accusation that she was " an important woman " and that her " name carr [ ied ] weight . " A sincere act of humility this was not , but it did reveal Dilling 's inclination for martyrdom and self @-@ importance , as well as a talent for propaganda . Dilling was a central figure in a mass movement of isolationist women 's groups , which opposed US involvement in World War II from a " maternalist " perspective . The membership of these groups in 1941 was between one and six million . According to historian Kari Frederickson : " They argued that war was the antithesis of nurturant motherhood , and that as women they had a particular stake in preventing American involvement in the European conflict . ... they intertwined their maternalist arguments with appeals that were right @-@ wing , anti @-@ Roosevelt , anti @-@ British , anti @-@ communist and anti @-@ Semitic . " The movement was strongest in the Midwest , a conservative stronghold with a culture of anti @-@ semitism , which had long resented the political dominance of the East coast . Chicago was the base of far @-@ right activists Charles E. Coughlin , Gerald L. K. Smith and Lyrl Clark Van Hyning , as well as the America First Committee , which had 850 @,@ 000 members by 1941 . Dilling spoke at America First meetings , and was involved in the founding of Van Hyning 's " We the Mothers Mobilize for America " , a highly active group with 150 @,@ 000 members who were tasked with infiltrating other organizations . The Chicago Tribune , the newspaper with the highest circulation in the region , was strongly isolationist . It treated Dilling as a trusted expert on anti @-@ communism and continued to support her after she was charged with sedition . In early 1941 , when the movement was at its height , Dilling spoke at rallies in Chicago and other cities in the Midwest , and recruited a group to coordinate her efforts to oppose Lend @-@ Lease , the " Mothers ' Crusade to Defeat H. R. 1776 " . Hundreds of these activists picketed the Capitol for two weeks in February 1941 . Dilling was arrested when she led a sit @-@ down strike with at least 25 other protesters in the corridor outside the office of 84 @-@ year @-@ old Senator Carter Glass . After a sensational trial lasting six days , she wept as she was found guilty of disorderly conduct and fined $ 25 . Glass called for the FBI to investigate the women 's groups , and stated in the New York Times on March 7 that the women had caused " a noisy disorder of which any self @-@ respecting fishwife would be ashamed . I likewise believe that it would be pertinent to inquire whether they are mothers . For the sake of the race , I devoutly hope not . " Isolationist leader Cathrine Curtis believed that the image of the Mothers ' movement had been wrecked , and privately criticised Dilling 's " hoodlum " tactics as " communistic " and " un @-@ womanly " . Many of the women 's groups continued to oppose the war after the attack on Pearl Harbor , unlike their allies , the America First Committee . Dilling campaigned for Thomas E. Dewey in the 1944 presidential election , although she accused him of " fawning at the feet of international Jewry " . Her political activity decreased as a result of her highly publicized divorce trial , beginning in February 1942 , during which dozens of fist fights broke out , involving both men and women , and Dilling received three citations for contempt . The judge , Rudolph Desort , said that he feared he would suffer " a nervous breakdown " during the four @-@ month trial . A grand jury , convened in 1941 to investigate fascist propaganda , called several women 's leaders to testify , including Dilling , Curtis and Van Hyning . Roosevelt prevailed upon Attorney General Francis Biddle to launch a prosecution , and on July 21 , 1942 , Dilling and 27 other anti @-@ war activists were indicted on two counts of conspiracy to cause insubordination of the military in peacetime and wartime . The case was the main part of a government campaign against domestic subversion , which historian Leo P. Ribuffo labelled " The Brown Scare " . The charges and list of defendants were extended in January 1943 . The charges were again extended in January 1944 . The judge , Edward C. Eicher , suffered a fatal heart attack on November 29 , 1944 . A mistrial was declared . The charges were dismissed on November 22 , 1946 , after the government had failed to present any compelling new evidence of a German conspiracy . Biddle later called the proceedings " a dreary farce " . Dilling continued to publish the Patriotic Research Bulletin , and in 1954 , she published The Plot Against Christianity . The book " reveals the satanic hatred of Christ and Christians responsible for their mass murder , torture and slave labour in all Iron Curtain countries – all of which are ruled by Talmudists " . It was retitled after her death to The Jewish Religion : Its Influence Today . The UN Charter and treaties are constructed to make way for the " man of sin , " the Anti @-@ Christ who will hold supreme power over life or death as he briefly heads this last Red satanic world empire . = = Media references = = A character based on Dilling appears in the novel It Can 't Happen Here ( 1935 ) by Sinclair Lewis . The book describes a fascist takeover in the US . " Who then , is Mrs Dilling ? Upon what strange meat has she been fed that she hath grown so great : And what inspired her , she who might have taken up knitting or petunia @-@ growing , to adopt as her hobby the deliberate and sometimes hasty criticism of men and women she has never seen . " — Harry Thornton Moore , " The Lady Patriot 's Book , " The New Republic , 8 January 1936 " To see the lady in action , screaming and leaping and ripping along at breakneck speed , is to see certain symptoms of simple hysteria on the loose . " — Milton S. Mayer , " Mrs. Dilling : Lady of the Red Network , " American Mercury , July 1939 " May God strengthen and uphold you , [ Mrs Dilling ] ... May your wonderful work grow and help save our Republic , ... a time is coming when you will be blessed ... You deserve a place in history comparable to Washington and Lincoln . " — Quoted in Patriotic Research Bulletin , 4 July 1941 " I have rarely seen hatred take complete possession of a woman 's face as when Elizabeth Dilling stormed around the corridors shouting . She seemed like a woman pursued by the furies . What she did not know was that the furies were not outside her , but in her own mind . " — Max Lerner , describing an encounter in 1941 , PM , 1943 or 1944 = French battleship Bretagne = Bretagne was a battleship of the French Navy built in the 1910s , and the lead ship of her class ; she had two sister ships , Provence and Lorraine . The ship was laid down in July 1912 at the Arsenal de Brest , launched in April 1913 , and commissioned into the fleet in February 1916 , after the outbreak of World War I. She was named in honour of the French region of Brittany , and was armed with a main battery of ten 340 mm ( 13 in ) guns . Bretagne spent the bulk of her career in the French Mediterranean Squadron . During World War I , she was stationed at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from leaving the Adriatic Sea , but she saw no action . She remained in service during the 1920s and 1930s , while her sisters were placed in reserve . She participated in non @-@ intervention patrols during the Spanish Civil War . Bretagne escorted convoys after the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , and was stationed in Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir when France surrendered on 22 June 1940 . Fearful that the Germans would seize the French Navy , the British Royal Navy attacked the ships at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir ; in the attack Bretagne was hit badly and exploded , killing the majority of her crew . The wreck was eventually raised in 1952 and broken up for scrap . = = Design = = Bretagne was 166 meters ( 544 ft 7 in ) long overall and had a beam of 26 @.@ 9 m ( 88 ft 3 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 9 @.@ 8 m ( 32 ft 2 in ) . She displaced around 25 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 25 @,@ 000 long tons ; 28 @,@ 000 short tons ) at full load and had a crew of between 1124 and 1133 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by four Parsons steam turbines with twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers . They were rated at 29 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 22 @,@ 000 kW ) and provided a top speed of 20 knots ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 2 @,@ 680 t ( 2 @,@ 640 long tons ; 2 @,@ 950 short tons ) . Bretagne 's main battery consisted of ten 340mm / 45 Modèle 1912 guns mounted in five twin gun turrets , numbered from front to rear . They were placed all on the centerline ; two were in a superfiring pair forward , one amidships , and the last two in a superfiring arrangement aft . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two Canon de 138 mm Modèle 1910 guns in casemates along the length of the hull . She also carried seven 47 mm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns , two on the conning tower and one on the roof of each turret . The ship was also armed with four submerged 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship 's main belt was 270 mm ( 10 @.@ 6 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 300 mm ( 11 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 314 mm ( 12 @.@ 4 in ) thick sides . = = Service = = Bretagne was laid down at the Arsenal de Brest on 1 July 1912 , launched on 21 April 1913 , and completed in September 1915 . She was commissioned into the French Navy on 10 February 1916 . After entering service in 1916 , Bretagne and her sisters were assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Battle Squadron , their unit for the remainder of the war , Bretagne becoming flagship of the squadron . They spent the majority of their time at Corfu to prevent the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet from attempting to break out of the Adriatic . The fleet 's presence was also intended to intimidate Greece , which had become increasingly hostile to the Triple Entente . Later in the war , men were drawn from their crews for anti @-@ submarine warfare vessels . As the Austro @-@ Hungarians largely remained in port for the duration of the war , Bretagne saw no action during the conflict . Indeed , she did not leave port at all for the entirety of 1917 , due to a severe shortage of coal at Corfu . Around July 1918 , the ship 's foremast was replaced by a tripod foremast that mounted an experimental fire @-@ control director and her mainmast was shortened to allow the ship to fly a captive kite balloon . Bretagne returned to Toulon in November 1918 . The ship received a lengthy refit at Toulon from 12 June 1919 to 18 October 1920 . This included modifications to her gun turrets that increased the elevation of the 340 @-@ millimeter ( 13 in ) from 12 ° to 18 ° and thus their maximum range to 21 @,@ 000 meters ( 23 @,@ 000 yd ) . The four forward 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns were removed . Both 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns and two 47 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four 75 mm AA guns mounted on the forward superstructure . A Vickers fire @-@ control director replaced the experimental model and it was equipped with a 3 @.@ 66 @-@ meter ( 12 ft 0 in ) rangefinder . Two additional 2 @-@ meter ( 6 ft 7 in ) rangefinders were installed , one on each side of the superstructure , to control the 138 mm guns . Bretagne became flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet in mid @-@ June 1921 and the ship accompanied Provence to Le Havre for a naval review , and were back in Toulon in September . In 1922 , Provence and Lorraine were placed in reserve , leaving Bretagne the only member of her class in service . She spent the 1920s conducting periodic fleet maneuvers and cruises around the Mediterranean and to French colonial possessions in West Africa . Provence became the fleet flagship in September 1923 . Bretagne received a major refit at Toulon from 1 May 1924 to 29 September 1925 , during which the elevation of her main armament was increased to 23 ° , giving her a maximum range of 23 @,@ 700 meters ( 25 @,@ 900 yd ) , the forward hull armor was removed to make her less bow heavy , one group of boilers was converted to oil @-@ firing and two 1 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 11 in ) high @-@ angle rangefinders were added for the AA guns . The ship resumed her position as flagship of the Mediterranean Fleet in October after her refit was completed , but Provence assumed that role in October 1927 when Bretagne began another refit to repair her boilers . The navy took the opportunity to upgrade her fire @-@ control systems ; replacing her Vickers system with a French Chamond @-@ Granat model , adding a 4 @.@ 57 @-@ meter ( 15 ft 0 in ) rangefinder at the top of the foremast and another on the conning tower . Bretagne was modernized in 1931 – 32 ; her torpedo tubes and four more 138 mm guns were removed while four more 75 mm anti @-@ aircraft guns were added . In 1934 , Bretagne and Provence were assigned to the 2nd Squadron in the Atlantic . There , they joined fleet exercises off the Azores , Madeira , and Morocco . The two ships took part in a cruise to Africa in 1936 . In August , they were involved in non @-@ intervention patrols after the outbreak of the Spanish Civil War ; these patrols lasted until April 1937 . = = = World War II = = = At the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Bretagne was based in Toulon . At the time , Italy remained neutral , so there was no immediate threat for the Mediterranean Fleet . In December , Bretagne covered convoy traffic in the Atlantic . On 4 December , she and Provence , along with the cruisers Colbert , Dupleix , and Primauguet and several destroyers and submarines operated out of Dakar . Around the middle of the month , the task force began to return to the Mediterranean . After returning to Toulon , Bretagne underwent an extensive overhaul , which lasted until 3 March 1940 . On 11 March , she left France carrying 1 @,@ 820 boxes of gold bars from the French treasury along with the cruiser Algérie , which carried another 1 @,@ 179 boxes . They arrived in Halifax on 10 April . On the return voyage , they escorted two American merchant ships carrying 82 aircraft bought by France and arrived at Toulon on 10 April . On 27 April , Bretagne and her two sisters were transferred to Alexandria . Bretagne and Provence returned to Mers El Kébir on 18 May . = = = = Loss = = = = Following the French surrender on 22 June , the French fleet was to be disarmed under German and Italian supervision , under the terms of the Armistice . The British high command , however , was concerned that the French ships would be seized by the Axis powers and placed in service . The Axis navies would then outnumber the British Royal Navy . Prime Minister Winston Churchill therefore ordered Vice Admiral James Somerville , the commander of Force H , to neutralize the French fleet at Mers @-@ el @-@ Kébir . He was instructed to order the French vessels to join the British with the Free French , surrender for internment , to scuttle themselves , or be sunk . On 3 July , Somerville arrived and delivered the ultimatum ; the French rejected it , and so the British ships opened fire . Bretagne was hit by four 15 @-@ inch ( 380 mm ) projectiles from HMS Hood , HMS Resolution , and HMS Valiant ( no ship is especially credited for ) . The two first shells strucked simultaneously at the third British salvo . The first one hit the ship below the waterline under the turret IV , igniting some 340mm shells and triggering a massive explosion . The deflagration blew up bulkheads and watertights doors , and set all the stern ablaze , killing about 350 sailors . In the meantime , the massive hole on the starboard side of the ship allowed a massive amount of water ( estimated at a rate of 300 tons per minute ) to pour in . This flooding prevented the complete destruction of the ship : it limited the fire around the aft 340mm magazines , which were now opened to the air . The second shell struck above the waterline , in the aft engine room , killing all the sailors inside and damaged the internal communication system of the ship . Seven minutes later , two other high @-@ caliber shells struck the Bretagne at the same time . The first one detonated at the base of the tripod mast , igniting some ready @-@ to @-@ use anti @-@ aircraft projectiles which were stored in lockers next to the anti @-@ aircraft mounts . The second one went through the central 138mm casemate , exploding deep inside the ship . A huge fire started , with leaking oil burning next to the ship . In about thirty seconds , the ship rolled over while a massive explosion occurred . The sinking caused the loss of 977 of her crew , the vast majority of the 1 @,@ 147 French naval personnel killed in the attack . Some initial salvaging work was done in the aftermath of the attack , but the Allied invasion of North Africa in November 1942 interrupted the work . Because she was an impediment to the work of extension of the military harbor ( which was now a full military complex with anti @-@ atomic bunkers ) ; Bretagne ultimately was salvaged from 1952 to 1954 . The hull was cut in to big parts , which were raised and scrapped ashore . = Colorado @-@ class battleship = The Colorado @-@ class battleships were a group of four battleships built by the United States Navy after World War I. However , only three of the ships were completed : Colorado , Maryland , and West Virginia . The fourth , Washington , was over 75 % completed when she was canceled under the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty in 1922 . As such , the Colorado @-@ class ships were the last and most powerful battleships built by the US Navy until the North Carolina class entered service on the eve of World War II . The Colorados were the final group of Standard @-@ type battleships , designed to have similar speed and handling to simplify maneuvers with the line of battle . ( The South Dakota class which was to follow would in several ways have been a departure from this practice . ) Apart from an upgrade in striking power to eight 16 @-@ inch guns , the ships were essentially repeats of the earlier Tennessee class . The Colorados were also the last American capital ships built with four turrets and twin @-@ mounted guns . The change to larger guns was prompted by the Japanese Nagato @-@ class battleships , which also mounted eight 16 @-@ inch guns . All three ships had extensive careers during World War II . Maryland and West Virginia were both present during the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 . Maryland escaped relatively unscathed ; West Virginia was sunk in the shallow waters of the harbor but subsequently raised and repaired . All three ships served as artillery support ships during amphibious operations . Maryland and West Virginia were present at the last surface action between battleships , the Battle of Surigao Strait during the Battle of Leyte Gulf in October 1944 . The three ships , put into the reserve fleet after the end of the war , were scrapped by the late 1950s . = = Design = = The construction of battleships armed with 16 @-@ inch guns was envisioned by the United States Navy General Board and Bureau of Construction and Repair ( C & R ) as early as 1913 , as the upgrade in gun caliber promised twice the kinetic energy of the 12 @-@ inch gun then in service and half again as much as the 14 @-@ inch gun then being introduced . This weapon dominated the design of battleships between 1913 and 1916 , just as the 14 @-@ inch gun had dictated designs from 1908 to 1910 . However , while the General Board approved the 16 @-@ inch gun as early as 1911 , the secretary of the navy felt that a move to a new gun caliber might make capital ships still on the drawing board obsolete . For this reason , he restricted the Bureau of Ordnance to proceed no further than blueprints for the new gun as a hedge against foreign developments . He finally approved construction of this gun in October 1912 and the weapon was test fired successfully in August 1914 . This success , along with the unofficial news in several naval publications of 15- and 16 @-@ inch weapons being adopted by Britain , Italy , Germany and Japan , the Board considered abandoning construction of the Pennsylvania class in favor of an up @-@ gunned design . Such a move meant an increase of 8 @,@ 000 tons per ship , twice as much as the jump from the Nevadas to the Pennsylvanias . Debate continued for the next three years . Each year , President Woodrow Wilson 's secretary of the navy , Josephus Daniels , balked at the potential increase in cost and ordered instead that the design features of Standard Class be upheld . Daniels finally compromised with the 1917 design battleships by allowing their armament to be upgraded . This , however , was to be the only substantial change to be allowed . The design of the Colorado class , therefore , was taken from the preceding Tennessee class ; other than the notable improvement of eight 16 in ( 410 mm ) / 45 caliber in four dual turrets taking the place of the Tennessee @-@ class 's twelve 14 in ( 360 mm ) / 50 caliber guns in four triple gun turrets , there was not a major difference between the two designs . Likewise , the Tennessees were the results of modifications to the New Mexico class , which had been the most modern US capital ships to see service in World War I and had attracted the attention of British constructors both serving with and outside C & R. This similarity would carry over into the Lexington and South Dakota classes as the United States Navy increasingly standardized its capital ship designs . This was partly the result of wartime experience , when over 250 destroyers and more than 450 submarine chasers had to be built quickly for service in the North Atlantic . The U.S. Navy had done this by a process almost akin to the assembly line , sticking to one basic design per class with a maximum amount of standardization and rationalization . Since the Naval Act of 1916 meant the imminent construction of 16 battleships and six battlecruisers , it was necessary to streamline production to save time and labor . Nevertheless , while US battleships were standardized as much as possible , design improvements were incorporated whenever possible . Most of the changes in the Tennessees were incorporated prior to any of their keels being laid . However , plans for the underwater protection — the ships ' main defense against torpedoes and shells that fell short of the ship but traveled through the water to hit underneath the waterline — could not be worked out in time . The problem was that tests in caissons — experiments that would eventually prove that a series of compartments divided between being filled with liquid and being left empty would be a very effective defense against torpedoes — were not yet complete . In order to commence construction of the ships as soon as possible , bids sent out to shipbuilding corporations noted that if they were selected to build the ships , an alteration to the design of the ships three months after their keels were laid must be allowed . = = = General characteristics = = = The Colorados were extremely similar overall to the Tennessees , with a 624 @-@ foot ( 190 m ) overall length and a beam at the waterline of 97 feet ( 30 m ) . They displaced 32 @,@ 600 long tons ( 33 @,@ 100 t ) at normal load and 33 @,@ 590 long tons ( 34 @,@ 130 t ) at deep load and had a draft of 30 @.@ 5 feet ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) . Like the Tennessees , they were designed with a clipper bow to make the ships dryer in rough weather . One improvement over previous classes was the location of the secondary battery in the superstructure rather than the upper hull , where it had proved to be excessively wet . = = = Propulsion = = = Turbo @-@ electric transmission , which had been used in the prior class , was retained here . Advantages included the ability for the turbines to run at optimum speed without regard to propeller speed , which led to greater fuel economy and range , and an easier sub @-@ division of machinery , which increased the ships ' ability to withstand torpedo hits . Each of the four propeller shafts was powered by a 5 @,@ 424 kilowatt electric motor , fed by two two @-@ phase turbo generators ( General Electric for Maryland , Westinghouse for Colorado and West Virginia ) rated at 5 @,@ 000 volts ) . Eight oil @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox water @-@ tube boilers , each in its individual compartment , provided steam for the generators . Altogether , the ships ' power plant was rated at 28 @,@ 900 electrical horsepower ( EHP ) to provide a flank speed of 21 knots ( 39 km / h ; 24 mph ) . With a maximum bunker capacity of 4570 tons , the Colorados ' range without refueling at sea was 10 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 19 @,@ 000 km ; 12 @,@ 000 mi ) . = = = Armament = = = = = = = Main guns = = = = The Colorado class was armed with eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 1 guns , which fired a 2 @,@ 100 @-@ pound ( 950 kg ) armor @-@ piercing ( AP ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 600 feet per second ( 790 m / s ) and a rate of about 1 @.@ 5 rounds per minute to a range of 34 @,@ 300 yards ( 31 @,@ 400 m ) at a maximum turret elevation of 30 degrees . Development of this weapon had begun in August 1913 , using a bored @-@ out and relined 13 @-@ inch ( 330 mm ) Mark 2 gun , with the promise of twice the muzzle energy of the 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 50 caliber Mark 7 guns and 50 percent more than the 14 @-@ inch ( 356 mm ) / 45 caliber weapon used on the Nevada @-@ class battleships . After an initial proof firing in July 1914 and minor changes , the 16 @-@ inch Mark 1 was re @-@ proved in May 1916 and production approved in January 1917 . When the Colorados were modernized in the 1930s , these guns were rebuilt per standard navy practice and redesignated 16 @-@ inch / 45 ( 40 @.@ 6 cm ) Mark 5 and Mark 8 . = = = = Secondary guns = = = = Fourteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber Mark 15 guns were installed to defend against enemy destroyers . This was reduced to 12 in 1922 . The Mark 15 fired a 50 @-@ pound ( 23 kg ) shell at a velocity of 3 @,@ 150 feet per second ( 960 m / s ) to a maximum range of 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) at 45 degrees at a rate of seven rounds per minute and was extremely accurate , with a danger space longer than the range to the target for distances less than 3 @,@ 000 yards ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) . As in the New Mexico and Tennessee classes , these were mounted in unarmored casemates on the main deck , one deck higher than in previous classes , to allow them to be manned in heavy weather if necessary . In 1942 , the Mark 15 guns were replaced on West Virginia with sixteen 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 38 caliber Mark 12 dual @-@ purpose guns in twin turrets . On Maryland and Colorado ten Mark 15s were retained and augmented with eight 5 in / 38 cal Mark 12s in single mountings with protective shields ; the twin turrets planned and later installed were at that time in short supply . The Mark 12 fired a 55 @.@ 18 @-@ pound ( 25 @.@ 03 kg ) shell to a maximum range of 17 @,@ 392 yards ( 15 @,@ 903 m ) and a maximum elevation of 37 @,@ 200 feet ( 11 @,@ 300 m ) at an elevation of 45 degrees . They had a high rate of fire due to their being hand @-@ loaded but power @-@ rammed and their capability for easy loading at any angle of elevation . The introduction of proximity @-@ fused anti @-@ aircraft shells in 1943 made the 5 in / 38 even more potent in this capacity . = = = = Anti @-@ aircraft guns = = = = Four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 23 caliber guns were mounted initially for anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defense . This was increased to eight guns in 1922 . These guns fired a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 650 feet per second ( 500 m / s ) to a maximum range of 8 @,@ 800 yards ( 8 @,@ 000 m ) and ceiling of 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) at an elevation of 45 @.@ 3 degrees and a rate of between eight and nine rounds per minute . These weapons were replaced in 1928 @-@ 9 with the same number of 5 @-@ inch ( 130 mm ) / 25 caliber guns , the first Navy gun designed specifically for AA use . They fired a 54 @-@ pound ( 24 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 155 feet per second ( 657 m / s ) at a rate of between 15 and 20 rounds per minute to a maximum range of 14 @,@ 500 yards ( 13 @,@ 300 m ) at an elevation of 45 degrees and a ceiling of 27 @,@ 400 feet ( 8 @,@ 400 m ) at a maximum elevation of 85 degrees . These guns were supplemented with eleven 28 mm machine guns in 1937 @-@ 8 . In 1942 , the air defense system on these ships was overhauled completely . In addition to her 5 in / 38s , they carried sixteen Bofors 40 mm guns in quad mounts and up to thirty @-@ two Oerlikon 20 mm cannons in single mounts . The quad 40 mm Bofors fired a 1 @.@ 985 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 900 kg ) at a rate of 120 rounds per minute per barrel nominal , 140 to 160 rounds per minute when horizontal ( gravity assist ) , to a maximum range of 11 @,@ 133 yards ( 10 @,@ 180 m ) at 45 degrees and a ceiling of 22 @,@ 299 feet ( 6 @,@ 797 m ) . The 20 mm Oerlikons fired a 0 @.@ 271 @-@ pound ( 0 @.@ 123 kg ) shell at an average muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 725 feet per second ( 831 m / s ) and a practical rate of between 250 and 320 rounds per minute to a maximum range of 4 @,@ 800 yards ( 4 @,@ 400 m ) at 45 degrees and a ceiling of 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . A second overhaul of AA defense was made between 1944 and 1945 , as the Navy had found 20 mm shells too light to stop Japanese kamikaze planes ; this plus the higher approach speeds of these planes made these manually controlled guns obsolete . In their place , more quad 40 mm Bofors mounts were fitted . Maryland eventually carried forty quad 40 mm and eighteen 20 mm guns . Colorado 's quad 40s were increased to forty but she kept all her 20 mm guns . West Virginia carried forty quad 40 mm and fifty 20 mm. guns . = = = Armor and underwater protection = = = The " all or nothing " armor scheme introduced in the Nevada @-@ class battleships was continued here , as throughout the Standard @-@ type warships , with armor suite virtually identical to the preceding Tennessee class . The exception was an increase in belt armor near vital machinery to 16 inches ( 410 mm ) to correspond with the increased main gun caliber . Otherwise , the minimum thickness along the belt remained 14 inches ( 360 mm ) . Upper deck armor was 3 @.@ 6 inches ( 91 mm ) initially and was later increased to 4 @.@ 1 inches ( 100 mm ) . Lower deck armor ranged between 2 @.@ 25 and 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 57 and 38 mm ) and was also presumably strengthened during conversion . As with the Tennessees , the Colorados were modernized in the 1930s to improve their staying power . A new underwater protection scheme featured five compartments separated by armored bulkheads.75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick on either side of the ship : an outer empty one , three filled , and an empty inner one . In addition , the eight boilers were moved from their location in previous designs and placed in separate spaces to port and starboard of the turboelectric power plant . This arrangement formed another line of defense , which would allow the ship to sail if one or even an entire side of boilers was incapacitated . A consequence was the chief aesthetic change between the New Mexicos and Tennessees : the single large funnel of the former was replaced by two smaller funnels in the latter . Other improvements imported from the Tennessee class included an attempt to move the forward torpedo room away from the 16 @-@ inch gun magazines , as the room was viewed as vulnerable . Also , the design called for the use of external , rather than internal , belt armor so that a " break in the continuity of the side structure " would not exist , which would minimize drag in the water and any corresponding waste of power . = = Class history = = With fiscal year 1917 appropriations , bids on the four Colorados were opened on 18 October 1916 ; though Maryland 's keel was laid on 24 April 1917 , the other three battleships were not until 1919 – 1920 . With the cancellation of the first South Dakota class , the Colorados were the last U.S. battleships to enter service for nearly two decades . They were also the final U.S. battleships to use twin gun turrets — the North Carolinas and second South Dakota classes had nine 16 @-@ inch / 45 caliber guns and the Iowas used nine 16 in / 50 caliber in three triple turrets . = = = Inter @-@ war modernization = = = Plans for modernization of the Tennessee and Colorado classes were made in October 1931 , in part to take advantage of loopholes in the Washington Naval Treaty . While reconstruction under this treaty was allowed only to increase protection from air and underwater attack , it could include improvements in fire control and increased elevation for main armament as these items were not listed in the treaty . Also , any changes made inside the hull could be justified as meant to increase protection , even if the outcome meant increased speed or longer operational range , since the term " blister " had been specified to limit changes only outside the hull , such as main armor belt thickness and main gun caliber . Modifications to the secondary battery were also outside the purview of the Washington Treaty . Included in initial plans was some protection against chemical shells which contained poisonous gas , although the General Board stated in the late 1920s that decontaminating a battleship hit with these shells would not be possible — the ship would have to be scuttled . Also , the deck armor was to be bolstered with 80 lb ( 36 kg ) -special treatment steel ( STS ) — which would add 1 @,@ 319 long tons ( 1 @,@ 340 t ; 1 @,@ 477 short tons ) to the displacement of the ships — the armor on the tops of the main turrets was to be made thicker , fire controls were to be improved with the latest technology , and new shells for the main guns were to be designed . Two , later four , 1 @.@ 1 " / 75 caliber machine cannons were to be added , and all of the machinery in place would be removed in favor of newer equipment so that the ships would not lose any speed with the great increase in weight . Blisters were also to be installed to improve buoyancy but not to increase the ships ' beams any greater than 106 feet ( 32 m ) so they could still use the Panama Canal when transferring from the Atlantic to the Pacific and vice verse . These improvements were estimated to cost about $ 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 per ship ( $ 71 @,@ 723 @,@ 000 total ) . However , with the country in the throes of the Great Depression , not much money was available for the Navy . Savings of $ 26 @,@ 625 @,@ 000 could be realized by reconditioning the propulsion machinery rather than replacing it , which would lower the ships ' speed . Adding protection against chemical shells could be dropped , along with development of the new shells . Nevertheless , the cost @-@ saving elements of the later proposal were later dropped . The Navy asked the Secretary of the Navy to request money in the fiscal year 1933 to modernize the two classes from Congress , but the depression worsened . Although proposals for modifications were still made , plans were put on hold and never carried out . In the beginning of 1934 , the Bureau of Construction and Repair proposed that the " Big Five " — the two Tennessees and three Colorados — be fitted with anti @-@ torpedo bulges so that the ships could benefit from increased buoyancy ; because of , among other factors , the normal procedure of leaving port with the maximum amount of fuel possible on board , the five ships were quite overweight and rode low in the water . For example , in June 1935 , Tennessee had a normal operating displacement of 38 @,@ 200 long tons ( 38 @,@ 800 t ; 42 @,@ 800 short tons ) — more than 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) above the maximum emergency load her original design called for . This made her draft higher — meaning that the ship 's waterline was down 5 ft 4 in ( 1 @,@ 630 mm ) . Construction and Repair called for a bulge on the Colorados that would displace about 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ; 2 @,@ 200 short tons ) and raise the ships ' draft by 20 in ( 510 mm ) . Installing these would be a year 's worth of work , with each ship spending six months of that in a dry dock — the first month docked so that the hull shape could be determined , the next six sailing while the bulge was built , and the last five back in the dock so it could be added to the ship . Three years later ( 1937 ) , the various Navy bureaus held a joint meeting to discuss a possible partial modernization of the Tennessee 's and Colorado 's . They were much different than the changes proposed in 1933 ; there were no provisions for extra deck armor , but many additions and replacements . To gain space for newer fire control systems , the ships were to be reboilered . The main and secondary battery fire controls were to be replaced , including new rangefinders and plotting room instruments for the main , while new Mark 33 anti @-@ aircraft fire control directors were planned . The mainmast and M2 Browning machine guns would be removed , and studies of the feasibility of a torpedo bulge , the addition of which Construction and Repair believed to be paramount , which would increase the beam to 108 ft ( 33 m ) and displacement to 39 @,@ 600 long tons ( 40 @,@ 200 t ; 44 @,@ 400 short tons ) . Varying plans for these were complete by October 1938 . None was a full reconstruction ; costs ranged from $ 8 @,@ 094 @,@ 000 to $ 38 @,@ 369 @,@ 000 per ship . However , as the money for the improvements would lessen the amount available for new battleship construction , and these would be better than even reconstructed old battleship , the Secretary of the Navy rejected these plans in November . Congress did appropriate $ 6 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 in 1939 for some of these improvements , including the bulges . = = = World War II changes = = = With the beginning of World War II in Europe , the Navy began to apply lessons learned by the British to U.S. ships . The King Board of 1940 – 1941 proposed sweeping changes to the secondary armament of the battleships to increase their defense against air attacks . These included the removal of all 5 in ( 130 mm ) / 25 caliber guns and 5 in / 51 in favor of the dual @-@ purpose 5 in / 38 , the addition of six quadruple 1 @.@ 1 in ( 28 mm ) machine cannons , and the cutting away of superstructure to clear arcs of fire for the new anti @-@ aircraft weapons . An ultimate secondary battery of sixteen 5 in / 38 in dual mounts , sixteen Bofors 40 mm in quadruple mounts and eight single Oerlikon 20 mm was called for by the board in 1941 , although they were not certain the ships could handle the added weight and it would take a large amount of time in dry dock for these modifications to take place . With these concerns , an interim measure of four 1 @.@ 1 in guns was proposed by the board ; however , the gun was not being produced in any great number very quickly , so a second interim solution was implemented . 3 in ( 76 mm ) / 50 caliber guns were added to all of the U.S. ' battleships except for Arizona and Nevada by June 1941 ; these were replaced on the three battleships in the Atlantic by the 1 @.@ 1 in by November — they received them first because they were closer to a war zone . As these modifications were carried out upon the various battleships , much additional weight was added onto the already overweight ships , forcing torpedo bulges to be added so that a decent freeboard could be maintained . These would cost $ 750 @,@ 000 and around three or four months in a dry dock . The King Board suggested that the deck armor be bolstered and 5 in / 38 dual @-@ purpose guns be added , but the Chief of Naval Operations decreed that any major changes such as these had to wait due to the wars raging around the world at the time . The addition of bulges , however , was approved for the " Big Five " , with each ship spending three months in dry dock at the Puget Sound Naval Yard . Maryland would be first ( 17 February 1941 to 20 May ) , followed by West Virginia ( 10 May to 8 August ) , Colorado ( 28 July to 28 October ) , Tennessee ( 19 January 1942 to 21 April ) and California ( 16 March to 16 June ) . However , the estimates for how long the addition of bulges would take were too low ; Puget Sound believed that they could complete work on Maryland in 123 calendar days ( about four months ) — if the work would be given a priority equal to that of Saratoga 's refit and higher than new construction . Only two of the ships had bulges added to them through this program , Maryland ( completed 1 August 1941 ) and Colorado ( 26 February 1942 ) ; the attack on Pearl Harbor interrupted the refits intended for West Virginia and the two Tennessees . The surprise strike did not touch Colorado , which was at Puget Sound , and did not hurt Maryland very badly ; however , West Virginia was severely damaged and needed a major refit at minimum . Little to no major modifications were made to the two active Colorados in the opening months of the U.S. ' s entry into the war ; all of the battleships in the Pacific Fleet had a constant order to be ready to sail within 48 hours in case of a Japanese attempt to invade Hawaii or the West Coast and could not be spared for any major yard work . Colorado was hurried through the rest of her refit with the addition of essential items like radar , splinter protection , 14 Oerlikon 20 mm and four 1 @.@ 1 in light anti @-@ aircraft guns ; Maryland received a similar treatment later , the only difference being 16 20 mm 's and no 1 @.@ 1 in . Although tower masts were constructed for Colorado and Maryland and a majority of the old cage masts were cut down by the ships ' crews in the beginning of 1942 , the ships could not be spared the time needed to install the new masts . The tower masts were placed into storage and not used until early 1944 . Colorado and Maryland were greatly needed in the war zone , and as such did not undergo a major refit until 1944 , although minor additions and removals , mainly to the anti @-@ aircraft weaponry , were made in @-@ between . Throughout the war , both ships saw their anti @-@ aircraft battery changed constantly . Beginning in 1942 , they carried eight 5 in / 25 , four quadruple @-@ mounted 1 @.@ 1 in guns , a greatly varying number of 20 mm , and eight .50 caliber machine guns . In June 1942 , Colorado had fourteen 20 mm ; just five months later , this was upped to twenty @-@ two , with thirty @-@ six temporarily approved for a later time . By February 1943 , both Colorado and Maryland had two more quad 1 @.@ 1 in added ( for a total of 6 ) and forty @-@ eight total 20 mm ; a month later she was given an additional ten .50 caliber machine guns . November 1943 saw the removal of two of the single @-@ purpose 5 in / 51 , the six quad 1 @.@ 1 in , and a small number of 20 mm ( six in Colorado , eight in Maryland ) in favor of thirty @-@ two Bofors 40 mm — six quad and two twin . Both ships finally underwent major refits in 1944 . Here the remaining cage masts were taken off in favor of the tower masts , the two twin 40 mm replaced by quads , a quadruple 20 mm added , and a new radar fitted . Although more extensive refits were proposed by Admiral Ernest J. King , including the addition of eight twin 5 in / 38 , more advanced fire control systems , and a second protective deck plating , the Bureau of Ships , after demonstrating what would have to be removed as compensation for the weight added for King 's ideas , counter @-@ proposed that a smaller reconstruction , like the ones given to the New Mexico class , would be more desirable . However , no action was taken until Maryland was struck by a kamikaze aircraft . While undergoing repair , eight twin 5 in / 38 were added , but nothing else ; her conning tower was removed and replaced by a 50 lb ( 23 kg ) special @-@ treated steel structure to balance the additional weight of the 5 in guns . = = Ships in class = = = = = USS Colorado = = = USS Colorado ( BB @-@ 45 ) was the third ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 38th state . Her keel was laid down on 29 May 1919 by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation of Camden , New Jersey . She was launched on 22 March 1921 and commissioned on 30 August 1923 , Captain R. R. Belknap in command . During her career , Colorado was involved in various ceremonies and fleet exercises , and assisted Long Beach residents following an earthquake there in 1933 . In 1937 , she was one of several ships that searched for Amelia Earhart after her plane went missing . Colorado was at Puget Sound at the time of the attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 . She returned to Pearl Harbor April 1942 . From November 1942 to September 1943 she was stationed in the South West Pacific . In November 1943 , Colorado participated in operations against the Japanese during both the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign and Mariana and Palau Islands campaign , and she shelled Luzon and Okinawa in advance of the planned amphibious assaults there . Following World War II Colorado participated in Operation Magic Carpet before being decommissioned in 1947 . She was sold for scrap in 1957 . = = = USS Maryland = = = USS Maryland ( BB @-@ 46 ) was the third ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the seventh state . Her keel was laid down 24 April 1917 by Newport News Shipbuilding Company of Newport News , Virginia . She was launched on 20 March 1920 and commissioned on 21 July 1921 , with Captain C.F. Preston in command . During her career she made a goodwill voyage to Australia and New Zealand in 1925 , and transported President @-@ elect Herbert Hoover on the Pacific leg of his tour of Latin America in 1928 . Throughout the 1920s and 1930s , she served as a mainstay of fleet readiness through tireless training operations . In 1940 , Maryland changed her base of operations to Pearl Harbor . She was present at Battleship Row along Ford Island during the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 . Damaged during the attack , Maryland reported to the Puget Sound Navy Yard , where she was repaired and modernized . Maryland supported the amphibious landings during the Battle of Tarawa , and thereafter participated in the Gilbert and Marshall Islands campaign , the Mariana and Palau Islands campaign , the Battle of Peleliu , the Philippines Campaign , and the Battle of Okinawa . Following the end of World War II Maryland participated in Operation Magic Carpet before decommissioning in 1947 . She was sold for scrap in 1959 . = = = USS Washington = = = USS Washington ( BB @-@ 47 ) was the second ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 42nd state . Her keel was laid down on 30 June 1919 at Camden , New Jersey , by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation . She was launched on 1 September 1921 , but on 8 February 1922 , two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armaments , all construction work ceased on the 75 @.@ 9 % completed dreadnought . The ship was towed out in November 1924 to be used as a gunnery target . On the first day of testing , the ship was hit by two 400 @-@ pound ( 180 kg ) torpedoes and three 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) near @-@ miss bombs with minor damage and a list of three degrees . On that day , the ship had 400 pounds of TNT detonated on board , but she remained afloat . Two days later , the ship was hit by fourteen 14 @-@ inch ( 360 mm ) shells dropped from 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , but only one penetrated . The ship was finally sunk by the battleships New York and Texas with fourteen 14 in shells . After the test , it was decided that the existing deck armor on battleships was inadequate , and that future battleships should be fitted with triple bottoms . = = = USS West Virginia = = = USS West Virginia ( BB @-@ 48 ) was the second ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 35th state . Her keel was laid down on 12 April 1920 by the Newport News Shipbuilding and Drydock Company of Newport News , Virginia . She was launched on 17 November 1921 and commissioned on 1 December 1923 , Captain Thomas J. Senn in command . Despite a grounding incident early in her career West Virginia received high acclaim for gunnery and armor protection , and was involved in exercises to test the defenses of the Hawaiian Islands in the 1930s . On the morning of 7 December 1941 , West Virginia sustained heavy damage , but thanks in large part to counter flooding orders the battleship sank at her berth on an even keel , which is similar to that of California . Resurrected from the mud on 17 May 1942 , West Virginia received enough patchwork to sail for Washington State ; she entered Puget Sound Naval Shipyard in 1942 for repairs and modernization . In July 1944 she emerged from her repairs and overhaul , and set out to rejoin the Pacific Fleet for combat operations . She joined the fleet on the eve of the Philippines Campaign . There she participated in the Battle of Surigao Strait , the last battleship vs battleship duel of World War II , where her new Mk . 8 fire @-@ control radar allowed her to hit the Yamashiro with her first salvo - in the dark - at 22 @,@ 800 yards ( 20 @,@ 800 m ) . In February 1945 West Virginia participated in the Battle of Iwo Jima , initially by preinvasion bombardment , and later by callfire support for the ground forces on the island . Her last combat operations were during the Battle of Okinawa ; after the surrender of Japan , she was called upon to participate in Operation Magic Carpet . Decommissioned in 1947 , she was sold for scrapping in 1959 . = Kuala Terengganu = Kuala Terengganu ( Malaysian pronunciation : [ ˈkuˈala ˈtəˈrengˈganu ] Jawi : كوالا ترڠڬانو , Chinese : 瓜拉登嘉楼 ; pinyin : Guālādīngjiānú ) colloquially abbreviated as K.T. ) is the administrative capital , royal capital , district and the main economic centre of Terengganu , Malaysia . Kuala Terengganu is also the administrative centre for the eponymous district of Kuala Terengganu . Kuala Terengganu is located about 440 kilometres northeast of Kuala Lumpur on the East Coast of Peninsular Malaysia . The city is situated at the estuary of Terengganu River , facing the South China Sea . As a district , Kuala Terengganu is the smallest in terms of area , but it ( together with the district of Kuala Nerus that form the city area ) has the largest population in Terengganu with a population of 406 @,@ 317 in 2010 . City status was awarded to Kuala Terengganu with the title Bandaraya Warisan Pesisir Air ( English : Coastal Heritage City ) on 1 January 2008 . Besides being a major political and economic centre to the state , the city is also the main gateway to many of the state 's tourist destinations . The attractions in and around the city include Kampung Cina , Pasar Besar Kedai Payang , Terengganu State Museum , and Batu Buruk Beach . Even though the city is not spared from modernity and development , Kuala Terengganu still retains strong Malay influences that are intermixed with other cultures from its long history as a port . = = Etymology = = In Malay , kuala can have the meanings of " river mouth " , " estuary " , or " confluence " . Thus , the name Kuala Terengganu is roughly translated as " the confluence / estuary of Terengganu " , referring to the broad expanse of the Terengganu River estuary which empties into the South China Sea . There are several theories regarding the name Terengganu . One such theory attributes the name 's origin to terang ganu , Malay for ' bright rainbow ' . Another story , which is considered to be the most popular version , is said to have been originally narrated by the ninth Sultan of Terengganu , Baginda Omar . It tells of a party of hunters from Pahang roving and hunting in the area of what is now southern Terengganu . One of the hunters spotted a big animal fang lying on the ground . A fellow party member asked to which animal did the fang belong . The hunter , not knowing which animal , simply answered taring anu ( Malay : ' fang of something ' ) . The party later returned to Pahang with a rich hoard of game , fur and sandalwood , which impressed their neighbours . They asked the hunters where did they source their riches , to which they replied , from the land of taring anu , which later evolved into Terengganu . = = History = = Among the earliest references of Terengganu are in Chinese historical sources . A Chinese writer ’ s note during the Sui dynasty has mentioned about a state named Tan @-@ Tan that sent tributes to China . The state was presumably located somewhere in Terengganu . Tan @-@ Tan sent tributes to Sui dynasty and then to the Tang dynasty after Sui dynasty has collapsed . It ceased to send tributes to China after it came under the dominance of the Srivijaya during the 7th century . Chinese history books such as Ling @-@ wai @-@ dai @-@ da ( 嶺外代答 ) written by Zhou Qufei ( 周去非 ) in 1178 and the book Zhu fan zhi ( also romanised as Chu @-@ fanchi ) written by Zhao Rugua ( 趙汝适 ; also romanised as Chau Ju @-@ Kua ) in 1226 mentioned Teng @-@ ya @-@ nu and Teng @-@ ya @-@ nung respectively , as being a vassal state of San @-@ fo @-@ ts ’ i ( 三佛齊 ) , which is thought to be Srivijaya . After Srivijaya fell during the 13th century , Terengganu came under the influence of Majapahit . In the 15th century , Majapahit was vying with Ayutthaya Kingdom and the nascent Malacca Sultanate for the control of the Malay Peninsula . Malacca Sultanate prevailed and Terengganu then came under its influence . When the Malacca Sultanate fell in 1511 to the Portuguese , the newly established Sultanate of Johor exerted its influence on most of the former territories of the Malacca Sultanate , including Terengganu . Terengganu was briefly under the influence of the Aceh Sultanate during the early 17th century , but Johor managed to exert its influence again on Terengganu in the late 17th century . The present Sultanate of Terengganu was established in the 1708 . The first Sultan of Terengganu , Sultan Zainal Abidin I established his court near Kuala Berang , then he moved his court a few more times until he settled near Bukit Keledang , Kuala Terengganu . During the early 18th century , Kuala Terengganu was still a small town . It was described as having about one thousand houses that were scattered around the town . The Chinese were already present in Kuala Terengganu at that time . Half of the population were Chinese and they were engaged in agriculture and trading . After the death of Sultan Daud in 1831 , a brief civil war erupted between two claimants to the throne , namely Tengku Mansur and Tengku Omar . Tengku Omar was based at Bukit Puteri while Tengku Mansur was based at Balik Bukit . Tengku Omar was defeated by Tengku Mansur and he fled from Terengganu . Tengku Mansur became the next Sultan as Sultan Mansur II . His son , Sultan Muhammad succeeded him as the next Sultan after his death in 1837 . However , in 1839 , Tengku Omar returned to Terengganu with his entourage to reclaim the throne . He defeated Sultan Muhammad and forced Sultan Muhammad to flee . Tengku Omar reoccupied his fort at Bukit Puteri and was throned as the next Sultan , Sultan Omar . In 1862 , ex @-@ Sultan of Riau @-@ Lingga , Sultan Mahmud IV Muzaffar Shah went to Terengganu from Bangkok on a Siamese vessel . The British requested that the ex @-@ Sultan to be withdrawn because the British accused the ex @-@ Sultan and also the Sultan of Terengganu , Sultan Omar of supporting Wan Ahmad . Wan Ahmad had constantly attacked Pahang using Kemaman as his base and British trade there were disrupted by the constant attacks . The Siamese agreed to British request , but they have yet to follow through with their agreement . The Strait Settlements Governor , Sir Orfeur Cavenagh sent three ships , HMS Scout , HMS Coquette and a steamer Tonze to Kuala Terengganu , under the command of Captain Corbett , accompanied by Major MacPherson . They were sent with orders to compel the ex @-@ Sultan of Riau @-@ Lingga to be sent back by the British to Siam , and to call upon the Sultan to cease supporting Wan Ahmad . After the Sultan of Terengganu declined to surrender the ex @-@ Sultan to the British , the ships bombarded Kuala Terengganu . The Sultan of Terengganu and the ex @-@ Sultan had fled Kuala Terengganu during the bombardment . The ships then returned to Singapore . Kuala Terengganu was ravaged by a fire in 1882 . The fire that swept through Kuala Terengganu destroyed many buildings , including Green Palace ( Istana Hijau ) , the Sultan ’ s palace . Maziah Palace ( Istana Maziah ) was later built to replace the destroyed palace . Kuala Terengganu continued to be Terengganu 's capital when it was still a vassal state of Siam and during the early years of British colonisation of Malaya . Terengganu fell under the administration of Britain through the Bangkok Treaty of 1909 and was forced to accept a resident " British advisor " . Terengganu , along with four other states were grouped under the term of Unfederated Malay States . British maintained its rule on Terengganu except during the Japanese occupation in World War II . In 1957 , Malaya achieved its independence , and subsequently in 1963 , Malaya , North Borneo ( now the state of Sabah ) , Sarawak , and Singapore merge to form Malaysia . On 18 January 1979 , Kuala Terengganu Municipal Council was established to oversee the development of the town . The Municipal Council was upgraded to Kuala Terengganu City Council on 1 January 2008 . = = Governance = = The city is administered by Kuala Terengganu City Council , which covers the whole area of Kuala Terengganu district . The district 's location at the estuary of Terengganu River divided the district into two parts , Kuala Terengganu Utara ( North Kuala Terengganu ) , now known as Kuala Nerus , and Kuala Terengganu Selatan ( South Kuala Terengganu ) , which is considered to be Kuala Terengganu proper . As the capital , the city is vital to the political and economic welfare of the state . It is the centre for the state and federal government agencies administration buildings , housing the offices of many ministries ' departments and governmental bodies , such as the Immigration and Customs Department , State Economic Planning Unit , Pos Malaysia Kuala Terengganu General Post Office , Terengganu State Library , and many others . As the administrative capital of Terengganu , the Legislative Assembly convenes at Wisma Darul Iman , the state secretariat building . Kuala Terengganu is also the royal capital of the state , being the site of the Sultan 's many palaces , for example Istana Badariah and Istana Maziah . The Election Commission of Malaysia has divided Kuala Terengganu into two different parliament constituencies : P.35 for Kuala Nerus , and P.36 for Kuala Terengganu . There are four state assembly districts in each Parliament . They are : P.35 – Kuala Nerus N9 – Tepuh N10 – Teluk Pasu N11 – Seberang Takir N12 – Bukit Tunggal P.36 – Kuala Terengganu N13 – Wakaf Mempelam N14 – Bandar N15 – Ladang N16 – Batu Buruk Kuala Terengganu was first designated as a local government area in 1928 through the Municipal and Health Enactment 1928 . At this time , the area only covered a small part of the current city border , specifically the historic core around the river mouth . The area , nevertheless , was enlarged slowly . In 1950 , the town was administrated by Kuala Terengganu Town Board under section 51 ( 1 ) , the Local Authority Election Ordinance 1950 . Like many other town boards at that time , the process of town planning was carried out according to the Town Board Enactment 1930 . Until 1979 , the town continued to be managed by Kuala Terengganu Town Board that governed an area of 5 @.@ 4 square miles ( 1 @,@ 398 @.@ 6 hectares ) , with a population of around 53 @,@ 300 people . Kuala Terengganu Municipal Council ( MPKT ) was established due to the development that spilled over to the areas outside the jurisdiction of the former Town Board . MPKT was established on 18 January 1979 under the enforcement of the Local Government Act 1976 . MPKT was created through the amalgamation of Kuala Terengganu Town Board and four local councils ( North KT , South KT , West KT , and Central KT ) with an area of 18 @,@ 712 hectares covering 21 mukim or sub @-@ districts , including some parts of Northern Kuala Terengganu . On 1 January 1985 , the sub @-@ districts of Bukit Palos and Alor Limbat were removed from the Council and placed under the administration of Marang District Council . With these changes , the area under the Council 's administration was reduced to 16 @,@ 806 hectares . On 16 December 1996 , Kuala Terengganu Municipal Council was extended to cover the entire area of Kuala Terengganu district back then , including the resort island , Redang Island . With that , the number of the sub @-@ districts increased to 23 while the area increased dramatically to 60 @,@ 528 hectares . On 1 January 2008 , a declaration was made by the state government and Kuala Terengganu became the first city on the East Coast region of Peninsular Malaysia to achieve city status . Kuala Terengganu Municipal Council changed its name to Kuala Terengganu City Council ( MBKT ) to reflect the change of its status . On 18 September 2014 , the northern part of Kuala Terengganu ( formerly called as Northern Kuala Terengganu ) was declared as the state 's newest district with the name of Kuala Nerus . This however does not mean a creation of a new local government area as Kuala Nerus is still under the jurisdiction of MBKT . As the local council for the districts of Kuala Terengganu and Kuala Nerus , and an agency under the Terengganu state government , MBKT is responsible for public health and sanitation , waste removal and management , town planning and beautification , environmental protection and building control , social , economic and tourism development , and general maintenance and constructions of urban infrastructure . The MBKT main headquarters is located at Menara Permint in Jalan Sultan Ismail . There are two districts that are administered by MBKT . They are Kuala Terengganu and Kuala Nerus . Kuala Nerus was formerly a part of Kuala Terengganu district , but on 18 September 2014 , the Malaysian Prime Minister , Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak declared this northern part of Kuala Terengganu district as the eighth and newest district in Terengganu state . With a population or over 200 @,@ 000 and a size of 39 @,@ 890 hectares , it comprises a substantial part of the former larger Kuala Terengganu district . Significant development in the areas of higher education and housing projects have occurred there in contemporary times . The main population centres of Kuala Nerus include Manir and Batu Rakit . Among major education institutions located in this district are Universiti Malaysia Terengganu , Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin , The Institute of Teacher Education Dato Razali Ismail Campus and an industrial training institute . The Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin ( UniSZA ) Teaching Hospital is now under construction , thus providing this district with a new establishment . The Sultan Mahmud Airport is located within the district , as is the multipurpose Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin Stadium . Although Kuala Nerus and Kuala Terengganu are now two districts on their own , since both of them are under the administration of the same local government , this makes MBKT among the few local governments in Malaysia to manage two different districts . The mukim or sub @-@ districts under MBKT are : = = Geography = = The eastern part of Terengganu district that faces the South China Sea is characterised by sandy coastal beaches that cover the entire stretch of both parts . Small bays and coastal plains can be found . The district is divided into four major drainage basins : Terengganu River basin , Nerus River basin , Ibai River basin , and other small rivers basin . Certain parts of the rivers of Kuala Terengganu are lined with swamp forests . Hills between 200 – 600 metres mostly dominate the western part of the district , with more than 70 % of the district made up of lowlands less than 20 metres high because of its geographical proximity to the coast . The city itself has a few high points with the highest being Bukit Besar , followed by Bukit Kecil . Bukit Puteri is centrally located in the city , just near the Terengganu River estuary . The lowlands provide the district with suitable areas for plantations such as paddy , palm oil trees , and rubber trees . The Redang archipelago is a group of islands in which two , the main island of Redang and Pinang Island , are inhabited , and the other smaller islands are not ( Ling Island , Ekor Tebu Island , Lima Island , Paku Island , Paku Kecil Island , Kerengga Island , and Kerengga Kecil Island ) . The Redang Islands are located 45 kilometres away from Kuala Terengganu in the South China Sea . Together these islands contain around 500 species of corals and the thousands of fish and invertebrates . The islands are designated as a marine park in 1994 . In Malaysia , a marine park is established to protect and manage the marine ecosystem and give people the opportunities to enjoy the underwater heritage . The Redang Islands are composed mainly of granite and sedimentary rocks that are metamorphosed . The main river is Redang River . = = = Climate = = = As a part of Terengganu , Kuala Terengganu has a tropical rainforest climate under the Köppen climate classification ( Af ) with constant temperature and high humidity . The amount of rainfall varies according to the monsoon season . It is generally fairly hot and humid all year round , averaging from 28 ° C to 30 ° C in daytime and slightly cooler after dusk . Nevertheless , the sea breeze from South China Sea hsomehow moderates the humidity in offshore areas while the altitude and lush forest trees and plant has cooled the mountain and rural areas . There are two main types of monsoons in the state . The southwest monsoon season is usually established in the later half of May or early June and ends in September . The prevailing wind flow is generally southwesterly and light , below 15 knots . The northeast monsoon season usually starts in early November and ends in March . During this season , steady easterly or northeasterly winds of 10 to 20 knots prevail . The winds over the east coast states of Peninsular Malaysia may reach 30 knots or more during periods of strong surges of cold air from the north ( cold surges ) . The annual rainfall of this area is 2 @,@ 911 millimetres . During the northeast monsoon season , Kuala Terengganu , being exposed to the coast , receives heavy rainfall . It is not advised to visit any of the offshore islands or participating in sea activities as the sea can be very rough . However , in some clear sunny days during the monsoon season , surprisingly east coast is always presented with clear blue sky and cooling wind . = = Demographics = = = = = Ethnicity and religion = = = In the 19th century , Thomas John Newbold , an English soldier working for the East India Company , estimated the population of Kuala Terengganu to be around 15 @,@ 000 to 20 @,@ 000 Malays with 600 Chinese , but it was presumably an overestimation . There were few brick buildings in the town . The principal brick buildings were a mosque and a custom house . Most of the houses were made of wood and thatch . The Chinese settlement in Kuala Terengganu , Kampung Cina , had become an old and established settlement . Most of the houses and shops in Kampung Cina were made of stone and brick . There were also a considerable number of Arabs and their descendant in Kuala Terengganu . According to The Malaysian Census 2010 , Kuala Terengganu has a population of 406 @,@ 317 . The city population mainly consists of Malays with a population of 319 @,@ 813 . Chinese residents are the second biggest ethnic ( 11 @,@ 617 ) . Other residents include non @-@ Malaysian citizens ( 4 @,@ 326 ) , other Bumiputras ( 643 ) , Indians ( 867 ) and others ( 287 ) . The same census shows that the population of Kuala Terengganu by religion is 96 @.@ 9 % Muslim , 2 @.@ 5 % Buddhist , 0 @.@ 2 % Hindu , 0 @.@ 2 % Christian , and 0 @.@ 2 % follower of other religions , Sikhs or non @-@ religious . All Malays are Muslim . The Chinese of Kuala Terengganu are made up of Hokkien and they practised either Buddhism , Taoism or Christianity . A small number of Hindus and Sikhs also exist . = = = Languages = = = Terengganu Malay is the main lingua franca in the city and is spoken by the Malays in Kuala Terengganu and minority Kelantanese are also spoken , especially those who came from Besut , Setiu and Kelantan . The Chinese mostly use Hokkien with some using Teochew and Mandarin . Most Indians in Kuala Terengganu speak Tamil . Standard Malay and English are widely spoken and understood . = = Economy = = Kuala Terengganu was a major fishing port and one of the important trading ports in Malaya . The chief export commodities were coffee , gambier , gold , ivory , pepper and tin . They were mainly traded for rice , tobacco , cotton goods and opium . The economic sector in Kuala Terengganu is mostly made up of small @-@ scale manufacturing industries such as the traditional textile making , local food industries , arts and craft factories , and agriculture , with most of them centred around residential areas or villages . There are two main industrial estates catered to bigger industries , one in Chendering and the other one in Gong Badak . Factories such as those that produce bricks or timber products are located further away from the main city areas . As the principal gateway for tourists to the state , tourism remains as one of economic source for Kuala Terengganu . = = Public facilities and infrastructure = = = = = Transportation = = = = = = = Public transport = = = = Transport facilities that are available in Kuala Terengganu include the taxicab and Kuala Terengganu Bus Terminal where the local bus services and interstate coaches to all major cities and towns in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore operate . There is a limited service tourist bus that plies back and forth to tourist areas such as the Nor Arfa batik outlet south of the city , and the jetty for ferries to the island resorts at Redang and Perhentian islands . Kuala Terengganu has its own special bus service known as Cas Ligas or Town Bus . The buses have the characteristics of a traditional old Malay house through the unique roof design to reflect the state cultural identity . The buses cover three lines in and out of the city . A token fare of MYR1 should be paid for each ride . There are also trishaw services although this service is dying fast and is not as extensive as the ones in the states of Malacca and Penang . In Kuala Terengganu , pedestrian @-@ pulled rickshaws were gradually replaced by trishaws ( beca in Malay ) . Trishaws were ubiquitous up to the 1970s in cities . Since then , rapid urbanisation has increased demand for more efficient public transport , resulting in dwindling trishaw numbers . Today , trishaws are operated mostly as a tourist attraction in Kuala Terengganu . The city 's only taxi rank stands nearby to the city 's bus terminal . As with the rest of Terengganu , KTM does not serve Kuala Terengganu . Nevertheless numerous proposals have been drafted to connect Kuala Terengganu with Tumpat in Kelantan . = = = = Land = = = = The Sultan Mahmud Bridge , a three @-@ kilometre bridge over the Terengganu River , provides a road link between the two banks of the river ( connecting Kuala Nerus to Kuala Terengganu ) and Duyong Island . The city and suburbs are relatively easy to negotiate by car . Kuala Terengganu is connected to other towns via a good network of roads that are accessible from many major towns and cities in Peninsula Malaysia . The East Coast Expressway ( LPT ) E8 , which starts from Gombak until Kuala Terengganu , has shorten the time for travellers to drive from the West Coast of Peninsular Malaysia . It takes four hours to drive from Kuala Lumpur to reach the city via the LPT . Visitors can also drive to Kuala Terengganu by using the Federal Route 3 from Kuantan ( besides using the LPT ) , Kota Bharu , and Johor Bahru that offers a more scenic view of the coastline and villages . From the north of the peninsula , Kuala Terengganu is reachable via East @-@ West Highway 4 and Second East – West Highway 185 . = = = = Air = = = = An airport called Sultan Mahmud Airport ( IATA : TGG , ICAO : WMKN ) serving domestic and international routes is located 8 km ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) from the city centre , in Seberang Takir , Kuala Nerus . The airlines serving this airport are Malaysia Airlines , Firefly , AirAsia , Malindo Air , and Sriwijaya Air . Until December 2014 , the airport was served by 5 cities which operated daily and weekly flights from / to Kuala Lumpur – International , Kuala Lumpur @-@ Subang , Medan , Miri , and Singapore . Malaysia Airlines also brings passengers to Mecca via Jeddah and Medina during the hajj season . In 2013 , the airport handled 699 @,@ 310 passengers with 11 @,@ 402 aircraft movements . The terminal was designed to handle 2 million passengers every year . = = = = Water = = = = The city also has water transportation that ply the Terengganu River . The lifeline between the north and south parts of the city are the water taxis more popularly known as bot penambang . Bot penambang are engined , roofed wooden boats made to carry passengers from Seberang Takir Jetty and Pulau Duyong Kecil Jetty to Kuala Terengganu Jetty . It is the easiest and shortest way to get to the city . There are also ferry services to the resort island of Redang and other small islands , although these services are mainly carried out by modern express ferries . The ferries dock at Syahbandar Jetty , just in front of the General Post Office . = = = Banking services = = = The Malaysian central bank , Bank Negara Malaysia maintains its east coast branch in Kuala Terengganu . Major Malaysian commercial banks also have their branches here . This includes Maybank , CIMB Bank , AmBank , Public Bank , RHB Bank , and Hong Leong Bank . Many of these banks have their main offices near to one another at Jalan Sultan Ismail and the adjacent areas . = = = Courts of law and legal enforcement = = = All types of courts in Kuala Terengganu can be found in Jalan Sultan Mohamad . The High Court , Sessions Court , and the Magistrate Court are housed under one building complex . Another type of court , the Syariah Court is situated not far from the Terengganu Courts Complex . The headquarters of the Royal Malaysia Police 's Terengganu Police Contingent and the Kuala Terengganu District Police Contingent are at Jalan Sultan Omar . Other small police stations are located in and around the two districts that make up the city . There is no prison complex in the district , but temporary lock @-@ up cells are to be found in most police stations here . The main fire station is at Jalan Kemajuan , near Bukit Kecil . This is the biggest fire station in Kuala Terengganu . Another fire station is located just beside Pasar Payang in the city centre . The headquarters of the Malaysian Civil Defence Department , the civil defence services agency in Malaysia , is at Jalan Lapangan Terbang , near to Terengganu Sports Complex . The 18th Battalion of the Royal Malay Regiment of the Malaysian Army has its camp in the northern part of the district at Kem Sri Pantai in Seberang Takir , near to the airport and Teluk Ketapang Beach . The camp is currently undergoing restoration and upgrading processes . = = = Healthcare = = = Unlike other major cities , Kuala Terengganu does not have a lot of hospitals . The main hospital is Sultanah Nur Zahirah Hospital ( HSNZ ) , formerly known as Kuala Terengganu General Hospital , the largest hospital in the state with 821 beds . This is a public government hospital that began to provide its services during the 1920s . Kuala Terengganu Specialist Hospital is the first and largest private hospital in the state , operating since September 2006 . There are other types of clinics such as private and public health clinics , village clinics , and 1Malaysia clinics operating in the district . = = = Religious institutions = = = There are no shortages of mosques or Muslim prayer buildings , the most famous among these religious buildings and are considered as tourist attractions are Abidin Mosque , and Tengku Tengah Zaharah Mosque . There are two Buddhist temples , Ho Ann Kiong Temple and Tien Hou Kong Temple nearby Chinatown , Kuala Terengganu . Two Presbyterian churches , the largest being Jalan Air Jerneh Presbyterian Church and another one in Chinatown , and an Anglican church known as St Andrew 's Church can also be found in the city . For Hindu adherents , there is temple that is known as Sri Kali Yuga Durga Lakshmi Aman Temple , located in Jalan Cherong Lanjut . = = = Education = = = Kuala Terengganu is the centre of tertiary education in the state . There are three public universities here , and they are Universiti Sultan Zainal Abidin ( with two of its three campuses in Kuala Terengganu City Council area ) , Universiti Malaysia Terengganu ( in Kuala Nerus district ) , and Universiti Teknologi MARA Chendering campus . Other tertiary education institutes include Insitut Teknologi Petronas , Kuala Terengganu Community College , Politeknik Kuala Terengganu , and others . There is one institute of teacher education in Kuala Terengganu , that is Institut Pendidikan Guru Kampus Dato ' Razali Ismail . Similar to other Malaysian schools , non @-@ tertiary education in the city is divided into four levels : pre @-@ school , primary , secondary ( lower and upper ) and post @-@ secondary . There are 81 primary schools and 34 secondary schools in Kuala Terengganu . Among the examples of secondary schools are SMK Chung Hwa Wei Sin , Sekolah Berasrama Penuh Integrasi Batu Rakit , Sekolah Menengah Imtiaz Kuala Nerus , SMK Agama Sheikh Abdul Malek , SMKA Tok Jiring , Sekolah Menengah Sains Sultan Mahmud , and SMK Sultan Sulaiman . = = = = Libraries = = = = The Terengganu State Library is located at Jalan Kemajuan , near the southern end of Sultan Mahmud Bridge , and is the largest library of the state . As a major public library of Terengganu , it is the main information resource centre and provides information services for the users from all sectors and ages . Other libraries or private libraries can be found in schools , colleges , or universities . Other than the state library , smaller village libraries are also available in Seberang Takir , Mengabang Telipot , Tepuh , and Atas Tol . = = Tourism and culture = = = = = Attractions and recreation spots = = = = = = = Historical = = = = The Terengganu State Museum is located in Kampung Losong . It is acclaimed to be one the largest museum complexes in Malaysia and South East Asia with an area of 27 hectares . The architecture is based on the traditional Terengganu Malay house known as rumah tele . It has eight different galleries and other open air exhibits such as Petronas Gallery , Maritime Gallery , Islam Gallery , exhibits of traditional Terengganuese houses , and many others . The museum is also the home of the Terengganu Inscription Stone , the oldest artefact with Jawi writing in this country . Near the museum is the Islamic Heritage Park ( Malay : Taman Tamadun Islam ) . This park is an educational entertainment park that showcases various replicas of famous mosque from all over the world . Among the replicas are Al @-@ Masjid al @-@ Haram , Qol Sharif Mosque , and Masjid Negara . The Crystal Mosque is also located here . Boat cruise services along Terengganu River are also provided for the visitors . A small hill known as Bukit Puteri can be found nearby to Pasar Payang . The hill is about 200 metres high , located near the banks of Terengganu River . Because of its strategic location , it was used as a fortification by the sultans of the state . Old artefacts , a graveyard , and monuments can be found on top of the hill . During the Islamic holy month of Ramadan , a century @-@ old brass bell known as genta will be rung to signify that it is time for iftar , or the end of the fasting on that day . = = = = Cultural = = = = The Chinatown of Kuala Terengganu ( Malay : Kampung Cina , Simplified Chinese : 唐人坡 , local pronunciation : Teng @-@ lang @-@ po ) is one of the main tourist attractions . This settlement is a row of shophouses from the prewar era , with some of them dating back from the 1700s . Most of the houses are 2 stories high , mainly made of bricks or concrete , with wooden flooring for the second storey . Some have kept the intricate wood carving windows , huge heavy wooden front doors , and olden plaques . The centuries @-@ old buildings now consists of sundry shops , local coffee shops , offices , souvenir shops , restaurants , kopitiam , and other services . It is home to two Chinese temples , Ho Ann Kiong and Tien Hou Kong , which was built in 1801 and 1896 . Another landmark is the 19th @-@ century Low Tiey water well , erected in 1875 . After years and years , it still supplies clean water to Chinatown 's residents . Many of the buildings here have undergone restoration or beautification programmes to make them more appealing , but without destroying the heritage value . The recent attractions in Kampung China are its back alleys , many of which are transformed into thematic lanes containing various information , decorations and murals . Pasar Besar Kedai Payang or Central Market ( more commonly known as Pasar Payang ) is the main market of the city . This double @-@ storey building houses different kinds of goods , ranging from fresh produce , poultry , sea products , traditional delicacies , home products , clothes , and handicrafts such as batik , songket , and brass ware . Pulau Duyong is a river island located at the Terengganu River estuary . It is popularly known for its traditional boat making activities . Pulau Duyong also contains a historical monument known as Kota Lama Duyong ( Duyong Old Fort ) . It is a traditional Malay house built with local and European elements . = = = = Leisure = = = = Kuala Terengganu has various places for recreation . Amongst the most prominent one is Batu Buruk Beach , located not far from the city centre . The beach has many amenities and facilities for the visitors . They can go for many activities at the beach such as horse riding , horse carriage rides and kite flying . However , visitors are not recommended to swim in the waters there because of strong waves . Taman Shahbandar is another recreation place in Kuala Terengganu , located by the Terengganu River estuary . This park is close to other attractions in Kuala Terengganu such as Pasar Payang , Bukit Puteri and Istana Maziah . Other recreational places in Kuala Terengganu are : Kuala Terengganu Waterfront , located south of Pulau Warisan by the Terengganu River . It offers a view of Pulau Duyong and Sultan Mahmud Bridge . Taman Awam Lagun Kuala Ibai , a park 4 kilometres away from the city centre , in which the Tengku Tengah Zaharah Mosque is located . Taman Awam Pantai Teluk Ketapang , a recreational beach and public park located in Kuala Nerus near Sultan Mahmud Airport . = = = = Other sights = = = = Redang Island is one of the major tourism islands in Malaysia . Located about 45 kilometres from the Kuala Terengganu city proper , this island ( which is a part of a marine park ) offers visitors activities such as snorkelling , swimming , scuba @-@ diving , jungle trekking , boating and canoeing . The Abidin Mosque is Kuala Terengganu 's old state royal mosque built by Sultan Zainal Abidin II between 1793 and 1808 . It is popularly known as Masjid Putih ( White Mosque ) . The mosque is also the location of the Royal Mausoleum . Seberang Takir is a fishing village situated on the northern bank of Terengganu River estuary and can be easily reached by using the bot penambang from Kuala Terengganu jetty . Here , visitors can see for themselves many cottage industries such as the producing of keropok lekor ( a local fish cracker ) , batik printing , and drying salted fish , and the making of belacan ( shrimp paste ) . = = = Food = = = Keropok lekor ( especially keropok lekor Losong ) , a local delicacy made from fish and other traditional dishes such as nasi dagang , laksam , laksa Terengganu , otak @-@ otak , sata , pulut lepa , ketupat sotong , and roti paun can be found in the city . In the area of Kampung Cina , Peranakan Chinese cuisine that combines Malay and Chinese cooking styles and other traditional Chinese dishes are available . = = = Media = = = = = = = Television and radio = = = = Kuala Terengganu receives almost all of Malaysian terrestrial television channels . Among the terrestrial television stations that the city receives are TV1 , TV2 , TV3 , NTV7 , TV9 , and TV Alhijrah . Most radio stations in Malaysia are also available here . The state 's radio station , Terengganu FM , the Terengganu feed of the national private radio station , Hot FM Teganu , and first private radio station in the East Coast region , Manis FM , are also operated from this city . = = = = Newspapers = = = = Among the major Malaysian newspapers available in Kuala Terengganu are : English dailies such as The Star , and New Straits Times . Malay dailies such as Berita Harian , Utusan Malaysia , Harian Metro and Kosmo ! . Chinese dailies such as Sin Chew Daily and Nanyang Siang Pau . Tamil dailies such as Tamil Nesan , Malaysia Nanban and Makkal Osai . Local newspaper companies also exist . The most widely @-@ circulated is Sinar Harian , which provides regional and local news based on its regional editions . = = = Sports = = = There are two main stadiums , Sultan Ismail Nasiruddin Shah Stadium at the city centre , and Sultan Mizan Zainal Abidin Stadium located at Terengganu Sports Complex , Gong Badak . Both stadiums are the homes of the state 's two football teams , Terengganu FA , and T @-@ Team FC . The sports complex was purposely built for the 2008 Malaysian Games ( Malay : Sukan Malaysia or SUKMA ) . Besides the main stadium , the sports complex also contains other facilities such as the Indoor Stadium , football fields , a rugby field , a lawn bowls field , a hockey pitch , and bowling lanes . A sport school to search for new generation athletes is being built to make full use of the facilities provided . Other venues catered for sports in Terengganu are , among others , Kuala Terengganu Aquatic Centre , Kuala Terengganu Hockey Stadium ( the home ground for Terengganu Hockey Team ) , Kuala Terengganu Tennis Courts , and Kuala Terengganu Lawn Bowls Fields . There are three golf courses in Kuala Terengganu , namely the Royal Terengganu Golf Club in Batu Buruk , Ibai Golf & Country Resort in Kuala Ibai , and Kuala Terengganu Golf Resort in Tok Jembal . Kuala Terengganu has hosted several sporting events such as the 2008 Malaysian Games , the Annual Sultan Mahmud Bridge International Run , The Monsoon Cup ( a part of Alpari World Match Racing Tour ) , The International Beach Sports Carnival , the finals for National Badminton Circuit Competition , and staged the ending and starting points for Le Tour de Langkawi cycling race . = = International relations = = Kazakhstan has set up its honorary consulate in Kuala Terengganu . = = = Sister cities = = = Kuala Terengganu currently has one sister city : = Ohio State Route 745 = State Route 745 ( SR 745 ) is a state route in central Ohio that runs in a north @-@ northwesterly direction along the west bank of the Scioto River . Its southern terminus is at the concurrency of U.S. Route 33 ( US 33 ) and SR 161 in Dublin , and it runs for approximately ten miles ( 16 km ) to Concord Township in Delaware County , where it arrives at its northern terminus at the concurrency of US 42 and SR 257 . SR 745 was designated in 1937 , and its routing has not changed since . = = Route description = = SR 745 commences at the signalized intersection between the concurrent US 33 and SR 161 and High Street in Dublin . Running north from there , the two @-@ lane state highway passes through a residential portion of the northwestern Columbus suburb . After crossing underneath a lengthy bridge that takes Interstate 270 over SR 745 , the Scioto River and SR 257 , the state route meets Emerald Parkway at a traffic signal . Now running in a north @-@ northwesterly direction , SR 745 passes through a roundabout at Brand Road , then continues on through	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
ants prey on include giant lacewings , which they swarm up trees to kill , the butterfly genoveva azure Ogyris genoveva , Indian mealmoths , almond moths , the Western Australian jarrah leafminer and the larvae of the wasp Trichogramma . Large and developed larvae of the cabbage butterfly ( Pieris rapae ) are attacked more effectively by meat ant workers than those of other Iridomyrmex species . On sandy beaches , this species is observed preying on the polychaete annelid worm , Armandia intermedia , causing high mortality rates on them ( rates of 30 percent ) . These ants will feed on a number of dead or alive animals , including metamorphic crucifix toads , snakes , lizards , and birds . On some occasions , swarms of workers have been found on dead foxes . The meat ant is the only known ant in Australia that feeds on fresh guano . The collection of guano by a nearby meat ant colony shows the opportunistic nature of the species . Observations show that trails of workers in groups of two to four were found collecting the guano under an active bat roost within an abandoned mine and proceeded to return it to the nest . The collection of guano by any Australian ant colony was never recorded prior to these observations , but it is unknown why meat ants collect fresh guano . Meat ants are among the very few native species of Australia that are not harmed by the toxins of the cane toad , an invasive species . Most of the time , foraging workers target metamorph toads . Observations show that workers would forage around ponds and seize any toadlet . This normally starts with a single worker making contact with an individual and tracing its movements , followed by three or four workers capturing it . All the participating ants would grab a limb and sever the legs , returning the prey item back to their nest . Most of the time these tactics do not work . For example , most toadlets are able to escape the ants by displaying aversion @-@ like behaviour ; an individual may escape by struggling erratically or forcing the ants to release their grip by returning to the water . This aversion behaviour leads to most toadlets remaining in the water or staying on objects such as water lilies , pieces of bark that the ants cannot access , or moving around on moist substrates . It is unknown if meat ant predation on the toadlets affected the population , but based on the population density of the toadlets within the studied site and the foraging time and efficiency , approximately 2 @,@ 700 toadlets could be removed per day . As the toadlet population density is extremely high , the impact of meat ant predation is minor . However , the survivability of the toadlets may be affected if the ants prevent the toadlets from foraging into many areas of moist substrate . Water is an important resource for colonies living in dry and arid environments , but sometimes it may not be available . To counter this , workers are able to extract a significant amount of water from the sand with 2 % – 4 % water content and 4 % from the soil . Meat ants are unable to retrieve as much water from the soil , whereas with sand they are able to attain a greater amount of water ; however , the soil contains a wide variety of particles , including clay and coarse sand , which causes water to be bound firmly . Ants may retrieve it by digging or directly suck on the soil itself at a low metabolic cost . This may be an evolved response based on tested ants , but no observations show meat ants doing this . Meat ants are known to dig into moist soil to gain access to water or where water has been spilt , either if the site is nearby their nest or far away . = = = Predators = = = Despite its dominance among ants , a number of animals are known to prey on meat ants . The short @-@ beaked echidna ( Tachyglossus aculeatus ) is a prominent predator of the meat ant , mostly due to the high fat levels ( up to 47 % ) in virgin queens . These queens can almost contain 47 % fat , and when no queens are available after an attack , an echidna may stop attacking the nest . However , these ants are normally consumed either in low numbers or avoided entirely . Attacking echidnas burrow down into the hole they have made and consume them while handling the bites from the ants , as they frequently scratch themselves on the head and chest . The echidna does not consume meat ants throughout the whole year ; instead , echidnas only attack meat ant nests from August to October , which is when nuptial flight ( meaning that virgin queens and males emerge to mate ) occurs . This time period makes it much easier for echidnas to prey on the winged females since they are directly above on the nest . Despite attacks , colony growth is not affected by echidnas . Several birds prey on meat ants . The masked woodswallow ( A. personatus ) and the white @-@ browed woodswallow ( Artamus superciliosus ) will gather around meat ant nests and swoop at them , catching several ants before eating them . Pieces of meat ants have been found in the faeces of the red @-@ capped robin ( Petroica goodenovii ) , rufous whistler ( Pachycephala rufiventris ) , hooded robin ( Melanodryas cucullata ) and the red @-@ browed treecreeper ( Climacteris erythrops ) . Meat ants that forage on Ventilago viminalis trees are often eaten by the apostlebird . Some large ground @-@ feeding birds , such as currawongs , magpies and ravens dig out newly established colonies after a queen has found a suitable spot to nest . Small domes of excavated soil are present at such spots , revealing the queens ' presence to these birds . As a result , many queens are consumed by birds , leaving many abandoned nest chambers . The blind snake Ramphotyphlops nigrescens follow trails laid by meat ants to locate them , and the snakes are also known to feed on the brood . Various species of spiders prefer to prey on meat ants , mainly attracted by the alarm pheromone the ants release . One spider , in particular , the cursorial spider Habronestes bradleyi , is a specialist predator against these ants and uses their alarm pheromones that are released during territorial disputes to locate them . These alarm signals are created by oscillating the body along the longitudinal axis , which are mostly released when an ant encounters a nest mate . Cyclotorna monocentra moths feed on meat ant broods . The larvae of these moths are parasites to leafhoppers and will move to meat ant colonies to complete their development , where they will proceed to consume the brood ; the females lay many eggs near ant trails which are close to the leafhoppers tended by ants . Other observations show that the Iphierga macarista larvae are scavengers in meat ant nests , while Sphallomorpha beetles live in burrows near nests of meat ants , where the larvae capture and prey on workers passing by . The larvae of the spitfire sawfly and Pseudoperga guerini are able to regurgitate a fluid against the meat ant if they are getting attacked by them ; depending on how much is regurgitated , an ant will either walk away and clean itself or become fatally affected by it . Lizards such as the thorny dragon , which is a sit and wait predator , consume meat ants , but other lizards which eat Iridomyrmex ants usually reject this species . = = = Life cycle and reproduction = = = Nuptial flight usually occurs during spring , in October . Reproductive females only mate with a single male and begin establishing their own colonies afterwards . Nuptial flight occurs after rain , where the males emerge from their nest first , followed by the virgin queens ; groups of 20 to 40 females emerge after the males have flown away . The alates ( the reproductive males and females ) position themselves on top of the nest in order to heat themselves , and all fly at the same time once they are warm . This process may happen multiple times unless the weather had changed , otherwise , the queens would return to their nest . Nuptial flight may continue for days until all virgin queens have withdrawn from the nest . Most of the time , a single queen will start her own colony and lay eggs that will take around 44 to 61 days to fully develop and emerge as adults , but colonies can also be founded through multiple queens cooperating with each other , adoption into an existing colony , or " budding " ( also called " satelliting " or " fractionating " ) , where a subset of the colony including queens , workers and brood ( eggs , larvae and pupae ) leave the main colony for an alternative nest site . Around 10 % of queens will have at least another queen with them during colony foundation . Many queens are killed during colony founding ; major aspects include predation by birds and other ants , even those of the same species , due to the fact they attempt to establish their nests near large colonies . However , some queens are successful , sometimes with the assistance of neighbouring workers , who help the queen dig some chambers . Other causes of queen deaths include disease and starvation . A queen 's ovaries may take four weeks to mature , and she lays around 20 eggs that may develop into larvae in less than a month . Workers have been observed laying eggs , presumably trophic eggs . The function of these unfertilised eggs are nutritional , not reproduction . The number of individuals in a colony varies . A mature nest of several years old can hold between 11 @,@ 000 and 64 @,@ 000 ants , while other colonies can house around 300 @,@ 000 . In some cases , enormous colonies can have as many as a million ants . Observed colonies are known to contain nearly 70 @,@ 000 larvae and 64 @,@ 000 workers ; some can have 20 @,@ 000 males and over 1 @,@ 000 virgin queens , but others may have more virgin queens than males . The ratio of worker ants to the number of the larvae in colonies ranges from one worker for every two larvae or two larvae for every worker . The population of a nest can be affected or altered by several factors : human interference can severely damage or completely destroy nests which potentially devastates the nest population , and overshadowing is the main cause of a nest 's demise . As well as that , neighbouring nests may increase in population if damaged or abandoned sites are taken over . Meat ants also rely on their nests to withstand climatic stress in summer and winter , as foraging activity and food sources are sometimes limited in summer , and in winter plant growth is almost impossible and workers are unable to survive cold temperatures . As a result , meat ants overwinter , which is a process where some organisms wait out the winter season due to cold conditions making everyday activity and survivability almost impossible ; populations may be affected greatly . Most colonies are monogyne , meaning that a colony only has a single queen , but based on observations , some nests contain more than a single queen . Some nests are known to contain two queens , with some even having as many as four in a single colony , making them polygynous ; a high proportion of queens living in polygynous nests are unrelated to one another . Some colonies are oligogynous , which means that multiple queens are present in a colony , but they are tolerated by all workers birthed from different queens and treated equally . Tolerance still occurs even when new reproductive females and males are born , but recognition based on kin from queens and workers is known , hinting brood discrimination when the larvae are fed or groomed ; queens will only take care of their own brood and neglect to look after broods laid by other queens . The queens , on the other hand , will only cooperate with each other during nest founding , but will be antagonistic once there are workers present in the colony . Queens become more intolerant of each other as the colony grows , and eventually separate within the nest , resulting in the queen laying more eggs . Such cases usually happen when pleometrotic founding occurs , or if a queen ant is adopted by a colony , setting up aggressive relationships . Physical fights between queens in the same colony are rare . As most meat ant colonies rarely have a second queen , polydomy is not always associated with polygyny , although the two are frequently associated with each other because polygynous colonies reproduce by budding . This means that the ecological factors that promote polydomy and polygny both differ . Studies show that most meat ants are produced by a single , inseminated queen due to the high level of relatedness in all but one tested colonies . Colonies that are not closely related are the result of colony fusion ( meaning that two unrelated and separate colonies form a single entity ) . Meat ants also show nest fidelity : in polydomous colonies , workers from different nests will always mingle with others from different nests but never return to a nest they do not originate from . Instead , they return to the nest they enclosed in . This means that colonies may only homogenise through brood transfer . As discussed before , nestmates from different nests will always be aggressive towards each other , but this is due to a number of factors : genetic and spatial distance in nests can correlate with the level of aggression exhibited by the ants . However , they exhibit more aggression to ants of different species from adjoining territories . They are also aggressive to conspecific ants from distant colonies , suggesting that environmental cues play a vital role in nestmate recognition . An example is that background odours in a particular environment may impair ants from identifying their own nestmates , and may need to make more attempts to determine an ant 's identity . = = = Ritualised fighting = = = Meat ants are highly territorial and aggressive ants which establish firm borders between neighbouring colonies . While the boundaries are not physical , worker ants maintain them by engaging in ritualised fighting with opponent ants , an interaction most colonies engage in . Fatalities are rare on both sides , but fights may cause injuries to several workers . This fighting enables territory to be contested between opposing colonies without them killing each other and costing many casualties on both sides . Due of this , it is a method of avoiding casualties and promotes intercolony communication and assessment . A drainage of the work force would occur if these boundaries acted as a conflict zone if ritualised fighting did not take place . Lethal fighting only occurs if the colony is under attack . Encounters between workers last for 15 seconds . Ritualised fighting only occurs with two worker ants who come into contact with each other , but if both ants are from the same colony , they break contact and groom themselves . Afterwards they walk around until they make contact with another ant . A meat ant detects a foreign worker by intense antennation ( the act of touching with the antennae ) and gaping of the mandibles , and stretch themselves upward to appear taller and larger , suggesting that meat ants will do this in a display of size @-@ matching . Workers perform a behaviour known as " front leg boxing " ; both workers have their front legs sweeping up and down , where it would flex at the coxal joint in a paddling motion . This paddling motion is aimed at each other during the fight , going on for three to five seconds on average . From this point on , this would determine who is a " loser " and who is the " winner " . The ant who lost the ritual fight will lower its body , and lean sideways from the victorious ant . The victorious ant will remain raised upward and reach down to the worker and open its mandibles wider , grasping on the opponent 's mandibles , and then tug and shake its head slightly for a few moments . However , the fight may continue if neither worker backs down , and will commence a side to side posture . Both ants circle each other and present their gasters directed to their opponent , and on some occasions , either one or both of the ants would kick outward using their legs at each other . Eventually , they will break contact and groom once appeasement has been reached and continue to search for another ant . = = = Relationship with other organisms = = = Meat ants have been observed blocking banded sugar ant nesting holes with pebbles and soil to prevent them from leaving their nest during the early hours of the day . Banded sugar ants counter this by preventing meat ants from leaving their nest by blocking their nesting holes with debris , a behaviour known as nest @-@ plugging . If meat ant nests are encroached by trees or other shade , banded sugar ants may invade and take over the nest , since the health of the colony may deteriorate from overshadowing . Members of an affected meat ant colony later move to a nearby satellite nest that is placed in a suitable area , while invading banded sugar ants fill nest galleries up with a black resinous material . Meat ants sometimes attract cats because of the chemicals they secrete ( dihydronepetalactone , isodihydronepetalactone and iridomyrmecin ) . Meat ants are generally intolerant of myrmecophiles ( which are insects or other organisms that share positive interspecies associations with ants ) living in their colonies , but Cyclotorna larvae are known to dwell in colonies . Although Sphallomorpha larvae sometimes prey on workers as discussed earlier , some are inquilines and live in the nest commensally . Unused or abandoned areas inside colonies are sometimes occupied by other species of ants and in some cases , termites . Meat ants may deliberately destroy the colonies of the termite Amitermes laurensis if competition between the two intensify . Meat ants play an important role in seed dispersal . A meat ant colony is capable of dispersing 334 @,@ 000 individual bellyache bush seeds per hectare , which shows a strong ant @-@ seed relationship among the two . = = Relationship with humans = = Meat ants are able to kill poisonous cane toads , an introduced pest , as the toxins exuded by toad , that usually kill the cane toad 's predators , do not affect the meat ants . Due to this , scientists in Australia have considered using meat ants as a form of pest control to reduce the cane toad population . One way of doing this is by establishing meat ant nests in habitats where cane toad numbers are high . In rural Australia , meat ants are important to farmers , who place animal carcasses on ant nests to get rid of them . In a matter of weeks , the entire carcass is consumed and reduced to bones . Due to the meat ants aggression , workers will pour out of entrance holes to attack if a human or animal disturbs their nest . = = = As pests = = = Despite their beneficial importance to humans , meat ants are sometimes considered pests , due to these ants disturbing the soil in urban areas and entering human houses occasionally to feed on food . The nests may cause annoyance if they are built around gravel paths , tennis courts and other cleared spaces . Although meat ants enter houses occasionally , they have adapted well to urbanisation and populations can flourish in urban areas . During the early days of the city of Canberra , newly constructed suburbs provided new nest sites for meat ants . Unpaved streets , gravel paths and driveways are among the many new sites meat ants could nest in , making them a commonly encountered ant that may pose as a considerable pest to many . The abundance of food supplies from parks , plantations and home gardens also attracted meat ants to urban areas . They pose a serious problem for citrus growers in eastern Australia , because they affect the biological control of Hemiptera insects , specifically those who produce honeydew . Meat ants cannot sting , but they can induce irritating bites and secrete a defensive fluid from the end of their abdomen . Meat ants have been reported causing mortality amongst poultry . Many attempted methods of eradicating meat ants have proven unsuccessful . The first investigations were made in the 1930s to control meat ant populations in urban areas by fumigation , using carbon disulfide and calcium cyanide . Although these methods successfully eradicated some nests , they were rapidly reoccupied by those living in satellite or rival nests . However , the reoccupation of these nests by incipient colonies ( young colonies beginning to develop ) does not occur . This is because colony founding is often difficult and rare when most areas are nested by mature colonies . This behaviour has led to long @-@ term maintenance and repeated treatments to ensure the nests are not resettled . In addition , not all nests can be treated , and some may remain undetected from pest controllers . In 1973 , Greaves notes that the poor penetration of insecticides into all nest galleries may be the reason why nests are reoccupied , but owing to the nest structure , the insecticides have to be poured into each individual hole as no gallery connects to one another . Missing a single gallery can mostly lead to the reoccupation of the nest site . Greaves concludes that dieldrin is the most effective insecticide to control meat ants , capable of killing the ants quickly and being the most long @-@ lasting chemical used . The difficulty of eradicating meat ants has led to further studies . Two studies between 1996 and 2002 studied the effects of granular baits on meat ant colonies . Bait containing hydramethylnon and fipronil effectively reduced the number of workers foraging . However , this was only effective when 10 g ( 0 @.@ 35 oz ) of bait was placed on citrus trees or onto mounds . The ant bait Amdro was used in a recent study to identify an effective method of eradicating meat ants , but results showed that the bait failed to reduce ant populations significantly . There was evidence that the amount of active mounds declined , but this effect was only temporary . This is due to colonies only having 5 g ( 0 @.@ 18 oz ) of bait which was insufficient to eliminate further nests , but the effect may have been more dramatic if extra bait was used . = = = Cited literature = = = Common , I.F.B. ( 1990 ) . Moths of Australia . Burwood , Victoria : BRILL . ISBN 978 @-@ 90 @-@ 04 @-@ 09227 @-@ 3 . Hölldobler , B. ; Wilson , E.O. ( 1990 ) . The Ants . Cambridge , Massachusetts : Belknap Press of Harvard University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 04075 @-@ 5 . Trager , J.C. ( 1988 ) . Advances in Myrmecology ( 1st ed . ) . Leiden , Netherlands : E.J. BRILL . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 916846 @-@ 38 @-@ 1 . = Giving Victims a Voice = Giving Victims a Voice is a report published in January 2013 , relating to allegations of sexual abuse made against English DJ and BBC Television presenter Jimmy Savile ( 1926 – 2011 ) as part of the Operation Yewtree criminal investigation . It was initiated as a result of publicity surrounding the Jimmy Savile sexual abuse scandal . The Metropolitan Police Service ( MPS ) and the National Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children ( NSPCC ) jointly produced this report . It marked the end of investigations made under the operation regarding Savile alone . The scandal resulted in hundreds of alleged victims of Savile and other abusers approaching the police and the NSPCC . Their claims were investigated and formed the basis of the report , which found that Savile 's alleged offences were committed across England and Scotland , in hospitals , prison facilities , schools and BBC premises . Offences were reported between 1955 and 2009 , totalling 214 alleged offences across 28 police forces . The most frequent alleged offending coincided with Savile 's peak celebrity status . Numbers of alleged victims totalled 450 , of whom 328 were minors at the time . They were aged between 8 and 47 years , majority being 13 – 16 . The Director of Public Prosecutions ( DPP ) described the report as marking a " watershed moment " and apologised for " shortcomings " in the handling of prior abuse claims . The report 's publication resulted in some highlighting what could be systemic failure because of the number of complainants and institutions identified , but others criticised it for treating allegations as facts . The DPP 's Principal Legal Advisor concluded that Savile could have been prosecuted for offences against at least three victims during his lifetime . After the report , investigations were further initiated in other hospitals . Ex @-@ Metropolitan Police Commissioner Peter Spindler ( who had previously led Operation Yewtree ) estimated that there may be many more victims who had not come forward . = = Background = = In September and October 2012 , claims were widely publicised that the English DJ and BBC Television presenter Jimmy Savile ( 31 October 1926 – 29 October 2011 ) had committed sexual abuse . The publicity began on 5 October 2012 after an ITV Exposure documentary broadcast allegations . By 11 October , allegations had been made to 13 British police forces . On 19 October , the Metropolitan Police Service launched a formal criminal investigation , Operation Yewtree , into historic allegations of child sexual abuse by Savile and others . It described the alleged abuse as being " on an unprecedented scale " , and the number of potential victims as " staggering " . Much of Savile 's career involved working with children and young people , including visiting schools and hospital wards . He spent 20 years presenting Top of the Pops before a teenage audience , and an overlapping 20 years presenting Jim 'll Fix It , in which he helped the wishes of viewers , mainly children , come true . During his lifetime , two police investigations had looked into reports about Savile , the earliest known being in 1958 , but none had led to charges ; the reports had each concluded that there was insufficient evidence for any charges to be brought relating to sexual offences . In October 2012 , it was announced that the Director of Public Prosecutions , Keir Starmer , would investigate why proceedings against Savile in 2009 were dropped . The 30 @-@ page Giving Victims a Voice report , published on 11 January 2013 , is a result of an investigation undertaken jointly by the MPS and the NSPCC . Its authors were Detective Superintendent David Gray , of the Metropolitan Police Service Paedophile Unit , and Peter Watt , Director of Child Protection Advice & Awareness at the NSPCC . The authors had two intentions in writing the report . These were to provide public acknowledgement to alleged victims that they were being listened to , and to learn how child protection can be improved as a result of the investigation . The report marks the end of investigations regarding Savile alone , though enquiries in relation to living people are continuing . = = Summary of findings = = According to the report , sex offences were committed by Savile on 450 people ( 328 being minors at the time ) across England and Scotland , and also in Jersey . The vast majority of the alleged offences occurred in his home town of Leeds and his main workplace in London . The victims were mainly unacquainted with each other . Savile may have committed more than 30 rapes , with a total of 126 claims of indecent acts having been recorded . Most of the alleged victims were aged 13 – 16 , with 73 % of the total being minors aged under 18 . The alleged attacks were mostly against girls aged under 16 . It also included 18 girls and 10 boys under the age of 10 . The youngest alleged victim was aged 8 years and the oldest was 47 . The report said that a dying child aged 11 – 12 was " touched inappropriately " by Savile . The report states that they were mostly opportunistic , although child grooming was involved in some cases . The first and final alleged offences were in 1955 and 2009 . The period containing the most frequent offences was between 1966 and 1976 ( when Savile was aged 40 – 50 ) , coinciding with his peak status as a celebrity . The years 1975 and 1976 each had 15 recorded offences . Among other places , including BBC premises , the alleged offences occurred in hospitals ( where he volunteered as a porter ) , schools ( upon invitations related to the Jim 'll Fix It TV show ) and prison facilities . According to the report , they took place 33 times in television and radio studios . One included sexual abuse against a girl in July 2006 , at the final recording of Top of the Pops . The report said that Savile 's celebrity status meant that he must have been " hiding in plain sight " . Operation Yewtree 's senior investigating officer , DS David Gray , said Savile used Jim 'll Fix It as a means of meeting victims . Most of the allegations had not previously been reported to authorities , the reasons given included fear of disbelief and distrust in the judicial system . At least seven allegations of sexual assault made to police during Savile 's lifetime were not linked by police , with Savile as the same alleged perpetrator . The Crown Prosecution Service ( CPS ) said that the allegations made to Surrey Police between 2007 and 2009 could have resulted in prosecutions being undertaken . Approximately 600 people had provided information at the time of the report 's publication with 450 relating to Savile . This resulted in the formal recording of a total 214 alleged criminal offences across 28 police forces . No attacks within the West Mercia area are included in the figures , and Gray expected the number of recorded offences to rise above the 214 considered by the report . The report acknowledges that agencies such as the police and the NHS have " failed victims over decades " . It describes Savile as " one of the UK 's most prolific known sexual predators ... " It concluded that " no clear evidence " was found that Savile operated in a paedophile ring , but investigations were continuing regarding the possibility of his being a member of an " informal network " . The report suggests that Savile may not have been caught partly because , during the most prolific period , police investigations into such crimes at that time " lacked the specialist skills , knowledge and the collaborative approach of later years " . = = Reception = = It has been suggested by The Guardian and The Sydney Morning Herald , that the report may have highlighted what could be systemic failure , because of the number of institutions identified . Yvette Cooper , Shadow Home Secretary requested that child protection experts conduct an " overarching review ... into why everyone failed to stop Savile and what should be done now " . Jonathan Brown , writing in The Independent , opined that the report " revealed a man who used his celebrity status and outwardly well @-@ intended works to gain access to and ultimately rape and sexually exploit hundreds of vulnerable young star @-@ struck victims ... " Keir Starmer , Director of Public Prosecutions ( DPP ) apologised for " shortcomings " in the handling of abuse claims . He said that the allegations had been " treated ... with a degree of caution which was neither justified nor required " and described the report as marking a " watershed moment " . Prosecutions were not brought by the CPS in three cases due to the victims not supporting police action . An apology for " missing the opportunity to prosecute Savile in 2009 " was made by the CPS . Principal Legal Advisor to the DPP , Alison Levitt QC concluded that Savile could have been prosecuted during his lifetime for offences against at least three ( of the four ) victims . When interviewed under caution by Surrey police in 2009 , Savile referred to the allegations as an " occupational hazard " , saying to have previously sued five newspapers . Former editor of The Daily Telegraph , Charles Moore noted that the report does not reveal the " extent of abuse " and that it " contains [ no actual evidence ] , in a sense which a court would recognise . " He commented that it " undermines justice " by " treat [ ing ] allegations as facts " , noting the report 's admission that " the information has not been corroborated " and viewing its contents as " not a contribution to the truth " . He did not feel it right to overcompensate for previously dismissive attitudes to such an extent " that every accusation must be considered true " . Referring to the 2000 BBC Two documentary When Louis Met ... Jimmy , Moore noted Savile 's response to claims of paedophilia : " How does anyone know whether I am or not ? " He concluded that this specific question ( and also concerning " future Saviles " ) is " not [ made ] easier to answer " by the " uninformative and self @-@ righteous " report . Salon reported that because Savile could not face prosecution , the report offers the " closest thing to justice " for the alleged victims . Spiked criticised the report by describing it as " the peak of ' victim centred ' justice " and lacking in objectivity . Academics in Social Work Studies at the University of Edinburgh have questioned the veracity of the report . Writing in " Moral Panics , Jimmy Savile and Social Work : a 21st century morality tale " that " Giving Victims a Voice is full of scare @-@ mongering , exaggeration and elision , as allegations are presented as ' facts ' and accusations become ' offences ' , held to be incontrovertibly true " . The Lucy Faithfull Foundation stated that children must be better protected in the future . It also called for a national strategy to prevent such child sexual abuse . The BBC restated a " sincere apology to the victims " , saying it was " appalled " at Savile 's preying on its premises . = = Consequences = = The departure of Newsnight 's editor Peter Rippon in October 2012 was a precursor to a permanent replacement being sought by the BBC after the release of the report . In April 2013 ex @-@ Metropolitan Police Commissioner Peter Spindler , who had previously led Operation Yewtree , stated that many more victims had probably not come forward . He estimated that this number could be two or three times the 450 accounted for in the report . An inquiry by West Yorkshire Police into Savile 's " Friday Morning Club " , which was regularly attended by officers , was reported on in February 2013 . It was subsequently claimed that officers may have been groomed by Savile , partly as a result of his celebrity status . Investigations into further hospitals were underway during 2013 , and a children 's home in early 2014 . The NSPCC reported that the Savile scandal had resulted in an increase in overall reports of sexual abuse by 81 % . This was measured by comparing the years immediately before and after broadcasting of the Exposure documentary . A subsequent NSPCC report was commissioned by Her Majesty 's Inspectorate of Constabulary and published in January 2014 . It reported on interviews with 26 individuals , a number of whom were abused in hospitals . Upon reporting abuse to staff at the time , they felt that their concerns were not treated sincerely . = Divergence ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) = " Divergence " is the sixteenth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It originally aired on February 25 , 2005 in the United States on UPN . It was the fourth episode of Enterprise to be written by Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens , and was the first episode of a Star Trek series directed by David Barrett . " Divergence " is the second part of a two part story , following on from " Affliction " . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , Columbia arrives so that Commander Tucker can be transferred to conduct repairs on Enterprise 's warp engine before it overloads . The two ships then pursue a lead to a Klingon research outpost where Phlox is under pressure to cure the virus that the Klingons created from augmented Human DNA . Filming took eight days , with a two @-@ week seasonal hiatus towards the end of December . In addition to the guest stars who appeared in " Affliction " , they were joined by Wayne Grace as Admiral Krell . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 1 @.@ 7 / 3 percent , which were lower than the previous week 's episode . The critical response was negative , directed mainly at plot holes and characterisation . However , the two @-@ part story has been named as one of the best storylines seen in Enterprise . = = Plot = = With the ship unable to decrease speed below warp 5 , and the warp core reaching dangerous levels , Columbia and Commander Tucker rendezvous to provide assistance . However the crew realise that the transporter cannot be used at warp , so the ships will need to maneuver in close proximity in order for Tucker to be transferred . Captain Archer releases Lieutenant Reed from the brig to perform the transfer . Once on Enterprise , Tucker successfully performs a rapid non @-@ standard cold boot on the warp drive , which purges the Klingon subroutines . Meanwhile , physician Antaak and a badly beaten Doctor Phlox update General K 'Vagh on their progress . K 'Vagh contacts Admiral Krell , who tells him that if a cure is not completed soon , the facility will be eradicated in order to contain the disease . Back on Enterprise , Archer questions Reed about his recent actions , and is contacted by Harris from Section 31 , a secretive agency within Starfleet . Harris reveals that Phlox is on an important mission and little else , but Reed reveals his location as Qu 'Vat ; Harris contacts Krell , to inform him that Enterprise is on the way , and Krell reveals that he used Harris . Enterprise arrives at the colony , and Archer beams down to the base with Marab to confront the Klingons and Phlox . Krell 's Klingon battle @-@ cruiser and two Birds of Prey arrive in orbit and Krell orders the ships to destroy the colony . Enterprise attempts to intervene but is engaged by the Birds of Prey . Columbia arrives and joins combat with the two Birds of Prey , while Enterprise impedes the battle @-@ cruiser . Meanwhile , Phlox infects a restrained Archer , as he needs human antibodies for the cure . Antaak then transports a canister of the virus onto the battle @-@ cruiser which infects the crew , including Krell . Needing the cure from Phlox , Krell stands down the attack and the Klingon High Council soon agrees to distribute the cure throughout the Empire . Tucker then agrees to remain on @-@ board temporarily to assist with repairs . = = Production = = Filming began on December 14 , 2004 and ran for four days before the cast and crew went on a two @-@ week break over the holiday period . The production overlapped on December 16 with second @-@ unit filming on the episode " United " , which required most of the main cast with the exception of Billingsley as Phlox . The opportunity was taken to film the majority of the sequences with Phlox , K 'Vagh and Antaak at the same time on a different sound stage so as to not delay the production . After the break , production resumed on January 3 , 2005 . Minimal shooting was conducted on the first day for " Divergence " , as further second @-@ unit filming took place in the afternoon for " United " and for " Babel One " . On the second day , Eric Pierpoint and Wayne Grace filmed their scenes as they both appeared on only one set each . Whilst filming was scheduled for seven days , the second @-@ unit filming for " Divergence " pushed into an eighth day on January 6 , which overlapped with the production of " Bound " . Judith and Garfield Reeves @-@ Stevens joined the staff as writers during season four . Prior to " Divergence " they had already written the episodes " The Forge " , " Observer Effect " and " United " . The Reeves @-@ Stevens said of " Divergence " , " we 've written a multiple @-@ starship action sequence that 's never been seen before , and that everyone 's very excited to bring to the screen . " " Divergence " was the first Star Trek credit for director David Barrett . Several guest cast members resume their roles from " Affliction " , including James Avery as K 'Vagh , John Schuck as Antaak , Terrell Tilford as Marab and Eric Pierpoint as Harris . They were joined in " Divergence " by Wayne Grace as Krell . Grace had previously appeared across the franchise including in a voice role in the computer game Star Trek : Klingon Academy , a Cardassian in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Wrongs Darker Than Death or Night " and as the Klingon Governor Torak in Star Trek : The Next Generation 's " Aquiel " . Kristin Bauer made her franchise debut as Laneth . She later became better known in her appearances as Pam in HBO 's True Blood . = = Reception and home media release = = " Divergence " originally aired on UPN , on February 25 , 2005 . According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode received a 1 @.@ 7 / 3 percent share . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 7 percent of the population , and 3 percent of all viewers watching television at the time of the broadcast . This was less than the ratings received by the previous episode , " Affliction " , which scored ratings of 1 @.@ 8 / 3 percent . It finished behind programs on NBC , ABC , CBS and Fox as well as What I Like About You and a repeat of Reba during the second half @-@ hour on The WB . Michelle Erica Green , in her review for TrekNation , said that it wasn 't as good as the previous episode and thought that there were plot holes . She felt that some of the episode featured bad science , such as when Tucker was transferred between the two ships . She also criticised Archer going down to the Klingon base on his own , calling him a " putz " and said of the Klingon attack , " since when do Klingons destroy ships with deadly subroutines rather than , you know , BOMBS ? " She thought the characterisation was forced , and wanted a better resolution to the events in " Affliction " which she had called " one of the greatest hours of Star Trek ever " . Jamahl Epsicokhan on his website " Jammer 's Reviews " , gave the episode a score of two out of four , saying that the battle scenes were " painfully routine " and that where the episode " runs off the rails is in these final 10 minutes " . He felt that it was a pattern of the final episodes in story arcs not having a " satisfying finish " and that " Divergence " followed in this pattern set by " The Augments " and " The Aenar " . The two part story in " Affliction " and " Divergence " were subsequently ranked the fifth best story of Enterprise by Den of Geek writer James Hunt . The only home media release of the episode is on DVD as part of the season four box set . This was released in the UK on October 31 , 2005 , and on November 1 , 2005 in the United States . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 . = In Excelsis Deo = " In Excelsis Deo " is the 10th episode of the first season of The West Wing . It originally aired on NBC December 15 , 1999 , as the show 's Christmas special . Events circle around Toby getting involved in the fate of a dead Korean War veteran , reactions to a severe hate crime , and the ongoing controversy surrounding Leo 's past alcohol and prescription drug abuse . Written by Aaron Sorkin and Rick Cleveland and directed by Alex Graves , the episode contains guest appearances by Paul Austin and Raynor Scheine . It also earned Sorkin and Cleveland an Emmy , as well as one for Richard Schiff . = = Plot = = As the episode begins , Toby gets called by the D.C. police to identify a dead homeless man . It turns out the man ( a Korean War veteran from the 2 / 7 ) was wearing a coat that Toby donated to Goodwill , and Toby had left his business card in it . The event stays with him , and he decides to trace down the man 's next of kin . The only relative he can find is a brother , also homeless . Using the influence of the president 's office , he arranges a military funeral at Arlington . President Bartlet is informed about Toby ’ s transgression , but can only muster limited indignation and jocularly asks if the country is still in NATO . To the president 's concern that this could create precedent for other veterans to come forward , Toby replies " I can only hope , sir . " Mrs Landingham , who has just told Charlie about losing her twin sons in the Vietnam War , joins Toby and the veteran 's brother at the funeral . Meanwhile , Josh – who is worried that Rep. Peter Lillienfield ( R ) may disclose information the Congressman has about Leo 's past treatment for alcohol and Valium abuse – approaches Sam and proposes using Sam 's prostitute friend to dig up dirt for use as leverage against Lillienfield 's allies when the time comes . Leo objects strongly to the plan , calling it unethical . C.J. gets emotionally involved in a story about the deadly assault on a homosexual youth . She sees this as an opportunity to push hate crime legislation , but the suggestion finds little support among the others . Reporter Danny Concannon also disagrees , but this encourages her to finally accept his offer of a date , to have him convince her . President Bartlet sneaks out to go shopping at a rare book store and refuses to take photographers along , much to Mandy 's chagrin . Donna has at this point been pestering Josh about her Christmas gift all day . While he doesn 't follow the list submitted , he picks up a book for her at the shop and writes a message in it that leaves her tearful but happy . = = Production and real @-@ life issues = = The episode 's title is taken from the angels ' song to the shepherds in Luke 2 : 14 , announcing the birth of Jesus , and is in reference to the show 's Christmas theme . The words also make up the beginning of the Great Doxology : Gloria in Excelsis Deo ( Glory to God in the highest ) . It was awarded an Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series , credited to Aaron Sorkin and Rick Cleveland . In the summer of 2001 , a public argument broke out between the two on the internet forum mightybigtv.com ( later known as Television Without Pity ) . Cleveland claimed to have had the original idea , based on the experiences of his father who was a Korean War veteran , and felt offended that Sorkin had not given him a chance to honor his father ’ s memory at the award ceremony . Sorkin responded that Cleveland had not contributed significantly , and that writing credits were simply rotated among the staff writers . The argument ended amicably , with Sorkin apologizing for belittling Cleveland 's effort and the two writers expressing their admiration for each other . The scene at Arlington was made with the full co @-@ operation of the Pentagon , who liked the message of the script and wanted to do what they could to help . Originally , the president was to have been in the scene as well , but this was changed because it " took away the power of Mrs. Landingham and Ziegler " ; it was felt that the scene would be more powerful without the looming presence of the chief executive . The fourth person attending the funeral is the superintendent of Arlington National Cemetery John C. Metzler , Jr . , appearing as himself . The funeral is accompanied by the song " The Little Drummer Boy " , sung by the boys ' choir . The story about the hate crime against the young homosexual man is based on the real @-@ life case of Matthew Shepard . This was confirmed by Allison Janney in an interview with the gay magazine The Advocate . = = Reception = = Sorkin and Cleveland won an Emmy for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series , and actor Richard Schiff ( Toby Ziegler ) was awarded the prize for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series . The episode was also nominated for " Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Series " and " Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Series " . Cleveland and Sorkin also won the Writers Guild of America Award for best episodic drama at the February 2001 ceremony for " In Excelsis Deo " . = Hurricane Lester ( 1992 ) = Hurricane Lester was the first Pacific tropical cyclone to enter the United States as a tropical storm since 1967 . The twelfth named storm and seventh hurricane of the 1992 Pacific hurricane season , Lester formed on August 20 from a tropical wave southwest of Mexico . The tropical storm moved generally northwestward while steadily intensifying . After turning to the north , approaching the Mexican coast , Lester attained hurricane status . The hurricane reached peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) before making landfall on west @-@ central Baja California . The system weakened while moving across the peninsula and then over northwestern Mexico . Not long after entering Arizona , Lester weakened to a tropical depression , and dissipated on August 24 , 1992 , over New Mexico . In Mexico , the hurricane resulted in $ 3 million in damage ( 1992 USD , $ 4 @.@ 7 million 2011 USD ) . It also left 5 @,@ 000 people left homeless , and was responsible for three fatalities . The remnants of Lester also produced moderate rainfall and minor flooding across southern California , Colorado , Arizona and New Mexico , as well as rare August snow in the Rocky Mountains . = = Meteorological history = = A weak tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on August 7 . It tracked across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without development due to strong wind shear . The wave then split into two , with the northern portion dissipating over Cuba on August 15 and the southern portion continuing westward . The wave crossed Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean on August 16 . Deep convection increased over the wave upon entering the Pacific , and early on August 19 it started to become better organized . After the development of a low @-@ level circulation , the system organized into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E on August 20 while located about 275 miles ( 445 km ) south @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Colima . The depression gradually tracked northwestward at 15 mph ( 24 km / h ) . Although the center of the depression was initially uncertain , it slowly strengthened and steadily organized . The depression attained tropical storm status late on August 20 , upon which the storm was named Lester . The cyclone continued to the northwest , and passed directly over Socorro Island on August 21 . By early the next day , an eastward moving trough weakened the ridge to its north , resulting in a to turn to the north . Around this time , forecasters at the National Hurricane Center predicted the storm would not strengthen to hurricane intensity before making landfall . Despite this , Lester intensified into a hurricane late on August 22 while located about 240 miles ( 385 km ) west of La Paz in Baja California Sur . The hurricane continued to organize and banding @-@ type eye soon formed . Early on August 23 it attained peak winds of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) with a minimum central pressure of 985 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 09 inHg ) . Lester weakened steadily as the storm turned to the northeast , and made landfall as a minimal hurricane near Punta Abreojos , Baja California Sur about ten hours after reaching peak intensity . It degenerated into a tropical storm while crossing the Baja California Peninsula . After passing through the northern Gulf of California , it made a second landfall near Isla Tiburon in the state of Sonora . Lester entered Arizona as a tropical storm on August 24 , the first time since Hurricane Katrina in 1967 that an Eastern Pacific tropical cyclone entered the United States with winds of at least tropical storm intensity . Lester maintained tropical storm status until it weakened into a tropical depression near Tucson , Arizona . Later that day , the low level circulation dissipated over New Mexico , and Lester ceased to exist as a tropical cyclone . The storms remnants transitioned into an extratropical cyclone as it continued to the north @-@ northeast ahead of an approaching trough , and merged with the remnants of Hurricane Andrew on August 29 over Pennsylvania . = = Preparations and Impact = = = = = Mexico = = = The Government of Mexico issued tropical storm watches and warnings for Baja California on August 21 . The following day , a hurricane warning was issued for the peninsula from Punta Eugenia southward to Cabo San Lazaro . The government of Mexico also issued a tropical storm warning for the Sonora and Sinaloa mainland from Cabo Tepopa to Los Mochis . All watches and warnings were discontinued as the storm weakened and dissipated . The threat of the hurricane prompted the evacuation of about 10 @,@ 000 residents . No observations exist for the duration when Lester , as a tropical depression , moved over Socorro Island , while winds were estimated to have reached 37 mph ( 59 km / h ) . However , a station reported winds of 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) six hours after Lester passed over Socorro Island . Several ships came in contact with Lester , with one in the eye reporting hurricane @-@ force winds for 11 hours on August 22 . The ship in the eye reported rough seas , causing it to roll 33 ° to each side and thus was responsible for a large amount of cargo to go overboard . Hurricane Lester produced heavy rainfall across its path through the Baja California Peninsula and Sonora . Peak rainfall occurred in Mulege with 13 @.@ 58 in ( 345 mm ) . A weather station in Presa Rodriquez reported 8 @.@ 66 inches ( 203 mm ) of precipitation , with several other locations reporting over 2 inches ( 50 mm ) . The heavy rainfall caused extensive flood damage to the west of Hermosillo , destroying some entire communities and flooding a large highway . Roads were washed out , and power lines were knocked out . Waves up to 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) were recorded . Flash flooding from Lester caused 10 @,@ 000 people to be evacuated from their homes . In addition , mudslides killed three people , and left 5 @,@ 000 homeless . The storm resulted in $ 3 million ( 1992 USD ) , equivalent to $ 4 @.@ 7 million ( 2011 USD ) . The Mexican Army provided relief efforts to residents after the storm . = = = United States = = = The remnants of Lester produced heavy rainfall across the Southwestern United States . In Arizona , rainfall amounted to over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) near Phoenix and Tucson , with much of the rest of the state reporting over 1 inch ( 25 mm ) . Moderate rainfall was also reported in western New Mexico and southern Utah , while one location in southwestern Colorado reported over 5 inches ( 125 mm ) of precipitation . In the later location , rains caused flash flooding of arroyos and a mudslide along U.S. Route 180 . Additional rainfall caused moderate flooding in Denver . In addition to the rainfall , moisture from the remnants of Lester dropped 2 to 4 inches ( 50 to 100 mm ) of snow across portions of Colorado , causing traffic problems in mountainous areas . A weather station on Mt . Harvard recorded about 4 inches ( 100 mm ) of snow during Lester 's passage through Colorado . Moisture enhanced from a cold front , the remnants Lester extended through the eastern United States , with Mattoon , Illinois reporting a peak of 5 @.@ 96 inches ( 151 mm ) . In all , rain from Lester caused rainfall records in Minnesota , Nebraska , Colorado , and North Dakota . = Forever ( U.S. TV series ) = Forever is an American fantasy crime drama television series that aired on ABC as part of the 2014 – 15 fall television season . Created by Matt Miller , it centers on the character of Dr. Henry Morgan , an immortal New York City medical examiner who uses his extensive knowledge to assist the New York City Police Department ( NYPD ) in solving crimes and to discover a way to end his immortality . Flashbacks within each episode reveal various details of Henry 's life . The series network aired a sneak preview on September 22 , 2014 , and resumed the series at 10 p.m. EST on September 23 , 2014 . Reception of the series was mixed . In the United States , television critics gave Forever mixed reviews , with critics divided over the series ' similarity to other crime dramas and the series ' premise . In contrast , voters in several online polls ranked the series as one of the best of the television season . Internationally , Forever 's broadcast was well received in France and Spain . Although ABC gave the series a full @-@ season episode order on November 7 , 2014 , the network cancelled Forever after one season . ABC cited the show 's live ratings as the rationale behind the decision . Television critics believed that other factors explained the network 's decision as the show gained viewers who watched the show up to seven days later on their DVRs . Fans of the series reacted strongly , creating a social media campaign to save the series ; despite these efforts , the series remains cancelled . = = Premise = = Dr. Henry Morgan ( Ioan Gruffudd ) is a New York City medical examiner who studies the dead for criminal cases , and to solve the mystery of his own immortality . Since his first death 200 years ago while trying to free slaves as a doctor aboard a ship in the African slave trade , Henry disappears almost immediately each time he dies and returns to life naked in a nearby body of water . Having also stopped aging , Henry 's long life has given him broad knowledge and remarkable observation skills which impress most people he encounters , including New York Police Department Detective Jo Martinez ( Alana de la Garza ) . Only antiquarian Abe ( Judd Hirsch ) , whom Henry and his now @-@ deceased wife Abigail found as a newborn in a German concentration camp during World War II , knows that he is immortal . Henry is stalked by " Adam " , who is also an immortal , and claims to have been alive for around 2 @,@ 000 years . = = Cast and characters = = = = = Main = = = Ioan Gruffudd as Doctor Henry Morgan : Born in 1779 , Henry is a New York City medical examiner who studies the dead for criminal cases and to solve the mystery of his immortality . His first death was in 1814 while trying to free slaves as a doctor aboard a ship in the African slave trade . Since that time , Henry disappears each time he dies and returns to life naked in a nearby body of water . He has been married twice ; his first wife Nora , whom he married before he became immortal , had him committed to an asylum , and his second wife , Abigail , whom he met during the Second World War and remained with until 1984 , when she left to find somewhere they could be together without being judged for Abigail 's apparently greater age . He abandoned his original career as a doctor in 1956 after he and a butcher were shot ; Henry chose to crawl away and die instead of trying to save the other man because he feared others finding out his secret . Although knowledgeable about many topics , Henry demonstrates a general lack of knowledge about modern popular culture . He also dislikes cell phones but will use one if necessary . Alana de la Garza as Detective Jo Martinez : Jo is a sharp , no @-@ nonsense , determined detective with the NYPD who is both intrigued and disgusted by Henry 's detailed medical knowledge when examining a corpse . She finds his behavior to be " out there " , but still relies on his insight for solving homicides . Originating from a rough background with a law @-@ breaking father , she is also a recent widow ; her husband was a lawyer who died of an unexpected heart attack while running on a treadmill on a visit to Washington a year before she met Henry . She is stationed at the 11th Precinct . Joel David Moore as Lucas Wahl : Henry 's assistant in the Medical Examiner 's office , who expresses uncertainty about how little he knows about his boss , and an uncanny memory for his daily activities . He studied film in college before working in the medical examiner 's office . He makes horror films in his spare time ; in the episode , " The Last Death of Henry Morgan " , Lucas confesses to using the morgue as a set for several of his movies . Lucas tends to use popular culture references in his speech , many of which Henry does not understand . Donnie Keshawarz as Detective Mike Hanson : Jo 's partner , who is stationed at the 11th Precinct . He was in a band when he was younger , a characteristic added at the request of AfterBuzz TV hosts Kate Aquillano , Marielou Mandl , and Pegah Rad and of fans of the series who watched the after show . He is married and has two sons . He also has a brother . During an earlier interview with AfterBuzz TV , Keshawarz discussed Hanson 's role as Henry 's foil , namely Hanson 's orthodox methodology in solving cases and knowledge accumulated over a limited lifetime constrasting with Henry 's unorthodox ways and extensive knowledge gathered over a long life . Lorraine Toussaint as Lieutenant Joanna Reece : Jo and Hanson 's supervisor at the 11th Precinct . Judd Hirsch as Abraham " Abe " Morgan : Henry 's main confidant and adopted son , although he has claimed that he worked with Henry 's father to explain their association to strangers . At the end of World War II , he was rescued from Belsen , after surviving a death march from Auschwitz . He currently owns an antique store where Henry uses the basement for his immortality research on himself . Abe fought in the Vietnam War and has a two @-@ time ex @-@ wife named Maureen Delacroix ( Jane Seymour ) . Abe 's research into his family tree revealed that he is a distant relative of Henry 's , as one of his ancestors was the illegitimate son of Henry 's womanizing uncle . = = = Recurring = = = MacKenzie Mauzy as Abigail Morgan : Henry 's second wife and Abe 's adopted mother . Henry met her toward the end of World War II when they were working as medical personnel near one of the Nazi concentration camps . Over the years , she worked as a nurse in addition to being a housewife . The latest time period in which Abigail has been shown is 1982 , when she was still married to Henry but looked a generation older than him ( Janet Zarish ) ; in 1984 , she vanished without a trace despite Henry 's best efforts to find her . Henry has acknowledged that the end of his relationship with Abigail caused him a lot of pain that prevents him from dating anyone for whom he has real feelings . In the episode " The Night in Question " , Henry learns from Adam that Abigail killed herself after a car crash to prevent Adam from finding Henry . Abigail appears in ten episodes . Burn Gorman as Lewis Farber / " Adam " : A 2 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old immortal who claims that he " has been here since the beginning " and that he has not found a death for himself . Analysis of his blood revealed that he had contracted several extinct diseases , including the bubonic plague . Adam was tortured as part of the Nazis ' research into his immortality , leaving him with a hatred of the Nazis and a sympathy for other Holocaust survivors , including Abe . Adam first appeared as Henry 's appointed psychiatrist and convinced a patient that Henry could pass on his immortality . Adam continued to try to find a lost dagger , one that not only caused Adam 's first death but also was used to kill Julius Caesar . Adam appears in five episodes . = = Episodes = = = = Production = = = = = Origin = = = The concept for Forever came from a conversation between series creator Matt Miller and his five @-@ year @-@ old son about death . After the conversation , Miller began to imagine what life would be like if a person was immortal but everyone else , including that person 's own children , were mortals . He created a character who viewed immortality as a curse because of the pain of seeing family and friends die and who would attempt to find a way to end his immortality . That concept informed Miller 's decision to make his character a doctor @-@ turned @-@ medical examiner who used his occupation for research into his immortality and Miller 's decision to structure the series as a procedural . The details about the character 's immortality and his ability and his desire to end it would serve as the series ' main story arc . Another series @-@ long story arc explored how other people learn of Henry 's immortality . The first storyline in the arc was the season 's second story arc , Henry 's determination to learn the identity of a second immortal who knows about it . The second immortal character 's morals would contrast his protagonist 's morals , serving as an antagonist for the main character . As for the family element , Miller created a family with a 35 @-@ year @-@ old immortal having a mortal son in his 70s . Miller stated in an interview with BuddyTV writer Catherine Cabanela that he had never seen that type of family on television before , and he believed that it provide the show with an emotional element . To demonstrate Henry 's immortality , Miller decided that Henry would die and would feel the pain every time he died . Anything on Henry 's body would disappear with his body during each death . Miller felt that Henry 's naked rebirth in water would be an interesting way to keep the show 's protagonist alive during the series by completing the death and rebirth process ; the nakedness would create several comedic moments within the series . Miller intended to use Henry 's death and rebirth process sporadically after the first two episodes so that the series would focus on Henry 's long life . = = = Casting = = = The first person cast was Judd Hirsch as Abe . When Miller and casting director Barbara Fiorentino developed a list of actors for the role , they felt that Hirsch would be the best actor to portray Abe . Hirsch was the first person asked about the role , they sent the script to him . Hirsch liked the series ' premise , its historical aspect , its intelligence , and the idea that the audience would see life from Henry 's perspective . Two days after casting Hirsch , Ioan Gruffudd was cast as Dr. Henry Morgan . Miller wanted the actors to read the script so that he could see whether the audience would believe that the man had been alive for over 200 years . The search for an actor to portray Henry was more difficult than Miller expected . Miller and Fiorentino unsuccessfully auditioned actors from New York City , Los Angeles , Canada , London , Australia , and South Africa for the role , but the role was uncast . One day , Miller noticed Gruffudd in the carpool lane while they picked up their children from preschool . For Miller , Gruffudd 's period work , such as in the series Horatio Hornblower , made him an obvious selection for the role . Gruffudd liked the script and felt that he could portray Henry . The story , the science fiction element , and the believability also attracted Gruffudd to the role . Alana de la Garza was cast as NYPD Detective Jo Martinez . The show 's procedural aspect , the series ' serialized nature , and the believability of the world interested de la Garza . She also liked the idea that , in contrast to de la Garza 's characters on other procedurals , Jo had flaws . Joel David Moore , Donnie Keshawarz , and Barbara Eve Harris were the last three cast for the series . Harris was cast as NYPD Lieutenant Roark . Originally the role of Lieutenant Roark was written as a male character , but Fiorentino cast Harris in the role . Lorraine Toussaint replaced Harris after the pilot , and Toussaint 's first appearance as Lieutenant Joanne Reece was in the episode " Look Before You Leap " . To prepare for her role , Toussaint visited the morgue and viewed a few autopsies . The character of Lt. Reece was to play a larger role in the series , but her scenes were cut so that the episodes could fit time constraints . The DVDs include the deleted scenes . Moore was cast as assistant medical examiner Lucas Wahl . Both Miller and Fiorentino knew Moore from his previous work with both of them . Moore and Miller met when Moore guest starred on Miller 's previous series Chuck . Both Miller and Fiorentino , a personal friend of Moore 's , discussed the pilot and the role with Moore . Moore liked the idea of Lucas providing comedic moments to the series . For Lucas ' personality , Miller asked Moore to include several of his own personality traits when portraying Lucas . Keshawarz as NYPD Detective Mike Hanson . The casting department initially did not feel that Keshawarz could portray a NYPD detective , but his work on Homeland convinced them otherwise . The Arkansas @-@ raised Keshawarz imitated a New York accent for Forever . As for the character 's name , the writers did not give Hanson a first name until the fifth episode " The Pugilist Break " when Jo addressed Hanson as " Mike " during a scene . Miller did not learn about the name until later when Keshawarz mentioned it to him in a conversation about the episode . As for the recurring character of Henry 's stalker Adam , Miller and Fiorentino cast Burn Gorman in the role. as Adam . Gorman voiced the character during the pilot and the second episode . Adam made his first physical appearance in the episode " Skinny Dipper " , which aired on December 9 , 2014 . = = = Writing = = = Beginning with the pilot , Miller structured each episode by telling two stories in the episode . The first was a traditional procedural plotline . The second story was a flashback from Henry 's past . The flashback either related to the episode 's main present @-@ day storyline , such as Henry 's involvement in investigating the Jack the Ripper case , or was a scene from Henry 's backstory , such as his life in the Lower East Side 's tenements in the 1890s . Both the father @-@ son relationship between Henry and Abe and one of the two season @-@ long story arcs , Henry 's relationship with his wife Abigail , were told through flashbacks . When planning an episode , the writers started with the idea for the episode and determined the main story arc . They discussed which plot element could be associated with a previous incident from Henry 's life and how the flashbacks connected the two stories . From there , they determined Abe 's viewpoint about the case or his connection to the case . Then , they planned the story on whiteboard . One plot device used in the pilot , Henry 's pocket watch , proved to be difficult to use in subsequent episodes . In the beginning , the writers would have Henry 's pocket watch fall out of his pocket so that it would not disappear with the rest of his body . It became more difficult for writers to develop believable scenarios in which Henry would lose his watch , so they did not write it into the plot as frequently in later episodes . = = = Effects = = = Miller and the filming crew had planned to film the rebirth scenes in the pilot in several bodies of water , but they could film it in only one location . During the episode 's production , Gruffudd and the crew filmed the rebirth scene against a green screen in a university swimming pool due to the strength of the East River 's current . The crew later covered Gruffudd with water . To depict Henry 's death in different years , the crew refilmed the scene with Gruffudd wearing various hair styles . The producers then edited the scene by superimposing the film of Gruffudd 's swim in the pool with film of the East River to give the illusion that the scene occurred in the river . = = = Title dispute = = = Forever is also the title of a 2003 novel by writer Pete Hamill , with a similar premise : an Irishman is granted the gift of immortality by an African sangoma , yet must remain in Manhattan or the gift is renounced . On May 21 , 2014 , Warner Bros. Television received a letter from RadicalMedia requesting that the name of the series be changed . RadicalMedia stated in the letter that Miller 's character , setting , and title were very similar to Hamill 's . The letter also stated that Sundance Studios had begun to develop a television series based on the novel . According to Warner Bros. studio representatives , Miller never read the novel when developing Forever . As of September 2014 , Hamill has no plans to proceed with a lawsuit . = = Reception = = Forever received mixed reviews from critics in the beginning . Rotten Tomatoes gave the show a rating of 57 % , based on 44 reviews , with an average rating of 5 @.@ 8 / 10 . The site 's consensus stated , " Forever star Ioan Gruffudd is appealing , but his charm can 't overcome the show 's gimmicky , unrealized premise . " Metacritic gave the show a score of 54 out of 100 , based on reviews from 24 critics , indicating " mixed or average reviews " . TV Guide 's Matt Roush felt that the series could become a hit similar to Bones and Castle . Other critics felt that the series had issues . Zap2it.com 's Sarah Huggins liked the concept for the series and Gruffudd 's performance , but she felt that the first two episodes were inconsistent " in tone and story " . Both Variety 's Brian Lowery and Adweek 's Sam Thielman believed that Forever could not last as it faced CBS 's Person of Interest in the 10 p.m. timeslot and as Forever 's lead @-@ in , Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. , had dropped in the ratings during its first season . Lowery also believed that the lack of answers about Henry 's immortality could not sustain the series . The Hollywood Reporter 's Tim Goodman concurred , feeling that the lack of answers about Henry 's immortality could pose problems for viewers . Still others felt that the series was a derivative of other series . Brian Tallerico of RogerEbert.com felt that the series was a derivative of Sherlock Holmes . Although Hillary Busis of Entertainment Weekly felt that Forever was a derivative of other procedurals , she stated that the show was " breezy and entertaining and reasonably clever , at least when its Sherlock Scanning isn 't out of control " due to the performances of Gruffudd , de la Garza , and Hirsch and due to Miller 's conceptualization of the series . When Miller pitched the show to the various networks , network executives compared the series to New Amsterdam . New Amsterdam , a short @-@ lived drama which aired on Fox in 2008 , featured a 400 @-@ year @-@ old male NYPD detective and a female partner . Miller stated that he had not heard about the series until he read some comments on an industry website . Television critics also took notice of the similarities between New Amsterdam and Forever . USA Today 's Robert Bianco thought that Forever took a " smarter , lighter approach to the subject " of immortality than New Amsterdam did . Lowery , Roush , and Busis all noted the similarities between the two series in their reviews of Forever . In France , Forever became an international hit . The premiere on April 28 , 2015 attracted 7 @.@ 08 million viewers . During the series ' broadcast in France , Forever averaged an audience of about 5 @.@ 7 million viewers , or 26 @.@ 2 % of the total French audience , making it France 's most @-@ watched series on Tuesday nights . After the broadcast of the final episode , French fans of Forever joined English @-@ speaking fans in their social media campaign to save the series . When Forever premiered on Spain 's Antena 3 on July 15 , 2015 , it drew 2 @,@ 316 @,@ 000 viewers . Over the course of the series , Forever averaged over 1 @.@ 679 million viewers , making it a successful series in Spain . The series ' success in spite of its cancellation in the United States prompted Rebeca Cortes of El Norte de Castilla to call Forever " the summer surprise " . The German paid @-@ television channel Sat.1 Emotions began airing the first twelve episodes of Forever on February 3 , 2015 , but the series did not begin airing on Sat.1 on July 20 , 2015 . The ratings fluctuated throughout the run from the 2 @.@ 02 million viewers which watched the pilot , but ratings never dipped below 1 @.@ 44 million viewers . During Forever 's run in Germany , the series averaged 1 @.@ 82 million viewers and a 6 @.@ 3 percent audience share ; the series ' market share was lower than Sat.1 's average . Among viewers between the ages of 14 and 49 , however , the show averaged 0 @.@ 96 million viewers and a 9 @.@ 4 percent market share , which was near the network 's average . = = = Awards and online polls = = = Forever has been nominated for three awards and has improved ranking in two online polls . Forever received a nomination for " Best Primetime Television Program - Drama " category for the 30th annual Imagen Awards , but lost to Law & Order : SVU . In TV Guide 's Fall TV Popularity Contest , Forever placed second , receiving 76 % of TVGuide.com readers ' votes . It received a nomination in the " Favorite New TV Drama " category for the 2015 People 's Choice Awards but lost to The Flash . About 70 @.@ 4 % of voters in the E ! Online 's " The Definitive Ranking of the Best and Worst New Shows — According to You " poll ranked the series the third best new show of the 2014 – 2015 television season . When the poll was first conducted in November 2014 , E ! Online users voted Forever as the 17th worst new show of the season ; the series received 60 % of votes stating that the voters loved the series . = = Broadcast history = = On May 8 , 2014 , ABC announced that the network had picked up Forever for the 2014 @-@ 2015 television season . On July 15 , 2014 , the network announced that the series would have a two @-@ day premiere , with the pilot airing on September 22 and the second episode debuting in the series ' regular timeslot at 10 p.m. the next night . Forever premiered in the United States on ABC on September 22 , 2014 . Over 8 @.@ 6 million viewers watched the episode live , and among adults 18 – 49 , it had a 1 @.@ 7 rating and a 5 share . The episode also retained a larger percentage of total viewers and of adults 18 – 49 from its lead @-@ in than Castle 's premiere on March 9 , 2009 ; Castle kept 47 % of total viewers and 49 % of adults 18 – 49 while Forever kept 67 % of total viewers and 77 % of adults 18 – 49 . The second episode , airing the next night , was ABC 's top @-@ rated episode in that timeslot since September 21 , 2010 ; it was viewed by 6 @.@ 5 million people live and had a 1 @.@ 7 rating and a 5 share . Forever 's second episode tied CBS 's Person of Interest in adults 18 – 49 and beat the series in adults 18 – 34 and in women viewers . The episode also kept all of its adults 18 – 49 audience from the pilot 's debut the night before and increased the adults 18 – 34 audience by 8 % . After the first two episodes , however , the series ' live ratings dropped significantly to about 5 million live viewers . The Live + 7 @-@ Day ratings , however , increased the audience by 3 million viewers , bringing the total audience to 8 million viewers weekly . That , and Forever 's performance in the 10 p.m. timeslot being better than ABC 's performance in that timeslot during the 2013 – 2014 television season , convinced ABC to pick up additional episodes of the series . Forever received a full @-@ season order on November 7 , 2014 . Forever airs a day before the U.S. on CTV in Canada . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the show was acquired by Sky1 . It premiered on October 2 , 2014 . The series premiered on Nine Network in Australia on February 11 , 2015 . In New Zealand , TV One debuted Forever on February 16 , 2015 . = = = Video on demand = = = On July 1 , 2016 , The CW announced that Forever was available on the streaming channel CW Seed . = = = Series cancellation = = = Before the season finale aired , Miller and the writers proposed the storyline for season two to ABC and to Warner Bros. They pitched the idea of season two exploring the ramifications of Jo or another character , aside from Abe , learning about Henry 's immortality , romance , and the pleasures associated with immortality . They also planned to introduce several new characters to the series . In an interview with Entertainment Weekly 's Natalie Abrams , Miller stated that ABC appeared to like the direction of the show 's second season . On May 7 , however , ABC announced the series ' cancellation . Gruffudd 's wife Alice Evans told fans about the cancellation on Twitter ; Gruffudd posted a letter on Instagram detailing his reaction to the series ' cancellation and thanking the show 's fans for their support a few hours later . In the meantime , Warner Bros. and Miller began to shop the series to other networks . On July 7 , Miller posted a letter to fans on Twitter stating that , as of that date , Warner Bros. had been unable to find another studio to produce the series and that the studio was still shopping it around to the networks . During a Twitter question @-@ and @-@ answer session on September 17 , 2015 , Miller revealed the characters that he wanted to introduce and the character who would learn of Henry 's immortality in season 2 . Officially , the network cited that Forever 's live ratings was the main factor behind the series ' cancellation . The pilot episode drew 8 @.@ 26 million viewers live , but the finale drew 4 @.@ 13 million live . On average , the series drew 4 @.@ 93 million viewers live and a 1 @.@ 12 adults 18 – 49 demographic weekly . In term of the Nielsen ratings ' Live + 7 Day ratings , Forever averaged 7 @.@ 034 million viewers and drew a 1 @.@ 7 adults 18 – 49 demographic . About 3 @.@ 23 million people , or about 68 % of Forever 's audience , watched the series within seven days of the episodes original broadcast . Forever had the 19th @-@ highest lift in total viewers for the 2014 – 2015 television season . In addition , Forever had the 7th @-@ largest increase in adults 18 – 49 from DVR viewing during the season . It was among the top 20 programs that received the largest increase in adults 18 – 49 within the first three days of viewing , and it received the 14th @-@ highest increase in adults 18 – 49 from Live + 3 @-@ Day to Live + 7 @-@ Day viewing . Television critics believed that live ratings was not the only factor in ABC 's cancellation of Forever . The Orange County Register 's Michael Hewitt and Adweek 's Jason Lynch noted that several of ABC 's other low @-@ rated shows , in particular ABC 's limited series American Crime , received renewals in spite of ratings that were similar to Forever 's . American Crime had an average audience of 4 @.@ 98 million viewers live and a 1 @.@ 16 adults 18 – 49 demographic weekly ; its Live + 7 Day audience , however , averaged 6 @.@ 697 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 7 adults 18 – 49 demographic . Verne Gay of Newsday , Nellie Andreeva of Deadline.com , and Stephen Battaglio of the Los Angeles Times pointed out that ABC renewed series produced by ABC Studios as a part of the network 's decision to increase ownership of their series to compete with Netflix and Hulu . Forever , produced by Warner Bros. , was one of three cancellations for the network , the other two being Resurrection and Cristela . Kate Stanhope of The Hollywood Reporter and Matt Roush of TV Insider felt that Forever 's time slot was a factor for the low ratings . Stanhope mentioned that Forever was airing opposite NBC 's Chicago Fire and CBS 's Person of Interest , both established series on their respective networks while Roush believed that Forever did not have a strong lead @-@ in in . John Sica , a reporter for The Rockaway Times who had worked on the series , cited a lack of promotion and an inconsistent scheduling of episodes during Forever 's run as factors that led to the series cancellation . = = = = Fan reaction = = = = Before the series ' cancellation , Forever placed fourth in USA Today 's 18th annual " Save Our Shows " poll . When ABC announced the cancellation of Forever , fans were outraged , and some left angry messages on ABC 's Facebook page . Using the hashtag # SaveForever , others began a social media campaign on Facebook and Twitter to save the series . An online petition on Change.org generated over 6 @,@ 500 signatures within two days of being created , and it generated over 12 @,@ 600 signatures in three days . By May 27 , it had generated nearly 27 @,@ 000 signatures . Some have had requested that Netflix or another network take over the production of the series . By November 5 , 2015 , the petition generated 107 @,@ 150 signatures . The cancellation generated a discussion on social media . When TVLine posted a story about the cancellation , it generated 2 @,@ 175 comments , making it the third most talked @-@ about story in the site 's five @-@ year history . About 43 @.@	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
eight players – Geoff Bent , Roger Byrne , Eddie Colman , Duncan Edwards , Mark Jones , David Pegg , Tommy Taylor and Billy Whelan – and injured several more . Reserve team manager Jimmy Murphy took over as manager while Busby recovered from his injuries and the club 's makeshift side reached the FA Cup final , which they lost to Bolton Wanderers . In recognition of the team 's tragedy , UEFA invited the club to compete in the 1958 – 59 European Cup alongside eventual League champions Wolverhampton Wanderers . Despite approval from the FA , the Football League determined that the club should not enter the competition , since it had not qualified . Busby rebuilt the team through the 1960s by signing players such as Denis Law and Pat Crerand , who combined with the next generation of youth players – including George Best – to win the FA Cup in 1963 . The following season , they finished second in the league , then won the title in 1965 and 1967 . In 1968 , Manchester United became the first English ( and second British ) club to win the European Cup , beating Benfica 4 – 1 in the final with a team that contained three European Footballers of the Year : Bobby Charlton , Denis Law and George Best . Matt Busby resigned as manager in 1969 and was replaced by the reserve team coach , former Manchester United player Wilf McGuinness . = = = 1969 – 1986 = = = Following an eighth @-@ place finish in the 1969 – 70 season and a poor start to the 1970 – 71 season , Busby was persuaded to temporarily resume managerial duties , and McGuinness returned to his position as reserve team coach . In June 1971 , Frank O 'Farrell was appointed as manager , but lasted less than 18 months before being replaced by Tommy Docherty in December 1972 . Docherty saved Manchester United from relegation that season , only to see them relegated in 1974 ; by that time the trio of Best , Law , and Charlton had left the club . The team won promotion at the first attempt and reached the FA Cup final in 1976 , but were beaten by Southampton . They reached the final again in 1977 , beating Liverpool 2 – 1 . Docherty was dismissed shortly afterwards , following the revelation of his affair with the club physiotherapist 's wife . Dave Sexton replaced Docherty as manager in the summer of 1977 . Despite major signings , including Joe Jordan , Gordon McQueen , Gary Bailey , and Ray Wilkins , the team failed to achieve any significant results ; they finished in the top two in 1979 – 80 and lost to Arsenal in the 1979 FA Cup Final . Sexton was dismissed in 1981 , even though the team won the last seven games under his direction . He was replaced by Ron Atkinson , who immediately broke the British record transfer fee to sign Bryan Robson from West Bromwich Albion . Under Atkinson , Manchester United won the FA Cup twice in three years – in 1983 and 1985 . In 1985 – 86 , after 13 wins and two draws in its first 15 matches , the club was favourite to win the league , but finished in fourth place . The following season , with the club in danger of relegation by November , Atkinson was dismissed . = = = Ferguson years ( 1986 – 2013 ) = = = Alex Ferguson and his assistant Archie Knox arrived from Aberdeen on the day of Atkinson 's dismissal , and guided the club to an 11th @-@ place finish in the league . Despite a second @-@ place finish in 1987 – 88 , the club was back in 11th place the following season . Reportedly on the verge of being dismissed , victory over Crystal Palace in the 1990 FA Cup Final replay ( after a 3 – 3 draw ) saved Ferguson 's career . The following season , Manchester United claimed its first Cup Winners ' Cup title and competed in the 1991 UEFA Super Cup , beating European Cup holders Red Star Belgrade 1 – 0 in the final at Old Trafford . A second consecutive League Cup final appearance followed in 1992 , in which the team beat Nottingham Forest 1 – 0 at Wembley . In 1993 , the club won its first league title since 1967 , and a year later , for the first time since 1957 , it won a second consecutive title – alongside the FA Cup – to complete the first " Double " in the club 's history . In the 1998 – 99 season , Manchester United became the first team to win the Premier League , FA Cup and UEFA Champions League – " The Treble " – in the same season . Losing 1 – 0 going into injury time in the 1999 UEFA Champions League Final , Teddy Sheringham and Ole Gunnar Solskjær scored late goals to claim a dramatic victory over Bayern Munich , in what is considered one of the greatest comebacks of all time . The club also won the Intercontinental Cup after beating Palmeiras 1 – 0 in Tokyo . Ferguson was subsequently knighted for his services to football . Manchester United won the league again in the 1999 – 2000 and 2000 – 01 seasons . The team finished third in 2001 – 02 , before regaining the title in 2002 – 03 . They won the 2003 – 04 FA Cup , beating Millwall 3 – 0 in the final at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff . In the 2005 – 06 season , Manchester United failed to qualify for the knockout phase of the UEFA Champions League for the first time in over a decade , but recovered to secure a second @-@ place league finish and victory over Wigan Athletic in the 2006 Football League Cup Final . The club regained the Premier League in the 2006 – 07 and 2007 – 08 seasons , and completed the European double by beating Chelsea 6 – 5 on penalties in the 2008 UEFA Champions League Final in Moscow 's Luzhniki Stadium . Ryan Giggs made a record 759th appearance for the club in this game , overtaking previous record holder Bobby Charlton . In December 2008 , the club won the 2008 FIFA Club World Cup and followed this with the 2008 – 09 Football League Cup , and its third successive Premier League title . That summer , Cristiano Ronaldo was sold to Real Madrid for a world record £ 80 million . In 2010 , Manchester United defeated Aston Villa 2 – 1 at Wembley to retain the League Cup , its first successful defence of a knockout cup competition . After finishing as runner @-@ up to Chelsea in the 2009 – 10 season , United achieved a record 19th league title in 2010 – 11 , securing the championship with a 1 – 1 away draw against Blackburn Rovers on 14 May 2011 . This was extended to 20 league titles in 2012 – 13 , securing the championship with a 3 – 0 home win against Aston Villa on 22 April 2013 . = = = 2013 – present = = = On 8 May 2013 , Ferguson announced that he was to retire as manager at the end of the football season , but would remain at the club as a director and club ambassador . The club announced the next day that Everton manager David Moyes would replace him from 1 July , having signed a six @-@ year contract . Ryan Giggs took over as interim player @-@ manager 10 months later , on 22 April 2014 , when Moyes was sacked after a poor season in which the club failed to defend their Premier League title and failed to qualify for the UEFA Champions League for the first time since 1995 – 96 . They also failed to qualify for the Europa League , meaning that it was the first time Manchester United hadn 't qualified for a European competition since 1990 . On 19 May 2014 , it was confirmed that Louis van Gaal would replace Moyes as Manchester United manager on a three @-@ year deal , with Giggs as his assistant . Malcolm Glazer , the patriarch of the Glazer family that owns the club , died on 28 May 2014 . Although Van Gaal 's first season saw United once again qualify for the Champions League through a fourth @-@ place finish in the Premier League , his second season saw United go out of the same tournament in the group stage . United also fell behind in the title race for the third consecutive season , finishing in 5th place , in spite of several expensive signings during Van Gaal 's tenure . However , that same season , Manchester United won the FA Cup for a 12th time , putting them on par with Arsenal in total FA Cup wins . Despite this victory , Van Gaal was sacked as manager just two days later , with José Mourinho appointed in his place on 27 May , signing a three @-@ year contract . = = Crest and colours = = The club crest is derived from the Manchester City Council coat of arms , although all that remains of it on the current crest is the ship in full sail . The devil stems from the club 's nickname " The Red Devils " ; it was included on club programmes and scarves in the 1960s , and incorporated into the club crest in 1970 , although the crest was not included on the chest of the shirt until 1971 ( unless the team was playing in a Cup Final ) . Newton Heath 's uniform in 1879 , four years before the club played its first competitive match , has been documented as ' white with blue cord ' . A photograph of the Newton Heath team , taken in 1892 , is believed to show the players wearing red @-@ and @-@ white quartered jerseys and navy blue knickerbockers . Between 1894 – 96 , the players wore distinctive green and gold jerseys which were replaced in 1896 by white shirts , which were worn with navy blue shorts . After the name change in 1902 , the club colours were changed to red shirts , white shorts , and black socks , which has become the standard Manchester United home kit . Very few changes were made to the kit until 1922 when the club adopted white shirts bearing a deep red " V " around the neck , similar to the shirt worn in the 1909 FA Cup Final . They remained part of their home kits until 1927 . For a period in 1934 , the cherry and white hooped change shirt became the home colours , but the following season the red shirt was recalled after the club 's lowest ever league placing of 20th in the Second Division and the hooped shirt dropped back to being the change . The black socks were changed to white from 1959 to 1965 , where they were replaced with red socks up until 1971 , when the club reverted to black . Black shorts and / or white socks are sometimes worn with the home strip , most often in away games , if there is a clash with the opponent 's kit . The current home kit is a red shirt with a white v @-@ neck collar with black and red trim , the trademark Adidas three stripes going along the shoulders and sleeves with a space to accommodate sleeve patches , and white cuffs . The Manchester United away strip has often been a white shirt , black shorts and white socks , but there have been several exceptions . These include an all @-@ black strip with blue and gold trimmings between 1993 and 1995 , the navy blue shirt with silver horizontal pinstripes worn during the 1999 – 2000 season , and the 2011 – 12 away kit , which had a royal blue body and sleeves with hoops made of small midnight navy blue and black stripes , with black shorts and blue socks . An all @-@ grey away kit worn during the 1995 – 96 season was dropped after just five games , most notoriously against Southampton where Alex Ferguson forced the team to change into the third kit during half @-@ time of its final outing . The reason for dropping it being that the players claimed to have trouble finding their team @-@ mates against the crowd , United failed to win a competitive game in the kit . In 2001 , to celebrate 100 years as " Manchester United " , a reversible white / gold away kit was released , although the actual match day shirts were not reversible . The club 's third kit is often all @-@ blue , this was most recently the case during the 2014 – 15 season . Exceptions include a green @-@ and @-@ gold halved shirt worn between 1992 and 1994 , a blue @-@ and @-@ white striped shirt worn during the 1994 – 95 and 1995 – 96 seasons and once in 1996 – 97 , an all @-@ black kit worn during the Treble @-@ winning 1998 – 99 season , and a white shirt with black @-@ and @-@ red horizontal pinstripes worn between 2003 and 2005 . Since 2006 – 07 , the third kit has usually been the previous season 's away kit , the exceptions being the 2008 – 09 and 2014 – 15 seasons . = = = Kit evolution = = = Notes = = Grounds = = Newton Heath initially played on a field on North Road , close to the railway yard ; the original capacity was about 12 @,@ 000 , but club officials deemed the facilities inadequate for a club hoping to join The Football League . Some expansion took place in 1887 , and in 1891 , Newton Heath used its minimal financial reserves to purchase two grandstands , each able to hold 1 @,@ 000 spectators . Although attendances were not recorded for many of the earliest matches at North Road , the highest documented attendance was approximately 15 @,@ 000 for a First Division match against Sunderland on 4 March 1893 . A similar attendance was also recorded for a friendly match against Gorton Villa on 5 September 1889 . In June 1893 , after the club was evicted from North Road by its owners , Manchester Deans and Canons , who felt it was inappropriate for the club to charge an entry fee to the ground , secretary A. H. Albut procured the use of the Bank Street ground in Clayton . It initially had no stands , by the start of the 1893 – 94 season , two had been built ; one spanning the full length of the pitch on one side and the other behind the goal at the " Bradford end " . At the opposite end , the " Clayton end " , the ground had been " built up , thousands thus being provided for " . Newton Heath 's first league match at Bank Street was played against Burnley on 1 September 1893 , when 10 @,@ 000 people saw Alf Farman score a hat @-@ trick , Newton Heath 's only goals in a 3 – 2 win . The remaining stands were completed for the following league game against Nottingham Forest three weeks later . In October 1895 , before the visit of Manchester City , the club purchased a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ capacity stand from the Broughton Rangers rugby league club , and put up another stand on the " reserved side " ( as distinct from the " popular side " ) . However , weather restricted the attendance for the Manchester City match to just 12 @,@ 000 . When the Bank Street ground was temporarily closed by bailiffs in 1902 , club captain Harry Stafford raised enough money to pay for the club 's next away game at Bristol City and found a temporary ground at Harpurhey for the next reserves game against Padiham . Following financial investment , new club president John Henry Davies paid £ 500 for the erection of a new 1 @,@ 000 @-@ seat stand at Bank Street . Within four years , the stadium had cover on all four sides , as well as the ability to hold approximately 50 @,@ 000 spectators , some of whom could watch from the viewing gallery atop the Main Stand . However , following Manchester United 's first league title in 1908 and the FA Cup a year later , it was decided that Bank Street was too restrictive for Davies ' ambition ; in February 1909 , six weeks before the club 's first FA Cup title , Old Trafford was named as the home of Manchester United , following the purchase of land for around £ 60 @,@ 000 . Architect Archibald Leitch was given a budget of £ 30 @,@ 000 for construction ; original plans called for seating capacity of 100 @,@ 000 , though budget constraints forced a revision to 77 @,@ 000 . The building was constructed by Messrs Brameld and Smith of Manchester . The stadium 's record attendance was registered on 25 March 1939 , when an FA Cup semi @-@ final between Wolverhampton Wanderers and Grimsby Town drew 76 @,@ 962 spectators . Bombing in the Second World War destroyed much of the stadium ; the central tunnel in the South Stand was all that remained of that quarter . After the war , the club received compensation from the War Damage Commission in the amount of £ 22 @,@ 278 . While reconstruction took place , the team played its " home " games at Manchester City 's Maine Road ground ; Manchester United was charged £ 5 @,@ 000 per year , plus a nominal percentage of gate receipts . Later improvements included the addition of roofs , first to the Stretford End and then to the North and East Stands . The roofs were supported by pillars that obstructed many fans ' views , and they were eventually replaced with a cantilevered structure . The Stretford End was the last stand to receive a cantilevered roof , completed in time for the 1993 – 94 season . First used on 25 March 1957 and costing £ 40 @,@ 000 , four 180 @-@ foot ( 55 m ) pylons were erected , each housing 54 individual floodlights . These were dismantled in 1987 and replaced by a lighting system embedded in the roof of each stand , which remains in use today . The Taylor Report 's requirement for an all @-@ seater stadium lowered capacity at Old Trafford to around 44 @,@ 000 by 1993 . In 1995 , the North Stand was redeveloped into three tiers , restoring capacity to approximately 55 @,@ 000 . At the end of the 1998 – 99 season , second tiers were added to the East and West Stands , raising capacity to around 67 @,@ 000 , and between July 2005 and May 2006 , 8 @,@ 000 more seats were added via second tiers in the north @-@ west and north @-@ east quadrants . Part of the new seating was used for the first time on 26 March 2006 , when an attendance of 69 @,@ 070 became a new Premier League record . The record was pushed steadily upwards before reaching its peak on 31 March 2007 , when 76 @,@ 098 spectators saw Manchester United beat Blackburn Rovers 4 – 1 , with just 114 seats ( 0 @.@ 15 per cent of the total capacity of 76 @,@ 212 ) unoccupied . In 2009 , reorganisation of the seating resulted in a reduction of capacity by 255 to 75 @,@ 957 . Manchester United has the second highest average attendance of European football clubs only behind Borussia Dortmund . = = Support = = Manchester United is one of the most popular football clubs in the world , with one of the highest average home attendance in Europe . The club states that its worldwide fan base includes more than 200 officially recognised branches of the Manchester United Supporters Club ( MUSC ) , in at least 24 countries . The club takes advantage of this support through its worldwide summer tours . Accountancy firm and sports industry consultants Deloitte estimate that Manchester United has 75 million fans worldwide , while other estimates put this figure closer to 333 million . The club has the third highest social media following in the world among sports teams ( after Barcelona and Real Madrid ) , with over 67 million Facebook fans as of November 2015 . A 2014 study showed that Manchester United had the loudest fans in the Premier League . Supporters are represented by two independent bodies ; the Independent Manchester United Supporters ' Association ( IMUSA ) , which maintains close links to the club through the MUFC Fans Forum , and the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust ( MUST ) . After the Glazer family 's takeover in 2005 , a group of fans formed a splinter club , F.C. United of Manchester . The West Stand of Old Trafford – the " Stretford End " – is the home end and the traditional source of the club 's most vocal support . = = = Rivalries = = = Manchester United has rivalries with Arsenal , Leeds United , Liverpool , and Manchester City , against whom they contest the Manchester derby . The rivalry with Liverpool is rooted in competition between the cities during the Industrial Revolution when Manchester was famous for its textile industry while Liverpool was a major port . Manchester United and Liverpool are also the two most successful teams in England and , at many points in their history , they have battled each other for the league title ( most recently in the 2008 – 09 season ) . Their matches are usually considered by the players and their fans as the biggest in any given season . The " Roses Rivalry " with Leeds stems from the Wars of the Roses , fought between the House of Lancaster and the House of York , with Manchester United representing Lancashire and Leeds representing Yorkshire . The rivalry with Arsenal arises from the numerous times the two teams , as well as managers Alex Ferguson and Arsène Wenger , have battled for the Premier League title . With 33 titles between them ( 20 for Manchester United , 13 for Arsenal ) this fixture has become known as one of the finest Premier League match @-@ ups in history . = = Global brand = = Manchester United has been described as a global brand ; a 2011 report by Brand Finance , valued the club 's trademarks and associated intellectual property at £ 412 million – an increase of £ 39 million on the previous year , valuing it at £ 11 million more than the second best brand , Real Madrid – and gave the brand a strength rating of AAA ( Extremely Strong ) . In July 2012 , Manchester United was ranked first by Forbes magazine in its list of the ten most valuable sports team brands , valuing the Manchester United brand at $ 2 @.@ 23 billion . The club is ranked third in the Deloitte Football Money League ( behind Real Madrid and Barcelona ) . In January 2013 , the club became the first sports team in the world to be valued at $ 3 billion . Forbes Magazine valued the club at $ 3 @.@ 3 billion – $ 1 @.@ 2 billion higher than the next most valuable sports team . The core strength of Manchester United 's global brand is often attributed to Matt Busby 's rebuilding of the team and subsequent success following the Munich air disaster , which drew worldwide acclaim . The " iconic " team included Bobby Charlton and Nobby Stiles ( members of England 's World Cup winning team ) , Denis Law and George Best . The attacking style of play adopted by this team ( in contrast to the defensive @-@ minded " catenaccio " approach favoured by the leading Italian teams of the era ) " captured the imagination of the English footballing public " . Busby 's team also became associated with the liberalisation of Western society during the 1960s ; George Best , known as the " fifth Beatle " for his iconic haircut , was the first footballer to significantly develop an off @-@ the @-@ field media profile . As the second English football club to float on the London Stock Exchange in 1991 , the club raised significant capital , with which it further developed its commercial strategy . The club 's focus on commercial and sporting success brought significant profits in an industry often characterised by chronic losses . The strength of the Manchester United brand was bolstered by intense off @-@ the @-@ field media attention to individual players , most notably David Beckham ( who quickly developed his own global brand ) . This attention often generates greater interest in on @-@ the @-@ field activities , and hence generates sponsorship opportunities – the value of which is driven by television exposure . During his time with the club , Beckham 's popularity across Asia was integral to the club 's commercial success in that part of the world . Because higher league placement results in a greater share of television rights , success on the field generates greater income for the club . Since the inception of the Premier League , Manchester United has received the largest share of the revenue generated from the BSkyB broadcasting deal . Manchester United has also consistently enjoyed the highest commercial income of any English club ; in 2005 – 06 , the club 's commercial arm generated £ 51 million , compared to £ 42 @.@ 5 million at Chelsea , £ 39 @.@ 3 million at Liverpool , £ 34 million at Arsenal and £ 27 @.@ 9 million at Newcastle United . A key sponsorship relationship is with sportswear company Nike , who manage the club 's merchandising operation as part of a £ 303 million 13 @-@ year partnership established in 2002 . Through Manchester United Finance and the club 's membership scheme , One United , those with an affinity for the club can purchase a range of branded goods and services . Additionally , Manchester United @-@ branded media services – such as the club 's dedicated television channel , MUTV – have allowed the club to expand its fan base to those beyond the reach of its Old Trafford stadium . = = = Sponsorship = = = In an initial five @-@ year deal worth £ 500 @,@ 000 , Sharp Electronics became the club 's first shirt sponsor at the beginning of the 1982 – 83 season , a relationship that lasted until the end of the 1999 – 2000 season , when Vodafone agreed a four @-@ year , £ 30 million deal . Vodafone agreed to pay £ 36 million to extend the deal by four years , but after two seasons triggered a break clause in order to concentrate on its sponsorship of the Champions League . To commence at the start of the 2006 – 07 season , American insurance corporation AIG agreed a four @-@ year £ 56 @.@ 5 million deal which in September 2006 became the most valuable in the world . At the beginning of the 2010 – 11 season , American reinsurance company Aon became the club 's principal sponsor in a four @-@ year deal reputed to be worth approximately £ 80 million , making it the most lucrative shirt sponsorship deal in football history . Manchester United announced their first training kit sponsor in August 2011 , agreeing a four @-@ year deal with DHL reported to be worth £ 40 million ; it is believed to be the first instance of training kit sponsorship in English football . The DHL contract lasted for over a year before the club bought back the contract in October 2012 , although they remained the club 's official logistics partner . The contract for the training kit sponsorship was then sold to Aon in April 2013 for a deal worth £ 180 million over eight years , which also included purchasing the naming rights for the Trafford Training Centre . The club 's first kit manufacturer was Umbro , until a five @-@ year deal was agreed with Admiral Sportswear in 1975 . Adidas received the contract in 1980 , before Umbro started a second spell in 1992 . Umbro 's sponsorship lasted for ten years , followed by Nike 's record @-@ breaking £ 302 @.@ 9 million deal that lasted until 2015 ; 3 @.@ 8 million replica shirts were sold in the first 22 months with the company . In addition to Nike and Chevrolet , the club also has several lower @-@ level " platinum " sponsors , including Aon and Budweiser . On 30 July 2012 , United signed a seven @-@ year deal with American automotive corporation General Motors , which replaced Aon as the shirt sponsor from the 2014 – 15 season . The new $ 80m @-@ a @-@ year shirt deal is worth $ 559m over seven years and features the logo of General Motors brand Chevrolet . Nike announced that they would not renew their kit supply deal with Manchester United after the 2014 – 15 season , citing rising costs . Since the start of the 2015 – 16 season , Adidas has manufactured Manchester United 's kit as part of a world @-@ record 10 @-@ year deal worth a minimum of £ 750 million . = = Ownership and finances = = Originally funded by the Lancashire and Yorkshire Railway Company , the club became a limited company in 1892 and sold shares to local supporters for £ 1 via an application form . In 1902 , majority ownership passed to the four local businessmen who invested £ 500 to save the club from bankruptcy , including future club president John Henry Davies . After his death in 1927 , the club faced bankruptcy yet again , but was saved in December 1931 by James W. Gibson , who assumed control of the club after an investment of £ 2 @,@ 000 . Gibson promoted his son , Alan , to the board in 1948 , but died three years later ; the Gibson family retained ownership of the club through James ' wife , Lillian , but the position of chairman passed to former player Harold Hardman . Promoted to the board a few days after the Munich air disaster , Louis Edwards , a friend of Matt Busby , began acquiring shares in the club ; for an investment of approximately £ 40 @,@ 000 , he accumulated a 54 per cent shareholding and took control in January 1964 . When Lillian Gibson died in January 1971 , her shares passed to Alan Gibson who sold a percentage of his shares to Louis Edwards ' son , Martin , in 1978 ; Martin Edwards went on to become chairman upon his father 's death in 1980 . Media tycoon Robert Maxwell attempted to buy the club in 1984 , but did not meet Edwards ' asking price . In 1989 , chairman Martin Edwards attempted to sell the club to Michael Knighton for £ 20 million , but the sale fell through and Knighton joined the Board of Directors instead . Manchester United was floated on the stock market in June 1991 ( raising £ 6 @.@ 7 million ) , and received yet another takeover bid in 1998 , this time from Rupert Murdoch 's British Sky Broadcasting Corporation . This resulted in the formation of Shareholders United Against Murdoch – now the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust – who encouraged supporters to buy shares in the club in an attempt to block any hostile takeover . The Manchester United board accepted a £ 623 million offer , but the takeover was blocked by the Monopolies and Mergers Commission at the final hurdle in April 1999 . A few years later , a power struggle emerged between the club 's manager , Alex Ferguson , and his horse @-@ racing partners , John Magnier and J. P. McManus , who had gradually become the majority shareholders . In a dispute that stemmed from contested ownership of the horse Rock of Gibraltar , Magnier and McManus attempted to have Ferguson removed from his position as manager , and the board responded by approaching investors to attempt to reduce the Irishmen 's majority . In May 2005 , Malcolm Glazer purchased the 28 @.@ 7 per cent stake held by McManus and Magnier , thus acquiring a controlling interest through his investment vehicle Red Football Ltd in a highly leveraged takeover valuing the club at approximately £ 800 million ( then approx . $ 1 @.@ 5 billion ) . Once the purchase was complete , the club was taken off the stock exchange . In July 2006 , the club announced a £ 660 million debt refinancing package , resulting in a 30 per cent reduction in annual interest payments to £ 62 million a year . In January 2010 , with debts of £ 716 @.@ 5 million ( $ 1 @.@ 17 billion ) , Manchester United further refinanced through a bond issue worth £ 504 million , enabling them to pay off most of the £ 509 million owed to international banks . The annual interest payable on the bonds – which mature on 1 February 2017 – is approximately £ 45 million per annum . Despite restructuring , the club 's debt prompted protests from fans on 23 January 2010 , at Old Trafford and the club 's Trafford Training Centre . Supporter groups encouraged match @-@ going fans to wear green and gold , the colours of Newton Heath . On 30 January , reports emerged that the Manchester United Supporters ' Trust had held meetings with a group of wealthy fans , dubbed the " Red Knights " , with plans to buying out the Glazers ' controlling interest . In August 2011 , the Glazers were believed to have approached Credit Suisse in preparation for a $ 1 billion ( approx . £ 600 million ) initial public offering ( IPO ) on the Singapore stock exchange that would value the club at more than £ 2 billion . However , in July 2012 , the club announced plans to list its IPO on the New York Stock Exchange instead . Shares were originally set to go on sale for between $ 16 and $ 20 each , but the price was cut to $ 14 by the launch of the IPO on 10 August , following negative comments from Wall Street analysts and Facebook 's disappointing stock market debut in May . Even after the cut , Manchester United was valued at $ 2 @.@ 3 billion , making it the most valuable football club in the world . = = Players = = = = = First @-@ team squad = = = As of 22 July 2016 Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . = = = = On loan = = = = Note : Flags indicate national team as defined under FIFA eligibility rules . Players may hold more than one non @-@ FIFA nationality . = = = Reserves and academy = = = = = = Former players = = = = = = Club captains = = = = = = Player records = = = = = = Sir Matt Busby Player of the Year = = = = = Club officials = = Owner : Glazer family via Red Football Shareholder Limited Honorary president : Martin Edwards Manchester United Limited Co @-@ chairmen : Avram Glazer and Joel Glazer Executive Vice Chairman : Ed Woodward Group Managing Director : Richard Arnold Chief Financial Officer : Cliff Baty Commercial Director : Jamieson Reigle Non @-@ executive directors : Bryan Glazer , Kevin Glazer , Edward Glazer , Darcie Glazer Kassewitz , Robert Leitão , John Hooks and Manu Sawhney Manchester United Football Club Directors : David Gill , Michael Edelson , Sir Bobby Charlton , Sir Alex Ferguson Club secretary : John Alexander Club ambassadors : Andy Cole , Gary Neville , Bryan Robson , Peter Schmeichel , Bobby Charlton , Alex Ferguson , Park Ji @-@ sung = = = Managerial history = = = = = Honours = = Manchester United are one of the most successful clubs in Europe . The club 's first trophy was the Manchester Cup , which it won as Newton Heath LYR in 1886 . In 1908 , the club won its first league title , and won the FA Cup for the first time the following year . Manchester United won the most trophies in the 1990s ; five league titles , four FA Cups , one League Cup , five Charity Shields ( one shared ) , one UEFA Champions League , one UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup , one UEFA Super Cup and one Intercontinental Cup . The club holds the record for most top @-@ division titles ( 20 ) – including a record 13 Premier League titles – FA Cups ( 12 ) and FA Community Shields ( 20 ) . It was also the first English club to win the European Cup in 1968 and as of 2016 is the only British club to have won the Club World Cup , in 2008 . United also became the sole British club to win the Intercontinental Cup in 1999 . The club 's most recent trophy came in May 2016 with the 2015 – 16 FA Cup . The only major honour that Manchester United has never won is the UEFA Europa League , although the team reached the quarter @-@ finals in 1984 – 85 and the semi @-@ finals of the competition 's precursor tournament , the Inter @-@ Cities Fairs Cup , in 1964 – 65 . = = = Domestic = = = = = = = League = = = = First Division ( until 1992 ) and Premier League : 20 1907 – 08 , 1910 – 11 , 1951 – 52 , 1955 – 56 , 1956 – 57 , 1964 – 65 , 1966 – 67 , 1992 – 93 , 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96 , 1996 – 97 , 1998 – 99 , 1999 – 2000 , 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03 , 2006 – 07 , 2007 – 08 , 2008 – 09 , 2010 – 11 , 2012 – 13 ( record ) Second Division : 2 1935 – 36 , 1974 – 75 = = = = Cups = = = = FA Cup : 12 1908 – 09 , 1947 – 48 , 1962 – 63 , 1976 – 77 , 1982 – 83 , 1984 – 85 , 1989 – 90 , 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96 , 1998 – 99 , 2003 – 04 , 2015 – 16 ( shared record ) League Cup : 4 1991 – 92 , 2005 – 06 , 2008 – 09 , 2009 – 10 FA Charity / Community Shield : 20 ( 16 outright , 4 shared ) 1908 , 1911 , 1952 , 1956 , 1957 , 1965 * , 1967 * , 1977 * , 1983 , 1990 * , 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1997 , 2003 , 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2011 , 2013 ( * shared ) ( record ) = = = European = = = European Cup / UEFA Champions League : 3 1967 – 68 , 1998 – 99 , 2007 – 08 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup : 1 1990 – 91 UEFA Super Cup : 1 1991 = = = Worldwide = = = Intercontinental Cup : 1 1999 FIFA Club World Cup : 1 2008 = = = Doubles and Trebles = = = Doubles : League and FA Cup : 2 1993 – 94 , 1995 – 96 League and League Cup : 1 2008 – 09 European Double ( League and European Cup ) : 1 2007 – 08 " The Treble " ( League , FA Cup and European Cup ) : 1 1998 – 99 Especially short competitions such as the Charity / Community Shield , Intercontinental Cup ( now defunct ) , FIFA Club World Cup or UEFA Super Cup are not generally considered to contribute towards a Double or Treble . = New York State Route 83 = New York State Route 83 ( NY 83 ) is a state route located entirely in Chautauqua County , New York in the United States . It extends from an intersection with U.S. Route 62 ( US 62 ) in the hamlet of Conewango Valley ( at the Cattaraugus County border ) to NY 60 in the hamlet of Laona , near Fredonia . Along the way , NY 83 intersects with NY 322 at Balcom Corners and serves the village of Cherry Creek . NY 83 initially extended south to Frewsburg when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering . The portion of the route between Frewsburg and Conewango Valley became part of US 62 c . 1932 , resulting in the truncation of NY 83 to its current southern terminus in the 1940s . = = Route description = = NY 83 begins at US 62 in the hamlet of Conewango Valley , located in the northeastern corner of the town of Ellington . The route heads north @-@ northwestward , paralleling a pair of train tracks , and shortly after enters the village of Cherry Creek , where it intersects County Route 70 ( CR 70 ) and CR 68 , respectively . Known as Main Street , it bows out to the east slightly , and subsequently takes on a due north path as it heads through the town of Cherry Creek . A couple miles later , it reaches the hamlet of Balcom Corners ( located in the town of Villenova ) , a community situated at the junction of NY 83 and the western terminus of NY 322 . Here , NY 83 turns westward toward the community of Hamlet , where it intersects with CR 72 . NY 83 begins a more erratic routing , passing between West Mud Lake and Black Pond as it enters the town of Arkwright . For a short distance it is concurrent with CR 85 , and takes on the name Black Corner Street , so named because it is located within the hamlet of Black Corners . Although this portion of NY 83 is cosigned with CR 85 , it is maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation . An intersection with CR 79 is not far off , as it passes just north of the town of Arkwright . NY 83 proceeds west @-@ northwest until it reaches its ending terminus at NY 60 in the community of Laona , located just west of the Arkwright town line in Pomfret . = = History = = NY 83 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to an alignment extending from Frewsburg in the south to Laona in the north . US 62 was extended into New York c . 1932 , overlapping NY 83 from Frewsburg to Conewango Valley . The overlap was eliminated in the 1940s when NY 83 was truncated to its junction with US 62 in Conewango Valley . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Chautauqua County . = 7 Things = " 7 Things " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter and actress Miley Cyrus . The song was written by Cyrus and co @-@ written by Antonina Armato , and Tim James and produced by John Fields . It was released on June 17 , 2008 by Hollywood Records as the lead single from the first studio album released by Cyrus with no ties to her character Hannah Montana from the Disney Channel comedy series of the same name . Also registered as " Seven Things I Hate About You " , Cyrus developed the song during the Best of Both Worlds Tour while feeling numerous emotions for an ex @-@ boyfriend , mainly being furious . The song 's release brought allegations that it was about Nick Jonas of the Jonas Brothers , which Cyrus neither confirmed nor denied . Musically , " 7 Things " bears aspects of both country and pop punk , while the lyrics in the song 's refrain list seven traits Cyrus hates about an ex @-@ boyfriend . " 7 Things " received mixed to positive reviews from music critics and enjoyed worldwide commercial success , becoming a top ten hit on charts in Australia , Japan , Norway , and the United States . The single was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , while its appearance on the Japan Hot 100 made " 7 Things " Cyrus ' first song to chart in an Asian country . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Brett Ratner and features Cyrus performing the song with a back @-@ up band as many teenage girls lipsync along . The girls clutch a variety of props , such as love letters and snow globes , inspired by personal items Cyrus ' ex had given her . The video was nominated for an MTV Video Music Award at both the 2008 and 2009 award shows . Cyrus promoted the song through several venues including her world tours , the Wonder World Tour and the Gypsy Heart Tour . = = Background = = " 7 Things " is also under the legal title of " Seven Things I Hate About You " , as registered by Broadcast Music Incorporated ( BMI ) . Like most of the songs on Breakout , Cyrus conceived " 7 Things " while traveling on the Best of Both Worlds Tour from October 2007 to January 2008 . " I was locked up in the bus the entire time . And it was , like , such a great time for me to have a minute for myself , which I never get . So it was awesome to get to do that and just kinda go through all the different stages of what 's been going on the last couple of years . And I just thought it 'd be fun to just kinda . I didn 't even mean for it to be for , you know , the record or for anything . It was just like ' just start writing this ' . I got into it and I played some of it for my sister and she was like , ' dude , that 's awesome ' . And it was just so much fun to have , like , a good , little therapy moment for me , just to be able to go through everything . It was awesome . It was so much fun to write . " Cyrus says " 7 Things " was inspired by an ex @-@ boyfriend . In an interview with Ryan Seacrest , Cyrus said that she was " going through [ ... ] nine @-@ hundred different emotions while trying to write [ the ] song " and that her use of the word " hate " demonstrated how furious she was . When Seacrest asked if she was worried the song 's subject would hear it and be upset , Cyrus responded that while she was slightly worried , " I want him to be upset . That was my point . " She showed her draft to co @-@ songwriters and producers Tim James and Antonia Armato , who suggested adding it to Breakout . Originally , " 7 Things " was more " soft and nice " but Cyrus says she " went nuts " during the recording process and gave the song a harder sound . Cyrus had initially chosen " Fly on the Wall " as the lead single from Breakout , but replaced it with " 7 Things " because she felt it was a " better introduction " to the album . = = = Nick Jonas allegations = = = Allegations that " 7 Things " was about Nick Jonas , lead singer of the Jonas Brothers , sprouted soon after the song 's premiere on the May 13 , 2008 broadcast of the Elvis Duran and the Morning Show . Cyrus and Jonas had dated for two @-@ and a half years before breaking up in late 2008 . Cyrus claimed , " Nick and I loved each other " and that after the breakup she " bawled for a month straight " while trying to rebel " against everything Nick wanted [ her ] to be " . Henry Freeland of Paste described " 7 Things " as " the list of reasons she hates an ex @-@ boyfriend ( who just might be lead Jonas Brother , Nick ) " and her " concern [ ... ] that all of this hatred only leads them to love Maybe @-@ Nick [ ... ] all the more " . Blogger Molly Lambert , quoted in The New York Times said , " [ Cyrus ] had recently broken up with her first serious boyfriend — a fellow Disney celebrity , Nick Jonas , of the Jonas Brothers , who was also her arena @-@ concert tour mate during their secret two @-@ year affair . In the video for ' 7 Things ' she wears Nick ’ s diabetes dog tags while singing about how his vanity and insecurity undermined their relationship . " Jessica Herndon of People similarly points out the necklace and the fact that Jonas , " who split with Cyrus in late 2008 after two @-@ and a half years of dating – has Type 1 diabetes and is a spokesperson for awareness of the disease . " When asked if the allegations were true , Cyrus said , " [ W ] ith ' 7 Things , ' I think a lot of people do , you know , think it ’ s about Nick Jonas , and if they think it is , that ’ s fine , or whoever they think it ’ s about . But mostly that song is about who , um , they want it to be to . Like mostly , it ’ s if a girl hates her current , or ex @-@ boyfriend — for me it ’ s an ex @-@ boyfriend — so I think , you know , like , Nick is someone that was really important in my life , but I don ’ t hate him . It ’ s a good song and it ’ s fun . " While Jonas responded the allegations with , " I think it ’ s funny . Honestly , I ’ m not insecure , my friends are cool — so it can ’ t be about me ! " According to Tiger Beat magazine , when Cyrus ' best friend Mandy Jiroux was asked if " 7 Things " was about Jonas ; she responded , " yes " . = = Composition = = " 7 Things " is a pop punk song with a length of three minutes and 33 seconds . According to Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , the song 's verses are tinged with country while its refrains bear pop punk aspects . The song is set in common time and has moderate rock tempo of 108 beats per minute . It is written in the key of E major while Cyrus ' vocals span one octave , ranging from G # 3 to G # 4 . Fraser McAlpine of the BBC called the song " a three @-@ tempo patchwork quilt " . In the song 's introduction , the band begins to strum acoustic guitars at a moderate tempo while Cyrus chants " sha " . The tempo continues as Cyrus begins the first verse in the song 's fourth bar . At each chorus , " 7 Things " speeds up dramatically and Cyrus ' vocals become aggressive and forceful ; Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly described the transition as " from sensitive breakup song in the strummy verses to punky @-@ pop kiss @-@ off in the double @-@ time choruses . " McAlpine noted the stress Cyrus places on vowels in the song : " ' yerw ' instead of ' you ' , ' erw ' instead of ' oh ' , and so on ... " . The song 's lyrics are written in second person , a message from the singer to her ex @-@ boyfriend detailing the hurt he caused her while they were dating . The refrain is a list of the seven traits the singer " hates " most about her ex , with the seventh item being her frustration that despite his flaws , he makes her love him . Ben Ratliff of The New York Times noted that the list actually " runs to 8 to 11 things , depending on how you parse it " . Henry Freedland of Paste magazine compared it to a similar list featured as a poem in the 1999 film 10 Things I Hate About You . In one verse , Cyrus asks for a sincere apology and states , " If you text it , I 'll delete it " , which Molly Lambert of The New York Times said " perfectly captur [ es ] our confusing age of technologically mediated courtship . " The song concludes with a variation of the refrain , in which Cyrus names the seven things she likes the most about her ex , again concluding with " you make me love you " . = = Critical reception = = " 7 Things " received mixed reviews from critics . Fraser McAlpine of the BBC called the song " smashing " , complimenting Cyrus ' " punker attitude all wrapped up in an immaculate gloss " . Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times wrote that while he wished the song had played up Cyrus ' frustration rather than concluding with the kind final verse , " the winning , full @-@ on chorus -- and Miley 's exuberance -- are enough to make it a success . " Ben Ratliff of The New York Times said " 7 Things " " lists with talky insecurity what she hates about a guy " and calls " the seven things she likes [ ... ] a shameless Disney ending " . Heather Phares of Allmusic contended , " 7 Things " is a twangy , clever piece of love @-@ hate pop that feels descended from Shania Twain 's flirty mix of rock and country " and marked it as one of the best tracks on Breakout . Chris Willman of Entertainment Weekly called it one of Breakout 's " best tunes " because it " let Cyrus be feisty without graduating to Avril @-@ like levels of petulance " while Josh Timmermann of PopMatters finds it " appealing " . Mordechai Shinefield of The Village Voice described the song as " hooky and catchy enough " , but warned that " it 's only a step away from warmed @-@ over emo platitudes " . Sarah Rodman of The Boston Globe claimed " [ Avril ] Lavigne 's brand of pop @-@ punk snarl creeps into ' 7 Things ' . " Robert Christgau labeled " 7 Things " and " Breakout " the best songs on Breakout . Chris Richards of The Washington Post claimed the album 's " overproduction is apparent on the chorus of the album 's first single , " 7 Things , " an avalanche of guitars and rushed syllables . " Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine called the single " rather annoying " and not " a worthy follow @-@ up to ' See You Again ' " , while Bill Lamb of About.com said the " winning performance " demonstrated that " Miley Cyrus does not intend to simply be a TV @-@ generated phenomenon in the pop music world . She is a compelling pop artist in her own right . " = = Chart performance = = On the week ending June 21 , 2008 , " 7 Things " debuted at number 85 on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song ascended to number seventy the week ending July 5 , 2008 before jumping to number 70 in its third week due to sales of 130 @,@ 000 digital downloads . " 7 Things " moved up to number nine on the week ending July 26 , 2008 , surpassing " See You Again " and becoming Cyrus ' best charting effort on the Hot 100 . However , the single only managed to spend a measly fifteen weeks on the Hot 100 , and therefore was ranked at as low as # 92 in the Year @-@ End in 2008 . " 7 Things " also peaked at number 14 on the now @-@ canceled Pop 100 chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 40 on the week ending July 5 , 2008 and peaked at number 13 on the week ending July 26 , 2008 . As of June 2013 , " 7 Things " has sold 1 @,@ 686 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . " 7 Things " was also a success in Australia and New Zealand . The song made its debut on the Australian Singles Chart at number 38 on August 17 , 2008 . After five weeks , " 7 Things " reached its peak on the chart at number ten . The song has been certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipping over 35 @,@ 000 copies . " 7 Things " debuted at number 27 on the New Zealand Singles Chart on August 17 , 2008 and , after eight weeks on the chart , reached number 24 . " 7 Things " also became Cyrus ' first song to chart in an Asian country : On the week ending September 27 , 2008 , " 7 Things " debuted at number 81 on the Japan Hot 100 ; it reached number nine on the week ending October 17 , 2008 and reached its peak at number eight on the week ending October 24 , 2008 . In the UK Singles Chart , " 7 Things " made its entry at number 87 on September 13 , 2008 and reached its peak at number 25 on December 13 , 2008 . In mainland Europe , the song peaked at number 44 on Eurochart Hot 100 Singles and at number 14 in Austria . " 7 Things " debuted and peaked at number eight on the Norwegian Singles Chart on August 19 , 2008 . The song experienced similar commercial outcomes throughout the rest of Europe ; it charted within the top 40 of charts in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Germany , and Switzerland . = = Music video = = Cyrus invited Brett Ratner , director of the " 7 Things " music video , to her home to tell him how much the song meant to her and what it was about . After proposing numerous ideas to each other , they decided to make the video " simple with a white backdrop " . Cyrus said that neither she nor Ratner wanted the video to be " all about [ her ] " because the song 's message was universal ; " almost every girl in America could say they hate their ex or current boyfriend , " claimed Cyrus . As a result , the video features numerous adolescent girls including actresses Nicola Peltz , Liana Liberato , and Maiara Walsh . During the planning session , Cyrus showed Ratner a collection of personal items her ex had given her , such as photographs and his dirty socks , which she had stowed away beneath her bed . They decided to include some of these items as props in the music video . For example , the necklace Cyrus wears in the video was her ex @-@ boyfriend 's medical identification tag , which he received because of his diabetes mellitus . The video was shot on May 30 , 2008 in Los Angeles , California . Unexpectedly , several girls began crying during the shoot ; Cyrus attributed this to the emotions in the song . Ratner was impressed with Cyrus ' instinct and ability to address emotional issues while making them " fun at the same time " . Ratner compared her to Madonna , saying , " she can be hanging out and laughing , and then you put the camera on her and it 's like , ' Holy shit ! ' " The effervescence made editing more difficult for the director . He said , " It was the hardest video I 've ever edited because every moment was great . Every moment that she was on camera , she was amazing . She 's got an incredible quality about her . She gets the camera , and that 's what it takes to make a great music video . " Cyrus commented that she felt the video was " more honest than [ the ] song " and that she was " singing out to [ ... ] that special person " . The video commences with a close @-@ up shots of Cyrus ' face as she counts in the backup band behind her . For a moment , she is replaced by a different girl holding a small stuffed monkey . Cyrus then reappears , holding onto her necklace and wearing a multicolored sequin sundress designed by Sass & Bide , black Chuck Taylor All @-@ Stars , and leg warmers . Her wavy hair styled loose and in front of her shoulders . As Cyrus continues to sing , she is replaced by more girls holding different items , including teddy bears , stuffed animals , snow globes , and love letters . As the song approaches its chorus , Cyrus and the girls start dancing and jumping . Cyrus continues singing as she holds a white rose and a girl deletes a text message from her boyfriend . At one point , Cyrus holds a photograph of her and an ex @-@ boyfriend with black curly hair , his face obscured by a doodle on a piece of notebook paper . At the end of the video , Cyrus blows the camera a kiss , mouths " I love you , " and turns away . = = = Video reception = = = The video premiered on June 28 , 2008 on ABC . It was the most watched music @-@ related video on YouTube until it was surpassed by Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " music video in Spring 2010 . Todd Martens of The Los Angeles Times was disappointed with the video 's special effects and production values , adding that it looked " as if it were filmed with one camera on a tripod in a single @-@ bulb basement " . However , he complimented how they " show [ ed ] off Miley 's universal appeal " . Henry Freeland of Paste magazine said , " Cyrus wiggles to and fro , mugging for the camera like her face is fighting gravity and barely winning . " A Pop Cultured review from MTV described the video as PG and " Disney approved " . The review continued that it was mildly angry , comparing Cyrus to " a watered @-@ down version of Avril Lavigne 's kid sister , and Lindsay Lohan 's pseudo @-@ rebellious character in Freaky Friday — minus the eyeliner " . Leigh Holmwood of The Guardian commented , " Miley 's new music vid , reminds me , creepily enough , of early Britney . " Molly Lambert of the New York Times described Cyrus as the video 's " charismatic center " and writes , " When she flashes Nick ’ s dog tags and a picture of the two of them together , she seems so vindictive and so embarrassingly vulnerable , just like . . . a 15 @-@ year @-@ old suffering her first serious heartbreak , basically . " The video received a nomination for MTV Video Music Award for Best New Artist at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards , but lost to Tokio Hotel 's music video for " Ready , Set , Go ! " . At the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards , the video received a nomination for MTV Video Music Award for Best Editing , but lost to Beyoncé Knowles ' music video for " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . = = Live performances = = Cyrus first live performance of " 7 Things " took place on May 17 , 2008 at the 2008 Zootopia , an annual summer concert put on by radio station Z100 . Later that summer , she promoted the song at outdoor concerts hosted by Good Morning America and The Today Show and while hosting the 2008 Teen Choice Awards . Cyrus began promotion for " 7 Things " in Europe in fall 2008 , performing the track on the United Kingdom channel GMTV , the French television show Le Grand Journal , and the British singing competition The X Factor among other venues . She performed the song twice on FNMTV ; once on August 1 , 2008 , and again while co @-@ hosting New Year 's Eve of 2008 with Pete Wentz . Cyrus performed " 7 Things " along with several other songs on April 24 , 2009 in a London Apple Store . These performances were recorded and sold exclusively by the United Kingdom iTunes Store as a live extended play titled iTunes Live from London . On June 7 , 2009 , Cyrus performed the song at twentieth annual A Time for Heroes Celebrity Carnival , an outdoor carnival supporting the Elizabeth Glaser Pediatric AIDS Foundation . " 7 Things " was also included in the set list of Cyrus ' first world tour , the Wonder World Tour ; Cyrus performed the song in a black leather ensemble paired with a silver rosary while overhead video screens projected a conflagration . Melinda M. Thompsen of The Oregonian said Cyrus ' performance of " 7 Things " the September 14 concert in Portland , Oregon at the Rose Garden Arena " showed what a powerhouse she can be using her voice and influence to get her message out " . The song 's performance in the September 22 concert in Los Angeles , California at the Staples Center was referred to as " aggressive athleticism " by Lael Loewenstein of Variety and as a " tween @-@ rock gem " and " up @-@ tempo highlight " by Mikael Wood of The Los Angeles Times . She later performed the song at the Rock in Rio concerts in Lisbon , Portugal and Madrid , Spain 7 Things has sold more than 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 million copies in the United States . Cyrus performed the song during the Gypsy Heart Tour . = = Release history = = = = Charts = = = Kidwelly and Llanelly Canal = The Kidwelly and Llanelly Canal was a canal and tramroad system in Carmarthenshire , Wales , built to carry anthracite coal to the coast for onward transportation by coastal ships . It began life as Kymer 's Canal in 1766 , which linked pits at Pwll y Llygod to a dock near Kidwelly . Access to the dock gradually became more difficult as the estuary silted up , and an extension to Llanelli was authorised in 1812 . Progress was slow , and the new canal was linked to a harbour at Pembury built by Thomas Gaunt in the 1820s , until the company 's own harbour at Burry Port was completed in 1832 . Tramways served a number of collieries to the east of Burry Port . In 1832 engineer James Green advised on extending the system , and suggested a line with three inclined planes to reach Cwmmawr , further up the Gwendraeth Valley . Although Green had experience with inclined planes on other canals , he underestimated the cost and could not complete the work . He was sacked in 1836 , but the canal company finished the new route the following year . The canal was moderately successful , and shareholders received dividends from 1858 . In 1865 the company changed its name to become the Kidwelly and Burry Port Railway , amalgamated with the company running Burry Port in the following year , and the canal became the Burry Port and Gwendraeth Valley Railway in 1869 . Kymer 's dock at Kidwelly continued to be used for the export of coal by coasters for another 50 years . It was used as a rubbish dump during the 1950s , but together with a short section of the canal was restored in the 1980s . A few of the structures of the canal can still be traced in the landscape , and the route of the now closed railway can be followed for most of its length . = = History = = The area around Kidwelly is rich in coal reserves and contains ironstone . It was to exploit these reserves that the canal and tramway system was built . Much of the coal was good quality anthracite , although other grades were also mined . = = = Kymer 's Canal = = = Thomas Kymer began mining at Pwll y Llygod and Great Forest ( near Carway ) in 1760 , and sought parliamentary approval to construct a canal at his own expense in early 1766 . The Act of Parliament was granted on 19 February 1766 . The canal was to run from his coal pits at Pwll y Llygod on the banks of the Gwendraeth Fawr river to Ythyn Frenig , about half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) to the west of Kidwelly , where he built a dock on the southern bank of the Gwendraeth Fach river . The Act included powers to divert the course of the Gwendraeth Fawr from Pwll y Llygod to Pont Spwdwr , where the Kidwelly to Llanelli turnpike road crossed the river . The canal was operational by May 1768 . As built , the canal was about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) long , and the channel was approximately 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 9 m ) wide . Wider sections were constructed at Morfa and at Muddlescombe , to allow barges to pass one another , and there was also a wider section below the terminal wharf at Pwll y Llygod , to allow the barges to be turned . From the wharf , a tramway crossed the Gwendraeth Fawr to connect with the coal pits . The canal served the mines well for almost 30 years , but the dock and river were affected by silting . A new channel across the sands was created in 1797 , but this too was affected by silting , and by 1809 navigation to Kymer 's dock was becoming dangerous . = = = Kidwelly and Llanelly Canal = = = A series of meetings took place in 1811 to consider how the situation could be improved . Two engineers , Edward Martin and David Davies , proposed an extension of the canal to the top of the Gwendraeth valley , and another which would cross Pinged marsh and would terminate at Llanelli . This would pass through Pembrey , providing improved access to the harbour . The proposal was adopted , and an Act of Parliament passed on 20 June 1812 created The Kidwelly and Llanelly Canal and Tramroad Company . The Act envisaged an upper terminus beyond Cwmmawr at Cwm y Glo , and a series of feeder canals or tramroads to connect to the pits and levels where extraction of coal was taking place . It listed a total of 13 collieries which would be served in this way . Wharfs at the Llanelli terminus would be built next to the dock owned by the Carmarthenshire Railroad Company . Special provision , including the construction of a lock and weir , was made for the point where the new canal would cross the existing Ashburnham Canal . The newly formed company was required to complete the extension from Pwll y Llygod to Pontyates and the first section of the Llanelly branch to the point where it crossed the Ashburnham Canal within six years . Anthony Bower was the engineer , and construction was contracted to Pinkerton and Allen . The canal reached the new aqueduct across the Gwendraeth Fawr in 1815 , but little progress was made between then and 1817 . Much of the limited capital raised had been spent on attempts to re @-@ open the harbour , with little success . A second Act of Parliament was obtained on 28 May 1818 , which extended the time limit for building the canal and removed the requirement to clear the river channels to the harbour . Pinkerton and Allen pressed on with construction , completing the routes to Pontyates and the Ashburnham Canal crossing in 1824 , while the company directors asked the engineers John Rennie and Edward Bankes to examine the issue of a suitable harbour . Rennie suggested extending the canal towards what is now Burry Port , and the construction of a new harbour on the sands at Tywyn Bach . = = = Pembrey Canal = = = While Pinkerton and Allen were building the southern extension , Thomas Gaunt had been active in the area . He was extracting iron ore to be processed in new furnaces at Pembrey , had obtained Kilrhedyn colliery , and had constructed a harbour on the sands at Pembrey . Rennie and Bankes had dismissed the idea of a connection to Gaunt 's harbour , as it was not felt to be adequate for the likely volumes of coal traffic , but Gaunt was keen for a canal link . Between late 1823 and April 1824 he built two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) of canal , including a lock at Cross Lane cottage . At its northern end it joined the Kidwelly and Llanelly canal at Ty Gwyn , just to the north of the disused Ashburnham Canal , and at its southern end , a short tramway linked its terminus to Gaunt 's harbour . The Cambrian newspaper carried reports of a ceremonial opening on 30 April 1824 , and a formal opening on 26 May . By 1843 , the canal had become disused , with traffic going to the new harbour at Pembrey instead . = = = Pembrey New Harbour = = = An Act of Parliament dated 10 June 1825 created the New Harbour Company , with powers to build the harbour at Tywyn Bach , on the sands near Pembrey . The Act included powers to build a short section of canal to link with the line of the Kidwelly and Llanelli Canal . The new harbour was completed in 1832 . The community of Burry Port did not exist in 1825 , and it was not until 1835 that the name of the company was changed to the Burry Port Company by another Act of Parliament . = = = James Green 's extensions = = = Once the construction of a new harbour had begun , the Kidwelly and Llanelli Canal Company constructed a tramway from Llanelli to Pwll colliery . Another tramway was built from Burry Port to the coal levels at New Lodge , with a branch to Kilrhos . The company planned to link New Lodge to Pwll in due course , so that there would be a tramway link from Burry Port harbour to Llanelli ; the connection was eventually opened on 8 July 1837 . In 1832 , the canal company asked the engineer James Green to advise on further extensions to the system . His first report was critical of much of the work completed by Pinkerton , and recommended completing the link from the Ashburnham Canal to the new Pembrey harbour . This would require a lock at Ty Mawr , with water supplied by the Dyvatty brook and a new reservoir to be constructed at Cwm Capel in the Dyvatty valley . A second report , supplied three months later , recommended an extension along the Gwendraeth valley , and the construction of three inclined planes to reach a terminus just above Cwmmawr . Water supply for the upper sections would be from a new reservoir to be built above Cwm y Glo . The idea of using inclined planes was an innovation that Green had pioneered elsewhere . He had been the engineer for the Bude Canal , which included six planes , five powered by water wheels and one by a descending bucket mechanism . He was at the time the engineer for the Grand Western Canal , which included seven vertical boat lifts and an inclined plane at Wellisford , again to be powered by a descending bucket mechanism . The rise on the final section of the canal to Cwmmawr was 190 feet ( 58 m ) , and three inclined planes would be much quicker and use much less water than the alternative of 20 or more locks . The wooden Pontnewydd aqueduct , which was prone to the river flowing over its top , was replaced by an iron one built on a slightly higher level to provide more room for the river to flow under it . Pinkerton 's two locks were rebuilt , and the banks of the Kymer canal were raised by 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 6 m ) , to allow the water level to be raised . This had also required the Kidwelly basin walls to be raised . At the southern end , access to Burry Port harbour required a deep cutting to be constructed , and this was completed by March 1835 . Above Pontyates , two more locks were built , followed by an inclined plane with a rise of 52 feet ( 16 m ) at Capel Ifan , one with a rise of 53 feet ( 16 m ) at Pont Henry , and a third with a rise of 85 feet ( 26 m ) at Hirwaunissa , with level sections of canal in between . The upper terminus consisted of a walled basin , 200 by 50 feet ( 61 by 15 m ) , reached by another aqueduct over the Gwendraeth Fawr . In October 1835 Green announced that he was unable to complete the inclined planes because of cost overruns . The company raised more capital to finish the work by calling on shareholders , and on 30 January 1836 dismissed Green as engineer . The Grand Western Canal Company had taken a similar action three days earlier , when the Wellisford inclined plane had failed to work because of a design fault in the sizing of the descending bucket . All construction was completed by 1837 . = = = Inclines = = = Details of the inclined planes have been the subject of some speculation , largely because contemporary documents from the time of their construction are unknown . A local writer called Ap Huw stated that " the inclined planes were manipulated by hydraulic pumps which were considered to be great discoveries " . He also noted that only two of the inclines were used , but whether this was because Hirwaunissa was unfinished or because there was no traffic on the upper section is not clear . The railway engineer W. Robinson described " balance caissons with hydraulic brakes apparatus to check the barges in their descent and to arrange that the full ones coming down pull the empty ones up " . The Colliery Guardian carried an eye @-@ witness report of their operation , in which they were described as self @-@ acting inclines , and it is stated that all three were in operation at the time . The other main sources of information are maps , particularly those published at the time the canal was to be converted into a railway . These clearly show twin @-@ track inclines at Capel Ifan and Pont Henry , and because most of the traffic was in the downhill direction , a simple counterbalanced system was probably employed , although it has also been suggested that the barge may have been balanced by a water tank on the second track to more easily control the speed of descent . The Hirwaunissa incline was longer and narrower than the other two , and only included a single track . Recent research has suggested that the incline was powered by a water wheel , with the waste water running down the incline in a side channel , in order to supply the lower levels of the canal . = = Subsequent development = = No further changes were made to the canal after the extensions were completed , and satisfactory levels of traffic were carried . Fifty @-@ two barges were operational in 1835 , although their size is unknown . The canal was dredged in 1858 , and shareholders began to receive dividends on their investments that same year . Most of the traffic was anthracite coal , which was shipped through Burry Port . Some culm was still shipped through Kidwelly . Major users in 1863 consisted of two collieries at Pwll y Llygod and one at Pontyberem . Success was short @-@ lived , however , as railways started to appear in the region . Faced with the threat of the Carmarthenshire Railway building a branch to Pontyberem , the Canal Company obtained a new Act of Parliament , and became the Kidwelly and Burry Port Railway Company in 1865 . The following year , the Burry Port and Gwendreath Valley Railway company was formed , by amalgamating with the Burry Port Harbour Company . ( The spelling of Gwendraeth was wrong in the Act of Parliament . ) The new company built a railway from Burry Port to Pontyberem , along the towpath over Pinged marsh , and on the bed of the canal elsewhere . This opened in July 1869 . An extension to Kidwelly harbour followed in June 1873 , and one to Cwmmawr in June 1886 . Although the main canal was replaced by the railway , Kymer 's dock continued to be used for the transfer of coal to coastal ships for another 50 years . Principal destinations included Laugharne , Carmarthen , St Clears and Llanstephan . The Kidwelly Corporation took out a lease on the dock in 1872 , and the railway built a branch to it in 1873 , which ran alongside the old canal . Most of the traffic had transferred to the railway by 1914 , but some coasters continued to transport coal ; the last recorded sailing was in the early 1920s , and was bound for Llanstephan . = = Legacy = = Kymer 's dock was used as a refuse tip in the 1950s . In 1988 , a two @-@ year scheme funded by the Manpower Services Commission excavated and restored both the dock and 0 @.@ 6 miles ( 1 km ) of the canal , from the dock to the point where its course is cut by the South Wales Railway . The Gwendraeth Fawr aqueduct is still in situ , as are parts of the Hirwaunissa inclined plane and the final aqueduct below Cwmmawr . = = Route = = = Tome of the Unknown = Tome of the Unknown , the full title of which is Tome of the Unknown : Harvest Melody , is a 2013 animated short film created by Patrick McHale . In the film , Wirt ( Elijah Wood ) , his brother Gregory ( Collin Dean ) , and Beatrice , a bluebird , head to the big city in search of an arcane book of all known things , meeting a vegetable man along the way . Originally imagined as a three @-@ season television show , Cartoon Network asked for it to be a feature film . During production , the miniseries format that eventually became that for Over the Garden Wall was decided on . The film serves as the inspiration and pilot for the aforementioned miniseries , which premiered in 2014 . The network , whose animation studio produced the film , also served as distributor . Released in 2013 to multiple film festivals , Tome of the Unknown has received several accolades . = = Plot synopsis = = In a large forest simply called the " Unknown , " Wirt ( Elijah Wood ) and his brother Gregory ( Collin Dean ) walk with Beatrice ( Natasha Leggero ; later voiced by Melanie Lynskey in the miniseries ) , a bluebird who has gained the ability to speak . The three are on their way to the big city , in search of a book titled The Tome of the Unknown , which – according to legend – contains every forgotten thing . When their legs tire , Greg suggests they ride a goose , but Wirt doubts they could find one big enough to carry them , thus Greg wanders off and discovers a car that is made from vegetables , which both fascinates and confuses Wirt . The car 's owner , John Crops ( C. W. Stoneking ) , is likewise a vegetable humanoid . Crops wallows over his loneliness , wishing like the others to go the metropolitan area . Wirt offers , in exchange for Crops letting them keep the car , to drive Crops to the city , where he can hopefully find a soulmate . A murder of giant crows attacks the vegetable car during the drive , forcing Wirt to veer off into a cornfield and crash into a scarecrow pole , which scares off the crows . Crops then reveals that they have arrived at the " big city , " which turns out to be an old @-@ fashioned small farm community in the middle of the cornfield . While Wirt and Beatrice try to repair the car , Greg wanders off with Crops and they explore the city 's gazebo garden party . Crops then bumps into a woman made of cabbage . Crops apologizes and there 's a sudden announcement that the party 's scheduled entertainment has been cancelled . Greg tells Crops that he could fill in for the party with his guitar and singing abilities , and the woman finds herself flattered after learning that Crops is a musician . Back at the car , Wirt , who can 't figure out how to fix the vehicle as all it is to him is a cluster of vegetables , and Beatrice , who recommends that all he had to do was turn the crank on the car 's front bumper to start the engine , knock over the scarecrow as they leave with the car working . This summons the giant crows , as well as giant turkeys , who terrorize the city and its vegetable inhabitants . Wirt and Beatrice drive up and pick up Greg , while Crops continues to woo the woman with his music , unaware of the chaos around him , even as a crow attacks one of the members of the band he 's performing with and as Wirt tries to get his attention . As Wirt , Greg , and Beatrice attempt to escape without Crops , they are set upon by the giant animals , who start to devour the vegetable car . As Wirt tries to fend them off , Greg suddenly jumps out of the car unnoticed . Suddenly , they hear Greg 's screams from the cornfield . The screams continue , until Wirt and Beatrice finally find Greg in the cornfield , unharmed and yelling with joy as he had finally found a goose big enough for them to ride . The city becomes peaceful once more , as Greg 's screams had scared the birds off forever , and John Crops goes back to his countryside home with his soulmate , the cabbage woman . Wirt , Gregory , Beatrice , and their new companion Goose , continue to travel onwards , deeper and deeper , into the Unknown . = = Production = = Tome of the Unknown is a short film directed by Patrick McHale , who also wrote and storyboarded it . Not long after he graduated college , McHale pitched the idea for the film , among other concepts , to Cartoon Network . At the time , the network was considering the creation of a department for feature films , though this never came to fruition . McHale was asked if it was possible to adapt the idea for Tome of the Unknown to feature length . This proved unsuccessful as he felt it needed to be episodic , laying out plans for a full television series consisting of three seasons . After working as a creative director and a writer for Adventure Time – another Cartoon Network production – on top of a new house and the birth of his child , the network again gave McHale an opportunity to pitch an idea . Having worked in animation for other people as well as on the short animated works of his own , but with nothing for him to call a " professional " piece , McHale did not anticipate the network to have it go further than the short . During production , reformatting the film to a miniseries and not as a traditional television adaptation was proposed by McHale and the network , tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek . Following its release , they both found the format more than suitable . Retitled as Over the Garden Wall , the miniseries was announced in May 2014 . Nick Cross , who worked as a background painter with layout designer Chris Tsirgiotis on Tome of the Unknown , was hired as the art director for the series . = = Release and reception = = Cartoon Network released Tome of the Unknown to several film festivals starting in 2013 , including the 20th anniversary of the Austin Film Festival on October 24 , 2013 , and the International Children 's Film Festival at the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston in May 2014 . At the Ottawa International Animation Festival , the film won an honorable mention as one of the best short animations for children on September 21 , 2013 . A Bruce Corwin Award for animation was given to the film at the 29th annual Santa Barbara International Film Festival in February 2014 , where it was screened in the previous month . Regarding its screening in Boston , Ethan Gilsdorf of The Boston Globe called the film marked by the presence of connections by celebrities , particularly Wood , while noting McHale for his work on Adventure Time . The film saw digital distribution as part of the DVD release of the miniseries on September 8 , 2015 . The network previously released the film on their official website in May 2015 . Róbert Kovács @-@ Cohner of the Hungarian IGN gave it a high recommendation , calling the story beautiful as it occurs over the backgrounds . For their work on these backgrounds , Cross and Tsirgiotis earned juried Emmy Awards , as part of the 67th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards . = = External films = = Official website Tome of the Unknown at the Internet Movie Database = Battle of Ostrach = The Battle of Ostrach , also called the Battle by Ostrach , occurred on 20 – 21 March 1799 . It was the first battle of the War of the Second Coalition . The battle resulted in the victory of the Austrian forces , under the command of Archduke Charles , over the French forces , commanded by Jean Baptiste Jourdan . The battle occurred during Holy Week , 1799 , amid rain and dense fog . Initially , the French were able to take , and hold , Ostrach and the nearby hamlet of Hoßkirch plus several strategic points on the Ostrach marsh . As the engagement began , Habsburg numerical superiority overwhelmed French defenses . By evening , the French left wing was flanked and Jourdan 's men retreated from Ostrach to the Pfullendorf heights . On the next morning , as Jourdan considered a counter @-@ attack , the weather broke , and he could look down on the Austrian battle array . The numbers and dispositions of the Austrians convinced him that any attack would be useless , and that he could not hope to maintain his position in the heights . As he withdrew , a portion of his right flank was cut off from the main force . Although casualties appeared even on both sides , the Austrians had a significantly larger fighting force , both on the field at Ostrach , and stretched along a line between Lake Constance and Ulm . French casualties amounted to eight percent of the force and Austrian , approximately four percent . The French withdrew to Engen and Stockach , where a few days later the armies engaged again , this time with greater losses on both sides , and an Austrian victory . = = Background = = Initially , the rulers of Europe , such as Joseph II , Holy Roman Emperor , viewed the revolution in France as an event between the French king and his subjects , and not something in which they should interfere . As the rhetoric grew more strident , however , the other monarchies started to view events with alarm . In 1790 , Leopold succeeded his brother Joseph as emperor and by 1791 , he considered the situation surrounding his sister , Marie Antoinette , and her children , with greater and greater alarm . In August 1791 , in consultation with French émigré nobles and Frederick William II of Prussia , he issued the Declaration of Pilnitz , in which they declared the interest of the monarchs of Europe as one with the interests of Louis and his family . They threatened ambiguous , but quite serious , consequences if anything should happen to the royal family . The French Republican position became increasingly difficult . Compounding problems in international relations , French émigrés continued to agitate for support of a counter @-@ revolution abroad . Chief among them were the Prince Condé , his son , the Duke de Bourbon , and his grandson , the Duke d 'Enghien . From their base in Koblenz , immediately over the French border , they sought direct support for military intervention from the royal houses of Europe , and raised an army . On 20 April 1792 , the French National Convention declared war on Austria . In this War of the First Coalition ( 1792 – 1798 ) , France ranged itself against most of the European states sharing land or water borders with her , plus Portugal and the Ottoman Empire . Although the Coalition forces achieved several victories at Verdun , Kaiserslautern , Neerwinden , Mainz , Amberg and Würzburg , the efforts of Napoleon Bonaparte in northern Italy pushed Austrian forces back and resulted in the negotiation of the Peace of Leoben ( 17 April 1797 ) and the subsequent Treaty of Campo Formio ( October 1797 ) . The treaty called for meetings between the involved parties to work out the exact territorial and remunerative details , to be convened at Rastatt . The French demand for more territory than originally agreed upon stalled negotiations . Despite their agreement at Campo Formio and the ongoing meetings at Rastatt , the two primary combatants of the First Coalition , France and Austria , were highly suspicious of the other 's motives . Several diplomatic incidents undermined the agreement . The Austrians were reluctant to cede the designated territories and the Rastatt delegates could not , or would not , orchestrate the transfer of agreed upon territories to compensate the German princes for their losses . Ferdinand of Naples refused to pay tribute to France , followed by the Neapolitan rebellion , invasion by France , and the subsequent establishment of the Parthenopaean Republic . Republican uprising in the Swiss cantons , encouraged by the French Republic with military support , led to the establishment of the Helvetic Republic . Other factors contributed to the rising tensions as well . On his way to Egypt in 1798 , Napoleon had stopped on the Island of Malta and forcibly removed the Hospitallers from their possessions . This angered Paul , Tsar of Russia , who was the honorary head of the Order . The French Directory , furthermore , was convinced that the Austrians were conniving to start another war . Indeed , the weaker the French Republic seemed , the more seriously the Austrians , the Neapolitans , the Russians and the English actually discussed this possibility . = = Prelude = = Archduke Charles of Austria had taken command of the army in late January . Although he was unhappy with the strategy set forward by his brother , the Holy Roman Emperor Francis II , he had acquiesced to the less ambitious plan to which Francis and the Aulic council had agreed : Austria would fight a defensive war and would maintain a continuous defensive line from the Danube to northern Italy . The archduke had stationed himself at Friedberg for the winter , 4 @.@ 7 miles ( 8 km ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Augsburg . The army was already settled into cantonments in the environs of Augsburg , extending south along the Lech river . As winter broke in 1799 , on 1 March , General Jean Baptiste Jourdan and his army of 25 @,@ 000 , the so @-@ called Army of the Danube , crossed the Rhine at Kehl . Instructed to block the Austrians from access to the Swiss alpine passes , the Army of the Danube would ostensibly isolate the armies of the Coalition in Germany from allies in northern Italy , and prevent them from assisting one another ; furthermore , if the French held the interior passes in Switzerland , they could use the routes to move their own forces between the two theaters . The Army of the Danube , meeting little resistance , advanced through the Black Forest in three columns , through the Höllental ( Hölle valley ) , via Oberkirch , and Freudenstadt , and a fourth column advanced along the north shore of the Rhine . Although Jourdan might have been better advised to establish a position on the eastern slope of the mountains , he did not . Instead , he pushed across the Danube plain and took up position between Rottweil and Tuttlingen , and eventually pushing toward the imperial city of Pfullendorf in Upper Swabia . News of the French advance across the Rhine took three days to reach Charles at Augsburg . The Austrian Vorhut ( advance guard ) , 17 @,@ 000 men under the command of Field marshal Friedrich Joseph , Count of Nauendorf , crossed the Lech in three columns , the first at Babenhausen , marching in the direction of Biberach , the second , and strongest , at Memmingen , marching in the direction of Waldsee , and the third at Leutkirch , heading in the direction of Ravensburg . The main force of 53 @,@ 000 men , under the command of the Archduke , crossed the Lech by Augsburg , Landsberg and Schongau , and six battalions of 6 @,@ 600 men crossed the Danube at Ulm . An additional force of 13 @,@ 000 troops under the command of Lieutenant Field Marshal Anton Sztáray marched toward Neumarkt in the direction of Rednitz . Eventually , 10 @,@ 000 men under the command of General Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze marched north from Feldkirch in Switzerland , but they did not arrive in time to participate at either the battle at Ostrach , or for the subsequent battle at Stockach . = = = Locale = = = Ostrach was a small village , with a population of 300 . The village belonged to the Cistercian Imperial Abbey of Salem , an influential and wealthy ecclesiastical territory on Lake Constance . The village was largely dedicated to farming , although a stretch of the imperial post road connected it and Pfullendorf . A wide , flat plain , marshy in places , stretched between the base of the Pfullendorf heights and the village ; low lying hills ringed the valley , which was creased by a small stream from which the village takes its name . Ostrach itself lies almost at the northern end of this plain , but slightly south of the Danube itself . The two armies faced each other across this small and , at that time of that year , very soggy valley . = = = Dispositions = = = By 7 March , the first Austrian soldiers arrived in Ostrach . The French advance guard arrived by the 9th , under command of General François Joseph Lefebvre ; in the forward line , the 25th Demi @-@ brigade and Light Infantry positioned themselves between Ostrach and Hoßkirch ; Lefebvre also had three battalions each of the 53rd and 67th Demi @-@ Brigades of light infantry , twenty squadrons of hussars , chasseurs , and dragoons , and field artillery pieces . By 12 March , the village and the surrounding farms were filled with Lancers ( Ulanen ) and Hussars ( Hussaren ) and by the 17th , the Austrian advance guard had established forward posts at Buchau , Altshausen and Waldsee . The remainder of Charles ' army , at this point nearly 110 @,@ 000 strong , had established itself along a line from Ulm to Lake Constance . By 18 March , Jourdan had formed his headquarters at Pfullendorf , on the heights above Ostrach . In front of him stood the largest part of his cavalry and half of his infantry . The center , including the 4th Regiment of Hussars , the 1st of Chasseurs à Cheval , and two squadrons of the 17th Dragoons , lay behind Ostrach , under command of General Klein . Jourdan distributed them in three columns , the strongest on the post road by Saulgau , another on the road in the direction of Altshausen , and a third at the hamlet of Friedberg . The flank of Lefebvre 's division , with 7 @,@ 000 men , commanded by Laurent Saint @-@ Cyr extended to the Danube ; by the time skirmishing began , Vandamme was still in the environs of Stuttgart , with 3 @,@ 000 men , looking in vain for Austrian forces that might be stationed there , and he played no part in the battle . The far right , under command of Ferino , angled south from Pfullendorf to Lake Constance , or the Bodensee . The cavalry reserve of 3 @,@ 000 under General Jean @-@ Joseph Ange d 'Hautpoul included a battalion of the 53rd Demi @-@ Brigade , and waited in close column in the environs of Pfullendorf . = = Battle = = Jourdan considered his position superior to the Austrian 's , protected as he was by the marshy plain between his positions and the Austrian front , and he thought he had another three days to consolidate his positions . His forces occupied Hoßkirch , and a couple of other points he considered strategic : the causeway ( post road ) that passed Saulgau ( today Bad Saulgau ) , the village of Altshausen 11 kilometers ( 7 mi ) east , and the hamlet of Friedberg , 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) to the north @-@ north @-@ east of Ostrach . These positions created a perimeter around Ostrach . He was unaware that the Archduke had arrived by forced marches from Augsburg to the vicinity of Ostrach ; Jourdan thought the main force of Charles ' army was still at least three days ' march away . By the middle of Holy Week in 1799 , more than a third of Charles ' army , 48 @,@ 000 mixed troops , was positioned in a formation parallel to Jourdan 's , and his 72 @,@ 000 remaining troops were arrayed with the left wing at Kempten , the center near Memmingen , and the right flank extended to Ulm . = = = Skirmishing = = = As the armies assembled in their positions , the flanks and forward outposts encountered one another in several skirmishes ; indeed , they had been skirmishing for seven days , until 19 March , when the outposts of both armies nearly overlapped . On the right wing , General Ferino 's men encountered an Austrian column of volunteer infantry and some light cavalry from one of the border Hussar regiments , and took 70 and 80 prisoners , respectively , including several officers . All of this happened without the Austrians knowing that there was an official declaration of war . On the 20 March , a French emissary arrived at camp of Prince Schwarzenberg , a major general commanding a brigade of the advanced guard . The emissary asked if he possessed a declaration of war from Vienna , and upon being informed that Schwarzenberg had received no such declaration , informed him that the armistice established at Campo Formio was ended , and there existed between France and Austria a state of war . General Jourdan reportedly began a general attack when the emissary left , although other sources do not bear out the scale of the attack . Initially , the strength of the French advance guard pushed the most forward of the Austrian right to Saulgau and Ratzenreute , 6 @.@ 2 kilometers ( 4 mi ) east of Ostrach , backing the Austrian main army against the Schussen river . Jean Victor Tharreau 's mixed brigade of infantry , light infantry and cavalry encountered the Austrians at Barendorf , and forced them to give up the ground ; immediately , Charles sent reinforcements , and the Austrians regained what they had lost . At the center of the French line , at Hoßkirch , 3 kilometers ( 2 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of Ostrach , General Lefebvre 's column attacked the Austrians in an action that lasted most of the day . The Austrian line included several seasoned Grenzer ( border ) regiments , the Vecsy Hussars , and some lancers ; although Lefebvre 's initial assault caused confusion in the Austrian ranks , the Lancers counter @-@ attacked with ferocity and , joined by the Grenzers and the Hussars , pursued the French along the Ostrach river valley , and cut up four squadrons of the 8th Regiment of Chasseurs à Cheval . Lefebvre 's column was forced out of the hamlet by the Austrians , who had four battalions , 1200 horse , and six cannons . After bringing up additional reinforcements — several light artillery , Chasseurs à Cheval , Hussars , and the 17th Regiment of Dragoons , Lefebvre was able to take the village again . By 0500 of 21 March , however , he sent word to Jourdan that he was being attacked on all posts by the Austrians , and they must soon expect a general engagement . = = = General engagement = = = Charles had divided his force into columns , and at close to 1000 , the Austrians attacked in force , with simultaneous assaults upon multiple positions . With Nauendorf 's advance force moved with 11 battalions and 20 squadrons on Saint Cyr 's position . Following behind with the main force of the right column , Fürstenberg had little difficulty pushing the French out of Davidsweiler and advanced on Ruppersweiler an Einhard 5 kilometers ( 3 mi ) to the northwest . His force pressured elements of Saint Cyr 's thinly manned line , and the entire line fell back slowly , to maintain contact with its flanks . Maximilian , Count of Merveldt 's force , attacking on Saint Cyr 's far left flank , continued to pressure the line , which started to crumble . Further south , Olivier , Count of Wallis took a column of 18 battalions and 42 squadrons and attacked the Adjutant General François @-@ Xavier Octavie Fontaine 's French line at Riedhausen , between Ostrach and Ferino 's column at Salem . In the maneuvering , the cross @-@ fire trapped French forces ; at Riedhausen , unable to take cover , they were cut down from both sides . Charles himself took a main column along the high road , a causeway that passed by Saulgau , to attack Lefebvre on points between Hoßkirch and Ostrach . In this deployment of his force , Charles sought to dislodge the center of the French line from its position in Ostrach , separating the wings from the main body of force and overcoming both separately . The convergence of the two columns on the French at Ostrach demonstrated the advantage of the superiority of Austrian numbers . From every angle , the Austrians threatened to overwhelm the French . Jourdan wrote that his men disappeared under a cloud of red coats . Battalion after battalion of Austrians threw themselves against the French defenses . By late morning , Charles ' troops pushed the French out of Hoßkirch , and into Ostrach , which the French nearly lost until Jourdan sent reinforcements . The fighting remained fierce until about 1600 , when the French pulled back toward Pfullendorf , encouraged by Austrian cavalry . Once out of Ostrach , and established on the road at and around Pfullendorf , the French formed a new perimeter , reinforced by reserves of Soulham , and enjoyed the benefit of altitude from which they could fire down upon the attacking Austrians . Despite the punishing musket fire , Charles ' strategy worked . The far right wing ( Ferino 's force ) , which had not been attacked yet , fell back to Salem Abbey , to maintain communication with the French center . At the Pfullendorf heights , the fight began anew . Charles sent two strong columns of eight battalions each across the Ostrach stream . The French poured fire on the Austrians , who took heavy losses , but did not give up the ground . In the night , Fürstenberg broke through the French line to Einhard , flanking Jourdan 's main force and cutting off Saint Cyr . Further south , Wallis threatened to do the same to Fontaine and Ferino . As darkness fell , so ended the first day of fighting . = = = Withdrawal = = = As Jourdan was deciding whether or not to attempt another foray , the fog lifted and revealed the scene below him . He wrote later , " ... [ W ] e discovered an immense line of cavalry and infantry . It may be said , without exaggeration , that the troops which engaged our advanced guard amounted to twenty @-@ five thousand men . I now perceived the absolute impossibility of making any further resistance against such a superior force , as well as the danger that threatened the division , from the advantage which the enemy had gained on the left . I therefore ordered General Soult to fall back with the division to the post before Pfulendorf [ sic ] . " He was wrong ; the Austrians engaged with the French advance guard numbered closer to 50 @,@ 000 , and constituted the main body of Charles ' army , not its advance guard . In the night , Charles also had moved additional troops to renew the attack on the Pfullendorf heights at daybreak . On 21 March , at 2200 , Jourdan ordered the wounded to be transported to Schaffhausen in Switzerland , via Stockach . The main army then began its own retreat in the early morning of 22 March . The reserve division of d 'Hautpoul left first , and pulled back via Stockach to Emmingen ob Egg . According to Jourdan , the retreat occurred in perfect order , and was supported in particular by a company of sappers , who blew up the bridges in the face of enemy fire , and then fought like grenadiers . The Austrians outflanked Saint Cyr 's forces on the right flank and General Ferino , at the southern @-@ most point , retreated to Salem , to maintain the line with the remainder of the French force . When the first division pulled back to Bodman , on the northern tip of the Überlingen @-@ finger of Lake Constance , a portion of the force was encircled and cut off by the 2nd Lancers of Karl Philipp , Prince Schwarzenberg 's brigade , and more than 500 were taken prisoner . Other sources are less sanguine in their assessment of Jourdan 's retreat . Jourdan 's forces , especially his left flank , were severely pressed ; the French line collapsed upon itself at both ends as the soldiers fell back . A dispatch to Paris , later reported in the Times , claimed that the French intent had been betrayed to the Austrians by a deserter , but there is some evidence that this was Jourdan 's mendacious attempt to explain the apparent surprise with which the Austrians attacked . A British report claimed that the French commander had two horses shot from under him , but Jourdan himself reported that only one horse was shot , and he was thrown , stunned , to the ground . Lefebvre received a musket ball in the wrist and had to be carried from the field ; command of his division was given to the rising star Jean @-@ de @-@ Dieu Soult . Furthermore , a sizable portion — sources are not clear on how many — of the French right wing ( Ferino 's force ) had been cut off from its main force , and made prisoner . Finally , General Friedrich Freiherr von Hotze was quickly making his way north with 10 @,@ 000 men from Feldkirch and prepared to attack Jourdan 's army from the south . = = Aftermath = = Eventually , Jourdan withdrew first to Messkirch ( sometimes spelled Mößkirch or Meßkirch ) , and when that city was no longer defensible , fell back to Stockach , and then again Engen , but he wrote that the armies had been well @-@ matched ; French valor , he wrote , overcame servitude . His men had taken many Austrian prisoners , and he knew also that many Austrians lay dead or wounded on the field of battle . His army itself had losses , but their valor in death matched the ambitious tyranny of the Austrians : Charles had driven his army hard , he wrote , and the Austrians would not pursue the gallant , liberty @-@ loving French ; Charles ' failure to pursue the French affirmed Jourdan 's perception that his had not been a defeat followed by retreat , but rather a strategic withdrawal . Jourdan probably did not know that Charles had been ordered to maintain a continuous and orderly defensive line with troops to the south . Jourdan 's own assessment did not match that of his superiors in Paris , who recognized that the loss of twelve percent of the fighting force , versus less than four percent for the adversary , did not amount to a draw . Furthermore , this first attempt to cut the Austrians off from access to the upper Rhine and Lake Constance had not succeeded . There were other considerations , primarily that Jourdan simply did not have enough men to fight not only this battle but the subsequent ones as well . For his own part , the Archduke did not push his troops to pursue and capture the enemy , or even harass their retreat . Charles ' slow pursuit might have been due to his own disgruntlement with Vienna 's overarching defensive strategy and the undoubted difficulty of the battle itself , conducted with troops wearied by a forced march of 30 miles ( 48 km ) , fighting in rain , fog , and on normally boggy terrain made more soggy by the heavy spring rains and snow melt . Regardless , he more than made up for these shortcomings within the week . Five days after Jourdan 's departure from Ostrach and Pfullendorf , the French and Austrian armies continued the fight at Stockach . This time , the decision could not be argued : The Army of the Danube could not hold the territory and withdrew into the Black Forest . The battle at Ostrach had been difficult , as Jourdan pointed out , due largely to the dense fog and terrible weather that hampered his observation of his enemy 's movements , yet the same fog that blinded him to the Austrian movements did not seem to hamper Charles . The fog and rainy weather did play a role , however . On a local level , in the damp night of the 20th , which was Gründonnerstag , ( German : Green Thursday , or Maundy Thursday ) , the Danube overflowed , backing up into the Ostrach , and causing it to burst its own banks . The flood trapped 300 civilians between the two armies intent on destruction ; suspecting what was to come , Ostrachers huddled in their cellars , and hoped for the best and gasping for breath as the battle thundered overhead . Amazingly , none were killed , although they spent Easter Sunday caring for the wounded , and helping to bury the 4 @,@ 000 or so soldiers who died in the battle . = = Battle monument = = Prior to 1903 , a simple wooden cross commemorated the battle site , located on the so @-@ called Buchbuhl , a hill overlooking the village , and the plains to the southeast , where much of the fighting occurred . In 1903 , a monument was erected to honor the battle . In 1945 , when French troops arrived in the region , they closed the monument ; the local pastor encouraged them to reopen it , calling it a chapel . = = = Books and journals = = = Alison , Sir Archibald . A History of Europe from the Commencement of the French Revolution in 1789 to the Restoration of the Bourbons . New York : A.S. Barnes , 1850 . Blanning , Timothy . The French Revolutionary Wars . New York : Oxford University Press , 1996 . ISBN 0 @-@ 340 @-@ 56911 @-@ 5 . Gallagher , John . Napoleon 's enfant terrible : General Dominique Vandamme . Tulsa : University of Oklahoma Press , 2008 , ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8061 @-@ 3875 @-@ 6 . Cust , Edward ( Sir ) . Annals of the wars of the eighteenth century , compiled from the most authentic histories of the period . London : Mitchell 's military library , 1857 – 1860 . Graham , Thomas , Baron Lynedoch . ( ? ) The History of the campaign of 1796 in Germany and Italy . London , 1797 . Hollins , David . Austrian Commanders of the Napoleonic Wars , 1792 – 1815 . London : Osprey , 2004 . Jourdan , Jean @-@ Baptiste , A Memoir of the operations of the army of the Danube under the command of General Jourdan , taken from the manuscripts of that officer , London : Debrett , 1799 . ( German ) Kessinger , Roland . ' " Die Schlacht von Stockach am 25 . März 1799 " . Zeitschrift für Militärgeschichte . Salzburg : Öst . Milizverlag , 1997 – . [ 2006 ] . Phipps , Ramsey Weston . The Armies of the First French Republic , volume 5 : The armies of the Rhine in Switzerland , Holland , Italy , Egypt and the coup d 'etat of Brumaire , 1797 – 1799 , Oxford : Oxford University Press , 1939 . Rothenberg , Gunther E. ( 2007 ) . Napoleon ’ s great adversaries : Archduke Charles and the Austrian Army 1792 – 1914 . Stroud , Gloucestershire : Spellmount . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 86227 @-@ 383 @-@ 2 . Smith , Digby ( 1998 ) . The Greenhill Napoleonic Wars Data Book : Actions and Losses in Personnel , Colours , Standards and Artillery , 1792 – 1815 . Greenhill , Pennsylvania : Stackpole Books . ISBN 1 @-@ 85367 @-@ 276 @-@ 9 . * Thiers , Adolphe . The history of the French revolution , New York , Appleton , 1854 , v. 4 . ( German ) Weber , Edwin Ernst . Ostrach 1799 – die Schlacht , der Ort , das Gedenken , Gemeinde Ostrach website . Accessed 24 October 2009 . Young , John , D.D. , A History of the Commencement , Progress , and Termination of the Late War between Great Britain and France which continued from the first day of February 1793 to the first of October 1801 . Volume 2 . Edinburg : Turnbull , 1802 . = = = Newspapers = = = " Engagements Between The Grand Armies Of The Archduke and General Jourdan . " The Times , Friday , 5 April 1799 ; pg . 2 ; col A. Excerpted from the Hamburgh Mail . " Private Correspondence " , Hamburgh , 2 March 1799 , reported in The Times , 8 April 1799 , pg . 3 ; col A. ( German ) Broda , Ruth . " Schlacht von Ostrach : “ jährt sich zum 210 . Mal – Feier am Wochenende . Wie ein Dorf zum Kriegsschauplatz wurde . In : Südkurier vom 13 . Mai 2009 . = Typhoon Sarah ( 1989 ) = Typhoon Sarah , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Openg , was a powerful typhoon that caused extensive damage along an erratic path across the Western Pacific in September 1989 . Originating from a disturbance within a monsoon trough in early September , Sarah was first classified as a tropical depression near the Mariana Islands on September 5 . Moving quickly westward , the depression soon strengthened into Tropical Storm Sarah . On September 8 , the storm abruptly turned southward and temporarily attained typhoon status . Following a series of interactions with secondary areas of low pressure , the storm turned northward the following day . By September 11 , Sarah entered a region favoring development and underwent a period of explosive intensification . At the end of this phase , the storm attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 – equivalent typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale . The typhoon subsequently weakened rapidly and made two landfalls in Taiwan by September 12 . After moving over the Taiwan Strait , Sarah made its final landfall in Eastern China on September 13 before dissipating the following day . While the typhoon meandered near the Philippines , it brought several days of heavy rain to much of Luzon , triggering extensive flash flooding . At least 44 people perished across the country and another 200 @,@ 000 were left homeless . Striking Taiwan as a strong typhoon , Sarah caused widespread wind damage that left approximately 840 @,@ 000 residents without power . Excessive rainfall associated with the storm triggered flooding that washed away highways and inundated about 40 @,@ 500 hectares ( 100 @,@ 000 acres ) of farmland . Throughout the island , Sarah was responsible for 19 fatalities and at least $ 171 million USD ( 4 @.@ 38 billion New Taiwan dollars ) in damage . Four deaths also took place on the Gotō Islands . Additionally , four deaths took place offshore and another seventeen people were listed as missing . = = Meteorological history = = In early September 1989 , a monsoon trough became established across the western Pacific . By September 3 , a disturbance formed within the trough approximately 1 @,@ 100 km ( 685 mi ) southeast of the Japanese island of Minamitorishima . Initially , a tropical upper tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) to the northwest inhibited convective development ; however , " complex interactions " , according to Lt. Cdr . Nicholas D. Gural , later occurred between the TUTT cell , the initial disturbance , and a second disturbance , which resulted in favorable conditions for tropical cyclogenesis . Due to the improved environment , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued two Tropical Cyclone Formation Alerts on the system on September 5 . By this time , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began monitoring the system as a tropical depression . Ultimately , the JTWC issued their first advisory on Tropical Depression 22W early on September 6 , at which time the depression was situated northwest of the Mariana Islands . Initially , the depression tracked west @-@ southwestwards and gradually intensified ; however , after being upgraded to Tropical Storm Sarah late on September 6 , the system turned northwestward and accelerated towards Okinawa . By September 8 , Sarah decelerated as it underwent a binary interaction with a secondary area of convection to the southwest . This interaction caused the cyclone to abruptly turn southwestward towards the Philippines before nearly stalling on September 9 . During this time , the storm temporarily attained typhoon status , having estimated winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) . Coinciding with Sarah 's time as a typhoon , a new area of low pressure , classified as a " lee side low " , developed along the west coast of Luzon . Due to the cyclone 's proximity to the Philippines , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration also monitored the storm and assigned it with the local name Openg . Later on September 9 , Sarah turned sharply northward as the lee side low rapidly tracked northeast . Reintensification gradually took place as the storm moved away from the Philippines , with the storm reaching typhoon status by September 10 . Tracking generally towards the north @-@ northwest , Sarah entered a favorable region for development and underwent a period of explosive intensification on September 11 . Over a six @-@ hour span , the storm 's winds increased from 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) to 215 km / h ( 135 mph ) . A powerful typhoon , Sarah featured a well @-@ defined eye and multiple outflow channels . The storm reached its peak strength later that day as a Category 4 – equivalent typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson Hurricane Scale with winds of 230 km / h ( 145 mph ) . The JMA assessed Sarah to have been somewhat weaker , estimating peak ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 150 km / h ( 90 mph ) along with a barometric pressure of 950 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 05 inHg ) . Forecasters at the JTWC initially projected the storm to track north of Taiwan on September 12 and merge with an approaching frontal system . Contrary to this , Sarah moved south of the expected path and quickly weakened as it interacted with the mountainous terrain of Taiwan . The storm eventually struck the island with winds of 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) late on September 11 . Unexpectedly , the typhoon executed a counterclockwise loop and briefly moved offshore before making a second landfall 12 hours later along the northeastern coast of Taiwan as a tropical storm . Sarah failed to reorganize as it moved over the Taiwan Strait and later made its final landfall in Zhejiang , China as a minimal tropical storm on September 13 . The storm was last noted the following day as dissipating over Eastern China . = = Impact = = = = = Philippines = = = Although the storm did not make landfall in the Philippines , its close proximity brought several days of heavy rain to Luzon , leading to widespread flash floods and mudslides . Landslides across the region isolated many cities , including Baguio . Rivers began exceeding their banks on September 10 and flooded surrounding areas . In the province of Ilocos Sur , ten people were killed in a single town after flood waters swept away many homes overnight . In many areas , waters were waist @-@ deep and officials advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to move to higher ground . Tropical storm force winds , recorded up to 88 km / h ( 55 mph ) at the John Hay Air Base , also impacted the country . In Zambales Province , a tornado spawned by the typhoon injured three people and caused approximately $ 90 @,@ 000 worth of damage . Another tornado struck the Clark Air Base , uprooting trees and damaging buildings . Losses from this tornado reached $ 150 @,@ 000 . At least 44 people were killed in various incidents related to Typhoon Sarah in the Philippines while another three were reported missing . A total of 1 @,@ 157 homes were destroyed and another 24 @,@ 638 sustained damage , leaving approximately 200 @,@ 000 people homeless . Damage from the storm was placed at $ 4 @.@ 3 million . In light of the severity of damage caused by Sarah , a state of calamity was declared for northern provinces . Less than a week after the storm , additional rains in areas affected by Sarah triggered landslides that killed at least 16 people . Officials blamed the landslides on rocks loosened by the typhoon 's rains . = = = Taiwan = = = On September 10 , meteorologists across Taiwan warned residents of torrential rain across the country , especially in mountainous areas where more than 1 @,@ 000 mm ( 39 in ) could fall . The Central Weather Bureau also advised vessels in the Bashi Channel to be cautious or rough seas associated with the typhoon . Most flights to and from the island were canceled by September 11 for the duration of the storm ; however , rail service continued for another day . Approximately 10 @,@ 000 volunteer firefighters were placed on alert and city police were called in to organize evacuation centers . Striking Taiwan as a powerful typhoon , destructive winds battered coastal areas near where the center moved ashore . According to officials in Taiwan , winds were recorded up to 174 km / h ( 108 mph ) with gusts to 208 km / h ( 129 mph ) . These winds downed thousands of trees and power lines , leaving an estimated 840 @,@ 000 residents without electricity . A total of 272 @,@ 000 telephone lines were damaged or destroyed by the storm . Excessive rainfall triggered widespread flash flooding that inundated agricultural areas and paralyzed transportation as roads and bridges were washed away . On September 11 , the Suhua Highway was shut down due to landslides . In Hualien City , flood waters reached a depth of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) and several homes were destroyed , leaving roughly 100 people homeless . Across the island , 28 homes were destroyed and another 41 sustained damage . At least 19 people perished in Taiwan and another 14 were reported missing . At least 40 @,@ 500 hectares ( 100 @,@ 000 acres ) of farmland was submerged by flood waters . Agricultural losses related to Typhoon Sarah reached $ 171 million USD ( 4 @.@ 38 billion New Taiwan dollars ) . Offshore , a 12 @,@ 800 ton Panamanian freighter , the Lung Hao , broke in two amidst rough seas produced by the typhoon . Twenty @-@ one people were rescued by police after the vessel drifted 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) to shore ; however , four people were listed as missing . After two days of search and rescue efforts , officials deemed their chance of survival to be very slim and the four missing crew members were declared dead on September 14 . = = = Elsewhere = = = Heavy rains from the outer bands of Sarah also affected much of southwestern Japan . In the Gotō Islands , 476 mm ( 18 @.@ 7 in ) of rain triggered several landslides , one of which destroyed a two @-@ story home and killed four people . Additional rains , ranging from 30 to 200 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) , fell in parts of Fujian and Zhejiang Provinces in China . No known damage resulted from the rainfall in China . = The Boat Race 1997 = The 143rd Boat Race between crews from the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge took place on the River Thames on 29 March 1997 . Umpired by former Oxford rower Tom Cadoux @-@ Hudson , Cambridge won in a time of 17 minutes and 38 seconds . In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths . Cambridge won the 52nd Women 's Boat Race . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge . First held in 1829 , the competition is a 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) race along the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1996 race by two @-@ and @-@ three @-@ quarter lengths , and led overall with 73 victories to Oxford 's 68 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . The race was the last to be sponsored by Beefeater Gin . The first Women 's Boat Race took place in 1927 , but did not become an annual fixture until the 1960s . Until 2014 , the contest was conducted as part of the Henley Boat Races , but as of the 2015 race , it is held on the River Thames , on the same day as the men 's main and reserve races . The reserve race , contested between Oxford 's Isis boat and Cambridge 's Goldie boat has been held since 1965 . It usually takes place on the Tideway , prior to the main Boat Race . = = Crews = = The weigh @-@ in was held at the Hurlingham Club on 24 March 1997 . The Cambridge crew , pre @-@ race favourites , weighed an average of 1 pound ( 0 @.@ 45 kg ) more per rower than Oxford , with Cambridge 's Alex Story the heaviest man in the race at 16 stone ( 100 kg ) . The crews were the tallest in the history of the race , with Cambridge averaging 6 ft 5 @.@ 25 in ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) to Oxford 's 6 ft 4 @.@ 5 in ( 1 @.@ 94 m ) . Oxford 's Roberto Blanda became the first Blue from Italy . Cambridge 's crew featured three former Blues , while Oxford 's crew contained none . Cambridge were coached once again by Robin Williams , while Oxford were guided by Dutchman René Mijnders , who had led the Netherlands to Olympic gold in Atlanta in the men 's eight . = = Race description = = Oxford 's non @-@ rowing boat club president Ed Bellamy won the toss and selected the Surrey station as the starting point for his crew , Cambridge therefore started from the Middlesex station . Immediately from the start , Cambridge cox Kevin Whyman steered into the Oxford water , closing the lateral gap between the boats and securing a series of warnings from race umpire Tom Cadoux @-@ Hudson . Oxford held a lead of a few feet round the Fulham bend , but the crews were level at the mile post . By Hammersmith Bridge , Oxford had pulled away marginally to hold a one @-@ third length lead , but superior steering by Whyman around the Surrey bend pulled Cambridge back into contention , level by the Chiswick Steps , and a length ahead by Barnes Bridge . Moving across , Cambridge took Oxford 's clear water and passed the finishing post six seconds and two lengths ahead . It was Cambridge 's fourth consecutive victory and took the overall record to 74 – 68 in their favour . By the end of the race , umpire Cadoux @-@ Hudson had issued 132 warnings to the crews . In the reserve race , Cambridge 's Goldie beat Oxford 's Isis by six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , and in the 52nd running of the Women 's Boat Race , Cambridge also triumphed . = = Reaction = = Olympic gold medallist Steve Redgrave presented Cambridge with the Beefeater Trophy and both crews with their medals . Oxford 's coach Mijnders said " After the big bend , Cambridge were actually flying ... the further the race went on , the better Cambridge rowed " . Cambridge coach Williams noted " Some of our boys took some stick in the press , but they responded to the pressure and were brilliant . " Oxford 's stroke and Olympic bronze medallist Tim Foster told his crew " We 'll always remember we lost the Boat Race , but don 't forget we are still good rowers . " Cadoux @-@ Hudson stated in an interview that there were two occasions where the blades clashed : " Cambridge were being warned on one occasion and Oxford on the other , so I think it equalled out at the end . I don 't think it affected the outcome " . = Back to Basics ( Christina Aguilera album ) = Back to Basics is the fifth studio album by American recording artist Christina Aguilera . It was released on August 9 , 2006 by RCA Records as a double album . Serving as executive producer , she enlisted a wide range of producers including DJ Premier , Rich Harrison , Rob Lewis , Mark Ronson , and Linda Perry . Recording sessions began in January 2005 and ended in April 2006 , taking place at Chalice Recording Studios and Record Plant . Inspired by Aguilera 's 1920s – 1940s idols , including Billie Holiday , Otis Redding , Etta James , and Ella Fitzgerald , Back to Basics was described by Aguilera herself as a fusion of old @-@ school jazz and soul inspirations with a modernized style . Primarily a pop and R & B record , the first disc juxtaposes rhythm and blues with hip hop and urban elements with most songs employing samples , while the second contains all original tracks with the exception of " Candyman " , which samples " Tarzan & Jane Swingin ' on a Vine " . Lyrically , the album is inspired by Aguilera 's previous life events including her marriage with Jordan Bratman in 2005 . To portray a new persona , Aguilera adopted her new alter ego , Baby Jane , and made several changes to her public appearance , inspired by classic Hollywood movie stars . She promoted the album by performing at concerts from mid @-@ 2006 to early @-@ 2007 , including the 2006 MTV Movie Awards and the 2006 MTV Video Music Awards . The album 's supporting tour Back to Basics Tour , which visited countries in North America , Asia , Europe , Australia and Middle East , lasted from late @-@ 2006 until late @-@ 2008 . Back to Basic spawned three international singles : " Ain 't No Other Man " , " Hurt " and " Candyman " . Back to Basics received positive reviews from music critics who complimented its musical diversity from Aguilera 's previous albums while there were others who criticized its length . The record received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Pop Vocal Album , and its lead single " Ain 't No Other Man " won Best Female Pop Vocal Performance at the 49th Annual Grammy Awards in 2007 . In its first week of release , the album debuted atop the US Billboard 200 chart with first @-@ week sales of 346 @,@ 000 copies . Back to Basics achieved similar success internationally , reaching the top spot in over fifteen countries including Australia , Canada , Germany , Ireland , Switzerland and United Kingdom . The album has sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies in the US , and 5 million units worldwide as of November 2013 . = = Background = = At the 46th Annual Grammy Awards in 2004 , Aguilera announced that she was going to work on a follow @-@ up album to Stripped ( 2002 ) . She stated her main idea for the project was to " evolve as an artist and a visionary " , which was taken from a poem she wrote during The Stripped Tour ( 2003 ) . In an interview with Billboard magazine , Aguilera expressed dissatisfaction with contemporary music , as technology " has advanced itself so anybody can be a singer " . Thus , Aguilera took musical inspirations from old @-@ school jazz , blues and soul records performed by her 1920s @-@ 1940s idols including Billie Holiday , Otis Redding , Etta James and Ella Fitzgerald , which she viewed as " music that really had heart " . To create a " throwback " with elements of old @-@ school genres combined with " a modern @-@ day twist " , Aguilera sent letters to different producers that she hoped could help her with the direction she was taking for the project , encouraging them to experiment , re @-@ invent and create a modern soul feel . She initially planned to condense the album into a single , more " affordable " disc , however she expanded Back to Basics as a double album . For the first disc , Aguilera collaborated with hip hop producers including DJ Premier , Rich Harrison , Kwamé , and Mark Ronson for the first time . Most songs from the first half incorporate horn samples to create " gritty and old " sounds . DJ Premier questioned if Aguilera was familiar with his work , though she had known of his jazz @-@ influenced work with Gang Starr in late @-@ 1980s and early @-@ 1990s . In response , Aguilera wanted her album to draw inspirations from Premier 's song " Jazz Thing " and noted that their collaboration became his first time " venturing into the ' pop ' world " . For the " 1920s and 1930s @-@ era vibe " -influenced second disc , Aguilera teamed up with longtime producer Linda Perry , who produced Aguilera 's previous album Stripped . In contrast to the first half disc , the second one consists of all live recordings without using samples ( with the exception of " Candyman " featuring a sample of " Tarzan & Jane Swingin ' on a Vine " ) . Recording sessions of the project began in January 2005 and ended in April 2006 , taking place at Chalice Recording Studios and The Record Plant in Hollywood , California . All songs from Back to Basics were recorded using Pro Tools HD3 program and done with a SSL J9000 console with 96 inputs . Aguilera 's vocals were recorded using a Telefunken ELAM 251 microphone , possibly in conjunction with an Avalon M @-@ 5 pre @-@ amp . Producer Scott Storch , who contributed to Aguilera 's previous album Stripped , was asked to return for the production of Back to Basics . However , he refused the offer when Aguilera declined to pay airfare for him and his entourage to fly out to Los Angeles , which led to a breakdown of their relationship . Subsequently , Aguilera included the song " F.U.S.S. " ( " Fuck You Scott Storch " ) on the album , which Storch viewed as " pathetic " . = = Music = = According to Aguilera and the production team , Back to Basics draws influences from 1920s @-	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
. It featured 36 tracks including the TV version from the first opening theme and the first two ending themes . The second CD soundtrack , Gintama Original Soundtrack 2 , was released on November 11 , 2007 . It included 40 tracks but it did not have TV versions of the opening and ending themes from the series . The next CD is Gintama Original Soundtrack 3 published on June 24 , 2009 . It features a total of 28 tracks including the theme " Dondake ! Gintaman " ( どんだけー ! ギンタマン ) which was used as a gag in episode 100 from the series . The fourth and latest CD soundtrack is composed of thirty @-@ four tracks and was released on March 21 , 2013 . Apart from soundtracks from the TV series , there have been three CDs known as Gintama Best ( 銀魂 BEST ) which include the full versions from the opening and ending themes . Each of the CDs also have an extra DVD with the original videos . The two movies have also had their own original CD soundtracks . = = = Light novels = = = A series of light novels based on the Gin Tama manga have been authored by Tomohito Ōsaki , illustrated by Hideaki Sorachi , and published by Shueisha . They feature the series characters transposed to a school setting with Gintoki acting as their teacher . It is running in Jump Square under the title 3 @-@ Nen Z @-@ Gumi Ginpachi @-@ sensei ( 3年Z組銀八先生 , lit . " Grade 3 Class Z Ginpachi @-@ sensei " ) . The first novel was published on February 3 , 2006 , while seven light novels have been published by Shueisha . A novelization of the second film has also been authored by Ōsaki and was released in 2013 alongside the film . = = = Video games = = = In Japan , a PlayStation 2 Gin Tama game , Gintama : Together with Gin ! My Kabuki District Journal ( 銀魂銀さんと一緒 ! ボクのかぶき町日記 , Gintama Gin @-@ san to Issho ! Boku no Kabuki @-@ chō Nikki ) , was released on August 30 , 2007 , and a Wii game , Gintama : General Store Tube : Tsukkomi @-@ able Cartoon ( 銀魂万事屋ちゅ〜ぶツッコマブル動画 , Gintama Yorozuya Chūbu Tsukkomaburu Dōga ) , was released on October 25 , 2007 . A game for the Nintendo DS called Gintama : Silver Ball Quest : Gin 's Job @-@ Change to Save the World ( 銀魂銀玉くえすと銀さんが転職したり世界を救ったり , Gintama Gintama Kuesuto Gin @-@ san ga Tenshoku @-@ shitari Sekai o Sukuttari ) was released on December 6 , 2007 . Other two games for the DS include Gintama Dee @-@ Ess : Odd Jobs Grand Riot ! ( 銀魂でぃ〜えす・万事屋大騒動 ! , Gintama Dīesu Yorozuya Daisōdō ! ) and Gintama : Gintoki vs. Hijikata ! ? The Huge Fight Over Silver Souls in the Kabuki District ! ! ( 銀魂銀時vs土方 ! ? かぶき町銀玉大争奪戦 ! ! , Gintama Gintoki vs Hijikata ! ? Kabuki @-@ cho Gitama Daisōdatsusen ! ! ) . Gin Tama characters also appear in the Weekly Shōnen Jump crossover Jump Super Stars and its sequel , Jump Ultimate Stars , both for Nintendo DS . Gintoki also appears as a playable fighter in the Jump crossover fighting game J @-@ Stars Victory VS on PlayStation 3 and PlayStation Vita , with Kagura and Sadaharu acting as support . PlayStation Portable also have a game name " Gintama no Sugoroku - 銀魂のすごろく " , released on 24 January 2013 by Bandai Namco . = = = Guidebooks = = = There have been various guidebooks for the Gin Tama manga and its anime . The first guidebook for the manga is Gintama Official Character Book - Gin Channel ! ( 銀魂公式キャラクターブック｢銀ちゃんねる ! ｣ , Gintama Official Character Book - Gin Chaneru ! ) released by Shueisha on April 4 , 2006 . It features characters files , an interview with Hideaki Sorachi and original character stickers . The second book is Gintama Official Character Book 2 - Fifth Grade ( 銀魂公式キャラクターブック2 ｢銀魂五年生｣ , Gintama Official Character Book 2 - Gonen @-@ Sei ) which was published on May 5 , 2009 . Like the previous book , this one also has an interview with Sorachi and files for the new characters that have appeared in the series since the first guidebook 's release . The first guidebook for the anime is named Gintama Official Animation Guide " Gayagaya Box " ( オフィシャルアニメーションガイド銀魂あにめガヤガヤ箱 ) . It was published on April 4 , 2008 to celebrate the airing of the anime 's 100th episode . This guidebook features commentaries by the Japanese voice actors and the cast from the series . It was followed by Official Animation Guide Gintama Anime Paraparakan ( オフィシャルアニメーションガイド銀魂あにめパラパラ館 ) on April 5 , 2011 . A series of three anime character guidebooks titled Gintama Character Book ( 銀魂キャラクターズブック , Gintama Kyarakutazu Bukku ) have also been published in Japan within 2010 . = = = Live @-@ action film = = = In June 2016 , Shueisha announced the series will have a live @-@ action adaptation of the series . It is slated to be premiere in 2017 . Direction of the film as well as the script is being handled by Yūichi Fukuda . Additionally , Shueisha said that Gintoki will be portrayed by Shun Oguri . = = Reception = = The Gin Tama manga has sold 50 million units in Japan as of May 2016 . In March 2007 , Shueisha announced that sales of the first volume had passed one million copies . Following volumes from the manga have also had good sales , having appeared various times in the Japanese comic ranking . The 17th volume from the manga ranked as the 10th bestseller volume from Japan during 2007 . During 2008 , the manga ranked as the 10th bestseller series with over 2 @.@ 3 million copies sold . It also hit number 5 in Japan in the most sold manga in the first half of 2009 list , selling over 2 @.@ 7 million volumes from November 17 , 2008 to May 17 , 2009 . In 2008 Gin Tama was featured in two Oricon surveys ; it ranked at the top as " funniest manga " and 5th in " most interesting manga " . In another survey from 2009 , it was listed as the sixth choice for what manga could adapted into a live @-@ action film . In a poll from Zassosha 's Puff Japanese manga magazine , Gin Tama was second in the category " Best Long Stories " . Fuji News Network has cited Gin Tama as one of the responsibles for the wooden swords ' popularity during 2008 as Hokkaido 's retailers have experienced brisk sales in wooden swords to foreigners . In North America , Gin Tama has ranked as the best new shōnen manga from 2007 in About.com 's 2007 Readers Poll : Best New Shonen Manga . In the Society for the Promotion of Japanese Animation Award from 2008 , Gin Tama was nominated for the category " Best Manga - Comedy " , losing to Negima ! Magister Negi Magi . English sales from the manga volumes have also been good with some of them having appeared in Diamond Comic Distributors 's Top 300 Graphic Novels . The first Gin Tama light novel became the top @-@ selling novel from Japan during 2006 . The same achievement was made by the third novel during 2008 . The anime adaptation has also been featured several times in the Japanese TV ranking , with the first two episodes having a rating of 5 @.@ 6 . DVD sales of the series have also been featured in the Japanese anime DVD ranking various times , while the third DVD of season 3 ranked ninth in the Japanese Amazon.com Top Ten of best sellers DVDs during 2008 . In August 2008 , TV Tokyo announced that Gin Tama and Naruto " contributed to robust sales of overseas rights in the last fiscal year which ended in March . " In a poll from Puff , Gin Tama won in the category " Best Animation " . The DVD from the Gin Tama OVAs became the top @-@ selling OVA in Japan during 2009 , having sold 61 @,@ 226 units after two weeks of being released . In the Oricon survey " 2009 's Top @-@ Selling DVDs in Japan " , the same DVD ranked at the top of the category " Animation / Special Effects DVDs " with a total of 76 @,@ 000 units sold . The CD soundtrack Gintama The Best received the " Animation Album of the Year award " from the Kinema Junpo 's DVD Navigator Japanese magazine . Critical response to the Gin Tama manga has generally been positive . Carlo Santos from Anime News Network found the manga to be a " one @-@ of @-@ a @-@ kind comedy " praising the characters ' personalities and gags . On the other hand , the artwork was criticized for being " hard to follow " when there are fast scenes . Jokes regarding clichés from other shōnen series were also positively received by About.com writer Deb Aoki , who , like Santos , found the artwork to be " the only thing that distracts from the otherwise considerable pleasures of this loveable , goofy manga " . However , characters ' designs were praised for its variations including the ones from the aliens appearing in the series by Katherine Dacey from Pop Culture Shock who remarked that " These characters add visual interest and life to every panel , keeping the reader invested when the stories stall . " Other negative comments regarding the manga have the few number of aliens appearing in the series as well as how some chapters are focused in fights such as Hijikata 's fight against Gintoki . Michael Aronson from Manga Life concluded his review of the manga by saying that " The potential is there , but the execution is struggling " as still he liked the comedy from the story . Comics Village 's Alex Hoffman mentioned that Gin Tama " can 't truly be compared to those comics because of one thing : the jokes . " He found the context from the series hilarious and like how there are new jokes in every chapter . Like other reviewers , Hoffman also disliked Sorachi 's artwork , but still found the manga to be " a great comedy , or a great read . " Comic Book Bin writer Leroy Douresseaux found that the large number of characters with different appearances in the series allow the reader to remain entertained with the series as " at least every few pages or so present some unusual and interesting visual . " The anime adaptation of Gin Tama has received positive and mixed responses . The humor was noted to be improved after the series ' introduction although some jokes were hard to understand because some of them are references to Japanese culture and other series . The notes on the DVD releases were criticized for lacking explanation of cultural jokes . Additionally , the humor 's quality was found to be inconsistent within the first episodes due to the depth some bring , to the point that some viewers may abandon the series . The quality from the series was found to improve as the series continues as people would not be intimidated by its large number of episodes . The characters ' action were praised due to their knowledge that their tendencies to " break the fourth wall " , while the female characters were found appealing based on their unusual qualities . The series has been noted for its ability to shift between comedy and drama without a loss of quality . = = = Controversy = = = Episode 232 of the anime series had a defamatory depiction of a character that referenced a specific politician , the current Minister for Government Revitalisation Renhō Murata , which resulted in the cancellation of its rerun on AT @-@ X. Series supervisor Shinji Takamatsu explained that TV Tokyo cancelled the rerun on its own . Renhō 's representative denied having objected to the episode although a report from the Mainichi Shimbun paper stated the affected party contacted TV Tokyo . When the story arc the episode belonged to was completed , Takamatsu expressed doubts about the arc 's release in DVD format . = Toxic ( song ) = " Toxic " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fourth studio album , In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was written and produced by Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg ( known collectively as Bloodshy & Avant ) , with additional writing from Cathy Dennis and Henrik Jonback . The song released on January 13 , 2004 , by Jive Records , as the second single from the album . After trying to choose between " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " and " Outrageous " to be the second single from In the Zone , Spears selected " Toxic " instead . A dance song with elements of bhangra music , " Toxic " features varied instrumentation , such as drums , synthesizers and surf guitar . It is accompanied by high @-@ pitched Bollywood strings and breathy vocals . Its lyrics draw an extended metaphor of a lover as a dangerous yet addictive drug . The song has received critical acclaim by music critics , who deemed it as the strongest track of In the Zone and praised its hook and chorus . " Toxic " attained worldwide success , reaching the top @-@ five in 15 countries , while topping the charts in Australia , Canada , Hungary , Ireland , Norway and the United Kingdom . In the United States , it became her fourth Top 10 single . The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Joseph Kahn and features references to Blade Runner , The Seven Year Itch and the films of John Woo . It portrays Spears as a secret agent in the search of a vial of green liquid . After she steals it , she enters an apartment and poisons her unfaithful boyfriend . The video also includes interspersed scenes of Spears naked with diamonds on her body . After Janet Jackson 's Super Bowl incident , the video was considered too racy for MTV and was moved to late @-@ night programming . Spears has performed " Toxic " in a number of live appearances , including the 2004 NRJ Music Awards and in three of her concert tours . It was the opening number of The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , where she sang atop of a bus wearing a black catsuit ; Spears also performed remixed versions of the song at The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , the Femme Fatale Tour ( 2011 ) and Britney : Piece of Me ( 2013 ) . " Toxic " has been covered by artists such as Mark Ronson , A Static Lullaby , Reece Mastin and Ingrid Michaelson , and in television series Glee . The song has also appeared in feature films such as Knocked Up , You Again and television series Doctor Who . " Toxic " won Spears her first Grammy at the 2005 ceremony in the category of Best Dance Recording , while gaining her credibility amongst critics . The song has been included in lists by Pitchfork , NME and Rolling Stone as one of the best songs of the decade . = = Background = = " Toxic " was written by Cathy Dennis , Henrik Jonback , Christian Karlsson and Pontus Winnberg from production team Bloodshy & Avant , while produced by the latter two . The song was originally offered to Kylie Minogue for her ninth studio album Body Language ( 2003 ) , but she rejected it . Minogue later commented , " I wasn 't at all angry when it worked for her . It 's like the fish that got away . You just have to accept it . " " Toxic " was recorded at Murlyn Studios in Stockholm , Sweden and Record Plant in Hollywood , California . The song was later mixed by Niklas Flyckt at Khabang Studios in Stockholm . In December 2003 , it was announced by MTV News that after trying to choose between " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " and " Outrageous " to be second single from In the Zone , Spears had selected " Toxic " instead . She described it as " an upbeat song . It 's really different , that 's why I like it so much . " = = Composition = = " Toxic " is a dance song with elements of bhangra music . It features varied instrumentation , such as drums , synthesizers , violins and high @-@ pitched strings . It also contains surf guitar , that according to Caryn Ganz of Spin , " warps and struts like it 's been fed into the Matrix . " The music was also compared to the soundtracks of the James Bond film series . The hook of " Toxic " samples a portion of " Tere Mere Beech Mein " , from the soundtrack of the 1981 Hindi film Ek Duuje Ke Liye . This music was composed by Lata Mangeshkar and S. P. Balasubrahmanyam . However , it is not lifted verbatim from the score and mixes two different sections of the piece . Spears sings the song with breathy vocals . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , " Toxic " is composed in the key of C minor , with a tempo of 143 beats per minute . Spears 's vocal range spans from the low note of F3 to the high note of G5 . Lyrically , " Toxic " talks about being addicted to a lover . Spears refers to her addiction in the lyrics , and sings lines such as " Too high / Can 't come down / Losing my head / Spinning round and round " in a falsetto . A reviewer from Popdust called the verse " The most representative lyric of the song 's delirious , disorienting charm . " " Toxic " ends with an outro in which Spears sings the lines , " Intoxicate me now / With your lovin ' now / I think I 'm ready now . " Nick Southall of Stylus Magazine said the lyrics made Spears sound afraid of sex . = = Critical reception = = The song received general acclaim upon release . Heather Richels of The Paly Voice complimented its hook and catchiness , while deeming it the most appealing song of the album . While reviewing The Onyx Hotel Tour , Pamela Sitt of The Seattle Times called it the album 's strongest single . Eric Olsen of msnbc.com said the song could be the biggest hit of In the Zone , while calling it " powerfully addicting . " Caryn Ganz of Spin commented that , " Spears hits pay dirt on ' Toxic ' " . Christy Lemire of Associated Press said it was one of Spears ' greatest hits and deemed it as " insanely catchy " , saying that the chorus alone " makes you want to forgive the Alias wannabe video that accompanies the song . " Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic called it along with " Showdown " , " irresistible ear candy in what is surely Britney 's most ambitious , adventurous album to date " . In a separate review of Spears ' greatest hits album Greatest Hits : My Prerogative ( 2004 ) , Erlewine selected it as one of the " track picks " and described it as " a delirious , intoxicating rush " . Jeffrey Epstein of Out compared the innovative sound of " Toxic " to Madonna 's " Vogue " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine said that " Toxic " and " ( I Got That ) Boom Boom " , " find Britney dabbling in hip @-@ hop , but it 's clear her heart lies in the clubs . " Jamie Gill of Yahoo ! Music Radio commented that , " In the name of fairness , it will be noted that ' Toxic ' and ' Showdown ' could well have been good pop songs in the hands of any other singer than Spears . " Joan Anderman of The Boston Globe named it " a well @-@ titled cascade of frantic , mechanized glissandos and dreadful canned strings that buries the album 's coolest ( only ? ) chorus under a joyless mass " . The song was ranked at number five in the 2004 Pazz & Jop poll by The Village Voice . " Toxic " was nominated for Best Song at the 2004 MTV Europe Music Awards , but lost to Outkast 's " Hey Ya ! " . It won Best Single at the 2004 Teen Choice Awards . Pitchfork listed the song at number three on their Top 50 Singles of 2004 list . Rob Mitchum commented that Spears " finally , she just acted like an adult , rather than constantly reminding us she wasn 't a girl anymore . " = = Chart performance = = " Toxic " entered at number 53 on the Billboard Hot 100 , on the issue dated January 31 , 2004 . It became the week 's " Highest Debut " . On March 27 , 2004 , it peaked at number nine ; it was her fourth single to reach the top @-@ ten and became her first single to reach the top ten since " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " in 2000 . " Toxic " also topped both the Pop Songs and Hot Dance Club Songs charts . On October 25 , 2004 , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for sales of 100 @,@ 000 copies . As of March 2015 , " Toxic " has sold 2 @.@ 2 million digital downloads in the United States according to Nielsen SoundScan . It is her fifth best @-@ selling digital single in the country . The song also topped the Canadian Singles Chart . " Toxic " debuted at the top of the Australian charts on March 15 , 2004 , and stayed in the position for two weeks . The song received a gold certification by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments over 35 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , " Toxic " debuted at number 38 on the issue dated February 16 , 2004 , and peaked at number two on March 29 , 2004 . It stayed at the position the following week , held off from the top spot by Eamon 's " Fuck It ( I Don 't Want You Back ) " . On March 7 , 2004 , " Toxic " debuted at number one on the UK Singles Chart for the week ending date March 13 , 2004 , becoming her fourth number @-@ one hit in the United Kingdom . In April 2004 , it was certified silver by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , with sales over 200 @,@ 000 copies . According to The Official Charts Company , the song has sold 426 @,@ 000 copies there . " Toxic " also peaked inside the top @-@ ten in every country it charted . The song topped the charts in Hungary and Norway ; reached the top five in Austria , Czech Republic , Denmark , Germany , Italy , France , Sweden and Switzerland ; and the top ten in Belgium ( Flanders and Wallonia ) , Finland and the Netherlands . = = Music video = = = = = Development and release = = = The music video for " Toxic " was filmed over three days in December 2003 , on a sound @-@ stage in Los Angeles , California . It was directed by Joseph Kahn , who previously worked with Spears on the music video for her 2000 single " Stronger " . The editor of the video was David Blackburn , who also edit " Womanizer " and " Do Somethin ' " . Spears first approached Kahn with a story sketch of a secret agent out for revenge against an ex @-@ lover , to which Kahn created a treatment for . Her concept was almost fully formed and detailed , exemplifying the scene in which she drops water on the passenger 's lap . Kahn said , " That 's part of her brilliance [ ... ] She totally understands that she 's naughty and nice , that she 's the girl @-@ next @-@ door gone bad who is constantly titillating you " . Spears said she wanted to join the mile high club and be a stewardess that kissed a man in the bathroom . Kahn suggested making him a fat man , so the " common man " would feel represented . Spears also told him about a scene in which she would be naked and covered in diamonds . Kahn stated he was " not sure what I was thinking about when she told me about that scene , maybe those intros to James Bond movies , but every video needs an iconic image to remember , and that 's it " . The choreography was a collaboration between Brian Friedman and Spears , and every scene had a completely different strictly structured routine . After the treatment was finished , Kahn proceeded to cast his friends and acquaintances , as in most of his projects . The plane passenger in which Spears drops water on was played by his long @-@ time casting director , while the fat man in the bathroom was played by the casting director 's assistant . Spears 's boyfriend is played by Martin Henderson , who starred in Kahn 's directorial debut Torque . For the naked scenes , Spears made clear the set , leaving only Kahn and Blackburn with her to shoot the sequence . Spears also shot scenes in which she had to dance through a hallway of imaginary lasers in front of a green screen , something that Kahn deemed as " incredible to watch " . The last few scenes of the video in which Spears murders her boyfriend , concerned Kahn , who thought they would be censored . He explained " the trick was to make it look pop at the same time " and told Henderson " ' Would you like to be kissed by Britney Spears ? ' " . According to Kahn , the hint of a smile that appears on Henderson 's face before Spears pours the poison into his mouth was what managed to get the shot past censors . Although Spears was at first going to be involved in the editing process with Blackburn , she did not contact Kahn after the media scandal over her wedding in Las Vegas . " Toxic " is Spears 's most expensive music video to date , at a cost of $ 1 million . The music video premiered exclusively on MTV 's Making the Video on January 13 , 2004 . The following day , Spears appeared on TRL to premiere it on regular rotation . The video was first released on the In the Zone DVD . An alternate karaoke version featuring the diamonds scene was released on the Greatest Hits : My Prerogative DVD . The video got a certified in the digital platform Vevo on YouTube . = = = Synopsis = = = The music video begins with an open shot of an airplane flying surrounded by many doves , referencing the works of Hong Kong director John Woo . Spears appears with blond hair dressed as a flight attendant , receiving a phone call . After serving some of the passengers , she leads a middle aged overweight man to the bathroom and seduces him . She takes off the man 's mask to reveal an attractive man ( Matthew Felker ) and steals a black pass from his pocket . Spears is then dropped into the back of a Ducati 999 , driven by a shirtless male ( Tyson Beckford ) in a futuristic Paris , that was compared to the 1982 film Blade Runner . She wears a tight black catsuit and sports red hair , inspired by the character of Sydney Bristow from television series Alias . They pass a woman and lift up her dress , a homage to the iconic Marilyn Monroe scene in the 1955 film The Seven Year Itch . They also pass two women frolicking in a store window . Throughout the video , there are scenes of Spears nude covered in diamonds . The look was compared to that of Kate Bush in the music video for her 1978 single , " The Man with the Child in His Eyes " . Spears then enters Toxic Industries , and gains access to a vault from which she steals a vial of green poison . She accidentally triggers a laser trap when she leaves that she evades with elaborate dance moves , including a back handspring . This is followed by scenes of Spears wearing a black superheroine outfit and black hair . She scales a building and enters an apartment , where her unfaithful boyfriend ( Henderson ) is waiting . She kisses him just before pouring the poison into his mouth , killing him . Spears kisses him again and jumps out of the window . She lands back on the plane sporting her flight attendant outfit , and winks at the camera . The video closes with a shot of the airplane flying surrounded by doves like the beginning . = = = Reception and impact = = = Jennifer Vineyard of MTV compared the video to Justin Timberlake 's " Cry Me a River " , saying that " Where her real @-@ life ex just stalked his cheating lover in his clip , [ ... ] Spears takes a more lethal approach . " On February 10 , 2004 , MTV announced that due to the Super Bowl XXXVIII halftime show controversy in which Janet Jackson 's breast was exposed on live television , " Toxic " along with other five music videos would be moved from daytime to late @-@ night programming from 10 p.m. until 6 a.m. A spokeswoman for MTV announced that " given the particular sensitivity in the culture right now , we 're erring on the side of caution for the immediate future . " The video was nominated at the 2004 MuchMusic Video Awards in the category of Best International Artist Video , but lost to Beyoncé 's " Crazy in Love " . It was also nominated for four VMAs at the 2004 awards in the categories of Best Female Video , Best Dance Video , Best Pop Video and Video of the Year , but lost all of them . Corey Moss of MTV said that Spears " remains the Susan Lucci of the VMAs . " Visual effects supervisors Chris Watts and Bert Yukich won the category of Outstanding Visual Effects in a Music Video at the 3rd Annual Visual Effects Society Awards . In September 2009 , the music video for " Toxic " was voted by users of the music video website MUZU TV as the sexiest music video of all time . The video was also used on Life is Pornography , a 2005 video art by Jubal Brown . Amy Schriefer of NPR noted that in the video , Spears was no longer trying to break away from her 90s teen pop image and style ; she was comfortable and having fun , not trying to generate any type of calculated controversy . The anime music video for Spears 's single " Break the Ice " ( 2008 ) was based on the secret agent character of " Toxic " . The video for " Womanizer " ( 2008 ) was created by Spears as a sequel to " Toxic " . The diamond encrusted look of Lady Gaga in the music video for " LoveGame " ( 2009 ) was compared to that of " Toxic " . In the 2010 Glee episode " Britney / Brittany " , the character of Brittany Pierce danced in a diamond suit during a cover of " I 'm a Slave 4 U " . In a 2011 poll by Billboard , the song 's music video was voted the second best music video of the 2000s , behind only Lady Gaga 's " Bad Romance " ( 2009 ) . Jillian Mapes of Billboard wrote that Spears " proved that she comes in every flavor [ ... ] But the one role that stays constant through the dance @-@ heavy clip : Sultry maneater . " Taylor Swift 's " Bad Blood " music video pays homage to the red @-@ haired look Spears sports in the " Toxic " music video . Many comparisons were made about the similarities . = = Live performances = = " Toxic " was performed by Spears at Britney Spears : In the Zone , a concert special that aired in ABC on November 17 , 2003 . She also performed " Toxic " as the headliner of the Jingle Ball on December 8 , 2003 , at Staples Center . It was the opening number of her set , and Spears appeared wearing a black top and a white fur cape . While the choreography was deemed as " erotic " , Corey Moss of MTV commented that some of the effect was lost due to Spears 's lip synching and a stagehand fixing a prop during the song . On January 24 , 2004 , Spears opened the 2004 NRJ Music Awards with a performance of " Toxic " . During the ceremony , she also presented the NRJ Award of Honor for the Career to Madonna . Spears performed " Toxic " as the opening number of 2004 's The Onyx Hotel Tour . Previous to the beginning of the tour , she deemed it as the song she was most excited to perform , along with " Everytime " . After an introduction in which she briefly appeared on a large video screen , Spears took the stage standing on top of a hotel bus , wearing a tight black catsuit . She was surrounded by dancers dressed as employees and columns of LED lighting , suggesting the façade of a glitzy hotel on the Vegas Strip . MTV UK commented , " OK , so she doesn 't so much sing than mime along with Toxic , [ ... ] But what do you expect when she 's simultaneously performing a vigorous dance routine , ascending moving staircases and descending fireman poles ? " . " Toxic " was also performed as the last song of the concert during The M + M 's Tour . After " Do Somethin ' " , in which Spears wore a hot pink bra , a white fur coat and a jean skirt , she ended the set with " Toxic " , with four female dancers in a Shakira @-@ like style . Following the performance , she thanked the audience and introduced her dancers . " Toxic " was also performed at 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears . Following an interlude in which the dancers showcased their individual moves , the stage was lit with green sci @-@ fi effects and Spears appeared over moving jungle gyms . Jerry Shriver of USA Today said that " fan @-@ favorite Toxic [ ... ] succeeded because the focus was solely on the star . " Jane Stevenson of the Toronto Sun named it one of the standout performances of the show , along with " ... Baby One More Time " and " Womanizer " . Screen commented , " The high point of the show was the back to back performance of two of Britney 's biggest hits , ' Toxic ' and ' Baby One More Time ' [ sic ] , which had the crowd break out in wild applause . " The song was performed at 2011 's Femme Fatale Tour . After a video intermission in which Spears finds and captures the stalker that follows her , the show continues with a martial arts @-@ inspired remix of " Toxic " , in which Spears wears a kimono and battles dancing ninjas . Keith Caufield of Billboard felt the performance was comparable to Madonna 's " Sky Fits Heaven " at 2001 's Drowned World Tour . Shirley Halperin of The Hollywood Reporter stated that " [ the ] mid @-@ tempo numbers [ ... ] seemed to stall out quickly , where faster offerings like ' Womanizer , ' ' I Wanna Go ' and ' Toxic ' had the sold out crowd jumping in place and pumping their number twos in the air . " August Brown of the Los Angeles Times said " The set 's only weak spots were sonic revisions of catalog staples – the Bollywood spy @-@ flick vamp of ' Toxic ' remains utterly groundbreaking and didn ’ t need an Ibiza @-@ inspired revision . " . Spears performed the song during the last act from her 2013 @-@ 15 Las Vegas residency Britney : Piece of Me . The number begins with a ballad version of " Toxic " and Spears is seen over a giant tree . Before the chorus begins Spears jumps from the tree in a kind of bungee jump under a water curtain . As Spears lands in the stage , the first chords from the song starts and the performance keeps going on . In the 2016 Billboard Music Awards , it was performed as the closing song of a medley , with brand new choreography . = = Cover versions = = = = = Glee version = = = The song was covered on the 2010 American series Glee episode " Britney / Brittany " by New Directions , in a Bob Fosse @-@ inspired performance led by the character of Will Schuester . In the United States , their version debuted at number sixteen on the Hot 100 and sold 109 @,@ 000 copies on its first week , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It also charted at number thirty @-@ seven in Australia , fifteen in Canada and seventeen in Ireland . The song was covered again in Glee episode " 100 " by Dianna Agron , Heather Morris and Naya Rivera . = = = Other recorded covers = = = Northern Irish singer @-@ songwriter Juliet Turner covered " Toxic " for the 2004 covers compilation , Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 2 . In 2005 , American folk group Chapin Sisters recorded an acoustic cover of " Toxic " , which was featured on PerezHilton.com and became one of the most requested songs of the year in KCRW . German country @-@ rock band The BossHoss recorded a cover of " Toxic " for their debut album , Internashville Urban Hymns ( 2005 ) . American rock duo Local H covered the song for their first live album , Alive ' 05 ( 2005 ) . An instrumental rendition of the song was released by American surf rock band Monsters from Mars . Norwegian alternative rock band Hurra Torpedo covered " Toxic " in their fourth release , Kollossus of Makedonia ( 2006 ) . English producer Mark Ronson recorded a hip hop cover of the song , featuring American singer @-@ songwriter Tiggers and a verse from American rapper Ol ' Dirty Bastard . It was included in his second studio album , Version ( 2007 ) . English indie rock band Hard @-@ Fi covered the song for the compilation album Radio 1 Established 1967 ( 2007 ) . The song was fused with The Clash 's cover of " Brand New Cadillac " . American musician Shawn Lee covered the song in the album Shawn Lee 's Ping Pong Orchestra ( 2007 ) . French singer @-@ songwriter Yael Naïm released a piano @-@ driven version of the song in her eponymous debut album ( 2007 ) . British electronic music group Metronomy 's cover was described as " something out of a " Weird Al " Yankovic polka medley , only not kidding " . Israeli pop singer Shiri Maimon recorded a version of " Toxic " in Hebrew . American comedy singer Richard Cheese recorded a cover for his eight album , Viva la Vodka ( 2009 ) . American post @-@ hardcore band A Static Lullaby released a cover in the compilation album , Punk Goes Pop 2 ( 2009 ) . A music video was released , which featured different Spears look @-@ alikes wearing iconic outfits from various music videos , such as " ... Baby One More Time " and " Womanizer " . A cover of the song by American singer @-@ songwriter Christopher Dallman was included in an EP titled Sad Britney , released on November 9 , 2009 , along with covers of " ... Baby One More Time " , " Gimme More " and " Radar " . = = = Live covers = = = American acoustic trio Nickel Creek covered " Toxic " at the 2006 Bonnaroo Music Festival . Australian singer @-@ songwriter Kate Miller @-@ Heidke did an opera @-@ pop version of " Toxic " during a mobile phone launch in Sydney in August 2007 . She dedicated it to Spears , adding , " She 's going through a bit of a hard time at the moment . [ ... ] This one 's for you , mate . " American singer @-@ songwriter Ingrid Michaelson covered " Toxic " regularly on her 2010 Everybody Tour . Michaelson 's version ends with her and the band doing a dance break set to Spears 's original song . American pop band Selena Gomez & the Scene performed a tribute to Spears during their 2011 We Own the Night Tour . The medley of hits included " ... Baby One More Time " , " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy " , " Oops ! ... I Did It Again " , " I 'm a Slave 4 U " and " Toxic " , mixed similar to the Chris Cox Megamix included in Greatest Hits : My Prerogative . They also performed a cover of " Hold It Against Me " . = = Samples = = " Toxic " was sampled in American rapper Tony Yayo 's " Love My Style " ( 2005 ) and British rapper Example 's " Toxic Breath " ( 2006 ) . A cover version of the song by French / Israeli Singer Yael Naim was also sampled by the Chicago rapper Mick Jenkins on the song " Jazz " , produced by OnGaud . = = Soundtrack appearances = = In the 2005 episode " The End of the World " of the TV show Doctor Who , the character of Cassandra unveils an ancient jukebox that reproduced " Toxic " as an example of " a traditional ballad " from 5 billion years prior . NME stated that the inclusion of the song marked its cultural impact . In the 2007 film Knocked Up , the song is played when Seth Rogen and Paul Rudd are driving to Las Vegas . Director Judd Apatow explained that he originally tried to use " Toxic " in the 2005 film The 40 @-@ Year @-@ Old Virgin in the scene where Leslie Mann is drunk driving . " Toxic " was also featured in the 2010 film You Again . = = Accolades = = " Toxic " earned Spears her first Grammy at the 2005 ceremony in the category of Best Dance Recording and gained her credibility amongst critics . The song also won Most Performed Work at the 2004 Ivor Novello Awards . " Toxic " was ranked at number fourteen on Stylus Magazine 's Top 50 Singles between 2000 and 2005 . In a 2005 poll conducted by Sony Ericsson , " Toxic " was ranked as the world 's second favorite song , only behind " We Are the Champions " by Queen . Over 700 @,@ 000 people in 60 different countries cast their votes . The song was also included on The 500 Greatest Songs Since You Were Born list by Blender . Pitchfork listed the song on The Top 500 Tracks of the 2000s . Jess Harvell commented that Spears had great pop instincts and that " Toxic " showed how " Britney always had more individualist pep than her peers , important when you 're dealing with steamroller productions from the mind of Max Martin . " In 2009 , NPR included " Toxic " on their Most Important Recordings of the Decade list . Amy Schriefer noted that the song 's synths defined the sound of dance @-@ pop for the rest of the decade , while adding that it " still sound [ s ] fresh and futuristic . " " Toxic " was listed on several others end of the decade lists ; at number forty @-@ seven by NME , forty @-@ four by Rolling Stone and seventeen on The Daily Telegraph . NME called it the soundtrack to all of the fun of the decade , from " little girls at discos " to " gay clubs and hen nights " . In addition , the song was voted in Rolling Stone 's end of the decade readers poll as the fourth best single of the decade . Bill Lamb of About.com listed the song at number twenty @-@ seven on the Top 40 Pop Songs of All Time . Evan Sawdey of PopMatters commented that " Toxic " is a rare kind of song that transcends genre boundaries , and added that Spears delivered the track that defined her legacy . In May 2010 , Spears revealed through her Twitter account that " Toxic " is her favorite song from her catalogue . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = = = Charts and certifications = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = = Home ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) = " Home " is the third episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise . It first aired on October 22 , 2004 , on the UPN network in the United States . It was the second episode of the season directed by Allan Kroeker and the first in season four to be written by Michael Sussman . Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship , Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . This episode brought to a close the Xindi story arc that ran throughout Season 3 , with the crew returning to Earth after the successful mission . It features three stories ; Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) coming to terms with the psychological impact of the previous mission , Doctor Phlox ( John Billingsley ) finds that the people on Earth have become hostile to aliens , while Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker ( Connor Trinneer ) and Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) travel to Vulcan for her arranged marriage . The episode featured the return of several recurring characters , such as Vaughn Armstrong as Admiral Maxwell Forrest and Gary Graham as Ambassador Soval . Others who made their first of several appearances included Michael Reilly Burke , Ada Maris , Jack Donner and Joanna Cassidy as T 'Pol 's mother . Filming took seven days , during which time the standing sets used for the interior of Enterprise were redressed to appear as its sister ship , Columbia ( NX @-@ 02 ) , and location filming was conducted at Malibu Creek State Park . " Home " received a mixed reception from critics , and was watched by 3 @.@ 16 million viewers on first broadcast . = = Plot = = Captain Archer and the crew are welcomed back to Earth following the successful Xindi mission . As Enterprise undergoes repairs and refitting , Archer is reunited with a former girlfriend , Captain Erika Hernandez , who has been appointed to Starfleet 's second Warp 5 starship , Columbia ( NX @-@ 02 ) . Archer is debriefed by Admiral Maxwell Forrest and Ambassador Soval . After reacting in anger when Soval asks pointed questions about the Seleya incident , he is ordered by Forrest to take some relaxation leave . He chooses to go mountain climbing ; to his initial annoyance , Hernandez invites herself along . That night , Archer dreams that he is attacked by Reptilians , and Hernandez tries to help him come to terms with his memories and new @-@ found adulation . In return , Archer tries to caution her that space exploration is not as idealistic as she thinks it is . In spite of this , the two manage to rekindle their romance . Returning to Starfleet Command , Archer is able to keep his emotions in check , and ultimately receives an unexpected thanks from Soval . Elsewhere , Doctor Phlox learns that some humans still hold a grudge over the Xindi attack , xenophobically blaming all aliens , and Phlox 's presence in a bar results in a brawl . Meanwhile , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol – who has been invited to accept a Starfleet commission – takes the opportunity to travel to Vulcan to visit her mother , T 'Les . When Commander Tucker mentions that he does not have a home to go to , T 'Pol invites him along . On Vulcan , after a tense homecoming , she learns that her mother has resigned from the Vulcan Science Academy as indirect punishment for T 'Pol 's actions at the P 'Jem sanctuary . One logical way for T 'Pol to restore her mother 's position is to honor her engagement to Koss , a member of an influential family . Despite Tucker 's feelings , who admits to T 'Les ' observation that he is in love with T 'Pol , she consents to marry Koss . Just before the ceremony begins , however , T 'Pol quickly kisses Tucker on the cheek . = = Production = = When predicting what would be in store for season four , Scott Bakula suggested that he would like to see the crew come to terms with the emotional scars of the mission they had against the Xindi in the third season . He wanted several questions to be covered , such as " How do they come back into society , how do they re @-@ adjust their behaviors ? What has happened to them will always be inside of them , every time they 're confronted with new situations . " Following the resolution of the mission in " Zero Hour " , he wanted the crew to receive " a great reception " on their return to Earth . He was pleased with how this was handled in the series , describing " Home " as " a great episode " . When actress Jolene Blalock revealed that her character would be getting married in " Home " , she joked that she wouldn 't need to fight someone – a reference to the Star Trek : The Original Series episode " Amok Time " . Dominic Keating summed up the plot of the episode in an interview with Cult Times magazine , saying " Our heroes find that their world has changed after the Xindi annihilation of Florida at the end of the second year . " The episode featured the return of several recurring characters , such as Admiral Forrest played by Vaughn Armstrong , who hadn 't appeared on the show for more than a year . Meanwhile , Gary Graham returned as Soval after a single appearance in the third season , and Jim Fitzpatrick made a third appearance as Commander Williams . There were several actors who appeared in the series for the first time including Jack Donner , although he had appeared as Subcommander Tal in The Original Series episode " The Enterprise Incident " . He described in an interview with TrekNation that he had been seeking to return to the Star Trek franchise for a while , having previously been overlooked for a part on Star Trek : Voyager . He said that his casting was directly linked to showrunner Manny Coto 's desire to link Enterprise more to The Original Series and was pleased to say that they had ask him back to appear later in the season . Also making an appearance was Michael Reilly Burke as Koss – a character who was first mentioned in the first season episode " Breaking the Ice " . Burke had previously appeared as a Borg in Star Trek : The Next Generation and a Cardassian in Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Also making their first appearances in the show were Ada Maris as Captain Erika Hernadez and Joanna Cassidy as T 'Pol 's mother , T 'Les . Donner , Burke and Cassidy would go on to appear in the Vulcan @-@ arc episodes later in the season , while Maris appeared in the Klingon two part story comprising " Affliction " and " Divergence " . Filming began on August 4 for seven days , finishing on August 12 . The Enterprise standing sets were re @-@ dressed to appear as the interior scenes on the USS Columbia and a variety of swing sets were used . There was exterior shots filmed at Malibu Creek State Park for the scenes with Archer and Hernandez . One area which had only previously been mentioned in Star Trek was the Fire Plains on Vulcan – in the Star Trek : Voyager episode " Innocence " , which was created in " Home " using computer @-@ generated imagery . Allan Kroeker directed " Home " , his second of the season after the first episode of " Storm Front " – although he had directed numerous episodes during the first three seasons , and " Home " was written by Mike Sussman , who wrote five episodes during the previous season . = = Reception and home media release = = " Home " first premiered on UPN in the United States on October 22 , 2004 . It was watched by an audience of 3 @.@ 16 million viewers , an increase over the previous week 's episode , the second part of " Storm Front " which was watched by 3 @.@ 11 million . This was part of an overall increase in viewers during the first six episodes of Enterprise , with each episode being watched by a greater number of viewers than those before it . According to the Nielsen ratings received for " Home " , the episode placed fifth in its timeslot , with a rating of 1 @.@ 7 / 3 percent . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 7 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all those watching television at the time of broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , who aired What I Like About You and Grounded for Life . Prior to broadcast , " Home " was listed as one of the programmes on Entertainment Weekly 's " Tonight 's Best TV " for October 22 . In another preview , IGN Filmforce described the episode as a " yawner " , and described the writers as " lazy " because of the trade off between character development and a general plot – the latter of which they said was absent in this episode . However , the review praised the additional attention given to Linda Park as Hoshi , saying that she is " possibly the most under @-@ utilized actor on the show and shows the most potential . " Overall it said that " the episode hints at promise for the rest of the season but is dull as dishwater on its own . " Ryan Britt , while writing for Tor.com , thought more favourably of " Home " , including it in a list of six episodes from Enterprise which are comparable to the best of the other Star Trek series . It was described as " the sort of episode that either rewards someone who liked the characters on this show , or could potentially get you to like them if you didn ’ t really know what was going on . " Britt 's only complaint was that the romance between T 'Pol and Tucker wasn 't further developed as it brought out the best in Blalock and Trinneer . The first home media release of " Home " was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu ray release of the final season of Enterprise was on April 29 , 2014 . = Vanajan Autotehdas = Vanajan Autotehdas Oy ( VAT ) was a producer of heavy vehicles based in Hämeenlinna , Finland . The company was founded as Yhteissisu Oy in 1943 by the Finnish government and a number of major Finnish companies with the aim of producing lorries and buses for the Finnish Defence Forces . World War II was over before the company could start series production ; it was renamed Vanajan Autotehdas and the marque became Vanaja . Subsequently , the production consisted of outdated lorry models , partly built from military surplus materials . After overcoming initial difficulties , the company modernised its products , became profitable and grew until the mid 1950s . Many major components , including engines , were imported . Diesel engines became widely available in 1955 , and in 1959 VAT introduced its most significant innovation , the full load lifting tandem axle mechanism , which improved off @-@ road capability significantly ; the system is now used in Sisu vehicles . The company started producing bus chassis in 1950 , and the superstructures were built by a number of Finnish coach builders . The last models were appreciated by a number of bus operators , and missed after production was stopped . All Vanaja bus chassis were fitted with air brakes by 1958 , after the failure of hydraulic brakes on a Vanaja bus had led to one of the worst traffic accidents ever to have happened in Finland . VAT fell into financial difficulties by end of the 1960s ; this led to a merger with the other Finnish heavy vehicle producer Oy Suomen Autoteollisuus Ab at the end of 1968 . The Vanaja brand ceased to exist in 1971 , after which the former Vanaja factory produced Sisu terminal tractors , bus chassis , military vehicles and mobile crane chassis . The factory now belongs to Patria — which produces Patria AMV armoured personnel carriers — and heavy @-@ vehicle axle producer Sisu Axles . Vanajan Autotehdas was always a small company , employing about 400 people in 1968 , and in the 1960s its market share was barely 5 % in Finland . Almost all Vanajas were sold for the domestic market ; only a few units were exported . Vanaja vehicles became known for their robust construction and high degree of customisation . The number of Vanaja bus chassis and lorries totalled 7 @,@ 140 units ; this consists of 260 lorry and 66 bus chassis models ; for 116 lorry models only one or two units were produced . Vanajas had a good reputation and they are nowadays valued by vintage vehicle enthusiasts . = = Foundation = = During the winter of 1942 – 43 , the Finnish Defence Forces estimated there was no immediate prospect of a quick end to the Continuation War but there was an immediate need for new vehicles . In the longer term , the army was expected to need at least 7 @,@ 000 lorries and buses . Neutral countries such as Sweden and Switzerland were willing to sell vehicles to Finland but demanded payment in advance and in their own currencies . As Finland did not have sufficient currency reserves the only option was to develop domestic vehicle production . At that time , the only Finnish heavy vehicle producer Oy Suomen Autoteollisuus Ab ( SAT ) was building a new factory in Karis , a location considered less likely than Helsinki to come under attack from Soviet air raids . Company general director Tor Nessling suggested the factory should be larger than originally planned . As another option , Nessling , with extreme reservation , considered building a new factory elsewhere in Finland . SAT was experienced in heavy vehicle production but economic and technical resources were limited . Heavy vehicle importers and some political cliques thought SAT was trying to benefit from the war and to gain a dominant position in the Finnish market . Defence minister Rudolf Walden called a meeting held on 3 and 4 March 1943 to explore solutions to the acute shortage of vehicles . The meeting was attended by representatives of the government and military leadership , and key personnel from leading Finnish industrial companies . A committee was formed to propose founding a company in which SAT and the state were both involved . The proposal was presented in a meeting on 20 March . The name of the company was Oy Yhteissisu Ab ( " mutual Sisu " ) , which meant the intention was joint production of Sisu vehicles . The private owners were A. Ahlström , Ata , Fiskars , Kone , Kymin Oy , Lokomo , W. Rosenlew & Co . , Suomen Autoteollisuus , Suomen Gummitehdas , Suomen Kaapelitehdas , Tampereen Pellava- ja Rauta @-@ Teollisuus , Yhtyneet Paperitehtaat and Strömberg . The headquarters was in Erottaja in Helsinki . The company chairman was Heikki H. Herlin and the reluctant Tor Nessling was appointed general manager . The Defence Forces set strict requirements for the vehicles to be produced . There was not enough time to develop a new model . Although outdated , the best of the available options was the Sisu S @-@ 21 . Yhteissisu and SAT agreed to transfer Sisu S @-@ 21 lorry production to Yhteissisu . The Yhteissisu @-@ produced models were named S @-@ 22 . = = Start of production = = Immediately after the company was founded , production started in the SAT factory in Vallila , Helsinki . The Yhteissisu vehicles were built separately from SAT vehicles . It was clear from the start that vehicles should be produced away from Helsinki ; the company sought a suitable location close to good rail , road and waterway connections . The original idea was to build the factory inside caves mined into bedrock ; the place would be required to have suitable geology . A suitable area was finally found in Vanaja next to Hämeenlinna . Yhteissisu bought 31 @.@ 1 hectares ( 77 acres ) of land on 14 March 1944 . A contract for factory construction was signed with a contractor on 30 March . The Railway Administration accepted Yhteissisu 's plan to build a railway connection in the area . Quarrying work for the underground workshop began in July 1944 . The expense and a shortage of time meant the plan had to be amended , and the entire production area was built above ground . The factory buildings were completed in early November 1944 . Alvar Aalto 's architectural office designed houses for the factory workers . The first lorry made in Vanaja was a Sisu S @-@ 22 prototype , which rolled out of the factory door on 1 August 1945 . After a short and intensive testing period , serial production began on 29 October 1945 but because of a shortage of materials and component quality problems , the first vehicles were not ready until early 1946 . The capabilities of the domestic suppliers proved to be very limited and the company was dependent on imported gearboxes , steering components , drive shafts and electrical systems until domestic companies could set up their own production . The Finnish suppliers were unable to meet the requirements with the available materials and experienced severe quality problems . Total production in 1946 was 147 Sisu S @-@ 22 vehicles , which was far below the target of 2 @,@ 000 vehicles . The original , calculated price per vehicle had been 765 @,@ 000 marks but the eventual cost was 800 @,@ 000 marks . The war had ended before series production was started , and the Defence Forces did not need new vehicles . On the contrary , the army had to reduce the number of vehicles according to the Moscow Armistice . The frustrated component suppliers left the business and the Ministry of Trade and Industry terminated the vehicle supply contract from the end of 1946 . In early 1946 , Yhteissisu had agreed with the Ministry of Trade and Industry that vehicles not bought by the state could be sold on the civilian market . Sisu S @-@ 22s became available for sale at 12 SAT locations in Finland . The company presented a lighter , lower @-@ cost model , the S @-@ 22K , at the Helsinki Domestic Industry Fair in May 1946 . = = From Yhteissisu to Vanajan Autotehdas = = Tor Nessling resigned from Yhteissisu in February 1947 . There was talk of closing the company . Yhteissisu sold only 103 S @-@ 22s in 1947 , some of which had been produced the previous year . 55 lorries were built by the company in 1947 . The company 's share capital was reduced from 75 million marks to 7 @.@ 5 million , then increased to 50 million ; the state became the main owner , having a 44 % share of the company . The other owners were Yhtyneet Paperitehtaat , A. Ahlström , Strömberg and Tampereen Pellava- ja Rauta @-@ Teollisuus . From September , the new general manager of the company was Eero Kytölä . The company lost two million marks in 1947 . Yhteissisu had the rights to use the Sisu brand until summer 1948 . In a general meeting held in 1948 , the board decided to rename the company Vanajan Autotehdas and the brand of the vehicles became Vanaja . The factory area was moved from the municipality of Vanaja to that of Hämeenlinna at the beginning of the same year . = = First Vanaja production = = = = = Vanaja V @-@ 48 = = = When the licence to use the Sisu brand expired in June 1948 , Sisu S @-@ 22 production was continued as the Vanaja V @-@ 48 , and its production continued until 1955 . = = = White M2 Half @-@ Track conversions = = = General manager Kytölä travelled to France and West Germany in 1947 and early 1948 to buy military surplus materials from the Western Allies . He bought 425 White Motor Company M2 Half @-@ Track vehicles , 186 lorry engines , 304 Cadillac V8 engines , 4 Mack ED diesel engines , 2 Hercules Diesel DFXE engines , 11 @,@ 000 GMC wheels and one 45 @-@ tonne @-@ capacity trailer . Trading was organised through the Ministry of Supply and the first delivery arrived in March 1948 . The White Half @-@ Track vehicles were without armour ; Kytölä 's idea was to equip them with superstructures for field or forest clearing , or to convert them into Four @-@ wheel drive lorries by replacing the tracks with a conventional rear axle . In total , VAT sold 359 units as half @-@ tracks , and 60 were converted into 4 × 4 or 4 × 2 vehicles . These lorries were sold as Vanaja VaWh . Some of the half @-@ track vehicles were scrapped for parts ; the last was sold in 1952 . = = Growth and recession in 1950s = = After the original contract with the state was terminated , a new agreement for the production of 650 vehicles to be delivered between 1948 and 1952 was reached . The state helped production with a significant prepayment of 132 million marks . According to the contract , 150 vehicles were scheduled to be built in 1948 . The company reached this target and made a further 11 vehicles for private use . 92 were sold under the name of Sisu S @-@ 22 or S @-@ 22K and 69 were badged as Vanaja V @-@ 48 . 101 M2 Half @-@ Tracks were sold . In 1948 , VAT made a loss of 746 @,@ 000 marks . In 1949 , VAT made another 150 vehicles for the state and 37 vehicles for private operators ; it produced 163 V @-@ 48s and 24 VaWhs . The company also sold 211 M2 Half @-@ Tracks , allowing it to declare its first profit of 1 @.@ 208 million marks , which was helped by a devaluation of the Finnish mark . VAT 's positioning in the heavy @-@ vehicle market strengthened in 1950 and the company started producing bus chassis . The same year , VAT introduced a new product family — the VK series . Production was disrupted by a three @-@ month strike , as a result of which completion of some of the 150 state @-@ ordered vehicles scheduled for delivery that year was delayed until the following year . Despite its difficulties VAT posted a profit of almost two million marks . By now , the company employed 106 workers . Sales and profits grew year @-@ on @-@ year during the early 1950s . The prepayment from the government was repaid in 1952 . For a short time , VAT imported and marketed clearing tractors produced by Italian firm Ansaldo @-@ Fossati . Although there was demand for this type of vehicle , they sold poorly because their price was considered inconsistent with their technical quality ; only a few units were delivered in 1953 . The development of sales was overestimated ; in 1956 , 525 Vanajas were sold and in March 1957 , the volume for the whole year was estimated to reach about 400 units . VAT employed about 200 workers at the time and changed to a four @-@ day working week . The company blamed the government 's import licence bureaucracy for the problem — it was difficult to get diesel engines from abroad . In the following month , over 30 Vanajas that were otherwise ready were awaiting diesel engines . The economy improved in 1959 . = = = Criticism = = = In 1950 , the Finnish government was criticised for ignoring other options and buying only Vanajas , which were said to be overpriced . The state had ordered 650 vehicles , spread over several years , and this tied the state 's hands in equipment buying for a long period . Both VAT and SAT were criticised in 1954 by heavy vehicle importers because the two companies had access to a large share of the limited foreign currency reserves for component supply . The importers ' representatives said neither Sisu nor Vanaja were very domestic products and the vehicles the importers represented were actually more domestic because some assembly work was done in Finland . According to the Association of Vehicle Importers , the domestic vehicles cost between 30 % and 80 % more compared to imported ones . The following year , the government started to investigate possibilities for importing heavy vehicles in kit form to reduce foreign @-@ currency expenditure . VAT and SAT expressed doubts about the viability of such production . In 1957 , the government ended restrictions on the import of heavy vehicle chassis . Eventually , the prices of imported vehicles approached those of Sisu and Vanaja vehicles . = = = Entering the diesel era = = = The Vanaja petrol engines made by SAT and Tampella were outdated American engines built under licence . Customers wanted diesel engines , which were more powerful . The first Vanaja diesel models were powered by Kämper and Saurer engines . VAT also tested Südwerke 's two @-@ stroke diesel engines but only one such vehicle was built . Import licences for diesel engines were difficult to obtain and this constrained vehicle sales . In some cases , customers provided their own engines — for example Volvo or Mercedes @-@ Benz , which were mounted to their ordered vehicles on the assembly line . In 1955 , VAT bought two batches of 6 @-@ cylinder 90 @-@ hp Leyland 0 @.@ 350 diesel engines . These proved to be too inefficient , and the following year the company ordered a batch of 300 stronger Leylands made in the Netherlands by van Doorne 's Automobilfabriek N.V. In 1956 , VAT became the representative for Ansaldo S.A. and Kämper @-@ Motoren GmbH . Ansaldo offered engines of between 100 hp and 8 @,@ 000 hp intended for marine and industrial applications . Kämper products delivered between 14 hp and 150 hp . A 6 @-@ cylinder , 130 @-@ hp Kämper was offered as an option for Vanajas . = = = Vanaja lifting tandem system = = = The best @-@ known hallmark of Vanaja , the full @-@ load lifting tandem axle , was introduced in January 1957 . This invention enabled an additional load of 2 @.@ 5 tonnes to be carried and the entire load on the tandem could be moved to the fore axle using an electro @-@ hydraulic system . The system improved the traction , offering a significant advantage on slippery surfaces . The innovative lifting tandem was developed under leadership of the company 's chief engineer Veikko Muronen . Vanaja became the leader in the Finnish logging vehicle market and maintained this position until production ceased . In forestry work , a layout with a driven front axle and a tandem axle with a driven fore axle , called 4 × 4 + 2 , became famous in Finland but is seldom seen outside the Nordic countries . = = Vehicles for the Finnish Defence Forces = = The Finnish Defence Forces carried out a winter test for potential military vehicles in March 1958 . 35 candidate vehicles from the two domestic producers and various importers were driven around Finland . VAT sent four vehicles to the test , three of which were 4 × 4s and one was an ordinary , rear @-@ wheel driven vehicle . During the five days ' testing period , all vehicles were continuously fully loaded . For part of the journey , the vehicles had to tow an eight @-@ ton field cannon . The vehicles were tested for off @-@ road capabilities in even , 50 @-@ to @-@ 70 cm ( 20 @-@ to @-@ 28 in ) -deep snow . One of the Vanajas was destroyed in an accident . The domestic vehicles performed well in the test ; in some cases the rear @-@ wheel driven Sisus and Vanajas outperformed the 4 × 4 @-@ driven foreign competitors . None of the vehicles were clearly better than the others but the result convinced the Defence Forces of the capabilities of the domestic vehicles and led to several deals for SAT and VAT . In 1960 , VAT delivered the first Vanaja VAKS lorries , which were intended for general use in garrisons , to the Defence Forces . The later versions were called AS @-@ 33 . 155 units were produced . Vanaja NS @-@ 47 was the first Finnish 4 × 4 off @-@ road lorry designed primarily for military use . A few dozen vehicles were ordered between 1962 and 1964 , and were used for hauling 35 mm Oerlikon anti @-@ aircraft cannons and heavy artillery . = = Exporting efforts = = In September 1958 VAT , together with other Finnish companies , participated in the Thessaloniki International Trade Fair . The vehicles shown were one Vanaja VAK lorry and a mid @-@ engined VLK550 bus chassis . Due to the AEC engines the Vanaja 's did not raise interest among the potential Greek customers , as relations between the UK and Greece were bad at the time . The lorry was finally sold in Greece but the bus chassis returned to Finland and was sold to a bus operator which built a tourist bus body on it . VAT signed a contract to sell 200 lorries to Turkey in 1959 . The first two vehicles were shipped from Finland in 1959 but the contract was terminated in an embarrassing way because the Bank of Finland refused to take Turkish liras in payment . At the end of the 1950s and in the early 1960s , VAT and the French Camions Willème SA had plans for joint production , but only one jointly produced prototype was ever made ; the chassis was from Vanaja , the engine was from AEC , and the cabin , which was a forward control type cabin and partly made from glass fibre , was from Willème . Four Vanaja 's were shown at the Barcelona international fair in June 1961 . The vehicles were taken to the fair by driving them through Europe . The fair was considered successful , but no vehicle sales resulted from it . = = Specialising in 1960s = = General Manager Eero Kytölä resigned from his position in 1962 . DI Ilmari Karttunen , who had previously worked as factory superintendent , was appointed the new head of the company . He led VAT until 1967 , when Jaakko Jarimo took the post . During 1958 – 1960 VAT focused increasingly on custom @-@ building vehicles according to customer request . Typically a potential customer just walked into the main office in Helsinki or factory in Hämeenlinna and described what kind of vehicle he wanted . The enthusiastic engineers listened carefully to every individual customer 's wishes and designed vehicles accordingly , with two or three axles , desired layout , wheelbase and with conventional or forward control cabin . Many vehicle types were only produced for one or two units . The volume model , however , was a nine @-@ tonne variant of the VAK series . A good example of custom @-@ built vehicles are the VKB series forward @-@ control vehicles , developed for an earthmoving company in Helsinki . The company needed short vehicles with a good grade ability and high payload . The wheelbase of these vehicles was 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 ft ) and the total weight was 10 @.@ 6 tonnes ; use of these vehicles on public roads required a special permit . A typical feature in Vanajas was over @-@ engineered structures which were robust rather than optimised . The main components were sourced from well @-@ established suppliers . VAT also showed progressive thinking in driver ergonomics ; the comfortably sprung and hydraulically damped driver 's seat was positioned close to the door , to ease reversing . The seat had several ways in which it could be adjusted . Hanging pedals , which were set to the same level , became standard at an early stage . Vanaja 's interior heater , which produced 9 @,@ 000 kcal / h , was possibly the most efficient available in lorries by the 1960s . Many Vanaja drivers valued the particularly soft suspension of the vehicles . Two @-@ axle lorries were available in 4 × 2 and 4 × 4 layouts ; the three @-@ axle models were produced as 6 × 2 , 6 × 4 , 4 × 4 + 2 and 6 × 6 . VAT celebrated its 20th anniversary in 1963 . All press releases and publications ignored the fact that its key competitor , SAT , had had a significant role in its foundation . Yhteissisu was not mentioned in any context . VAT got a notable order from the Infrastructure and Hydro Engineering Administration in April 1965 . The order for 250 vehicles was funded by a loan from the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development ( IBRD ) for development of the road network . Forty vehicles were equipped with a driven front axle . The order was completed in 1966 . The company faced a difficult situation again in 1967 when the total number of vehicles produced was just 381 units . At the beginning of 1968 VAT fired 40 of the 400 employees . Vanaja had its staunch customer base and the vehicles were generally well regarded but the overall market share remained low ; in 1963 just 4 – 5 % of the newly registered heavy lorries in Finland were Vanajas . The highly customised production had led to an excessive diversity of models , which made spare part supply difficult . Moreover , the customising presumably took resources away from technical development work . There was no change for the better although the company introduced its modern forward control model B6 @-@ 76 which was expected to become the next volume model . = = Factory and production = = The original factory building , officially a warehouse and assembly hall , had a volume of 25 @,@ 000 m3 ( 33 @,@ 000 cu yd ) . The facilities were developed over time and by the end of 1953 , the floor area was 35 @,@ 000 m2 ( 42 @,@ 000 sq yd ) . The warehouse and assembly hall were renamed the main hall ; it was now 120 m ( 130 yd ) long and 30 m ( 33 yd ) wide . Bus chassis production was located at the southern side of the hall and lorries were built at the northern side . This set @-@ up was often changed depending on the product mix and production volume . At the end of the building was a crane for ironware handling . When the frames were taken in , they were fitted with suspension and axles , and then turned the right way up . The next parts were the engine and transmission components . The final part for lorries was a pre @-@ assembled cabin . Conventional bus chassis were delivered with bonnet and wings , but the forward control types left the factory without any body parts . After being painted , the vehicles left the assembly hall . Finally , every vehicle was tested on a 100 @-@ to @-@ 200 km ( 62 @-@ to @-@ 124 mi ) -long test run on different roads and with various loads . The bus chassis were tested in a similar way ; because there was no body , the drivers only had warm clothes and driving goggles to protect them against the weather conditions . The vehicles were handed over to the customers after final adjustments . Construction work on a new subassembly shop began in 1955 and the building was ready in 1957 . The new facilities were for machining , heat treatment and sheet metal works . Another end of the building was for a service workshop . A new service workshop with 17 vehicle places was built in 1966 . = = Suppliers = = = = = Engines = = = VAT could offer only petrol engines until 1953 . The most common ones were the Hercules engines made domestically under licence by SAT and Tampella . The SAT @-@ made engine was called the Sisu AMG or SA5 , and the engine made by Tampella was the Tampella 6000 . The second most common engine was the Cadillac V8 1G and the third was the White 160 AX , which Kytölä had bought from Central Europe . Some Bedford petrol engines were used in Defence Forces lorries in the 1960s and Ford V8 engines were used for fire engines . The first diesel Vanajas were powered by Saurer and Kämper engines . The vast majority of diesel engines were supplied by Leyland and AEC . A few Vanajas were equipped with the Perkins R6 or the Ford Trader 510E . In some cases , the engine was provided by the customer ; one Vanaja was powered by a Mercedes @-@ Benz diesel engine . = = = Transmission = = = VAT used Valmet gearboxes , which were copied from the transmissions made by the American company Fuller in the late 1940s and the early 1950s . When components became more easily available , VAT started to use genuine Fullers and ZF @-@ made gearboxes . The transfer cases were supplied by Timken and ZF . VAT built the rear axles from gears made by ATA until the company started buying axles from Timken . = = = Cabins = = = The company had several suppliers of lorry cabins ; they were produced at the beginning by Tampella , Valmet , Messukylän Autokoritehdas , Auto @-@ Heinonen , Kiitokori and later as a main supplier by Lahden Autokori . VAT itself made cabins for some special , one @-@ off products . In the late 1960s , some Vanajas were equipped with British Ergomatic forward control cabins made by Motor Panels Ltd . The cabins were bought via A.E.C. = = Bus chassis production = = Bus chassis production began in 1950 . VAT made the first prototypes of rear @-@ engined buses in 1956 . The company made two prototype chassis , which were designated model VAT @-@ 4800 ; the superstructures were made by coach builders Ajokki Oy and Nummela Oy . The solution caused several technical problems , including proper cooling and transfer of heating to the front end of the body . The cooling problem was finally solved by a large air scoop located at the back of the roof ; this was not regarded as an aesthetically pleasing arrangement . As the solution was found , VAT produced ten more rear @-@ engined chassis called type VAT @-@ 5200 . By 1958 , all VAT bus chassis were equipped with air brakes ; later these were also fitted to lorries . The decision was influenced by one of the worst road traffic accidents to happen in Finland ; 15 people drowned in Konnevesi when a fairly new Vanaja bus drove through the boom barrier of a ferry slip , sinking in 4 metres ( 13 ft ) of water . The driver survived and said the bus ' brakes had failed ; this was confirmed in the following investigation , which found the sealing of one of the hydraulic Lockheed brakes had failed . VAT delivered its first mid @-@ engined bus chassis to Ajokki Oy coach works in April 1958 . It was powered by a horizontally mounted 164 @-@ hp AEC diesel engine . The end customer was bus operator Väinö Paunu Oy , which also participated in the development work . In 1960 , VAT introduced the VLK500 chassis with air suspension and dual @-@ circuit air brakes . VAT returned to building rear @-@ engined buses in 1966 – 67 , but sales did not reach the level of the mid- and front @-@ engined models . The company conducted a number of experiments with the construction ; one example was a bus with a frameless structure in which the beams were replaced by a lighter solution . = = Model nomenclature = = The model nomenclature of the early 1950s was as follows : VK : Vanaja kuorma @-@ auto ; " Vanaja lorry " VL : Vanaja linja @-@ auto ; " Vanaja bus " Letter B at the end , for example in model VK @-@ 6B , meant forward control cabin and L came from extra long springs . The lorry model names were changed in 1956 . VAK : Vanaja kuorma @-@ auto ; " Vanaja lorry " ; lorry with a conventional cabin VKB : Vanaja kuorma @-@ auto bulldog ; " Vanaja lorry forward control " VKN : Vanaja kuorma @-@ auto neliveto ; " Vanaja lorry four @-@ wheel drive " VKT : Vanaja kuorma @-@ auto telillä ; " Vanaja lorry with a tandem " ; lorry with a tandem of which one axle is driven ( 6 × 2 ) VTT : Vanaja tandem @-@ telillä ; " Vanaja driven tandem " ; lorry with a tandem of which both axles are driven ( 6 × 4 ) VNT : Vanaja neliveto telillä ; " Vanaja four @-@ wheel @-@ drive with a tandem " ; lorry with a driven front axle and tandem of which one axle is driven ( 4 × 4 + 2 ) VKK : Vanaja kuorma @-@ auto kaikki akselit vetävät ; " Vanaja lorry all axles driven " ; lorry with a driven front axle and driven tandem ( 6 × 6 ) The bus model names changed accordingly . VAL : Vanaja linja @-@ auto ; " Vanaja bus " VLB : Vanaja linja @-@ auto bulldog ; " Vanaja bus forward control " ; the engine was placed in the front VLK : Vanaja linja @-@ auto keskimoottorilla ; " Vanaja bus with mid @-@ placed engine " VLT : Vanaja linja @-@ auto takamoottorilla ; " Vanaja bus with rear placed engine " In addition , the model name " VAT " was used for two rear @-@ engined bus models : the VAT @-@ 4800 — of which two units were produced in 1956 , and the VAT @-@ 5200BD — of which ten units were produced in 1957 . The next change came in 1961 , when an engine manufacturer 's code was included in the model name . For example , the VAK lorry powered by an AEC AVU 470 became the A @-@ 47 . Correspondingly , the same lorry with a Leyland O.600 diesel became the A @-@ 60R ; the R stood for raskas ( heavy ) , meaning it had a stronger front axle . The bus model names changed again in the same manner . For example , a forward control bus with the Leyland O.600 engine was called the VLB @-@ 60 . The new model numbering was changed in 1963 because of increased front axle loads ; after the letter code a 2 indicated the higher axle capacity . In later models , a 6 means the front axle capacity is 6 tonnes . The S in types VAKS , AS and NS meant sotilas ( soldier ) ; they were intended for military use . The bus model numbering changed for the last time in 1966 ; the front @-@ engined VLB became LE6 , the mid @-@ engined VLK was changed to LK6 and the rear @-@ engined VLT became LT6 . The three @-@ digit numbers on the bonnet sides of the last Vanaja lorries indicate the engine displacement in cubic inches . They are not model numbers , although they are often incorrectly referred to as such . = = End of Vanaja = = In 1964 , VAT had started to seek a stronger partner when it negotiated with AB Scania @-@ Vabis . The companies planned to use Scania engines in Vanaja vehicles but the plan proved too expensive for VAT . This may have led the major owners of VAT to start discussions about merging VAT and SAT . The chairman of VAT held regular meetings with the SAT manager Tor Nessling . In 1967 , AB Scania @-@ Vabis expressed its interest in VAT and German company Klöckner @-@ Humboldt @-@ Deutz AG was interested in co @-@ operation with , or acquisition of , VAT . Valmet is also rumoured to have been interested in VAT but there is no evidence of concrete negotiations . As well as being a small producer , VAT had problems with unreliable deliveries and quality problems caused by the component suppliers . Semi @-@ finished lorries often waited outside the factory for engines or other key components . The British diesel engines suffered from more quality problems compared with their Swedish and German competitors . The company 's owners became increasingly reluctant to fund the unprofitable business . Speculation about a merger between SAT and VAT began in Swedish newspapers in 1967 and was soon picked up by the Finnish media . The major owner , the state of Finland with its 45 % share , suggested a merger to Nessling in December 1967 . The financial situation of VAT was unsustainable ; the whole year 's turnover was 19 @.@ 5 million new Finnish marks when the company had debts of 14 @.@ 5 million ; 100 old Finnish marks became 1 new mark in 1963 . The contract for the merger of Suomen Autoteollisuus and Vanajan Autotehdas was signed on 30 May 1968 . VAT was formally discontinued at the end of 1968 . After the merger , the state owned 17 @.@ 2 % of the new SAT , becoming the third @-@ largest shareholder of the company . Customers ' reactions to the merger varied . Most of the public understood the need for the merger of two small companies , which were both operating in a very limited market and trying to challenge the mass producers . Some loyal Vanaja customers were astounded at the decision to discontinue the make . Some customers were upset because the last long @-@ nosed Vanajas were equipped with cabins from Jyry @-@ Sisu ; they said they would never buy Sisu and moved to imported vehicles . Many proven technical solutions used in Vanajas were soon implemented on Sisus . The drop in the truck market was short @-@ lived and sales soon returned to the levels experienced by Vanaja and Sisu combined in the mid @-@ 1960s . The last Vanaja vehicles were mobile cranes produced at the end of 1971 ; subsequently all vehicles made in the SAT Hämeenlinna works were badged as Sisus . Combining the strengths of the both companies was not successful in bus chassis production because of strategic mistakes by SAT . The Vanaja LK @-@ series with a large , centrally mounted engine was discontinued , which led to the loss of the main customer , Väinö Paunu Oy . SAT offered Sisu chassis to replace the Vanaja models , but a number of bus operators , including TKL , rejected them . = = = Production figures = = = The number of Vanaja lorries and bus chassis produced totalled 7 @,@ 140 units . In addition , dozens of trailers and semi @-@ trailers were produced and sold under the Vanaja brand in connection with lorries . In 1955 , four Vanaja rail buses made in collaboration with coachbuilding firm Kiitokori were sold to the Finnish State Railways . About 260 models of lorry were produced , which were fitted with 35 types of engine , 20 different gearboxes , and 15 to 20 types of cabin . Many of the models were produced in small numbers , with 116 types only being represented by one or two units . Most of the differences came from special wheelbases that always needed approval from the authorities . In many cases , it is impossible even for experts to identify different models and years of production . There were 66 types of bus chassis produced , and the number of different body types built on them by various coach builders and operators is unknown . = = From Sisu @-@ Hämeenlinna to the present = = The merger led to a clash of two organisational cultures . While VAT had a flat organisation , open communication among its workforce and a spirit of togetherness , SAT 's organisation was strictly hierarchical . The division of portfolios between Karis and Hämeenlinna was changed after the merger . Lorry production was gradually concentrated at Karis and Sisu @-@ Hämeenlinna focused on producing mobile cranes , bus chassis , terminal tractors and military vehicles . Former VAT personnel had to increase production of the new portfolio and simultaneously adopt new processes , so it was three to four years before the Hämeenlinna factory could deliver results in line with its capacity . In 1971 and 1981 the factory made tram bogies under licence from DÜWAG . The trams were made by Valmet for the city of Helsinki . Bus chassis production was officially discontinued in 1986 , although in 1989 a small batch was made and later fitted with Ajokki coach bodies for delivery to a customer in the Soviet Union . SAT had planned its first terminal tractor in Helsinki in the 1960s and the production and development was continued in Hämeenlinna in 1969 . The Sisu terminal tractors became famous worldwide for their innovative design . Production was moved to Tampere in 1996 . SAT 's military vehicle production was moved from the Karis Works to Hämeenlinna in 1970 . The Sisu A @-@ 45 vehicle was later followed by the introduction of two heavier versions ; the Sisu SA @-@ 150 and the Sisu SA @-@ 240 . Production of the armoured personnel carrier Sisu XA @-@ 180 " Pasi " started in the early	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
1980s . Several vehicles were sold to the Finnish Defence Forces and other armies ; it was also used in United Nations peacekeeping missions . Other military products were the Sisu NA @-@ 140 " Nasu " , which was produced from 1985 to 2002 , and the mine @-@ clearance vehicle Sisu RA @-@ 140 DS " Raisu " , 41 of which were produced between 1994 and 2001 . In 1985 , the company moved its axle production from Helsinki to a new factory at Hämeenlinna . In 1995 , axle production was separated into an independent unit called Sisu Axles ; this was sold to investors in 1999 . The main factory builds military vehicles ; the state separated it from the parent company in 1996 and renamed it Patria Vehicles Oy . Its main products are Patria AMV armoured personnel carriers . = = Legacy = = Vanaja was sometimes characterised as " one of the world 's best lorries " because of the company 's ability to engineer a vehicle ideal for each application in accordance with the customer 's wishes . The merger of SAT and VAT has inspired a number of imaginative conspiracy theories . In reality , the acquisition followed a normal process that was initiated by the owners . Experts in the field almost unanimously agree that the merger ensured the Finnish vehicle industry would continue well into the future . Vanajas are valued by vintage vehicle enthusiasts . = Kamp Krusty = " Kamp Krusty " is the first episode of The Simpsons ' fourth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 24 , 1992 . During summer vacation , the children of Springfield attend Kamp Krusty , a summer camp named after Krusty the Clown . The camp is extremely unpleasant , leading to the campers rebelling against the camp director . The episode was written by David M. Stern and directed by Mark Kirkland . = = Plot = = Bart and Lisa excitedly discuss their visit to Kamp Krusty , a summer camp run by Krusty the Clown . Homer has made Bart 's visit conditional on him getting at least a C average on his report card . Bart receives a D- in each subject from Ms. Krabappel , so he changes each grade into straight A 's . Homer chides Bart for not faking plausible grades , but lets him go to camp anyway , because he does not want Bart hanging around throughout the summer . The camp 's director , Mr. Black , has licensed Krusty 's name from the comedian . The campers find out that the camp is a dystopia . Dolph , Jimbo and Kearney , the camp counselors , take the children on death marches , and force them into making knockoff wallets for export . Homer and Marge enjoy their summer alone , with Homer losing weight and growing hair . Lisa writes to them , describing the camp 's brutal conditions , but her parents think she is exaggerating . Bart hopes that his hero Krusty , will save them , but Krusty remains unaware of the camp 's nature , and is currently visiting England for the Wimbledon Tennis Tournament . To keep the children complacent , Mr. Black informs the campers that Krusty has finally come , but it is actually Barney Gumble disguised as Krusty . Bart leads the campers in rebellion , driving out Mr. Black and the bullies . Kent Brockman reports on the revolt , where Bart explains the camp 's deplorable conditions that caused him and the campers to rebel in the first place . The stress of seeing Bart as the leader of the rebellion during the report on TV causes Homer to immediately lose the hair he grew and regain the lost weight . Krusty is called away from his vacation , and arrives at the camp where the kids at first don 't believe its him , until a rough search reveals his iconic pacemaker scar . Krusty apologizes to the children for the poor conditions , saying that he was bribed to approve the camp . As compensation , Krusty takes them to " the happiest place on Earth " , Tijuana , Mexico . = = Production = = The idea that the children should go to a camp run by Krusty was first suggested by David M. Stern . The animators were enthusiastic about making this episode because they had all gone to summer camps as children and thought it would be a fun episode to write for . The writers also thought that " it would be fun if while the kids are gone Homer and Marge find that as the kids are miserable their marriage is better than ever . " The layout for Bart and Lisa 's cabin was influenced by the director , Mark Kirkland , who as a child went to a Boy Scout camp that had exposed wires and other similar faults . Kirkland was also sure that the character Mr. Black was going to reappear later in the series , but he never did . Al Jean commented , " I guess that the hydrofoil really got Mr. Black out of the show forever . " After he saw the completed episode , James L. Brooks called the writers and suggested that the Kamp Krusty script be used as a plotline for a film . However , the episode ran very short , and to make it barely fit the minimum time the Kamp Krusty song had to be lengthened by a number of verses . The episode was also chosen to be the first episode of the season , further complicating matters . As Jean told Brooks , " First of all , if we make it into the movie then we don 't have a premiere , and second , if we can 't make 18 minutes out of this episode how are we supposed to make 80 ? " Along with the following episode " A Streetcar Named Marge " , " Kamp Krusty " was a holdover from the previous season 's production run . It was the final episode to be produced in this run and so the last animated at Klasky Csupo , before the show 's producers Gracie Films moved its domestic production to Film Roman . = = Cultural references = = Some elements of the plot are borrowed from the Allan Sherman song " Hello Muddah , Hello Fadduh " , a song about a kid who went to camp and hated it . The idea for the song sung by the children was from a 1960s TV show called Camp Runamuck , which has a theme song that is similar to the Kamp Krusty song . The song was later used in " Marge Be Not Proud " , and inspired the title of a later episode . The scene where Lisa gives a bottle of whiskey to a man on horseback ( payment for delivering a letter ) is a reference to Meryl Streep 's scene from the film The French Lieutenant 's Woman . Some aspects of the episode are references to the novel Lord of the Flies ( a pig 's head on a spear , kids using primitive weapons and wearing war paint , and a burning effigy ) . The scene where Kearney beats a drum to make the campers work in the sweatshop is taken from the slave galley scene in the 1959 film Ben @-@ Hur . The episode ends with the song " South of the Border " . According to the DVD commentary , the song is not sung by Frank Sinatra but by another artist impersonating him . The plot of the episode inspired the 1991 video game spin @-@ off from the television series called Bart Simpson 's Escape from Camp Deadly . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Kamp Krusty " finished 24th in ratings for the week of September 21 – 27 , 1992 , with a Nielsen rating of 13 @.@ 5 , equivalent to approximately 12 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , the authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , had mixed views about the episode . They said that it is " A bit baffling to non @-@ Americans unfamiliar with the summer camp system . But top grade stuff nonetheless . Anyone who 's worked as a counsellor in such a place can testify to this episode 's authenticity . " The episode 's reference to Ben @-@ Hur was named the 31st greatest film reference in the history of the show by Total Film 's Nathan Ditum . = John Morrison ( wrestler ) = John Randall Hennigan ( born October 3 , 1979 ) is an American professional wrestler and actor , who is best known for his tenure with the WWE where he was better known by his ring names John Morrison and Johnny Nitro . He currently wrestles for Lucha Underground under the ring name Johnny Mundo . Hennigan entered Tough Enough III , a televised competition that would award the winner a WWE contract . Hennigan won the competition and was assigned to their developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , to continue his wrestling training . While situated at OVW , he adopted the ring name Johnny Nitro and was placed in a tag team with Joey Mercury . The duo won the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship and alongside their manager Melina , the stable was called MNM . After signing with WWE , MNM was called up to the SmackDown ! roster and on their debut match in April 2005 , Hennigan and Mercury won the WWE Tag Team Championship . In 2005 , Hennigan won five championships ; three WWE Tag Team Championships and two WWE Intercontinental Championships . After MNM split , Hennigan 's ring name changed to John Morrison and he formed a partnership with The Miz in late 2007 , with the two capturing the WWE Tag Team Championship and the World Tag Team Championship on separate occasions , and winning the 2008 Tag Team of the Year Slammy Award . During his tenure with WWE , Hennigan won nine championships . He is a three @-@ time WWE Intercontinental Champion , a record @-@ tying four @-@ time WWE Tag Team Champion ( once with The Miz and three times with Joey Mercury ) , a one @-@ time World Tag Team Champion with The Miz , and a one @-@ time ECW World Champion . In November 2011 , Hennigan left WWE , and began wrestling overseas and on the independent circuit before signing with Lucha Underground in September 2014 . Hennigan won the main event of the debut episode , as well as the first ladder match and steel cage match of Lucha Underground . He also represented Lucha Underground in the 2015 and 2016 Lucha Libre World Cups , winning the latter tournament . He is a one @-@ time Lucha Underground Champion , a one @-@ time Gift of the Gods Champion and one @-@ time Lucha Underground Trios Champion with PJ Black and Jack Evans . He is the second wrestler in Lucha Underground history to have won all three championships . = = Professional wrestling career = = = = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = = = = = = Tough Enough and Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = = Before getting into professional wrestling , Hennigan attended the University of California at Davis studying both film and geology . Upon deciding that he did not want to pursue either path , Hennigan began his professional wrestling career training at the Supreme Pro Wrestling school in Sacramento , California . After failing his audition for Tough Enough 2 , he was accepted as a cast member for Tough Enough III in 2002 , eventually becoming the co @-@ winner with Matt Cappotelli . For winning , Hennigan was awarded a WWE developmental contract and assigned to WWE 's developmental territory , Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , to continue his training . Hennigan competed in the Acolytes Protection Agency 's invitational Bar Room Brawl match at Vengeance in July 2003 . Hennigan and Cappotelli made an appearance on an episode of Heat in January 2004 , losing to Garrison Cade and Mark Jindrak in a tag team match . = = = = Eric Bischoff 's assistant and apprentice ( 2004 ) = = = = On March 1 , 2004 , Hennigan debuted on the Raw brand under the ring name " Johnny Blaze " . His gimmick was that he was the apprentice and assistant of the Raw General Manager , Eric Bischoff . The next week his name was changed to " Johnny Spade " , and three weeks after that it was changed to " Johnny Nitro " . The Nitro name , which finally stuck , was a reference to WCW Monday Nitro , the flagship show of World Championship Wrestling for which Bischoff had previously worked . To drive the point home , he began using the Nitro theme as his ring entrance music . Nitro acted as Bischoff 's apprentice and assistant until June , when he was sent back to OVW . To explain his departure , Nitro lost a match on June 7 episode of Raw against Eugene , which carried the stipulation that upon his loss , he also lost his job . = = = = MNM and championship reigns ( 2004 – 2007 ) = = = = Upon his return to OVW , Nitro was put into a feud with his former partner Matt Cappotelli . During the course of the feud Melina was brought into the company as Nitro 's ex @-@ girlfriend and an ally of Cappotelli , only to turn on him and side with Nitro . Not long after , Nitro and Melina were joined by Joey Mercury , forming the stable MNM . MNM wrestled in OVW for around a year , holding the OVW Southern Tag Team Championship once , before being called up to the main SmackDown ! roster in April 2005 . In their first match for the brand , they won the WWE Tag Team Championship from Rey Mysterio and Eddie Guerrero . MNM held the titles for three months , having successful titles defenses against the teams of Mysterio and Guerrero and Hardcore Holly and Charlie Haas , before dropping them to the Legion of Doom ( LOD ) at The Great American Bash . They won the titles again in a four @-@ way match defeating The Mexicools , William Regal and Paul Burchill , and LOD , but lost them to Mysterio and Batista days before Armageddon in December . Due to help from Mark Henry , MNM defeated Mysterio and Batista in a rematch on December 30 to win the championship for the third time . They began a rivalry with the team of Paul London and Brian Kendrick that lasted over three months , until they dropped the championship to London and Kendrick at Judgment Day in May , with the storyline leading to Nitro and Melina suddenly turning on Mercury after the match , breaking up the group . Later that night , Melina and Nitro were booked off the SmackDown ! brand by having the General Manager , Theodore Long , " fire " them . The next week Nitro , along with Melina , debuted on the Raw brand in a loss to WWE Champion John Cena . Nitro was immediately placed in the WWE Intercontinental Championship picture , beginning his first reign at Vengeance in June defeating champion Shelton Benjamin in a triple threat match also involving Carlito . Nitro held the belt for four months , feuding with several challengers before losing it to Jeff Hardy on October 2 episode of Raw . Nitro then engaged in a feud with Hardy . Nitro recaptured the Intercontinental Championship from Hardy on November 6 when the General Manager for the night , Eric Bischoff , restarted a match that Nitro lost by disqualification . The next week , however , Hardy won the title back . In addition , Nitro was featured in a sporadic feud with John Cena throughout 2006 . The feud was unique in that it also involved non @-@ wrestler Kevin Federline , who appeared on October 16 episode of Raw . Federline was then , in storyline , trained by Nitro for a match with Cena , which he won after interference from Umaga . In November , MNM reunited on an episode of Raw to accept an open challenge from The Hardys ( Jeff and Matt Hardy ) at December to Dismember , a match that they lost . MNM and the Hardys feuded across the brands throughout December , with the feud intensifying after Mercury was legitimately injured at Armageddon in a four @-@ way ladder match . Mercury wrestled Matt on SmackDown ! , while Nitro continued to feud with Jeff for the Intercontinental Championship on Raw , including a steel cage match at New Year 's Revolution . MNM lost to The Hardys at the Royal Rumble , and again at No Way Out in February which ended the feud . MNM continued on and off as a team until Mercury was released from WWE in March 2007 . Without Mercury , Nitro 's association with Melina was played down as she began competing for the WWE Women 's Championship . Nitro was paired up with Kenny Dykstra , until the 2007 WWE Draft , during which Nitro was sent to the ECW brand and Dykstra was sent to SmackDown ! . = = = = ECW World Champion and teaming with The Miz ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = = = Nitro made his ECW début on June 19 with a win over Nunzio , and few days later , on June 24 , at Vengeance : Night of Champions , he won the vacant ECW World Championship in a match against CM Punk , making it his first World Championship in WWE , when he was called upon to replace the missing Chris Benoit due to a " family emergency " . A few weeks after getting the title , Nitro 's ring name was changed to " John Morrison " and his gimmick was tweaked to be even more conceited and self – aggrandizing — in addition to being modelled after Jim Morrison ( 1943 – 1971 ) , the legendary frontman of the 1960s rock band The Doors , to whom Nitro bears a strong physical resemblance . After defeating CM Punk again at The Great American Bash , he began taking part in a " 15 Minutes of Fame " segment on the weekly ECW on Sci Fi television program , where if a wrestler could either defeat him or last 15 minutes without being defeated , they would earn a title shot . The first wrestler to do so was CM Punk , which set up another match between the two at SummerSlam . Morrison won by illegally using the ring ropes for leverage . The next week , Punk again became the number one contender ; this time , however , Punk won the championship . Morrison was then suspended for thirty days for violating WWE 's Wellness Program , renewing his feud with Punk upon his return , as well as competing against The Miz for the number one contendership to the title . Though rivals , Morrison and The Miz faced the dysfunctional tag team of Matt Hardy and Montel Vontavious Porter on the November 16 episode of SmackDown ! for the WWE Tag Team Championship in a winning effort , marking Morrison 's fourth WWE Tag Team Championship . At Survivor Series , Morrison and The Miz were both defeated by CM Punk in a triple threat match for the ECW Championship . After the defeat , the rivalry aspect of Miz and Morrison 's relationship faded , as they were now portrayed as trusting friends . In February 2008 , Morrison and The Miz were given a streaming segment on WWE.com named The Dirt Sheet in which they mocked other wrestlers and facets of pop culture . Morrison and The Miz co @-@ wrote each episode of The Dirt Sheet each week , and he credits his time in college studying film with contributing to the success of the show . On July 4 episode of Smackdown , Morrison lost to Jeff Hardy who re @-@ debuted on Smackdown after the 2008 WWE Draft . The team had many successful title defenses over the next few months , before dropping the titles to Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder at The Great American Bash in a fatal four @-@ way match which also featured Jesse and Festus and Finlay and Hornswoggle . Neither The Miz nor Morrison were pinned , as Hawkins pinned Jesse to win the titles . Afterwards , they started a feud with Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and JTG ) through each team 's Internet show , which then transitioned to matches on Raw and at Cyber Sunday . After winning the Slammy Award for Best WWE.com exclusive earlier in the day , Morrison and The Miz won the " Tag Team of the Year " Slammy Award on December 8 , 2008 episode of Raw . On December 13 , Morrison and The Miz won the World Tag Team Championship from CM Punk and Kofi Kingston at a Raw live event . Morrison and the Miz engaged themselves in a feud with The Colóns ( Carlito and Primo ) , who were the reigning WWE Tag Team champions which resulted in both teams defending their respective championships successfully in separate matches . Their feud culminated in a tag team lumberjack match on the WrestleMania XXV pre @-@ show where both titles were on the line , but it was The Colóns who would unify the championships with a win . As part of the 2009 WWE Draft on April 13 , The Miz was drafted to the Raw brand to split up the team , and , as a result , Miz attacked Morrison . = = = = Championship pursuits and Intercontinental Champion ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = = On April 15 , 2009 , Morrison returned to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft . In Morrison 's first match back for the brand , on April 17 , he defeated R @-@ Truth . On the May 1 episode of SmackDown , Morrison engaged in a backstage fight with Chris Jericho , after Jericho slapped him , thus turning into a face ( fan favorite character ) for the first time in his career . At Judgment Day , Morrison defeated Benjamin in a rematch . Morrison would soon become wildly popular with fans . On June 19 , John Morrison lost a critically acclaimed match against Edge , in which the commentators described it as a " third main event " . On July 31 episode of SmackDown , Morrison had his first World Heavyweight Championship match against champion Jeff Hardy , but failed to win the title . On September 4 episode of SmackDown , Morrison defeated Rey Mysterio to win his third Intercontinental Championship . At the TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view , Morrison lost the Intercontinental Championship to Drew McIntyre . In 2010 , Morrison formed a friendship with R @-@ Truth . He won an Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view qualifying match and participated but lost and failed to capture the World Heavyweight Championship . Morrison and Truth defeated Cryme Tyme and The Hart Dynasty to earn a Unified WWE Tag Team Championship match at WrestleMania XXVI against ShoMiz ( The Big Show and The Miz ) . At the event , they failed to win the championship . = = = = Final storylines and departure ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = = On April 26 , Morrison was drafted to the Raw brand as part of the 2010 WWE Draft , and lost his first match back for the brand later that night to Jack Swagger . Later that week , in his final match on SmackDown , he lost to Cody Rhodes . On June 1 , Morrison announced that he would be mentoring Eli Cottonwood in the second season of WWE NXT . Cottonwood , however , was the second person eliminated from the competition , and was eliminated on July 27 episode of NXT . Morrison then went on to participate in the main event of SummerSlam in which he and six teammates ( John Cena , Edge , Chris Jericho , R @-@ Truth , Daniel Bryan , and Bret Hart ) were victorious in a seven @-@ on @-@ seven elimination tag team match against The Nexus . At Survivor Series , Morrison beat Sheamus . In November 2010 , Morrison entered the 2010 edition of the King of the Ring tournament , defeating Tyson Kidd , Cody Rhodes , and Alberto Del Rio . Morrison lost to Sheamus in the final round . He continued to feud with Sheamus , and defeated him in a WWE Championship number one contender 's ladder match at the Tables , Ladders & Chairs pay @-@ per @-@ view on December 19 . Morrison received his WWE Championship match on January 3 , 2011 episode of Raw , but lost to reigning champion The Miz in a falls count anywhere match . On January 30 , Morrison participated in the Royal Rumble match at the Royal Rumble event and despite not winning , he had a stand @-@ out moment which was praised by critics as " arguably the spot of the decade " when Morrison was knocked off of the ring apron and performed a cat leap onto the barricade to avoid having his feet touch the floor and then went on to precision jump onto the ring steps and re @-@ enter the ring . On February 20 , Morrison participated in the Raw Elimination Chamber match at the Elimination Chamber pay @-@ per @-@ view event but was eliminated by CM Punk . During the match Morrison climbed to the top of the cage while inside the cage before dropping to deliver a crossbody on and eliminate Sheamus . At WrestleMania XXVII , Morrison teamed with Trish Stratus and Jersey Shore guest star Snooki in a mixed tag match to defeat the team of Dolph Ziggler , Michelle McCool and Layla . Morrison participated in a five @-@ man gauntlet match for the number one contender 's spot for the WWE Championship on April 11 episode of Raw , but was eliminated by R @-@ Truth . The next week on Raw , Morrison challenged R @-@ Truth to a match later on in the night , with the stipulation that if Morrison won , he would take R @-@ Truth 's place in the steel cage match at Extreme Rules . Truth accepted , and lost the match , making Morrison the new number one contender . At Extreme Rules , R @-@ Truth interfered in the match , attacking Morrison and preventing him from winning the match . The next night on Raw , Morrison was attacked by Truth again , prior to a scheduled match between the two which did not happen as a result . Morrison then underwent surgery to correct a legitimately pinched nerve in his neck . Morrison initially returned on June 13 episode of Raw , but R @-@ Truth attacked him again prior to their scheduled match , re @-@ injuring him . Morrison returned again on July 25 episode of Raw , attacking R @-@ Truth . At SummerSlam , Morrison competed in a six @-@ man tag team match , teaming with Kofi Kingston and Rey Mysterio to defeat R @-@ Truth , Alberto Del Rio and The Miz . The following night on Raw , Morrison defeated R @-@ Truth in a Falls Count Anywhere match to end their feud . At Night of Champions , Morrison competed in a Fatal @-@ 4 @-@ Way match for the WWE United States Championship , also involving Alex Riley , Jack Swagger and Dolph Ziggler , in which Ziggler successfully retained his title . Morrison then challenged Rhodes for the Intercontinental Championship twice , first on September 26 episode of Raw in a 10 man battle royal and later at the Hell in a Cell pay per @-@ view but failed to win on both occasions . Following this he then went on a losing streak , lasting a number of weeks . On November 7 episode of Raw , Morrison picked up his first victory in three months , over United States Champion Dolph Ziggler in a non @-@ title match , ending the losing streak . He then faced Ziggler for the championship at Survivor Series but lost . On Morrison 's last advertised WWE appearance on November 28 episode of Raw , Morrison faced his former tag team partner The Miz in a Falls Count Anywhere match . The Miz won the match by delivering his Skull @-@ Crushing Finale maneuver on the steel stage . This was used as an injury angle to write Morrison off television , as Morrison was stretchered away after the match . On November 29 , WWE acknowledged the end of Morrison 's contract , and moved his profile to the alumni section of its website . In a video published on December 9 , 2011 via Hennigan 's personal YouTube channel , Hennigan claimed that he was taking time off to heal and retrain for a possible return to wrestling in the future . Hennigan also stated in multiple interviews in 2015 that he would consider going back to WWE , but does not plan on " going anywhere in the near future " due to being signed to Lucha Underground . = = = Independent circuit ( 2012 – present ) = = = After leaving WWE , Hennigan began wrestling on the independent circuit under his real name and as John Morrison . On his first post @-@ WWE wrestling appearance , Hennigan rekindled an old feud facing off against Shelton Benjamin in the main event of the World Wrestling Fan Xperience ( WWFX ) Champions Showcase Tour in Manila , Philippines on February 4 , 2012 . Hennigan won the match to become the inaugural WWFX Heavyweight Champion . On August 12 , 2012 , Hennigan appeared at Juggalo Championship Wrestling 's Bloodymania 6 event , defeating Matt Hardy and Breyer Wellington in a three @-@ way match . On January 25 , 2013 , Morrison appeared at Dragon Gate USA 's Open the Golden Gate , defeating Akira Tozawa in the main event of the show . Hennigan took part in the WrestleMania weekend , wrestling for the Pro Wrestling Syndicate . On April 4 , Hennigan defeated Elijah Burke and on April 5 , Morrison defeated Japanese legend Jushin Thunder Liger in an " International Dream Match " at a Pro Wrestling Syndicate ( PWS ) event . On April 19 , Hennigan again defeated Sami Callihan in a no count @-@ out , no disqualification falls count anywhere match at a 2CW event in Rome , New York . The next day , he defeated Kevin Steen at 2CW 's first iPPV ( Living on the Edge VIII ) , in Watertown , New York . On June 21 , 2013 , Hennigan defeated Carlito Caribbean Cool in FWE Welcome to the Rumble II , winning the FWE Heavyweight Championship . The next day , Hennigan defended the title against Too Cold Scorpio at House of Hardcore 2 . On September 6 and 8 , Morrison wrestled against WWL World Heavyweight Champion Black Pain for the title , but he was defeated both times . On October 12 , 2013 , at FWE Grand Prix , Hennigan defeated Matt Morgan , retaining the FWE Heavyweight Championship . On March 11 , 2015 , Hennigan lost the FWE Heavyweight Championship to A.J. Styles . Morrison faced Rob Van Dam at Pro Wrestling Syndicate in Rahway , New Jersey on October 24 , 2015 in a winning effort . After the match , Morrison shook hands with Van Dam and led the crowd in an " RVD " chant . On June 28 , 2016 , it was announced that Hennigan would make his debut for Pro Wrestling Guerilla in the company 's annual Battle of Los Angeles tournament . = = = Lucha Underground ( 2014 – present ) = = = In September 2014 , it was reported that Hennigan had signed with the El Rey network 's new television series , Lucha Underground , where he wrestled under the ring name Johnny Mundo . Mundo wrestled in the main event of the debut episode of Lucha Underground on October 29 , 2014 , defeating Prince Puma and winning one hundred thousand dollars , which was then taken away from him by promoter Dario Cueto , setting up several feuds . He then teamed with Prince Puma during the November 5 , 2014 episode , defeating Cortez Castro and Mr. Cisco . On the November 19 episode , Mundo defeated Big Ryck by disqualification after interference by Castro and Cisco . Mundo then defeated Prince Puma and Big Ryck in the main event of the December 10 , 2014 episode , which was a three @-@ way ladder match , to finally win the hundred thousand dollars he was denied in the Lucha Underground debut . On January 7 , 2015 , Mundo participated in a 20 @-@ man " Aztec Warfare " battle royal for the Lucha Underground Championship . He was the second luchador to enter the ring , but was the last man eliminated by Prince Puma who won the Championship . King Cuerno attacked Mundo on the February 4 episode , beginning a feud between them ; the second installment took place on the episode which aired March 11 , where Mundo and Cuerno wrestled in a Steel Cage match , which was won by Mundo . On the April 15 episode of Lucha Underground , Mundo along with Prince Puma and Hernandez were defeated by King Cuerno , Cage and Texano in a quarterfinal trios tournament match for a shot at the Lucha Underground Trios Championship . On the May 6 , episode of Lucha Underground , Mundo was defeated by Alberto El Patrón in a number two contenders match for the Lucha Underground Championship . The week after , Mundo turned heel ( or rudo ) when he attacked El Patrón in his match against Hernandez , throwing him through the window of Dario Cueto . Mundo subsequently tossed El Patrón back into the ring , giving Hernandez the win . After Mundo turned rudo , his character was tweaked to become more " cocky " and " ego @-@ centric " , similarly to his villainous Johnny Nitro and John Morrison characters . On the June 17 , episode of Lucha Underground , Johnny Mundo unsuccessfully challenged Prince Puma for the Lucha Underground Championship in an Iron Man match . On August 5 , 2015 , at Ultima Lucha , Mundo defeated Alberto El Patrón after an interference by his girlfriend Melina Perez . On the February 3 , 2016 episode of Lucha Underground , Mundo faced Killshot in a winning effort . After the match , Mundo taunted Lucha Underground Champion Mil Muertes , only to be confronted by Cage . On the February 17 episode of Lucha Underground , Mundo would attack Cage from behind after his match against Joey Ryan . Mundo defeated Cage on February 24 , after interference from the debuting Taya , subsequently becoming Mundo 's valet . On the May 25 episode of Lucha Underground , Taya revealed to PJ Black and Jack Evans that their partner Fénix was injured by Mundo . As Mundo revealed himself as Fénix 's replacement for their match , Black and Evans allied with the two . Later that night in the main event , Mundo , Black and Evans defeated Rey Mysterio Jr . , Prince Puma and Dragon Azteca Jr. to win the Lucha Underground Trios Championship , the first championship for each in Lucha Underground . The week after , Mundo , Black and Evans retained their championships in a rematch via disqualification . During the match , Mundo delivered a low blow to Azteca Jr. while Taya distracted the referee . After seeing Mundo 's actions , Puma hit a low blow to Mundo , causing a disqualification towards Puma 's team . On the June 8 episode of Lucha Underground , Mundo teamed up with Taya , Ivelisse , Fénix , King Cuerno and Pentagón Jr. in a 12 @-@ man tag team match where the winning team would go on to face each other in a six @-@ man elimination match to determine the No. 1 contender for the Lucha Underground Championship . Mundo 's team won defeating Rey Mysterio Jr . , Prince Puma , Sexy Star , The Mack , Son of Havoc and El Texano Jr . The week after , Mundo lost the six @-@ man elimination match which was won by Pentagón Jr . Mundo , Black and Evans lost their titles to Aero Star , Drago and Fénix at the third and final part Ultima Lucha Dos , which aired on July 20 . On March 19 , Mundo defeated Sexy Star to win the Gift of the Gods Championship . On April 10 , he cashed in his Gift of the Gods Championship on Sexy Star before defeating her to win the Lucha Underground Championship , becoming the second Triple Crown Champion in Lucha Underground history . He lost the title to Prince Puma at Ultima Lucha Tres on June 26 . = = = Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( 2015 – present ) = = = On May 24 , 2015 , Mundo made his debut for Asistencia Asesoría y Administración at the Lucha Libre World Cup event as a member of " Team TNA / Lucha Underground " along with Matt Hardy and Mr. Anderson . They finished in second place , losing in the finals to the " Dream Team " ( El Patrón Alberto , Myzteziz and Rey Mysterio Jr . ) . On June 4 , 2015 , at Verano de Escándalo , Mundo teamed with El Mesias and Pentagón Jr. losing to Myzteziz , La Parka and Rey Mysterio Jr . On September 27 , Konnan announced Mundo as an official member of the rudo stable , La Nueva Sociedad , while he subsequently stepped down as the leader of the group . On October 4 , at Héroes Inmortales IX , Mundo unsuccessfully challenged El Patrón Alberto for the AAA Mega Championship , when he was defeated by disqualification . Mundo participated in the 2016 Lucha Libre World Cup as a member of " Team Lucha Underground " alongside Chavo Guerrero Jr. and Brian Cage , defeating " Team Mexico Leyendas " ( Blue Demon Jr . , Canek and La Parka ) in the quarter @-@ finals , and " Team Mexico International " ( Rey Mysterio Jr . , Dr. Wagner Jr. and Dragon Azteca Jr . ) in the semi @-@ finals . Mundo 's team won the tournament defeating " Team AAA " ( Pentagón Jr . , El Texano Jr. and Psycho Clown ) in the finals . Mundo will face Pentagón Jr. at Triplemanía XXIV on August 28 for the AAA Latin American Championship . = = Other media = = In 2009 , Hennigan and Maryse Ouellet were interviewed on Eurosport . In 2009 , Hennigan appeared on two episodes of Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? , which were both aired on September 29 . Hennigan is the subject of a WWE DVD , called John Morrison – Rock Star , which was released on February 16 , 2010 . The DVD covers his career from his name change to John Morrison up until his Intercontinental Championship win in September 2009 . He appeared on an episode of Destroy Build Destroy on March 3 , 2010 . Hennigan was on the cover of Muscle & Fitness in June 2010 , with the issue also featuring an interview and photo shoot . After leaving WWE in 2011 , Hennigan started to pursue acting as a career and as a way to improve his promo skills . His first role was as a wrestler in Weird Al 's Broadway Style Cabaret Review . He has also had roles in Legion of the Black , The Factory and Tournament of Nerds . In 2013 , he co @-@ starred in 20 Feet Below : The Darkness Descending with Melina Perez . In 2014 he played Hercules in the movie Hercules Reborn and appeared as Casey Jones in an episode of Bat in the Sun 's Superpower Beatdown where he will go up against Kick @-@ Ass . Also , in 2014 he appeared in a movie called " American Justice " starring Tommy Lister.In winter of 2014 , Hennigan , under his John Morrison name , will appear in an upcoming web series for Bat in the Sun titled Operation Black Unicorn alongside Bat in the Sun regular Kevin Porter and starring Power Rangers alumni Jason David Frank and Jason Faunt . Hennigan also appears as a cameo in the first episode of Video Game High School 's third season and in YOMYOMF 's promotional video . Hennigan portrayed the character " The Hammer " in the wrestling themed Air Bud spin @-@ off Russell Madness . In 2015 , Hennigan signed on to play the lead role in the action horror film Diablo Steel , to be released in 2016 . In 2016 , Hennigan , Rey Mysterio , and King Cuerno appeared on ESPN to promote the second season of Lucha Underground . In March 2016 , Hennigan was a guest on the Rooster Teeth web show , Free Play . = = Personal life = = Hennigan has two sisters and grew up in Palos Verdes , California , where he attended high school . He graduated from the University of California , Davis in 2002 with a film major . He cites Shawn Michaels , Randy Savage , and Curt Hennig as his favorite wrestlers . Hennigan is good friends with fellow professional wrestlers The Miz , Zack Ryder , Dolph Ziggler , Randy Orton and Matt Cappotelli . Hennigan is currently in a long term , on @-@ off relationship with former WWE Diva Melina Perez ; whom he met in Tough Enough auditions in 2001 , although Perez didn 't make the final cut . Hennigan has a passion for parkour and frequently incorporates it into his wrestling style . = = In wrestling = = Finishing moves As Johnny Mundo End of the World / Fin del Mundo ( Split @-@ legged corkscrew moonsault ) As John Morrison / John Hennigan C @-@ 4 ( Standing moonsault side slam ) – early 2011 ; used as a signature thereafter Moonlight Drive ( Corkscrew neckbreaker ) – 2007 – 2009 ; used as a signature thereafter Starship Pain ( Split @-@ legged corkscrew moonsault ) – 2009 – present As Johnny Nitro Nitro Blast ( Superkick ) Signature moves 180 ° spun flare transitioned into a leg drop Belly to back wheelbarrow facebuster Corkscrew moonsault Corkscrew plancha Diving crossbody European uppercut Leg lariat Multiple kick variations Capoeira @-@ style handstand Capoeira @-@ style spinning heel Dropsault Double mule Enzuigiri Flying Chuck ( Springboard roundhouse ) Pelé Kick ( Backflip ) Slingshot baseball slide Russian legsweep Running knee strike to a seated opponent 's head – sometimes used as a finisher Shooting star plancha Slingshot or a springboard elbow drop Spear Springboard 450 ° plancha Standing shooting star press STO backbreaker followed by either a Russian legsweep or a neckbreaker slam Tilt @-@ a @-@ whirl DDT Managers Melina Jillian Hall Nikki Bella Taya Nicknames " The Ambassador of Abdominals " " The Guru of Greatness " " The Honcho of Hotness " " JoMo " " The Monday / Tuesday / Wednesday / Friday Night Delight " " The New Face of Extreme " " The Prince of Parkour " " The Shaman of Sexy " Entrance themes " " Monday Night Nitro Theme " by Jonathan Elias " ( WWE ; 2004 ) " Paparazzi " by Jim Johnston ( WWE ; April 14 , 2005 – July 2007 ; used while a part of MNM ) " Ain 't No Make Believe ( Instrumental ) " ( WWE ; July 2007 – August 2007 ) " Ain 't No Make Believe " by Stonefree Experience ( WWE ; August 2007 – November 28 , 2011 ) " Blitz & Glam " by The Jetboys ( LU ; October 29 , 2014 – present ) " Born in the USA " by Bruce Springsteen ( AAA ; October 4 , 2015 – present ) = = Championships and accomplishments = = Asistencia Asesoría y Administración Lucha Libre World Cup ( 2016 Men 's Division ) – with Chavo Guerrero Jr. and Brian Cage Continental Wrestling Federation CWF United States Championship ( 1 time ) DDT Pro @-@ Wrestling Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship ( 1 time ) Family Wrestling Entertainment FWE Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) Next Generation Wrestling NGW World Championship ( 1 time , current ) Lucha Underground Gift of the Gods Championship ( 1 time ) Lucha Underground Championship ( 1 time ) Lucha Underground Trios Championship ( 1 time ) – with Jack Evans and PJ Black Second Triple Crown Champion Ohio Valley Wrestling OVW Southern Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Joey Mercury Pro Wrestling Illustrated Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2009 ) Tag Team of the Year ( 2005 ) – with Joey Mercury PWI ranked him No. 27 of the 500 best singles wrestlers of the year in the PWI 500 in 2010 and 2011 Qatar Pro Wrestling QPW Souq Waqif Championship ( 1 time , current ) World Wrestling Entertainment ECW World Heavyweight Championship Tournament ECW World Championship ( 1 time ) WWE Intercontinental Championship ( 3 times ) World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with The Miz WWE Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with Joey Mercury ( 3 ) and The Miz ( 1 ) Tough Enough III with Matt Cappotelli Slammy Award ( 2 times ) Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 ) – with The Miz Best WWE.com Exclusive ( 2008 ) – with The Miz World Wrestling Fan Xperience WWFX Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time ) Wrestling Observer Newsletter Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 ) – with The Miz = Hydrochloric acid = Hydrochloric acid is a clear , colorless , highly pungent solution of hydrogen chloride ( HCl ) in water . It is a highly corrosive , strong mineral acid with many industrial uses . Hydrochloric acid is found naturally in gastric acid . When it reacts with an organic base it forms a hydrochloride salt . It was historically called acidum salis , muriatic acid , and spirits of salt because it was produced from rock salt and green vitriol ( by Basilius Valentinus in the 15th century ) and later from the chemically similar common salt and sulfuric acid ( by Johann Rudolph Glauber in the 17th century ) . Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius . Later , it was used by chemists such as Glauber , Priestley , and Davy in their scientific research . With major production starting in the Industrial Revolution , hydrochloric acid is used in the chemical industry as a chemical reagent in the large @-@ scale production of vinyl chloride for PVC plastic , and MDI / TDI for polyurethane . It has numerous smaller @-@ scale applications , including household cleaning , production of gelatin and other food additives , descaling , and leather processing . About 20 million tonnes of hydrochloric acid are produced worldwide annually . = = Etymology = = Hydrochloric acid was known to European alchemists as spirits of salt or acidum salis ( salt acid ) . Both names are still used , especially in other languages , such as German : Salzsäure , Dutch : Zoutzuur , Swedish : Saltsyra , Turkish : Tuz Ruhu , Polish : kwas solny and Chinese : 盐酸 . Gaseous HCl was called marine acid air . The old ( pre @-@ systematic ) name muriatic acid has the same origin ( muriatic means " pertaining to brine or salt " , hence muriate means hydrochloride ) , and this name is still sometimes used . The name hydrochloric acid was coined by the French chemist Joseph Louis Gay @-@ Lussac in 1814 . = = History = = Aqua regia , a mixture consisting of hydrochloric and nitric acids , prepared by dissolving sal ammoniac in nitric acid , was described in the works of Pseudo @-@ Geber , a 13th @-@ century European alchemist . Other references suggest that the first mention of aqua regia is in Byzantine manuscripts dating to the end of the 13th century . Free hydrochloric acid was first formally described in the 16th century by Libavius , who prepared it by heating salt in clay crucibles . Other authors claim that pure hydrochloric acid was first discovered by the German Benedictine monk Basil Valentine in the 15th century , when he heated common salt and green vitriol , whereas others argue that there is no clear reference to the preparation of pure hydrochloric acid until the end of the 16th century . In the 17th century , Johann Rudolf Glauber from Karlstadt am Main , Germany used sodium chloride salt and sulfuric acid for the preparation of sodium sulfate in the Mannheim process , releasing hydrogen chloride gas . Joseph Priestley of Leeds , England prepared pure hydrogen chloride in 1772 , and by 1808 Humphry Davy of Penzance , England had proved that the chemical composition included hydrogen and chlorine . During the Industrial Revolution in Europe , demand for alkaline substances increased . A new industrial process developed by Nicolas Leblanc of Issoundun , France enabled cheap large @-@ scale production of sodium carbonate ( soda ash ) . In this Leblanc process , common salt is converted to soda ash , using sulfuric acid , limestone , and coal , releasing hydrogen chloride as a by @-@ product . Until the British Alkali Act 1863 and similar legislation in other countries , the excess HCl was vented into the air . After the passage of the act , soda ash producers were obliged to absorb the waste gas in water , producing hydrochloric acid on an industrial scale . In the 20th century , the Leblanc process was effectively replaced by the Solvay process without a hydrochloric acid by @-@ product . Since hydrochloric acid was already fully settled as an important chemical in numerous applications , the commercial interest initiated other production methods , some of which are still used today . After the year 2000 , hydrochloric acid is mostly made by absorbing by @-@ product hydrogen chloride from industrial organic compounds production . Since 1988 , hydrochloric acid has been listed as a Table II precursor under the 1988 United Nations Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances because of its use in the production of heroin , cocaine , and methamphetamine . = = Chemical properties and reactions = = Hydrogen chloride ( HCl ) is a monoprotic acid , which means it can dissociate ( i.e. , ionize ) only once to give up one H + ion ( a single proton ) . In aqueous hydrochloric acid , the H + joins a water molecule to form a hydronium ion , H3O + : HCl + H2O → H3O + + Cl − The other ion formed is Cl − , the chloride ion . Hydrochloric acid can therefore be used to prepare salts called chlorides , such as sodium chloride . Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid , since it is essentially completely dissociated in water . Monoprotic acids have one acid dissociation constant , Ka , which indicates the level of dissociation in water . For a strong acid like HCl , the Ka is large . Theoretical attempts to assign a Ka to HCl have been made . When chloride salts such as NaCl are added to aqueous HCl , they have practically no effect on pH , indicating that Cl − is an exceedingly weak conjugate base and that HCl is fully dissociated in aqueous solution . For intermediate to concentrated solutions of hydrochloric acid , the assumption that H + molarity ( a unit of concentration ) equals HCl molarity is excellent , agreeing to four significant digits . Of the six common strong mineral acids in chemistry , hydrochloric acid is the monoprotic acid least likely to undergo an interfering oxidation @-@ reduction reaction . It is one of the least hazardous strong acids to handle ; despite its acidity , it consists of the non @-@ reactive and non @-@ toxic chloride ion . Intermediate @-@ strength hydrochloric acid solutions are quite stable upon storage , maintaining their concentrations over time . These attributes , plus the fact that it is available as a pure reagent , make hydrochloric acid an excellent acidifying reagent . Hydrochloric acid is the preferred acid in titration for determining the amount of bases . Strong acid titrants give more precise results due to a more distinct endpoint . Azeotropic , or " constant @-@ boiling " , hydrochloric acid ( roughly 20 @.@ 2 % ) can be used as a primary standard in quantitative analysis , although its exact concentration depends on the atmospheric pressure when it is prepared . Hydrochloric acid is frequently used in chemical analysis to prepare ( " digest " ) samples for analysis . Concentrated hydrochloric acid dissolves many metals and forms oxidized metal chlorides and hydrogen gas . It also reacts with basic compounds such as calcium carbonate or copper ( II ) oxide , forming the dissolved chlorides that can be analyzed . = = Physical properties = = Physical properties of hydrochloric acid , such as boiling and melting points , density , and pH , depend on the concentration or molarity of HCl in the aqueous solution . They range from those of water at very low concentrations approaching 0 % HCl to values for fuming hydrochloric acid at over 40 % HCl . Hydrochloric acid as the binary ( two @-@ component ) mixture of HCl and H2O has a constant @-@ boiling azeotrope at 20 @.@ 2 % HCl and 108 @.@ 6 ° C ( 227 ° F ) . There are four constant @-@ crystallization eutectic points for hydrochloric acid , between the crystal form of HCl · H2O ( 68 % HCl ) , HCl · 2H2O ( 51 % HCl ) , HCl · 3H2O ( 41 % HCl ) , HCl · 6H2O ( 25 % HCl ) , and ice ( 0 % HCl ) . There is also a metastable eutectic point at 24 @.@ 8 % between ice and the HCl · 3H2O crystallization . = = Production = = Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride in water . Hydrogen chloride can be generated in many ways , and thus several precursors to hydrochloric acid exist . The large @-@ scale production of hydrochloric acid is almost always integrated with the industrial scale production of other chemicals . = = = Industrial market = = = Hydrochloric acid is produced in solutions up to 38 % HCl ( concentrated grade ) . Higher concentrations up to just over 40 % are chemically possible , but the evaporation rate is then so high that storage and handling require extra precautions , such as pressurization and cooling . Bulk industrial @-@ grade is therefore 30 % to 35 % , optimized to balance transport efficiency and product loss through evaporation . In the United States , solutions of between 20 % and 32 % are sold as muriatic acid . Solutions for household purposes in the US , mostly cleaning , are typically 10 % to 12 % , with strong recommendations to dilute before use . In the United Kingdom , where it is sold as " Spirits of Salt " for domestic cleaning , the potency is the same as the US industrial grade . Major producers worldwide include Dow Chemical at 2 million metric tons annually ( 2 Mt / year ) , calculated as HCl gas , Georgia Gulf Corporation , Tosoh Corporation , Akzo Nobel , and Tessenderlo at 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 5 Mt / year each . Total world production , for comparison purposes expressed as HCl , is estimated at 20 Mt / year , with 3 Mt / year from direct synthesis , and the rest as secondary product from organic and similar syntheses . By far , most hydrochloric acid is consumed captively by the producer . The open world market size is estimated at 5 Mt / year . = = Applications = = Hydrochloric acid is a strong inorganic acid that is used in many industrial processes such as refining metal . The application often determines the required product quality . = = = Pickling of steel = = = One of the most important applications of hydrochloric acid is in the pickling of steel , to remove rust or iron oxide scale from iron or steel before subsequent processing , such as extrusion , rolling , galvanizing , and other techniques . Technical quality HCl at typically 18 % concentration is the most commonly used pickling agent for the pickling of carbon steel grades . Fe2O3 + Fe + 6 HCl → 3 FeCl2 + 3 H2O The spent acid has long been reused as iron ( II ) chloride ( also known as ferrous chloride ) solutions , but high heavy @-@ metal levels in the pickling liquor have decreased this practice . The steel pickling industry has developed hydrochloric acid regeneration processes , such as the spray roaster or the fluidized bed HCl regeneration process , which allow the recovery of HCl from spent pickling liquor . The most common regeneration process is the pyrohydrolysis process , applying the following formula : 4 FeCl2 + 4 H2O + O2 → 8 HCl + 2 Fe2O3 By recuperation of the spent acid , a closed acid loop is established . The iron ( III ) oxide by @-@ product of the regeneration process is valuable , used in a variety of secondary industries . = = = Production of organic compounds = = = Another major use of hydrochloric acid is in the production of organic compounds , such as vinyl chloride and dichloroethane for PVC . This is often captive use , consuming locally produced hydrochloric acid that never actually reaches the open market . Other organic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include bisphenol A for polycarbonate , activated carbon , and ascorbic acid , as well as numerous pharmaceutical products . 2 CH2 = CH2 + 4 HCl + O2 → 2 ClCH2CH2Cl + 2 H2O ( dichloroethane by oxychlorination ) wood + HCl + heat → activated carbon ( chemical activation ) = = = Production of inorganic compounds = = = Numerous products can be produced with hydrochloric acid in normal acid @-@ base reactions , resulting in inorganic compounds . These include water treatment chemicals such as iron ( III ) chloride and polyaluminium chloride ( PAC ) . Fe2O3 + 6 HCl → 2 FeCl3 + 3 H2O ( iron ( III ) chloride from magnetite ) Both iron ( III ) chloride and PAC are used as flocculation and coagulation agents in sewage treatment , drinking water production , and paper production . Other inorganic compounds produced with hydrochloric acid include road application salt calcium chloride , nickel ( II ) chloride for electroplating , and zinc chloride for the galvanizing industry and battery production . CaCO3 + 2 HCl → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O ( calcium chloride from limestone ) = = = pH Control and neutralization = = = Hydrochloric acid can be used to regulate the acidity ( pH ) of solutions . OH − + HCl → H2O + Cl − In industry demanding purity ( food , pharmaceutical , drinking water ) , high @-@ quality hydrochloric acid is used to control the pH of process water streams . In less @-@ demanding industry , technical quality hydrochloric acid suffices for neutralizing waste streams and swimming pool pH control . = = = Regeneration of ion exchangers = = = High @-@ quality hydrochloric acid is used in the regeneration of ion exchange resins . Cation exchange is widely used to remove ions such as Na + and Ca2 + from aqueous solutions , producing demineralized water . The acid is used to rinse the cations from the resins . Na + is replaced with H + and Ca2 + with 2 H + . Ion exchangers and demineralized water are used in all chemical industries , drinking water production , and many food industries . = = = Other = = = Hydrochloric acid is used for a large number of small @-@ scale applications , such as leather processing , purification of common salt , household cleaning , and building construction . Oil production may be stimulated by injecting hydrochloric acid into the rock formation of an oil well , dissolving a portion of the rock , and creating a large @-@ pore structure . Oil well acidizing is a common process in the North Sea oil production industry . Hydrochloric acid has been used for dissolving calcium carbonate , i.e. such things as de @-@ scaling kettles and for cleaning mortar off brickwork , but it is a hazardous liquid which must be used with care . When used on brickwork the reaction with the mortar only continues until the acid has all been converted , producing calcium chloride , carbon dioxide , and water : 2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + CO2 + H2O Many chemical reactions involving hydrochloric acid are applied in the production of food , food ingredients , and food additives . Typical products include aspartame , fructose , citric acid , lysine , hydrolyzed vegetable protein as food enhancer , and in gelatin production . Food @-@ grade ( extra @-@ pure ) hydrochloric acid can be applied when needed for the final product . = = Presence in living organisms = = Gastric acid is one of the main secretions of the stomach . It consists mainly of hydrochloric acid and acidifies the stomach content to a pH of 1 to 2 . Chloride ( Cl − ) and hydrogen ( H + ) ions are secreted separately in the stomach fundus region at the top of the stomach by parietal cells of the gastric mucosa into a secretory network called canaliculi before it enters the stomach lumen . Gastric acid acts as a barrier against microorganisms to prevent infections and is important for the digestion of food . Its low pH denatures proteins and thereby makes them susceptible to degradation by digestive enzymes such as pepsin . The low pH also activates the enzyme precursor pepsinogen into the active enzyme pepsin by self @-@ cleavage . After leaving the stomach , the hydrochloric acid of the chyme is neutralized in the duodenum by sodium bicarbonate . The stomach itself is protected from the strong acid by the secretion of a thick mucus layer , and by secretin induced buffering with sodium bicarbonate . Heartburn or peptic ulcers can develop when these mechanisms fail . Drugs of the antihistaminic and proton pump inhibitor classes can inhibit the production of acid in the stomach , and antacids are used to neutralize existing acid . = = Safety = = Concentrated hydrochloric acid ( fuming hydrochloric acid ) forms acidic mists . Both the mist and the solution have a corrosive effect on human tissue , with the potential to damage respiratory organs , eyes , skin , and intestines irreversibly . Upon mixing hydrochloric acid with common oxidizing chemicals , such as sodium hypochlorite ( bleach , NaClO ) or potassium permanganate ( KMnO4 ) , the toxic gas chlorine is produced . NaClO + 2 HCl → H2O + NaCl + Cl2 2 KMnO4 + 16 HCl → 2 MnCl2 + 8 H2O + 2 KCl + 5 Cl2 PbO2 + 4 HCl → 2 H2O + PbCl2 + Cl2 Personal protective equipment such as latex gloves , protective eye goggles , and chemical @-@ resistant clothing and shoes will minimize risks when handling hydrochloric acid . The United States Environmental Protection Agency rates and regulates hydrochloric acid as a toxic substance . The UN number or DOT number is 1789 . This number will be displayed on a placard on the container . = Billy Butlin = Sir William Heygate Edmund Colborne " Billy " Butlin ( 29 September 1899 – 12 June 1980 ) was a British , South Africa @-@ born entrepreneur whose name is synonymous with the British holiday camp . Although holiday camps such as Warner 's existed in one form or another before Butlin opened his first in 1936 , it was Butlin who turned holiday camps into a multimillion @-@ pound industry and an important aspect of British culture . Born in Cape Town , South Africa , to William and Bertha Butlin , Butlin had a turbulent childhood . His parents separated before he was seven , and he returned to England with his mother . He spent the next five years following his grandmother 's family fair around the country where his mother sold gingerbread ; exposing the young Butlin to the skills of commerce and entertainment . When he was twelve his mother emigrated to Canada , leaving him in the care of his aunt for two years . Once settled in Toronto , his mother invited him to join her there . In Canada Butlin struggled to fit in at school and soon left for a job in a Toronto department store Eatons . In the First World War he enlisted as a bugler in the Canadian Army . After the war , Butlin returned to England , bringing only £ 5 with him . Investing £ 4 of that money to hire a stall travelling with his uncle 's fair , Butlin discovered that giving his customers a better chance to win brought more custom in , and he quickly became successful . One stall became several , including prominent locations such as Olympia in London , and Butlin soon was able to purchase other fairground equipment , and started his own travelling fair . He proved successful in this endeavour as well , and by 1927 he opened a static fairground in Skegness . Over the next 10 years Butlin expanded his fairground empire , all the time harbouring an idea to increase the number of patrons in his Skegness site by providing accommodation . Butlin 's first holiday camp opened at Skegness in 1936 , followed by Clacton , two years later . Plans to open a third in Filey were cut short by the outbreak of the Second World War . Butlin used the war to his advantage , persuading the MoD to complete the Filey Holiday Camp and construct two more camps in Ayr and Pwllheli as training camps which he reclaimed when the war was over . In the post @-@ war boom , Butlin opened four more camps at Mosney , Bognor Regis , Minehead and Barry Island as well as buying hotels in Blackpool , Saltdean , and Cliftonville . By the time he retired in 1968 , Butlin had allowed hundreds of thousands of holidaymakers a self @-@ contained vacation with a variety of entertainment . = = Early life = = Butlin was born in the Cape Colony ( part of modern @-@ day South Africa ) . His father , William Colborne Butlin ( born June 1867 ) , was the son of a clergyman ; his mother , Bertha Cassandra Hill ( born March 1878 ) , was a member of a family of travelling showmen . They met at a young age when Bertha 's parents were working a country fair that William attended and in December 1896 they were married . Their marriage was considered not socially acceptable in Leonard Stanley , Gloucestershire , where they lived , and they emigrated to South Africa . William founded a bicycle shop to try to keep the family , and they had two children , Butlin and his brother Harry John ( known as Binkie ) Butlin . When the marriage failed , Butlin ’ s mother returned to England with her children and rejoined her own family in Coaley , near Bristol . Within a short time Harry contracted polio , and he died in March 1907 . For a time Butlin joined his mother in travelling around the fair circuit In his autobiography , Butlin recorded that his mother remarried and emigrated to Canada around 1910 and passenger lists of the period show Bertha travelling to Toronto via Montreal in 1912 . For two years Butlin , and his cousin Jimmy Hill boarded with a widow in Bristol . In December 1913 his mother returned and married Charles Robotham in Swindon . Butlin 's mother and stepfather then asked him to join them in Toronto , Canada . He was unhappy at school in Canada , mocked because of his English accent , and he left school at fourteen . Eventually he got a job as a messenger boy at Eatons , Toronto ’ s largest department store . One of the best aspects of working for the company was that he was able to visit their summer camp , which gave him his first taste of a real holiday , indeed a taste of what was to become a very big part of his life . Later he transferred to Eatons advertising department where he drew black and white adverts , while studying at night school twice a week . In 1915 , during World War I , Butlin volunteered somewhat reluctantly for service in the Canadian Army . Knowing that the army already had a full quota of despatch riders , Butlin intended to volunteer for service in that category in the knowledge that although his application would be declined he would still receive an " I volunteered " badge for his actions without actually having to serve . While applying , Butlin forgot to tell the recruiter of this intention , and was consequently allocated to the Canadian Expeditionary Force which was taking part in the fighting along the Western Front . He was subsequently posted to the 170th ( Mississauga Horse ) Battalion on 29 December 1915 . His attestation papers give his date of birth as 1898 ( rather than the actual 1899 ) , allowing him to enlist although only 15 at the time . The papers give his occupation as a " Suit Case Maker " . The papers also show , as Butlin himself later stated , that he had been selected to serve as a bugler . Before his deployment to Europe , Butlin transferred to the 216th ( Bantams ) Battalion , with which he was sent to England . Once in England , he was stationed at Sandgate near Folkestone before being deployed to France . In France , the 216th became part of the 3rd Canadian Division which took part in the second battle of Vimy Ridge , as well the battles at Ypres and Arras , and the second battle of Cambrai ; while in France , Butlin served as a stretcher @-@ bearer . After the war , Butlin returned to England aboard a cattle ship , arriving in England with only £ 5 ( 2011 : £ 189 @.@ 00 ) capital . He made his way to Tiverton in Devon where his uncle , Marshall Hill , was a well known showman . He purchased a hoopla stall from Hill , and ran it successfully . In later interviews Butlin claimed that he accidentally sawed the corners off his hoopla blocks , but some observers such as The Sunday Herald report that he did it intentionally , displaying " logic and business sense " . In either case , Butlin 's actions allowed patrons to have a much higher success rate ( approximately 3 in 5 for each ring ) and brought him more custom than his fellow stall holders . By contrast an average game would have odds of approximately 1 in 9 for each ring or 1 in 3 for a 3 @-@ ring game . Butlin 's stall gave him less profit per customer than his competitors , but the increase in business gave him a bigger overall profit than theirs . He moved to London and set up a successful stall in Olympia outside the Christmas Circus run by Bertram Mills . By the end of the season Butlin had been so successful that he could afford to bring his mother ( by then widowed ) to the UK from Canada . = = Start of the Butlin 's empire = = = = = Funfair and amusement parks = = = Over the next few years Butlin toured the country with the Hills Travelling Fair , leaving his mother to run the Olympia site . Soon he had his own travelling fair visiting country fairs such as Barnstaple . Butlin opened some permanently sited stalls in 1925 , in Barry Island , Wales . In 1927 he leased a piece of land from the Earl of Scarbrough in the seaside town of Skegness . On this land , he set up an amusement park with hoopla stalls , a tower slide , a haunted house , and a scenic railway . In 1928 , Butlin secured an exclusive licence to sell Dodgem cars in Europe . The first Dodgems in Britain were available in his park at Skegness ; other showmen bought Dodgems from Butlin . His activities in Skegness continued to expand , and by 1930 included a zoo featuring lions , zebras and an African village . Butlin opened a similar fairground in 1932 , in Bognor Regis , on the corner of the Esplanade , named the Recreation Shelter . The following year he opened a zoo nearby , which featured polar bears , kangaroos and monkeys . At around the same time he also opened an amusement park in Bognor 's neighbouring village of Littlehampton , known as Butlin 's Park . In the 1930s Butlin had amusement parks in Mablethorpe ( opened 1928 ) , Hayling Island ( 1931 ) , Felixstowe ( 1931 ) , Southsea ( 1931 ) and on the Isle of Man . He continued to operate his winter fair at Olympia during this time and soon added the winter fairs at Waverley Hall in Edinburgh and at the Kelvin Hall in Glasgow . By 1935 most of his existing parks had zoos attached to them , providing another source of revenue . Butlin 's funfair and amusement park business continued to expand into the post @-@ war period . In 1938 he gained the sole contract to supply amusements to the Empire Exhibition in Glasgow and after the war , he continued to open amusement parks such as the one at Sheerness . = = = First holiday camps = = = For some time Butlin had nurtured the idea of a holiday camp . He had seen the way landladies in seaside resorts would , sometimes literally , push families out of the lodgings between meals , regardless of the weather . Butlin toyed with the idea of providing holiday accommodation that encouraged holiday @-@ makers to stay on the site and even provided entertainment for them between meals . He opened his first Butlin 's camp at Ingoldmells , near Skegness , on 11 April 1936 ( Easter eve ) . It was officially opened by Amy Johnson , the first woman to fly solo from England to Australia . An advertisement costing £ 500 ( 2011 : £ 28 thousand ) was placed in the Daily Express , announced the opening of the camp , inviting the public to book for a week 's holiday . The advertisement offered holidays with three meals a day and free entertainment with a week 's full board cost anything from 35 shillings to £ 3 ( 2011 : £ 167 @.@ 00 ) , according to the time of year . When the camp opened , Butlin realised that his guests were not engaging with activities in the way he had planned ; most kept to themselves , and others looked bored . He asked Norman Bradford ( who was engaged as an engineer constructing the camp ) to take on the duty of entertaining the guests , which he did with a series of ice breakers and jokes . By the end of the night the camp was buzzing and the Butlin 's atmosphere was born . From that point on , entertainment was the very heart of Butlins and Bradford became the first of the Butlin 's Redcoats . The same night Butlin decided that for his camp to work he would require many more people to carry out the same job as Bradford , and the role of Redcoat was conceived . In his autobiography , Butlin refers to Clacton as his second camp ; however , in 1937 , the architect Harold Ridley Hooper , who had drawn the plans for the camp at Skegness , created plans on behalf of Butlins ltd , for a second camp at Dovercourt , in Essex . In the winter of 1938 , the camp at Dovercourt was requisitioned by the government for housing children evacuated from Germany by the Kindertransport programme . Writers and speakers discussing that programme , such as Anthony Grenville and Ela Kaczmarska , claim that the camp had been constructed by Butlin and operated as a Butlin 's camp for the 1937 – 1938 season , Kaczmarska also suggests that it had closed in the summer of 1938 ( the same time the Clacton camp opened . ) recollections of the refugees suggest that by December 1938 the camp was being run by Harry Warner , whose company Butlin was on the board of . At around the same time Butlin 's advertised Dovercourt as " associated with Butlin 's " and into the early 1940s Butlin was putting on rail packages with LNER to the Dovercourt camp . Butlin proposed a new holiday camp at Clacton @-@ on @-@ Sea in Essex in 1936 . Both the council and the local association of hotels were against the idea , as were the boarding house keepers . To persuade them , Butlin took the members of the council to Skegness to see how the people there appreciated their holiday camp . The councillors were soon won over when they learnt that the local traders in Skegness had seen an initial dip in custom after its construction followed by a rise as campers had visited the town and seasonal workers had come to spend their pay . Once approved by the council , construction began and the camp opened in 1938 . On 30 January 1937 , Butlin turned his business into a limited company " Butlin 's ltd " . Butlin took the decision to form the company as a means to raise finance for his new camps . On 8 February 1937 the company published its prospectus ahead of a public sale of shares . When the shares became available , they sold out entirely in five minutes . = = World War II years = = With the outbreak of the Second World War , both the Clacton and Skegness camps were requisitioned by the War Office for use as training camps . The ministry needed further camps , and contracted Butlin to build them . Butlin agreed , on the condition that he could purchase the sites when the war was over , to use as holiday camps . The ministry agreed , and Filey ( 1945 ) , Pwllheli and Ayr ( both in 1947 ) , opened after the war . As Butlin was dealing with other sites , he asked his business competitor , Harry Warner , to complete the construction of Filey . Butlin had purchased his first hotel in 1939 , the Thatched Barn in Borehamwood , Hertfordshire . Like his camps , it was requisitioned ( this time by the SOE ) before he could develop it . During the war years , a number of Butlin 's camps were used as Royal Navy shore establishments . Skegness became HMS Royal Arthur , a training establishment for petty officers ; Pwllheli became HMS Glendower , and Ayr became HMS Scotia . Filey became RAF Hunmanby Moor and Clacton , after being considered for use as a prisoner of war camp , was later used as a training site for the Pioneer Corps . Butlin was recruited by the Ministry of Supply and asked to look at the causes of low morale amongst the workers in Britain 's munitions factories . His first stop was at the Royal Ordnance Factory , Chorley , where he found that the camouflaged huts and barbed wire fences used to house workers gave them the feeling of being interned . Using the knowledge and experience he had gained in setting up his holiday camps , Butlin was able to devise activities and systems to boost morale , which led to his appointment as Director General of Hostels . In this position , Butlin introduced games and entertainment similar to those used in his holiday camps . These included : whist drives , amateur dramatics , theatrical productions and cinema . In 1943 , he encouraged workers to continue taking their holiday entitlement but to do so at home , arranging various travelling fairs to visit towns on their " holiday week " . Butlin 's appointment to this role gave cause for concern in some quarters , with questions being asked of the under @-@ secretary , Harold Macmillan , about the nature of his involvement . However the appointment was a voluntary one with no salary or expenses and had been made after the consideration of other suitable candidates . Late in the war , during the Allied advance through western Europe following the Normandy landings , Butlin was approached by General Bernard Montgomery , who asked him to help set up leave centres for the 21st Army Group . Starting in Brussels , the " 21 Club " concept quickly spread through western Europe , providing entertainment and relaxation for servicemen and women . In 1944 , Butlin was awarded the MBE for his wartime service to the Ministry of Supply . = = Post war expansion = = After the war , it became apparent that most holiday camps in Britain had been damaged by troop occupation , and the situation was so bad that questions were raised in parliament . Other than Clacton , the Butlins camps were relatively unscathed , and even Clacton , which had been damaged by troop occupation , re @-@ opened in early 1946 . In the post @-@ war boom Butlin saw opportunities on foreign shores . He opened camps at Mosney , in the soon to be Republic of Ireland , in 1948 and on Grand Bahama , in 1949 . In most ways Mosney was identical to the existing successful camps , but in Ireland this was something that was seen to be feared , rather than embraced . A number of complaints appeared in the Catholic Standard , warning that holiday camps were an English idea that was not desirable in Catholic Ireland . Like the other camps , Mosney was designed to have a church and reassurances were given that it would be a Catholic chapel with a resident priest . Reassurances were also given that Irish nationals would have priority over British tourists in booking holidays . In July 1948 the camp was finally opened by William Norton , the Minister for Social Welfare , and it operated successfully as a Butlin 's camp until the early 1980s . A more ambitious plan by Butlin was thought up on a trip to the Bahamas in 1946 . Seeing potential for a camp in warmer climes , he formed a company under the chairmanship of Sir Bede Edmund Hugh Clifford and bought land in Grand Bahama . Butlin also purchased the Princess hotel in Bermuda and the Fort Montagu beach hotel in Nassau . The camp was intended to be complete and open on New Years Day of 1950 . After an investment of US $ 5 million ( 2011 : £ 28 @.@ 9 million ) the camp opened , still only partially complete , in the winter of 1949 . To celebrate its opening , Butlin ran a mystery flight , where guests , who had paid $ 129 ( 2011 : £ 746 @.@ 73 ) each , were taken on a flight to the resort without being informed in advance . However Butlin did not remain celebrating for long ; he required a further $ 2 @.@ 25 million ( 2011 : £ 14 @.@ 5 million ) to complete the camp , and to make matters worse American tourists were not used to the holiday camp mentality so the venture held little interest . In an attempt to save the camp , Butlin sold the Hotel leases to an American firm . By November 1950 , the subsidiary company handling the Caribbean resort was ordered to be wound up by a court . Butlin admitted defeat and focused his efforts back in Europe . In the late 1940s Butlin had successfully opened hotels outside the Skegness and Ayr camps , so he now saw his opportunity to expand into this market . Butlin began acquiring hotels in Saltdean , Blackpool and Cliftonville . = = Further camps = = In the 1960s Butlin began to create a series of new camps at Bognor Regis ( opened 1960 ) , Minehead ( 1962 ) and Barry Island ( 1966 ) . Barry Island remained part of the Butlin 's empire until the 1980s , while Bognor and Minehead remain part of the company today . On 2 July 1960 Butlin planned to open his holiday camp at Bognor , but because of flooding it was not ready . Butlin offered his patrons the chance to be re @-@ sited at Clacton or to stay and help complete the camp 's construction . A number opted to stay and help , and received a free bottle of champagne as a reward . Once opened , the camp quickly became popular , accommodating around 5 @,@ 000 campers and another 5 @,@ 000 day visitors . In the winter of 1961 , Butlin began work on his camp in Minehead . The site opened to the public on 26 May 1962 having cost £ 2 million to construct . Over the next decade several attractions were added to the site ; a miniature railway was added in 1964 , chairlifts in 1965 , and a monorail in 1967 . Butlin 's inspiration for his holiday empire had come from a holiday to Barry Island in his twenties , when he had been locked out of his B & B all day by his landlady . He finally decided to build the last and smallest of the camps there in 1965 . Butlin took out a 99 @-@ year lease on the headland at Nell 's Point , Barry Island , in 1966 . Building work began there in the winter and the gates opened to campers on 18 June 1966 . Butlin retired in 1969 and the Barry Island camp was the last opening under his management . = = Later life = = Growing up , Butlin had lived with his aunt Jessie in the Swan Pub in Coaley , in his later life he was able to purchase desirable property for himself ; for many years living on The Bishops Avenue . His house there was Dane Court in Hampstead , which he purchased in 1947 . Butlin sold Dane Court in 1951 , and moved to a property in Grosvenor Square . He remained in this property through the 1950s and 1960s . Butlin retired in 1969 , handing over running the company to his son Bobby . A hostile takeover bid by Phonographic Equipment in November 1969 made him decide to come out of retirement , in the capacity of " consultant " . With his father 's help Bobby fended off the takeover , and Butlin returned to his retirement . In 1972 , the Rank Organisation launched a friendly takeover for £ 43 million ( 2011 : £ 466 million ) , which both Butlin and his son agreed to accept . Butlin 's retirement was forced by circumstance . His accountant informed Butlin that the total rate of income tax and surtax that Butlin was due to pay for the coming year was 115 % of his income . Butlin took the decision to move from his London home to become a permanent resident in Blair Adam House , St. John , on the island of Jersey , in the Channel Islands . This move was financially beneficial since Jersey had a fixed 20 % rate of income tax . He remained a resident of Jersey until his death on 12 June 1980 , aged 80 . He is buried in the parish of St John and his grave is shaped to represent a double bed . Butlin actively engaged in charity work through the Grand Order of Water Rats and through the Variety Club . In 1963 , he set up the Bill Butlin charitable trust , and in 1966 donated £ 100 @,@ 000 ( 2011 : £ 1 @.@ 53 million ) to set up a trust to help in cases where police officers were incapacitated or fatally injured while on active duty . With public support the fund grew firstly to £ 250 @,@ 000 and eventually to over £ 1 million . In return he received many honours , from having a Hybrid Tea Rose name after him , to his knighthood in 1964 . In being knighted , Butlin was following in the footsteps of his great uncle Sir Henry Trentham Butlin , an eminent surgeon . In 1960 , Butlin was awarded the Carl Alan award for his services to dance . = = Personal life = = Butlin remained close to his mother , both in following her to Canada and in arranging for her to come home after the death of his stepfather . She died in 1934 and never saw his first holiday camp . By contrast , Butlin makes no mention in his biography of his father after returning from Canada . Public records from South Africa show that his father remained in Cape Town for the rest of his life , dying in 1954 . In the 1920s while staying in Tiverton in Devon , and working with Marshall Hill , Butlin met Doris " Dolly " Mabel Cheriton ( born 1898 ) , whose family owned the local fish and chip shop ; the couple were married in 1927 . Dolly gave her name as " Dorothy " on signing the register , and her death in 1958 was also registered in the name " Dorothy " . However , by the early 1930s the marriage had broken down and they had separated . Soon after , Butlin met and fell in love with Norah Faith Cheriton ( Dolly 's niece , born 1914 ) . Dolly refused to grant Butlin a divorce . It was not until Dolly 's death in 1958 that he and Norah were free to marry . Butlin was surprised by Eamonn Andrews for This Is Your Life on his wedding day in 1959 . The second marriage lasted only a few months , as Butlin had already fallen in love with Sheila Edwina Devine . This time it was Norah who refused to grant divorce . In 1975 , with divorce law having changed , Butlin was able to divorce Norah and marry Sheila with whom he remained until his death . Butlin had several children from his three marriages : Shirley ( born 1931 to Dolly ) , Robert ( born to Nora in 1934 as Robert F. Reeves ) , Cherie ( also known as Cherry , born to Nora in 1939 ) , Sandra ( born 1941 ) , William Jr ( also known as Billy , born 1960 to Sheila ) , and Jacquie ( born to Sheila ) . Bertha Hill 's obituary records " William , Dolly and baby Shirley " and on Shirley 's fifth birthday the local Skegness newspaper noted that she invited many of her friends to her father 's holiday camp for her party . Little reference is made to her after this time , and her name is not listed on her father 's grave with her still @-@ living siblings . Sandra died in 1976 at the age of 34 ( the same year Butlin 's second wife Norah died . ) William Jr died of cancer in 2003 . Robert took over from his father , running the company from 1968 to 1984 , and died of lung cancer on 31 December 2008 . Jacquie lives on Jersey , where she runs a clothes shop . Jacquie 's daughter , Laura Emily , was the subject of a court case in the Cayman Islands in 1992 , to establish whether she could be a beneficiary of her grandfather 's estate . Cherie is an actress . = = Media references = = Butlin is listed as a member of the eclectic ( and fictional ) " orchestra " in the Bonzo Dog Doo @-@ Dah Band 's recording , The Intro and the Outro , where he is credited with playing the spoons . = = = Bibliographic notes = = = = = = Websites = = = = = = News and Journals = = = = Meteorological history of Hurricane Gordon ( 1994 ) = The meteorological history of Hurricane Gordon consisted of a thirteen @-@ day period in which the storm 's path was erratic , persistent , and highly unusual . The hurricane formed near Panama in the southwestern Caribbean Sea on November 9 , 1994 . As a tropical depression it brushed Nicaragua and spent several days in the waters off the country 's coast . Strengthening slightly into a tropical storm , Gordon wound its way north into the Greater Antilles . Despite warm waters , persistent wind shear prevented significant strengthening . Executing a slow turn to the north and then the northwest , Gordon made two more landfalls , on eastern Jamaica and eastern Cuba , while delivering tremendous rains to western Hispaniola . As Tropical Storm Gordon made its fourth landfall crossing the Florida Keys , it interacted with a cyclone in the upper @-@ troposphere and a series of cyclonic lows which lent the storm some sub @-@ tropical characteristics . After a few days as an unusual hybrid of a tropical and a subtropical system in the Gulf of Mexico , the storm re @-@ claimed its fully tropical form and made yet another landfall , this time across the Florida peninsula , and continued into the Atlantic Ocean . In the Atlantic , Gordon rapidly strengthened to a Category 1 Hurricane . Gordon 's characteristic wandering briefly brought it near North Carolina , but ultimately the storm headed south , weakening into a minor tropical storm before making its sixth and final landfall on Florida 's east coast . Hurricane Gordon was the seventh named storm and third hurricane of the 1994 Atlantic hurricane season . Although it never made landfall as a hurricane , in its meandering course the storm included six separate landfalls : four as a tropical storm and two as a tropical depression . Three of its landfalls were in the U.S. state of Florida . = = Formation = = During the first week of November a large area of disturbed weather accumulated just north of Panama over the southwestern Caribbean Sea . A tropical wave passed through the area and gave it mild convection . A second wave passed through the area on November 6 and introduced cyclonic circulation to the disturbance . Over the next two days the system gradually organized and sparked a deep convection off Nicaragua 's southeast coast . This organization , with initial maximum sustained winds of 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) , was designated Tropical Depression Twelve . Moving northwest , the storm began to slowly strengthen and its upper level outflow became favorable to further development . Spots of convection flared on the morning of November 9 ; banding features appeared as its center made landfall on the northeastern Nicaraguan coast near Puerto Cabezas . A full day later a trough to the storm 's northwest over the Gulf of Mexico moved the depression offshore , to the northeast , and over the warm waters of the western Caribbean Sea . Fueled by these warm waters , on the night of November 9 it strengthened into Tropical Storm Gordon with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds . Lacking firm movement because of weak steering currents , Gordon meandered north @-@ northeast in the presence of mild west @-@ southwesterly wind shear , unable to strengthen under the adverse conditions . By November 11 , a trough prodded Gordon to the north @-@ northeast at 8 mph ( 13 km / h ) , and it strengthened by 6 mph ( 9 km / h ) as it moved through the central Caribbean Sea . The trough continued steering Gordon , bending it eastward towards Jamaica on the afternoon on November 12 . Despite the warm waters , Gordon did not strengthen that day as strong upper @-@ tropospheric shear hindered development , disorganized the upper level circulation , and reduced its winds to 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . = = Through the Greater Antilles = = November 13 was an active day for Tropical Storm Gordon . The trough over southern Florida and the Gulf of Mexico continued to push Gordon eastward towards Jamaica . In the pre @-@ dawn hours the storm clipped the eastern edge of the island , leaving 7 @.@ 44 in ( 18 @.@ 9 cm ) of rainfall . Southwesterly wind shear kept the storm from developing beyond 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) , but neither the shear nor the landfall significantly disrupted the cyclone 's organization . Accelerating , Gordon turned towards the northeast . Continued shear prevented the upper @-@ level development needed for typical cyclonic organization , but a strong lower level circulation had formed . Its sustained winds were still only 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , but as the system approached eastern Cuba a gust of 120 mph ( 192 km / h ) was reported . The center crossed near Guantánamo Bay and the storm dumped heavy rainfall as it passed over the eastern portion of the island ; even heavier rain fell in Haiti to the west , where 22 @.@ 94 in ( 58 @.@ 27 cm ) of rain was recorded at Camp @-@ Perrin . Meanwhile , the broad @-@ scale circulation that was covering most of the Caribbean Sea ( of which Tropical Storm Gordon was only a part ) was interacting with an upper @-@ tropospheric trough near the Straits of Florida . This trough strengthened the broad upper @-@ level cyclone , which in turn strengthened Gordon and spawned several other low @-@ level circulations in the western Caribbean Sea . When Gordon crossed eastern Cuba , the National Hurricane Center determined that it had become the most dominant of these low level systems and had absorbed their convections . ( Meteorologist Jose Fernandez @-@ Partagas voiced the minority opinion that Gordon 's circulatory center had dissipated over Cuba and that a low pressure system near the Bahamas was now the dominant system , which would have meant the demise of Tropical Storm Gordon and the emergence of a new tropical storm . While possible , this view was not accepted by the official hurricane summaries . ) By nightfall of November 13 , Gordon had not only made two landfalls and survived interactions with three competing systems but also , in assimilating the Bahamian low , had gained the cool central core typical of a subtropical cyclone . The deep @-@ layered cyclone within which Gordon was embedded steered the storm west @-@ northwest , south of Turks and Caicos and the Bahamas , on November 14 . A large ridge of high pressure near the U.S. Mid @-@ Atlantic coast increased the pressure gradient around the storm , so although its sub @-@ tropical elements ( namely a lack of deep convection ) precluded a core of strong winds immediately around the storm 's nucleus , strong winds were supported outside the storm 's circulatory center . These winds inched up to 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) , but did not strengthen any further . The ridge continued to steer the hybrid Tropical / Subtropical Storm Gordon west @-@ northwestward past the western Bahamas . This brought the southern portion of the storm 's circulation over northern Cuba , while the strengthening northern circulation produced 60 mph ( 90 km / h ) winds near Palm Beach . The storm 's fourth landfall occurred on November 15 when Gordon passed over the Florida Keys near Key West , Florida . The storm then continued west over the lower Keys and into the Straights of Florida , where the storm 's center began to warm and deep convection signaled the return of Gordon 's purely tropical characteristics . = = Second Florida landfall and peak strength = = Steering currents remained weak giving the storm a chance to fully re @-@ develop its deep convection while immobile at sea . During this time , Tropical Storm Gordon began to spawn tornadoes . As the storm center was well offshore most were probably unreported , but six tornadoes touched down on the Florida coast . Four of the tornadoes were rated F0 on the Fujita scale , two were rated F1 ,	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Thus Sicilians rediscovered their ancient past , which with its classical idioms was now the height of fashion . The change in tastes did not come about overnight . Baroque remained popular on the island , but now Sicilian balconies , extravagant as ever , would be placed next to severe classical columns . Dufourny began designing in Palermo , and his " Entrance Temple " ( 1789 ) to the Botanical Gardens was the first building in Sicily in a style based on the Greek Doric order . It is pure neoclassical architecture , as established in England since 1760 , and it was a sign of things to come . It was Dufourny 's great friend and fellow architect Giuseppe Marvuglia who was to preside over the gradual decline of Sicilian Baroque . In 1784 he designed the Palazzo Riso @-@ Belmonte , the finest example of this period of architectural transition , combining both Baroque and Palladian motifs , built around an arcaded courtyard providing Baroque masses of light and shade , or chiaroscuro . The main façade , punctuated by giant pilasters , also had Baroque features , but the skyline was unbroken . The pilasters were undecorated , simple , and Ionic , and supported an undecorated entablature . Above the windows were classical unbroken pediments . Sicilian Baroque was waning . Another reason for the gradual decline in the development of Sicily 's Baroque and building in general was that the money was running out . During the 17th century , the aristocracy had lived principally on their landed estates , tending and improving them , and as a result their income also increased . During the 18th century , the nobility gradually migrated towards the cities , in particular Palermo , to enjoy the social delights of the Viceroy 's court and Catania . Their town palazzi grew in size and splendour , to the detriment of the abandoned estates , which were still expected to provide the revenue . The land agents left to run the estates over time became less efficient , or corrupt , often both . Consequently , aristocratic incomes fell . The aristocracy borrowed money using the estates as surety , until the value of the neglected estates fell below the money borrowed against them . Moreover , Sicily was by now as unstable politically as its nobility were financially . Ruled from Naples by the weak Ferdinand IV and his dominant wife , Sicily had declined to the point of no return long before 1798 and again in 1806 when the King was forced by the invading French to flee Naples to Sicily . The French were kept at bay from Sicily only by an expeditionary force of 17 @,@ 000 British troops , and Sicily was now ruled by Britain in effect if not in name . King Ferdinand then in 1811 imposed the first taxes , at a single stroke alienating his aristocracy . The tax was rescinded by the British in 1812 , who then imposed a British style constitution on the island . One legal innovation of this time of particular consequence for the aristocracy was that creditors , who had previously only been able to enforce repayments of the interest on a loan or mortgage , could now seize property . Property began to change hands in smaller parcels at auctions , and consequently a land @-@ owning bourgeoisie immediately began to flourish . Revolts against the Bourbons in 1821 , and 1848 divided the nobility , and liberalism was in the air . These factors coupled with the social and political upheaval of the following Risorgimento in the 19th century meant the Sicilian aristocracy was a doomed class . Furthermore , because of their neglect and dereliction of noblesse oblige , an essential element of the feudal system , the countryside was often ruled by bandits outside the enclosed villages , and the once grand country villas were decaying . The building mania of the Sicilian upper class was over . However , the British influence in Sicily was to provide Sicilian Baroque with one last flourish . Marvuglia , recognising the new fashion for all things British , developed the style he had first cautiously used at Palazzo Riso @-@ Belmonte in 1784 , combining some of the plainer , more solid elements of Baroque with Palladian motifs rather than Palladian designs . The late Sicilian Baroque was similar in style to the Baroque popular in England at the beginning of the 18th century , popularised by Sir John Vanbrugh with such edifices as Blenheim Palace . An example is Marvuglia 's Church of San Francesco di Sales , which is almost English in its interpretation of Baroque . However , this was a temporary success and the neoclassical style was soon dominant . Few aristocrats could now afford to build , and the new style was mainly used in public and civil buildings such as those at the Botanical Gardens in Palermo . Sicilian architects — even Andrea Giganti , once a competent architect in Baroque — now began to design in the neoclassical style , but in this case in the version of the neoclassical adopted by fashionable France . Giganti 's Villa Galletti at Bagheria is clearly inspired by the work of Ange @-@ Jacques Gabriel . As with the early days of Sicilian Baroque , the first buildings of the new neoclassical era were often copies or hybrids of the two styles . The Palazzo Ducezio ( Illustration 19 ) was begun in 1746 , and the ground floor with arcades creating play of light and shadow is pure Baroque . However , when a few years later the upper floor was added , despite the use of Baroque broken pediments above the windows , the neoclassical French influence is very pronounced , highlighted by the central curved bay . The Sicilian Baroque was gradually and slowly being superseded by French neoclassicism . = = Legacy = = Sicilian Baroque is today recognised as an architectural style , largely due to the work of Sacheverall Sitwell , whose Southern Baroque Art of 1924 was the first book to appreciate the style , followed by the more academic work of Anthony Blunt . Most of the Baroque palazzi continued in private ownership throughout the 19th century , as the old aristocracy either married middle @-@ class money or fell further into debt . There were a few exceptions and some of these retain the ancestral palazzo still today . Thanks to the continuing religious devotion of the Sicilian people many of the Sicilian Baroque churches are today still in the use for which they were designed . However , much of the blame for the decay and ruinous state of preservation of so many palazzi must fall not just on owners unwilling to accept change , but the political agendas of successive socialist governments . Some of the finest Baroque villas and palazzi , including the Palermo palace of the Prince of Lampedusa , are still in ruins following the United States bombing raids of 1943 . In many cases , no attempt has been made to restore or even secure them . Those that survived the raids in good repair are often sub @-@ divided into offices or apartments , their Baroque interiors dismantled , divided , and sold . The remaining members of the Sicilian aristocracy who still inhabit their ancestral palazzi are unable to make opening their houses to tourism a major source of income , unlike some Northern , especially English , counterparts . The local equivalent of the National Trust is very small , and there is much less local interest among the general population . The Princes , Marquesses , and Counts of Sicily still living in their houses dwell in splendid isolation , surrounded often by beauty and decay . It is only today both owners and the state are awakening to the possibility that if action is not taken soon it will be too late to save this particular part of the Sicilian heritage . As Sicily now becomes a more politically stable , secure and less corrupt environment , the Baroque palazzi are slowly beginning to open their doors to an eager paying public , American and Northern European as much as Italian . In 1963 , when the movie The Leopard was released the Gangi Palace ballroom was almost unique in its status of having been a film set , but today long unused salons and ballrooms are hosting corporate and public events . Some palazzi are offering a bed and breakfast service to paying guests , once again providing impressive hospitality to visitors to Sicily , the purpose for which they were originally intended . In 2002 , UNESCO selectively included Baroque monuments of Val di Noto into its World Heritage List as " providing outstanding testimony to the exuberant genius of late Baroque art and architecture " and " representing the culmination and final flowering of Baroque art in Europe . = = Notable architects of Sicilian Baroque = = = Big Thunder Ski Jumping Center = Big Thunder Ski Jumping Centre was a twin ski jumping hill located in Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario , Canada . It constitutes part of Big Thunder National Training Centre . The first hills were built by Knute and Thor Hansen and opened in 1963 . They were originally known as Lille Norway Ski Area , then Mt . Norway Ski Area , and Sundance Northwest Resort before taking the current name . The large and normal hills were built in 1974 and the venue was taken over by the provincial government in 1985 . The hills hosted 29 FIS Ski Jumping World Cup and 50 Canadian Ski Jumping Championships tournaments between 1975 and 1995 , climaxing with the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 1995 . Funding was then cut and the venue has since been closed and unmaintained . = = History = = The location was first identified by Knute Hansen , a ski jumper who felt that a location in Mount McRae in Lakehead would be ideal for a ski jumping hill . He and Thor Hansen built the first jumps , which were opened in 1963 and named Lille Norway Ski Area . In 1969 , after the Hansens had fallen into financial difficulties , the venue was sold and renamed Mt . Norway Ski Area . Additional land for the complex was also leased , and the provincial government provided funding to construct the main twin hill . Construction of the 70 meter and 90 meter ( current K @-@ 90 and K @-@ 120 ) hills was completed in 1974 . The following year , the venue hosted its first Canadian Ski Jumping Championships . Three years later , the venue was again sold , this time being named Sundance Northwest Resort . In 1981 , the Provincial Government of Ontario started redeveloping the site to transform it into a national training center . In 1985 , the Ontario Ministry of Tourism and Recreation bought the site . In the course of five years , they built a K @-@ 64 hill , as well as Little Thunder , which consisted of K @-@ 10 , K @-@ 20 and K @-@ 37 hills . The two largest of these were equipped with porcelain in @-@ runs and plastic landing slops , allowing for their use during summer . In 1990 , the venue was awarded the hosting of the 1995 Nordic World Ski Championships . This required a major upgrade to the infrastructure , including floodlights . World Cup tournaments were placed on hold after 1991 for the upgrades . The venue hosted the Pre @-@ World Championships , part of the World Cup , in 1994 . In the final jumping event in the 1995 World Championships , Tommy Ingebrigtsen set a hill record of 137 @.@ 0 meters ( 449 ft ) , 9 meters ( 30 ft ) beyond the previous hill record . During the campaigning for the 1995 Ontario provincial election , Conservative Party leader Mike Harris deemed Big Thunder a " cash cow " as part of his Common Sense Revolution . Following the party 's victory in the election , the venue was closed . Even though the venue closed , it sill costs the province several hundred thousand dollars per year . The citizens group Friends of Big Thunder Bay announced on 1 March 2010 , following the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver , that they had sent a letter of intent to the provincial government where they stated that they wished to re @-@ open the sports park . They intend to not only reopen the hill , but also the associated sports area and provide year @-@ round training of ski jumping , freestyle skiing , cross @-@ country skiing , mountain biking , event hosting and hiking . Ski Jumping Canada has asked the province to establish a training facility for ski jumping in Ontario , stating that lack a facilities make it difficult for Canada to produce ski jumpers for the world scene , and that this among other things will result in poor performances in the Olympics . = = Events = = Big Thunder was a regular site for the FIS Nordic Ski Jumping World Cup , and arranged a world cup round , typically with two jumps , every season from 1980 through 1991 . Nordic combined was , in addition to the World Championships , hosted twice , in 1989 and in 1994 . The last World Cup tournament was held in 1994 as a Pre @-@ World Championship tournament . Contested between 9 and 19 March 1995 , the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships is the hallmark of the venue , and the only major world championship to be contested in Northern Ontario . The Nordic combined individual took place on 9 March , and was won by Fred Børre Lundberg ahead of Jari Mantila . The following day saw Japan win ahead of Norway and Finland in the Nordic combined team event . In ski jumping , the individual normal hill event took place on 12 March , which saw a double Japanese victory with Takanobu Okabe winning ahead of Hiroya Saito . The team event in the large hill on 16 March saw Finland win ahead of Germany and Japan . In the large hill individual event on 18 March , Tommy Ingebrigtsen set a new hill record and won ahead of Andreas Goldberger . = = Results = = The following is a list of all FIS Ski Jumping World Cup and FIS Nordic World Ski Championship tournaments held at Big Thunder , with the date , hill and top three finishing athletes or teams . = Battle of the Barracks = The Battle of the Barracks ( Croatian : Bitka za vojarne ) was a series of engagements that occurred in mid @-@ to @-@ late 1991 between the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG , later renamed the Croatian Army ) and the Croatian police on one side and the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) on another . The battle took place around numerous JNA posts in Croatia , starting when Croatian forces blockaded the JNA barracks , weapons storage depots and other facilities . It formally began on 14 September ; its objective was to neutralise the JNA positions in ZNG @-@ held territory and to secure arms and ammunition supplies to the poorly equipped ZNG . The Battle of the Barracks was an escalation of the conflict between Croatian authorities and the Croatian Serbs who openly revolted in August 1990 and the JNA 's efforts to preserve the Yugoslav federation . At the same time , Croatia made moves towards achieving independence from Yugoslavia . The Battle of the Barracks briefly preceded the start of the JNA 's campaign in Croatia — itself amended in early September to add relief of the blockaded barracks to the operation plans . However , the JNA 's advance was largely curbed by the ZNG and it relieved few JNA facilities . The ZNG and the police captured small , isolated JNA posts , and a number of large weapons depots and barracks — including the entire 32nd ( Varaždin ) Corps of the JNA . The move provided the Croatian forces with a sizable stock of weapons — including 250 tanks , hundreds of artillery pieces and a large supply of small arms and ammunition — which proved crucial in defending against JNA advances in the early stage of the Croatian War of Independence . Some of the JNA facilities surrendered without fighting , while others put up armed resistance to the takeover . In some places , this caused civilian casualties because the barracks were situated in urban areas . Legal charges of abuse of or killing captured JNA personnel , and charges of war crimes against civilian populations were filed in Croatia , but most defendants remain at large . In November , the JNA and Croatia reached several agreements to end the blockade and withdraw JNA from Croatia . The pullout was completed by 4 January 1992 , except in areas around Dubrovnik and on the islands of Vis and Lastovo . The JNA maintained its presence there until the summer of 1992 . As the JNA withdrew from the areas it controlled in Croatia , it was replaced by the UN peacekeepers agreed upon by the Vance plan . = = Background = = In 1990 , ethnic tensions betweens Serbs and Croats worsened after the electoral defeat of the government of the Socialist Republic of Croatia by the Croatian Democratic Union ( Hrvatska demokratska zajednica , HDZ ) . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana – TO ) weapons to minimize resistance . On 17 August , the tensions escalated into an open revolt of Croatian Serbs , centred in the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin ( approximately 60 kilometres ( 37 miles ) north @-@ east of Split ) , parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , unsuccessfully tried to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval of a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces in January 1991 . The request was denied and a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March prompted the JNA itself to ask the federal Presidency to give it wartime authority and declare a state of emergency . Even though the request was backed by Serbia and its allies , the JNA was denied on 15 March . Serbian President Slobodan Milošević , preferring a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia with Croatia as a federal unit , publicly threatened to replace the JNA with a Serbian army and declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the federal Presidency . The threat caused the JNA to gradually abandon plans to preserve Yugoslavia in favour of expansion of Serbia as the JNA came under Milošević 's control . By the end of March , the conflict had escalated to the first fatalities . In early April , leaders of Serb revolt in Croatia declared their intention to integrate the area under their control with Serbia . The Government of Croatia viewed the area as a breakaway region . At the beginning of 1991 , Croatia had no regular army . To bolster its defence , Croatia doubled police personnel to about 20 @,@ 000 . The most effective part of the force was 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police deployed in twelve battalions and adopting military organization of the units . There were also 9 @,@ 000 – 10 @,@ 000 regionally organized reserve police set up in 16 battalions and 10 companies . The reserve force lacked weapons . As a response to the deteriorating situation , the Croatian government established the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde – ZNG ) in May by merging the special police battalions into four all @-@ professional guards brigades together consisting of approximately 8 @,@ 000 troops subordinate to the Ministry of Defence headed by retired JNA General Martin Špegelj . The regional police , by then expanded to 40 @,@ 000 , was also attached to the ZNG and reorganized in 19 brigades and 14 independent battalions . The guards brigades were the only units of the ZNG that were fully armed with small arms ; throughout the ZNG there was a lack of heavier weapons and there was no command and control structure . The shortage of heavy weapons was so severe that the ZNG resorted to use of World War II weapons taken from museums and film studios . At the time , Croatian stockpile of weapons consisted of 30 @,@ 000 small arms purchased abroad and 15 @,@ 000 previously owned by the police . A new 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong special police was established then to replace the personnel lost to the guards brigades . = = Prelude = = Croatian views of the JNA 's role in the Serb revolt gradually evolved in January – September 1991 . Croatian President Franjo Tuđman 's first plan was to win support from the European Community ( EC ) and the United States for Croatia ; he dismissed advice to seize JNA barracks and storage facilities in the country . Capture of the JNA barracks and storage depots was first advocated by Špegelj in late 1990 ; he again urged Tuđman to adopt the plan in early @-@ to @-@ mid 1991 while the JNA fought Slovenia 's TO in the Ten @-@ Day War in June – July 1991 . Špegelj 's calls were echoed by Šime Đodan , who succeeded Špegelj as the Defence Minister in July . Špegelj remained in command of the ZNG . Tuđman 's stance was motivated by his belief that Croatia could not win a war against the JNA . The ZNG was limited to defence , even though the actions of the JNA appeared to be coordinated with the Croatian Serb military . The impression was reinforced by buffer zones established by the JNA after armed conflicts between the Croatian Serb militia and the ZNG — the JNA intervened after the ZNG lost territory , leaving the Croatian Serbs in control of areas they captured before the JNA arrived . The JNA provided weapons to the Croatian Serbs , although most of the weaponry was provided from Serbia 's TO and Ministry of Internal Affairs stocks . In July 1991 , Špegelj and Đodan 's demands were backed up by a number of Croatian Parliament members during a parliamentary debate . This led Tuđman to dismiss Đodan the same month he was appointed Defence Minister , and Špegelj resigned his post on 3 August . The deteriorating situation in eastern Croatia — including JNA forces ' removal of the ZNG from Baranja , intermittent fighting around Osijek , Vukovar and Vinkovci — increasing losses and the growing conviction that the JNA actively supported the Croatian Serb revolt — forced Tuđman to act . On 22 August , he issued an ultimatum to the federal Yugoslav authorities demanding the withdrawal of the JNA to its barracks by the end of the month . The ultimatum stated if the JNA failed to comply , Croatia would consider it an army of occupation and take corresponding action . On 1 September , the EC proposed a ceasefire and a peace conference was accepted by Tuđman — despite his ultimatum — and by the Yugoslav Presidency . The conference started on 7 September , but only four days later , the Croatian member and chair of the presidency Stjepan Mesić ordered the JNA to return to its barracks within 48 hours . The move was motivated by Tuđman 's impression that the conference would continue while the ZNG lost ground . Even though the order was disputed by other members of the body , it gave Croatia a justification to openly confront the JNA . = = Timeline = = Prime Minister Franjo Gregurić proposed Tuđman to implement Špegelj 's plan . According to General Anton Tus , Tuđman ordered the ZNG to capture JNA barracks on 12 September , but rescinded the order the next day . The order was reinstated on 14 September after Tus pleaded with Tuđman to authorize the move , arguing that the ZNG was running out of time . The same day , the ZNG and the Croatian police blockaded and cut utilities to all JNA facilities it had access to , beginning the Battle of the Barracks . The move blockaded 33 large JNA garrisons in Croatia , and numerous smaller facilities , including border posts and weapons and ammunition storage depots . The blockade forced the JNA to amend its campaign in Croatia plans to accommodate the new development . Several JNA posts were attacked by the ZNG before the blockade was officially sanctioned , largely in response to local battlefield situations . The first such incident was a failed attack on JNA barracks in Sinj on 25 August , in response to the deterioration of ZNG positions in the nearby village of Kijevo . On 3 September , the ZNG captured a barracks in Sisak , and on 13 September a weapons storage depot in Gospić area was captured amid fighting for control of the city . In May , 21 M @-@ 84AB tanks were captured in a Đuro Đaković factory . The tanks were due to be shipped to Kuwait , but a part of the shipment was kept by Croatia . A train transporting JNA weapons from Slovenia to Serbia was captured in Slavonski Brod on 21 August . The ZNG seized its first anti @-@ aircraft weapons , anti @-@ tank weapons , and artillery pieces there while adding to its small stock of mortars . The ZNG forces besieging the JNA facilities were mainly drawn from the local populace ; reinforcements deployed from other cities were relatively few . = = = September = = = On 14 September — the day Croatian forces were ordered to blockade the JNA facilities — the ZNG and the police captured the JNA barracks in Ploče , one of several barracks in Gospić , and one in nearby Perušić . The JNA garrison in Otočac — north of Gospić — also came under attack as the ZNG started to assault the barracks in the town . The " Sopnica " JNA depot near Zagreb and a JNA @-@ manned post on the Hungarian border near Pitomača were captured that day . In response to the blockade of their barracks in Vukovar , the JNA dispatched a force to relieve the siege . The next day , the ZNG and the police captured a JNA depot near Popovec — west of Zagreb — and another depot near Slavonski Brod . At the same time , fighting erupted around JNA facilities in Varaždin , and two JNA border posts were captured north of Virovitica . On 16 September , Croatian forces captured a JNA barracks and another storage depot in Slavonski Brod , and two barracks in Ogulin , while fighting erupted around a JNA post in Oštarije . Croatian forces also captured the Žrnovnica missile base and JNA weapons storage facilities near Daruvar , Otočac , Križevci and Virovitica . On 17 September , Croatian forces captured the JNA barracks in Daruvar , Ogulin , Čakovec , Križevci , Virovitica , Požega , two JNA barracks in the Šibenik – Rogoznica area and one in Varaždin . A JNA depot was captured near Zagreb ( Duboki Jarak ) . On 18 September , three additional barracks in Varaždin , one near Rogoznica and two in Đakovo — together with all remaining JNA facilities in Gospić , a nearby weapons storage facility , a communications facility near Garešnica and dozens of border posts — surrendered to Croatian forces . On 19 September , the ZNG clashed with the JNA garrison at the Logorište barracks in Karlovac , captured a communications facility at Platak near Rijeka an additional JNA barracks and a storage depot in Varaždin , restricting the JNA to the barracks housing headquarters of the JNA Varaždin Corps . By 20 September , when the JNA launched a campaign against the ZNG throughout Croatia , more than 60 JNA facilities in Croatia — including 15 barracks and 11 storage depots — had surrendered or were captured . The JNA barracks in Našice surrendered on 21 September . The JNA Varaždin Corps surrendered the next day , providing the ZNG with a major caché of weapons . In the first few days of the blockade , the Croatian forces also captured several small JNA posts in Split , but no large JNA facility in the city . In mid @-@ September , seven JNA facilities in Zadar , including three barracks , were captured . The most significant captured facility was the " Turske kuće " barracks , which contained a large caché of small arms and ammunition . The Yugoslav Air Force carried out air strikes against the facility the next day — following a pattern that was established at the time — to hinder the removal of weapons from captured JNA facilities . On 23 September , a ZNG assault on a large JNA weapons storage site in Sveti Rok — located between Gospić and Zadar — failed . The two remaining JNA barracks under Croatian blockade — in Vinkovci and Osijek — were abandoned by the JNA by 26 September . The Osijek garrison managed to break out from its besieged barracks and joined the JNA troops south and east of the city , while the evacuation of the Vinkovci barracks was negotiated between Croatian authorities and the JNA . The negotiations were initiated after the JNA 1st Guards Mechanised Division reached Vinkovci on 25 September , forcing the ZNG to accept the evacuation . A JNA facility on the island of Korčula surrendered its equipment to the ZNG on 26 September . On 29 September , Croatian forces captured two barracks and three storage depots in and around Bjelovar after a day @-@ long battle , while the fourth storage facility was blown up by its commanding officer , JNA Major Milan Tepić . The explosion killed Tepić and eleven members of the besieging force . It was heard 20 kilometres ( 12 miles ) away and caused damage in nearby villages . The same day , a weapons storage facility in Koprivnica and a border post near Virovitica were captured by the ZNG and the Croatian police . The JNA 73rd Motorized Brigade surrendered in Koprivnica the next day . On 14 / 15 September , Croatian forces seized a DJČ @-@ 612 landing craft from the Yugoslav Navy while it was undergoing repairs in Vela Luka shipyard ; they sailed the vessel the same night into the Cetina River . Between 16 and 22 September , Croatian forces captured the Kuline barracks in Šibenik and the 15 Yugoslav Navy vessels based there , as well as a further 19 vessels that were being overhauled in the " Velimir Škorpik " shipyard . The vessels , comprising approximately one @-@ quarter of the Yugoslav Navy 's assets , included : the Vlado Ćetković ( RTOP @-@ 402 ) Končar @-@ class fast attack craft ( renamed Šibenik ( RTOP @-@ 21 ) later on ) , the Velimir Škorpik ( RČ @-@ 310 ) Osa @-@ class missile boat , the Partizan II ( TČ @-@ 222 ) Shershen @-@ class torpedo boat and the Biokovo ( PČ @-@ 171 ) , Cer ( PČ @-@ 180 ) and Durmitor ( PČ @-@ 181 ) Mirna @-@ class patrol boats . Also , a ship in the final stages of construction was captured in the Kraljevica Shipyard the same month . She was launched in 1992 as Kralj Petar Krešimir IV ( RTOP @-@ 11 ) missile boat . In September , seven coastal artillery bases near Šibenik and on the islands of Šolta , Brač and Korčula were captured . = = = October = = = On 3 October , Croatian forces captured the " Joža Vlahović " JNA barracks in Koprivnica , and a communications post and a border post near the city . The next day , the JNA barracks in Sinj and its nearby land mine storage facility were abandoned after a negotiated agreement . In early October , two JNA artillery regiments based in the " Šepurine " barracks near Zadar broke through a siege of their base and joined the JNA attack on the city . By 5 October , Zadar was completely surrounded by the JNA and the situation prompted Croatian authorities in the city to seek a ceasefire and negotiations . The ceasefire was arranged the same day , while the negotiations , held on 7 – 9 October , brought about the lifting of the JNA siege of Zadar and the evacuation of the remaining JNA garrison and its equipment from the city . The evacuation , involving seven JNA facilities , started on 11 October and took 15 days . The agreement stipulated that the evacuated units would leave Croatian soil and the JNA generally respected the obligation , even though twenty truckloads of weapons were left to the Serbian population in the hinterland around Zadar . In the wake of the bombing of Banski dvori of 7 October , Croatian authorities instructed the ZNG to assault and capture JNA barracks in the Zagreb area if commanders considered it possible . The instructions did not result in attacks in Zagreb itself , but JNA barracks in Samobor were captured by Croatian forces on the day of the bombing . The declaration of the independence of Croatia came into force the next day . On 13 October , the JNA mostly destroyed and abandoned its barracks at Oštarije , and a JNA weapons storage facility in Rijeka was damaged in a fire caused by a thunderstorm . The ZNG removed some weapons from the latter while the firefighters were called in to save individual storage structures . The next day , the JNA began moving the remaining weapons from the damaged storage to elsewhere in the city . While a convoy of 18 trucks was moving through Rijeka , 15 vehicles carrying weapons were diverted and captured by the ZNG . At the same time , personnel at the JNA 's Borongaj barracks in Zagreb were allowed to evacuate in return for free passage of a convoy carrying humanitarian aid to Vukovar , where the battle to control the city was in progress . = = = November = = = After a period of siege with little or no activity , the JNA forces in the Logorište barracks in the Karlovac area broke through the blockade towards the JNA @-@ held territory to the east of the city in the Battle of Logorište , which lasted from 4 to 6 November . The Croatian forces besieging the barracks were more numerous , but the JNA had superiority in armour and artillery . After it was abandoned by the JNA , the barracks still contained weapons which were taken away by the Croatian troops by November 13 . The ZNG was renamed the Croatian Army ( Hrvatska vojska – HV ) in early November . It captured the Jamadol barracks and storage facility in Karlovac on 4 November , while the fighting around the Logorište barracks was in progress . The following day , the HV captured JNA barracks and several weapons storage facilities in Delnice . The attacks were ordered to capture ammunition needed by the HV because its stockpile was running low . On 8 November , Davorin Rudolf representing Croatian authorities , and Lieutenant Colonel General Marijan Čad — JNA commanding officer of the 13th ( Rijeka ) Corps — agreed to evacuate the corps personnel and equipment from Croatia . The agreement , made after negotiations supervised and supported by the European Community Monitor Mission ( ECMM ) would later serve as a model for similar agreements elsewhere in Croatia . Čad made the agreement at his own initiative , with the support of the JNA Fifth Military District , after receiving an order from the JNA Chief of Staff Colonel General Blagoje Adžić to destroy the JNA facilities in Rijeka and to attack industrial plants and infrastructure in or near the city . The agreement was not affected by the HV capture of the Draga barracks and weapons stored there on 9 November . The JNA 13th ( Rijeka ) Corps started to evacuate by sea to Montenegrin ports on 18 November . Following negotiations , the JNA evacuated its Jastrebarsko barracks on 13 November . The garrison left , under ECMM escort , to Bosnia and Herzegovina . The next day , an agreement to evacuate the JNA from Šibenik was made in the village of Žitnić near Drniš . The Yugoslav Navy 's bombardment of Split , Šolta and Brač on 15 November — in response to the loss of a Mukos ( PČ @-@ 176 ) patrol boat — and the subsequent Battle of the Dalmatian channels appeared to have derailed the Žitnić agreement . In Žitnić on 21 November , another agreement to evacuate the JNA and the Yugoslav Navy from the Šibenik – Split area and surrender of the confiscated TO weapons stored there was signed by Rudolf and the JNA Maritime @-@ Military District commanding officer Major General Nikola Mladenić . It was followed by another agreement to the same effect which was signed in Split two days later by Mladenić and Croatian Admiral Sveto Letica , defining that the pullout should be completed within 30 days . The agreement also provided for a cease @-@ fire in northern Dalmatia and the lifting of the Yugoslav Navy 's blockade of the Croatian coast . The agreement did not include evacuation of the Yugoslav Navy from its bases on the islands of Vis and Lastovo . Tensions remained high throughout the process and the JNA made contingency plans to break through from Knin to Šibenik and Split and relieve the siege of its forces there — these plans were codenamed Operation Coast @-@ 91 ( Operacija Obala @-@ 91 ) and Operation Hurricane @-@ 91 ( Operacija Orkan @-@ 91 ) respectively . Amid international pressure on Croatia to end the siege of the JNA garrison in Zagreb , Croatian authorities and the JNA signed an agreement on 22 November to evacuate all remaining JNA forces from Croatia . The agreement was signed in Zagreb , by HV Colonel Imra Agotić and Lieutenant Colonel General Andrija Rašeta in presence of the ECMM monitors . The agreement was confirmed the next day in Geneva when the Geneva Accord was signed by Tuđman , Milošević and the Yugoslav defence minister , JNA General Veljko Kadijević . = = Aftermath = = The ZNG quickly captured isolated JNA facilities , depots and several major posts , seizing a large quantity of weapons , including the entire stocks of the JNA 32nd ( Varaždin ) Corps and nearly all the weapons previously confiscated from the Croatia 's TO . The JNA lost control of eight brigades — including one armoured brigade , two mechanized brigades and three artillery regiments — and additional forces in the JNA Fifth Military District and the Military @-@ Maritime District remained pinned down by the blockade . The Significance of the Battle of the Barracks was reinforced by introduction of a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo on 25 September . The Battle of the Barracks resulted in a large increase of ZNG / HV capabilities — allowing complete arming of its existing units , raising of additional 40 – 42 brigades and fielding 200 @,@ 000 troops and 40 @,@ 000 police by the end of the year . In the battle , the ZNG / HV captured 250 tanks , 400 – 500 heavy artillery pieces , 180 @,@ 000 small arms and 2 million tonnes of ammunition . In addition , 3 @,@ 000 officers left the JNA and joined the HV . While there is no information on the number of troops involved or casualties sustained on either side , the JNA garrisons in Croatia were significantly undermanned at the time . The JNA order of battle , developed in the 1980s , specified a handful of battalions at full combat readiness in Croatia . Those were elements of the 140th Mechanised Brigade in Zagreb , the 31st Armoured Brigade in Dugo Selo near Zagreb , the 12th Proletarian Mechanised Brigade in Osijek , the 11th Marine Infantry Brigade in Šibenik and the 139th Marine Infantry Brigade in Pula . In 1990 , the " A " classification — requiring 60 – 100 % troop levels , — was assigned to the 4th Armoured Brigade in Jastrebarsko , a battalion of the 622nd Motorised Brigade in Petrinja , the 13th Proletarian Motorised Brigade in Rijeka , and the 265th Mechanised Brigade in Bjelovar and Koprivnica . The 221st Motorised Brigade based in Knin was reinforced with " A " class armoured and mechanised battalions . In addition , an armoured battalion was added to the 622nd Mechanised Brigade , and a mechanised battalion to JNA garrisons in Vinkovci and Vukovar each in May 1991 . Likewise , Croatian forces were strained between maintaining the blockade and manning the positions held against the JNA and Croatian Serb militias elsewhere . Surrendered JNA troops were either transported to Serbia , exchanged for prisoners of war captured elsewhere , or were given civilian clothing and released . Both in 1991 and years later , Špegelj criticised Tuđman 's decision to disregard his advice to attack the JNA barracks earlier than September — specifically during the Ten @-@ Day War in Slovenia in June – July 1991 . Špegelj said that an earlier move , preempting deterioration of the strategic situation in Croatia , would best serve Croatian defensive needs . Furthermore , he said that the JNA would be unable to respond in force because it would need two months to mobilise the required forces and that all prerequisites for a decisive victory against the JNA were met . Tus thought that Tuđman kept postponing the blockade because of the pressure applied by the international community against confrontation with the JNA . Zdravko Tomac , deputy prime minister of a national unity government in Croatia at the time , and later an opposition leader , stated that while Špegelj 's view was militarily correct , Tuđman 's position was politically better . Kadijević conversely said that the JNA would have fared better if Croatian forces had confronted it earlier because the JNA 's capabilities declined during the summer of 1991 . = = = Vance plan = = = The JNA campaign in Croatia ended in a stalemate , leading the belligerents to accept an internationally supervised ceasefire , formulated as the Vance plan — a result of a diplomatic mission by the Special Envoy of the Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations Cyrus Vance , aided by United States diplomat Herbert Okun , and Under @-@ Secretary @-@ General of the United Nations for Special Political Affairs Marrack Goulding , to Yugoslavia aimed at securing a negotiated end to hostilities in Croatia . The plan proposed a ceasefire , the protection of civilians in specific areas designated as UN Protected Areas and deployment of a UN force to Croatia . The Vance plan provided for the end of the Croatian blockade of the JNA barracks , the withdrawal of all JNA personnel and equipment from Croatia , the implementation of a ceasefire and the facilitation of delivery of humanitarian aid . The parties to the accord also agreed to the deployment of a UN peacekeeping mission in Croatia , later initiated through the subsequent United Nations Security Council Resolution 721 of 27 November . As a consequence of organizational problems and breaches of the last ceasefire agreement , the UN peacekeepers only started to deploy on 8 March 1992 . = = = Evacuation of the JNA = = = The JNA continued to evacuate following the Geneva Accord . The remaining seven JNA facilities in Rijeka area were evacuated during November , and the last barracks evacuated were those in Trsat on 10 December . In Šibenik , the JNA evacuated two barracks and four depots from 25 November until 24 December , turning the confiscated Croatian TO weapons over to the HV on 10 December — but the weapons remained in a sealed storage under ECMM supervision until 25 December as required by the Žitnić agreement . Most the evacuation took place by rail via Knin , and part of the force was moved by sea to Montenegro . The evacuation agreement required — as in case of the Zadar evacuation — the removal of the evacuated units from Croatian soil ; the JNA only partly fulfilled that criterion . The " Divulje " base of the JNA near Trogir started to evacuate by sea on 4 December , after an additional agreement signed by Rudolf and Mladenić regulating surrender of the TO weapons to the HV and the evacuation of the Lora naval base in Split . The evacuation was halted again when it was determined that some of the TO weapons were missing from the JNA facilities in Split . The issue was resolved through an agreement of 18 December made between Rašeta and Agotić stipulating that the JNA would provide the HV with the missing weapons from its own stocks , and the evacuation resumed . Since the JNA did not have sufficient weapons to achieve that criterion in Split , a Yugoslav Navy ship delivered 250 tonnes ( 250 long tons ; 280 short tons ) of weapons and ammunition from Kumbor in Montenegro to Split on 1 January 1992 . The last JNA forces left the area of Split on 4 January . The JNA also evacuated its facilities elsewhere in Croatia . Pullout from the Maršal Tito and Kerestinec barracks in Zagreb started on 30 November , and was completed by the end of 1991 . Istria was evacuated by the JNA and the Yugoslav Navy on 15 December , handing over the Croatian TO weapons to the HV . The quantity of the TO weapons handed over in Istria — where the JNA evacuated 78 facilities — was enough to arm two combat brigades . In December 1991 , only minor clashes occurred around the JNA facilities that were still under the HV blockade , including a minor , unsuccessful HV attack on Mekušje barracks in Karlovac . Despite the Geneva Accord requiring an immediate withdrawal of JNA personnel and equipment , the JNA remained for seven to eight months . When its troops eventually withdrew from Croatia , the JNA left their equipment to the Republic of Serbian Krajina , established in the JNA @-@ held areas of Croatia on 19 December . The JNA and the Yugoslav Navy kept their bases on Vis and Lastovo islands until early June 1992 before pulling out unilaterally . The JNA maintained positions near Dubrovnik until July , while the naval blockade of the city was lifted on 26 May 1992 . = = War crimes = = Croatian authorities charged the deputy head of the Bjelovar police operations department and three special police force members with the deaths of five JNA prisoners and the shooting of a civilian following the surrender of the Bjelovar barracks . They were acquitted after 12 years of legal proceedings , after the Supreme Court of Croatia twice ordered a re @-@ trial . The Head of Bjelovar crisis centre was also charged with war crimes in 2012 , but as of 2013 his trial is still pending . Croatia also charged numerous JNA officers who held posts in the blockaded garrisons . In Osijek , 13 JNA officers were charged with war crimes against the civilian population , including causing the deaths of 307 persons and severe injuries to 171 persons , but none were arrested as of 2013 . War crime charges were brought against JNA commander of the 32nd ( Varaždin ) Corps , General Vladimir Trifunović . He was charged by Croatia with the deaths of six individuals and the wounding of a further 37 . After a trial in absentia , he was found guilty and sentenced to 15 years in prison in 1991 . Three years later , in 1994 , Trifunović was charged in Yugoslavia with treason because he surrendered the entire JNA corps to the ZNG . He was convicted and sentenced to 11 years in prison . In early 1996 , he was pardoned and released , and the Yugoslav authorities paid him € 62 @,@ 000 compensation for spending nearly two years in a prison . In 2013 , Trifunović formally requested re @-@ trial in Croatia . = Tomb of Horrors = Tomb of Horrors is an adventure module written by Gary Gygax for the Dungeons & Dragons ( D & D ) role @-@ playing game . It was originally written for and used at the 1975 Origins 1 convention . Gygax designed the adventure both to challenge the skill of expert players in his own campaign , and to test players who boasted of having mighty player characters able to best any challenge . The module , coded S1 , was the first in the S @-@ series , or special series of modules . Several versions of the adventure have been published , the first in 1978 , and the most recent , published for the D & D fourth edition , in 2010 . It also served as the basis for a novel published in 2002 . The module 's plot revolves around the tomb of the demi @-@ lich Acererak . The player characters must battle their way past a variety of monsters and traps , with the ultimate goal of destroying Acererak . Tomb of Horrors is considered one of the greatest Dungeons & Dragons modules of all time , as well as one of the most difficult . The module has influenced later Dungeons & Dragons products , and was followed by three other ( unrelated ) modules in the S @-@ series : S2 White Plume Mountain , S3 Expedition to the Barrier Peaks , and S4 The Lost Caverns of Tsojcanth . = = Plot summary = = Tomb of Horrors is set in the World of Greyhawk , a D & D campaign setting . In Tomb of Horrors , the adventurers encounter a number of tricks and traps while attempting to penetrate the tomb of a dead wizard . As the scenario begins , the players are told that the evil wizard Acererak is said to linger in his ancient tomb in undead form . Originally a powerful lich , he has ( unbeknownst to the players ) become a demi @-@ lich , a more powerful form of undead that has transcended the need for any physical body apart from its skull . Player characters must survive the deadly traps in the tomb and fight their way into the demi @-@ lich 's elaborately concealed inner sanctum to destroy him once and for all . The module is divided into thirty @-@ three encounters , beginning with two false entrances to the tomb , and ending with " The Crypt of Acererak the Demi @-@ Lich " . Example encounters are the " Huge Pit Filled with 200 Spikes " ( section 20 ) , or encounter 22 , " The Cavern of Gold and Silver Mists " : " The mists are silvery and shot through with delicate streamers of golden color . Vision extends only 6 ' . There is a dim aura of good if detected for . Those who step into the mist must save versus poison or become idiots until they can breathe the clean air above ground under the warm sun . " The module ends with the destruction of Acererak , without any postscript . = = Publication history = = Tomb of Horrors was written by Gary Gygax for official D & D tournament play at the 1975 Origins 1 convention . Gygax developed the adventure from an idea by Alan Lucien , one of his original AD & D playtesters , " and I admit to chuckling evilly as I did so . " Gygax designed the Tomb of Horrors modules for two related purposes . First , Gygax explains , " There were several very expert players in my campaign , and this was meant as yet another challenge to their skill — and the persistence of their theretofore @-@ invincible characters . Specifically , I had in mind foiling Rob Kuntz 's PC , Robilar , and Ernie Gygax 's PC , Tenser . " Second , so that he was " ready for those fans [ players ] who boasted of having mighty PCs able to best any challenge offered by the AD & D game . " Tomb of Horrors was revised in late 1977 for publication as an AD & D module . In 1978 , TSR , Inc. published the module with a monochrome cover , revised and updated for use with first edition Advanced Dungeons & Dragons rules . The module included a twenty @-@ page book , a twelve @-@ page book , and an outer folder ; the original printing featured a two @-@ color cover . The module features a book of illustrations to show to players as the adventure unfolds . Tomb of Horrors was republished in 1981 as a thirty @-@ two page booklet with identical text but a new , full @-@ color cover . The module has been described as the first of a series of high @-@ level scenarios , and was included as part of the Realms of Horror abridged compilation produced in 1987 . In 1998 , the module was reprinted as part of the Return to the Tomb of Horrors module — a substantial expansion and sequel to the original adventure , written for 2nd Edition AD & D rules . Wizards of the Coast released an updated version of the original module as a free download for Halloween 2005 , retaining much of the original content ; the updated content is from the Dungeons & Dragons supplement book Libris Mortis . This updated version was designed for use with the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 Edition rules . Tomb of Horrors was also adapted into a novel of the same name by Keith Francis Strohm for the Greyhawk Classics series published by Wizards of the Coast in 2002 . In July 2010 , Wizards of the Coast released two adventures bearing the Tomb of Horrors name . One is a hardcover super @-@ adventure written by Ari Marmell and Scott Fitzgerald Gray , which builds on and expands the legend of the original Tomb using the canon of Return to the Tomb of Horrors as a starting point . The second Tomb of Horrors is a conversion and update of the original module for 4th Edition rules , written by Scott Fitzgerald Gray and released to members of the RPGA as part of the DM Rewards program . All four modules of the S @-@ series were included as part of the Dungeons of Dread hardcover collection , released on March 19 , 2013 . Lawrence Schick wrote in the foreword : " The dungeon of the demi @-@ lich Acererak was , for Gary , a kind of thought experiment : If an undead sorcerer really wanted to keep his tomb from being plundered by greedy adventurers , how would he do it ? The answer , of course , was to defend the crypt with tricks and traps designed not to challenge the intruders but to kill them dead . And furthermore , to do it in ways so horrific that all but the most determined party would give up and leave well enough alone . " = = Reception = = Tomb of Horrors was ranked the 3rd greatest Dungeons & Dragons adventure of all time by Dungeon magazine in 2004 . Dungeon Master for Dummies lists Tomb of Horrors as one of the ten best classic adventures , and posits that many of the adventure 's traps would kill a character just for making poor choices . Lawrence Schick , in his 1991 book Heroic Worlds , calls the adventure " A very difficult scenario " . Don Turnbull reviewed Tomb of Horrors in issue No. 13 of the magazine White Dwarf , and gave the module a rating of 10 out of 10 . Turnbull commented on the adventure 's difficulty , noting that the dungeon is " sprinkled extensively with subtle , insidious and carefully laid traps , and it will be a fortunate adventurer who manages to avoid them " . He felt that the illustration booklet would add a great deal to the adventure 's atmosphere and felt that the pre @-@ generated character roster was useful . Turnbull noted that the module is " very hard and will be hard for the DM to learn in advance , though this is an essential prerequisite of running it properly for it is much more subtle than the G or D modules " , and he said that this module has in common with those modules an " excellent format , for instance , and the comprehensive way in which the scenario is introduced . TSR 's high quality has not been in any way compromised , and in S1 it has even been improved upon . " Wayne MacLaurin of SF Site describes the module as " a classic " and a " must have " for gamers , saying that when he played the game in high school , most of his group 's characters quickly died . MacLaurin explains that Tomb of Horrors is a classic not because of its difficulty , but because it was the first module that did not involve killing large amounts of monsters ; it was a " collection of puzzles and maps . " Its focus on traps rather than monsters was a surprise to gamers at the time . One technique that some players used to get past the deathtraps was to drive cattle ahead of them , which Lore Sjöberg of Wired described as " a bit less than heroic " , noting that in Lord of the Rings Gandalf did not send " 50 head of cattle into the Mines of Moria to serve as Balrog bait . " David M. Ewalt , in his book Of Dice and Men , discussed the adventure 's reputation as " the deadliest game ever written " , noting that it " unloads a series of complicated puzzles and nightmarish traps " on characters , concluding that " Few survive long enough to collect any treasure , and even fewer manage to find their way back through the deadly maze and escape with their spoils . " Something Awful presented a humorous article about the ways that Tomb of Horrors is the bane of gamers everywhere since it is basically a series of traps that kills off most of the characters . " One of the best ( worst ) things about this module is that Acererak the demi @-@ lich is a huge asshole . He 's an asshole for filling his tomb with traps AND treasure , he 's an asshole because he leaves little messages throughout his tomb bragging about how he 's going to kill the players . " Tomb of Horrors has also influenced later Dungeons & Dragons products . Jason Bulmahn used the module , as well as Indiana Jones , as inspiration for some of the traps in the 2007 D & D supplement Dungeonscape . The computer role @-@ playing game Icewind Dale , developed by Black Isle Studios , was influenced by the module ; Black Isle Studios division director Feargus Urquhart said , " We wanted something that reminded everyone of their first foray into dungeons like the Tomb of Horrors , with traps around every corner , and the undead crawling out of the walls . " Tomb of Horrors is mentioned several times in the novel Ready Player One by Ernest Cline , which is set in a virtual reality world created by a man who was a fan of the module . = Amanita exitialis = Amanita exitialis , also known as the Guangzhou destroying angel , is a mushroom of the large genus Amanita . It is distributed in eastern Asia , and probably also in India where it has been misidentified as A. verna . Deadly poisonous , it is a member of section Phalloideae and related to the death cap A. phalloides . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) are white , small to medium @-@ sized with caps up to 7 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , a somewhat friable ring and a firm volva . Unlike most agaric mushrooms which typically have four @-@ spored basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) , the basidia of A. exitialis are almost entirely two @-@ spored . Eight people were fatally poisoned in China after consuming the mushroom in 2000 , and another 20 have been fatally poisoned since that incident . Molecular analysis shows that the species has a close phylogenetic relationship with three other toxic white Amanitas : A. subjunquillea var. alba , A. virosa and A. bisporigera . = = Taxonomy , classification , and phylogeny = = Zhu @-@ Liang Yang and Tai @-@ Hui Li discovered the species by reexamining various herbarium specimens of white Amanita typically referred to as either A. verna or A. virosa . They realized that collections referred to as these European species actually comprised three taxa new to science or the region . The holotype specimen of A. exitialis is located in the Mycological Herbarium of Guangdong Institute of Microbiology . In 2005 , Zhang and colleagues performed a phylogenetic analysis based on the ITS sequences of several white @-@ bodied toxic Amanita species . Their results support a clade containing four lethal Amanita species with white fruit bodies . A. exitialis has two @-@ spored basidia similar to the North American species A. bisporigera , but A. exitialis has a closer phylogenetic relationship with Amanita subjunquillea var. alba , a four @-@ spored white lethal species from China . The specific epithet exitialis derives from the Latin word " destructive " , and refers to the lethally poisonous nature of the mushroom . Amanita exitialis is classified in the section Phalloideae of the genus Amanita . Species of this section share the following characteristics : spores that are not strongly elongated , and never with a cyclindric shape ; flesh not reddening upon bruising ; lamellulae ( short gills that do not reach the edge of the cap ) abruptly cut off ; a well @-@ formed pouch- or sac @-@ like membranous volva . All species of Phalloideae are ectomycorrhizal and contain amatoxins . = = Description = = The cap is 4 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) in diameter , initially egg @-@ shaped , then convex but flattening with age , and sometimes slightly depressed at the center . The cap surface is smooth , white , but cream @-@ colored in the center . The margin ( cap edge ) is non @-@ striate , non @-@ appendiculate ( without any partial veil remnants hanging along the cap margin ) ; the flesh white . The gills are free from attachment to the stem , white to whitish , crowded closely together , and up to 5 mm in height . The lamellulae are long and tapering , plentiful , and arranged in 2 – 3 tiers . The stem is 7 – 9 cm ( 2 @.@ 8 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) by 0 @.@ 5 – 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 4 in ) , roughly cylindrical or slightly tapering upward , with apex slightly expanded . The surface is white to whitish , smooth , or sometimes with fibrous small scales . The bulb at the base of the stem is roughly spherical and 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 8 in ) wide . The volva is limbate ( has a distinct edge ) , thin , membranous , with free limb up to 7 mm in height , and both surfaces are white . The ring is near the top of the stem , thin , membranous , white , persistent or may be torn from the stem during expansion of the cap . All tissues of the fruit body will turn yellow if a drop of dilute potassium hydroxide is applied . The spores are spherical or nearly so , rarely broadly ellipsoid , and measure 9 @.@ 5 – 12 by 9 – 11 @.@ 5 µm . They are hyaline ( translucent ) and colorless , amyloid ( absorbing iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent ) , thin @-@ walled , smooth , and have a small apiculus . The spore @-@ bearing cells , the basidia , are 27 – 55 by 10 – 15 µm , club @-@ shaped , and two @-@ spored ( rarely one @-@ spored ) . They have sterigmata ( slender projections that attach the spores ) that are 5 – 7 µm long . = = = Similar species = = = Amanita exitialis is similar to A. bisporigera , a species originally described by George Francis Atkinson from the United States . In comparison to A. exitialis , A. bisporigera differs by its lower placement of the ring on the stem , smaller spores ( typically 8 – 9 @.@ 5 by 7 – 8 @.@ 5 µm ) , and different structure of the volva . American specimens of A. bisporigera have more abundant inflated cells than that of A. exitialis . Two other white Asian species , A. oberwinklerana and A. subjunquillea var. alba also resemble A. exitialis , but are four @-@ spored . = = Habitat and distribution = = The fruit bodies of A. exitialis grow solitarily or in groups on the ground in coniferous forests . It is known only from the type locality , Guangdong Province . In a 2003 survey of Indian Amanita species , the authors mention several collections identified as A. verna , from various locations in the Indian provinces Maharashtra , Orissa , and Rajasthan . As Bhatt et al. explain , the material collected by Dhanchiola in Orissa and identified as A. virosa has two @-@ spored basidia , and his description matches that of A. exitialis . Field observations suggest that the mushroom associates mycorrhizally with the plant Castanopsis fissa , a deciduous tree found only in the southern provinces of China , such as Guangdong , Yunnan and Hunan . Mushroom fruitings are abundant in the warm spring rains of March and April , although they are also seen in May to July . = = Toxicity = = The content and distribution of the main amatoxins ( alpha @-@ amanitin , beta @-@ amanitin ) and phallotoxins ( phallacidin , phallisin , phalloin , phalloidin ) in the three tissues ( cap , stipe and volva ) of Amanita exitialis have been determined using high @-@ performance liquid chromatography . The cap had the highest content of total toxins , reaching over 8000 µg / g dry weight ( µg of toxin per gram of dried tissue ) , the toxins content in the stem was over 3700 µg / g dry weight , whereas the volva had the lowest content of total toxins , with about 1150 µg / g dry weight . Amatoxins content ( alpha @-@ amanitin and beta @-@ amanitins especially alpha @-@ amanitin ) in the cap , stem or volva of A. exitialis was higher than that of Phallotoxins ( Phallacidin , Phallisin , Phalloidin and Phalloin ) , but the content of phallotoxins ( especially phallacidin ) was gradually higher from cap to stem and to volva . A 2011 study reported the presence of additional toxins amaninamide , phallacin , phallisacin and desoxoviridin . A Chinese study concluded that this species had the highest mortality rate of all toxic mushrooms in China . It has been estimated that about 50 grams ( 1 @.@ 8 oz ) of fresh mushrooms contains sufficient toxin to cause the death of a 50 @-@ kilogram ( 110 lb ) adult . In March 2000 , nine people consumed the mushroom in Guangzhou , and only one survived . Since 2000 , another 20 people have died in the southern provinces of China from consuming the mushroom . Toxic peptides from Amanita species have been widely used in biological research as chemical agents to inhibit RNA polymerase II , an enzyme essential for protein synthesis . However , these toxic peptides can only be obtained from fruit bodies collected from natural habitats , and are consequently expensive . Some success has been reported in extracting peptide toxins directly from the mycelia of Amanita exitialis grown in liquid culture . Although the toxin concentration in the mycelium is only about 10 % of that in fruiting bodies , the authors suggest that is possible to increase the amatoxin production by optimizing the growth conditions . = = Bioactive compounds = = The fruit bodies of Amanita exitialis contain a unique purine nucleoside that is coupled with an amino acid derivative named N2- ( 1 @-@ methoxycarbonylethyl ) guanosine . The discovery and identification of this chemical was the first report of a naturally occurring nucleoside in which an amino acid derivative is bonded through its α @-@ amino nitrogen ( the nitrogen bonded to the α @-@ carbon ) to a nucleobase aglycone by a C @-@ N ( carbon to nitrogen ) bond . The new compound was determined to be toxic in the brine shrimp lethality test , but it did not have cytotoxic activity against a variety of human cancer cell lines . Other compounds isolated from the fungus include β @-@ carboline and russulaceramide ( a ceramide formerly found in some Russula mushrooms ) . = Knights of Columbus = The Knights of Columbus is the world 's largest Catholic fraternal service organization . Founded by Father Michael J. McGivney in New Haven , Connecticut , in 1882 , it was named in honor of the mariner Christopher Columbus . Originally serving as a mutual benefit society to low @-@ income immigrant Catholics , it developed into a fraternal benefit society dedicated to providing charitable services , promoting Catholic education and Catholic public policy positions , and actively defending Roman Catholicism in various nations . There are 1 @,@ 883 @,@ 598 members in nearly 15 @,@ 000 councils , with 302 councils on college campuses . Membership is limited to " practical " Catholic men aged 18 or older . Membership consists of four different degrees , each exemplifying a different principle of the Order . The Order is a member of the International Alliance of Catholic Knights . Councils have been chartered in the United States ( including the territories of Puerto Rico , the Virgin Islands and Guam ) , Canada , the Philippines , Mexico , Poland , the Dominican Republic , Panama , the Bahamas , Cuba , Guatemala , Saipan , South Korea , Ukraine , Lithuania , and on US military bases around the world . The Knights ' official junior organization , the Columbian Squires , has over 5 @,@ 000 circles and the Order 's patriotic arm , the Fourth Degree , has more than 2 @,@ 500 assemblies . For their support for the Church and local communities , as well as for their philanthropic efforts , Pope John Paul II referred to the Order as a " strong right arm of the Church . " In 2014 , the Order gave over US $ 173 million directly to charity and performed over 71 @.@ 5 million man @-@ hours of voluntary service . Over 413 @,@ 000 US pints ( 195 @,@ 000 l ; 344 @,@ 000 imp pt ) of blood were donated in 2010 . The Order 's insurance program has more than 2 million insurance contracts , totaling more than US $ 100 billion of life insurance in force . This is backed up by $ 21 billion in assets as of 2014 . Within the United States on the national and state level , the Order is active in the political arena lobbying for laws and positions that uphold the Catholic Church 's positions on public policy and social issues . = = History = = = = = Founding = = = Michael J. McGivney , an Irish @-@ American Catholic priest , founded the Knights of Columbus in New Haven , Connecticut . He gathered a group of men from St. Mary 's Parish for an organizational meeting on October 2 , 1881 , and the Order was incorporated under the laws of the state of Connecticut on March 29 , 1882 . Although the first councils were all in that state , the Order spread throughout New England and the United States in subsequent years . By 1889 , there were 300 councils comprising 40 @,@ 000 knights . Twenty years later , in 1909 , there were 230 @,@ 000 knights in 1 @,@ 300 councils . The Order was intended as a mutual benefit society . These organizations , which combined social aspects and ritual were especially flourishing during the latter third of the nineteenth century , the so @-@ called " Golden Age of Fraternalism . " As a parish priest in an immigrant community , McGivney saw what could happen to a family when the main income earner died , and wanted to provide insurance to care for the widows and orphans left behind . He also had to temporarily leave his seminary studies to care for his family when his father died . However , Roman Catholics In the late 19th century were regularly excluded from labor unions , popular fraternal organizations and other organized groups that provided social services and papal encyclicals issued by the Holy See prohibited Roman Catholics participating as lodge members within Freemasonry . McGivney wished to provide them an alternative . He also believed that Catholicism and fraternalism were not incompatible and wanted to found a society to encourage men to be proud of their American @-@ Catholic heritage . McGivney traveled to Boston to examine the Massachusetts Catholic Order of Foresters and to Brooklyn to learn about the recently established Catholic Benevolent League , both of which offered insurance benefits . He found the latter to be lacking the excitement he thought was needed if his organization were to compete with the secret societies of the day . He expressed an interest in establishing a New Haven Court of the Foresters , but the charter of Massachusetts Foresters prevented them from operating outside their Commonwealth . McGivney 's committee of St. Mary 's parishioners decided to form a club that was entirely original . The name of Columbus was also partially intended as a mild rebuke to Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestant leaders , who upheld the explorer ( a Catholic Genovese Italian working for Catholic Spain ) as an American hero , yet simultaneously sought to marginalize recent Catholic immigrants . In taking Columbus as their patron , they were expressing their belief that not only could Catholics be full members of American society , but were instrumental in its foundation . McGivney had originally conceived of the name " Sons of Columbus " , but James T. Mullen , who would become the first Supreme Knight , successfully suggested that " Knights of Columbus " would better capture the ritualistic nature of the new organization . By the time of the first annual convention in 1884 , the Order was prospering . The five councils throughout Connecticut had a total of 459 members . Groups from other states were requesting information . The Charter of 1899 included four statements of purpose , including : " To promote such social and intellectual intercourse among its members as shall be desirable and proper , and by such lawful means as to them shall seem best . " The new charter showed members ' desire to expand the organization beyond a simple mutual benefit insurance society . The original insurance system devised by McGivney gave a deceased Knight 's widow a $ 1 @,@ 000 death benefit . Each member was assessed $ 1 upon a death , and when the number of Knights grew beyond 1 @,@ 000 , the assessment decreased according to the rate of increase . Each member , regardless of age , was assessed equally . As a result , younger , healthier members could expect to pay more over the course of their lifetimes than those men who joined when they were older . There was also a Sick Benefit Deposit for members who fell ill and could not work . Each sick Knight was entitled to draw up to $ 5 a week for 13 weeks ( roughly equivalent to $ 125 @.@ 75 in 2009 dollars ) . If he remained sick after that , the council to which he belonged regulated the sum of money given to him . = = = Creation of the Fourth Degree = = = From the very early days of the Order , members wanted to create a form of hierarchy and recognition for senior members ; this issue was discussed at the National Meeting of 1899 . As early as 1886 Supreme Knight James T. Mullen had proposed a patriotic degree with its own symbolic dress . The K of C established the Grand Cross of the Knights of Columbus but awarded it only to Cristobal Colón y de La Cerda , Duke of Veragua and descendant of Columbus , when he visited the US in 1893 . About 1 @,@ 400 members attended the first exemplification of the Fourth Degree at the Lenox Lyceum in New York on February 22 , 1900 . The event was infused with Catholic and patriotic symbols and imagery that " celebrated American Catholic heritage " . The two knights leading the ceremony , for example , were the Expositor of the Constitution and the Defender of the Faith . The ritual soon spread to other cities . The new Fourth Degree members returned to their councils , forming assemblies composed of members from several councils . Those assemblies chose the new members . In 1903 , the Board of Directors officially approved a new degree exemplifying patriotism Order @-@ wide , using the New York City model . There was from early on a " desire to receive within its ranks only the best " , and each candidate was required to produce a certificate from his parish priest attesting that he had received Holy Communion within the past two weeks . = = = Persecution by the Ku Klux Klan = = = Not long after the establishment of the Fourth Degree , during the nadir of American race relations , a bogus oath was circulated claiming that Fourth Degree Knights swore to exterminate Freemasons and Protestants , as well as flay , burn alive , boil , kill , and otherwise torture anyone , including women and children , when called upon to do so by church authorities . " It is a strange paradox " , according to some commentators , that the degree devoted to patriotism should be accused of anti @-@ Americanism . The " bogus oath " was based on a previous oath falsely attributed to the Jesuits more than three centuries earlier . The Ku Klux Klan , which was growing into a powerful force through the 1920s , spread the bogus oath far and wide as part of their campaign against Catholics . During the 1928 Presidential election , the Klan printed and distributed a million copies of the oath in an effort to defeat Catholic Democratic candidate Al Smith . Thomas S. Butler , US Representative from Pennsylvania , read it into the Congressional Record . The bogus oath was refuted by the Committee of Public Information , a war @-@ time propaganda agency of the US Government . Misunderstanding Catholicism , the Klan alleged that Knights were only loyal to the Pope and that they advocated the overthrow of the United States government . Across the country , local , state , and the Supreme Councils offered rewards to anyone who could prove that the widely circulated oath was authentic . No one could , but that did not stop the Klan from continuing to publish and distribute copies . Numerous state councils and the Supreme Council believed that this " violent wave of religious prejudice was actuated by mercenary motives " , and that publication would stop if fines were imposed and jail time assessed ; they began suing distributors for libel . This caused an end to such publication . As the Order did not wish to appear motivated by a " vengeful spirit " , it asked for leniency from judges when sentencing offenders . To help combat this misconception of what the Fourth Degree was about , the actual oath taken by Fourth Degree members was submitted to various groups of prominent non @-@ Catholic men around the country for them to examine . Many made public declarations attesting to the loyalty and patriotism of the Knights . After examining the true oath , a committee of high @-@ ranking California Freemasons , a group singled out for violence in the bogus oath , declared in 1914 : The ceremonial of the Order [ of the Knights of Columbus ] teaches a high and noble patriotism , instills a love of country , inculcates a reverence of civic duty and holds up the Constitution of our Country as the richest and most precious possession of a Knight of the Order . = = = Pierce v. Society of Sisters = = = After World War I , many Americans had a revival of concerns about assimilation of immigrants and worries about " foreign " values ; they expected public schools to teach children to be American . Numerous states drafted laws designed to use schools to promote a common American culture , and in 1922 , the voters of Oregon passed the Oregon Compulsory Education Act . The law was primarily aimed at eliminating parochial schools , including Catholic schools . It was promoted by groups such as the Knights of Pythias , the Federation of Patriotic Societies , the Oregon Good Government League , the Orange Order , and the Ku Klux Klan . The Compulsory Education Act required almost all children in Oregon between eight and sixteen years of age to attend public school by 1926 . Roger Nash Baldwin , an associate director of the ACLU and a personal friend of then @-@ Supreme Advocate and future Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart , offered to join forces with the Order to challenge the law . The Knights of Columbus pledged an immediate $ 10 @,@ 000 to fight the law and any additional funds necessary to defeat it . The case became known as Pierce v. Society of Sisters , a seminal United States Supreme Court decision that significantly expanded coverage of the Due Process Clause in the Fourteenth Amendment . In a unanimous decision , the Court held that the act was unconstitutional and that parents , not the state , had the authority to educate children as they thought best . = = = Racial integration in the U.S. = = = In the 1920s there was growing anti @-@ Semitism in the United States , a lingering anti @-@ German sentiment left over from World War I , and anti @-@ black violence was prevalent throughout the country . To combat the animus targeted at racial and religious minorities , including Catholics , the Order formed a historical commission which published a series of books , among other activities . The " Knights of Columbus Racial Contributions Series " of books included three titles : The Gift of Black Folk , by W. E. B. Du Bois , The Jews in the Making of America by George Cohen , and The Germans in the Making of America by Frederick Schrader . As the 20th century progressed , some councils in the United States became integrated , but many were not . Church officials and organizations encouraged integration . By the end of the 1950s , Supreme Knight Luke E. Hart was actively encouraging councils to accept black candidates . In 1963 , Hart attended a special meeting at the White House hosted by President John F. Kennedy to discuss civil rights with other religious leaders . A few months later , a Notre Dame alumnus ' application was rejected by a local council because he was black . Six council officers resigned in protest , and the incident made national news . Hart declared that the process for membership would be revised at the next Supreme Convention , but died before he could see it take place . The 1964 Supreme Convention was scheduled to be held at the Roosevelt Hotel in New Orleans . A few days before the Convention , new Supreme Knight John W. McDevitt learned the hotel only admitted white guests and immediately threatened to move to another venue . The hotel changed its policy and so did the Order . The Convention amended the admissions rule to require one @-@ third of those voting to reject a new member . In 1972 the Supreme Convention amended its rules again , requiring a majority of members voting to reject a candidate . = = = Recent history = = = In 1997 , the cause for McGivney 's canonization was opened in the Archdiocese of Hartford , and then was placed before the Congregation for the Causes of Saints in 2000 . The Father Michael J. McGivney Guild was formed in 1997 to promote his cause and currently has more than 140 @,@ 000 members . Membership in the Knights of Columbus does not automatically make one a member of the guild , nor is membership restricted to Knights ; members must elect to join . On March 15 , 2008 , Pope Benedict XVI approved a decree recognizing McGivney 's " heroic virtue " , significantly advancing the priest 's process toward sainthood . McGivney may now be referred to as the " Venerable Servant of God " . If the cause is successful , he would be the first priest born in the United States to be canonized as a saint . = = Degrees and principles = = The Order is dedicated to the principles of Charity , Unity , Fraternity , and Patriotism . A First Degree exemplification ceremony , by which a man joins the Order , explicates the virtue of charity . He is then said to be a First Degree Knight of Columbus ; after participating the subsequent degrees , each of which focuses on another virtue , he rises to that status . Upon reaching the Third Degree , a gentleman is a full member . Priests do not participate directly in Degree exemplifications as laymen do , but rather take the degree by observation . The first ritual handbook was printed in 1885 , but contained only sections teaching Unity and Charity . Supreme Knight Mullen , along with primary ritual author Daniel Colwell , believed that the initiation ceremony should be held in three sections " in accord with the ' Trinity of Virtues , Charity , Unity , and Brotherly love ' " . The third section , expounding Fraternity , was officially adopted in 1891 . = = = Fourth degree = = = After taking their third degree , knights are eligible to receive their fourth degree , the primary purpose of which is to foster the spirit of patriotism and to encourage active Catholic citizenship . Fourth degree members , in addition to being members of their individual councils , are also members of Fourth Degree assemblies which typically comprise members of several councils . As of 2013 , there were 3 @,@ 109 assembilies worldwide . Fewer than 18 % of Knights join the Fourth Degree , which is optional , and whose members are referred to as " Sir Knight " . Of a total 1 @,@ 703 @,@ 307 Knights in 2006 , there were 292 @,@ 289 Fourth Degree Knights . This number increased to 335 @,@ 132 in 2013 . A waiting period of one year from the time the third degree was taken was eliminated in 2013 , and now any Third Degree Knight is eligible to join the Fourth Degree . A new Military Overseas Europe Special District was established in 2013 to oversee assemblies of military personnel serving on that continent . Over 100 Department of Defense civilian employees and active @-@ duty personnel based in Germany , Italy , and Britain took part in a special Fourth Degree Exemplification Ceremony at Ramstein Air Force Base in Germany in 2013 , and in that year exemplifications were also held in Camp Zama , Japan , and Yongsan Garrison in Seoul , Korea , where there are existing assemblies . Knights volunteer at 136 of the 153 Veteran 's Affairs Medical Centers . = = = = Color corps = = = = Fourth Degree Knights may optionally purchase and wear the full regalia and join an assembly 's Color Corps . The Color Corps is the most visible arm of the Knights , as they are often seen in parades and other local events wearing their colorful regalia . Official dress for the Color Corps is a black tuxedo , baldric , white gloves , cape , and naval chapeau . In warm climates and during warm months , a white dinner jacket may be worn , if done as a unit . Baldrics are worn from the right shoulder to left hip and are color specific by nation . In the United States , Panama , and the Philippines , baldrics are red , white , and blue . Red and white baldrics are used in Canada and Poland ; red , white , and green in Mexico ; and blue and white in Guatemala . Service baldrics include a scabbard for a sword and are worn over the coat while social baldrics are worn under the coat . The colors on a Fourth Degree Knight 's cape and chapeau denote the office he holds within the Degree . Faithful Navigators and Past Faithful Navigators are permitted to carry a white handled silver sword . Masters and Vice Supreme Masters , as well as Former Masters and Former Vice Supreme Masters , are also denoted by their gold swords . = = Charitable giving = = Charity is the foremost principle of the Knights of Columbus . In 2013 , the Order gave more than $ 170 @.@ 1 million directly to charity and performed over 70 @.@ 5 million man hours in volunteer service . According to Independent Sector , this service has a value of more than $ 1 @.@ 6 billion . The total charitable contributions , from the past decade , ending December 31 , 2013 rose to $ 13 @.@ 8 Billion . Finally in 2013 , Knights of Columbus , on an average per member basis , donated $ 91 @.@ 80 and contributed 38 hours of community service . More than $ 1 @.@ 2 million were donated to Habitat for Humanity in 2012 , in addition to 1 @.@ 4 million volunteer hours . Over 42 @,@ 000 winter coats were distributed in 2012 to children in cold weather areas as well . The very first ever national blood drive was sponsored by the Order in 1938 . In 2012 , council blood drives attracted more than 423 @,@ 000 donors . United in Charity , a general , unrestricted endowment fund , was introduced at the 2004 Supreme Council meeting to support and ensure the overall long @-@ term charitable and philanthropic goals of the Order . The fund is wholly managed , maintained , and operated by Knights of Columbus Charities , Inc . , a 501 ( c ) ( 8 ) charitable organization . Before United in Charity was formed , all requests for funds were met with the general funds of the Order or in combination with specific appeals . = = = Global Catholic donations = = = The Vicarius Christi Fund has an endowment of $ 20 million and has earned more than $ 35 million since its establishment in 1981 for the Pope 's personal charities . The Knights ' Satellite Uplink Program has provided funding to broadcast a number of papal events , including the annual Easter and Christmas Masses , as well as the World Day of Peace in Assisi , World Youth Days , the opening of the Holy Door at St. Peter 's Basilica for the Millennial Jubilee , Pope John Paul II 's visit to Nazareth , and several other events . In missionary territories the Order also pays for the satellite downlink . The Order also has eleven separate funds totaling $ 18 million to assist men and women who are discerning religious vocations pay tuition and other expenses . The multimillion @-@ dollar Pacem in Terris Fund aids the Catholic Church 's efforts for peace in the Middle East . In 2012 , $ 1 @.@ 8 million was given by state and local councils to seminaries , with an additional $ 5 @.@ 9 million in direct assistance to seminarians . A further $ 20 million went to church facilities and $ 7 @.@ 4 million to Catholic schools from state and local councils . = = = The disabled = = = The Knights have a tradition of supporting those with physical and developmental disabilities . More than $ 382 million has been given over the past three decades to groups and programs that support the intellectually and physically disabled , with $ 4 @.@ 1 million donated in 2012 alone . One of the largest recipients of funds in this area is the Special Olympics . In 2012 , there were more than 107 @,@ 000 Knights who donated 315 @,@ 000 hours of service at nearly 20 @,@ 000 Special Olympics events . Individual councils donated $ 3 @.@ 7 million to the Special Olympics in 2013 . The Order 's support for the Special Olympics goes back to the very first games in 1968 . In 2012 , more than 5 @,@ 000 wheelchairs were distributed in 10 countries in a partnership with the Global Wheelchair Mission . = = = Disaster relief = = = Aside from their other charitable activities , The Knights of Columbus gave significant charitable contributions to the people of Haiti in the aftermath of the devastating earthquake in January 2010 . The Order also donated 1 @,@ 000 wheelchairs to the people of Haiti in partnership with the Global Wheelchair Mission . Recognizing that the need was still great in Haiti some seven months after the disaster , the Knights of Columbus partnered with Project Medishare in August 2010 for an initiative entitled , " Healing Haiti 's Children " . The initiative , backed by a more than $ 2 @.@ 5 million commitment from the Knights of Columbus provides free prosthetic limbs and a minimum of two years of rehab to every child who suffered an amputation from injuries sustained during the earthquake . As of 2013 , more than 800 children had already been aided by the program . After the Sandy Hook Elementary School shooting , a local council in Newtown , Connecticut , established a program asking people to pray a minimum of three Hail Marys for the victims and their families . Over 100 @,@ 000 people pledged to say 3 @.@ 25 million prayers . More than $ 500 @,@ 000 was donated to Hurricane Sandy relief efforts , and $ 202 @,@ 000 to victims of the April 2012 tornadoes in Oklahoma . After West Fertilizer Company explosion in Texas , nearly a quarter of a million dollars were raised . In total , more than $ 3 @.@ 3 million were donated by individual councils for disaster relief in 2012 . = = Insurance program = = The Order offers a modern , professional insurance operation with more than $ 100 billion of life insurance policies in force and $ 19 @.@ 8 billion in assets as of June 2013 , a figure more than double the 2000 levels . Nearly 80 @,@ 000 life certificates were issued in 2013 , almost 30 @,@ 000 more than the Order 's closest competitor , to bring the total to 1 @.@ 73 million . The program has a $ 1 @.@ 8 billion surplus . Over $ 286 million in death benefits were paid in 2012 and $ 1 @.@ 7 billion were paid between 2000 and 2010 . This is large enough to rank 49th on the A. M. Best list of all life insurance companies in North America . Since the founding of the Order , $ 3 @.@ 5 billion in death benefits have been paid . Premiums in 2012 were nearly $ 1 @.@ 2 billion , and dividends paid out totaled more than $ 274 million . Over the same time period , annuity deposits rose 4 @.@ 2 % , compared to an 8 % loss for the industry as a whole . Every day in 2012 more than $ 10 million was invested , for a total of $ 2 @.@ 7 billion on the year , and an annual income of $ 905 million . The Order maintains a two prong investment strategy . A company must first be a sound investment before stock in it is purchased , and secondly the company 's activities must not conflict with Catholic social teaching . The Order also provides mortgages to churches and Catholic schools at " very competitive rates " through its ChurchLoan program . Products include permanent and term life insurance , as well as annuities , long term care insurance , and disability insurance . The insurance program is not a separate business offered by the Order to others but is exclusively for the benefit of members and their families . According to the Fortune 1000 list , the Knights of Columbus ranked 900 in total revenue in 2011 and , with 1 @,@ 504 agents , was 909th in size in 2013 . All agents are members of the Order . The Order 's insurance program is the most highly rated program in North America . For 38 consecutive years , the Order has received A. M. Best 's highest rating , A + + . Only two other insurers in North America have received the highest ratings from both A. M. Best and Standard & Poor 's . Additionally , the Order is certified by the Insurance Marketplace Standards Association for ethical sales practices . Standard & Poor 's downgraded the insurance program 's financial strength / credit rating from AAA to AA + in August 2011 not due to the Order 's financial strength , but due to its lowering of the long @-@ term sovereign credit rating of the United States to AA + . Additionally , the insurance program has a low 3 @.@ 5 % lapse rate of the 1 @.@ 7 million members and their families who are insured . = = Organization = = As of 2013 there were 1 @,@ 843 @,@ 587 knights , and membership has grown each year for 41 consecutive years . Each member belongs to one of 14 @,@ 606 councils around the world . In the 2012 fraternal year , 229 new councils were established , including two in the Ukraine , eight in Mexico , 10 in Poland , 13 in Canada , 80 in the Philippines , and 117 in the United States . In addition , there is a " round table " presence in Lithuania . Knights of Columbus councils , Fourth Degree assemblies , and Columbian Squire circles have similar officers . In the councils , officer titles are prefixed with " Worthy " , while in assemblies officer titles are prefixed with " Faithful " . In addition to the Columbian Squires ' officers listed below , there is an adult position of " Chief Counselor " that helps oversee the circle . ( * Appointed annually by each council 's Grand Knight or assembly 's Navigator ) ( * * Appointed for a 3 @-@ year term by the Supreme Knight ) = = = Supreme Council = = = The Supreme Council is the governing body of the Order and is composed of elected representatives from each jurisdiction . In a manner similar to shareholders at an annual meeting , the Supreme Council elects seven members each year to the Supreme Board of Directors for three @-@ year terms . The twenty @-@ one member board then chooses from its own membership the senior operating officials of the Order , including the Supreme Knight . = = = Assemblies = = = Fourth degree members belong to one of 3 @,@ 109 assemblies , including 75 created in 2012 . The first assembly in Europe was established in 2012 , and in 2013 a new assembly for Boston @-@ area college councils was created at Harvard University . As of 2013 there were 335 @,@ 132 Fourth Degree members , including 15 @,@ 709 who joined the ranks of the Patriotic Degree the year before . = = = College councils = = = In 1898 , Keane Council 353 was established at The Catholic University of America , though in later years it moved off campus . The University of Notre Dame Council 1477 was founded in 1910 , and was followed by the councils at Saint Louis University and Benedictine College . In 1919 , Mount St. Mary 's College and Seminary Council 1965 became the first council attached to a college and seminary , at what is now Mount St. Mary 's University . In each autumn since 1966 , the Supreme Council has hosted a College Council Conference at their headquarters in New Haven , Connecticut . Awards are given for the greatest increases in membership , the best Youth , Community , Council , Family , and Church activities , and the overall Outstanding College Council of the year . The most recent winner of	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Draconians and Aghar ( Gully Dwarves ) in the game , and new locations such as Xak Tsaroth , Solace and Haven . It is the first appearance of the pre @-@ generated player characters ( PCs ) that form the Heroes of the Lance group of characters – Tanis Half @-@ Elven , Sturm Brightblade , Caramon Majere , Raistlin Majere , Flint Fireforge , Tasslehoff Burrfoot and Goldmoon . Riverwind is played as a non @-@ player character ( NPC ) by the Dungeon Master . Tika Waylan makes her first appearance as an NPC ; she is available for use as a PC and joins up with the Heroes of the Lance in Chapter 7 of Dragons of Flame . The villainous hobgoblin lord Fewmaster Toede also makes his first appearance . The original concept of the module was done by Tracy Hickman , who " designed a world and an heroic adventure to go with it " . The module was edited by Michael Williams . The module 's design staff included Tracy Hickman , Harold Johnson , Douglas Niles , Carl Smith , and Michael Williams . The module features cover art by Clyde Caldwell and interior artwork by Jeff Easley . = = = Reprints and revisions = = = The original series was updated to Advanced Dungeons & Dragons second edition and repackaged as the three Dragonlance Classics modules , using module code DLC . DLC1 Dragonlance Classics Volume 1 reprinted Dragons of Despair , along with Dragons of Flame , Dragons of Hope , and Dragons of Desolation , in 1990 . In 1999 Wizards of the Coast published a new revision of the original Dragonlance story , including Dragons of Despair , in Dragonlance Classics : 15th Anniversary Edition as part of their TSR 's Silver Anniversary line . In 2000 the entire DL module series was reprinted exactly as the originals but in a smaller size . This printing was available as two slip case sets , with Dragons of Despair included in Dragonlance Volume 1 : DL1 – DL8 . The four chapters of Dragons of Autumn , an updated version of some Dragonlance modules converting them to Dungeons & Dragons version 3 @.@ 5 , corresponds to the material in Dragons of Despair . Advanced Dungeons & Dragons : Heroes of the Lance is a video game based on Dragons of Despair released in 1988 . It is a horizontally scrolling fighting game that represents the events of the module . Dragons of Despair has also been converted into the Neverwinter Nights computer game format . The adaptation requires both the Shadows of Undrentide and Hordes of the Underdark expansion packs as well as the original game . = = Reception = = The game module was positively received . It placed 25th on a 2004 list of the " The 30 Greatest D & D adventures of All Time " , the only Dragonlance module to make the list . Steve Hampshire reviewed the scenario for Imagine magazine . He " enjoyed this module a lot " and felt it was " well @-@ detailed and original , and plays well " . Hampshire found it " good value " , his only problem having been reading " the rather flowery prose without being laughed down by the players " . A review by Graham Staplehurst in White Dwarf magazine , issue # 60 , gave the module an 8 out of 10 overall , and noted that the lack of things such as gold and clerics in the adventure world " don 't destroy the feel of the scenario , whilst creating a very novel atmosphere " . Staplehurst felt that the adventure was " ... very much taken off from Lord of the Rings with a powerful magic item to be taken at all costs to the aggressor 's innermost defences and through them . The characters will have to get past a nice new race of humanoids as well as a couple of other monster @-@ concepts . The artwork ( aside from the cover ) is good and usable in the adventure . Another good product . " In his 1991 book Heroic Worlds , Lawrence Schick described the scenarios as " heavy @-@ handed in channelling the players to follow the plot " . = Diabetic ketoacidosis = Diabetic ketoacidosis ( DKA ) is a potentially life @-@ threatening complication in people with diabetes mellitus . It happens predominantly in those with type 1 diabetes , but it can occur in those with type 2 diabetes under certain circumstances . DKA results from a shortage of insulin ; in response the body switches to burning fatty acids and producing acidic ketone bodies that cause most of the symptoms and complications . DKA may be the first symptom of previously undiagnosed diabetes , but it may also occur in people known to have diabetes as a result of a variety of causes , such as intercurrent illness or poor compliance with insulin therapy . Vomiting , dehydration , deep gasping breathing , confusion and occasionally coma are typical symptoms . DKA is diagnosed with blood and urine tests ; it is distinguished from other , rarer forms of ketoacidosis by the presence of high blood sugar levels . Treatment involves intravenous fluids to correct dehydration , insulin to suppress the production of ketone bodies , treatment for any underlying causes such as infections , and close observation to prevent and identify complications . DKA is a medical emergency , and without treatment it can lead to death . DKA was first described in 1886 ; until the introduction of insulin therapy in the 1920s , it was almost universally fatal . It now carries a mortality of less than 1 % with adequate and timely treatment . = = Signs and symptoms = = The symptoms of an episode of diabetic ketoacidosis usually evolve over the period of about 24 hours . Predominant symptoms are nausea and vomiting , pronounced thirst , excessive urine production and abdominal pain that may be severe . Those who measure their glucose levels themselves may notice hyperglycemia ( high blood sugar levels ) . In severe DKA , breathing becomes labored and of a deep , gasping character ( a state referred to as " Kussmaul respiration " ) . The abdomen may be tender to the point that an acute abdomen may be suspected , such as acute pancreatitis , appendicitis or gastrointestinal perforation . Coffee ground vomiting ( vomiting of altered blood ) occurs in a minority of people ; this tends to originate from erosion of the esophagus . In severe DKA , there may be confusion , lethargy , stupor or even coma ( a marked decrease in the level of consciousness ) . On physical examination there is usually clinical evidence of dehydration , such as a dry mouth and decreased skin turgor . If the dehydration is profound enough to cause a decrease in the circulating blood volume , tachycardia ( a fast heart rate ) and low blood pressure may be observed . Often , a " ketotic " odor is present , which is often described as " fruity " , often compared to the smell of pear drops whose scent is a ketone . If Kussmaul respiration is present , this is reflected in an increased respiratory rate . Small children with DKA are relatively prone to cerebral edema ( swelling of the brain tissue ) , which may cause headache , coma , loss of the pupillary light reflex , and progress to death . It occurs in 0 @.@ 3 – 1 @.@ 0 % of children with DKA , and has been described in young adults , but is overall very rare in adults . It carries a 20 – 50 % mortality . = = Cause = = DKA most frequently occurs in those who already have diabetes , but it may also be the first presentation in someone who had not previously been known to be diabetic . There is often a particular underlying problem that has led to the DKA episode ; this may be intercurrent illness ( pneumonia , influenza , gastroenteritis , a urinary tract infection ) , pregnancy , inadequate insulin administration ( e.g. defective insulin pen device ) , myocardial infarction ( heart attack ) , stroke or the use of cocaine . Young people with recurrent episodes of DKA may have an underlying eating disorder , or may be using insufficient insulin for fear that it will cause weight gain . Diabetic ketoacidosis may occur in those previously known to have diabetes mellitus type 2 or in those who on further investigations turn out to have features of type 2 diabetes ( e.g. obesity , strong family history ) ; this is more common in African , African @-@ American and Hispanic people . Their condition is then labeled " ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes " . Drugs in the gliflozin class ( SGLT2 inhibitors ) , which are generally used for type 2 diabetes , have been associated with diabetic ketoacidosis with remarkably low blood sugars ( " euglycemic DKA " ) . This may be because they were being used in people with type 1 diabetes , but in those with type 2 diabetes it may be as a result of an increase in glucagon levels . = = Mechanism = = Diabetic ketoacidosis arises because of a lack of insulin in the body . The lack of insulin and corresponding elevation of glucagon leads to increased release of glucose by the liver ( a process that is normally suppressed by insulin ) from glycogen via glycogenolysis and also through gluconeogenesis . High glucose levels spill over into the urine , taking water and solutes ( such as sodium and potassium ) along with it in a process known as osmotic diuresis . This leads to polyuria , dehydration , and compensatory thirst and polydipsia . The absence of insulin also leads to the release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue ( lipolysis ) , which are converted through a process called beta oxidation , again in the liver , into ketone bodies ( acetoacetate and β @-@ hydroxybutyrate ) . β @-@ Hydroxybutyrate can serve as an energy source in the absence of insulin @-@ mediated glucose delivery , and is a protective mechanism in case of starvation . The ketone bodies , however , have a low pKa and therefore turn the blood acidic ( metabolic acidosis ) . The body initially buffers the change with the bicarbonate buffering system , but this system is quickly overwhelmed and other mechanisms must work to compensate for the acidosis . One such mechanism is hyperventilation to lower the blood carbon dioxide levels ( a form of compensatory respiratory alkalosis ) . This hyperventilation , in its extreme form , may be observed as Kussmaul respiration . In various situations such as infection , insulin demands rise but are not matched by the failing pancreas . Blood sugars rise , dehydration ensues , and resistance to the normal effects of insulin increases further by way of a vicious circle . As a result of the above mechanisms , the average adult with DKA has a total body water shortage of about 6 liters ( or 100 mL / kg ) , in addition to substantial shortages in sodium , potassium , chloride , phosphate , magnesium and calcium . Glucose levels usually exceed 13 @.@ 8 mmol / L or 250 mg / dL . DKA is common in type 1 diabetes as this form of diabetes is associated with an absolute lack of insulin production by the islets of Langerhans . In type 2 diabetes , insulin production is present but is insufficient to meet the body 's requirements as a result of end @-@ organ insulin resistance . Usually , these amounts of insulin are sufficient to suppress ketogenesis . If DKA occurs in someone with type 2 diabetes , their condition is called " ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes " . The exact mechanism for this phenomenon is unclear , but there is evidence both of impaired insulin secretion and insulin action . Once the condition has been treated , insulin production resumes and often the person may be able to resume diet or tablet treatment as normally recommended in type 2 diabetes . The clinical state of DKA is associated , in addition to the above , with the release of various counterregulatory hormones such as glucagon and adrenaline as well as cytokines , the latter of which leads to increased markers of inflammation , even in the absence of infection . Cerebral edema , which is the most dangerous DKA complication , is probably the result of a number of factors . Some authorities suggest that it is the result from overvigorous fluid replacement , but the complication may develop before treatment has been commenced . It is more likely in those with more severe DKA , and in the first episode of DKA . Likely factors in the development of cerebral edema are dehydration , acidosis and low carbon dioxide levels ; in addition , the increased level of inflammation and coagulation may , together with these factors , lead to decreased blood flow to parts of the brain , which then swells up once fluid replacement has been commenced . The swelling of brain tissue leads to raised intracranial pressure ultimately leading to death . = = Diagnosis = = = = = Investigations = = = Diabetic ketoacidosis may be diagnosed when the combination of hyperglycemia ( high blood sugars ) , ketones in the blood or on urinalysis and acidosis are demonstrated . In about 10 % of cases the blood sugar is not significantly elevated ( " euglycemic diabetic ketoacidosis " ) . Arterial blood gas measurement is usually performed to demonstrate the acidosis ; this requires taking a blood sample from an artery . Subsequent measurements ( to ensure treatment is effective ) , may be taken from a normal blood test taken from a vein , as there is little difference between the arterial and the venous pH . Ketones can be measured in the urine ( acetoacetate ) and blood ( β @-@ hydroxybutyrate ) . When compared with urine acetoacetate testing , capillary blood β @-@ hydroxybutyrate determination can reduce the need of admission , shorten the duration of hospital admission and potentially reduce the costs of hospital care . At very high levels , capillary blood ketone measurement becomes imprecise . In addition to the above , blood samples are usually taken to measure urea and creatinine ( measures of kidney function , which may be impaired in DKA as a result of dehydration ) and electrolytes . Furthermore , markers of infection ( complete blood count , C @-@ reactive protein ) and acute pancreatitis ( amylase and lipase ) may be measured . Given the need to exclude infection , chest radiography and urinalysis are usually performed . If cerebral edema is suspected because of confusion , recurrent vomiting or other symptoms , computed tomography may be performed to assess its severity and to exclude other causes such as stroke . = = = Criteria = = = Diabetic ketoacidosis is distinguished from other diabetic emergencies by the presence of large amounts of ketones in blood and urine , and marked metabolic acidosis . Hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state ( HHS , sometimes labeled " hyperosmolar non @-@ ketotic state " or HONK ) is much more common in type 2 diabetes and features increased plasma osmolarity ( above 320 mosm / kg ) due to profound dehydration and concentration of the blood ; mild acidosis and ketonemia may occur in this state , but not to the extent observed in DKA . There is a degree of overlap between DKA and HHS , as in DKA the osmolarity may also be increased . Ketoacidosis is not always the result of diabetes . It may also result from alcohol excess and from starvation ; in both states the glucose level is normal or low . Metabolic acidosis may occur in people with diabetes for other reasons , such as poisoning with ethylene glycol or paraldehyde . The American Diabetes Association categorizes DKA in adults into one of three stages of severity : Mild : blood pH mildly decreased to between 7 @.@ 25 and 7 @.@ 30 ( normal 7 @.@ 35 – 7 @.@ 45 ) ; serum bicarbonate decreased to 15 – 18 mmol / l ( normal above 20 ) ; the person is alert Moderate : pH 7 @.@ 00 – 7 @.@ 25 , bicarbonate 10 – 15 , mild drowsiness may be present Severe : pH below 7 @.@ 00 , bicarbonate below 10 , stupor or coma may occur A 2004 statement by the European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society ( for children ) uses slightly different cutoffs , where mild DKA is defined by pH 7 @.@ 20 – 7 @.@ 30 ( bicarbonate 10 – 15 mmol / l ) , moderate DKA by pH 7 @.@ 1 – 7 @.@ 2 ( bicarbonate 5 – 10 ) and severe DKA by pH < 7 @.@ 1 ( bicarbonate below 5 ) . = = Prevention = = Attacks of DKA can be prevented in those known to have diabetes to an extent by adherence to " sick day rules " ; these are clear @-@ cut instructions to person on how to treat themselves when unwell . Instructions include advice on how much extra insulin to take when sugar levels appear uncontrolled , an easily digestible diet rich in salt and carbohydrates , means to suppress fever and treat infection , and recommendations when to call for medical help . People with diabetes can monitor their own ketone levels when unwell and seek help if they are elevated . = = Management = = The main aims in the treatment of diabetic ketoacidosis are replacing the lost fluids and electrolytes while suppressing the high blood sugars and ketone production with insulin . Admission to an intensive care unit or similar high @-@ dependency area or ward for close observation may be necessary . = = = Fluid replacement = = = The amount of fluid replaced depends on the estimated degree of dehydration . If dehydration is so severe as to cause shock ( severely decreased blood pressure with insufficient blood supply to the body 's organs ) , or a depressed level of consciousness , rapid infusion of saline ( 1 liter for adults , 10 ml / kg in repeated doses for children ) is recommended to restore circulating volume . Slower rehydration based on calculated water and sodium shortage may be possible if the dehydration is moderate , and again saline is the recommended fluid . Very mild ketoacidosis with no associated vomiting and mild dehydration may be treated with oral rehydration and subcutaneous rather than intravenous insulin under observation for signs of deterioration . A special but unusual consideration is cardiogenic shock , where the blood pressure is decreased not due to dehydration but due to inability of the heart to pump blood through the blood vessels . This situation requires ICU admission , monitoring of the central venous pressure ( which requires the insertion of a central venous catheter in a large upper body vein ) , and the administration of medication that increases the heart pumping action and blood pressure . = = = Insulin = = = Some guidelines recommend a bolus ( initial large dose ) of insulin of 0 @.@ 1 unit of insulin per kilogram of body weight . This can be administered immediately after the potassium level is known to be higher than 3 @.@ 3 mmol / l ; if the level is any lower , administering insulin could lead to a dangerously low potassium level ( see below ) . Other guidelines recommend delaying the initiation of insulin until fluids have been administered . It is possible to use rapid acting insulin analogs injections under the skin for mild or moderate cases . In general , insulin is given at 0 @.@ 1 unit / kg per hour to reduce the blood sugars and suppress ketone production . Guidelines differ as to which dose to use when blood sugar levels start falling ; some recommend reducing the dose of insulin once glucose falls below 16 @.@ 6 mmol / l ( 300 mg / dl ) but other recommend infusing glucose in addition to saline to allow for ongoing infusion of higher doses of insulin . = = = Potassium = = = Potassium levels can fluctuate severely during the treatment of DKA , because insulin decreases potassium levels in the blood by redistributing it into cells via increased sodium @-@ potassium pump activity . A large part of the shifted extracellular potassium would have been lost in urine because of osmotic diuresis . Hypokalemia ( low blood potassium concentration ) often follows treatment . This increases the risk of dangerous irregularities in the heart rate . Therefore , continuous observation of the heart rate is recommended , as well as repeated measurement of the potassium levels and addition of potassium to the intravenous fluids once levels fall below 5 @.@ 3 mmol / l . If potassium levels fall below 3 @.@ 3 mmol / l , insulin administration may need to be interrupted to allow correction of the hypokalemia . = = = Bicarbonate = = = The administration of sodium bicarbonate solution to rapidly improve the acid levels in the blood is controversial . There is little evidence that it improves outcomes beyond standard therapy , and indeed some evidence that while it may improve the acidity of the blood , it may actually worsen acidity inside the body 's cells and increase the risk of certain complications . Its use is therefore discouraged , although some guidelines recommend it for extreme acidosis ( pH < 6 @.@ 9 ) , and smaller amounts for severe acidosis ( pH 6 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 0 ) . = = = Cerebral edema = = = Cerebral edema , if associated with coma , often necessitates admission to intensive care , artificial ventilation , and close observation . The administration of fluids is slowed . The ideal treatment of cerebral edema in DKA is not established , but intravenous mannitol and hypertonic saline ( 3 % ) are used — as in some other forms of cerebral edema — in an attempt to reduce the swelling . = = = Resolution = = = Resolution of DKA is defined as general improvement in the symptoms , such as the ability to tolerate oral nutrition and fluids , normalization of blood acidity ( pH > 7 @.@ 3 ) , and absence of ketones in blood ( < 1 mmol / l ) or urine . Once this has been achieved , insulin may be switched to the usual subcutaneously administrered regimen , one hour after which the intravenous administration can be discontinued . In people with suspected ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes , determination of antibodies against glutamic acid decarboxylase and islet cells may aid in the decision whether to continue insulin administration long @-@ term ( if antibodies are detected ) , or whether to withdraw insulin and attempt treatment with oral medication as in type 2 diabetes . Generally speaking , routine measurement of C @-@ peptide as a measure of insulin production is not recommended unless there is genuine doubt as to whether someone has type 1 or type 2 diabetes . = = Epidemiology = = Diabetic ketoacidosis occurs in 4 @.@ 6 – 8 @.@ 0 per 1000 people with type 1 diabetes annually . In the United States , 135 @,@ 000 hospital admissions occur annually as a result of DKA , at an estimated cost of $ 2 @.@ 4 billion or a quarter to a half the total cost of caring for people with type 1 diabetes . There has been a documented increasing trend to hospital admissions . The risk is increased in those with an ongoing risk factor , such as an eating disorder , and those who cannot afford insulin . About 30 % of children with type 1 diabetes receive their diagnosis after an episode of DKA . = = History = = The first full description of diabetic ketoacidosis is attributed to Julius Dreschfeld , a German pathologist working in Manchester , United Kingdom . In his description , which he gave in an 1886 lecture at the Royal College of Physicians in London , he drew on reports by Adolph Kussmaul as well as describing the main ketones , acetoacetate and β @-@ hydroxybutyrate , and their chemical determination . The condition remained almost universally fatal until the discovery of insulin in the 1920s ; by the 1930s , mortality had fallen to 29 % , and by the 1950s it had become less than 10 % . The entity of cerebral edema due to DKA was described in 1936 by a team of doctors from Philadelphia . Numerous research studies since the 1950s have focused on the ideal treatment for diabetic ketoacidosis . A significant proportion of these studies have been conducted at the University of Tennessee Health Science Center and Emory University School of Medicine . Treatment options studied have included high- or low @-@ dose intravenous , subcutaneous or intramuscular ( e.g. the " Alberti regime " ) insulin , phosphate supplementation , need for a loading dose of insulin , and appropriateness of using bicarbonate therapy in moderate DKA . Various questions remain unanswered , such as whether bicarbonate administration in severe DKA makes any real difference to the clinical course , and whether an insulin loading dose is needed in adults . The entity of ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes was first fully described in 1987 after several preceding case reports . It was initially thought to be a form of maturity onset diabetes of the young , and went through several other descriptive names ( such as " idiopathic type 1 diabetes " , " Flatbush diabetes " , " atypical diabetes " and " type 1 @.@ 5 diabetes " ) before the current terminology of " ketosis @-@ prone type 2 diabetes " was adopted . = Mind 's Eye ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Mind 's Eye " is the sixteenth episode of the fifth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on April 19 , 1998 on the Fox network . It was written by Tim Minear and directed by Kim Manners . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . " Mind 's Eye " received a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 and was watched by 16 @.@ 53 million viewers . The episode received moderately positive reviews , with many critics praising Taylor 's performance as Glenn . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder and Scully investigate a murder that seems to have been committed by a blind woman , Marty Glenn ( Lili Taylor ) , but Mulder suspects that she is capable of seeing images in some other way . Eventually , it is revealed that Glenn , while blind , can see the actions of her murderous father via her mind 's eye . " Mind 's Eye " was inspired by the concept of " remote viewing " , or being able to see events beyond the range of normal vision . Minear sought to make Glenn the opposite of Audrey Hepburn 's character in the 1967 film Wait Until Dark , in which Hepburn played the part of an innocent but terrorized blind woman . " Mind 's Eye " marked the rare television appearance of Taylor , who primarily worked on well @-@ regarded independent films . In fact , Taylor herself requested to appear in the series . = = Plot = = In Wilmington , Delaware , while Marty Glenn ( Lili Taylor ) is walking around her apartment , she experiences a vision : someone brandishing a knife approaches a man standing in front of a bathroom sink . Later , local police are called to a motel , where they find a murdered man on the bathroom floor . Marty is discovered hiding in the shower holding a bloody sponge . The police arrest her , only to realize that she is blind . Detective Lloyd Pennock ( Blu Mankuma ) calls in Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) because he believes Marty ( who has been blind since birth ) possesses a " sixth sense " that makes her capable of committing this crime . During an interrogation , it becomes obvious that Marty , who is being uncooperative , possesses knowledge of the crimes that only the guilty party should know . Mulder decides to administer a polygraph while Scully looks over the crime scene . In the bathroom , Scully discovers a leather glove hidden behind an old razor disposal bin . Mulder , meanwhile , becomes convinced that Marty somehow did observe the murder . Suddenly , Marty experiences another vision : the murderer approaches a woman , Susan Forester , at a bar . In the vision , Marty is able to see the name of the bar . When her premonition ends , she requests to make a phone call ; she calls the bar and warns a man named Gotts ( Richard Fitzpatrick ) to leave Forester alone . Later , Scully shows the glove to Marty , who informs her that her fingerprints were found on it and that it fits her . Pennock concludes that the evidence is enough to charge Marty , but Mulder still does not think she did it . Scully proposes that Marty may not be blind , and an eye examination is undertaken . During the test , Marty experiences another vision and Mulder points out that the measurement mode screen used to gauge whether Marty can see has a reaction . Despite this , the examiner concludes Marty is truly blind . Mulder , however , believes Marty 's ocular reaction is a physical response to an image in her mind 's eye . After the district attorney concludes that charging a blind woman solely based on fingerprints would not be enough to convict her , Marty is released . While walking home , Marty experiences a vision of Gotts attacking Forester . Marty eventually makes her way to the crime scene where she finds the victim 's body . She returns to the police station and confesses to the murders . To convince the police that she is the murderer , Marty tells Pennock where Gotts hid the heroin he stole from the first victim , but none of the prints on the heroin belong to Marty , furthering Mulder 's argument that she is , in fact , innocent . Mulder approaches Marty and tells her that he researched her mother 's murder — she died from a stab wound to the kidney , the same way Gotts kills his victims . Mulder concludes that Marty was given her ability when her then @-@ pregnant mother was killed by Gotts ; it is revealed that Gotts is actually Marty 's father and that he had spent thirty years ( her whole life ) in prison until being paroled . Marty sends Mulder and Scully to the bar that Gotts was last seen at , while Pennock takes her back to her apartment to pick up some things before entering protective custody . While packing , Marty has a vision of Gotts in the apartment lobby ; she knocks Pennock out , takes his gun and waits . Mulder figures out that Marty had been experiencing Gotts ' sight for the thirty years he was in prison ; in effect spending her whole life in prison . Mulder and Scully arrive at Marty 's apartment to find Gotts dead by his daughter 's hands . Marty is convicted of his murder and is sentenced to prison , but she is finally free of her father 's vision . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = " Mind 's Eye " was written by Tim Minear — his second credit for the series — and directed by Kim Manners . He was inspired to write the episode after hearing about the concept of " remote viewing " . Purportedly , the process allows one to view events — either through one 's eyes , or through the eyes of others — beyond the range of normal vision . Reportedly , the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency spent $ 20 million on a research project to determine if the ability exists . Minear initially had trouble conceptualizing his idea , noting that " it might be a good idea for a short story , but how do you make the whole thing work visually ? " To combat this issue , Minear decided to make the remote viewer blind . He sought to make the blind woman " not Audrey Hepburn " , a reference to the 1967 film Wait Until Dark , in which Hepburn played the part of an innocent but terrorized blind woman . He later said , " I wanted to make [ Glenn ] a bitch , because the fact is that disability doesn 't necessarily ennoble a person . " After several meetings with fellow writers John Shiban , Vince Gilligan , and Frank Spotnitz — who provided storyboard support — Minear was allowed to begin work on the episode . = = = Casting and filming = = = " Mind 's Eye " marked the rare television appearance of Lili Taylor , who primarily worked on well @-@ regarded independent films . Taylor was cast as Glenn ; initially , the producers for the show felt that Taylor would not be interested , but she actually was a fan of the show and series co @-@ star Anderson . Taylor , in fact , had contacted the series ' casting director , Rick Milikan , and requested a role . Blu Mankuma , who played the part of Detective Pennock , had previously appeared in the first season episode " Ghost in the Machine " . Mulder 's line " even if the gloves do fit – you can still acquit " , a reference to the leather gloves of the O. J. Simpson murder case , was improvised by Duchovny during filming . During the filming of the episode , art director Greg Loewen pointed out that , in her apartment , Glenn would not need lamps and ceiling lights . The lighting department for the show , however , countered that " although The X @-@ Files was a dark show , it wasn 't that dark . " The " staccato " and " nightmarish " remote visions that Glenn experiences were created in post @-@ production by visual effects supervisor Laurie Kallsen @-@ George . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Mind 's Eye " premiered on the Fox network in the United States on April 19 , 1998 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on February 10 , 1999 . It earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 4 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 4 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 16 @.@ 53 million viewers . " Mind 's Eye " also was nominated for several Emmy Awards . Taylor was nominated for an award in the category of Outstanding Guest Actress in a Drama Series — a nomination shared by fellow X @-@ Files guest star Veronica Cartwright — although Cloris Leachman won . Editor Casey O Rohrs was nominated for Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing . The episode received moderately positive reviews from television critics , with many praising Taylor 's performance as Glenn . Zack Handlen from The A.V. Club gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it a B + . He was slightly critical that Glenn 's ability to see visions was not sufficiently expanded upon ; he ultimately called Mulder 's explanation " crap " . However , Handlen praised guest star Taylor and Duchovny , noting that " Taylor is convincing in the role , and Duchovny does a good job making his lines sound more logical than they actually are . " He ultimately concluded that the entry is " not a bad episode , exactly " but that " it 's far from a great one . " John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a positive review and awarded it an 8 out of 10 . He labeled the episode " a strong stand @-@ alone installment " helped by the " powerful " chemistry between Duchovny and Taylor . He noted that " there are some interesting philosophical themes at work " . Keegan concluded that " [ t ] he lack of context within the season arc itself could have worked against it , but the episode manages to stand on its own . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a moderately positive review and awarded it two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . Vitaris drew comparisons between the installment and the third season episode " Oubliette " . However , she noted that because " the new episodes doesn 't have the specific connection ' Oubliette ' drew between Lucy and Mulder 's sister Samantha , it doesn 't touch the heart as deeply . " She did , however , praise Taylor 's performance , writing " it is [ Taylor ] who makes ' Mind 's Eye ' truly memorable . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three stars out of five . The two called the entry " solid , if unspectacular " , noting that , once the premise is developed , " there 's really not much depth to be mined from it . " Shearman and Pearson , however , concluded that " the episode works nonetheless , thanks to a superb central performance from Lili Taylor [ who ] gives the best guest star turn of the year , lending a strength , an anger , and a redeeming humour to a blind woman who has adapted the world to her disability . " = Hiram Wesley Evans = Hiram Wesley Evans ( September 26 , 1881 – September 14 , 1966 ) was Imperial Wizard of the Ku Klux Klan , an American white supremacist group , from 1922 to 1939 . A native of Alabama , Evans attended Vanderbilt University and became a dentist . He operated a small , moderately successful practice in Texas until 1920 , when he joined the Klan 's Dallas chapter . He quickly rose through the ranks and was part of a group that ousted William Joseph Simmons from the position of Imperial Wizard , the national leader , in November 1922 . Evans succeeded him and sought to transform the group into a political power . Although Evans had led the kidnapping and torture of a black man while leader of the Dallas Klan , as Imperial Wizard he publicly discouraged vigilante actions , fearing that they would hinder his attempts to gain political influence . In 1923 , Evans presided over the largest Klan gathering in history , attended by over 200 @,@ 000 , and endorsed several successful candidates in 1924 elections . He moved the Klan 's headquarters from Atlanta to Washington , D.C. , and organized a march of 30 @,@ 000 members — the largest march in the organization 's history — on Pennsylvania Avenue . Evans ' efforts notwithstanding , the Klan was buffeted by damaging publicity in the early 1920s , partially because of leadership struggles between Evans and his rivals , which hindered his political efforts . In the 1930s , the Great Depression significantly decreased the Klan 's income , prompting Evans to work for a construction company to supplement his pay . He resigned his position with the Klan in 1939 , after disavowing anti @-@ Catholicism . He was succeeded by his chief of staff , James A. Colescott . The next year , Evans faced accusations of involvement in a government corruption scandal in Georgia ; he was fined $ 15 @,@ 000 after legal proceedings . Evans sought to promote a form of nativist , Protestant nationalism . In addition to his white supremacist ideology , he fiercely condemned Catholicism , unionism , and communism , which were associated with recent immigrants from eastern and southern Europe . He argued that Jews formed a non @-@ American culture and resisted assimilation , although he denied being an anti @-@ Semite . Historians credit Evans with refocusing the Klan on political activities and recruiting outside the Southern United States ; the Klan grew most in the Midwest and industrial cities . However , they note that the political influence and membership gains he sought were transitory . Some commentators argue that Evans was more focused on money and power than any particular ideology . = = Early life and education = = Hiram Wesley Evans was born in Ashland , Alabama , on September 26 , 1881 , and moved to Hubbard , Texas , with his family as a child . The son of Hiram Martin Evans , a judge , and his wife , Georgia Evans , the younger Evans graduated from Vanderbilt University . Shortly after , he became a dentist , receiving his license in 1900 . He married Bam Hill in 1923 ; they had three children together . Evans established a small , moderately successful dentistry practice in downtown Dallas that provided inexpensive services . Rumors later arose that his dental qualifications were " a bit shady " . A Protestant , Evans attended a church belonging to the Disciples of Christ denomination . He was also a Freemason . Evans described himself as " the most average man in America " . Of average height and somewhat overweight , Evans was well dressed , a skilled speaker , and very ambitious . = = Initial Klan service = = Conceived by its founders as a continuation of the Reconstruction @-@ era Klan ( controversially linked to General Nathan Bedford Forrest ) , the revived Ku Klux Klan had been established in Atlanta in 1915 . Evans joined in 1920 , leaving his dental practice so that he could dedicate all his time to the group . In 1921 , Evans was elected as " exalted cyclops " , a recruiting position sometimes referred to as kleagle , in the Dallas Klan No. 66 . When he was elected , the Dallas Klan had recently received a " self @-@ ruling charter " from the Atlanta @-@ based leadership and was the group 's largest chapter . That same year , Evans was appointed to the position of " great titan " ( executive ) of the " Realm of Texas " and proceeded to lead a successful membership drive for the state 's Klan . Evans initially supported violence against minorities , remembering a lynching he witnessed as a child . With the Texas Klan , he sought to create " black squads " to attack minorities . He joined several Klan members in kidnapping and torturing a black bellhop , ostensibly because they suspected he was involved in pandering prostitutes . Atlanta @-@ based leaders pressured Evans to curb racial violence in Dallas ; around that time , the Texas Klan had received significant negative publicity after castrating an African @-@ American doctor . Although Evans was not morally opposed to violence against minorities , he publicly condemned vigilante activity because he feared that it would attract government scrutiny and hinder potential Klan @-@ backed political campaigning . This change of stance led the leader of the Houston Klan to accuse him of hypocrisy . Although Evans later took credit for a decrease in lynchings in the Southern United States during the 1920s , several Klan members claimed that he surreptitiously encouraged — and presided over — acts of violence against minorities . In 1921 , Evans was assigned to oversee the Klan 's national membership drive at the behest of their publicists , Elizabeth Tyler and Edward Young Clarke . In 1922 , the group 's leadership made Evans the " Imperial kligrapp " , a role similar to national secretary , in which capacity he oversaw operations in 13 states . He received a base salary of $ 7 @,@ 500 and traveled throughout the country , regularly meeting with local Klan leaders . = = Early national leadership = = In 1922 , Evans joined a group of Klan activists , including Tyler , Clarke , and D. C. Stephenson , in a " coup " against William Joseph Simmons , the group 's leader . They deceived Simmons into agreeing to a reorganization of the Klan that removed his practical control ; Simmons said that they had claimed that if he remained the Imperial Wizard of the Klan , discord would hamper the organization . Evans gained power and was formally ensconced as Imperial Wizard of the Klan at a November 1922 " Klovokation " in Atlanta , Georgia . Although a legal battle between Evans and Simmons ensued , during which time Simmons was titular " emperor " , Evans retained control . He initially said that he had been unaware of a pending coup until after his selection . However , by the end of their feud , he described Simmons as the " leader of Bolshevik Klansmen betraying the movement " and later expelled the former leader . As leader of the Klan , Evans advanced a form of nativist , white supremacy that cast Protestantism as a fundamental part of American patriotism . To Evans , whiteness and Protestantism were equally valued , and sometimes conflated : he said the Klan supported the " uncontaminated growth of Anglo @-@ Saxon civilization " . He maintained that white Protestants had the exclusive right to govern the U.S. because of their descent from early colonists , whom he described as fleeing Europe for the U.S. to escape its societal bounds . He admitted that many Klan members were of rural , uneducated backgrounds but argued that power should be given to " the common people of America " . In a pamphlet entitled Ideals of the Ku Klux Klan , Evans described the Klan as follows : This is a white man 's organization . This is a gentile organization . It is an American organization . It is a Protestant organization . Under Evans , the Klan supported a mix of right- and left @-@ wing political positions , which were described by Thomas Pegram of Loyola University Maryland as " too much of a patchwork to be considered an ideological system " . Klan literature spoke highly of politicians such as Woodrow Wilson , William Jennings Bryan , and Grover Cleveland . Evans borrowed numerous concepts from the writings of Lothrop Stoddard and Madison Grant , American writers of the period who promoted eugenics and scientific racism , and attempted to cast his platforms as based in science . Evans attacked immigrants by arguing that they would promote ideologies such as anarchism and communism , were threats to national unity , and were involved with bootlegging during Prohibition . He considered immigrants " ignorant , superstitious , religious devotees " intent on earning money in the U.S. before retiring to their homelands . However , he supported immigration of those he deemed " Nordic " . Evans also argued against miscegenation and Catholic and Jewish immigration , on the grounds that they were threats to genetic " good stock " , a racial division which was then widely supported among white Americans . Evans opposed Catholicism because he believed that the Catholic Church sought to take control of the U.S. government ; he also questioned American Catholics ' loyalty to their country , writing that they were subject to their priests , and , as such , to the entire Roman Catholic hierarchy and the Pope . In other writings he expressed fears that the Catholic Church , in alliance with Jews and non @-@ white Protestant groups , was becoming increasingly active in politics and thus blurring the separation of church and state . Under Evans ' leadership , the Klan became active in Indiana and Illinois , rather than focusing on the Southeastern U.S. as it had done in the past . It also grew in Michigan , where 40 @,@ 000 members , more than half its total , lived in Detroit . It became characterized as an organization prominent in urban areas of the Midwest , where it attracted native @-@ born Americans competing for industrial jobs with recent immigrants . It also attracted members in Nebraska , Colorado , Oregon and Washington . Evans appointed Stephenson , his early collaborator , as kleagle and Grand Dragon of Indiana . The relationship between the two leaders quickly became acrimonious ; Stephenson clashed with Evans over the distribution of membership fees and became embittered after Evans refused to help fund the purchase of a school in Indiana . Although Stephenson believed that Evans deliberately thwarted his attempt to purchase the school to limit his power , Evans unexpectedly promoted Stephenson to Grand Dragon of the " northern realm " in July 1923 . The historian Leonard Joseph Moore of McGill University contends that Evans paid particular attention to the Indiana Klan out of financial self @-@ interest : it was then the largest state branch . The political scientist Arnold S. Rice writes that Evans also worked on a series of changes , advertised as reforms , to the Klan structure and sought to promote a positive public opinion of the Klan ; Evans felt that his organization should be able to reach out to those who were " struggling with the moral decay and economic distress of the 20th century " . He increased the Klan 's surveillance of members before and after initiation , expelling those considered to be of " questionable morals " . He also worked to increase Klan involvement in local policing and denounced acts of violence committed by Klan members , promoting the Klan as a symbol of lawfulness . These efforts , although successful in reducing the number of attacks , were ultimately unable to sway public opinion in the Klan 's favor . = = Internal conflicts under Evans ' tenure = = Evans became embroiled in several internal Klan conflicts that gained media exposure . In January 1921 , he and a group of grand dragons expelled the publicist Clarke , who had been critical of Evans ' efforts to involve the Klan in electoral politics . Evans also clashed with Henry Grady , a judge from North Carolina who served in the Klan from 1922 to 1927 , reaching the rank of Grand Dragon . Before Evans gained control of the Klan , Grady had been considered a potential successor to Simmons . After Grady dismissed a Klan @-@ backed law that would have banned the Knights of Columbus , a Catholic fraternal service organization , Evans revoked his membership . Grady subsequently leaked his correspondence with Evans to the media . In August 1923 , Evans participated in a Klan parade in the heavily Catholic borough of Carnegie , Pennsylvania , which was attacked by local residents . One member of the Klan was killed ; Evans declared him a martyr and hoped that the death would inspire new recruits . The incident gave a fillip to the Klan 's recruitment efforts , but increased Stephenson 's animosity toward Evans , on whom he blamed the incident . Stephenson 's proclivity for ostentation irritated Evans . Although Stephenson left his official Klan position after a short tenure , under his leadership the Klan 's northern supporters had begun to rival those in the South . He had been a skilled campaigner and demagogue , and he remained a well @-@ known advocate of the Klan 's platforms after resigning . Evans avoided publicly clashing with him , fearing that it would hurt the candidacies of Klan @-@ backed politicians : Stephenson was closely involved in the successful gubernatorial candidacy of Indiana Klan @-@ member Edward L. Jackson , and the Klan members had significant electoral gains in that state in 1924 , including the election of several candidates to the state legislature . After these victories , Stephenson showed further disdain for Evans . Although membership in the Klan was limited to men , Simmons — after losing control of the national organization — attempted to create a parallel white supremacist organization for women . Evans established a women 's group and sued him . Evans won the lawsuit , leading to a public war of words with Simmons , whose lawyer was soon murdered by Evans ' press agent , an event in which Evans denied complicity . In 1924 , Evans paid Simmons $ 145 @,@ 000 for a promise to abandon the latter 's claim to Klan leadership . Afterward , Evans moved the Klan 's national headquarters to Washington , D.C. , where the murder of Simmon 's lawyer had received less publicity . To Evans ' consternation , Stephenson also formed a women 's auxiliary group . Evans and Stephenson subsequently exchanged allegations of sexual impropriety . Police charged Stephenson with the kidnapping , rape and murder of a young woman ; he maintained that the charges were orchestrated by Evans . After a sensational trial , Stephenson was convicted of second degree murder and given a life sentence ; the publicity about the leader 's behavior caused thousands of members to abandon the Klan . = = Klan growth and political activism = = In the early years of Evans ' tenure , the Klan reached record enrollment ; estimates of its peak range from 2 @.@ 5 to 6 million members , although records are poor and the figure cannot be accurately determined . He also dramatically increased the organization 's total assets , more than doubling them from July 1922 to July 1923 . Evans changed the way that chapter leaders were paid : he insisted that they receive a fixed salary rather than commissions based on membership fees in a move that lowered their income . Although previous Imperial Wizards had lived in lavish properties , Evans initially settled in an apartment after his promotion . The sociologist Rory McVeigh of the University of Notre Dame argues that this increase in membership was owing to the Klan 's exploitation of a " favorable political context " , particularly one in which native @-@ born white @-@ settler Americans were fearful after increased immigration caused them to compete for jobs and housing in many cities . Evans had high hopes for the Klan , saying in 1923 that he aimed to reach ten million members . That year , he spoke at the largest Klan gathering in history , a Fourth of July meeting in rural Indiana that was attended by over 200 @,@ 000 . Evans sought to include more members from the Southwestern U.S. in leadership ; previously the Klan had been led by people from the Southeast . In 1922 , Evans supported the successful U.S. Senate candidacy of the Texas politician Earle Bradford Mayfield , an event that demonstrated that Klan @-@ supported candidates could win prominent offices . The next year , Evans returned to Texas for the state fair , where 75 @,@ 000 people gathered for a " Klan day " celebration . He devoted funds to fighting Jack C. Walton , the anti @-@ Klan governor of Oklahoma ; to the group 's joy , Walton was impeached and removed from office in 1923 . However , the Oklahoma legislature soon passed several anti @-@ Klan bills . Evans published instructions for local Klan leaders that detailed how to run meetings , recruit new members , and speak to local gatherings . He advised leaders to avoid " raving hysterically " in favor of " [ a ] scientific ... presentation of facts " . In addition , he urged them to forbid members from bringing their Klan regalia home from meetings and to perform background checks on applicants . He instructed Klan members to shun vigilantism but to assist police and attempted , with some success , to recruit police officers into the Klan . Emphasizing the difference between his organization and the more violent 19th @-@ century Ku Klux Klan , Evans formed Klan @-@ themed groups for children . As the Klan attempted to portray itself as a movement led by cultured , well @-@ educated people , its leaders spoke about education in the U.S. Evans believed that public schools could create a homogeneous society and saw education advocacy as an effective form of public relations . In his writings on the subject , he cited the nation 's illiteracy rate as evidence that American public schools were failing ; he considered low teacher salaries and child labor key obstacles to reform . He supported the idea of a federal Department of Education , hoping that it would lead to improvements in public schools that would help " Americanize the foreigners " and thwart recruitment efforts of Catholic schools . Evans wrote four books in the mid to late 1920s , The Menace of Modern Immigration ( 1923 ) , The Klan of Tomorrow ( 1924 ) , Alienism in the Democracy ( 1927 ) , and The Rising Storm ( 1929 ) . After the Klan gained respect and political influence in parts of the U.S. , Evans hoped to replicate this on a national scale . Political involvement was controversial among the organization 's members , and Evans issued contradictory statements on the issue , publicly disavowing it but surreptitiously attempting to sway politicians . Apart from fundamental Klan issues , different local groups often held varying political ideologies ; as such , by insisting on specific political stances , Evans would have risked alienating members . Although many of his hopes were never realized , Evans saw several Klansmen elected to high offices and , in the mid @-@ 1920s , the group was frequently discussed by political commentators . In 1924 , the group convinced Republican Party leaders to avoid criticizing them , prompting Time to put Evans on its cover . That year , the Klan supported Calvin Coolidge in his successful candidacy for president of the U.S. Although Coolidge opposed many key Klan platforms , with the exception of immigration restrictions and prohibition , he was the only major @-@ party candidate who did not condemn them . Nonetheless , Evans declared Coolidge 's victory a great success for the Klan . Although Republican leaders refrained from attacking the Klan , they were hesitant to support candidates promoted by the group . Significant discussion of the Klan also took place at the Democratic Party 's convention ; senator and Democratic presidential primary nominee Oscar Underwood decried them as " a national menace " . Evans ' attempts to elect Klansmen to public offices in 1924 saw limited success , although they achieved their goals in Indiana . = = Decline of the Klan = = Although the Klan had four million members in 1924 , the group 's membership quickly shrank after Stephenson 's widely publicized trial . The Indiana Klan lost more than 90 % of its members by the end of the proceedings , and there were mass resignations in other states as well . Other scandals emerged , further damaging Klan enrollment . Although the Colorado Klan had seen strong growth , Evans asked the Grand Dragon , John Galen Locke , to resign after local corruption scandals in 1925 involving Klan members who served as police . Evans ' request was poorly received by Colorado Klan members ; local enrollment subsequently plummeted . He encountered difficulties with Klan leaders in Pennsylvania in 1926 , after many of them concluded that he was too autocratic . In response , he revoked the charters of several local Klan groups and removed John Strayer , a state legislator , from his position of authority in the Klan . When the Pennsylvania groups continued to refer to themselves as the Ku Klux Klan , Evans sued them in federal court . Pennsylvania Klan members launched a detailed legal offensive against Evans and other Klan leaders , alleging misdeeds , including participation in kidnappings and lynchings . Evans ' suit was unsuccessful and , as many newspapers reported the scandalous allegations aired in court , the Pennsylvania Klan suffered a serious decline in membership and support . In response to the decline in Klan membership , in 1926 , Evans organized a Klan parade in Washington , D.C. , hoping that a large turnout would demonstrate the Klan 's power . About 30 @,@ 000 members attended , making it the largest parade in the group 's history . Evans was disappointed , however , as he had expected double the attendance and the march did not staunch the drop in membership . That year , Evans attempted to rally U.S. senators to vote against a bill supporting a proposed world court . He was unsuccessful , however , and several Klan @-@ backed senators followed Calvin Coolidge and supported the bill . In 1928 , Evans opposed the candidacy of the New York Democratic governor Al Smith for president , emphasizing the threat of Smith 's Catholic faith . After the Republican Herbert Hoover won the election , Evans boldly claimed responsibility for Smith 's loss ; but most of the solidly Democratic South had rejected Hoover and voted for Smith against the Klan 's advice . In 1929 , Evans acknowledged that membership levels had declined but predicted a dramatic turnaround would soon occur . His prediction was inaccurate . This loss of members resulted in a Klan that was a skeleton of its former self . Historians have attributed this loss of membership to ineptness and hypocrisy on the part of Klan leadership . McVeigh argues that the Klan 's inability to form alliances with other political groups led to the sharp loss of political power and solidarity within the group . = = Changes in focus = = Although many Democratic Klan members initially supported the 1932 presidential campaign of Franklin D. Roosevelt , the Klan later officially turned against him because of his acceptance of endorsements from minorities and labor unions . After Roosevelt 's election , Evans fiercely opposed the New Deal , describing it as a " great danger " to the nation ; he argued that it was a " Jewish " policy that endangered American freedom , reserving particular scorn for Treasury Secretary Henry Morgenthau , Jr . , who was Jewish . Evans ' statements about Jews were sometimes contradictory : he argued that he was not an anti @-@ Semite but maintained that Jews were materialistic and resisted assimilation . The Klan subsequently launched an offensive against organized labor . In the 1930s , Evans fiercely condemned communism and unionism . Around that time , Evans began to suspect that government agencies had been infiltrated by communists . He focused his attacks on the Congress of Industrial Organizations , claiming that they sought to " flout law and promote social disorder " . Although Evans bemoaned commercialism and attributed it to the effects of liberalism , he supported capitalism and sought to form ties between business leaders and the Klan . He condemned corporate greed , alleging that wealthy elites ' desire for cheap labor led to increased immigration . In his view , corporations had changed the Eastern U.S. so that it no longer reflected " true Americanism " , a concept he believed could only be understood by " legitimate Americans " such as himself . He blamed an influx of unskilled laborers for lowering wages in the U.S. Evans believed that U.S. immigration policy should restrict the immigration of unskilled workers , except for those needed on farms . In 1934 , Evans encountered public controversy after it was revealed that he intended to travel to Louisiana to campaign against the Democratic governor Huey Long , who planned to run in the 1936 presidential election . Long learned of Evans ' plans and condemned him in a speech at the Louisiana State Legislature , deriding him as a " tooth @-@ puller " and an " Imperial bastard " and warning of grave consequences should he follow through with his plans . After learning of the potential opposition , Evans cancelled his plans , although he retorted that Long – who based his campaign on Americanist themes – was " un @-@ American " . = = Downfall and death = = In the 1930s , the Klan 's public support nearly vanished and their membership dropped to about 100 @,@ 000 people , primarily concentrated in the South , having lost most of their members in the Midwest and West . At that time , James A. Colescott , Evans ' handpicked chief of staff , increasingly shouldered Evans ' responsibilities . After the Great Depression further damaged the Klan 's finances , the group 's leadership sold their Atlanta headquarters in 1936 . Around that time , Evans announced his intention to retire . Although anti @-@ Catholicism had been a consistent platform of the Klan , before leaving the organization , Evans renounced his anti @-@ Catholicism and pronounced a " new era of religious tolerance " . In 1939 , he said that " in no other time in history has there been more need for all people who believe in the same Father and same Son to stand together . " That year , Evans also publicly expressed an interest in learning aspects of Judaism to better understand the Old Testament . Chester L. Quarles , a professor of criminal justice at the University of Mississippi , argues that Evans repudiated anti @-@ Catholicism owing to his desire to fight unions and communism and his fear of having too many enemies at one time . After Evans sold the Klan 's former headquarters , it was purchased by the Catholic Church . The Cathedral of Christ the King was later built on the site . Evans attended the building 's dedication and spoke highly of the service , surprising many observers . His attendance at the service was his last significant public appearance as Imperial Wizard : he stepped down soon afterwards , having become deeply unpopular with members of the Klan , who felt that he had embraced their enemies . He resigned on June 10 , 1939 , and was replaced as Imperial Wizard by Colescott . Evans ' service as Imperial Wizard proved to be a lucrative position , allowing him to maintain a large residence in a prestigious Atlanta neighborhood . In the mid @-@ 1930s , however , Klan funds dwindled , and he worked for a Georgia @-@ based construction company selling products to the Georgia Highway Board . At the same time , he was a staunch supporter of Georgia governor Eurith D. Rivers , whom he had previously employed as a lecturer . Owing to the political support that he provided the administration , Evans was allowed to sell to the highway board without bidding against other contractors . In 1940 , the state of Georgia charged Evans and a member of the state highway board with price fixing . The Attorney General of Georgia , Ellis Arnall , directed legal proceedings against Evans that resulted in a $ 15 @,@ 000 fine . Meanwhile , Colescott attempted to resuscitate the waning second Klan through an " administration of action " and stricter enforcement of the Klan 's stated policies ; he also led extensive recruitment campaigns . Despite concerns by opponents that the Klan would regain full force after the conclusion of World War II , it was unable to improve its membership and was under pressure from the Internal Revenue Service for failure to pay taxes . Through a decree on April 23 , 1944 , Colescott formally disbanded the Klan . Locally sponsored groups continued to use the name , but lacked the united leadership of the earlier Klan . As late as 1949 , Evans served as a commentator on Klan activities , speaking as the former Imperial Wizard . He died on September 14 , 1966 , in Atlanta , Georgia . = = Appraisal = = David A. Horowitz , a historian at Portland State University , credits Evans with changing the Klan " from a confederation of local vigilantes into a centralized and powerful political movement " . Fellow historian William D. Jenkins of Youngstown State University maintains that Evans was " personally corrupt and more interested in money or power than a cause " . During Evans ' tenure as Imperial Wizard , the New York Times characterized the Klan 's leadership as " shrewd schemers " . However , Rice suggests that Evans ' reforms would never have been successful , as the Klan remained a white supremacist organization that " automatically made enemies of ... anyone who happened to be foreign @-@ born , Negro , Catholic , Jewish , or opposed to bigotry and chauvinism . " An editorial in The New York Times during Evans ' tenure as Klan leader described him as " severe and logical " in his writing , while the historian Richard Hofstadter described Evans ' writings as not immoderate in tone . The communications specialist Nicolas Rangel Jr. of the University of Houston – Downtown suggests that this vernacular prevented some Americans from recognizing the extremist nature of Evans ' views . Evans ' ideology was attacked by numerous contemporaries ; these criticisms began early in his Klan career . David Lefkowitz , rabbi of Temple Emanu @-@ El in Dallas , assailed Evans ' assertion that Jews did not assimilate , emphasizing American experiences shared by Jews and Christians , such as military service in World War I. James Weldon Johnson , leader of the NAACP , responded to Evans ' promotion of white supremacy by contending that " all races are mixed " . Other well @-@ known adversaries of Evans included the minister and theologian Reinhold Niebuhr , who opposed the Klan in Detroit in 1925 , describing them as " one of the worst specific social phenomena which the religious pride of a people has ever developed . " The Dallas Morning News publisher George Dealey and Atlanta journalist Ralph McGill opposed him , the latter deriding him for his hypocrisy and false claims about minorities . Several publications , however , gave positive coverage to Evans , although not necessarily his work with the Klan . In 1927 , the New York Times congratulated Evans on his " modest and engaging exposition of ' Americanism ' " . Although the Klan disowned Evans for reaching out to the Catholic Church , popular opinion was more positive . In 1939 , the Palm Beach Daily News described the meeting between Evans and Cardinal Dennis Joseph Dougherty as stirring both religious and secular circles ; favorable coverage of the meeting was found in several other publications . Dougherty said that he had found Evans " intensely interested in religious subjects " outside Protestantism . = Hina Rabbani Khar = Hina Rabbani Khar ( Urdu : حنا ربانی کھر ; born 19 November 1977 ) is a Pakistani stateswoman who served as the 26th Foreign Minister of Pakistan between February 2011 till March 2013 – the youngest person and the first woman to hold the position . Hailing from an influential feudal family , she studied business at LUMS and Amherst before entering politics as a member of national assembly in 2002 and becoming a junior minister responsible for economic policy under the Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz . She joined the Pakistan Peoples Party and was re @-@ elected to the national assembly in 2008 . In 2009 , she became the Minister of State for Finance and Economic Affairs and the same year became the first woman to present the national budget . She was appointed by Prime Minister Yousaf Raza Gillani as the Foreign Minister of Pakistan in July 2011 following the resignation of Mehmood Qureshi , and served until the 2013 election . During her time at the foreign ministry she resumed talks with India , which had derailed since the Mumbai attacks . She also led an unsuccessful move to grant India most favoured nation status . While on a visit to Bangladesh , she issued an unconditional apology from Pakistan for atrocities carried out during the Liberation War of 1971 . During her two year long appointment as the country 's foreign minister she attracted significant global attention on her appearance and status as Pakistan 's first women foreign minister . She was interviewed by Charlie Rose , CBS News and Washington Post among others . She served as a high @-@ ranking member of the Central Executive Committee of the Pakistan Peoples Party from 2008 until 2013 , when she retired from politics . However , she continues to remain a member of Pakistan People 's Party and a public speaker on foreign policy . She has written op @-@ ed 's for Newsweek Pakistan and was interviewed by Mehdi Hasan at the Oxford Union in December 2015 . = = Early life and family = = Hina was born into a feudal Muslim Jat family of Khar clan in Multan , Punjab , Pakistan . Khar is the daughter of powerful oligarch and retired politician Ghulam Noor Rabbani Khar . Her father was a prominent national politician and formerly served as a member of the National Assembly . She is niece of Ghulam Mustafa Khar , former Governor and Chief Minister of Punjab , and the cousin of actress and model Aaminah Haq . Khar is co @-@ owner of a restaurant chain named the " Polo Lounge " . The initial branch opened at the Lahore Polo Ground in 2002 . A second Polo Lounge has since opened in Islamabad 's Saidpur Village . = = = Education = = = Khar is a graduate of the Lahore University of Management Sciences ( LUMS ) where she holds a BSc ( with honors ) in Economics conferred in 1999 . She subsequently attended the University of Massachusetts at Amherst in the United States where she earned a MSc in Business Management , attained in 2002 . Khar has retained ties with her alumnus institution , LUMS , long after her graduation . In 2012 , she delivered a lecture at LUMS on " Foreign policy and Young Democracy " . In 2012 , she helped secure funding for the Abdus Salam Institute of Physics and spoke highly of notable theorist Dr. Abdus Salam at LUMS . = = Career = = Hina Rabbani Khar came to national prominence in the national political arena through Prime Minister Shaukat Aziz in 2004 , who appointed her to the Finance Ministry . In the 2002 general elections , she successfully contested and secured the parliamentary constituency of her father , veteran politician Ghulam Noor Rabbani Khar , after most members of her family were disqualified . With the financial support of her father , she campaigned on a newly founded PML ( Q Group ) platform against the Pakistan Muslim League . Khar was elected as a member of the National Assembly , representing the NA @-@ 177 ( Muzaffargarh @-@ II ) constituency in Punjab , a constituency her father had represented previously . A new law requiring all parliamentary candidates to hold a university degree had meant he could not run that year . The Guardian wrote , " In deference to local sensibilities about the place of women , her landlord father Noor addressed rallies and glad @-@ handed voters ; Hina stayed largely at home , with not even her photo appearing on the posters . " In 2005 , she was elevated to the position of deputy minister of economic affairs under Shaukat Aziz . As deputy minister , she dealt extensively with the donor community during the 2005 earthquake that hit Northern Pakistan . In 2007 , she made an unsuccessful attempt to renew her alliance with PML @-@ Q , but the party denied her a ticket platform to campaign for re @-@ election in 2008 . She was later invited by the senior members of the Pakistan Peoples Party and successfully campaigned for her constituency for a second time . The PPP secured a plurality of the votes and formed a left @-@ wing alliance with the Awami National Party , MQM and PML @-@ Q. = = = Minister of State for Economic Affairs = = = Khar came to prominence during the Shaukat Aziz government and was appointed Minister of State for Economic Affairs in 2004 , a post she retained until 2007 . In 2008 , after successfully defending her constituency , she was appointed Minister of State for Finance and Economic Affairs in the cabinet of Yousaf Raza Gillani . She worked on the financial budget and economic policies in the absence of the then Finance Minister and on 13 June 2009 she successfully presented the 2010 federal budget in the Parliament and has the distinction of being the first woman politician to present the Pakistani budget in the National Assembly . = = = Foreign minister = = = Khar was appointed as Minister of State for Foreign Affairs — the deputy head of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs — on 11 February 2011 , as part of Gillani 's cabinet reshuffle . After Shah Mehmood Qureshi 's resignation as Foreign Minister , she became acting Minister of Foreign Affairs on 13 February 2011 . She was formally appointed as Foreign Minister on 18 July and was sworn in on 19 July , becoming the youngest and first female Minister of Foreign Affairs . President Asif Ali Zardari , who succeeded Pervez Musharraf in 2008 , said the appointment was " a demonstration of the government 's commitment to bring women into the mainstream of national life " . She was appointed foreign minister during a difficult time in Pakistan : when the country 's armed forces were confronting extreme elements in Western Pakistan and anti @-@ American emotions ran high over the Raymond Davis incident . Shortly after her appointment , she visited India and held peace talks with her Indian counterpart , S. M. Krishna . Relations between the two countries had been suspended following the 2008 Mumbai attacks , resuming in February 2011 . The Indian media reported extensively on her fashion and appearance — the Birkin bag , the sunglasses , the Jimmy Choo stilettos and the pearl necklaces , for example . She held talks with leaders of the Hurriyat Conference before meeting Indian government representatives , a decision which was criticised by the Bharatiya Janata Party ( BJP ) , India 's main opposition party , which said it was a breach of protocol and demanded an inquiry into the matter . In August 2011 she visited China and held talks with Yang Jiechi , the Chinese Foreign Minister . Hindustan Times reported that , in contrast to her reception in India , she was largely ignored by Chinese media . The NATO strike which killed 24 Pakistani troops was one of the most notable incidents during her tenure and Foreign Minister Khar vigorously stated that the government of Pakistan and defense committees had approved a measure — similar to a parliamentary resolution put forward after bin Laden 's May 2011 death — that formally bars NATO and ISAF forces from using Pakistan 's supply routes . On 6 June 2012 , Pakistan renewed its call for a U.S. apology over the killing of 24 soldiers in U.S. warplane attacks at the Salala checkpost , as Khar argued that " higher principles should take precedence over politically popular considerations " . Khar challenged the U.S. to " live up to its democratic ideals by respecting the will of Pakistan ’ s elected legislature " , Foreign Policy magazine said in a Doha @-@ datelined report on its interview with the top Pakistani diplomat . On 15 December 2011 , when the United States suspended financial aid to Pakistan , Khar warned her counterpart Hillary Clinton that the United States will be responsible for defeat in the war on terror as Pakistan could not fight the war alone . On 21 January 2012 , Khar secretly left for Moscow with an agenda of strengthening bilateral relations . Khar and her foreign service officers made tremendous efforts to reach out to countries such as Russia in the wake of strained ties with the United States . On this trip she extended an invitation to the Russian leadership to visit Pakistan and to reaffirm cooperation and bilateral commitment and support to promote stability and peace in Afghanistan for " Afghan @-@ led and Afghan @-@ owned " efforts for national reconciliation in the country . On 12 August 2012 , while speaking at the 16th Summit of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement in Tehran , Khar maintained that " growing confrontation over Iran ’ s nuclear program was threatening further instability in the broader region , and a peaceful resolution of this issue is still possible on the basis of reciprocal confidence @-@ building measures and security assurances against external threat . " During her short visit to Bangladesh on 9 November 2012 , Khar was approached by the Foreign Minister of Bangladesh Dipu Moni to settle pending post @-@ independence issues , emphasizing especially an unconditional apology from Pakistan for the genocide it had carried out during the Liberation War of 1971 . Khar reiterated that Pakistan had regretted its 1971 actions on different occasions since 1974 and called for the two countries to move ahead together . She urged Moni and the Prime Minister of Bangladesh , Sheikh Hasina , to bury the past . = = Personal life = = Khar is married to Feroze Gulzar and has two daughters , Annaya and Dina . = Dime Store ( Portland , Oregon ) = The Dime Store was a short @-@ lived restaurant in Portland , Oregon , in the United States . It was established by Dayna McErlean , with additional conceptual development from Jeremy Larter . The restaurant opened in 2014 , replacing Leo 's Non @-@ Smoking Coffee Shop , a diner which had operated for thirty years . The Dime Store 's menu included diner classics such as burgers and milkshakes , along with all @-@ day breakfast and weekend brunch specials . Despite receiving a positive critical reception , the restaurant closed in November 2015 . = = Description = = The Dime Store was a restaurant housed in the first floor corner of the Medical Dental Building ( 837 Southwest 11th Avenue ) in downtown Portland . Its menu was created by Claire Miller and included American diner classics such as burgers , ice cream floats , milkshakes , sundaes , and other desserts , as well as upscale diner food and healthy food options with a farmers ' market influence . The all @-@ day breakfast menu included buttermilk biscuits and gravy , Water Avenue coffee , fried egg sandwiches , pancakes , and scrambled egg specials . The lunch menu included sandwiches ( BLT , club , falafel , grilled cheese , meatloaf ) , salads , and soups . The Dime Store 's weekend brunch menu featured Eggs Benedict , French @-@ style omelettes , and the " Boss @-@ Lady 's Breakfast " , which included braised greens , fried egg , and sausage . Brunch cocktails included Bloody Marys , mimosas , and Salty Dogs . Its beer , cocktail , and wine selection was curated by Nick Ramsdell . One milkshake special featured Salt & Straw , a Portland @-@ based artisanal ice cream company . The restaurant featured a horseshoe @-@ shaped kiosk @-@ style counter displaying coffee , pastries , sandwiches , and a variety of 25 periodicals supplied by The City Reader , a Modern Newsstand on Southeast Division . It was described as a " shinier " version of the coffee shop which had occupied the same space for thirty years prior , with grey and red linoleum flooring and teal pleather or vinyl seating . = = History = = The restaurant replaced Leo 's Non @-@ Smoking Coffee Shop , which was owned by Peter and Jane Chan for thirty years . When Leo 's closed in February 2014 , rumors had already circulated about restaurateur and developer Dayna McErlean 's plans to open a more upscale diner . The Dime Store 's concept was created by McErlean and Jeremy Larter , and was inspired by the soda shops they both experienced growing up on the East Coast . Prior to the restaurant 's opening , plans were to serve breakfast and lunch during mid @-@ week hours , with the potential to later add happy hour and family @-@ friendly dinner options , as well as outdoor seating . The Dime Store opened in the early summer of 2014 ( June – July ) , with a grand opening on June 16 . It began operating with a limited menu during the hours of 7am to 3pm ; hours were later extended to 6pm . The restaurant 's weekend brunch launched in July , offering a larger menu from 9am to 3pm . The restaurant closed in November 2015 . The owners posted online , " It was a hard decision but sadly we have decided to close our doors . Thanks to everyone that 's supported us and have dined with us . We will miss you all and happy holidays ! " Willamette Week 's Martin Cizmar attributed the diner 's closure to its location and lack of nearby foot traffic . Oregon Liquor Control Commission documentation from March 2016 shows an application for a tradename update to The Daily Feast . = = Reception = = Fodor 's called The Dime Store " bright and hip " , offering " office workers and hotel guests a much @-@ appreciated source of seasonally driven , well @-@ prepared comfort fare " . Cizmar wrote a positive review of the restaurant in August 2014 , in which he paid tribute to Leo 's and described his two $ 1 extras ( an egg on his BLT and maple syrup for his pancakes ) as " the best two dollars [ he ] spent all week " . That same month , Thrillist contributor Drew Tyson included the diner in his list of the " 11 Best New Restaurants in Portland " , writing : Billing itself as a " finer diner " , this old @-@ school space feels a bit like the diner in Twin Peaks . There 's a magazine and candy counter in one corner that no one seems to touch ; just quick enough service that once you start questioning whether or not you 'll get another cup of coffee , one arrives ; plus a menu full of classics . All @-@ in @-@ all it 's one of the only places you can go in Downtown and feel like you 're transported somewhere else entirely . The Portland Mercury 's Andrea Damewood wrote : Dime Store is its own thing , a great place to grab lemony eggs benedict and a Water Avenue coffee on a Sunday without a massive line . Sure , there 's vintage milk bottles as water pitchers , " Hound Dog " blasting from the speakers , and a big @-@ old 1950s vibe going on — but you 're not going to feel like some asshat in a retro @-@ themed chain here ... There 's no life @-@ changing or avant @-@ garde cooking happening at Dime Store . You won 't see coffee mayo and duck bologna like Vitaly Paley 's crew puts out at Penny Diner . You won 't find the greasy hash browns available at the actual old @-@ school diners . But that 's kind of the point . Dime Store is a sweet slice of nostalgia with just the right nod to current dining realities . In 2015 , The Oregonian included the diner 's " Dime Burger " as one of five " burger classics " in its list of the city 's " 100 best Cheap Eats " . The newspaper later included The Dime Store in its list of the " top 10 Portland restaurant closings of 2015 " . = Simon Bolivar Buckner = Simon Bolivar Buckner ( April 1 , 1823 – January 8 , 1914 ) was an American soldier and politician who fought in the United States Army in the Mexican – American War and in the Confederate States Army during the American Civil War . He later served as the 30th Governor of Kentucky . After graduating from the United States Military Academy at West Point , Buckner became an instructor there . He took a hiatus from teaching to serve in the Mexican – American War , participating in many of the major battles of that conflict . He resigned from the army in 1855 to manage his father @-@ in @-@ law 's real estate in Chicago , Illinois . He returned to his native state of Kentucky in 1857 and was appointed adjutant general by Governor Beriah Magoffin in 1861 . In this position , he tried to enforce Kentucky 's neutrality policy in the early days of the Civil War . When the state 's neutrality was breached , Buckner accepted a commission in the Confederate Army after declining a similar commission to the Union Army . In 1862 , he accepted Ulysses S. Grant 's demand for an " unconditional surrender " at the Battle of Fort Donelson . He was the first Confederate general to surrender an army in the war . He spent five months as a prisoner of war . After his release , Buckner participated in Braxton Bragg 's failed invasion of Kentucky and near the end of the war became chief of staff to Edmund Kirby Smith in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department . In the years following the war , Buckner became active in politics . He was elected governor of Kentucky in 1887 . It was his second campaign for that office . His term was plagued by violent feuds in the eastern part of the state , including the Hatfield – McCoy feud and the Rowan County War . His administration was rocked by scandal when state treasurer James " Honest Dick " Tate absconded with $ 250 @,@ 000 from the state 's treasury . As governor , Buckner became known for vetoing special interest legislation . In the 1888 legislative session alone , he issued more vetoes than the previous ten governors combined . In 1895 , he made an unsuccessful bid for a seat in the U.S. Senate . The following year , he joined the National Democratic Party , or " Gold Democrats " , who favored a gold standard policy over the Free Silver position of the mainline Democrats . He was the Gold Democrats ' candidate for Vice President of the United States in the 1896 election , but polled just over one percent of the vote on a ticket with John M. Palmer . He never again sought public office and died January 8 , 1914 . = = Early life = = Simon B. Buckner ( Sr. ) , was born at Glen Lily , his family 's estate near Munfordville , Kentucky . He was the third child and second son of Aylett Hartswell and Elizabeth Ann ( Morehead ) Buckner . Named after the " South American soldier and statesman , Simón Bolívar , then at the height of his power " , Buckner did not begin school until age nine , when he enrolled at a private school in Munfordville . His closest friend in Munfordville was Thomas J. Wood , who would become a Union Army general opposing Buckner at the Battle of Perryville and the Battle of Chickamauga during the Civil War . Buckner 's father was an iron worker , but found that Hart County did not have sufficient timber to fire his iron furnace . Consequently , in 1838 , he moved the family to southern Muhlenberg County where he organized an iron @-@ making corporation . Buckner attended school in Greenville , and later at Christian County Seminary in Hopkinsville . On July 1 , 1840 , Buckner enrolled at the United States Military Academy . In 1844 he graduated eleventh in his class of 25 and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 2nd U.S. Infantry Regiment . He was assigned to garrison duty at Sackett 's Harbor on Lake Ontario until August 28 , 1845 , when he returned to the Academy to serve as an assistant professor of geography , history , and ethics . = = Service in the Mexican – American War = = In May 1846 , Buckner resigned his teaching position to fight in the Mexican – American War , enlisting with the 6th U.S. Infantry Regiment . His early duties included recruiting soldiers and bringing them to the Texas border . In November 1846 , he was ordered to join his company in the field ; he met them en route between Monclova and Parras . The company joined John E. Wool at Saltillo . In January 1847 , Buckner was ordered to Vera Cruz with William J. Worth 's division . While Maj. Gen. Winfield Scott besieged Vera Cruz , Buckner 's unit engaged a few thousand Mexican cavalry at a nearby town called Amazoque . On August 8 , 1847 , Buckner was appointed quartermaster of the 6th Infantry . Shortly thereafter , he participated in battles at San Antonio and Churubusco , being slightly wounded in the latter battle . He was appointed a brevet first lieutenant for gallantry at Churubusco and Contreras , but declined the honor in part because reports of his participation at Contreras were in error — he had been fighting in San Antonio at the time . Later , he was offered and accepted the same rank solely based on his conduct at Churubusco . Buckner was again cited for gallant conduct at the Battle of Molino del Rey , and was appointed a brevet captain . He participated in the Battle of Chapultepec , the Battle of Belen Gate , and the storming of Mexico City . At the conclusion of the war , American soldiers served as an army of occupation , which left them time for leisure activities . Buckner joined the Aztec Club , and in April 1848 was a part of the successful expedition of Popocatépetl , a volcano southeast of Mexico City . Buckner was accorded the honor of lowering the American flag over Mexico City for the last time during the occupation . = = Interbellum = = After the war , Buckner accepted an invitation to return to West Point to teach infantry tactics . Just over a year later , he resigned the post in protest over the academy 's compulsory chapel attendance policy . Following his resignation , he was assigned to a recruiting post at Fort Columbus . Buckner married Mary Jane Kingsbury on May 2 , 1850 , at her aunt 's home in Old Lyme , Connecticut . Shortly after their wedding , he was assigned to Fort Snelling and later to Fort Atkinson on the Arkansas River in present @-@ day Kansas . On December 31 , 1851 , he was promoted to first lieutenant , and on November 3 , 1852 , he was elevated to captain of the commissary department of the 6th U.S. Infantry in New York City . Previously , he had attained only a brevet to these ranks . Buckner gained such a reputation for fair dealings with the Indians , that the Oglala Lakota tribe called him Young Chief , and their leader , Yellow Bear , refused to treat with anyone but Buckner . Before leaving the Army , Buckner helped an old friend from West Point and the Mexican – American War , Captain Ulysses S. Grant , by covering his expenses at a New York hotel until money arrived from Ohio to pay for his passage home . On March 26 , 1855 , Buckner resigned from the Army to work with his father @-@ in @-@ law , who had extensive real estate holdings in Chicago , Illinois . When his father @-@ in @-@ law died in 1856 , Buckner inherited his property and moved to Chicago to manage it . Still interested in military affairs , Buckner joined the Illinois State Militia of Cook County as a major . On April 3 , 1857 , he was appointed adjutant general of Illinois by Governor William Henry Bissell . He resigned the post in October of the same year . Following the Mountain Meadows massacre , a regiment of Illinois volunteers organized for potential service in a campaign against the Mormons . Buckner was offered command of the unit and a promotion to the rank of colonel . He accepted the position , but predicted that the unit would not see action . His prediction proved correct , as negotiations between the federal government and Mormon leaders eased tensions between the two . In late 1857 , Buckner and his family returned to his native state and settled in Louisville . Buckner 's daughter , Lily , was born there on March 7 , 1858 . Later that year , a Louisville militia known as the Citizens ' Guard was formed , and Buckner was made its captain . He served in this capacity until 1860 , when the Guard was incorporated into the Kentucky State Guard 's Second Regiment . He was appointed inspector general of Kentucky in 1860 . = = Civil War = = In 1861 Kentucky governor Beriah Magoffin appointed Buckner adjutant general , promoted him to major general , and charged him with revising the state 's militia laws . The state was torn between Union and Confederacy , with the legislature supporting the former and the governor the latter . This led the state to declare itself officially neutral . Buckner assembled 61 companies to defend Kentucky 's neutrality . The state board that controlled the militia considered it to be pro @-@ secessionist and ordered it to store its arms . On July 20 , 1861 , Buckner resigned from the state militia , declaring that he could no longer perform his duties due to the board 's actions . That August he was twice offered a commission as a brigadier general in the Union Army — the first from general in chief Winfield Scott , and the second from Secretary of War Simon Cameron following the personal order of President Abraham Lincoln — but he declined . After Confederate Maj. Gen. Leonidas Polk occupied Columbus , Kentucky , violating the state 's neutrality , Buckner accepted a commission as a brigadier general in the Confederate States Army on September 14 , 1861 , and was followed by many of the men he formerly commanded in the state militia . When his Confederate commission was approved , Union officials in Louisville indicted him for treason and seized his property . ( Concerned that a similar action might be taken against his wife 's property in Chicago , he had previously deeded it to his brother @-@ in @-@ law . ) He became a division commander in the Army of Central Kentucky under Brig. Gen. William J. Hardee and was stationed in Bowling Green , Kentucky . = = = Fort Donelson = = = After Union Brig. Gen. Ulysses S. Grant captured Fort Henry on the Tennessee River in February 1862 , he turned his sights on nearby Fort Donelson on the Cumberland . Western Theater commander Gen. Albert Sidney Johnston sent Buckner to be one of four brigadier generals defending the fort . In overall command was the influential politician and military novice John B. Floyd ; Buckner 's peers were Gideon J. Pillow and Bushrod Johnson . Buckner 's division defended the right flank of the Confederate line of entrenchments that surrounded the fort and the small town of Dover , Tennessee . On February 14 , the Confederate generals decided they could not hold the fort and planned a breakout , hoping to join with Johnston 's army , now in Nashville . At dawn the following morning , Pillow launched a strong assault against the right flank of Grant 's army , pushing it back 1 to 2 miles ( 2 to 3 km ) . Buckner , not confident of his army 's chances and not on good terms with Pillow , held back his supporting attack for over two hours , which gave Grant 's men time to bring up reinforcements and reform their line . Buckner 's delay did not prevent the Confederate attack from opening a corridor for an escape from the besieged fort . However , Floyd and Pillow combined to undo the day 's work by ordering the troops back to their trench positions . Late that night the generals held a council of war in which Floyd and Pillow expressed satisfaction with the events of the day , but Buckner convinced them that they had little realistic chance to hold the fort or escape from Grant 's army , which was receiving steady reinforcements . General Floyd , concerned he would be tried for treason if captured by the North , sought Buckner 's assurance that he would be given time to escape with some of his Virginia regiments before the army surrendered . Buckner agreed and Floyd offered to turn over command to his subordinate , Pillow . Pillow immediately declined and passed command to Buckner , who agreed to stay behind and surrender . Both Generals Floyd and Pillow left to leave General Buckner to surrender to the Union Forces . Pillow and Floyd were able to escape , as did cavalry commander Col. Nathan Bedford Forrest . That morning , Buckner sent a messenger to the Union Army requesting an armistice and a meeting of commissioners to work out surrender terms . He may have been hoping Grant would offer generous terms , remembering the assistance he gave Grant when he was destitute , but Grant 's reply was curt , with the famous quotation , " No terms except unconditional and immediate surrender can be accepted . I propose to move immediately upon your works . " To this , Buckner responded : SIR : — The distribution of the forces under my command , incident to an unexpected change of commanders , and the overwhelming force under your command , compel me , notwithstanding the brilliant success of the Confederate arms yesterday , to accept the ungenerous and unchivalrous terms which you propose . The asperity of these notes was only superficial ; Buckner greeted his old friend warmly when Grant arrived to accept the surrender . They joked about their time in Mexico and the incompetence of General Pillow [ 35 ] . Grant offered to loan Buckner money to see him through his impending imprisonment , but Buckner declined . As an additional note Buckner paid for then Captain Grant 's	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
lodging in New York City after the Mexican War when Grant was destitute . Also Buckner acted as a pall bearer and paid for Grant 's funeral and provided Grant 's widow a financial monthly payment so she could live out her years . The surrender was a humiliation for Buckner personally , but also a strategic defeat for the Confederacy , which lost more than 12 @,@ 000 men and much equipment , as well as control of the Cumberland River , which led to the evacuation of Nashville . = = = Invasion of Kentucky = = = While Buckner was a Union prisoner of war at Fort Warren in Boston , Kentucky Senator Garrett Davis unsuccessfully sought to have him tried for treason . On August 15 , 1862 , after five months of writing poetry in solitary confinement , Buckner was exchanged for Union Brig. Gen. George A. McCall . The following day he was promoted to major general and ordered to Chattanooga , Tennessee , to join Gen. Braxton Bragg 's Army of Mississippi . Days after Buckner joined Bragg , both Bragg and Maj. Gen. Edmund Kirby Smith began an invasion of Kentucky . As Bragg pushed north , his first encounter was in Buckner 's home town of Munfordville . The small town was important for Union forces to hold if they wanted to maintain communication with Louisville while pressing southward to Bowling Green and Nashville . A small force under the command of Col. John T. Wilder guarded the town . Though vastly outnumbered , Wilder refused requests to surrender on September 12 and September 14 . By September 17 , however , Wilder recognized his difficult position and asked Bragg for proof of the superior numbers he claimed . In an unusual move , Wilder agreed to be blindfolded and brought to Buckner . When he arrived , he told Buckner that he ( Wilder ) was not a military man and had come to ask him what he should do . Flattered , Buckner showed Wilder the strength and position of the Confederate forces , which outnumbered Wilder 's men almost 5 @-@ to @-@ 1 . Seeing the hopeless situation he was in , Wilder informed Buckner that he wanted to surrender . Any other course , he later explained , would be " no less than willful murder . " Bragg 's men continued northward to Bardstown where they rested and sought supplies and recruits . Meanwhile , Maj. Gen. Don Carlos Buell 's Army of the Ohio , the main Union force in the state , was pressing toward Louisville . Bragg left his army and met Kirby Smith in Frankfort , where he was able to attend the inauguration of Confederate Governor Richard Hawes on October 4 . Buckner , although protesting this distraction from the military mission , attended as well and gave stirring speeches to the local crowds about the Confederacy 's commitment to the state of Kentucky . The inauguration ceremony was disrupted by the sound of cannon fire from an approaching Union division and the inaugural ball scheduled for that evening was canceled . Based on intelligence acquired by a spy in Buell 's army , Buckner advised Bragg that Buell was still ten miles from Louisville in the town of Mackville . He urged Bragg to engage Buell there before he reached Louisville , but Bragg declined . Buckner then asked Leonidas Polk to request that Bragg concentrate his forces and attack the Union army at Perryville , but again , Bragg refused . Finally , on October 8 , 1862 , Bragg 's army — not yet concentrated with Kirby Smith 's — engaged Maj. Gen. Alexander McCook 's corps of Buell 's army and began the Battle of Perryville . Buckner 's division fought under General Hardee during this battle , achieving a significant breakthrough in the Confederate center , and reports from Hardee , Polk , and Bragg all praised Buckner 's efforts . His gallantry was for naught , however , as Perryville ended in a tactical draw that was costly for both sides , causing Bragg to withdraw and abandon his invasion of Kentucky . Buckner joined many of his fellow generals in publicly denouncing Bragg 's performance during the campaign . = = = Later Civil War service = = = Following the Battle of Perryville , Buckner was reassigned to command the District of the Gulf , fortifying the defenses of Mobile , Alabama . He remained there until late April 1863 , when he was ordered to take command of the Army of East Tennessee . He arrived in Knoxville on May 11 , 1863 , and assumed command the following day . Shortly thereafter , his department was converted into a district of the Department of Tennessee under Gen. Bragg and was designated the Third Corps of the Army of Tennessee . In late August , Union Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside approached Buckner 's position at Knoxville . Buckner called for reinforcements from Bragg at Chattanooga , but Bragg was being threatened by forces under Maj. Gen. William Rosecrans and could not spare any of his men . Bragg ordered Buckner to fall back to the Hiwassee River . From there , Buckner 's unit traveled to Bragg 's supply base at Ringgold , Georgia , then on to Lafayette and Chickamauga . Bragg was also forced from Chattanooga and joined Buckner at Chickamauga . On September 19 and 20 , the Confederate forces attacked and emerged victorious at the Battle of Chickamauga . Buckner 's Corps fought on the Confederate left both days , the second under the " wing " command of Lt. Gen. James Longstreet , participating in the great breakthrough of the Union line . After Chickamauga , Rosecrans and his Army of the Cumberland retreated to fortified Chattanooga . Bragg held an ineffective siege against Chattanooga , but refused to take any further action as the Union forces there were reinforced by Ulysses S. Grant and reopened a tenuous supply line . Many of Bragg 's subordinates , including Buckner , advocated that Bragg be relieved of command . Thomas L. Connelly , historian of the Army of Tennessee , believes that Buckner was the author of the anti @-@ Bragg letter sent by the generals to President Jefferson Davis . Bragg retaliated by reducing Buckner to division command and abolishing the Department of East Tennessee . Buckner was given a medical leave of absence following Chickamauga , returning to Virginia , where he engaged in routine work while recovering his strength . His division was sent without him to support Longstreet in the Knoxville Campaign , while the remainder of Bragg 's army was defeated in the Chattanooga Campaign . Buckner served on the court martial of Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws after that subordinate of Longstreet 's was charged with poor performance at Knoxville . Buckner was briefly given command of Maj. Gen. John Bell Hood 's division in February 1864 , and on March 8 , he was given command of the reestablished Department of East Tennessee . The department was a shell of its former self — less than one @-@ third its original size , badly equipped , and in no position to mount an offensive . Buckner was virtually useless to the Confederacy here , and on April 28 , he was ordered to join Edmund Kirby Smith in the Trans @-@ Mississippi Department of the Confederacy . Buckner had difficulty traveling to the West , and it was early summer before he arrived . He assumed command of the District of West Louisiana on August 4 . Shortly after Buckner arrived at Smith 's headquarters in Shreveport , Louisiana , Smith began requesting a promotion for him . The promotion to lieutenant general came on September 20 . Smith placed Buckner in charge of the critical but difficult task of selling the department 's cotton through enemy lines . As news of Gen. Robert E. Lee 's surrender on April 9 , 1865 , reached the department , soldiers deserted the Confederacy in droves . On April 19 , Smith consolidated the District of Arkansas with the District of West Louisiana ; the combined district was put under Buckner 's command . On May 9 , Smith made Buckner his chief of staff . Rumors began to swirl in both Union and Confederate camps that Smith and Buckner would not surrender , but would fall back to Mexico with soldiers who remained loyal to the Confederacy . Though Smith did cross the Rio Grande , he learned on his arrival that Buckner had traveled to New Orleans on May 26 and arranged terms of surrender . Smith had instead instructed Buckner to move all the troops to Houston , Texas . At Fort Donelson , Tennessee , Buckner had become the first Confederate general of the war to surrender an army ; at New Orleans , he became the last . The surrender became official when Smith endorsed it on June 2 , ( Only Brigadier General Stand Watie held out longer ; he surrendered the last Confederate land forces on June 23 , 1865 ) . Conditions set forth in Buckner 's surrender were the following : " All acts of hostility on the part of both armies are to cease from this date . " The officers and men are to be " paroled until duly exchanged . " All Confederate property was to be turned over to the Union . All officers and men could return home . " The surrender of property will not include the side arms or private horses or baggage of officers " and enlisted men . " All ' self @-@ disposed persons ' who return to ' peaceful pursuits ' are assured that may resume their usual avocations . . . " . " = = Postbellum life = = The terms of Buckner 's parole in Shreveport , Louisiana , on June 9 , 1865 , prevented his return to Kentucky for three years . He remained in New Orleans , worked on the staff of the Daily Crescent newspaper , engaged in a business venture , and served of the board of directors of a fire insurance company , of which he became president in 1867 . His wife and daughter joined him in the winter months of 1866 and 1867 , but he sent them back to Kentucky in the summers because of the frequent outbreaks of cholera and yellow fever . Buckner returned to Kentucky when he was eligible in 1868 and became editor of the Louisville Courier . Like most former Confederate officers , he petitioned the United States Congress for the restoration of his civil rights as stipulated by the 14th Amendment . He recovered most of his property through lawsuits and regained much of his wealth through shrewd business deals . On January 5 , 1874 , after five years of suffering with tuberculosis , Buckner 's wife died . Now a widower , Buckner continued to live in Louisville until 1877 when he and his daughter Lily returned to the family estate , Glen Lily , in Munfordville . His sister , a recent widow , also returned to the estate in 1877 . For six years , these three inhabited and repaired the house and grounds which had been neglected during the war and its aftermath . On June 14 , 1883 , Lily Buckner married Morris B. Belknap of Louisville , and the couple made their residence in Louisville . On October 10 of the same year , Buckner 's sister died , and he was left alone . On June 10 , 1885 , Buckner married Delia Claiborne of Richmond , Virginia . Buckner was 62 ; Claiborne was 28 . Their son , Simon Bolivar Buckner , Jr . , was born on July 18 , 1886 . = = Political career = = Buckner had a keen interest in politics and friends had been urging him to run for governor since 1867 , even while terms of his surrender confined him to Louisiana . Unwilling to violate these terms , he instructed a friend to withdraw his name from consideration if it was presented . In 1868 , he was a delegate to the Democratic National Convention that nominated Horatio Seymour for president . Though Buckner had favored George H. Pendleton , he loyally supported the party 's nominee throughout the campaign . In 1883 , Buckner was a candidate for the Democratic gubernatorial nomination . Other prominent candidates included Congressman Thomas Laurens Jones , former congressman J. Proctor Knott , and Louisville mayor Charles Donald Jacob . Buckner consistently ran third in the first six ballots , but withdrew his name from consideration before the seventh ballot . The delegation from Owsley County switched their support to Knott , starting a wave of defections that resulted in Jones ' withdrawal and Knott 's unanimous nomination . Knott went on to win the general election and appointed Buckner to the board of trustees for the Kentucky Agricultural and Mechanical College ( later the University of Kentucky ) in 1884 . At that year 's state Democratic convention , he served on the committee on credentials . = = = Governor of Kentucky = = = Delegates to the 1887 state Democratic convention nominated Buckner unanimously for the office of governor . A week later , the Republicans chose William O. Bradley as their candidate . The Prohibition Party and the Union Labor Party also nominated candidates for governor . The official results of the election gave Buckner a plurality of 16 @,@ 797 over Bradley . Buckner proposed a number of progressive ideas , most of which were rejected by the legislature . Among his successful proposals were the creation of a state board of tax equalization , creation of a parole system for convicts , and codification of school laws . His failed proposals included creation of a department of justice , greater local support for education and better protection for forests . Much of Buckner 's time was spent trying to curb violence in the eastern part of the state . Shortly after his inauguration , the Rowan County War escalated to vigilantism , when residents of the county organized a posse and killed several of the leaders of the feud . Though this essentially ended the feud , the violence had been so bad that Buckner 's adjutant general recommended that the Kentucky General Assembly dissolve Rowan County , though this suggestion was not acted upon . In 1888 , a posse from Kentucky entered West Virginia and killed a leader of the Hatfield clan in the Hatfield @-@ McCoy feud . This caused a political conflict between Buckner and Governor Emanuel Willis Wilson of West Virginia , who complained that the raid was illegal . The matter was adjudicated in federal court , and Buckner was cleared of any connection to the raid . Later in Buckner 's term , feuds broke out in Harlan , Letcher , Perry , Knott , and Breathitt counties . A major financial scandal erupted in 1888 when Buckner ordered a routine audit of the state 's finances which had been neglected for years . The audit showed that the state 's longtime treasurer , James " Honest Dick " Tate , had been mismanaging and embezzling the state 's money since 1872 . Faced with the prospect that his malfeasance would be discovered , Tate absconded with nearly $ 250 @,@ 000 of state funds . He was never found . The General Assembly immediately began impeachment hearings against Tate , convicted him in absentia , and removed him from office . State auditor Fayette Hewitt was censured for neglecting the duty of his office , but was not implicated in Tate 's theft or disappearance . During the 1888 session , the General Assembly passed 1 @,@ 571 bills , exceeding the total passed by any other session in the state 's history . Only about 150 of these bills were of a general nature ; the rest were special interest bills passed for the private gain of legislators and those in their constituencies . Buckner vetoed 60 of these special interest bills , more than had been vetoed by the previous ten governors combined . Only one of these vetoes was overridden by the legislature . Ignoring Buckner 's clear intent to veto special interest bills , the 1890 legislature passed 300 more special interest bills than had its predecessor . Buckner vetoed 50 of these . His reputation for rejecting special interest bills led the Kelley Axe Factory , the largest axe factory in the country at the time , to present him with a ceremonial " Veto Hatchet " . When a tax cut passed over Buckner 's veto in 1890 drained the state treasury , the governor loaned the state enough money to remain solvent until tax revenue came in . Later that year , he was chosen as a delegate to the state 's constitutional convention . In this capacity , he unsuccessfully sought to extend the governor 's appointment powers and levy taxes on churches , clubs , and schools that made a profit . = = = Later career = = = After his term as governor , Buckner returned to Glen Lily . In 1895 , he was one of four candidates nominated for a seat in the U.S. Senate — the others being the incumbent , J. C. S. Blackburn ; outgoing governor John Y. Brown ; and congressman James B. McCreary . The Democratic party split over the issue of bimetalism . Buckner advocated for a gold standard , but the majority of Kentuckians advocated " Free Silver " . Seeing that he would not be able to win the seat in light of this opposition , he withdrew from the race in July 1895 . In spite of his withdrawal , he still received 9 of the 134 votes cast in the General Assembly . At the 1896 Democratic National Convention in Chicago , the Democrats nominated William Jennings Bryan for president and adopted a platform calling for the free coinage of silver . Gold standard Democrats opposed Bryan and the free silver platform . They formed a new party — the National Democratic Party , or Gold Democrats — which Buckner joined . At the new party 's state convention in Louisville , Buckner 's name was proposed as a candidate for vice president . He was given the nomination without opposition at the party 's national convention in Indianapolis . Former Union general John Palmer was chosen as the party 's nominee for president . Palmer and Buckner both had developed reputations as independent executives while serving as governors of their respective states . Because they had served on opposite sides during the Civil War , their presence on the same ticket emphasized national unity . The ticket was endorsed by several major newspapers including the Chicago Chronicle , Louisville Courier @-@ Journal , Detroit Free Press , Richmond Times , and New Orleans Picayune . Despite these advantages , the ticket was hurt by the candidates ' ages , Palmer being 79 and Buckner 73 . Further , some supporters feared that voting for the National Democrat ticket would be a wasted vote and might even throw the election to Bryan . Ultimately , Palmer and Buckner received just over one percent of the vote in the election . Following this defeat , Buckner retired to Glen Lily but remained active in politics . Though he always claimed membership in the Democratic party , he opposed the machine politics of William Goebel , his party 's gubernatorial nominee in 1899 . In 1903 , he supported his son @-@ in @-@ law , Morris Belknap , for governor against Goebel 's lieutenant governor , J. C. W. Beckham . When the Democrats again nominated William Jennings Bryan in the 1908 presidential election , Buckner openly supported Bryan 's opponent , Republican William Howard Taft . At 80 years of age , Buckner memorized five of Shakespeare 's plays because cataracts threatened to blind him , but an operation saved his sight . On a visit to the White House in 1904 , Buckner asked President Theodore Roosevelt to appoint his only son as a cadet at West Point , and Roosevelt quickly agreed . His son would later serve in the U.S. Army and be killed at the Battle of Okinawa , making him the highest @-@ ranking American to have been killed by enemy fire during World War II . Following the deaths of Stephen D. Lee and Alexander P. Stewart in 1908 , Buckner became the last surviving Confederate soldier with the rank of lieutenant general . The following year , he visited his son , who was stationed in Texas , and toured old Mexican – American War battlefields where he had served . In 1912 , his health began to fail . He died on January 8 , 1914 , after a week @-@ long bout with uremic poisoning . He was buried in Frankfort Cemetery in Frankfort , Kentucky . = Bernard Levin = Henry Bernard Levin CBE ( 19 August 1928 – 7 August 2004 ) was an English journalist , author and broadcaster , described by The Times as " the most famous journalist of his day " . The son of a poor Jewish family in London , he won a scholarship to the independent school Christ 's Hospital and went on to the London School of Economics , graduating in 1952 . After a short spell in a lowly job at the BBC selecting press cuttings for use in programmes , he secured a post as a junior member of the editorial staff of a weekly periodical , Truth , in 1953 . Levin reviewed television for The Manchester Guardian and wrote a weekly political column in The Spectator noted for its irreverence and influence on modern parliamentary sketches . During the 1960s he wrote five columns a week for The Daily Mail on any subject that he chose . After a disagreement with the proprietor of the paper over attempted censorship of his column in 1970 , Levin moved to The Times where , with one break of just over a year in 1981 – 82 , he remained as resident columnist until his retirement , covering a wide range of topics , both serious and comic . Levin became a well @-@ known broadcaster , first on the weekly satirical television show That Was The Week That Was in the early 1960s , then as a panellist on a musical quiz , Face the Music , and finally in three series of travel programmes in the 1980s . He began to write books in the 1970s , publishing 17 between 1970 and 1998 . From the early 1990s , Levin developed Alzheimer 's disease , which eventually forced him to give up his regular column in 1997 , and to stop writing altogether not long afterwards . = = Life and career = = = = = Early years = = = Levin was born in London , the second child and only son of Philip Levin , a tailor of Jewish Bessarabian descent , and his wife , Rose , née Racklin . Philip Levin abandoned the family and moved to South Africa when Levin was three . The two children were brought up with the help of their maternal grandparents , who had emigrated from Lithuania at the turn of the 20th century . Levin wrote of his childhood , " My home was not a religious one ; my grandfather read the scriptures to himself silently and struggled through a little English ; my grandmother , who could read no language at all , lit a candle on the appropriate days , as did my mother , though for her it was not really a religious sign . My uncles were quite secular ... and had hardly anything to do with the religion of their father and grandfathers " . In The Guardian after Levin 's death , Quentin Crewe wrote , " His illiterate grandparents ' stories about life in Russia must have instilled in him the passionate belief in the freedom of the individual that lasted his whole life . In return , as he grew older , he used to read to them . Bernard could not read Hebrew , but he could get by in Yiddish " . Rose Levin was a capable cook , and , though the household was not well off , Levin was well fed and acquired an interest in food that in adult life became one of the regular themes of his journalism . The cuisine was traditional Jewish , with fried fish as one cornerstone of the repertoire , and chicken as another – boiled , roast , or in soup with lokshen ( noodles ) , kreplach or kneidlach . As an adult Levin retained his love of Jewish cookery along with his passion for French haute cuisine . The Levin household was not especially musical , though it had a piano which Judith was taught to play ; Rose Levin bought her son a violin and paid for lessons , convinced that he was " destined to be the next Kreisler or Heifetz " . Levin persevered ineptly for two and a half years and then gave up with relief . The experience put him off music for some time , and it was only later that it became one of his passions , a frequent topic in his writing . Levin was a bright child , and , encouraged by his mother , he worked hard enough to win a scholarship to the independent school Christ 's Hospital in the countryside near Horsham , West Sussex . His housemaster was D.S. ( " Boom " ) Macnutt , the school 's head of Classics . Macnutt was a strict , even bullying , teacher , and was feared rather than loved by his pupils , but Levin learned Classics well , and retained a lifelong love of Latin tags and quotations in his writing . He battled on many fronts at Christ 's Hospital : he was a Jew at a Church of England establishment ; he was from a poor family ; he was slight of stature ; he was utterly indifferent to sport ; he adopted a Marxist stance , hanging the Red Flag from a school window to celebrate the Labour victory in 1945 . In the local streets , the school 's conspicuous uniform , including a cloak and tight stockings , attracted unwanted attention . Levin 's biographer Bel Mooney writes of this period , " Jeers put iron in his soul " . Among the consolations of Christ 's Hospital was its thriving musical life . At concerts by the school orchestra ( whose members included Levin 's contemporary , Colin Davis ) , Levin listened seriously to music for the first time . The food at the school was no such consolation ; according to Levin it was so appalling that there must be something better to be found , and from his late teens he sought out the best restaurants he could afford . Levin hoped to go to the University of Cambridge , but , as his obituarist in The Times wrote , he " was not considered Oxbridge material " . He was accepted by the London School of Economics ( LSE ) , where he studied from 1948 to 1952 . His talents were recognised and encouraged by LSE tutors including Karl Popper and Harold Laski ; Levin 's deep affection for both did not prevent his perfecting a comic impersonation of the latter . Levin became a skilled debater ; he wrote for the student newspaper The Beaver , on a range of subjects , not least opera , which became one of his lifelong passions . Having graduated from the LSE in 1952 , Levin worked briefly as a tour guide , and then joined the BBC 's North American Service . His job was to read all the newspapers and weekly magazines , selecting articles that might be useful for broadcasting . = = = Journalism = = = In 1953 , Levin applied for a job on the weekly periodical Truth . The paper had recently been taken over by the liberal publisher Ronald Staples who together with his new editor Vincent Evans was determined to cleanse it of its previous right @-@ wing racist reputation . Levin 's noticeably Jewish surname , together with such skills as he had acquired in shorthand and typing , gained him immediate acceptance . He was offered the post of " general editorial dogsbody , which was exactly what I had been looking for " . After a year , Evans left and was succeeded by his deputy , George Scott ; Levin was promoted in Scott 's place . He wrote for the paper under a variety of pseudonyms , including " A.E. Cherryman " . While still at Truth , Levin was invited to write a column in The Manchester Guardian about ITV , Britain 's first commercial television channel , launched in 1955 . Mooney describes his television reviews as " notably punchy " and The Times wrote , " Levin took out his shotgun and let loose with both barrels " . Levin gave the opening programmes a kindly review , but by the fourth day of commercial television he was beginning to baulk : " There has been nothing to get our teeth into apart from three different brands of cake @-@ mix and a patent doughnut " . Thereafter , he did not spare the network : " cliché succeeded to cliché " ; " a mentally defective aborigine who was deaf in both ears would have little difficulty in leaving ' Double Your Money ' £ 32 richer than when he entered " ; and after the network 's first hundred days he attributed its viewing figures to the " number of people who are sufficiently stupid to derive pleasure from such programmes " . = = = The Spectator = = = In 1956 , Levin found himself in irreconcilable disagreement with Truth 's support of the Anglo @-@ French military action in the Suez Crisis . The proprietor and editor of the long @-@ established weekly The Spectator , Ian Gilmour , invited Levin to join his staff . Levin left Truth and became the political correspondent of The Spectator . He declared that he was no expert in politics , but Gilmour advised him , " review it as you would review television " . Levin wrote his column under the pseudonym " Taper " , from the name of a corrupt political insider in Disraeli 's 1844 novel Coningsby . He followed Gilmour 's advice , becoming , as The Guardian 's Simon Hoggart said , " the father of the modern parliamentary sketch " : Until then sketch writers were basically on the side of the MPs . Their job was to convey to voters the majesty of our legislators ' oratory , to remind us of the surpassing importance of their deliberations . A predecessor of mine published his collected works as The Glory of Parliament . Levin had truck with none of that nonsense . As he said later , he treated the old place as if it were a theatre . ' I was watching a farce , from the front row of the stalls , with a glass of champagne in my hand.' Levin made no pretence of even @-@ handedness . There were politicians he liked and politicians he did not like . For those in the latter category , " Taper 's lacerations wounded " . He invented unflattering nicknames ; he wrote later , " I did not ( though I wish I had ) think of calling Sir Hartley Shawcross Sir Shortly Floorcross , but I did call Sir Reginald Manningham @-@ Buller Sir Reginald Bullying @-@ Manner " . When the latter was elevated to the peerage as Lord Dilhorne , Levin renamed him Lord Stillborn . Taper was not Levin 's only work for The Spectator . He wrote on a wide range of subjects , from a campaign for the release of three Arabs imprisoned by the British authorities , to supporting publication of the banned novel Lady Chatterley 's Lover , and denunciation of the retired Lord Chief Justice , Lord Goddard . The last led to a secret meeting of more than 20 senior judges to see whether Levin could be prosecuted for criminal libel ; there was no prosecution , and his accusations about Goddard 's vindictiveness , deceit and bias have relatively recently been claimed to have been justified . In 1959 , Gilmour , while remaining as proprietor , stepped down as editor and was succeeded by his deputy , Brian Inglis ; Levin took over from Inglis as assistant editor . Later in that year , after the general election victory of another of his bêtes noires , Harold Macmillan , Levin gave up the Taper column , professing himself to be in despair . Concurrently with his work at The Spectator , Levin was the drama critic of The Daily Express from 1959 , offending many in theatrical circles by his outspoken verdicts . He modelled his reviewing style on that of Bernard Shaw 's musical reviews of the late 19th century . He gave a fellow @-@ critic an edition of Shaw 's collected criticism , writing inside the cover , " ' In the hope that when you come across the phrases I have already stolen you will keep quiet about it " . Gilmour discouraged any hopes Levin might have had of succeeding Inglis as editor and in 1962 , Levin left both The Spectator and The Daily Express , becoming drama critic of The Daily Mail . He remained there for eight years , and for the last five of them also wrote five columns a week on any subject of his choice . = = = Television and The Pendulum Years = = = Although by the early 1960s Levin was becoming a well @-@ known name , his was not yet a well @-@ known face . Meeting him in London the publisher Rupert Hart @-@ Davis did not immediately recognise him : " He looks about sixteen , and at first I thought he was someone ’ s little boy brought along to see the fun – very Jewish , with wavy fairish hair , very intelligent and agreeable to talk to " . In 1963 Levin was invited to appear regularly on BBC television 's new weekly late @-@ night satirical revue , That Was The Week That Was , where he delivered monologues to camera about his pet hates and conducted interviews , appearing as " a tiny figure taking on assorted noisy giants in debate " . The programme , which had a short but much @-@ discussed run , was transmitted live ; this added to its edginess and impact , but also made it prone to disruption . Levin was twice assaulted on air , once by the husband of an actress whose show Levin had reviewed severely , and once by a woman astrologer who squirted him with water . In 1966 BBC television screened a new musical quiz , Face the Music presented by Joseph Cooper . It ran intermittently until 1984 . Levin was a frequent panel member along with , among others , Robin Ray , Joyce Grenfell , David Attenborough and Richard Baker . Levin published his first book in 1970 . Called The Pendulum Years , its subtitle , Britain and the Sixties , summed up its subject . In 22 self @-@ contained chapters , Levin considered various aspects of British life during the decade . Among his topics were prominent people including Harold Macmillan and Harold Wilson – dubbed the Walrus and the Carpenter by Levin – and institutions such as the monarchy , the churches and the British Empire in its last days . Among the individual events examined in the book were the 1968 student riots and the prosecution for obscenity of the publishers of Lady Chatterley 's Lover . Levin 's interest in indexes developed from his work on The Pendulum Years . He compiled his own index for the book , " and swore a mighty oath , when I had finished the task , that I would rather die , and in a particularly unpleasant manner , than do it again " . He contrived to include in his index an obscene joke at the expense of the hapless prosecutor in the Chatterley trial , but found the difficulty of indexing so great that he became a champion of the Society of Indexers . He wrote several articles on the subject , and when reviewing books made a point of praising good indexes and condemning bad ones . = = = The Times = = = In June 1970 , during the general election campaign , Levin fell out with the proprietors of The Daily Mail , Lord Rothermere and his son Vere Harmsworth . Levin 's contract guaranteed him absolute freedom to write whatever he chose , but Harmsworth , an unswerving Conservative , attempted to censor Levin 's support for the other major party , Labour . Levin resigned , and immediately received offers from The Guardian and The Times to join them as a columnist . He found both tempting , and at one point " even had a wild notion of suggesting that I should write for both simultaneously " . In the end , he chose The Times , giving as his reason that though the liberal Guardian was more in line with his own politics than the conservative Times , " I wrote more comfortably against the grain of the paper I worked for rather than with it " . His obituarist in The Times adds that the decision may also have been swayed by the better remuneration offered by the paper . Among the perquisites of the Times appointment were a company car and a large and splendid office at the paper 's building in Printing House Square , London . Levin accepted neither ; he could not drive and he hated to be isolated . He commandeered a desk in the anteroom to the editor 's office , a location that kept him closely in touch with the daily affairs of the paper . It also gave him ready access to the editor , William Rees Mogg , with whom he developed a good friendship . Levin 's brief was to write two columns a week ( later three ) on any subject that he wished . His range was prodigious ; he published nine volumes of his selected journalism of which the first , Taking Sides , covered subjects as diverse as the death watch beetle , Field Marshal Montgomery , Wagner , homophobia , censorship , Eldridge Cleaver , arachniphobia , theatrical nudity , and the North Thames Gas Board . Within weeks of joining The Times Levin provoked a lawsuit and a strident controversy . The first was in March 1971 , in an article titled " Profit and dishonour in Fleet Street " , accusing Rothermere of underhand conduct and personal avarice during the merger of The Daily Mail and The Daily Sketch . The libel action brought by Rothermere was settled out of court , at substantial cost to the proprietor of The Times , Lord Thomson . Two months later , controversy followed Levin 's renewed condemnation of Lord Goddard immediately after the latter 's death in May 1971 . The legal profession closed ranks and defended Goddard 's reputation against Levin 's attacks . Among those denouncing Levin were Lords Denning , Devlin , Hodson , Parker , Shawcross and Stow Hill . After Levin 's death The Times published an article opining that information made public since 1971 " strongly supported " his criticisms of Goddard . At the time , the lawyers took revenge on Levin by ensuring that his candidacy for membership of the Garrick , a London club much favoured by lawyers and journalists , was blackballed . At The Daily Mail , Levin had generally been restricted to 600 words for his articles . At The Times he had more licence to spread himself . He appeared in The Guinness Book of Records for the longest sentence ever to appear in a newspaper – 1 @,@ 667 words . He was proud of this , and affected to be outraged when " some bugger in India wrote a sentence very considerably longer " . He maintained that he could construct impromptu a sentence of up to 40 subordinate clauses " and many a native of these islands , speaking English as to the manner born , has followed me trustingly into the labyrinth only to perish miserably trying to find the way out " . Sometimes Levin wrote about frivolous , even farcical matters , such as a series of mock @-@ indignant articles about the sex @-@ lives of mosquitoes . At other times he wrote about matters of grave moral importance , unfailingly denouncing authoritarian regimes whether of the left or the right . He observed , " I am barred by the governments concerned from entering the Soviet Union and the lands of her empire on the one hand and South Africa on the other . These decrees constitute a pair of campaign medals that I wear with considerable pleasure and I have a profound suspicion of those who rebuke me for partisanship while wearing only one " . He wrote regularly about the arts . Music was a recurrent theme ; he was notorious for his addiction to Wagner , and other favourite composers included Schubert and Mozart . He wrote about performers he admired , including Otto Klemperer , Alfred Brendel , and Kiri Te Kanawa . He turned less regularly to the visual arts , but when he did his views were clear @-@ cut and trenchantly expressed . He wrote of a Pre @-@ Raphaelite exhibition in 1984 , " Never , in all my life , not even at the exclusively Millais exhibition in 1967 , have I seen so much sickening rubbish in one place at one time " . His knowledge and love of literature were reflected in many of his writings ; among his best @-@ known pieces is a long paragraph about the influence of Shakespeare on everyday discourse . It begins : If you cannot understand my argument , and declare ' It 's Greek to me ' , you are quoting Shakespeare ; if you claim to be more sinned against than sinning , you are quoting Shakespeare ; if you recall your salad days , you are quoting Shakespeare ; if you act more in sorrow than in anger , if your wish is father to the thought , if your lost property has vanished into thin air , you are quoting Shakespeare " . = = = Arianna Stassinopoulos ( Huffington ) = = = In 1971 , Levin appeared in an edition of Face the Music along with a new panellist , Arianna Stassinopoulos ( later known as Arianna Huffington ) . He was 42 ; she was 21 . A relationship developed , of which she wrote after his death : " He wasn 't just the big love of my life , he was a mentor as a writer and a role model as a thinker " . Although Levin had rejected Judaism when a youth , he quested after spirituality . Such religious sympathies as he had , he said , were " with quietist faiths , like Buddhism , on the one hand , and with a straightforward message of salvation , like Christianity , on the other " . With the help of Stassinopoulos he continued to search after spiritual truth . She later wrote , " He tried therapy , he tried Insight , a self @-@ awareness seminar that I had helped to bring to London , he tried a stint in an ashram in India . Lesser souls would have avoided the ridicule that was heaped on him for his spiritual ' search ' by simply keeping it to himself . But he didn 't , because anything he was touched by he had to write about " . In 1980 he wrote extensive accounts in his column about his visit to the Indian commune of the meditation teacher Osho . Levin was commissioned by the BBC to visit musical festivals around the world , broadcasting a series of talks about them . Together with Stassinopoulos , he visited festivals in Britain , Ireland , continental Europe and Australia . He later wrote a book , Conducted Tour ( 1982 ) on the same subject . By the time it was published he and Stassinopoulos were no longer together . At the age of 30 , she remained deeply in love with him but longed to have children ; Levin never wanted to marry or be a father . She concluded that she must break away , and moved to New York in 1980 . = = = 1980s = = = In 1981 Levin took a sabbatical from The Times after Rupert Murdoch bought the paper and Harold Evans succeeded Rees @-@ Mogg as editor . Evans and Levin were friends , but Levin had publicly stated his preference that Charles Douglas @-@ Home should be appointed . Within a year Evans and Murdoch fell out and Evans left in 1982 ; Douglas @-@ Home became editor , and coaxed Levin back , to write two columns a week . On returning to the paper in October 1982 , he began his column with the words , " And another thing " . This mirrored his opening gambit when publication of The Times resumed in 1979 after a printers ' strike lasting nearly a year : his first column then had begun with the word " Moreover " . By the 1980s Levin was sufficiently well known to be the subject of satire himself . The satirical ITV show Spitting Image caricatured him in high @-@ flown discussion with another well @-@ known intellectual in a sketch entitled " Bernard Levin and Jonathan Miller Talk Bollocks " . By now , Levin 's political views were moving to the right , and he was no longer writing so much against the grain of his newspaper . He had come to admire Margaret Thatcher , though not the rest of her party : " But there is one , and only one , political position that , through all the years and all my changing views and feelings , has never altered , never come into question , never seemed too simple for a complex world . It is my profound and unwavering contempt for the Conservative Party " . Levin never published an autobiography , but his book Enthusiasms , published in 1983 , consists of chapters on his principal pleasures : books , pictures , cities , walking , Shakespeare , music , food and drink , and spiritual mystery . The book is dedicated " To Arianna , with much more than enthusiasm " – they remained loving friends for the rest of his life . It contains a sentence that far outdoes his earlier 1 @,@ 667 word effort in The Times , starting on page 212 and ending four pages later ; it lists the restaurants most esteemed by Levin in Europe , Asia and America . In the 1980s , Levin made three television series for Channel 4 . The first , Hannibal 's Footsteps , screened in 1985 , showed Levin walking the presumed route taken by Hannibal when he invaded Italy in 218 BC .. The programme followed Levin 's 320 @-@ mile journey from Aigues @-@ Mortes to the crossing into Italy in the Queyras valley . He remained true to his declared intention of eschewing all forms of vehicular transport , and walked all the way , with the exception of his crossing the Rhone , rowing himself in a small boat . He followed this with To the End of the Rhine in 1987 , following the Rhine from its two sources , the Hinterrhein and the Vorderrhein , in Switzerland , to its estuary at Rotterdam , 1 @,@ 233 km ( 766 mi ) to the north . In between he joined the Swiss citizen army on manoeuvres , visited Liechtenstein bankers , zig @-@ zagged the Swiss – German border at Lake Constance , attended the Schubertiade at Hohenems and the opera at Bregenz , took the waters at Baden @-@ Baden , visited the manufacturers of eau de Cologne , and paid tribute to Erasmus at Basle . The last of the three series was in 1989 , A Walk up Fifth Avenue in New York , from Washington Square to the Harlem River . In this series he encountered extremes of wealth and poverty , and met a wide variety of people , some famous ( such as Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis and Donald Trump ) and some not ( including a sword @-@ swallowing unicyclist , and a bag lady in Central Park ) . He wrote books based on each of the three series , published in 1985 , 1987 and 1989 respectively . = = = Last years = = = Levin began to have difficulty with his balance as early as 1988 , although Alzheimer 's disease was not diagnosed until the early 1990s . From September 1995 his Times column appeared once weekly instead of twice , and in January 1997 the editor , Peter Stothard , concluded , despite a great admiration for Levin , that the weekly column should cease . Levin retired , though he continued to write for the paper occasionally over the next year . In his last decade , Levin 's partner was the journalist Liz Anderson , who took care of him during the long degenerative phase of his illness . He died in Westminster , London , aged 75 . He is buried in Brompton Cemetery , London . A memorial service was held at the church of St Martin @-@ in @-@ the @-@ Fields at which Sir David Frost delivering the eulogy described Levin as " a faithful crusader for tolerance and against injustice who had declared , ' The pen is mightier than the sword – and much easier to write with ' " . = = Honours and commemorations = = Levin was appointed CBE for services to journalism in 1990 . The Society of Indexers has instituted an award in Levin 's name ; it is given to " a journalist and author whose writings show untiring and eloquent support for indexers and indexing " . He was president of the English Association , 1984 – 85 , and vice @-@ president 1985 – 88 . He was an honorary fellow of the LSE from 1977 , and a member of the Order of Polonia Restituta , conferred by the Polish Government @-@ in @-@ Exile in 1976 . In its obituary tribute to him , The Times described Levin as " the most famous journalist of his day " . = Taxonomy of lemurs = The taxonomic history of lemurs dates back to 1758 when Carl Linnaeus first classified them , and the taxonomy remains controversial today , with approximately 70 to 100 species and subspecies recognized , depending on how the term " species " is defined . Having undergone their own independent evolution on Madagascar , lemurs have diversified to fill many niches normally filled by other types of mammals . They include the smallest primates in the world , and once included some of the largest . Since the arrival of humans approximately 2 @,@ 000 years ago , lemurs have become restricted to 10 % of the island , or approximately 60 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , and many face extinction . Concerns over lemur conservation have affected lemur taxonomy , since distinct species receive increased conservation attention compared to subspecies . The relationship between the aye @-@ aye and the rest of the lemurs has had the greatest impact on lemur taxonomy at the family rank and above . Genetic analysis of this relationship has also clarified lemur phylogeny and supports the hypothesis that lemurs rafted to Madagascar . Despite general agreement on phylogeny , the taxonomy is still under debate . At the genus level , the taxonomy has been relatively stable since 1931 , but a number of additional genera have been recognized since then . Since the 1990s , there has been a steep increase in the number of recognized lemur species and subspecies through the discovery of new species , the elevation of existing subspecies to full species status , and the recognition of new species among previously known populations that were not even distinct subspecies . Currently living lemur species are divided into five families and 15 genera . If the extinct subfossil lemurs are included , three families , eight genera , and 17 species would be added to the count . The recent rise in species numbers is due to both improved genetic analysis and a push in conservation to encourage the protection of isolated and distinct lemur populations . Not everyone in the scientific community supports these taxonomic changes , with some preferring instead an estimate of 50 living species . = = Background = = Since their arrival on Madagascar , a biogeographically isolated island with a unique mammalian fauna , lemurs have diversified both in behavior and morphology . Their diversity rivals that of the monkeys and apes found throughout the rest of the world , especially when the recently extinct subfossil lemurs are considered . Ranging in size from the 30 g ( 1 @.@ 1 oz ) Madame Berthe 's mouse lemur , probably the world 's smallest primate , to the extinct 160 – 200 kg ( 350 – 440 lb ) Archaeoindris fontoynonti , the largest known prosimian , lemurs evolved diverse forms of locomotion , varying levels of social complexity , and unique adaptations to the local climate . They went on to fill many niches normally occupied by monkeys , squirrels , woodpeckers , and large grazing ungulates . In addition to the incredible diversity between lemur families , there has also been great diversification among closely related lemurs . The arrival of humans on the island 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 years ago has taken a significant toll , not only on the size of lemur populations , but also on their diversity . Due to habitat destruction and hunting , at least 17 species and 8 genera have gone extinct and many others have become threatened . Historically , lemurs ranged across the entire island inhabiting a wide variety of habitats , including dry deciduous forests , lowland forests , spiny thickets , subhumid forests , montane forest , and mangrove . Today , their collective range is restricted to 10 % of the island , or approximately 60 @,@ 000 km2 ( 23 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Most of the remaining forests and lemurs are found along the periphery of the island . The center of the island , the Hauts @-@ Plateaux , was converted by early settlers to rice paddies and grassland through slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture , known locally as tavy . As erosion depleted the soil , the cyclical forest regrowth and burning ended as the forest gradually failed to return . In 2008 , 41 % of all lemur taxa were threatened with extinction while 42 % were classified on the IUCN Red List as " Data Deficient " . = = Overview of taxonomic and phylogenetic classification = = In the first volume of the 10th edition of Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) , Carl Linnaeus , the founder of modern binomial nomenclature , created the genus Lemur to include three species : Lemur tardigradus ( the red slender loris , now known as Loris tardigradus ) , Lemur catta ( the ring @-@ tailed lemur ) , and Lemur volans ( the Philippine colugo , now known as Cynocephalus volans ) . Although the term " lemur " was at first intended for lorises , it was soon applied to the endemic Malagasy primates , which have been known as " lemurs " ever since . The name derives from the Latin term lemures , which refers to the " spirits of the dead " from Roman mythology . According to Linnaeus ' own explanation , the name was selected because of the nocturnal activity and slow movements of the slender loris . Being familiar with the works of Virgil and Ovid and seeing an analogy that fit with his naming scheme , Linnaeus adapted the term " lemur " for these nocturnal primates . However , it has been commonly and falsely assumed that Linnaeus was referring to the ghost @-@ like appearance , reflective eyes , and ghostly cries of lemurs . It has also been speculated that Linnaeus may also have known that the some Malagasy people have held legends that lemurs are the souls of their ancestors , but this is unlikely given that the name was selected for slender lorises from India . Since the first taxonomic classification of lemurs , many changes have been made to lemur taxonomy . Within the primate order , treeshrews ( order Scandentia ) were considered basal , prosimian primates — close relatives of lemurs — until the 1980s . Colugos , also incorrectly referred to as " flying lemurs " , were once considered lemur @-@ like primates , but were reclassified as close relatives of bats , and more recently as close relatives of primates within their own order , Dermoptera . Primates , together with their closest relatives , the treeshrews , colugos , and long @-@ extinct plesiadapiforms , form the taxonomically unranked Euarchonta clade within the Euarchontoglires . Lorisids , some of which were originally placed in the genus Lemur by Carl Linnaeus , have since been moved into either their own infraorder ( Lorisiformes ) or their own superfamily ( Lorisoidea ) within Lemuriformes . For the Malagasy primate fauna , taxonomic nomenclature proliferated during the 1800s , with the aid of museum systematists , such as Albert Günther and John Edward Gray , as well as naturalists and explorers , such as Alfred Grandidier . This nomenclature was not sorted out until decades later , when Ernst Schwarz standardized it in 1931 . It was not until the 1990s that this nomenclature started to see a new wave of taxonomic change . = = Suprageneric classification = = Although Carl Linnaeus originally grouped the first " lemurs " he classified under the order Primates , lemurs and other non @-@ human primates were later separated from humans by being placed in the order Quadrumana by Johann Friedrich Blumenbach in 1775 . ( He also placed humans in the order Bimana . ) This view was upheld by other famous naturalists and zoologists of the time , including Étienne Geoffroy Saint @-@ Hilaire ( who first placed lemurs in Strepsirrhini in 1812 ) , Georges Cuvier , and ( initially ) John Edward Gray . By 1862 , William Henry Flower , a comparative anatomist , was arguing against moving strepsirrhines out of Quadrumana into Insectivora ( a now @-@ abandoned biological grouping ) , claiming that their brain had features transitional between other primates and " inferior " mammals . In 1863 , Thomas Henry Huxley restored the order Primates to include humans , other apes , monkeys , lemurs , and even colugos . However , opposition continued with many specialists arguing that lemurs ( or " Half @-@ apes " ) should be placed in their own order . In 1873 , English comparative anatomist St. George Jackson Mivart countered these arguments and proceeded to define the primates by a list of anatomical features . Since the 19th century , the classification of lemurs above the genus level has seen many changes . Early taxonomists proposed a variety of classifications for lemurs , but generally separated indriids from other lemurs and placed the aye @-@ aye in a major group of its own ; some classified the dwarf and mouse lemurs with the galagos . In 1915 , William King Gregory published a classification that remained generally accepted over the next decades . He placed all the lemurs together in a " series " Lemuriformes and recognized three families : Daubentoniidae , Indriidae , and Lemuridae ( including the current Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae ) . George Gaylord Simpson 's influential 1945 classification of mammals placed the treeshrews and the fossil Anagale ( both now classified outside Primates ) inside Lemuriformes and classified the fossil families Plesiadapidae and Adapidae in a superfamily Lemuroidea with most of the lemurs . Although treeshrews , plesiadapids , and the like are now no longer considered to be closely related to lemurs , disagreements persist over the classification of lemurs and related groups , resulting in competing arrangements of the infraorders and superfamilies within Strepsirrhini . In one taxonomy , infraorder Lemuriformes contains all living strepsirrhines in two superfamilies , Lemuroidea for all lemurs and Lorisoidea for the lorisoids ( lorisids and galagos ) . Alternatively , the lorisoids are sometimes placed in their own infraorder , Lorisiformes , separate from the lemurs . Yet another classification published by Colin Groves placed the aye @-@ aye in its own infraorder , Chiromyiformes , while the rest of the lemurs were placed in Lemuriformes and the lorisoids in Lorisiformes . The classification of several lemur taxa has elicited particular debate . Most significantly , the placement of the aye @-@ aye has been controversial since its introduction to Western science in 1782 , and it has been a topic of debate until very recently . Arguing against Darwin 's theory of natural selection , Richard Owen claimed in 1863 that the aye @-@ aye 's distinct characteristics , including its ever @-@ growing incisors and unique , highly flexible middle finger , are so perfectly adapted for their uses in extractive foraging that they could not have evolved gradually through natural selection . More recently , the aye @-@ aye 's placement has posed problems for the rafting hypothesis for the primate colonization of Madagascar . If this species does not form a monophyletic group with the rest of the lemurs , then multiple colonization events would have had to occur to explain the occurrence of lemurs on Madagascar . Until Owen published a definitive anatomical study in 1866 , early naturalists were uncertain whether the aye @-@ aye ( genus Daubentonia ) was a primate , rodent , or marsupial . In the late eighteenth century , for example , the aye @-@ aye was classified under the squirrel genus Sciurus . By emphasizing its primate features , such as its postorbital bar , stereoscopic vision , and opposable hallux , over its rodent @-@ like teeth , Owen demonstrated its affinity with other primates . In 1996 , Ankel @-@ Simons demonstrated that the shape and arrangement of the aye @-@ aye 's diminutive deciduous incisors indicate that this genus has a shared ancestry with the toothcombed primates . However , the placement of the aye @-@ aye within the primates remained problematic until very recently . The karyotype of the aye @-@ aye is noticeably different from that of its closest relatives , the lorises and the rest of the lemurs , with a diploid chromosome count of 2n = 30.Template : Harvnp Based on its anatomy , researchers have found support for classifying the genus Daubentonia as a specialized indriid , a sister group to all strepsirrhines , and an indeterminate taxon within the primates . In 1931 , Schwarz labeled the aye @-@ aye as an offshoot of Indriidae , claiming that all lemurs were monophyletic , whereas Reginald Innes Pocock had previously placed the aye @-@ aye outside of the lemurs . In that same year , Anthony and Coupin classified the aye @-@ aye under infraorder Chiromyiformes , a sister group to the other strepsirrhines . Colin Groves upheld this classification in 2005 because he was not entirely convinced the aye @-@ aye formed a clade with the rest of the Malagasy lemurs , despite molecular tests that had shown Daubentoniidae was basal to all Lemuroidea . Another interpretation of the aye @-@ aye 's origins has once again called into question the single origins of the lemurs . The aye @-@ aye and a fossil strepsirrhine primate from Africa , Plesiopithecus , share similarities in the shape of the skull and the morphology of the lower jaw , which suggest that the latter could be an early relative of the aye @-@ aye . However , the placement of an aye @-@ aye ancestor in Africa would require multiple colonizations of Madagascar by strepsirrhine primates . Molecular tests may offer support , since they show that the aye @-@ aye was the first to diverge in the lemur clade and that the other lemur families did not diverge until much later . Often classified with the galagos by early students , the cheirogaleids ( dwarf and mouse lemurs ) were placed with the other lemurs from Gregory 's 1915 classification until the early 1970s , when several anthropologists proposed that they were more closely related to lorisoids , based on morphological data . However , relevant genetic studies unanimously place cheirogaleids within the lemuroid clade and Groves himself , who had promoted the cheirogaleid @-@ lorisoid relationship in a 1974 paper , by 2001 regarded the idea as refuted . Classifications in the first half of the 20th century divided lemurs into three families : Daubentoniidae , Indriidae , and Lemuridae , with the latter including the current Cheirogaleidae and Lepilemuridae . Because of concerns that Lemuridae might not be monophyletic , the family was later split ; in 1982 Tattersall separated the Cheirogaleidae for the dwarf lemurs , mouse lemurs and relatives , and the Lepilemuridae for the sportive lemurs and bamboo lemurs ( including the greater bamboo lemur ) . This classification is still used , except that the bamboo lemurs were moved back to Lemuridae . From the 1970s to the 1990s , there have been suggestions that the ruffed lemurs might be related to indriids or a sister group to Lemuridae and Indriidae and that the bamboo lemurs are related to the sportive lemurs , but neither view is supported by molecular phylogeny . The sportive lemurs and the extinct koala lemurs ( Megaladapidae ) both lack upper incisors in the permanent dentition , and in 1981 , Groves placed both together in the family Megaladapidae , which he renamed Lepilemuridae in 2005 because that older name takes precedence . Genetic research does not support a close relationship between the sportive and koala lemurs and instead places the koala lemurs as a sister group to Lemuridae ; therefore , the two are now placed in separate families ( Lepilemuridae for the sportive lemurs and Megaladapidae for the koala lemurs ) . The sloth lemurs ( Palaeopropithecidae ) and monkey lemurs ( Archaeolemuridae ) were classified as subfamilies within Indriidae as late as 1982 , but are now recognized as separate families . The relationships among the families of lemurs have been problematic and have yet to be definitively resolved . Two competing phylogenies exist based on genetic and molecular data . One approach ( Horvath et al . ) looks at a larger number of genes , but among fewer species . This results in Lemuridae being a sister group to Lepilemuridae , Cheirogaleidae , and Indriidae . The other approach ( Orlando et al . ) looks at fewer genes , but more lemur species . Using this analysis , Lepilemuridae becomes the sister group to Lemuridae , Cheirogaleidae , and Indriidae . Both phylogenies agree that the Malagasy primates are monophyletic and that Daubentoniidae ( the aye @-@ aye ) is basal to the lemuroid clade , having split off significantly earlier than the other families . However , two problems create complications for both approaches . First , the four most closely related living lemur families diverged within a narrow window of approximately 10 million years , making it much harder to distinguish the splits with molecular evidence . In addition , these families diverged from their last common ancestor approximately 42 mya ; such distant splits create a lot of noise for molecular techniques . = = Genus @-@ level classification = = Early distribution of lemur species among genera differed in a number of ways from current taxonomy . For example , the fork @-@ marked lemurs were initially placed in Lemur and then in Microcebus with the mouse lemurs before being placed in their own genus Phaner , and Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major split the Cheirogaleus medius species group of the dwarf lemurs into a separate genus Opolemur , but this was not accepted . Genus @-@ level taxonomy was largely stabilized by Schwarz in 1931 , but a number of later changes have become accepted : The ring @-@ tailed lemur , ruffed lemurs , and brown lemurs were once grouped together in the genus Lemur due to a host of morphological similarities . For instance , the skeletons of the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the brown lemurs are nearly indistinguishable . However , ruffed lemurs were reassigned to the genus Varecia in 1962 , and due to similarities between the ring @-@ tailed lemur and the bamboo lemurs , particularly in regards to molecular evidence and scent gland similarities , the brown lemurs were moved to the genus Eulemur in 1988 . The genus Lemur is now monotypic , containing only the ring @-@ tailed lemur . In 2001 , Colin Groves concluded that despite similarities , the greater bamboo lemur was sufficiently distinct from the bamboo lemurs of the genus Hapalemur to merit its own monotypic genus , Prolemur , in contrast to Schwarz 's 1931 disagreement with Pocock 's decision to separate Prolemur from Hapalemur . Originally placed in the genus Microcebus ( mouse lemurs ) , the giant mouse lemur was moved to its own genus , Mirza , in 1985 due to its larger size , morphological differences , dental characteristics , and behavior . The hairy @-@ eared dwarf lemur was first placed in the genus Cheirogaleus ( dwarf lemurs ) in 1875 and was later found to have closer affinities with Microcebus . However , its dentition and cranium structure were held sufficiently distinct to merit elevation to its own genus , Allocebus . In 1948 , paleontologist Charles Lamberton proposed a new sub @-@ genus for the giant ruffed lemurs , Pachylemur , which had previously been placed in the genus Lemur . Since the 1960s , it has been considered its own separate genus , although the two extinct species of giant ruffed lemur have sometimes been grouped under Varecia with their closest relatives . A new genus of sloth lemur , Babakotia was named in 1990 . = = Species @-@ level classification = = There is widespread disagreement on aspects of species @-@ level lemur taxonomy , particularly concerning the recent increase in the number of recognized species . According to Russell Mittermeier , the president of Conservation International ( CI ) , taxonomist Colin Groves , and others , there are currently 101 recognized species or subspecies of extant lemur , divided into five families and 15 genera . Conversely , other experts in the field label this as a possible example of taxonomic inflation , and prefer instead an estimate of at least 50 species . All sides generally agree that the recently extinct subfossil lemurs should be classified in three families , eight genera , and 17 species . Over the past two decades , the number of recognized lemur species has more than tripled according to some experts . In 1994 , 32 distinct species were named in the first edition of Conservation International 's field guide , Lemurs of Madagascar , and 68 were described in the 2nd edition , published in 2006 . In December 2008 , Russell Mittermeier , Colin Groves , and other experts co @-@ wrote an article in the International Journal of Primatology classifying 99 species and subspecies . In late 2010 , the 3rd edition of Lemurs of Madagascar listed 101 taxa . The number of lemur species is likely to continue growing in the coming years , as field studies , cytogenetic and molecular genetic research continues , particularly on cryptic species , such as mouse lemurs , which cannot be distinguished visually . This threefold increase in less than two decades has not had universal support among taxonomists and lemur researchers . In many cases , classifications ultimately depends upon which species concept is used . Due to the critical condition that most Malagasy primate populations are in , taxonomists and conservationists sometimes favor splitting them into separate species to develop an effective strategy for the conservation of the full range of lemur diversity . Implicitly , this means that full species status will help grant genetically distinct populations added environmental protection . The first large wave of new lemur species descriptions came in 2000 , when Colin Groves split two species of dwarf lemur ( Cheirogaleus ) into seven species while Rodin Rasoloarison and colleagues recognized seven species of mouse lemur in western Madagascar . Then in 2001 , Colin Groves elevated the red ruffed lemur ( Varecia rubra ) , five subspecies of brown lemur ( Eulemur albifrons , E. albocollaris , E. collaris , E. rufus and E. sanfordi ) , and four subspecies of sifaka ( Propithecus coquereli , P. deckenii , P. edwardsi , and P. perrieri ) to full species status . Additional elevations of all remaining subspecies within the Eulemur and Propithecus genera were made in the years that followed . These and subsequent changes in taxonomy were largely due to a shift to the phylogenetic species concept , and are not universally endorsed . By far the most explosive growth in species numbers ( in absolute terms ) has been in the genera Microcebus and Lepilemur . In 2006 , 15 new species of Lepilemur were described , with three new species reported in February , one in June , and 11 in September . Since then , three additional species have been described , one of which turned out to be identical to a previously described species . Genetic and morphological differences seem to suggest that they are cryptic species , but there is still debate whether these merit full species status or should be regarded as subspecies of previously identified , " core " species . Both brown lemurs and mouse lemurs were initially divided into a small number of species , either with no distinguishable subspecies ( in the case of mouse lemurs ) or with several distinguishable subspecies ( in the case of brown lemurs ) . With molecular research suggesting a more distant split in both genera , these subspecies or undistinguished populations have been promoted to species status . In the case of mouse lemurs , the rise in species numbers has been only slightly less sudden and dramatic . Classified as one species by Ernst Schwarz in 1931 ( excluding one , Coquerel 's giant mouse lemur , that is no longer classified in Microcebus ) , the genus was revised to contain two species , the gray mouse lemur ( Microcebus murinus ) and the brown mouse lemur ( M. rufus ) , after an extensive field study in 1972 showed both living in sympatry in southeastern Madagascar . At the time , the gray mouse lemur was known in the drier parts of the north , west , and south , while the brown mouse lemur inhabited the humid rainforest regions of the east . However , we now know the species diversity and distribution to be significantly more complex . Revisions throughout the 1990s and 2000s identified numerous new species through genetic testing using mitochondrial DNA , demonstrating that the genus is represented by a multitude of cryptic species . Many , but not all of these defined species have been supported by nuclear DNA tests . However , there are still concerns that species are being identified prematurely . Ian Tattersall , an anthropologist who recognized 42 species of lemur in 1982 , has expressed concern that the geographically organized variety in lemur populations is being recognized with full species status while the number of subspecies in lemur genera has virtually disappeared . He has argued that taxonomists are confusing differentiation and speciation , two processes that are often unrelated , while denying the role of microevolution in evolutionary processes . Still other researchers who emphasize the framework of the " general lineage concept of species " contend that lineage divergence or differentiation demarcates the beginning of a new species . New species have been identified due to differences in morphology , karyotypes , cytochrome b sequences , and other genetic tests , as well as several combinations of these . When nuclear DNA ( nDNA ) was tested in conjunction with mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) in mouse lemurs , a few species , such as Claire 's mouse lemur ( Microcebus mamiratra ) were demonstrated to be indistinguishable from other closely related species . In such cases , nDNA did not vary , but the mtDNA that had been used to define it as a species was still distinct . Differences in results between nDNA , which is inherited from both parents , and mtDNA , which is inherited from the mother , was attributed to female philopatry , where females remain within or close to the home range into which they were born while males disperse . Since the isolated population known as Claire 's mouse lemur has distinct mtDNA , but not nDNA , it is likely to contain a population descended from a related group of females , but which still disperses and interbreeds with nearby populations . Traditionally , karyology has been considered when determining species status . For example , in 2006 , three new species of sportive lemur were named based partly on karyotypes . From the lemurs studied so far , the diploid number of chromosomes varies between 2n = 20 and 2n = 66 . In the case of the brown lemurs , the diploid number ranges from 2n = 44 to 2n = 60 while the individual chromosome sizes vary considerably , despite strong similarities in morphology . Sometimes distinctions are made due to very slight differences in pelage coloration . For instance , three distinctly colored types of mouse lemur were discovered in a multi @-@ year study in Beza Mahafaly Reserve in southern Madagascar , but rather than being separate species , DNA tests revealed that they all belonged to a single species , the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur ( Microcebus griseorufus ) . For this reason , further research is needed to confirm or deny the recent species splits . Only through detailed studies of morphology , ecology , behavior , and genetics can the true number of lemur species be determined . = Ferb Fletcher = Ferbs " Ferb " Fletcher is a British character on the animated television series Phineas and Ferb . The character , voiced by British actor Thomas Sangster , was created by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ founders Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh and first appeared in the show 's pilot episode , " Rollercoaster . " Ferb and his stepbrother Phineas Flynn spend their days during summer vacation from school striving to have fun . They are featured in the majority of episodes as the A @-@ Plot constructing large scale inventions or taking part in other outlandish activities . Ferb , an engineering genius , allows Phineas to do most of the talking for the pair and is " more of a man of action . " When Ferb does speak , it is almost always a single sentence . In a conversation in the future time of " Phineas and Ferb 's Quantum Boogaloo " , it is revealed that he was at Camp David ( hinting that he might be the current President of the United States , although his British background would presumably rule that out ) . Ferb was named after a set @-@ builder named Frank , whose wife nicknamed him " Ferb " . Frank , a friend of both Povenmire and Marsh , owns several tools and was considered a fitting choice for Ferb 's namesake . In " Vanessassary Roughness " Ferb explains that his name is short for something , but he didn 't get to say it . On Twitter , Povenmire announced that Ferb was actually short for " Ferbs " . He cares for Vanessa Doofenshmirtz ( daughter of Dr. Heinz Doofenshmirtz ) and saves her in the same episode when she gets tangled up and a lawn mower almost gets her , but he is able to save her with a giant tool which appears to be an exaggerated version of a Swiss Army Knife . In " Summer Belongs To You " Vanessa asks Candace what Ferb is short for ; Candace realizes she doesn 't know herself what it is short for . In the fourth season episode " Act Your Age " , his teenage self appears to be in a relationship with Vanessa . Ferb 's design is based around a rectangle and also shaped like an " F " and is inspired by the style of late animator Tex Avery . As a character , Ferb has been critically well received and appears in several pieces of Phineas and Ferb merchandise , including toys , t @-@ shirts , and a video game . = = Role in Phineas and Ferb = = Ferb comes from a blended family , a premise the creators considered underused in children 's programming and which reflected Marsh 's own upbringing . Ferb 's birth mother is never revealed , but the series shows that both Ferb and his father Lawrence hail from the United Kingdom . Lawrence married Ferb 's stepmother Linda after meeting her at a 1990s concert by the ( fictitious ) band Love Händel . Marsh considers explaining the family background " not important to the kids ' lives . They are a great blended family and that 's all we need to know . " Ferb and his family live in the fictional town of Danville , in a large , suburban neighborhood . Throughout their summer vacation , Ferb and Phineas conceive outrageous schemes to defeat boredom while sitting lazily beneath a tree in their backyard . Phineas mainly conceives each project while Ferb spearheads its construction . Their activities are usually beyond the capability of a typical child and have included toy design ( in " Toy to the World " ) ; treasure @-@ hunting ( in " The Ballad of Badbeard " ) ; engineering ( in " It 's About Time ! " ) ; and restaurant management ( in " Chez Platypus " ) . Ferb 's stepsister , Candace , is always trying to get the two in trouble with their mother for their schemes , but is never able to . Ferb hardly ever speaks but he is shown to talk at random times with a British accent . Ferb had a long speech in the episode " The Lizard Whisperer " . = = Character = = = = = Creation and conception = = = Ferb was created by Phineas and Ferb co @-@ creators Dan Povenmire and Jeff " Swampy " Marsh , who originally met as layout artists on the Fox Network animated series The Simpsons . Phineas and Ferb was inspired by their boyhood memories of summer vacation ; Povenmire and Marsh both felt the theme of school in television had fallen to redundancy and wanted to create a series that took place solely in the summertime . Ferb 's name was derived from that of a mutual friend of Povenmire and Marsh named Frank , who " owns more tools than anyone [ they ] know . " Frank was a set @-@ builder who had worked building and designing sets for shows such as Star Trek : Deep Space Nine . Frank 's wife disliked Frank 's name and gave him the unusual nickname " Ferb " . = = = Design and voice = = = Ferb was given a simplistic structure so that young audiences would be able to draw him easily . As with the other characters of Phineas and Ferb , Ferb 's design is constructed of geometric shapes in homage to animator Tex Avery . Ferb 's head is based on a rectangle with a wider top than bottom . A square is used for his nose , and an egg @-@ shaped oval is used for his eyes . The eye furthest from the screen is always drawn larger than the other . Povenmire uses a nine @-@ step process to draw Ferb , starting with his head and ending with touch ups . Ferb was originally going to be voiced by actor Mitchel Musso . However , when Phineas and Ferb was picked up as a full series , Povenmire and Marsh chose to make Ferb British and cast Thomas Sangster as his voice . However , they enjoyed Musso to a level that they recast him as the voice of the character Jeremy Johnson ; although Musso no longer voices a title character , his new role allows him more lines . Sangster himself is a British actor and was among several cast members hired that hailed from England . Marsh himself had lived in the country for seven years and developed a fondness for the culture and people . = = = Personality = = = Ferb was devised as a character devoid of ill will . Marsh explained , " It was important to us that [ Phineas and Ferb ] never did anything with any animosity . They never tried to get their sister in trouble or outsmart their mother and get away with it . " Instead , he and his brother create things for the sheer enjoyment of it or to help out others ( " and for the ladies " ) ; for example , Ferb and Phineas carve Candace 's face into Mount Rushmore for her birthday , set up a roller derby for a rematch race with his Grandmother Betty Jo 's old rival , create a haunted house for their friend Isabella to cure her hiccups and make a super @-@ computer to find out what to do for their mom after being so kind to them . Povenmire and Marsh intended for Ferb 's drive to create be stem primarily from a desire to have fun , and in one episode , " Thaddeus and Thor " , Phineas openly confirms this as his and his brother 's only goal in their daily schemes – though Ferb adds that they also do it " for the ladies . " In the original pitch to overseas The Walt Disney Company executives , Povenmire and Marsh constructed storyboards and recorded them with dialogue and sound @-@ effects . As a prototype , Ferb did not speak at all . However , after considering comedy 's " big duos " including Wallace and Gromit and Jay and Silent Bob , the creators chose to have Ferb speak at least once in most episodes ( but in " Summer Belongs To You " he spoke nine times and in " The Lizard Whisperer " gives an entire short speech that lasts about 45 seconds ) , but to have him remain silent and allow Phineas to speak for him the majority of the time . Although Ferb 's taciturnity is generally not commented on in the series , Phineas mentions it while he and his brother were in England on the episode " A Hard Day 's Knight " : " I 'll be the top half since I tend to do more of the talking and you will be on the bottom part because of your long spindely legs " . Despite being quiet , Ferb is a polyglot , being able to speak in human , animal , and alien tongues . Ferb also seems to possess good insight , which is probably the main character trait , other than his silence , distinguishing his character from Phineas . Jean Yoo , an official press member for Disney Channel , notes that when Ferb does speak , " it always shows a greater understanding of the situation than his countenance would indicate . " Ferb also seems to prefer singing to talking . He usually says one sentence per episode , such as " Platypuses are the only mammals to lay eggs , " " Well , he [ Buford ] was all up in my face , " or " Candace , we [ Phineas and Ferb ] are just kids . " He also has a crush on Vanessa Doofenshmirtz . = = Reception = = Critical reception for the character has been generally positive . Emily Ashby of Common Sense Media describes him as a " go @-@ to engineering guru " and considers him and Phineas to be " partner [ s ] in crime . " Susan Stewart , reviewing the show in the New York Times , notes that Phineas and Ferb " work on a heroic scale and are apparently not limited by the laws of nature . " Josh Jackson , editor of Paste magazine , listed Ferb 's " dry wit " as the third of five reasons as to why the series is the " Best Kids Show on TV , " writing that " Ferb gets about one line per episode , but it 's always a doozy . " Ed Stetzer , Richie Stanley , and Jason Hayes , author 's the book Lost and Found : The Younger Unchurched and the Churches That Reach Them , wrote that Ferb and Phineas , along with the cast of High School Musical , are examples of creating a " whole new culture " in households . Stetzer , Stanley , and Hayes continued to write that " [ O ] ur culture has connected with media that shows not only the Cinderella and Prince Charming life we all wish for , but also the life in which we all live with real trials , real joys , and real fears . " " Backyard Beach , " a song Danny Jacob performs as Ferb in the episode " Lawn Gnome Beach Party of Terror , " became very popular among viewers and was voted as the second best song in the series by viewers in the special 2009 event , " Phineas and Ferb 's Musical Cliptastic Countdown " . The best , according to viewers , was " Gitchee Gitchee Goo " from " Flop Starz , " which Jacob performs in as Ferb . Ferb is also credited as the singer in the music video version of " My Ride from Outer Space " from the episode " The Chronicles of Meap " ( actually performed again by Danny Jacob ) . = = In other media = = Besides the series Phineas and Ferb , Ferb has been featured in several other pieces of merchandise from the series . To date , he has appeared in all Phineas and Ferb novelizations , published by Disney Press . Ferb appears in the Nintendo DS video game based on the series , simply titled Phineas and Ferb . Dan Povenmire has said that he saw nothing of the game until its release date , on which he was given a copy for free . Phineas and Ferb made a cameo on " The Straight @-@ A Team " episode of MAD when they decided to beat the Straight A @-@ Team . They appear again in the sketch " DolPhineas and Ferb Tale " where they are spoofed alongside the film Dolphin Tale . Their design in MAD was unrealistic to their regular design . Plush toys of the character , along with toys representing Phineas and Perry , have been manufactured . Ferb also appears on most of the Phineas and Ferb t @-@ shirts . Ferb is set to appear in the forthcoming comic book series based on the series , though details are unconfirmed . Costumed versions of Ferb and Phineas have appeared in Disneyland , for the pre @-@ taping of the annual Walt Disney World Christmas Day Parade . = Wreck of the RMS Titanic = The wreck of the RMS Titanic is located about 370 miles ( 600 km ) south @-@ southeast off the coast of Newfoundland , lying at a depth of about 12 @,@ 500 feet ( 3 @,@ 800 m ) . The liner sunk in 1912 on April 15 , when it hit an iceberg during her maiden voyage . The wreck lies in two main pieces about a third of a mile ( 600 m ) apart . The bow is still largely recognizable , in spite of its deterioration and the damage it suffered hitting the sea floor , and has a great deal of preserved interiors . The stern is completely ruined due to the damage it suffered while sinking 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) and hitting the ocean floor , and is now just a heap of twisted metal , which may explain why it has barely been explored during expeditions to the Titanic wreck . A substantial section of the middle of the ship broke apart and is scattered in chunks across the sea bed . A debris field covering about 5 by 3 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km × 4 @.@ 8 km ) around the wreck contains hundreds of thousands of items spilled from ship as she sank , ranging from passengers ' personal effects to machinery , furniture , utensils and coal , as well as fragments of the ship herself . The bodies of the passengers and crew once also lay in the debris field , but have since been entirely consumed by sea creatures , leaving only their shoes lying together in the mud . Until 1985 , the location and condition of the wreck were unknown . Numerous expeditions tried using sonar to map the sea bed in the hope of spotting the wreck , but failed due to a combination of bad weather , technological difficulties and poor strategy over a massive search area . The wreck was finally located , 13 @.@ 2 miles ( 21 @.@ 2 km ) from the inaccurate position transmitted by Titanic 's crew while the ship was sinking , by a joint French @-@ American expedition led by Jean @-@ Louis Michel of IFREMER and Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution . The key to its discovery was an innovative remotely controlled deep @-@ sea vehicle called Argo , which could be towed above the sea bed while its cameras transmitted pictures back to a mother ship . Titanic 's wreck has been the focus of intense interest since its discovery and has been visited by numerous expeditions , including salvage operations which have controversially recovered thousands of items which have been conserved and put on public display . The wreckage is too fragile to be raised because its condition has deteriorated in the century it has spent on the seafloor , and the deterioration has increased since its discovery . Many species of marine animals have made Titanic their home , such as rattail fish , spider crabs and brittle starfishes . The Titanic also plays host to great communities of metal @-@ eating bacteria , which as they consume the ship have created rusticles covering most of the hull . The bacteria are slowly devouring Titanic and will gradually reduce her to a spot of rust on the ocean floor with only the remaining scraps of her hull intermingled with her more durable fittings , like the propellers , the Telemotor and the Capstans , which can resist attack by microbes . Over the years after her sinking , many impractical , expensive and often physically impossible schemes have been put forward to raise the wreck from its resting place . They have included ideas such as filling the wreck with ping @-@ pong balls , injecting it with 180 @,@ 000 tons of Vaseline , or using half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to turn it into a giant iceberg that would float back to the surface . = = Salvaging Titanic = = Almost immediately after Titanic sank on 15 April 1912 , proposals were advanced to salvage her from her resting place in the North Atlantic Ocean , despite her exact location and condition being unknown . The families of several wealthy victims of the disaster – the Guggenheims , Astors , and Wideners – formed a consortium and contracted the Merritt and Chapman Derrick and Wrecking Company to raise Titanic . The project was soon abandoned as impractical as the divers could not even reach a fraction of the necessary depth , where the pressure is over 6 @,@ 000 pounds per square inch ( 410 bar ) . The lack of submarine technology at the time as well as the outbreak of World War I also put off such a project . The company considered dropping dynamite on the wreck to dislodge bodies which would float to the surface , but finally gave up after oceanographers suggested that the extreme pressure would have compressed the bodies into gelatinous lumps . ( In fact , this was incorrect . Whale falls , a phenomenon not discovered until 1987 – coincidentally , by the same submersible used for the first manned expedition to Titanic the year before – demonstrate that water @-@ filled corpses , in this case cetaceans , can sink to the bottom essentially intact . The high pressure and cold temperature of the water would have prevented significant quantities of gas forming during decomposition , preventing the bodies of Titanic victims from rising back to the surface . ) In later years , various proposals were put forward to salvage Titanic . However , all fell foul due to practical and technological difficulties , a lack of funding and , in many cases , a lack of understanding of the physical conditions at the wreck site . Charles Smith , an architect from Denver , proposed in March 1914 to attach electromagnets to a submarine which would be irresistibly drawn to the wreck 's steel hull . Having found its exact position , more electromagnets would be sent down from a fleet of barges which would winch Titanic to the surface . An estimated cost of $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( £ 35 @,@ 451 @,@ 827 today ) and its impracticality meant that the idea was not put into practice . Another proposal involved raising Titanic by means of attaching balloons to her hull using electromagnets . Once enough balloons had been attached , the ship would float gently to the surface . Again , the idea got no further than the drawing board . = = = Salvage proposals in the 1960s and 1970s = = = In the mid @-@ 1960s , a hosiery worker from Baldock named Douglas Woolley devised a plan to find Titanic using a bathyscaphe ( like Trieste , used to reach the bottom of the Mariana Trench in 1960 ) and raise the wreck by inflating nylon balloons that would be attached to her hull . The declared objective was to " bring the wreck into Liverpool and convert it to a floating museum . " The Titanic Salvage Company was established to manage the scheme and a group of businessmen from West Berlin set up an entity called Titanic @-@ Tresor to support it financially . It fell apart when its proponents found they could not overcome the problem of how the balloons would be inflated in the first place . Calculations showed that it could take ten years to generate enough gas to overcome the water pressure . A variety of audacious but equally impractical schemes were put forward during the 1970s . One proposal called for 180 @,@ 000 tons of molten wax ( or alternatively , Vaseline ) to be pumped into Titanic , lifting her to the surface . Another proposal involved filling Titanic with ping @-@ pong balls , but overlooked the fact that the balls would be crushed by the pressure long before reaching the depth of the wreck . A similar idea involving the use of Benthos glass spheres , which could survive the pressure , was scuppered when the cost of the number of spheres required was put at over $ 238 million . An unemployed haulage contractor from Walsall named Arthur Hickey proposed to turn Titanic into an iceberg , freezing the water around the wreck to encase it in a buoyant jacket of ice . This , being lighter than liquid water , would float to the surface and could be towed to shore . The BOC Group calculated that this would require half a million tons of liquid nitrogen to be pumped down to the sea bed . In his 1976 thriller Raise the Titanic ! , author Clive Cussler 's hero Dirk Pitt repairs the holes in Titanic 's hull , pumps it full of compressed air and succeeds in making it " leap out of the waves like a modern submarine blowing its ballast tanks " , a scene depicted on the posters of the subsequent film of the book . Although this was an " artistically stimulating " highlight of the film , made using a 55 ft ( 17 m ) model of Titanic , it would not have been physically possible . Robert Ballard of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution had long been interested in finding Titanic . Although early negotiations with possible backers were abandoned when it emerged that they wanted to turn the wreck into souvenir paperweights , more sympathetic backers joined Ballard to form a company named Seasonics International Ltd as a vehicle for rediscovering and exploring Titanic . In October 1977 he made his first attempt to find the ship with the aid of the Alcoa corporation 's deep sea salvage vessel Seaprobe . This was essentially a drillship with sonar equipment and cameras attached to the end of the drilling pipe . It could lift objects from the seabed using a remote @-@ controlled mechanical claw . The expedition ended in failure when the drilling pipe broke , sending 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) of pipe and $ 600 @,@ 000 worth of electronics plunging to the sea bed . In 1978 , The Walt Disney Company and National Geographic magazine considered mounting a joint expedition to find Titanic , using the aluminium submersible Aluminaut . Titanic would have been well within the submersible 's depth limits , but the plans were abandoned for financial reasons . The following year , the British billionaire financier and tycoon Sir James Goldsmith set up Seawise & Titanic Salvage Ltd with the involvement of underwater diving and photographic experts . His aim was to use the publicity of finding Titanic to promote his newly established magazine , NOW ! . An expedition to the North Atlantic was scheduled for 1980 but was cancelled due to financial difficulties . A year later , NOW ! folded after 84 issues with Goldsmith incurring huge financial losses . Fred Koehler , an electronics repairman from Coral Gables , Florida , sold his electronics shop to finance the completion of a two @-@ man deep @-@ sea submersible called Seacopter . He planned to dive to Titanic , enter the hull and retrieve a fabulous collection of diamonds rumored to be contained in the purser 's safe . However , he was unable to obtain financial backing for his planned expedition . Another proposal involved using a semi @-@ submersible platform mounted with cranes , resting on two watertight supertankers , that would winch the wreck off the seabed and carry it to shore . A proponent was quoted as saying , " It 's like the Great Wall of China – given enough time and money and people , you can do anything . " Time , money and people were not forthcoming and the proposal got no further than any of its predecessors . = = = Jack Grimm 's expeditions , 1980 – 83 = = = On 17 July 1980 , an expedition sponsored by Texan oilman Jack Grimm set off from Port Everglades , Florida , in the research vessel H.J.W. Fay . Grimm had previously sponsored expeditions to find Noah 's Ark , the Loch Ness Monster , Bigfoot , and the giant hole in the North Pole predicted by the pseudoscientific Hollow Earth hypothesis . To raise funds for his Titanic expedition , he obtained sponsorship from friends with whom he played poker , sold media rights through the William Morris Agency , commissioned a book , and obtained the services of Orson Welles to narrate a documentary . He acquired scientific support from Columbia University by donating $ 330 @,@ 000 to the Lamont – Doherty Geological Observatory for the purchase of a wide @-@ sweep sonar , in exchange for five years ' use of the equipment and the services of technicians to support it . Drs. William B. Ryan of Columbia University and Fred Spiess of Scripps Institution of Oceanography in California joined the expedition as consultants . They nearly stayed ashore when Grimm introduced them to a new consultant – a monkey called Titan , which was trained to point at a spot on the map to supposedly indicate where Titanic was . The scientists issued an ultimatum : " It 's either us or the monkey . " Grimm preferred the monkey , but was prevailed upon to leave it behind and bring the scientists instead . The results were inconclusive , as three weeks of surveying in almost continuous bad weather during July and August 1980 failed to find Titanic . The problem was exacerbated by technological limitations ; the Sea MARC sonar used by the expedition had a relatively low resolution and was a new and untested piece of equipment . It was nearly lost only 36 hours after it was first deployed when the tail was ripped off during a sharp turn , destroying the magnetometer , which would have been vital for detecting Titanic 's hull . Nonetheless it managed to survey an area of some 500 square nautical miles and identified 14 possible targets . Grimm mounted a second expedition in June 1981 aboard the research vessel Gyre , with Spiess and Ryan again joining the expedition . To increase their chances of finding the wreck , the team employed a much more capable sonar device , the Scripps Deep Tow . The weather was again very poor , but all 14 of the targets were successfully covered and found to be natural features . On the last day of the expedition , an object that looked like a propeller was found . Grimm announced on his return to Boston that Titanic had been found , but the scientists declined to endorse his identification . In July 1983 , Grimm went back a third time with Ryan aboard the research vessel Robert D. Conrad to have another look at the " propeller " . This time nothing was found and very bad weather brought an early end to the expedition . It later turned out that Sea MARC had actually passed over Titanic but had failed to detect it , while Deep Tow passed within 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of the wreck . = = Discovery = = D. Michael Harris and Jack Grimm had failed to find Titanic but their expeditions did succeed in producing fairly detailed mapping of the area in which the ship had sunk . It was clear that the position given in Titanic 's distress signals was inaccurate , which was a major expedition difficulty because it increased the search area 's already @-@ massive size . Despite the failure of his 1977 expedition , Robert Ballard had not given up hope and devised new technologies and a new search strategy to tackle the problem . The new technology was a system called Argo / Jason . This consisted of a remotely controlled deep @-@ sea vehicle called Argo , equipped with sonar and cameras and towed behind a ship , with a robot called Jason tethered to it that could roam the sea floor , take close @-@ up images and gather specimens . The images from the system would be transmitted back to a control room on the towing vessel where they could be assessed immediately . Although it was designed for scientific purposes , it also had important military applications and the United States Navy agreed to sponsor the system 's development , on condition that it was to be used to carry out a number of programmes – many still classified – for the Navy . The Navy commissioned Ballard and his team to carry out a month @-@ long expedition every year for four years , to keep Argo / Jason in good working condition . It agreed to Ballard 's proposal to use some of the time to search for Titanic once the Navy 's objectives had been met ; the search would provide an ideal opportunity to test Argo / Jason . In 1984 the Navy sent Ballard and Argo to map the wrecks of the sunken nuclear submarines USS Thresher and USS Scorpion , lost in the North Atlantic at depths of up to 9 @,@ 800 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) . The expedition found the submarines and made an important discovery . As Thresher and Scorpion sank , debris spilled out from them across a wide area of the seabed and was sorted by the currents , so that light debris drifted furthest away from the site of the sinking . This " debris field " was far larger than the wrecks themselves . By following the comet @-@ like trail of debris , the main pieces of wreckage could be found . A second expedition to map the wreck of Scorpion was mounted in 1985 . Only twelve days of search time would be left at the end of the expedition to look for Titanic . As Harris / Grimm 's unsuccessful efforts had taken more than forty days , Ballard decided that extra help would be needed . He approached the French national oceanographic agency , IFREMER , with which Woods Hole had previously collaborated . The agency had recently developed a high @-@ resolution side @-@ scan sonar called SAR and agreed to send a research vessel , Le Suroît , to survey the sea bed in the area where Titanic was believed to lie . The idea was for the French to use the sonar to find likely targets , and then for the Americans to use Argo to check out the targets and hopefully confirm whether they were in fact the wreck . The French team spent five weeks , from 5 July to 12 August 1985 , " mowing the lawn " – sailing back and forth across the 150 @-@ square @-@ mile ( 390 km2 ) target area to scan the sea bed in a series of stripes . However , they found nothing , though it turned out that they had passed within a few hundred yards of Titanic in their first run . Ballard realized that looking for the wreck itself using sonar was unlikely to be successful and adopted a different tactic , drawing on the experience of the surveys of Thresher and Scorpion ; he would look for the debris field instead , using Argo 's cameras rather than sonar . Whereas sonar could not distinguish man @-@ made debris on the sea bed from natural objects , cameras could . The debris field would also be a far bigger target , stretching a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) or longer , whereas Titanic itself was only 90 feet ( 27 m ) wide . The search required round @-@ the @-@ clock towing of Argo back and forth above the sea bed , with shifts of watchers aboard the research vessel Knorr looking at the camera pictures for any sign of debris . After a week of fruitless searching , at 12 @.@ 48 am on Sunday 1 September 1985 pieces of debris began to appear on Knorr 's screens . One of them was identified as a boiler , identical to those shown in pictures from 1911 . The following day , the main part of the wreck was found and Argo sent back the first pictures of Titanic since her sinking 73 years before . The discovery made headlines around the world . = = = Subsequent expeditions = = = = = = = 1986 – 1998 = = = = Following his discovery of the wreck site , Ballard returned to Titanic in July 1986 aboard the research vessel RV Atlantis II . Now the deep @-@ diving submersible DSV Alvin could take people back to Titanic for the first time since her sinking , and the remotely operated vehicle ( ROV ) Jason Jr. would allow the explorers to investigate the interior of the wreck . Another system , ANGUS , was used to carry out photo surveys of the debris field . Jason Jr. descended the ruined Grand Staircase as far as B Deck , and photographed remarkably well preserved interiors , including some chandeliers still hanging from the ceilings . Between 25 July and 10 September 1987 , an expedition mounted by IFREMER and a consortium of American investors which included George Tulloch , G. Michael Harris , D. Michael Harris and Ralph White made 32 dives to Titanic using the submersible Nautile . Controversially , they salvaged and brought ashore more than 1 @,@ 800 objects . A joint Russian @-@ Canadian @-@ American expedition took place in 1991 using the research vessel Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and its two MIR submersibles . Sponsored by Stephen Low and IMAX , CBS , National Geographic and others , the expedition carried out extensive scientific research with a crew of 130 scientists and engineers . The MIRs carried out 17 dives , spending over 140 hours at the bottom , shooting 40 @,@ 000 feet ( 12 @,@ 000 m ) of IMAX film . This was used to create the 1995 documentary film Titanica , which was later released in the US on DVD in a re @-@ edited version narrated by Leonard Nimoy . IFREMER and RMS Titanic Inc . , the successors to the sponsors of the 1987 expedition , returned to the wreck with Nautile and the ROV Robin in June 1993 . Over the course of fifteen days , Nautile made fifteen dives lasting between eight and twelve hours . Another 800 artefacts were recovered during the expedition including a two @-@ tonne piece of a reciprocating engine , a lifeboat davit and the steam whistle from the ship 's forward funnel . In 1993 , 1994 , 1996 , 1998 and 2000 , RMS Titanic Inc. carried out an intensive series of dives that led to the recovery of over 4 @,@ 000 items in the first two expeditions alone . The 1996 expedition controversially attempted to raise a section of Titanic itself , a section of the outer hull that originally comprised part of the wall of two First Class cabins on C Deck , extending down to D Deck . It weighed 20 tons , measured 15 by 25 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m × 7 @.@ 6 m ) and had four portholes in it , three of which still had glass in them . The section had come loose either during the sinking or as a result of the impact with the sea bed . Its recovery using diesel @-@ filled floatation bags was turned into something of an entertainment event with two cruise ships accompanying the expedition to the wreck site . Passengers were offered the chance , at $ 5 @,@ 000 per person , to watch the recovery on television screens in their cabins while enjoying luxury accommodation , Las Vegas @-@ style shows and casino gambling aboard the ships . Various celebrities were recruited to enliven the proceedings , including Burt Reynolds , Debbie Reynolds and Buzz Aldrin , and " Grand Receptions " for VIPs were scheduled on @-@ shore where the hull section would be displayed . However , the lift ended disastrously when rough weather caused the ropes supporting the bags to snap . At the moment the ropes broke , the hull section had been lifted to within only 200 feet ( 61 m ) of the surface . It hurtled 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) back down , embedding itself upright on the sea floor . Although the attempt was strongly criticised by marine archaeologists , scientists and historians as a money @-@ making publicity stunt , a second , successful attempt to lift the fragment was carried out in 1998 . The so @-@ called " Big Piece " was conserved in a laboratory in Santa Fe for two years before being put on display at the Luxor Las Vegas hotel and casino . In 1995 , Canadian director James Cameron chartered the Akademik Mstislav Keldysh and the MIRs to make 12 dives to Titanic . He used the resulting footage to considerable effect in his blockbuster 1997 film Titanic . The discovery of the wreck in 1985 and a National Geographic documentary of Ballard 's 1986 expedition had inspired Cameron to write a synopsis in 1987 of what eventually became the film Titanic : " Do story with bookends of present day scene of wreck using submersibles intercut with memories of a survivor and re @-@ created scenes of the night of the sinking . A crucible of human values under stress . " Cameron 's expedition did not salvage anything from the ship . = = = = 2000 to present = = = = The 2000 expedition by RMS Titanic Inc. carried out 28 dives during which over 800 artefacts were recovered , including the ship 's engine telegraphs , perfume vials and watertight door gears . In 2001 , an American couple – David Leibowitz and Kimberly Miller – caused controversy when they were married aboard a submersible that had set down on the bow of Titanic , in a deliberate echo of a famous scene from James Cameron 's 1997 film . The wedding was essentially a publicity stunt , sponsored by a British company called SubSea Explorer which had offered a free dive to Titanic that Leibowitz had won . He asked whether his fiancée could come too and was told that she could – but only if she agreed to get married during the trip . The same company also brought along Philip Littlejohn , the grandson of one of Titanic 's surviving crew members , who became the first relative of a Titanic passenger or crew member to visit the wreck . Cameron himself also returned to Titanic in 2001 to carry out filming for Walt Disney Pictures ' Ghosts of the Abyss , filmed in 3D . In 2003 and 2004 , the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration carried out two expeditions to Titanic . The first , carried out between 22 June and 2 July 2003 , performed four dives in two days . Its key aims were to assess the current condition of the wreck site and carry out scientific observations to support ongoing research . The stern section , which had previously received relatively little attention from explorers , was specifically targeted for analysis . The microbial colonies aboard Titanic were also a key focus of investigation . The second expedition , from 27 May – 12 June 2004 , saw the return of Robert Ballard to Titanic nearly 20 years after he discovered it . The expedition spent 11 days on the wreck , carrying out high @-@ resolution mapping using video and stereoscopic still images . 2005 saw two expeditions to the Titanic . James Cameron returned for the third and last time to film Last Mysteries of the Titanic . Another expedition searched for previously unseen pieces of wreckage , and led to the documentary Titanic 's Final Moments : Missing Pieces . RMS Titanic Inc. mounted further expeditions to Titanic in 2004 and 2010 , when the first comprehensive map of the entire debris field was produced . Two autonomous underwater vehicles – torpedo @-@ shaped robots – repeatedly ran backwards and forwards across the 3 by 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km × 8 @.@ 0 km ) debris field , taking sonar scans and over 130 @,@ 000 high @-@ resolution images . This enabled a detailed photomosaic of the debris field to be created for the first time , giving scientists a much clearer view of the dynamics of the ship 's sinking . The expedition encountered difficulties : several hurricanes passed over the wreck site , and the Remora ROV was caught in a piece of wreckage . This same year saw the discovery of the new bacteria living in the rusticles on the Titanic , Halomonas titanicae . Tourist and scientific visits to Titanic are still continuing ; by April 2012 , 100 years since the disaster and nearly 25 since the discovery of the wreck , around 140 people had visited . On 14 April 2012 ( the 100th anniversary of the ship 's sinking ) , the wreck of the Titanic became eligible for protection as a UNESCO World Heritage Site , and in the same month , Robert Ballard , the wreck 's discoverer , has announced of a plan to preserve the wreck of the Titanic by using deep @-@ sea robots to paint the wreck with anti @-@ fouling paint , to help keep the wreck in its current state for all time . The proposed plan that Ballard announced has been outlined in a documentary made to time with the Titanic 's 100th sinking anniversary called Save the Titanic With Bob Ballard where Ballard himself talks about how this proposed paint job on the wreck will work . Ballard says that he proposed to robotically clean and repaint the Titanic with a colour scheme mimicking rusticles because he saw " original anti @-@ fouling paint on the ship 's hull , which was still working even after 74 years on the seabed " when he visited the Titanic in 1986 . = = Description of the wreck = = The position of the wreck is a considerable distance from the location transmitted by the ship 's wireless operators before she went down . The initial location was given as 41 ° 44 ′ N 50 ° 24 ′ W , 20 @.@ 8 miles ( 33 @.@ 5 km ) from the wreck . A corrected location was later transmitted as 41 ° 46 ′ N 50 ° 14 ′ W , but this too was inaccurate , by 13 @.@ 2 miles ( 21 @.@ 2 km ) . Titanic is in two main pieces 370 miles ( 600 km ) south @-@ east of Mistaken Point , Newfoundland . The bow is located at 41 ° 43 ′ 57 ″ N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 ″ W and the stern is about 1 @,@ 970 feet ( 600 m ) to the south at 41 ° 43 ′ 35 ″ N 49 ° 56 ′ 54 ″ W. The boilers found by Argo , which mark the point at which the ship went down , are about 600 feet ( 180 m ) east of the stern at 41 ° 43 ′ 32 ″ N 49 ° 56 ′ 49 ″ W. The two main parts of the wreck of Titanic present a striking contrast . Although fourteen survivors testified that the ship had broken apart as she sank , this testimony was discounted by the official inquiries , and it was supposed that the ship had sunk intact . It is now clear that the stresses on Titanic caused the ship to split apart between the second and third funnels at or just below the surface . = = = Bow section = = = The bow section , which measures about 470 feet ( 140 m ) long , is thought to have descended at an angle of about 45 ° . Its distance from the stern was caused by its planing forward horizontally by about 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) for every 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) of its descent . During the descent to the sea bed , the funnels were swept away , taking with them the rigging and large lengths of cables . These dragged along the boat deck , tearing away many of the davits and much of the other deck equipment . The foremast was also torn down , falling onto the port bridge area . The ship 's wheelhouse was swept away , possibly after being hit by the falling foremast . The bow hit the bottom at a speed of about 20 knots ( 23 mph ; 37 km / h ) , digging about 60 feet ( 18 m ) deep into the mud , up to the base of the anchors . The impact bent the hull in two places and caused it to buckle downwards by about 10 ° under the forward well deck cranes and by about 4 ° under the forward expansion joint . When the bow section hit the sea bed , the weakened decks at the rear , where the ship had broken apart , collapsed on top of each other . The forward hatch cover was also blown off and landed a couple of hundred feet in front of the bow , possibly due to the force of water being pushed out as the bow impacted the bottom . The area around the bridge is particularly badly damaged ; as Robert Ballard has put it , it looks " as if it had been squashed by a giant 's fist " . Charles R. Pellegrino has proposed that this was the result of a " down @-@ blast " of water , caused by a slipstream that had followed the bow section as it fell towards the sea bed . According to Pellegrino 's hypothesis , when the bow came to an abrupt halt the inertia of the slipstream caused a rapidly moving column of water weighing thousands of tons to strike the top of the wreck , striking it near the bridge . The roof of the officers ' quarters and the sides of the gymnasium were pushed in , railings were blown outwards and vertical steel columns supporting the decks were bent into a C @-@ shape . Large parts of the bow 's interior were demolished by surges of water and violent eddies kicked up by the wreck 's sudden halt . The actual damage made by the iceberg is not visible at the bow as it is buried under mud . = = = Stern section = = = The stern section , which measures about 350 feet ( 110 m ) long , suffered catastrophic damage during the descent and in landing on the sea bed . It had not fully filled with water when it sank and the increasing water pressure caused trapped air pockets to implode , tearing apart the hull . Data from a sonar map made during a 2010 expedition showed that the stern section rotated like a helicopter blade as it sank . The rudder appears to have swung over to an angle of about 30 – 45 ° during the stern 's descent , causing the section to follow a tight spiral to the bottom . It probably struck rudder @-@ first , burying most of the rudder in the mud up to a depth of 50 feet ( 15 m ) . The decks pancaked on top of each other and the hull plating splayed out to the sides of the shattered section . The pancaking is so severe that the combined height of the decks , which are piled up on top of the reciprocating engines , is now generally not more than about 12 to 15 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) high . No individual deck is more than about 1 foot ( 30 cm ) high . Large sections of the hull plating seem to have fallen off well before the wreck hit the bottom . One such section , thought to have been from the galleys , separated from the stern in one piece and landed nearby . The force of the water tore up the poop deck and folded it back on itself . The center propeller is totally buried , while the force of the impact caused the two wing propellers and shafts to be bent upwards by an angle of about 20 ° . A large V @-@ shaped section of the ship just aft of midships , running from the keel upwards through Number 1 Boiler Room and upwards to cover the area under the third and fourth funnels , was believed to have disintegrated entirely when the ship broke up . This was one of the weakest parts of the ship as a result of the presence of two large open spaces – the forward end of the engine room and the aft First Class passenger staircase . The rest of this part of the ship are scattered across the seabed at distances of 130 to 260 feet ( 40 to 79 m ) from the main part of the stern . During the 2010 expedition to map the wreck site , a major chunk of the deck house ( the base of the third funnel ) along with pieces of the third funnel was found . This showed that instead of simply disintegrating into a mass of debris , large sections of the ship broke off in chunks and that the ship broke in half between the second and third funnels , not the third and fourth funnels . Five of the boilers from Number 1 Boiler Room came loose during its disintegration and landed in the debris field around the stern . Experts believe that this tight cluster of the boilers marks the hypocenter of where the ship broke up 12 @,@ 000 feet above . The rest of the boilers are still presumably located in the bow section . = = = Debris fields = = = As Titanic broke apart , many objects and pieces of hull were scattered across the sea bed . There are two debris fields in the vicinity of the wreck , each between 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 600 ft ( 610 – 729 m ) long , trailing in a south @-@ westerly direction from the bow and stern . They cover an area of about 2 square miles ( 5 @.@ 2 km2 ) . Most of the debris is concentrated near the stern section of Titanic . It consists of thousands of objects from the interior of the ship , ranging from tons of coal spilled from ruptured bunkers to suitcases , clothes , corked wine bottles ( many still intact despite the pressure ) , bathtubs , windows , washbasins , jugs , bowls , hand mirrors and numerous other personal effects . The debris field also includes numerous pieces of the ship itself , with the largest pieces of debris in the vicinity of the partially disintegrated stern section . = = Condition and deterioration of the wreck = = Prior to the discovery of Titanic 's wreck , in addition to the common assumption that she had sunk in one piece , it had been widely believed that conditions at 12 @,@ 000 feet down would preserve the ship virtually intact . The water is bitterly cold at only about 1 – 2 ° C ( 34 – 36 ° F ) , there is no light and the high pressure was thought to be likely to lower oxygen and salinity levels to the point that organisms would not be able to gain a foothold on the wreck . Titanic would effectively be in a deep freeze . The reality has turned out to be very different , and the ship has increasingly deteriorated since she sank in April 1912 . Her gradual decay is due to a number of different processes – physical , chemical and biological . She is situated on an undulating , gently sloping area of seabed in a small canyon swept by the Western Boundary Current . Eddies from the current flow constantly across the wreck , scouring the sea bed and keeping sediment from building up over the hull . The current is strong and often changeable , gradually opening up holes in the ship 's hull . Salt corrosion eats away at the hull and it is also affected by galvanic corrosion . The most dramatic deterioration has been caused by biological factors . It used to be thought that the depths of the ocean were a lifeless desert , but research carried out since the mid @-@ 1980s has found that the ocean floor is teeming with life and may rival the tropical rainforests for biodiversity . During the 1991 IMAX expedition , scientists were surprised by the variety of organisms that they found in and around Titanic . A total of 28 species were observed , including anemones , crabs , shrimp , starfish and rattail fish up to a yard ( 1 m ) long . Much larger creatures have been glimpsed by explorers . Some of Titanic 's fauna has never been seen anywhere else ; James Cameron 's 2001 expedition discovered a previously unknown type of sea cucumber , lavender with a glowing row of phosphorescent " portholes " along its side . A newly discovered species of bacterium found on the ship has been named Halomonas titanicae , which has been found to cause rapid decay of the wreck . Henrietta Mann , who discovered the bacteria , has estimated that the Titanic will completely collapse possibly as soon as 2025 . The Canadian geophysicist Steve Blasco has commented that the wreck " has become an oasis , a thriving ecosystem sitting in a vast desert . " The soft organic material aboard and dispersed onto the seabed around the hull would have been the first to disappear , rapidly devoured by fish and crustaceans . Wood @-@ boring molluscs such as Teredo colonized the ship 's decks and interior in huge numbers , eating away the wooden decking and other wooden objects such as furniture , paneling , doors and staircase banisters . When their food ran out they died , leaving behind calcareous tubes . The question of the victims ' bodies is one that has often troubled explorers of the wreck site . When the debris field was surveyed in Robert Ballard 's 1986 expedition , pairs of shoes were observed lying next to each other on the sea bed . The flesh , bones , and clothes had long since been consumed but the tannin in the shoes ' leather had apparently resisted the bacteria , leaving the shoes as the only markers of where a body had once lain . Ballard has suggested that skeletons may remain deep within Titanic 's hull , such as in the engine rooms or third @-@ class cabins . This has been disputed by scientists , who have estimated that the bodies would have completely disappeared by the early 1940s at the latest . In any event , the molluscs and scavengers did not consume everything organic . Some of the wooden objects on the ship and in the debris field have not been consumed , particularly those made of teak , a dense wood that seems to have resisted the borers . The First Class reception area off the ship 's Grand Staircase is still remarkably intact and furniture is still visible among the debris on the floor . Although most of the corridors have lost their walls , furniture is still in place in many cabins ; in one , a mattress is still on the bed , with an intact and undamaged dresser behind it . Robert Ballard has suggested that areas within the ship or buried under debris , where scavengers may not have been able to reach , may still contain human remains . According to Charles Pellegrino , who dived on Titanic in 2001 , a finger bone encircled by the partial remains of a wedding ring was found concreted to the bottom of a soup tureen that was retrieved from the debris field . It was returned to the sea bed on the next dive . The longest @-@ lasting inhabitants of Titanic are likely to be bacteria and archaea which have colonized the metal hull of the ship . They have produced " reddish @-@ brown stalactites of rust [ hanging ] down as much as several feet , looking like long needle @-@ like icicles " , as Robert Ballard has put it . The formations , which Ballard dubbed " rusticles " , are extremely fragile and disintegrate in a cloud of particles if touched . The bacteria consume the iron in the hull , oxidizing it and leaving rust particles behind as a waste product . To protect themselves from the seawater , they secrete an acidic viscous slime that flows where gravity takes it , carrying ferric oxides and hydroxides . These form the rusticles . When scientists were able to retrieve a rusticle , it was discovered that it was far more complex than had been imagined , with complex systems of roots infiltrating the metal , interior channels , bundles of fibers , pores and other structures . Charles Pellegrino comments that they seem more akin to " levels of tissue organization found in sponges or mosses and other members of the animal or plant kingdoms . " The bacteria are estimated to be consuming Titanic 's hull at the rate of 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) per day . Roy Collimore , a microbiologist , estimates that the bow alone now supports some 650 tons of rusticles and that they will have devoured fifty per cent of the hull within 200 years . Since Titanic 's wreck was discovered in 1985 , radical changes have been observed in the marine ecosystem around the ship . The 1996 expedition recorded 75 per cent more brittle stars and sea cucumbers than Ballard 's 1985 expedition , while crinoids and sea squirts had taken root all over the sea bed . Red krill had appeared and an unknown organism had built numerous nests across the seabed from black pebbles . The amount of rusticles on the ship had increased greatly . Curiously , the same thing had happened over about the same timescale to the wreck of the German battleship Bismarck , sunk at a depth of 4 @,@ 791 metres ( 15 @,@ 719 ft ) on the other side of the Atlantic . The mud around the ship was found to contain hundreds of different species of animals . The sudden explosion of life around Titanic may be a result of an increased amount of nutrients falling from the surface , possibly a result of human overfishing eliminating fish that would otherwise have consumed the nutrients . Many scientists , including Robert Ballard , are concerned that visits by tourists in submersibles and the recovery of artefacts are causing the wreck to decay faster . Underwater bacteria have been eating away at Titanic 's steel and transformed it into rust since the ship sank , but because of the extra damage caused by visitors , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration estimates that " the hull and structure of the ship may collapse to the ocean floor within the next 50 years . " The promenade deck has deteriorated significantly in recent years , partly because of damage caused by submersibles landing on the ship . The mast has almost completely deteriorated and has been stripped of its bell and brass light . Other damage includes a gash on the bow section where block letters once spelled Titanic , part of the brass telemotor which once held the ship 's wooden wheel is now twisted and the crow 's nest has completely deteriorated . The Canadian director James Cameron is responsible for some of the more significant damage during his expedition to the ship in mid @-@ 1995 to acquire footage for his 1997 film Titanic . One of the MIR submersibles used on the expedition collided with the hull , damaging both and leaving fragments of the submersible 's propeller shroud scattered around the superstructure . Captain Smith 's quarters were heavily damaged by the collapse of the external bulkhead , which exposed the cabin 's interior . = = Ownership = = Titanic 's discovery in 1985 sparked a debate over the ownership of the wreck and the valuable items inside and on the sea bed around it . Ballard and his crew did not bring up any artifacts from the wreck , considering such an act to be tantamount to grave robbing . Ballard has since argued strongly " that it be left unmolested by treasure seekers " . As Ballard has put it , the development of deep @-@ sea submersibles has made " the great pyramids of the deep .... accessible to man . He can either plunder them like the grave robbers of Egypt or protect them for the countless generations which will follow ours . " However , within only two weeks of the discovery , a British insurance company claimed that it owned the wreck , and several more schemes to raise it were announced . A Belgian entrepreneur offered trips to Titanic for $ 25 @,@ 000 a head . Spurred by Ballard 's appeals for the wreck to be left alone , North Carolina Congressman Walter B. Jones , Jr. introduced the RMS Titanic Maritime Memorial Act in the United States House of Representatives in 1986 . It called for strict scientific guidelines to be introduced to govern the exploration and salvage of Titanic and urged the United States Secretary of State to lobby Canada , the United Kingdom and France to pass similar legislation . It passed the House and Senate by an overwhelming majority and was signed into law by President Ronald Reagan on 21 October 1986 . However , the law has been ineffective as the wreck lies outside United States waters , and the Act was set aside by the United States District for the Eastern District of Virginia , Norfolk Division , in 1998 . Although negotiations among the four countries were carried out between 1997 and 2000 , the resulting " Agreement Concerning the Shipwrecked Vessel R.M.S. Titanic " has been ratified by only the US and the UK . = = = Litigation and controversy = = = Only a few days after Ballard 's discovery of the wreck , Jack Grimm – the author of the unsuccessful early 1980s attempts to find Titanic – claimed ownership of it on the grounds that he had allegedly been the first to find it . He announced that he intended to begin salvaging the wreck . He said that he " [ couldn 't ] see them just lie there and be absorbed by the ocean floor . What possible harm can [ salvage ] do to this mass of twisted steel ? " Titanic Ventures Inc . , a Connecticut @-@ based consortium , co @-@ sponsored a survey and salvage operation in 1987 with the French oceanographic agency IFREMER . The expedition produced an outcry , not least because of the damage that it caused to the wreck . When the crow 's nest bell was pulled from the mast , the crow 's nest itself , where the lookouts first saw the iceberg , collapsed . A Titanic survivor , Eva Hart , was outspoken in her condemnation of what many saw as the looting of a mass grave : " To bring up those things from a mass sea grave just to make a few thousand pounds shows a dreadful insensitivity and greed . The grave should be left alone . They 're simply going to do it as fortune hunters , vultures , pirates ! " Public misgivings were increased when , on 28 October 1987 , a glitzy television program titled Return to the Titanic Live was broadcast from the Cité des Sciences et de l 'Industrie in Paris with Telly Savalas hosting . In front of a live TV audience , a valise recovered from the sea bed was opened , revealing a number of personal items apparently belonging to Richard L. Beckwith of New York , who survived the sinking . A safe was also opened , revealing a few items of memorabilia and some soggy banknotes . The tone of the event has been described by one commentator as " unsympathetic , lack [ ing ] dignity and finesse , and [ with ] all the superficial qualities of a ' media event ' . " The TV critic of The New York Times , John Corry , called the event " a combination of the sacred and profane and sometimes the downright silly . " Paul Heyer comments that it was " presented as a kind of deep sea striptease " and that Savalas " seemed haggard , missed several cues and at one point almost tripped over a chair " . Controversy persisted after the broadcast when claims were made that the safe had been opened beforehand and that the show had effectively been a fraud . In the meantime , Marex @-@ Titanic Inc. was formed in 1992 to launch an expedition to the Titanic . Marex @-@ Titanic 's CEO was James Kollar . The company was a subsidiary of Marex International , an international marine salvage firm located in Memphis , Tennessee . In 1992 Marex made a bid to seize control of the artefacts and the wreck itself by suing Titanic Ventures , arguing that the latter had abandoned its claim by not returning to the wreck since the 1987 expedition . It claimed a superior right of salvage based on a " pill bottle " and hull fragment that were said to have been retrieved by Marex . Marex simultaneously sent a vessel , the Sea Mussel , to carry out its own salvage operation . However , the Marex artefacts were alleged to have been illegally retrieved by the 1991 Russian @-@ American @-@ Canadian expedition and Marex was issued with a temporary injunction preventing it from carrying out its plans . In October 1992 the injunction was made permanent and the salvage claims of Titanic Ventures were upheld . The decision was later reversed by an appeals court but Marex 's claims were not renewed . Even so , Titanic Ventures ' control of the artefacts recovered in 1987 remained in question until 1993 when a French administrator in the Office of Maritime Affairs of the Ministry of Equipment , Transportation , and Tourism awarded the company title to the artefacts . In May 1993 Titanic Ventures sold its interests in the salvage operations and artefacts to RMS Titanic Inc . , a subsidiary of Premier Exhibitions Inc. headed by George Tulloch and Arnie Geller . It had to go through a laborious legal process of having itself legally recognised as the sole and exclusive salvager of the wreck . Its claim was opposed for a while by the Liverpool and London Steamship Protection and Indemnity Association , Titanic 's former insurer , but was eventually settled . It was awarded ownership and salvaging rights by the United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia on 7 June 1994 in a ruling that declared the company to be the " salvor in possession " of the wreck . Litigation has continued over the artefacts in recent years . In a motion filed on 12 February 2004 , RMS Titanic Inc. requested that the United States district court enter an order awarding it " title to all the artifacts ( including portions of the hull ) which are the subject of this action pursuant to the Law of Finds " or , in the alternative , a salvage award in the amount of $ 225 million . RMS Titanic Inc. excluded from its motion any claim for an award of title to the objects recovered in 1987 ,	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
's crow 's nest in the course of retrieving the bell . Its predecessor Titanic Ventures agreed with IFREMER that it would not sell any of the artefacts but would put them on public display , for which it could charge an entry fee . Tulloch 's approach has undoubtedly resulted in outcomes that would not have been possible otherwise . In 1991 , he presented Edith Brown Haisman , a 96 @-@ year @-@ old survivor of the disaster , with her father 's pocket watch which had been retrieved from the sea bed . She had last seen it on 15 April 1912 when he waved goodbye to his wife and daughter as they left aboard lifeboat 14 . They never saw him again and he presumably went down with the ship . The watch was loaned to Haisman " for life " ; when she died four years later it was reclaimed by RMS Titanic Inc . On another occasion , a steamer trunk spotted in the debris field was found to contain three musical instruments , a deck of playing cards , a diary belonging to one Howard Irwin , and a bundle of letters from his girlfriend Pearl Shuttle . It was first thought that Irwin , a musician and professional gambler , had boarded the ship under a false identity . There was no record of him being among the passengers , even though a ticket had been purchased for him . It turned out that he had stayed ashore but his trunk had been brought aboard the ship by his friend Henry Sutehall , who was among the victims of the disaster . The fragile contents of the trunk were preserved due to the interior being starved of oxygen , which prevented bacteria from consuming the paper . Very few other shipwrecks have yielded readable paper . On the other hand , the heavily commercialised approach of RMS Titanic Inc. has caused repeated controversy and many have argued that salvaging Titanic is an inherently disrespectful act . The wreck site has been called a " tomb and a reliquary " , a " gravestone for the 1 @,@ 500 people who died " and " hallowed ground " . Titanic historians John Eaton and Charles Haas argue that the salvagers are little more than " plunderers and armchair salvage experts " and others have characterised them as " grave robbers " . The Return to Titanic ... Live ! television show in 1987 was widely condemned as a " circus " , though the 1987 expedition 's scientific and financial leaders had no control over the show . In a particularly controversial episode , RMS Titanic Inc. sold some 80 @,@ 000 lumps of coal retrieved from the debris field in order to fund the rumoured $ 17 million cost of lifting the " Big Piece " of the ship 's hull . It attempted to get around the no @-@ sale agreement with IFREMER by charging the new owners a $ 25 " fee " to act as " conservators " , in order to claim that the coal lumps had not actually been sold . This attracted strong criticism from all sides . Nonetheless , in 1999 Tulloch was ousted by the company 's shareholders and was replaced by Arnie Geller , who promised a more aggressive approach to making a profit . The company declared that it had an " absolute right " to sell recovered gold , coins and currency . It was prevented from doing this by a court order in the United States and IFREMER withdrew its cooperation and its submersibles , threatening a lawsuit . = = Exhibitions of Titanic artifacts = = Objects from Titanic have been exhibited for many years , though only a few were retrieved before the discovery of the wreck in 1985 . The Maritime Museum of the Atlantic in Halifax , Nova Scotia has a collection of wooden fragments and an intact deckchair plucked from the sea by the Canadian search vessels that recovered the victims ' bodies . Various other museums , including the National Maritime Museum in Greenwich and the SeaCity Museum in Southampton , have objects donated by survivors and relatives of victims , including some items that were retrieved from the bodies of victims . More donated Titanic artefacts are to be found in the Merseyside Maritime Museum in Liverpool and the Titanic Historical Society 's museum in Indian Orchard , Springfield , Massachusetts . The latter 's collection includes items such as the life jacket of Madeleine Astor , the wife of millionaire Titanic victim John Jacob Astor IV , a rivet which was removed from the hull before Titanic went to sea , an ice warning which never reached the bridge , a restaurant menu and a sample square of carpet from a First Class stateroom . RMS Titanic Inc. organises large @-@ scale exhibitions around the world of artefacts retrieved from the wreck site . After minor exhibitions were held in Paris and Scandinavia , the first major exhibition of recovered artefacts was held at the National Maritime Museum in 1994 – 95 . It was hugely popular , drawing an average of 21 @,@ 000 visitors a week during the year @-@ long exhibition . Since then , RMS Titanic Inc. has established a large @-@ scale permanent exhibition of Titanic artefacts at the Luxor hotel and casino in Las Vegas , Nevada . The 25 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 300 m2 ) exhibit is the home of the " Big Piece " of the hull retrieved in 1998 and features conserved items including luggage , Titanic 's whistles , floor tiles and an unopened bottle of champagne . The exhibit includes a full @-@ scale replica of the ship 's Grand Staircase and part of the Promenade Deck , and even a mock @-@ up of the iceberg . It also runs a travelling exhibition called Titanic : The Artifact Exhibition which has opened in various cities around the world and has been seen by over 20 million people . The exhibition typically runs for six to nine months featuring a combination of artefacts , reconstructions and displays of the ship , her passengers and crew and the disaster itself . In a similar fashion to the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington , D.C. , visitors are given a " boarding pass " in the name of an individual passenger at the start of the exhibition . They do not discover the fate of their assigned passenger until the end . = Germany – Japan relations = The Germany – Japan relations ( Japanese : 日独関係 , Hepburn : Nichidokukankei ) and German : Deutsch @-@ japanische Beziehungen ) were established in 1860 with the first ambassadorial visit to Japan from Prussia ( which predated the formation of the German Empire in 1866 / 1870 ) . Japan modernized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1867 , often using German models through intense intellectual and cultural exchange . After 1900 Japan aligned itself with Britain , and Germany and Japan were enemies in World War I. Japan declared war on Germany in 1914 and seized key German possessions in China and the Pacific . In the 1930s , both countries adopted aggressive militaristic attitudes toward their respective regions . This led to a rapprochement and , eventually , a political and military alliance that included Italy : the " Axis " . During the Second World War , however , the Axis was limited by the great distances between the Axis powers ; for the most part , Japan and Germany fought separate wars , and eventually surrendered separately . After the Second World War , the economies of both nations experienced rapid recoveries ; bilateral relations , now focused on economic issues , were soon re @-@ established . Today , Japan and Germany are , respectively , the third and fourth largest economies in the world , and benefit greatly from many kinds of political , cultural , scientific and economic cooperation . According to a late 2012 Bertelsmann Foundation Poll , the Germans view Japan overwhelmingly positively , and regard that nation as less a competitor and more a partner . The Japanese views of Germany are positive as well , with 97 % viewing Germany positively and only 3 % viewing Germany negatively . = = Country comparison = = = = History = = = = = First contacts and end of Japanese isolation ( before 1871 ) = = = Relations between Japan and Germany date from the Tokugawa shogunate ( 1603 – 1868 ) , when Germans in Dutch service arrived in Japan to work for the Dutch East India Company ( VOC ) . The first well @-@ documented cases are those of the physicians Engelbert Kaempfer ( 1651 – 1716 ) and Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold ( 1796 – 1866 ) in the 1820s and 1860s respectively . Both accompanied the director of the Dutch trading post at Dejima on the obligatory voyage to Edo to pay tribute to the Shogun . Siebold became the author of Nippon , Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan ( Nippon , Archive For The Description of Japan ) , one of the most valuable sources of information on Japan well into the 20th century ; since 1979 his achievements have been recognised with an annual German award in his honour , the Philipp Franz von Siebold @-@ Preis , granted to Japanese scientists . Von Siebold 's second visit to Japan ( 1859 @-@ 1862 ) became a disaster because he tried to influence Dutch politics in Japan and tried to obtain a permanent post as a diplomat in that country . In 1854 the United States pressured Japan into the Convention of Kanagawa , which ended Japan 's isolation , but was considered an " unequal treaty " by the Japanese public , since the US did not reciprocate most of Japan 's concessions with similar privileges . In many cases Japan was effectively forced into a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of foreign residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system , open up ports for trade , and later even allow Christian missionaries to enter the country . Shortly after the end of Japan 's seclusion , in a period called " Bakumatsu " ( 幕末 , " End of the Shogunate " ) , the first German traders arrived in Japan . In 1860 Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg led the Eulenburg Expedition to Japan as ambassador from Prussia , a leading regional state in the German Confederation at that time . After four months of negotiations , another " unequal treaty " , officially dedicated to amity and commerce , was signed in January 1861 between Prussia and Japan . Despite being considered one of the numerous unjust negotiations pressed on Japan during that time , the Eulenburg Expedition , and both the short- and long @-@ term consequences of the treaty of amity and commerce , are today honoured as the beginning of official Japanese @-@ German relations . To commemorate its 150th anniversary , events were held in both Germany and Japan from autumn 2010 through autumn 2011 hoping " to ' raise the treasures of [ their ] common past ' in order to build a bridge to the future . " = = = = Japanese diplomatic mission in Prussia = = = = In 1863 , three years after von Eulenburg 's visit in Tokyo , a Shogunal legation arrived at the Prussian court of King Wilhelm I and was greeted with a grandiose ceremony in Berlin . After the treaty was signed , Max von Brandt became diplomatic representative in Japan – first representing Prussia , and after 1866 representing the North German Confederation , and by 1871 representing the newly established German Empire . In 1868 the Tokugawa Shogunate was overthrown and the Empire of Japan under Emperor Meiji was established . With the return of power to the Tenno Dynasty , Japan demanded a revocation of the " unequal treaties " with the western powers and a civil war ensued . During the conflict , German weapons trader Henry Schnell counselled and supplied weapons to the Daimyo of Nagaoka , a land lord loyal to the Shogunate . One year later , the war ended with the defeat of the Tokugawa and the renegotiation of the " unequal treaties " . = = = Modernization of Japan and educational exchange ( 1871 – 1885 ) = = = With the start of the Meiji period ( 1868 – 1912 ) , many Germans came to work in Japan as advisors to the new government as so @-@ called " oyatoi gaikokujin " ( お雇い外国人 , " hired foreigners " ) and contributed to the modernization of Japan , especially in the fields of medicine ( Leopold Mueller , 1824 – 1894 ; Julius Scriba , 1848 – 1905 ; Erwin Bälz , 1849 – 1913 ) , law ( K. F. Hermann Roesler , 1834 – 1894 ; Albert Mosse , 1846 – 1925 ) and military affairs ( K. W. Jacob Meckel , 1842 – 1906 ) . Meckel had been invited by Japan 's government in 1885 as an advisor to the Japanese general staff and as teacher at the Army War College . He spent three years in Japan , working with influential persons including Katsura Tarō and Kawakami Soroku , thereby decisively contributing to the modernization of the Imperial Japanese Army . Meckel left behind a loyal group of Japanese admirers , who , after his death , had a bronze statue of him erected in front of his former army college in Tokyo . Overall , the Imperial Japanese Army intensively oriented its organization along Prusso @-@ German lines when building a modern fighting force during the 1880s . The French model that had been followed by the late shogunate and the early Meiji government was gradually replaced by the Prussian model under the leadership of officers such as Katsura Taro and Nogi Maresuke . In 1889 the ‘ Constitution of the Empire of Japan ’ was promulgated , greatly influenced by German legal scholars Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein , whom the Meiji oligarch and future Prime Minister of Japan Itō Hirobumi ( 1841 – 1909 ) visited in Berlin and Vienna in 1882 . At the request of the German government , Albert Mosse also met with Hirobumi and his group of government officials and scholars and gave a series of lectures on constitutional law , which helped to convince Hirobumi that the Prussian @-@ style monarchical constitution was best @-@ suited for Japan . In 1886 Mosse was invited to Japan on a three @-@ year contract as " hired foreigner " to the Japanese government to assist Hirobumi and Inoue Kowashi in drafting the Meiji Constitution . He later worked on other important legal drafts , international agreements , and contracts and served as a cabinet advisor in the Home Ministry , assisting Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo in establishing the draft laws and systems for local government . Dozens of Japanese students and military officers also went to Germany in the late 19th century , to study the German military system and receive military training at German army educational facilities and within the ranks of the German , mostly the Prussian army . For example , later famous writer Mori Rintarô ( Mori Ōgai ) , who originally was an army doctor , received tutoring in the German language between 1872 and 1874 , which was the primary language for medical education at the time . From 1884 to 1888 , Ōgai visited Germany and developed an interest in European literature producing the first translations of the works of Goethe , Schiller , and Gerhart Hauptmann . = = = Cooling of relations and World War I ( 1885 – 1920 ) = = = At the end of the 19th century , Japanese – German relations cooled due to Germany ’ s , and in general Europe 's , imperialist aspirations in East Asia . After the conclusion of the First Sino @-@ Japanese War in April 1895 , the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed , which included several territorial cessions from China to Japan , most importantly Taiwan and the eastern portion of the bay of the Liaodong Peninsula including Port Arthur . However , Russia , France and Germany grew wary of an ever @-@ expanding Japanese sphere of influence and wanted to take advantage of China 's bad situation by expanding their own colonial possessions instead . The frictions culminated in the so @-@ called " Triple Intervention " on 23 April 1895 , when the three powers " urged " Japan to refrain from acquiring its awarded possessions on the Liaodong Peninsula . In the following years , Wilhelm II ’ s nebulous fears of a “ Yellow Peril ” – a united Asia under Japanese leadership , led to further Japanese – German estrangement . Wilhelm II also introduced a regulation to limit the number of members of the Japanese army to come to Germany to study the military system . Another stress test for German – Japanese relations was the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 / 05 , during which Germany strongly supported Russia . This circumstance triggered the Japanese foreign ministry to proclaim that any ship delivering coal to Russian vessels within the war zone would be sunk . After the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Germany insisted on reciprocity in the exchange of military officers and students , and in the following years , several German military officers were sent to Japan to study the Japanese military , which , after its victory over the tsarist army became a promising organization to study . However , Japan 's growing power and influence also caused increased distrust on the German side . The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German – Japanese relations had truly deteriorated . On 7 August 1914 , only two days after Britain declared war on the German Empire , the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters . Japan , eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South @-@ East Asia , especially on China 's coast , sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914 , which was left unanswered . Japan then formally declared war on the German Empire on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain , France and the Russian Empire to seize the German @-@ held Caroline , Marshall , and Mariana Islands in the Pacific . The only major battle that took place between Japan and Germany was the siege of the German @-@ controlled Chinese port of Tsingtao in Kiautschou Bay . The German forces held out from August until November 1914 , under a total Japanese / British blockade , sustained artillery barrages and manpower odds of 6 : 1 – a fact that gave a morale boost during the siege as well as later in defeat . After Japanese troops stormed the city , the German dead were buried at Tsingtao and the remaining troops were transported to Japan where they were treated with respect at places like the Bandō Prisoner of War camp . In 1919 , when the German Empire formally signed the Treaty of Versailles , all prisoners of war were set free and returned to Europe . Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles , which stipulated harsh repercussions for Germany . In the Pacific , Japan gained Germany 's islands north of the equator ( the Marshall Islands , the Carolines , the Marianas , the Palau Islands ) and Kiautschou / Tsingtao in China . Article 156 of the Treaty also transferred German concessions in Shandong to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to China , an issue soon to be known as Shandong Problem . Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations , and a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement influenced China not to sign the treaty . China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921 . This fact greatly contributed to Germany relying on China , and not Japan , as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years . = = = Rapprochement , Axis and World War II ( 1920 – 1945 ) = = = After Germany had to cede most of former German New Guinea and Kiautschou / Tsingtao to Japan and with an intensifying Sino @-@ German cooperation , relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead . Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf , who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928 , cultural exchange was strengthened again , culminating in the re @-@ establishment of the " German @-@ Japanese Society " ( 1926 ) , the founding of the " Japanese @-@ German Cultural Society " ( 1927 ) , and of the " Japanese @-@ German Research Institute " ( 1934 ) . A temporary strain was put on German @-@ Japanese rapprochement in June 1935 , when the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement was signed between the United Kingdom and Nazi Germany , one of many attempts by Adolf Hitler to improve relations between the two countries . After all , Hitler had already laid down his plans in Mein Kampf , in which he identified England as a promising partner , but also defined Japan as a target of " international Jewry " , and thus a possible ally : It was not in the interests of Great Britain to have Germany annihilated , but primarily a Jewish interest . And to @-@ day the destruction of Japan would serve British political interests less than it would serve the far @-@ reaching intentions of those who are leading the movement that hopes to establish a Jewish world @-@ empire . At the time , many Japanese politicians , including Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto ( who was an outspoken critic of an alliance with Nazi Germany ) , were shocked by the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement . Nevertheless , the leaders of the military clique then in control in Tokyo concluded that it was a ruse designed to buy the Nazis time to match the British navy . = = = = Consolidation of cooperation = = = = Tokyo 's military leaders proceeded to devise plans assuring the Empire 's supply with resources by eventually creating a " Greater East Asia Co @-@ Prosperity Sphere " . In general , further expansion was envisioned – either northwards , attacking the Soviet Union , a plan which was called Hokushin @-@ ron , or by seizing French , Dutch and / or British colonies to the south , a concept dubbed " Nanshin " . Hitler , on the other hand , never desisted from his plan to conquer new territories in Eastern Europe for Lebensraum ; thus , conflicts with Poland and later with the Soviet Union seemed inevitable . The first legal consolidation of German @-@ Japanese mutual interests occurred in 1936 , when the two countries then signed the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , which was directed against the Communist International ( Comintern ) in general and the Soviet Union in particular . After the signing , Nazi Germany 's government also included the Japanese people in their concept of " honorary Aryans " . Yasuhito , Prince Chichibu then attended the 1937 Nuremberg Rally in Germany and met Adolf Hitler , with whom he tried to boost personal relations . Fascist Italy , led by Benito Mussolini joined the pact the same year , initiating the formation of the so @-@ called Axis between Rome , Berlin and Tokyo . Originally , Germany had a very close relationship with the Chinese nationalist government , even providing military aid and assistance to the Republic of China . Relations soured after the outbreak of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War on 7 July 1937 , and when China shortly thereafter concluded the Sino @-@ Soviet Non @-@ Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union . Eventually Hitler concluded that Japan , not China , would be a more reliable geostrategic partner , notwithstanding the superior Sino @-@ German economic relationship and chose to end his alliance with the Chinese as the price of gaining an alignment with the more modern and powerful Japan . In a May 1938 address to the Reichstag , Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo , the Japanese @-@ occupied puppet state in Manchuria , and renounced the German claims to the former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan . Hitler ordered the end of arm shipments to China , as well as the recall of all German officers attached to the Chinese Army . Despite this move , however , Hitler retained his general perception of neither the Japanese nor the Chinese civilizations being inferior to the German one . In The Political Testament of Adolf Hitler , he wrote : Pride in one 's own race – and that does not imply contempt for other races – is also a normal and healthy sentiment . I have never regarded the Chinese or the Japanese as being inferior to ourselves . They belong to ancient civilizations , and I admit freely that their past history is superior to our own . They have the right to be proud of their past , just as we have the right to be proud of the civilization to which we belong . Indeed , I believe the more steadfast the Chinese and the Japanese remain in their pride of race , the easier I shall find it to get on with them . During the late 1930s , though motivated by political and propaganda reasons , several cultural exchanges between Japan and Germany took place . A focus was put on youth exchanges , and numerous mutual visits were conducted ; for instance , in late 1938 , the ship Gneisenau carried a delegation of 30 members of the Hitlerjugend to Tokyo for a study visit . In 1938 , representative measures for embracing the German @-@ Japanese partnership were sought and the construction of a new Japanese embassy building in Berlin was started . After the preceding embassy had to give way to Hitler 's and Albert Speer 's plans of re @-@ modeling Berlin to the world capital city of Germania , a new and more pompous building was erected in a newly established diplomatic district next to the Tiergarten . It was conceived by Ludwig Moshamer under the supervision of Speer and was placed opposite the Italian embassy , thereby bestowing an architectural emphasis on the Rome @-@ Berlin @-@ Tokyo axis . Despite tentative plans for a joint German @-@ Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan 's decision to not expand northward ( i.e. , against the USSR ) but to the south . The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets , the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol , thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army , lacking heavy tanks and the like , would be in no position to challenge the Red Army at that time . Nevertheless , Hitler 's anti @-@ Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan , since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union , either actively by invading southeast Siberia , or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army , which was fearing an attack of Japan 's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo , numbering ca . 700 @,@ 000 men as of the late 1930s . In contrast to his actual plans , Hitler 's concept of stalling – in combination with his frustration with a Japan embroiled in seemingly endless negotiations with the United States , and tending against a war with the USSR – led to a temporary cooperation with the Soviets in the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact , which was signed in August 1939 . Neither Japan nor Italy had been informed beforehand of Germany 's pact with the Soviets , demonstrating the constant subliminal mistrust between Nazi Germany and its partners . After all , the pact not only stipulated the division of Poland between both signatories in a secret protocol , but also rendered the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact more or less irrelevant . In order to remove the strain that Hitler 's move had put on German – Japanese relations , the " Agreement for Cultural Cooperation between Japan and Germany " was signed in November 1939 , only a few weeks after Germany and the Soviet Union had concluded their invasion of Poland and Great Britain and France declared war on Nazi Germany . Over the following year , Japan also proceeded with its expansion plans . The Invasion of French Indochina on 22 September 1940 ( which by then was controlled by the collaborating government of Vichy France ) , and Japan 's ongoing bloody conflict with China , put a severe strain on American @-@ Japanese relations . On 26 July 1940 , the United States had passed the Export Control Act , cutting oil , iron and steel exports to Japan . This containment policy was Washington 's warning to Japan that any further military expansion would result in further sanctions . However , such US moves were interpreted by Japan 's militaristic leaders as signals that they needed to take radical measures to improve the Empire 's situation , thereby driving Japan closer to Germany . = = = = Formation of the Axis = = = = With Nazi Germany not only having conquered most of continental Europe including France , but also maintaining the impression of a Britain facing imminent defeat , Tokyo interpreted the situation in Europe as proof of a fundamental and fatal weakness in western democracies . Japan 's leadership concluded that the current state of affairs had to be exploited and subsequently started to seek even closer cooperation with Berlin . Hitler , for his part , not only feared a lasting stalemate with Britain , but also had started planning an invasion of the Soviet Union . These circumstances , together with a shortage in raw materials and food , increased Berlin 's interest in a stronger alliance with Japan . German foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop was sent to negotiate a new treaty with Japan , whose relationships with Germany and Italy , the three soon to be called " Axis powers " , were cemented with the Tripartite Pact of 27 September 1940 . The purpose of the Pact , directed against an unnamed power presumed to be the United States , was to deter that power from supporting Britain , thereby not only strengthening Germany 's and Italy 's cause in the North African Campaign and the Mediterranean theatre , but also weakening British colonies in South @-@ East Asia in advance of a Japanese invasion . The treaty stated that the three countries would respect each other 's " leadership " in their respective spheres of influence , and would assist each other if attacked by an outside party . However , already @-@ ongoing conflicts , as of the signing of the Pact , were explicitly excluded . With this defensive terminology , aggression on the part of a member state toward a non @-@ member state would result in no obligations under the Pact . These limitations can be interpreted as a symptom of the German @-@ Japanese relations of that time being driven by mutual self @-@ interest , underpinned by the shared militarist , expansionist and nationalistic ideologies of their respective governments . Another decisive limitation in the German @-@ Japanese alliance were the fundamental differences between the two nation 's policies towards Jews . With Nazi Germany 's well @-@ known attitude being extreme Antisemitism , Japan refrained from adopting any similar posture . On 31 December 1940 , Japanese foreign minister Yōsuke Matsuoka , a strong proponent of the Tripartite Pact , told a group of Jewish businessmen : I am the man responsible for the alliance with Hitler , but nowhere have I promised that we would carry out his anti @-@ Semitic policies in Japan . This is not simply my personal opinion , it is the opinion of Japan , and I have no compunction about announcing it to the world . On a similar note , both countries would continue to conceal any war crimes committed by the other side for the remainder of the war . The Holocaust was systematically concealed by the leadership in Tokyo , just as Japanese war crimes , e.g. the situation in China , were kept secret from the German public . An example would be the atrocities committed by the Japanese Army in Nanking in 1937 , which were denounced by German industrialist John Rabe . Subsequently , the German leadership ordered Rabe back to Berlin , confiscating all his reports and prohibiting any further discussion of the topic . After the signing of the Tripartite Pact , mutual visits of political and military nature increased . After German ace and parachute expert Ernst Udet visited Japan in 1939 to inspect the Japanese aerial forces , reporting to Hermann Göring that " Japanese flyers , though brave and willing , are no sky @-@ beaters " , General Tomoyuki Yamashita was given the job of reorganizing the Japanese Air Arm in late 1940 . For this purpose , Yamashita arrived in Berlin in January 1941 , staying almost six months . He inspected the broken Maginot Line and German fortifications on the French coast , watched German flyers in training , and even flew in a raid over Britain after decorating Hermann Göring , head of the German Luftwaffe , with the Japanese " Grand Cordon of the Rising Sun " . General Yamashita also met and talked with Hitler , on whom he commented , I felt , that in the mind of Hitler there was much of spiritual matters , transcending material plans . When I met the Führer he said that since boyhood he had been attracted by Japan . He read carefully reports of Japan 's victory over Russia when he was only 17 years old and was impressed by Japan 's astonishing strength . According to Yamashita , Hitler promised to remember Japan in his will , by instructing the Germans " to bind themselves eternally to the Japanese spirit . " In fact , General Yamashita was so excited that he said : " In a short time , something great will happen . You just watch and wait . " Returning home , the Japanese delegation was accompanied by more than 250 German technicians , engineers and instructors . Soon , Japan 's Air Force was among the most powerful in the world . On 11 November 1940 , German – Japanese relations , as well as Japan 's plans to expand southwards into South @-@ East Asia , were decisively bolstered when the crew of the German auxiliary cruiser Atlantis boarded the British cargo ship SS Automedon . Fifteen bags of Top Secret mail for the British Far East Command were found , including naval intelligence reports containing the latest assessment of the Japanese Empire 's military strength in the Far East , along with details of Royal Air Force units , naval strength , and notes on Singapore 's defences . It painted a gloomy picture of British land and naval capabilities in the Far East , and declared that Britain was too weak to risk war with Japan . The mail reached the German embassy in Tokyo on 5 December , and was then hand @-@ carried to Berlin via the Trans @-@ Siberian railway . On the initiative of the German naval attaché Paul Wenneker , a copy was given to the Japanese ; it provided valuable intelligence prior to their commencing hostilities against the Western Powers . The captain of the Atlantis , Bernhard Rogge , was rewarded for this with an ornate katana Samurai sword ; the only other Germans so honored were Hermann Göring and Field Marshal Erwin Rommel . After reading the captured documents , on 7 January 1941 Japanese Admiral Yamamoto wrote to the Naval Minister asking whether , if Japan knocked out America , the remaining British and Dutch forces would be suitably weakened for the Japanese to deliver a deathblow . Thereby , Nanshin @-@ ron , the concept of the Japanese Navy conducting a southern campaign quickly matured and gained further proponents . = = = = Stalling coordination of joint war plans = = = = Hitler on the other hand was concluding the preparations for " Operation Barbarossa " , the invasion of the Soviet Union . In order to directly or indirectly support his imminent eastward strike , the Führer had repeatedly suggested to Japan that it reconsider plans for an attack on the Soviet Far East throughout 1940 and 1941 . In February 1941 , as a result of Hitler 's insistence , General Oshima returned to Berlin as Ambassador . On 5 March 1941 , Wilhelm Keitel , chief of OKW issued " Basic Order Number 24 regarding Collaboration with Japan " : 1 . It must be the aim of the collaboration based on the Three Power Pact to induce Japan , as soon as possible , to take active measures in the Far East . Strong British forces will thereby be tied down , and the center of gravity of the interests of the United States of America will be diverted to the Pacific . The sooner she intervenes , the greater will be the prospects of success for Japan in view of the still undeveloped preparedness for war on the part of her adversaries . The Barbarossa operation will create particularly favorable political and military prerequisites for this . 2 . To prepare the way for the collaboration it is essential to strengthen the Japanese military potential with all means available . For this purpose the High Commands of the branches of the Armed Forces will comply in a comprehensive and generous manner with Japanese desires for information regarding German war and combat experience , and for assistance in military economics and in technical matters . Reciprocity is desirable , but this factor should not stand in the way of negotiations . Priority should naturally be given to those Japanese requests which would have the most immediate application in waging war . In special cases the Führer reserves the decisions for himself . 3 . The harmonizing of the operational plans of the two parties is the responsibility of the Naval High Command . This will be subject to the following guiding principles : a . The common aim of the conduct of war is to be stressed as forcing England to the ground quickly and thereby keeping the United States out of the war . Beyond this Germany has no political , military , or economic interests in the Far East which would give occasion for any reservations with regard to Japanese intentions . b . The great successes achieved by Germany in mercantile warfare make it appear particularly suitable to employ strong Japanese forces for the same purpose . In this connection every opportunity to support German mercantile warfare must be exploited . c . The raw material situation of the pact powers demands that Japan should acquire possession of those territories which it needs for the continuation of the war , especially if the United States intervenes . Rubber shipments must be carried out even after the entry of Japan into the war , since they are of vital importance to Germany . d . The seizure of Singapore as the key British position in the Far East would mean a decisive success for the entire conduct of war of the three powers . In addition , attacks on other systems of bases of British naval power – extending to those of American naval power only if the entry of the United States into the war cannot be prevented – will result in weakening the enemy 's system of power in that region and also , just like the attack on sea communications , in tying down substantial forces of all kinds ( e.g. Australia ) . A date for the beginning of operational discussions cannot yet be fixed . 4 . In the military commissions to be formed in accordance with the Tripartite Pact , only such questions are to be dealt with as equally concern the three participating powers . These will include primarily the problems of economic warfare . The working out of the details is the responsibility of the main commission .with the co @-@ operation of the Armed Forces High Command . 5 . The Japanese must not be given any intimation of the Barbarossa operations . On 18 March 1941 , at a conference attended by Hitler , Alfred Jodl , Wilhelm Keitel and Erich Raeder , Admiral Raeder stated : Japan must take steps to seize Singapore as soon as possible , since the opportunity will never again be as favorable ( tie @-@ up of the whole English Meet ; unpreparedness of U.S.A. for war against Japan ; inferiority of the United States Pacific Fleet in comparison with the Japanese ) . Japan is indeed making preparations for this action ; but according to all declarations made by Japanese officers , she will only carry it out if Germany proceeds to land in England . Germany must , therefore , concentrate all her efforts on spurring Japan to act immediately . If Japan has Singapore , all other East Asiatic questions regarding the U.S.A. and England are thereby solved ( Guam , Philippines , Borneo , Dutch East Indies ) . Japan wishes , if possible , to avoid war against the U.S.A. She can do so if she determinedly takes Singapore as soon as possible . In talks involving Hitler , his foreign minister Joachim von Ribbentrop , his Japanese counterpart at that time , Yōsuke Matsuoka , as well as Berlin 's and Tokyo 's respective ambassadors , Eugen Ott and Hiroshi Ōshima , the German side then broadly hinted at , but never openly asked for , either invading the Soviet Union from the east or attacking Britain 's colonies in South @-@ East Asia , thereby preoccupying and diverting the British Empire away from Europe and thus somewhat covering Germany 's back . Although Germany would have clearly favored Japan 's attacking the USSR , exchanges between the two allies were always kept overly formal and indirect , as shown in the following statement by Hitler to ambassador Ōshima ( 2 June 1941 ) : It would , of course , be up to Japan to act as it saw fit , but Japan 's cooperation in the fight against the Soviet Union would be welcomed if the [ Japanese ] advance to the south should run into difficulty because of supply and equipment . Matsuoka , Ōshima and parts of the Japanese Imperial Army were proponents of Hokushin @-@ ron , Japan 's go @-@ north strategy aiming for a coordinated attack with Germany against the USSR and seizing East Siberia . But the Japanese army @-@ dominated military leadership , namely persons like minister of war Hideki Tōjō , were constantly pressured by the Japanese Imperial Navy and , thus , a strong tendency towards " Nanshin " existed already in 1940 , meaning to go south and exploit the weakened European powers by occupying their resource @-@ rich colonies in South @-@ East Asia . In order to secure Japan 's back while expanding southwards and as a Soviet effort to demonstrate peaceful intentions toward Germany , the Soviet – Japanese Neutrality Pact was signed in Moscow on 13 April 1941 by Matsuoka on his return trip from a visit to Berlin . Hitler , who was not informed in advance by the Japanese and considering the pact a ruse to stall , misinterpreted the diplomatic situation and thought that his attack on the USSR would bring a tremendous relief for Japan in East Asia and thereby a much stronger threat to American activities through Japanese interventions . As a consequence , Nazi Germany pressed forward with Operation Barbarossa , its attack on the Soviet Union , which started two months later on 22 June without any specific warning to its Axis partners . Joseph Stalin had little faith in Japan 's commitment to neutrality even before the German attack , but he felt that the pact was important for its political symbolism , to reinforce a public affection for Germany . From Japan 's point of view the attack on Russia very nearly ruptured the Tripartite Pact on which the Empire was depending for Germany 's aid in maintaining good relations with Moscow so as to preclude any threat from Siberia . Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe felt betrayed because the Germans clearly trusted their Axis allies too little to warn them of Barbarossa , even though he had feared the worst since receiving an April report from Ōshima in Berlin that " Germany is confident she can defeat Russia and she is preparing to fight at any moment . " Foreign minister Matsuoka on the other hand vividly tried to convince the Emperor , the cabinet as well as the army staff of an immediate attack on the Soviet Union . However , his colleagues rejected any such proposal , even regarding him as " Hitler 's office boy " by now and pointed out to the fact that the Japanese army , with its light and medium tanks , had no intention of taking on Soviet tanks and aircraft until they could be certain that the Wehrmacht had smashed the Red Army to the brink of defeat . Subsequently , Konoe removed Matsuoka from his cabinet and stepped up Japan 's negotiations with the US again , which still failed over the China and Indochina issues , however , and the American demand to Japan to withdraw from the Tripartite Pact in anticipation of any settlement . Without any perspective with respect to Washington , Matsuoka felt that his government had to reassure Germany of its loyalty to the pact . In Berlin , Ōshima was ordered to convey to the German foreign minister Ribbentrop that the " Japanese government have decided to secure ' points d 'appui ' in French Indochina to enable further to strengthen her pressure on Great Britain and the United States of America , " and to present this as a " valuable contribution to the common front " by promising that " We Japanese are not going to sit on the fence while you Germans fight the Russians . " Over the first months , Germany 's advances in Soviet Russia were spectacular and Stalin 's need to transfer troops currently protecting South @-@ East Siberia from a potential Japanese attack to the future defense of Moscow grew . Japan 's Kwantung Army in Manchuria was constantly kept in manoeuvres and , in talks with German foreign minister Ribbentrop , ambassador Oshima in Berlin repeatedly hinted at an " imminent Japanese attack " against the USSR . In fact , however , the leadership in Tokyo at this time had in no way changed its mind and these actions were merely concerted to create the illusion of an eastern threat to the Soviet Union in an effort to bind its Siberian divisions . Unknown to Japan and Germany , however , Richard Sorge , a Soviet spy disguised as a German journalist working for Eugen Ott , the German ambassador in Tokyo , advised the Red Army on 14 September 1941 , that the Japanese were not going to attack the Soviet Union until : Moscow was captured the size of the Kwantung Army was three times that of the Soviet Union 's Far Eastern forces a civil war had started in Siberia . Toward the end of September 1941 , Sorge transmitted information that Japan would not initiate hostilities against the USSR in the East , thereby freeing Red Army divisions stationed in Siberia for the defence of Moscow . In October 1941 Sorge was unmasked and arrested by the Japanese . Apparently , he was entirely trusted by the German ambassador Eugen Ott , and was allowed access to top secret cables from Berlin in the embassy in Tokyo . Eventually , this involvement would lead to Heinrich Georg Stahmer replacing Ott in January 1943 . Sorge on the other hand would be executed in November 1944 and elevated to a national hero in the Soviet Union . = = = = Japan enters World War II = = = = In September 1941 Japan began its southward expansion by expanding its military presence in Indochina ( " securing ' points d 'appui ' " ) and decisively increased the number of stationed personnel and planes . This provoked the United States , the United Kingdom , and other Western governments to freeze Japanese assets , while the US ( which supplied 80 percent of Japan 's oil ) responded by placing a complete oil embargo on the Japanese Empire . As a result , Japan was essentially forced to choose between abandoning its ambitions in South @-@ East Asia and its prosecution of the war against China , or seizing the natural resources it needed by force . The Japanese military did not consider the former an option as attacking Soviet Russia instead of expanding into South Asia had become a more and more unpopular choice since Japan 's humiliating defeat at the Battle of Khalkin Gol in 1939 and the final rejection of any near @-@ term action in Siberia shortly after Germany began its invasion of the USSR . Moreover , many officers considered America 's oil embargo an unspoken declaration of war . With the harsh oil sanctions imposed by the United States , the Japanese leadership was now even more determined to remain in China . Germany had refused to sell Japan the blueprints to make synthetic oil , so Japan 's only hope for oil was to invade the Dutch East Indies , which would result in war with the United States and Britain . To succeed the Japanese had to neutralize the powerful United States Pacific Fleet , so they could prevent it from interfering with future Japanese movements in South @-@ East Asia and negotiate peace terms from a strong hand . On 25 November 1941 , Germany tried to further solidify the alliance against Soviet Russia by officially reviving the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact of 1936 , now joined by additional signatories , Hungary and Romania . However , with the Soviet troops around Moscow now being reinforced by East Siberian divisions , Germany 's offensive substantially slowed with the onset of the Russian winter in November and December 1941 . In the face of his failing Blitzkrieg tactics , Hitler 's confidence in a successful and swift conclusion of the war diminished , especially with a US @-@ supported Britain being a constant threat in the Reich 's western front . Furthermore , it was evident that the " neutrality " which the US had superficially maintained to that point would soon change to an open and unlimited support of Britain against Germany . Hitler thus welcomed Japan 's sudden entry into the war with its air raid on the American naval base at Pearl Harbor on 7 December 1941 and its subsequent declaration of war on the United States and Britain , just as the German army suffered its first military defeat at the gates of Moscow . Upon learning of Japan 's successful attack , Hitler even became euphoric , stating : " With such a capable ally we cannot lose this war . " Preceding Japan 's attack were numerous communiqués between Berlin and Tokyo . The respective ambassadors Ott and Ōshima tried to draft an amendment to the Tripartite Pact , in which Germany , Japan and Italy should pledge each other 's allegiance in the case one signatory is attacked by – or attacks – the United States . Although the protocol was finished in time , it would not be formally signed by Germany until four days after the raid on Pearl Harbor . Also among the communiqués was another definitive Japanese rejection of any war plans against Russia : In case Germany demands that we participate in the war against the Soviet Union , we will respond that we do not intend to join the war for the time being . If this should lead to a situation whereby Germany will delay her entry into the war against the United States , it cannot be helped . Nevertheless , publicly the German leadership applauded their new ally and ambassador Ōshima became one of only eight recipients of the Grand Cross of the Order of the German Eagle in Gold , which was awarded by Hitler himself , who reportedly said : You gave the right declaration of war . This method is the only proper one . Japan pursued it formerly and it corresponds with his own system , that is , to negotiate as long as possible . But if one sees that the other is interested only in putting one off , in shaming and humiliating one , and is not willing to come to an agreement , then one should strike as hard as possible , and not waste time declaring war . Although the amendment to the Tripartite Pact was not yet in force , Hitler chose to declare war on the United States and ordered the Reichstag , along with Italy , to do so on 11 December 1941 , three days after the United States ' declaration of war on the Empire of Japan . His hopes that , despite the previous rejections , Japan would reciprocally attack the Soviet Union , were not realized , as Japan stuck to its Nanshin strategy of going south , not north , and would continue to maintain an uneasy peace with the Soviet Union . Nevertheless , Germany 's declaration of war further solidified German – Japanese relations and showed Germany 's solidarity with Japan , which was now encouraged to cooperate against the British . To some degree , Japan 's actions in South @-@ East Asia and the Pacific in the months after Pearl Harbor , including the sinking of the HMS Prince of Wales and the HMS Repulse , the occupation of the Crown Colonies of Singapore , Hong Kong , and British Burma , and the air raids on Australia , were a tremendous blow to the United Kingdom 's war effort and preoccupied the Allies , shifting British ( including Australian ) and American assets away from the Battle of the Atlantic and the North African Campaign against Germany to Asia and the Pacific against Japan . In this context , sizeable forces of the British Empire were withdrawn from North Africa to the Pacific theatre with their replacements being only relatively inexperienced and thinly spread divisions . Taking advantage of this situation , Erwin Rommel 's Afrika Korps successfully attacked only six weeks after Pearl Harbor , eventually pushing the allied lines as far east as El Alamein . Until the attack on the Soviet Union , Germany and Japan were able to exchange materials and personnel using the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway . Afterwards , submarines had to be sent on so @-@ called " Yanagi " ( Willow ) – missions , since the American and British navies rendered the high seas too dangerous for Axis surface cargo ships . However , given the limited capacities of submarines , eyes were soon focused directly on the Mediterranean , the Middle East and British India , all vital to the British war effort . In the long run , Germany and Japan envisioned a partnered linkage running across the British @-@ held Indian subcontinent that would allow for the transfer of weaponry and resources as well as potential joint military operations . After all , the choice of potential trading partners was very limited during the war and Germany was anxious for rubber and precious metals , while the Japanese sought industrial products , technical equipment , and chemical goods . By August 1942 the German advances in North Africa rendered an offensive against Alexandria and the Suez Canal feasible , which , in turn , had the potential of enabling maritime trade between Europe and Japan through the Indian Ocean . On the other hand , in the face of its defeat at the Battle of Midway in June 1942 with the loss of four aircraft carriers , the Japanese Navy decided to pursue all possibilities of gaining additional resources to quickly rebuild its forces . As a consequence , Ambassador Ōshima in Berlin was ordered to submit an extensive " wish list " requesting the purchase of vast amounts of steel and aluminium to be shipped from Germany to Japan . German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop quickly dismissed Tokyo 's proposal , since those resources were vital for Germany 's own industry . However , in order to gain Japanese backing for a new German @-@ Japanese trade treaty , which should also secure the rights of German companies in South @-@ East Asia , he asked Hitler to at least partially agree upon the Japanese demands . It took another five months of arguing over the Reichsmark @-@ Yen @-@ exchange rate and additional talks with the third signatory , the Italian government , until the " Treaty on Economic Cooperation " was signed on 20 January 1943 . Despite this treaty , the envisioned German @-@ Japanese economic relations were never able to grow beyond mostly propagandistic status . The British kept control of the Suez Canal and submarines with very small cargo capability remained the main method of contact . With the loss of North Africa and the heavy defeat at Stalingrad , Germany was in a defensive posture by early 1943 , and never regained the initiative . Japan was being outproduced in carriers and was unable to launch any offensives after its defeat at Midway in June 1942 . It was overextended and could not even feed its garrisons on islands across the Pacific . Tokyo 's plan of conquering the Solomons at Australia 's doorstep turned into a continuous retreat for the Japanese of which the defeat on Guadalcanal in early 1943 marked the beginning . Japan 's invasion of India had been halted at Imphal and Kohima , rendering impossible any joint operations against India . With submarines remaining practically the only link between Nazi @-@ controlled Europe and Japan , trade was soon focused on strategic goods such as technical plans and weapon templates . Only 20 – 40 % of goods managed to reach either destination and merely 96 persons travelled by submarine from Europe to Japan and 89 vice versa during the war as only six submarines succeeded in their attempts of the trans @-@ oceanic voyage : I @-@ 30 ( April 1942 ) , I @-@ 8 ( June 1943 ) , I @-@ 34 ( October 1943 ) , I @-@ 29 ( December 1943 ) , I @-@ 52 ( March 1944 ) , and the German submarine U @-@ 511 ( August 1943 ) . Before I @-@ 29 embarked on her voyage to German @-@ occupied France in December 1943 , she had rendezvoused with the German submarine U @-@ 180 during an earlier mission to the Indian Ocean . During this meeting on 28 April 1943 , Indian freedom fighter Subhas Chandra Bose transferred to I @-@ 29 , thereby becoming the only civilian exchange between two submarines of two different navies in World War II . U @-@ 234 on the other hand is one of the most popular examples of an aborted Yanagi mission in May 1945 . Amongst others , her cargo included examples of the newest electric torpedoes , one crated Me 262 jet aircraft , a Henschel Hs 293 glide bomb , and 560 kg of uranium oxide . Whether the uranium was weapons @-@ grade material has not yet been clarified , however . On rare occasions , German surface ships were able to reach Japan as well . These included auxiliary cruisers Michel and Thor , which were brought to Yokohama after the Kriegsmarine chiefs realized in the late 1942 that it would not practical for them to return to Germany @-@ controlled European ports . German supply ships ( Uckermark ) and foreign ships captured by German merchant raiders would come to Japanese ports as well . In the face of their failing war plans , Japanese and German representatives more and more began to deceive each other at tactical briefings by exaggerating minor victories and deemphasizing losses . In several talks in spring and summer 1943 between Generaloberst Alfred Jodl and the Japanese naval attaché in Berlin , Vice Admiral Naokuni Nomura , Jodl downplayed the afore described defeats of the German Army , e.g. by claiming the Soviet offensive would soon run out of steam and that " anywhere the Wehrmacht can be sent on land , it is sure of its untertaking , but where it has to be taken over sea , it becomes somewhat more difficult . " Japan , on the other hand , not only evaded any disclosure of its true strategic position in the Pacific , but also declined any interference in American shipments being unloaded at Vladivostok and large amounts of men and material being transported from East Siberia to the German front in the west . Being forced to watch the continued reinforcement of Soviet troops from the east without any Japanese intervention was a thorn in Hitler 's flesh , especially considering Japan 's apparent ignorance with respect to the recent Casablanca Conference at which the Allies declared only to accept the unconditional surrenders of the Axis nations . During a private briefing on 5 March 1943 , Hitler remarked : They lie right to your face and in the end all their depictions are calculated on something which turns out to be a deceit afterwards ! As the war progressed and Germany began to retreat further , Japanese ambassador Ōshima never wavered in his confidence that Germany would emerge victorious . However , in March 1945 he reported to Tokyo on the " danger of Berlin becoming a battlefield " and revealing a fear " that the abandonment of Berlin may take place another month " . On 13 April , he met with Ribbentrop — for the last time , it turned out — and vowed to stand with the leaders of the Third Reich in their hour of crisis but had to leave Berlin at once by Hitler 's direct order . On 7 and 8 May 1945 , as the German government surrendered to the Allied powers , Ōshima and his staff were taken into custody and brought to the United States . Now fighting an even more hopeless war , the Japanese government immediately denounced the German surrender as an act of treason and interned the few German individuals as well as confiscated all German property ( such as submarines ) in Japanese territory at the time . Four months later , on 2 September , Japan had to sign its own surrender documents . = = = = Alleged German @-@ Japanese long @-@ term conspiracy = = = = After the Second World War was officially concluded with the capitulation of the Empire of Japan , plans for trying the major German and Japanese war criminals were quickly implemented in 1946 . While Japanese officials had to face the Tokyo Trials , major German war crimes were dealt with at the Nuremberg Trials . Here it was the goal of the Allied prosecutors to portray the limited cooperation between the Third Reich and Imperial Japan as a long @-@ planned conspiracy to divide the world among the two Axis @-@ partners and thereby delivering just another demonstration of the common viciousness expressed by alleged joint long @-@ term war plans . The Nazi plans of aggression called for use of Asiatic allies and they found among the Japanese men of kindred mind and purpose . They were brothers , under the skin . According to modern historic research , however , such a conspiracy did not exist and is considered Allied propaganda . Although there was a limited and cautious military cooperation between Japan and Germany during the Second World War , no documents corroborating any long @-@ term planning or real coordination of military operations of both powers exist . = = = Post @-@ WWII developments = = = = = = = Rebuilding relations and new common interests = = = = After their defeat in World War II , both Japan and Germany were occupied . Japan regained its sovereignty with the Treaty of San Francisco in 1952 and joined the United Nations in 1956 . Germany was split into two states . It was agreed in 1951 to take up diplomatic relations between Japan and the Federal Republic of ( West Germany ) again . The bilateral diplomatic ties between West Germany and Japan were fully restored in 1955 ; between East Germany and Japan in 1973 , the year both German states became UN @-@ members . Beginning in the 1950s , Japanese companies sought to acquire needed raw materials like steel and chemical products in the German Ruhr region , with a small Japanese business community in Düsseldorf . In 1974 , West Germany and Japan signed an intergovernmental agreement on cooperation in science and technology , re @-@ intensifying joint scientific endeavours and technological exchange . The accord resulted in numerous projects , generally focused on marine research and geosciences , life sciences and environmental research . Additionally , youth exchange programs were launched , including a " Youth Summit " held annually since 1974 . German @-@ Japanese political dealings were enlarged with both countries taking part in the creation of the so @-@ called Group of Six , or simply " G6 " , together with the US , the UK , France and Italy in 1975 as a response to the 1973 oil crisis . The G6 was soon expanded by Canada and later Russia , with G6- , G7- , and later G8- , summits being held annually since then . Over the following years , institutions , such as in 1985 the " Japanese – German Center " ( JDZB ) in Berlin and in 1988 the " German Institute for Japanese Studies " ( DIJ ) in Tokyo , were founded to further contribute to the academic and scientific exchange between Japan and Germany . Around the mid @-@ 1980s , German and Japanese representatives decided to rebuild the old Japanese embassy in Berlin from 1938 . Its remains had remained unused after the building was largely destroyed during World War II . In addition to the original complex , several changes and additions were made until 2000 , like moving the main entrance to the Hiroshima Street , which was named in honour of the Japanese city , and the creation of a traditional Japanese Garden . Post @-@ war relations between Japan and both Germanies , as well as with unified Germany since 1990 , have generally focused on economic and business questions . Germany , dedicated to free trade , continues to be Japan ’ s largest trading partner within Europe . This general posture is also reflected in the so @-@ called " 7 pillars of cooperation " agreed on by Foreign Minister of Japan Yōhei Kōno and Foreign Minister of Germany Joschka Fischer on 30 October 2000 : Pillar 1 : Contribution for peace and stability of the international community Pillar 2 : Consolidation of economic and trade relationships , under benefit of globalization impulses . Pillar 3 : Contribution for a solution of global problems and social duties and responsibilities . Pillar 4 : Contribution for the stability in the regions ( Korean Peninsula , People 's Republic of China , former Yugoslavia , Russia , South Asia , new independent states , Middle East and Gulf region , Middle and South America , East Timor , Africa ) Pillar 5 : Further constitution of faithful political relations between Japan and Germany Pillar 6 : Promotion of economic relations Pillar 7 : Promotion of mutual understanding and the cultural relations In 2000 , bilateral cultural exchange culminated in the " Japan in Germany " year , which was then followed by the " Germany in Japan " year in 2005 / 2006 . Also in 2005 , the annual German Film Festival in Tokyo was brought into being . In 2004 , German Chancellor Gerhard Schröder and Japanese Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi agreed upon cooperations in the assistance for reconstruction of Iraq and Afghanistan , the promotion of economic exchange activities , youth and sports exchanges as well as exchanges and cooperation in science , technology and academic fields . = = = = Current relations = = = = In the late 1990s and early 2000s , Germany and Japan , being the United Nations ' second and third largest funders respectively , demanded a reform of the United Nations Security Council and an increase of the number of its permanent members . For this purpose both nations organized themselves together with Brazil and India to form the so @-@ called " G4 nations " . On 21 September 2004 , the G4 issued a joint statement mutually backing each other 's claim to permanent seats , together with two African countries . This proposal has found opposition in a group of countries called Uniting for Consensus . In January 2006 , Japan announced that it would not support putting the G4 resolution back on the table and was working on a resolution of its own . Certain inefficiencies with respect to the bilateral cooperation between Germany and Japan were also reflected in 2005 , when former Japanese Prime Minister Kiichi Miyazawa wrote in a commemoration to the 20th anniversary of the Japanese @-@ German Center in Berlin that the German @-@ Japanese relations are generally good and there are no particular bilateral problems . This results in a certain indifference , which may be considered a problem by now . Nevertheless , as of 2008 , Japan still was Germany 's second largest trading partner in Asia after China . In 2006 , German imports from Japan totaled € 15 @.@ 6 billion and German exports to Japan € 14 @.@ 2 billion ( 15 @.@ 4 % and 9 % more than the previous year , respectively ) . In 2008 , however , Japanese exports and imports to and from the European Union fell by 7 @.@ 8 and 4 @.@ 8 % after growing by 5 @.@ 8 % in 2007 due to the global financial crisis . Bilateral trade between Germany and Japan also shrank in 2008 , with imports from Japan having dropped by 6 @.@ 6 % and German exports to Japan having declined by 5 @.@ 5 % . Despite Japan having remained Germany 's principal trading partner in Asia after China in 2008 , measured in terms of total German foreign trade , Japan ’ s share of both exports and imports is relatively low and falls well short of the potential between the world ’ s third- and fifth @-@ largest economies . Unaffected by any stagnating German @-@ Japanese trade relations , the Japanese community in Düsseldorf , home to Europe 's largest Japantown , is growing again after a decline in the 1980s and 1990s . In 2008 , over 8000 Japanese lived in the Düsseldorf area , which features a Japanese school , two kindergartens , three libraries and numerous Japanese clubs . Moreover , over 200 Japanese companies are active in that region , creating over 20 @,@ 000 jobs . The Japanese community is widely considered a great asset for Düsseldorf . On 14 and 15 January 2010 , German foreign minister Guido Westerwelle conducted his personal inaugural visit to Japan , focusing the talks with his Japanese counterpart , Katsuya Okada , on both nation 's bilateral relations and global issues . Westerwelle emphasized , that We want to make our joint contribution towards ensuring that this decade is a decade of disarmament – not a decade of armament and both ministers instructed their Ministries to draw up disarmament initiatives and strategies which Berlin and Tokyo can present to the international community together . Especially with regard to Iran 's nuclear program , it was also stressed that Japan and Germany , both technically capable of and yet refraining from possessing any ABC weapons , should assume a leading role in realizing a world free of nuclear weapons and that international sanctions are considered to be an appropriate instrument of pressure . Furthermore , Westerwelle and Okada agreed to enhance cooperation in Afghanistan and to step up the stagnating bilateral trade between both countries . The visit was concluded in talks with Japan 's Prime Minister Yukio Hatoyama , before which the German foreign minister visited the famous Meiji Shrine in the heart of Tokyo . On Friday 11 March 2011 , the Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami , the most powerful known earthquake to hit Japan at the time , and one of the five most powerful recorded earthquakes of which Japanese Prime Minister Naoto Kan said , " In the 65 years after the end of World War II , this is the toughest and the most difficult crisis for Japan . " hit Honshu . The earthquake and the resulting tsunami not only devastated wide coastal areas in Miyagi Prefecture but also caused the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster triggering a widespread permanent evacuation surrounding the Fukushima I Nuclear Power Plant . German chancellor Angela Merkel immediately expressed her deepest sympathy to all those affected and promised Japan any assistance it would call for . As a consequence rescue specialists from the Technisches Hilfswerk as well as a scout team of I.S.A.R. Germany ( International Search and Rescue ) were sent to Japan , however parts of the German personnel had to be recalled due to radiation danger near the damaged power plant . Furthermore , the German Aerospace Center provided TerraSAR @-@ X- and RapidEye @-@ satellite imagery of the affected area . In the days after the disaster , numerous flowers , candles and paper cranes were placed in front of the Japanese embassy in Berlin by compassionates , including leading German politicians . Though never materialised , additional proposals for aid included sending special units of the German Bundeswehr to Japan , as the German Armed Forces ' decontamination equipment belongs to the most sophisticated in the world . On 2 April 2011 , German Foreign Minister Westerwelle visited Tokyo on an Asia voyage , again offering Japan " all help , where it is needed " to recover from the tsunami and subsequent nuclear disaster of the previous month . Westerwelle also emphasised the importance of making progress with a free trade agreement between Japan and the European Union in order to accelerate the recovery of the Japanese economy . Together with his German counterpart , Japanese foreign minister Takeaki Matsumoto also addressed potential new fields of cooperation between Tokyo and Berlin with respect to a reform of the United Nations Security Council . = = = English = = = Akira , Kudo . ( 1998 ) Japanese @-@ German Business Relations : Co @-@ operation and Rivalry in the Interwar Period ( Nissan Institute / Routledge Japanese Studies ) ( 1998 ) Baskett , Michael ( 2009 ) . " All Beautiful Fascists ? : Axis Film Culture in Imperial Japan " in The Culture of Japanese Fascism , ed . Alan Tansman . Durham : Duke University Press. pp. 212 – 234 . ISBN 0822344521 Martin , Bernd ( 2005 ) . Japan and Germany in the Modern World . Berghahn Books . Hübner , Stefan ( 2012 ) , " National Socialist Foreign Policy and Press Instructions , 1933 @-@ 1939 : Aims and Ways of Coverage Manipulation based on the Example of East Asia , " International History Review 34 # 2 pp 271 – 291 @.@ online Katada , Saori N. , Hanns Maull and Takashi Inoguchi , eds . Global Governance : Germany and Japan in the International System ( 2004 ) Presseisen , Ernst L. ( 1958 ) Germany and Japan – A Study in Totalitarian Diplomacy 1933 – 1941 . The Hague : Martinus Nijhoff . Spang , Christian W. and Rolf @-@ Harald Wippich ( eds . ) . ( 2006 ) Japanese – German Relations , 1895 – 1945 . War , Diplomacy and Public Opinion ( ISBN 0 @-@ 415 @-@ 34248 @-@ 1 ) . London : Routledge. excerpt and text search Warner , Geoffrey . " From Pearl Harbour to Stalingrad : Germany and its Allies in 1942 , " International Affairs , April 1978 , Vol . 54 Issue 2 , pp 282 – 92 Weinberg , Gerhard L. A World at Arms ( 2nd ed 2013 ) global history of WW2 by leading expert on German diplomacy excerpt and text search = = = Other languages = = = Hübner , Stefan ( 2009 ) Hitler und Ostasien , 1904 bis 1933 . Die Entwicklung von Hitlers Japan- und Chinabild vom Russisch @-@ Japanischen Krieg bis zur " Machtergreifung " [ Hitler and East Asia , 1904 to 1933 . The Development of Hitler ’ s Image of Japan and China from the Russo @-@ Japanese War to the " Coming to Power " ] , in OAG @-@ Notizen 9 / 2009 , 22 – 41 @.@ https : / / www.unibw.de / geschichte / neueste / stefanhuebner / oagarticle / at _ download / file Ishii , Shiro et al . ( ed . ) : Fast wie mein eigen Vaterland : Briefe aus Japan 1886 – 1889 . [ Almost as my own Motherland : Letters from Japan ] . München : Iudicium 1995 . Kreiner , Josef ( ed . ) . ( 1984 ) Deutschland – Japan . Historische Kontakte [ Germany – Japan . Historical Contacts ] . Bonn : Bouvier . Kreiner , Josef ( ed . ) . ( 1986 ) Japan und die Mittelmächte im Ersten Weltkrieg und in den zwanziger Jahren [ Japan and the Central Powers in World War I and the 1920s ] . Bonn : Bouvier . Kreiner , Josef and Regine Mathias ( ed . ) . ( 1990 ) Deutschland – Japan in der Zwischenkriegszeit [ Germany – Japan in the inter @-@ war period ] . Bonn : Bouvier . Pantzer , Peter und Saaler , Sven : Japanische Impressionen eines Kaiserlichen Gesandten . Karl von Eisendecher im Japan der Meiji @-@ Zeit / 明治初期の日本－ドイツ外交官アイゼンデッヒャー公使の写真帖より ( A German Diplomat in Meiji Japan : Karl von Eisendecher . German / Japanese ) . München : Iudicium , 2007 . Martin , Bernd and Gerhard Krebs ( eds . ) . ( 1994 ) Formierung und Fall der Achse Berlin – Tôkyô [ Construction and Fall of the Berlin – Tôkyô Axis ] . Munich : Iudicium . Martin , Bernd . ( 2001 ) Deutschland und Japan im Zweiten Weltkrieg 1940 – 1945 , Vom Angriff auf Pearl Harbor bis zu deutschen Kapitulation . Nikol Verlagsgesellschaft mdH & Co . KG , Hamburg . = Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Empire = The territory of Crimea , previously controlled by the Crimean Khanate , was annexed by the Russian Empire on 19 April [ O.S. 8 April ] 1783 . The period before the annexation was marked by Russian interference in Crimean affairs , a series of revolts by Crimean Tatars , and Ottoman ambivalence . The annexation began many years of Russian rule in Crimea , which ended with the transfer of the territory to the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic in 1954 . Russia annexed Crimea for a second time in March 2014 . = = Prelude = = = = = Independent Crimea ( 1774 – 76 ) = = = Before Russia defeated the Ottoman Empire in the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1768 – 74 , the Khanate , populated largely by Crimean Tatars , had been part of the Ottoman Empire . In the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , which was the result of that war , the Ottoman Empire was forced to cede sovereignty over the Khanate , and allow it to become an independent state under Russian influence . Tatars in Crimea had no desire for independence , and held a strong emotional attachment to the Ottoman Empire . Within two months of the signing of the treaty , the government of the Khanate sent envoys to the Ottomans , asking them to " destroy the conditions of independence " . The envoys said that as Russian troops remained stationed in Crimea at Yeni @-@ Kale and Kerch , the Khanate could not be considered independent . Nevertheless , the Ottomans ignored this request , not wishing to violate the agreement with Russia . In the disorder that followed the Turkish defeat , Tatar leader Devlet Giray refused to accept the treaty at the time of its signing . Having been fighting Russians in the Kuban during the war , he crossed the Kerch Strait to Crimea and seized the city of Kaffa ( modern Feodosia ) . Devlet subsequently seized the Crimean throne , usurping Sahib Giray . Despite his actions against the Russians , Russian Empress Catherine the Great recognised Devlet as Khan . At the same time , however , she was grooming her favourite Şahin Giray , who resided at her court , for the role . As time went on , the rule of Devlet became increasingly untenable . In July of 1775 , he sent a group of envoys to Constantinople to negotiate a reentry of the Crimean Khanate into the Ottoman Empire . This action was in direct defiance of the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca , which he asked the Ottomans to scrap . Famed diplomat Ahmed Resmî Efendi , who had helped draft the treaty , refused to provide any assistance to the Khanate , not wanting to start another disastrous war with Russia . Empress Catherine gave an order to invade Crimea in November 1776 . Her forces quickly gained control of Perekop , at the entrance to the peninsula . In January 1777 , Russian @-@ supported Şahin Giray crossed into Crimea over the Kerch Strait , much as Devlet had done . Devlet , aware of his impending defeat , abdicated and fled to Constantinople . Şahin was installed as a puppet Khan , infuriating the Muslim population of the peninsula . When he heard this news , Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid I noted " Şahin Giray is a tool . The aim of the Russians is to take Crimea . " Şahin , a member of the ruling House of Giray , attempted a series of reforms to " modernise " the Khanate . These included attempts to centralise power in the hands of the Khan , establishing " autocratic " rule , much as in Russia . Previously , power had been distributed between the leaders of different clans , called beys . He attempted to institute state taxation , a conscripted and centralised army , and to replace the traditional religion @-@ based Ottoman legal system with civil law . These reforms , aimed at disrupting the old Ottoman order , were despised by the Crimean populace . = = = Crimean revolts ( 1777 – 82 ) = = = At the behest of Empress Catherine , Şahin allowed Russians to settle in the peninsula , further infuriating Crimeans . A group of these settlers had been sent to Yeni @-@ Kale , which remained under Russian control following the installation of Şahin as Khan . Local residents banded together to prevent the Russian settlement , rebelling against Şahin . He sent the new conscript army he had created to quash the rebellion , only to see his forces defect to the rebels . Revolt spread across the peninsula , and rebel forces advanced on Şahin 's palace in Bakhchisaray . Amidst this rebellion , exiled Crimeans in Constantinople pressed the Ottoman government to act . Bowing to pressure , the government sent a fleet to Crimea , ostensibly to preserve the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca . Russia , however , was quicker to act . Russian forces arrived at Yeni @-@ Kale in February 1778 , crushing the revolt before the Ottoman fleet arrived . When the fleet arrived in March , it found that there were no rebels left to support . It fought a brief skirmish with the Russian navy off Akitar ( modern Sevastopol ) , but was forced to flee . Şahin was reinstated as Khan . Minor skirmishes between the Ottoman and Russian navies continued until October 1778 , when the Ottoman fleet returned defeated to Constantinople . Over the following years , Şahin continued to try and reform the Khanate . Support for his reform programme remained low , and it was seriously undermined by the decision of Empress Catherine to resettle the Crimean Pontic Greeks on the northern shores of the Azov Sea , outside the Khanate . That community , which was Christian , were an essential part of the Crimean merchant class , and had most readily supported Şahin 's reforms . This resettlement caused significant damage to the Crimean economy , and further weakened the position of the Khan . Recognising defeat in Crimea , the Ottoman Empire signed the Convention of Aynali Kavak in early 1779 . In the agreement , the Ottomans recognised Şahin as Khan of Crimea , promised no further intervention in Crimea , and conceded that Crimea was under Russian influence . Crimeans could no longer expect support from the Ottomans . Şahin 's reforms proceeded , gradually removing Tatars from positions of political influence . For a brief period , Crimea remained peaceful . A new rebellion , sparked by the continuing marginalisation of Tatars within the Khanate government , started in 1781 . Various clan leaders and their forces came together in the Taman , across the Kerch Strait from Crimea . In April of 1782 , a large portion of Şahin 's army defected to the rebels , and joined them in the Taman . Communication between rebel leaders , including two of Şahin 's brothers , and the Crimean administrative elite was ongoing . Religious ( ulama ) and legal ( kadı ) officials , important parts of the old Ottoman order , openly declared their antipathy for Şahin . Rebel forces attacked Kaffa on 14 May [ O.S. 3 May ] 1782 . Şahin 's forces were swiftly defeated , and he was forced to escape to Russian @-@ controlled Kerch . Rebel leaders elected Şahin 's brother Bahadir Giray as Khan , and sent a message to the Ottoman government seeking recognition . It was not long , however , before Empress Catherine dispatched Prince Grigory Potemkin to restore Şahin to power . No significant opposition was fielded against the invading Russians , and many rebels fled back across the Kerch Strait . As such , the Khan was restored to his position in October 1782 . By this time , however , he had lost the favour of both Crimeans and Empress Catherine . In a letter to a Russian advisor to Şahin , Catherine wrote " He must stop this shocking and cruel treatment and not give them [ Crimeans ] just cause for a new revolt " . As Russian troops entered the peninsula , work on the establishment of a Black Sea port for use by the Empire began . The city of Akitar was chosen as the site of the port , which would go on to house the newly created Black Sea Fleet . Uncertainty about the sustainability of the restoration of Şahin Giray , however , led to an increase of support for annexing Crimea , spearheaded by Prince Potemkin . = = Annexation ( 1783 ) = = In March 1783 , Prince Potemkin made a rhetorical push to encourage Empress Catherine to annex Crimea . Having just returned from Crimea , he told her that many Crimeans would " happily " submit to Russian rule . Encouraged by this news , Empress Catherine issued a formal proclamation of annexation on 19 April [ O.S. 8 April ] 1783 . Tatars did not resist the annexation . After years of turmoil , the Crimeans lacked the resources and the will to continue fighting . Many fled the peninsula , leaving for Anatolia . Count Alexander Bezborodko , then a close advisor to the Empress , wrote in his diary that Russia was " forced " to annex Crimea : The Porte has not kept good faith from the very beginning . Their primary goal has been to deprive the Crimeans of independence . They banished the legal khan and replaced him with the thief Devlet Giray . They consistently refused to evacuate the Taman . They made numerous perfidious attempts to introduce rebellion in the Crimea against the legitimate Khan Şahin Giray . All of these efforts did not bring us to declare war … The Porte never ceased to drink in each drop of revolt among the Tatars … Our only wish has been to bring peace to Crimea … and we were finally forced by the Turks to annex the area . This view was far from reality . Crimean " independence " had been a puppet regime , and the Ottomans had played little role in the Crimean revolts . Crimea was incorporated into the Empire as Taurida Governorate . Later that year , the Ottoman Empire signed an agreement with Russia that recognised the loss of Crimea and other territories that had been held by the Khanate . The agreement , signed on 28 December 1783 , was negotiated by Russian diplomat Yakov Bulgakov . = Parasakthi ( film ) = Parasakthi ( English : The Goddess ) is a 1952 Indian Tamil @-@ language drama film directed by R. Krishnan and S. Panju . The film stars Sivaji Ganesan in his acting debut , along with S. V. Sahasranamam , S. S. Rajendran , Sriranjani Jr . , and Pandari Bai . It was jointly produced by National Pictures and AVM Productions and is based on a stage drama of the same name , written by Pavalar Balasundaram . The film narrates the misfortunes that befall the members of a Tamil family during World War II , and how the members face their individual fate and reunite at the end . The screenplay and dialogues for Parasakthi were written by Karunanidhi , who would later become the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu . The film 's soundtrack was composed by R. Sudarsanam . Parasakthi was released on 17 October 1952 , during the festive occasion of Diwali , and faced controversies because of its portrayal of Brahmins and Hindu customs and practices in poor light . The elitarian society including the then ruling State government even demanded the film to be banned . Despite these protests , the film was critically acclaimed , with praise directed towards its dialogues and the actors ' performances in particular . The film also become a commercial success , and had a theatrical run of over 175 days . Parasakthi also acquired cult status in Tamil cinema and became a trendsetter for dialogues and acting for later Tamil films . = = Plot = = Chandrasekaran , Gnanasekaran and Gunasekaran are three Indian immigrant brothers from Madurai , Tamil Nadu living in Rangoon , Burma with Chandrasekaran 's wife Saraswati . Their younger sister Kalyani was raised in their home town by their father Manickampillai . In 1942 , during World War II , the three brothers and Saraswati plan to visit Madurai to attend the impending wedding of Kalyani to a writer named Thangappan . Due to war conditions and bombardment of Burmese ports by Japan , the shipping company offers only one ticket and Gunasekaran , the youngest brother , takes it and leaves for Tamil Nadu . The ship fails to reach on time due to the dangers of the war , and Kalyani 's marriage takes place without any of her brothers present . Kalyani becomes pregnant . But on the day she delivers her child , Thangappan dies in an accident and Manickampillai dies of shock , leaving Kalyani and her child destitute . Her house gets auctioned off , and she makes her living by selling food on the streets . Gunasekaran , after being stranded at sea for several months , finally arrives in Tamil Nadu at Madras . However , while watching a dance performance , he is robbed of all his belongings after being intoxicated . Impoverished , he becomes enraged at the status of the once glorious Tamil Nadu , and fakes insanity by indulging in numerous tricks to make a living . Gunasekaran finally comes across his destitute sister at Madurai , having learned of their father 's death and her poverty . He continues to play insane and does not reveal his true identity to her due to his poverty , but hovers around her . Kalyani is irritated by the stranger 's behaviour , unaware that he is her brother . Kalyani is nearly molested by a vagabond named Venu , but is saved by Gunasekaran . She later leaves Madurai and arrives at Tiruchi , where she obtains work as a maid of blackmarketeer Narayana Pillai , who also tries to molest her . She is , however , saved by his wife , and leaves the job . While searching for his sister , Gunasekaran reaches Tiruchi and comes across Vimala , a wealthy woman , to whom he explains the miserable status of him and his sister in the society . After resting in her house for a while , he silently leaves to continue searching for Kalyani . As Japanese shelling intensifies in Burma , Chandrasekaran and Gnanasekaran decide to return to India . Chandrasekaran , accompanied by Saraswati , reaches Tiruchi safely and becomes a judge , but Gnanasekaran is lost in the journey and loses a leg in the shelling before arriving in India . He begs for a living , forms an association for beggars and tries to reform them . Kalyani reaches Chandrasekaran 's palatial house seeking food , but Chandrasekaran throws her out without recognising her . She later arrives at a temple seeking help , but the pujari ( priest ) also tries to molest her . Frustrated with life and unable to feed her child , Kalyani throws it into a river and attempts suicide , but is soon arrested for killing the child and brought for trial . At the court , Kalyani defends her act of infanticide with the judge being Chandrasekaran , who after hearing her tragic story realises she is his sister , and faints . Gunasekaran is also brought to the court for having attacked the priest who tried to molest his sister . During his trial , Gunasekaran explains the misfortunes which have befallen him and his family , and justifies his actions . Gunasekaran 's valiant defence in the court awakens everyone on the evils of the society . As the trial proceeds , Vimala arrives and produces Kalyani 's child , which was revealed to have safely fallen in her boat instead of the river . Kalyani and Gunasekaran are pardoned and acquitted by the court , and are finally reunited with Chandrasekaran . Gnanasekaran , while collecting donations for his association of beggars , also joins them unexpectedly . With Vimala and Gunasekaran deciding to get married , the family subsequently inaugurates a welfare home for orphans . = = Cast = = Male cast Sivaji Ganesan as Gunasekaran S. V. Sahasranamam as Chandrasekaran S. S. Rajendran as Gnanasekaran Duraiswamy as Manickampillai T. K. Ramachandran as Venu K. M. Nambirajan as Vellai Swamy Venkatraman as Thangappan V. K. Ramasamy as Narayana Pillai K. P. Kamatchi as the pujari ( priest ) M. N. Krishnan as Kuppan Sakthivel as a servant D. V. Narayanaswamy as Thambi Durai V. K. Karthikeyan as the Tamil pandit Kannadasan as a judge ( uncredited ) Female cast Sriranjani Jr. as Kalyani Pandari Bai as Vimala Susheela as Saraswati Kannamma as Jolly Angamuthu as the fruit seller T. P. Muthulakshmi as Kantha A. S. Jaya as Parvati = = Production = = Parasakthi was a popular Tamil play written by Pavalar Balasundaram , a Tamil scholar . Around the same time , En Thangai ( My Sister ) , written by T. S. Natarajan , became popular . Sivaji Ganesan , at that time a struggling stage actor , acted in En Thangai as " a brother sacrificing his love for the sake of his sightless kid sister . " The pre @-@ production crew at Central Studio , Coimbatore , initially planned to merge these two plays to make a film . However , Natarajan , the author of En Thangai disagreed to the idea , and indeed sold the rights of the play to another producer . The shooting of the film En Thangai began with Tiruchi Loganathan , then a popular playback artist , playing the lead role of the sacrificing brother . However , he was eventually replaced by actor M. G. Ramachandran . Meanwhile , film distributor P. A. Perumal of National Pictures , with the patronage of A. V. Meiyappan of AVM Productions , bought the film rights of Parasakthi . Karunanidhi , who would later become the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu , was signed to write the script . Ganesan , the stage actor of En Thangai was chosen to play the hero , making his cinematic acting debut . It was Perumal who , in 1950 , gave Ganesan a flight ticket to Madras for the screen test for Parasakthi . Ganesan had simultaneously shot for the film Poongothai , which was supposed to be his actual film to release first , but released much later . He had earlier dubbed for Telugu actor Mukkamala in the 1951 Tamil film Niraparadhi . Parasakthi , which was jointly produced by National Pictures and AVM Productions , did not begin well for Ganesan . When shooting began and 2000 feet of the film was shot , Meiyappan was dissatisfied with Ganesan 's " thin " physique , and wanted him replaced with actor K. R. Ramaswamy . Perumal refused , and Ganesan was retained . Meiyappan was also satisfied with the final results of the film . The initial scenes of Ganesan which he earlier disliked were reshot . Ganesan was paid a monthly salary of ₹ 250 ( valued at about US $ 52 @.@ 5 in 1952 ) for acting in the film . S. S. Rajendran , who was another successful stage artist , also debuted in Parasakthi after the advice of political leader C. N. Annadurai . According to film historian Film News Anandan , Parasakthi was one of the few films at that time to be " completely driven " by stage artists . Rajasulochana was initially cast as the female lead , but opted out due to her pregnancy , and was eventually replaced by Telugu actress Sriranjani , Jr . Pandari Bai was also added to the film , after Meiyappan was impressed with her performance in Raja Vikrama ( 1950 ) . Poet Kannadasan declined to work as one of the film 's lyricists , and instead acted in a minor role as a court judge , as he was " determined to take part in the Parasakthi movie " . The cinematography was handled by S. Maruti Rao , while the songs were choreographed by Heeralal . The film 's climax song " Ellorum Vazha Vendum " featured stock footage of the political leaders C. Rajagopalachari , Periyar E. V. Ramasamy , Bhakthavatchalam , Annadurai , and Karunanidhi . = = Themes = = Panju stated that Parasakthi was designed to " create havoc . Of course , it did . We were challenging the social law itself , the basic Constitution itself " . The title song of the film was composed by Bharathidasan , keeping with the demand of the DMK party seeking a sovereign Dravidian nation . The poem glorifies the utopian nature of the Dravidian nation and ends with a long monologue that grieves the present India 's reality . When the female lead Kalyani becomes pregnant , she and her husband Thangappan decide to name the child " Pannirselvam " if it is a boy , and " Nagammai " if it is a girl . The names are references to A. T. Pannirselvam , a prominent and respected leader of the Justice Party and Nagammai , a leading activist in the Self @-@ Respect Movement and the wife of Periyar E. V. Ramasamy . According to film historian Selvaraj Velayutham , Parasakthi was basically oriented to social reform . United News of India ( UNI ) , The Times of India and K. S. Sivakumaran of the Sri Lankan newspaper Daily News have referred to the film as a satire , with UNI describing it as a " sociological satire " . The film deploys Kalyani 's vulnerability as a widow in a hostile society , with consequent threats to her chastity , especially during the court trial scenes . The name Kalyani was chosen by the script writer to emphasise the contradiction between the meaning of her name indicating auspiciousness and her contrasting penury . The theme is expressed through Gunasekaran 's arguments in the court : " [ My ] sister 's name is Kalyani . An auspicious name [ indeed ] . But there is no ' mangalyam ' around [ her ] neck " . Also , Vimala , who becomes Gunasekaran 's bride , compares herself to Kannagi , a popular symbol of chastity in Tamil culture . Ganesan , who enacted the role of Gunasekaran in Parasakthi , was a DMK activist in real life in 1952 and helped in propagating the theme of Dravida Nadu . The film attempted to bring to light the alleged fraud in the name of religion and presented agnostic views , displaying a powerful critique of the Congress rule in the Madras Presidency . = = Music = = The music of Parasakthi was composed by R. Sudarsanam . The lyrics were written by Bharathidasan , T. N. Ramaiah Nadu , Bharathiyar , Karunanidhi , and Udumalai Narayana Kavi . The background score was composed by the Chennai @-@ based Saraswathi Stores Orchestra . Relatively higher importance was given to the film 's dialogues over its music , so the dialogues were sold separately on audio cassettes . Some of the numbers from Parasakthi were based on songs from Hindi films ; one was a rehash from the Urdu film Akeli ( 1952 ) . The number " O Rasikkum Seemane " inspired " Itai Tazhukikkolla " from Periyar ( 2007 ) . The 2010 film Rasikkum Seemane borrows its title from the song of the same name . Annadurai is referenced in the number " Kaa Kaa Kaa " , in the line " Kaakai Annave neengal azhagaana vaayaal pannaga paadureenga " ( " Crow elder , you are singing so melodiously with your beautiful mouth " ) . Credit for that song 's writer is disputed , with film music historian Vamanan attributing it to Udumalai Narayana Kavi , while Sachi Sri Kantha believes Karunandhi wrote the song . " Poomalai " is based on the Urdu song " Sanwariya , Tohe Koi Pukare " from the Pakistani film Dupatta ( 1952 ) . An album containing remixed versions of the songs of Parasakthi was released in on 3 June 2009 , to commemorate Karunanidhi 's 86th birthday . = = Release = = = = = Reception = = = Parasakthi was released on 17 October 1952 , on Diwali day . It was regarded as a " propaganda vehicle for a new political party " and marked the start of cinema 's " starring role in Tamil politics " . Ganesan 's performance in the film 's court scene was also very well received by audience , and was considered to have propelled him to stardom . The film became an instant commercial success , running for over 175 days in several theatres , and was one of the first films to be screened at the Madurai @-@ based Thangam theatre , which was noted as Asia 's largest theatre at the time . Parasakthi 's Telugu @-@ dubbed version of the same name was released in 1957 . = = = Critical response = = = P. Balasubramania Mudaliar of Sunday Observer wrote , " The story is simple but it has been made powerful by Mr. Karunanidhi by his beautiful dialogues . Mr. Shivaji Ganesan , who plays the main role dominates from the beginning to the end " and concluded , " If an Academy award were to be given to any picture , I have little doubt that this picture would be entitled on its merits to such an award . " Dinamani Kadir , a Tamil weekly owned by Indian Express Limited ( then known as The Indian Express Group ) , carried an unusually long review of Parasakthi running into three closely printed pages . The review was given a cynical title , " Kandarva Mandalam " ( " The Abode of Kandarvas " ) and it began with a small box @-@ item which read , " Parasakthi : This goddess is abused in a Tamil film with her name " . The reviewer opined , " The main aim of the film is to attach gods . Along with that , the government and society are overtly and covertly attacked . The embittered and agitated reviewer further claimed , " He [ the hero of the film ] , acting as a mad man , threatens and beats the people on the street and grabs whatever they have and eats it . Then he goes to give repeatedly all those economics lectures , rationalist lectures and anti @-@ god lectures . When we see the hero doing all that , it seems as if he is portraying the lives of those who are trying to force such ideas in the ... film . " For the reviewer , thus , the DMK men were living on others ' sweat and preaching unacceptable subsersive ideas . Film historian Randor Guy said , " 1952 ... an eventful year for Tamil cinema , the beginning of a new period " and added that " The film that ushered in that new era was Parasakthi written for the screen by another fast @-@ rising star Mu . Karunanidhi " , while concluding that the film would be " Remembered for the dialogue and the stunning performance of the new hero . " In an interview with Shobha Warrier of Rediff.com , Tamil film historian S. Theodore Baskaran said , " Sivaji 's best and most memorable films are his early ones " and mentioned that Ganesan was " very lucky to get a role in Parasakthi " , which he praised for the " flowery dialogues " . Film historian S. Muthiah said that Parasakthi " showed Karunanidhi as the master of meaningful screen dialogue that carried forceful messages to the masses " . The Sunday Indian called it " a classic DMK film scripted by M Karunanidhi " . In a 2007 interview with S. R. Ashok Kumar of The Hindu , director Balu Mahendra said , " ' Parasakthi 's ' heavy dialogue ( written in chaste Tamil by the current Chief Minister M. Karunanidhi ) coupled with a stunning performance by newcomer , Sivaji Ganesan , make it a favourite . " Film News Anandan called it " one of the most elaborately plotted melodramas in the Indian cinema " . = = = Controversies = = = Post release , Parasakthi was marred by numerous controversies , and was defined as " one of the most controversial films in the history of Tamil cinema " by Theodore Baskaran . It was accused of trying to portray Brahmins in poor light . Abuse of Hindu customs and religious practices evoked strong protests from the Hindu orthodoxy . Scenes like a priest attempting to rape a woman in a temple were found to be very provocative . The social elite and members of the then ruling Congress party demanded the film to be banned . The @-@ then Chief Minister of Madras , C. Rajagopalachari was unhappy with the extremely provocative nature of the film , but allowed it to be screened . One of the reasons stated by them was the dialogue spoken by Ganesan 's character , " Just because you came around chanting names and offered flowers to the stone , would it become a god ? " , which was accused of " mocking the audiences . " His reference to Goddess Parasakthi as a stone created a stir , and the word " stone " was eventually censored from the soundtrack . However , the given message was still " clear and the impact viral . " The State Government requested the Union Government to reconsider the film certification , but they declined , due to a previous examination by a Madras intelligence officer , who stated : The dialogues for the film have been specially written in a forceful manner by Sri M Karunanidhi , the well known leader of the Dravidian Progression Federation ... The film graphically describes the sufferings and hardships that a young widow with her babe in arms has to face due to poverty and how cruelly society treats her , or illtreats her . The substance of the story by itself is not objectionable . The plot is interesting and the story has a powerful moral appeal , namely that there will be ups and downs in a man 's life and that chastity is the most precious jewel of womanhood . = = Legacy = = Parasakthi acquired cult status and changed the character of Tamil cinema . Dialogue writing was given more importance than ever before . Speeches of the film replaced traditional music of artists like M. S. Subbulakshmi , K. B. Sundarambal and others at festivities . The film also had its share in giving the DMK the necessary stimulus to overthrow the Congress party in Tamil Nadu . The dialogues became so popular that " roadside entertainers used to recite long passages from the film in market area of Madras and collect money from bystanders " , and memorising the film 's dialogues became a " must for aspirant political orators " . They were even released separately on gramaphone records . K. Hariharan , the director of L. V. Prasad Film Academy in Chennai , included the film in his 2013 list , " Movies that stirred , moved & shook us " . In celebration of the film 's 50th year , Ganesan 's autobiography , entitled Enathu Suya Sarithai ( " My Autobiography " ) was released on 1 October 2002 in Tamil , exactly a year after the actor 's death in 2001 . The English version , titled Autobiography of an Actor : Sivaji Ganesan , October 1928 @-@ July 2001 , was released exactly five years later in 2007 . To commemorate 50 years since the release of Parasakthi , a memorial was inaugurated in AVM Studios on 17 October 2002 by Kamal Haasan in the presence of Ganesan 's sons Prabhu and Ramkumar . The memorial stands at the same place where Ganesan first faced the camera . A slab of black granite , the memorial has on its top a brass medallion that bears a close @-@ up of Ganesan uttering his popular opening line " Success " . At its bottom is a rectangular plaque that gives details about the memorial 's inauguration . At the base of the rectangular plaque are two other plaques resembling the pages of an open book and contains the names of the technical crew and all those involved in the making of the film . The visage of Ganesan wearing a hat was designed by Thotta Tharani . The 2003 film Success starring Ganesan 's grandson Dushyant was named after Ganesan 's popular line , but opened to negative reception . Parasakthi is included with other Ganesan films in 8th Ulaga Adhisayam Sivaji , a compilation DVD featuring Ganesan 's " iconic performances in the form of scenes , songs and stunts " which was released in May 2012 . During the film 's diamond jubilee year celebrations in January 2013 , K. Chandrasekaran , the president of Nadigar Thilagam Sivaji Social Welfare Association said , " Six decades down the line Parasakthi is remembered because it is not just a film , but an epic " . On the centenary of Indian cinema in April 2013 , Forbes India included Ganesan 's performance in the film in its list , " 25 Greatest Acting Performances of Indian Cinema " . Actor Sivakumar stated , " You can ’ t reproduce movies like Parasakthi , Pasamalar , Devadas , Veerapandiya Kattabomman or Ratha Kanneer [ ... ] By remaking such films , you are lowering yourself , while it enhances the original artists ’ image . " The Times of India included Parasakthi in its list , " Top 5 Sivaji Ganesan films on his birthday " . Vivek parodied the film 's climax in Palayathu Amman ( 2000 ) . A film called Meendum Parasakthi directed by A. Jagannathan was released in 1985 . This film is not related to Parasakthi . Karthi 's performance in his debut film Paruthi Veeran ( 2007 ) was compared by critics with Parasakthi . Malathi Rangarajan , in her review of Citizen ( 2001 ) at The Hindu , mentioned that the court scene during the climax was reminiscent of Parasakthi 's climax . In Sivaji ( 2007 ) , the eponymous character ( Rajinikanth ) who shares his first name with Sivaji Ganesan , utters the dialogue , " Parasakthi hero da " ( " The hero of Parasakthi , man " ) when referring to himself . Film Heritage Foundation announced in March 2015 that they would be restoring Parasakthi along with a few other Indian films from 1931 to 1965 as a part of their restoration projects carried out in India and abroad in accordance to international parameters . The foundation , however , stated that they would not colourise any of the films as they " believe in the original repair as the way the master or the creator had seen it . " In July 2016 , Ganesan 's other grandson Vikram Prabhu launched a production house named " First Artist " with a still of Ganesan from Parasakthi as part of its logo . = = Explanatory notes = = = Conan ( 2007 video game ) = Conan is a 2007 action @-@ adventure video game that puts players in control of the titular hero , Conan the Barbarian , from Robert E. Howard 's fantasy literature . The game was published by THQ for the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 game consoles . Its developer , Nihilistic Software , was inspired by the God of War and Ninja Gaiden video games to create an experience featuring gore and nudity . = = Gameplay = = Players control Conan the Barbarian from a third @-@ person perspective while attempting to advance through the series of levels that subdivide the game . Conan can fight with sword and shield , two @-@ handed weapons , or a weapon in each hand . Starting with several basic attacks , the barbarian gains experience points by killing enemies . By exchanging these points for additional attacks , players improve the hero 's fighting abilities . Magic powers complement Conan 's arsenal , including the abilities to turn enemies into stone and conjure firestorms . The game also features context @-@ sensitive action sequences in which players press a sequence of buttons displayed on the screen to complete actions such as killing powerful enemies and interacting with the environment . The gameplay is the same for each level : Conan moves from area to area , fighting groups of enemies until he reaches the end . At the end of certain levels , the barbarian has to fight a more powerful opponent called a boss . Defeating a boss involves a two @-@ stage process : Conan has to inflict heavy damage on the creature and thus trigger an interactive button @-@ pressing sequence that players have to complete to kill the boss . Several cycles of this process are required to defeat most bosses . Besides combat , button @-@ pressing sequences are also used to interact with the environment , such as knocking down obstacles to create passageways , or as parts of platforming sequences in which Conan climbs walls and jumps from ledge to ledge . Players can save their progress by using special stones that are placed throughout the game . Conan starts each level with his default one @-@ handed sword , and can pick up shields and other weapons to switch between three styles of attack : fighting with a one @-@ handed weapon , a two @-@ handed weapon , or a weapon in each hand . Each style features several attacks with names like " Cimmerian Charge " and " Black River Rage " . The barbarian can change or stop his attacks at any time , creating many options in combat . When Conan lands a sequence of successive hits on his enemies , he activates his Song of Death , which increases the damage of his attacks for a short time . For defense , Conan can roll under enemy attacks or block them . If the player presses the block button just when an enemy is about to hit the barbarian , an image of a controller button appears on the screen . Pressing the button shown will make Conan execute a gory counterattack , which instantly kills the enemy . Other methods to kill enemies include grabbing and throwing them against other objects , such as spikes and other enemies , or over cliffs . In addition to physical assaults , Conan can use magic powers to damage enemies . Gaining these powers in later stages of the game , the barbarian can turn opponents into stone , call down fire from the heavens , and summon flocks of ravens to do his bidding . These magical attacks can quickly end fights , but their use is limited by the number of magic points Conan has . When an enemy is killed , colored runes — each one conferring its own special advantage — are released and gathered by the barbarian . Red runes act as experience points , which are exchanged for advanced attacks . Green and blue runes restore Conan 's health and magic points , respectively . The barbarian can also obtain runes by breaking containers and freeing maidens from captivity . = = Plot and setting = = In Conan , the hero is on a quest to recover his lost armor and defeat an evil wizard . The game takes place in the world of Hyboria , a creation of Robert E. Howard for his stories about Conan the Barbarian . Conan 's developer , Nihilistic Software , chose several Hyborian locations , such as Kush , Stygia , and the Barachan Isles , to establish a link to the literary world . Hyboria was designed to be a fantasy version of Earth around 10 @,@ 000 BC , and its civilizations were based on those from the Stone to Iron Ages . Nihilistic portrayed the plains of Kush , a fictional Africa , as savannahs with villages of straw huts . Stygia was illustrated as a land filled with structures resembling Egyptian tombs and the Barachan Isles as lushly jungled islands . = = = Characters = = = Conan is the protagonist in many of Howard 's stories : a franchise has been built around the character , and Frank Frazetta 's paintings have further elevated the barbarian 's profile in pop culture . Howard presented his barbarian hero as a strong , shrewd , barbaric , and ambitious man in a primitive world of magic . His stories are simple and portray Conan overcoming a series of obstacles to defeat the antagonists with his physical prowess . Nihilistic originally intended to stay faithful to the literature , but the writers strayed from the canon by showing the barbarian as willing to use magic .	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Geier then steamed up the Yangtze to Chungking , where she replaced her sister ship Bussard . On 5 April , Geier returned to Tsingtao ; on the 29th , she was transferred to the coast of central China , where she replaced another sister , Seeadler . Geier returned to Tsingtao on 18 July , and began a tour of Korean and Japanese ports four days later with the flagship of the East Asia Squadron , Fürst Bismarck . The next twelve months were filled with cruises in the region . On 15 October 1902 , Geier began a long cruise south to the Dutch East Indies , which also included a stop in Singapore . The ship entered the dry dock in Nagasaki , Japan , for a major overhaul on 2 March 1903 , which lasted until 26 April . At this time , Geier was formally assigned to the East Asia Squadron . The ship resumed its normal routine of cruises in East Asian waters with stops in various ports . In February 1904 , the Russo @-@ Japanese War broke out ; from April to August , Geier was in Chemulpo , which had been captured by the Japanese . By 1905 , the ship was worn out , having spent over seven years on foreign stations . The repair facilities in Tsingtao were insufficient for the amount of work that needed to be done , and so Geier was ordered to return to Germany . She left Tsingtao on 14 January and arrived in Kiel on 16 March , where she was decommissioned for a significant period of repair work . Her three @-@ masted schooner barque rig was reduced to a two @-@ masted topsail schooner rig . = = = Second overseas deployment = = = In early 1911 , Geier was recommissioned to replace the unprotected cruiser Sperber on the East African Station , based in German East Africa . On 2 May she left Danzig , arriving in Kiel the following day . There , she was equipped for the deployment abroad . The ship left Kiel on 8 May and arrived in Dar es Salaam on 9 July , where she joined Seeadler . She cruised the colony 's coast , but at the end of September she was ordered to the Mediterranean Sea , as the Italo @-@ Turkish War had broken out on the 29th . At the time , the only German warship in the Mediterranean was the old aviso Loreley , the station ship in Constantinople ; this was a result of the heightened tensions in Europe following the Agadir Crisis in July , as most German warships in European waters had been recalled to Germany . Geier 's departure for the Mediterranean was delayed by a coal fire in Dar es Salaam , which required her crew to put out . She left East Africa on 2 October and arrived in Piraeus , Greece on 16 October , where she remained until January 1912 . She was then formally assigned to the Mediterranean Division , along with the recently @-@ arrived battlecruiser Goeben . From mid @-@ April to mid @-@ July , she made trips to provide humanitarian assistance in Libya , Palestine , and the Red Sea . These were interrupted by the arrival of Kaiser Wilhelm II 's yacht Hohenzollern ; the two ships cruised to the island of Corfu in early May . On 17 July , Geier went to Trieste in Austria @-@ Hungary for an overhaul that lasted until 30 September . She thereafter went on a cruise of the eastern Mediterranean and visited several ports . While she was loading coal in Haifa on 31 January 1913 , a coal dust explosion killed two crew members . While cruising Turkish waters in August , she was ordered to replace the light cruiser Breslau in the international naval blockade of Montenegro during the Second Balkan War . She arrived off the mouth of the Bojana River in Montenegro on 11 August , which she patrolled until 14 October , when she was released for a major overhaul in Triest . After repairs were completed on 4 January 1914 , she was ordered to return to the East Africa Station . She arrived there on 22 February and conducted a survey of the harbor at Tanga . On 6 May , the ship was formally reclassified as a gunboat . The light cruiser Königsberg arrived on 5 June to replace Geier , which was then reassigned to the South Seas Station , where she would in turn replace her sister Condor . = = = World War I = = = Geier 's captain learned of the rising tensions in Europe following the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria while en route to the Pacific . The ship coaled in Singapore on 25 – 29 July , departing the day after Austria @-@ Hungary declared war on Serbia . Geier thereafter proceeded southeast through the Gaspar Strait , rather than north to Tsingtao , where he would be expected to go . While off Batavia on 1 August , Geier received the order from Maximilian von Spee , the commander of the East Asia Squadron , to join him at Yap . On 3 . August , she received word of the German mobilization and the order to begin cruiser warfare . She coaled at Jampea from the steamer Elmshorn of the Deutsch @-@ Australische Dampfschiffs @-@ Gesellschaft ( DADG ) on 6 August before steaming north through the Buton Strait . Off Celebes she rendezvoused with the DADG steamer Bochum , which acted as her collier . Geier 's crew made temporary repairs to the ship 's engines and boilers before proceeding north to the Palau Islands . Bochum took Geier under tow to conserve coal . On 20 August , she managed to contact the cruiser Emden , which was detached from the East Asia Squadron and operating as a commerce raider . Emden instructed Geier to rendezvous at the island of Anguar , but she was unable to reach the island before Emden departed . Nevertheless , the two ships met at sea the following day ; one of Geier 's cutters took her commander , Lieutenant Commander Curt Graßhoff , aboard Emden to meet with her captain . Emden then departed for the Molucca Strait , while Geier proceeded to Anguar . After arriving , Geier coaled from the HAPAG steamer Tsingtau . Graßhoff intended to rendezvous with the East Asia Squadron in the central Pacific , and proceeded through the Bismarck Archipelago before turning north to Kusaie . There , on 4 September , Geier captured the British freighter Southport and disabled the ship 's engines before departing . The freighter 's crew repaired the damage , however , and Southport made for Australia where she reported the German gunboat 's presence . On 11 September , Geier arrived in Majuro , though the East Asia Squadron had already departed the island on 30 August . By this time , the ship 's engines were in such bad shape that she would have been unable to reach Tsingtao , though the point was moot , as Japanese forces had already besieged the port . In addition , opportunities for commerce raiding in the area were slim , and there were no suitably fast steamers available to arm as auxiliary cruisers . Graßhoff therefore decided to follow the East Asia Squadron to South America , despite the slow speed of his ship , which was reduced to 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . The Norddeutscher Lloyd ( NDL ) steamer Locksun towed Geier to the Marshall Islands , where further repairs were made from 17 to 20 September . By this time , the ship 's coal and water supplies were so low that the ship would not be able to continue past Hawaii . She arrived in Honolulu on 15 October , where the then @-@ neutral Americans requested that Geier be interned . Two Japanese ships — the battleship , Hizen , and the armored cruiser , Asama — had been patrolling in the area . Upon learning of the arrival of Geier , the two ships remained just outside the three mile limit to await Geier 's departure . Graßhoff was able to delay the internment request until 7 November owing to damage to the ship and poor weather . The following day , the US Navy interned Geier . = = = Service as USS Schurz = = = The United States entered the war on the side of the Allies on 6 April 1917 . The US Navy seized Geier and refitted her for service in the Navy . The ship was renamed USS Schurz on 9 June , and commissioned on 15 September 1917 , under the command of Commander Arthur Crenshaw . Schurz departed Pearl Harbor on 31 October and escorted Submarine Division 3 to San Diego . Arriving on 12 November , she continued on with the submarines K @-@ 3 , K @-@ 4 , K @-@ 7 , and K @-@ 8 , in early December . At the end of the month , the convoy transited the Panama Canal and proceeded to Honduras . On 4 January 1918 , Schurz was relieved of escort duty . She carried the American consul from Puerto Cortes to Omao and back , after which she sailed for Key West . From Florida , she was transferred to New Orleans and then sailed for Charleston , South Carolina on 1 February where she entered dry dock for periodic maintenance . Assigned to the American Patrol Detachment , Schurz departed Charleston toward the end of April and , for the next two months , conducted patrols and performed escort duty and towing missions along the east coast and in the Caribbean . On 19 June , she departed New York for Key West . At 0444 on the 21st , southwest of Cape Lookout lightship , she was rammed by the merchant ship Florida . The ship hit Schurz on the starboard side , crumpling that wing of the bridge , penetrating the well and berth deck about 12 feet , and cutting through bunker no . 3 to the forward fire room . One of Schurz 's crewmen was killed instantly ; twelve others were injured . Schurz was abandoned and sank three hours later . The ship was struck from the Navy list on 26 August 1918 . = = Wreck = = The wreckage rests at a depth of 115 feet ( 35 m ) with the top of the wreck situated at 95 feet ( 29 m ) . In 2000 , the ship was subject of a Phase II archaeological investigation headed by East Carolina University . The wreck is protected by sovereign immunity and it is therefore illegal to recover artifacts from the site without permission . In 2013 , Scuba Diving magazine named USS Schurz as one of the top ten wreck dives in North Carolina . = Antes de las Seis = " Antes de las Seis " ( English : " Before Six O 'Clock " ) is a song recorded by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira for her ninth studio album Sale el Sol ( 2010 ) . Written and produced by the singer and her frequent collaborator Lester Mendez , " Antes de las Seis " is one of the " romantic " songs from the album and is musically a Latin pop ballad . It features a simple piano and acoustic guitar @-@ supplemented beat over which Shakira delivers sad and emotional vocals . Epic Records released the song as the fourth single from Sale el Sol on 21 October 2011 . Critics gave positive reviews to " Antes de las Seis " , complimenting its lyrical content . The song performed poorly on singles charts , but was moderately successful on airplay charts . It reached number 1 on the Spanish Airplay Chart and peaked at number 14 on the Monitor Latino chart in Mexico . In the United States , it peaked at numbers 21 and 4 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts , respectively . In 2013 , " Antes de las Seis " was certified gold in Mexico . The song was performed during the encore segment of the concert shows of Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 . A recording of its performance at the show in Paris , France , served as the promotional music video of the song . It was also used to promote Shakira 's fourth live album Live from Paris . = = Background and composition = = In October 2009 , Shakira released her eighth studio album , She Wolf . The composition of the record shifted from her more traditional Latin pop and pop rock styles , and was primarily an electropop album with combined elements of world and folk music . The album was positively received by most music critics and was praised for its distinguished nature and Shakira 's experimentation with electropop . Commercially , She Wolf was a success , topping charts and attaining gold and platinum certifications in several South American and European territories . However , it performed poorly in the United States and became Shakira 's first studio album since Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ( 1998 ) to miss charting inside the top 10 after it peaked at number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 200 chart . In May 2010 , she wrote and recorded " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which became a worldwide hit . Following the global success of the song , Shakira began work on her ninth studio album Sale el Sol . She split the album into three " directions , " one of which she described as " romantic " in nature . Shakira felt it was something she had not " tapped into for the past three years , " and its inclusion in the album resulted in " very intense , very romantic " songs . " Antes de las Seis " is one such song from the album . The Latin pop ballad was written and produced by Shakira and her frequent collaborator Lester Mendez , who had previously worked with her on songs including " Underneath Your Clothes " ( 2002 ) and " La Tortura " ( 2005 ) . The musical instrumentation of the song is simple and consists of a piano and acoustic guitar . According to Jennifer Schaffer from the The Stanford Daily , its " softer " production helps in putting the focus on Shakira 's voice , which she opined had been " stripped to its sensitive core . " The singer delivers sad and emotional vocals that address issues of " longing , regrets and loneliness . " Shakira talked about the deep meaning behind the balladry of the album and expressed difficulty in explaining it , saying : " We all go through hard moments . Whatever happened , it 's right there in the songs . I 've decided that I 'm not going to explain every song this time . It 's hard to explain a song . These songs explain me better than I can explain them . " = = Release and reception = = " Antes de las Seis " was chosen as the fourth single from Sale el Sol and was made available to digitally download from the iTunes Store on 21 October 2011 . An announcement confirming its release as a single appeared on Shakira 's official website on 24 October . Although the announcement mentioned that the single would be released to the iTunes Store on 31 October , it had already appeared on there ten days before . = = = Critical reception = = = " Antes de las Seis " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic highlighted it as an example of Shakira 's versatility and commented that the album " catches its breath on the ballad . " Mikael Wood from Entertainment Weekly termed the song a " gorgeous ballad " and encouraged readers to download it . Jesus Yanez @-@ Reyes from Northern Arizona News gave " Antes de las Seis " a very positive review and praised its lyrics and Shakira 's " heartfelt " vocal delivery as having the ability " to overcome whatever language barriers may exist between the artist and the listener , truly making it a song of note within the release . " Jennifer Schaffer from the Stanford Daily complimented the sensitivity of the song and commented that " Shakira offers her listeners a far more vulnerable persona " through it . Carlos Macias from Terra Music picked " Antes de las Seis " as his favourite track from the album and commended its lyrics , calling them " classic Shakira " and concluding that " It 'd been a while since the Colombian superstar offered us an insight into her heart . " At the Premios Nuestra Tierra awards ceremony in 2012 , " Antes de las Seis " was nominated for " Mejor Interpretación Pop Del Año " ( " Best Pop Performance of the Year " ) . = = = Chart performance = = = Commercially , the song was moderately successful in Hispanic regions . In Mexico , " Antes de las Seis " peaked at number 14 on the Monitor Latino airplay chart . In Spain , it topped the PROMUSICAE airplay chart , although it failed to chart on the main singles chart . Similarly , the song was successful on the Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart in the United States , on which it peaked at number 4 , but performed poorly on the main Hot Latin Songs chart , reaching only number 21 . " Antes de las Seis " is the only single from Sale el Sol to not chart inside the top ten of the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . In 2013 , the Mexican Association of Phonograph Producers ( AMPROFON ) certified " Antes de las Seis " gold for selling 30 @,@ 000 units in Mexico . = = Promotion = = The song was included on the set list of Shakira 's The Sun Comes Out World Tour in 2010 and 2011 , and was performed as the opening song of the encore segment of the concert shows . She sang it dressed in a large " feathery " royal blue dress , and towards the end of the performance artificial snow flakes started falling from the sky . A recording of the performance during the concert held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy arena in Paris , France , served as the music video of " Antes de las Seis " . The video was also used to promote Shakira 's fourth live album Live from Paris . = = Charts and certifications = = = Washington State Route 339 = State Route 339 ( SR 339 ) was a 8 @.@ 5 @-@ nautical @-@ mile @-@ long ( 9 @.@ 8 mi ; 15 @.@ 7 km ) ferry route designated as a state highway in the U.S. state of Washington . It connected Vashon Island 's Vashon Heights ferry terminal to downtown Seattle 's Pier 50 , via a passenger @-@ only ferry , the MV Skagit . The ferry was financed by the King County Ferry District ( KCFD ) and tolls collected at Pier 50 . Despite being part of the KCFD , the ferry was operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) . SR 339 was one of only four ferry routes providing access to and from Vashon Island , and had the lowest annual average ridership of the four routes . The state of Washington took over the operation of the ferry route in 1951 , and designated it SR 339 in 1994 . The ferry was discontinued in 2006 and was replaced by a King County Water Taxi route . = = Route description = = The entire route of SR 339 was in Puget Sound and was served by the MV Skagit . The passenger @-@ only ferry started out from the Vashon Heights ferry terminal on Vashon Island and headed in a northerly direction , passing Blake Island State Park on the west . It briefly sailed into Kitsap County before the route turned east and passed the Alki Point Light and Alki Point before entering Elliott Bay , and docking at WSF 's Pier 50 , just south of Colman Dock , where the rest of the WSF operated ferries dock in Seattle . Traveling at a top speed of 25 knots ( 29 mph ) , the MV Skagit made the crossing in about 35 minutes . There were three crossings each direction Monday – Friday , and no service on Saturday or Sunday . Vashon Island is only connected to the rest of the region via three different WSF ferries departing from the Vashon dock , the other route departing from the Tahlequah dock on the south end of the island . SR 339 was the only passenger @-@ only ferry that served the island ; the other three ferries are auto ferries . = = History = = Ferries have provided transportation to and from Vashon Island since the days of the Seattle Mosquito Fleet , but the state government took over the operation of the Vashon Island ferry on June 1 , 1951 . The MV Skagit was built in 1989 , and the ferry began service on the Seattle – Vashon Island route on April 23 , 1990 . The route was designated as a state highway , along with the rest of the state ferry system , in 1994 . In 2003 the average daily ridership was 827 passengers per day , based on a five @-@ day week , compared to 1 @,@ 015 passengers on average when the route operated on a six @-@ day schedule in 1999 . This number has decreased in 2004 , with an average of 529 passengers per day traveling on the ferry . The passenger @-@ only service between Vashion Island and Seattle ended in 2006 . WSF operated and maintained the MV Skagit , but by July 2009 the KCFD was to assume all responsibilities of the operation . The route no longer received state funding , and King County was to be responsible for all costs of the route to be funded by property taxes . The MV Skagit was sold in 2011 to a ferry operator in Tanzania , where it connected Zanzibar to the mainland until it sank on July 18 , 2012 . The Seattle – Vashon Island run was transferred to the King County Ferry District in 2007 , now operated as a King County Water Taxi route . = = Tolls = = Tolls were collected on trips departing Pier 50 ; return trips to Seattle were not charged . The adult toll was $ 8 @.@ 70 , with bicycles assessed an additional $ 1 @.@ 00 toll . Wave2Go is a prepaid toll system which allowed commuters to purchase either 10 ride cards or monthly passes . = = Major intersections = = The entire route was located in Puget Sound , King County . = Colbert @-@ class ironclad = The Colbert class were a pair of armored frigates built for the French Navy during the 1870s . The ships served as the flagships of the commander and deputy commander of the Mediterranean Squadron for most of their careers . The sister ships took part in the French conquest of Tunisia , notably shelling and landing troops in Sfax in 1881 . They were relegated to second @-@ line roles in 1894 – 95 before being condemned in 1900 . The ships were finally sold for scrap in 1909 . = = Design and description = = The Colbert @-@ class ships were designed by Constructor Sabattier as improved versions of the ironclad Richelieu and were the last ships authorized by the 1857 Naval Program . They reverted to a single propeller shaft to improve their sailing qualities and to lessen the chance of the propellers being fouled by fallen rigging . As central battery ironclads , they had their armament concentrated amidships . Like most ironclads of their era , they were equipped with a plough @-@ shaped ram . The ships ' crew numbered 774 officers and men . Their metacentric height was low , a little above 0 @.@ 6 meters ( 2 ft ) . The ships measured 101 @.@ 1 – 102 @.@ 1 meters ( 331 ft 8 in – 335 ft 0 in ) overall , with a beam of 17 @.@ 57 – 17 @.@ 7 meters ( 57 ft 8 in – 58 ft 1 in ) . They had maximum drafts of 8 @.@ 11 – 8 @.@ 58 meters ( 26 ft 7 in – 28 ft 2 in ) and displaced 8 @,@ 617 – 8 @,@ 814 metric tons ( 8 @,@ 481 – 8 @,@ 675 long tons ) . While the exact reason for such prolonged construction time is not known , it is believed that reduction of the French Navy 's budget after the Franco @-@ Prussian War of 1870 – 71 and out @-@ of @-@ date work practices in French dockyards were likely causes . = = = Propulsion = = = The Colbert class had a single Wolf three @-@ cylinder horizontal return connecting @-@ rod compound steam engine that drove one propeller . The engine was powered by eight oval boilers and was designed for a capacity of 4 @,@ 700 metric horsepower ; 3 @,@ 400 kilowatts ( 4 @,@ 600 ihp ) . On sea trials the engines produced 4 @,@ 652 – 4 @,@ 882 metric horsepower ( 3 @,@ 422 – 3 @,@ 591 kW ) and the ships reached speeds of 14 @.@ 18 – 14 @.@ 47 knots ( 26 @.@ 26 – 26 @.@ 80 km / h ; 16 @.@ 32 – 16 @.@ 65 mph ) . The ships carried a maximum of 620 metric tons ( 610 long tons ) of coal which allowed them to steam for approximately 3 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 100 km ; 3 @,@ 800 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . They were ship rigged with three masts and had a sail area around 2 @,@ 100 square meters ( 23 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . = = = Armament = = = The Colberts had two 274 @-@ millimeter ( 10 @.@ 8 in ) guns mounted in barbettes on the upper deck , one gun at the forward corners of the battery , with six additional guns on the battery deck below the barbettes . The side of the upper deck were cut away to improve the ability of the barbette guns to bear fore and aft . One 240 @-@ millimeter ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) gun was mounted in the forecastle as a chase gun . The ship 's secondary armament consisted of six 138 @-@ millimeter ( 5 @.@ 4 in ) guns , four forward of the battery and two aft . These latter two guns were replaced in 1878 by another 240 @-@ millimeter gun as a stern chaser . The ship also mounted four above @-@ water 356 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes . All of the guns could fire both solid shot and explosive shells . The 18 @-@ caliber 274 @-@ millimeter Modèle 1870 gun fired an armor @-@ piercing , 216 @.@ 0 @-@ kilogram ( 476 @.@ 2 lb ) shell while the gun itself weighed 23 @.@ 21 metric tons ( 22 @.@ 84 long tons ) . The gun fired its shell at a muzzle velocity of 434 m / s ( 1 @,@ 424 ft / s ) and was credited with the ability to penetrate 360 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . The armor @-@ piercing shell of the 19 @-@ caliber 240 @-@ millmeter Modèle 1870 gun weighed 144 @.@ 0 kilograms ( 317 @.@ 5 lb ) while the gun itself weighed 15 @.@ 66 metric tons ( 15 @.@ 41 long tons ) . It had a muzzle velocity of 495 m / s ( 1 @,@ 624 ft / s ) and could penetrate 366 millimeters ( 14 @.@ 4 in ) of wrought iron armor at the muzzle . The 138 @-@ millimeter gun was 21 calibers long and weighed 2 @.@ 67 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 63 long tons ) . It fired a 28 @.@ 0 @-@ kilogram ( 61 @.@ 7 lb ) explosive shell that had a muzzle velocity of 466 m / s ( 1 @,@ 529 ft / s ) . At some point the ship received fourteen to eighteen 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss 5 @-@ barrel revolving guns . They fired a shell weighing about 500 g ( 1 @.@ 1 lb ) at a muzzle velocity of about 610 m / s ( 2 @,@ 000 ft / s ) to a range of about 3 @,@ 200 meters ( 3 @,@ 500 yd ) and had a rate of fire of about 30 rounds per minute . = = = Armor = = = The Colbert @-@ class ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt that was 220 millimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) thick amidships and tapered to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) at the stern . It was backed by 89 millimeters ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) of wood . The sides of the battery itself were armored with 160 millimeters ( 6 @.@ 3 in ) of wrought iron , backed by 62 millimeters ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) of wood , and the ends of the battery were closed by transverse armored bulkheads 120 millimeters ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) thick , backed by 480 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 9 in ) of wood . The barbettes were unarmored , but the deck was 15 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick . = = Ships = = = = Service = = Colbert served as the flagship of the Mediterranean Squadron from 1879 to 1890 when she was placed in reserve . Trident became the flagship of the second @-@ in @-@ command of the squadron in 1879 . The sisters bombarded port of Sfax on 15 – 16 July 1881 as the French occupied Tunisia , under the command of Vice Admiral Henri Garnault . Colbert was recommissioned in 1892 before she was disarmed and paid off in 1895 . Trident was disarmed and placed in reserve in 1886 – 89 , but was recommissioned in 1889 and resumed her role as flagship until she was again placed in reserve in 1894 . The ship served as a gunnery training ship until she was condemned in 1900 . She was renamed Var in 1904 and was sold for scrap five years later . Colbert was also condemned in 1900 and sold for scrap in 1909 . = ATLiens = ATLiens is the second studio album by American hip hop duo OutKast , released on August 27 , 1996 , by LaFace Records . The duo wanted to improve on their 1994 debut album Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik and gain respect for their growing Southern hip hop scene . OutKast recorded ATLiens in sessions at several Atlanta studios — Bosstown Recording Studios , Doppler Recording Studios , PatchWerk Recording Studio , Purple Dragon Studios , and Studio LaCoCo — as well as Chung King Recording Studio and Sound On Sound Recording in New York City . The record features outer space @-@ inspired production sounds , with OutKast and producers Organized Noize incorporating elements of dub , reggae , and gospel into the compositions . Several songs feature the duo 's first attempts at producing music by themselves . Lyrically , the group discusses a wide range of topics including urban life as hustlers , existential introspection , and extraterrestrial life . The album 's title is a portmanteau of " ATL " ( an abbreviation of Atlanta , Georgia ) and " aliens " , which has been interpreted by critics as a commentary about the feeling of being isolated from American culture . ATLiens debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart , and it sold nearly 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks of release . The album was very well received by music critics upon its release , who praised the record 's lyrical content . It has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , for shipments of two million copies in the United States . The album spawned the singles " Elevators ( Me & You ) " , " ATLiens " , and " Jazzy Belle " . Since its release , ATLiens has been listed by several magazines and critics as one of the greatest hip hop albums of all time . = = Background = = In 1994 , OutKast released their debut album , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik , which was recorded when members Big Boi and André 3000 were eighteen years old . Bolstered by the success of the single " Player 's Ball " , the record established OutKast as prominent figures in the Southern hip hop scene . After the album was certified platinum , LaFace Records gave OutKast more creative control and advanced money for their 1996 follow @-@ up album ATLiens . The duo took the opportunity to recreate their image . On a trip to Jamaica with producer Mr. DJ , the two decided to abandon their cornrow hairstyles in favor of a more natural aesthetic , vowing to stop combing their hair . Dungeon Family member Big Rube observed an increase in the duo 's confidence after returning from their first tour , remarking , " They started understanding the power they had in their music . They started showing a swagger that certain artists have — the ones that are stars . " The members also underwent changes in their personal lives ; in 1995 , Big Boi 's girlfriend gave birth to their first child and André 3000 and Total 's Keisha Spivey ended their two @-@ year relationship . Despite its success , Southernplayalisticadillacmuzik had some detractors , including hip hop tastemakers who were unaccustomed to the album 's style . As the East Coast and West Coast hip hop scenes were already well @-@ established at the time , many did not view the South as a legitimate and respectable scene . At the 1995 Source Awards , an award ceremony held by The Source magazine , OutKast won in the " Best Newcomer " category , but were booed upon taking the stage and delivering their acceptance speech ; Big Boi managed to deliver his shout outs , while André 3000 was nervous and said , " The South got somethin ' to say . " The latter recalled how the album was received by some listeners , " People thought that the South basically only had bass music . At first people were looking at us like ' Um , I don 't know . ' " Taken aback by the backlash , André 3000 and Big Boi channelled their frustration in the studio to improve upon their debut . = = Recording and production = = After acquiring their own recording studio , the duo immediately started working on new material and assimilated themselves with music recording and studio equipment , as they sought to become more ambitious artists and less dependent on other producers . The two also became more accustomed to playing live , particularly Big Boi , and André 3000 significantly changed his lifestyle , as he adopted a more eccentric fashion sense , became a vegetarian , and stopped smoking marijuana . Having dropped out months before graduation , André 3000 also returned to high school to earn his diploma during the recording of ATLiens . Before beginning work on ATLiens , André 3000 purchased an SP1200 drum machine , an MPC3000 sampler , a TASCAM mixing board , and turntables with stacks of classic records . Although he had never produced a song before , he used techniques learned from observing the Dungeon Crew at work . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " was the first song the duo created together for the album . The duo refrained from sampling on the album , with Big Boi explaining " I feel like you cheat the listener when you sample . If it 's an old school jam , leave it to the old . We wanna have our own school of music . " OutKast recorded the album in sessions at several Atlanta studios — Bosstown Recording Studios , Doppler Recording Studios , PatchWerk Recording Studio , Purple Dragon Studios , and Studio LaCoCo — as well as Chung King Recording Studio and Sound On Sound Recording in New York City . For ATLiens , the band aimed for a consistent set of songs in which a listener would not need to skip tracks ; OutKast wrote around 35 songs for the album and reduced them to fourteen . The duo 's songwriting style for the album had no solid structure and was mostly spontaneous ; Big Boi noted , " Stuff 'll just come to you . I 'll be sittin ' in the truck , and I 'll start rhymin ' . People look at me like I 'm crazy , but that 's how it starts . " = = Composition = = = = = Music = = = Two @-@ thirds of the album is produced by Organized Noize , OutKast 's primary production team . The rest is produced by Earthtone III , a production team that includes OutKast themselves and Mr. DJ . André 3000 and Big Boi produced the songs " Jazzy Belle " and " Elevators ( Me & You ) " . It also has a notably more laid @-@ back , spacey production sound , which they expanded upon on their follow @-@ up album Aquemini . Although the group drew from George Clinton 's outer @-@ space inspired compositions , the band utilizes a more laid @-@ back style as opposed to Clinton 's hard funk leanings . Many tracks feature strong echo and reverb , taking influence from dub and reggae . Andrea Comer of The Hartford Courant perceives an " extraterrestrial feel " in the record 's production . OutKast also incorporated elements of gospel into the music ; being from the South , the group felt obligated to " stay close to [ their ] slave roots " . The album 's introduction track " You May Die " has been described as " churchy " . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " contains atmospheric elements including echoes , dub @-@ influenced bass , organ riffs , and telephone tones . " 13th Floor / Growing Old " contains a spoken word introduction from Big Rube , somber soul vocals from Debra Killings , and a " Prince @-@ ish " piano riff , while " Wheelz of Steel " features " furious " turntable scratching by Mr. DJ . " Extraterrestrial " offers a break in the continuity of the record as it features no drum beat . = = = Lyrics = = = Lyrically , André 3000 and Big Boi abandon the " hard @-@ partying playa characters " of their debut album in favor of more spacey , funky , and futuristic personas on ATLiens . With their lyrics , the duo hoped to reflect on maturity in the wake of the birth of Big Boi 's daughter . André 3000 explained , " It 's like everybody 's talking about sipping champagne and being big time , so we just took it upon ourselves to do something new ... I want my children to say , ' Daddy really said something , he wasn 't just trying to brag on himself . ' " Many songs on ATLiens feature more unconventional subject matter for hip hop . The lyrical content ranges from addressing urban life as hustlers and pimps to extraterrestrial life and space travel . The title track 's chorus expresses Southern pride , while its verses feature André 3000 explaining his newly adopted drug @-@ free lifestyle . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " illustrates OutKast 's rise to fame , and was inspired by a show the band played at Howard University with P. Diddy in the audience . The song also discusses the unlikely partnership of André 3000 and Big Boi , and uses the metaphor of an elevator for the ups and downs of fame . The final verse illustrates André 3000 dealing with a fan who pretends to have been childhood friends with him . It also references Southern culture , including mentions of Cadillacs and extended family gatherings . " Babylon " reflects on religious attitudes towards sex and illustrates André 3000 's upbringing and his forbidden attractions throughout childhood . " Jazzy Belle " discusses the group 's " increasingly enlightened " view regarding women : " Went from yellin ' ... bitches and hoes to queen thangs " . The album 's closer " 13th Floor / Growing Old " is a meditation on aging and emphasizes Southern hip hop 's legitimacy . = = Release and promotion = = ATLiens was released on August 27 , 1996 , by LaFace Records . In September , LaFace created a promotion for the record in conjunction with Blockbuster in which customers could enter to win a 1970s Cadillac car , emphasizing OutKast and Cadillac 's connection with the Southern lifestyle . The record 's inner booklet features a 24 @-@ page comic strip foldout starring the members , who must defend " positive music " against the villain Nosamulli . The strip continues in the artwork for each single released from ATLiens except for " Elevators ( Me & You ) " . The album 's title is a portmanteau of " ATL " ( an abbreviation of Atlanta , Georgia ) and " aliens " . In his book Icons of Hip Hop : An Encyclopedia of the Movement , Music , and Culture , author Mickey Hess interprets the album 's title as " partly a statement about being from Atlanta , while also signifying on the theme of the group 's name ( by using the term aliens ) framing themselves as societal outcasts . " Mark Bould , author of The Routledge Companion to Science Fiction , observes that the title symbolizes OutKast 's " estrangement from American society " , suggesting that " the inner city of their formative years is out of this world and its hostile conditions . " = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = ATLiens received critical acclaim from contemporary music critics . Andrea Comer of The Hartford Courant felt that OutKast 's " lyrical acumen shines through " despite " Heltah @-@ Skeltah mumbling and Southern slang " , and stated , " after a few rotations , the alien feeling wears away , and [ the album is ] just out of this world . " Sonia Murray of The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution called the album " more thoughtful " than its predecessor , noting , " What the second album lacks in adventurous arrangements it more than makes up for in lyrical dominance . " The Source observed " growth " from OutKast and Organized Noize , and stated , " Big Boi and Dre have gone out of this world into a new dimension of sight , sound and mind " . Kevin Powell of Rolling Stone felt that , like OutKast 's debut album , ATLiens is " a gritty document of what 's happening here and now , an up @-@ to @-@ the @-@ minute briefing on Southern black ghetto life on which OutKast members Andre and Big Boi cast their feelings of alienation in familiar , realistic characterizations " . Powell asserted that unlike East Coast hip hop 's " hedonistic materialism " or " the gunplay and pimpism " of West Coast hip hop , " Andre and Big Boi display a unique ability to describe ghetto life while offering up life @-@ affirming possibilities , something all too rare in today 's hip @-@ hop nation . " Richard Harrington of The Washington Post enjoyed the record 's " more serious and focused lyrical sensibility " , explaining , " The raps are generally inventive , clever without being cloying , more proof ( if any were needed ) that hip @-@ hop innovation isn 't just an East @-@ West thang . " = = = Commercial performance = = = The album debuted at number two on the U.S. Billboard 200 chart , and it sold nearly 350 @,@ 000 copies in its first two weeks of release . It ultimately spent 33 weeks on the Billboard 200 chart . Three singles were released for the album — " Elevators ( Me & You ) " on July 5 , 1996 , " ATLiens " in November 1996 , and " Jazzy Belle " in April 1997 . " Elevators ( Me & You ) " reached number 12 and spent 20 weeks on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on September 13 , 1996 , for shipments of 500 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . " ATLiens " reached number 35 and spent 17 weeks on the Hot 100 , and " Jazzy Belle " spent 14 weeks and peaked at number 52 on the Hot 100 . The album was certified platinum by the RIAA on November 6 , 1996 , for shipments of one million copies in the US . By 1998 , it had sold over 1 @.@ 2 million copies . On June 24 , 2003 , the RIAA certified ATLiens double platinum , having shipped two million copies in the US . = = Legacy = = In a retrospective review , Allmusic editor Steve Huey viewed the album as OutKast 's " most focused work " and commented that " In addition to the striking musical leap forward , Dre and Big Boi continue to grow as rappers ; their flows are getting more tongue @-@ twistingly complex , and their lyrics more free @-@ associative " . RapReviews critic Steve Juon recommended it to listeners who " want to be challenged by [ their ] hip @-@ hop " and wrote of the album 's aesthetic : It 's deep . So deep that listening to ATLiens you might feel like drowning , but the smooth vo @-@ cals of Big Boi and the earthy flows of Andre always push you back up to the surface . They are players in the truest sense of the word ; not just playing for ends but playing to win in the ultimate battle of life over death , good over bad , and righteousness over evil . Yet , it 's not that heavy either . This album is nod your head music , shake your ass music . It makes you think and groove at the same time . In The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , Roni Sarig felt that , strong rapping notwithstanding , the album 's music " suffers as the duo make their first attempt at self @-@ producing " and stated , " Although ATLiens promised expanded vistas with its interstellar motif , the record delivered something of a sophomore slump ... At best , ATLiens is the sound of an ambitious group searching for its voice . " In 1998 , the album was selected as one of The Source 's " 100 Best Rap Albums " . In 2000 , Exclaim ! listed the album on their " 100 Records That Rocked 100 Issues of Exclaim ! " list . Hip Hop Connection ranked it number six on their list of " The 100 Greatest Rap Albums 1995 – 2005 " . Complex ranked the album fifth on their list of " The 50 Greatest Sophomore Albums in Hip @-@ Hop History " , its title 15th on " The 50 Best Rap Album Titles Ever " , and the title track 's beat 91st on " The 100 Greatest Hip @-@ Hop Beats of All Time " . Rappers Wiz Khalifa and Dom Kennedy , and DJ Jesse Marco have named ATLiens as one of their favorite albums . = = Track listing = = Track listing and samples compiled from album liner notes . Sample credits " You May Die ( Intro ) " is an interpolation of " Summer in the City " performed by Quincy Jones . " Two Dope Boyz ( In a Cadillac ) " contains a sample of " D.E.E.P. " performed by OutKast , and " Danger , She 's a Stranger " performed by The Five Stairsteps . " ATLiens " contains a sample of " Around the World " performed by Attilio Mineo , and " So Tired " performed by The Chambers Brothers . " Wheelz of Steel " contains a sample of " Focus III " performed by Focus , " Saturday Night Style " performed by Mikey Dread . " Jazzy Belle " contains a sample of " It 's Yours " performed by T La Rock and Jazzy Jay , and " Prelude " performed by Lamont Dozier . " Elevators " contains a sample of " Blue Suede Shoes " performed by Carl Perkins . " Elevators ( Me & You ) [ ONP 86 Mix ] " contains a sample of " Come in Out of the Rain " performed by Parliament ; the original contains SFX from the video game Super Mario Bros. " Ova Da Wudz " contain a sample of " Judas " performed by Society of Soul . " Babylon " contains a sample of " 12 O 'Clock " performed by Vangelis . " Wailin ' " contains a sample of " To the Establishment " performed by Lou Bond . " Mainstream " contains a sample of " Sesame Street " performed by Goodie Mob . " Decatur Psalm " contains a sample of " Cebu " performed by The Commodores . = = Personnel = = Compiled from album liner notes . = = = Musicians = = = = = = Production = = = = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = Dara Torres = Dara Grace Torres ( born April 15 , 1967 ) is an American former competitive swimmer who is a twelve @-@ time Olympic medalist and former world record @-@ holder in three events . Torres is the first swimmer to represent the United States in five Olympic Games ( 1984 , 1988 , 1992 , 2000 and 2008 ) , and , at age 41 , was the oldest swimmer ever to earn a place on the U.S. Olympic team . At the 2008 Summer Olympics , she competed in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , and 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay , and won silver medals in all three events . Torres has won twelve Olympic medals ( four gold , four silver , four bronze ) , one of three women with the most Olympic women 's swimming medals . She won five medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics when , at age 33 , she was the oldest member of the 2000 U.S. Olympic Swim Team . She has also won at least one medal in each of the five Olympics in which she has competed , making her one of only a handful of Olympians to earn medals in five different Games . = = Early years = = Torres was born in Los Angeles , California , the daughter of Edward Torres and Marylu Kauder . Her father was a real estate developer and casino owner , originally from Cuba ; her mother Marylu was a former American model . Torres grew up in Beverly Hills , California , the fifth of six children and the older of two girls . As a 7 @-@ year @-@ old , she followed in the footsteps of her older brothers by joining their community Y.M.C.A. for swimming practice ; afterward , she signed up for the swimming club in Culver City to train . At 14 , she won the national open championship in the 50 @-@ yard freestyle by defeating the then @-@ current champion , Jill Sterkel , a college junior . She attended the Westlake School for Girls ( now Harvard @-@ Westlake School ) , and competed for the Westlake swim team under coach Darlene Bible from the seventh grade through her sophomore year in high school . She was also a member of the Westlake basketball , gymnastics and volleyball teams . During her 1983 – 84 high school junior year , she left home to swim for the Mission Viejo Nadadores in Mission Viejo , California , while training for her first Olympics under coach Mark Schubert . After the 1984 Olympics , Torres returned to the Westlake School to graduate in 1985 . = = College swimming career = = Torres accepted an athletic scholarship to attend the University of Florida in Gainesville , Florida , where she swam for the Florida Gators swimming and diving team in National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) competition under coach Randy Reese from 1986 to 1989 . In her four years as a Gator swimmer , Torres won nine Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) individual championships , including the 50 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1987 , 1988 , 1989 ) , 100 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1987 , 1988 , 1989 ) , 200 @-@ yard freestyle ( 1987 ) , and 100 @-@ yard butterfly ( 1988 , 1989 ) ; she was also a member of twelve of the Gators ' SEC championship relay teams . Torres won three NCAA individual national championships ( 50 @-@ yard freestyle , 100 @-@ yard freestyle , 100 @-@ yard butterfly ) in 1988 ; and was a member of six of the Gators ' NCAA championship relay teams , including the 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay in 1986 ; the 200 @-@ yard and 400 @-@ yard medley relays , and the 400 @-@ yard freestyle relay in 1988 ; and the 200 @-@ yard and 400 @-@ yard medley relays in 1989 . She was named the SEC Athlete of the Year in 1988 , SEC Female Swimmer of the Year in 1987 and 1989 , and earned twenty @-@ eight All @-@ American swimming honors — the maximum number possible during a college career . Torres also lettered in volleyball at Florida , playing the sport in her fifth year after having exhausted her NCAA eligibility in swimming . Torres graduated from the university with a bachelor 's degree in telecommunications in 1990 , and was inducted into the University of Florida Athletic Hall of Fame as a " Gator Great " in 1999 . In November 2013 , she was named as a recipient of the 2014 NCAA Silver Anniversary Award , presented annually to six distinguished former student @-@ athletes on the 25th anniversary of their final school year of athletic eligibility . = = International swimming career = = = = = 1984 , 1988 and 1992 Olympics = = = At the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles , Torres was a member of the winning U.S. women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay team , swimming in the first @-@ round qualifying heat and earning a gold medal in the event final . Her winning teammates in that final included Nancy Hogshead , Jenna Johnson and Carrie Steinseifer ; Jill Sterkel and Mary Wayte also swam in the event 's second @-@ round qualifying heat . For the 1988 Summer Olympics in Seoul , South Korea , Torres qualified for the U.S. Olympic women 's team in one individual event and two relay events . Torres earned a bronze medal for swimming for the third @-@ place U.S. women 's team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay final , together with teammates Mitzi Kremer , Laura Walker and Mary Wayte . She also earned a silver medal for swimming the freestyle leg of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay for the second @-@ place U.S. team in the preliminary heats , but not the final . Individually , Torres also placed seventh in the final of the 100 @-@ meter freestyle event . Torres qualified for the U.S. Olympic women 's team in a single event for the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona . She swam the second leg of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay for the winning U.S. team that included Nicole Haislett , Angel Martino and Jenny Thompson , and earned a gold medal for her efforts in the event final and first @-@ round qualifying heat . = = = First comeback : 2000 Olympics = = = After seven years out of competitive swimming , Torres began to train for an Olympic comeback in 1999 under the guidance of coach Richard Quick . She won five medals at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , but saved her best for two of the major relay events of the U.S. Olympic women 's team . She swam the second leg for the winning U.S. women 's team in final of the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay that included Amy Van Dyken , Courtney Shealy and Jenny Thompson . Torres won a second gold medal for anchoring the winning U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay , together with teammates B.J. Bedford , Megan Quann and Jenny Thompson in the final . Individually , Torres also earned bronze medals – her first Olympic medals in individual events – in each of the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , the 100 @-@ meter butterfly and the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , tying teammate and rival Jenny Thompson for third place in the last event . At 33 years old , Torres became the oldest woman to win an Olympic medal in swimming . She was the oldest member of the U.S. Olympic swim team , but won more medals ( 5 ) than any other U.S. team member . = = = Second comeback : 2008 Olympics = = = On August 1 , 2007 , at age 40 and just 16 months after giving birth to her first child , Torres won the 100 @-@ meter freestyle at the U.S. Nationals in Indianapolis . On August 4 , she set a new American record in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle of 24 @.@ 53 seconds , breaking her own record of 24 @.@ 63 seconds set at the 2000 Summer Olympics . She lowered her initial American record by 1 @.@ 62 seconds . Torres has broken or lowered her own American record in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle ten times , which is the most by any American swimmer in any event . At the 2008 U.S. Olympic Trials , Torres returned to the pool and qualified for a spot in her fifth Olympic Games at the age of 41 , a first for an American female swimmer . She became the oldest U.S. Olympic swimmer in history and the first American swimmer to appear in five Olympic Games . At the trials , she qualified for the event finals in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and broke the American record with a time of 24 @.@ 38 seconds in the semifinal . In the 50 @-@ meter finals , she broke that record for the ninth time , setting it at 24 @.@ 25 seconds and winning the top American women 's spot in the event . Torres also qualified in the 100 @-@ meter freestyle , but later withdrew from the individual 100 @-@ meter freestyle event to focus her efforts on the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and 4 × 100 @-@ meter relay events . On July 30 , at the U.S. swim team 's final training in Singapore , Torres , Amanda Beard and Natalie Coughlin were elected captains of the U.S. Olympic women 's swimming team . In order to pre @-@ empt any speculation that she might be taking performance @-@ enhancing drugs , Torres volunteered for a new enhanced drug @-@ testing program by the U.S. Anti @-@ Doping Agency ( USADA ) . " I want to be an open book " , she said . " I want people to know that I 'm 41 , and I 'm doing this right . I 'm clean . " In addition to employing her training team of coach Michael Lohberg , a sprint coach , a chiropractor and two masseuses , Torres used resistance stretching trainers , calling it her " secret weapon " for continued success . Her $ 100 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ year training costs were partially subsidized by her corporate sponsors Speedo , Toyota and Bloomberg L.P. At the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , Torres won a silver medal as the anchor swimmer of the second @-@ place U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . It was the fifth time in five tries she earned an Olympic medal in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay . With the American relay team 's second @-@ place finish , she became the oldest swimmer to win a medal in Olympic history , surpassing British swimmer William Robinson , who was 38 at the time of the 1908 Summer Olympics . On August 17 , 2008 , she won the silver medal in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , finishing in a new American record time of 24 @.@ 07 seconds , one one @-@ hundredth ( 0 @.@ 01 ) of a second behind the winner , Britta Steffen . Her second @-@ place time was a new American record , and 0 @.@ 18 of a second faster than she swam at the U.S. Olympic Trials . Thirty @-@ five minutes later , she won another silver medal swimming the freestyle anchor leg for the second @-@ place U.S. team in the 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay . Her split on the 4 × 100 medley relay ( 52 @.@ 27 seconds ) was the fastest 100 @-@ meter freestyle split in relay history . The American record for the women 's 100 @-@ meter freestyle as an individual event was 53 @.@ 39 seconds as of August 2008 , making Torres ' time more than a full second faster . Torres ' twelve Olympic medals tied the all @-@ time medal record for a female Olympic swimmer set by fellow American Jenny Thompson in 2004 ; American Natalie Coughlin subsequently equaled the record in 2012 . = = = Aftermath and retirement = = = At the U.S. National Championships in 2009 , Torres won the 50 @-@ meter freestyle with the fourth @-@ best time in the world for the year ( 24 @.@ 42 ) , and she also placed in the 50 @-@ meter butterfly , qualifying her to compete in those events at the 2009 World Championships . This was the first time since 1986 that Torres competed in the World Championships ; she placed eighth in the 50 @-@ meter freestyle and she did not advance beyond the qualifying heats in the 50 @-@ meter butterfly . Following reconstructive surgery of one of her knees , she began training with the goal of competing in the 2012 Summer Olympics . At the 2012 United States Olympic Trials , she placed fourth in the finals of the 50 @-@ meter freestyle , 0 @.@ 32 of a second behind the winner , Jessica Hardy , and 0 @.@ 09 of a second behind the second qualifier , Kara Lynn Joyce . Only the top two finishers in each trials event qualified for the 2012 U.S. Olympic Team , and as a result , Torres concluded her Olympic career . After the 2012 Trials , Torres announced her retirement from competitive swimming , concluding her career with 12 Olympic medals . Her Olympic career spanned twenty @-@ four years from 1984 to 2008 and five Olympic Games ( 1984 , 1988 , 1992 , 2000 , 2008 ) . = = Life outside swimming = = Torres has worked in television as a reporter and announcer for American networks NBC , ESPN , TNT , OLN and Fox News Channel , and hosted the golf show The Clubhouse on the Resort Sports Network . She has also worked as a model , and was the first elite swimmer to model swimwear in the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , appearing in the 1994 edition . She was elected to the International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame in 2005 . After 1992 , she married and subsequently divorced sports producer Jeff Gowen . After 2000 , she converted to Judaism before marrying the Israeli surgeon Itzhak Shasha ( her own father had been Jewish ) . Torres and Shasha later divorced . Torres and reproductive endocrinologist David Hoffman began dating after her break @-@ up with Shasha , and they became the parents of Tessa Grace Torres @-@ Hoffman , born in 2006 . After the birth of their daughter , Hoffman , a masters swimmer , persuaded her to begin training again . Torres is a veteran celebrity swimmer for Swim Across America , a charitable organization that raises funds for cancer research in which she has participated for several years . She is the author of two books : Age is Just a Number : Achieve Your Dreams at Any Stage in Your Life ( with Elizabeth Weil ) , and Gold Medal Fitness : A Revolutionary 5 @-@ Week Program ( with Billie Fitzpatrick ) . = = World records = = Women 's 50 @-@ meter freestyle Women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter freestyle relay Women 's 4 × 100 @-@ meter medley relay = École L 'Odyssée = École L 'Odyssée ( French pronunciation : [ ekɔl lɔdiˈse ] , English : " Odyssey School " ) is a public francophone high school in Moncton , New Brunswick , Canada . It is part of the province 's Francophone Sud School District , offering education to students from grade nine to twelve . The school opened on September 30 , 2005 as part of a $ 24 @.@ 2 million project , alongside the adjoining middle school , École Le Mascaret . École L 'Odyssée was conceived as a way to alleviate the overcrowding problem at École Mathieu @-@ Martin in nearby Dieppe , a problem the district has had in the past . The Odyssée @-@ Mascaret project , as well as the future Carrefour de l 'Acadie middle school , replaced the former École Beauséjour and École Vanier complexes . This move allowed the Moncton Hospital to expand , while the Vanier establishment made way for medical offices . On September 9 , 2009 , the school was given permission to begin an $ 884 @,@ 000 expansion for its far side , allowing for a larger space to be reserved for its infirmary and orientation center . As of September 2010 , the school holds 767 students out of its capacity of 850 , compared to 971 students at École Mathieu @-@ Martin . It is the only French high school in Moncton . = = History = = As Moncton 's population grew over the years , overcrowding in high schools soon became a problem : in the 2004 – 05 school year , École Mathieu @-@ Martin – the sole francophone high school in the area – had an enrolment of 1 @,@ 609 students , well above the 2009 – 2010 enrolment of 1 @,@ 025 . When the city 's growth rate climbed from 5 % in the years 1991 – 96 to 6 @.@ 5 % in the years 2001 – 06 , the problem became even more apparent . In fact , prior to construction , the idea of a second francophone complex had been in the minds of the New Brunswick Department of Education since as early as December 20 , 2002 . This idea was later confirmed in New Brunswick 's record @-@ breaking $ 809 million budget for the 2003 – 04 fiscal year , where $ 100 @,@ 000 was allocated to " develop the educational specifications " of the complex . Originally , the project was code named " Moncton School Complex " ( French : Complexe Scolaire de Moncton ) . On January 12 , 2004 , the two schools were revealed to be attached side @-@ to @-@ side , occupying a combined area of 16 @,@ 000 square meters ( 170 @,@ 000 square feet ) about 2 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 6 miles ) from the nearby Université de Moncton . When commenting on the new facility , New Brunswick Premier Bernard Lord said that " [ this ] project offers numerous advantages , from several points of view " , and that " it reflects [ the government 's ] commitment to equipping New Brunswick with a high @-@ calibre education system . " The names for the two schools were picked from submissions sent by the education councils of District 01 and District 03 on March 14 , 2005 . Both schools were announced to be replacing École Beauséjour and École Vanier , two francophone middle schools , which made way for the expansion of the Moncton Hospital and for medical offices , respectively . A final $ 11 @.@ 2 million was allocated on January 6 , 2005 , which was 23 @.@ 3 % of the $ 48 million Department of Education budget for that fiscal year . On July 15 , 2005 , the school was awarded a $ 60 @,@ 000 federal fund for energy efficiency 39 % below the national energy threshold ; this would save the New Brunswick government $ 115 @,@ 193 per year , or an eventual $ 2 million over 20 years . The province 's educational minister , Madelaine Dubé , said : " It is good to know that our schools can also contribute to protecting our environment . " The school held its inauguration ceremony with Bernard Lord present on September 30 , 2005 , despite its delayed opening a few days after the beginning of the 2005 – 06 school year . Lord spoke of his government 's intention to add schools to the growing number of Francophone institutions in New Brunswick , as well as advancing the state of the province 's education . " Today 's inauguration represents an historic moment for Moncton 's Francophone community , " he said in his speech . " Parents , students and teaching staff now have modern , state of the art facilities . I feel very proud about this project and I am delighted that it is now a reality . " On September 9 , 2009 , a new , $ 884 @,@ 100 permit was awarded to extend L 'Odyssée 's total area by 390 m2 ( 4 @,@ 200 sq ft ) for the expansion of its new infirmary and orientation center . The city went under scrutiny after the death on November 30 of Erika Frenette , a student at L 'Odyssée , who was struck by a car after crossing an intersection near the school in poor weather conditions . Parents began petitions to install street lights near what they deemed to be a " dangerous [ street corner ] " , and on May 4 , the request was approved . = = Academics = = = = = Curriculum = = = The school 's curriculum is based on a 30 @-@ credit system , requiring a student to receive all 17 mandatory credits and seven optional credits to graduate . Examples of notable courses are law , Esperanto , German , Auto mechanics , carpentry , entrepreneurship , world religions , cooperative education , and leadership . L 'Odyssée also offers exclusive courses in work @-@ life development and speaking Acadian . A partnership with the Université de Moncton and CCNB Dieppe allows students to take and be credited for select courses off @-@ campus one period per semester at no cost during their senior year . Additionally , Cisco offers a course in server and information sustainment , and the school offers access to ten online courses , including astronomy and world geography . Sports programs are available and credited , including hockey and soccer . There are two curricular programs , called " Volets " , for students wishing to graduate with honours in science and engineering or art and social sciences . The main differences between the standard curriculum and the two " Volet " programs are the addition of mandatory courses in the domain of the chosen program , and the requirement to complete thirty hours of volunteer duty . A student must gain an average of 80 % in the additional mandatory courses to graduate with honours . = = = Schedule = = = École L 'Odyssée operates on a modified version of the controversial concept of block scheduling . Instead of the traditional seven- or eight @-@ period school day , every day students attend four out of the five classes for that semester . The following semester , students attend their remaining five courses in the same fashion , totalling ten courses per year . School days are labelled 1 to 5 , instead of Monday to Friday , with each " day " having a predetermined layout . This type of scheduling prevents courses being cancelled for holidays and school vacations , since in such a case , the schedule resumes with the days shifted forward by the length of the school break . For example , if Monday was designated as Day 1 , and Tuesday was a holiday , Wednesday would be Day 2 , and Thursday would be Day 3 . This type of scheduling , however , does not cover unexpected school cancellations ( for example , school closure due to poor weather ) , due to problems it would cause with the predetermined calendar . Wednesdays , regardless of the " day " , are cut by one hour throughout the district to compensate for Community of Practice ( French : Communauté d 'apprentissage professionnelles , or " CAP " ) meetings between teachers at the end of the day , to " direct [ the district 's efforts ] towards the educational success of students . " Study hall ( known as the " PAAQ " period , which stands for " Preoccupation de l 'Affectif et de l 'Apprentissage de Qualité " ) is reserved between the first and second period of the day , except for Wednesdays , where the period is removed to compensate for the CAP meetings . Another difference between L 'Odyssée and other schools is the amount of time allotted between classes . Instead of the usual five @-@ minute intermission , students are given 14 minutes between every period – except for the intermission between the first period and PAAQ , and between lunch and the third period , where students are given five minutes . They receive 57 minutes for their lunch every day , except for Wednesdays , when they get a 55 @-@ minute lunch ( both excluding the five @-@ minute intermission ) . Although the schedule is identical throughout the school , students must fill in their courses – A through E – as defined by their schedule : = = = Rankings = = = Outside rankings for the school have been low compared to the district 's average . In 2010 , a report published by the Atlantic Institute for Market Studies put L 'Odyssée at the bottom of the district 's 22 @-@ school list overall ( one school being unranked ) , based on data from 200	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
( Jefferson Avenue ) . The highway was extended in the early 1940s from Woodward westward to US 16 ( Grand River Avenue , now M @-@ 5 ) . During 1963 , the M @-@ 102 designation was extended northerly along Jefferson Avenue through St. Clair Shores , replacing the M @-@ 29 designation to the Shook Road interchange at the northern end of the then @-@ existing I @-@ 94 freeway . That extension was reversed the next year , and M @-@ 102 was scaled back to end at US 25 ( Gratiot Avenue ) ; the rest of 8 Mile and Vernier roads plus the Jefferson Avenue segment are added to M @-@ 29 instead . M @-@ 102 was re @-@ extended along 8 Mile and Vernier roads to the I @-@ 94 interchange in Harper Woods in 1970 replacing M @-@ 29 ; the remainder of that other highway along Vernier Road and Jefferson Avenue to Shook Road that was once part of M @-@ 102 was transferred to local control . When I @-@ 96 was completed in 1977 , several highway designations were shifted in the Metro Detroit area . The Business Spur I @-@ 96 designation that had replaced US 16 was removed from Grand River Avenue . That roadway was signed as M @-@ 5 southward between 8 Mile Road and its present eastern terminus at I @-@ 96 while the remainder of Grand River Avenue and the stub freeway formerly part of I @-@ 96 that continued out to I @-@ 275 became part of M @-@ 102 . This extension to M @-@ 102 was reversed in October 1994 when M @-@ 5 was extended northwesterly along Grand River Avenue , the freeway and up the Haggerty Connector north of I @-@ 96 in Novi , replacing part of M @-@ 102 in the process . = = Cultural impact = = = = = Racial and economic divide = = = The road has long served as a de facto cultural dividing line between the predominantly poor black city and its wealthier , predominantly white northern suburbs . The perception of 8 Mile as the chief dividing line between racial groups and classes persists , in part because the suburban counties of Oakland and Macomb remain , on the whole , significantly whiter and more prosperous than the city of Detroit . However , in recent years increasing numbers of whites have moved into Detroit , especially around the downtown area , and other neighborhoods in the region have become more ethnically diverse as well . According to the 2000 U.S. Census , the median family income for the city of Detroit , whose population was 81 @.@ 55 % African @-@ American , was $ 33 @,@ 853 , and 26 @.@ 1 % of the population lived below the poverty line . By contrast , the median family income for Oakland County , whose population was 82 @.@ 75 % white , was $ 75 @,@ 540 , and only 5 @.@ 5 % of residents lived below the poverty line . These results were compiled into an Index of Dissimilarity of 85 @.@ 9 by researchers with Brown University and Florida State University , the highest score for a metropolitan area in the United States . After the 2010 Census , the index was computed as 79 @.@ 6 , which was a " substantial decline " in the words of the study 's authors . = = = In surveying = = = 8 Mile Road is also known as Base Line Road , for it was used to set the baseline for the Public Land Survey System in Michigan . The system helped bring order to county boundaries , which had often been set in other states by geographic markers such as rivers , hills , and trees , and were therefore rather irregular . Today , the baseline forms the northern or southern boundary of many southern Michigan counties . = = = In media = = = Tupac Shakur , Tim Roth , and Thandie Newton form the fictitious musical act Eight Mile Road in the 1997 film Gridlock 'd , which is set in Detroit . The movie 8 Mile , starring Detroit @-@ area hip hop artist Eminem , as well as his songs " Lose Yourself " and " 8 Mile " , both take their names and cultural subject matter from the roadway . In addition to these film references , there are a number of songs that refer to 8 Mile Road , some of which include : Eminem – " Encore / Curtains Down " Eminem – " Marshall Mathers " Eminem – " Yellow Brick Road " Eminem – " Mockingbird " Obie Trice – " 8 Mile " Danny Brown – " 8 Mile " Eminem – " No Love " The roadway is also shown on TruTV 's program Hardcore Pawn , a show about a pawn shop located on 8 Mile Road . = = Major intersections = = = Coimbatore = Coimbatore , also known as Kovai [ koːʋəj ] , is a major city in the Indian state of Tamil Nadu . Located on the banks of the Noyyal River surrounded by the Western Ghats , it is the second largest city in the state after Chennai and the sixteenth largest urban agglomeration in India . It is administered by the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation and is the administrative capital of Coimbatore district . It is one of the fastest growing tier @-@ II cities in India and a major hub for textiles , industries , commerce , education , information technology , healthcare and manufacturing in Tamil Nadu . It is often referred to as the " Manchester of South India " due to its cotton production and textile industries . Coimbatore is also referred to as the " Pump City " and it supplies nearly half of India 's requirements of motors and pumps . The city is one of the largest exporters of jewellery , wet grinders , poultry and auto components with " Coimbatore Wet Grinder " and " Kovai Cora Cotton " recognised as Geographical Indications by the Government of India . Coimbatore was part of Kongu Nadu during the Sangam period between c . 1st and the 4th centuries CE and was ruled by the Cheras as it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu . Coimbatore was located along the ancient Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu in South India . The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE . The region was ruled by Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century followed by the Nayaks who introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams . In the later part of the 18th century , the Coimbatore region came under the Kingdom of Mysore and following the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars , the British East India Company annexed Coimbatore to the Madras Presidency in 1799 . The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War ( 1801 ) when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai . In 1804 , Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed Coimbatore district and in 1866 it was accorded municipality status with Robert Stanes as its Chairman . The city experienced a textile boom in the early 19th century due to the decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai . Post independence , Coimbatore has seen rapid growth due to industrialisation . Coimbatore was ranked the best emerging city in India by India Today in the 2014 annual Indian city survey . The city was ranked fourth among Indian cities in investment climate by Confederation of Indian Industry and 17th among the top global outsourcing cities by Tholons . Coimbatore has been selected as one of the hundred Indian cities to be developed as a smart city under Prime Minister Narendra Modi 's flagship Smart Cities Mission . = = Etymology = = There are multiple theories regarding the origin of the name . According to one theory , " Coimbatore " is a derivation of Kovanputhur ( literally ' new town of Kovan ' ) , after chieftain Kovan or Koyan , evolved into Koyambatoor and later anglicised as Coimbatore . Koyamma , the goddess worshiped by Koyan evolved into Koniamma and later Kovaiamma . Another theory states that the name could have been derived from Kovaiamma . = = History = = The region around Coimbatore was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c . 1st and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance to the Palakkad Gap , the principal trade route between the west coast and Tamil Nadu . The Kosar tribe mentioned in the second century CE Tamil epic Silappathikaram and other poems in Sangam literature is associated with the Coimbatore region . The region was located along an ancient Roman trade route that extended from Muziris to Arikamedu . The medieval Cholas conquered the Kongu Nadu in the 10th century CE . A Chola highway called Rajakesari Peruvazhi ran through the region . Much of Tamil Nadu came under the rule of the Vijayanagara Empire by the 15th century . In the 1550s , Madurai Nayaks , who were the military governors of the Vijaynagara Empire , took control of the region . After the Vijayanagara Empire fell in the 17th century , the Madurai Nayaks established their state as an independent kingdom . They introduced the Palayakkarar system under which Kongu Nadu region was divided into 24 Palayams . In the latter part of the 18th century , the region came under the Kingdom of Mysore , following a series of wars with the Madurai Nayak dynasty . After the defeat of Tipu Sultan in the Anglo @-@ Mysore Wars , the British East India Company annexed Coimbatore to the Madras Presidency in 1799 . The Coimbatore region played a prominent role in the Second Poligar War ( 1801 ) , when it was the area of operations of Dheeran Chinnamalai . In 1804 , Coimbatore was established as the capital of the newly formed Coimbatore district and in 1866 it was accorded municipality status . Sir Robert Stanes became the first Chairman of the Coimbatore City Council . The region was hard hit during the Great Famine of 1876 – 78 resulting in nearly 200 @,@ 000 famine related fatalities . The first three decades of the 20th century saw nearly 20 @,@ 000 plague @-@ related deaths and acute water shortage . The decline of the cotton industry in Mumbai fuelled an economical boom in Coimbatore in the 1920s and 1930s . The region played a significant role in the Indian independence movement with Mahatma Gandhi visiting the city thrice . Coimbatore was the base of operations for political figures such as S. P. Narasimhalu Naidu , R. K. Shanmukham Chetty , C.S. Rathinasabapathy and C. Subramaniam during the freedom movement . Post independence , Coimbatore has seen rapid growth due to industrialisation and in 1981 , Coimbatore was constituted as a Municipal corporation . On February 14 , 1998 , the radical Islamist group Al Ummah bombed 11 places across the city killing 58 people and injuring more than 200 . = = Geography = = Coimbatore lies at 11 ° 1 ′ 6 ″ N 76 ° 58 ′ 21 ″ E in south India at 411 metres ( 1349 ft ) above sea level on the banks of the Noyyal River , in southwestern Tamil Nadu . It covers an area of 642 @.@ 12 km2 ( 247 @.@ 92 sq mi ) . It is surrounded by the Western Ghats mountain range to the West and the North , with reserve forests of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve on the northern side . The Noyyal River forms the southern boundary of the city , which has an extensive tank system fed by the river and rainwater . The eight major tanks and wetland areas of Coimbatore are namely , Singanallur , Valankulam , Ukkadam Periyakulam , Selvampathy , Narasampathi , Krishnampathi , Selvachinthamani , and Kumaraswami . Multiple streams drain the waste water from the city . The city is divided into two distinctive geographic regions : the dry eastern side which includes majority of the urban area of the city and the western region which borders the Nilgiris , Anaimalai and Munnar ranges . Palghat Gap , a mountain pass which connects the neighbouring state of Kerala to Tamil Nadu , lies to the west of the city . Because of its location in the biodiversity hotspot of the Western Ghats , it is rich in fauna and flora . The Coimbatore urban wetlands harbours around 116 species of birds , of which 66 are resident , 17 are migratory and 33 are local migrants . The spot @-@ billed pelican , painted stork , openbill stork , ibis , spot @-@ billed duck , teal and black @-@ winged stilt visit the Coimbatore wetlands on their migration . Apart from the species common to the plains , various threatened and endangered species such as Indian elephants , wild boars , leopards , Bengal tigers , gaurs , Nilgiri tahr , sloth bear and black @-@ headed oriole are found in the region . The northern part of the city has a rich tropical evergreen forest with commercially significant trees such as teak , sandalwood , rosewood and bamboo . The soil is predominantly black , which is suitable for cotton cultivation , but some red loamy soil is also found . According to the Bureau of Indian Standards , Coimbatore falls under the Class III / IV Seismic Zone , having experienced an earthquake of magnitude 6 @.@ 0 on the Richter scale on February 8 , 1900 . = = Climate = = Coimbatore has a pleasant climate due to the presence of forests to the north and the cool winds blowing through the Palghat gap in the Western Ghats . Under the Köppen climate classification , the city has a tropical wet and dry climate , with the wet season lasting from October to December due to the northeast monsoon . The mean maximum temperature ranges from 35 @.@ 9 ° C ( 97 ° F ) to 29 @.@ 2 ° C ( 85 ° F ) and the mean minimum temperature ranges from 24 @.@ 5 ° C ( 76 ° F ) to 19 @.@ 8 ° C ( 68 ° F ) . The highest temperature ever recorded is 40 @.@ 4 ° C ( 105 ° F ) on May 5 , 1983 while the lowest is 11 @.@ 7 ° C ( 53 ° F ) on January 8 , 1912 . Due to the south west monsoon winds passing through the Palghat gap , elevated regions of the city receive rainfall in the months from June to August . After a warm and humid September , the north east monsoon starts from October lasting till early November . The average annual rainfall is around 700 mm ( 27 @.@ 6 in ) with the northeast and the southwest monsoons contributing to 47 % and 28 % respectively to the total rainfall . This periodic rainfall does not satisfy the water requirements of the city throughout the year and water supply schemes like Siruvani and Pilloor help to sustain the needs of the city during the non @-@ monsoon months . = = Demographics = = Coimbatore has a population of 1 @,@ 601 @,@ 438 . As per the 2011 census based on pre @-@ expansion city limits , Coimbatore had a population of 1 @,@ 050 @,@ 721 with a sex ratio of 997 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . It is the second largest city in the state after capital Chennai and the sixteenth largest urban agglomeration in India . A total of 102 @,@ 069 were under the age of six , comprising 52 @,@ 275 males and 49 @,@ 794 females.The average literacy of the city was 82 @.@ 43 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . There were a total of 425 @,@ 115 workers , comprising 1 @,@ 539 cultivators , 2 @,@ 908 main agricultural labourers , 11 @,@ 789 in house hold industries , 385 @,@ 802 other workers , 23 @,@ 077 marginal workers , 531 marginal cultivators , 500 marginal agricultural labourers , 1 @,@ 169 marginal workers in household industries and 20 @,@ 877 other marginal workers . As per the 2001 census , Coimbatore had a population of 930 @,@ 882 within the municipal corporation limits . The population of the urban agglomeration as per 2011 census is 2 @,@ 136 @,@ 916 with males constituting 50 @.@ 08 % of the population and females 49 @.@ 92 % . Coimbatore has an average literacy rate of 89 @.@ 23 % , higher than the national average of 74 @.@ 04 % . Male literacy is 93 @.@ 17 % and female literacy is 85 @.@ 3 % with 8 @.@ 9 % of the population under six years of age . The sex ratio was 964 females per 1000 males . In 2005 , the crime rate in the city was 265 @.@ 9 per 100 @,@ 000 people , accounting for 1 @.@ 2 % of all crimes reported in major cities in India . It ranked 21st among 35 major cities in India in the incidence of crimes . In 2011 , the population density in the city was 10 @,@ 052 per km2 ( 26 @,@ 035 per mi2 ) . Around 8 % of the city 's population lives in slums . = = Administration and politics = = Coimbatore is a Municipal corporation administered by the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation and is the administrative headquarters of Coimbatore district . Coimbatore was established as the capital of Coimbatore district in 1804 and in 1866 it was accorded municipality status . In 1981 , Coimbatore was elevated as a municipal corporation . The city is divided into five administrative zones – East , West , North , South and Central , each further subdivided into 20 wards . Each ward is represented by a councillor who is elected by direct election and the Mayor of Coimbatore is elected by Councillors . The executive wing of the corporation is headed by a Corporation Commissioner and maintains basic services like water supply , sewage and roads . The district itself is administered by the District collector and the district court in Coimbatore is the highest court of appeal in the district . The Coimbatore City Police is headed by a Commissioner and there are 18 police stations in the city . A large part of the Coimbatore urban agglomeration falls outside the Municipal corporation limits . These suburbs are governed by local bodies called Village Panchayats and Town Panchayats . Besides the Coimbatore Municipal Corporation , the Coimbatore UA comprises the town panchayats of Vellalur , Irugur , Pallapalayam , Kannampalayam , Veerapandi , Periyanaickenpalayam , Narasimhanaickenpalayam , Idikarai , Vedapatti , Perur , Madukkarai , Ettimadai , Thondamuthur , Uliyampalayam , Thirumalayampalayam , Othakalmandapam , Alanthurai , Pooluvapatti , Thenkarai , Karumathampatti , Sarcarsamakulam , Mopperipalayam and Gudalur , census towns of Ashokapuram , Kurudampalayam , Malumichampatti , Selvapuram , Chettipalayam , Sulur , Chinniampalayam , Somayampalayam , Muthugoundan Pudur , Arasur , Kaniyur , Neelambur and municipalities of Kuniyamuthur , Kurichi and Goundampalayam . These local bodies are in turn split into wards each electing a councillor through direct election . The head of the local body known as president is elected by the councillors from among their number . Coimbatore elects ten members to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly and one member to the Indian Parliament . The five legislative assembly constituencies in the city are Coimbatore North , Coimbatore South , Kaundampalayam , Singanallur and Sulur which form a part of the Coimbatore Parliamentary Constituency . Part of the urban agglomeration comes under the Nilgiris and Pollachi constituencies . In the Indian general election held in 2014 , AIADMK candidate A. P. Nagarajan defeated C. P. Radhakrishnan of the BJP in the Coimbatore Lok Sabha constituency . In the last legislative assembly election held in 2011 , the AIADMK led front won in all five assembly constituencies . = = Economy = = Coimbatore is amongst the fastest growing tier @-@ II cities in India and a major hub for textiles , industries , commerce , education , information technology , healthcare and manufacturing in Tamil Nadu . Coimbatore houses more than 25 @,@ 000 small , medium and large industries with the city 's primary industries being engineering and textiles . Coimbatore is called the " Manchester of South India " due to its extensive textile industry , fed by the surrounding cotton fields . TIDEL Park was the first special economic zone ( SEZ ) set up in 2006 . In 2010 , Coimbatore ranked 15th in the list of most competitive ( by business environment ) Indian cities . Coimbatore also has a 160 @,@ 000 square feet ( 15 @,@ 000 m2 ) trade fair ground , built in 1999 and is owned by CODISSIA . It is also the country 's largest pillar @-@ free hall , according to the Limca Book of Records . Coimbatore region experienced a textile boom in the 1920s and 1930s . Though , Robert Stanes had established Coimbatore 's first textile mills as early as the late 19th century , it was during this period that Coimbatore emerged as a prominent industrial centre . Coimbatore is home to more than 17 % of the fibre textile mills in India . Coimbatore has trade associations such as CODISSIA , COINDIA and COJEWEL representing the industries in the city . Coimbatore houses a number of textile mills and is the base of textile research institutes like the Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel International School of Textiles & Management , Central Institute for Cotton Research ( CICR ) and the South India Textile Research Institute ( SITRA ) . Kovai Cora Cotton saree is a recognised Geographical Indication . Coimbatore is the second largest producer of software in the state , next only to capital Chennai . TIDEL park and other Information technology parks in the city has aided in the growth of IT and Business process outsourcing industries in the city . It is ranked at 17th among the top global outsourcing cities by Tholons . Coimbatore is the second largest hub in India for Cognizant Technology Solutions employing 5000 people . Software exports stood at ₹ 7 @.@ 1 billion ( US $ 110 million ) for the financial year 2009 – 10 up 90 % from the previous year . Coimbatore has a large and diversified manufacturing sector facilitated by the presence of research institutes like Tamil Nadu Agricultural University , SITRA and large number of engineering colleges producing about 50 @,@ 000 engineers annually . Coimbatore is a major centre for the manufacture of automotive components in India with car manufacturers Maruti Udyog and Tata Motors sourcing up to 30 % , of their automotive components from the city . G.D. Naidu developed India 's first indigenous motor in 1937 . India 's first indigenously developed diesel engine for cars was manufactured in the city in 1972 . The city is also a major centre for small auto component makers catering to the automobile industry , from personal to commercial and farm vehicles . The city contributes to about 75 % of the 1 lakh total monthly output of wet grinders in India . The industry employs 70 @,@ 000 people and had a yearly turnover of ₹ 2 @,@ 800 crore ( US $ 420 million ) in 2015 . The term " Coimbatore Wet Grinder " has been given a Geographical indication . Coimbatore is also referred to as " the Pump City " as it supplies nearly 50 % of India 's requirements of motors and pumps . The city is one of the largest exporters of jewellery renowned for diamond cutting , cast and machine made jewellery . There are about 3 @,@ 000 jewellery manufacturers employing over 40 @,@ 000 goldsmiths . Coimbatore has a large number of poultry farms and is a major producer of chicken eggs . The city contributes to nearly 95 % of processed chicken meat exports . Coimbatore has some of the country 's oldest flour mills and these mills which cater to all the southern states , have a combined grinding capacity of more than 50 @,@ 000 MT per month . The hospitality industry has seen a growth in the 21st century with new upscale hotels being set up . Coimbatore is the largest non @-@ metro city for e @-@ commerce in South India . = = Culture = = Coimbatore and its people have a reputation for entrepreneurship . Though it is generally considered a traditional city , Coimbatore is diverse and cosmopolitan . The World Classical Tamil Conference 2010 was held in Coimbatore . The heavy industrialisation of the city has also resulted in the growth of trade unions . = = = Language = = = Tamil is the official language and Kongu Tamil ( also called Kangee or Kongalam ) , a dialect , is predominantly spoken . Coimbatore also has a significant number of Kannadigas , Telugus , Malayalis and North Indians , mainly Gujaratis . As per the 2001 census , the number of speakers by native language are as follows : Tamil ( 707 @,@ 263 ) followed by Telugu ( 125 @,@ 616 ) , Malayalam ( 46 @,@ 645 ) and Kannada ( 30 @,@ 195 ) . During the 1970s the city witnessed a population explosion as a result of migration fuelled by increased economic growth and job opportunities . = = = Religion = = = The city 's population is predominantly Hindu with minor Muslim and Christian population . Jains , Sikhs and Buddhists are also present in small numbers . According to the religious census of 2011 , Coimbatore has 83 @.@ 31 % Hindus , 8 @.@ 63 % Muslims , 7 @.@ 53 % Christians , 0 @.@ 28 % Jains , 0 @.@ 05 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 02 % Buddhists and 0 @.@ 01 % Others . 0 @.@ 17 % of the respondents did not state their religion . The Mariamman festivals at the city 's numerous Amman temples are major events in summer . Major Hindu temples in the city include the Perur Patteeswarar Temple , Naga Sai Mandir , Koniamman Temple , Thandu Mariamman Temple , Eachanari Vinayagar Temple , Karamadai Ranganathaswamy Temple , Marudamalai Murugan Temple , Loga Nayaga Shaniswara Temple , Ashtamsa Varadha Anjaneyar Temple and Dhyanalinga Yogic Temple . The mosques on Oppanakara Street and Big Bazaar Street date back to 18th century CE . Christian missions date back to the 17th century when permission was granted by the Nayak rulers to set up churches in the region . Sikh Gurudwaras and Jain temples are also present in Coimbatore . = = = Cuisine = = = Coimbatore cuisine is predominantly south Indian with rice as its base . Most local restaurants still retain their rural flavor , with many restaurants serving food over a banana leaf . Eating on a banana leaf is an old custom and imparts a unique flavor to the food and is considered healthy . North Indian , Chinese and continental cuisines are also available . Idly , dosa , paniyaram and appam are popular dishes . Coimbatore has an active street food culture and various cuisine options for dining . Arisi Paruppu Sadam , made from a mixture of dal and rice is a recipe that existed from fourth century CE and unique to the area . Kaalaan is a popular dish prepared by simmering deep fried mushrooms ( usually chopped mushroom ) in a spicy broth , until it reaches a porridge like consistency and served sprinkled with chopped onions and coriander leaves . = = = Arts = = = Swamikannu Vincent , who had built the first cinema of south India in Coimbatore , introduced the concept of Tent Cinema in which a tent was erected on an open land to screen the films . Central Studios was set up in 1935 while S. M. Sriramulu Naidu established Pakshiraja Studios in 1945 . The city conducts its own music festival every year . Art , dance and music concerts are held annually during the months of September and December ( Tamil calendar month – Margazhi ) . Coimbatore also houses a number of museums and art galleries like G.D. Naidu Museum & Industrial Exhibition , H A Gass Forest Museum , Government Museum , Kadhi Gandhi Gallery and Kasthuri Srinivasan Art Gallery and Textile Museum . = = Transport = = = = = Air = = = The city is served by the Coimbatore International Airport at Peelamedu 15 km ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) from the city centre . The airport commenced operations in 1940 as a civil aerodrome with Indian Airlines operating Fokker F27 , Douglas DC @-@ 3 and later Hawker Siddeley HS 748 aircraft . The then Prime Minister of India Manmohan Singh declared the government 's intention to upgrade the Coimbatore Airport to International status in a meeting with senior ministers on 6 June 2012 and it was granted the status of international airport by the Union Cabinet on 2 October 2012 . The airport is operated by Airports Authority of India and caters to domestic flights to major Indian cities and international flights to Sharjah and Singapore . As of 2014 @-@ 15 , the airport was the 15th largest airport in India in terms of total aircraft movement , 18th largest in terms of passengers handled and 13th largest in terms of cargo handled . It has a single runway , which is 9 @,@ 760 feet ( 2 @,@ 970 m ) in length and is capable of handling large aircraft . Air Carnival , a proposed airline is expected to commence operations in 2016 with the airport as its hub . Sulur Air Force Station , located at Kangayampalayam is an air base operated by the Indian Air Force and accommodates Antonov An @-@ 32 heavy air lifter aircraft , Mil Mi @-@ 8 transport helicopters and the HAL Dhruv helicopters of the Sarang helicopter display team . The first squadron of ingeniously built HAL Tejas will be inducted at Sulur AFS and Sukhoi Su @-@ 30MKI aircraft will be stationed at the base by 2016 . = = = Rail = = = Train service in Coimbatore started in 1861 , upon the construction of the Podanur – Madras line connecting Kerala and the west coast with the rest of India . Coimbatore lies on the Coimbatore - Shoranur Broad gauge railway line and the city falls under the Salem Division of the Southern Railway zone of Indian Railways . The major railway station is the Coimbatore Junction which is the second @-@ largest income generating station in the Southern Railway zone after Chennai Central and is amongst the top hundred booking stations of Indian Railways . Other major railway stations catering to the city include Coimbatore North Junction , Podanur Junction and minor stations at Peelamedu , Singanallur , Irugur Junction , Perianaikanpalayam , Madukkarai , Somanur and Sulur . = = = = Monorail = = = = In 2012 , Coimbatore Municipal Corporation proposed three monorail routes . The first circular route will connect Gandhipuram with Ganapathy , Sivananda Colony , Sai Baba colony , RS Puram , Townhall and City Railway Station . The second circular route will connect Podanur with Trichy Road , Sungam , Redfields , Race Course , City Railway Station and Ukkadam . A linear line was proposed from Chinniampalayam to TNAU via airport , CODISSIA , PSG Tech , Lakshmi Mills , Gandhipuram , Coimbatore North Junction and Cowley Brown Road . Vadavalli and Thondamuthur were included in the linear line as part of the phase extension . = = = Road = = = There are six major arterial roads in the city : Avinashi road , Trichy road , Sathy road , Mettupalayam road , Palakkad road and Pollachi road . Coimbatore bypass is a series of bypasses connecting the various National Highways and State Highways passing through and originating from Coimbatore . The first section of the bypass , a 28 @-@ kilometre ( 17 mi ) stretch from Neelambur to Madukkarai on National Highway 544 opened for traffic in 2000 . It was the first road privatisation project to be implemented on a build – operate – transfer model in South India . In 2008 , the State Highways department came up with a proposal to create a Ring road to help de @-@ congest the main arterial roads and the 12 km road would extend from Peelamedu to Mettupalayam road . In 2011 , the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu announced the construction of two new flyovers at Ukkadam and Athupalam to help de @-@ congest the Palakkad Road . In 2012 , the Government of Tamil Nadu decided in favour of an eastern road that connected Mettupalayam Road with Avinashi Road and the existing bypass . The city municipal corporation is undertaking the construction of six rail @-@ over @-@ bridges in the city . There are five National Highways passing through the city : Apart from State and National Highways , the city corporation maintains a 635 @.@ 32 kilometres ( 394 @.@ 77 miles ) long road network . Town buses started operating in 1921 and serve most parts of the city , as well as other towns and villages in the district . The number of inter @-@ city routes operated by Coimbatore division is 119 with a fleet of more than 500 buses . It also operates town buses on 257 intra @-@ city routes . The intra @-@ city buses operate from major bus stations in Gandhipuram , Singanallur and Ukkadam to other parts across the city . Inter @-@ city and intra @-@ city buses that connect Coimbatore operate from different bus stands : Coimbatore BRTS is a proposed bus rapid transit project under the JNNURM scheme of the Government of India . It is planned along a 27 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 17 @.@ 1 mi ) stretch connecting Avinashi road and Mettupalayam road . The city is also served by auto rickshaws and radio taxi services . Coimbatore has four Regional Transport Offices viz . TN 37 ( South ) , TN 38 ( North ) , TN 66 ( Central ) , TN 99 ( West ) . = = Education = = Coimbatore is a major educational hub . The first college of Coimbatore , Government Arts College , was opened in 1875 . The first engineering college in the city , the Arthur Hope College of Technology ( now known as the Government College of Technology , Coimbatore ) , was started by G.D. Naidu in 1945 followed later by private engineering colleges PSG College of Technology and Coimbatore Institute of Technology in the 1950s . The Air Force Administrative College , established in 1949 , is the oldest training institute of the Indian Air Force . Coimbatore Medical College was opened in 1966 and the Government law college started functioning from 1978 . The agricultural school established in 1868 was converted into a full @-@ fledged agricultural university Tamil Nadu Agricultural University in 1971 and the Sálim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History was opened in 1990 . As of 2010 , the district is home to 7 universities , 78 engineering colleges , 3 medical colleges , 2 dental colleges , 35 polytechnics and 150 arts and science colleges . The city houses three government run universities Tamil Nadu Agricultural University , Bharathiar University , Anna University Coimbatore and four private universities . The city houses Government research institutes including the Central Institute for Cotton Research , Sugarcane Breeding Research Institute , Institute of Forest Genetics and Tree Breeding ( IFGTB ) , Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education and Tamil Nadu Institute of Urban Studies . In 2008 , Government of India announced a plan to establish a world class university in the region . Three types of schools operate in Coimbatore : government run schools , schools funded by the government but run by private trusts ( aided schools ) and schools funded completely by private trusts . Schools may follow Tamil Nadu Anglo Indian School Board , Tamil Nadu State Board , Matriculation or CBSE syllabus . The city falls under the purview of Coimbatore Education District . In 2013 , 45 @,@ 863 students appeared for SSLC examinations and the pass percentage was 94 @.@ 12 % . = = Utility services = = = = = Media = = = Four major English newspapers The Hindu , The Times of India , Deccan Chronicle and The New Indian Express bring out editions from the city . Business Line , a business newspaper also brings out a Coimbatore edition . Tamil newspapers which have Coimbatore editions include Dinamalar , Dina Thanthi , Dinamani , Dinakaran , Tamil Murasu and Maalai Malar ( both evening newspapers ) . Two Malayalam newspapers – Malayala Manorama and Mathrubhumi also have considerable circulation in the city . Lotus News is headquartered in Coimbatore . A Medium wave radio station is operated by All India Radio , with programs in Tamil , English and Hindi . Five FM radio stations operate from Coimbatore – Rainbow FM , Suryan FM , Radio Mirchi , Radio City and Hello FM . All these private radio stations air exclusively Tamil based programs , including film music . Television relay started in 1985 from Delhi Doordarshan and in 1986 , after inception of the repeater tower at Kodaikanal , telecast from Madras commenced . In 2005 , Doordarshan opened its studio in Coimbatore . Television services are accessible through DTH or digital cable . = = = Telecommunication = = = Coimbatore has a well @-@ connected communications infrastructure . Till the 1990s the state owned Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) was the only telecommunication service provider in the city . In the 1990s , private telecom companies too started offering their services . As of 2010 , BSNL , Reliance Communications , Bharti Airtel and Tata Teleservices offer broadband service and fixed line services . MTS offers mobile broadband services . Cellular telephony was first introduced in 1997 and mobile telephone services available . Coimbatore is the headquarters of the Tamil Nadu circle of cellular service providers . = = = Healthcare = = = As of 2010 , the size of the health care industry in Coimbatore is estimated at ₹ 1 @,@ 500 crore ( US $ 220 million ) . There are around 750 hospitals in the city with an in @-@ patient capacity of 5 @,@ 000 beds . The first health care centre in the city was started in 1909 . In 1969 , it was upgraded to Coimbatore Medical College Hospital , a government run tertiary care hospital with 1020 beds and provides free health care . The city corporation maintains 16 dispensaries and 2 maternity homes . People from nearby districts and the state of Kerala visit Coimbatore for medical tourism due to the availability of hospitals and healthcare facilities . = = Sports and recreation = = Coimbatore is often referred to as the " India 's motorsports hub " and the " Backyard of Indian Motorsports " . S.Karivardhan designed and built entry level race cars and the Kari Motor Speedway , a Formula 3 Category circuit is named after him . Tyre manufacturer MRF assembles Formula Ford cars in Coimbatore in association with former F3 Champion J. Anand and racing company Super Speeds designs Formula cars . Rallying is another major event with rallies conducted in closed roads around Coimbatore . Narain Karthikeyan , India 's first Formula One driver hails from the city and other motorsport drivers from Coimbatore include J. Anand and V. R. Naren Kumar . Nehru Stadium , built originally for football also hosts athletic meets . The stadium has been renovated with Korean grass for the field and a synthetic track around it for athletics . Apart from the stadium , other sporting venues include the Coimbatore Golf Course , a 18 @-@ hole golf course and Coimbatore Cosmopolitan Club , which is more than 100 years old . Coimbatore Flying Club is located in the Coimbatore airport premises . The city hosts its own annual marathon called Coimbatore Marathon as an event to raise cancer awareness . Retired tennis player Nirupama Vaidyanathan , who became the first Indian woman in the modern era to feature and win a round at a main draw Grand Slam in 1998 Australian Open hails from Coimbatore . Coimbatore District Chess Association ( CDCA ) , established in 1940 is the oldest chess association in the country . = = = Recreation = = = There are several amusement parks around the city , namely : Black Thunder water theme park near Mettupalayam , Kovai Kondattam amusement park at Perur and Maharaja Theme Park at Nillambur . Since the 1980s , the city has had a few small shopping complexes and major shopping malls include Brookefields Mall and Fun Republic Mall . The city also has a number of parks including the VOC park , the Tamil Nadu Agricultural University park , Race Course Children 's park and Bharathi park in Saibaba Colony . Coimbatore Zoo houses a number of animals and birds and is located near VOC park . The grounds are used for conducting fairs and events including the annual Independence day and Republic day celebrations . Singanallur Lake is a popular tourist place and bird watcher destination . Popular cinemas include KG Cinemas , The Cinema and Cinépolis . = = Environmental issues = = Air pollution , lack of proper waste management infrastructure and degradation of water bodies are the major environmental issues in Coimbatore . There is a sewage treatment plant at Ukkadam with the capacity to process 70 million litres of sewage water per day . Garbage is collected by the corporation and sewage is pumped into the water tanks and the Noyyal river through streams . This along with garbage dumping and encroachments has led to degradation of the water bodies and depletion in the groundwater table . The tanks are renovated by the city 's environmental groups with their own fund @-@ raising and the corporation . The corporation is responsible and involved in clearing encroachment of the tanks . Siruthuli , an environmental organisation founded by the city 's industrial houses , undertakes de @-@ silting of tanks and cleaning of the Noyyal river . Environment Conservation Group based out of the city is also involved in conservation of trees and wetlands , monitoring wildlife crime and conducting awareness sessions for students . = = International relations = = Coimbatore has sister city relationship with Toledo , Ohio . The relation has enabled exchange in the fields of arts and education between the cities . A twin city pact with the German city of Esslingen was signed in July 2016 with the relation enabling the cities to collaborate on areas of mutual interest , health , education , culture and social development . Alliance Française de Madras , a Franco @-@ Indian non @-@ profit association promoting the growth of French in India has a centre at PSG Institute of Management in Coimbatore . = Ioan Gyuri Pascu = Ioan Gyuri Pascu ( Romanian pronunciation : [ iˈo ̯ an ˈɡjuri ˈpasku ] ; also credited as Ioan Ghiurico Pascu , Gyuri Pascu and Ghyuri Pascu ; born August 31 , 1961 ) is a Romanian pop music singer , producer , actor and comedian , also known for his participation in the comedy troupe Divertis and for his activity in Romanian cinema and television . Moving between rock music , rhythm and blues , reggae and jazz , the multi @-@ instrumentalist Pascu founded a number of bands and registered success particularly during the early 1990s , when he was the lead singer of a group known as The Blue Workers . Pascu was the manager of several alternative music acts with his label Tempo Music , and remains an outspoken critic of Romanian commercial radio . Noted for his impressions and musical acts within Divertis ' political satire shows , Pascu is also a successful actor , appearing in film productions such as Lucian Pintilie 's An Unforgettable Summer and Cristian Mungiu 's Occident , and portraying known characters in Romanian theater in various stage adaptations . He has had collaboration with several main television stations , including TVR 1 , Antena 1 and Pro TV . He has contributions as a printed media journalist , with sports columns , and is also a writer of Christian literature . He received an offer from Walt Disney Pictures , and he provides the voice of King Louie in 2006 for the Romanian version of the film , The Jungle Book . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Pascu is a native of Agnita ( at the time part of Braşov Region , now in Sibiu County ) , where he graduated from primary school . He was born to an ethnic Romanian father and a half @-@ Hungarian mother ; on his mother 's side , he is also the descendant of Poles and Slovaks . His mother was a Roman Catholic and his father , like Gyuri , was a Romanian Orthodox . His name reflects his complex heritage : Ioan was chosen as his Romanian name ; his second name was the Hungarian Gyurika , but it was recorded as Ghiurico in his birth certificate and personal documents ever since — as Pascu later indicated , this was because neither his father nor the notary were familiar with Hungarian phonology . Pascu , who is fluent in the Hungarian language , prefers the hypocoristic Gyuri . Pascu began to study piano when he was nine years old , and sang soprano in his school choir , entertaining his friends with impressions of well @-@ known pop singers . During fifth grade , he started playing handball with an amateur team , discarding piano lessons and contemplating a career in acting . He also taught himself guitar . At age fourteen , Pascu 's voice changed . He was still a soprano in the choir , but had to use his head voice . As a high school student , Pascu had to enlist in the Union of Communist Youth ( UTC ) , the Romanian communist regime compulsory youth organization . In 1976 , he enrolled at the Agnita High School , which later became the Agro @-@ Industrial High School . The same year , he gave up handball and began a more formal study of guitar music , using the Maria Boeru textbook as his guide . He debuted as an amateur actor in 1977 , with a school theater performance at the Agnita House of Culture . Pascu was also interested in the Cenaclul Flacăra concerts , an outlet for American folk @-@ inspired and folk rock , tolerated under communism . He became familiar with Western music acts such as Olivia Newton @-@ John and Queen , and active in the UTC 's cultural brigade , wrote and performed his first folk @-@ rock numbers . = = = Trandafirii Negri and Fundal = = = In May 1978 , Pascu attended an International Workers ' Day celebration in Mediaş , where he befriended brothers Septimiu and Horia Moldovan , who were in the same band as pop singer Elena Cârstea . According to Pascu 's official site , they played Western rock hits for him , including Deep Purple 's " Child in Time " and Uriah Heep 's " July Morning " . Between 1978 and 1980 , Pascu sang with the Moldovans ' band Trandafirii Negri , and was invited to perform with them at wedding parties and similar festivities . With the money he earned , he purchased his first acoustic guitar directly from the factory in Reghin , and taught himself to play drums . He composed one of his first published songs , " Melancolie " ( " Melancholy " ) , in 1979 . In 1980 , Pascu applied for Târgu Mureş ' Szentgyörgyi István Drama School , but failed the entry exam . He worked in a state @-@ owned factory as a lathe operator , and for several months in 1980 , was conscripted into the Romanian Land Forces , where he met other amateur musicians who were undergoing military training . Together they founded the rock band Fundal , with Pascu as lead singer and drummer . They performed in the nationwide Cântarea României festival . In 1982 , their military term over , Pascu and Fundal returned to Mediaş , where Pascu was discovered by Romanian Radio 's Radio Vacanţa station . He was invited to perform at the station 's youth concerts , where he met and befriended Teo Peter , bass player for Compact , and music promoter Andrei Partoş . During 1982 , Pascu also played Cenaclul Flacăra concerts , and was billed for the UTC 's Scînteia Tineretului shows . He later described his mentoring by rock singers Cristi Minculescu , Liviu Tudan , Adi Ordean and Vladi Cnejevici as his " third real school " . In 1980 , Pascu also discovered and became influenced by reggae music . He was introduced to the reggae style by The Police and its reggae fusion sessions , then became a fan of reggae numbers played by African diaspora students in Romanian universities . Twenty years later , Pascu told reporters : " Between 1980 and 1985 , I was mad about Bob Marley . " = = = University years and Divertis debut = = = In 1984 , Pascu moved to Cluj @-@ Napoca , and was admitted into the Cluj University Faculty of Letters , studying Romanian and Spanish . He had applied for the similar faculty at the University of Bucharest twice , but failed the entry exam . Soon after admission , he joined the university 's theatrical company Ars Amatoria şi Fiii , mentored by literary critic Ion Vartic . He performed radio comedy and parody theater during this time , and was involved in Vartic 's Echinox literary club . Pascu continued his interest in sports , particularly soccer , and was a noted fan of the college soccer team FC Universitatea Cluj . In 1986 , while Ars Amatoria was touring Bucharest with an adaptation of Ion Luca Caragiale 's plays , Pascu met and befriended members of the comedic ensemble and student group Divertis , which performed subtle political satire against Nicolae Ceauşescu 's communist rule . Pascu had been a Divertis fan since 1982 and recalled , " I met with the Divertis boys after a show . They liked me [ and ] asked me to join the group " . His first performance with Divertis took place in 1987 , at Izvoru Mureşului resort in Harghita County . Pascu resumed his musical career , and also in 1987 , was invited by Partoş to sing at a summer festival in Deva . In 1988 @-@ 1989 , upon graduation , Pascu taught Romanian language and literature at a primary school in Ulmu , Călăraşi County , but gave up to pursue his singing career . Late in 1989 , he was in Semenic , where he met Mircea Baniciu , former member of Romania 's leading rock band Transsylvania Phoenix . He was a guest in Baniciu 's home just as the anti @-@ communist Revolution erupted in Timişoara . He rejoined Divertis in Iaşi , but their scheduled show there was broken up by the communist authorities . With the end of communism , Pascu diversified his career as an entertainer . After performing a solo music recital in February 1990 , he renewed his contract with Divertis , and toured the country with them . Later that year , Divertis performed for the first time in a series of comedy shows airing on Romanian Television channels . The group worked with filmmaker and Traffic Police officer Virgil Vochină , adding comedy bits to his serialized road safety campaign , Reflecţii rutiere ( " Roadside Reflections " ) . From December 1990 to 1992 , Pascu was employed as a program editor by the same station . In 1992 , with Mircea Rusu , Pascu released the extended play recording Ar putea fi ( " It Could Be " ) . In partnership with his girlfriend Daniela Marin , he founded Tempo Music , which claimed to be Romania 's first independent music label . Pascu also founded his own band , The Blue Workers . = = = First musical and comedic hits = = = Pascu recalled that during the 1990s , Divertis had to perform dozens of consecutive encores while on tour , which interfered with the group 's regular Twin Peaks viewing parties . According to Gardianul newspaper , Pascu 's activity with Divertis turned him into " one of the most popular figures in homegrown comedy " . In his 2006 interview with Dilema Veche , Divertis founder Toni Grecu recalled that Pascu was notable as the only group member not born in the historical region of Moldavia . In 1993 , Pascu experienced his first significant success in music with the album Mixed Grill and the single " Ţara arde şi babele se piaptănă " ( " The Country Is Burning and Old Women Are Combing Their Hair " , referencing a Romanian proverb ) . A poll conducted by the journal Evenimentul Zilei nominated the track as the best song of 1993 , and the nationwide station Radio Contact awarded Pascu its " Composer of the Year " title . Mixed Grill marked Pascu 's brief experimentation with a fusion of rock and reggae . Hits such as " Gizzi " and " Mi @-@ am luat colac " ( " I Got Me a Lifebuoy " ) led some to consider him one of the pioneers of Romanian reggae , years ahead of acts like El Negro and Pacha Man . The mix of genres became characteristic of Pascu 's work in music : " When I was writing records , I figured that , should someone , say , be playing my record at a party , they would have several kinds to choose from , and they would not grow bored . But it 's not because of that , I think that 's how inspiration visits me , that this is how I write . I won 't stick to any one musical genre . " In addition to the piano , guitar and drums , Pascu also began playing the harmonica . Soon after marrying Daniela Marin in August 1993 , Pascu was invited by director Lucian Pintilie to star in his film An Unforgettable Summer , alongside Kristin Scott Thomas , Claudiu Bleonţ and Marcel Iureş . Pascu , who referred to filming on location as his mock @-@ honeymoon , received good reviews for his performance . Over the following years , Pascu and The Blue Workers released two EPs , the rhythm and blues record Maşina cu jazzolină ( " The Jazzolin Engine " ) and Caseta pentru minte , inimă şi gură ( " The Cassette for the Mind , Heart and Mouth " ) . Pascu also appeared on a number of comedy recordings released by Divertis , earning Pascu the reputation of a protest song writer . He was inspired by Romanian politics and the social debates of the 1990s to write hits like " Morcovul românesc " ( " The Romanian Carrot " ) and " Instalatorul " ( " The Plumber " ) . Pascu acknowledged his political streak , recognized what he considered the necessary link between social phenomena and a songwriter 's cultural perspective , and argued that songs should always tell a story . One of the parody songs included on Maşina cu jazzolină , titled " Africa , Africa " , drew special interest in cultural circles with its satirical undertones . The lyrics suggested that modern Romania was no better than the average African nation . According to historian Sorin Mitu , " Africa , Africa " showed " the Romanians ' tendency to relate to extra @-@ European realities " , a trend he observed during Ceauşescu 's final decade , and then throughout the early post @-@ revolutionary period . In 1995 , after a series of festivals where he sang together with The Blue Workers , Pascu had a solo recital at Braşov 's Golden Stag Festival , and was awarded the Best Album trophy by the music magazine Actualitatea Muzicală , for Maşina cu jazzolină . He was also the opening act for Western rock groups touring Romania : the British bands Jethro Tull , Beats International and Asia , and Germany 's Scorpions . As a television actor , Pascu was also taking part in the development of Romania 's advertising industry . He is chiefly remembered in pop culture as the spokesman for Connex , one of the first mobile phone operators in Romania , with the catchphrase Alo , Maria ? ( " Hello , Maria ? " ) . In February 1997 , Pascu released the album Gânduri nevinovate ( " Innocent Thoughts " ) . According to his website , it can be considered as Pascu 's " first less commercial record . " Pascu 's daughter , Ana Iarina , was born later in the same month . After 1997 , Pascu prioritized his activity as a music promoter and producer . Between 1998 and 2000 , he and his wife helped launch successful pop and alternative rock acts such as Vama Veche , Domnişoara Pogany and Dinu Olăraşu . After releasing the song collection Poveştile lui Gyuri ( " Gyuri 's Stories " ) in 1999 , he gave up music , stating that he had become disenchanted with newer pop trends , but returned in 2000 with a limited @-@ release record titled Lasă ( muzică de casă ) , " Leave It ( Home Music ) " . As stated on his website , the record registered success with " his closest fans " and with members of the Romanian @-@ American community . = = = From Occident to Felix şi Otilea = = = Also in 2000 , Pascu began working with filmmaker Cristian Mungiu . He wrote the soundtrack to Mungiu 's short film Zapping and appeared with Mircea Diaconu in Mungiu 's medium @-@ length film Corul pompierilor . They collaborated in Occident , which featured music composed by Pascu and his supporting role as " Gică " , opposite Alexandru Papadopol ( " Luci " ) . This contribution earned Pascu critical accolades . Film critic Alex . Leo Şerban referred to Pascu 's " memorable " performance as Papadopol 's " cynical , good for all neighbor " , and cultural journalist Eugenia Vodă suggested that the " authentic by definition " Pascu added " diaphanous touches " to Mungiu 's black comedy . Two years after Occident 's premiere , Pascu released the album Stângul de a visa ( " The Left to Dream " ) , which was less of a commercial success and as Pascu noted , was inconsistent with the editorial policies of commercial radio . According to his website , it was not promoted by the mainstream radio stations , and sold most of its copies during live performances . In a 2009 interview , Pascu argued , " Every time I had songs to pitch , [ the stations ] would say : ' they 're good , but they don 't fit in with our policies . ' [ ... ] If commercial radio stations were to count , I haven 't had put out a record since 1993 . " He also thanked the file sharing community for circulating copies of his music , even though he lost some royalties . Pascu voiced his opposition to the singing competitions phenomenon , stating that as a one @-@ time member of the Mamaia Festival jury , he had a " bittersweet " experience of Romanian pop politics . Pascu toured the country to mark the celebration of his 20th year in music , mostly performing in provincial clubs . He continued to give occasional concerts ( including as an opening act for Italian singer Albano Carrisi in Arad ) , and starting in 2003 , hosted the musical talk show Taverna on the national television channel , TVR 1 . With Divertis , Pascu became a co @-@ host of a regular comedy program on Antena 1 , which filmed on location in the United States . He had a recurring sketch on the show titled Felix şi Otilea ( " Felix and Otilea " ) , opposite female pop singers Monica Anghel and Jojo , and comedians Cătălin Mireuţă and Daniel Buzdugan . He was a voice actor on Animat Planet , a cartoon show produced by Divertis for Antena 1 . For these contributions , Pascu was designated " the best comedian of 2003 " in a TVR 1 poll . He released the solo albums O stea ( " A Star " ) and Jocul de @-@ a joaca ( " Pretending to Play " ) , both in 2004 . In July 2005 , he was invited to sing Brazil 's National Anthem at an exhibition soccer match between the 1994 World Cup @-@ winning Brazilian squad and the Romanian team . The same year , he released a greatest hits record , titled 12 ani , 12 balade ( " 12 Years , 12 Ballads " ) . Pascu reunited with The Blue Workers for a 2005 nationwide tour and a 2006 performance at the Children 's Palace in Bucharest . They appeared at ProEtnica festival in Sighişoara , which celebrated ethnic minorities and the practice of toleration . Pascu parted with Divertis in 2007 . At the time , he indicated that he could no longer handle their tight schedule . The break was not total , though , since Pascu continued to appear on Animat Planet . In a 2007 interview , reflecting on that show 's impact , he stated , " I 'm not much of a fan of political humor . I simply like the impromptu kind of humor [ ... ] . If [ the joke ] happens to be political , it is because that is what we have to do in this series . " In 2012 , he asserted that his break with political humor was definitive , and against the consensus in Divertis — in 2007 , Pascu noted there was already a disagreement between him and Toni Grecu . Shortly after his departure , a conflict between Grecu and the other Divertis actors broke Divertis into competing halves . Pascu released the album La jumătatea vieţii ( " Halfway through Life " ) at Cluj @-@ Napoca recital , in November 2007 . He resumed his stage career during this time as well . In spring 2007 , he starred as Rică Venturiano in an adaption of Caragiale 's O noapte furtunoasă , commemorating the 130th anniversary of the play 's first public performance . Pascu appeared in Marius Barna 's documentary film Utopia impusă ( " Forced Utopia " ) , which investigated ordinary life in Communist Romania , with singer Dan Bittman , literary critic Ion Bogdan Lefter , actor @-@ politician Mircea Diaconu , and historian Marius Oprea . = = = Writing debut and Pro TV projects = = = At the age of forty , Pascu began publishing Christian literature , specializing in essays about mysticism . When asked about his beliefs , he declared himself inspired by the Orthodox priest Arsenie Boca and Bulgarian @-@ born New Age mystic Omraam Mikhaël Aïvanhov . In 2007 , he said , " We must understand that our destiny , our earthly road , is that of rebuilding the connection with Divinity , with God . " Although an Orthodox , Pascu went on pilgrimage to the Roman Catholic Sanctuary of Our Lady of Lourdes . Pascu was also asked to appear in a Hungarian @-@ produced film , in the role of a Romanian Police officer , and starred in a stage production of Eugène Ionesco 's Le Viscomte . He had cameos in television commercials and wrote sports columns in periodicals , including the leisure magazine Time Out Bucharest . In the 2008 @-@ 2009 season , he played Chief Inspector Fane Popovici in Vine poliţia ! , a comedy series produced by Pro TV and based on Spain 's Los Hombres de Paco . Television critic Cezar Paul @-@ Bădescu called it a " catastrophic " failure . In April 2009 , Pascu provided the comedic intermezzos at UNITER Awards Gala , but his performance received mixed reviews . Three months later , he was the opening act for American folk artist Suzanne Vega at her Bucharest show . Pascu noted that he had honored the invitation only after consulting with his daughter , a Vega fan , and that he adapted his electric guitar songs to the " unplugged " setting , playing the mandolin . In autumn , he reunited with most of his Divertis colleagues after they moved from Antena 1 to Pro TV . He appeared in a Metropolis Theater production of The Lower Depths by Maxim Gorky , with veteran Ştefan Radof in the lead role . The play opened to good reviews , and Pascu 's presence , along with that of other comedic actors ( Alexandru Bindea , Tudorel Filimon ) , was considered an unusual directorial touch to Gorky 's tragedy . Pascu and his Blue Workers performed at the Sibiu Jazz Festival . Late in 2009 , Pascu and his wife agreed to a divorce . In April 2010 , Pascu sparked criticism in the media when he agreed to perform at a Timişoara rally of Gregorian Bivolaru 's Yoga movement ( MISA ) . Bivolaru 's legal troubles and allegations regarding MISA 's sexual policies were the center of public debates ; when contacted by reporters , Pascu stressed that it was a regular gig and stated , " Those people have never harmed me and I have no reason to be avoiding their company . " Pascu 's activities for that year included other live concerts , including one held during the Bookfest event of June . In November , he was a guest at the Mircea Baniciu tribute concert , entertaining the public with musical impressions of folk singers Nicu Alifantis and Victor Socaciu , and performing Pasărea Colibri classics . Pascu also purchased his own drinking establishment and live music venue , a Bucharest tavern he named Gyuri 's Pub , which hosted performances by the Moldovan folk singer Radu Captari . A collaborator of Pascu on solo music projects during spring 2010 , Captari sang and played the guitar while riding a horse . = = = 2010 stroke and Divertis split = = = In late 2010 , it was reported that Pascu had suffered a stroke and was recovering at the University Hospital of Bucharest . Romania 's media speculated that the stroke was caused by the stress of his divorce , although Pascu had stated that the separation was amiable . His career was jeopardized by the stroke , so Pascu decided to quit drinking alcohol . Pascu resumed artistic life , studying for the part of Cadâr in Victor Ion Popa 's comedy Take , Ianke and Cadâr . The production went on a tour of Romanian theaters in the early months of 2011 . Pascu returned to Land of Jokes , the comedic series produced by one half of Divertis for Pro TV , where he played the lead character Nemuriciul ( a spoof on Highlander : The Series ) . His return highlighted the conflict between Toni Grecu , who was producing a political comedy show for the same station , and the less politicized Land of Jokes . In June 2011 , Pascu and the other Land of Jokes comedians announced that their split with Divertis was final , and that their contract with Pro TV had reached an end . In an interview with Adevărul daily , the freelance comedians announced that they were considering other offers ; Pascu criticized Pro TV 's focus on producing talent shows . Pascu later acknowledged that he strongly disliked Pro TV features such as Romania 's Got Talent , even though his daughter Iarina appeared on it as part of a gospel music ensemble . The new comedy troupe took the name Distractis , since " the Land of Jokes brand was left with Pro TV " , and in August 2011 , signed with TVR 1 . Media analyst Iulian Comanescu stated about the move , " The [ Distractis ] program managed a fifth place in ratings . It is the beginning of the end for one of the most upright and best loved brands in Romanian television . " In October 2011 , Pascu returned to Cluj @-@ Napoca as a celebrity host for the inauguration of Cluj Arena , home ground of the soccer club Universitatea . He traveled to Seattle and performed at a fund @-@ raiser for a new Romanian Orthodox cultural center in America . In early 2012 , he centered his musical activity on Suceava County , working with local singer @-@ songwriter Lian Cubleşan . Their collaboration resulted in the ballad album Tropa , Tropa ... € uropa ! , released on January 20 at Câmpulung Moldovenesc , where Pascu and The Blue Workers performed a concert . Pascu appeared with his Occident colleague Mircea Diaconu on the short film Loto , playing the role of a car salesman . = = Discography = = Ar putea fi ( EP , 1992 ) Mixed Grill ( studio album , 1993 ) Maşina cu jazzolină ( studio album , 1994 ) Casetă pentru minte , inimă şi gură ( studio album , 1996 ) Gânduri nevinovate ( studio album , 1997 ) Lasă ( muzică de casă ) ( studio album , 2000 ) Stângul de a visa ( studio album , 2002 ) Prinde o stea ( studio album , 2003 ) Jocul de @-@ a joaca ( studio album , 2004 ) 12 ani , 12 balade ( greatest hits album , 2005 ) La jumătatea vieţii ( studio album , 2007 ) Tropa , Tropa ... € uropa ! ( with Lian Cubleşan ; studio album , 2012 ) = Open House ( Breaking Bad ) = " Open House " is the third episode of the fourth season of the American television drama series Breaking Bad , and the 36th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on July 31 , 2011 . In the episode , Walter and Skyler advance their plans to buy a car wash as a front organization , while Jesse holds increasingly darker parties to distract from his guilt for having killed Gale . Meanwhile , Marie starts stealing to cope with the difficult recovery of her husband Hank , who is asked to offer his advice regarding Gale 's murder investigation . The episode was written by Sam Catlin and directed by filmmaker David Slade , marking his first time directing for television . It featured guest appearances by Nigel Gibbs and stand @-@ up comedian Bill Burr , the latter of whom specifically sought to appear on the show . The footage shown from the first @-@ person perspective of Gus ' camera is actual footage from the real camera . Marie 's return to the kleptomania she demonstrated in the first season was conceived early during brainstorming sessions for the third season . Breaking Bad music supervisor Thomas Golubić sought to select music for Jesse 's party sequences appropriate for the dark tone of the scenes , including the song " If I Had a Heart " by Swedish musician Fever Ray . " Open House " was viewed by an estimated 1 @.@ 714 million viewers and received a 0 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews . = = Plot = = The episode begins as Walt furiously notices a motion @-@ detecting surveillance camera that has been installed in the lab . Later that day , Skyler convinces Walt in a meeting with Saul to buy the car wash by mentioning how the owner insulted his manhood . She devises a plan to trick the owner into selling by having a con artist ( supplied by Saul ) pretend to be a water @-@ tester who is shutting down the business out of concerns over contaminants . The owner promptly sells to her , agreeing to an even lower price than her original offer . Jesse is still feeling numb from recent events , attempting to clear his head with nostalgic go @-@ kart trips . He continues to open his house up for all @-@ night drug @-@ fueled orgies , deliberately throwing piles of money in the midst of the chaos . Angry and frustrated by Hank 's continuous cold shoulder , Marie resumes her kleptomania ; she starts stealing objects from real @-@ estate open houses , where she also makes up elaborate stories about who she is , but is eventually caught by a real @-@ estate agent . A livid Hank pulls strings with a senior police officer to get her out of being charged . The same officer drops by the Schrader residence to seek Hank 's help by giving him Gale 's lab notes to look at . Hank initially shoves away the notebook , but begins to read it later that night . = = Production = = " Open House " was written by Sam Catlin and directed by David Slade , marking his first time directing for television . Slade was a fan of Breaking Bad and sought to direct an episode of the show . Filmed in February 2011 , the episode was edited by Skip MacDonald , one of a handful of editors who have regularly worked on the series . Nigel Gibbs reprised his role as detective Tim Roberts , whom he portrayed in the second season episode " Grilled " . Stand @-@ up comedian Bill Burr made a guest appearance as the man who poses as an environmental inspector for Skyler . Burr was cast after he expressed interest in appearing on the show to Breaking Bad extras casting directors Sharon Bialy and Sherry Thomas . Series creator Vince Gilligan said , " We just waste so much time here in the writer 's room by getting on YouTube and watching some of his routines . " Stand @-@ up comedian Lavell Crawford reprised his recurring role as Huell , Saul 's bodyguard , and Jennifer Hasty also made a guest appearance as Stephanie Doswell , the realtor who exposes Marie 's thefts . Although credited Giancarlo Esposito does not appear . The concept of Gus installing a surveillance camera into the meth lab stemmed from the idea of Walter and Gus employing what Gilligan called " brinkmanship and gamesmanship " against each other after their falling out at the end of the third season . Gilligan commented : " What 's one way Gus can amp up the story there ? How can he mess with Walt 's head a little bit ? " The footage shown from the first @-@ person perspective of the camera is actual footage from the real camera , including the numbers shown at the top and bottom of the screen . This is why that shot is shown in pillarbox and in lower quality than the rest of the episode , which was shot in 35 mm film . The episode features a subplot with Marie engaging in acts of kleptomania , which had been a major part of her character during the first season . Catlin said it was conceived early on that Marie would act this way while brainstorming the ideas for Marie coping with Hank 's difficult recovery . Gilligan described Marie 's acts of stealing as a respite for her : " She 's looking for another life , but she 's not actively ready to leave her husband or anything like that . ... We liked the quirkiness of it . " Betsy Brandt said " Open House " was her favorite episode of the season to shoot . The idea of Jesse riding go @-@ karts by himself to relax was inspired by Aaron Paul and other crew members who often went kart racing between filming of Breaking Bad episodes in Albuquerque , New Mexico . During one of the party scenes at Jesse 's house , Jesse keeps throwing crumpled dollar bills at the mouth of a sleeping man wearing a dress shirt and tie with no pants until he finally gets one inside his mouth . Catlin thought of the idea , and it was property master Trina Siopy actually throwing the bills off @-@ screen ; she got one into the actor 's mouth on her second try . The scenes in Jesse 's house were shot on a set in a sound stage built by production designer Mark Freeborn and construction coordinator William Gilpin . Although scenes in Jesse 's house are occasionally filmed in an actual house , these particular scenes could not be shot there because the party was so messy . The party scenes sought to illustrate Jesse 's internal guilt and self @-@ hatred for having murdered Gale Boetticher in the third season finale , " Full Measure " . Bryan Cranston praised these scenes , saying , " I thought it was a great way to show a person going through a private hell . That everybody suffers , deals with their own personal loss in many different ways . " Although the previous episode , " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " , also featured similar party scenes , the party was much darker and more decrepit in " Open House " , and Breaking Bad music supervisor Thomas Golubic tried to select music appropriate for that darker tone . Originally he tried using variations of punk rock , hip hop and dubstep , but felt it was inappropriate and wanted something that " deeper into Jesse 's headspace " . He chose the song " If I Had a Heart " by Swedish musician Fever Ray which was used during a sequence of scenes before and during Jesse 's party . Golubic said he liked the " muted loud sort of feel " of the song , which he felt matched Jesse 's frame of mind and the " full , heavy darkness " of the party . It was chosen by a vote among the writers among four possible songs . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Open House " aired on Sunday , July 31 , 2011 on AMC . The episode was viewed by an estimated 1 @.@ 714 million viewers and received a 0 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 0 @.@ 7 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . The episode was the 22nd highest rated program on the day it aired . = = = Reviews = = = The episode received positive reviews . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix said he was particularly interested in the Marie and Jesse characters this episode , and called it a credit to the show 's evolution that the supporting cast subplots can be so interesting without Walt . He also praised David Slade 's direction , particularly during the jumpshots in Jesse 's scenes . Seth Amitin of IGN called it a " great episode " and an improvement over the previous two , " Box Cutter " and " Thirty @-@ Eight Snub " . He praised the way Skyler 's character proved herself to both Walter and Saul , and praised Betsy Brandt 's performance , claiming her subplot provided much @-@ needed comic relief and reminded him of the works of David Sedaris . Entertainment Weekly writer Melissa Maerz praised the development of Skyler 's character and said the episode touched upon a common theme in Breaking Bad about masculinity . With Skyler asserting herself in Walter 's work , and Hank taking out his insecurities about being disabled on Marie , Maerz said the script raises the question , " What does it mean to be a strong man ? " Los Angeles Times writer Todd VanDerWerff called it " one of the best episodes this show has ever done " , despite diverting the attention from Walter to the support cast members . VanDerWerff said the episode well demonstrated how Walter 's actions affected others around him and said Marie 's character was more interesting than in the past . Matt Richenthal of TV Fanatic complimented the performances by Betsy Brandt and Aaron Paul , and said of the latter , " Seriously , does any actor on TV convey more by saying less than Aaron Paul ? " He also compared Skyler 's increasingly calculated approach to Walter 's drug dealing to Gus ' personality . New York magazine writer Logan Hill praised Brandt 's performance and said it was interesting to see an episode so focused on Skyler and Marie on a show usually dominated by the male characters . However , he said Skyler 's transformation from concerned wife to competent criminal partner felt too sudden . Not all reviews were positive . Slate writers June Thomas and Jessica Grose both enjoyed Marie in " Open House " , but both felt the scenes at Jesse 's house were too over @-@ the @-@ top and that Skyler 's concerns about Walter 's safety seemed out of character . = German destroyer Z10 Hans Lody = Z10 Hans Lody was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . At the beginning of World War II on 1 September 1939 , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the North Sea to lay defensive minefields . In late 1939 the ship laid multiple offensive minefields off the English coast that claimed nine merchant ships and she crippled a British a destroyer during one of these missions . Hans Lody was under repair for most of the Norwegian Campaign and was transferred to France in late 1940 where she participated in several engagements with British ships , crippling another destroyer . The ship returned to Germany in late 1940 for a refit and was transferred to Norway in June 1941 as part of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . Hans Lody spent some time at the beginning of the campaign conducting anti @-@ shipping patrols in Soviet waters , but these were generally fruitless . She escorted a number of German convoys in the Arctic later in the year before returning to Germany in September for machinery repairs . The ship returned to Norway in mid @-@ 1942 , but was badly damaged when she ran aground in July and did not return until April 1943 . Hans Lody participated in the German attack ( Operation Zitronella ) on the Norwegian island of Spitzbergen , well north of the Arctic Circle and then spent the next six months on convoy duties in southern Norway . The ship began a lengthy refit in April 1944 and was not operational for the next year . She spent April 1945 escorting convoys in Danish waters before making one voyage to rescue refugees in East Prussia in May . Hans Lody was assigned to the Royal Navy after the war and used as a training ship and then a barracks ship before being broken up for scrap in 1949 . = = Design and description = = Z10 Hans Lody had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 long tons ( 2 @,@ 206 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 110 long tons ( 3 @,@ 160 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) and she reached a maximum speed of 37 @.@ 8 knots from 65 @,@ 000 shp ( 48 @,@ 000 kW ) during her sea trials . Hans Lody carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship . The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 in ) SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 @-@ centimeter ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) C / 30 guns in single mounts . Hans Lody carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines and the S @-@ Gerät active sonar system was scheduled to be installed during February 1940 . During the war the ship 's light anti @-@ aircraft armament was augmented several times . In 1941 , improved 2 cm C / 38 guns replaced the original C / 30 guns and three additional guns were added . The two guns on the aft shelter deck were replaced at some point by a single 2 cm quadruple Flakvierling mount , probably in 1942 . During her 1944 – 45 refit , Hans Lody received the " Barbara " anti @-@ aircraft refit in which all of her existing 3 @.@ 7 cm and most of her 2 cm guns were replaced . She retained her Flakvierling mount and the remainder of her anti @-@ aircraft armament now consisted of seven twin 3 @.@ 7 cm SK M / 42 mounts and three twin 2 cm mounts . = = Construction and career = = Z10 Hans Lody , named after naval reservist Carl Hans Lody who was executed by the British as a spy during World War I , was ordered on 4 August 1934 and laid down at Germaniawerft , Kiel on 1 April 1935 as yard number G536 . She was launched on 14 May 1936 and completed on 13 September 1938 . The destroyer was assigned to the 8th Destroyer Division ( 8 . Zerstörerdivision ) upon completion and participated in the homecoming celebrations for the Condor Legion on 30 May 1939 under her first commander , Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitän ) Karl @-@ Jesko von Puttkamer . When World War II began in September 1939 , Hans Lody was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . While loading mines on 4 September , one exploded aboard Hans Lody , killing two crewmen and wounded six others , and slightly damaging the ship 's stern . The ship later patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods , losing one man overboard and three injured during a storm at the end of October . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey , in his flagship Z15 Erich Steinbrinck , led Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt and Hans Lody , in laying a minefield off the Humber Estuary that claimed another seven ships of 38 @,@ 710 Gross Register Tons ( GRT ) , including the Polish ocean liner M / S Piłsudski of 14 @,@ 294 GRT . Bey , now using Hans Lody as his flagship , left port on the morning of 6 December with Z12 Erich Giese and Z11 Bernd von Arnim to lay a minefield off Cromer . The latter ship had severe boiler problems and was ordered to return to port in the late afternoon while the other two continued their mission . They spotted several darkened ships as they approached their destination , including the destroyers HMS Juno and HMS Jersey , but were not spotted in return . As the two German destroyers withdrew after having laid their mines ,	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
The ship 's propulsion system consisted of three steam turbines , each driving a screw propeller . Steam was provided by fourteen mixed coal and oil firing Blechynden boilers . The engines were rated at 23 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 17 @,@ 000 kW ) for a top speed of 27 @.@ 66 knots ( 51 @.@ 23 km / h ; 31 @.@ 83 mph ) . She had a range of 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at a cruising speed of 13 knots ( 24 km / h ; 15 mph ) . Marsala was armed with a main battery of six 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) L / 50 guns mounted singly . She was also equipped with six 76 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) L / 50 guns and two 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was only lightly armored , with a 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) thick deck , and 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick plating on her main conning tower . = = Service history = = Marsala 's keel was laid down at the Castellammare shipyard on 15 February 1911 , the same day as Nino Bixio . Work on Marsala proceeded slower than on her sister , and she was launched on 24 March 1912 , where she was named for the city where Giuseppe Garibaldi launched the Expedition of the Thousand in 1860 . After completing fitting @-@ out work , the ship was commissioned into the Italian fleet on 4 August 1914 . Italy declared neutrality at the start of World War I in August 1914 , but by May 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines could operate too effectively in the narrow waters of the Adriatic , which could also be easily seeded with minefields . The threat from these underwater weapons was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Marsala , Nino Bixio , and the cruiser Quarto were based at Brindisi during the war , where they could patrol the path from the narrow Adriatic to the Mediterranean . By May 1917 , the reconnaissance forces at Brindisi had come under the command of Rear Admiral Alfredo Acton . On the night of 14 – 15 May , the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruisers Helgoland , Novara , and Saida and several destroyers raided the Otranto Barrage — a patrol line of drifters intended to block Austro @-@ Hungarian and German U @-@ boats . Marsala was the only Italian cruiser with steam up in her boilers when word of the Austro @-@ Hungarian attack reached Brindisi . The British cruisers HMS Dartmouth and Bristol departed first , along with five Italian destroyers . Marsala , the flotilla leader Racchia , and three destroyers followed thereafter . Marsala briefly engaged the fleeing Austro @-@ Hungarians in the Battle of the Otranto Straits , before Acton broke off the pursuit and ordered a return to port . Following the end of the war in November 1918 , the Regia Marina demobilized ; severely reduced naval budgets — the result of a weakened Italian economy in the early 1920s — led to further draw @-@ downs . Marsala 's engines were plagued with problems throughout her career , which made the ship an obvious target in the effort to trim the Regia Marina 's budget . She was stricken from the naval register on 27 November 1927 and subsequently broken up for scrap . = Apollo 's Chariot = Apollo 's Chariot is steel roller coaster at the Busch Gardens Williamsburg theme park in James City County , Virginia , United States . The ride was the first Hyper Coaster designed by Swiss firm Bolliger & Mabillard . It officially opened to the public on March 30 , 1999 . The 4 @,@ 882 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 488 m ) ride is characterised by eight air @-@ time hills , with heights ranging between 49 and 131 feet ( 15 and 40 m ) . Riders ascend 170 feet ( 52 m ) on the chain lift hill before dropping 210 feet ( 64 m ) at an angle of 65 ° . Apollo 's Chariot is generally well received with it consistently rating highly in industry rankings . = = History = = Apollo 's Chariot was announced on September 5 , 1998 , as the tallest and fastest roller coaster at Busch Gardens Williamsburg . On January 23 , 1999 , the ride was nearing completion with approximately 20 pieces of track left to be installed . Apollo 's Chariot opened as the first Hyper Coaster from Swiss manufacturer , Bolliger & Mabillard . Busch Gardens held Apollo 's Chariot 's opening ceremony on March 30 , 1999 . Italian fashion model Fabio Lanzoni was brought in to promote the new roller coaster . During the ride 's inaugural run , a 10 @-@ pound goose struck him in the face leaving his nose covered with blood . He was treated at a nearby hospital for minor cuts . = = Characteristics = = The 4 @,@ 882 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 1 @,@ 488 m ) Apollo 's Chariot is a Bolliger & Mabillard Hyper Coaster . The park 's existing terrain is utilised to allow a 170 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 52 m ) lift hill to be translated into a first drop stretching 210 feet ( 64 m ) . With a top speed of 73 miles per hour ( 117 km / h ) , the ride features eight air @-@ time hills . Riders of Apollo 's Chariot experience up to 4 @.@ 1 times the force of gravity on the 2 @-@ minute , 15 @-@ second ride . Apollo 's Chariot operates with three trains with nine cars per train . Riders are arranged four across in a single row for a total of 36 riders per train . This configuration of trains allows for a theoretical capacity of 1 @,@ 750 riders per hour . Riders are restrained by a lapbar and the seats are elevated so riders ’ feet don 't touch the ground . = = Ride experience = = After departing from the station , the train begins to climb the 170 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) chain lift hill . When the train reaches the top , it drops down a few feet in a pre @-@ drop . The pre @-@ drop serves to reduce the stress and pull of the chain . After the pre @-@ drop , the train goes down a 210 feet ( 64 m ) drop toward a water @-@ filled ravine at a 65 degree angle and reaching a top speed of 73 miles per hour ( 117 km / h ) . At the end of the ravine , the train enters a second airtime hill with a 131 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) drop . A short narrow above ground tunnel is at the bottom of the second drop . After the tunnel , the train descends a 144 @-@ foot ( 44 m ) drop , which banks to the left as it descends . The train then goes through an upward helix . Coming out of the helix , the train drops 102 feet ( 31 m ) then turns right and rises up into the mid @-@ course brake run . The train drops 48 feet ( 15 m ) out of the brake run followed by another drop at 87 feet ( 27 m ) toward the ravine . The train then banks right , makes a 38 @-@ foot ( 12 m ) dip , turns left and goes through a small 16 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) dip . The train then makes one last 49 @-@ foot ( 15 m ) airtime drop before climbing up and into the final brake run . There is approximately 26 seconds of airtime during the 2 minute and 15 second ride . = = Reception = = In the ride 's debut year , Busch Gardens Williamsburg had lower attendance levels than they were expecting . This was attributed to prolonged periods of inclement weather . As a result of this , the park planned to re @-@ launch Apollo 's Chariot in 2000 in an attempt to drive attendance . In Amusement Today 's annual Golden Ticket Awards , Apollo 's Chariot has consistently ranked highly . In its debut year , it ranked position 20 . In the 13 years since , the coaster has consistently ranked higher , peaking at # 4 in 2005 , 2007 , 2008 and 2012 . In Mitch Hawker 's worldwide Best Roller Coaster Poll , Apollo 's Chariot entered at position 6 in 1999 , before dropping to a low of 32 in 2012 . The ride 's ranking in subsequent polls is shown in the table below . = The Boat Race 1939 = The 91st Boat Race took place on 1 April 1939 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . In a race umpired by the former Oxford rower William Rathbone , Cambridge won by four lengths in a time of 19 minutes 3 seconds . The victory took the overall record in the event to 48 – 42 in Cambridge 's favour . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1938 race by two lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 47 victories to Oxford 's 42 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Cambridge were coached by H. E. Boardman , J. N. Duckworth ( three @-@ time Blue between 1934 and 1936 ) and Derek Mays @-@ Smith . Oxford 's coaches were John Cherry ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1936 , 1937 and 1938 races ) , Guy Oliver Nickalls ( who had rowed three times between 1921 and 1923 ) and J. H. Philips . The race was umpired by the former Oxford rower and coach William Rathbone who had represented the Dark Blues in the 1926 and 1927 races and coached them in the 1936 and 1937 races . During the build @-@ up to the race at Putney , Oxford 's stroke R. M. A. Bourne suffered a serious hand injury ; he was temporarily replaced by J. R. Bingham , but Bourne failed to regain his form after returning and so was dropped in favour of his stand @-@ in . Oxford were described by the rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian as having " a powerful , orthodox crew without a weak man in the boat " while he suggested that " Cambridge are not orthodox , and they have not quite the same uniformity of style " . The rowing correspondent for the The Times agreed , stating that " since 1936 Cambridge rowing has certainly deteriorated , and they have produced this year as heterogeneous a crew as has ever been seen in the race . " The Dark Blues were considered by most to be favourites to win the race . Both crews raced in boats built by George Sims Boatbuilding Company of Hammersmith . = = Crews = = The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 12 @.@ 5 lb ( 81 @.@ 7 kg ) , 2 @.@ 5 pounds ( 1 @.@ 1 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew saw three former Blues return , including Alan Burrough who was making his third consecutive appearance . Oxford 's crew included four rowers with Boat Race experience , including their number four , R. R. Stewart who was also taking part in his third consecutive race . Three of the individuals participating in the race were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's H. P. V. Massey was Canadian , while Cambridge 's crew included American number five H. Parker and Australian number six J. Turnbull . = = Race = = Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Umpire Rathbone started the race at 11 : 01 a.m. after Oxford had kept Cambridge waiting at the stakeboat for five minutes . Oxford made the quicker start and were a quarter of a length ahead within fifteen seconds . However , Cambridge 's longer strokes saw them soon pick up pace and within a minute they were a third of a length ahead of the Dark Blues . Out @-@ rating their opponents by four strokes per minute , Cambridge were half a length ahead by Craven Steps and two lengths up by the Mile Post . Despite their lead , the Light Blues were " rather ragged and badly together " while Oxford " were rowing perfectly steadily . " The Dark Blue cox Massey steered across to the Surrey station in an attempt to gain more advantage from the tide , but Cambridge began to pull away again at Harrods Furniture Depository and led by two and a half lengths as they passed below Hammersmith Bridge . The Light Blues reduced their stroke rate but continued to extend their lead , passing Chiswick Steps with a 12 @-@ second advantage which they were held to until they passed below Barnes Bridge . C. B. Sanford , the Cambridge stroke , called for a push and increased the rate by four strokes a minute to pull even further ahead , even though Oxford had made a push of their own . Cambridge won by four lengths in a time of 19 minutes 3 seconds . It was their first victory since the 1936 race , and the fastest winning time and largest winning margin since the 1934 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 47 – 42 in Cambridge 's favour . The rowing correspondent of The Manchester Guardian was critical of Oxford 's failure to respond to Cambridge 's early pressure : " it was incumbent on them to fight like tigers , they settled down to a dignified and , as it were , middle @-@ aged stride " . The Observer 's rowing correspondent agreed : " It could hardly be described as a ' race ' for Oxford made no effort to ' race ' and the further they went the more they fell behind . " = Jennifer 's Body = Jennifer 's Body is a 2009 supernatural horror black comedy film written by Diablo Cody and directed by Karyn Kusama . The film stars Megan Fox , Amanda Seyfried , Johnny Simmons , and Adam Brody . Fox portrays a demonically possessed high school cheerleader who kills her male classmates , with her best friend striving to stop her . The film premiered at the 2009 Toronto International Film Festival and was released in the United States and Canada on September 18 , 2009 . The title is a reference to the song of the same name by alternative rock band Hole on their album Live Through This . As a tie @-@ in to the film , Boom ! Studios produced a Jennifer 's Body graphic novel , released in August 2009 . Working with Cody again following their collaborative efforts on the film Juno , Jason Reitman stated he and his producers " want to make unusual films " . Cody said she wanted the film to speak to female empowerment and explore the complex relationships between best friends . The film had a lackluster performance at the North American box office , making $ 2 @.@ 8 million its opening day and $ 6 @.@ 8 million its opening weekend , and received mixed reviews from critics ; whereas negative reviews criticized the narrative and , specifically , the horror / comic premise for " fail [ ing ] to be either funny or scary enough to satisfy " , positive reviews praised the film for its dialogue , performances , and emotional resonance . = = Plot = = Anita " Needy " Lesnicki , once an insecure and bookish teenager living near Devil 's Kettle , Minnesota , is now a violent mental inmate who narrates the story as a flashback while in solitary confinement . She has been friends with a selfish and popular cheerleader , Jennifer Check , since childhood , despite having little in common . One night , Jennifer takes Needy to a local dive bar to attend a concert by indie rock band Low Shoulder . A suspicious fire engulfs the bar , killing several people , and Jennifer , who is in shock , agrees to leave with the band despite Needy 's protests . Later that evening , Jennifer , covered in blood , appears in Needy 's kitchen and proceeds to eat food from the refrigerator . Unable to digest the matter , she vomits a trail of black , spiny fluid and then leaves in a hurry as Needy calls after her . The next morning at school , Jennifer appears fine and shrugs off Needy 's concerns . While the whole town is devastated by the deaths caused by the fire , Jennifer seduces the school 's football captain in the woods and then kills him ; his disemboweled corpse is later found . Meanwhile , the members of Low Shoulder gain popularity due to their rumored heroism during the fire and offer to make a charity appearance at the school 's spring formal . A month later , Jennifer is beginning to look pale , and accepts a date with school goth / emo Colin , whom she brutally kills that night . While Needy and her boyfriend , Chip , have sex , Needy senses something dreadful has happened . She leaves in a panic and almost runs over Jennifer , drenched in blood . At home , she finds Jennifer in her bedroom . Jennifer kisses her , initiating a brief makeout session , and soon explains what happened after the fire : Low Shoulder took her into the woods and offered her as a virgin sacrifice to Satan in exchange for fame and fortune . Although the sacrifice and greedy exchange were a success , Jennifer was not a virgin , and when lead singer Nikolai murdered her , the ritual backfired and a demonic spirit took over her body . Unbeknownst to Needy , Jennifer also encountered Indian exchange student Ahmet after the fire and , upon hearing that no one knew he had survived , took him into the woods and ate him , rendering him her first victim . Jennifer states that she can withstand virtually any injury without pain and is rather difficult to kill . At school the following day , the town is stunned by Colin 's death . Needy goes to the school library 's occult section and surmises that Jennifer is a succubus ; she is weakest when she is hungry , and must feed on flesh in order to sustain her life and appearance . Needy tells Chip about her discoveries and warns him not to attend the school dance . He does not believe her and she subsequently breaks up with him in order to protect him . Chip still goes to the dance , hoping to meet with Needy , but is instead intercepted by Jennifer , who seduces him and takes him to an abandoned pool house . Needy arrives there and finds Jennifer feeding on Chip . Needy tries to drown Jennifer but Jennifer , hovering in the air , attacks her . She is then stabbed by a fatally injured Chip with a pool skimmer . Jennifer escapes while Needy watches her boyfriend die . Needy decides she must kill Jennifer for the common good . She goes to Jennifer 's home and sees her , already recovered , picking out her next victims in her yearbook . Crashing through the window , Needy engages in a fight with Jennifer wielding a box cutter . Culminating with a stab to the heart , Needy finally destroys the demon and kills her . Jennifer 's mother enters and finds Needy with the box cutter on top of her daughter 's body . Soon after , Needy is brought to an asylum . Since she was bitten non @-@ fatally by Jennifer , she has obtained some of Jennifer 's supernatural powers , such as the ability to hover in the air . Set upon revenge for what was done to herself , Jennifer , and Chip , she escapes the mental facility and hitchhikes a ride to the hotel where Low Shoulder are staying ; there , she slaughters the members , whose killings are later discovered by local authorities . = = Cast = = Megan Fox as Jennifer Check : Fox was in negotiations to star as Jennifer Check since the film was announced in 2007 , and was officially cast in October 2007 . Fox said the reason she agreed to the role was her love for the script . " I think what I loved about the movie is it 's so unapologetic and how completely inappropriate it is at all times , " she said . " That was my favorite part about the script and about the character . It 's fun to be able to say the shit that she got to say and get away with it and how people find it charming . " Asked how acting in a film like this is different from acting in Transformers , Fox said " there 's [ no ] distractions , like there 's no robots to distract you from whatever performance I do give . So , if it 's terrible , you 're gonna fucking know that it 's really terrible " . She said despite this aspect of the business being intimidating , she enjoyed portraying the character . " I wasn 't really sure what I was doing , " said Fox . " I was just trying to have fun with it and I felt like I was able to make fun of my own image as to how some people might perceive Megan Fox to be . I was just sort of flying freely and I hope some of it works . " To prepare for her role as a living @-@ dead teenager , Fox dropped to a near frail 97 pounds and stayed out of the sun to keep her skin pale . In balancing out the film 's horror with humor , she said she relied heavily on Diablo Cody 's script and Karyn Kusama 's direction to pull it off , stating , " I have a very specific sense of humor , things that I think are funny aren 't going to fly with middle America . It 's going to eliminate some of the audience , so you need someone there to tell you you can 't do that . " Amanda Seyfried as Anita " Needy " Lesnicki : In February 2008 , Seyfried was cast as Anita " Needy " Lesnicki , the " plain Jane " best friend to Fox 's character with whom she shares a somewhat lesbian infatuation . Seyfried said it was a relief to play the nerdy character opposite Fox . " Being a lead ( like Megan ) , you have that weird pressure of feeling like you have to look attractive , " she stated . " In this movie , I didn 't worry about any of that [ shit ] . I don 't want to play the one that everybody is supposed to want to have sex with . " Johnny Simmons as Chip Dove J. K. Simmons as Mr. Wroblewski Amy Sedaris as Toni Lesnicki Adam Brody as Nikolai : Chud.com reported that the filmmakers were looking at actual rock band members Pete Wentz of Fall Out Boy and Joel Madden of Good Charlotte to portray male lead Nikolai Wolf . Chad Michael Murray was also considered for the role . In March 2008 , Johnny Simmons was reportedly cast as Nikolai . However , Brody was officially cast in the role of Nikolai , while Simmons was then given the role of Chip Dove . Brody said he did not do his own vocals , adding , " My singing voice is still going through puberty . They gave me a singing lesson or two , and it 's not the worst thing in the world , but it 's not anything anyone would choose to hear . " Kyle Gallner as Colin Gray Cynthia Stevenson as Mrs. Dove Chris Pratt as Officer Roman Duda Carrie Genzel as Mrs. Check Juan Riedinger as Dirk Juno Ruddell as Officer Warzak Valerie Tian as Chasity Aman Johal as Ahmet from India Josh Emerson as Jonas Kozelle Lance Henriksen as the driver near the end of film = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Jennifer 's Body is the follow @-@ up to writer and producer Diablo Cody 's and Jason Reitman 's collaboration efforts on Juno . In October 2007 , Fox Atomic pre @-@ emptively purchased the rights to Cody 's script with Megan Fox to star . Peter Rice , who at the time oversaw Fox Searchlight and Fox Atomic , brought in the project as Fox Searchlight had previously distributed Cody 's film Juno . Mason Novick and Reitman 's producing partner Dan Dubiecki signed as producers in November 2007 with plans to produce the film under Hard C , which is housed at Fox Searchlight . Reitman commented , " We want to make unusual films , and anything that turns a genre on its ear interests Dan and I. " Karyn Kusama was announced as director in January 2008 . Kusama said she signed on to the project because of the script . " I was blessed to read this script at a moment where the producers were meeting with directors and it just knocked me out . It was just so original , so imaginative " , she stated . " That 's what it is about this script and the world is that it feels like a fairy tale gone psycho and I think that 's what most fairy tales actually started as . " Additionally , Cody , Reitman and Kusama knew the film would be R rated because of the language . In February 2008 , a cease and desist was given to a writer at CC2K.us after they posted an advance script review for the film . The Latino Review also posted an advance review . At the time CC2K.us received their cease and desist order , questions were raised why Latino Review 's largely positive script review was allowed to stay posted while CC2K was being forced by Fox Searchlight to remove their mainly negative coverage . Although Latino Review was later asked to remove their review , numerous other websites and blogs published their own critiques of the script . Cody stated that when writing the script , she was " simultaneously trying to pay tribute to some of the conventions that we 've already seen in horror , yet , at the same time , kind of turn them on their ear " . One of her influences from the 1980s horror genre was the film The Lost Boys . She wanted to " honor that , and at the same time , [ she ] had never really seen this particular subgenre done with girls and [ she ] tried to do a little of both " . Despite this , she said she had noticed that " the last survivor standing in the typical horror film is a woman " and that because of this she feels " horror has always had kind of a feminist angle to it in a weird way and , at the same time , it 's kind of delightfully exploitative " . Jennifer 's Body could play on both of these aspects . Cody said she wanted the film to speak to female empowerment and explore the complex relationships between best friends . " ( Director ) Karyn Kusama and I are both outspoken feminists " , she said . " We wanted to subvert the classic horror model of women being terrorized . I want to write roles that service women . I want to tell stories from a female perspective . I want to create good parts for actresses where they 're not just accessories to men . " Addressing " the male @-@ dominated " horror genre , Cody said " a key reason for writing the film was to bring to the screen a new way of expressing the intensity of female bonds " and that the adolescent female friendships she experienced were unparalleled in their intensity . She wanted to show the " almost horrific " aspect of such devotion and its relation to parasitism . The producers decided to have the film open with the statement " Hell is a teenage girl " to reflect the " horrors " of puberty and that " the hellish emotions felt during high school often reappear as teenage girls mature into young women " . Cody stated : There 's the scene where Jennifer 's sitting alone smearing makeup on her face . I always thought that was such a sad image . She 's so vulnerable . I don 't know any woman who hasn 't had a moment sitting in front of the mirror and thinking , ' Help me , I want to be somebody else . ' What makes it extra affecting is that [ Megan Fox ] is stunning . Cody crafted the story to follow a night that ends in a tragic fire , after which Jennifer is kidnapped and set up as a sacrifice which goes awry . Jennifer , now possessed by a demon and subsequently altered into a succubus , sets out on a bloody rampage in which she devours boys , and it is up to Needy to stop her . In sort of a reversal aspect of how puberty changes a girl 's life , Jennifer must consume the blood of others once a month or she becomes weak and plain @-@ looking . " It 's a meek shall inherit the Earth sort of thing . I think it 's always really satisfying and cathartic to see a character that was previously bullied become super human " , said Cody . Cody said the script is not a reflection of any part of her own life , but that she is more like character Needy . " I would say I was more of a Needy than a Jennifer . I was never an Alpha female , and I 've never gotten off with bullying other people " , she said . " If I had to choose , I was definitely the one being shoved , not the one shoving . " The nickname " Needy " was given to Seyfried 's character to underline the essentially condescending dynamic in Jennifer and Needy 's high school relationship , as Needy often admires Jennifer and feels she needs her . Cody said " Jennifer is a product of a culture that pressures girls to be skinny , beautiful and just like movie stars " and that she " hopes the film inspires girls to take life into their own hands and do with it , what they want " . " If I had gone to this movie as a teenage girl , I would 've come out of it feeling totally inspired " , she stated . " I would 've wanted to write , I would 've wanted to create and I would 've felt like I watched something that was speaking to me . " Assigned to direct the film , Kusama said , " I think also a lot of horror is about femaleness – whether it 's Carrie or Rosemary 's Baby . " She said she feels " like there 's a lot of fear of the female or kind of celebration of it in some weird way and something about this movie managed to take the fear and the sense that it 's the female that ultimately survives and sort of marry that in a really interesting way " . Addressing her decision to have Jennifer and Needy be romantically intimate at one point during the film , which takes place in the form of a long and passionate kissing scene , Cody said she did not write the scene to score publicity . Speaking of the scene 's media hype , she said that " if the two protagonists of the film were a guy and a girl and in a particularly tense moment , they shared a kiss , no one would say it was gratuitous " but " the fact that they 're women means it 's some kind of stunt " . The scene was " intended to be something profound and meaningful " to her and Kusama . She further stated : Obviously we knew people were going to totally sensationalize it . They 're beautiful girls , the scene is hot — I 'm not afraid to say that . There is a sexual energy between the girls which is kind of authentic , because I know when I was a teen @-@ aged girl , the friendships that I had with other girls were almost romantic , they were so intense . I wanted to sleep at my friend 's house every night , I wanted to wear her clothes , we would talk on the phone until our ears ached . I wanted to capture that heightened feeling you get as an adolescent that you don 't really feel as a grownup . ( laughs ) You like [ your ] friends when you 're a grownup , but you don 't need to sleep in the same bed with them and talk to them on the phone until 5 a.m. every night . Though the film is part comedy , Cody initially intended for it to be a " very dark , very brooding " traditional slasher film . Close to " a third of the way into the process " she felt that she was incapable of doing so because " the humor just kept sneaking in " . She stated , " I have a macabre sense of humor . A lot of the things in the movie that are horrifying are funny to me . " Feeling that " comedy films and horror films are kind of similar " due to being films where you can significantly gauge intense reactions from the audience , Cody stated , " They 're laughing , they 're screaming , it 's not a passive experience . So , I actually think comedy and horror are kind of similar in that way . " = = = Design and effects = = = Handling the film 's special effects were KNB EFX GROUP and the Moving Picture Company ( MPC ) . For Jennifer 's demonic form , the creators used different techniques . " I actually wasn 't in [ the makeup chair ] that much because they created an entire head . They did a live cast of me from the shoulders up . They created me and then put the teeth in " , stated Fox . " To save my face , they had a photo double that would come in and do most of the crazy monster makeup - they would do that on her . So it would go from me , then in post @-@ production it would somehow go to her and the fake head . They would mix them all together . " For the " vomit scene " where Jennifer has just arrived at Needy 's house after being murdered and inhabited by a demon , Fox said the liquid she was given to spit out " was actually ... chocolate syrup initially " . " We did a few takes where I would just do this scream and sort of puke Hershey 's chocolate syrup . Scratch the Hershey 's because I don 't want to endorse that or anything " , she stated . " And then , special effects did a rig that clamps onto my ear and you revisit it in the pool scene ... " Fox said it " clips on . It goes around the back of my ear and then I bite down on it on the side of my face , like this , and it projectiles . It 's a tube ... " Directing the scene , Kusama said it had a classic feel . Fox agreed , " Yeah , and it projects whatever that material was . I 'm not sure . It was pretty intense . I think it was worse for [ Seyfried ] because she 's the one that got puked on . I was the one doing the puking . " For more practical special effects on the set as opposed to CG , Kusama said it " was a choice that we all sort of made organically " . She said they appreciate " those kind of effects in older movies and [ questions ] sometimes how much more effective it is to use a ton of CG " and that they " always started with a practical effect and then moved forward from there to lay a groundwork of something that 's actually physically , materially there " . They found this to be more enjoyable . Erik Nordby of KNB ( known for his work on The Haunting in Connecticut , which also features co @-@ star Kyle Gallner ) stated , " We immediately went into pitch mode in January and spent a solid two weeks trying to not only bid the script but also collect as much reference material and stuff for the first client get together . " He said the director and producers wanted an " old @-@ school , hands @-@ off , lo @-@ fi approach to the visual effects " so that the horror elements would not overpower the storyline . Based on the script , MPC similarly came to the same conclusion and " provided a clear direction " for Nordby and his team . " At that point when we met with them , they had already met with KNB , who had already done up a stylized still of what , at the time , they were calling ' Evil Jennifer , ' " he said . " There was a lot of info yet to come , but based on the script , Jennifer goes from very beautiful Megan Fox to a very ghoulish , succubus creature whose jaw distends half @-@ way down her face . " Nordby said the look was eventually toned down at the wishes of MPC . From there , KNB " produced some tests , grabbing a bunch of stills from [ Fox ] and [ did their ] work to indicate how that balance could exist between special effects and visual effects and still maintain a level of subtlety " and that " [ MPC ] responded really well " . The teams wanted to " maintain some sort of the Megan Fox allure " but said that it was " incredibly difficult because as soon as [ they ] warped her face in any direction , the shine kind of came off it " . To combat this , they ended up focusing on anything below her nose , where they had the freedom to make things " as horrific as [ they ] needed to " and then above her nose , " [ they ] could manipulate it somewhat with warps and color correction in her eye sockets . So even at her worst , she had some of that sexiness throughout " . Nordby said most of the attention was devoted to Jennifer 's face and that " very quickly in combination " with special effects and makeup , MPC thought up a five @-@ station system for what Jennifer goes through . Nordby stated : Stage one is beautiful Jennifer and then two and three were strictly makeup where her eyes become more recessed and she would start to look plain like the rest of us . And stage four was some custom dentures that KNB made for her , and then visual effects in stage four was mainly facial warping and recessing her eyes some more and having a pinning effect to her irises and a variety of other musculature deforms , just bringing her cheek bones down more . And stage five was the full on , as crazy as it gets , which you don 't really see until near the end . During testing , Nordby and the special effects teams realized that getting Fox in and out of the appliance used to create Jennifer 's murderous jaw would be too time @-@ consuming . To remedy this , they hired a photo double . " [ E ] very day ( for about 10 days ) she would sit in a chair with this full appliance on her and we would shoot this jaw , and then all [ Fox ] would have to do is the dentures " , stated Nordby . He said that " when it came time to shoot any of these jaw moments , [ Fox ] would act out in rehearsal how she was going to attack her victim and [ they would ] fine tune that blocking so it was relatively locked " . The camera accompanied them in the same way , as " it would roll and she would put her dentures in , and they would really distort her face " in a way that would produce a satisfying and nice side effect . Additionally , the team would have Fox wear contact lenses and go through exactly the same motions as normal Jennifer . " But then I would shoot all the key poses that existed in whatever moves the digital double was doing , so that we had as much of that appliance in that lighting condition that we could get " , said Nordby . " KNB also created a hairless but high detailed head of the stage five Jennifer that had an articulating jaw . " Nordby spent a significant amount of time shooting " the articulating jaw " scene because they had " ultimate control over how the light was hitting the head " . He said , " This so @-@ called jaw shot became a pivotal point , because for four months of the post , the filmmakers thought the film was getting too scary so MPC pulled back on the jaw and then they thought it wasn 't scary enough . " Because of this , " they pushed back and this jaw went back and forth quite a bit to help navigate where they wanted the tone on any given day " . These different poses helped the two teams perfect the jaw scenes . " From a marketing point of view , from all the test screenings they did " , said Norby , " there was a lot of work figuring out how to make this a scary film as well as a funny film . " Since the team was on a small budget , they " relied more on skilled artists to think through shots rather than a brute force approach " . MPC additionally worked on the disappearing waterfall that serves as Jennifer 's grave when she is killed at the beginning of the film . They transformed the mysterious waterfall into a whirlpool . " We came up with an approach that we thought would work because we had a lot of confidence in our water sims " , stated Nordby . " The waterfall appears both as a day and night shot , so we had to integrate with the water . And the night shots play a pivotal role in the film , and we do a huge crane over . " They could not lock it to a pan or to a tilt and filming the shots was difficult due to the actual base of the waterfall being out of reach . Nordby said , " I eventually lowered down a shot — a ton of reference of the area because I knew we 'd have to do some digi @-@ matte work to recreate the basin that the whirlpool ends up in . " They soon realized that there was an insufficient amount of churning and foam to read as real as the location . The CG Supervisor , Pete Dionne , presented a different idea . " He grabbed chunks of that river and tialing it so that it had a nice stretch of birds ' eye point of view of the water that existed on the location in the lighting situation we were trying to match " , stated Nordby . " And then he projected that onto a whirlpool of animated sprites and had similar enough texture to the actual water that existed there , but pulled control into lighting it and could add depth mainly to the center of it . " Dealing with " very shallow " water , the team had to take extra care when filming the scenes . During the film 's fire scene , Cody appears as a character in the barroom . " To me , I am afraid of fire and fire technics and all that stuff which is why I don 't know why I asked to be in the bar scene because I 've never exploded before " , she said . She had asked to be set on fire . " That was me trying to conquer a fear . By the way , they would not allow me to do a full burn for insurance purposes , even though I argued that Burt Reynolds had done it once " , stated Cody . " But apparently he got really hurt , so they would not let me . To me , there 's nothing more horrifying than being stuck in a claustrophobic space as it is burning down so , to me , it was more like tapping into a personal fear . That 's not tough . " = = = Filming = = = In late 2007 , Fox Atomic had plans to film Jennifer 's Body before a possible writer 's strike . When the Writers Guild of America strike began , shooting was then moved to March 7 , 2008 , in Burnaby , British Columbia , specifically at Robert Burnaby Park near Cariboo Hill Secondary School . Some of the scenes , particularly those situated in a school setting , were filmed in local Vancouver @-@ area schools such as Vancouver Technical Secondary School , Langley Secondary School and University Hill Secondary School . Fox said that while filming her highly anticipated kissing scene with Seyfried that Seyfried was " extremely uncomfortable " but that she herself was not . " I feel much safer with girls , so I felt more comfortable kissing [ Seyfried ] than kissing any of the other people that I had to kiss " , she said . Seyfried 's uneasiness in the scene caused " giggling fits " between takes . Seyfried said that neither of them wanted to do the kiss because they felt it was just for promotional purposes . She agreed with Fox that she was uneasy about acting out the scene . " It was my first time doing a real kissing scene with a woman " , she stated . " It is just weird . It is a woman . With a woman 's smell — soft and floraly — and maybe the pheromones are different . Something about it felt uncomfortable for me . " = = = Music = = = Music was incorporated as an essential part of the film ; there are " very specific bands " placed in band posters in some parts , such as in the selection of the band poster on the walls of the bar . Kusama said " [ t ] he music was a huge component of the movie " and this is first evident with " the songs that we see and hear performed , but then , just the vibe of the movie actually " . She said , " As the movie progresses , it becomes a pretty clearly music @-@ oriented movie . It 's sort of a youth movie . Some of those bands were totally made up and some of them are not . " = = Release = = = = = Critical response = = = The film received mixed reviews from critics . Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes reports 42 % of critics gave the film positive write @-@ ups based on 172 reviews , with a rating average of 5 @.@ 1 / 10 . The site 's consensus of opinion is that " Jennifer 's Body features occasionally clever dialogue but the horror / comic premise fails to be either funny or scary enough to satisfy " . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the film holds a mixed / average score of 47 based on 29 reviews . Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film a C- grade on a scale of A to F. Film critic Roger Ebert enjoyed the film , dubbing it a " Twilight for boys " and saying " as a movie about a flesh @-@ eating cheerleader , it 's better than it has to be " . Ebert said that within Cody there is " the soul of an artist , and her screenplay brings to this material a certain edge , a kind of gleeful relish , that 's uncompromising . This isn 't your assembly @-@ line teen horror thriller " . Additionally , he complimented Fox as " [ coming ] through " in her portrayal and " play [ ing ] the role straight " . He gave the film three out of four stars . Rick Groen of The Globe and Mail gave the film three out of four stars . Peter Travers of Rolling Stone stated it is " Hot ! Hot ! Hot ! " and that " Director Karyn Kusama is torn between duty to female empowerment and slasher convention " . He credited Fox 's portrayal as showing " a comic flair " that Transformers " never investigated " . Tom Charity of CNN said " [ the ] last time a horror flick tried for a distinctly female point of view the result was Twilight , which was more of a wan gothic romance than a chiller " and " Fox makes a convincing vixen , callously picking up victims whenever her luster begins to fade . It 's not hard to imagine she can have anyone who takes her fancy " . Charity credited the dialogue as " bitingly smart , funny teen @-@ speak ... along with sharp pop culture references " . Mary Pols of Time magazine called the film entertaining and reasoned " [ t ] here is a lot of intelligent camp here , and some sharply observed characterizations " and Cody and Kusama 's " depiction of the ways in which women like Needy are willing to compromise themselves to indulge an ultimately less secure friend is spot @-@ on " . Dana Stevens of Slate praised the film for being " luscious and powerful , sexy and scary , maddening at times , but impossible to stop watching " and a " wicked black comedy with unexpected emotional resonance , one of the most purely pleasurable movies of the year so far " . Elle 's Karen Durbin said the film not only puts " a fresh spin on female @-@ centric pop genres but also own [ s ] them outright " and is " rich with first @-@ rate performances " . The Miami Herald 's Rene Rodriguez likened the film 's " [ effective exploitation ] of the genre as a metaphor for adolescent angst , female sexuality and the strange , sometimes corrosive bonds between girls who claim to be best friends " to Brian De Palma 's 1976 film Carrie . She applauded the film for being fearless when delving into the subject of teen sex and for reversing the tradition / idea that only " bad girls have sex when they 're 16 [ and the ] good ones — those who , like Needy , do their homework and are responsible — never slide past first base " . Nick Pinkerton of Sci Fi Weekly called Fox and Seyfried 's lesbian kissing scene " the best close @-@ up girl @-@ girl liplock " since Cruel Intentions , and A. O. Scott of The New York Times concluded " the movie deserves — and is likely to win — a devoted cult following , despite its flaws " and " [ these flaws ] are mitigated by a sensibility that mixes playful pop @-@ culture ingenuity with a healthy shot of feminist anger " . Giving a partially negative review of the film was Joshua Rothkopf of Time Out New York , who said the " movie has a centerfold sheen to it — and some lesbianic soft @-@ core flirtation to match — as its plot dives deeply into Twilight @-@ esque heavy @-@ melo meltdown in the last act " and that " Cody throws one too many losses at Needy ; the screenwriter loses her satiric way about halfway through . But for a while , this has real fangs " . Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post said , " There 's a certain kooky , kinky fun to be had with Jennifer 's Body " but that " [ a ] dmittedly , this is the stuff of lurid adolescent distraction , not great cinema " and " is strictly a niche item but provides a goofy , campy bookend to Drag Me to Hell on the B @-@ movie shelf . Watch it , forget it , move on " . San Francisco Chronicle 's Peter Hartlaub stated , " Enjoy the film for its witty dialogue and fun performances , but know that there isn 't a single good scare . An episode of Murder , She Wrote has more thrills . " Hartlaub felt the film is not bad , is " almost always pleasing " and that Fox " proves that she has some [ acting ] range " but " the chances that it will be somebody else 's pop culture reference 27 years from now are slim to none " . Joe Neumaier of New York Daily News said , " Fox merely needs to look either vacant or evil , which the Transformers boy @-@ toy does spookily well " but " [ w ] ords and story are still the lifeblood of a movie , and Jennifer 's Body is filled like a Twinkie with half @-@ fleshed @-@ out ideas " . Disagreeing with Fox 's performance , Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips called Fox " a pretty bad actress " who " doesn 't seem to get Cody 's sense of humor . At all " . He reasoned the " movie 's partially redeemed by Seyfried , who makes her character more than a repository for audience sympathy " and " her make @-@ out scene with Fox is handled with more suspense and care than anything else in the movie " . Michael Sragow of Baltimore Sun described the only " perfect aspect " of Jennifer 's Body as being its title . " No one is going to like this movie for its brain " , he said . Claudia Puig of USA Today stated of the film , " Jennifer 's Body is not as hot as you hope it would be " . Where others praised the film 's dialogue , MSNBC 's Alonso Duralde called the writing lazy and " [ w ] orse still , all of Cody 's trademark pop @-@ culture – infused dialogue stands out as artificial and precious " . Jennifer 's Body , he said , wants " so badly " to be a Heathers @-@ esque dark comedy , " but its shortcomings makes you appreciate why that earlier film was so great " . Ty Burr of The Boston Globe also said the film wants to be like Heathers , and reminded him " a lot " of Heathers but the only scene in the film that " actually feels dangerous " is when the possessed Jennifer initiates a long and passionate kiss with Needy , which the film " very , very nervously backs away from " and that " Jennifer 's Body falls into the dispiriting category of dumb movies made by smart people , in this case a glibly clever writer and a talented director who think a few wisecracks are enough to subvert the teen horror genre " . = = = Box office = = = Though the film was expected to pull in a significant number of the late teenage / young adult audience , particularly males aged 17 and older , while Cody hoped for a large female turnout , it earned a " disappointing " $ 2 @.@ 8 million on its opening Friday and $ 6 @.@ 8 million its opening weekend at the North American box office ; the film placed # 5 , while 3D animated film Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs placed # 1 with $ 30 @.@ 1 million . Produced for $ 16 million , Jennifer 's Body did manage to attract the sizable female audience Cody wanted ; 51 % were female , with 70 % of patrons under age 25 . The film had been expected to benefit somewhat from its heavily marketed lesbian kissing scene between Fox and Seyfried , which , in addition to Fox being in the film , was thought to entice and successfully attract male viewers . Critic Jim Vejvoda at IGN stated that such a scene is not as shocking as it was in past decades and cannot be expected to significantly pull in an audience . The film grossed $ 16 @,@ 204 @,@ 793 domestically and $ 15 @,@ 351 @,@ 268 in international sales , for a worldwide total of $ 31 @,@ 556 @,@ 061 . Box @-@ office analysts and critics debated the film 's underperformance . Analyst Jeff Bock , of Exhibitor Relations , reasoned the film underperformed at the box office due to two reasons ; the first , he said , is the genre . Bock stated that Americans get horror and comedy , but with the idea " of those two things together in one place , people suddenly get very dumb " . " The horror @-@ comedy genre is the toughest sell in Hollywood " , he said . He noted films Tremors , Slither , Shaun of the Dead , Eight Legged Freaks and The Evil Dead series , and said that while many of those are considered critical and business successes , " none of them have brought in the megabucks that a simple horror or comedy can . " In addition , he labeled the Scream franchise as more " straight @-@ up horror " than comedy and stated Zombieland 's box office performance would determine the horror @-@ comedy genre 's current viability . Despite other R @-@ rated horror films having centered around teenagers , some such as Scream having been successful , Bock said the second reason Jennifer 's Body under @-@ performed at the box office is the R @-@ rating , which he described as a " killer " for the film . He said the film is set in high school and " sounds like the perfect package for teens " but that " the R rating banned many teens from the theaters " and the studio was left with " an R @-@ rated film marketed to whom , exactly ? " Nicole Sperling of Entertainment Weekly felt that it was a slow and disappointing weekend for the box office in general ; 3D animated film Cloudy with a Chance of Meatballs was steep competition , and with low box office performances by the Matt Damon film The Informant ! and Jennifer Aniston film Love Happens , she concluded that this may support " the current hypothesis floating around Hollywood , that movie stars no longer matter " and that it takes more than a name to open a film . S.T. VanAirsdale of Movieline echoed Sperling 's sentiment about the weekend , as " some of the stinkiest high @-@ profile openings in recent memory " . He concluded five reasons for Jennifer 's Body 's underperformance at the box office . The first , he said , is the distributor . " 20th Century Fox 's genre wing , Fox Atomic , had Jennifer 's Body in the can by the time the mother ship shut it down last spring " , he said . " Instead of offloading the film to Fox Searchlight , which nimbly maneuvered Diablo Cody 's previous brainchild Juno to awards @-@ season lucre in 2007 , a decision was somehow reached to fill a gap in Big Fox 's early fall slate with a gory " and " post @-@ feminist horror romp starring Megan Fox and Amanda Seyfried " . VanAirsdale classified this as a " [ b ] ig mistake " and that " [ y ] ou 'd have to go back to The Devil Wears Prada to find an example of a Fox release that worked without a genuine male lead ; you ’ d probably have to go back to Aliens to find a genre example of such that they pulled off successfully . " He named the second reason as the marketing , stating that the film was not well @-@ marketed ( whether by billboards , transit posters , lobby standees , or other promotional venues ) , even in New York . VanAirsdale cited the release date and screening as the third and fourth reasons ; he said there was confusion about what day the film was going to debut in theaters , and that Toronto is " a nation removed from the audience where the film 's actual momentum had been accruing for at least a month " and that " this rarely works for early fall releases ; not because news doesn ’ t travel , obviously , but because it peels away a layer of accessibility that accompanies New York and L.A. bows . " The final reason , he attributed to the critics , believing that the fusion of horror and teen comedy confused some of them . He mentioned Ty Burr 's review in particular , and stated that the film could perhaps have used more horror and been funnier , but that the film is " ultimately a movie about two teenage girls ' misadventures in victimization " and that " [ t ] he jokes are virtually incidental to the friction imposed on women who happen to be two sides of the same coin . Who 's the monster , and who made the monster ? Sorry if you wanted Heathers with demons , fellas . Equipment 's cheap these days ; perhaps make your own ? " Hollywood.com box @-@ office analyst and President Paul Dergarabedian said " the poor numbers don 't mean Fox can 't open a movie . " " It may be a matter of just choosing the right projects for her " , he told the Associated Press . " She 's trying to find a world beyond Transformers , and she will . She 's young and has a lot of promise . " = = = Home media = = = The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 29 , 2009 in the United States and Canada . In Australia , the DVD and Blu @-@ ray was released on May 18 , 2010 . The film opened at # 11 at the DVD sales chart , making $ 1 @.@ 6 million in the first week off 104 @,@ 000 DVD units . There is a rated and an unrated version , with the unrated version running about five minutes longer than the theatrical version . The UK Blu @-@ ray lacks most of the extras found on the locked US release . = = Soundtrack = = The film 's soundtrack was released by Fueled by Ramen on August 25 , 2009 , and featured previously released music by various indie rock and alternative rock bands such as White Lies , Florence + The Machine , Silversun Pickups and Black Kids . It also features pop punk band All Time Low and electropop singer Little Boots . In addition , the album features new songs from pop rock artists such as Cobra Starship and Panic ! at the Disco and Paramore 's lead singer Hayley Williams . The first single from the soundtrack is " New Perspective " by Panic ! at the Disco . The album received a 3 out of 5 review from Allmusic , who described the album as having " a slightly different spin , mixing indie with the more expected punk , emo , and metal " . Mike Diver at the BBC wrote an unfavorable review of the album , stating that " This assortment of acts says nothing of its parent film , beyond the occasional reference to school days and nods to something nasty coming this way " . The ending sequence of the film itself features a song , " Violet " , from the album Live Through This by Hole . This same album also features a song entitled " Jennifer 's Body . " In total , the film features 22 songs , most of which are included on the soundtrack . = = Graphic novel = = As a tie @-@ in to the film , Boom ! Studios produced a Jennifer 's Body graphic novel . The novel expands on the film 's universe and Jennifer 's murders of the boys . It was written by Black Metal 's Rick Spears , with the first nine pages illustrated by Jim Mahfood ( Clerks ) . Two covers , in Fox 's likeness , were designed ; one for the direct market by Eric Jones ( available only in comic specialty stores ) , and the other by Frank Cho for the mass market focusing more on " hellish Jennifer stories " with art by Mahfood , Hack / Slash 's Tim Seely , DMZ 's Nikki Cook , and Popgun 's Ming Doyle . The novel was released in August 2009 . The novel features less of Jennifer than the film , but does capture her " going in for the kill " several times . It focuses heavily on following her soon @-@ to @-@ be victims and provides information on their personalities not elaborated on in the film so that readers can better conclude whether the boys deserved to be murdered . The novel consists of four chapters , with a prologue and an epilogue , with art provided for each by different artists . Each one follows a different boy and what is happening in his life just before Jennifer kills him . On creating the story , Spears stated , " The best part for me as a writer was to show some events from the movie from a different point of view , sort of like Rashomon for you Kurosawa fans . And with comics we can get into the character 's heads in a way that works well in comics and novels more so than in film . " He stated , " ... I was using the medium to change what we really know about these characters and twist around what we see in the movies . All the academics aside , it 's also very funny and gore splattered . " Spears stated that while writing the stories , the film was still being made and he had not seen any of it at the time . He mainly learned about the characters through the script . " I got to read the screenplay . It was kinda crazy writing characters that were being changed on set and in the editing process . I had to bob and weave to keep up but that was all part of the fun " , he said . = Halo : Reach = Halo : Reach is a first @-@ person shooter video game developed by Bungie and published by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360 home video game console . The sixth installment in the Halo series , Reach was released worldwide in September 2010 . The game takes place in the year 2552 , where humanity is locked in a war with the alien Covenant . Players control Noble Six , a member of an elite supersoldier squad , when the human world known as Reach falls under Covenant attack . After releasing Halo 3 in 2007 , Bungie split into teams to develop two different games — what would become Halo 3 : ODST and Reach . The developers decided to create a prequel to the original Halo game trilogy , freeing themselves from the obligation of addressing old story threads . As the game would take place on a human world doomed to be destroyed , they focused on making the environment a character unto itself . Longtime Halo composers Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori returned to compose Reach 's music , aiming for a more somber sound to match the story . Reach was announced at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2009 in Los Angeles , California , and the first in @-@ engine trailer was shown at the 2009 Spike Video Game Awards . Players who purchased ODST were eligible to participate in a Reach multiplayer beta in May 2010 ; the beta allowed Bungie to gain player feedback for fixing bugs and making gameplay tweaks before shipping the final version . Microsoft gave Reach its biggest game marketing budget yet and created award @-@ winning live @-@ action commercials , action figures , and interactive media to promote the game . The game grossed US $ 200 million on its launch day , setting a new record for the franchise . Reach sold well in most territories , moving more than three million units its first month in North America . Critical reception was positive ; reviewers from publications such as GamePro , IGN , and Official Xbox Magazine called it the best Halo title yet . Critics generally praised the game 's graphics and sound , but the plot and characters were less positively received . Reach was Bungie 's final Halo game ; subsequent games have been overseen by Microsoft subsidiary 343 Industries . = = Gameplay = = Halo : Reach is a first @-@ person shooter in which players predominantly experience gameplay from a first @-@ person perspective ; the game perspective switches to third @-@ person when using certain weapons and vehicles . Gameplay is more similar to Halo : Combat Evolved than later games in the series . The player 's head @-@ up display displays and tracks a player 's current weapons , abilities , and health ; it also contains a compass and a " motion tracker " that registers moving allies , enemies , and vehicles in a certain radius of the player . The HUD changes when the player pilots aircraft and spacecraft . In the game 's campaign , which can be played alone or cooperatively , players assume the role of Noble Six , a supersoldier engaged in combat with an alien collective known as the Covenant . The Covenant come in eight distinct varieties with different ranks and classes for each type ; for example , Elites are the leaders of a group , while Grunts are less intelligent and only dangerous in large groups . The player is equipped with a recharging energy shield that absorbs damage from weapons , fire and impacts . When the energy shield is depleted , the player loses health . When the player 's health reaches zero , the character dies and the game reloads from a saved checkpoint . Health is replenished using health packs scattered throughout Reach 's levels . The campaign 's encounters with enemies are typically large , open spaces with weapons caches , cover from enemy fire and strategic vantage points . New to the Halo series are dogfight sequences set in space . Reach features updated versions of old weapons , plus new weapons fulfilling various combat roles . In Halo 3 , players can carry single @-@ use equipment power @-@ ups that offer temporary offensive or defensive advantages . This system of single @-@ use equipment is replaced in Reach by reusable and persistent armor abilities that remain with a character until they are replaced . The abilities are a jetpack ; active camouflage ; sprint ; hologram , which creates a facsimile of the player running towards a target point ; drop shield , which creates a bubble that heals those inside and protects them from a limited amount of damage ; and armor lock , which immobilizes the player but grants invincibility for a brief period of time . When playing as Covenant Elites , players also have access to an evade armor ability . = = = Multiplayer = = = Reach supports player @-@ versus @-@ player multiplayer through splitscreen on a single Xbox 360 , local networks ( System Link ) , and the Xbox Live service . The game includes standard multiplayer modes such as " slayer " and capture the flag , as well as gametypes new to the franchise . In " headhunter " , players drop skulls upon death , which other players can pick up and deposit at special zones for points . When players die , all their accumulated skulls are dropped . " Stockpile " has teams race to collect neutral flags , holding them at capture points every minute for points . " Generator defense " pits three human supersoldiers , or Spartans , against three Covenant soldiers called Elites . The Elites ' objective is to destroy three generators , while the Spartans defend the installation . After every round the players switch roles . " Invasion " is a six versus six mode with three squads of two on each team . The gametype matches Spartans against Elites ; Elites vie for control of territories to disable a shield guarding a navigation core . Once the shield is disabled , they must transfer the core to a dropship ; the Spartans must prevent this . As the game progresses , new vehicles and areas of the map become open . Alongside other multiplayer options is " firefight " , where players take on increasingly difficult waves of foes in a game of survival . Players can customize the firefight options , including the number and types of enemies . Firefight versus allows a player @-@ controlled Elite team to try to stop a Spartan team from scoring points . Game modes like generator defense are also playable in firefight . Also included with Reach is " Forge " , a level editor . Players can edit the default multiplayer maps and a large empty map known as " Forge World " , adding or modifying spawn points , weapons and items . Objects may be phased into other objects , and can also be snapped to specific orientations . Other included features are the " theater " , where players can watch saved films of their games and take screenshots and video clips for posterity , and the file share , where players can upload their screenshots , films , custom maps , and gametypes for public viewing . = = Plot = = = = = Setting and characters = = = Reach takes place in a futuristic science fiction setting ; the year is 2552 , shortly before the events of the video game Halo : Combat Evolved , and during the events of the novel Halo : The Fall of Reach . Humans , under the auspices of the United Nations Space Command ( UNSC ) , have been waging a long war against a collective of alien races known as the Covenant . By the events of Reach , almost all of humanity 's interstellar colonies have fallen . Reach itself is an Earthlike colony that serves as the UNSC 's main military hub . The colony is home to over 700 million civilians in addition to the military presence . The game follows the actions of " Noble Team " , a UNSC special operations unit composed of elite supersoldiers known as Spartans . Players assume the role of a new addition to the team identified by the call sign Noble Six . Noble Team 's leader is Carter @-@ A259 , a no @-@ nonsense soldier . His second @-@ in @-@ command , Kat @-@ B320 , has a bionic arm ; together , Carter and Kat are the only remaining original members of Noble Team . The other current members include heavy weapons specialist Jorge @-@ 052 , assault specialist Emile @-@ A239 , and marksman Jun @-@ A266 . = = = Story = = = The game opens with the planet Reach in ruins , then flashes back to before the devastating invasion by the Covenant . Noble Team , dispatched to investigate why a communications relay has gone offline , discovers Covenant forces on Reach . Soon after , the team defends " Sword Base " , an Office of Naval Intelligence ( ONI ) installation , from a Covenant vessel . The team meets Catherine Halsey , a scientist and the mastermind behind the Spartan program and their MJOLNIR powered armor . Halsey informs Noble Team that the Covenant forces at the relay were searching for important information . Jun and Six are dispatched on a covert mission to assess the Covenant 's strength and discover an invasion force gathering on the planet . The following morning , Noble Team assists UNSC forces in assaulting a Covenant ground base . When a massive Covenant super @-@ carrier joins the fight , Jorge and Six take part in a plan to destroy the super @-@ carrier using a makeshift bomb . The Spartans use starfighters to infiltrate a smaller Covenant corvette , prepare the bomb and set the corvette on a docking course with the carrier , but the bomb 's timer is damaged . Left with no choice , Jorge stays behind and sacrifices himself to destroy the super @-@ carrier . Moments later , huge numbers of Covenant ships arrive at Reach and begin a full @-@ scale invasion . Six returns to the surface and travels to the city of New Alexandria . The Spartan aids the local military in fighting the Covenant and evacuating the city , reuniting with Noble Team along the way . They retreat to an underground bunker when the Covenant begin to bombard the city with plasma , but Kat is killed by a Covenant sniper before they reach it . Recalled to Sword Base , Noble Team is guided underground to an ancient artifact that Halsey believes is key to winning the war against the Covenant . Six , Carter and Emile are entrusted with transporting the artificial intelligence Cortana , and the information she carries concerning the artifact , to the UNSC ship Pillar of Autumn . Jun leaves the team to escort Halsey to another base . En route to the Autumn 's dry dock , Carter is critically wounded . He rams his ship into a Covenant mobile assault platform , allowing Six and Emile to safely reach the shipyard . Emile uses a mass driver emplacement to defend the Autumn while Six fights through Covenant ground forces to get Cortana to the Autumn 's captain , Jacob Keyes . When Emile is slain by Elites , Six remains behind to control the gun , ensuring the Autumn 's escape . The Autumn flees from Reach and discovers a Halo ringworld , leading directly to the events of Halo : Combat Evolved . The post @-@ credits scene puts the player in control of Six 's last stand against overwhelming Covenant forces . After sustaining heavy damage , Six drops his or her shattered helmet and is overwhelmed and killed . Decades later , Six 's helmet remains on the grassy plains of a now @-@ restored Reach . A narration by Halsey eulogizes Noble Team , who ultimately enabled humanity 's victory over the Covenant . = = Development = = Halo : Reach was announced on June 1 , 2009 , accompanied by a trailer at the Microsoft Electronic Entertainment Expo ( E3 ) press conference . A press release announced that an invitation to the open multiplayer beta of the game would appear in 2010 . Reach is Bungie 's last game development for the Halo series . Responsibility for developing future Halo games fell to Microsoft subsidiary 343 Industries . A trailer released March 3 , 2010 , showcased the game 's multiplayer . Bungie revealed parts of the game 's campaign and Firefight at E3 2010 . The game reached the " zero bug release " milestone on June 23 , signifying a shift from content creation to troubleshooting ; buggy artificial intelligence or other elements would be removed rather than fixed at this point because of time constraints . Bungie released the complete list of achievements for the game on July 30 , including their titles , symbols , and requirements , and completed Reach between the end of July and beginning of August 2010 . = = = Design = = = After Halo 3 , development studio Bungie created an internal team to work on Peter Jackson 's planned Halo game , Halo Chronicles . Chronicles was eventually canceled and the team began working on a standalone expansion project — Halo 3 : ODST — while another team , led by creative director Marcus Lehto and design lead Christian Allen , worked on Reach . The team considered many different concepts and approaches to the game ; among the rejected ideas was a sequel to Halo 3 . The team eventually settled on a prequel to the first Halo game in brainstorming sessions . It would take place on the planet Reach , during a pivotal time in the war . " Reach , as a fictional planet , was just a great candidate [ to ] play around with . It 's such a rich world , with such a great fiction surrounding it , " said Lehto . " We were like : ' Okay , that 's it . We 've just got a lot of things we can do there so we can build an immense story with it . ' " No longer burdened with continuing the story threads of the Halo trilogy , Bungie used Reach to introduce new characters and settings . As Reach ends with the destruction of the titular planet , Bungie wanted to be sure players still felt a sense of accomplishment and success . " It is a challenge overall to ensure the player feels they 're doing the right thing all the way to the end , " said Lehto . Lehto recalled that making a character @-@ driven story was a great challenge — players would come to know more about them as they progressed through the campaign , but the Spartan characters also had to behave intelligently . " The Halo games consistently featured protagonists that were silent during gameplay sequences . Community manager Brian Jarrard pushed for allowing players to choose a female Noble Six and have the cinematics and dialogue change accordingly . The post @-@ credit game sequence was the subject of intense discussion ; some at Bungie wanted to remove it . Executive producer Joe Tung noted , " the ' survive ' component ... felt great to us . We definitely talked about different versions of how that was happening and different versions of ending [ the game ] cinematically , but I think the way that it ultimately ended up is just a really well @-@ paced , significant and emotionally impactful ending . " The developers originally intended to port existing Halo 3 assets to Reach and update them . For Halo 3 , Bungie had been forced to shrink parts of the game to fit the game engine 's constraints , but wanted to make Reach look better than its predecessors . " The more we started looking into this , the more we found that realistically we could rebuild each asset from scratch with a huge increase in quality without significantly investing more time , " said Bungie 3D artist Scott Shepherd . Texture resolution and polygon counts for models increased ; the Reach assault rifle is constructed of more polygons than an entire Marine character from Halo 3 . The prequel concept also gave the art team an opportunity to redesign key enemies , weapons , and elements of the series . Artists found inspiration in the original concept art for Halo : Combat Evolved ; the shape for the redesigned Covenant Grunts came from a sketch that concept artist Shi Kai Wang created ten years earlier . The developers redesigned the game engine , the software that handles rendering and much of gameplay . Bungie hired an expert in motion capture to develop more realistic character animations . Building a motion capture studio in @-@ house saved Bungie time as motion capture data could be applied to the game models the same day it was shot . The developers sought to increase replay value by focusing on improving artificial intelligence . Rather than scripting enemy encounters , they focused on a more open world or sandbox approach to battles . = = = Audio = = = Composing team Martin O 'Donnell and Michael Salvatori scored Reach . O 'Donnell wrote " somber , more visceral " music since the plot is character @-@ driven and focuses on a planet that is already known — in the Halo fictional universe — to have fallen . The first music he wrote for Reach was played for the game 's world premiere , and he used it as a starting piece to develop further themes . O 'Donnell began work on Reach while ODST , for which he also wrote the music , was still in production , but did not begin composing until August 2009 . Past Halo collaborators Salvatori , C. Paul Johnson , and Stan LePard assisted O 'Donnell . With Reach , he did not give them strictly divided responsibilities . " I decided this time to come up with some themes , tempos , keys , and other basic starting points for musical ideas , " explained O 'Donnell . " I shared these with all the other composers and just asked them to take off if they felt inspired by any of that material . " The works @-@ in @-@ progress they came up with were either retouched by O 'Donnell or sent back to be finished by their composer . In previous Halo games , sections of music overlap and change depending on player action . Reach 's system of interactive audio was much more complex , featuring the ability to combine up to seven layers of instrumentation compared to Combat Evolved 's two . Developers also expanded the sound effect system . Every interacting object in Reach produces two sounds for respective objects ; for example , a Warthog vehicle that hits an armored Covenant soldier produces a crunching metal noise based on the two colliding elements . The interaction between objects and terrain was demonstrated in an in @-@ game environment that O 'Donnell called " the stripey room " after the bands of alternating colors on the objects and environment . = = = Multiplayer beta = = = Reach 's multiplayer beta was open to owners of Halo 3 : ODST . More than three million copies of ODST were sold by November 2009 . Bungie estimated between two and three million players for the upcoming Reach beta , compared to the 800 @,@ 000 that participated in Halo 3 's trial . Development schedules forced Bungie to release a six @-@ week @-@ old beta , fraught with bugs and issues already addressed in newer builds . Though concerned that these issues might tarnish the game 's image , Jarrard noted that they had little choice but to ship it as it was and communicate with players concerning the fixes . More than 2 @.@ 7 million players participated in the beta , which lasted from May 3 to 20 . The game was rolled out from an internal group of Bungie and Microsoft employees , with the total number of players in the thousands . When the beta went public , more than a million played the first day , causing back @-@ end servers to struggle to handle the traffic . While the engineering team had overestimated server load , bugs in server clusters caused game uploads to become backed up , slowing matchmaking until the underlying issues could be fixed . Jarrard noted that the 16 million total hours of play time and large @-@ scale rollout of the beta was vital to seeing how Reach would perform . Bungie used the beta to fix mistakes , glitches , and balance issues within gameplay elements . " We needed our fans to provide feedback , " said Lehto , adding that having a large audience to " hammer " on the game allowed them to gather useful feedback to mold the finished product . The game automatically collected statistics such as upload and matchmaking speeds , as well as game preferences ; sorting out what Jarrard called " the more subjective anecdotal feedback " from emails , notes , and forums proved more difficult . The Reach beta generated over 360 @,@ 000 forum posts on Bungie 's community forums . Bungie created official threads for groups of issues to manage the high volume of feedback ; " We tried to give people a little bit more of a direct avenue to give that feedback and to make our lives easier . It was definitely a lot to assess and digest , " said Jarrard . Certain feedback from the players did not correlate with the statistical data obtained from the matches during the beta . Chris Carney , lead designer for the multiplayer mode , recalled vocal dissatisfaction with the pistol early in the beta ; by the end of the beta , the weapon was responsible for most of the kills coming from newly included weapons in the game . Bungie deployed special test matches to eliminate lurking variables , balance gameplay , and make other informed changes . = = Release = = Reach was released in three editions on September 14 , 2010 . The standard edition consisted of the game and its manual . The limited edition featured an artifact bag with story information , different packaging , and an exclusive set of in @-@ game Elite armor . The " legendary edition " contained all the materials from the limited edition , a different packaging , two hours of developer commentary on the game 's cutscenes , an in @-@ game Spartan armor effect , and a 10 @-@ pound ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) statue created by McFarlane Toys . North American players who purchased a first run copy of the game ( in @-@ store near launch day or pre @-@ ordered ) received an in @-@ game Spartan " recon " helmet customization ; players in other regions could earn it only by pre @-@ ordering . Reach also came bundled with a limited edition Xbox 360 Slim that sports Halo @-@ themed sounds and finish and two controllers . Bungie released a demo on May 24 , 2010 , featuring a single player level from the game 's story mode , a multiplayer competitive map , and a cooperative firefight mission . Microsoft later listed Reach as an Xbox Live Marketplace download on August 12 , 2010 , at a price of 99999 Microsoft Points ( ~ US $ 1250 ) . A spokesperson confirmed the download was for media review purposes , and that there were no plans to distribute the game to the public through Games on Demand . Four days later , hackers managed to access , download , and distribute the game online ; Microsoft stated they were actively investigating the matter . Halo 2 , Halo 3 , and ODST were similarly leaked ahead of their planned release . = = = Marketing = = = According to Jarrard , the team decided to have much more " grandiose " marketing for Reach than that of ODST . Microsoft gave Reach its largest game marketing budget at the time , surpassing the scale and $ 6 @.@ 5 million cost of Halo 3 's award @-@ winning marketing . Marketers focused their efforts on connecting with consumers via universal themes , rather than outdoing Halo 3 's push . Interpublic Group of Companies ' AgencyTwoFifteen handled strategy and video development for the marketing push , while AKQA developed interactive components . The agencies were involved with Halo 3 's marketing . The advertisers ' brief was simple : " Remember Reach . Focus on the heroes , not the victims . Expand our audience beyond Halo fanboys . " The advertising campaign commenced in April 2010 with the live @-@ action short " Birth of a Spartan " . A series of online videos highlighting a day in the life of average Reach citizens before the Covenant invade , began on August 23 , followed by TV spots on August 29 . The series concluded in late August with another short , " Deliver Hope " . As part of the promotions , Microsoft created an interactive light sculpture ; users logged onto a website where they could direct a KUKA industrial robot to plot pinpricks of light ; over 54 @,@ 000 points created a monument to Noble Team that faded unless more points were plotted . Reach 's marketing won several industry distinctions , among them thirteen medals from the MI6 Game Marketing Conference Awards . Several lines of tie @-@ in merchandise were launched . McFarlane , who had produced toys for Halo 3 , created a line of five @-@ inch action figures , while Square Enix 's Play Arts toy label created additional figures . Reach was released Tuesday , September 14 in 25 countries . Tens of thousands of stores signed up for midnight launch events ; sponsored events took place in London , Oslo , Stockholm , and New York . = = = Sales = = = Reach made $ 200 million in first @-@ day sales , a record for the franchise . Its strong sales suggested to analysts that core titles in the holiday season could reverse sluggish video game sales in 2010 . In its first sixteen days the game sold $ 350 million worth of merchandise . Reach premiered at the top of Xbox 360 and multi @-@ platform charts in most territories . Figures from the NPD Group estimated that Reach sold 3 @.@ 3 million units in North America , making it the third game for its console generation ( Xbox 360 , PS3 , Wii ) to sell more than three million units during the first month of its release ( alongside Halo 3 and Modern Warfare 2 ) . Halo : Reach became the third bestselling game of 2010 in North America , behind Call of Duty : Black Ops and Madden NFL 11 . It sold 4 @.@ 7 million units by September 2011 . In the United Kingdom , Reach 's opening week was the fifth @-@ best launch in the territory , beating Halo 3 's debut by 20 @,@ 000 units and ODST 's by 200 @,@ 000 units . In its second week on the UK charts Reach was the second bestselling title , displaced by the racing game F1 2010 . Reach continued to hold the top place in North America . In Japan , the game debuted at first place with 44 @,@ 413 units , but fared poorly in the long @-@ term ( as have other Halo games ) . This showing was above ODST 's sales of 29 @,@ 734 in the comparable timeframe , but below Halo 3 's 61 @,@ 143 . Reach dropped out of the top 20 best selling titles entirely its second week . = = = Downloadable content = = = Reach supports additional downloadable content ( DLC ) . Bungie released the game 's first DLC , dubbed the " Noble Map Pack " , on November 30 , 2010 ; this map	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
paving was completed in 1926 . The entire highway was designated as part of US 16 later that year . East of Grand Rapids , the highway was a major artery of national importance , and was added to the proposed " Interregional Highway System " as part of a northern route between Chicago and Detroit by the 1940s . A branch from Grand Rapids to Muskegon was added later that decade , and in 1957 the Chicago – Detroit route was labeled as part of Interstate 94 , with Interstate 94N on the spur to Muskegon . Michigan , believing that this would " cause considerable confusion to the public " , requested a change in April 1958 , which would move I @-@ 94 to the shorter Kalamazoo route ( which was planned as I @-@ 92 ) , make the Muskegon – Detroit route I @-@ 96 , and assign I @-@ 67 to the connection from I @-@ 94 to I @-@ 96 at Grand Rapids , but this was initially rejected by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) . By mid @-@ 1959 , Michigan 's plan had been approved , with one change : I @-@ 96 would take the south leg from I @-@ 94 at Benton Harbor to Grand Rapids , and the north leg to Muskegon would be I @-@ 196 . Construction of the Brighton – Farmington Expressway piece of the US 16 upgrade began in 1956 , and , when a four @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) piece opened on August 1 , 1957 , it was the first section of funded Interstate to open in Michigan . The entire 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) freeway from east of Brighton to a bypass of Farmington was completed in December of that year . By early 1959 , when signs for I @-@ 96 and I @-@ 196 were posted , 59 miles ( 95 km ) of the " Detroit – Muskegon Freeway " had been completed and marked as US 16 . With the opening of 51 miles ( 82 km ) from west of Lansing to east of Howell , the entire route , except in the Detroit area , opened for travel on December 12 , 1962 . US 16 was decommissioned in the state at that time ; the portions into Muskegon and Detroit , beyond the ends of the freeway , became separate related highways named Business Spur Interstate 196 ( BS I @-@ 196 ) for Muskegon and for Detroit . In 1963 , the Michigan State Highway Department petitioned AASHO to again make the change it had requested back in 1958 , moving I @-@ 96 over I @-@ 196 to end at Muskegon and renumbering I @-@ 96 west of Grand Rapids to I @-@ 67 . The state cited problems with destination signing and numerous complaints from the public about confusion caused by the numbering . At their October 21 , 1963 meeting , AASHO approved the relocation of I @-@ 96 , but rejected I @-@ 67 , stating that the number should be kept for a more major route in case the system is expanded , and instead assigned I @-@ 196 to the not @-@ yet @-@ complete Benton Harbor – Grand Rapids highway . With the scheduled completion of the Lodge Freeway on October 29 , 1964 , a full freeway route was available from I @-@ 96 into downtown Detroit via I @-@ 696 and the Lodge , but it would be some time before I @-@ 96 was finished into the city . = = = Construction of the Jeffries Freeway = = = The Detroit Expressway and Transit System plan , prepared in 1945 for the city of Detroit , included a Grand River Expressway , which was to parallel Grand River Avenue into downtown and relieve congestion on that artery . A rail line would be built in the median of the freeway west of West Chicago Street , where streetcars would exit onto the existing surface tracks on Grand River Avenue into downtown . The plan called for a future conversion to rapid transit with a grade @-@ separated route to downtown . The Department of Street Railways determined in 1947 that the operation would cost $ 6 million per year ( equivalent to $ 193 million / yr in 2015 ) , and the planned transit line was dropped from the plans . By 1961 , the proposed highway was renamed the Jeffries Freeway , after Edward Jeffries , who served as Detroit mayor from 1940 to 1948 . The first piece of the Jeffries Freeway connected the Fisher Freeway ( I @-@ 75 ) with the Ford Freeway ( I @-@ 94 ) in 1970 . It was extended northwest to Livernois Avenue ( exit 188A ) in July 1971 , and then to Grand River Avenue at Schaefer Highway ( exit 185 ) in 1973 . In 1976 , the freeway was extended west to the Southfield Freeway ( exit 183 ) , and the entire I @-@ 275 concurrent section was opened . The final piece was completed on November 21 , 1977 , connecting the Detroit section to I @-@ 275 . The I @-@ 96 designation was assigned along the I @-@ 275 freeway south to the Jeffries Freeway , and eastward along the new freeway to the M @-@ 39 interchange ; the remaining stub of I @-@ 96 around Farmington was redesignated as an extension of M @-@ 102 ( now M @-@ 5 ) . Originally , the route of Interstate 96 from the east end of the existing freeway in Farmington through Detroit , named the Jeffries Freeway ( commonly referred to as simply " the Jeffries " ) , was to closely parallel Grand River Avenue ( formerly US 16 ) . However , by 1963 , several freeway revolts were taking place in urban locations throughout the country , including Detroit . Several of Detroit 's planned freeways were modified , scaled back , or outright cancelled . To minimize the impact to existing communities and businesses , it was decided that the Jeffries Freeway would no longer utilize the Grand River Avenue corridor . Instead , the new I @-@ 96 freeway corridor would partially use right @-@ of @-@ way from the C & O Railroad through the city of Livonia ( ultimately being built over Schoolcraft Road ) , and utilize the planned I @-@ 275 freeway bypassing Detroit to the west to connect back to the existing freeway . = = = Subsequent history = = = Since the completion of I @-@ 96 in 1977 , several changes to the freeway have taken place . Beginning in 1984 , an extension of the US 27 freeway ( later to become I @-@ 69 ) bypassing Lansing opened ; US 27 was then cosigned with I @-@ 96 along the western side of Lansing . Three years later , the I @-@ 69 designation was applied to this new bypass , resulting in a triple concurrency ( I @-@ 96 / I @-@ 69 / US 27 ) that existed until 2002 , when US 27 was decommissioned in Michigan . From 2003 to 2005 , the Beck Road interchange ( exit 160 ) in Novi was reconstructed as a single point urban interchange ( SPUI ) , the first in the metropolitan Detroit area and the first on I @-@ 96 . An interchange between 36th Street and I @-@ 96 was built starting in 2005 and was completed in 2006 . The project aimed to improve access to the Gerald R. Ford International Airport southeast of Grand Rapids . The reconstruction of the Wixom Road interchange near Novi as a SPUI was completed in late fall of 2008 . Another interchange at Latson Road in Howell was approved for construction on July 19 , 2012 . This interchange was designed to bring improved access to the eastern Howell area , which prior to construction of the Latson Road exit was only accessible from westbound I @-@ 96 . The project was completed on December 2 , 2013 . Also in 2013 , the two interchanges near Nunica serving M @-@ 104 and B @-@ 31 were reconstructed , with two ramps removed from the former and two added to the latter ; a new partial interchange was also built in preparation of M @-@ 231 , a future bypass of Grand Haven that is slated for completion in 2016 . On April 5 , 2014 , MDOT closed I @-@ 96 between Newburgh Road and US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) . The project is to cost $ 148 million , and it will rebuild the seven miles ( 11 km ) , replace two bridges , and repair 32 other bridges . The department will also install new drainage and replace the signs along I @-@ 96 . The project was expected to be completed in October 2014 . Instead , it was finished ahead of schedule , and that segment of I @-@ 96 was opened on September 21 , 2014 . Also in 2015 , work began on bypassing the 1960s interchange with US 23 near Brighton . A new set of through lanes will be built on I @-@ 96 between the current eastbound and westbound lanes with three new bridges over northbound and southbound US 23 , and over Old US 23 . The existing lanes of I @-@ 96 will be changed to be collector @-@ distributor lanes for ramp traffic . = = = Gateway Project = = = Beginning on February 25 , 2008 , MDOT and the Detroit International Bridge Company initiated the Ambassador Gateway Project at the eastern end of I @-@ 96 . The adjacent section of I @-@ 75 closed completely to traffic in both directions to start the complete reconstruction of the road to better connect I @-@ 75 and I @-@ 96 to the Ambassador Bridge , and the plans included the reconstruction of a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of I @-@ 96 . That segment of I @-@ 96 closed on July 14 , 2008 , and it was scheduled to reopen a month early the following September . The overall project to realign ramps and connect the bridge to the freeways was mired in lawsuits between MDOT and the private company that owns the bridge . The company 's owner was jailed for contempt of court during court proceedings in early 2012 . MDOT was later ordered to assume responsibility for construction , and the department completed the project on September 21 , 2012 . = = = Incidents = = = On January 12 , 2005 , a large multiple @-@ vehicle collision consisting of over 200 motor vehicles occurred on both directions of I @-@ 96 near Williamston in Ingham County . Two people , Douglas James Baker ( age 15 ) and Jason Eldridge ( age 27 ) were killed in the incident . It was one of the largest collisions in US history and was blamed on heavy fog . In October 2012 , reports of a sniper shooting cars along I @-@ 96 in four counties led to a federal investigation and a multi @-@ jurisdictional task force of 100 law enforcement officials . As of October 30 , 2012 , 25 shootings had been linked to one suspect . The Federal Bureau of Investigation , the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , Firearms and Explosives , and Crime Stoppers offered a $ 102 @,@ 000 reward for information leading to the arrest of the perpetrator . The suspect , Raulie Casteel of Wixom , was arrested on November 5 , 2012 , and ordered to stand trial in 2013 in Oakland County for 60 charges in one case , with a second trial on terrorism and murder charges to be brought by the Michigan Attorney General . On October 30 , 2013 , the suspect pleaded no contest , but mentally ill , in the Oakland County case , and he was sentenced to serve anywhere from six years and eight months to 10 years in prison on multiple assault charges ( as well as two concurrent years on weapons charges ) for that case on February 4 , 2014 . The trial for the Livingston County case began on January 14 , 2014 , and after being convicted on the terrorism charge , Casteel was sentenced to 16 to 40 years in state prison . = = Exit list = = = = Related trunklines = = = = = Auxiliary Interstates = = = I @-@ 96 has four related , auxiliary Interstate highways that connect the main freeway to downtowns and other cities . I @-@ 196 is a relatively long freeway spur , beginning at I @-@ 96 east of downtown Grand Rapids and heading west through downtown to Holland , and then south to I @-@ 94 near Benton Harbor . The unsigned I @-@ 296 connects I @-@ 96 north of downtown Grand Rapids with I @-@ 196 in downtown , and is signed as US 131 . I @-@ 496 is a loop through downtown Lansing , which I @-@ 96 bypasses to the south , and I @-@ 696 is a northern bypass of Detroit , connecting I @-@ 96 in Novi with I @-@ 75 in Royal Oak and I @-@ 94 in St. Clair Shores . = = = Business routes = = = There have been six business routes of Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) in the US state of Michigan . There are two business loops designated Business Loop Interstate 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) : one through Lansing and one through Howell . Both follow the old route of US 16 , with appropriate connections to I @-@ 96 . There are three former business spurs that were designated Business Spur Interstate 96 ( BS I @-@ 96 ) . One connected to the carferry docks in Muskegon , running concurrently with part of Business US 31 ( Bus . US 31 ) along former US 16 , but it has been eliminated . The second spur ran into downtown Portland until it was decommissioned in 2007 . Two routes in the Detroit area — a loop through Farmington and a spur into Detroit — both using Grand River Avenue , and meeting at the temporary end of I @-@ 96 near Purdue Avenue , were eliminated when I @-@ 96 was moved to the completed Jeffries Freeway in 1977 . These Detroit @-@ area business routes are still state @-@ maintained as unsigned highways . = Imelda ( film ) = Imelda is a 2003 documentary film directed by Ramona S. Diaz about the life of Imelda Marcos , former First Lady of the Philippines . Beginning with her childhood , the film documents her marriage to future President of the Philippines Ferdinand Marcos , her rule under the dictatorship , her exile in Hawaii and her eventual return to the Philippines . Reviews were largely favorable and it won the Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary award at Sundance Film Festival in 2004 . Imelda outsold Spider @-@ Man 2 in the Philippines , but only took US $ 200 @,@ 992 at the US box office with an additional US $ 300 @,@ 000 worldwide . Reviews from critics are favorable with a 94 % fresh rating from Rotten Tomatoes and a 69 / 100 from Metacritic . = = Synopsis = = Diaz followed Imelda Marcos , the former First Lady of the Philippines , for a month and interviewed her daughter Imee and her son Ferdinand , Jr . The film incorporates third party interviews and archive material ; it recounts Imelda 's life , including her marriage to her husband , Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos . Discussing the Marcos presidency , Imelda says that there were no human rights abuses in her country ; she says that her husband abolished Congress and declared martial law in 1972 to protect democracy . She says that she took 3 @,@ 000 pairs of shoes with her when she went into exile , and justifies her extravagant clothing by saying that it " inspired the poor to dress better " . She also says that she had enormous museums and theaters constructed to enrich the lives of Filipinos . Imelda says in one vignette that she had met United States Army General Douglas MacArthur during his landing in Tacloban at the end of World War II , and that McArthur insisted that she should perform for the composer Irving Berlin , She sang " God Bless the Philippines " and when Berlin asked her why she sang the lyrics incorrectly she said , " what 's the difference between America and the Philippines ? " The assassination attempt on Imelda and the assassination of Benigno Aquino , Jr. are featured in the film . Footage from parties held by the Marcos couple , including one during which actor George Hamilton sang " I can 't give you anything but love , Imelda " , are also used in the film . = = Release and reception = = Imelda had its world premiere at the International Documentary Film Festival Amsterdam and its North American premiere in the documentary competition of the 2004 Sundance Film Festival , where it won the Excellence in Cinematography Award Documentary . The film was also screened at the Maryland Film Festival in Baltimore . Critical reviews were mostly favorable . The film has a 94 % fresh rating from Rotten Tomatoes and a 69 / 100 from Metacritic . The website Film Threat commended the film 's treatment of the subject 's flaws because it " allows her to describe them herself " ; TV Guide called Imelda " an entertaining storyteller " . The New York Times said the film is " a devastating portrait " and equates the theme of Imelda with that of delusion and power . The San Francisco Chronicle said it was " spellbinding " . Both the Chronicle and Variety consider the film balanced and even @-@ handed . Variety said that Imelda — who has been accustomed to public attention since her teenage years , was convinced that her charm and charisma would create a more favorable impression in the film than might otherwise be expected . It said that " her defenses of her husband and his regime are obviously filled with rationalizations and obfuscations " . Other reviewers were more scathing , or note her distorted reality and the many contradictions with which she lives . The film took US $ 200 @,@ 992 at the box office in the United States . In the Philippines , Imelda obtained a temporary injunction that prevented it being shown for a brief time . When the injunction was canceled and the film was released , it earned more than Spider @-@ Man 2 and was considered a smash hit . Outside the US , the film received box office revenue of US $ 300 @,@ 000 . = Seaplane Squadron RAAF = Seaplane Squadron was a flying unit of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars . It operated Supermarine Southampton flying boats from January 1928 , as well as other types . Along with Fighter Squadron , Seaplane Squadron was a component of No. 1 Flying Training School , based at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria . Seaplane Squadron was responsible for coastal reconnaissance , training aircrew to operate seaplanes , and supporting the Royal Australian Navy . It also conducted survey flights over remote parts of Australia and mapped the Darwin – Sydney section of the Empire Air Mail Scheme route . Seaplane Squadron was disbanded in June 1939 . = = History = = Although the first entry in Seaplane Squadron records is dated 16 February 1934 , the official history of the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) between the wars refers to the unit as having been in operation when Australia acquired two Supermarine Southampton flying boats , which entered service in January 1928 . The Southamptons formed a coastal reconnaissance flight within Seaplane Squadron , which also operated other aircraft for seaplane training . Seaplane Squadron was one of two formations raised at RAAF Point Cook , Victoria , under the auspices of No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , the other being Fighter Squadron , which operated Bristol Bulldogs . No. 1 FTS had been the first unit to be formed as part of the new Australian Air Force on 31 March 1921 ( the prefix " Royal " was added in August that year ) . The Southamptons ( nicknamed " Swamptons " ) were the biggest aircraft in the RAAF 's inventory at the time and a new seaplane hangar was specially constructed for them at Point Cook . On 22 June , one of the flying boats was overturned by strong wind on the Torrens River en route to meet the four Southamptons of the Royal Air Force 's Far East Flight near Adelaide . In their naval cooperation role , the Southamptons were required to locate and shadow " enemy " cruisers on exercises . They also trialled radio communications between aircraft and naval ships . The Southamptons were used for parachute training with the " pull @-@ off " technique , which involved standing on a small platform near the outer wing struts , opening the parachute and being dragged from the aircraft by the wind . In the early 1930s , the flying boats took part in several forestry surveys in Tasmania . From June 1935 to February 1936 , a Southampton was employed to map the Darwin – Sydney section of the Empire Air Mail Scheme route ; its survey work ultimately took it to New Guinea and around the Australian continent . Seaplane Squadron undertook search @-@ and @-@ rescue work with both the Southamptons and Supermarine Seagulls ; the former were involved in the abortive search for the airliner Miss Hobart , a DH.86 that vanished in Bass Strait on 19 October 1934 . One of the Southamptons was taken out of service in 1937 ; the other continued flying until 1939 . In October 1929 , Seaplane Squadron received a locally designed amphibian , the Wackett Widgeon II ; it crashed into the sea off Point Cook on 6 January 1930 , killing all three occupants . Another Wackett design , the Warrigal II landplane , was fitted with floats and assigned to Seaplane Squadron in September 1932 for trials and possible use as a trainer and patrol aircraft ; it was considered successful in the latter role but maintenance issues led to its disposal in July 1933 . The squadron also operated Moths . In May 1934 , one of these was flown to Darwin , Northern Territory , where it was fitted with floats and undertook reconnaissance and survey work in cooperation with HMAS Morseby , before being converted back to a landplane and returning to Point Cook in July . In December 1935 , a Gipsy Moth fitted with skis embarked for Antarctica aboard the RRS Discovery II to locate missing explorer Lincoln Ellsworth . Seaplane Squadron began operating Avro Ansons for navigation courses and cross @-@ country exercises in 1937 ; one exercise in November 1938 involved a round @-@ Australia flight . A new headquarters building for the squadron was constructed at Point Cook in the late 1930s , as part of general improvements to RAAF facilities owing to the threat of war in Europe . Throughout their existence , Seaplane and Fighter Squadrons remained under the control of No. 1 FTS and were " really little more than flights " , in the words of the official history . The final entry in Seaplane Squadron records was made on 30 June 1939 . The unit became the nucleus for No. 10 ( Reconnaissance ) Squadron , formed at Point Cook the following day . = George H. W. Bush = George Herbert Walker Bush ( born June 12 , 1924 ) is an American politician who was the 41st President of the United States from 1989 to 1993 and the 43rd Vice President of the United States from 1981 to 1989 . A member of the U.S. Republican Party , he was previously a congressman , ambassador , and Director of Central Intelligence . He is the oldest living former President and Vice President . He is also the last living former President who is a veteran of World War II . Bush is often referred to as " George H. W. Bush " , " Bush 41 " , " Bush the Elder " , or " George Bush Sr. " to distinguish him from his eldest son , George W. Bush , who was the 43rd President of the United States . Prior to his son 's presidency , he was known simply as George Bush or President Bush . Bush was born in Milton , Massachusetts , to Prescott Bush and Dorothy Walker Bush . Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in 1941 , Bush postponed college , enlisted in the U.S. Navy on his 18th birthday , and became the youngest aviator in the U.S. Navy at the time . He served until the end of the war , then attended Yale University . Graduating in 1948 , he moved his family to West Texas and entered the oil business , becoming a millionaire by the age of 40 . He became involved in politics soon after founding his own oil company , serving as a member of the House of Representatives and Director of Central Intelligence , among other positions . He failed to win the Republican nomination for President in 1980 , but was chosen by party nominee Ronald Reagan to be his running mate , and the two were elected . During his tenure , Bush headed administration task forces on deregulation and fighting the " War on Drugs " . In 1988 , Bush ran a successful campaign to succeed Reagan as President , defeating Democratic opponent Michael Dukakis . Foreign policy drove the Bush presidency : military operations were conducted in Panama and the Persian Gulf ; the Berlin Wall fell in 1989 , and the Soviet Union dissolved two years later . Domestically , Bush reneged on a 1988 campaign promise and , after a struggle with Congress , signed an increase in taxes that Congress had passed . In the wake of a weak recovery from an economic recession , along with continuing budget deficits and the controversy over his appointment of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court , he lost the 1992 presidential election to Democrat Bill Clinton . Bush left office in 1993 . His presidential library was dedicated in 1997 , and he has been active — often alongside Bill Clinton — in various humanitarian activities . Besides being the 43rd president ( 2001 – 09 ) , his son George also served as the 46th Governor of Texas ( 1995 – 2000 ) and is one of only two presidents — the other being John Quincy Adams — to be the son of a former president . His second son , Jeb Bush , served as the 43rd Governor of Florida ( 1999 – 2007 ) and made an unsuccessful run for president in 2016 . = = Early life and education = = George Herbert Walker Bush was born at 173 Adams Street in Milton , Massachusetts , on June 12 , 1924 to Prescott Sheldon Bush and Dorothy ( Walker ) Bush . The Bush family moved from Milton to Greenwich , Connecticut , shortly after his birth . Bush began his formal education at the Greenwich Country Day School in Greenwich . Beginning in 1936 , he attended Phillips Academy in Andover , Massachusetts , where he held a number of leadership positions including president of the senior class , secretary of the student council , president of the community fund @-@ raising group , a member of the editorial board of the school newspaper , and captain of both the varsity baseball and soccer teams . = = = World War II = = = Following the attack on Pearl Harbor in December 1941 , Bush decided to join the US . Navy , so after graduating from Phillips Academy in 1942 , he became a naval aviator at the age of 18 . After completing the 10 @-@ month course , he was commissioned as an ensign in the United States Naval Reserve at Naval Air Station Corpus Christi on June 9 , 1943 , just three days before his 19th birthday , which made him the youngest naval aviator to that date . He was assigned to Torpedo Squadron ( VT @-@ 51 ) as the photographic officer in September 1943 . The following year , his squadron was based on the USS San Jacinto as a member of Air Group 51 , where his lanky physique earned him the nickname " Skin " . During this time , the task force was victorious in one of the largest air battles of World War II : the Battle of the Philippine Sea . After Bush 's promotion to Lieutenant ( junior grade ) on August 1 , 1944 , the San Jacinto commenced operations against the Japanese in the Bonin Islands . Bush piloted one of four Grumman TBM Avenger aircraft from VT @-@ 51 that attacked the Japanese installations on Chichijima . His crew for the mission , which occurred on September 2 , 1944 , included Radioman Second Class John Delaney and Lieutenant Junior Grade William White . During their attack , the Avengers encountered intense anti @-@ aircraft fire ; Bush 's aircraft was hit by flak and his engine caught on fire . Despite his plane being on fire , Bush completed his attack and released bombs over his target , scoring several damaging hits . With his engine ablaze , Bush flew several miles from the island , where he and one other crew member on the TBM Avenger bailed out of the aircraft ; the other man 's parachute did not open . Bush waited for four hours in an inflated raft , while several fighters circled protectively overhead until he was rescued by the lifeguard submarine USS Finback . For the next month he remained on the Finback , and participated in the rescue of other pilots . Several of those shot down during the attack were executed and eaten by their captors . Bush subsequently returned to San Jacinto in November 1944 and participated in operations in the Philippines until his squadron was replaced and sent home to the United States . Through 1944 , he flew 58 combat missions for which he received the Distinguished Flying Cross , three Air Medals , and the Presidential Unit Citation awarded to San Jacinto . Because of his valuable combat experience , Bush was reassigned to Norfolk Navy Base and put in a training wing for new torpedo pilots . He was later assigned as a naval aviator in a new torpedo squadron , VT @-@ 153 , based at Naval Air Station Grosse Ile , Michigan . Upon the Japanese surrender in 1945 , Bush was honorably discharged in September of that year . = = = Marriage and college years = = = George Bush married Barbara Pierce on January 6 , 1945 , only weeks after his return from the Pacific . The couple 's first residence was a small rented apartment in Trenton , Michigan , near Bush 's Navy assignment at NAS Grosse Ile . Their marriage produced six children : George Walker Bush ( born 1946 ) , Pauline Robinson " Robin " Bush ( 1949 – 1953 , died of leukemia ) , John Ellis " Jeb " Bush ( born 1953 ) , Neil Mallon Pierce Bush ( born 1955 ) , Marvin Pierce Bush ( born 1956 ) , and Dorothy Bush Koch ( born 1959 ) . Bush had been accepted to Yale University prior to his enlistment in the military , and took up the offer after his discharge and marriage . While at Yale , he was enrolled in an accelerated program that allowed him to graduate in two and a half years , rather than four . He was a member of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity and was elected its president . He also captained the Yale baseball team , and as a left @-@ handed first baseman , played in the first two College World Series . As the team captain , Bush met Babe Ruth before a game during his senior year . He was also , like his father , a member of the Yale cheerleading squad . Late in his junior year he was , like his father Prescott Bush ( 1917 ) , initiated into the Skull and Bones secret society . He graduated as a member of the Phi Beta Kappa from Yale in 1948 with a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics . = = Business career = = After graduating from Yale , Bush moved his young family to West Texas . His father 's business connections proved useful as he ventured into the oil business , starting as a sales clerk with Dresser Industries , a subsidiary of Brown Brothers Harriman ( where Prescott Bush had served on the board of directors for 22 years ) . While working for Dresser , Bush lived in various places with his family : Odessa , Texas ; Ventura , Bakersfield and Compton , California ; and Midland , Texas . ( According to eldest son George W. Bush , then age two , the family lived in one of the few duplexes in Odessa with an indoor bathroom , which they " shared with a couple of hookers " . ) Bush started the Bush @-@ Overbey Oil Development company in 1951 and in 1953 co @-@ founded the Zapata Petroleum Corporation , an oil company that drilled in the Permian Basin in Texas . In 1954 he was named president of the Zapata Offshore Company , a subsidiary which specialized in offshore drilling . In 1959 , shortly after the subsidiary became independent , Bush moved the company and his family from Midland to Houston . He continued serving as president of the company until 1964 , and later chairman until 1966 , but his ambitions turned political . By that time , Bush had become a millionaire . According to Time.com , Bush had a net worth of $ 20 million in 2015 . = = Political career , 1964 – 80 = = = = = Congressional years , 1967 – 71 = = = Bush served as Chairman of the Republican Party for Harris County , Texas in 1964 , but wanted to be more involved in policy making , so he set his sights high : he aimed for a U.S. Senate seat from Texas . After winning the Republican primary , Bush faced his opponent , incumbent Democrat Ralph W. Yarborough , who attacked Bush as a right @-@ wing extremist . Bush was a strong supporter of Republican Senator Barry Goldwater , who headed the Republican ticket as the presidential candidate . Like Goldwater , Bush strongly opposed civil rights legislation in the name of states rights . Yarborough , a leading Texas liberal , supported the civil rights legislation and was reelected by 56 % - 44 % . The Republican candidate for governor , Jack Crichton of Dallas , who often campaigned alongside Bush before the election , lost by a much wider margin to Governor John B. Connally Jr . Bush and the Harris County Republicans played a role in the development of the new Republican Party of the late 20th century . First , Bush worked to absorb the John Birch Society members , who were trying to take over the Republican Party . Second , during and after the Civil Rights Movement , Democrats in the South who were committed to segregation left their party , and although the " country club Republicans " had differing ideological beliefs , they found common ground in hoping to expel the Democrats from power . Bush was elected in 1966 to a House of Representatives seat from the 7th District of Texas , defeating with 57 percent of the ballots cast the Democrat Frank Briscoe , the district attorney of Harris County known for his law and order credentials and a cousin of later Governor Dolph Briscoe . Bush was the first Republican to represent Houston in the U.S. House . Bush 's representative district included Tanglewood , the Houston neighborhood that was his residence ; his family had moved into Tanglewood in the 1960s . His voting record in the House was generally conservative : Bush voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1968 , although it was generally unpopular in his district . He supported the Nixon administration 's Vietnam policies , but broke with Republicans on the issue of birth control , which he supported . Despite being a first @-@ term congressman , Bush was appointed to the powerful House Ways and Means Committee , where he voted to abolish the military draft . He was elected to a second term in 1968 . In 1970 Nixon convinced Bush to relinquish his House seat to run for the Senate against Ralph Yarborough , a fierce Nixon critic . In the Republican primary , Bush easily defeated conservative Robert J. Morris , by a margin of 87 @.@ 6 % to 12 @.@ 4 % . Nixon came to Texas to campaign in Longview for Bush and gubernatorial candidate Paul Eggers , a Dallas lawyer who was a close friend of U.S. Senator John G. Tower . Former Congressman Lloyd Bentsen , a more moderate Democrat and native of Mission in south Texas , defeated Yarborough in the Democratic primary . Yarborough endorsed Bentsen , who defeated Bush , 53 @.@ 4 to 46 @.@ 6 % . As Bush 's political career waned , he moved out of Houston and sold his first Tanglewood house , but for periods of time continued to reside in Tanglewood . = = = Ambassador to the United Nations ( 1971 – 73 ) = = = Following his 1970 loss , Bush was well known as a prominent Republican businessman from the " Sun Belt " , a group of states in the Southern part of the country . Nixon noticed and appreciated the sacrifice Bush had made of his Congressional position , so he appointed him Ambassador to the United Nations . He was confirmed unanimously by the Senate , and served for two years , beginning in 1971 . = = = Chairman of the Republican National Committee ( 1973 – 74 ) = = = Amidst the Watergate scandal , Nixon asked Bush to become chairman of the Republican National Committee in 1973 . Bush accepted , and held this position when the popularity of both Nixon and the Republican Party plummeted . He defended Nixon steadfastly , but later as Nixon 's complicity became clear , Bush focused more on defending the Republican Party , while still maintaining loyalty to Nixon . As chairman , Bush formally requested that Nixon eventually resign for the good of the Republican party . Nixon did this on August 9 , 1974 ; Bush noted in his diary that " There was an aura of sadness , like somebody died .... The [ resignation ] speech was vintage Nixon — a kick or two at the press — enormous strains . One couldn 't help but look at the family and the whole thing and think of his accomplishments and then think of the shame .... [ President Gerald Ford 's swearing @-@ in offered ] indeed a new spirit , a new lift . " = = = Envoy to China , 1974 – 75 = = = Gerald Ford , Nixon 's successor , appointed Bush to be Chief of the U.S. Liaison Office in the People 's Republic of China . Since the United States at the time maintained official relations with the Republic of China on Taiwan and not the People 's Republic of China , the Liaison Office did not have the official status of an embassy and Bush did not formally hold the position of " ambassador " , though he unofficially acted as one . The 14 months that he spent in China were largely seen as beneficial for U.S.-China relations . After Ford 's accession to the presidency , Bush was under serious consideration for being nominated as Vice President . Ford eventually narrowed his list to Nelson Rockefeller and Bush . White House Chief of Staff Donald Rumsfeld reportedly preferred Rockefeller over Bush . Rockefeller was finally named and confirmed . Bush was again passed over for the vice presidency by Ford when the president chose Bush 's future presidential rival , Senator Bob Dole , to replace Rockefeller on the 1976 presidential ticket . = = = Director of Central Intelligence ( 1976 – 77 ) = = = In 1976 Ford brought Bush back to Washington to become Director of Central Intelligence ( DCI ) , replacing William Colby . He served in this role for 357 days , from January 30 , 1976 , to January 20 , 1977 . The CIA had been rocked by a series of revelations , including those based on investigations by the Church Committee regarding illegal and unauthorized activities by the CIA , and Bush was credited with helping to restore the agency 's morale . In his capacity as DCI , Bush gave national security briefings to Jimmy Carter both as a Presidential candidate and as President @-@ elect , and discussed the possibility of remaining in that position in a Carter administration , but did not do so . He was succeeded by Deputy Director of Central Intelligence E. Henry Knoche , who served as acting Director of Central Intelligence until Stansfield Turner was confirmed . = = = Other positions , 1977 – 80 = = = After a Democratic administration took power in 1977 , Bush became chairman on the Executive Committee of the First International Bank in Houston . He later spent a year as a part @-@ time professor of Administrative Science at Rice University 's Jones School of Business beginning in 1978 , the year it opened ; Bush said of his time there , " I loved my brief time in the world of academia . " Between 1977 and 1979 , he was a director of the Council on Foreign Relations foreign policy organization . = = 1980 presidential campaign = = Bush had decided in the late 1970s that he was going to run for president in 1980 ; in 1979 , he attended 850 political events and traveled more than 250 @,@ 000 miles ( 400 @,@ 000 km ) to campaign for the nation 's highest office . In the contest for the Republican Party nomination , Bush stressed his wide range of government experience , while competing against rivals Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee , Senator Bob Dole of Kansas , Congressman John Anderson of Illinois ( who would later run as an independent ) , Congressman Phil Crane , also of Illinois , former Governor John Connally of Texas , former Minnesota Governor Harold Stassen , and the front @-@ runner Ronald Reagan , former actor , and Governor of California . In the primary election , Bush focused almost entirely on the Iowa caucuses , while Reagan ran a more traditional campaign . Bush represented the centrist wing in the GOP , whereas Reagan represented conservatives . Bush famously labeled Reagan 's supply side @-@ influenced plans for massive tax cuts " voodoo economics " . His strategy proved useful , to some degree , as he won in Iowa with 31 @.@ 5 % to Reagan 's 29 @.@ 4 % . After the win , Bush stated that his campaign was full of momentum , or " Big Mo " . As a result of the loss , Reagan replaced his campaign manager , reorganized his staff , and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary . The two men agreed to a debate in the state , organized by the Nashua Telegraph , but paid for by the Reagan campaign . Reagan invited the other four candidates as well , but Bush refused to debate them , and eventually they left . The debate proved to be a pivotal moment in the campaign ; when the moderator , John Breen , ordered Reagan 's microphone turned off , his angry response , " I am paying for this microphone , " struck a chord with the public . Bush ended up losing New Hampshire 's primary with 23 % to Reagan 's 50 % . Bush lost most of the remaining primaries as well , and formally dropped out of the race in May of that year . With his political future seeming dismal , Bush sold his house in Houston and bought his grandfather 's estate in Kennebunkport , Maine , known as " Walker 's Point " . At the Republican Convention , Reagan selected Bush as his Vice Presidential nominee , placing him on the winning Republican presidential ticket of 1980 . = = Vice Presidency ( 1981 – 89 ) = = = = = First term , 1981 – 85 = = = As Vice President , Bush generally took on a low profile while recognizing the constitutional limits of the office ; he avoided decision @-@ making or criticizing Reagan in any way . As had become customary , he and his wife moved into the Vice President 's residence at Number One Observatory Circle , about two miles from the White House . After selling the house in the Tanglewood , the Bushes declared a room in The Houstonian Hotel in Houston as their official voting address . The Bushes attended a large number of public and ceremonial events in their positions , including many state funerals , which became a common joke for comedians . Mrs. Bush found the funerals largely beneficial , saying , " George met with many current or future heads of state at the funerals he attended , enabling him to forge personal relationships that were important to President Reagan . " As the President of the Senate , Bush stayed in contact with members of Congress , and kept the president informed on occurrences on Capitol Hill . On March 30 , 1981 , early into the administration , Reagan was shot and seriously wounded in Washington , D.C. Bush , second in command by the presidential line of succession , was in Fort Worth , Texas , and flew back to Washington immediately . Reagan 's cabinet convened in the White House Situation Room , where they discussed various issues , including the availability of the Nuclear Football . When Bush 's plane landed , his aides advised him to proceed directly to the White House by helicopter , as an image of the government still functioning despite the attack . Bush rejected the idea , responding , " Only the President lands on the South Lawn . " This made a positive impression on Reagan , who recovered and returned to work within two weeks . From then on , the two men would have regular Thursday lunches in the Oval Office . In December 1983 Bush flew to El Salvador and warned that country 's military leaders to end their death squads and hold fully free elections or face the loss of U.S. aid . Bush 's aides feared for his safety and thought about calling the meeting off when they discovered apparent blood stains on the floor of the presidential palace of Álvaro Magaña . Bush was never told of the aides ' concerns and a tense meeting was held in which some of Magaña 's personnel brandished semiautomatic weapons and refused requests to take them outside . Bush was assigned by Reagan to chair two special task forces , on deregulation and international drug smuggling . The deregulation task force reviewed hundreds of rules , making specific recommendations on which ones to amend or revise , in order to curb the size of the federal government . The drug smuggling task force coordinated federal efforts to reduce the quantity of drugs entering the United States . Both were popular issues with conservatives , and Bush , largely a moderate , began courting them through his work . = = = Second term , 1985 – 89 = = = Reagan and Bush ran for reelection in 1984 . The Democratic opponent , Walter Mondale , made history by choosing a woman as his running mate , New York Representative Geraldine Ferraro . She and Bush squared off in a single televised Vice Presidential debate . Serving as a contrast to the Ivy @-@ League educated Bush , Ferraro represented a " blue @-@ collar " district in Queens , New York ; this , coupled with her popularity among female journalists , left Bush at a disadvantage . The Reagan @-@ Bush ticket won in a landslide against the Mondale @-@ Ferraro ticket . Early into his second term as Vice President , Bush and his aides were planning a run for the presidency in 1988 . By the end of 1985 , a committee had been established and over two million dollars raised for Bush . Bush became the first Vice President to serve as Acting President when , on July 13 , 1985 , Reagan underwent surgery to remove polyps from his colon , making Bush acting president for approximately eight hours . The Reagan administration was shaken by a scandal in 1986 , when it was revealed that administration officials had secretly arranged weapon sales to Iran , and had used the proceeds to fund the anticommunist Contras in Nicaragua , a direct violation of the law . When the Iran @-@ Contra Affair , as it became known , broke to the media , Bush , like Reagan , stated that he had been " out of the loop " and unaware of the diversion of funds , although this was later questioned . His diaries from that time stated " I 'm one of the few people that know fully the details . " Ailes and others were concerned that Bush was seen as a " wimp " , an image put to rest by his evident fury in an interview with Dan Rather . As Vice President , Bush officially opened the 1987 Pan American Games in Indianapolis . In 1988 the USS Vincennes accidentally shot down Iran Air Flight 655 killing 290 passengers . Bush said that he would " never apologize for the United States of America . Ever . I don 't care what the facts are . " = = = = 1988 presidential campaign = = = = In the January 26 , 1987 , issue of Time magazine , in an article entitled " Where Is the Real George Bush ? " journalist Robert Ajemian reported that a friend of Bush 's had urged him to spend several days at Camp David thinking through his plans for his prospective presidency , to which Bush is said to have responded in exasperation , " Oh , the vision thing . " This oft @-@ cited quote became a shorthand for the charge that Bush failed to contemplate or articulate important policy positions in a compelling and coherent manner . The phrase has since become a metonym for any politician 's failure to incorporate a greater vision in a campaign , and has often been applied in the media to other politicians or public figures . Bush had been planning a presidential run since as early as 1985 , and entered the Republican primary for President of the United States in October 1987 . His challengers for the Republican presidential nomination included U.S. Senator Bob Dole of Kansas , U.S. Representative Jack Kemp of New York , former Governor Pete DuPont of Delaware , and conservative Christian televangelist Pat Robertson . Though considered the early frontrunner for the nomination , Bush came in third in the Iowa caucus , behind winner Dole and runner @-@ up Robertson . Much as Reagan did in 1980 , Bush reorganized his staff and concentrated on the New Hampshire primary . With Dole ahead in New Hampshire , Bush ran television commercials portraying the senator as a tax raiser ; he rebounded to win the state 's primary . Following the primary , Bush and Dole had a joint media appearance , when the interviewer asked Dole if he had anything to say to Bush , Dole said , in response to the ads , " yeah , stop lying about my record " in an angry tone . This is thought to have hurt Dole 's campaign to Bush 's benefit . Bush continued seeing victory , winning many Southern primaries as well . Once the multiple @-@ state primaries such as Super Tuesday began , Bush 's organizational strength and fundraising lead were impossible for the other candidates to match , and the nomination was his . Leading up to the 1988 Republican National Convention , there was much speculation as to Bush 's choice of running mate . Bush chose little @-@ known U.S. Senator Dan Quayle of Indiana , favored by conservatives . Despite Reagan 's popularity , Bush trailed Democratic nominee Michael Dukakis , then Governor of Massachusetts , in most polls . Bush , occasionally criticized for his lack of eloquence when compared to Reagan , delivered a well @-@ received speech at the 1988 Republican National Convention . Known as the " thousand points of light " speech , it described Bush 's vision of America : he endorsed the Pledge of Allegiance , prayer in schools , capital punishment , gun rights , and opposed abortion . The speech at the convention included Bush 's famous pledge : " Read my lips : no new taxes . " The general election campaign between the two men was described in 2008 as one of the dirtiest in modern times . Bush blamed Dukakis for polluting the Boston Harbor as the Massachusetts governor . Bush also pointed out that Dukakis was opposed to a law that would require all students to say the Pledge of Allegiance , a topic well covered in Bush 's nomination acceptance speech . Dukakis 's unconditional opposition to capital punishment led to a pointed question being asked during the presidential debates . Moderator Bernard Shaw asked Dukakis if Dukakis would hypothetically support the death penalty if his wife , Kitty , were raped and murdered . Dukakis 's response of no , as well as a provocative ad about convicted felon Willie Horton , contributed toward Bush 's characterization of Dukakis as " soft on crime " . Bush defeated Dukakis and his running mate , Lloyd Bentsen , in the Electoral College , by 426 to 111 ( Bentsen received one vote from a faithless elector ) . In the nationwide popular vote , Bush took 53 @.@ 4 % of the ballots cast while Dukakis received 45 @.@ 6 % . Bush became the first serving Vice President to be elected President since Martin Van Buren in 1836 as well as the first person to succeed someone from his own party to the Presidency via election to the office in his own right since Herbert Hoover in 1929 . = = Presidency ( 1989 – 93 ) = = Bush was inaugurated on January 20 , 1989 , succeeding Ronald Reagan . He entered office at a period of change in the world ; the fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet Union came early in his presidency . He ordered military operations in Panama and the Persian Gulf , and , at one point , was recorded as having a record @-@ high approval rating of 89 % . In his Inaugural Address , Bush said : I come before you and assume the Presidency at a moment rich with promise . We live in a peaceful , prosperous time , but we can make it better . For a new breeze is blowing , and a world refreshed by freedom seems reborn ; for in man 's heart , if not in fact , the day of the dictator is over . The totalitarian era is passing , its old ideas blown away like leaves from an ancient , lifeless tree . A new breeze is blowing , and a nation refreshed by freedom stands ready to push on . There is new ground to be broken , and new action to be taken . = = = Domestic policy = = = = = = = Economy = = = = Early in his term , Bush faced the problem of what to do with leftover deficits spawned by the Reagan years . At $ 220 billion in 1990 , the deficit had grown to three times its size since 1980 . Bush was dedicated to curbing the deficit , believing that America could not continue to be a leader in the world without doing so . He began an effort to persuade the Democratic controlled Congress to act on the budget ; with Republicans believing that the best way was to cut government spending , and Democrats convinced that the only way would be to raise taxes , Bush faced problems when it came to consensus building . In the wake of a struggle with Congress , Bush was forced by the Democratic majority to raise tax revenues ; as a result , many Republicans felt betrayed because Bush had promised " no new taxes " in his 1988 campaign . Perceiving a means of revenge , Republican congressmen defeated Bush 's proposal which would enact spending cuts and tax increases that would reduce the deficit by $ 500 billion over five years . Scrambling , Bush accepted the Democrats ' demands for higher taxes and more spending , which alienated him from Republicans and gave way to a sharp decrease in popularity . Bush would later say that he wished he had never signed the bill . Near the end of the 101st Congress , the president and congressional members reached a compromise on a budget package that increased the marginal tax rate and phased out exemptions for high @-@ income taxpayers . Although he originally demanded a reduction in the capital gains tax , Bush relented on this issue as well . This agreement with the Democratic leadership in Congress proved to be a turning point in the Bush presidency ; his popularity among Republicans never fully recovered . Coming at around the same time as the budget deal , America entered into a mild recession , lasting for six months . Many government programs , such as welfare , increased . As the unemployment rate edged upward in 1991 , Bush signed a bill providing additional benefits for unemployed workers . The year 1991 was marked by many corporate reorganizations , which laid off a substantial number of workers . Many now unemployed were Republicans and independents , who had believed that their jobs were secure . By his second year in office , Bush was told by his economic advisors to stop dealing with the economy , as they believed that he had done everything necessary to ensure his reelection . By 1992 , interest and inflation rates were the lowest in years , but by midyear the unemployment rate reached 7 @.@ 8 % , the highest since 1984 . In September 1992 , the Census Bureau reported that 14 @.@ 2 % of all Americans lived in poverty . At a press conference in 1990 , Bush told reporters that he found foreign policy more enjoyable . = = = = Major initiatives = = = = During a speech to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the Apollo 11 moon landing , Bush announced a vision to complete Space Station Freedom , resume exploration of the Moon and begin exploration of Mars . Although a space station was eventually constructed – work on the International Space Station began in 1998 – other work has been confounded by NASA budgetary issues . In 1998 , Bush received the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement 's National Space Trophy for his pioneering leadership of the U.S. space program . Bush signed a number of major laws in his presidency , including the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 ; this was one of the most pro @-@ civil rights bills in decades . He is also the only President to successfully veto a civil rights act , having vetoed the job @-@ discrimination protection Civil Rights Act of 1990 . Bush feared racial quotas would be imposed , but later approved watered @-@ down Civil Rights Act of 1991 . He worked to increase federal spending for education , childcare , and advanced technology research . He also signed the Radiation Exposure Compensation Act which provides monetary compensation of people who had contracted cancer and a number of other specified diseases as a direct result of their exposure to atmospheric nuclear testing undertaken by the United States during the Cold War , or their exposure to high levels of radon while doing uranium mining . In dealing with the environment , Bush reauthorized the Clean Air Act , requiring cleaner burning fuels . He quarreled with Congress over an eventually signed bill to aid police in capturing criminals , and signed into law a measure to improve the nation 's highway system . Bush signed the Immigration Act of 1990 , which led to a 40 percent increase in legal immigration to the United States . Bush became a life member of the National Rifle Association early in 1988 and had campaigned as a " pro @-@ gun " candidate with the NRA 's endorsement . In March 1989 , he placed a temporary ban on the import of certain semiautomatic rifles . This action cost him endorsement from the NRA in 1992 . Bush publicly resigned his life membership in the organization after receiving a form letter from NRA depicting agents of the Bureau of Alcohol , Tobacco , and Firearms as " jack @-@ booted thugs . " He called the NRA letter a " vicious slander on good people . " = = = Points of Light = = = President Bush devoted attention to voluntary service as a means of solving some of America 's most serious social problems . He often used the " thousand points of light " theme to describe the power of citizens to solve community problems . In his 1989 inaugural address , President Bush said , " I have spoken of a thousand points of light , of all the community organizations that are spread like stars throughout the Nation , doing good . " Four years later , in his report to the nation on The Points of Light Movement , President Bush said , " Points of Light are the soul of America . They are ordinary people who reach beyond themselves to touch the lives of those in need , bringing hope and opportunity , care and friendship . By giving so generously of themselves , these remarkable individuals show us not only what is best in our heritage but what all of us are called to become . " In 1990 , the Points of Light Foundation was created as a nonprofit organization in Washington to promote this spirit of volunteerism . In 2007 , the Points of Light Foundation merged with the Hands On Network with the goal of strengthening volunteerism , streamlining costs and services and deepening impact . Points of Light , the organization created through this merger , has approximately 250 affiliates in 22 countries and partnerships with thousands of nonprofits and companies dedicated to volunteer service around the world . In 2012 , Points of Light mobilized 4 million volunteers in 30 million hours of service worth $ 635 million . On October 16 , 2009 , President Barack Obama held a Presidential Forum on Service hosted by former President George H. W. Bush and Points of Light at the George Bush Presidential Library Center on the campus of Texas A & M University . The event celebrated the contributions of more than 4 @,@ 500 Daily Point of Light award winners and honored President Bush 's legacy of service and civic engagement . In 2011 , Points of Light paid tribute to President George H. W. Bush and volunteer service at Washington , D.C. ' s Kennedy Center . President Bush was joined by Presidents Jimmy Carter , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush to highlight the role volunteer service plays in people 's lives . = = = Daily Point of Light Award = = = President Bush created the Daily Point of Light Award in 1989 to recognize ordinary Americans from all walks of life taking direct and consequential voluntary action in their communities to solve serious social problems . The President focused great attention on these individuals and organizations , both to honor them for their tremendous work and to call the nation to join them and multiply their efforts . By the end of his administration , President Bush had recognized 1 @,@ 020 Daily Points of Light representing all 50 states and addressing issues ranging from care for infants and teenagers with AIDS to adult illiteracy and from gang violence to job training for the homeless . The Daily Point of Light continues to be awarded by Points of Light and President Bush continues to sign all of the awards . On July 15 , 2013 , President Barack Obama welcomed President Bush to the White House to celebrate the 5,000th Daily Point of Light Award . They bestowed the award on Floyd Hammer and Kathy Hamilton of Union , Iowa , for their work founding Outreach , a nonprofit that delivers free meals to hungry children in 15 countries . = = = Judicial appointments = = = = = = = Supreme Court = = = = Bush appointed the following Justices to the Supreme Court of the United States : David Souter – 1990 Clarence Thomas – 1991 = = = = Other courts = = = = In addition to his two Supreme Court appointments , Bush appointed 42 judges to the United States Courts of Appeals , and 148 judges to the United States district courts . Among these appointments was Vaughn R. Walker , who would later be revealed to be the earliest known gay federal judge . Bush also experienced a number of judicial appointment controversies , as 11 nominees for 10 federal appellate judgeships were not processed by the Democratically @-@ controlled Senate Judiciary Committee . = = = Foreign policy = = = = = = = Panama = = = = In the 1980s , Panamanian leader Manuel Noriega , a once U.S.-supportive leader who was later accused of spying for Fidel Castro and using Panama to traffic drugs into the United States , was one of the most recognizable names in America and was constantly in the press . The struggle to remove him from power began in the Reagan administration , when economic sanctions were imposed on the country ; this included prohibiting American companies and government from making payments to Panama and freezing $ 56 million in Panamanian funds in American banks . Reagan sent more than 2 @,@ 000 American troops to Panama as well . Unlike Reagan , Bush was able to remove Noriega from power , but his administration 's unsuccessful post @-@ invasion planning hindered the needs of Panama during the establishment of the young democratic government . In May 1989 , Panama held democratic elections , in which Guillermo Endara was elected president ; the results were then annulled by Noriega 's government . In response , Bush sent 2 @,@ 000 more troops to the country , where they began conducting regular military exercises in Panamanian territory ( in violation of prior treaties ) . Bush then removed an embassy and ambassador from the country , and dispatched additional troops to Panama to prepare the way for an upcoming invasion . Noriega suppressed an October military coup attempt and massive protests in Panama against him , but after a U.S. serviceman was shot by Panamanian forces in December 1989 , Bush ordered 24 @,@ 000 troops into the country with an objective of removing Noriega from power ; " Operation Just Cause " was a large @-@ scale American military operation , and the first in more than 40 years that was not related to the Cold War . The mission was controversial , but American forces achieved control of the country and Endara assumed the Presidency . Noriega surrendered to the United States and was convicted and imprisoned on racketeering and drug trafficking charges in April 1992 . President Bush and First Lady Barbara Bush visited Panama in June 1992 , to give support to the first post @-@ invasion Panamanian government . = = = = Soviet Union = = = = In 1989 , just after the fall of the Berlin Wall , Bush met with Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev in a conference on the Mediterranean island of Malta . The administration had been under intense pressure to meet with the Soviets , but not all initially found the Malta Summit to be a step in the right direction ; General Brent Scowcroft , among others , was apprehensive about the meeting , saying that it might be " premature " due to concerns where , according to Condoleezza Rice , " expectations [ would be ] set that something was going to happen , where the Soviets might grandstand and force [ the U.S. ] into agreements that would ultimately not be good for the United States . " But European leaders , including François Mitterrand and Margaret Thatcher , encouraged Bush to meet with Gorbachev , something that he did December 2 and 3 , 1989 . Though no agreements were signed , the meeting was viewed largely as being an important one ; when asked about nuclear war , Gorbachev responded , " I assured the President of the United States that the Soviet Union would never start a hot war against the United States of America . And we would like our relations to develop in such a way that they would open greater possibilities for cooperation .... This is just the beginning . We are just at the very beginning of our road , long road to a long @-@ lasting , peaceful period . " The meeting was received as a very important step to the end of the Cold War . Another summit was held in July 1991 , where the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty ( START I ) was signed by Bush and Gorbachev in Moscow . The treaty took nine years in the making and was the first major arms agreement since the signing of the Intermediate Ranged Nuclear Forces Treaty by Reagan and Gorbachev in 1987 . The contentions in START would reduce the strategic nuclear weapons of the United States and the USSR by about 35 % over seven years , and the Soviet Union 's land @-@ based intercontinental ballistic missiles would be cut by 50 % . Bush described START as " a significant step forward in dispelling half a century of mistrust " . After the dissolution of the USSR in 1991 , President Bush and Gorbachev declared a U.S.-Russian strategic partnership , marking the end of the Cold War . = = = = Gulf War = = = = On August 2 , 1990 , Iraq , led by Saddam Hussein , invaded its oil @-@ rich neighbor to the south , Kuwait ; Bush condemned the invasion and began rallying opposition to Iraq in the US and among European , Asian , and Middle Eastern allies . Secretary of Defense Richard Bruce " Dick " Cheney traveled to Saudi Arabia to meet with King Fahd ; Fahd requested US military aid in the matter , fearing a possible invasion of his country as well . The request was met initially with Air Force fighter jets . Iraq made attempts to negotiate a deal that would allow the country to take control of half of Kuwait . Bush rejected this proposal and insisted on a complete withdrawal of Iraqi forces . The planning of a ground operation by US @-@ led coalition forces began forming in September 1990 , headed by General Norman Schwarzkopf . Bush spoke before a joint session of the U.S. Congress regarding the authorization of air and land attacks , laying out four immediate objectives : " Iraq must withdraw from Kuwait completely , immediately , and without condition . Kuwait 's legitimate government must be restored . The security and stability of the Persian Gulf must be assured . And American citizens abroad must be protected . " He then outlined a fifth , long @-@ term objective : " Out of these troubled times , our fifth objective – a new world order – can emerge : a new era – freer from the threat of terror , stronger in the pursuit of justice , and more secure in the quest for peace . An era in which the nations of the world , East and West , North and South , can prosper and live in harmony .... A world where the rule of law supplants the rule of the jungle . A world in which nations recognize the shared responsibility for freedom and justice . A world where the strong respect the rights of the weak . " With the United Nations Security Council opposed to Iraq 's violence , Congress authorized the use of Military force with a set goal of returning control of Kuwait to the Kuwaiti government , and protecting America 's interests abroad . Early on the morning of January 17 , 1991 , allied forces launched the first attack , which included more than 4 @,@ 000 bombing runs by coalition aircraft . This pace would continue for the next four weeks , until a ground invasion was launched on February 24 , 1991 . Allied forces penetrated Iraqi lines and pushed toward Kuwait City while on the west side of the country , forces were intercepting the retreating Iraqi army . Bush made the decision to stop the offensive after a mere 100 hours . Critics labeled this decision premature , as hundreds of Iraqi forces were able to escape ; Bush responded by saying that he wanted to minimize U.S. casualties . Opponents further charged that Bush should have continued the attack , pushing Hussein 's army back to Baghdad , then removing him from power . Bush explained that he did not give the order to overthrow the Iraqi government because it would have " incurred incalculable human and political costs .... We would have been forced to occupy Baghdad and , in effect , rule Iraq . " Bush 's approval ratings skyrocketed after the successful offensive . Additionally , President Bush and Secretary of State Baker felt the coalition victory had increased U.S. prestige abroad and believed there was a window of opportunity to use the political capital generated by the coalition victory to revitalize the Arab @-@ Israeli peace process . The administration immediately returned to Arab @-@ Israeli peacemaking following the end of the Gulf War ; this resulted in the Madrid Conference , later in 1991 . = = = = Somali Civil War = = = = Faced with a humanitarian disaster in Somalia , exacerbated by a complete breakdown in civil order , the United Nations had created the UNOSOM I mission in April 1992 to aid the situation through humanitarian efforts , though the mission failed . The Bush administration proposed American aid to the region by assisting in creating a secure environment for humanitarian efforts and UN Resolution 794 was unanimously adopted by the Security Council on December 3 , 1992 . A lame duck president , Bush launched Operation Restore Hope the following day under which the United States would assume command in accordance with Resolution 794 . Fighting would escalate and continue into the Clinton administration . = = = NAFTA = = = Bush 's administration , along with the Progressive Conservative Canadian Prime Minister Brian Mulroney , spearheaded the negotiations of the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) , which would eliminate the majority of tariffs on products traded among the United States , Canada , and Mexico , to encourage trade amongst the countries . The treaty also restricts patents , copyrights , and trademarks , and outlines the removal of investment restrictions among the three countries . The agreement came under heavy scrutiny amongst mainly Democrats , who charged that NAFTA resulted in a loss of American jobs . NAFTA also contained no provisions for labor rights ; according to the Bush administration , the trade agreement would generate economic resources necessary to enable Mexico 's government to overcome problems of funding and enforcement of its labor laws . Bush needed a renewal of negotiating authority to move forward with the NAFTA trade talks . Such authority would enable the president to negotiate a trade accord that would be submitted to Congress for a vote , thereby avoiding a situation in which the president would be required to renegotiate with trading partners those parts of an agreement that Congress wished to change . While initial signing was possible during his term , negotiations made slow , but steady , progress . President Clinton would go on to make the passage of NAFTA a priority for his administration , despite its conservative and Republican roots — with the addition of two side agreements — to achieve its passage in 1993 . The treaty has since been defended as well as criticized further . The American economy has grown 54 % since the adoption of NAFTA in 1993 , with 25 million new jobs created ; this was seen by some as evidence of NAFTA being beneficial to the United States . With talk in early 2008 regarding a possible American withdrawal from the treaty , Carlos M. Gutierrez , current United States Secretary of Commerce , writes , " Quitting NAFTA would send economic shock waves throughout the world , and the damage would start here at home . " But John J. Sweeney , President of the AFL @-@ CIO , wrote in The Boston Globe that " the U.S. trade deficit with Canada and Mexico ballooned to 12 times its pre @-@ NAFTA size , reaching $ 111 billion in 2004 . " On January 8 , 1992 , Bush fainted after vomiting at a banquet hosted by the then Prime Minister of Japan , Kiichi Miyazawa . Bush was suffering from gastroenteritis . = = = Pardons = = = As other presidents have done , Bush issued a series of pardons during his last days in office . On December 24 , 1992 , he granted executive clemency to six former government employees implicated in the Iran @-@ Contra scandal of the late 1980s , most prominently former Secretary of Defense Caspar Weinberger . Bush described Weinberger , who was scheduled to stand trial on January 5 , 1993 , for criminal charges related to Iran @-@ Contra , as a " true American patriot " . In addition to Weinberger , Bush pardoned Duane R. Clarridge , Clair E. George , Robert C. McFarlane , Elliott Abrams , and Alan G. Fiers Jr . , all of whom had been indicted and / or convicted of criminal charges by an Independent Counsel headed by Lawrence Walsh . = = = Honorary degrees = = = Texas A & M University Sacred Heart University Dartmouth College , awarded a Doctor of Laws Harvard University awarded a Doctor of Laws degree on May 29 , 2014 . = = = Awards and honors = = = In 1990 Time magazine named him the Man of the Year . In 1991 the U.S. Navy Memorial Foundation awarded Bush its Lone Sailor award for his naval service and his subsequent government service . In 1993 , he was made an Honorary Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath by Queen Elizabeth II . = = = 1992 presidential campaign = = = Bush announced his reelection bid in early 1992 ; with a coalition victory in the Persian Gulf War and high approval ratings , reelection initially looked likely . As a result , many leading Democrats declined to seek their party 's presidential nomination . But an economic recession , and doubts of whether Bush ended the Gulf War properly , reduced his popularity . Conservative political columnist Pat Buchanan challenged Bush for the Republican nomination , and shocked political pundits by finishing second , with 37 % of the vote , in the New Hampshire primary . Bush responded by adopting more conservative positions on issues , in an attempt to undermine Buchanan 's base . Once he had secured the nomination , Bush faced his challenger , Democrat and Governor of Arkansas William Jefferson " Bill " Clinton . Clinton attacked Bush as not doing enough to assist the working middle @-@ class and being " out of touch " with the common man , a notion reinforced by reporter Andrew Rosenthal 's false report that Bush was " astonished " to see a demonstration of a supermarket scanner . In early 1992 , the race took an unexpected twist when Texas billionaire H. Ross Perot launched a third party bid , claiming that neither Republicans nor Democrats could eliminate the deficit and make government more efficient . His message appealed to voters across the political spectrum disappointed with both parties ' perceived fiscal irresponsibility . Perot later bowed out of the race for a short time , then reentered . Clinton had originally been in the lead , until Perot reentered , tightening the race significantly . Nearing election day , polls suggested that the race was a dead @-@ heat , but Clinton pulled out on top , defeating Bush in a 43 % to 38 % popular vote margin . Perot won 19 % of the popular vote , one of the highest totals for a third party candidate in U.S. history , drawing equally from both major candidates , according to exit polls . Bush received 168 electoral votes to Clinton 's 370 . Several factors were key in Bush 's defeat . The ailing economy which arose from recession may have been the main factor in Bush 's loss , as 7 in 10 voters said on election day that the economy was either " not so good " or " poor " . On the eve of the 1992 election , after unemployment reports of 7 @.@ 8 % appeared ( the highest since 1984 ) , Economic recession had contributed to a sharp decline in his approval rating – to just 37 % . Conservative Republicans point to Bush 's 1990 agreement to raise taxes in contradiction of his famous " Read my lips : no new taxes " pledge . In doing so , Bush alienated many members of his conservative base , losing their support for his re @-@ election . According to one survey , of the voters who cited Bush 's broken " No New Taxes " pledge as " very important " , two thirds voted for Bill Clinton . Bush had raised taxes in an attempt to address an increasing budget deficit , which has largely been attributed to the Reagan tax cuts and military spending of the 1980s . The tax revenue increase had not hurt his approval ratings to the extent that it prevented it from reaching 89 % during the Gulf War , four months after the tax vote . By February 1991 his approval rating rose to its highest level — 89 % . = = = Public image = = = George Bush was widely seen as a " pragmatic caretaker " president who lacked a unified and compelling long @-@ term theme in his efforts . Indeed , Bush 's sound bite where he refers to the issue of overarching purpose as " the vision thing " has become a metonym applied to other political figures accused of similar difficulties . " He does not say why he wants to be there " , wrote columnist George Will , " so the public does not know why it should care if he gets his way " . His Ivy League and prep school education led to warnings by advisors that his image was too " preppy " in 1980 , which resulted in deliberate efforts in his 1988 campaign to shed the image , including meeting voters at factories and shopping malls , abandoning set speeches . His ability to gain broad international support for the Gulf War and the war 's result were seen as both a diplomatic and military triumph , rousing bipartisan approval , though his decision to withdraw without removing Saddam Hussein left mixed feelings , and attention returned to the domestic front and a souring economy . A New York Times article mistakenly depicted Bush as being surprised to see a supermarket barcode reader ; the report of his reaction exacerbated the notion that he was " out of touch " . Amid the early 1990s recession , his image shifted from " conquering hero " to " politician befuddled by economic matters " . Although Bush became the first elected Republican president since Hoover in 1932 to lose a reelection bid ( facing a 34 % approval rating leading up to the 1992 election ) , the mood did not last . Despite his defeat , Bush climbed back from election day approval levels to leave office in 1993 with a 56 % job approval rating . By December 2008 , 60 % of Americans gave Bush 's presidency a positive rating . = = Post @-@ presidency ( 1993 – present ) = = Upon leaving office , Bush retired with his wife , Barbara , and temporarily moved into a friend 's house near the Tanglewood community of Houston as they prepared to build a permanent retirement house nearby . Ultimately they built their retirement house in the community of West Oaks , near Tanglewood . They had a presidential office within the Park Laureate Building on Memorial Drive . Mimi Swartz of National Geographic wrote that " The Bushes are too studiously sedate to live in River Oaks " . They spend the summer at Walker 's Point in Kennebunkport , Maine . On January 10 , 1999 , the Bushes became the longest @-@ married Presidential couple in history , outlasting John and Abigail Adams , who were married for 54 years and 3 days . At 70 years as of January 2015 , they still hold the record , by a year and a half , over Jimmy and Rosalynn Carter . Bush holds his own fishing tournament in Islamorada , an island in the Florida Keys . In 1993 , Bush was awarded an honorary knighthood ( GCB ) by Queen Elizabeth II . He was the third American president to receive the honor , the others being Dwight D. Eisenhower and Ronald Reagan . In 1993 , Bush visited Kuwait to commemorate the coalition 's victory over Iraq in the Gulf War , where he was targeted in an assassination plot . Kuwaiti authorities arrested 17 people allegedly involved in using a car bomb to kill Bush . Through interviews with the suspects and examinations of the bomb 's circuitry and wiring , the FBI established that the plot had been directed by the Iraqi Intelligence Service . A Kuwaiti court later convicted all but one of the defendants . Two months later , in retaliation , Clinton ordered the firing of 23 cruise missiles at Iraqi Intelligence Service headquarters in Baghdad . The day before the strike , U.S. Ambassador to the UN Madeleine Albright went before the Security Council to present evidence of the Iraqi plot . After the missiles were fired , Vice President Al Gore said the attack " was intended to be a proportionate response at the place where this plot " to assassinate Bush " was hatched and implemented " . From 1993 to 1999 he served as the chairman to the board of trustees for Eisenhower Fellowships , and from 2007 to 2009 was chairman of the National Constitution Center . In 1997 , the same year as the opening of his Presidential Library , the Houston international airport was renamed George Bush Intercontinental Airport . President Bush is Honorary Chairman of Points of Light , an international nonprofit dedicated to engaging more people and resources in solving serious social problems through voluntary service . His eldest son , George W. Bush , was inaugurated as the 43rd President of the United States on January 20 , 2001 , and re @-@ elected in 2004 . Through previous administrations , the elder Bush had ubiquitously been known as " George Bush " or " President Bush " , but following his son 's election the need to distinguish between them has made retronymic forms such as " George H. W. Bush " and " George Bush senior " — and colloquialisms such as " Bush 41 " and " Bush the Elder " much more common . = = = Presidential library = = = The George Bush Presidential Library is the presidential library named for Bush . This tenth presidential library was built between 1995 and 1997 and contains the presidential and vice @-@ presidential papers of Bush and the vice @-@ presidential papers of Dan Quayle . It was dedicated on November 6 , 1997 , and opened to the public shortly thereafter ; the architectural firm of Hellmuth , Obata and Kassabaum designed the complex . The George Bush Presidential Library and Museum is located on a 90 @-@ acre ( 360 @,@ 000 m2 ) site on the west campus of Texas A & M University in College Station , Texas , on a plaza adjoining the Presidential Conference Center and the Texas A & M Academic Center . The Library operates under NARA 's administration and the Presidential Libraries Act of 1955 's provisions . The George Bush School of Government and Public Service is a graduate public policy school at Texas A & M University in College Station , Texas . The graduate school is part of the presidential library complex , and offers four programs : two master 's degree programs ( Public Service Administration and International Affairs ) and two certificate programs ( Advanced International Affairs and Homeland Security ) . The master 's program in International Affairs ( MPIA ) program offers concentration on either National Security Affairs or International Economics and Development . = = = Later activities = = = Bush continues to make many public appearances . He and Mrs. Bush attended the state funeral of Ronald Reagan in June 2004 , and of Gerald Ford in January 2007 . One month later , he was awarded the Ronald Reagan Freedom Award in Beverly Hills , California , by former First Lady Nancy Reagan . Despite his political differences with Bill Clinton , it has been acknowledged that the two former presidents have become friends . He and Clinton appeared together in television ads in 2005 , encouraging aid for victims of Hurricane Katrina and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami . In October 2006 , Bush was honored by the National Italian American Foundation ( NIAF ) with the NIAF One America Award for fundraising , with Bill Clinton , for the victims of the 2004 tsunami and Hurricane Katrina . Upon the death of Gerald Ford , Bush became the oldest living ( former ) president , 111 days older than Jimmy Carter . On February 18 , 2008 , Bush formally endorsed Senator John McCain for the presidency of the United States . The endorsement offered a boost to McCain 's campaign , as the Arizona Senator had been facing criticism among many conservatives . On January 10 , 2009 , both George H. W. and George W. Bush were present at the commissioning of the USS George H.W. Bush ( CVN @-@ 77 ) , the tenth and last Nimitz @-@ class supercarrier of the United States Navy . Bush paid a visit to the carrier again on May 26 , 2009 . On February 15 , 2011 , he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom — the highest civilian honor in the United States — by President Barack Obama . Bush suffers from Vascular Parkinsonism , a form of Parkinson 's disease which has forced him to use a motorized scooter or wheelchair since at least 2012 . In July 2013 , Bush had his head shaved in a show of support for the two @-@ year @-@ old son of a member of his security detail , who had leukemia . In April 2014 , Frederick D. McClure , chief executive of the Bush library foundation , organized a three @-@ day gathering in College Park , Texas , to mark the 25th anniversary of the Bush administration . Also in early 2014 , the John F. Kennedy Library Foundation presented the Profile in Courage Award to Bush and Mount Vernon awarded him its first Cyrus A. Ansary Prize . The Kennedy foundation award was presented by Jack Schlossberg , the late president 's grandson , to Lauren Bush Lauren , who accepted on her grandfather 's behalf . The Ansary prize was presented in Houston with Ansary , Barbara Lucas , Ryan C. Crocker , dean of the Bush school since January 2010 , Barbara Bush , and Curt Viebranz in attendance with the former president . Fifty thousand dollars of the prize was directed by Bush to the Bush school at Texas A & M and $ 25 @,@ 000 will fund an animation about the Siege of Yorktown for Mt . Vernon . Viebranz and Lucas represented Mount Vernon at the presentation . On June 12 , 2014 , Bush fulfilled a long @-@ standing promise by skydiving on his 90th birthday . He made the parachute jump from a helicopter near his home at 11 : 15 a.m. in Kennebunkport , Maine . The jump marked the eighth time the former president had skydived , including jumps on his 80th and 85th birthday as well . He had tweeted about the incident prior to the jump , saying " It 's a wonderful day in Maine — in fact , nice enough for a parachute jump . " In July 2015 , Bush suffered a severe neck injury . Wearing a neck brace in October in his first public engagement since the accident , he threw the ceremonial first pitch for the Houston Astros at Minute Maid Park , at the age of 91 . = = Electoral history = = = Iridion 3D = Iridion 3D is a quasi @-@ 3D rail shooter video game developed by Shin 'en . A launch title for the Game Boy Advance portable game console , it was released in North America on May 29 , 2001 and in Europe on September 21 the same year . Influenced by the Commodore 64 game Uridium , the game features a single starship fighting the alien Iridion , who have attacked Earth . Iridion spans seven levels from Earth to the aliens ' home planet , each with a fixed linear path that ends with a boss . Iridion began development as a shooter for the Game Boy Color ; when Shin 'en decided to drop development and shift their focus to the Game Boy Advance , Iridion was the first game by the developer to appear on the system . Though billed as a 3D game , Shin 'en used realtime encoding and resizing to manipulate the size of 2D sprites instead of creating a true 3D environment . More room on the game cartridge was available for graphics due to the game 's use of the GAX Sound Engine , which allowed real @-@ time decoding of song data in a small file size . On release Iridion garnered generally poor reviews . The graphics and sound were generally praised ; even a year after its release , critics at TechTV considered it the best @-@ looking game on the platform . In contrast , critics derided the game 's repetitive and frustrating gameplay . Despite lukewarm reception to the title upon release , Iridion 3D influenced future Shin 'en shooters such as Iridion II and Nanostray . = = Gameplay = = The game is a simple forward @-@ scrolling rail shooter , similar to the Star Fox series . Only the Game Boy Advance 's directional pad , A , and Start buttons are used during gameplay . The ship remains locked at a set speed and cannot brake or speed up . The player encounters more than fifteen types of enemy , not including level bosses . Some are easy to destroy ; others , including the fire creatures found on the Iridion home world , are indestructible and must be avoided . Other enemies prevent the player from dodging enemy fire by laying mines to block paths . Passive objects , such as garbage or asteroids , can damage or destroy the player 's craft . Enemies vary in armor and weaponry — some cannot return fire but travel in waves to ram the player . Each level has the player follow a linear path through waves of enemies and culminates with a boss . In boss stages the player 's craft does not move forward , but hovers in front of the boss . Each boss has a single vulnerability which flashes when hit . These areas are often heavily shielded and must be hit repeatedly to remove armor . Other bosses ' vulnerabilities are hidden and appear for only short periods . Most bosses have weapons that fire upon the player or reflect the player 's shots . At the end of each level , players receive bonuses for defeated enemies , lives remaining , and the energy level of the player 's craft . An extra life is granted if the score reaches certain thresholds . Iridion 3D features five types of weapons , with three levels of power each . Players boost weapon power by collecting powerups of the color that matches the current weapon . Collecting a different color gives the player the first level of that weapon type . If the player 's ship is destroyed the power level of the weapon is reduced by one . Each weapon has advantages and disadvantages . The player starts with the red weapon , which is relatively weak but fires rapidly in a large spread . Green weapons are inaccurate but fill the screen with shots . Purple weapons spin in a counterclockwise motion slowly and are fairly strong . Yellow torpedo @-@ like weapons are very powerful but powerups are rare and the weapon fires slowly . Blue weapons , a more powerful version of Yellow weapons , are found only on the last level . Flashing powerups restore the craft 's shields . = = Plot = = In the opening cinematic of Iridion 3D Earth is attacked without warning by the Iridion , who take over much of the surface and lay mines in orbit and bombs in the Pacific Ocean . The player is the pilot of an experimental SHN fighter , the last hope for defending Earth from the Iridion . The player pilots his ship alone against hordes of Iridion fighters and natural obstacles . The early stages begin on Earth , with the player fighting through an Iridion garbage tunnel . The player proceeds to the Pacific Ocean and destroys much of the Iridion invasion fleet on Earth before heading into the stratosphere to destroy the orbital blockade around Earth and subsequently annihilating the Iridion boss at the Moon . With the invasion fleet in ruins , the player heads into the far reaches of space . After destroying an Iridion mining colony within an asteroid belt , the player proceeds into the Iridion home system . Eventually the player fights the Iridion on their home world , destroying the Iridion " mainframe " and ending the alien threat forever . = = Development = = Iridion started development as a shooter for the Game Boy Color ; on January 10 , 2001 , Shin 'en announced they would stop making games for the Color , instead working on games exclusively for the Game Boy Advance . Iridion 's executive producer was Dan Kitchen , a former programmer for Atari . Iridion 3D was Shin 'en 's first product to utilize the GAX Sound Engine , which allowed real @-@ time decoding of song data in an extremely small file size ; this allowed more space on the cartridge to be used for graphics . Although advertised as a 3D game , Iridion 3D uses solely 2D graphics for texture scrolling and sprites which depict explosions and enemies . The developers create the illusion of 3D by looping background textures — a graphically intensive technique for the Game Boy Advance . Graphical objects shrink or enlarge to depict position relative to the player . Level environments feature changes such as progression from day to night . Kitchen , Majesco 's vice president of handhelds , wrote that " by pushing the graphics hardware of the Game Boy Advance to its technical limits , Iridion 3D provides a truly realistic 3D gaming experience . " He hoped that " players will be amazed that such smooth environments and intense gameplay can now be achieved on a portable system . " By March 2001 , the GBA version of Iridion was shown in workable form . IGN saw early screens and declared that Iridion was " aiming to set the standard [ of what GBA shooters should be ] ... Set the standard with a hail of bullets . " They felt Shin 'en was pushing the Game Boy Advance to its limits , producing the most stunning game seen at the time for the handheld system . GameSpot 's Ben Stahl previewed Iridion 3D on March 21 , 2001 , shortly before the release of the game in the United States . He noted the excellent graphics and high frame rate , ending with " At this point , Iridion 3D looks like it could be a great game for fans of the genre . " = = Reception = = Despite praise for its graphics and sound , Iridion 3D was received mixed reviews from critics ; the game received 53 % and 57 % ratings on review aggregate web sites Metacritic and Game Rankings , respectively . The graphics were almost universally praised . Andrew Bub of GameSpy asserted that Nintendo should have used Iridion to advertise the Game Boy Advance , as it took full advantage of the system 's power . A year after its release , TechTV 's Miguel Concepcion argued it was still the best @-@ looking game for the system . Miguel Lopez of GameSpot lauded the graphics , writing that " while it 's ultimately all smoke and mirrors , Iridion 's world is richly detailed , has remarkable depth , and is unbelievably fluid . It 's often hard to tell if the game 's backgrounds are composed of streaming full motion video or just some really fancy math @-@ powered 2D bitmaps . " In contrast to praise for Iridion 's graphics , its actual gameplay was generally panned . IGN 's Craig Harris wrote that " Shin 'en 's shooter for the Game Boy Advance will impress with all its effects , but that 's about it . " He noted that the player is limited to shooting and dodging , making gameplay repetitive . Harris and Concepcion complained that on a small screen distances are hard to judge ; the player 's ship is hit by bullets that appear to be in the distance . Bub and Game Informer 's Jay Fitzloff criticized the craft placement , as the player 's view was often obscured by their own ship . Lopez also gave Iridion low marks , warning that " after the initial ' wow ' wears off , you 'll be stuck with an empty experience . " Edge observed that Iridion is " a sweet number that will entertain , if only for a week or so " . Allgame 's Skyler Miller said Iridion 3D was nothing more than a technology demo and awarded it two out of five stars . A more positive review came from GamePro , whose reviewer summed up his experience by writing that " if you 're looking for some classic shooter action on your new GBA , Iridion 3D will fit the bill nicely without blowing you away . " Positive comments were usually directed at sound ; WiredLounge.com said that " The soundtrack is an instant classic , maybe even one of the best shooter scores ever . " Concepcion noted that the game 's mood @-@ fitting " high energy techno " was an oddity coming from a German game company . Despite poor reviews , Shin 'en 's Manfred Linzner felt that Iridion 3D was the best game for the Game Boy Advance without licensed characters . = La Blanca , Peten = La Blanca is a Maya archaeological site in the municipality of Melchor de Mencos in the northern Petén Department of Guatemala . The site is located in the lower reaches of the Mopan River valley and features a large acropolis complex . Activity at the site has been dated as far back as the Early Classic ( AD 250 – 600 ) , with principal occupation of the site occurring in the Late Classic period ( AD 600 – 900 ) , although some level of occupation continued into the Early Postclassic ( AD 900 – 1200 ) . La Blanca occupied a frontier zone between the northeastern and southeastern Petén regions and the site is dominated by the acropolis , an especially well built palace complex . The city appears to have been an administrative centre with comparatively little emphasis upon religious or ceremonial activity . It is likely that La Blanca was a subsidiary of a major Maya city such as Yaxha or Naranjo , given the complete absence of hieroglyphic texts and sculpted monuments , and archaeologists presume that La Blanca served as a frontier post or trading centre . During the Late Classic there was greater public access to the acropolis ; as the threat of warfare grew during the Terminal Classic ( AD 800 @-@ 900 ) , access became much more restricted . The end of formal occupation of the city in the Terminal Classic appears to have been violent , with evidence of a battle recovered during excavations of the acropolis . Refugees appear to have occupied the city centre immediately after the collapse of formal settlement at La Blanca , but they abandoned the city for good in the 11th century , after which it was never reoccupied . The acropolis buildings contain inscribed graffiti dating to the last phase of occupation in the Early Postclassic , including human and animal figures , deities , temples and courtly scenes . Colonial graffiti is also evident from the visit to the ruins by captain Pedro Montañés in the middle of the 18th century . = = Location = = La Blanca is accessed by a dirt road leading 17 kilometres ( 11 mi ) to the highway linking Flores with Melchor de Mencos ; the dirt road joins the highway at La Pólvora . In the other direction this road leads approximately 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to a village , also called La Blanca ; this modern village extends along the shores of a small lake . The archaeological site is located to the south of a range of hills reaching a maximum height of 490 metres ( 1 @,@ 610 ft ) . The site occupies a small pocket of forest amongst an extensive region of cleared agricultural land . The agricultural land closest to the ruins is largely dedicated to livestock grazing , particularly cattle and horses . La Blanca is located close to the Mopan River and its tributary , the Salsipuedes River . Some of the land between the ruins and the rivers is subject to frequent flooding , a factor that must have had some impact upon the inhabitants of the city . The forest covering the archaeological site reaches an average height of 22 metres ( 72 ft ) . It contains around 60 tree species , among which the most notable are breadnut trees ( Brosimum alicastrum ) and corozo palms ( Orbignya cohune ) . = = History = = The earliest occupation at La Blanca was concentrated in the South Group and dates to the Early Classic Period . However , major occupation of the site appears to have begun in the Late Classic Period . Public spaces were covered with white stucco and the first architecture was erected at the site . The basal platform of the acropolis appears to have been built before the Great North Plaza was laid out . In the Late Classic there appears to have been greater public access to the acropolis , with stairways communicating between the various terraces leading up to the south range . During the Terminal Classic , these stairways were filled in , as were many of the access doorways to the acropolis itself , with some buildings being sealed completely . This closing of public access to the palace reflects the greater political instability engulfing the entire Petén region at this time . The acropolis complex was abandoned by the city 's elite in the Terminal Classic , a time when most of the city centre was also deserted by its residents . Many flint projectile points were recovered from the south terraces of the acropolis , this combined with the remains of two individuals very near the surface indicates that a violent confrontation took place around the time that the city was abandoned . Soon afterwards , at the dawn of the Postclassic , immediately after the Classic Maya collapse , the acropolis was reoccupied by refugees from the periphery of the city . These final occupants appear to have abandoned the city some time in the 11th century AD , after which it was never reoccupied . = = = Modern history = = = In the 18th century Pedro Montañés passed through the site and left graffiti with his name and the year 1752 . Archives have revealed that he was a Spanish captain who visited the site on 14 August of that year . La Blanca was first documented in the early years of the 20th century . In 1905 explorer Teoberto Maler identified visible architecture at the site and marked it as El Castillito on a map of the region . Raymond E. Merwin visited La Blanca in 1913 on behalf of the Peabody Museum of Harvard University . He photographed the site and renamed it as Chac @-@ Ha . At this time the site appears to have been covered in dense vegetation , making exploration of the ruins difficult and resulting in only a brief description of the acropolis . Ian Graham published a plan of the site in 1980 , based on explorations in preceding years . Further explorations have taken place on behalf of the Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala and the Yaxha @-@ Nakum @-@ Naranjo Project . The Yaxha @-@ Nakum @-@ Naranjo Project started work at the site in 1994 with preliminary work consisted of mapping and photographing the ruins . In 1995 the ruins were cleared of undergrowth and in 1996 the Unidad de Arquelogía Regional de Guatemala ( Guatemalan Regional Archaeology Unit ) surveyed the ruins , recorded damage by looters and sank test pits , all under the direction of Vilma Fialko . From 1997 to 1998 looting damage was repaired and architecture deemed at risk of collapse was underpinned . In 1999 further underpinning work was undertaken as a result of earthquake damage and detailed plans were made of the architecture in 2000 . The Atlas Arqueológico de Guatemala included La Blanca in its survey of three sites in the lower Mopan valley in 2001 . More recently , investigations have been funded by the Spanish Ministry of Culture together with the University of Valencia and the Polytechnic University of Valencia . Excavations continued in 2004 both in the city centre and in the South Group , where looting damage was recorded and repaired . = = Site description = = The site covers an area of about 26 hectares ( 64 acres ) and a great many structures have been identified by archaeologists . The principal architecture has been dated to the Late Classic period . The layout of the city is somewhat unusual in that the north @-@ south axis is oriented 12 ° west of north whereas most Maya cities have the major axis a similar amount east of north . The political and administrative functions were concentrated in the eastern portion of the city , which is taken to include the South Group , as evidenced by the superior architectural quality in these areas . The Great North Plaza is a large square @-@ plan plaza measuring 70 by 70 metres ( 230 by 230 ft ) . The Plaza was levelled by packing it with a clay @-@ based mud , work that took place in the Late Classic Period based on the evidence of ceramic and flint artefacts recovered during investigations . This clay mud conataining attapulgite was likely to have been brought to the city from the nearby swamps . Excavations in the plaza and close to the acropolis revealed the presence of a retaining wall probably related to the construction of the great platform supporting the acropolis itself . A 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) wide causeway runs south from the Plaza , running to the west of the acropolis and parallel to it . This causeway runs south for approximately 300 metres ( 980 ft ) to the South Group . The area west of the causeway contains a large number of smaller mounds and platforms and is believed to be an extensive residential area . This residential area includes three large plazas , the northern of which is divided from the Great North Plaza by a row of structures . A stairway may have led southwards from this down to the Central West Plaza , which is on the opposite side of the causeway from the Acropolis . The south side of the Central West Plaza is bordered by a 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft ) long structure that divides it from the South West Plaza . An area of smaller mounds extends further west and are believed to represent lesser residential districts of the city . The area to the east of the city drops away rapidly and lacks extensive settlement remains , perhaps due to periodic flooding by the Mopan and Salsipuedes rivers discouraging the occupation of the eastern zone . = = = Acropolis = = = The most important architectural complex is the acropolis , a palace with an enclosed courtyard located within the Great North Plaza . The acropolis is also known as the Quadrangle due to its layout . A series of terraces lead down from the acropolis to a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 16 @,@ 000 sq ft ) reservoir to the south , which appears to have been a private water source for the palace . The reservoir itself is now dried out . The acropolis was accessed via a wide stairway from the Great North Plaza . The form of the plaza and the acropolis are unusual , although similar complexes have been identified at Tayasal , Ixlú and Kinal . Excavations in the acropolis revealed the presence of at least two superimposed platforms built with finely dressed stone blocks and covered with good quality stucco flooring . At a later date the platforms and courtyard were covered with unworked stones bound with mortar and covered with another stucco floor . The two platforms were built in the Late Classic and appear to have been covered over in the Terminal Classic . The interior courtyard measures approximately 36 metres ( 118 ft ) on each side and was completely enclosed by the palace , creating a very private space within . The buildings on the north , west and south sides faced outwards away from the private courtyard , opening onto it only via a central doorway in each structure . The eastern structure was built at a later date , has two lateral doorways and was the only side to face directly onto the courtyard ; it highly may have been the residence of the city 's ruler . Entrance to the courtyard is from the exterior the acropolis via these central doorways on the north , south and west sides . Of these three entrances , the northern entrance appears to have been the main entrance to the acropolis complex . The south entrance was a more private entrance that opened from the acropolis onto the terraces leading down to the water source in that direction . The western entrance lead to the terrace 5 metres ( 16 ft ) above the causeway , providing a balcony with an excellent view across the city . The cut stone walls of the acropolis are of very high quality , constructed of large , finely cut blocks at times forming walls almost 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) thick , filled with rubble and mortar . The exterior faces of the walls are carefully dressed and the interior of good quality vaulted ceilings . Although such high quality work can be found in parts of major cities such as Tikal , its presence in a smaller site such as La Blanca is considered surprising by archaeologists . The walls facing the interior courtyard have been especially well preserved . During survey work at the arcopolis , archaeologists discovered a 13 @.@ 5 @-@ centimetre ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) long flint knife deliberately embedded in the interior of the north wall , it weighed 225 grams ( 7 @.@ 9 oz ) . The knife was embedded in the mortar of the infill with the blade pointing outwards , with three embedded decorations near the tip . Archaeologists believe the blade was deposited during rituals associated with the construction of the building . The outer eastern wall of the acropolis is especially well preserved , including a cornice 3 @.@ 8 metres ( 12 ft ) above the floor level of the building , which is 4 to 5 metres ( 13 to 16 ft ) above the plaza floor . The wall continued above the cornice for another 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) and this section probably supported a stucco frieze . The entire eastern face of the building measured 32 metres ( 105 ft ) long and stood 12 to 13 metres ( 39 to 43 ft ) above the level of the Great North Plaza . This wall was completely blank , without any doorways or other openings . The range structures on the other sides of the courtyards , all opening outwards away from it , consisted of a series of rooms of varying size . The height of the rooms from the palace floor to the top of the vaulting was generally about 6 metres ( 20 ft ) throughout the palace . The interior walls were originally painted red and black as demonstrated by surviving traces of pigment . The exterior facades of the range structures were originally decorated with sculpted stone friezes representing supernatural beings , fragments of which have been found amongst the collapsed rubble . The vaulted ceilings of the palace were skillflly constructed , with sides of equal length unlike in other sites in the Petén region where the sides of vaulted ceilings were often of different lengths . The vaulting is of exceptional height , reaching up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) . = = = = South range = = = = The south range measures 42 metres ( 138 ft ) long and divides the courtyard from the series of terraces to the south . The rooms of the south range include wide benches running their entire width , they measure 0 @.@ 75 metres ( 2 @.@ 5 ft ) high and still preserve their original stucco covering . The bench in Room 1 has a small step leading up to it . The walls of the rooms are relatively poorly preserved , although some parts still retain their stucco covering and traces of pigment , as well as inscribed graffiti . The lintels over the doors were crafted from sapodilla wood . Some of the south @-@ facing rooms have twin , symmetrically placed doorways , a style of architecture that is very unusual for a range structure in the Petén region . Examples are known from minor structures at Tikal but the closest corresponding architecture comes from the Puuc region of the northern Yucatán Peninsula , at cities such as Cacabxnuc , Chelemi , Xcorralche and Xkalachetzimin , although they differ in other particulars , such as the vaulting . Excavations immediately south of the south range uncovered part of a substructure consisting of a well @-@ preserved stucco @-@ covered talud wall and a stairway , these are thought to be the remains of a terrace platform . A portion of a second terrace talud wall was also uncovered . = = = West Group = = = Investigations of the West Group have revealed an occupation beginning in the Late Classic and reaching its maximum extent in the Terminal Classic . The construction methods used in the West Group were inferior to those of the acropolis , consisting of finely cut limestone blocks bound with an earth @-@ based mortar rather than the lime @-@ based mortar used in the palace complex . The platforms of the West Group appear to have supported perishable superstructures and some of these buildings may have been dedicated to craft production . The three main plazas of the West Group appear to have lacked stucco flooring and were instead covered with stone chippings . = = = South Group = = = The South Group is the furthest group from the centre to possess monumental architecture . The South Group is the oldest architectural group at La Blanca , with occupation dating as far back as the Early Classic . It has a slightly different orientation to the rest of the site , apparently due to its earlier construction . It consists of number of medium @-@ sized mounds that have been badly damaged by looters . The larger of the mounds are pyramids and there were also a number of other buildings . One of the mounds measures approximately 9 metres ( 30 ft ) high and was almost cut in half by a looters ' trench . Rescue operations uncovered ceramic remains dating to the Late Classic , including a piece bearing a fragment of hieroglyphic text . Excavations in 2008 revealed that one of these mounds was a temple pyramid with a well @-@ preserved central stairway . = = Graffiti = = The acropolis is also distinguished by a great quantity of graffiti inscribed onto the stucco interior walls of its rooms , some of which display a considerable level of artistic skill . The graffiti is believed to date to the last phase of occupation of the acropolis , during the Early Postclassic , and includes local fauna and human figures , some of which are playing musical instruments . Animals depicted in the graffiti include a deer , a turtle and a frog . Two human figures are depicted playing flutes , while other subjects include pyramid temples , courtly scenes , vulvas and supernatural beings . Analysis of pigment traces from the south range of the acropolis were carried out by the Polytechnic University of Valencia , they revealed a preference for mineral and vegetable pigments of local origin , perhaps collected from the nearby El Camalote hill . = = Artefacts = = Many of the artefacts excavated from the acropolis date from the transition from the Terminal Classic Period to the Early Postclassic , when the surrounding population appears to have occupied the abandoned palace . Excavations of the south range of the acropolis uncovered a great many potsherds ( roughly 11 @,@ 000 ) dating to the Terminal Classic , and about 150 pieces dating to the Early Postclassic . In the same building 150 stone artefacts were excavated together with hundreds of fragments of waste chippings . Fifteen incomplete ceramic figurines were also found , including zoomorphic figures and elite human figures with elaborate headdresses . One of these figurines was a whistle in the shape of an owl , identical to another found in an excavated rubbish heap in the acropolis courtyard . Both of these owl @-@ shaped whistles are very similar to a larger whistle found at Yaxha . A number of artefacts were recovered from the threshold of Room 3 of the south range , including a complete terminal classic ceramic vessel , a flint knife , some broken figurine fragments and some lithic fragments . In the area of the threshold of Room 4 in the south range a complete Early Postclassic tripod plate was recovered . Within Room 4 itself were found a further 70 broken pieces of Terminal Classic ceramics and 232 pieces dated to the Early Postclassic , and a greenstone axe among other finds . Many of the Postclassic fragments were from a tripod pitcher with zoomorph supports that archaeologists were largely able to reconstruct . Additionally , 798 Terminal Classic ceramic fragments were found during the exploration of the terraces immediately south of the acropolis , together with stone chippings and pieces of animal bones . Pits sunk within the courtyard of the acropolis revealed 5425 ceramic fragments , 22 fragments of zoomorphic figurines , together with stone and shell artefacts , animal bones and waste flint chips , all dated to the Terminal Classic . Analysis of artefacts from La Blanca has revealed an unusual and almost total absence of obsidian , while flint of various colours ( including red , pink , orange , brown , cream and grey ) is particularly common . = = Burials = = A human burial was found in Room 3 of the south range of the Acropolis . The remains were found lying on their right side facing towards the west , with arms bent . Preliminary investigation suggests that the remains are those of a young adult male with a height of approximately 1 @.@ 6 metres ( 5 @.@ 2 ft ) . The left hand side of the skull is deformed , perhaps as a result of either oxycephaly or plagiocephaly . = Oil shale = Oil shale , also known as kerogen shale , is an organic @-@ rich fine @-@ grained sedimentary rock containing kerogen ( a solid mixture of organic chemical compounds ) from which liquid hydrocarbons called shale oil ( not to be confused with tight oil — crude oil occurring naturally in shales ) can be produced . Shale oil is a substitute for conventional crude oil ; however , extracting shale oil from oil shale is more costly than the production of conventional crude oil both financially and in terms of its environmental impact . Deposits of oil shale occur around the world , including major deposits in the United States . Estimates of global deposits range from 4 @.@ 8 to 5 trillion barrels ( 760 × 10 ^ 9 to 790 × 10	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
single scene , the entire opening sequence with the song " Circle of Life " . Buena Vista Pictures Distribution president Dick Cook said the decision was made for such an approach because " we were all so taken by the beauty and majesty of this piece that we felt like it was probably one of the best four minutes of film that we 've seen " , and Don Hahn added that " Circle of Life " worked as a trailer as it " came off so strong , and so good , and ended with such a bang " . The trailer was released in November 1993 , accompanying The Three Musketeers in theaters , as only a third of The Lion King had been completed . Audience reaction was enthusiastic , causing Hahn to have some initial concerns as he became afraid of not living up to the expectations raised by the preview . Prior to the film 's release , Disney did 11 test screenings . Upon release , The Lion King was accompanied by an extensive marketing campaign which included tie @-@ ins with Burger King , Mattel , Kodak , Nestlé and Payless ShoeSource , and various merchandise , accounting 186 licensed products . In 1994 , Disney earned approximately $ 1 billion with products based on the film , with $ 214 million for Lion King toys during Christmas 1994 alone . = = = Home media = = = The Lion King was first released on VHS and laserdisc in the United States on March 3 , 1995 , under Disney 's " Masterpiece Collection " video series . The VHS tape contained a special preview for Walt Disney Pictures ' then @-@ upcoming animated film Pocahontas , in which the title character ( voiced by Judy Kuhn ) sings the musical number " Colors of the Wind " . In addition , Deluxe Editions of both formats were released . The VHS Deluxe Edition included the film , an exclusive lithograph of Rafiki and Simba ( in some editions ) , a commemorative " Circle of Life " epigraph , six concept art lithographs , another tape with the half @-@ hour TV show The Making of The Lion King , and a certificate of authenticity . The CAV laserdisc Deluxe Edition also contained the film , six concept art lithographs and The Making of The Lion King , and added storyboards , character design artwork , concept art , rough animation , and a directors ' commentary that the VHS edition did not have , on a total of four double sided discs . The VHS tape quickly became the best @-@ selling videotape of all time : 4 @.@ 5 million tapes were sold on the first day and ultimately sales totaled more than 30 million before these home video versions went into moratorium in 1997 . On October 7 , 2003 , the film was re @-@ released on VHS and released on DVD for the first time , titled The Lion King : Platinum Edition , as part of Disney 's Platinum Edition line of animated classic DVDs . The DVD release featured two versions of the film on the first disc , a remastered version created for the 2002 IMAX release and an edited version of the IMAX release purporting to be the original 1994 theatrical version . A second disc , with bonus features , was also included in the DVD release . The film 's soundtrack was provided both in its original Dolby 5 @.@ 1 track and in a new Disney Enhanced Home Theater Mix , making this one of the first Disney DVDs so equipped . By means of seamless branching , the film could be viewed either with or without a newly created scene – a short conversation in the film replaced with a complete song ( " The Morning Report " ) . A Special Collector 's Gift Set was also released , containing the DVD set , five exclusive lithographed character portraits ( new sketches created and signed by the original character animators ) , and an introductory book entitled The Journey . The Platinum Edition of The Lion King featured changes made to the film during its IMAX re @-@ release , including re @-@ drawn crocodiles in the " I Just Can 't Wait to Be King " sequence as well as other alterations . More than two million copies of the Platinum Edition DVD and VHS units were sold on the first day of release . A DVD boxed set of the three The Lion King films ( in two @-@ disc Special Edition formats ) was released on December 6 , 2004 . In January 2005 , the film , along with the sequels , went back into moratorium . Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment released the Diamond Edition of The Lion King on October 4 , 2011 . This marks the time that the film has been released in high @-@ definition Blu @-@ ray and on Blu @-@ ray 3D . The initial release was produced in three different packages : a two @-@ disc version with Blu @-@ ray and DVD ; a four @-@ disc version with Blu @-@ ray , DVD , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and digital copy ; and an eight @-@ disc box set that also includes the sequels The Lion King 2 : Simba 's Pride and The Lion King 1 ½ . A standalone single @-@ disc DVD release also followed on November 15 , 2011 . The Diamond Edition topped the Blu @-@ ray charts with over 1 @.@ 5 million copies sold . The film sold 3 @.@ 83 million Blu @-@ ray units in total , leading to a $ 101 @.@ 14 million income . = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = The Lion King earned $ 422 @,@ 783 @,@ 777 in North America and an $ 545 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 968 @,@ 483 @,@ 777 . It is currently the 29th highest @-@ grossing film , the sixth highest @-@ grossing animated film of all time worldwide and the third highest @-@ grossing film of Walt Disney Animation Studios ( behind Frozen and Zootopia ) . The film was also the highest @-@ grossing motion picture of 1994 worldwide . After its initial run , having earned $ 763 @.@ 4 million , it ranked as the second @-@ highest grossing film of all time worldwide , behind Jurassic Park . It held the record for the highest @-@ grossing animated feature film ( in North America , outside North America , and worldwide ) until it was surpassed by the computer animated Finding Nemo ( 2003 ) , Shrek 2 ( 2004 ) , Ice Age : Dawn of the Dinosaurs ( 2009 ) , and Toy Story 3 ( 2010 ) prior to the 2011 re @-@ release . With the earnings of the 3D run , The Lion King surpassed all the aforementioned films but Toy Story 3 to rank as the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing animated film worldwide — later downgraded to sixth after Frozen ( 2013 ) , Minions ( 2015 ) , and Zootopia ( 2016 ) — and it remains the highest @-@ grossing hand @-@ drawn animated film . It is also the biggest animated movie of the last 50 years in terms of estimated attendance . = = = = Original theatrical run = = = = The Lion King had a limited release in North America on June 15 , 1994 , playing in only two theaters , El Capitan Theater in Los Angeles and Radio City Music Hall in New York City . It still earned $ 1 @,@ 586 @,@ 753 across the weekend of June 17 – 19 , standing at the tenth place of the box office ranking . The average of $ 793 @,@ 377 per theater stands as the largest ever achieved during a weekend . The wide release followed on June 24 , 1994 , in 2 @,@ 550 screens . The digital surround sound of the film led many of those theaters to implement Dolby Laboratories ' newest sound systems . The Lion King grossed $ 40 @.@ 9 million – which at the time was the fourth biggest opening weekend earning ever and the highest sum for a Disney film – to top the weekend box office . It also earned a rare " A + " rating from CinemaScore . By the end of its theatrical run , in spring 1995 , it had earned $ 312 @,@ 855 @,@ 561 , being the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing 1994 film in North America behind Forrest Gump . Outside North America , it earned $ 455 @.@ 8 million during its initial run , for a worldwide total of $ 768 @.@ 6 million . Box Office Mojo estimates that the film sold over 74 million tickets in the US in its initial theatrical run . = = = = Re @-@ releases = = = = = = = = = IMAX and large @-@ format = = = = = The film was re @-@ issued on December 25 , 2002 for IMAX and large @-@ format theaters . Don Hahn explained that eight years after The Lion King got its original release , " there was a whole new generation of kids who haven 't really seen it , particularly on the big screen . " Given the film had already been digitally archived during production , the restoration process was easier , while also providing many scenes with enhancements that covered up original deficiencies . An enhanced sound mix was also provided , to as Hahn explained , " make the audience feel like they 're in the middle of the movie . " On its first weekend , The Lion King made $ 2 @.@ 7 million from 66 locations , a $ 27 @,@ 664 per theater average . This run ended with $ 15 @,@ 686 @,@ 215 on May 30 , 2003 . = = = = = 3D conversion = = = = = In 2011 , The Lion King was converted to 3D for a two @-@ week limited theatrical re @-@ issue and subsequent 3D Blu @-@ ray release . The film opened at the number one spot on Friday , September 16 , 2011 with $ 8 @.@ 9 million and finished the weekend with $ 30 @.@ 2 million , ranking number one at the box office . This made The Lion King the first re @-@ issue release to earn the number @-@ one slot at the American weekend box office since the re @-@ issue of Return of the Jedi in March 1997 . The film also achieved the fourth @-@ highest September opening weekend of all time . It held off very well on its second weekend , again earning first place at the box office with a 27 percent decline to $ 21 @.@ 9 million . Most box @-@ office observers had expected the film to fall about 50 percent in its second weekend and were also expecting Moneyball to be at first place . After its initial box @-@ office success , many theaters decided to continue to show the film for more than two weeks , even though its 3D Blu @-@ ray release was scheduled for two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half weeks after its theatrical release . In North America , the 3D re @-@ release ended its run in theaters on January 12 , 2012 with a gross $ 94 @,@ 242 @,@ 001 . Outside North America , it earned $ 83 @,@ 400 @,@ 000 . The successful 3D re @-@ release of The Lion King made Disney and Pixar plan 3D theatrical re @-@ releases of Beauty and the Beast , Finding Nemo , Monsters , Inc . , and The Little Mermaid during 2012 and 2013 . However , none of the re @-@ releases of the first three films achieved the enormous success of The Lion King 3D and theatrical re @-@ release of the The Little Mermaid was ultimately cancelled . In 2012 , Ray Subers of Box Office Mojo wrote that the reason why the 3D version of The Lion King succeeded was because , " the notion of a 3D re @-@ release was still fresh and exciting , and The Lion King ( 3D ) felt timely given the movie 's imminent Blu @-@ ray release . Audiences have been hit with three 3D re @-@ releases in the year since , meaning the novelty value has definitely worn off . " = = = Critical response = = = The Lion King was released to critical acclaim . On Rotten Tomatoes , the film holds a rating of 91 % , based on 113 reviews , with an average rating of 8 @.@ 3 out of 10 . It also ranked 56th on their " Top 100 Animation Movies " . The site 's critical consensus reads , " Emotionally stirring , richly drawn , and beautifully animated , The Lion King stands tall within Disney 's pantheon of classic family films . " On Metacritic , the film has a score of 83 out of 100 , based on 14 critics , indicating " universal acclaim " . CinemaScore reported that audiences gave the film a rare " A + " grade . Roger Ebert gave it 3 1 / 2 out of 4 @-@ stars and called the film " a superbly drawn animated feature " and , in his print review wrote , " The saga of Simba , which in its deeply buried origins owes something to Greek tragedy and certainly to Hamlet , is a learning experience as well as an entertainment . " On the television program Siskel & Ebert , the film was praised but received a mixed reaction when compared to previous Disney films . Ebert and his partner Gene Siskel both gave the film a " Thumbs Up " but Siskel said that it was not as good as earlier films such as Beauty and the Beast and was " a good film , not a great one " . Hal Hinson of The Washington Post called it " an impressive , almost daunting achievement " and felt that the film was " spectacular in a manner that has nearly become commonplace with Disney 's feature @-@ length animations " , but was less enthusiastic toward the end of his review saying , " Shakespearean in tone , epic in scope , it seems more appropriate for grown @-@ ups than for kids . If truth be told , even for adults it is downright strange . " Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised the film , writing that it " has the resonance to stand not just as a terrific cartoon but as an emotionally pungent movie " . Rolling Stone film critic Peter Travers praised the film and felt that it was " a hugely entertaining blend of music , fun and eye @-@ popping thrills , though it doesn 't lack for heart " . James Berardinelli from ReelViews praised the film saying , " With each new animated release , Disney seems to be expanding its already @-@ broad horizons a little more . The Lion King is the most mature ( in more than one sense ) of these films , and there clearly has been a conscious effort to please adults as much as children . Happily , for those of us who generally stay far away from ' cartoons ' , they have succeeded . " Some reviewers still had problems with the film 's narrative . The staff of TV Guide wrote that while The Lion King was technically proficient and entertaining , it " offers a less memorable song score than did the previous hits , and a hasty , unsatisfying dramatic resolution . " The New Yorker 's Terrence Rafferty considered that despite the good animation , the story felt like " manipulat [ ing ] our responses at will " , as " Between traumas , the movie serves up soothingly banal musical numbers and silly , rambunctious comedy " . = = = Accolades = = = The Lion King received four Golden Globe and Academy Award nominations . The film would go on to win two Golden Globes ; for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy and Best Original Score , as well as two Academy Awards , for Best Original Score ( Hans Zimmer ) and Best Original Song with " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " by Elton John and Tim Rice . The songs " Circle of Life " and " Hakuna Matata " were also nominated . " Can You Feel the Love Tonight " also won the Grammy Award for Best Male Vocal Performance . The Lion King also won Annie Awards for Best Animated Feature , Best Achievement in Voice Acting ( for Jeremy Irons ) and Best Individual Achievement for Story Contribution in the Field of Animation . At the Saturn Awards , the film was nominated in two categories , Best Fantasy Film and Best Performance by a Younger Actor although it did not win in either category . The film also received two nominations at the British Academy Film Awards , for Best Sound as well as the Anthony Asquith Award for Film Music although it lost in both categories to Speed and Backbeat respectively . The film received two BMI Film & TV Awards for Film Music and Most Performed Song with " Can You Feel the Love Tonight . " At the 1995 MTV Movie Awards the film received nominations for Best Villain and Best Song , though it lost in both categories . The Lion King won the Kids ' Choice Award for Favorite Movie at the 1995 Kids ' Choice Awards . In 2008 , The Lion King was ranked as the 319th greatest film ever made by Empire magazine , and in June 2011 , TIME named it one of " The 25 All @-@ TIME Best Animated Films " . In June 2008 , the American Film Institute listed The Lion King as the fourth best film in the animation genre in its AFI 's 10 Top 10 list , having previously put " Hakuna Matata " as 99th on its AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Songs ranking . = = = Controversies = = = Certain elements of the film were considered to bear a resemblance to a 1960s Japanese anime television show , Jungle Emperor ( known as Kimba the White Lion in the United States ) , with characters having similar analogues , and various individual scenes being similar in composition to the show . Matthew Broderick believed initially that he was in fact working on an American version of Kimba , since he was familiar with the Japanese original . However The Lion King director , Roger Allers , claimed he was unfamiliar with the show : The whole time I worked on The Lion King the name of that show never came up . At least I never heard it . I had never seen the show and really only became aware of it as Lion King was being completed , and someone showed me images of it . I worked with George Scribner and Linda Woolverton to develop the story in the early days but then left to help out on Aladdin . If one of them were familiar with Kimba they didn ’ t say . Of course , it ’ s possible ... Many story ideas developed and changed along the way , always just to make our story stronger . I could certainly understand Kimba ’ s creators feeling angry if they felt we had stolen ideas from them . If I had been inspired by Kimba I would certainly acknowledge my inspiration . All I can offer is my respect to those artists and say that their creation has its loyal admirers and its assured place in animation history . Co @-@ director Rob Minkoff also claimed he was unfamiliar with it " I know for a fact that [ " Kimba " ] has never been discussed as long as I 've been on the project ... In my experience , if Disney becomes aware of anything like that , they say you will not do it . People are claiming copyright infringement all the time . " He also stated that whenever a story is based in Africa , it is " not unusual to have characters like a baboon , a bird or hyenas . " Yoshihiro Shimizu , of Tezuka Productions , which created Kimba the White Lion , has refuted rumours that the studio was paid hush money by Disney but explains that they rejected urges from within the industry to sue because , " we 're a small , weak company . It wouldn 't be worth it anyway ... Disney 's lawyers are among the top twenty in the world ! " Protests were raised against one scene where it appears as if the word " SEX " might have been embedded into the dust flying in the sky when Simba flops down , which conservative activist Donald Wildmon asserted was a subliminal message intended to promote sexual promiscuity . One of the animators , Tom Sito , has stated that the letters spell " SFX " ( a common abbreviation for " special effects " ) , not with an " E " instead of the " F " , and were intended as an innocent " signature " created by the effects animation team . Hyena biologists protested against the animal 's portrayal : one hyena researcher sued Disney studios for defamation of character , and another — who had organized the animators ' visit to the University of California 's Field Station for Behavioural Research , where they would observe and sketch captive hyenas — included boycotting The Lion King among the ways it would help preserve hyenas in the wild . The hyenas have also been interpreted to represent an anti @-@ immigrant allegory , where the hyenas would be black and Latino ethnic communities . The film has also been criticised for advancing a fascist narrative in its portrayal of the lion kingdom and the circle of life where " only the strong and the beautiful triumph , and the powerless survive only by serving the strong . " = = Legacy = = = = = Sequels and spin @-@ offs = = = The first Lion King @-@ related animated projects involved the characters of Timon and Pumbaa . First the duo starred in the animated short " Stand by Me " , featuring Timon singing the eponymous song , which was released in 1995 accompanying the theatrical release of Tom and Huck . Then the duo received their own animated show , The Lion King 's Timon and Pumbaa , which ran for three seasons and 85 episodes between 1995 and 1999 . Ernie Sabella continued to voice Pumbaa , while Timon was voiced by Quinton Flynn and Kevin Schon in addition to Nathan Lane . Disney released two direct @-@ to @-@ video films related to The Lion King . The first was sequel The Lion King II : Simba 's Pride , issued in 1998 on VHS . The film centers around Simba and Nala 's daughter , Kiara , who falls in love with Kovu , a male lion who was raised in a pride of Scar 's followers , the Outsiders . 2004 saw the release of another Lion King film on DVD , The Lion King 1 ½ . It is a prequel in showing how Timon and Pumbaa met each other , and also a parallel in that it also depicts what the characters were retconned to have done during the events of the original movie . In June 2014 , it was announced that a new TV series based on the film would be released called The Lion Guard , featuring Kion , the second @-@ born cub of Simba and Nala . It was first broadcast on Disney Channel as a television film titled The Lion Guard : Return of the Roar in November 2015 before airing as a series on Disney Junior in January 2016 . = = = Video games = = = Along with the film release , three different video games based on The Lion King were released by Virgin Interactive in December 1994 . The main title was developed by Westwood Studios , and published for PC and Amiga computers and the consoles SNES and Sega Mega Drive / Genesis . Dark Technologies created the Game Boy version , while Syrox Developments handled the Master System and Game Gear version . The film and sequel Simba 's Pride later inspired another game , Torus Games ' The Lion King : Simba 's Mighty Adventure ( 2000 ) for the Game Boy Color and PlayStation . Timon and Pumbaa also appeared in Timon & Pumbaa 's Jungle Games , a 1995 PC game collection of puzzle games by 7th Level , later ported to the SNES by Tiertex . The Square Enix series Kingdom Hearts features Simba as a recurring summon , as well as a playable in the Lion King world , known as Pride Lands , in Kingdom Hearts II . There the plotline is loosely related to the later part of the original film , with all of the main characters except Zazu and Sarabi . The Lion King also provides one of the worlds featured in the 2011 action @-@ adventure game Disney Universe , and Simba was featured in the Nintendo DS title Disney Friends ( 2008 ) . = = = Stage adaptations = = = Walt Disney Theatrical produced a musical stage adaptation of the same name , which premiered in Minneapolis , Minnesota in July 1997 , and later opened on Broadway in October 1997 at the New Amsterdam Theatre . The Lion King musical was directed by Julie Taymor and featured songs from both the movie and Rhythm of the Pride Lands , along with three new compositions by Elton John and Tim Rice . Mark Mancina did the musical arrangements and new orchestral tracks . The musical became one of the most successful in Broadway history , winning six Tony Awards including Best Musical , and despite moving to the Minskoff Theatre in 2006 , is still running to this day in New York , becoming the third longest @-@ running show and highest grossing Broadway production in history . The show 's financial success led to adaptations all over the world . The Lion King inspired two attractions retelling the story of the film at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts . The first , " The Legend of the Lion King " , featured a recreation of the film through life size puppets of its characters , and ran from 1994 to 2002 at Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World . Another that is still running is the live @-@ action 30 @-@ minute musical revue of the movie , " Festival of the Lion King " , which incorporates the musical numbers into gymnastic routines with live actors , along with animatronic puppets of Simba and Pumba and a costumed actor as Timon . The attraction opened in April 1998 at Disney World 's Animal Kingdom , and in September 2005 in Hong Kong Disneyland 's Adventureland . A similar version under the name " The Legend of the Lion King " was featured in Disneyland Paris from 2004 to 2009 . = Jingle All the Way = Jingle All the Way is a 1996 American Christmas family comedy film directed by Brian Levant and starring Arnold Schwarzenegger and Sinbad , with Phil Hartman , Rita Wilson , Jake Lloyd , James Belushi and Robert Conrad . The plot focuses on two rival fathers , workaholic Howard Langston ( Schwarzenegger ) and stressed out postal worker Myron Larabee ( Sinbad ) , both desperately trying to get a Turbo @-@ Man action figure for their respective sons on a last minute shopping spree on Christmas Eve . Inspired by real @-@ life Christmas toy sell @-@ outs for products such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers , the film was written by Randy Kornfield . Producer Chris Columbus rewrote the script , adding in elements of satire about the commercialization of Christmas , and the project was picked up by 20th Century Fox . Delays on Fox 's reboot of Planet of the Apes allowed Schwarzenegger to come on board the film , while Columbus opted to cast Sinbad ahead of Joe Pesci as Myron . Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities of Minneapolis and Saint Paul at a variety of locations , including the Mall of America . After five weeks filming , production moved to California where scenes such as the end parade were shot . The film 's swift production meant merchandising was limited to a replica of the Turbo @-@ Man action figure used in the film . Although some critics felt the film was good family entertainment , it was met with a broadly negative response . Much criticism was attached to the film 's script , its focus on the commercialism of Christmas , Levant 's direction and Schwarzenegger 's performance . Nevertheless , it proved a success at the box office , generating $ 129 million worldwide . In 2001 , Fox was ordered to pay $ 19 million to Murray Hill Publishing for stealing the idea for the film ; the verdict was overturned three years later . = = Plot = = Howard Langston ( Arnold Schwarzenegger ) is a workaholic mattress salesman , who can 't find time for his wife , Liz ( Rita Wilson ) , and his 9 @-@ year @-@ old son , Jamie ( Jake Lloyd ) — especially when compared to next door " superdad " divorcee , Ted Maltin ( Phil Hartman ) , who continually puts Howard in a bad light . After missing Jamie 's karate class graduation , Howard resolves to redeem himself by fulfilling Jamie 's ultimate Christmas wish : getting an action figure of Turbo @-@ Man , a popular children 's TV superhero toy that every kid wants . Along the way , Howard meets Myron Larabee ( Sinbad ) , a postal worker dad with a rival ambition , and the two soon become bitter competitors in their race for the action figure . During his search , Howard repeatedly runs into Officer Alexander Hummell ( Robert Conrad ) , a police officer who had earlier pulled him over for a traffic violation . After several failed attempts to find the toy in a store , Howard attempts to buy a Turbo @-@ Man from a Mall of America Santa ( James Belushi ) who is actually the leader of a band of counterfeit toy makers . When he accuses the Santa of undermining the values of Christmas , Howard ends up in a brawl with the gang . He narrowly escapes when the police raid their warehouse and gets out by posing as an undercover detective using a toy badge . Later , Howard and Myron cross paths again , and while they are drinking coffee at Mickey 's Diner , Myron tells Howard about the time when his father was unable to get him a Johnny Seven OMA toy on Christmas . They hear on the KQRS radio station that the D.J. ( Martin Mull ) is running a Turbo @-@ Man competition . When they get to the studio they find out they can only win a gift certificate . They are nearly arrested but Myron bluffs the police into backing off by threatening them with a package ( which he claims is a mail bomb , unaware that it really is one ) . Officer Hummell tries to open it and it blows up in his face . After his car is stripped by thieves , Howard is ultimately forced to return home empty @-@ handed . Upon seeing Ted in his house placing the star on his tree , Howard gets angry and attempts to steal the Turbo @-@ Man doll from Ted 's house that he had bought for his son Johnny ( E.J. De La Pena ) , but changes his mind at the last moment . He is attacked by Ted 's pet reindeer and the commotion leads him to be caught by Ted and a distraught Liz . Liz and Jamie leave for the local Wintertainment Parade with Ted ; Howard follows , aiming to make amends . At the parade , Ted makes a pass at Liz , but after seeing what he really is , she turns him down by hitting him with a thermos of eggnog . Howard runs into a bandaged Officer Hummell and accidentally drenches him with hot coffee . In the ensuing chase , Howard runs into a preparations room for the parade and is mistaken for a replacement for the actor who will play Turbo @-@ Man on a parade float . As the " real " Turbo @-@ Man , he presents the coveted limited @-@ edition Turbo @-@ Man doll to his awed son . Before he recognizes his father , Jamie is chased by Myron , who has dressed as Turbo @-@ Man 's arch enemy Dementor ( having caught and tied up the real actor — Richard Moll ) . As the crowd assume this is all part of the show , Howard attempts to rescue his son by utilizing the Turbo @-@ Man suit 's equipment . Howard catches Jamie as he falls from a roof and reveals himself to his son . Officer Hummell gives the doll to Jamie , then is shocked to discover that Howard was Turbo @-@ Man , then Howard apologies to Officer Hummell about everything . Myron is arrested while ranting about having to explain his failure to get the Turbo @-@ Man toy for his son . Touched by Myron 's words , Jamie gives the doll to him and tells Howard that he does not need it since his father is " the real Turbo @-@ Man " . Howard is then crowd surfed away as Liz , Jamie and Myron look on happily . In a post @-@ credits scene , Howard puts the star on the top of his tree and shares a great Christmas spirit with Jamie and Liz until he realizes he also forgot to get a present for Liz . Howard stares in shock at the camera before the fadeout . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The film draws inspiration from the high demand for Christmas toys such as the Cabbage Patch Kids and Mighty Morphin Power Rangers in the late 1980s and early 1990s , which often led to intense searching and occasional violence amongst shoppers . Randy Kornfield wrote the film 's original screenplay after witnessing his in @-@ laws go to a Santa Monica toy store at dawn in order to get his son a Power Ranger . While admitting to missing the clamor for the Cabbage Patch Kids and Power Rangers , producer Chris Columbus experienced a similar situation in 1995 when he attempted to obtain a Buzz Lightyear action figure from the film Toy Story , released that year . As a result , he rewrote Kornfield 's script , which was accepted by 20th Century Fox . Columbus was always " attracted to the dark side of the happiest holiday of the year " , so wrote elements of the film as a satire of the commercialization of Christmas . Brian Levant was hired to direct the film . Columbus said Levant " underst [ ood ] the humor in the material " and " was very animated and excited , and he had a vision of what he wanted to do " . Levant said " The story that was important to me was between the father and son ... it 's a story about love , and a father 's journey to deliver it in the form of a Turbo Man doll . The fact that I got to design a toy line and do the commercials and make pajamas and comic books was fun for me as a filmmaker . But at its root , the movie 's about something really sweet . It 's about love and building a better family . I think that 's consistent with everything I 've done . " Arnold Schwarzenegger was quickly cast . He became available in February 1996 after Fox 's remake of Planet of the Apes was held up again ; Columbus also exited that project to work on Jingle All the Way . The film marks Schwarzenegger 's fourth appearance as the lead in a comedy film , following Twins ( 1988 ) , Kindergarten Cop ( 1990 ) and Junior ( 1994 ) . Schwarzenegger was paid a reported $ 20 million for the role . He enjoyed the film , having experienced last @-@ minute Christmas shopping himself , and was attracted to playing an " ordinary " character in a family film . Columbus initially wanted Joe Pesci to play Myron . Comedian Sinbad was chosen instead , partly due to his similar height and size to Schwarzenegger . Sinbad was suggested for the part by Schwarzenegger 's agent , but the producers felt he was unsuited to the role of a villain as it could harm his clean , family @-@ oriented comedy act and reputation , although Sinbad felt the character would generate the audience 's sympathy rather than hate . Furthermore , he missed the audition due to his appearance with First Lady Hillary Clinton and musician Sheryl Crow on the USO tour of Bosnia and Herzegovina , but Columbus waited for him to return to allow him to audition and , although Sinbad felt he had " messed " it up , he was given the part . He improvised the majority of his lines in the film ; Schwarzenegger also improvised many of his responses in his conversations with Sinbad 's character . = = = Filming = = = Filming took place in Minnesota for five weeks from April 15 , 1996 ; at the time , it was the largest film production to ever take place in the state . Jingle All the Way was set and filmed in the Twin Cities metropolitan area of Minnesota at locations such as Bloomington 's Mall of America , Mickey 's Diner , downtown Minneapolis , Linden Hills , residential areas of Edina and primarily downtown Saint Paul . Unused shops in the Seventh Place Mall area were redecorated to resemble Christmas decorated stores , while the Energy Park Studios were used for much of the filming and the Christmas lights stayed up at Rice Park for use in the film . The Mall of America and the state 's " semi @-@ wintry weather " proved attractive for the studio . Although Schwarzenegger stated that the locals were " well @-@ behaved " and " cooperative " , Levant often found filming " impossible " due to the scale and noise of the crowds who came to watch production , especially in the Mall of America , but overall found the locals to be " respectful " and " lovely people . " Levant spent several months in the area before filming in order to prepare . The film uses artistic license by treating Minneapolis and Saint Paul as one city , as this was logistically easier ; the police are labeled " Twin Cities Police " in the film . Additionally , the city 's Holidazzle Parade is renamed the Wintertainment Parade and takes place on 2nd Avenue during the day , rather than Nicollet Mall at night . Levant wanted to film the parade at night but was overruled for practical reasons . The parade was filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood in California on the New York Street set , due to safety concerns . The set was designed to resemble 2nd Avenue ; the parade was shot from above by helicopters and stitched into matte shots of the real @-@ life street . It took three weeks to film , with 1 @,@ 500 extras being used in the scene , along with three custom designed floats . Other parts of the film to be shot in Los Angeles , California included store interiors , and the warehouse fight scene between Howard and the criminal Santas , for which a Pasadena furniture warehouse was used . Turbo @-@ Man was created and designed for the film . This meant the commercials and scenes from the Turbo @-@ Man TV series were all shot by Levant , while all of the Turbo @-@ Man merchandise , packaging and props shown in the film were custom made one @-@ offs and designed to look " authentic , as if they all sprang from the same well . " Along with Columbus and Levant , production designer Leslie McDonald and character designer Tim Flattery crafted Turbo @-@ Man , Booster and Dementor and helped make the full @-@ size Turbo @-@ Man suit for the film 's climax . Principal production finished in August ; Columbus " fine @-@ tun [ ed ] the picture until the last possible minute , " using multiple test audiences " to see where the big laughs actually lie . " = = Soundtrack = = TVT Records released the film 's soundtrack album on Audio CD on November 26 , 1996 . It features only two of composer David Newman 's pieces from Jingle All the Way , but features many of the songs by other artists included in the film , as well as other Christmas songs and new tracks by the Brian Setzer Orchestra . Intrada Music Group released a Special Collection limited edition of Newman 's full 23 @-@ track score on November 3 , 2008 . = = = Track listing = = = = = Release = = As Schwarzenegger only signed on for the film in February and the film was shot so quickly , only six and a half months were available for merchandising , instead of the ideal year . As such , merchandising was limited to a 13 @.@ 5 inch replica $ 25 Talking Turbo @-@ Man action figure and the West Coast exclusive Turbo @-@ Man Time Racer vehicle , while no tie @-@ in promotions could be secured . Despite this , several critics wrote that the film was only being made in order to sell the toy . Columbus dismissed this notion , stating that with only roughly 200 @,@ 000 Turbo @-@ Man toys being made , the merchandising was far less than the year 's other releases , such as Space Jam and 101 Dalmatians . The world premiere was held on November 16 , 1996 at the Mall of America in Bloomington where parts of the film were shot . A day of events was held to celebrate the film 's release and Schwarzenegger donated memorabilia from the film to the Mall 's Planet Hollywood . Opening in 2 @,@ 401 theaters on November 22 , Jingle All the Way made $ 12 @.@ 1 million in its first weekend , opening at # 4 behind Star Trek : First Contact , Space Jam and Ransom ; it went on to gross $ 129 million worldwide , recouping its $ 75 million budget . The film was released on VHS in October 1997 , and in November 1998 it was released on DVD . It was rereleased on DVD in December 2004 , followed by an extended director 's cut in October 2007 , known as the " Family Fun Edition " . It contained several minutes of extra footage , as well as other DVD extras such as a behind the scenes featurette . In December of the following year , the Family Fun Edition was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc . = = Reception = = The film received generally negative reviews from critics , garnering a 17 % " Rotten " rating at Rotten Tomatoes , with 35 negative reviews out of 42 counted . Emanuel Levy felt the film " highly formulaic " and criticized Levant 's direction as little more advanced than a television sitcom . Although he felt Hartman , Wilson and Conrad were not given much opportunity to shine due to the script , he opined that " Schwarzenegger has developed a light comic delivery , punctuated occasionally by an ironic one @-@ liner , " while " Sinbad has good moments " . Neil Jeffries of Empire disagreed , feeling Schwarzenegger to be " wooden " and Sinbad to be " trying desperately to be funnier than his hat " but praised Lloyd as the " saving grace " of the film . The New York Times critic Janet Maslin felt the film lacked any real plot , failed in its attempt at satire , should have included Myron 's only mentioned son and " mostly wasted " Hartman , while Levant 's direction was " listless " . Similarly , the BBC 's Neil Smith criticized the film 's script , its focus on the commercialization of Christmas , as well as Schwarzenegger 's performance which shows " the comic timing of a dead moose , " but singled out Hartman for praise . Chicago Tribune critic Michael Wilmington panned the film , wondering why the characters ( primarily Howard ) acted so illogically : " Howard Langston is supposed to be a successful mattress manufacturer , but the movie paints him as a hot @-@ tempered buffoon without a sensible idea in his head . " Jack Garner of USA Today condemned the film , finding it more " cynical " than satirical , stating " this painfully bad movie has been inspired strictly by the potential jingle of cash registers . " He wrote of Levant 's directorial failure as he " offers no ... sense of comic timing , " while " pauses in the midst of much of the dialogue are downright painful . " Trevor Johnston suggested that the film " seems to mark a point of decline in the Schwarzenegger career arc " and the anti @-@ consumerism message largely failed , with " Jim Belushi 's corrupt mall Santa with his stolen @-@ goods warehouse ... provid [ ing ] the film 's sole flash of dark humour . " IGN 's Mike Drucker praised its subject matter as " one of the few holiday movies to directly deal with the commercialization of Christmas " although felt the last twenty minutes of the film let it down , as the first hour or so had " some family entertainment " value if taken with a " grain of salt " . He concluded the film was " a member of the so @-@ corny @-@ its @-@ good genre , " while " Arnold delivers plenty of one @-@ liners ripe for sound board crank callers . " Jamie Malanowski of The New York Times praised the film 's satirical premise but felt it was " full of unrealized potential " because " the filmmakers [ wrongly ] equate mayhem with humor . " Roger Ebert gave the film two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars , writing that he " liked a lot of the movie " , which he thought had " energy " and humor which would have mass audience appeal . He was , though , disappointed by " its relentlessly materialistic view of Christmas , and by the choice to go with action and ( mild ) violence over dialogue and plot . " Kevin Carr of 7M Pictures concluded that while the film is not very good , as a form of family entertainment it is " surprisingly fun . " Brian Levant was nominated for the Razzie Award for Worst Director , but lost to Andrew Bergman for Striptease ; Sinbad , however , won the Blockbuster Entertainment Award for Favorite Supporting Actor in a Family film . = = Lawsuit = = In 1998 , Murray Hill Publishing sued 20th Century Fox for $ 150 @,@ 000 , claiming that the idea for the film was stolen from a screenplay they had purchased from high school teacher Brian Webster entitled Could This Be Christmas ? . They said the script had 36 similarities with Jingle All the Way , including the plot , dialogue and character names . Murray Hill President Bob Laurel bought the script from Webster in 1993 , and sent it to Fox and other studios in 1994 but received no response and claimed the idea was copied by Kornfield , who was Fox 's script reader . In 2001 , Fox were found guilty of stealing the idea and ordered to pay $ 19 million ( $ 15 million in damages and $ 4 million in legal costs ) to Murray Hill , with Webster to receive a portion . Laurel died a few months after the verdict , before receiving any of the money . On appeal , the damages figure was lowered to $ 1 @.@ 5 million , before the verdict itself was quashed in 2004 , with a judge deciding the idea was not stolen as Fox had bought Kornfield 's screenplay before he or anybody else at Fox had read Could This Be Christmas ? . = = Sequel = = A sequel , Jingle All the Way 2 , was released straight @-@ to @-@ DVD in December 2014 . Directed by Alex Zamm and produced by WWE Studios and 20th Century Fox , the film has a similar plot to the original , but is otherwise not connected and none of the original cast or characters returned . The lead roles were instead played by Larry the Cable Guy and Santino Marella . = Euclidean algorithm = In mathematics , the Euclidean algorithm , or Euclid 's algorithm , is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) of two numbers , the largest number that divides both of them without leaving a remainder . It is named after the ancient Greek mathematician Euclid , who first described it in Euclid 's Elements ( c . 300 BC ) . It is an example of an algorithm , a step @-@ by @-@ step procedure for performing a calculation according to well @-@ defined rules , and is one of the oldest algorithms in common use . It can be used to reduce fractions to their simplest form , and is a part of many other number @-@ theoretic and cryptographic calculations . The Euclidean algorithm is based on the principle that the greatest common divisor of two numbers does not change if the larger number is replaced by its difference with the smaller number . For example , 21 is the GCD of 252 and 105 ( 252 = 21 × 12 and 105 = 21 × 5 ) , and the same number 21 is also the GCD of 105 and 147 = 252 − 105 . Since this replacement reduces the larger of the two numbers , repeating this process gives successively smaller pairs of numbers until the two numbers become equal . When that occurs , they are the GCD of the original two numbers . By reversing the steps , the GCD can be expressed as a sum of the two original numbers each multiplied by a positive or negative integer , e.g. , 21 = 5 × 105 + ( − 2 ) × 252 . The fact that the GCD can always be expressed in this way is known as Bézout 's identity . The version of the Euclidean algorithm described above ( and by Euclid ) can take many subtraction steps to find the GCD when one of the given numbers is much bigger than the other . A more efficient version of the algorithm shortcuts these steps , instead replacing the larger of the two numbers by its remainder when divided by the smaller of the two ( with this version , the algorithm stops when reaching a zero remainder ) . With this improvement , the algorithm never requires more steps than five times the number of digits ( base 10 ) of the smaller integer . This was proven by Gabriel Lamé in 1844 , and marks the beginning of computational complexity theory . Additional methods for improving the algorithm 's efficiency were developed in the 20th century . The Euclidean algorithm has many theoretical and practical applications . It is used for reducing fractions to their simplest form and for performing division in modular arithmetic . Computations using this algorithm form part of the cryptographic protocols that are used to secure internet communications , and in methods for breaking these cryptosystems by factoring large composite numbers . The Euclidean algorithm may be used to solve Diophantine equations , such as finding numbers that satisfy multiple congruences according to the Chinese remainder theorem , to construct continued fractions , and to find accurate rational approximations to real numbers . Finally , it can be used as a basic tool for proving theorems in number theory such as Lagrange 's four @-@ square theorem and the uniqueness of prime factorizations . The original algorithm was described only for natural numbers and geometric lengths ( real numbers ) , but the algorithm was generalized in the 19th century to other types of numbers , such as Gaussian integers and polynomials of one variable . This led to modern abstract algebraic notions such as Euclidean domains . = = Background : greatest common divisor = = The Euclidean algorithm calculates the greatest common divisor ( GCD ) of two natural numbers a and b . The greatest common divisor g is the largest natural number that divides both a and b without leaving a remainder . Synonyms for the GCD include the greatest common factor ( GCF ) , the highest common factor ( HCF ) , and the greatest common measure ( GCM ) . The greatest common divisor is often written as gcd ( a , b ) or , more simply , as ( a , b ) , although the latter notation is also used for other mathematical concepts , such as two @-@ dimensional vectors . If gcd ( a , b ) = 1 , then a and b are said to be coprime ( or relatively prime ) . This property does not imply that a or b are themselves prime numbers . For example , neither 6 nor 35 is a prime number , since they both have two prime factors : 6 = 2 × 3 and 35 = 5 × 7 . Nevertheless , 6 and 35 are coprime . No natural number other than 1 divides both 6 and 35 , since they have no prime factors in common . Let g = gcd ( a , b ) . Since a and b are both multiples of g , they can be written a = mg and b = ng , and there is no larger number G > g for which this is true . The natural numbers m and n must be coprime , since any common factor could be factored out of m and n to make g greater . Thus , any other number c that divides both a and b must also divide g . The greatest common divisor g of a and b is the unique ( positive ) common divisor of a and b that is divisible by any other common divisor c . The GCD can be visualized as follows . Consider a rectangular area a by b , and any common divisor c that divides both a and b exactly . The sides of the rectangle can be divided into segments of length c , which divides the rectangle into a grid of squares of side length c . The greatest common divisor g is the largest value of c for which this is possible . For illustration , a 24 @-@ by @-@ 60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of : 1 @-@ by @-@ 1 squares , 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 squares , 3 @-@ by @-@ 3 squares , 4 @-@ by @-@ 4 squares , 6 @-@ by @-@ 6 squares or 12 @-@ by @-@ 12 squares . Therefore , 12 is the greatest common divisor of 24 and 60 . A 24 @-@ by @-@ 60 rectangular area can be divided into a grid of 12 @-@ by @-@ 12 squares , with two squares along one edge ( 24 / 12 = 2 ) and five squares along the other ( 60 / 12 = 5 ) . The GCD of two numbers a and b is the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers , where a same prime factor can be used multiple times , but only as long as the product of these factors divides both a and b . For example , since 1386 can be factored into 2 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 11 , and 3213 can be factored into 3 × 3 × 3 × 7 × 17 , the greatest common divisor of 1386 and 3213 equals 63 = 3 × 3 × 7 , the product of their shared prime factors . If two numbers have no prime factors in common , their greatest common divisor is 1 ( obtained here as an instance of the empty product ) , in other words they are coprime . A key advantage of the Euclidean algorithm is that it can find the GCD efficiently without having to compute the prime factors . Factorization of large integers is believed to be a computationally very difficult problem , and the security of many modern cryptography systems is based upon its infeasibility . Another definition of the GCD is helpful in advanced mathematics , particularly ring theory . The greatest common divisor g of two nonzero numbers a and b is also their smallest positive integral linear combination , that is , the smallest positive number of the form ua + vb where u and v are integers . The set of all integral linear combinations of a and b is actually the same as the set of all multiples of g ( mg , where m is an integer ) . In modern mathematical language , the ideal generated by a and b is the ideal generated by g alone ( an ideal generated by a single element is called a principal ideal , and all ideals of the integers are principal ideals ) . Some properties of the GCD are in fact easier to see with this description , for instance the fact that any common divisor of a and b also divides the GCD ( it divides both terms of ua + vb ) . The equivalence of this GCD definition with the other definitions is described below . The GCD of three or more numbers equals the product of the prime factors common to all the numbers , but it can also be calculated by repeatedly taking the GCDs of pairs of numbers . For example , gcd ( a , b , c ) = gcd ( a , gcd ( b , c ) ) = gcd ( gcd ( a , b ) , c ) = gcd ( gcd ( a , c ) , b ) . Thus , Euclid 's algorithm , which computes the GCD of two integers , suffices to calculate the GCD of arbitrarily many integers . = = Description = = = = = Procedure = = = The Euclidean algorithm proceeds in a series of steps such that the output of each step is used as an input for the next one . Let k be an integer that counts the steps of the algorithm , starting with zero . Thus , the initial step corresponds to k = 0 , the next step corresponds to k = 1 , and so on . Each step begins with two nonnegative remainders rk − 1 and rk − 2 . Since the algorithm ensures that the remainders decrease steadily with every step , rk − 1 is less than its predecessor rk − 2 . The goal of the kth step is to find a quotient qk and remainder rk that satisfy the equation <formula> and that have rk < rk − 1 . In other words , multiples of the smaller number rk − 1 are subtracted from the larger number rk − 2 until the remainder rk is smaller than rk − 1 . In the initial step ( k = 0 ) , the remainders r − 2 and r − 1 equal a and b , the numbers for which the GCD is sought . In the next step ( k = 1 ) , the remainders equal b and the remainder r0 of the initial step , and so on . Thus , the algorithm can be written as a sequence of equations <formula> If a is smaller than b , the first step of the algorithm swaps the numbers . For example , if a < b , the initial quotient q0 equals zero , and the remainder r0 is a . Thus , rk is smaller than its predecessor rk − 1 for all k ≥ 0 . Since the remainders decrease with every step but can never be negative , a remainder rN must eventually equal zero , at which point the algorithm stops . The final nonzero remainder rN − 1 is the greatest common divisor of a and b . The number N cannot be infinite because there are only a finite number of nonnegative integers between the initial remainder r0 and zero . = = = Proof of validity = = = The validity of the Euclidean algorithm can be proven by a two @-@ step argument . In the first step , the final nonzero remainder rN − 1 is shown to divide both a and b . Since it is a common divisor , it must be less than or equal to the greatest common divisor g . In the second step , it is shown that any common divisor of a and b , including g , must divide rN − 1 ; therefore , g must be less than or equal to rN − 1 . These two conclusions are inconsistent unless rN − 1 = g . To demonstrate that rN − 1 divides both a and b ( the first step ) , rN − 1 divides its predecessor rN − 2 rN − 2 = qN rN − 1 since the final remainder rN is zero. rN − 1 also divides its next predecessor rN − 3 rN − 3 = qN − 1 rN − 2 + rN − 1 because it divides both terms on the right @-@ hand side of the equation . Iterating the same argument , rN − 1 divides all the preceding remainders , including a and b . None of the preceding remainders rN − 2 , rN − 3 , etc. divide a and b , since they leave a remainder . Since rN − 1 is a common divisor of a and b , rN − 1 ≤ g . In the second step , any natural number c that divides both a and b ( in other words , any common divisor of a and b ) divides the remainders rk . By definition , a and b can be written as multiples of c : a = mc and b = nc , where m and n are natural numbers . Therefore , c divides the initial remainder r0 , since r0 = a − q0b = mc − q0nc = ( m − q0n ) c . An analogous argument shows that c also divides the subsequent remainders r1 , r2 , etc . Therefore , the greatest common divisor g must divide rN − 1 , which implies that g ≤ rN − 1 . Since the first part of the argument showed the reverse ( rN − 1 ≤ g ) , it follows that g = rN − 1 . Thus , g is the greatest common divisor of all the succeeding pairs : g = gcd ( a , b ) = gcd ( b , r0 ) = gcd ( r0 , r1 ) = … = gcd ( rN − 2 , rN − 1 ) = rN − 1 . = = = Worked example = = = For illustration , the Euclidean algorithm can be used to find the greatest common divisor of a = 1071 and b = 462 . To begin , multiples of 462 are subtracted from 1071 until the remainder is less than 462 . Two such multiples can be subtracted ( q0 = 2 ) , leaving a remainder of 147 : 1071 = 2 × 462 + 147 . Then multiples of 147 are subtracted from 462 until the remainder is less than 147 . Three multiples can be subtracted ( q1 = 3 ) , leaving a remainder of 21 : 462 = 3 × 147 + 21 . Then multiples of 21 are subtracted from 147 until the remainder is less than 21 . Seven multiples can be subtracted ( q2 = 7 ) , leaving no remainder : 147 = 7 × 21 + 0 . Since the last remainder is zero , the algorithm ends with 21 as the greatest common divisor of 1071 and 462 . This agrees with the gcd ( 1071 , 462 ) found by prime factorization above . In tabular form , the steps are = = = Visualization = = = The Euclidean algorithm can be visualized in terms of the tiling analogy given above for the greatest common divisor . Assume that we wish to cover an a @-@ by @-@ b rectangle with square tiles exactly , where a is the larger of the two numbers . We first attempt to tile the rectangle using b @-@ by @-@ b square tiles ; however , this leaves an r0 @-@ by @-@ b residual rectangle untiled , where r0 < b . We then attempt to tile the residual rectangle with r0 @-@ by @-@ r0 square tiles . This leaves a second residual rectangle r1 @-@ by @-@ r0 , which we attempt to tile using r1 @-@ by @-@ r1 square tiles , and so on . The sequence ends when there is no residual rectangle , i.e. , when the square tiles cover the previous residual rectangle exactly . The length of the sides of the smallest square tile is the GCD of the dimensions of the original rectangle . For example , the smallest square tile in the adjacent figure is 21 @-@ by @-@ 21 ( shown in red ) , and 21 is the GCD of 1071 and 462 , the dimensions of the original rectangle ( shown in green ) . = = = Euclidean division = = = At every step k , the Euclidean algorithm computes a quotient qk and remainder rk from two numbers rk − 1 and rk − 2 rk − 2 = qk rk − 1 + rk where the magnitude of rk is strictly less than that of rk − 1 . The theorem which underlies the definition of the Euclidean division ensures that such a quotient and remainder always exist and are unique . In Euclid 's original version of the algorithm , the quotient and remainder are found by repeated subtraction ; that is , rk − 1 is subtracted from rk − 2 repeatedly until the remainder rk is smaller than rk − 1 . After that rk and rk − 1 are exchanged and the process is iterated . Euclidean division reduces all the steps between two exchanges into a single step , which is thus more efficient . Moreover , the quotients are not needed , thus one may replace Euclidean division by the modulo operation , which gives only the remainder . Thus the iteration of the Euclidean algorithm becomes simply rk = rk − 2 mod rk − 1 . = = = Implementations = = = Implementations of the algorithm may be expressed in pseudocode . For example , the division @-@ based version may be programmed as function gcd ( a , b ) while b ≠ 0 t : = b ; b : = a mod b ; a : = t ; return a ; At the beginning of the kth iteration , the variable b holds the latest remainder rk − 1 , whereas the variable a holds its predecessor , rk − 2 . The step b : = a mod b is equivalent to the above recursion formula rk ≡ rk − 2 mod rk − 1 . The temporary variable t holds the value of rk − 1 while the next remainder rk is being calculated . At the end of the loop iteration , the variable b holds the remainder rk , whereas the variable a holds its predecessor , rk − 1 . In the subtraction @-@ based version which was Euclid 's original version , the remainder calculation ( b = a mod b ) is replaced by repeated subtraction . Contrary to the division @-@ based version , which works with arbitrary integers as input , the subtraction @-@ based version supposes that the input consists of positive integers and stops when a = b : function gcd ( a , b ) while a ≠ b if a > b a : = a − b ; else b : = b − a ; return a ; The variables a and b alternate holding the previous remainders rk − 1 and rk − 2 . Assume that a is larger than b at the beginning of an iteration ; then a equals rk − 2 , since rk − 2 > rk − 1 . During the loop iteration , a is reduced by multiples of the previous remainder b until a is smaller than b . Then a is the next remainder rk . Then b is reduced by multiples of a until it is again smaller than a , giving the next remainder rk + 1 , and so on . The recursive version is based on the equality of the GCDs of successive remainders and the stopping condition gcd ( rN − 1 , 0 ) = rN − 1 . function gcd ( a , b ) if b = 0 return a ; else return gcd ( b , a mod b ) ; For illustration , the gcd ( 1071 , 462 ) is calculated from the equivalent gcd ( 462 , 1071 mod 462 ) = gcd ( 462 , 147 ) . The latter GCD is calculated from the gcd ( 147 , 462 mod 147 ) = gcd ( 147 , 21 ) , which in turn is calculated from the gcd ( 21 , 147 mod 21 ) = gcd ( 21 , 0 ) = 21 . = = = Method of least absolute remainders = = = In another version of Euclid 's algorithm , the quotient at each step is increased by one if the resulting negative remainder is smaller in magnitude than the typical positive remainder . Previously , the equation rk − 2 = qk rk − 1 + rk assumed that \| rk − 1 \| > rk > 0 . However , an alternative negative remainder ek can be computed : rk − 2 = ( qk + 1 ) rk − 1 + ek if rk − 1 > 0 or rk − 2 = ( qk − 1 ) rk − 1 + ek if rk − 1 < 0 . If rk is replaced by ek. when \| ek \| < \| rk \| , then one gets a variant of Euclidean algorithm such that \| rk \| ≤ \| rk − 1 \| / 2 at each step . Leopold Kronecker has shown that this version requires the least number of steps of any version of Euclid 's algorithm . More generally , it has been proven that , for every input numbers a and b , the number of steps is minimal if and only if qk is chosen in order that <formula> where <formula> is the golden ratio . = = Historical development = = The Euclidean algorithm is one of the oldest algorithms in common use . It appears in Euclid 's Elements ( c . 300 BC ) , specifically in Book 7 ( Propositions 1 – 2 ) and Book 10 ( Propositions 2 – 3 ) . In Book 7 , the algorithm is formulated for integers , whereas in Book 10 , it is formulated for lengths of line segments . ( In modern usage , one would say it was formulated there for real numbers . But lengths , areas , and volumes , represented as real numbers in modern usage , are not measured in the same units and there is no natural unit of length , area , or volume ; the concept of real numbers was unknown at that time . ) The latter algorithm is geometrical . The GCD of two lengths a and b corresponds to the greatest length g that measures a and b evenly ; in other words , the lengths a and b are both integer multiples of the length g . The algorithm was probably not discovered by Euclid , who compiled results from earlier mathematicians in his Elements . The mathematician and historian B. L. van der Waerden suggests that Book VII derives from a textbook on number theory written by mathematicians in the school of Pythagoras . The algorithm was probably known by Eudoxus of Cnidus ( about 375 BC ) . The algorithm may even pre @-@ date Eudoxus , judging from the use of the technical term ἀνθυφαίρεσις ( anthyphairesis , reciprocal subtraction ) in works by Euclid and Aristotle . Centuries later , Euclid 's algorithm was discovered independently both in India and in China , primarily to solve Diophantine equations that arise in astronomy and making accurate calendars . In the late 5th century , the Indian mathematician and astronomer Aryabhata described the algorithm as the " pulverizer " , perhaps because of its effectiveness in solving Diophantine equations . Although a special case of the Chinese remainder theorem had already been described by Chinese mathematician and astronomer Sun Tzu , the general solution was published by Qin Jiushao in his 1247 book Shushu Jiuzhang ( 數書九章 Mathematical Treatise in Nine Sections ) . The Euclidean algorithm was first described in Europe in the second edition of Bachet 's Problèmes plaisants et délectables ( Pleasant and enjoyable problems , 1624 ) . In Europe , it was likewise used to solve Diophantine equations and in developing continued fractions . The extended Euclidean algorithm was published by the English mathematician Nicholas Saunderson , who attributed it to Roger Cotes as a method for computing continued fractions efficiently . In the 19th century , the Euclidean algorithm led to the development of new number systems , such as Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers . In 1815 , Carl Gauss used the Euclidean algorithm to demonstrate unique factorization of Gaussian integers , although his work was first published in 1832 . Gauss mentioned the algorithm in his Disquisitiones Arithmeticae ( published 1801 ) , but only as a method for continued fractions . Peter Gustav Lejeune Dirichlet seems to have been the first to describe the Euclidean algorithm as the basis for much of number theory . Lejeune Dirichlet noted that many results of number theory , such as unique factorization , would hold true for any other system of numbers to which the Euclidean algorithm could be applied . Lejeune Dirichlet 's lectures on number theory were edited and extended by Richard Dedekind , who used Euclid 's algorithm to study algebraic integers , a new general type of number . For example , Dedekind was the first to prove Fermat 's two @-@ square theorem using the unique factorization of Gaussian integers . Dedekind also defined the concept of a Euclidean domain , a number system in which a generalized version of the Euclidean algorithm can be defined ( as described below ) . In the closing decades of the 19th century , the Euclidean algorithm gradually became eclipsed by Dedekind 's more general theory of ideals . Other applications of Euclid 's algorithm were developed in the 19th century . In 1829 , Charles Sturm showed that the algorithm was useful in the Sturm chain method for counting the real roots of polynomials in any given interval . The Euclidean algorithm was the first integer relation algorithm , which is a method for finding integer relations between commensurate real numbers . Several novel integer relation algorithms have been developed , such as the algorithm of Helaman Ferguson and R.W. Forcade ( 1979 ) and the LLL algorithm . In 1969 , Cole and Davie developed a two @-@ player game based on the Euclidean algorithm , called The Game of Euclid , which has an optimal strategy . The players begin with two piles of a and b stones . The players take turns removing m multiples of the smaller pile from the larger . Thus , if the two piles consist of x and y stones , where x is larger than y , the next player can reduce the larger pile from x stones to x − my stones , as long as the latter is a nonnegative integer . The winner is the first player to reduce one pile to zero stones . = = Mathematical applications = = = = = Bézout 's identity = = = Bézout 's identity states that the greatest common divisor g of two integers a and b can be represented as a linear sum of the original two numbers a and b . In other words , it is always possible to find integers s and t such that g = sa + tb . The integers s and t can be calculated from the quotients q0 , q1 , etc. by reversing the order of equations in Euclid 's algorithm . Beginning with the next @-@ to @-@ last equation , g can be expressed in terms of the quotient qN − 1 and the two preceding remainders , rN − 2 and rN − 3 : g = rN − 1 = rN − 3 − qN − 1 rN − 2 . Those two remainders can be likewise expressed in terms of their quotients and preceding remainders , rN − 2 = rN − 4 − qN − 2 rN − 3 and rN − 3 = rN − 5 − qN − 3 rN − 4 . Substituting these formulae for rN − 2 and rN − 3 into the first equation yields g as a linear sum of the remainders rN − 4 and rN − 5 . The process of substituting remainders by formulae involving their predecessors can be continued until the original numbers a and b are reached : r2 = r0 − q2 r1 r1 = b − q1 r0 r0 = a − q0 b . After all the remainders r0 , r1 , etc. have been substituted , the final equation expresses g as a linear sum of a and b : g = sa + tb . Bézout 's identity , and therefore the previous algorithm , can both be generalized to the context of Euclidean domains . = = = Principal ideals and related problems = = = Bézout 's identity provides yet another definition of the greatest common divisor g of two numbers a and b . Consider the set of all numbers ua + vb , where u and v are any two integers . Since a and b are both divisible by g , every number in the set is divisible by g . In other words , every number of the set is an integer multiple of g . This is true for every common divisor of a and b . However , unlike other common divisors , the greatest common divisor is a member of the set ; by Bézout 's identity , choosing u = s and v = t gives g . A smaller common divisor cannot be a member of the set , since every member of the set must be divisible by g . Conversely , any multiple m of g can be obtained by choosing u = ms and v = mt , where s and t are the integers of Bézout 's identity . This may be seen by multiplying Bézout 's identity by m , mg = msa + mtb . Therefore , the set of all numbers ua + vb is equivalent to the set of multiples m of g . In other words , the set of all possible sums of integer multiples of two numbers ( a and b ) is equivalent to the set of multiples of gcd ( a , b ) . The GCD is said to be the generator of the ideal of a and b . This GCD definition led to the modern abstract algebraic concepts of a principal ideal ( an ideal generated by a single element ) and a principal ideal domain ( a domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal ) . Certain problems can be solved using this result . For example , consider two measuring cups of volume a and b . By adding / subtracting u multiples of the first cup and v multiples of the second cup , any volume ua + vb can be measured out . These volumes are all multiples of g = gcd ( a , b ) . = = = Extended Euclidean algorithm = = = The integers s and t of Bézout 's identity can be computed efficiently using the extended Euclidean algorithm . This extension adds two recursive equations to Euclid 's algorithm sk = sk − 2 − qksk − 1 tk = tk − 2 − qktk − 1 with the starting values s − 2 = 1 , t − 2 = 0 s − 1 = 0 , t − 1 = 1 . Using this recursion , Bézout 's integers s and t are given by s = sN and t = tN , where N + 1 is the step on which the algorithm terminates with rN + 1 = 0 . The validity of this approach can be shown by induction . Assume that the recursion formula is correct up to step k − 1 of the algorithm ; in other words , assume that rj = sj a + tj b for all j less than k . The kth step of the algorithm gives the equation rk = rk − 2 − qkrk − 1 . Since the recursion formula has been assumed to be correct for rk − 2 and rk − 1 , they may be expressed in terms of the corresponding s and t variables rk = ( sk − 2 a + tk − 2 b ) − qk ( sk − 1 a + tk − 1 b ) . Rearranging this equation yields the recursion formula for step k , as required rk = sk a + tk b = ( sk − 2 − qksk − 1 ) a + ( tk − 2 − qktk − 1 ) b . = = = Matrix method = = = The integers s and t can also be found using an equivalent matrix method . The sequence of equations of Euclid 's algorithm a = q0 b + r0 b = q1 r0 + r1 … rN − 2 = qN rN − 1 + 0 can be written as a product of 2 @-@ by @-@ 2 quotient matrices multiplying a two @-@ dimensional remainder vector <formula> Let M represent the product of all the quotient matrices <formula> This simplifies the Euclidean algorithm to the form <formula> To express g as a linear sum of a and b , both sides of this equation can be multiplied by the inverse of the matrix M. The determinant of M equals ( − 1 ) N + 1 , since it equals the product of the determinants of the quotient matrices , each of which is negative one . Since the determinant of M is never zero , the vector of the final remainders can be solved using the inverse of M <formula> Since the top equation gives g = ( − 1 ) N + 1 ( m22 a − m12 b ) , the two integers of Bézout 's identity are s = ( − 1 ) N + 1m22 and t = ( − 1 ) Nm12 . The matrix method is as efficient as the equivalent recursion , with two multiplications and two additions per step of the Euclidean algorithm . = = = Euclid 's lemma and unique factorization = = = Bézout 's identity is essential to many applications of Euclid 's algorithm , such as demonstrating the unique factorization of numbers into prime factors . To illustrate this , suppose that a number L can be written as a product of two factors u and v , that is , L = uv . If another number w also divides L but is coprime with u , then w must divide v , by the following argument : If the greatest common divisor of u and w is 1 , then integers s and t can be found such that 1 = su + tw . by Bézout 's identity . Multiplying both sides by v gives the relation v = suv + twv = sL + twv . Since w divides both terms on the right @-@ hand side , it must also divide the left @-@ hand side , v. This result is known as Euclid 's lemma . Specifically , if a prime number divides L , then it must divide at least one factor of L. Conversely , if a number w is coprime to each of a series of numbers a1 , a2 , … , an , then w is also coprime to their product , a1 × a2 × … × an . Euclid 's lemma suffices to prove that every number has a unique factorization into prime numbers . To see this , assume the contrary , that there are two independent factorizations of L into m and n prime factors , respectively L = p1p2 … pm = q1q2 … qn . Since each prime p divides L by assumption , it must also divide one of the q factors ; since each q is prime as well , it must be that p = q . Iteratively dividing by the p factors shows that each p has an equal counterpart q ; the two prime factorizations are identical except for their order . The unique factorization of numbers into primes has many applications in mathematical proofs , as shown below . = = = Linear Diophantine equations = = = Diophantine equations are equations in which the solutions are restricted to integers ; they are named after the 3rd @-@ century Alexandrian mathematician Diophantus . A typical linear Diophantine equation seeks integers x and y such that ax + by = c where a , b and c are given integers . This can be written as an equation for x in modular arithmetic : ax ≡ c mod b . Let g be the greatest common divisor of a and b . Both terms in ax + by are divisible by g ; therefore , c must also be divisible by g , or the equation has no solutions . By dividing both sides by c / g , the equation can be reduced to Bezout 's identity sa + tb = g where s and t can be found by the extended Euclidean algorithm . This provides one solution to the Diophantine equation , x1 = s ( c / g ) and y1 = t ( c / g ) . In general , a linear Diophantine equation has no solutions , or an infinite number of solutions . To find the latter , consider two solutions , ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) , where ax1 + by1 = c = ax2 + by2 or equivalently a ( x1 − x2 ) = b ( y2 − y1 ) . Therefore , the smallest difference between two x solutions is b / g , whereas the smallest difference between two y solutions is a / g . Thus , the solutions may be expressed as x = x1 − bu / g y = y1 + au / g . By allowing u to vary over all possible integers , an infinite family of solutions can be generated from a single solution ( x1 , y1 ) . If the solutions are required to be positive integers ( x > 0 , y > 0 ) , only a finite number of solutions may be possible . This restriction on the acceptable solutions allows some systems of Diophantine equations with more unknowns than equations to have a finite number of solutions ; this is impossible for a system of linear equations when the solutions can be any real number ( see Underdetermined system ) . = = = Multiplicative inverses and the RSA algorithm = = = A finite field is a set of numbers with four generalized operations . The operations are called addition , subtraction , multiplication and division and have their usual properties , such as commutativity , associativity and distributivity . An example of a finite field is the set of 13 numbers { 0 , 1 , 2 , … , 12 } using modular arithmetic . In this field , the results of any mathematical operation ( addition , subtraction , multiplication , or division ) is reduced modulo 13 ; that is , multiples of 13 are added or subtracted until the result is brought within the range 0 – 12 . For example , the result of 5 × 7 = 35 mod 13 = 9 . Such finite fields can be defined for any prime p ; using more sophisticated definitions , they can also be defined for any power m of a prime p m . Finite fields are often called Galois fields , and are abbreviated as GF ( p ) or GF ( p m ) . In such a field with m numbers , every nonzero element a has a unique modular multiplicative inverse , a − 1 such that aa − 1 = a − 1a ≡ 1 mod m . This inverse can be found by solving the congruence equation ax ≡ 1 mod m , or the equivalent linear Diophantine equation ax + my = 1 . This equation can be solved by the Euclidean algorithm , as described above . Finding multiplicative inverses is an essential step in the RSA algorithm , which is widely used in electronic commerce ; specifically , the equation determines the integer used to decrypt the message . Note that although the RSA algorithm uses rings rather than fields , the Euclidean algorithm can still be used to find a multiplicative inverse where one exists . The Euclidean algorithm also has other applications in error @-@ correcting codes ; for example , it can be used as an alternative to the Berlekamp – Massey algorithm for decoding BCH and Reed – Solomon codes , which are based on Galois fields . = = = Chinese remainder theorem = = = Euclid 's algorithm can also be used to solve multiple linear Diophantine equations . Such equations arise in the Chinese remainder theorem , which describes a novel method to represent an integer x . Instead of representing an integer by its digits , it may be represented by its remainders xi modulo a set of N coprime numbers mi : <formula> The goal is to determine x from its N remainders xi . The solution is to combine the multiple equations into a single linear Diophantine equation with a much larger modulus M that is the product of all the individual moduli mi , and define Mi as <formula> Thus , each Mi is the product of all the moduli except mi . The solution depends on finding N new numbers hi such that <formula> With these numbers hi , any integer x can be reconstructed from its remainders xi by the equation <formula> Since these numbers hi are the multiplicative inverses of the Mi , they may be found using Euclid 's algorithm as described in the previous subsection . = = = Stern – Brocot tree = = = The Euclidean algorithm can be used to arrange the set of all positive rational numbers into an infinite binary search tree , called the Stern – Brocot tree . The number 1 ( expressed as a fraction 1 / 1 ) is placed at the root of the tree , and the location of any other number a / b can be found by computing gcd ( a , b ) using the original form of the Euclidean algorithm , in which each step replaces the larger of the two given numbers by its difference with the smaller number ( not its remainder ) , stopping when two equal numbers are reached . A step of the Euclidean algorithm that replaces the first of the two numbers corresponds to a step in the tree from a node to its right child , and a step that replaces the second of the two numbers corresponds to a step in the tree from a node to its left child . The sequence of steps constructed in this way does not depend on whether a / b is given in lowest terms , and forms a path from the root to a node containing the number a / b . This fact can be used to prove that each positive rational number appears exactly once in this tree . For example , 3 / 4 can be found by starting at the root , going to the left once , then to the right twice : <formula> The Euclidean algorithm has almost the same relationship to another binary tree on the rational numbers called the Calkin – Wilf tree . The difference is that the path is reversed : instead of producing a path from the root of the tree to a target , it produces a path from the target to the root . = = = Continued fractions = = = The Euclidean algorithm has a close relationship with continued fractions . The sequence of equations can be written in the form <formula> The last term on the right @-@ hand side always equals the inverse of the left @-@ hand side of the next equation . Thus , the first two equations may be combined to form <formula> The third equation may be used to substitute the denominator term r1 / r0 , yielding <formula> The final ratio of remainders rk / rk − 1 can always be replaced using the next equation in the series , up to the final equation . The result is a continued fraction <formula> In the worked example above , the gcd ( 1071 , 462 ) was calculated , and the quotients qk were 2 , 3 and 7 , respectively . Therefore , the fraction 1071 / 462 may be written <formula> as can be confirmed by calculation . = = = Factorization algorithms = = = Calculating a greatest common divisor is an essential step in several integer factorization algorithms , such as Pollard 's rho algorithm , Shor 's algorithm , Dixon 's factorization method and the Lenstra elliptic curve factorization . The Euclidean algorithm may be used to find this GCD efficiently . Continued fraction factorization uses continued fractions , which are determined using Euclid 's algorithm . = = Algorithmic efficiency = = The computational efficiency of Euclid 's algorithm has been studied thoroughly . This efficiency can be described by the number of division steps the algorithm requires , multiplied by the computational expense of each step . The first known analysis of Euclid 's algorithm is due to A.-A.-L. Reynaud in 1811 , who showed that the number of division steps on input ( u , v ) is bounded by v ; later he improved this to v / 2 + 2 . Later , in 1841 , P.-J.-E. Finck showed that the number of division steps is at most 2 log2 v + 1 , and hence Euclid 's algorithm runs in time polynomial in the size of the input . Émile Léger , in 1837 , studied the worst case , which is when the inputs are consecutive Fibonacci numbers . Finck 's analysis was refined by Gabriel Lamé in 1844 , who showed that the number of steps required for completion is never more than five times the number h of base @-@ 10 digits of the smaller number b . In the uniform cost model ( suitable for analyzing the complexity of gcd calculation on numbers that fit into a single machine word ) , each step of the algorithm takes constant time , and Lamé 's analysis implies that the total running time is also O ( h ) . However , in a model of computation suitable for computation with larger numbers , the computational expense of a single remainder computation in the algorithm can be as large as O ( h2 ) . In this case the total time for all of the steps of the algorithm can be analyzed using a telescoping series , showing that it is also O ( h2 ) . Modern algorithmic techniques based on the Schönhage – Strassen algorithm for fast integer multiplication can be used to speed this up , leading to quasilinear algorithms for the GCD . = = = Number of steps = = = The number of steps to calculate the GCD of two natural numbers , a and b , may be denoted by T ( a , b ) . If g is the GCD of a and b , then a = mg and b = ng for two coprime numbers m and n . Then T ( a , b ) = T ( m , n ) as may be seen by dividing all the steps in the Euclidean algorithm by g . By the same argument , the number of steps remains the same if a and b are multiplied by a common factor w : T ( a , b ) = T ( wa , wb ) . Therefore , the number of steps T may vary dramatically between neighboring pairs of numbers , such as T ( a , b ) and T ( a , b + 1 ) , depending on the size of the two GCDs . The recursive nature of the Euclidean algorithm gives another equation T ( a , b ) = 1 + T ( b , r0 ) = 2 + T ( r0 , r1 ) = … = N + T ( rN − 2 , rN − 1 ) = N + 1 where T ( x , 0 ) = 0 by assumption . = = = = Worst @-@ case = = = = If the Euclidean algorithm requires N steps for a pair of natural numbers a > b > 0 , the smallest values of a and b for which this is true are the Fibonacci numbers FN + 2 and FN + 1 , respectively . This can be shown by induction . If N = 1 , b divides a with no remainder ; the smallest natural numbers for which this is true is b = 1 and a = 2 , which are F2 and F3 , respectively . Now assume that the result holds for all values of N up to M − 1 . The first step of the M @-@ step algorithm is a = q0b + r0 , and the second step is b = q1r0 + r1 . Since the algorithm is recursive , it required M − 1 steps to find gcd ( b , r0 ) and their smallest values are FM + 1 and FM . The smallest value of a is therefore when q0 = 1 , which gives a = b + r0 = FM + 1 + FM = FM + 2 . This proof , published by Gabriel Lamé in 1844 , represents the beginning of computational complexity theory , and also the first practical application of the Fibonacci numbers . This result suffices to show that the number of steps in Euclid 's algorithm can never be more than five times the number of its digits ( base 10 ) . For if the algorithm requires N steps , then b is greater than or equal to FN + 1 which in turn is greater than or equal to φN − 1 , where φ is the golden ratio . Since b ≥ φN − 1 , then N − 1 ≤ logφb . Since log10φ > 1 / 5 , ( N − 1 ) / 5 < log10φ logφb = log10b . Thus , N ≤ 5 log10b . Thus , the Euclidean algorithm always needs less than O ( h ) divisions , where h is the number of digits in the smaller number b . = = = = Average = = = = The average number of steps taken by the Euclidean algorithm has been defined in three different ways . The first definition is the average time T ( a ) required to calculate the GCD of a given number a and a smaller natural number b chosen with equal probability from the integers 0 to a − 1 <formula> However , since T ( a , b ) fluctuates dramatically with the GCD of the two numbers , the averaged function T ( a ) is likewise " noisy " . To reduce this noise , a second average τ ( a ) is taken over all numbers coprime with a <formula> There are φ ( a ) coprime integers less than a , where φ is Euler 's totient function . This tau average grows smoothly with a <formula> with the residual error being of order a − ( 1 / 6 ) + ε , where ε is infinitesimal . The constant C ( Porter 's Constant ) in this formula equals <formula> where γ is the Euler – Mascheroni constant and ζ ' is the derivative of the Riemann zeta function . The leading coefficient ( 12 / π2 ) ln 2 was determined by two independent methods . Since the first average can be calculated from the tau average by summing over the divisors d of a <formula> it can be approximated by the formula <formula> where Λ ( d ) is the Mangoldt function . A third average Y ( n ) is defined as the mean number of steps required when both a and b are chosen randomly ( with uniform distribution ) from 1 to n <formula> Substituting the approximate formula for T ( a ) into this equation yields an estimate for Y ( n ) <formula> = = = Computational expense per step = = = In each step k of the Euclidean algorithm , the quotient qk and remainder rk are computed for a given pair of integers rk − 2 and rk − 1 rk − 2 = qk rk − 1 + rk . The computational expense per step is associated chiefly with finding qk , since the remainder rk can be calculated quickly from rk − 2 , rk − 1 , and qk rk = rk − 2 − qk rk − 1 . The computational expense of dividing h @-@ bit numbers scales as O ( h ( ℓ + 1 ) ) , where ℓ is the length of the quotient . For comparison , Euclid 's original subtraction @-@ based algorithm can be much slower . A single integer division is equivalent to the quotient q number of subtractions . If the ratio of a and b is very large , the quotient is large and many subtractions will be required . On the other hand , it has been shown that the quotients are very likely to be small integers . The probability of a given quotient q is approximately ln \| u / ( u − 1 ) \| where u = ( q + 1 ) 2 . For illustration , the probability of a quotient of 1 , 2 , 3 , or 4 is roughly 41 @.@ 5 % , 17 @.@ 0 % , 9 @.@ 3 % , and 5 @.@ 9 % , respectively . Since the operation of subtraction is faster than division , particularly for large numbers , the subtraction @-@ based Euclid 's algorithm is competitive with the division @-@ based version . This is exploited in the binary version of Euclid 's algorithm . Combining the estimated number of steps with the estimated computational expense per step shows that the Euclid 's algorithm grows quadratically ( h2 ) with the average number of digits h in the initial two numbers a and b . Let h0 , h1 , … , hN − 1 represent the number of digits in the successive remainders r0 , r1 , … , rN − 1 . Since the number of steps N grows linearly with h , the running time is bounded by <formula> = = = Alternative methods = = = Euclid 's algorithm is widely used in practice , especially for small numbers , due to its simplicity . For comparison , the efficiency of alternatives to Euclid 's algorithm may be determined . One inefficient approach to finding the GCD of two natural numbers a and b is to calculate all their common divisors ; the GCD is then the largest common divisor . The common divisors can be found by dividing both numbers by successive integers from 2 to the smaller number b . The number of steps of this approach grows linearly with b , or exponentially in the number of digits . Another inefficient approach is to find the prime factors of one or both numbers . As noted above , the GCD equals the product of the prime factors shared by the two numbers a and b . Present methods for prime factorization are also inefficient ; many modern cryptography systems even rely on that inefficiency . The binary GCD algorithm is an efficient alternative that substitutes division with faster operations by exploiting the binary representation used by computers . However , this alternative also scales like O ( h ² ) . It is generally faster than the Euclidean algorithm on real computers , even though it scales in the same way . Additional efficiency can be gleaned by examining only the leading digits of the two numbers a and b . The binary algorithm can be extended to other bases ( k @-@ ary algorithms ) , with up to fivefold increases in speed . Lehmer 's GCD algorithm uses the same general principle as the binary algorithm to speed up GCD computations in arbitrary bases . A recursive approach for very large integers ( with more than 25 @,@ 000 digits ) leads to quasilinear integer GCD algorithms , such as those of Schönhage , and Stehlé and Zimmermann . These algorithms exploit the 2 × 2 matrix form of the Euclidean algorithm given above . These quasilinear methods generally scale as O ( h ( log h ) 2 ( log log h ) ) . = = Generalizations = = Although the Euclidean algorithm is used to find the greatest common divisor of two natural numbers ( positive integers ) , it may be generalized to the real numbers , and to other mathematical objects , such as polynomials , quadratic integers and Hurwitz quaternions . In the latter cases , the Euclidean algorithm is used to demonstrate the crucial property of unique factorization , i.e. , that such numbers can be factored uniquely into irreducible elements , the counterparts of prime numbers . Unique factorization is essential to many proofs of number theory . = = = Rational and real numbers = = = Euclid 's algorithm can be applied to real numbers , as described by Euclid in Book 10 of his Elements . The goal of the algorithm is to identify a real number g such that two given real numbers , a and b , are integer multiples of it : a = mg and b = ng , where m and n are integers . This identification is equivalent to finding an integer relation among the real numbers a and b ; that is , it determines integers s and t such that sa + tb = 0 . Euclid uses this algorithm to treat the question of incommensurable lengths . The real @-@ number Euclidean algorithm differs from its integer counterpart in two respects . First , the remainders rk are real numbers , although the quotients qk are integers as before . Second , the algorithm is not guaranteed to end in a finite number N of steps . If it does , the fraction a / b is a rational number , i.e. , the ratio of two integers a / b = mg / ng = m / n and can be written as a finite continued fraction [ q0 ; q1 , q2 , … , qN ] . If the algorithm does not stop , the fraction a / b is an irrational number and can be described by an infinite continued fraction [ q0 ; q1 , q2 , … ] . Examples of infinite continued fractions are the golden ratio φ = [ 1 ; 1 , 1 , … ] and the square root of two , √ 2 = [ 1 ; 2 , 2 , … ] . The algorithm is unlikely to stop , since almost all ratios a / b of two real numbers are irrational . An infinite continued fraction may be truncated at a step k [ q0 ; q1 , q2 , … , qk ] to yield an approximation to a / b that improves as k is increased . The approximation is described by convergents mk / nk ; the numerator and denominators are coprime and obey the recurrence relation mk = qk mk − 1 + mk − 2 nk = qk nk − 1 + nk − 2 where m − 1 = n − 2 = 1 and m − 2 = n − 1 = 0 are the initial values of the recursion . The convergent mk / nk is the best rational number approximation to a / b with denominator nk : <formula> = = = Polynomials = = = Polynomials in a single variable x can be added , multiplied and factored into irreducible polynomials , which are the analogs of the prime numbers for integers . The greatest common divisor polynomial g ( x ) of two polynomials a ( x ) and b ( x ) is defined as the product of their shared irreducible polynomials , which can be identified using the Euclidean algorithm . The basic procedure is similar to integers . At each step k , a quotient polynomial qk ( x ) and a remainder polynomial rk ( x ) are identified to satisfy the recursive equation rk	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
− 2 ( x ) = qk ( x ) rk − 1 ( x ) + rk ( x ) where r − 2 ( x ) = a ( x ) and r − 1 ( x ) = b ( x ) . The quotient polynomial is chosen so that the leading term of qk ( x ) rk − 1 ( x ) equals the leading term of rk − 2 ( x ) ; this ensures that the degree of each remainder is smaller than the degree of its predecessor deg [ rk ( x ) ] < deg [ rk − 1 ( x ) ] . Since the degree is a nonnegative integer , and since it decreases with every step , the Euclidean algorithm concludes in a finite number of steps . The final nonzero remainder is the greatest common divisor of the original two polynomials , a ( x ) and b ( x ) . For example , consider the following two quartic polynomials , which each factor into two quadratic polynomials a ( x ) = x4 − 4x3 + 4 x2 − 3x + 14 = ( x2 − 5x + 7 ) ( x2 + x + 2 ) and b ( x ) = x4 + 8x3 + 12x2 + 17x + 6 = ( x2 + 7x + 3 ) ( x2 + x + 2 ) . Dividing a ( x ) by b ( x ) yields a remainder r0 ( x ) = x3 + ( 2 / 3 ) x2 + ( 5 / 3 ) x − ( 2 / 3 ) . In the next step , b ( x ) is divided by r0 ( x ) yielding a remainder r1 ( x ) = x2 + x + 2 . Finally , dividing r0 ( x ) by r1 ( x ) yields a zero remainder , indicating that r1 ( x ) is the greatest common divisor polynomial of a ( x ) and b ( x ) , consistent with their factorization . Many of the applications described above for integers carry over to polynomials . The Euclidean algorithm can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for polynomials ; continued fractions of polynomials can also be defined . The polynomial Euclidean algorithm has other applications , such as Sturm chains , a method for counting the zeros of a polynomial that lie inside a given real interval . This in turn has applications in several areas , such as the Routh – Hurwitz stability criterion in control theory . Finally , the coefficients of the polynomials need not be drawn from integers , real numbers or even the complex numbers . For example , the coefficients may be drawn from a general field , such as the finite fields GF ( p ) described above . The corresponding conclusions about the Euclidean algorithm and its applications hold even for such polynomials . = = = Gaussian integers = = = The Gaussian integers are complex numbers of the form α = u + vi , where u and v are ordinary integers and i is the square root of negative one . By defining an analog of the Euclidean algorithm , Gaussian integers can be shown to be uniquely factorizable , by the argument above . This unique factorization is helpful in many applications , such as deriving all Pythagorean triples or proving Fermat 's theorem on sums of two squares . In general , the Euclidean algorithm is convenient in such applications , but not essential ; for example , the theorems can often be proven by other arguments . The Euclidean algorithm developed for two Gaussian integers α and β is nearly the same as that for normal integers , but differs in two respects . As before , the task at each step k is to identify a quotient qk and a remainder rk such that rk = rk − 2 − qk rk − 1 where rk − 2 = α , rk − 1 = β , and every remainder is strictly smaller than its predecessor , \| rk \| < \| rk − 1 \| . The first difference is that the quotients and remainders are themselves Gaussian integers , and thus are complex numbers . The quotients qk are generally found by rounding the real and complex parts of the exact ratio ( such as the complex number α / β ) to the nearest integers . The second difference lies in the necessity of defining how one complex remainder can be " smaller " than another . To do this , a norm function f ( u + vi ) = u2 + v2 is defined , which converts every Gaussian integer u + vi into a normal integer . After each step k of the Euclidean algorithm , the norm of the remainder f ( rk ) is smaller than the norm of the preceding remainder , f ( rk − 1 ) . Since the norm is a nonnegative integer and decreases with every step , the Euclidean algorithm for Gaussian integers ends in a finite number of steps . The final nonzero remainder is the gcd ( α , β ) , the Gaussian integer of largest norm that divides both α and β ; it is unique up to multiplication by a unit , ± 1 or ± i . Many of the other applications of the Euclidean algorithm carry over to Gaussian integers . For example , it can be used to solve linear Diophantine equations and Chinese remainder problems for Gaussian integers ; continued fractions of Gaussian integers can also be defined . = = = Euclidean domains = = = A set of elements under two binary operations , + and − , is called a Euclidean domain if it forms a commutative ring R and , roughly speaking , if a generalized Euclidean algorithm can be performed on them . The two operations of such a ring need not be the addition and multiplication of ordinary arithmetic ; rather , they can be more general , such as the operations of a mathematical group or monoid . Nevertheless , these general operations should respect many of the laws governing ordinary arithmetic , such as commutativity , associativity and distributivity . The generalized Euclidean algorithm requires a Euclidean function , i.e. , a mapping f from R into the set of nonnegative integers such that , for any two nonzero elements a and b in R , there exist q and r in R such that a = qb + r and f ( r ) < f ( b ) . An example of this mapping is the norm function used to order the Gaussian integers above . The function f can be the magnitude of the number , or the degree of a polynomial . The basic principle is that each step of the algorithm reduces f inexorably ; hence , if f can be reduced only a finite number of times , the algorithm must stop in a finite number of steps . This principle relies heavily on the natural well @-@ ordering of the non @-@ negative integers ; roughly speaking , this requires that every non @-@ empty set of non @-@ negative integers has a smallest member . The fundamental theorem of arithmetic applies to any Euclidean domain : Any number from a Euclidean domain can be factored uniquely into irreducible elements . Any Euclidean domain is a unique factorization domain ( UFD ) , although the converse is not true . The Euclidean domains and the UFD 's are subclasses of the GCD domains , domains in which a greatest common divisor of two numbers always exists . In other words , a greatest common divisor may exist ( for all pairs of elements in a domain ) , although it may not be possible to find it using a Euclidean algorithm . A Euclidean domain is always a principal ideal domain ( PID ) , an integral domain in which every ideal is a principal ideal . Again , the converse is not true : not every PID is a Euclidean domain . The unique factorization of Euclidean domains is useful in many applications . For example , the unique factorization of the Gaussian integers is convenient in deriving formulae for all Pythagorean triples and in proving Fermat 's theorem on sums of two squares . Unique factorization was also a key element in an attempted proof of Fermat 's Last Theorem published in 1847 by Gabriel Lamé , the same mathematician who analyzed the efficiency of Euclid 's algorithm , based on a suggestion of Joseph Liouville . Lamé 's approach required the unique factorization of numbers of the form x + ωy , where x and y are integers , and ω = e2iπ / n is an nth root of 1 , that is , ωn = 1 . Although this approach succeeds for some values of n ( such as n = 3 , the Eisenstein integers ) , in general such numbers do not factor uniquely . This failure of unique factorization in some cyclotomic fields led Ernst Kummer to the concept of ideal numbers and , later , Richard Dedekind to ideals . = = = = Unique factorization of quadratic integers = = = = The quadratic integer rings are helpful to illustrate Euclidean domains . Quadratic integers are generalizations of the Gaussian integers in which the imaginary unit i is replaced by a number ω . Thus , they have the form u + v ω , where u and v are integers and ω has one of two forms , depending on a parameter D. If D does not equal a multiple of four plus one , then <formula> If , however , D does equal a multiple of four plus one , then <formula> If the function f corresponds to a norm function , such as that used to order the Gaussian integers above , then the domain is known as norm @-@ Euclidean . The norm @-@ Euclidean rings of quadratic integers are exactly those where D = − 11 , − 7 , − 3 , − 2 , − 1 , 2 , 3 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 11 , 13 , 17 , 19 , 21 , 29 , 33 , 37 , 41 , 57 or 73 . The quadratic integers with D = − 1 and − 3 are known as the Gaussian integers and Eisenstein integers , respectively . If f is allowed to be any Euclidean function , then the list of possible D values for which the domain is Euclidean is not yet known . The first example of a Euclidean domain that was not norm @-@ Euclidean ( with D = 69 ) was published in 1994 . In 1973 , Weinberger proved that a quadratic integer ring with D > 0 is Euclidean if , and only if , it is a principal ideal domain , provided that the generalized Riemann hypothesis holds . = = = Noncommutative rings = = = The Euclidean algorithm may be applied to noncommutative rings such as the set of Hurwitz quaternions . Let α and β represent two elements from such a ring . They have a common right divisor δ if α = ξδ and β = ηδ for some choice of ξ and η in the ring . Similarly , they have a common left divisor if α = δξ and β = δη for some choice of ξ and η in the ring . Since multiplication is not commutative , there are two versions of the Euclidean algorithm , one for right divisors and one for left divisors . Choosing the right divisors , the first step in finding the gcd ( α , β ) by the Euclidean algorithm can be written ρ0 = α − ψ0β = ( ξ − ψ0η ) δ where ψ0 represents the quotient and ρ0 the remainder . This equation shows that any common right divisor of α and β is likewise a common divisor of the remainder ρ0 . The analogous equation for the left divisors would be ρ0 = α − βψ0 = δ ( ξ − ηψ0 ) . With either choice , the process is repeated as above until the greatest common right or left divisor is identified . As in the Euclidean domain , the " size " of the remainder ρ0 must be strictly smaller than β , and there must be only a finite number of possible sizes for ρ0 , so that the algorithm is guaranteed to terminate . Most of the results for the GCD carry over to noncommutative numbers . For example , Bézout 's identity states that the right gcd ( α , β ) can be expressed as a linear combination of α and β . In other words , there are numbers σ and τ such that Γright = σα + τβ The analogous identity for the left GCD is nearly the same : Γleft = ασ + βτ . Bézout 's identity can be used to solve Diophantine equations . For instance , one of the standard proofs of Lagrange 's four @-@ square theorem , that every positive integer can be represented as a sum of four squares , is based on quaternion GCDs in this way . = Tropical Storm Leslie ( 2000 ) = Tropical Storm Leslie was a weak , short @-@ lived tropical cyclone that was never well @-@ organized ; however , its precursor was costlier than any other tropical cyclone in the 2000 Atlantic hurricane season . The twelfth named storm of the season , Leslie formed on October 4 over eastern Florida as a subtropical cyclone , out of a trough of low pressure . Strengthening over open waters , it attained enough tropical characteristics to be reclassified as Tropical Storm Leslie on October 5 . The storm reached peak winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) before wind shear weakened it , and on October 7 transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over the open Atlantic Ocean . Leslie lasted three more days before losing its identity . The precursor to Leslie produced torrential rainfall across Florida , peaking at 17 @.@ 5 in ( 440 mm ) . The flooding damaged thousands of houses and caused three indirect deaths . Damage in southern Florida totaled $ 950 million ( 2000 USD ) , around half of which was from agricultural damage . After the flooding , portions of south Florida were declared a disaster area . Because of the limited impact as a tropical cyclone , the name Leslie was not retired in the Spring of 2001 . = = Meteorological history = = On September 27 , a tropical wave entered the eastern Caribbean Sea , believed to be the same that spawned Hurricane Isaac . It moved generally westward , and remained weak with sporadic thunderstorm activity . The wave traversed around the periphery of Hurricane Keith , and by October 2 , the system produced a mid @-@ level circulation just south of western Cuba . It continued to organize , prompting a reconnaissance aircraft to investigate the area . The system lacked a surface circulation center and remained an elongated trough of low pressure . The tropical wave interacted with an approaching frontal trough , while its mid @-@ level center turned to the northeast and made landfall near Sarasota , Florida on October 4 . While over land , a surface circulation developed near Orlando , and the National Hurricane Center designated the system as Subtropical Depression One . The subtropical designation was because the convection was far @-@ removed from the center . Additionally , an upper @-@ level trough provided outflow , instead of an anticyclone as found in tropical cyclones . The subtropical depression moved to the east @-@ northeast , and steadily organized as deep convection developed closer to the center . Initially , the strongest winds were 175 mi ( 280 km ) from the center , but by the morning of October 5 , the distance decreased to 85 mi ( 135 km ) . Based on its organization and winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the system was re @-@ designated as Tropical Storm Leslie . The National Hurricane Center initially forecast further intensification to 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , although the agency also noted that the circulation could dissipate , due its fast forward motion toward the east @-@ northeast . Ultimately , wind shear prohibited significant strengthening , and Leslie attained peak winds of 45 mph ( 70 km / h ) . The storm interacted with an approaching cold front and became extratropical on October 7 , 375 mi ( 600 km ) north of Bermuda . It accelerated to the northeast and passed over Newfoundland on October 8 . The remnants of Leslie turned to the east , then southeast , strengthening to near @-@ hurricane @-@ force winds before losing its identity near Ireland on October 10 . = = Preparations = = The National Hurricane Center predicted the trough of low pressure to drop very heavy rainfall across western Cuba and Florida . The National Weather Service in Miami issued a flood watch for southern Florida , stating that the system could produce flooding on roads and in low @-@ lying areas . In general , however , there was little warning for the flooding in South Florida . While Leslie was moving east @-@ northeastward , it posed a threat to Bermuda , prompting officials to issue a tropical storm watch at 0300 UTC on October 6 . Six hours later , tropical storm watch was upgraded to a tropical storm warning . However , the storm passed well to the west , and the warnings were dropped by late on October 6 . = = Impact = = The precursor disturbance of Leslie dropped heavy rainfall across central and western Cuba , peaking at 8 @.@ 25 in ( 210 mm ) in the province of Havana . Numerous other areas reported over four in ( 100 mm ) , as well . In southern Florida , the disturbance produced torrential rainfall , with a maximum of 17 @.@ 5 in ( 440 mm ) in South Miami . Two areas , one to the south of Lake Okeechobee and the other being the Miami area , received over 10 in ( 255 mm ) of rain . The torrential rainfall was described as similar to Hurricane Irene one year prior . The system produced two weak F0 tornadoes in Miami @-@ Dade County , one of which tore off a roof of a fire station in Hialeah . The torrential rainfall in Florida flooded about 93 @,@ 000 homes , affecting 214 @,@ 000 residents in Miami @-@ Dade County . An incomplete damage survey of Miami @-@ Dade County indicated the flooding destroyed 1 @,@ 005 houses , severely damaged 1 @,@ 358 , and caused minor damage to 3 @,@ 443 . The flood waters , which were four ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) deep in places , stranded many in their houses , forcing them to use canoes or inflatable rafts to move to higher grounds . All schools in the Miami area were closed , and all non @-@ essential Miami @-@ Dade County employees were asked to stay home . Numerous flights in Miami International Airport were canceled or delayed , although the airport remained opened . The flooding , which was greatest in Sweetwater , West Miami , Hialeah , Opa @-@ locka , and Pembroke Park , lasted up to a week in areas . The extreme flooding damaged electrical stations , leaving more than 27 @,@ 000 without power . The flooding indirectly killed three people , two from drowning as a result of driving vehicles into deep water , and one when a man fell from a tall building while trying to unclog a roof drain . Property damage totaled $ 450 million . Flood waters in Miami @-@ Dade County covered about 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km ² ) of farmland . The damage was worsened since the flooding occurred at the beginning of the planting period for the winter season . Flooded nurseries and fields resulted in about $ 500 million in agricultural damage , including $ 60 million in tropical fruit and $ 397 million in ornamental crops . The U.S. Department of Agriculture declared 16 Florida counties , including Miami @-@ Dade , Collier , and Palm Beach , as primary disaster areas due to flooding , making farmers and their families there eligible for USDA emergency farm loans . The same agency made 22 other counties , including Broward , eligible for loans due to their proximity to the disaster areas . As an extratropical storm , Leslie produced winds of around 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) while making landfall in Newfoundland . It also caused waves of up to 16 ft ( five m ) in height , and brought up to one in ( 30 mm ) of rain . The overall impact in this region was minor . = = Aftermath = = In the immediate aftermath , cleanup workers could not work until the flood waters receded . In addition , abandoned cars blocked the path of utility workers . Following the storm , President Bill Clinton declared Broward , Collier , Miami @-@ Dade , and Monroe Counties as disaster areas , allowing for the use of federal funds for the disaster victims . In addition , Miami @-@ Dade and Broward Counties were declared eligible for Federal Infrastructure Assistance , which provided for 75 % of the debris removal cost and the repairing or replacement of public roads , buildings , parks , and treatment plants . By ten days after the storm , government agencies distributed 105 @,@ 000 meals , 141 @,@ 000 US gal ( 530 @,@ 000 L ) of water , and 357 @,@ 000 lb ( 162 @,@ 000 kg ) of ice . Thousands visited the five Disaster Recovery Centers , where information on disaster @-@ related issues was given . By around two months after the flooding , over 51 @,@ 000 people applied for federal aid , with assistance totaling to more than $ 170 million . = Maya Angelou = Maya Angelou ( / ˈmaɪ.ə ˈændʒəloʊ / ; born Marguerite Annie Johnson ; April 4 , 1928 – May 28 , 2014 ) was an American poet , memoirist , and civil rights activist . She published seven autobiographies , three books of essays , several books of poetry , and was credited with a list of plays , movies , and television shows spanning over 50 years . She received dozens of awards and more than 50 honorary degrees . Angelou is best known for her series of seven autobiographies , which focus on her childhood and early adult experiences . The first , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) , tells of her life up to the age of 17 and brought her international recognition and acclaim . She became a poet and writer after a series of occupations as a young adult , including fry cook , sex worker , nightclub dancer and performer , cast member of the opera Porgy and Bess , coordinator for the Southern Christian Leadership Conference , and journalist in Egypt and Ghana during the decolonization of Africa . She was an actor , writer , director , and producer of plays , movies , and public television programs . In 1982 , she earned the first lifetime Reynolds Professorship of American Studies at Wake Forest University in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina . She was active in the Civil Rights movement and worked with Martin Luther King , Jr. and Malcolm X. Beginning in the 1990s , she made around 80 appearances a year on the lecture circuit , something she continued into her eighties . In 1993 , Angelou recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " ( 1993 ) at President Bill Clinton 's inauguration , making her the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at President John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 . With the publication of I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou publicly discussed aspects of her personal life . She was respected as a spokesperson for black people and women , and her works have been considered a defense of Black culture . Attempts have been made to ban her books from some U.S. libraries , but her works are widely used in schools and universities worldwide . Angelou 's major works have been labeled as autobiographical fiction , but many critics have characterized them as autobiographies . She made a deliberate attempt to challenge the common structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Her books center on themes such as racism , identity , family , and travel . = = Life and career = = = = = Early years = = = Marguerite Annie Johnson was born in St. Louis , Missouri , on April 4 , 1928 , the second child of Bailey Johnson , a doorman and navy dietitian , and Vivian ( Baxter ) Johnson , a nurse and card dealer . Angelou 's older brother , Bailey Jr . , nicknamed Marguerite " Maya " , derived from " My " or " Mya Sister " . When Angelou was three and her brother four , their parents ' " calamitous marriage " ended , and their father sent them to Stamps , Arkansas , alone by train , to live with their paternal grandmother , Annie Henderson . In " an astonishing exception " to the harsh economics of African Americans of the time , Angelou 's grandmother prospered financially during the Great Depression and World War II because the general store she owned sold needed basic commodities and because " she made wise and honest investments " . Four years later , the children 's father " came to Stamps without warning " and returned them to their mother 's care in St. Louis . At the age of eight , while living with her mother , Angelou was sexually abused and raped by her mother 's boyfriend , a man named Freeman . She told her brother , who told the rest of their family . Freeman was found guilty but was jailed for only one day . Four days after his release , he was murdered , probably by Angelou 's uncles . Angelou became mute for almost five years , believing , as she stated , " I thought , my voice killed him ; I killed that man , because I told his name . And then I thought I would never speak again , because my voice would kill anyone ... " According to Marcia Ann Gillespie and her colleagues , who wrote a biography about Angelou , it was during this period of silence when Angelou developed her extraordinary memory , her love for books and literature , and her ability to listen and observe the world around her . Shortly after Freeman 's murder , Angelou and her brother were sent back to their grandmother . Angelou credits a teacher and friend of her family , Mrs. Bertha Flowers , with helping her speak again . Flowers introduced her to authors such as Charles Dickens , William Shakespeare , Edgar Allan Poe , Douglas Johnson , and James Weldon Johnson , authors who would affect her life and career , as well as black female artists like Frances Harper , Anne Spencer , and Jessie Fauset . When Angelou was 14 , she and her brother moved in with their mother once again , who had since moved to Oakland , California . During World War II , Angelou attended the California Labor School . Before graduating , she worked as the first black female streetcar conductor in San Francisco . Three weeks after completing school , at the age of 17 , she gave birth to her son , Clyde ( who later changed his name to Guy Johnson ) . = = = Adulthood and early career : 1951 – 61 = = = In 1951 , Angelou married Greek electrician , former sailor , and aspiring musician Tosh Angelos , despite the condemnation of interracial relationships at the time and the disapproval of her mother . She took modern dance classes during this time , and met dancers and choreographers Alvin Ailey and Ruth Beckford . Angelou and Ailey formed a dance team , calling themselves " Al and Rita " , and performed modern dance at fraternal black organizations throughout San Francisco , but never became successful . Angelou , her new husband , and her son moved to New York City so she could study African dance with Trinidadian dancer Pearl Primus , but they returned to San Francisco a year later . After Angelou 's marriage ended in 1954 , she danced professionally in clubs around San Francisco , including the nightclub the Purple Onion , where she sang and danced to calypso music . Up to that point she went by the name of " Marguerite Johnson " , or " Rita " , but at the strong suggestion of her managers and supporters at the Purple Onion she changed her professional name to " Maya Angelou " , a " distinctive name " that set her apart and captured the feel of her calypso dance performances . During 1954 and 1955 , Angelou toured Europe with a production of the opera Porgy and Bess . She began her practice of learning the language of every country she visited , and in a few years she gained proficiency in several languages . In 1957 , riding on the popularity of calypso , Angelou recorded her first album , Miss Calypso , which was reissued as a CD in 1996 . She appeared in an off @-@ Broadway review that inspired the 1957 film Calypso Heat Wave , in which Angelou sang and performed her own compositions . Angelou met novelist John Oliver Killens in 1959 and , at his urging , moved to New York to concentrate on her writing career . She joined the Harlem Writers Guild , where she met several major African @-@ American authors , including John Henrik Clarke , Rosa Guy , Paule Marshall , and Julian Mayfield , and was published for the first time . In 1960 , after meeting civil rights leader Martin Luther King , Jr. and hearing him speak , she and Killens organized " the legendary " Cabaret for Freedom to benefit the Southern Christian Leadership Conference ( SCLC ) , and she was named SCLC 's Northern Coordinator . According to scholar Lyman B. Hagen , her contributions to civil rights as a fundraiser and SCLC organizer were successful and " eminently effective " . Angelou also began her pro @-@ Castro and anti @-@ apartheid activism during this time . = = = Africa to Caged Bird : 1961 – 69 = = = In 1961 , Angelou performed in Jean Genet 's play The Blacks , along with Abbey Lincoln , Roscoe Lee Brown , James Earl Jones , Louis Gossett , Godfrey Cambridge , and Cicely Tyson . Also in 1961 , she met South African freedom fighter Vusumzi Make ; they never officially married . She and her son Guy moved with Make to Cairo , where Angelou worked as an associate editor at the weekly English @-@ language newspaper The Arab Observer . In 1962 , her relationship with Make ended , and she and Guy moved to Accra , Ghana , he to attend college , but he was seriously injured in an automobile accident . Angelou remained in Accra for his recovery and ended up staying there until 1965 . She became an administrator at the University of Ghana , and was active in the African @-@ American expatriate community . She was a feature editor for The African Review , a freelance writer for the Ghanaian Times , wrote and broadcast for Radio Ghana , and worked and performed for Ghana 's National Theatre . She performed in a revival of The Blacks in Geneva and Berlin . In Accra , she became close friends with Malcolm X during his visit in the early 1960s . Angelou returned to the U.S. in 1965 to help him build a new civil rights organization , the Organization of Afro @-@ American Unity ; he was assassinated shortly afterward . Devastated and adrift , she joined her brother in Hawaii , where she resumed her singing career , and then moved back to Los Angeles to focus on her writing career . She worked as a market researcher in Watts and witnessed the riots in the summer of 1965 . She acted in and wrote plays , and returned to New York in 1967 . She met her lifelong friend Rosa Guy and renewed her friendship with James Baldwin , whom she had met in Paris in the 1950s and called " my brother " , during this time . Her friend Jerry Purcell provided Angelou with a stipend to support her writing . In 1968 , Martin Luther King , Jr. asked Angelou to organize a march . She agreed , but " postpones again " , and in what Gillespie calls " a macabre twist of fate " , he was assassinated on her 40th birthday ( April 4 ) . Devastated again , she was encouraged out of her depression by her friend James Baldwin . As Gillespie states , " If 1968 was a year of great pain , loss , and sadness , it was also the year when America first witnessed the breadth and depth of Maya Angelou 's spirit and creative genius " . Despite having almost no experience , she wrote , produced , and narrated Blacks , Blues , Black ! , a ten @-@ part series of documentaries about the connection between blues music and black Americans ' African heritage , and what Angelou called the " Africanisms still current in the U.S. " for National Educational Television , the precursor of PBS . Also in 1968 , inspired at a dinner party she attended with Baldwin , cartoonist Jules Feiffer , and his wife Judy , and challenged by Random House editor Robert Loomis , she wrote her first autobiography , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , published in 1969 , which brought her international recognition and acclaim . = = = Later career = = = Angelou 's Georgia , Georgia , produced by a Swedish film company and filmed in Sweden , the first screenplay written by a black woman , was released in 1972 . She also wrote the film 's soundtrack , despite having very little additional input in the filming of the movie . Angelou married Welsh carpenter and ex @-@ husband of Germaine Greer , Paul du Feu , in San Francisco in 1973 . Over the next ten years , as Gillespie has stated , " She [ Angelou ] had accomplished more than many artists hope to achieve in a lifetime " . Angelou worked as a composer , writing for singer Roberta Flack , and composing movie scores . She wrote articles , short stories , TV scripts , documentaries , autobiographies , and poetry , produced plays , and was named visiting professor at several colleges and universities . She was " a reluctant actor " , and was nominated for a Tony Award in 1973 for her role in Look Away . As a theater director , in 1988 she undertook a revival of Errol John 's play Moon on a Rainbow Shawl at the Almeida Theatre in London . In 1977 , Angelou appeared in a supporting role in the television mini @-@ series Roots . She was given a multitude of awards during this period , including over thirty honorary degrees from colleges and universities from all over the world . In the late 1970s , Angelou met Oprah Winfrey when Winfrey was a TV anchor in Baltimore , Maryland ; Angelou would later become Winfrey 's close friend and mentor . In 1981 , Angelou and du Feu divorced . She returned to the southern United States in 1981 because she felt she had to come to terms with her past there , and despite having no bachelor 's degree , accepted the lifetime Reynolds Professorship of American Studies at Wake Forest University in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina , where she was one of only a few full @-@ time professors . From that point on , she considered herself " a teacher who writes " . Angelou taught a variety of subjects that reflected her interests , including philosophy , ethics , theology , science , theater , and writing . The Winston @-@ Salem Journal reported that even though she made many friends on campus , " she never quite lived down all of the criticism from people who thought she was more of a celebrity than an intellect ... [ and ] an overpaid figurehead " . The last course she taught at Wake Forest was in 2011 , but she was planning to teach another course in late 2014 . Her final speaking engagement at the university was in late 2013 . Beginning in the 1990s , Angelou actively participated in the lecture circuit in a customized tour bus , something she continued into her eighties . In 1993 , Angelou recited her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at the inauguration of President Bill Clinton , becoming the first poet to make an inaugural recitation since Robert Frost at President John F. Kennedy 's inauguration in 1961 . Her recitation resulted in more fame and recognition for her previous works , and broadened her appeal " across racial , economic , and educational boundaries " . The recording of the poem won a Grammy Award . In June 1995 , she delivered what Richard Long called her " second ' public ' poem " , entitled " A Brave and Startling Truth " , which commemorated the 50th anniversary of the United Nations . Angelou achieved her goal of directing a feature film in 1996 , Down in the Delta , which featured actors such as Alfre Woodard and Wesley Snipes . Also in 1996 , she collaborated with R & B artists Ashford & Simpson on seven of the eleven tracks of their album Been Found . The album was responsible for three of Angelou 's only Billboard chart appearances . In 2000 , she created a successful collection of products for Hallmark , including greeting cards and decorative household items . She responded to critics who charged her with being too commercial by stating that " the enterprise was perfectly in keeping with her role as ' the people 's poet ' " . More than thirty years after Angelou began writing her life story , she completed her sixth autobiography A Song Flung Up to Heaven , in 2002 . Angelou campaigned for the Democratic Party in the 2008 presidential primaries , giving her public support to Senator Hillary Clinton . In the run @-@ up to the January Democratic primary in South Carolina , the Clinton campaign ran ads featuring Angelou 's endorsement . The ads were part of the campaign 's efforts to rally support in the Black community ; but Obama won the South Carolina primary , finishing 29 points ahead of Clinton and taking 80 % of the Black vote . When Clinton 's campaign ended , Angelou put her support behind Senator Barack Obama , who went on to win the election and become the first African @-@ American president of the United States . She stated , " We are growing up beyond the idiocies of racism and sexism . " In late 2010 , Angelou donated her personal papers and career memorabilia to the Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture in Harlem . They consisted of over 340 boxes of documents that featured her handwritten notes on yellow legal pads for I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , a 1982 telegram from Coretta Scott King , fan mail , and personal and professional correspondence from colleagues such as her editor Robert Loomis . In 2011 , Angelou served as a consultant for the Martin Luther King , Jr . Memorial in Washington , D.C. She spoke out in opposition to a paraphrase of a quotation by King that appeared on the memorial , saying , “ The quote makes Dr. Martin Luther King look like an arrogant twit " , and demanded that it be changed . Eventually , the paraphrase was removed . In 2013 , at the age of 85 , Angelou published the seventh autobiography in her series , titled Mom & Me & Mom , that focuses on her relationship with her mother . = = = Personal life = = = Evidence suggests that Angelou was partially descended from the Mende people of West Africa . A 2008 PBS documentary found that Angelou 's maternal great @-@ grandmother Mary Lee , who had been emancipated after the Civil War , became pregnant by her white former owner , John Savin . Savin forced Lee to sign a false statement accusing another man of being the father of her child . After Savin was indicted for forcing Lee to commit perjury , and despite the discovery that Savin was the father , a jury found him not guilty . Lee was sent to the Clinton County poorhouse in Missouri with her daughter , Marguerite Baxter , who became Angelou 's grandmother . Angelou described Lee as " that poor little Black girl , physically and mentally bruised . " The details of Angelou 's life described in her seven autobiographies and in numerous interviews , speeches , and articles tended to be inconsistent . Critic Mary Jane Lupton has explained that when Angelou spoke about her life , she did so eloquently but informally and " with no time chart in front of her " . For example , she was married at least twice , but never clarified the number of times she had been married , " for fear of sounding frivolous " ; according to her autobiographies and to Gillespie , she married Tosh Angelos in 1951 and Paul du Feu in 1973 , and began her relationship with Vusumzi Make in 1961 , but never formally married him . Angelou had one son Guy , whose birth was described in her first autobiography , one grandson , and two great @-@ grandchildren , and according to Gillespie , a large group of friends and extended family . Angelou 's mother Vivian Baxter died in 1991 and her brother Bailey Johnson , Jr . , died in 2000 after a series of strokes ; both were important figures in her life and her books . In 1981 , the mother of her son Guy 's child disappeared with Angelou 's grandson ; it took four years to find him . In 2009 , the gossip website TMZ erroneously reported that Angelou had been hospitalized in Los Angeles when she was alive and well in St. Louis , which resulted in rumors of her death and according to Angelou , concern among her friends and family worldwide . In 2013 , Angelou told her friend Oprah Winfrey that she had studied courses offered by the Unity Church , which were spiritually significant to her . She did not earn a university degree , but according to Gillespie it was Angelou 's preference that she be called " Dr. Angelou " by people outside of her family and close friends . She owned two homes in Winston @-@ Salem , North Carolina , and a " lordly brownstone " in Harlem , which was purchased in 2004 and was full of her " growing library " of books she collected throughout her life , artwork collected over the span of many decades , and well @-@ stocked kitchens . Younge reported that in her Harlem home resides several African wall hangings and Angelou 's collection of paintings , including ones of several jazz trumpeters , a watercolor of Rosa Parks , and a Faith Ringgold work entitled " Maya 's Quilt Of Life " . According to Gillespie , she hosted several celebrations per year at her main residence in Winston @-@ Salem ; " her skill in the kitchen is the stuff of legend — from haute cuisine to down @-@ home comfort food " . The Winston @-@ Salem Journal stated , " Securing an invitation to one of Angelou ’ s Thanksgiving dinners , Christmas tree decorating parties or birthday parties was among the most coveted invitations in town " . The New York Times , describing Angelou 's residence history in New York City , stated that she regularly hosted elaborate New Year 's Day parties . She combined her cooking and writing skills in her 2004 book Hallelujah ! The Welcome Table , which featured 73 recipes , many of which she learned from her grandmother and mother , accompanied by 28 vignettes . She followed up with her second cookbook , Great Food , All Day Long : Cook Splendidly , Eat Smart in 2010 , which focused on weight loss and portion control . Beginning with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , Angelou used the same " writing ritual " for many years . She would wake early in the morning and check into a hotel room , where the staff was instructed to remove any pictures from the walls . She would write on legal pads while lying on the bed , with only a bottle of sherry , a deck of cards to play solitaire , Roget 's Thesaurus , and the Bible , and would leave by the early afternoon . She would average 10 – 12 pages of written material a day , which she edited down to three or four pages in the evening . Angelou went through this process to " enchant " herself , and as she said in a 1989 interview with the British Broadcasting Corporation , " relive the agony , the anguish , the Sturm und Drang . " She placed herself back in the time she wrote about , even traumatic experiences like her rape in Caged Bird , in order to " tell the human truth " about her life . Angelou stated that she played cards in order to get to that place of enchantment and in order to access her memories more effectively . She stated , " It may take an hour to get into it , but once I 'm in it — ha ! It 's so delicious ! " She did not find the process cathartic ; rather , she found relief in " telling the truth " . = = = Death = = = Angelou died on the morning of May 28 , 2014 . She was found by her nurse . Although Angelou had reportedly been in poor health and had canceled recent scheduled appearances , she was working on another book , an autobiography about her experiences with national and world leaders . During her memorial service at Wake Forest University , her son Guy Johnson stated that despite being in constant pain due to her dancing career and respiratory failure , she wrote four books during the last ten years of her life . He said , " She left this mortal plane with no loss of acuity and no loss in comprehension " . Tributes to Angelou and condolences were paid by artists , entertainers , and world leaders , including President Bill Clinton , and President Barack Obama , whose sister was named after Angelou . Harold Augenbraum , from the National Book Foundation , said that Angelou 's " legacy is one that all writers and readers across the world can admire and aspire to . " The week after Angelou 's death , I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings rose to # 1 on Amazon.com 's bestseller list . On May 29 , 2014 , Mount Zion Baptist Church in Winston @-@ Salem , of which Angelou was a member for 30 years , held a public memorial service to honor Angelou . On June 7 , a private memorial service was held at Wait Chapel on the campus of Wake Forest University in Winston @-@ Salem . The memorial was shown live on local stations in the Winston @-@ Salem / Triad area and streamed live on the university web site with speeches from her son , Oprah Winfrey , Michelle Obama , and Bill Clinton . On June 15 , a memorial was held at Glide Memorial Church in San Francisco , where Angelou was a member for many years . Rev. Cecil Williams , Mayor Ed Lee , and former mayor Willie Brown spoke . In 2015 a United States Postal Service stamp was issued commemorating Maya Angelou with the Joan Walsh Anglund quote " A bird doesn ’ t sing because it has an answer , it sings because it has a song " , though the stamp mistakenly attributes the quote to Angelou . The quote is from Anglund 's book of poems A Cup of Sun ( 1967 ) . = = Works = = Angelou wrote a total of seven autobiographies . According to scholar Mary Jane Lupton , Angelou 's third autobiography Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas marked the first time a well @-@ known African @-@ American autobiographer had written a third volume about her life . Her books " stretch over time and place " , from Arkansas to Africa and back to the U.S. , and take place from the beginnings of World War II to the assassination of Martin Luther King , Jr . She published her seventh autobiography Mom & Me & Mom in 2013 , at the age of 85 . Critics have tended to judge Angelou 's subsequent autobiographies " in light of the first " , with Caged Bird receiving the highest praise . Angelou wrote five collections of essays , which writer Hilton Als called her " wisdom books " and " homilies strung together with autobiographical texts " . Angelou used the same editor throughout her writing career , Robert Loomis , an executive editor at Random House ; he retired in 2011 and has been called " one of publishing 's hall of fame editors . " Angelou said regarding Loomis : " We have a relationship that 's kind of famous among publishers " . Angelou 's long and extensive career also included poetry , plays , screenplays for television and film , directing , acting , and public speaking . She was a prolific writer of poetry ; her volume Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie ( 1971 ) was nominated for the Pulitzer Prize , and she was chosen by President Bill Clinton to recite her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " during his inauguration in 1993 . Angelou 's successful acting career included roles in numerous plays , films , and television programs , including her appearance in the television mini @-@ series Roots in 1977 . Her screenplay , Georgia , Georgia ( 1972 ) , was the first original script by a black woman to be produced and she was the first African @-@ American woman to direct a major motion picture , Down in the Delta , in 1998 . = = = Chronology of autobiographies = = = I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings ( 1969 ) : Up to 1944 ( age 17 ) Gather Together in My Name ( 1974 ) : 1944 – 48 Singin ' and Swingin ' and Gettin ' Merry Like Christmas ( 1976 ) : 1949 – 55 The Heart of a Woman ( 1981 ) : 1957 – 62 All God 's Children Need Traveling Shoes ( 1986 ) : 1962 – 65 A Song Flung Up to Heaven ( 2002 ) : 1965 – 68 Mom & Me & Mom ( 2013 ) : overview = = Reception and legacy = = = = = Influence = = = When I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings was published in 1969 , Angelou was hailed as a new kind of memoirist , one of the first African @-@ American women who were able to publicly discuss their personal lives . According to scholar Hilton Als , up to that point , black female writers were marginalized to the point that they were unable to present themselves as central characters in the literature they wrote . Scholar John McWhorter agreed , seeing Angelou 's works , which he called " tracts " , as " apologetic writing " . He placed Angelou in the tradition of African @-@ American literature as a defense of black culture , which he called " a literary manifestation of the imperative that reigned in the black scholarship of the period " . Writer Julian Mayfield , who called Caged Bird " a work of art that eludes description " , argued that Angelou 's autobiographies set a precedent for not only other black women writers , but also African @-@ American autobiography as a whole . Als said that Caged Bird marked one of the first times that a black autobiographer could , as he put it , " write about blackness from the inside , without apology or defense " . Through the writing of her autobiography , Angelou became recognized and highly respected as a spokesperson for blacks and women . It made her " without a doubt , ... America 's most visible black woman autobiographer " , and " a major autobiographical voice of the time " . As writer Gary Younge said , " Probably more than almost any other writer alive , Angelou 's life literally is her work . " Als said that Caged Bird helped increase black feminist writings in the 1970s , less through its originality than " its resonance in the prevailing Zeitgeist " , or the time in which it was written , at the end of the American Civil Rights movement . Als also claimed that Angelou 's writings , more interested in self @-@ revelation than in politics or feminism , have freed other female writers to " open themselves up without shame to the eyes of the world " . Angelou critic Joanne M. Braxton stated that Caged Bird was " perhaps the most aesthetically pleasing " autobiography written by an African @-@ American woman in its era . Angelou 's poetry has influenced the modern hip @-@ hop music community , including artists such as Kanye West , Common , Tupac Shakur , and Nicki Minaj . = = = Critical reception = = = Reviewer Elsie B. Washington , most likely due to President Clinton 's choice of Angelou to recite her poem " On the Pulse of Morning " at his 1993 inauguration , called her " the black woman 's poet laureate " . Sales of the paperback version of her books and poetry rose by 300 – 600 % the week after Angelou 's recitation . Random House , which published the poem later that year , had to reprint 400 @,@ 000 copies of all her books to keep up with the demand . They sold more of her books in January 1993 than they did in all of 1992 , accounting for a 1200 % increase . Angelou famously said , in response to criticism regarding using the details of her life in her work , " I agree with Balzac and 19th @-@ century writers , black and white , who say , ' I write for money ' " . Younge , speaking after the publication of Angelou 's third book of essays , Letter to My Daughter ( 2008 ) , has said , " For the last couple of decades she has merged her various talents into a kind of performance art — issuing a message of personal and social uplift by blending poetry , song and conversation " . Angelou 's books , especially I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings , have been criticized by many parents , causing their removal from school curricula and library shelves . According to the National Coalition Against Censorship , parents and schools have objected to Caged Bird 's depictions of lesbianism , premarital cohabitation , pornography , and violence . Some have been critical of the book 's sexually explicit scenes , use of language , and irreverent depictions of religion . Caged Bird appeared third on the American Library Association ( ALA ) list of the 100 Most Frequently Challenged Books of 1990 – 2000 and sixth on the ALA 's 2000 – 2009 list . = = = Awards and honors = = = Angelou was honored by universities , literary organizations , government agencies , and special interest groups . Her honors included a Pulitzer Prize nomination for her book of poetry , Just Give Me a Cool Drink of Water ' fore I Diiie , a Tony Award nomination for her role in the 1973 play Look Away , and three Grammys for her spoken word albums . She served on two presidential committees , and was awarded the Spingarn Medal in 1994 , the National Medal of Arts in 2000 , and the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 2011 . Angelou was awarded over fifty honorary degrees . = = = Uses in education = = = Angelou 's autobiographies have been used in narrative and multicultural approaches in teacher education . Jocelyn A. Glazier , a professor at George Washington University , has trained teachers how to " talk about race " in their classrooms with I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and Gather Together in My Name . According to Glazier , Angelou 's use of understatement , self @-@ mockery , humor , and irony have left readers of Angelou 's autobiographies unsure of what she left out and how they should respond to the events she described . Angelou 's depictions of her experiences of racism have forced white readers to explore their feelings about race and their own " privileged status " . Glazier found that critics have focused on where Angelou fits within the genre of African @-@ American autobiography and on her literary techniques , but readers have tended to react to her storytelling with " surprise , particularly when [ they ] enter the text with certain expectations about the genre of autobiography " . Educator Daniel Challener , in his 1997 book Stories of Resilience in Childhood , analyzed the events in Caged Bird to illustrate resiliency in children . Challener argued that Angelou 's book has provided a " useful framework " for exploring the obstacles many children like Maya have faced and how their communities have helped them succeed . Psychologist Chris Boyatzis has reported using Caged Bird to supplement scientific theory and research in the instruction of child development topics such as the development of self @-@ concept and self @-@ esteem , ego resilience , industry versus inferiority , effects of abuse , parenting styles , sibling and friendship relations , gender issues , cognitive development , puberty , and identity formation in adolescence . He found Caged Bird a " highly effective " tool for providing real @-@ life examples of these psychological concepts . = = Poetry = = Angelou is best known for her seven autobiographies , but she was also a prolific and successful poet . She was called " the black woman 's poet laureate " , and her poems have been called the anthems of African Americans . Angelou studied and began writing poetry at a young age , and used poetry and other great literature to cope with her rape as a young girl , as described in Caged Bird . According to scholar Yasmin Y. DeGout , literature also affected Angelou 's sensibilities as the poet and writer she became , especially the " liberating discourse that would evolve in her own poetic canon " . Many critics consider Angelou 's autobiographies more important than her poetry . Although all her books have been best @-@ sellers , her poetry has not been perceived to be as serious as her prose and has been understudied . Her poems were more interesting when she recited and performed them , and many critics emphasized the public aspect of her poetry . Angelou 's lack of critical acclaim has been attributed to both the public nature of many of her poems and to Angelou 's popular success , and to critics ' preferences for poetry as a written form rather than a verbal , performed one . Zofia Burr has countered Angelou 's critics by condemning them for not taking into account Angelou 's larger purposes in her writing : " to be representative rather than individual , authoritative rather than confessional " . = = Style and genre in autobiographies = = Angelou 's use of fiction @-@ writing techniques such as dialogue , characterization , and development of theme , setting , plot , and language has often resulted in the placement of her books into the genre of autobiographical fiction . Angelou made a deliberate attempt in her books to challenge the common structure of the autobiography by critiquing , changing , and expanding the genre . Scholar Mary Jane Lupton argues that all of Angelou 's autobiographies conform to the genre 's standard structure : they are written by a single author , they are chronological , and they contain elements of character , technique , and theme . Angelou recognizes that there are fictional aspects to her books ; Lupton agrees , stating that Angelou tended to " diverge from the conventional notion of autobiography as truth " , which parallels the conventions of much of African @-@ American autobiography written during the abolitionist period of U.S. history , when as both Lupton and African @-@ American scholar Crispin Sartwell put it , the truth was censored out of the need for self @-@ protection . Scholar Lyman B. Hagen places Angelou in the long tradition of African @-@ American autobiography , but claims that Angelou created a unique interpretation of the autobiographical form . According to African @-@ American literature scholar Pierre A. Walker , the challenge for much of the history of African @-@ American literature was that its authors have had to confirm its status as literature before they could accomplish their political goals , which was why Angelou 's editor Robert Loomis was able to dare her into writing Caged Bird by challenging her to write an autobiography that could be considered " high art " . Angelou acknowledged that she followed the slave narrative tradition of " speaking in the first @-@ person singular talking about the first @-@ person plural , always saying I meaning ' we ' " . Scholar John McWhorter calls Angelou 's books " tracts " that defend African @-@ American culture and fight negative stereotypes . According to McWhorter , Angelou structured her books , which to him seem to be written more for children than for adults , to support her defense of black culture . McWhorter sees Angelou as she depicts herself in her autobiographies " as a kind of stand @-@ in figure for the black American in Troubled Times " . McWhorter views Angelou 's works as dated , but recognizes that " she has helped to pave the way for contemporary black writers who are able to enjoy the luxury of being merely individuals , no longer representatives of the race , only themselves " . Scholar Lynn Z. Bloom compares Angelou 's works to the writings of Frederick Douglass , stating that both fulfilled the same purpose : to describe black culture and to interpret it for their wider , white audiences . According to scholar Sondra O 'Neale , Angelou 's poetry can be placed within the African @-@ American oral tradition , and her prose " follows classic technique in nonpoetic Western forms " . O 'Neale states that Angelou avoided using a " monolithic black language " , and accomplished , through direct dialogue , what O 'Neale calls a " more expected ghetto expressiveness " . McWhorter finds both the language Angelou used in her autobiographies and the people she depicted unrealistic , resulting in a separation between her and her audience . As McWhorter states , " I have never read autobiographical writing where I had such a hard time summoning a sense of how the subject talks , or a sense of who the subject really is " . McWhorter asserts , for example , that key figures in Angelou 's books , like herself , her son Guy , and mother Vivian do not speak as one would expect , and that their speech is " cleaned up " for her readers . Guy , for example , represents the young black male , while Vivian represents the idealized mother figure , and the stiff language they use , as well as the language in Angelou 's text , is intended to prove that blacks can use standard English competently . McWhorter recognizes that much of the reason for Angelou 's style was the " apologetic " nature of her writing . When Angelou wrote Caged Bird at the end of the 1960s , one of the necessary and accepted features of literature at the time was " organic unity " , and one of her goals was to create a book that satisfied that criterion . The events in her books were episodic and crafted like a series of short stories , but their arrangements did not follow a strict chronology . Instead , they were placed to emphasize the themes of her books , which include racism , identity , family , and travel . English literature scholar Valerie Sayers has asserted that " Angelou 's poetry and prose are similar " . They both rely on her " direct voice " , which alternates steady rhythms with syncopated patterns and uses similes and metaphors ( e.g. , the caged bird ) . According to Hagen , Angelou 's works were influenced by both conventional literary and the oral traditions of the African @-@ American community . For example , she referenced over 100 literary characters throughout her books and poetry . In addition , she used the elements of blues music , including the act of testimony when speaking of one 's life and struggles , ironic understatement , and the use of natural metaphors , rhythms , and intonations . Angelou , instead of depending upon plot , used personal and historical events to shape her books . = = = Explanatory notes = = = = Hurricane Karen ( 2007 ) = Hurricane Karen was the eleventh named storm and fourth hurricane of the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . Karen was a Cape Verde @-@ type hurricane that developed in the eastern tropical Atlantic out of a large tropical wave . The storm briefly reached Category 1 hurricane intensity before slowly weakening due to increased wind shear . As the storm remained away from land , no damages or fatalities were reported in association with Karen . = = Meteorological history = = The system began as a tropical wave that emerged off the west coast of Africa on September 21 . The wave was not well @-@ organized with only scattered thunderstorm activity and large area of low pressure . As the system tracked westward south of Cape Verde , deep convection gradually increased , curved banding features became defined , and a poorly defined circulation became evident . Early on September 23 , Dvorak classification estimates were introduced . Little change in organization took place until the evening of September 24 . That evening , the low @-@ level circulation and banding features became better defined as the system tracked west @-@ northwest . Late that evening , the system was declared Tropical Depression Twelve while west @-@ southwest of the Cape Verde islands . The tropical depression quickly intensified into early on September 25 as the system continued to organize , and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Karen that morning . The strengthening trend was temporarily halted , and Karen remained a weak tropical storm with relatively shallow convection . Late that evening , new bursts of deep convection developed with the storm . Early on September 26 , Karen intensified significantly and an inner core began to develop . That morning , a ragged eye developed and the system strengthened into a hurricane with 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds . The intensification trend was short @-@ lived , and the storm leveled off that afternoon as upper @-@ level wind shear increased substantially due to the presence of a nearby tropical upper tropospheric trough . The storm became less organized that evening . Hurricane Karen weakened to a tropical storm as flight data from NOAA Hurricane Hunters confirmed surface winds of 72 mph ( 115 km / h ) and a very large wind field late that evening . Operationally , Karen was classified as a strong tropical storm , but was reclassified as a Category 1 hurricane based on data from the reconnaissance flight late on September 26 and the less organized structure of the storm at that time . A slow weakening trend began early on September 27 due to the increased shear while remaining on a west @-@ northwest track . At the same time , the center of circulation became exposed at times due to the southwesterly wind shear . As a result , an unusual wind field was observed in that the strongest winds were recorded well to the east and to the northwest of the center . The weakening trend remained fairly slow that evening as the storm continued to produce persistent deep convection . The weakening trend accelerated on September 28 as the convection weakened and the circulation became more disorganized in the high @-@ shear environment . By that morning , Karen weakened to a minimal tropical storm with 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) winds . Karen also turned abruptly to the north for a short while , as convection interacted with the low @-@ level center and southerly winds increased in the low @-@ level environment . The weakening trend slowed that afternoon as deep convection returned to the disorganized storm . Early on September 29 , the high wind shear continued and Karen weakened to a tropical depression with a very poorly defined center . That afternoon , the circulation dissipated while east of the Lesser Antilles . Remnant squalls continued across the area east of the Lesser Antilles for a few days after dissipation . = = Impact = = The National Hurricane Center briefly assessed a minimal threat to the Lesser Antilles , with one forecaster noting a 5 % probability for the cyclone to produce tropical storm winds on Barbuda . However , Karen stayed in the open Atlantic Ocean and never affected any land area . No incidents of damage or casualties were reported . No ship reports of tropical storm @-@ force or stronger were received . Some of the vorticity from Karen 's remnants may have been responsible for the development of the short @-@ lived Tropical Depression Fifteen on October 11 . = Hurricane Ioke = Hurricane Ioke , also referred to as Typhoon Ioke , was the most intense hurricane ever recorded in the Central Pacific . The first storm to form in the Central Pacific in the 2006 Pacific hurricane season , Ioke was a record breaking , long @-@ lived and extremely powerful storm that traversed the Pacific for 17 days , reaching the equivalent of Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale three times . The cyclone developed from the Intertropical Convergence Zone on August 20 far to the south of Hawaii . Encountering warm waters , little wind shear , and well @-@ defined outflow , Ioke intensified from a tropical depression to Category 4 status within 48 hours . Late on August 22 it rapidly weakened to Category 2 status before crossing over Johnston Atoll . Two days later favorable conditions again allowed for rapid strengthening , and Ioke attained Category 5 status on August 25 before crossing the International Date Line . As it continued westward its intensity fluctuated , and on August 31 it passed near Wake Island with winds of 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) . Ioke gradually weakened as it turned northwestward and northward , and by September 6 it had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnants of Ioke accelerated northeastward and ultimately crossed into Alaska . Ioke did not affect any permanently populated areas in the Central Pacific or Western Pacific basins as a hurricane or a typhoon . A crew of 12 people rode out the hurricane in a hurricane @-@ proof bunker on Johnston Atoll ; the crew estimated winds reached over 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , which damaged trees on the island but did not impact the island 's bird population . The typhoon left moderate damage on Wake Island totaling $ 88 million ( 2006 USD ) , including blown off roofs and damaged buildings , though the infrastructure of the island was left intact ; all military personnel were evacuated from the island . Later , the extratropical remnants of Ioke produced a severe storm surge along the Alaskan coastline , causing beach erosion . = = Meteorological history = = The Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) spawned a tropical disturbance with a low @-@ level circulation far to the southeast of Hawaiʻi in the middle of August 2006 . Under the influence of a strong westward @-@ moving subtropical ridge to its north , the disturbance tracked nearly due westward , with deep convection in the region increasing and decreasing on a daily basis . It slowly became better organized , and early on August 20 the disturbance developed into Tropical Depression One @-@ C while located about 775 mi ( 1 @,@ 247 km ) south of Honolulu , Hawaii . At the time , there was no convection associated with the ITCZ within 10 ° Longitude . With wind shear practically non @-@ existent and sea surface temperatures of around 82 ° F ( 28 ° C ) , conditions favored strengthening , and operationally the cyclone was forecast to reach minimal hurricane status within four days before beginning to weaken . The depression attained tropical storm status within six hours of developing . The Central Pacific Hurricane Center designated the system with the name Ioke / iːˈoʊkeɪ / , Hawaiian for the name Joyce . Subsequently , Ioke quickly strengthened , and by late on August 20 the storm developed a central dense overcast and the beginnings of an eyewall ; early on August 21 the storm intensified into a hurricane , just 24 hours after first developing . Hurricane Ioke steadily deepened as it continued west @-@ northwestward , with better definition of the eye and deepening of the eyewall convection . Near the International Date Line a frontal trough turned the hurricane to the northwest , and after a period of rapid deepening Ioke attained winds of 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) early on August 22 while located about 280 mi ( 450 km ) southeast of Johnston Atoll . After maintaining Category 4 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale for about 18 hours , southwesterly wind shear slightly disrupted the inner core of the hurricane , and Ioke quickly weakened to winds of about 105 mph ( 169 km / h ) . Late on August 22 , the hurricane passed about 30 mi ( 48 km ) south of Johnston Atoll , with the northeastern portion of the eyewall crossing the atoll early on August 23 . After turning westward later in the day , wind shear began to decrease , allowing a second period of rapid deepening . By August 24 the hurricane maintained a 23 mi ( 37 km ) closed eyewall , and on August 25 Ioke attained Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale while located about 970 mi ( 1 @,@ 560 km ) west @-@ southwest of the Hawaiian Island of Kauaʻi . After maintaining Category 5 status for about 18 hours , Hurricane Ioke weakened slightly due to an eyewall replacement cycle . Completing the cycle on August 26 , the hurricane restrengthened to Category 5 status . The trough to its west tracked further away from the hurricane , allowing the subtropical ridge to build ahead of the hurricane which turned Ioke to the southwest . The overall environment remained very favorable for sustainment of the powerful cyclone . Strong upper @-@ level cyclones far to its northwest provided outflow channels and light wind shear , with warm water temperatures along its path . With the conditions , the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory hurricane model predicted Ioke to reach winds of 220 mph ( 350 km / h ) , with a predicted minimum pressure of 860 mbar ( hPa ) . Early on August 27 , the pressure dropped to 915 mbar ( hPa ) , and shortly thereafter Ioke crossed the International Date Line , becoming a 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) typhoon . Unofficially referred as a super typhoon by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) , Ioke remained at the equivalence of a Category 5 hurricane for about 12 hours after crossing the Date Line . It then began a slight weakening trend on August 28 , due to increased inflow from the ridge to its north . On August 29 , the cyclone turned to the west and west @-@ northwest while tracking around the periphery of the subtropical ridge , and Ioke again reached the equivalence of Category 5 status . The Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) assessed Ioke as attaining peak 10 ‑ minute sustained winds of 120 mph ( 190 km / h ) on August 30 . Later that day , the typhoon weakened to the equivalent of a Category 4 hurricane for the final time , and on August 31 Ioke passed very near Wake Island with winds of about 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) . By September 1 , increased wind shear and drier air caused the eye of Ioke to become cloud @-@ filled and elongated , and by September 2 Ioke was undergoing another eyewall replacement cycle . On September 2 , Ioke passed about 50 mi ( 80 km ) north of Minami @-@ Tori @-@ shima with winds of about 125 mph ( 201 km / h ) . Gradual weakening continued , and the typhoon steadily shifted its track to the northwest around the subtropical ridge . A deepening trough turned Ioke to the north @-@ northwest and north , and the cyclone weakened to a tropical storm a few hundred miles east of Japan . After accelerating northeastward , the cyclone began losing tropical characteristics , and the JTWC declared Ioke as an extratropical cyclone on September 5 . The JMA maintained Ioke as a typhoon until a day later , and maintained Ioke as a tropical cyclone until it was declared extratropical midday on September 6 . The extratropical remnants of Ioke were tracked by the JMA until September 7 when it was located near the Aleutian Islands of Alaska . The storm deepened as it approached the Aleutians , and re @-@ developed winds of hurricane @-@ force . It entered the Bering Sea on September 8 , and after turning eastward crossed the Aleutian Islands and entered the Gulf of Alaska . The extratropical remnants of Ioke dissipated near southeastern Alaska on September 12 . = = Preparations and impact = = = = = Johnston Atoll = = = Late on August 21 , about 24 hours prior to its closest approach , the Central Pacific Hurricane Center issued a hurricane warning for uninhabited territory of Johnston Island , due to the uncertainty of whether anyone was on the island . A United States Air Force vessel and a 12 person crew were on the island , and after securing their ship the crew took shelter in a hurricane @-@ proof concrete bunker . There were no meteorological observations on the island , but the crew estimated tropical storm force winds lasted for about 27 hours with hurricane @-@ force winds lasting six to eight hours ; peak wind gusts were estimated at 110 to 130 mph ( 180 to 210 km / h ) . The crew sustained no injuries , and their ship received only minor damage . Hurricane Ioke , with a portion of its eye crossing the atoll , left an estimated 15 % of the palm trees on the island with their tops blown off , with some ironwood trees blown over ; the island bird population was unaffected . The hurricane produced rough surf which washed away a portion of a sea wall and an adjacent road . = = = Wake Island = = = Under the threat of the typhoon for several days , two C @-@ 17 Globemaster III airlifters evacuated between 188 – 200 military personnel from Wake Island to Hawaii , the first full @-@ scale evacuation of the island since Typhoon Sarah in 1967 . A buoy just east of the island recorded a pressure of 921 @.@ 5 mbar as Ioke crossed directly over it . Before the typhoon passed just north of the island , an anemometer recorded hurricane @-@ force winds with a peak wind gust of 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) before the instrument stopped reporting . Sustained winds were estimated to have reached 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) , with gusts to 190 mph ( 310 km / h ) . The minimum central pressure recorded on the island was 934 mbar at 0906 UTC on August 31 . The typhoon was expected to produce a storm surge of 18 ft ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) and wave heights of 40 ft ( 12 m ) along Wake Island , where the highest point is 20 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Additionally , heavy rainfall from the typhoon left buildings flooded , with 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of standing water found several days after its passage . The powerful winds of Typhoon Ioke caused extensive damage to the island 's power grid , leaving most power lines to buildings and backup generators damaged . The combination of the winds and storm surge flooding damaged 70 % of the buildings in the territory , many of which with moderate roof damage . All low @-@ lying areas were described as being covered with sea water or sand , and the territory was left without running water . Communications were downed on the island , with satellite dishes and cables destroyed . Damage to the infrastructure was extensive , though repairable and less than expected . Damage on the island was estimated at $ 88 million ( 2006 USD , $ 90 million 2007 USD ) . = = = Japan and Alaska = = = On September 1 , the Japan Meteorological Agency ordered the temporary evacuation of its staff on Minami @-@ Tori @-@ shima , under threat of the typhoon . The agency expected high waves and winds on the island . Facilities on the island were damaged , although it was repaired and fully operational within three weeks after the storm . The extratropical remnant of Ioke produced a storm surge and high surf in excess of 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) along the southwestern coastline of Alaska , which coincided with the astronomical high tide ; the combination led to minor flooding along Bristol Bay and Yukon @-@ Kuskokwim Delta . Wind gusts peaked at 84 mph ( 135 km / h ) in Unalaska . The system produced moderate to heavy rainfall across the western portion of Alaska , including daily rainfall records of 1 @.@ 15 inches ( 29 mm ) at Bethel and 0 @.@ 67 inches ( 17 mm ) at Kotzebue . Rainfall continued into the southeastern portion of the state , contributing to above @-@ normal rainfall totals near Juneau . = = Records and aftermath = = Hurricane Ioke became one of five hurricanes to reach Category 5 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale in the Central North Pacific Ocean , and the only one originating in the basin . With an estimated minimum central pressure of 915 mbar ( 27 @.@ 019 inHg ) , the cyclone attained the lowest estimated surface pressure for any hurricane within the basin , surpassing the previous minimum set by Hurricane Gilma in 1994 . Ioke maintained at least Category 4 status , or wind speeds greater than 131 mph ( 211 km / h ) , for 198 consecutive hours , which was the longest continuous time period at that intensity ever observed for any tropical cyclone anywhere on Earth . Additionally , the cyclone remained at the equivalence of a super typhoon for 174 consecutive hours , which was also a record . As a result of its extended duration and intensity , Hurricane / Typhoon Ioke accrued an Accumulated cyclone energy index of 82 which set a new worldwide record . The United States Coast Guard first performed an aerial assessment of damage on Wake Island on September 2 , three days after the typhoon struck . The flight indicated an overall damage smaller than expected , and reported a lack of oil spill or hazardous material leak . The U.S. Coast Guard arrived by boat with a team on September 7 , with a preliminary damage assessment completed four days later ; the team repaired a generator to provide power . United States Navy USNS San Jose T @-@ AFS @-@ 7 and Sixteen members United States Airforce 36th Contingency Response Group arrived September 8 and analyzed the stability of the airfield along with assisting in clean @-@ up efforts , and after core tests workers cleared the runway to allow flights onto the territory . On September 13 , a group of engineers restored power on the island . About two weeks after the cyclone , several buildings were operational . The Central Pacific Hurricane Center requested the retirement of the name , and in April 2007 , the name Ioke was retired , and replaced with Iopa . = Bad Girls Club = Bad Girls Club ( abbreviated BGC ) is an American reality television series created by Jonathan Murray for the Oxygen network in the United States . The show focuses on the altercations and physical confrontations of seven highly aggressive , quarrelsome , and unruly women . Each of the women tend to have psychological and behavioral problems . Mischievously sexual and rascally moments are also captured among the women . All seven women have different backgrounds and personalities . They are introduced to the show based on their capacity to be a " charismatic , tough chick . " The cast , deemed " bad girls " , enjoy a luxurious lifestyle in a fine mansion for three months , during which they must obey specified rules . Their lives inside and outside of the house are chronicled and recorded by the production team . Bad Girls Club airs in three nations besides the United States ; MTV Australia , RTL 5 in The Netherlands , and TV11 in Sweden . Bunim @-@ Murray has never licensed the show 's format to a broadcaster in another nation for a local version of the series . The format of the show has changed from earlier seasons . If a cast member violates production rules , she is evicted from the show and , if it is early in the season , replaced by a new cast member . The fourth season is considered the series ' " breakthrough season " , becoming Oxygen 's first series ever to average over one million viewers per episode . There have been four spin @-@ offs including Bad Girls Road Trip , Tanisha Gets Married , Love Games : Bad Girls Need Love Too – where past cast members seek true love , and Bad Girls All @-@ Star Battle . Of all the contestants , Kerry Harvick ( of season one ) was a successful country singer before the show . Tanisha Thomas ( of season two ) later hosted Oxygen 's OxygenLive ! and the subsequent seasons of Love Games : Bad Girls Need Love Too . Thomas , who has been dubbed the " godmother " to all contestants , had her own series entitled Tanisha Gets Married . Bad Girls Club : Social Disruption will premiere on September 20 , 2016 . = = Format = = Lasting until the final day without ever being kicked out or leaving for another reason is treated as an impressive feat on the series due to the level of violence and hostility . If the cast members engage in violence towards each other or break other rules , they may or may not be evicted under the show 's policy , which is enforced by the producers . Security guards apparently live in the house behind the scenes as they jump into camera shot to break up the many violent altercations that break out on the series . Beyond the common occurrence of violence and combat , other reasons for the premature exits of cast members have been from bullying , ostracism and alienation from the rest of the housemates , problems at home , court proceedings , or their own narcissism . On some occasions , multiple " bad girls " may wish to leave the show ; this has happened in all seasons . If a " bad girl " departs early in the season , a " replacement Bad Girl " is introduced within one or two episodes . The replacement housemate is commonly hazed , aggressed at , and treated with prejudice . All or most of the girls typically form cliques between each other ; create havoc and antagonize each other ; book parties in night clubs ; and engage in sexual antics and other mischief , all awhile attempting to maintain their personal lives . Bullying and outnumbering abuse ( where multiple cast members intimidate one cast member or some other fewer number of cast members ) are among regular occurrences on the program . The girls , deemed " bad girls " , come from different backgrounds and all different walks of life . Earlier on in the series , they 'd often try to cope with one another and change their rebellious behavior to become role models for young women . Some cast members try to accomplish specific goals . Throughout the show , the " Bad Girls " must adapt to the frequent mood and behavior changes of their housemates . The girls must undergo interviews in reality TV confessionals . They are allowed to contact their families and friends using landline telephones and a computer connected to a large @-@ screen television ; however , the cast is prohibited from watching nationally and locally televised programming and using mobile phones . The Bad Girls Club creed , introduced in season three , is : = = = Seasons 1 and 2 = = = The format for the first season of Bad Girls Club was different from that of subsequent seasons . The age range for season one was from 21 to 31 . The use of nicknames was not introduced until the third season . Season one was the first in which multiple " replacement Bad Girls " entered the show . Although there were differences in season one , the current rules have applied in all subsequent seasons . One feature continued from season one was the way the show opened : viewers were shown the biggest and most intense physical altercation of the season , and the program then went back to a time before it happened . This fight usually gives you an idea of who is going to be the baddest , or one of the baddest , girls in the house . This altercation draws in many viewers and keeps them wondering what will happen next . In the second season , the format of the show changed drastically . The maximum age dropped from 31 to 28 . The cast of season two were given mandatory non @-@ profit jobs to help them build a work ethic and to experience the stabilizing effect of being interdependent with others , for example in teamwork and commitment , to equip them for success in later life . Quitting the job or failure to attend resulted in mandatory removal from the show . The girls were given the jobs of planning , decision making , and building cooperation . Season two was the first and only season of the Bad Girls Club to do this , and was also the last to air 30 @-@ minute episodes . = = = Live shows = = = On August 3 , 2010 , during the OxygenLive TV recap episode , the show combined Facebook and Twitter with a live broadcast . Fans submitted opinions and comments about the show and its cast , which were aired during the 10 pm hour . In January 2011 , Oxygen released OxygenLive ! , an online talk show hosted by Tanisha Thomas , one of the " bad girls " of season two . It was broadcast after season six debuted on Oxygen , and focused on the cast of season six , occasionally bringing in " Bad Girls " from earlier seasons . Thomas asked the girls several questions to prompt rumors and confessions . = = Seasons = = = = Reception = = Many homophobic slurs have caught the attention of media outlets . Mary Mitchell of Sun Times stated that the show was " hazardous to the female psyche " and wrote , " Just like some teens try to emulate rappers in their dress and behavior , the same is true for ' bad girls . ' " She also commented that the show gives a " distorted picture " of how to live the good life , calling the cast " wannabes " who are " sleeping in a mansion they can 't pay for " . Mitchell believes that most people know the cast are living " a bogus lifestyle " , and assesses the message of the Bad Girls Club as " disturbing " . Many adolescents have emulated The Bad Girls Club . The show has also received negative criticism from African @-@ American viewers , believing that it is " not what being a black woman is all about . " Mary Chase Breedlove of Reflector objected that " there are several TV programs devoted to acting as trashy and mean as possible ( ' Bad Girls ' Club , ' ... ) " . The New York Daily News suggested that Bad Girls Club was the equivalent of professional wrestling . Kris De Leon of BuddyTV described the show as " crude , rude and pointless , but sort of addictive to some people . " Brian Lowry of Variety thought that the producers made the " wrong decision " when they created the show . He believed that the cast of Bad Girls Club auditioned for the show for their " 15 minutes of fame " . He said that Bad Girls Club " arrived a little late in this game , on a channel lacking the kind of exposure or public footprint to qualify the show even as the stuff guilty pleasures are made of " . Lowry believed that the show " loses " and that Oxygen attracts viewers who generally get drunk at bars and make a scene . He also suggested that " maybe it 's time to " BAG " these bad @-@ attitude girls and beat a hasty retreat back to the real world " . Anita Gates of The New York Times referred to Bad Girls Club as " a great argument for bringing back programming with actors " . She believed that the " average emotional age " appeared to be 15 , in contrast to the girls ' real ages . She stated that the " unpleasant villains cancel one another out and actually make badness uninteresting " , commenting that their behavior might not be " bad enough " . Gates concluded by suggesting that Bad Girls Club is the on @-@ location equivalent of The Jerry Springer Show . Kelly West of Cinemablend stated that Bad Girls Club is " so much fun to watch " . = = Controversies = = = = = Season 4 = = = During " Off The Wall " , the first episode of the fourth season , Natalie Nunn told Annie Andersen that Chris Brown was at a night club that she wanted to attend , and asked Anderson if she was a fan . Anderson said not , because of the domestic violence case that Brown was involved in . Nunn defended Brown , saying " Who cares , Rihanna was a punk bitch , and she got her ass beat for a reason " . Nunn called Rihanna a " crazy bitch " and claimed to know her , unlike Anderson . After the episode aired , Brown reportedly stated that he did not know who Nunn was . Nunn questioned this during the reunion show , claiming that Brown had said it because the cast of the show had not yet been revealed . Perez Hilton , the host of the reunion , asked Nunn if Rihanna had confronted her about her comments . Nunn answered yes , stating that the two had argued during a dinner party in New York City . During the reunion , Nunn claimed to have had a " fling " with Brown before the show . Shortly before the end of the reunion , Nunn said that she did not condone domestic violence and apologized if her comment had enraged fans and people who had been victims of it . = = = Season 5 = = = During the episode " The Wicked Witch Of Key West " , a stranger at a bar offered to buy drinks for Kristen Guinane and Christina Marie Hopkins . He spiked the drinks with PCP hallucinogenic pills , and Guinane became intoxicated . She claimed to have suffered bruises on her body when the man grabbed her and handled her roughly . Guinane reported that the producers of the show did not want to identify the man on television for fear of a lawsuit . She blamed the drug for her hitting cast @-@ member , Lea Beaulieu , in the face , leading to a fight . After season five had wrapped , Catya Washington was sentenced to jail for possession of a concealed weapon and illegal use of drugs . = = = Season 6 = = = During season six production , residents of Sherman Oaks , Los Angeles , complained that noise levels and swearing were unbearable and inappropriate for them and their children to listen to during the night . The residents called local law enforcement agencies four or five times to deal with the late @-@ night disturbances . Clarissa Keller , a Sherman Oaks resident , complained that she had a six @-@ year @-@ old son and didn 't want him to listen to the swearing . She set up a petition calling for a ban on all production companies in the Sherman Oaks hills . Location managers and production crew declined to discuss the neighbors ' complaints . The Bad Girls Club permit required the entire production to abide by a " minimum outdoor activity and noise " rule , but local residents claimed that the show did not keep noise levels down . The house for season six was rented for $ 20 @,@ 000 a month . The owner said that he would not allow this type of production to rent his home in the future . = = = Season 7 = = = On April 12 , 2011 , cast member Tasha Malek complained to an on @-@ duty police officer outside the Bad Girls house about the conduct of fellow cast member Nastasia Townsend . She claimed that Townsend had placed her personal belongings into a garbage bag , telling her " she needed to leave the house " , and that the incident had escalated into a fight . The two were issued summonses by the police for disturbing the peace and disorderly conduct . Malek released a statement saying " I don 't think it ’ s right to be gay " , offending many fans of the show . = = = Season 12 = = = The twelfth season of the Bad Girls Club sparked a debate with The Village Board of Trustees in Illinois on whether the show should be filmed in the Chicago area of Highland Park after previous concerns were raised . = = Cast = = = = Spin @-@ offs = = = = = Bad Girls Road Trip = = = Bad Girls Road Trip premiered on June 12 , 2007 . It featured season one cast members Zara Sprankle , Aimee Landi , and Leslie Ramsue touring their respective hometowns in search of casting opportunities for the second season of Bad Girls Club . On the series , they also visited their former housemates . = = = Love Games : Bad Girls Need Love Too = = = Love Games : Bad Girls Need Love Too premiered on March 16 , 2010 . The show follows three past " bad girls " in their search for true love . The first of the Bad Girls Club , Amber Meade and Sarah Michaels from the third season and Kendra Jones from the fourth season . The season concluded on April 27 , 2010 . Oxygen renewed the show for a second run , with Tanisha Thomas ( from season two of the Bad Girls Club ) as the host . In this season , Natalie Nunn ( season four ) , Amber Buell ( season three ) and Lea Beaulieu ( season five ) competed for true love . The second season consisted of eight one @-@ hour episodes aired between April 18 , 2011 , and June 13 , 2011 . The third season aired on December 5 , 2011 , with Thomas as host once more , and Kori Koether , Sydney Steinfeldt , and Judi Jai as cast members . Kori Koether and Sydney Steinfeldt were on season six of Bad Girls Club ; while Jai was on Season 7 . Season 4 aired on November 5 , 2012 with Tanisha Thomas as the host yet again . This marked Tanisha 's third time being the host in the series . This season also featured Season 8 girls , Danielle " Danni " Victor , Amy Cieslowski , and Camilla Poindexter as the cast members looking for love . = = = Bad Girls Club : Flo Gets Married = = = Bad Girls Club : Flo Gets Married is a one @-@ hour special that centers on season @-@ four cast member Florina " Flo " Kaja , who had a traditional Albanian wedding , and on her pregnancy . It aired on Oxygen on February 28 , 2011 and was watched by 859 @,@ 000 viewers . = = = Tanisha Gets Married = = = A documentary series titled Tanisha Gets Married premiered on May 7 , 2012 . It follows Bad Girls Club season two cast member Tanisha Thomas as she prepares for her wedding . With preparations for the wedding in order issues arise between Tanisha and her soon @-@ to @-@ be husband Clive and the show entails the family drama that occurs . Former " Bad Girls " featured in the series include Natalie Nunn and Florina from season four plus Amber M. from the third season ; all appeared as bridesmaids . The series also shows how Natalie and Florina 's issues with each other turn violent and it shows how their actions effect Tanisha . The series was produced by 495 Productions with SallyAnn Salsano as executive producer . = = = Bad Girls All @-@ Star Battle = = = Bad Girls All @-@ Star Battle show features " Bad " Girls competing for $ 100 @,@ 000 and the title of " Baddest Bad Girl of All Time . " The series has the girls divided into two teams and they are put to the test every week in an array of physical and mental challenges . It is hosted by R & B singer , Ray J. Bad Girls All @-@ Star Battle premiered on May 21 , 2013 . Bad Girls Club season 10 alumni Jenniffer " Jenn " Hardwick won the competition and season 4 alumni Florina " Flo " Kaja being the runner @-@ up . The second season premiered on January 7 , 2014 . Season 11 alumni Tiana Small won the competition and season 11 alumni Sarah Oliver being the runner @-@ up . = K @-@ 1 ( Kansas highway ) = K @-@ 1 is a 13 @.@ 363 @-@ mile ( 21 @.@ 506 km ) state highway in Comanche County in the U.S. state of Kansas . Its southern terminus is at the Oklahoma border south of Buttermilk , where it continues as Oklahoma State Highway 34 . Its northern terminus is at U.S. Route 160 and U.S. Route 183 south of Coldwater . The highway is not a part of the United States National Highway System . The highway has annual average daily traffic values between 600 and 645 , and the entire route of K @-@ 1 is paved with partial design bituminous pavement . = = Route description = = K @-@ 1 begins at the border with Oklahoma , where it is a continuation of Oklahoma State Highway 34 . It heads in a northerly direction , turning slightly to the northwest before heading directly northward again . It passes through the unincorporated community of Buttermilk , which is the only community on the route . From Buttermilk , K @-@ 1 continues northward until it terminates at an intersection with U.S. Route 160 ( US @-@ 160 ) and U.S. Route 183 ( US @-@ 183 ) south of Coldwater . The route length is 13 @.@ 363 miles ( 21 @.@ 506 km ) . The entire route of K @-@ 1 is paved with partial design bituminous pavement , a type of bituminous pavement which is not designed or constructed to carry the highway 's expected traffic . Annual average daily traffic values for the highway rise slowly from 600 over the southernmost 4 @.@ 000 miles ( 6 @.@ 437 km ) of the route to 645 over the northernmost 5 @.@ 363 miles ( 8 @.@ 631 km ) of the route . K @-@ 1 highway is not a part of the United States National Highway System . = = History = = K @-@ 1 highway was originally established sometime between 1918 and 1932 . Originally , K @-@ 1 ran much farther to the north than its current terminus , passing from the Oklahoma – Kansas border south of Coldwater north through Greensburg , Kinsley , western sections of Pawnee County , La Crosse , Hays , Plainville , Stockton , and Phillipsburg to a northern terminus just northeast of the town of Woodruff . It would terminate at K @-@ 22 , which was later known as U.S. Route 83 , close to the border with Nebraska . In 1941 , K @-@ 1 became began to be replaced with US Route 183 , beginning with the section between Rozel and Plainville . By 1950 , US Route 183 had replaced all but the current alignment of K @-@ 1 . It was not until 1953 that the entirety of K @-@ 1 was paved , as the section of K @-@ 1 that comprises the current alignment was not paved until between 1950 and 1953 . Since 1953 , K @-@ 1 has remained at its current alignment . = = Junction list = = = The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time = The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説時のオカリナ , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu : Toki no Okarina ) is an action @-@ adventure video game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 . It was released in Japan and North America in November 1998 , and in Europe and Australia in December 1998 . Originally developed for the 64DD peripheral , the game was instead released on a 256 @-@ megabit ( 32 @-@ megabyte ) cartridge , the largest @-@ capacity cartridge Nintendo produced at that time . Ocarina of Time is the fifth game in the The Legend of Zelda series , and the first with 3D graphics . It was followed by a direct sequel , The Legend of Zelda : Majora 's Mask , in 2000 . In Ocarina of Time , the player controls Link in the land of Hyrule . Link sets out on a quest to stop Ganondorf , king of the Gerudo tribe , from obtaining the Triforce , a sacred relic that grants the wishes of its holder . He travels through time and navigates various dungeons to awaken the sages , who have the power to seal Ganondorf away forever . Music plays an important role : To progress , the player must learn to play several songs on an ocarina . The game was responsible for increased interest in and rise in sales of the instrument . Ocarina of Time 's gameplay introduced features such as a target @-@ lock system and context @-@ sensitive buttons that have since become common in 3D adventure games . In Japan , more than 820 @,@ 000 copies were sold in 1998 , making it the tenth best @-@ selling game of that year . During its lifetime , 1 @.@ 14 million copies of Ocarina of Time were sold in Japan , and over 7 @.@ 6 million copies were sold worldwide . The game won the Grand Prize in the Interactive Art division at the Japan Media Arts Festival , and won six honors at the 2nd Annual Interactive Achievement Awards . As of 2016 , it is the highest @-@ rated game on review @-@ aggregating site Metacritic , with a score of 99 / 100 ; in 2008 and 2010 , Guinness World Records listed Ocarina of Time as the highest @-@ rated game ever reviewed . It is considered by many critics and gamers to be one of the greatest video games of all time . Ocarina of Time has had four major rereleases . It was originally ported to the GameCube alongside Ocarina of Time Master Quest , which featured reworked dungeons with new puzzles , and was included in The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition . It was also ported to the iQue Player in 2003 , and was made available via the Virtual Console service for the Wii and Wii U in 2007 and 2015 respectively . The rereleases were well received ; although some critics considered the game outdated even during the initial rerelease , other reviewers believed it had aged well . A remake for the Nintendo 3DS , Ocarina of Time 3D , was released in 2011 with updated graphics and new autostereoscopic 3D effects ; it includes Master Quest 's rearranged dungeons , which are absent from the Wii , Wii U , and iQue versions . = = Gameplay = = The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time is an action @-@ adventure game with role @-@ playing and puzzle elements set in a large open @-@ world environment . The player controls series protagonist Link from a third @-@ person perspective , in a three @-@ dimensional world . Link primarily fights with a sword and shield , but he can also use other weapons such as projectiles , bombs , and magic spells . The control scheme introduced techniques such as context @-@ sensitive actions and a targeting system called " Z @-@ targeting " . In combat , Z @-@ targeting allows the player to have Link focus and latch onto an enemy or other objects . When using this technique , the camera follows the target and Link constantly faces it . Projectile attacks are automatically directed at the target and do not require manual aiming . Context @-@ sensitive actions allow multiple tasks to be assigned to one button , simplifying the control scheme . The on @-@ screen display shows what will happen when the button is pushed and changes depending on what the character is doing . For example , the same button that causes Link to push a box if he is standing next to it will have him climb on the box if the analog stick is pushed toward it . Much of the game is spent in battle , but some parts require the use of stealth . Exploration is another important aspect of gameplay ; the player may notice inaccessible areas and return later to find them explorable after obtaining a new item , such as the bomb , to blast through walls , or the hookshot , to reach distant places . In addition , the player can plant magic plants throughout the world , and later return to find the plant full @-@ grown and able transport Link to secret places with valuable items . When playing certain songs , Link is able to travel over vast distances in a short amount of time . Link collects items and weapons throughout the game , whose abilities allow him to access , navigate and complete dungeons to advance the story . Each dungeon is a dense , self @-@ contained area in which Link solves puzzles and defeats enemies , and ends in a battle with the dungeon 's boss , a powerful unique enemy . Each dungeon and its boss share a major item and common theme ; for example Link must use the Fairy Bow to complete the Forest Temple and defeat its boss , Phantom Ganon , both of which involve trickery and misdirection . Defeat of a dungeon 's boss grants Link a special item and advances the main quest . Ocarina of Time has several optional side @-@ quests , or minor objectives , that the player can choose to complete or ignore . Completing the side @-@ quests usually results in rewards , normally in the form of weapons or abilities . In one side @-@ quest , Link trades items he cannot use himself among non @-@ player characters . This trading sequence features ten items that must be delivered within their individual time limits , and ends with Link receiving an item he can use , the two @-@ handed Biggoron Sword , the largest and strongest sword in the game . In another side @-@ quest , Link can acquire a horse named Epona . This allows him to travel faster and jump over fences , but attacking while riding is restricted to arrows . In order to get Epona , Link must learn her song while he is a child . However , he is only able to ride her seven years later when he and Epona are both adults . Link can travel between two points in time . Part way through the main quest , Link claims the Master Sword in the Temple of Time ; when Link takes the sword , he is sealed for seven years , until he becomes an adult , and therefore strong enough to wield the Master Sword . Young Link and adult Link have different abilities , and are restricted to certain items and weapons . For example , only adult Link can use the Fairy Bow and only young Link can fit through certain small passages . After completing the Forest Temple , Link can travel freely between the two time periods by replacing or taking the sword . Link is given the Fairy Ocarina near the beginning of the game , which is later replaced by the Ocarina of Time , given to him by Princess Zelda . Throughout the game , Link learns twelve melodies that allow him to solve various puzzles and teleport to previously visited locations in the game . The melodies and notes are played with the C and A buttons on the Nintendo 64 controller or the C analog stick on the GameCube controller . = = Plot = = The events of Ocarina of Time are set in the fictional kingdom of Hyrule , the setting of most The Legend of Zelda games . Hyrule Field serves as the central hub connected to several outlying areas with diverse topography . Most of these areas are populated by the races of Hyrule : Hylians , Kokiri , Gorons , Zoras , Gerudo , and Sheikah . The fairy Navi awakens Link from a nightmare in which he witnesses a man in black armor pursuing a young girl on horseback . Navi brings Link to the Great Deku Tree , who is cursed and near death . The Deku Tree tells Link a " wicked man of the desert " cursed him and seeks to conquer the world , and that Link must stop him . Before dying , the Great Deku Tree gives Link the Spiritual Stone of the Forest and sends him to Hyrule Castle to speak with Hyrule 's princess . At the Hyrule Castle garden , Link meets Princess Zelda , who believes Ganondorf , king of the Gerudo , is seeking the Triforce , a holy relic that gives its holder godlike power . Zelda asks Link to obtain the three Spiritual Stones so he can enter the Sacred Realm and claim the Triforce before Ganondorf reaches it . Link collects the other two stones : the first from Darunia , leader of the Gorons , and the second from Ruto , princess of the Zoras . Link returns to Hyrule Castle , where he sees Ganondorf chase Zelda and her caretaker Impa on horseback , and unsuccessfully attempts to stop him . Inside the Temple of Time , he uses the Ocarina of Time , a gift from Zelda , and the Spiritual Stones to open the door to the Sacred Realm . There he finds the Master Sword , but as he pulls it from its pedestal , Ganondorf appears and claims the Triforce . Seven years later , an older Link awakens in an area of the Sacred Realm known as the Chamber of Sages and is met by Rauru , one of the seven sages who protect the entrance to the Sacred Realm . Rauru explains that Link 's spirit was sealed for seven years until he was old enough to wield the Master Sword and defeat Ganondorf , who has now taken over Hyrule . The seven sages can imprison Ganondorf in the Sacred Realm , but five are unaware of their identities as sages . Link is returned to the Temple of Time ; there he meets the mysterious Sheik , who guides him to free five temples from Ganondorf 's control , allowing each temple 's sage to awaken . Link befriended all five sages as a child : Saria , the Sage of the Forest Temple ; Darunia , the Sage of the Fire Temple ; Ruto , the Sage of the Water Temple ; Impa , the Sage of the Shadow Temple ; and Nabooru , the Sage of the Spirit Temple . After the five sages awaken , Sheik reveals herself to be Zelda in disguise , and the seventh sage . She tells Link that Ganondorf 's heart was unbalanced , causing the Triforce to split into three pieces . Ganondorf acquired only the Triforce of Power , while Zelda received the Triforce of Wisdom and Link the Triforce of Courage . Ganondorf kidnaps Zelda and imprisons her in his castle . The other six sages help Link infiltrate the stronghold , where he frees Zelda after nearly defeating Ganondorf , who destroys the castle in an attempt to kill Link and Zelda . After they escape the collapsing castle , Ganondorf emerges from the rubble and , using the Triforce of Power , transforms into a boar @-@ like monster named Ganon and knocks the Master Sword from Link 's hand . With Zelda 's aid , Link retrieves the Master Sword and defeats Ganon . The seven sages seal Ganondorf in the Dark Realm ; still holding the Triforce of Power , he vows to take revenge on their descendants . Zelda uses the Ocarina of Time to send Link back to his childhood . Navi departs and young Link meets Zelda in the castle garden once more . = = Development = = First shown as a technical demo at Nintendo 's Shoshinkai trade show in December 1995 , Ocarina of Time was developed concurrently with Super Mario 64 by Nintendo 's Entertainment Analysis & Development ( EAD ) division . Both were the first free @-@ roaming 3D game in their respective series . Nintendo planned to release Super Mario 64 as a launch game for the Nintendo 64 ( N64 ) and later release Ocarina of Time for the 64DD , a disk drive peripheral for the system . Nintendo eventually migrated the development of Ocarina of Time from disk to cartridge media due to the high data performance requirements imposed by continuously reading 500 motion @-@ captured character animations throughout gameplay , intending to follow its release with a 64DD expansion disk . At its release the 32 @-@ megabyte game was the largest game Nintendo had ever created . Early in the game 's development , concerns over the memory constraints of the N64 cartridge led producer and supervisor Shigeru Miyamoto to imagine a worst @-@ case scenario in which Ocarina of Time would follow a similar structure to Super Mario 64 with Link being restricted to Ganondorf 's castle as a central hub , and using a portal system similar to the paintings that Mario uses to traverse the realm . An idea that arose from this stage of development , a battle with a doppelganger of Ganondorf that rides through paintings , ultimately made its way into the finished game as the boss of the Forest Temple dungeon . While Shigeru Miyamoto had been the principal director of Super Mario 64 , he was now in charge of several directors as a producer and supervisor of Ocarina of Time . During its development , individual parts of Ocarina of Time were handled by multiple directors — a new strategy for Nintendo EAD . However , when things were progressing slower than expected , Miyamoto returned to the development team with a more hands @-@ on directorial role . Although the development team was new to 3D games , assistant director Makoto Miyanaga recalls a sense of " passion for creating something new and unprecedented " . A " medieval tale of sword and sorcery , " Miyamoto intended the game to be in the chanbara genre of Japanese sword fighting . The development crew involved more than 120 people , including stunt performers used to capture the effects of sword fighting and Link 's movement . Some of Miyamoto 's ideas for the new Zelda title were instead used in Super Mario 64 , since it was to be released first . Other ideas were not used due to time constraints . Miyamoto initially intended Ocarina of Time to be played in a first @-@ person perspective to enable players to take in the vast terrain of Hyrule Field better , as well as to be able to focus more on developing enemies and environments . However , the development team did not go through with it once the idea of having a child Link was introduced , and Miyamoto believed it necessary for Link to be visible on screen . Ocarina of Time originally ran on the same engine as Super Mario 64 , but was so heavily modified that designer Shigeru Miyamoto considers the final products entirely different engines . One major difference between the two is camera control ; the player has a lot of control over the camera in Super Mario 64 , but the camera in Ocarina of Time is largely controlled by the game 's AI . Miyamoto says the camera controls for Ocarina of Time are intended to reflect a focus on the game 's world , whereas those of Super Mario 64 are centered on the character of Mario . Miyamoto wanted to make a game that was cinematic , but still distinguished from actual films . Takumi Kawagoe , who creates cutscenes for Nintendo , says that his top priority is to have the player feel in control of the action . To promote this feeling , cut scenes in Ocarina of Time are completely generated with real @-@ time computing and do not use pre @-@ recorded or full @-@ motion video . Toru Osawa created the scenario for the game , based on a story idea by Miyamoto and Yoshiaki Koizumi . He was given support by A Link to the Past and Link 's Awakening script writer Kensuke Tanabe . The dungeons were designed by Eiji Aonuma . In 1997 and 1998 , the Nintendo 64 was said to be critically lacking in first party hit releases . Next Generation magazine stated that " Nintendo absolutely can 't afford another holiday season without a real marquee title " and that Zelda was " one of the most anticipated games of the decade " , upon which the Nintendo 64 's fate depends . Chairman Howard Lincoln insisted at E3 1998 that Zelda would be shipped on time and would instantly become the company 's reinvigorating blockbuster akin to a major Hollywood hit movie . Customers in North America who pre @-@ ordered the game received a limited edition box with a golden plastic card affixed , reading " Collector 's Edition " . This edition contained a gold @-@ colored cartridge , a tradition for the Zelda series that began with the original game for the Nintendo Entertainment System . Demand was so great that Electronics Boutique stopped pre @-@ selling the title on November 3 , 1998 . Several versions of Ocarina of Time were produced , with later revisions featuring minor changes such as glitch repairs , the recoloring of Ganondorf 's blood from crimson to green , and the alteration of the music heard in the Fire Temple dungeon to remove a sample of an Islamic prayer chant . The sample was taken from a commercially available sound library , but the developers did not realise it contained Islamic references . Although popularly believed to have been changed due to public outcry , the chanting was in fact removed after the company discovered it violated their own policy to avoid religious material in games , and the altered versions of Ocarina of Time were made prior to the game 's original release . = = = Ports and rereleases = = = Ocarina of Time was rereleased for the GameCube as a port of the Nintendo 64 ROM image in conjunction with The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time Master Quest and as a part of The Legend of Zelda : Collector 's Edition . The former was released as Zeruda no Densetsu : Toki no Okarina GC in Japan , with the Master Quest side named Zeruda no Densetsu : Toki no Okarina GC Ura ( ゼルダの伝説時のオカリナ GC裏 ) . The " Ura " name stems from Master Quest 's origins , as an expansion to the Ocarina of Time cartridge in the form of a 64DD disk , under the working title Ura Zelda . The Master Quest compilation was given as a premium for pre @-@ ordering The Wind Waker in Japan and North America , as well as in a special GameCube bundle at Walmart wherein the disc came in the same case . In Europe and Australia , the disc came in the same case as the initial pressings of The Wind Waker . In Europe , it was available for a limited time through a special offer on the Nintendo website . The Ocarina of Time Master Quest box contains a single disc that includes the original game ; the Master Quest version ; six video demos for various GameCube games , including one for The Wind Waker ; and a video demo for the Game Boy Advance games A Link to the Past and Four Swords . Master Quest uses the same engine and plot of Ocarina of Time , but dungeons have been altered . Collector 's Edition was available in GameCube bundles in Europe , Australia , and North America , as well as by registering hardware and software , or by subscribing to official magazines or clubs . In addition to Ocarina of Time , the disc also contains the original The Legend of Zelda , The Adventure of Link , Majora 's Mask , a demo of The Wind Waker , and a Zelda retrospective featurette . The original game is displayed on the Nintendo 64 with a resolution of 320 × 240 , but the GameCube ports run at 640 × 480 and support progressive scan . The game was released for the Wii 's Virtual Console service for 1000 Wii Points in Europe and Australia on February 23 , 2007 ; in North America on February 26 ; and in Japan on February 27 . This particular release is an emulation of the Nintendo 64 version , true to the original except for the elimination of support for controller vibrations . Thus , an item called the " Stone of Agony " , which employs physical vibrations via the Nintendo 64 's Rumble Pak controller accessory during certain in @-@ game events , has been made useless . The Wii can play the GameCube compilation versions with this feature intact . A five @-@ minute demo of the game is included as an unlockable item in Super Smash Bros. Brawl . The game was rereleased on the Wii U Virtual Console worldwide on July 2 , 2015 , this time including the Nintendo 64 's original Rumble Pak feature . = = = = Ura Zelda = = = = After the completion of Ocarina of Time , an expansion disk for the yet unreleased 64DD peripheral was developed with the working title Ura Zelda , commonly translated as " Another Zelda " . Described as " Ocarina 's second version with rearranged dungeon gameplay " , it contains some new content and some which had been cut from Ocarina due to constraints on development time and on cartridge storage size . We will make [ Ura Zelda ] once the system has been switched over to the 64DD . Fundamentally , once the cartridge version of Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time has been out for awhile , I 'd like to bring the 64DD version out . It 's too early to release just yet , and I don 't want to have the 64DD and the cartridge sold at the same time . It 's troubling . After we release the cartridge version of F @-@ ZERO X , we 'll release the 64DD expansion disc . However , Ura Zelda was delayed indefinitely since 1998 due to the uncertain and protracted development status of the requisite 64DD device , and then was never released in its originally planned form due to the 64DD 's ultimate commercial failure . A fairly intact equivalent to Ura Zelda , as confirmed by designers Shigeru Miyamoto and Eiji Aonuma , was released for the GameCube in 2002 in Japan as Zeruda no Densetsu : Toki no Okarina GC Ura ( ゼルダの伝説時のオカリナ GC裏 ) and in 2003 in North America and Europe as The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time Master Quest . Miyamoto explained in 2002 , " [ Ura ] didn 't use many of the special [ 64DD ] features . So it was very easy to port over to the GameCube without cutting any features . Ura Zelda isn 't very different from the Ocarina of Time ; it 's more of a second quest ... it will not unlock anything special . " Aonuma concluded in 2004 , " It was finally bundled in the GameCube version of Ocarina and released as Master Quest . " In 2003 , IGN 's Peer Schneider gave Master Quest positive reviews , with caveats . Based upon Ocarina which has " aged extremely well " , he likened the Ura concept to the second quest of the original Zelda game for NES . The game is " far more difficult than the original " , though the integrity of some areas suffer as if " ' second quest ' most likely meant ' second choice ' during the Nintendo design process " . He found the GameCube port to be somewhat visually improved though " lazy " , with a clumsy translation to the new controller and no substantial improvement in the original game 's low frame rate . Summarizing it as " a sweet , sweet surprise for any Zelda fan " , he recommended this complimentary compilation release even if it had been at full price . = = = = Nintendo 3DS version = = = = Shigeru Miyamoto originally maintained that a version of the game for the Nintendo 3DS was merely a technical demo with the possibility of being developed into a full game , but Nintendo of America announced the game in June 2010 . Ocarina of Time 3D was developed by Nintendo EAD in partnership with Grezzo , an independent Japanese studio headed by Koichi Ishii . The game was released in Japan on June 16 , 2011 ; Europe on June 17 , 2011 ; the United States on June 19 , 2011 ; and Australia on June 30 , 2011 ( June 24 , 2011 , at some stores ) . New features include the ability to quickly equip items using the touchscreen and to use the handheld 's built in gyroscope to aim precisely in first @-@ person point of view while using items such as the slingshot . The fixed 3D is no longer present , and is made with a full 3D rendering of previously fixed 3D areas . In addition to the original game , the Master Quest is included , as well as a new " Boss Challenge " mode that allows players to fight all of the bosses one at a time , or in sequential order . However , this version of Master Quest differs in the fact that the entire map is mirrored , similar to what Nintendo did for the Wii port of The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess . Instructional videos are built into the 3DS version to guide the players who are lost or stuck in certain puzzles . The original Water Temple was noted for its difficulty , being described as " arguably the greatest challenge of spatial awareness in a 3D adventure game " . The 3DS version contains new elements to reduce this difficulty . = = = Music = = = Ocarina of Time 's music was written by Koji Kondo , the composer in charge of music for most of the games in the The Legend of Zelda series . In addition to characters having musical themes , areas of Hyrule are also associated with pieces of music . This has been called leitmotif in reverse — instead of music announcing an entering character , it now introduces a stationary environment as the player approaches . In some locations , the music is a variation of an ocarina tune the player learns , related to that area . Beyond providing a backdrop for the setting , music plays an integral role in gameplay . The button layout of the Nintendo 64 controller resembles the holes of the ocarinas in the game , and players must learn to play several songs to complete the game . All songs are played using the five notes available on an ocarina , although by bending pitches via the analog stick , players can play additional tones . Kondo said that creating distinct themes on the limited scale	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
the intent of learning how to record with computers , noting that it was the only method with which he was still unfamiliar . Smith jokingly labeled his experimental way of recording " The California Frown " ( a play on the Beach Boys ' " California Sound " ) . He said of the songs , " They 're kind of more noisy with the pitch all distorted . Some are more acoustic , but there aren 't too many like that . Lately I 've just been making up a lot of noise . " He was also in the process of recording songs for the Thumbsucker soundtrack , including Big Star 's " Thirteen " and Cat Stevens 's " Trouble " . In August 2003 , Suicide Squeeze Records put out a limited @-@ edition vinyl single for " Pretty ( Ugly Before ) " , a song that Smith had been playing since the Figure 8 tour . Elliott 's final show was at Redfest at the University of Utah in Salt Lake City on September 19 , 2003 . The final song ever played by Elliott live , was Long , Long , Long by The Beatles . However , the last original song Smith played live was " Say Yes " . = = Death = = Smith died on October 21 , 2003 at the age of 34 years from two stab wounds to the chest . At the time of the stabbing , he was at his Lemoyne Street home in Echo Park , California , where he lived with his partner , Jennifer Chiba . According to Chiba , the two were arguing , and she locked herself in the bathroom to take a shower . Chiba heard him scream and upon opening the door saw Smith standing with a knife in his chest . She pulled the knife out , after which he collapsed and she called 9 @-@ 1 @-@ 1 . Smith died in the hospital with the time of death listed as 1 : 36 p.m. A possible suicide note , written on a Post @-@ it note , read : " I 'm so sorry — love , Elliott . God forgive me . " The name " Elliott " is misspelled as " Elliot " in the coroner 's report ; however , a coroner informed the Smoking Gun website " that Smith 's first name was misspelled in the report " , not on the Post @-@ it note . While Smith 's death was originally reported as a suicide , the official autopsy report released in December 2003 left open the question of homicide . According to Pitchfork Media , record producer Larry Crane reported on his Tape Op message board that he had planned to help Smith mix his album in mid @-@ November . Crane wrote , " I hadn 't talked to Elliott in over a year . His girlfriend , Jennifer , called me [ last week ] and asked if I 'd like to come to L.A. and help mix and finish [ Smith 's album ] . I said ' yes , of course ' , and chatted with Elliott for the first time in ages . It seems surreal that he would call me to finish an album and then a week later kill himself . I talked to Jennifer this morning , who was obviously shattered and in tears , and she said , ' I don 't understand , he was so healthy . ' " The coroner reported that no traces of illegal substances or alcohol were found in Smith 's system at the time of his death but did find prescribed levels of antidepressant , anxiolytic , and ADHD medications , including Clonazepam , Mirtazapine , Atomoxetine , and Amphetamine . There were no hesitation wounds , which are typical of suicide by self @-@ infliction . However , the authorities do not seem to be investigating the case further . Smith 's body was cremated and a public burial site or memorial was never formally announced . = = = Reaction = = = Shortly after Smith 's death , a fan memorial was initiated outside Solutions Audio ( 4334 Sunset Boulevard , Los Angeles , California ) , the site at which the cover of the Figure 8 album was shot . Farewell messages to Smith were written on the wall , and flowers , photos , candles , and empty bottles of alcohol mentioned in Smith 's songs were left . Since then , the wall has been a regular target for graffiti but is regularly restored by fans . Memorial concerts were held in several cities in the United States and the United Kingdom . A petition was soon put forth with intent to make part of the Silver Lake area a memorial park in Smith 's honor . It received over 10 @,@ 000 signatures , but no plans to establish the park have been announced . A memorial plaque located inside Smith 's former high school , Lincoln High , was hung in July 2006 . The plaque has the line " I 'm never gonna know you now , but I 'm gonna love you anyhow " from Smith 's song " Waltz # 2 ( XO ) " . Since Smith 's death , many musical acts have paid him tribute . Songs in tribute to , or about , Smith have been released by Pearl Jam ( " Can 't Keep " on the Live at Benaroya Hall concert album ) ; Sparta ( " Bombs and Us " ) ; Third Eye Blind ( " There 's No Hurry to Eternity " , originally titled " Elliott Smith " , on the Live from Nowhere Near You , Volume Two : Pacific Northwest compilation ) ; Ben Folds ( " Late " on Songs for Silverman ) ; Brad Mehldau ( " Sky Turning Grey ( for Elliott Smith ) " on Highway Rider ) ; Rilo Kiley ( " It Just Is " , and " Ripchord " from the album More Adventurous ) ; Rhett Miller ( " The Believer " on The Believer ) ; Earlimart ( " Heaven Adores You " on Treble and Tremble ) ; Joan As Police Woman ( " We Don 't Own It " on Real Life ) ; and Pete Yorn ( " Bandstand in the Sky " on Nightcrawler , a song jointly dedicated to Jeff Buckley ) . Several tribute albums have also been released since his death , including Christopher O 'Riley 's Home to Oblivion : An Elliott Smith Tribute . The band Grandaddy played the track " Oh Well , OK " in the encore of its reunion tour ( August to September 2012 ) . During the song , images of Smith and the Solutions Audio Memorial were displayed on a screen behind the band . Smith sang live with Jason Lytle and Grandaddy on a mesmerizing rendition of " He 's Simple , He 's Dumb , He 's the Pilot " at Benaroya Hall Seattle on June 18 , 2001 . On July 30 , 2004 , Chiba filed a lawsuit against the Smith family for 15 % of his earnings ( over $ 1 million ) , claiming that she and Smith lived as " husband and wife " , that the singer pledged to take care of her financially for the rest of her life , and that she worked as his manager and agent from around 2000 until his death . A state labor commissioner ruled her claim as manager to be invalid , as she had worked as an " unlicensed talent agent " under California 's Talent Agencies Act . The case made it to the California appellate court in October 2007 , but was defeated 2 – 1 ; Chiba could potentially appeal the case to the Supreme Court of California . In an October 2013 SPIN magazine article — a reflection at the ten @-@ year anniversary of Smith 's death — drummer McPherson stated that Smith was " a sick man without his medicine " during the last 31 days of his life , when he was not only sober , but had also given up red meat and sugar . In the same article , Chiba recalls thinking , " Okay , you 're asking a lot of yourself . You 're giving up a lot at once . " Chiba further explained that " anyone who understands drug abuse knows that you use drugs to hide from your past or sedate yourself from strong , overwhelming feelings . So when you 're newly clean and coming off the medications that have been masking all those feelings , that 's when you 're the most vulnerable . " Writing for SPIN , Liam Gowing also encountered a local musician who stated that Smith had said to him : " The people who try to intervene , they 're good people who genuinely care about you . But they don 't know what you 're going through . Do what you need to do . " According to the musician , Smith had adamantly dissuaded him from suicide . = = Posthumous releases = = From a Basement on the Hill , almost four years in production , was released on October 19 , 2004 , by ANTI- Records ( a part of Epitaph Records ) . With Smith 's family in control of his estate , they chose to bring in Rob Schnapf and Smith 's ex @-@ girlfriend Joanna Bolme to sort through the recordings and mix the album . Although Smith had voiced his desire for it to be a double album or a regular album with a bonus disc , it was not clear whether it would have been possible for him to release it that way had he completed it . As completed by Schnapf and Bolme , it was released as a 15 @-@ track single album . Many songs from the sessions ( later leaked onto the Internet ) were not included , such as " True Love " , " Everything 's OK " , " Stickman " , and " Suicide Machine " ( a reworking of the Figure 8 @-@ era unreleased instrumental " Tiny Time Machine " ) . There has been unconfirmed speculation that Smith 's family made the decision not to include some songs on the record due to their lyrical content , although songs such as " King 's Crossing " that deal with darker subjects did make the album . Elliott Smith and the Big Nothing , a biography by Benjamin Nugent , was rushed to publication and hit stores shortly after From a Basement on the Hill , barely beyond the first anniversary of the musician 's death . Smith 's family , as well as Joanna Bolme , Jennifer Chiba , Neil Gust , Sam Coomes , and Janet Weiss , all declined to be interviewed . It contained interviews with Rob Schnapf , David McConnell , and Pete Krebs . The book received mixed reviews , with Publishers Weekly remarking that while " Nugent manages to patch together the major beats of Smith 's life , he can offer little meaningful insight . " In 2005 , a tribute album , A Tribute to Elliott Smith , was released . It featured various bands performing tributes to Smith . On May 8 , 2007 , a posthumous two @-@ disc compilation album entitled New Moon was released by Kill Rock Stars . The album contained 24 songs recorded by Smith between 1994 and 1997 during his tenure with the label , songs that were not included on albums , as well as a few early versions and previously released B @-@ sides . In the United States , the album debuted at number 24 on the Billboard 200 , selling about 24 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . The record received favorable reviews and was Metacritic 's 15th best @-@ reviewed album of 2007 . A portion of the proceeds from album sales were to go to Outside In , a social service agency for low @-@ income adults and homeless youth in Portland , Oregon . On October 25 , 2007 , a book titled Elliott Smith was released by Autumn de Wilde , which consists of photographs , handwritten lyrics , and " revealing talks with Smith 's inner circle " . De Wilde was responsible for the Figure 8 sleeve art , making a landmark and de facto Smith memorial of the Solutions Audio mural . A five @-@ song CD featuring previously unreleased live recordings of Smith performing acoustically at Largo in Los Angeles was included in the release . Following the singer 's death , the Smith estate licensed his songs for use in a number of film and television projects , such as One Tree Hill , The Girl Next Door , Georgia Rule , and Paranoid Park . In a March 2009 interview , Larry Crane said that the estate of Elliott Smith was now " defunct " and all rights previously held by the singer are now in the control of " his parents " . Crane went on to say that his parents own the rights to Smith 's high school recordings , some of the Heatmiser material , all solo songs recorded until his 1998 record deal with DreamWorks Records , and From a Basement on the Hill . DreamWorks Records was acquired by Universal Music Group in 2003 , and Interscope Records currently " owns all studio and live recording from Jan 1998 to his passing , except for the songs on From a Basement on the Hill . " In December 2009 , Kill Rock Stars announced that it had obtained the rights to re @-@ release Roman Candle and From a Basement on the Hill , originally released by Cavity Search and ANTI- , respectively . Roman Candle would be remastered by Larry Crane . Along with the press release , Kill Rock Stars posted a previously unreleased track of Smith 's , titled " Cecilia / Amanda " , as a free download . Roman Candle and From a Basement on the Hill were re @-@ released on April 6 , 2010 , in the US . A greatest hits compilation titled An Introduction to ... Elliott Smith was released in November 2010 by Domino Records ( UK ) and Kill Rock Stars ( US ) . In August 2013 , there was a memorial concert in Portland , Oregon and three other cities . Attending the Portland show were several musicians Smith had performed with , friends , and an appearance by film director Gus Van Sant . In 2014 , director Paul Thomas Anderson posted a video of the pilot episode for a show called The Jon Brion Show , featuring an acoustic set by Smith including accompaniment by Brion and pianist Brad Mehldau . On July 17 , 2015 , a documentary about Smith 's life titled Heaven Adores You saw a limited theatrical release . The documentary enlisted a number of close friends and family members , as well as hours of audio interviews throughout Smith 's short career . The film was directed by Nickolas Rossi and released through Eagle Rock Entertainment . Heaven Adores You received positive reviews from Consequence of Sound , The Guardian , and The Hollywood Reporter . = = Musical style and influences = = Smith respected and was inspired by many artists and styles , including Big Star , The Clash , The Who , Led Zeppelin , The Kinks , Pink Floyd , Rush , Elvis Costello , Oasis , Television , Motown and flamenco records , AC / DC , Hank Williams , and Scorpions , Smith claimed to listen exclusively to selected albums ( such as The Marble Index by Nico ) for months . Sean Croghan , a former roommate of Smith 's , said that the singer " listened almost exclusively to slow jams " in his senior year at college . Smith was also known to gain inspiration from novels , religion , and philosophy . He liked classic literature , especially Samuel Beckett , T. S. Eliot , and Fyodor Dostoyevsky ( and other Russian novelists ) . Smith mentioned his admiration for Bob Dylan in several interviews , citing him as an early musical influence . He once commented : " My father taught me how to play ' Don 't Think Twice , It 's All Right ' . I love Dylan 's words , but even more than that , I love the fact that he loves words . " Smith covered Dylan 's " When I Paint My Masterpiece " several times in concert . Smith has also been compared to folk legend Nick Drake , due to his fingerpicking style and vocals . Darryl Cater of AllMusic called references to " the definitive folk loner " Drake " inevitable " , and Smith 's lyrics have been compared to those in Drake 's minimalist and haunting final album . Smith was a dedicated fan of The Beatles ( as well as their solo projects ) , once noting that he had been listening to them frequently since he was about " four years old " and also claimed that hearing The White Album was his original inspiration to become a musician . In 1998 , Smith contributed a cover of the Beatles song " Because " to the closing credits and soundtrack of the film American Beauty . Although this was the only Beatles song that Smith ever officially released , he is known to have recorded at least two others ( " Revolution " and " I 'll Be Back " ) and played many songs by both the band and the members ' solo projects at live concerts . Regarding his songwriting , Smith said : The way I think about it is ... I don 't really think about it in terms of language , I think about it more like shapes . That 's an interesting thing to talk about but it 's difficult . I 'm really into chord changes . That was the thing that I liked when I was a kid . So , I 'm not like a ... I don 't make up " a riff " really . It 's usually like ... that sequence that has some implied melody in it or something like that . Smith said that transitions were his favorite part of songs and that he preferred to write broader , more impressionistic music closer to pop rather than folk music . Smith compared his songs to stories or dreams , not purely confessional pieces that people could relate to . When asked about the dark nature of his songwriting and the cult following he was gaining , Smith said he felt it was merely a product of his writing songs that were strongly meaningful to him rather than anything contrived . Larry Crane , Smith 's posthumous archivist , has said that he was surprised at the amount of " recycling of musical ideas " that he has encountered while cataloging the singer 's private tapes : " I found songs recorded in high school reworked 15 years on . Lyrics became more important to him as he became older , and more time was spent working on them . " = = Discography = = Studio albums Roman Candle ( 1994 ) Elliott Smith ( 1995 ) Either / Or ( 1997 ) XO ( 1998 ) Figure 8 ( 2000 ) Posthumous albums From a Basement on the Hill ( 2004 ) New Moon ( 2007 ) Heaven Adores You ( 2016 ) = Mari Lwyd = The Mari Lwyd is a wassailing folk custom found in South Wales . The tradition entails the use of an eponymous hobby horse which is made from a horse 's skull mounted on a pole and carried by an individual hidden under a sackcloth . It represents a regional variation of a " hooded animal " tradition that appears in various forms throughout Britain . The custom was first recorded in 1800 , with subsequent accounts of it being produced into the early twentieth century . According to these , the Mari Lwyd was a tradition performed at Christmas time by groups of men . They would form into teams to accompany the horse on its travels around the local area , and although the makeup of such groups varied , they typically included an individual to carry the horse , a leader , and individuals dressed as stock characters such as Punch and Judy . The team would carry the Mari Lwyd to local houses , where they would request entry through the medium of song . The householders would be expected to deny them entry , again through song , and the two sides would continue their responses to one another in this manner . If the householders eventually relented , then the team would be permitted entry and given food and drink . Although the custom was given various names , it was best known as the Mari Lwyd ; the etymology of this term remains the subject of academic debate . The folklorist Iorwerth C. Peate believed that the term meant " Holy Mary " and thus was a reference to the Virgin Mary , while fellow folklorist E. C. Cawte thought it more likely that the term had originally meant " Grey Mare " , thus referring to the heads ' equine appearance . A number of earlier folklorists to examine the topic , such as Peate and Ellen Ettlinger , believed that the tradition had once been a pre @-@ Christian religious rite , although scholarly support for this interpretation has declined amid a lack of supporting evidence . Although the tradition declined in the early to mid @-@ twentieth century , in part due to opposition from some local Christian clergy and changing social conditions , it was revived in new forms in the mid @-@ to @-@ latter part of the century . The tradition has also inspired various artistic depictions , appearing , for instance , in the work of the painter Clive Hicks @-@ Jenkins and the poet Vernon Watkins . = = Description = = The Mari Lwyd itself consists of a horse 's skull that is decorated with ribbons and affixed to a pole ; to the back of the skull is attached a white sheet , which drapes down to conceal both the pole and the individual carrying this device . On occasion , the horse 's head was represented not by a skull but was instead made from wood or even paper . In some instances , the horse 's jaw was able to open and close as a result of string or lever attached to it , and there are accounts of pieces of glass being affixed into the eye sockets of some examples , representing eyes . An observer of the tradition as it was performed at Llangynwyd during the nineteenth century noted that preparation for the activity was a communal event , with many locals involving themselves in the decorating of the Mari Lwyd . The Mari Lwyd custom was performed during wither festivities , specifically around the dates of Christmas and New Year . However , the precise date on which the custom was performed varied between villages , and in a number of cases the custom was carried out for several consecutive nights . There is a unique example provided by an account from Gower in which the head was kept buried throughout the year , only being dug up for use during the Christmas period . The custom used to begin at dusk and often lasted late into the night . The Mari Lwyd party consisted of four to seven men , who often had coloured ribbons and rosettes attached to their clothes and sometimes wore a broad sash around the waist . There was usually a smartly dressed " Leader " who carried a staff , stick , or whip , and sometimes other stock characters , such as the " Merryman " who played music , and Punch and Judy ( both played by men ) with blackened faces ; often brightly dressed , Punch carried a long metal poker and Judy had a besom . The Mari Lwyd party would approach a house and sing a song in which they requested admittance . The inhabitants of the house would then offer excuses for why the team could not enter . The party would sing a second verse , and the debate between the two sides – known as the pwnco – would continue until the house 's inhabitants ran out of ideas , at which time they were obliged to allow the party entry and to provide them with ale and food . An account from Nantgarw described such a performance , in which the Punch and Judy characters would cause a noise , with Punch tapping the ground to the rhythm of the music and rapping on the door with a poker , while Judy brushed the ground , house walls , and windows with a broom . The householders had to make Punch promise that he would not touch their fireplace before he entered the building , otherwise it was the local custom that before he left he would rake out the fire with his poker . In the case from Llangynwyd , however , there was no interplay between the householders and troupe , but rather the latter were typically granted entry automatically after singing the first verse of their song . Once inside , the entertainment continued with the Mari Lwyd running around neighing and snapping its jaws , creating havoc , frightening children ( and perhaps even adults ) while the Leader pretended to try to restrain it . The Merryman played music and entertained the householders . The folklorist Iorwerth C. Peate believed that in recorded examples from Glamorganshire it was apparent that the Mari Lwyd custom had become " indistinguishable " from the practice of wassailing , although added that there were still some examples of wassailing that did not involve the Mari Lwyd . He added that links between Mari Lwyd and wassailing were also apparent from recorded examples in other part of Wales , thus opining that Mari Lwyd represented a variant of the wider wassailing custom that was found throughout Britain . The Mary Lwyd was part of a wider " hooded animal " tradition that the folklorist E. C. Cawte identified as existing in different forms in various parts of Britain . Features common to these customs were the use of a hobby horse , the performance at Christmas time , a song or spoken statement requesting payment , and the use of a team who included a man dressed in women 's clothing . A related example is the hoodening custom of East Kent in south @-@ eastern England . = = Early development = = = = = Etymology = = = Most recorded sources term this particular custom Mari Lwyd . Jones considered this to be a translation of " Blessed Mary " , and thus a reference to the Virgin Mary , a key religious figure in Roman Catholicism . Although translating it slightly differently , as " Holy Mary " , Peate endorsed this viewpoint . Although some of his acquaintances later suggested that the use of Mari for Mary was unknown in Wales prior to the Protestant Reformation , he countered these criticisms with the observation that the term Mari was being used in reference to the Virgin in the mid @-@ 14th century Black Book of Carmarthen , thus attesting to its early usage in Welsh . He nevertheless accepted that during the medieval period the term might have been restricted largely to poets , given that there is no evidence of its usage among the common dialect in this period . Given that llwyd is the usual word for " grey " in the Welsh language and that Welsh speakers would have been exposed to the English word " mare " , an alternative suggestion considered by Peate was that the term Mari Lwyd had originally meant " Grey Mare " . This etymological explanation would have parallels with the name of a similar hooded horse tradition found in Ireland and the Isle of Man , which is known in the former as the Láir Bhán and in the latter as the Laare Vane , in both cases meaning " White Mare " . Initially believing that " there is much to be said for this suggestion " , Peate later embraced it fully . Cawte similarly believed that that " Grey Mare " was the most likely original meaning of the term , noting that the Mari Lwyd appeared to represent a horse and that similar hobby horse customs in neighbouring England , such as the hoodening tradition of East Kent , also made reference to horses with their name . Peate suggested that even if the term Mari Lwyd had originally referred to a " Grey Mare " , it could still have come to be associated with the Virgin Mary in popular folk culture following the Reformation , thus explaining why the Virgin Mary is referred to in the lyrics of some surviving Welsh wassailing songs . A further suggestion is that Mari Lwyd derives from the English term Merry Lude , referring to a merry game . Peate opposed this idea , arguing that if the latter was converted into Welsh then the result would be merri @-@ liwt or merri @-@ liwd . Peate also dismissed the idea that had been suggested to him that the term Mari in this context had derived from Morris , a reference to Morris dancing . Another reason to doubt this idea is that there is no known historical link between the Mari Lwyd , which was found in South Wales , and the Morris dance , which was concentrated in the north of the country . In other recorded instances , the Mary Lwyd custom is given different names , with it being recorded as Y Wasail ( " The Wassail " ) in parts of Carmarthenshire . In the first half of the 19th century it was recorded in Pembrokeshire under the name of Y March ( " The Horse " ) and Y Gynfas @-@ farch ( " The Canvas Horse " ) . One account from West Glamorgan has the head termed the aderyn bee [ bi ? ] y llwyd , meaning the " Grey Magpie " , although this may be due to an error on the part of the recorder , who could have confused the horse 's head for the aderyn pica llwyd , an artificial bird in a tree that was carried by wassailers in the same area . = = = Origins = = = Positing the custom to be " the survival of some ancient popular rite or ceremony " , in 1888 David Jones suggested that its origins were Christian , and that it had once been part of the festivities of the Feast of the Ass , a commemoration of the Biblical flight of the Virgin Mary and Saint Joseph into Egypt that was historically marked on 14 January . According to Jones ' idea , the Mari Lwyd itself represented the donkey on which Mary rode during the story . Peate was of the opinion that the Mari Lwyd was " no doubt a survival of a pre @-@ Christian tradition " that had once been spread across Britain and other parts of Europe , and which – having survived the Christianisation of Britain – had been renamed Mari Lwyd in reference to the Virgin Mary during the Middle Ages . He expressed the view that the original custom had been " horrific in origin and intention " and that from an early date it had been connected to wassailing . Cawte concurred that it was " reasonable to accept " that the Mari Lwyd head had become attached to an independent wassailing tradition , but said that the connection to the Virgin Mary was unnecessary . Pearce also suggested the possibility that in parts of Glamorganshire and Monmouthshire the Mari Lwyd tradition came under the influence of Miracle plays , thus explaining why later recorded examples from those counties contained characters known as " the Sergeant " and the " Merryman " . The folklorist Trefor M. Owen also suggested that the Mari Lwyd was a practice " which probably had a religious ( if pre @-@ Christian ) origin " , adding that by the time it had been recorded , it had become " emptied of its religious content " . Also embracing Peate 's suggestion of ancient origins , Ellen Ettlinger believed that the Mari Lwyd represented a " death horse " , as symbolised by the white cloth worn by its carrier , suggesting that it was originally employed in a pre @-@ Christian ritual to mark the festival of Samhain . The folklorist Christina Hole suggested that this " ancient character " was once " a bringer of fertility " . However , after 1970 the folkloric trend for interpreting such hobby horse traditions as pre @-@ Christian survivals had ended , as scholars came to express greater caution about proposing origins for such customs . = = Regional coverage = = In mapping the distribution of Mari Lwyd appearances , Cawte noted that it was principally a custom associated with Glamorganshire , with two @-@ thirds of instances falling within that county . The custom stretched east into the industrial valleys of Monmouthshire , with the most easterly account coming from Monmouth itself ; this account is also one of the earliest . A number of examples were also found in Carmarthenshire , with a single example found in both Brecknockshire and Cardiganshire . There is a single record of the custom being performed in North Wales , in an example from Wrexham , which Cawte believed was the result of a Glamorgan man bringing the custom with him as he moved north . Previously , Peate had cautioned that the comparative absence of recorded examples from Mid and North Wales was not proof that the Mari Lwyd custom had never been present in those areas . Cawte opined that there was " no clear reason " for the distribution of the Mari Lwyd custom , which cut through various local cultural features . Those areas where it was found did not correlate with any distinction between English @-@ speaking and Welsh @-@ speaking areas in South Wales . He acknowledged however that there was a " reasonable correspondence " between the areas in which the Mari Lwyd was recorded and the areas which were used for mineral production in the 14th century . He therefore suggested the possibility that it might have been performed by coal and iron miners in western Glamorganshire , Carmarthenshire , and western Monmouthshire , and that from there it could have spread into those villages where goods were manufactured using those minerals . = = Recorded appearances = = = = = 18th and 19th centuries = = = The earliest published account of the Mari Lwyd appeared in 1800 in J. Evans ' A Tour through Part of North Wales , in the year 1798 , and at Other Times . Although the book itself focused on North Wales , the chapter in which the passage was included discussed the language and customs of Wales more generally . In this section , Evans related that : A man on new year 's day , dressing himself in blankets and other trappings , with a factitious head like a horse , and a party attending him , knocking for admittance , this obtained , he runs about the room with an uncommon frightful noise , which the company quit in real or pretended fright ; they soon recover , and by reciting a verse of some cowydd , or , in default , paying a small gratuity , they gain admission . Evans returned to the custom in his 1804 work Letters Written During a Tour Through South Wales , in the year 1803 , and at Other Times . Here he provided a clearer discussion than before , making it apparent that teams accompanying a man dressed as a horse or bull toured the local area from Christmas until after Twelfth Day , and that they were given food or money to leave the householders alone . The Mari Lwyd next appeared in an 1819 account from West Glamorgan , where the Mari Lwyd itself was termed an Aderyn Bee y llwyd ( roughly " Grey Magpie " ) and was accompanied by " three or four partners in the profits of the expedition , who are by turns horse , groom , or attendants " . It has been suggested that the Welsh Methodist revival contributed to the decline of both the Mari Lwyd and a number of other Welsh folk customs . In 1802 , the harpist Edward Jones of Merioneth published a book in which he lamented the destructive impact that Christian preachers were having on Welsh folk customs , which they were criticising as sinful . In his view , " the consequence is , Wales , which was formerly one of the merriest and happiest countries in the World , is now becoming one of the dullest " . Reflecting such a view , in 1852 the Reverend William Roberts , a Baptist minister at Blaenau Gwent , condemned the Mari Lwyd and other related customs as " a mixture of old Pagan and Popish ceremonies ... I wish of this folly , and all similar follies , that they find no place anywhere apart from the museum of the historian and antiquary . " Owen suggested that the custom 's decline was also a result of changing social conditions in South Wales . He argued that the Mari Lwyd wassailing custom " gave an approved means of entering the houses of neighbours in a culture in which there were few public assemblies – at least in the heart of winter – in which the convivial spirit of the season could be released " . Further , he suggested that the gifts of food , drink , and sometimes money " no doubt helped to further the feeling of community among country folk while at the same time manifesting it " . He argued that the changing social conditions altered the ways that people in southern Wales celebrated Christmas , hence contributing to the folk custom 's decline . = = = 20th century revival = = = In a 1935 article on the subject of the Mari Lwyd , Peate stated that the tradition " is still met with ; it is practised in the Cardiff district , Bridgend , Llangynwyd , Neath and other Glamorgan districts " . He highlighted an example from Christmas Eve 1934 , in which a Mari Lwyd was observed performing alongside at least twelve singers in a chemist 's shop in the Mumbles , Swansea . Ettlinger subsequently expressed the view that " Dr. Peate deserves the sincerest gratitude of all folk @-@ lore students for having so valiantly penetrated the mysteries surrounding the Mari Lwyd . " The historian Ronald Hutton stated that the Mari Lwyd tradition appeared to have become defunct in the early 20th century . In the middle of that century it was revived in Llangynwyd . In 1967 , Lois Blake published a letter in the journal English Dance and Song in which she noted that the Mari Lwyd appeared each Christmas Eve at the Barley Mow Inn at Graig Penllyn , near Cowbridge , where a man named John Williams had kept the custom alive for the past sixty years . Blake also explained that she believed that the custom was still performed at several villages in the Maesteg area of Glamorgan . During the 1970s , Hole commented that the tradition was still found in Glamorganshire and Carmathenshire . During the 1980s , further revived forms of the Mari Lwyd tradition emerged in Caerphilly , Llantrisant , and St Fagans , all of which are in the same borderland between Vale and mountains . Commenting on the example of Llantrisant , which was inaugurated in 1980 , Mick Tems noted that the custom had " re @-@ established herself so strongly that there are complaints if she misses any of her regular calls " . He noted that in 1991 the Llantrisant Mari Lwyd was taken to Yn Chruinnaght , a Pan @-@ Celtic festival on the Isle of Man , and that it had also been taken to the Lowender Peran festival at Perranporth in Cornwall . Hutton believed that the custom re @-@ emerged in the borderlands between Vale and the mountains in part because people in Glamorgan sought to reaffirm their sense of cultural identity during the termination of their traditional industries , and partly because the Welsh Folk Museum was located in the area . More widely , he believed that the revival of the Mari Lwyd was in large part due to the " forces of local patriotism " , noting that a similar situation had resulted in the resurrection of the hoodening tradition in East Kent . The town council of Aberystwyth organised " The World 's Largest Mari Lwyd " for the Millennium celebrations in 2000 . A mixture of the Mari Lwyd and Wassail customs occurs in the border town of Chepstow , South Wales , every January . A band of English Wassailers meet with the local Welsh Border Morris Side , The Widders , on the bridge in Chepstow . = = In culture = = The Mari Lwyd has prompted responses from the arts in Wales . The poet Vernon Watkins published his " Ballad of the Mari Lwyd " in 1941 . The Archbishop of Canterbury Rowan Williams has written that this , " one of the outstanding poems of the century , draws together the folk @-@ ritual of the New Year , the Christian Eucharist , the uneasy frontier between living and dead , so as to present a model of what poetry itself is — frontier work between death and life , old year and new , bread and body . " The Mari Lwyd was utilised by the artist Clive Hicks @-@ Jenkins in a series of drawings from around 2000 that focused on a metamorphosing horse / man as a nightmarish harbinger of his father 's death . Catriona Urquhart wrote a sequence of poems titled The Mare 's Tale which were published alongside Hicks @-@ Jenkins ' images in 2001 . In her 1977 novel Silver on the Tree , the author Susan Cooper included an appearance from the Mari Lwyd . = = Related Welsh customs = = In 1919 , H. W. Evans recorded the existence of a similar custom which had existed in Solva , Pembrokeshire circa 1840 , during his mother 's childhood . He stated that this custom entailed the use of what he termed a " Mari Lwyd " , furthermore providing a drawing of it using his mother 's recollections as a basis , although was unaware of how this costume had been used . According to Evans ' description , this Mari Lwyd consisted of a sheet that had been sewn together along two adjacent sides to make a cone , which was then stuffed with hay and decorated with buttons for eyes and harvest gloves for ears , thus resembling an animal 's snout . An individual could conceal themselves under the sheet and use a hay fork inserted into the hay to hold it up . A similar custom appears in an account from 1897 , in which an entity known as the Bwca Llwyd ( " Grey Bogy " ) was described ; it involved an imitation horse 's head being made from canvas and stuffed with hay , being carried about using a hay fork on All Hallow 's Eve . Cawte also noted the example of other Welsh folk customs featuring the head of a horse , however he opined that these " so not seem to be closely related to the mari lwyd " . A horse 's head was prepared in a manner akin to the Mari Lwyd for a spring festival known as the mynwenta or pynwenta , which took place in Pembrokeshire circa 1820 . As part of this festival , young men and women gathered at a mill for a night 's entertainment . In the late nineteenth century , a tradition was recorded in North Wales that was known as " giving a skull " , in which the skull of a horse or donkey was placed over the front door of a woman 's house on May Day as a sign of contempt . In parts of Wales a horse 's head – sometimes with horns attached – was featured as part of the charivari processions designed to shame those who were deemed to have behaved in an immoral manner . = = = Audio recordings = = = Recordings of the Mari Lwyd custom @-@ made during the 1940s and 1950s by Peter Kennedy and others . Available at the Folktrax website here " The Mari Lwyd " , by David Thomas , David Jenkins , and Thomas Jenkins , recorded by Peter Kennedy , on The Folk Songs of Britain , Vol . 9 Songs of Ceremony ( 1971 ) , Topic Records : TOPIC 12 @-@ T @-@ 197 . " The Mari Lwyd " , available on Hyn : Traditional Celtic Music of Wales ( 1998 ) by Carreg Lafar , Marquis Music : B00004SZT2 . " The Mari Lwyd " , written by Hugh Lupton , sung by Chris Wood , on Ghosts ( 2005 ) by the English Acoustic Collective , R.U.F. Records : RUFCD09 . = Alatskivi Castle = Alatskivi Castle ( Estonian : Alatskivi loss , German : Schloss Allatzkiwwi ) is a Neo @-@ Gothic castle in Alatskivi , Estonia . Dating to the 17th century , it is situated in Alatskivi Parish , Tartu County . It was rebuilt in the late 19th century by Baron Arved von Nolcken , modeled on the royal residence of Balmoral in Scotland . A renovation occurred between 2005 and 2011 . Five rooms on the first floor house the Eduard Tubin museum , which documents his accomplishments as a music composer and conductor . Alatskivi Castle is surrounded by various ancillary buildings and a forested park of 130 hectares ( 320 acres ) area , the largest in Tartu County . The park contains many oaks , ashes , maples , alders and an approach road lined with linden trees . = = Location = = Alatskivi Castle is located 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) north of Tartu and 205 kilometres ( 127 mi ) from Tallinn . It is built on the high bank of Lake Alatskivi at the foot of the Alatskivi valley . An arched entrance leads to the castle along a road lined with linden trees . = = History = = The earliest mention of the manor was in 1601 . King Gustav Adolf II of Sweden gave it to his secretary , Johan Adler Salvius , in 1628 . In 1642 , its ownership passed on to Hans Detterman Cronman ( c.1600 @-@ c.1645 ) . In 1753 , it was purchased by the Stackelbergs and inherited by the Nolckens in 1870 . Baron Arved George de Nolcken ( 1845 – 1909 ) rebuilt the castle between 1876 – 1885 according to his own designs , in the Scottish baronial style , designed as a smaller version of Queen Victoria 's Balmoral Castle in Scotland , which he had visited in 1875 . After nationalization occurred in 1919 , the castle complex was taken over by the government under the Ministry of Agriculture and became a school , cavalry barracks , state controlled farm land , council offices , cinema and library . It has been fully refurbished to its original form based on the original pictures of the aristocracy and their descendants who resided here . After the 2011 restoration , the castle was opened to the public with the Alatskivi Castle Foundation administrating the castle and the manor complex . = = Features = = The writer Ain Hinsberg refers to the manor house having been designed as a mock @-@ English castle . The castle is built to an asymmetrical plan , with single- and double @-@ storied wings , turrets and a slate roof . The building has both single- and double @-@ storied floors . It hosts seminars , training programmes and small conferences , and is fitted with three meeting rooms and dining facilities . Completed in 2011 , the Eduard Tubin Museum is located in five rooms on the first floor of the castle . The main feature is devoted to the life and work of Eduard Tubin who was one of Estonia 's most esteemed composers . The initial exhibits are of members of the Tartu school who studied with Tubin , including Heino Eller , Eduard Oja , Alfred Karindi , Olav Roots , and Karl Leichter . Tubin 's music scores , manuscripts , books , records , films and photos , musical instruments , records , books , and sketches of theatre costumes are all part of the display . The museum also houses a large @-@ scale model of the castle and plays the music of Tubin . = = Manor Park = = The 130 hectares ( 320 acres ) large Manor Park consists of oaks , ashes , maples , alders and an approach road lined with linden trees , some trees being grown on terraces . It is the largest in the Tartu County . A hiking track is laid through the park and the Alatskivi Nature Reserve . There are two artificial reservoirs along the Alatskivi River . There is a large boulder at the extreme end of the park in Kõdesi Forest where Apollo Belvedere 's statue existed in the past , although the statue has been moved to Kadriorg Park in Tallinn . The main castle is surrounded by many stone buildings . During the 19th century , the manor had 57 buildings , of which 41 remain . These are grouped in four areas connected by roads . The first contains the castle , coaching house and cheese cellar ; the second , the economic circle , contains the laundry , kitchen , stables and sheds ; the third or border circle , contains the barn , mills , church and cemetery ; the outer fourth circle contains the Apollo Belvedere statue and the final resting place of the Estonian folklore figure Kalevipoeg . = = Gallery = = = Brachytherapy = Brachytherapy is a form of radiotherapy where a sealed radiation source is placed inside or next to the area requiring treatment . Brachytherapy is commonly used as an effective treatment for cervical , prostate , breast , and skin cancer and can also be used to treat tumours in many other body sites . Treatment results have demonstrated that the cancer cure rates of brachytherapy are either comparable to surgery and EBRT or are improved when used in combination with these techniques . Brachytherapy can be used alone or in combination with other therapies such as surgery , external beam radiotherapy ( EBRT ) and chemotherapy . Brachytherapy contrasts with unsealed source radiotherapy in which a therapeutic radionuclide ( radioisotope ) is injected into the body to chemically localize to the tissue requiring destruction . It also contrasts to EBRT , in which high @-@ energy x @-@ rays ( or occasionally gamma @-@ rays from a radioisotope like cobalt @-@ 60 ) are directed at the tumour from outside the body . Brachytherapy instead involves the precise placement of short @-@ range radiation @-@ sources ( radioisotopes ) directly at the site of the cancerous tumour . These are enclosed in a protective capsule or wire , which allows the ionizing radiation to escape to treat and kill surrounding tissue but prevents the charge of radioisotope from moving or dissolving in body fluids . The capsule may be removed later , or ( with some radioisotopes ) it may be allowed to remain in place . A feature of brachytherapy is that the irradiation affects only a very localized area around the radiation sources . Exposure to radiation of healthy tissues farther away from the sources is therefore reduced . In addition , if the patient moves or if there is any movement of the tumour within the body during treatment , the radiation sources retain their correct position in relation to the tumour . These characteristics of brachytherapy provide advantages over EBRT - the tumour can be treated with very high doses of localised radiation whilst reducing the probability of unnecessary damage to surrounding healthy tissues . A course of brachytherapy can be completed in less time than other radiotherapy techniques . This can help reduce the chance for surviving cancer cells to divide and grow in the intervals between each radiotherapy dose . Patients typically have to make fewer visits to the radiotherapy clinic compared with EBRT , and the treatment is often performed on an outpatient basis . This makes treatment accessible and convenient for many patients . These features of brachytherapy mean that most patients are able to tolerate the brachytherapy procedure very well . The global market for brachytherapy reached US $ 680 million in 2013 , of which the High @-@ Dose Rate ( HDR ) and LDR segments accounted for 70 % . Microspheres and electronic brachytherapy commanded the remaining 30 % . The brachytherapy market is expected to reach over US $ 2 @.@ 4 billion in 2030 , growing by 8 % annually , mainly driven by the microspheres market as well as electronic brachytherapy , which is gaining significant interest worldwide as a user @-@ friendly technology . The word is from the Greek word βραχύς brachys , meaning " short @-@ distance " . = = Medical uses = = Brachytherapy is commonly used to treat cancers of the cervix , prostate , breast , and skin . Brachytherapy can also be used in the treatment of tumours of the brain , eye , head and neck region ( lip , floor of mouth , tongue , nasopharynx and oropharynx ) , respiratory tract ( trachea and bronchi ) , digestive tract ( oesophagus , gall bladder , bile @-@ ducts , rectum , anus ) , urinary tract ( bladder , urethra , penis ) , female reproductive tract ( uterus , vagina , vulva ) , and soft tissues . As the radiation sources can be precisely positioned at the tumour treatment site , brachytherapy enables a high dose of radiation to be applied to a small area . Furthermore , because the radiation sources are placed in or next to the target tumour , the sources maintain their position in relation to the tumour when the patient moves or if there is any movement of the tumour within the body . Therefore , the radiation sources remain accurately targeted . This enables clinicians to achieve a high level of dose conformity – i.e. ensuring the whole of the tumour receives an optimal level of radiation . It also reduces the risk of damage to healthy tissue , organs or structures around the tumour , thus enhancing the chance of cure and preservation of organ function . The use of HDR brachytherapy enables overall treatment times to be reduced compared with EBRT . Patients receiving brachytherapy generally have to make fewer visits for radiotherapy compared with EBRT , and overall radiotherapy treatment plans can be completed in less time . Many brachytherapy procedures are performed on an outpatient basis . This convenience may be particularly relevant for patients who have to work , older patients , or patients who live some distance from treatment centres , to ensure that they have access to radiotherapy treatment and adhere to treatment plans . Shorter treatment times and outpatient procedures can also help improve the efficiency of radiotherapy clinics . Brachytherapy can be used with the aim of curing the cancer in cases of small or locally advanced tumours , provided the cancer has not metastasized ( spread to other parts of the body ) . In appropriately selected cases , brachytherapy for primary tumours often represents a comparable approach to surgery , achieving the same probability of cure and with similar side effects . However , in locally advanced tumours , surgery may not routinely provide the best chance of cure and is often not technically feasible to perform . In these cases radiotherapy , including brachytherapy , offers the only chance of cure . In more advanced disease stages , brachytherapy can be used as palliative treatment for symptom relief from pain and bleeding . In cases where the tumour is not easily accessible or is too large to ensure an optimal distribution of irradiation to the treatment area , brachytherapy can be combined with other treatments , such as EBRT and / or surgery . Combination therapy of brachytherapy exclusively with chemotherapy is rare . = = = Cervical cancer = = = Brachytherapy is commonly used in the treatment of early or locally confined cervical cancer and is a standard of care in many countries . Cervical cancer can be treated with either LDR , PDR or HDR brachytherapy . Used in combination with EBRT , brachytherapy can provide better outcomes than EBRT alone . The precision of brachytherapy enables a high dose of targeted radiation to be delivered to the cervix , while minimising radiation exposure to adjacent tissues and organs . The chances of staying free of disease ( disease @-@ free survival ) and of staying alive ( overall survival ) are similar for LDR , PDR and HDR treatments . However , a key advantage of HDR treatment is that each dose can be delivered on an outpatient basis with a short administration time providing greater convenience for many patients . = = = Prostate cancer = = = Brachytherapy to treat prostate cancer can be given either as permanent LDR seed implantation or as temporary HDR brachytherapy . Permanent seed implantation is suitable for patients with a localised tumour and good prognosis and has been shown to be a highly effective treatment to prevent the cancer from returning . The survival rate is similar to that found with EBRT or surgery ( radical prostatectomy ) , but with fewer side effects such as impotence and incontinence . The procedure can be completed quickly and patients are usually able to go home on the same day of treatment and return to normal activities after 1 to 2 days . Permanent seed implantation is often a less invasive treatment option compared to the surgical removal of the prostate . Temporary HDR brachytherapy is a newer approach to treating prostate cancer , but is currently less common than seed implantation . It is predominately used as to provide an extra dose in addition to EBRT ( known as ‘ ” boost ” therapy ) as it offers an alternative method to deliver a high dose of radiation therapy that conforms to the shape of the tumour within the prostate , while sparing radiation exposure to surrounding tissues . HDR brachytherapy as a boost for prostate cancer also means that the EBRT course can be shorter than when EBRT is used alone . = = = Breast cancer = = = Radiation therapy is standard of care for women who have undergone lumpectomy or mastectomy surgery , and is an integral component of breast @-@ conserving therapy . Brachytherapy can be used after surgery , before chemotherapy or palliatively in the case of advanced disease . Brachytherapy to treat breast cancer is usually performed with HDR temporary brachytherapy . Post surgery , breast brachytherapy can be used as a “ boost ” following irradiation of the whole breast using EBRT . More recently , brachytherapy alone is applied in a technique called APBI ( accelerated partial breast irradiation ) , involving delivery of radiation to only the immediate region surrounding the original tumour . The main benefit of breast brachytherapy compared to EBRT is that a high dose of radiation can be precisely applied to the tumour while sparing radiation to healthy breast tissues and underlying structures such as the ribs and lungs . APBI can typically be completed over the course of a week . The option of brachytherapy may be particularly important in ensuring that working women , the elderly or women without easy access to a treatment centre , are able to benefit from breast @-@ conserving therapy due to the short treatment course compared with EBRT ( which often requires more visits over the course of 1 – 2 months ) . Brachytherapy has demonstrated excellent local control of breast cancer at follow @-@ up of up to 6 years post treatment . A study is underway to compare patient outcomes of APBI in comparison to EBRT at up to 10 years after treatment . There are two methods that can be used to deliver breast brachytherapy : Interstitial breast brachytherapy using multiple catheters Intracavitary breast brachytherapy using a balloon catheter Interstitial breast brachytherapy involves the temporary placement of several flexible plastic catheters in the breast tissue . These are carefully positioned to allow optimal targeting of radiation to the treatment area while sparing the surrounding breast tissue . The catheters are connected to an afterloader , which delivers the planned radiation dose to the treatment area . Interstitial breast brachytherapy can be used as “ boost ” after EBRT , or as APBI . Intracavitary breast brachytherapy ( also known as “ balloon brachytherapy ” ) involves the placement of a single catheter into the breast cavity left after the removal of the tumour ( lumpectomy ) . The catheter can be placed at the time of the lumpectomy or postoperatively . Via the catheter , a balloon is then inflated in the cavity . The catheter is then connected to an afterloader , which delivers the radiation dose through the catheter and into the balloon . Currently , intracavitary breast brachytherapy is only routinely used for APBI . There are also devices that combine the features of interstitial and intracavitary breast brachytherapy ( e.g. SAVI ) . These devices use multiple catheters but are inserted through a single @-@ entry point in the breast . Studies suggest the use of multiple catheters enables physicians to target the radiation more precisely . = = = Skin cancer = = = HDR brachytherapy for nonmelanomatous skin cancer , such as basal cell carcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma , provides an alternative treatment option to surgery . This is especially relevant for cancers on the nose , ears , eyelids or lips , where surgery may cause disfigurement or require extensive reconstruction . Various applicators can be used to ensure close contact between the radiation source ( s ) and the skin , which conform to the curvature of the skin and help ensure precision delivery of the optimal irradiation dose . Brachytherapy for skin cancer provides good cosmetic results and clinical efficacy ; studies with up to 5 years follow @-@ up have shown that brachytherapy is highly effective in terms local control , and is comparable to EBRT . Treatment times are typically short , providing convenience for patients . It has been suggested that brachytherapy may become a standard of treatment for skin cancer in the near future . = = = Blood vessels = = = Brachytherapy can be used in the treatment of coronary in @-@ stent restenosis , in which a catheter is placed inside blood vessels , through which sources are inserted and removed . In treating In @-@ stent restenosis ( ISR ) Drug Eluting stents ( DES ) have been found to be superior to Intracoronary Brachytherapy ( ICBT ) . However , there is continued interest in vascular brachytherapy for persistent restenosis in failed stents and vein grafts . The therapy has also been investigated for use in the treatment of peripheral vasculature stenosis and considered for the treatment of atrial fibrillation . = = Side effects = = The likelihood and nature of potential acute , sub @-@ acute or long @-@ term side @-@ effects associated with brachytherapy depends on the location of the tumour being treated and the type of brachytherapy being used . = = = Acute = = = Acute side effects associated with brachytherapy include localised bruising , swelling , bleeding , discharge or discomfort within the implanted region . These usually resolve within a few days following completion of treatment . Patients may also feel fatigued for a short period following treatment . Brachytherapy treatment for cervical or prostate cancer can cause acute and transient urinary symptoms such as urinary retention , urinary incontinence or painful urination ( dysuria ) . Transient increased bowel frequency , diarrhoea , constipation or minor rectal bleeding , may also occur . Acute and subacute side effects usually resolve over a matter of days or a few weeks . In the case of permanent ( seed ) brachytherapy for prostate cancer , there is a small chance that some seeds may migrate out of the treatment region into the bladder or urethra and be passed in the urine . Brachytherapy for skin cancer may result in a shedding of the outer layers of skin ( desquamation ) around the area of treatment in the weeks following therapy , which typically heals in 5 – 8 weeks . If the cancer is located on the lip , ulceration may occur as a result of brachytherapy , but usually resolves after 4 – 6 weeks . Most of the acute side effects associated with brachytherapy can be treated with medication or through dietary changes , and usually disappear over time ( typically a matter of weeks ) , once the treatment is completed . The acute side effects of HDR brachytherapy are broadly similar to EBRT . = = = Long @-@ term = = = In a small number of people , brachytherapy may cause long @-@ term side effects due to damage or disruption of adjacent tissues or organs . Long @-@ term side effects are usually mild or moderate in nature . For example , urinary and digestive problems may persist as a result of brachytherapy for cervical or prostate cancer , and may require ongoing management . Brachytherapy for prostate cancer may cause erectile dysfunction in approximately 15 @-@ 30 % of patients . However , the risk of erectile dysfunction is related to age ( older men are at a greater risk than younger men ) and also the level of erectile function prior to receiving brachytherapy . In patients who do experience erectile dysfunction , the majority of cases can successfully be treated with drugs such as Viagra . Importantly , the risk of erectile dysfunction after brachytherapy is less than after radical prostatectomy . Brachytherapy for breast or skin cancer may cause scar tissue to form around the treatment area . In the case of breast brachytherapy , fat necrosis may occur as a result of fatty acids entering the breast tissues . This can cause the breast tissue to become swollen and tender . Fat necrosis is a benign condition and typically occurs 4 – 12 months after treatment and affects about 2 % of patients . = = Safety around others = = Patients often ask if they need to have special safety precautions around family and friends after receiving brachytherapy . If temporary brachytherapy is used , no radioactive sources remain in the body after treatment . Therefore , there is no radiation risk to friends or family from being in close proximity with them . If permanent brachytherapy is used , low dose radioactive sources ( seeds ) are left in the body after treatment - the radiation levels are very low and decrease over time . In addition , the irradiation only affects tissues within a few millimeters of the radioactive sources ( i.e. the tumour being treated ) . As a precaution , some people receiving permanent brachytherapy may be advised to not hold any small children or be too close to pregnant women for a short time after treatment . Radiation oncologists or nurses can provide specific instructions to patients and advise for how long they need to be careful . = = Types = = Different types of brachytherapy can be defined according to ( 1 ) the placement of the radiation sources in the target treatment area , ( 2 ) the rate or ‘ intensity ’ of the irradiation dose delivered to the tumour , and ( 3 ) the duration of dose delivery . = = = Source placement = = = The two main types of brachytherapy treatment in terms of the placement of the radioactive source are interstitial and contact . In the case of interstitial brachytherapy , the sources are placed directly in the target tissue of the affected site , such as the prostate or breast . Contact brachytherapy involves placement of the radiation source in a space next to the target tissue . This space may be a body cavity ( intracavitary brachytherapy ) such as the cervix , uterus or vagina ; a body lumen ( intraluminal brachytherapy ) such as the trachea or oesophagus ; or externally ( surface brachytherapy ) such as the skin . A radiation source can also be placed in blood vessels ( intravascular brachytherapy ) for the treatment of coronary in @-@ stent restenosis . = = = Dose rate = = = The dose rate of brachytherapy refers to the level or ‘ intensity ’ with which the radiation is delivered to the surrounding medium and is expressed in Grays per hour ( Gy / h ) . Low @-@ dose rate ( LDR ) brachytherapy involves implanting radiation sources that emit radiation at a rate of up to 2 Gy · h − 1 . LDR brachytherapy is commonly used for cancers of the oral cavity , oropharynx , sarcomas and prostate cancer Medium @-@ dose rate ( MDR ) brachytherapy is characterized by a medium rate of dose delivery , ranging between 2 Gy · h − 1 to 12 Gy · h − 1 . High @-@ dose rate ( HDR ) brachytherapy is when the rate of dose delivery exceeds 12 Gy · h − 1 . The most common applications of HDR brachytherapy are in tumours of the cervix , esophagus , lungs , breasts and prostate . Most HDR treatments are performed on an outpatient basis , but this is dependent on the treatment site . Pulsed @-@ dose rate ( PDR ) brachytherapy involves short pulses of radiation , typically once an hour , to simulate the overall rate and effectiveness of LDR treatment . Typical tumour sites treated by PDR brachytherapy are gynaecological and head and neck cancers . = = = Duration of dose delivery = = = The placement of radiation sources in the target area can be temporary or permanent . Temporary brachytherapy involves placement of radiation sources for a set duration ( usually a number of minutes or hours ) before being withdrawn . The specific treatment duration will depend on many different factors , including the required rate of dose delivery and the type , size and location of the cancer . In LDR and PDR brachytherapy , the source typically stays in place up to 24 hours before being removed , while in HDR brachytherapy this time is typically a few minutes . Permanent brachytherapy , also known as seed implantation , involves placing small LDR radioactive seeds or pellets ( about the size of a grain of rice ) in the tumour or treatment site and leaving them there permanently to gradually decay . Over a period of weeks or months , the level of radiation emitted by the sources will decline to almost zero . The inactive seeds then remain in the treatment site with no lasting effect . Permanent brachytherapy is most commonly used in the treatment of prostate cancer . = = Procedure = = = = = Initial planning = = = In order to accurately plan the brachytherapy procedure , a thorough clinical examination is performed to understand the characteristics of the tumour . In addition , a range of imaging modalities can be used to visualise the shape and size of the tumour and its relation to surrounding tissues and organs . These include x @-@ ray radiography , ultrasound , computed axial tomography ( CT or CAT ) scans and magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) . The data from many of these sources can be used to create a 3D visualisation of the tumour and the surrounding tissues . Using this information , a plan of the optimal distribution of the radiation sources can be developed . This includes consideration of how the source carriers ( applicators ) , which are used to deliver the radiation to the treatment site , should be placed and positioned . Applicators are non @-@ radioactive and are typically needles or plastic catheters . The specific type of applicator used will depend on the type of cancer being treated and the characteristics of the target tumour . This initial planning helps to ensure that ‘ cold spots ’ ( too little irradiation ) and ‘ hot spots ’ ( too much irradiation ) are avoided during treatment , as these can respectively result in treatment failure and side @-@ effects . = = = Insertion = = = Before radioactive sources can be delivered to the tumour site , the applicators have to be inserted and correctly positioned in line with the initial planning . Imaging techniques , such as x @-@ ray , fluoroscopy and ultrasound are typically used to help guide the placement of the applicators to their correct positions and to further refine the treatment plan . CAT scans and MRI can also be used . Once the applicators are inserted , they are held in place against the skin using sutures or adhesive tape to prevent them from moving . Once the applicators are confirmed as being in the correct position , further imaging can be performed to guide detailed treatment planning . = = = Creation of a virtual patient = = = The images of the patient with the applicators in situ are imported into treatment planning software and the patient is brought into a dedicated shielded room for treatment . The treatment planning software enables multiple 2D images of the treatment site to be translated into a 3D ‘ virtual patient ’ , within which the position of the applicators can be defined . The spatial relationships between the applicators , the treatment site and the surrounding healthy tissues within this ‘ virtual patient ’ are a copy of the relationships in the actual patient . = = = Optimizing the irradiation plan = = = To identify the optimal spatial and temporal distribution of radiation sources within the applicators of the implanted tissue or cavity , the treatment planning software allows virtual radiation sources to be placed within the virtual patient . The software shows a graphical representation of the distribution of the irradiation . This serves as a guide for the brachytherapy team to refine the distribution of the sources and provide a treatment plan that is optimally tailored to the anatomy of each patient before actual delivery of the irradiation begins . This approach is sometimes called ‘ dose @-@ painting ’ . = = = Treatment delivery = = = The radiation sources used for brachytherapy are always enclosed within a non @-@ radioactive capsule . The sources can be delivered manually , but are more commonly delivered through a technique known as ‘ afterloading ’ . Manual delivery of brachytherapy is limited to a few LDR applications , due to risk of radiation exposure to clinical staff . In contrast , afterloading involves the accurate positioning of non @-@ radioactive applicators in the treatment site , which are subsequently loaded with the radiation sources . In manual afterloading , the source is delivered into the applicator by the operator . Remote afterloading systems provide protection from radiation exposure to healthcare professionals by securing the radiation source in a shielded safe . Once the applicators are correctly positioned in the patient , they are connected to an ‘ afterloader ’ machine ( containing the radioactive sources ) through a series of connecting guide tubes . The treatment plan is sent to the afterloader , which then controls the delivery of the sources along the guide tubes into the pre @-@ specified positions within the applicator . This process is only engaged once staff are removed from the treatment room . The sources remain in place for a pre @-@ specified length of time , again following the treatment plan , following which they are returned along the tubes to the afterloader . On completion of delivery of the radioactive sources , the applicators are carefully removed from the body . Patients typically recover quickly from the brachytherapy procedure , enabling it to often be performed on an outpatient basis . Between 2003 and 2012 in United States community hospitals , the rate of hospital stays with brachytherapy ( internal radiation therapy ) had a 24 @.@ 4 percent average annual decrease among adults aged 45 – 64 years and a 27 @.@ 3 percent average annual decrease among adults aged 65 – 84 years . Brachytherapy was the OR procedure with the greatest change in occurrence among hospital stays paid by Medicare and private insurance . = = Radiation sources = = Commonly used radiation sources ( radionuclides ) for brachytherapy = = Electronic brachytherapy = = Electronic brachytherapy involves placement of miniature low energy x @-@ ray tube sources into a pre @-@ positioned applicator within body / tumour cavities to rapidly deliver high doses to target tissues while maintaining low doses to distant non @-@ target tissues . = = History = = Brachytherapy dates back to 1901 ( shortly after the discovery of radioactivity by Henri Becquerel in 1896 ) when Pierre Curie suggested to Henri @-@ Alexandre Danlos that a radioactive source could be inserted into a tumour . It was found that the radiation caused the tumour to shrink . Independently , Alexander Graham Bell also suggested the use of radiation in this way . In the early twentieth century , techniques for the application of brachytherapy were pioneered at the Curie institute in Paris by Danlos and at St Luke 's and Memorial Hospital in New York by Robert Abbe . Interstitial radium therapy was common in the 1930s . Gold seeds filled with radon were used as early as 1942 until at least 1958 . Gold shells were selected by Gino Failla around 1920 to shield beta rays while passing gamma rays . Cobalt needles were also used briefly after world war II . Radon and cobalt were replaced by radioactive tantalum and gold , before iridium rose in prominence . First used in 1958 , iridium is the most commonly used artificial source for brachytherapy today . Following initial interest in brachytherapy in Europe and the US , its use declined in the middle of the twentieth century due to the problem of radiation exposure to operators from the manual application of the radioactive sources . However , the development of remote afterloading systems , which allow the radiation to be delivered from a shielded safe , and the use of new radioactive sources in the 1950s and 1960s , reduced the risk of unnecessary radiation exposure to the operator and patients . This , together with more recent advancements in three @-@ dimensional imaging modalities , computerised treatment planning systems and delivery equipment has made brachytherapy a safe and effective treatment for many types of cancer today . = = Environmental hazard = = Due to the small size of brachytherapy sources and low control in early decades , there is a risk that some of these have escaped into the environment to become orphaned sources . A radium needle was found in a Prague playground in 2011 , radiating 500 µSv / h from one metre away . = Life Is Strange = Life Is Strange is an episodic graphic adventure video game developed by Dontnod Entertainment and published by Square Enix . It is available for Linux , Microsoft Windows , OS X , PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , Xbox 360 and Xbox One , and consists of five episodes released periodically throughout 2015 . The game 's plot focuses on Maxine Caulfield , a photography student who discovers that she has the ability to rewind time at any moment , leading her every choice to enact the butterfly effect . After having foreseen an approaching storm , Max must take on the responsibility to prevent it from destroying her town . The player 's actions will adjust the narrative as it unfolds , and reshape it once allowed to travel back in time . Fetch quests and making environmental changes represent the forms of puzzle solving in addition to using branching choices for conversation . Development of Life Is Strange began in April 2013 . It was formed with an episodic format in mind , for reasons both financial and creative . The developers conducted research on the setting by travelling to the Pacific Northwest , and subverted known archetypes to make the characters . Player feedback influenced the adjustments made to the episodes . Story and character arc serve as the central point in the game rather than traditional graphic adventure tropes like point @-@ and @-@ click puzzles . The voice recording sessions took place in Los Angeles , California . During its release , Life Is Strange received generally favourable reviews commending the character development , rewind game mechanic and tackling of taboo subjects . Common criticisms included the slang that was used , poor lip @-@ syncing in earlier episodes , and tonal inconsistencies in the story . It had sold one million digital copies by the end of July 2015 . = = Gameplay = = Life Is Strange is a graphic adventure played from a third @-@ person view . The mechanic of rewinding time allows the player to redo any action that has been taken . The player can examine and interact with objects , which enables puzzle solving in the form of fetch quests and making changes to the environment . Items that are collected before time travelling will be kept in the inventory after the fact . The player can explore various locations in the fictional setting of Arcadia Bay and communicate with non @-@ playable characters . Dialogue exchanges can be rewound while branching options are used for conversation . Once an event is reset , the details provided earlier are permitted to avail themselves in the future . In some instances , choices in dialogue will alter and affect the story through short or long @-@ term consequences . For each one of the choices , something good in the short @-@ term could turn out worse later . = = Plot = = Life Is Strange takes place during the week of 7 October 2013 and is told from the perspective of Maxine Caulfield , a twelfth grade student of Blackwell Academy in the fictional town of Arcadia Bay , Oregon . The prologue begins with Max ( Hannah Telle ) being thrown into the vision of a lighthouse destroyed by a swelling tornado . She awakes instantly in the class of her teacher Mark Jefferson ( Derek Phillips ) . To restore her composure , she proceeds to the restroom . There , Max witnesses classmate Nathan Prescott ( Nik Shriner ) murder a girl . In a single , sudden effort , she rewinds time and is moved back into the classroom from before . Informed of the following outcome , she hurries off to rescue the girl using her recently developed ability . It is revealed that the person Max saved was her childhood friend Chloe Price ( Ashly Burch ) . The two reunite and go for a walk to the same lighthouse from her nightmare . Max then reveals to Chloe her capacity to travel back in time . It is made known that what she thought was a dream is rather the reckoning of a future event , and the storm , an approaching disaster headed for the town . The following day , Max observes fellow student Kate Marsh ( Dayeanne Hutton ) being subjected to bullying for a viral video depicting her kissing several students at a party . It is suggested that she may have been drugged , and Max suspects Nathan as the perpetrator . Max visits the diner where Chloe 's mother Joyce ( Cissy Jones ) works as a waitress and meets Chloe there . They decide to experiment with Max 's power at Chloe 's secret hideout , a scrapyard . However , this strains Max and results in her having a nosebleed and fainting . Chloe takes her back to Blackwell Academy . During class , everyone is called out to the courtyard . Kate is up on the roof of the girls ' dorm with the intention to jump . Max stops time unexpectedly and uses the ability in an attempt to reach Kate . At this point , she has the opportunity to convince Kate to get down from the roof and come with her . Ultimately , Max vows to uncover what happened to Kate and Chloe 's missing friend Rachel Amber . Max and Chloe break into the principal 's office that night to investigate . After they search through his files , Chloe insists on entering the pool for a swim . The campus security — now alerted — comes to inspect the activity inside . They flee back to Chloe 's place . The next morning , Max and Chloe depart for the diner to sneak into the motorhome of Frank Bowers ( Daniel Bonjour ) , a drug dealer and Rachel 's friend . They learn that Rachel was having a romantic relationship with Frank and lied to Chloe about it . Chloe storms off feeling betrayed . Back at the dormitory , Max examines a childhood photo of her and Chloe . Without notice , she is transported to the day that picture was taken . Faced with the chance to save Chloe 's father William ( Joe Ochman ) from dying in a traffic collision , she conceals the keys to his car , which inadvertently creates an alternative reality where Chloe has been paralysed from the neck down . In the alternative reality , Max comes across the photo that let her save Chloe 's father , but now instead uses it to undo her decision and restore Chloe to health . It manages to re @-@ establish the original timeline . Max and Chloe continue their investigation and obtain clues that lead them to an abandoned barn owned by the influential Prescott family . They discover a bunker hidden underneath that contains pictures of Kate and Rachel tied up and intoxicated — Rachel is shown in one image being buried at Chloe 's secret hideout . They speed in the direction of the scrapyard . Rachel is found dead and buried , much to Chloe 's despair . Max follows Chloe to a school party to confront Nathan , believing he will target another student there as his next victim . They receive a text message from Nathan threatening to destroy the evidence , which returns them to the scrapyard . There , they are ambushed by Jefferson , who anaesthetises Max and shoots Chloe in the head . Max is held captive inside the bunker with Jefferson , who reveals that he has been drugging and kidnapping young girls in order to photograph them and , as such , capture their innocence . Max uses her powers to escape into a photograph . Emerging back at the beginning in Jefferson 's class , she informs Chloe 's stepfather David Madsen ( Don McManus ) , the head of security at Blackwell , of her kidnapper 's identity . Jefferson is caught , Chloe is rescued and Max is afforded the opportunity to go to San Francisco and have one of her photos displayed in an art gallery . She calls Chloe from the event , realising that , for all her effort , the storm has reached Arcadia Bay . Max teleports to the time she took the gallery photo , which eventually leads her to sojourn alternative realities as they devolve into a dreamscape nightmare . By the story 's end , Max arrives at the lighthouse with Chloe . They confront the fact that Max brought the approaching superstorm into existence by availing herself of the time travel abilities in the first place , and the only way to prevent it is for her to go back in time once more and allow Chloe to be killed by Nathan . Max must make a choice : sacrifice Chloe 's life to save Arcadia Bay , or sacrifice Arcadia Bay in order to spare Chloe . = = Development = = Life Is Strange was Dontnod Entertainment 's second title starring a female protagonist ( the first being Remember Me ) . It was disclosed in a developer diary that , as with its first project , efforts were made by potential publishers to have a male protagonist put in place instead . Square Enix was the only publisher with no intention to change it . Dontnod co @-@ founder Jean @-@ Maxime Moris brought up the Gamergate controversy in the same context as an example of " a great debate to have " , but put emphasis on that they were not using the issue to stand out from the rest . The development of Life Is Strange was started in April 2013 with a team of 15 people , which expanded once collaborations with Square Enix1 commenced . It was originally codenamed What If but then retitled to distinguish itself from the film of the same name . The game was born of the idea for the rewind mechanic , which the developer had already experimented on with their last game Remember Me . The lead character Max was created with the ability to rewind time to supplement this mechanism . The episodic format was chosen by the studio for creative reasons , financial restrictions and marketing purposes , allowing them to tell the story in its preferred slow pace . The Pacific Northwest was picked as the setting for the purpose of conveying a nostalgic and autumnal feel to the game . The development team visited the region , took photographs , looked at local newspapers and used Google Street View to make sure the environment was accurately portrayed . It was decided early on that most of the budget be spent on the writing and voice actors . The original story was written in French by Jean @-@ Luc Cano , and converted into a game script by the co @-@ directors and design team . It was subsequently handed over to Christian Divine and Cano to be fine tuned in English . Story and character development were highlighted over point @-@ and @-@ click puzzles , making choice and consequence integral to how the narrative unfolds . Hannah Telle auditioned for Max Caulfield in July 2014 and was offered the part ; Ashly Burch auditioned for both Max and her given role Chloe Price . The recording sessions were done in Los Angeles , California , with the French developer brought in via Skype . Although it holds significant differences from Remember Me , the game addresses similar themes of memory and identity . Life Is Strange was specified as an analogue look at human identity in contrast to Remember Me , the digital view of the same theme . Running on an improved version of Unreal Engine 3 , it makes use of the tools and special effects like lighting and depth of field engineered for Remember Me as well as subsequent advances . Visual effects like post @-@ processes , double exposure and overlapping screen space particles were used as an artistic approach to be displayed while the lead character rewinds time . The textures seen in the game were entirely hand painted , adapted to achieve what art director Michel Koch called " impressionistic rendering " . Elements were adjusted based on player feedback , with influences like The Walking Dead , Gone Home2 and Heavy Rain in mind . The Catcher in the Rye was an additional source of inspiration , whose protagonist Holden Caulfield shares a surname with Max , the game 's lead . The characters were created using known archetypes , at first to establish an entry point for the player , and then to subvert them . For the sake of serving the realism , the supernatural elements were designed as a metaphor for the characters ' inner conflict , and experts were consulted to tackle the subject of teen suicide . The score was composed by Jonathan Morali of the band Syd Matters . Inspired by modern indie folk music , the soundtrack was intended to inform the mood of the game . The music contains a blend of licensed tracks and composed pieces , considered by Dontnod creative director Jean @-@ Maxime Moris as " 50 % of the experience " . Featured artists include José González , Mogwai , Breton , Amanda Palmer , Brian Viglione , Bright Eyes , Message to Bears , Local Natives , Syd Matters , Sparklehorse , Angus & Julia Stone , alt @-@ J , Mud Flow and Foals . = = = Release = = = Square Enix and Dontnod announced Life Is Strange on 11 August 2014 . The episodes were released digitally on PC via Steam , PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 via PlayStation Network , and Xbox 360 and Xbox One via Xbox Live between 30 January 2015 and 20 October 2015 . In November 2014 , the publisher expressed interest in having physical copies released of the game , but at the time added that they were 100 % focused on the digital release . One year later , the retail edition was set to be released for the PC , PS4 and Xbox One in North America on 19 January 2016 and in Europe on 22 January 2016 ; the limited edition featured an artbook , the soundtrack , score and a director 's commentary . A Japanese version was released for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 on 3 March 2016 . Feral Interactive was tasked with porting Life Is Strange for OS X , released on 16 June 2016 , and Linux , released on 21 July 2016 . That same day , the first episode was made indefinitely available for free on Linux , PC , OS X , PS3 , PS4 , Xbox 360 and Xbox One . = = Reception = = Life Is Strange received generally favourable reviews , having aggregated a Metacritic score of 85 / 100 on PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . While criticised for its lip @-@ syncing and use of dialogue , critics notably lauded the character development and time travel component , suggesting that there should be more games like it . Eurogamer thought of it as " one of the best interactive story games of this generation " and Hardcore Gamer declared it the sleeper hit of 2015 . Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot called Episode 1 : Chrysalis " an involving slice of life that works because its situations eloquently capture a peculiar early @-@ college state of mind " , while Game Informer 's Kimberley Wallace stated that she found the tackling of " subjects that are usually taboo for video games " impressive . Destructoid 's Brett Makedonski noticed that the episode 's strongest characteristic was exploration — both " self- and worldly " . However , Mitch Dyer of IGN wrote that the story was ultimately obstructed by its " laughable " script and " worse performances " . In response to Episode 2 : Out of Time , Polygon 's Megan Farokhmanesh echoed the view that the emphasis on self @-@ exploration had considerable impact on the enjoyment of the game . Critics opined that the ending was an " emotional high point " and that it brought meaning to the choices from both the first and second episodes . Writing for USgamer , Mike Williams disparaged the pacing of Episode 2 : Out of Time as " slower and less exciting " than that of episode one . Episode 3 : Chaos Theory was thought by Adnan Riaz of Hardcore Gamer to be a dramatic improvement that presented a " thrilling , poignant , fascinating and ... enticing " narrative whose outcome from past decisions also added a sense of realism . Additionally , Peter Paras of Game Revolution complimented the character beats , particularly the development of Chloe Price , who he said " really comes into her own as [ a ] fully @-@ formed character " . Though GameSpot 's Alexa Ray Corriea said that the fetch quests interfered with its emotional quality , the episode built up to a " killer cliffhanger " according to Farokhmanesh . GameZone 's Matt Liebl deemed Episode 4 : Dark Room " easily the most emotional episode " and said that the mystery of Rachel Amber had done a " tremendous job in keeping us hooked " . Tom Hoggins of The Telegraph regarded the developer 's venture into subjects like social division , online bullying , parental conflict and suicide as " bold " . Criticism was directed at its " cheap ways " of progressing the plot — character inconsistency and superfluous shock value — resulting in tonal problems , with the episode 's puzzles and relationships given more approval . The final episode , Polarized , was commended for having offered a " fitting conclusion " to the coming of age story of Max Caulfield and the relationship between the two leads was similarly noted as having been carried out successfully . One stealth sequence was described as " tedious " and " out @-@ of @-@ place " while other aspects inhabiting the same course of events were favoured . Reviewers were essentially divided on the ending , citing the episode 's subtitle as something that mirrored their own feelings toward it . = = = Sales = = = The first episode was ranked fifth among the best selling PlayStation 3 and PlayStation 4 video games of February 2015 . Life Is Strange reached one million sales in July 2015 , having accumulated over 1 @.@ 2 million unique players worldwide . The attach rate to units between the complete season and season pass proved to be " extremely strong " , divulged Square Enix . The retail edition made seventh place in the top ten UK game sales chart for the week ending 23 January 2016 . = = = Awards = = = = William Beach Thomas = Sir William Beach Thomas , KBE ( 22 May 1868 – 12 May 1957 ) was a British author and journalist known for his work as a war correspondent and his writings about nature and country life . Beach Thomas was the son of a rural clergyman . He attended Shrewsbury School and the University of Oxford before embarking on a short @-@ lived career as a schoolmaster . Finding that work unpleasant , he turned his attention to writing articles for newspapers and periodicals , and began to write books . During the early part of the First World War Beach Thomas defied military authorities to report news stories from the Western Front for his employer , the Daily Mail . As a result , he was briefly imprisoned before being granted official accreditation as a war correspondent . His reportage for the remainder of the war received national recognition , despite being criticised by some and parodied by soldiers . His book With the British on the Somme ( 1917 ) portrayed the English soldier in a very favourable light . Both France and Britain rewarded him with knighthoods after the war , but Beach Thomas regretted some of his wartime output . Beach Thomas 's primary interest as an adult was in rural matters . He was conservative in his views , and feared that the post – Second World War socialist governments regarded the countryside only from an economic perspective . He was an advocate for the creation of national parks in England and Wales , and mourned the decline of traditional village society . He wrote extensively , particularly for The Observer newspaper and The Spectator , a conservative magazine . His book The English Landscape ( 1938 ) includes selections from his contributions to Country Life magazine . = = Childhood and education = = William Beach Thomas was born on 22 May 1868 in Godmanchester , in the county of Huntingdonshire , England . He was the second son of Daniel George Thomas , appointed rector of Hamerton in 1872 , and Rosa Beart . The countryside location of his father 's parish inspired an affection in Beach Thomas , which greatly influenced his later observational writings about natural history and rural subjects . Beach Thomas was not a hyphenated double @-@ barrelled name ; he used his second name as part of his surname . Beach Thomas attended Shrewsbury School from 1882 . He was a keen sportsman there and was appointed huntsman to the Royal Shrewsbury School Hunt , the world 's oldest cross @-@ country running club . He continued his interest in sports after earning an exhibition to Christ Church , Oxford in 1887 and became a Blue , representing the university in various running events over several years . He became president of the Oxford University Athletics Club and played association football , rugby union and cricket at college level . J. B. Atkins , who competed against him for the Cambridge University athletics team , said : " With his stately height and gigantic stride , he was magnificent in action ; his final effort , always , triumphant , when he saw the goal of all , the tape , waiting for him , was a sight never to be forgotten – though I had a strong reason for regretting it at the time . " His exhibition was superseded by a scholarship but he was not academically successful , managing only a third @-@ class degree . = = Early career = = Athletic prowess and the time spent in achieving it may have contributed to Beach Thomas 's poor academic performance but probably also assisted him in getting his first job . He taught at Bradfield School , a public school , after leaving Oxford in 1891 . Although he described teaching as " uncongenial " , he subsequently took a similar position at Dulwich College in 1897 , where he remained until the following year . Journalism became the object of his interest ; he contributed columns for The Globe , The Outlook and The Saturday Review , as well as for many other publications of which he was not a member of staff . He also wrote a book entitled Athletics , published by Ward Lock & Co in 1901 , following his 1900 contribution of a chapter titled Athletics and Schools to the Athletics volume in the Badminton Library series , published by Longman , Green & Co and edited by Montague Shearman . He became a regular reviewer for The Times Literary Supplement from its formation in 1902 . The Daily Mail took on Beach Thomas as a writer of material relating to the countryside . Lord Northcliffe , who owned the newspaper , recognised that Beach Thomas would need to live in a rural environment if he was to perform his duties well . This understanding delighted Beach Thomas because it meant he could limit his visits to London . He moved to the Mimram Valley in Hertfordshire , and thereafter held Northcliffe in high regard . Beach Thomas 's From a Hertfordshire Cottage was published in 1908 , followed by a three @-@ volume collaboration with A. K. Collett , The English Year ( 1913 – 14 ) . He did not entirely abandon his interest in athletics and was one of those in Britain who criticised his country 's poor performance in the 1912 Olympic Games . Writing that the Olympics were by then being seen as a measure of " national vitality " , he explained We could not run , so it appeared , either long distances or short ; we could not jump either broad or high ; we could not throw the javelin ... The men accepted defeat as if the Olympic Games were a competition of parlour tricks in a provincial drawing @-@ room . = = War correspondent = = The Daily Mail sent Beach Thomas to France as a war correspondent during the First World War . Many newspapers were keen to support the war effort and to take advantage of the demand for news from the front . The British military authorities were opposed to the presence of journalists , preferring instead to control the media by issuing official press releases . Lord Kitchener in particular was opposed to their presence , having had bad experiences of journalists during the Boer War . He formed a press bureau headed by F. E. Smith , and demanded that all reports be channelled through the bureau for review by censors ; the resulting output was bland and impersonal . The newspapers countered with subterfuge . Beach Thomas was one of several journalists who managed to reach the front lines in Belgium . He was discovered there and imprisoned for some time by the British Army . He described the episode as " the longest walking tour of my life , and the queerest . " Even these early unapproved reports , which consisted mostly of human interest stories because there was little opportunity for contact with the British Expeditionary Force , were censored at home owing to a paradox that Beach Thomas described : " the censors would not publish any article if it indicated that the writer had seen what he wrote of . He must write what he thought was true , not what he knew to be true . " When the British government relented in mid @-@ 1915 , having been warned by Theodore Roosevelt that the reporting limitations were affecting public opinion in the United States , Valentine Williams became the Daily Mail 's first accredited war correspondent . No longer in prison , Beach Thomas resumed his war reporting in December of the same year , when Williams enlisted in the Irish Guards . As with the other accredited journalists , he was paid by the War Office rather than by his newspaper and they were all assured that they would be able to publish memoirs of their service to offset the differential between an officer 's pay and that of a journalist . Beach Thomas filed reports from places such as the Somme in a format matching that of his colleagues , who regularly downplayed the unpleasant aspects of the conflict such as the nature of death . His reports were published in the Daily Mirror as well as the Daily Mail . The soldiers derided the attempts that were made to indoctrinate them , but the British public was more susceptible . Philip Gibbs , a fellow war correspondent , noted that he and his colleagues " identified absolutely with the Armies in the field ... There was no need of censorship in our despatches . We were our own censors . " The journalistic support for the cause was appreciated by military commanders such as Douglas Haig , who saw the propaganda generated by the correspondents as an integral part of the Allies ' efforts . Haig eventually went so far as to ask Gibbs and Beach Thomas to produce his own weekly news @-@ sheet . Public opinion at home may have been mollified , even uplifted , by the efforts of the correspondents but the troops were not , despite the high demand among them for newspapers from home . One soldier , Albert Rochester , was court martialled for attempting to send to the Daily Mail a letter that stated the realities as he saw them and was critical of Beach Thomas 's work , noting the " ridiculous reports regarding the love and fellowship existing between officers and men . " Beach Thomas himself later regretted his wartime reports of the Somme , saying , " I was thoroughly and deeply ashamed of what I had written for the good reason that it was untrue ... the vulgarity of enormous headlines and the enormity of one 's own name did not lessen the shame . " Northcliffe 's brother , Lord Rothermere , expressed frustration with the war correspondents : " They don 't know the truth , they don 't speak the truth , and we know that they don 't " . Stephen Badsey , a historian who specialises in World War I , has noted that their situation was not easy as they " found themselves as minor players trapped in a complicated hierarchical structure dominated by politicians , generals and newspaper owners . " Beach Thomas , however , received particular opprobrium . Paul Fussell , the historian , describes him as " notoriously fatuous " during the war period . Peter Stothard , editor of The Times between 1992 and 2002 , describes him as " a quietly successful countryside columnist and literary gent who became a calamitous Daily Mail war correspondent " and believes that he may have been the inspiration for the character of William Boot in Evelyn Waugh 's Scoop . John Simpson , a war correspondent , describes him as " charming but unlovable " and thinks that the troops despised Beach Thomas more than they did the other British war correspondents , even though all those journalists were playing a similar disinformation role . They considered his writing to be a trivialisation of the realities of war , jingoistic , pompous and particularly self @-@ promoting , often giving the reader an impression that he was writing from the battlefield when in fact he was being fed information of dubious value by the authorities while based in their headquarters . An example of his reporting is : Soon after 6pm the spasmodic barking of the night @-@ time cannonade ( now normal in spite of its intensity ) gave place to a " kettle @-@ drum bombardment " . The " fun " was " fast and furious " and two minutes after the orchestra opened our men leaped from their trenches . They were not unaccompanied . In spite of the harvest moon , we had brought up a certain number of armoured cars which the moonlight transformed into fantastic monsters ... " Autos blindés " is the French term . They looked like blind creatures emerged from the primeval slime . To watch one crawling round a battered wood in the half @-@ light was to think of " the Jabberwock , with eyes of flame " that : " Came whiffling through the tulgey wood , / And burbled as it came ! " His style was parodied using the by @-@ line of Teech Bomas in the Wipers Times , a trench newspaper , but he was lauded by the readership back in Britain . One example from the Wipers Times , based on a report published in the Daily Mail of 18 September 1916 , was : In the grey and purple light of a September morn [ the first tanks used in war ] went over . Like great prehistoric monsters they leapt and skipped with joy when the signal came . It was my great good fortune to be a passenger on one of them . How can I clearly relate what happened ? All is one chaotic mingling of joy and noise . No fear ! How could one fear anything in the belly of a perambulating , peripatetic progolodymythorus . Wonderful , epic , on we went , whilst twice a minute the 17in. gun on the roof barked out its message of defiance . At last we were fairly in amongst the Huns . They were round us in millions and in millions they died ... With a triumphant snort we went through Bapaume pushing over the church in a playful moment and then steering a course for home , feeling that our perspiring proglodomyte had thoroughly enjoyed its run over the disgruntled , discomfited , disembowelled earth . And so to rest in its lair ready for the morrow and what that morrow might hold . I must get back to the battle . Beach Thomas published a book based on his wartime experiences in 1	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
and the lyrics . Based on internet traffic data for Radiohead 's website taken from Alexa Internet , The Guardian 's Chris Salmon believed that if the single had been released conventionally it would have likely cracked the UK Singles Chart 's top ten . The song 's unconventional release , carried out " in classic Radiohead fashion " according to Mehan Jayasuriya of PopMatters , was praised by The Guardian 's John Harris : " Welcome , once again , to the future of popular music : no need for albums , or marketing campaigns , or grand announcements — just a song by Radiohead , recorded mere weeks ago , premiered on yesterday 's Today programme , and now available to download . " Caleb Garning of Wired noted the song 's " abrupt creation " and the sudden announcement of The King of Limbs as part of Radiohead 's move towards an unpredictable release schedule for new recorded material . In a feature for The Quietus , Wyndham Wallace argues that the track 's release is in line with broader music industry trends towards " instant gratification " , kick @-@ started by the digital release of Radiohead 's previous album In Rainbows . = = Reception = = Critical reception was generally positive . Jim Fusilli of The Wall Street Journal referred to the song as " a masterly achievement " , highlighting Yorke 's " eerie " vocals and Greenwood 's " elegant " arrangement , and concluding that " with Radiohead , the unexpected isn 't merely a ploy . It 's a new approach to modern music that 's often thrilling . " Dan Martin of The Guardian described the song as " a desolate lament over bleak , circling strings that build as the song progresses " and wrote that " considering the solemnity of the subject , the song finds Radiohead at their most understated and serene " . Vozick @-@ Levinson of Entertainment Weekly called the song " a gorgeous anti @-@ war ballad " and said that " Needless to say , it 's very much worth any Radiohead fan 's pound , regardless of the exchange rate . " NME named the track as one of the ten best tracks of the week and called it an " elegaic " , " affecting , slow @-@ burn statement " that " rather than hectoring , [ ... ] states simply the horrors of war that Patch spoke so movingly about " . Critic Allan Raible of ABC News compared the song to earlier Radiohead songs " How to Disappear Completely " and " Pyramid Song " and called it " one of the most beautiful compositions Thom Yorke and company have ever released . " Richardson gave the song a score of seven out of ten in Pitchfork 's song review feature The Playlist , and wrote that while it could be criticized as " a noble but failed experiment , overly maudlin and sentimental even if it is surface @-@ level pretty " , the song 's " simplicity and unsubtle affect , especially coming from this band , wind up being strengths . " In a later column , Richardson would further defend the song from charges of excessive sentimentality and attributes the song 's emotional success to its severe subject , death : " If these pieces were connected to thoughts of breaking up with a girlfriend or getting fired or lamenting cold weather or any of a million other of life 's tragedies , they wouldn 't work , at least not in the same way . They need that huge weight [ of death ] [ ... ] on the other end to balance them out . " Kyle Anderson of MTV.com called the song a " slow , florid affair " and placed its " typically dark " lyrics in the context of Radiohead 's previous political activism , such as their participation in the anti @-@ human trafficking MTV EXIT campaign . Praise for the song was not universal . Rob Harvilla of Village Voice wrote that the track offered " nothing terribly earth @-@ shattering " and thought that " the contrast between Thom 's dolphin @-@ soothing calm and lyrics like ' I 've seen hell upon this earth / The next one will be chemical / But they will never learn ' might just ruin your lunch . " David Malitz of The Washington Post complained : " It 's a little too Sigur Ros @-@ y and doesn 't really go anywhere " but acknowledged it " [ s ] till kept my interest for five and half minutes " . Patch 's grandson Roger Patch voiced his family 's approval of the song , saying : " Our family is very touched that Radiohead has reached out to its followers and especially the younger generation through the single that echoes Harry 's interview in 2005 . Harry loved music and would be 100 per cent behind Radiohead in raising awareness of the suffering of conflict — not least the futility of it — in a way that can also benefit the Legion . It 's a great idea which we support wholeheartedly . " Peter Cleminson , national chairman of The Royal British Legion , thanked Radiohead for their support and said " Radiohead has picked up the torch from Harry Patch to hold it high . [ ... ] Radiohead uses Harry 's own words to remind us of the horrors of war , and we believe Harry would be pleased . " = NSB El 18 = NSB El 18 is a class of 22 electric locomotives built by Adtranz and Swiss Locomotive and Machine Works ( SLM ) for the Norwegian State Railways ( NSB ) . The class is a modification of the Swiss Federal Railways Re 460 locomotive and built at Adtranz Strømmen in 1996 and 1997 . The class remains the only mainline electric locomotive used by NSB , and is predominantly used on some intercity services and all night trains on the Bergen Line , Dovre Line and Sørland Line , as well as some regional trains . The locomotives are 18 @.@ 5 metres ( 61 ft ) long and weigh 83 tonnes ( 82 long tons ; 91 short tons ) . They have three @-@ phase asynchronous motors with a maximum power output of 5 @,@ 880 kilowatts ( 7 @,@ 890 hp ) , giving a tractive effort of 275 kilonewtons ( 62 @,@ 000 lbf ) and a maximum speed of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) . They have a Bo 'Bo ' wheel arrangement and regenerative brakes . The exterior was designed by Pininfarina and the cabs have pressurization . The units are numbered 2241 through 2262 . = = History = = During the early 1990s , NSB was in need of new electric haulage for their passenger trains , as both classes El 11 and El 13 were in need of replacement . El 17 , the latest purchase , had proved unreliable , and NSB wanted to remove them from mainline service . In 1993 , Re 460 and EuroSprinter locomotives were tested in Norway , with the Re 460 being tested from 28 August through 8 October . NSB was satisfied with both units , and stated that it would be possible to increase the train weight on the intercity services from 700 to 800 t ( 690 to 790 long tons ; 770 to 880 short tons ) . During the first half of 1994 , NSB leased two Re 460s to have sufficient locomotives for operation during the 1994 Winter Olympics . When the deadline for bids for the units was reached on 8 May 1994 , five bids had been received . GEC Alsthom offered a modification of the French SNCF Class BB 36000 and AEG offered a variation of the German prototype 12X . Siemens offered two models , the EuroSprinter and an adaptation of the Austrian ÖBB Class 1014 . Siemens ' proposal for the former was branded Dovresprinter and was a cooperation between Kværner and NSB 's workshop at Sundland in Drammen . Siemens would deliver the overall design and electrical components , Kværner would build the mechanical components and the assembly would occur in Drammen . The final offer was from Asea Brown Boveri ( ABB , which by delivery would merge to become Adtranz ) and SLM for " Lok 2000 " , a modification of the Swiss Re 460 . Prior to the final negotiations , union representatives for the train drivers stated that Lok 2000 was their preference , and that NSB could expect a dispute if they chose a different model . The representatives stated that they were " tired of experimenting with Norwegian solutions " . Another important aspect for NSB was that as much of the production as possible take place in Norway . The final negotiations were made with ABB / SLM and AEG and on 2 September , and NSB approved the agreement with ABB / SLM for a purchase of 22 units . The contract was signed on 27 September , and the 22 units cost approximately 700 million Norwegian krone . NSB considered ordering the units with support for both the Norwegian and Swedish 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC system , and the Danish 25 kV 50 Hz AC system . This would have allowed the trains to operate directly to Denmark via the Øresund Bridge , which was then under construction . The dual @-@ voltage system was dropped during the procurement process , but NSB stated that if they needed such units , compatibility could be provided in future orders of the class . The units were built by Adtranz Strømmen at Strømmen outside Oslo , and delivered between 3 September 1996 and 12 June 1997 . The units are numbered 2241 through 2262 . When entering service , the locomotives replaced NSB 's oldest units , El 13 , which were then retired . This reduced NSB 's average locomotive age from 31 to 18 1 ⁄ 2 years at the time of the end of the delivery . During 1997 , there were five incidents where NSB 's Nordic Mobile Telephone equipment interfered with the locomotive 's electronics , causing the emergency brakes to activate . This caused a temporary halt until the motorman had unlocked the brakes . The problem was fixed by moving NSB 's mobile senders . The units were taken into use on the Bergen Line from 5 January 1997 . Later they entered into use on the Dovre and Sørland Lines , and then on regional trains around Oslo , such as the Vestfold Line . In August 1998 , NSB stated that El 18 used more power than some of the substation transformers along the line could handle , particularly along the Vestfold Line . Part of the problem was caused by a mechanism in the locomotives whereby the motor was turned off if the wheels spin . The result was that the full power output of the El 18 along parts of the railway network could not be utilized . = = Specifications = = The locomotives have a maximum power output of 5 @,@ 880 kW ( 7 @,@ 890 hp ) , and are capable of a continual power output of 5 @,@ 400 kW ( 7 @,@ 200 hp ) . This gives a maximum speed of 200 km / h ( 120 mph ) and a tractive effort of 275 kN ( 62 @,@ 000 lbf ) . The locomotive is fed 15 kV 16 2 ⁄ 3 Hz AC power from the pantograph . This is then converted to direct current before being converted to three @-@ phase electricity through one of three gate turn @-@ off thyristors . Each bogie has three rectifiers , each connected to a transformer that is again connected to two inverters . The motors are three @-@ phase asynchronous motors located in the bogie frame and equipped with regenerative brakes . There is also an auxiliary three @-@ phase power supply which powers the compressor , pumps , ventilators and other auxiliary equipment , operated by four separate inverters . The controller is a 16 @-@ bit microprocessor that communicates using optical fibre cables . The rectifier , auxiliary rectifiers , controllers and the error and diagnostic system is of the same type as used on the NSB Class 70 multiple units . Each unit weighs 83 t ( 82 long tons ; 91 short tons ) . The body is 18 @,@ 500 millimeters ( 60 ft 8 in ) long , 3 @,@ 000 mm ( 9 ft 10 in ) wide and 4 @,@ 322 mm ( 14 ft 2 @.@ 2 in ) tall . The center distance between the bogies is 11 @,@ 000 mm ( 36 ft 1 in ) and the center wheel distance in the bogies is 2 @,@ 800 mm ( 9 ft 2 in ) . The wheel diameter is 1 @,@ 125 mm ( 3 ft 8 @.@ 3 in ) — this is 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) larger than the Re 460 . The El 18 has a Knorr HSM mechanical braking system , but unlike the Swiss versions does not have a rail brake . The design of the locomotive was by the Italian company Pininfarina . The machine room is designed with a center aisle , the driver 's cabs have pressurization applied to avoid air pressure dropping when running through tunnels , and the cabs are equipped with air conditioning . El 18 is a modification of the Swiss Re 460 . The class was originally built in 119 units from 1992 to 1995 for the Swiss State Railways , where it was given the brand Lok 2000 . It was part of a project to create a series of new intercity locomotives and cars . Bern – Lötschberg – Simplon @-@ Bahn received eight units in 1994 ( as Re 465 ) , the Finnish State Railways received 46 units between the years 1995 @-@ 2003 ( as Sr2 ) and the Kowloon – Canton Railway Corporation received 2 units in 1997 . The units are designed to haul heavy passenger trains along existing curved railways at high speeds . It is designed as a universal locomotive , so it is also suitable for freight trains . = Tropical Storm Hermine ( 1980 ) = Tropical Storm Hermine caused significant flooding in Mexico during September 1980 . The eleventh tropical cyclone and eight named storm of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , Hermine developed from a tropical wave that emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 11 . After uneventfully crossing the Atlantic Ocean , the system developed a well @-@ defined circulation while in the Caribbean Sea on September 20 and was then classified as a tropical depression . After becoming a tropical cyclone , the depression steadily strengthened as it tracked nearly due westward . By September 21 , it strengthened into Tropical Storm Hermine and brushed the northern coast of Honduras shortly thereafter . It nearly became a hurricane before it made landfall in Belize on September 22 . After weakening over the Yucatan Peninsula , Hermine restrengthened to near @-@ hurricane status again over the Gulf of Mexico before making landfall in the Mexican state of Veracruz . Hermine steadily weakened inland and eventually dissipated on September 26 . In Belize , the storm knocked out communications , though damage in that country was minimal . Heavy rainfall in Guatemala triggered landslides , causing eight fatalities . Additionally , portions of the Pan @-@ American Highway were shut down due to flooding . In Mexico , many areas reported at least 10 inches ( 250 mm ) of precipitation , while a few locations experience more than 30 inches ( 760 mm ) of rain . At the capital city of Mexico City , ten districts reported significant street flooding . As a result of torrential rainfall , at least 30 fatalities occurred , with dozens more missing , and leaving 25 @,@ 000 homeless . However , no estimates of damage associated with the storm were produced . = = Meteorological history = = A tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa on September 11 , though the system lacked a well @-@ defined circulation . The tropical wave tracked westward for several days with minimal development , until reaching near the Lesser Antilles where a low @-@ level cloud banding feature appeared , along with an increase in central convection . This suggested a possible low @-@ level circulation , though an Air Force Reserve Flight on September 17 indicated little evidence of a circulation . On the following day , the system crossed the Lesser Antilles and entered the Caribbean Sea . As it passed near Jamaica on September 20 , a low @-@ level circulation became more apparent on satellite imagery . It is estimated that Tropical Depression Eleven developed at 1200 UTC on that day , while it was centered about 240 miles ( 385 km ) south of Kingston , Jamaica . However , the National Hurricane Center did not initiate advisories until 2200 UTC on September 20 . The depression tracked just north of due west , and by September 21 , it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hermine . Later on September 21 , Hermine passed only 5 miles ( 8 km ) offshore of northeast Honduras . An Air Force Reserve flight investigated if landfall occurred , though Hermine had remained offshore . After the storm moved to the northwest away from Honduras , it began to significantly strengthen . By September 22 , maximum sustained winds had increased to 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . Shortly thereafter , Hermine made landfall near Belize City at the same intensity . The storm weakened somewhat over the Yucatán Peninsula , and sustained winds were 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) when Hermine emerged into the Bay of Campeche on September 23 . The storm quickly began to re @-@ strengthen as it tracked generally westward in the Gulf of Mexico . Although several computer models suggested a northward turn , Hermine drifted southwestward , possibly due to high terrain over Mexico . Hermine attained its peak intensity with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 993 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) early on September 24 , as measured by reconnaissance aircraft . After peak intensity , Hermine weakened slightly to a 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) tropical storm . At 1200 UTC on September 24 , the storm made landfall near Coatzacoalcos , Veracruz , Mexico . Hermine steadily weakened inland and by late 1500 UTC on September 25 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Later that day , the National Hurricane Center noted that a low @-@ level circulation could no longer be located , and by early on the following day , Hermine dissipated over the Mexican state of Oaxaca . = = Impact = = On September 21 , the government of Belize issued a gale warning , as well as a hurricane watch , for most of the eastern coast of the country . It was canceled after Tropical Storm Hermine had moved inland . In eastern Mexico , an estimated 15 @,@ 000 people evacuated from low @-@ lying areas . Additionally , the Government of Mexico sent " advices " to " interests " in the Yucatan Peninsula . Officials in Mexico urged numerous residents along the southern Gulf of Mexico coast and surrounding states to evacuate prior to the storm 's arrival . Timely warnings were later credited for reducing the loss of life . While crossing the southern Yucatán Peninsula , Hermine brought locally heavy rains and strong winds to eastern Mexico and much of Belize – then a colony of the United Kingdom . Between 9 and 10 inches ( 230 and 250 mm ) of rain fell at the Philip S. W. Goldson International Airport . In Quintana Roo , more than 7 in ( 180 mm ) of precipitation fell in localized areas , leading to floods . The storm also temporarily knocked out communication to all of Belize and Chetumal , Mexico . According to officials in the region , little damage took place during Hermine 's passage . Heavy rains in Guatemala triggered landslides , killing at least eight people after crushing a bus . Portions of the Pan American Highway were shut down due to debris . Tropical Storm Hermine and the remnants caused heavy rainfall across along most of the southern and eastern parts of Mexico . Rainfall totals from Hermine peaked at 31 @.@ 15 in ( 791 mm ) in San Pedro Tapanatepec , Oaxaca . When the remnants of Hermine reached the Pacific coast of Mexico , several inches of rain were recorded . Throughout the country , the hardest hit areas were Veracruz , Oaxaca , Chiapas and Guerrero . More than 30 people were killed by the storm and dozens more left missing . Ten districts in Mexico City were brought to a standstill as flood waters blocked off streets . In the small towns of Cintalapa and Jiquiplan , flooding killed eight people and left twenty more missing . In addition to the loss of life , at least 25 @,@ 000 residents were left homeless due to severe flooding . Two small dams broke due to excessive rains near Tuxtla Gutiérrez , prompting the evacuation of 2 @,@ 000 residents in nearby areas . In response to the storm , an estimated 15 @,@ 000 personnel were deployed to assist in relief efforts . = Attack on the USNS Card = The Attack on the USNS Card was a Viet Cong operation during the Vietnam War . It took place in the port of Saigon in the early hours of May 2 , 1964 , and mounted by commandos from the 65th Special Operations Group ( Đội Biệt động 65 ) . The Card was first commissioned into the United States Navy during World War II , playing a significant role in destroying German Navy submarines as the flagship of Task Group 21 @.@ 14 . Decommissioned in 1945 , the Card was reactivated in 1958 and entered service with the Military Sea Transport Service , transporting military equipment to South Vietnam as part of the United States military commitment to that country . With the USNS Card a regular visitor to the port , it became a target for local Viet Cong commando units . Shortly after midnight on May 2 , 1964 , two Viet Cong commandos climbed out of the sewer tunnel near the area where the Card was anchored , and they attached two loads of explosives to the ship ’ s hull . The attack was a success and the Card sank 48 feet , and five civilian crew members were killed by the explosions . The ship was refloated 17 days later , and was towed to the Philippines for repairs . = = Background = = The USNS Card was a Bogue class escort carrier that had served in the United States Navy with distinction . The Card ’ s hull was laid down on October 27 , 1941 ; originally intended as a cargo ship , the ship was reclassified ACV @-@ 11 and converted into an escort carrier with a displacement of 9 @,@ 800 tons . On July 15 , 1943 , the Card was reclassified CVE @-@ 11 and became the flagship of Task Group 21 @.@ 14 ( TG21.14 ) , a hunter @-@ killer group formed to destroy German submarines in the North Atlantic . During the periods between July and November , the Card ’ s aircraft and the escort vessels of TG21.14 destroyed a total of five German submarines . On November 11 , 1943 , the Card and her escort destroyers were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for their success as part of TG21.14 , and the Card became the first escort carrier to receive such an award for combating German submarines . By the end of World War II , the Card and her aircraft destroyed a total of 11 German submarines , which made it the second most successful ship of its class . After 1945 the Card was decommissioned and briefly put out of service when it was transferred to the Atlantic Reserve Fleet . On May 16 , 1958 , the Card re @-@ entered service with the Military Sea Transport Service , under the control of the United States Navy . The ship was manned by a civilian crew and was prefixed " USNS " ( United States Naval Ship ) instead of " USS " ( United States Ship ) as it was in service but not commissioned . With the war 's escalation , the United States government stepped up military support for South Vietnam 's fight against the Communist National Liberation Front ( also known as the Viet Cong ) . On December 15 , 1961 , the USNS Card left Quonset Point , Rhode Island , with a cargo of H @-@ 21 Shawnee helicopters and U.S. soldiers from Fort Devens , Massachusetts , bound for Vietnam . At Subic Bay in the Philippines , the cargo and troops were transferred to the USS Princeton , which arrived and unloaded off the coast of Da Nang the following month . From 1961 onwards , the Card and the USNS Core regularly docked in Saigon to unload heavy artillery , M @-@ 113 armored personnel carriers , aircraft , helicopters and ammunition for the South Vietnamese government . The Port of Saigon was situated between the Te and Ben Nghe Canals , and was about 700 meters ( 2 @,@ 300 ft ) wide from one side to the other . To facilitate the arrival of the Card and other American ships which pulled into Saigon , the South Vietnamese military often deployed navy vessels to conduct patrols around the port , while the surrounding shores were protected by an elite Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( " ARVN " ) airborne battalion . The port itself was guarded round the clock by South Vietnamese police , as undercover South Vietnamese agents operated across the river in the Thu Thiem area to disrupt Viet Cong activities there . Undeterred by the level of protection which the South Vietnamese government normally afforded to American ships , Tran Hai Phung — commander of the Viet Cong ’ s Saigon @-@ Gia Dinh Military District — ordered the 65th Special Operations Group to attack the USNS Card . = = Sinking of the USNS Card = = = = = Failed attempt on the USNS Core = = = Despite their best efforts to control Viet Cong activities across the river in the Thu Thiem area , the South Vietnamese military and police could not stop Viet Cong agents from operating there . So Viet Cong members of the 65th Special Operations Group were able to watch U.S. and South Vietnamese military activities at the port , while they were preparing to attack American targets . Lam Son Nao , a commando of the 65th Special Operations Group , was also an employee at the port facility . As his unit was assigned with the mission to attack the American escort carrier , Nao took advantage of his position as an employee at the port facility , to reconnoitre the Card to design the best strategy to sabotage the ship and all the military hardware on board . Nao ’ s father had previously worked at the port facility as a tradesman , so he memorised all the underground tunnels and sewerage systems which ran in and out of the facility . He advised Nao that the best way to enter the area where the American ships normally anchored , was via the sewer tunnel opposite Thu Thiem . On one occasion while he was bathing in the Saigon River , Nao decided to inspect the sewer tunnel which his father had advised him to use . Nao concluded that the tunnel would provide the best way to get in and out of the American area , but using it also presented challenges . The sewerage tunnel contained both wastes and toxic oils which could cause blindness , so Nao and his men would have to close their eyes as they move through the tunnel , in order to avoid blindness . Furthermore , Nao and his men must wash their bodies to get rid of the deadly odours to avoid detection , and probably arrest , by South Vietnamese authorities . After Nao had surveyed the tunnels which lead into the port , he presented his plan of attack to the Saigon @-@ Gia Dinh Military District Headquarters . Nao decided to utilise high explosives , enough to sink a ship , and detonate it using a timer so that his men could get away safely . Nao ’ s superiors approved the plan , and they ordered him to launch the attack before sunrise to avoid killing local Vietnamese civilians . Nao then returned to Saigon and began assembling the equipment required for the attack which included C4 plastic explosives , TNT , wires , mine detonators and batteries . Nao also trained new commandos , namely Nguyen Phu Hung and Nguyen Van Cay , to support his operation . To ensure that his operation would go smoothly , Nao measured the height , length and width of the sewer tunnel to assemble the bomb devices to the right size , so it could be carried through the tunnel unhindered . Towards the end of 1963 , Nao received news that the Card had arrived in Saigon with another load of armoured personnel carriers , artillery and aircraft . But the aircraft carrier turned out to be the sister @-@ ship the USNS Core . On the evening of December 29 , 1963 , Nao and Cay managed to carry their bomb devices through the sewer tunnel which had about 80 kilograms ( 180 lb ) of explosives . The commandos attached the explosives to Core ’ s hull , set the timer and retreated back into the sewer to wait for the outcome . However , the bombs failed to explode as planned , because the battery had expired due to long periods of storage . Determined the operation would remain a secret , the commandos snuck back to the Core and retrieved the explosive devices . Not long afterwards , the Core and its crew sailed out of Saigon , intact without any damage . Nao , on the other hand , reported the failure of his mission to the Saigon @-@ Gia Dinh Military District Headquarters ; his superiors did not express disappointment in the failure of the operation , but instead they encouraged Nao and his men to destroy the Card at all costs . Finally on May 1 , 1964 , Viet Cong reconnaissance teams spotted the USNS Card sailed through Ganh Rai Bay and entered Long Tau River , so they immediately reported the information to the 65th Special Operations Group in Saigon . As usual , the Card docked at the commercial port district in the city to unload another shipment of cargo and military helicopters , as well as upload a batch of helicopters scheduled to be returned to the United States . = = = Successful attack = = = When Nao received news the Card had arrived in Saigon , he inspected the equipment which now included a new battery and a redesigned bomb . Again , Nao decided to set off the bombs during the early hours of May 2 , so that he and his fellow operative could escape safely and avoid inflicting casualties on the local population . But due to illness , Cay declined to take part in the operation , so Hung had to replace him . At around 9am on May 1 , Nao rushed to Hung ’ s home , where the latter was given a hand grenade and was notified of an upcoming operation without much detail . At 6pm , after Nao had finished unloading the bombs onto one canoe , he and Hung traveled down the Saigon River in two separate canoes , towards the commercial port district . Both men than pulled over in the Thu Thiem area , to avoid detection from South Vietnamese authorities by intermingling with the local workers who lived there . While waiting for the right time , Nao briefed Hung on the objectives of the operation , which was to sink the largest American ship at the Saigon Port , and promptly report the results back to headquarters . Shortly after 6 : 30pm as both men headed towards Warehouse Number 0 at the commercial port district , a police patrol boat spotted them and quickly gave chase . Nao than ordered Hung to throw the hand grenade and both men would retreat towards the local village , if their bombs were discovered by the police . The police patrol stopped about 20 meters ( 66 ft ) away from Nao ’ s canoe , and the patrol boat commander questioned both men about their activities during that time of the evening . In response , Nao claimed that he and Hung intended to go to the other side of the river , to buy some new clothes at the market . To avoid delaying the operation , Nao bribed the patrol boat commander 1000 Vietnamese dong , as the South Vietnamese police were widely known for their corruption . When the patrol boat commander received the bribe , he gave both Nao and Hung permission to move on but demanded another bribe when they return . When the commandos arrived at the sewer tunnel , they assembled the bomb device with each man carrying 40 kilograms ( 88 lb ) of explosives down through the tunnel . Once the commandos finally got out of the tunnel , they both swam towards the broadside of the Card which anchored near the opening of the sewer . As planned , Nao and Hung attached two bombs on the ship , with one near the bilge and one at the engine compartment , just above the water surface . After the bombs had been attached to the Card ’ s hull , Nao inspected both bombs to ensure they had been assembled properly . After that Nao stuck the battery onto a pole and connected it to the bombs with wires , then set the timer . At 1.10am , the bombs were completed and both commandos retreated back into the sewer tunnel , and climbed into their canoes on the other side and rowed back to Thu Thiem . Again , the police patrol boat was waiting for Nao and Hung to arrive , because the commander wanted another bribe . As Nao and Hung approached the patrol boat , an explosion was heard and a bright light could be seen in the commercial port area . The South Vietnamese police patrol boat than started its engine and raced towards the Card , instead of extracting another bribe . = = Aftermath = = For the Viet Cong commandos of the 65th Special Operations Group , the explosion on the Card signalled a successful mission . By the time the sun rose over Saigon , the Card had sunk 48 feet ( 15 m ) into the river with its engine compartment completely flooded . Furthermore , five American civilians who worked on the ship died as a result of the attack . Due to the rapid response from the ship ’ s crew and the local authorities , flooding inside the ship was quickly stopped and it was stabilized . An inspection later revealed that the explosion had torn open a hole which measured 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) long and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) high , on the starboard side of the ship . In the days that followed , five U.S. Navy divers were deployed to Saigon from the Philippines , in addition to several salvage teams from U.S. bases in Japan and the Military Sea Transport Service Command . Amongst the divers was founding US Navy Seals member Roy Boehm , who claimed to have recovered the remains of a Hagerson Demolition Pack , a specialised explosive charge used by US navy frogmen . Bohem speculated that the explosives used in the attack had actually been stolen from his own South Vietnamese Navy unit by a group of deserters who had been mistreated by a South Vietnamese officer . The USS Reclaimer rescue and salvage ship , which was heading for the Philippines at the time , was ordered to change course and sailed for Saigon . Meanwhile , the tug boat USS Tawakoni based at Subic Bay in the Philippines was placed on standby , and later received similar orders to head for South Vietnam . Upon their arrival in Saigon , U.S. Navy divers and salvage teams tried to pump water out from the Card ’ s flooded compartments , but their initial attempts were hindered by a combination of malfunctions in the pumping equipment , and the poor diving conditions in the river . Ultimately it took the salvors 17 days to refloat the Card , and when that was completed they began the process of moving the ship out of Saigon by installing a 6 @-@ inch pump and a load of generators inside the Card to get rid of excess water while at sea . The Reclaimer and the Tawakoni then towed the damaged Card out of Saigon , and headed for Subic Bay where it underwent further repairs . Shortly after the Card was sunk , North Vietnam made full use of the incident for propaganda purposes . On October 20 , 1964 , the North Vietnamese government issued a postage stamp which proclaimed an " Aircraft Carrier of America sunk in the Harbor of Saigon " , to praise the Viet Cong commandos who carried out the attack . The U.S. Navy refused to admit the Card had been sunk even for a brief period of time , instead it simply stated the Card was damaged and quickly repaired . For the remainder of 1964 , the Viet Cong launched further attacks on U.S. targets such as the Brinks Hotel and Bien Hoa Air Base , but there were no significant responses from the U.S. military . The Card was returned to service by 11 December 1964 and remained in service until 1970 , when she was placed into the Reserve Fleet . = Typhoon Nelson ( 1985 ) = Typhoon Nelson , known in the Philippines as Typhoon Ibiang , was the worst tropical cyclone to affect Southern China in 16 years . Typhoon Nelson , which developed on August 16 , originated from an area of thunderstorm activity well east of the Philippines . It gradually intensified over the next several days while moving northwest . Nelson reached typhoon intensity early on August 20 and two days later , attained peak intensity before turning west . The cyclone brushed northern Taiwan early on August 23 after weakening slightly . Nelson then briefly restrengthened to peak intensity . During the afternoon of August 23 , it made landfall in eastern China before dissipating on August 25 . Nelson brought heavy rains to Taiwan . Approximately 900 @,@ 000 families were left without power and 100 @,@ 000 telephone lines lost service . More than 20 @,@ 000 trees were uprooted . Across the country , five people were killed . Affecting a country already inundated by summer rains , Typhoon Nelson brought additional flooding and significant damage to much of Southern China . There , the storm killed 48 individuals and hurt 329 others . More than 5 @,@ 000 homes were destroyed while another 6 @,@ 000 were damaged . Around 2 @,@ 000 travelers were stranded due to flooding . Throughout China , losses from the storm totaled to $ 53 million ( 1985 USD ) . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Nelson can be traced back to a small and disorganized , but persistent area of disturbed weather , which was first observed on August 15 . At this time , the convection was located 280 km ( 175 mi ) northwest of Saipan . Initially , the system was located near the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) , which enhanced the disturbance 's convection . The disturbance was also located near a cold core upper @-@ level low and a tropical upper @-@ tropospheric trough ( TUTT ) . By 0300 UTC on August 15 , the system had become slightly more organized . Three hours later , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) started watching the system . Thereafter , a dramatic increase in convection occurred over the northeast quadrant of the system . As such , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) started watching the system early on August 16 . Several hours later , a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert ( TCFA ) was issued , even though a Hurricane Hunter aircraft did not locate a surface circulation . Early on August 17 , the TCFA was re @-@ issued . That afternoon , the disturbance became more organized , with classifications via the Dvorak technique yielding winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) . Based on this , both the JTWC and the JMA upgraded the disturbance into Tropical Storm Nelson . During the evening , a Hurricane Hunter aircraft reported a barometric pressure of 989 mbar ( 30 inHg ) ; however , they noted that the strongest winds were 170 km ( 105 mi ) north @-@ northwest from the center . Early on August 18 , data from another aircraft also noted that a subtropical ridge had extended west of Nelson ; consequently , the JTWC correctly anticipated Nelson to move west @-@ northwest . At midday , the JMA upgraded Nelson to a severe tropical storm . Subsequently , data from the JMA indicated that Nelson began to level off in intensity as the stronger winds remained displaced form the center . However , the JTWC upgraded Nelson to typhoon intensity following Hurricane Hunter reports of a 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) eye , winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , and a pressure of 979 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) . At 0000 UTC on August 20 , the JMA estimated that Nelson attained typhoon strength , with winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . Nearing Taiwan , Nelson once again held on to its intensity for 36 hours before strengthening slightly . Late on August 21 , the JTWC announced that Nelson reached peak intensity , with 175 km / h ( 110 mph ) , equivalent to a Category 2 hurricane on the United States @-@ based Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale ( SSHWS ) . Early on August 22 , the JMA reported that Nelson attained peak winds of 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) . Shortly after its peak , the storm weakened slightly thereafter as the typhoon passed between the Yaeyama Islands and the Miyako Islands . According to the JMA , the storm re @-@ attained peak intensity at 0000 UTC on August 23 . At this time , the agency assessed the pressure of the system at 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 2 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , Nelson skirted northern Taiwan , passing 45 km ( 30 mi ) from Taipei . After entering the Formosa Strait , the storm moved ashore southwest of Fuchou at 1400 UTC on August 23 . At the time of landfall , the JMA estimated winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . By August 25 , both the JMA and JTWC had ceased tracking Nelson , as it had moved inland over China . = = Preparations and impact = = = = = Taiwan = = = Due to the threat of Nelson , a typhoon warning was issued for the island . After the storm battered the island , rail and street traffic in the northern part of the island was halted due to mudslides . Both Chiang Kai @-@ shek International Airport and the Taipei Songshan Airport in Taipei were closed for about 12 hours . Approximately 900 @,@ 000 families were left without electrical service and 100 @,@ 000 telephone lines were disrupted . Water supplies in many areas were also affected and about 20 @,@ 000 trees in Taipei were damaged . As much as 440 mm ( 17 in ) of rain fell in some parts of the island of Taiwan . Five people perished in the country . Three men were killed in Taipei , two when they were struck by wind @-@ blown objects and one when a house collapsed . Elsewhere , a fatality was reported because of a landslide in Taichung . Moreover , at least 15 other people were reportedly injured throughout Taiwan . A woman in the harbor city of Keelung was struck in the head and seriously injured by a broken window . = = = China = = = Already affecting an area that was inundated by prior flooding partially caused by Typhoon Mamie , Nelson brought additional flooding and significant damage to much of Southern China . The storm was accountable for 48 lives and 329 injuries in the province of Fujian . More than 5 @,@ 000 dwellings were destroyed ; 6 @,@ 000 others were damaged . Around 2 @,@ 000 travelers were stranded . A total of 969 fishing boats sunk , and about 178 @,@ 500 acres ( 72 @,@ 235 ha ) of crops were lost . Power lines were downed in 11 counties , which included Putian and the provincial capital of Fuzhou . Many highways received flooding . Water and electrical supplies were cut in Putian City . Along Pingtan Island and Fuqing , many houses were demolished and considerable damaged occurred to crops such as sugar cane . The offshore island of Yangtan was the hardest hit , where 15 villages lost power . Typhoon Nelson was considered the worst typhoon to hit China in 16 years , but also helped relieve drought conditions in the southern portion of the nation . = Fringe ( season 3 ) = The third season of the American science fiction television series Fringe commencing airing on the Fox network on September 23 , 2010 , and concluded on May 6 , 2011 . Twenty @-@ two episodes long , the season was produced by Bad Robot Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television , and its showrunners were Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman . Lead actors Anna Torv , John Noble , and Joshua Jackson reprised their roles as FBI agent Olivia Dunham and the father @-@ son duo Walter and Peter Bishop . Previous series regulars Lance Reddick , Jasika Nicole , and Blair Brown also returned , along with recurring guest stars Kirk Acevedo , Seth Gabel , and Ryan McDonald . Building off the finale from the previous season , Fringe 's third season dealt with a war between the prime and parallel universes . During the first part of the season , odd @-@ numbered episodes mostly took place in the parallel universe and have a red title sequence , while even @-@ numbered episodes mostly took place in the prime universe and have the original blue title sequence . In episode eight , " Entrada " , the title sequence is a mixture of blue and red , and since have been either blue or red or both to signify the universal focus of the episode . In the rest of the season , however , the episodes focus on the prime universe with brief shifts to the parallel universe . Wyman and Pinkner saw Fringe as two shows , where they could provide a detailed mythology that was equally compelling in both universes . Eager to explore " what @-@ if " moments , historical idiosyncrasies and other differences were inserted to help disambiguate the two worlds . Much of the season was designed around a doomsday device , as they believed its mysteriousness was " a great story engine for us . " The nineteenth episode , " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " , contained long sequences of animation in order to facilitate guest actor 's Leonard Nimoy 's retirement from acting . While the writers had attempted to continue the idea of the " mythalone " for both casual and devoted fans , Fringe mythology became more visible in the last episodes of the season . Equating the final three episodes to a chapter in a novel , the writers " linked [ them ] in one continuous story arc . " The third season was positively received by television critics , and it earned 77 out of 100 on the aggregate review website Metacritic , indicating critical reception as " generally favorable . " Reviewers reacted well to the exploration of the parallel universe , and the performances of Torv and Noble , who each played differing versions of their original characters , were lauded . Fringe ended its third season with an average of 5 @.@ 83 million viewers per episode , placing 99th for the network television season . The New York Times called the series " the best major @-@ network show that no one is watching . " Despite its low ratings , Fox renewed the series for a fourth season on March 24 , 2011 . = = Season summary = = Following Peter 's rescue from the parallel universe , the prime universe Fringe team comes to learn of the Wave Sink Device , the machine that Walternate was attempting to use to destroy the prime universe . They are unaware that Fauxlivia has replaced Olivia , and she works to help the Fringe Division to identify the components hidden across the globe for a similar Wave Form Device in the prime universe . She also gets romantically close to Peter . Olivia is held in Walternate 's laboratories in the parallel universe , and given drugs and conditioning to make her believe she is Fauxlivia , and subsequently a willing test subject for Walternate 's tests of the powers of Cortexiphan . Olivia slowly breaks this conditioning , and on one trial , is able to cross over to the prime universe to relay a warning to Peter about Fauxilivia . Her identity exposed , Fauxilivia is extracted back to the parallel universe by Walternate 's shapeshifters , while Olivia gets help from Broyles to cross back to the prime universe . Olivia is distraught after her return , knowing about Peter 's relationship with Fauxilivia . However , after some time , the two reconcile and admit they have feelings for each other . In the prime universe , the Fringe team learn more of the Wave Sink Device from Sam Weiss , understanding it was created by a long @-@ advanced race known as the First People , with the power to destroy or create universes , but is only powered by Peter 's biology . The two devices in both universes are quantumly entangled , allows one to alter the other universe . Walter surmises that Walternate wants to engage the device to destroy the prime universe in hopes of healing the parallel universe damaged by his crossing in 1985 . In the parallel universe , Walternate discovers Fauxilivia is pregnant with Peter 's child and discreetly accelerates the pregnancy , as to obtain a sample of the child 's blood to activate the Device . The effects on the prime universe are numerous but the parallel universe shows no sign of healing . Walter directs teams to move the prime universe Device to Liberty Island , the same location where the parallel device , as to minimize the affected areas , and then instructs Peter to use the device to counteract the parallel version . Instead , when Peter enters the device , he witnesses a future where the parallel universe was destroyed and the prime universe on verge of the same collapse , and finds that Walter would set a plan in motion to send the Device back into the far past via a wormhole ( creating the First People myth ) , and having it trigger this memory when Peter uses it . After this experience , Peter uses the device to link the two together , fusing the two rooms from the prime and parallel universe into a bridge , allowing the two sides to meet one another . However , shortly after this , Peter disappears to the apparent obliviousness of both Fringe teams ; the Observers , looking on , assert that Peter has erased himself from the timeline to let this event happen . = = Episodes = = = = Production = = = = = Crew = = = Fringe is produced by Bad Robot Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television . Co @-@ creator J.J. Abrams continued to work as executive producer along with fellow co @-@ creators Alex Kurtzman and Roberto Orci , who returned as consulting producers . Bryan Burk and Joe Chappelle also returned as executive producers , while Akiva Goldsman worked as consulting producer . Executive producers Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman continued in their role as showrunners for the third season , which involved overseeing every episode and sometimes directly contributing episode scripts . As with every season , they laid out the third season 's storyline a year in advance . = = = Writing and filming = = = The season finale of the second season introduced the parallel universe to viewers . Fringe 's producers debated over how much of this universe to depict in the third season , but ultimately decided that showing the doppelgangers would " fit more into our own character ’ s lives and show different aspects of their personalities " . As a result , Fringe began its third season by alternating between episodes , with each depicting one universe . The Fox network was initially resistant to this design , as executives were " really concerned that if the episodes didn 't have [ ' over here ' ] Walter or Peter in them , it wouldn ’ t feel like our show anymore . " Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman explained that the series had to constantly evolve , " otherwise we ’ ll get bored , the cast will get bored , the audience will get bored " ; after the first several episodes of the season , Fox agreed it was a positive change . The producers saw the season as " two shows " ; Wyman noted , " It 's on us to make the mythology over there just as compelling as the mythology here , so we will enjoy both of them . We have our characters going back and forth , there or here , but there 's a whole set of nice characters that you 'll become very interested in very quickly . It 's interesting because it gives you that gearshift . " Wyman later added that parallel universe plot device " really allowed us to explore the characters deeper via their doppelgängers , to illuminate characters we already know . It ’ s been a real gas for all of us involved in making the show . " Historical idiosyncrasies were inserted into the parallel universe , such as a still @-@ living John F. Kennedy , the non @-@ existence of the FBI , and the Back to the Future franchise starring Eric Stoltz rather than Michael J. Fox . The writers loved creating an entire new world , and asked themselves what life would have been like in its most mundane forms , such as within daily routines . Pinkner thought it allowed them to create and explore many " what @-@ if " moments , such as if the September 11 attacks had occurred against the White House instead of the Twin Towers , or if the Statue of Liberty still possessed its shiny copper sheen . " Entrada " , the eighth episode , was the first of the season to divide its time between both universes . Many of the episodes involved the discovery and construction of a doomsday device , which Pinkner believed to be " a good thing to design a season around " because its mysteriousness was " a great story engine for us . " While the writers tried to maintain the concept of the " mythalone , " a storyline that was attractive to both casual and devoted Fringe fans , the series became more invested in its mythology towards the end of the third season . " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " , the season 's nineteenth episode , was the first of the series to contain sequences of animation . While previous guest actor Leonard Nimoy had retired , the writers still had storylines involving his character , William Bell . They were able to record his voice , and consequently worked with Zoic Studios to develop the episode . This unorthodox storytelling device was consistent with the nineteenth episodes of other seasons , including " Brown Betty " and " Letters of Transit " . The final three episodes of the season were " linked in one continuous story arc , " and meant to seem like " you 're turning the last page of a chapter in a novel . And usually in a good novel , the last pages [ of a chapter ] compels you forward with a new understanding of what the subject matter is and you get deeper and you can ’ t wait to turn that page . " The crew wrote the finale before the season was officially renewed , but deigned to leave it unchanged once discovering that a fourth season had been approved . Pinkner explained that " we wrote the episode , perhaps foolishly , assuming that we would be on for Season 4 . We never for one second entertained that it would be the end of the series . So therefore , we didn 't have to change a word ! " The finale was designed to establish the groundwork by " open [ ing ] a new chapter " for the new season , which included Peter having never existed . Its futuristic storyline was meant to " inform the present of the show with some thematic elements , " establishing to viewers that " our world is going to break down . " Different title sequences were inputted to help disambiguate the two universes , as well as establish other versions of their world . Blue and red represented the prime and parallel universes , respectively while " Entrada " featured a mixture of blue and red in its title sequence . An episode set in 1985 began with a retro title sequence , and the finale 's version of the title sequence was silver @-@ gray and black . Each opening credit sequence contained specific words that were meant to serve as " signposts " for both current and future episodes , such as the finale sequences ' use of " thought extraction " and " dual maternity " . Like the previous season , the third season was filmed in Vancouver . Because of its heritage buildings and antique storefronts , many of the scenes set in the alternate universe were shot in New Westminster , an area outside Vancouver . Filming of the live action parts of " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " were shot along west Hastings Street . Executive producer Joe Chappelle returned to direct five episodes , while producer Brad Anderson was responsible for directing four . Other new and returning directors included Thomas Yatsko , Jeffrey Hunt , Kenneth Fink , David Straiton , Frederick E. O. Toye , Chuck Russell , and Charles Beeson ; they each directed one episode . In addition , Dennis Smith and Jeannot Szwarc each directed two episodes . = = Cast = = = = = Main cast = = = Anna Torv as Olivia Dunham ( 21 episodes ) Joshua Jackson as Peter Bishop ( 19 episodes ) Lance Reddick as Phillip Broyles ( 19 episodes ) Blair Brown as Nina Sharp ( 10 episodes ) Jasika Nicole as Astrid Farnsworth ( 21 episodes ) John Noble as Dr. Walter Bishop ( 22 episodes ) Most of the series ' main cast returned for the third season . Anna Torv portrayed two versions of Olivia Dunham , each from their own universe , while Joshua Jackson returned as her love interest , Peter Bishop , and John Noble played Peter 's father , Dr. Walter Bishop . Lance Reddick starred as FBI agent Phillip Broyles , and Jasika Nicole played junior FBI agent / Walter 's lab assistant Astrid Farnsworth . Lastly , Blair Brown returned as Massive Dynamic executive Nina Sharp . = = = Recurring cast = = = Michael Cerveris depicted September / The Observer in every episode of the season , while Eugene Lipinski played another Observer , December , for two episodes . Seth Gabel and Kirk Acevedo returned as parallel universe Fringe agents Lincoln Lee ( 10 episodes ) and Charlie Francis ( 6 episodes ) , respectively . The parallel universe also featured Andre Royo as Henry Higgins , Amy Madigan as Marilyn Dunham , and Philip Winchester as Frank Stanton , all for three episodes . Ryan McDonald played two versions of Brandon Fayette for twelve episodes , and Orla Brady guest starred as Elizabeth Bishop for one episode . Sebastian Roché returned from the second season to play one of the season 's antagonists Thomas Jerome Newton for two episodes , along with Gerard Plunkett as Senator Van Horn . Kevin Corrigan depicted Samuel Weiss for three episodes , Karen Holness played Diane Broyles for two , Clark Middleton played Edward Markham and J. R. Bourne played Agent Edwards , each for one episode . The season featured single episodes with special guest appearances by Christopher Lloyd as Roscoe Joyce , Jorge Garcia as Massive Dynamic security guard Kevin , Paula Malcomson as Dana Gray , Emily Meade as Ella Dunham , Brad Dourif as Moreau , and Leonard Nimoy as William Bell . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings and broadcast = = = Fringe 's second season ended with an average of 6 @.@ 252 million viewers per episode and a 2 @.@ 3 ratings share for adults 18 – 49 , causing the series to finish in 79th place out of all the season 's network television shows . Despite its middling ratings , Fringe received a full third season renewal on March 6 , 2010 . At the beginning of the 2010 – 11 United States network television schedule , Fringe remained in its Thursday timeslot for the first nine episodes of the third season , where it faced tough competition from the high @-@ rated Grey 's Anatomy and CSI : Crime Scene Investigation . The season premiere aired on September 23 , 2010 to 5 @.@ 83 million viewers in the United States , earning a 2 @.@ 1 rating for viewers 18 – 49 . This was thirty percent down from the previous season 's premiere , " A New Day in the Old Town " . On its initial broadcast on November 4 , the fifth episode hit a then @-@ season low of 1 @.@ 8 / 5 in the adult demographic . Fox moved Fringe to a new Friday night timeslot on January 21 , 2011 , where it typically broadcast opposite Supernatural , Dateline NBC , and CSI : NY . Because of the night 's " death slot " status , this move made television critics and fans nervous that Fringe was near cancellation . For the first few episodes in its new timeslot , its ratings remained consistent with previous Thursday episodes , but soon began to drop . There were some positive aspects of the third season 's ratings however . Among adults aged 18 to 49 , Fringe placed first in its Friday timeslot . Total viewers , as well as the ratings share for adults and teenagers , surpassed Fox 's average for that same timeslot . Furthermore , the average household income of Fringe 's adult viewers was higher than the total U.S. adult population average , and its adult viewers also had a higher index of having four or more years of college . Despite its low ratings , Fringe was officially renewed for a fourth season on March 24 , 2011 to the surprise of observers – six days before the renewal , Fringe had reached a new series ratings low . The renewal came in the wake of campaigns conducted by Fringe actors , fans of the series , and television critics . Kevin Reilly , Fox 's entertainment president , commented that " the series ' ingenious producers , amazingly talented cast and crew , as well as some of the most passionate and loyal fans on the planet , made this fourth @-@ season pickup possible . " Fringe ended its third season with an average of 5 @.@ 83 million viewers per episode , finishing in 99th place for the American network television season . Time shifted viewing played a significant part in Fringe 's third season ratings . According to a report released by Nielsen Company , Fringe was the only network television series among the top ten of most time @-@ shifted shows of 2011 . The report continued that time shifting increased the series ' overall audience by eighty percent . = = = Reviews = = = Film aggregate review site Metacritic gave the third season 77 out of 100 based on six critical reviews , indicating the critical reception was " generally favorable " . Critic Josh Wigler , writing for Comic Book Resources , lauded the season 's first two episodes , explaining " For the third season of the critically acclaimed Fox series , executive producers and co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J.H. Wyman have responded to their audience 's demands by creating a new kind of episode : the mythalone , designed to propel the story and characters forward while still keeping the show accessible to new viewers on a weekly basis ... it 's nothing short of amazing that the new mythalone approach to Fringe works wonders , if only in the first two episodes of the new season . " After watching the first three episodes , Aaron Riccio of Slant Magazine also praised the new season , writing " The plots have generally been the " fringe " of Fringe ; the meat has been in the characters ' developing feelings for one another . Now the two are not only on equal footing , but they 're both firing on full cylinders ... Afraid , perhaps , to toy with viewers the way that Lost did , Fringe keeps the action moving , rapidly unspooling its mysteries , and that decision proves to be a wise one . Rather than waiting for a future payoff , Fringe is cashing in with every episode , showing us the escalating war between worlds — and with likeable characters and compelling cases to boot . Ironically , it 's by branching out in two different directions that the show has become , more than ever , the centerpiece of a hypercompetitive Thursday night lineup . " In December 2010 , the New York Times wrote Fringe " has kept its plates spinning entertainingly well into its third season " and called it " the best major @-@ network show that no one is watching " . Because of its " ultra @-@ daring " and " bold " storylines , IGN gave Fringe their award for " Best Sci @-@ Fi Series " in 2010 . They noted , " With stellar performances , sci @-@ fi intrigue and a newly introduced Doomsday machine in play that almost guarantees the two worlds will face off Thunderdome @-@ style , this series just keeps getting better and better . " For 2011 , Fringe 's third season helped the show place sixth on Digital Spy 's top 25 television shows of the year , which described the season as " exemplary " . Similarly , The A.V. Club named Fringe the sixteenth best television series of 2011 , in particular highlighting " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " and " The Firefly " . As the third season involved doppelgangers of known characters , specific actors were selected for praise from critics . Lead actress Anna Torv was lauded from multiple quarters for portraying two Olivias , one from each universe . Critics were more divided about her performance as William Bell ( Leonard Nimoy ) , with some praising it and others remaining undecided or critical . John Noble 's performances as Walter Bishop and his doppelganger " Walternate " received positive recognition from critics , with one noting he was " astonishing me with every performance . " Specific episodes that were isolated for praise among critics included " Entrada " , " Subject 13 " , and " The Day We Died " . " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " was lauded for its risky premise . In her 2011 book Into the Looking Glass : Exploring the Worlds of Fringe , author Sarah Clarke Stuart noted that the third season 's " apocalyptic nature was fitting for an audience in the midst of such seemingly world @-@ ending economic turmoil in 2010 – 2011 . " To Clarke Stuart , Walter 's remark in the episode " 6B " that the world is tearing apart reflected " the sentiments of American viewers who were facing job loss and displacement at an unprecedented level . " = = = Awards and nominations = = = For the 1st Critics ' Choice Television Awards , it was nominated for Best Drama Series and Anna Torv was nominated for Best Actress in Drama Series . John Noble won for Best Supporting Actor in Drama Series . At Entertainment Weekly 's annual viewer @-@ voted EWwy awards , Fringe won for Best Drama , while Torv won for Best Actress in a Drama . Fringe won accolades at the 37th Saturn Awards for Best Network Television Series , Best Actress in Television for Torv , and Best Supporting Actor in Television for Noble . = = Home video releases = = The third season of Fringe was released on Blu @-@ ray and DVD in region 1 on September 6 , 2011 , in region 2 on September 26 , 2011 and in region 4 on October 26 , 2011 . The sets includes all 22 episodes of season three on a 4 @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set and a 6 @-@ disc DVD presented in anamorphic widescreen . Special features include two commentary tracks — " The Plateau " with Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , Jeff Pinkner and Timothy Good , and " Lysergic Acid Diethylamide " with Jay Worth , Luyen Vu , and Tanya Swerling . Behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes include " Duality of Worlds " , a four @-@ part featurette , exploring The Other You , Visualizing an Alternate World , A Machine of Destiny and The Psychology of Duality . Other featurettes include " Animating the ' Lysergic Acid Diethylamide ' Episode " , " Constructing an Extrasensory Soundscape " and " Experience ' Os ' ( Episode 316 ) in Selectable Maximum Episode Mode with Pop @-@ Up Experience @-@ Enhancing Commentaries and Featurettes . Also included are a gag reel and trailers . Exclusive to the Blu @-@ ray release is a featurette titled " Glimmer to the Other Side " . = Natasha Falle = Natasha Falle ( born 1973 ) is a Canadian professor at Humber College in Toronto , Ontario , Canada who was forcibly prostituted from the ages of 15 to 27 and now opposes prostitution in Canada . Falle grew up in a middle @-@ class home and , when her parents divorced , her new single @-@ parent home became unsafe , and Falle ran away from home . At the age of 15 , Falle became involved in the sex industry in Calgary , Alberta . Falle 's pimp kept her falsely imprisoned and trafficked her across the country . He married her and tortured her , breaking several of her bones and burning her body . In order to cope with the trauma of prostitution and violence , Falle became dependent on cocaine and almost died . Eventually , she got out of prostitution and , with her mother 's support , went through drug rehabilitation , finished high school , and eventually received a diploma in Wife Assault and Child Advocacy from George Brown College . In 2001 , Falle began counselling women in prostitution at Streetlight Support Services , and counselled more than 800 women in the subsequent decade , 97 % of whom wrote on their intake surveys that they wanted to exit the sex industry . In order to make this statistic more widely known , Falle founded Sex Trade 101 . She began offering training for police and she partners with the Toronto Police Service 's sex crimes unit . Falle was one of the main proponents of Member of Parliament ( MP ) Joy Smith 's private member 's bill , Bill C @-@ 268 , which was passed in June 2010 as An Act to amend the Criminal Code ( minimum sentence for offences involving trafficking of persons under the age of eighteen years ) , and she helped the Canadian government formulate their appeal of the decision of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice in Bedford v. Canada to strike down various prostitution laws . Falle advocates adopting a law in Canada analogous to Sweden 's Sex Purchase Act , which would decriminalize the selling of sex and criminalize the purchasing of sex . = = Early life = = Natasha Falle grew up in a middle @-@ class home in Nova Scotia ; a suburb of Toronto , Ontario ; and a suburb of Calgary , Alberta . Her mother managed stores in the wedding industry and her father was a police officer with a vice squad , arresting drug dealers and pimps . While she was growing up , Falle had multiple family members with addictions . Through verbal and psychological abuse , Falle 's parents divorced when she was a young teenager , and she subsequently lived in a single @-@ parent home with her mother . They moved into an apartment in downtown Toronto . Falle 's father did not pay her mother alimony . There was often no money for food , so Falle began stealing food to survive . Falle had no role models . She began writing poetry about suicide and wearing black clothing . She acted out by stealing cars and using drugs recreationally . She started out with soft drugs and then moved on to using psychedelic mushrooms and LSD . Her associates in these criminal activities , who came from similarly dysfunctional backgrounds , provided her with a sense of belonging that she no longer found at home . Falle 's mother had a series of boyfriends who abused her and made the house unsafe , so Falle ran away from home . She slept at friends ' houses , on their couches and in tents in their backyards , concealing her presence from her friends ' parents . = = Prostitution = = = = = Initiation = = = Shortly before she turned 15 , Falle met two child prostitutes who were also in their early teens . One of these girls was pregnant by her 42 @-@ year @-@ old pimp . The two girls offered Falle a place to sleep at their apartment while their pimp was away ; feeling there was no alternative , she accepted . Out of concern for Falle 's safety , they taught her how to put a condom on a penis by practicing on a cucumber . These children effectively groomed Falle . She stayed at the apartment for several days , and she was watched by various men . By the time the pimp returned , Falle had moved on . After she turned 15 , Falle had her first experience in the sex industry at a party in a bar in Chinatown , Calgary . A 25 @-@ year @-@ old man at the party who had forged identity documents convinced her to sell sex for money and give him half of her earnings . Falle found this man well @-@ dressed and attractive and did not think that he fit the stereotypical image of a pimp . She had nowhere to sleep that night and had no money for food , so she accepted his offer . The man to whom she sold sex that night had teeth that were rotten . They had sex on a soiled mattress in a poorly ventilated restaurant attic , and she received $ 100 . Falle convinced five of her friends who came from dysfunctional homes to join her in prostitution . Falle said that she and the other girls she knew her age who had gone into prostitution had felt as though that was their only remaining option . She said they all tried to stay free of pimps , organized crime , and drugs , but eventually succumbed . Falle later said , " We were prey for every paedophile , pervert , pimp and drug dealer that was out there . " The man who had recruited Falle in Chinatown became her pimp . Adults began advertising Falle 's sexual services in newspapers . Falle engaged in both indoor and outdoor prostitution , working as an escort , in strip clubs , and at massage parlours . At the legal establishments where she engaged in prostitution , escort drivers engaged in organized crime , selling guns , alcohol , cocaine , and stolen goods and pimping children in massage parlours . = = = Abuse = = = Falle 's pimp kept her imprisoned for the years that he prostituted her , and trafficked her across Canada to Edmonton , Vancouver , and Kelowna . Falle later said of herself and the other women in prostitution she knew , " I couldn 't admit that I was not there by choice . We couldn 't live in our own skin if we admitted that . We needed to believe that it was our choice . " Falle 's pimp told her he would marry her if she made enough money for him through prostitution . When she had made the amount of money her pimp required , she was 17 years old . The two got married that year . Falle 's pimp regularly beat her and she began to suffer from battered person syndrome . The worst beating she received was in a brothel where she and four other teenagers engaged in prostitution . Over the years that she was married to her pimp , she hoped he would change . She later said that she " wanted to love him , believe he 'd never do it again . " She tried to make him enough money through prostitution to convince him not to find another girl . He threatened her family , and conditioned her not to call the police when he did so . Fear of being labelled a " snitch " or " rat " prevented her from going to the police . None of the other women she knew in the sex industry were in healthy relationships . At her peak , Falle owned a Ford Mustang , bought her pimp a Mercedes @-@ Benz , and lived in a four @-@ bedroom penthouse apartment , but she continued to experience violence . She used her material possessions to elevate herself above the women around her who were dependent on cocaine ; she dismissed them as " crackheads " and " crackhoes " . Some of the men who purchased sex with Falle were police officers , and she knew girls who used drugs with their drug counselors . Falle was brainwashed to believe that her only worth lay in prostitution , which she later said was why it took her so long to exit prostitution . While engaging in prostitution , Falle was frequently threatened by other women in the sex industry , she was verbally abused by her clients , she was stalked , and she was threatened with guns on multiple occasions , including by her pimp . She was also drugged several times , and was once sexually assaulted by an escort driver after having been drugged by him . At one point , she was kidnapped . She had to resort to pulling a knife on people at times when she was threatened with violence . Because of various instances of violence during her time in prostitution , Falle was injured in a variety of ways . Her pimp broke several of her bones and burned her body . = = = Effects and aftermath = = = In order to cope with the psychological trauma of prostitution and violence , Falle became dependent on cocaine . Within two years , she was spending $ 500 per night on cocaine . Her drug use resulted in delusions and caused her to become schizophrenic , and subsequently distrustful of those around her , fearing that people were coming to take away her drugs . Eventually , the personal horror stories Falle heard from other women in her situation convinced her that she needed to get out of prostitution . Her substance dependence became so severe that she almost died . Her best friend was killed by her pimp . By this point , many of her friends in the sex industry had died , and she thought that she would be next . One night , Falle was hiding alone in a hotel room when she found a Bible placed there by Gideons International . She began reading the Psalms and later said , " For the first time I understood what God was saying to me . That night my life began to move in a new direction . " On her 27th birthday , Falle left her husband and returned to her mother . Because of the delusions , Falle did not recognize her mother , thinking she had been replaced with a clone . Falle told her mother about being dependent on cocaine , entering prostitution , and marrying her pimp . Her mother accepted her back . It took several more years before Falle gave up hope that her husband would change . Falle participated in a diversion program that allowed her to return to school . She said that she required a lot of support in order to fully exit prostitution , and found that support in her mother , her school , and Streetlight Support Services . Falle underwent a month of drug rehabilitation , which convinced her to become a counsellor . She then spent 90 days at the Toronto West Detention Centre and took seven months to finish high school . She went on to graduate from a college and a university . She received a diploma in Wife Assault and Child Advocacy from George Brown College and graduated with honours . To remove the burns her pimp had inflicted on her , she had laser surgery that cost thousands of dollars . Falle uses the term " sex trade survivor " to describe herself . In 2012 , Falle sought to bring a lawsuit against her former pimp to demonstrate to other women who are or have been forcibly prostituted that it is possible to oppose one 's pimp . In 2013 , she said that , while she has left much aggression and profanity behind since leaving the sex industry , some of the issues that she developed will stick with her until the end of her life . Jonathan Migneault of the Sudbury Star wrote that " Falle 's story about her descent in and escape from prostitution is so horrific you almost don 't believe the details . " Sam Pazzano of the Toronto Sun wrote that , after 12 years of prostitution , Falle still has " attractive looks and [ a ] sharp mind . " = = Activism = = = = = Streetlight Support Services = = = In 2001 , Falle began counselling women in prostitution at Streetlight Support Services . Once she received her diploma from George Brown College , she redeveloped the organization 's Choices program , a four @-@ week program that helps women leave prostitution . Between 1997 and 2005 , Choices helped 325 women out of the sex trade . Women entered into the program through the criminal justice system after being arrested for offences related to prostitution . By 2011 , Falle had conselled more than 800 women . Of these women , 97 % wrote on their intake surveys that they wanted to exit the sex industry , and 95 % wrote that they had been physically abused by either a pimp , a client , or another woman in the sex industry . Falle believed these statistics to be representative of women in prostitution in Canada because the women she counselled did not come to her by choice ; they were required to undergo the counselling by court order . In 2010 , Falle said that hundreds of the women she had met were controlled by pimps , either as sexual partners or as traffickers . She also said that women in prostitution tend to be moved around a lot because they tend to fetch higher prices when they are new to a region . One of the women she counselled through Streetlight Support Services had been kept in a closet when she was not providing sexual services to men . = = = Sex Trade 101 = = = Because Streetlight Support Services is administered by the office of the Attorney General of Ontario , Falle could not be politically active in her capacity as a counsellor with them . Falle said , " I couldn 't be silent anymore , because the strong voices that we were hearing were the minority few saying [ prostitution ] is liberating , it 's a job choice ... I couldn 't stand that lie anymore . " She said that this minority only want to continue in prostitution because " they 've never had a healthy comparison . " Falle founded and became the director of Sex Trade 101 , a Toronto @-@ based nonprofit organization dedicated to protecting the rights of women who have been in prostitution . She founded Sex Trade 101 because she saw women in the sex industry as victims rather than as criminals , and she believed that the Criminal Code depicted them as criminals . She founded the organization in order to make it more widely known that the vast majority of women in the sex industry want to leave . She met many women who had no family to support them in exiting the sex industry , and she decided to found an organization to provide that support . The organization helps prostitution victims exit the sex industry and improve their lives . Sex Trade 101 calls itself " Toronto 's only sex trade survivors and abolitionist organization " and is composed of 12 women who had escaped forced prostitution and who offer training for police in order to change perceptions about people involved in the sex trade . The organization is also involved in prevention work in high schools . The organization offers mentorship and peer support groups for women who are currently or were formerly in prostitution . It also partners with other organizations including the Servants Anonymous Society of Calgary and Sheatre , an Owen Sound @-@ based interactive theatre company . In 2012 , Falle and Bridget Perrier represented Sex Trade 101 in Owen Sound where they launched ReStart , a mentorship program to aid women and youth who are at risk of sexual victimization , to help people exit the sex trade , and to provide support once they have exited . At the workshop that launched this program , Falle said that some people in the sex industry engage in survival sex — trading sex for food , a place to sleep , alcohol , drugs , or the feeling that they are loved . She said that rural communities are common places for women and children to be groomed into prostitution . She identified Bruce — Grey — Owen Sound as particularly vulnerable because of the substance abuse in the area . By 2013 , Sex Trade 101 had served more than 1 @,@ 000 women . In May 2012 , Falle spoke about human trafficking at high schools in Vancouver primarily because of the influence of a parent concerned about human trafficking in the area and its dangers to children . = = = Police = = = Falle is a professor at Humber College in Toronto , where she teaches in the police foundations program , educating on the subject of social justice . One of her students , Brittany Swartzentruber , said that Falle 's lectures would have a significant impact on Swartzentruber 's career as a police officer , saying , " She was one of the best speakers I have ever heard . " Falle partners with the Toronto Police Service 's sex crimes unit , which developed the statistic that the average age for a girl to become involved in prostitution in Canada is 14 . According to Falle 's research , the average age is between 13 and 16 . York Regional Police drugs and vice unit Detective Thai Truong said that all law enforcement personnel should hear stories like Falle 's because " they remind us that they are not just prostitutes or escorts , but they are somebody 's daughter , somebody 's sister , somebody 's wife . " = = = Bill C @-@ 268 = = = In June 2010 , Kildonan — St. Paul Member of Parliament ( MP ) Joy Smith 's private member 's bill , Bill C @-@ 268 , was passed as An Act to amend the Criminal Code ( minimum sentence for offences involving trafficking of persons under the age of eighteen years ) . Falle was one of the bill 's five main proponents , the others being Timea Nagy , a woman who was trafficked from Hungary to Canada at the age of 20 and kept as a sex slave in a strip club ; Tamara Cherry , a Toronto Sun journalist who writes about human trafficking in Canada ; Brian McConaghy , a former RCMP officer who works with Ratanak International — another anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking organization ; and Grand Chief of the Assembly of Manitoba Chiefs Ron Evans , who raised awareness about victims of the sex industry in Manitoba . Later that year , Falle said that the best way to fight human trafficking is to influence public opinion . Later in 2010 in Winnipeg , Falle received an award at the first annual Honouring Heroes ceremony , which was organized by Joy Smith , who is also an anti @-@ human @-@ trafficking activist . Falle called Smith an angel , saying , " It 's only been in the last few years since all those missing and murdered aboriginal women turned up dead did anybody care about us . So to have her speak out the way she is against [ prostitution ] is so empowering . " Falle was one of five award recipients at the ceremony , the other four being the other primary proponents of Bill C @-@ 268 . = = = Bedford v. Canada = = = Falle took a sustained interest in Bedford v. Canada , a case that began in the fall of 2010 when laws against keeping a brothel , communicating in order to facilitate prostitution , and living off the avails of prostitution were struck down by the Ontario Superior Court of Justice as unconstitutional . When Falle first heard about this decision , she cried , and expressed surprise and disappointment . She said that she did not believe that the average Canadian realized the implications of striking down these laws , which she said were that " your next door neighbours can run a brothel right beside you . Your children could be exposed to condoms left on their driveway , johns propositioning them . " She also expressed her concern that striking down anti @-@ prostitution laws normalizes prostitution as a career option for children to consider . She also said that , without the laws , " pimps will be legitimate businesspeople [ and ] billboards advertising brothels could start appearing on roadsides . " Ron Marzel , a lawyer attempting to have the anti @-@ prostitution laws declared unconstitutional , said , " the reality is there are consenting adults who want to go into " prostitution . Falle was angered by this statement , and replied that 97 % of women in the sex industry are not engaging in prostitution by choice , and that " the voices of the overwhelming majority of women who want to get out of prostitution are being drowned out by a vocal few . " The Government of Canada disagreed with Ontario 's ruling and announced that the decision would be appealed . Falle helped the Crown formulate their case . That November , Falle was a panelist at a debate about the case . At the debate , which was hosted by the Queen 's Law and Public Policy Club at Queen 's University , Falle said that , whatever the outcome of the appeal , she was glad that the case was removing the taboos surrounding talking about prostitution . The following June , Falle and more than twelve others intervened in the case , arguing that the laws should be reinstated to protect women from pimps . As part of this anti @-@ prostitution coalition , Falle said that all areas of the sex industry are unsafe , including escort agencies and strip clubs . Falle testified in the lower courts , saying that " the more they say the women are there by choice , the harder it is for us to convince police , social workers and everyone else that these people are vulnerable . " She also said that striking down anti @-@ prostitution laws sends a message to men that it is acceptable to harass women . Falle said that all the applicants in Bedford v. Canada — including Terri @-@ Jean Bedford , the dominatrix seeking to have the anti @-@ brothel law struck down — entered the sex industry as children . For this reason , Falle argued that neither of these women chose a life of prostitution as a consenting adult ; that life had already been chosen for them by the time that they had reached the age of consent . Falle encouraged Canadians to take an interest in Bedford v. Canada because any Canadian girl can become a victim of prostitution . Eventually , the laws against pimping and communicating provisions were determined to be constitutional and were retained . As of 2013 , the constitutionality of the law against brothels was still under review . Falle said that brothels should not be legalized , saying , " I know firsthand and ... from the disclosures of the many women that I 've been able to counsel over the years that most violence happens behind closed doors . " Falle said that if brothels were legalized , the police would have less legal ability to find women and children victimized by human trafficking . Bedford said that legalizing brothels would make prostitution safer for women because it would allow prostitution to take place indoors . Falle responded that most prostitution has already moved indoors , as the internet has made most street solicitation unnecessary , and argues that the move indoors has not made the women safer . She said that when she was in prostitution , she was even a little safer outdoors because of the added visibility to the public . In discussion of the case , Falle said , " I don 't know anyone in the prostitution business who hasn ’ t ended up dead , in jail , or on drugs . " She intended to bring a pimp stick to the Supreme Court of Canada in June 2013 as a visual aid in explaining how pimps often abuse the women they prostitute . = = = Advocacy events = = = In October 2010 , Falle picketed a courthouse in downtown Toronto in recognition of International Day of No Prostitution . She was joined by Trisha Baptie , Bridget Perrier , Katarina MacLeod , and Christine Barkhouse ; all were former human trafficking victims and sex workers . At the protest , Falle said that " only 1 % of prostitutes say they enjoy sex with johns and 97 % say they want to get out . " In January 2011 , Falle appeared at the Party for Freedom at York University in Toronto , which launched the Alliance Against Modern Slavery , a nonprofit organization seeking to combat human trafficking through partnerships , education , and research . Falle was joined by Glendene Grant , human trafficking victim Jessie Foster 's mother ; Kevin Bales , co @-@ founder and president of Free the Slaves ; Kate Todd , a singer @-@ songwriter and actor ; Janelle Belgrave of Samba Elégua Drummers and Peace Concept ; Roger Cram of Hiram College ; and Jeff Gunn , a guitarist . That September , Falle attended Toronto 's second annual Freedom Walk , which was hosted by Stop Child Trafficking Now , Freedom Relay Canada , and Oakville 's Free @-@ Them . At this event aimed at raising awareness about human trafficking nationally and internationally , Falle was joined by other abolitionists including Tara Teng , who was Miss Canada at the time ; Trisha Baptie , co @-@ founder of EVE ; Shae Invidiata , founder of Free @-@ Them ; Timea Nagy ; Constable Lepa Jankovic ; MP Joy Smith ; MP Olivia Chow ; and MP Terence Young . In October 2012 , Falle was the keynote speaker at a symposium on street prostitution and human trafficking , which took place at Croatian Hall in Greater Sudbury and was attended by approximately 100 people . Sergeant Corinne Fewster of the Greater Sudbury Police Service said that the manner in which Falle was aided in her transition out of prostitution is a good example for local social and health services to follow in helping other women exit the sex industry . The following month , Falle told her story at a lunch hosted by The Salvation Army in Vancouver . That year , Falle said , " Where there 's high @-@ track prostitutes , escorts , strippers and masseuses ; there 's pimp violence . " In March 2013 , Falle spoke at the 57th Session of the United Nations Commission on the Status of Women , where she sat on a panel called " Survivors Speak : Prostitution and Sex Trafficking " that was sponsored by Coalition Against Trafficking in Women . That May , Falle spoke at a fundraiser for the Servants Anonymous Society of Calgary , an organization that supports sex workers in the city . It was her first time in Calgary since she had been part of the sex industry there . The fundraiser was called " Cry of the Streets : An Evening for Freedom " and raised money for Servants Anonymous Facilitates Exit , a women 's shelter for those seeking to leave the sex industry . At the fundraiser , Falle advocated adopting a law in Canada analogous to Sweden 's Sex Purchase Act , which decriminalized the selling of sex and criminalized pimping and the purchasing of sex . Falle argued in support of modelling prostitution law in Canada after Sweden 's laws because she believes that prostitution cannot be regulated . At another time , she had said that " it 's not Canada 's laws that make prostitution unsafe , it 's the johns who are raping and abusing the women and their pimps . " Also in 2013 , Falle said that the average age at which girls get involved in prostitution in Canada is 14 , and that their emotional intelligence does not develop while in prostitution , preventing many of them from leaving . She also said that prostitution has grown significantly in Canada since she left the sex industry , and that most human trafficking victims in Canada were born and raised in Canada . = Mascarene grey parakeet = The Mascarene grey parakeet or Thirioux ’ s grey parrot ( Psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the Mascarene islands of Mauritius and Réunion in the western Indian Ocean . It has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini , along with other parrots from the islands . Subfossil bones of the Mascarene grey parakeet found on Mauritius were first described in 1973 as belonging to a smaller relative of the broad @-@ billed parrot in the genus Lophopsittacus . Apart from their size , the bones were very similar to those of other Mascarene parrots . The subfossils were later connected with 17th- and 18th @-@ century descriptions of small grey parrots on Mauritius and Réunion , together with a single illustration published in a journal describing a voyage in 1602 , and the species was instead reassigned to the genus Psittacula . The Mascarene grey parakeet was grey , had a long tail , and was larger than other species of the Psittacula genus , which are usually green . The grey parrots were said to be easy to hunt , as the capture of one would result in its calling out to summon the whole flock . They were also considered to be crop pests and being such easy prey meant that they were extensively hunted . Coupled with deforestation , this pushed them into extinction . This had happened by the 1730s on Réunion and by the 1760s on Mauritius . = = Taxonomy = = In 1973 , English ornithologist Daniel T. Holyoak described some small parrot bones that he had discovered among a collection of broad @-@ billed parrot ( Lophopsittacus mauritianus ) subfossils in the Zoology Museum of Cambridge University . These remains had been collected by Louis Etienne Thirioux in the early 20th century , who had found them in a cave on Le Pouce mountain , on the Mascarene island of Mauritius . They were placed in the zoology museum by 1908 . Apart from their size and robustness , Holyoak did not find the bones to be distinct from those of the Mascarene parrot genera Lophopsittacus , Mascarinus ( the Mascarene parrot ) , Necropsittacus ( the Rodrigues parrot ) , and Psittacula ( which had two or three other species inhabiting the Mascarene islands ) . Because of their similarities , Holyoak considered all these genera to be closely related . Holyoak provisionally placed the new species in the same genus as the broad @-@ billed parrot , naming it Lophopsittacus bensoni ; the name honours the English ornithologist Constantine W. Benson , for his work on birds from the Indian Ocean , and in classifying bird collections at Cambridge . Holyoak also mentioned the possibility that the remains could represent a small subspecies of Necropsittacus or a wide @-@ beaked form of Mascarinus , but maintained that they were best considered as belonging to a distinct species . The holotype specimen is a mandibular symphysis , with the specimen number UMZC 577a . Other known remains include upper mandibles , a palatine bone , and tarsometatarsi . The species has since been excavated from the Mare aux Songes swamp on Mauritius , from which subfossils of most of the other endemic bird species have been identified as well . Old , vague accounts of several different now @-@ extinct Mascarene parrots have created much confusion for the scientists who subsequently examined them . In 1967 , American ornithologist James Greenway speculated that 17th- and 18th @-@ century reports of then @-@ unidentified grey parrots on Mauritius referred to the broad @-@ billed parrot . In 1987 , English ecologist Anthony S. Cheke correlated the L. bensoni subfossils with the grey parrots reported from Mauritius and Réunion , which had previously been ignored , or considered references to broad @-@ billed parrots . Further study of contemporary accounts indicates that the broad @-@ billed parrot was not grey , but had multiple colours . In 2007 , the English palaeontologist Julian P. Hume reclassified L. bensoni as a member of the genus Psittacula , as he found it to be generically distinct from Lophopsittacus , but morphologically similar to the Alexandrine parakeet ( Psittacula eupatria ) . Hume also pointed out that an engraving accompanying the 1648 published version of Dutch Captain Willem Van West @-@ Zanen 's journal may be the only definite depiction of this species . The engraving shows the killing of dodos ( depicted as penguin @-@ like ) , a dugong , and parrots on Mauritius in 1602 ; the depicted method of catching parrots matches that used on Mascarene grey parakeets according to contemporary accounts . Hume coined the new common name " Thirioux 's grey parrot " in honour of the original collector . The IOC World Bird List instead used the common name " Mascarene grey parakeet " . The population of grey parrots described from the island of Réunion ( referred to as Psittacula cf. bensoni by Hume ) is thought to have been conspecific with that on Mauritius . Until subfossils of P. bensoni are found on Réunion , it cannot be confirmed whether the grey parrots of the two islands belonged to the same species . In the 1860s , French naturalists Charles Coquerel and Auguste Vinson suggested these could have been parrots of the genus Coracopsis , but fossils of neither that genus nor Psittacula have ever been found on Réunion . Whilst Coracopsis parrots are known to have been introduced to that island in the 1700s , a population did not become established . While no live or dead Mascarene grey parakeets are known with certainty to have been exported , Hume has suggested that a brown parrot specimen — once housed in Cabinet du Roi but now lost — may have been a discoloured old Mascarene grey parakeet , or perhaps a lesser vasa parrot ( Coracopsis nigra ) . This specimen was described by Comte de Buffon in 1779 . = = = Evolution = = = Based on morphological features , the Alexandrine parakeet has been proposed as the founder population for all Psittacula species on Indian Ocean islands , with new populations settling during the species 's southwards colonisation from its native South Asia . Features of that species gradually disappear in species further away from its range . Many endemic Mascarene birds , including the dodo , are descended from South Asian ancestors , and Hume has proposed that this may also be the case for all the parrots there . Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of these less isolated islands . Although most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared common features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . Hume has suggested that they all have a common origin in the radiation of the Psittaculini tribe , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . The Psittaculini could have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea . Other members of the Psittacula genus from the Mascarenes include the extant echo parakeet ( Psittacula eques echo ) of Mauritius , as well as the extinct Réunion parakeet ( Psittacula eques eques ) , and Newton 's parakeet ( Psittacula exsul ) of Rodrigues . A 2011 genetic study found that the Mascarene parrot ( Mascarinus mascarinus ) of Réunion was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot from Madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the Psittacula parrots , undermining the theory of their common origin . A 2015 genetic study by Jackson et al. found the other Mascarene Psittacula taxa to group within a clade of rose @-@ ringed parakeet ( Psittacula krameri ) subspecies from Asia and Africa . = = Description = = Contemporary accounts describe the Mascarene grey parakeet as a grey , long @-@ tailed parrot . Subfossils show that its beak was about 30 % longer than that of the sympatric echo parakeet , and that it had a comparatively broad beak . Members of the Psittacula genus commonly have large , red beaks , and long tail feathers , with the central ones being the longest . It also differed from its congeners in other osteological details . It was skeletally similar to the Alexandrine parakeet , but some of its bones were larger and more robust . Its colouration also separated it from all other members of Psittacula , the majority of which are green or partially green . Based on subfossils , the Mascarene grey parakeet was smaller than the broad @-@ billed parrot and the Rodrigues parrot , but similar in size to the Mascarene parrot , though with a wider beak . The mandibular symphysis ( central jaw ridge ) was 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 – 0 @.@ 11 in ) thick along the mid @-@ line , the palatine ( part of the palate ) was 31 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 22 in ) , and the tarsometatarsus ( bone in the lower leg ) was 22 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) . The grey parrots from Réunion were described as being larger than the sympatric Réunion parakeet . = = Behaviour and ecology = = According to Anthony S. Cheke and Julian Hume , the anatomy of the Mascarene grey parakeet suggests that its habits were largely terrestrial . Like the extinct Mauritian duck and the Mascarene coot , it appears that the Mascarene grey parakeet inhabited both Mauritius and Réunion . Both populations were said to be easy to hunt by capturing one individual and making it call out , which would summon an entire flock . Willem van West @-@ Zanen , who visited Mauritius in 1602 , was the first to mention grey parrots there , and he also described the hunting methods used : ... some of the people went bird hunting . They could grab as many birds as they wished and could catch them by hand . It was an entertaining sight to see . The grey parrots are especially tame and if one is caught and made to cry out , soon hundreds of the birds fly around ones ’ ears , which were then hit to the ground with little sticks . The Dutch sailor Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe was on Réunion in 1618 , and described the same behaviour , in the first account of the grey parrots there : Coming further inland we found [ a ] great number of geese , doves , grey parrots and other birds , also many land @-@ turtles ... And what we most did marvel at , when we held one of the parrots and other birds and squeezed it till it screamed , there came all the others from thereabout as if they would free it and let themselves be caught as well , so we had enough of them to eat . In 1705 , Jean Feuilley gave a more detailed description of the parrots of Réunion and their ecology : There are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . Some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ Mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ Mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ Réunion parakeet ] . There are great quantities , especially in the Sainte @-@ Suzanne area and on the mountainsides . They are very good to eat , especially when they are fat , which is from the month of June until the month of September , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat . Many other endemic species of Mauritius and Réunion were lost after the arrival of humans , so that the ecosystems of these islands are severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , the islands were entirely covered in forests , very little of which remains today , because of deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . On Mauritius , the Mascarene grey parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . On Réunion , it lived alongside the Réunion ibis , the hoopoe starling , the Mascarene parrot , the Réunion parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon . = = Extinction = = To the sailors who visited the Mascarene islands from 1598 onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet has survived . The others likely all vanished due to a combination of extensive hunting and deforestation . Due to being easily caught , the Mascarene grey parakeet was often hunted in abundance by early visitors to Mauritius and Réunion . As they fattened themselves from June to September , they were particularly sought after at this time of the year . An account by Admiral Steven van der Hagen from 1606 even suggests that the grey parrots of Mauritius were sometimes killed for amusement . In the 1720s , Sieur Dubois stated that the grey parrots on Réunion were especially sought after during their fat season , and also claimed they were crop @-@ pests : Grey parrots , as good [ to eat ] as the pigeons ... All the birds of this island have their season at different times , being six months in the low country and six months in the mountains , when returning , they are very fat and good to eat ... The sparrows [ Foudia ] , grey parrots , pigeons and other birds , bats [ Pteropus sp . ] , cause plenty of damage , some to cereals others to fruit . The fact that they were said to damage crops probably	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
about 12 square feet " . He also stated that " I believe it must have been in places , not a continuous rip " , but that the different openings must have extended along an area of around 300 feet , to account for the flooding in several compartments . The findings of the enquiry state that the damage extended about 300 feet , and hence many subsequent writers followed this statement . Modern ultrasound surveys of the wreck have found that the damage consisted of six narrow openings in an area of the hull covering only about 12 to 13 square feet ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 2 m2 ) in total . According to Paul K. Matthias , who made the measurements , the damage consisted of a " series of deformations in the starboard side that start and stop along the hull ... about 10 feet [ 3 @.@ 0 m ] above the bottom of the ship . " The gaps , the longest of which measures about 39 feet ( 12 m ) long , appear to have followed the line of the hull plates . This suggests that the iron rivets along the plate seams snapped off or popped open to create narrow gaps through which water flooded . An engineer from Titanic 's builders , Harland and Wolff , suggested this scenario at the British Wreck Commissioner 's inquiry following the disaster but his view was discounted . Titanic 's discoverer Robert Ballard has commented that the assumption that the ship had suffered a major breach was " a byproduct of the mystique of the Titanic . No one could believe that the great ship was sunk by a little sliver . " Faults in the ship 's hull may have been a contributing factor . Recovered pieces of Titanic 's hull plates appear to have shattered on impact with the iceberg , without bending . The plates in the central 60 % of the hull were held together with triple rows of mild steel rivets , but the plates in the bow and stern were held together with double rows of wrought iron rivets which were – according to materials scientists Tim Foecke and Jennifer McCarty – near their stress limits even before the collision . These " Best " or No. 3 iron rivets had a high level of slag inclusions , making them more brittle than the more usual " Best @-@ Best " No. 4 iron rivets , and more prone to snapping when put under stress , particularly in extreme cold . But Tom McCluskie , a retired archivist of Harland & Wolff , pointed out that Olympic , Titanic 's sister ship , was riveted with the same iron and served without incident for nearly 25 years , surviving several major collisions , including being rammed by a British cruiser . When the Olympic rammed and sank the U @-@ boat U @-@ 103 with her bow , the stem was twisted and hull plates on the starboard side were buckled without impairing the hull 's integrity . Above the waterline , there was little evidence of the collision . The stewards in the first class dining room noticed a shudder , which they thought might have been caused by the ship shedding a propeller blade . Many of the passengers felt a bump or shudder but did not know what it was . Those on the lowest decks , nearest the site of the collision , felt it much more directly . Engine Oiler Walter Hurst recalled being " awakened by a grinding crash along the starboard side . No one was very much alarmed but knew we had struck something " . Fireman George Kemish heard a " heavy thud and grinding tearing sound " from the starboard hull . The ship began to flood immediately , with water pouring in at an estimated rate of 7 long tons ( 7 @.@ 1 t ) per second , fifteen times faster than it could be pumped out . Second Engineer J. H. Hesketh and Leading Stoker Frederick Barrett were both struck by a jet of icy water in No. 6 boiler room and escaped just before the room 's watertight door closed . This was an extremely dangerous situation for the engineering staff ; the boilers were still full of hot high @-@ pressure steam and there was a substantial risk that they would explode if they came into contact with the cold seawater flooding the boiler rooms . The stokers and firemen were ordered to reduce the fires and vent the boilers , sending great quantities of steam up the funnel venting pipes . They were waist @-@ deep in freezing water by the time they finished their work . Titanic 's lower decks were divided into sixteen compartments . Each compartment was separated from its neighbour by a bulkhead running the width of the ship ; there were fifteen bulkheads in all . Each bulkhead extended at least to the underside of E Deck , nominally one deck , or about 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) , above the waterline . The two nearest the bow and the six nearest the stern went one deck further up . Each bulkhead could be sealed by watertight doors . The engine rooms and boiler rooms on the tank top deck had vertically closing doors that could be controlled remotely from the bridge , lowered automatically by a float if water was present , or closed manually by the crew . These took about 30 seconds to close ; warning bells and alternate escape routes were provided so that the crew would not be trapped by the doors . Above the tank top level , on the Orlop Deck , F Deck and E Deck , the doors closed horizontally and were manually operated . They could be closed at the door itself or from the deck above . Although the watertight bulkheads extended well above the water line , they were not sealed at the top . If too many compartments were flooded , the ship 's bow would settle deeper in the water , and water would spill from one compartment to the next in sequence , rather like water spilling across the top of an ice cube tray . This was what happened to Titanic , which had suffered damage to the forepeak tank , the three forward holds and No. 6 boiler room , a total of five compartments . Titanic was only designed to float with any two compartments flooded , but it could remain afloat with certain combinations of three or even four compartments ( the first four ) open to the ocean . With five compartments , the tops of the bulkheads would be submerged and the ship would continue to flood . Captain Smith felt the collision in his cabin and immediately came to the bridge . Informed of the situation , he summoned Thomas Andrews , Titanic 's builder , who was among a party of engineers from Harland and Wolff observing the ship 's first passenger voyage . The ship was listing five degrees to starboard and was two degrees down by the head within a few minutes of the collision . Smith and Andrews went below and found that the forward cargo holds , the mailroom and the squash court were flooded , while No. 6 boiler room was already filled to a depth of 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) . Water was spilling over into No. 5 boiler room , and crewmen there were battling to pump it out . Within 45 minutes of the collision , at least 13 @,@ 500 long tons ( 13 @,@ 700 t ) of water had entered the ship . This was far too much for Titanic 's ballast and bilge pumps to handle ; the total pumping capacity of all the pumps combined was only 1 @,@ 700 long tons ( 1 @,@ 700 t ) per hour . Andrews informed the captain that the first five compartments were flooded , and therefore Titanic was doomed . By his estimate , she could remain afloat for no longer than about two hours . From the time of the collision to the moment of her sinking , at least 35 @,@ 000 long tons ( 36 @,@ 000 t ) of water flooded into Titanic , causing her displacement to nearly double from 48 @,@ 300 long tons ( 49 @,@ 100 t ) to over 83 @,@ 000 long tons ( 84 @,@ 000 t ) . The flooding did not proceed at a constant pace , nor was it distributed evenly throughout the ship , due to the configuration of the flooded compartments . Her initial list to starboard was caused by asymmetrical flooding of the starboard side as water poured down a passageway at the bottom of the ship . When the passageway was fully flooded , the list corrected itself but the ship later began to list to port by up to ten degrees as that side also flooded asymmetrically . Titanic 's down angle altered fairly rapidly from zero degrees to about four and a half degrees during the first hour after the collision , but the rate at which the ship went down slowed greatly for the second hour , worsening only to about five degrees . This gave many of those aboard a false sense of hope that the ship might stay afloat long enough for them to be rescued . By 1 : 30 , the sinking rate of the front section increased until Titanic reached a down angle of about ten degrees . = = 15 April 1912 = = = = = Preparing to abandon ship ( 00 : 05 – 00 : 45 ) = = = At 00 : 05 on 15 April , Captain Smith ordered the ship 's lifeboats uncovered and the passengers mustered . He also ordered the radio operators to begin sending distress calls , which wrongly placed the ship on the west side of the ice belt and directed rescuers to a position that turned out to be inaccurate by about 13 @.@ 5 nautical miles ( 15 @.@ 5 mi / 25 km ) . Below decks , water was pouring into the lowest levels of the ship . As the mail room flooded , the mail sorters made an ultimately futile attempt to save the 400 @,@ 000 items of mail being carried aboard Titanic . Elsewhere , air could be heard being forced out by inrushing water . Above them , stewards went door to door , rousing sleeping passengers and crew – Titanic did not have a public address system – and told them to go to the Boat Deck . The thoroughness of the muster was heavily dependent on the class of the passengers ; the first @-@ class stewards were in charge of only a few cabins , while those responsible for the second- and third @-@ class passengers had to manage large numbers of people . The first @-@ class stewards provided hands @-@ on assistance , helping their charges to get dressed and bringing them out onto the deck . With far more people to deal with , the second- and third @-@ class stewards mostly confined their efforts to throwing open doors and telling passengers to put on lifebelts and come up top . In third class , passengers were largely left to their own devices after being informed of the need to come on deck . Many passengers and crew were reluctant to comply , either refusing to believe that there was a problem or preferring the warmth of the ship 's interior to the bitterly cold night air . The passengers were not told that the ship was sinking , though a few noticed that she was listing . Around 00 : 15 , the stewards began ordering the passengers to put on their lifebelts , though again , many passengers took the order as a joke . Some set about playing an impromptu game of association football with the ice chunks that were now strewn across the foredeck . On the boat deck , as the crew began preparing the lifeboats , it was difficult to hear anything over the noise of high @-@ pressure steam being vented from the boilers and escaping via the valves on the funnels above . Lawrence Beesley described the sound as " a harsh , deafening boom that made conversation difficult ; if one imagines 20 locomotives blowing off steam in a low key it would give some idea of the unpleasant sound that met us as we climbed out on the top deck . " The noise was so loud that the crew had to use hand signals to communicate . Titanic had a total of 20 lifeboats , comprising 16 wooden boats on davits , 8 on either side of the ship , and 4 collapsible boats with wooden bottoms and canvas sides . The collapsibles were stored upside down with the sides folded in , and would have to be erected and moved to the davits for launching . Two were stored under the wooden boats and the other two were lashed atop the officers ' quarters . The position of the latter would make them extremely difficult to launch , as they weighed several tons each and had to be manhandled down to the boat deck . On average , the lifeboats could take up to 68 people each , and collectively they could accommodate 1 @,@ 178 – barely half the number of people on board and a third of the number the ship was licensed to carry . The shortage of lifeboats was not because of a lack of space nor because of cost . Titanic had been designed to accommodate up to 68 lifeboats – enough for everyone on board – and the price of an extra 32 lifeboats would only have been some $ 16 @,@ 000 , a tiny fraction of the $ 7 @.@ 5 million that the company had spent on Titanic . In an emergency , lifeboats at the time were intended to be used to transfer passengers off the distressed ship and onto a nearby vessel . It was therefore commonplace for liners to have far fewer lifeboats than needed to accommodate all their passengers and crew , and of the 39 British liners of the time of over 10 @,@ 000 long tons ( 10 @,@ 000 t ) , 33 had too few lifeboat places to accommodate everyone on board . The White Star Line desired the ship to have a wide promenade deck with uninterrupted views of the sea , which would have been obstructed by a continuous row of lifeboats . Captain Smith was an experienced seaman who had served for 40 years at sea , including 27 years in command . He would certainly have known that even if all the boats were fully occupied , a thousand people would remain on the ship as she went down . As Smith began to grasp the enormity of what was about to happen , he appeared to have become paralysed by indecision . He had ordered passengers and crew to muster , but now failed to order his officers to put the passengers into the lifeboats ; he did not adequately organise the crew ; he failed to convey crucial information to his officers and crew ; he sometimes gave ambiguous or impractical orders and he never gave the command to abandon ship . Even some of his bridge officers were unaware for some time after the collision that the ship was sinking ; Fourth Officer Joseph Boxhall did not find out until 01 : 15 , barely an hour before the ship went down , while Quartermaster George Rowe was so unaware of the emergency that after the evacuation had started , he phoned the bridge from his watch station to ask why he had just seen a lifeboat go past . Smith did not advise his officers that the ship did not have enough lifeboats to save everyone . He did not supervise the loading of the lifeboats and seemingly made no effort to find out if his orders were being followed . The crew was likewise unprepared for the emergency , as lifeboat training had been minimal . Only one lifeboat drill had been conducted while the ship was docked at Southampton . It was a cursory effort , consisting of two boats being lowered , each manned by one officer and four men who merely rowed around the dock for a few minutes before returning to the ship . The boats were supposed to be stocked with emergency supplies , but Titanic 's passengers later found that they had only been partially provisioned despite the efforts of the ship 's chief baker , Charles Joughin and his staff to do so . No lifeboat or fire drills had been conducted since Titanic left Southampton . A lifeboat drill had been scheduled for the Sunday morning before the ship sank , but was cancelled for unknown reasons by Captain Smith . Lists had been posted on the ship assigning crew members to specific lifeboat stations , but few appeared to have read them or to have known what they were supposed to do . Most of the crew were not seamen , and even some of those had no prior experience of rowing a boat . They were now faced with the complex task of coordinating the lowering of 20 boats carrying a possible total of 1 @,@ 100 people 70 feet ( 21 m ) down the sides of the ship . Thomas E. Bonsall , a historian of the disaster , has commented that the evacuation was so badly organised that " even if they had the number [ of ] lifeboats they needed , it is impossible to see how they could have launched them " given the lack of time and poor leadership . By about 00 : 20 , 40 minutes after the collision , the loading of the lifeboats was under way . Second Officer Lightoller recalled afterwards that he noticed Smith standing near the bridge looking out at the ocean in a trance @-@ like daze . According to Lightoller , " I yelled at the top of my voice , ' Hadn 't we better get the women and children into the boats , sir ? ' He heard me and nodded reply . " Smith then ordered Lightoller and Murdoch to " put the women and children in and lower away " . Lightoller took charge of the boats on the port side and Murdoch took charge of those on the starboard side . The two officers interpreted the " women and children " evacuation order differently ; Murdoch took it to mean women and children first , while Lightoller took it to mean women and children only . Lightoller lowered lifeboats with empty seats if there were no women and children waiting to board , while Murdoch allowed a limited number of men to board if all the nearby women and children had embarked . Neither officer knew how many people could safely be carried in the boats as they were lowered and they both erred on the side of caution by not filling them . They could have been lowered quite safely with their full complement of 68 people , especially with the highly favourable weather and sea conditions . Had this been done , an extra 500 people could have been saved ; instead , hundreds of people , predominantly men , were left on board as lifeboats were launched with many seats vacant . Few passengers at first were willing to board the lifeboats and the officers in charge of the evacuation found it difficult to persuade them . The millionaire John Jacob Astor declared : " We are safer here than in that little boat . " Some passengers refused flatly to embark . J. Bruce Ismay , realising the urgency of the situation , roamed the starboard boat deck urging passengers and crew to board the boats . A trickle of women , couples and single men were persuaded to board starboard lifeboat No. 7 , which became the first lifeboat to be lowered . = = = Departure of the lifeboats ( 00 : 45 – 02 : 05 ) = = = At 00 : 45 , lifeboat No. 7 was rowed away from Titanic with 28 passengers on board ( despite a capacity of 65 ) . Lifeboat No. 6 , on the port side , was the next to be lowered at 00 : 55 . It also had 28 people on board , among them the " unsinkable " Margaret " Molly " Brown . Lightoller realised there was only one seaman on board ( Quartermaster Robert Hichens ) and called for volunteers . Major Arthur Godfrey Peuchen of the Royal Canadian Yacht Club stepped forward and climbed down a rope into the lifeboat ; he was the only male passenger whom Lightoller allowed to board during the port side evacuation . Peuchen 's role highlighted a key problem during the evacuation : there were hardly any seamen to man the boats . Some had been sent below to open gangway doors to allow more passengers to be evacuated , but they never returned . They were presumably trapped and drowned by the rising water below decks . Meanwhile , other crewmen fought to maintain vital services as water continued to pour into the ship below decks . The engineers and firemen worked to vent steam from the boilers to prevent them from exploding on contact with the cold water . They re @-@ opened watertight doors in order to set up extra portable pumps in the forward compartments in a futile bid to reduce the torrent , and kept the electrical generators running to maintain lights and power throughout the ship . Steward F. Dent Ray narrowly avoided being swept away when a wooden wall between his quarters and the third @-@ class accommodation on E deck collapsed , leaving him waist @-@ deep in water . Two engineers , Herbert Harvey and Jonathan Shepherd ( who had just broken his left leg after falling into a manhole minutes earlier ) , died in boiler room No. 5 when , at around 00 : 45 , the bunker door separating it from the flooded No. 6 boiler room collapsed and they were swept away by " a wave of green foam " according to leading fireman Frederick Barrett who barely escaped from the boiler room . In boiler room No. 4 , at around 01 : 20 , water began flooding in from below , possibly indicating that the bottom of the ship had also been holed by the iceberg . The flow of water soon overwhelmed the pumps and forced the firemen and trimmers to evacuate the forward boiler rooms . Further aft , Chief Engineer William Bell , his engineering colleagues , and a handful of volunteer firemen and greasers stayed behind in the unflooded No. 1 , 2 and 3 boiler rooms and in the turbine and reciprocating engine rooms . They continued working on the boilers and the electrical generators in order to keep the ship 's lights and pumps operable and to power the radio so that distress signals could be sent . They remained at their posts until the very end , thus ensuring that Titanic 's electrics functioned until the final minutes of the sinking . None of the ship 's 35 engineers and electricians survived . Neither did any of the Titanic 's five postal clerks , who were last seen struggling to save the mail bags they had rescued from the flooded mail room . They were caught by the rising water somewhere on D deck . Many of the third @-@ class passengers were also confronted with the sight of water pouring into their quarters on E , F and G decks . Carl Jansson , one of the relatively small number of third @-@ class survivors , later recalled : Then I run down to my cabin to bring my other clothes , watch and bag but only had time to take the watch and coat when water with enormous force came into the cabin and I had to rush up to the deck again where I found my friends standing with lifebelts on and with terror painted on their faces . What should I do now , with no lifebelt and no shoes and no cap ? The lifeboats were lowered every few minutes on each side , but most of the boats were greatly under @-@ filled . No. 5 left with 41 aboard , No. 3 had 32 aboard , No. 8 left with 39 and No. 1 left with just 12 out of a capacity of 40 . The evacuation did not go smoothly and passengers suffered accidents and injuries as it progressed . One woman fell between lifeboat No. 10 and the side of the ship but someone caught her by the ankle and hauled her back onto the promenade deck , where she made a second successful attempt at boarding . First @-@ class passenger Annie Stengel broke several ribs when an overweight German @-@ American doctor and his brother jumped into No. 5 , squashing her and knocking her unconscious . The lifeboats ' descent was likewise risky . No. 6 was nearly flooded during the descent by water discharging out of the ship 's side , but successfully made it away from the ship . No. 3 came close to disaster when , for a time , one of the davits jammed , threatening to pitch the passengers out of the lifeboat and into the sea . By 01 : 20 , the seriousness of the situation was now apparent to the passengers above decks , who began saying their goodbyes , with husbands escorting their wives and children to the lifeboats . Distress flares were fired every few minutes to attract the attention of any ships nearby and the radio operators repeatedly sent the distress signal CQD . Radio operator Harold Bride suggested to his colleague Jack Phillips that he should use the new SOS signal , as it " may be your last chance to send it " . The two radio operators contacted other ships to ask for assistance . Several responded , of which RMS Carpathia was the closest , at 58 miles ( 93 km ) away . She was a much slower vessel than Titanic and , even driven at her maximum speed of 17 kn ( 20 mph ; 31 km / h ) , would have taken four hours to reach the sinking ship . Another to respond was SS Mount Temple , which set a course and headed for Titanic 's position but was stopped en @-@ route by pack ice . Much nearer was the SS Californian , which had warned Titanic of ice a few hours earlier . Apprehensive at his ship being caught in a large field of drift ice , the Californian 's captain , Stanley Lord , had decided at about 22 : 00 to halt for the night and wait for daylight to find a way through the ice field . At 23 : 30 , 10 minutes before Titanic hit the iceberg , Californian 's sole radio operator , Cyril Evans , shut his set down for the night and went to bed . On the bridge her Third Officer , Charles Groves , saw a large vessel to starboard around 10 to 12 mi ( 16 to 19 km ) away . It made a sudden turn to port and stopped . If the radio operator of the Californian had stayed at his post fifteen minutes longer , hundreds of lives might have been saved . A little over an hour later , Second Officer Herbert Stone saw five white rockets exploding above the stopped ship . Unsure what the rockets meant , he called Captain Lord , who was resting in the chartroom , and reported the sighting . Lord did not act on the report , but Stone was perturbed : " A ship is not going to fire rockets at sea for nothing , " he told a colleague . By this time , it was clear to those on Titanic that the ship was indeed sinking and there would not be enough lifeboat places for everyone . Some still clung to the hope that the worst would not happen : Lucien Smith told his wife , " It is only a matter of form to have women and children first . The ship is thoroughly equipped and everyone on her will be saved . " Charlotte Colyer 's husband Harvey called to his wife as she was put in a lifeboat , " Go , Lottie ! For God 's sake , be brave and go ! I 'll get a seat in another boat ! " Other couples refused to be separated . Ida Straus , the wife of Macy 's department store co @-@ owner Isidor Straus , told her husband : " We have been living together for many years . Where you go , I go . " They sat down in a pair of deck chairs and waited for the end . The industrialist Benjamin Guggenheim changed out of his life vest and sweater into top hat and evening dress , and declared his wish to go down with the ship like a gentleman . At this point , the vast majority of passengers who had boarded lifeboats were from first- and second @-@ class . Few third @-@ class ( steerage ) passengers had made it up onto the deck , and most were still lost in the maze of corridors or trapped behind barriers and partitions that segregated the accommodation for the steerage passengers from the first- and second @-@ class areas . This segregation was not simply for social reasons , but was a requirement of United States immigration laws , which mandated that third @-@ class passengers be segregated to control immigration and to prevent the spread of infectious diseases . First- and second @-@ class passengers on transatlantic liners disembarked at the main piers on Manhattan Island , but steerage passengers had to go through health checks and processing at Ellis Island . In at least some places , Titanic 's crew appear to have actively hindered the steerage passengers ' escape . Some of the barriers were locked and guarded by crew members , apparently to prevent the steerage passengers from rushing the lifeboats . Irish survivor Margaret Murphy wrote in May 1912 : Before all the steerage passengers had even a chance of their lives , the Titanic 's sailors fastened the doors and companionways leading up from the third @-@ class section ... A crowd of men was trying to get up to a higher deck and were fighting the sailors ; all striking and scuffling and swearing . Women and some children were there praying and crying . Then the sailors fastened down the hatchways leading to the third @-@ class section . They said they wanted to keep the air down there so the vessel could stay up longer . It meant all hope was gone for those still down there . A long and winding route had to be taken to reach topside ; the steerage @-@ class accommodation , located on C through G decks , was at the extreme ends of the decks , and so was the farthest away from the lifeboats . By contrast , the first @-@ class accommodation was located on the upper decks and so was nearest . Proximity to the lifeboats thus became a key factor in determining who got in them . To add to the difficulty , many of the steerage passengers did not understand or speak English . It was perhaps no coincidence that English @-@ speaking Irish immigrants were disproportionately represented among the steerage passengers who survived . Many of those who did survive owed their lives to third @-@ class steward John Edward Hart , who organised three trips into the ship 's interior to escort groups of third @-@ class passengers up to the boat deck . Others made their way through open barriers or climbed emergency ladders . Some , perhaps overwhelmed by it all , made no attempt to escape and stayed in their cabins or congregated in prayer in the third @-@ class dining room . Leading Fireman Charles Hendrickson saw crowds of third @-@ class passengers below decks with their trunks and possessions , as if waiting for someone to direct them . Psychologist Wynn Craig Wade attributes this to " stoic passivity " produced by generations of being told what to do by social superiors . August Wennerström , one of the male steerage passengers to survive , commented later that many of his companions had made no effort to save themselves . He wrote : Hundreds were in a circle [ in the third @-@ class dining saloon ] with a preacher in the middle , praying , crying , asking God and Mary to help them . They lay there and yelled , never lifting a hand to help themselves . They had lost their own will power and expected God to do all the work for them . = = = = Launching of the last lifeboats = = = = By 01 : 30 , Titanic 's downward angle in the water was increasing and the ship was now listing slightly more to port , but not more than 5 degrees . The deteriorating situation was reflected in the tone of the messages sent from the ship : " We are putting the women off in the boats " at 01 : 25 , " Engine room getting flooded " at 01 : 35 , and at 01 : 45 , " Engine room full up to boilers . " This was Titanic 's last intelligible signal , sent as the ship 's electrical system began to fail ; subsequent messages were jumbled and broken . The two radio operators nonetheless continued sending out distress messages almost to the very end . The remaining boats were filled much closer to capacity and in an increasing rush . No. 11 was filled with five people more than its rated capacity . As it was lowered , it was nearly flooded by water being pumped out of the ship . No. 13 narrowly avoided the same problem but those aboard were unable to release the ropes from which the boat had been lowered . It drifted astern , directly under No. 15 as it was being lowered . The ropes were cut in time and both boats made it away safely . The first signs of panic were seen when a group of passengers attempted to rush port @-@ side lifeboat No. 14 as it was being lowered with 40 people aboard . Fifth Officer Lowe in charge of the boat fired three warning shots in the air to control the crowd , without causing injuries . No. 16 was lowered five minutes later . Among those aboard was stewardess Violet Jessop , who would repeat the experience four years later when she survived the sinking of one of Titanic 's sister ships , Britannic , in the First World War . Collapsible boat C was launched at 01 : 40 from a now largely deserted area of the deck , as most of those on deck had moved to the stern of the ship . It was aboard this boat that White Star chairman and managing director J. Bruce Ismay , Titanic 's most controversial survivor , made his escape from the ship , an act later condemned as cowardice . At 01 : 45 , lifeboat No. 2 was lowered . While it was still at deck level , Lightoller had found the boat occupied by a number of men who , he wrote later , " weren 't British , nor of the English @-@ speaking race ... [ but of ] the broad category known to sailors as ' dagoes ' . " After he evicted them by threatening them with his revolver , he was unable to find enough women and children to fill the boat and lowered it with only 25 people on board out of a possible capacity of 40 . John Jacob Astor saw his wife off to safety in No. 4 boat at 01 : 55 but was refused entry by Lightoller , even though 20 of the 60 seats aboard were unoccupied . The last boat to be launched was collapsible D , which left at 02 : 05 with 25 people aboard ; two more men jumped on the boat as it was being lowered . The sea had reached the boat deck and the forecastle was deep underwater . First class passenger Edith Evans gave up her place in the boat , and ultimately died in the disaster . She was one of only four women in first class to perish in the sinking . Captain Smith carried out a final tour of the deck , telling the radio operators and other crew members : " Now it 's every man for himself . " As passengers and crew headed to the stern , where Father Thomas Byles was hearing confessions and giving absolutions , Titanic 's band played outside the gymnasium . The Titanic had two separate bands of musicians . One was a quintet led by Wallace Hartley that played after dinner and at religious services while the other was a trio who played in the reception area and outside the café and restaurant . The two bands had separate music libraries and arrangements and had not played together before the sinking . Around 30 minutes after colliding with the iceberg , the two bands were called by Captain Smith who ordered them to play in the first class lounge . Passengers present remember them playing lively tunes such as " Alexander 's Ragtime Band " . It is unknown if the two piano players were with the band at this time . The exact time is unknown , but the musicians later moved to the boat deck level where they played before moving outside onto the deck itself . Part of the enduring folklore of the Titanic sinking is that the musicians played the hymn " Nearer , My God , to Thee " as the ship sank , but this appears to be dubious . The claim surfaced among the earliest reports of the sinking , and the hymn became so closely associated with the Titanic disaster that its opening bars were carved on the grave monument of Titanic 's bandmaster , Wallace Hartley , one of those who perished . Violet Jessop said in her 1934 account of the disaster that she had heard the hymn being played . In contrast , Archibald Gracie emphatically denied it in his own account , written soon after the sinking , and Radio Operator Harold Bride said that he had heard the band playing ragtime then " Autumn " , by which he may have meant Archibald Joyce 's then @-@ popular waltz " Songe d 'Automne " ( Autumn Dream ) . George Orrell , the bandmaster of the rescue ship , Carpathia , who spoke with survivors , related : " The ship 's band in any emergency is expected to play to calm the passengers . After Titanic struck the iceberg the band began to play bright music , dance music , comic songs – anything that would prevent the passengers from becoming panic @-@ stricken ... various awe @-@ stricken passengers began to think of the death that faced them and asked the bandmaster to play hymns . The one which appealed to all was ' Nearer My God to Thee ' . " According to Gracie , who was near the band until that section of deck went under , the tunes played by the band were " cheerful " but he didn 't recognise any of them , claiming that if they had played ' Nearer , My God , to Thee ' as claimed in the newspaper " I assuredly should have noticed it and regarded it as a tactless warning of immediate death to us all and one likely to create panic . " Several survivors who were among the last to leave the ship claimed that the band continued playing until the slope of the deck became too steep for them to stand , Gracie claimed that the band stopped playing at least 30 minutes before the vessel sank . Several witnesses support this account including A. H. Barkworth , a first class passenger who testified : " I do not wish to detract from the bravery of anybody , but I might mention that when I first came on deck the band was playing a waltz . The next time I passed where the band was stationed , the members had thrown down their instruments and were not to be seen . " Bride heard the band playing as he left the radio cabin , which was by now awash , in the company of the other radio operator , Jack Phillips . He had just had a fight with a man who Bride thought was " a stoker , or someone from below decks " , who had attempted to steal Phillips ' lifebelt . Bride wrote later : " I did my duty . I hope I finished [ the man ] . I don 't know . We left him on the cabin floor of the radio room , and he was not moving . " The two radio operators went in opposite directions , Phillips aft and Bride forward towards collapsible lifeboat B. Archibald Gracie was also heading aft , but as he made his way towards the stern he found his path blocked by " a mass of humanity several lines deep , covering the boat deck , facing us " – hundreds of steerage passengers , who had finally made it to the deck just as the last lifeboats departed . He gave up on the idea of going aft and jumped into the water to get away from the crowd . Others made no attempt to escape . The ship 's designer , Thomas Andrews , was reportedly last seen in the first @-@ class smoking room , having removed his lifebelt , staring at the painting above the fireplace . Captain Smith 's fate is unclear as there are conflicting accounts of his death ; he either entered the wheelhouse on the bridge and died there when it was engulfed or jumped into the water just before the bridge was submerged and subsequently perished in the water , possibly near Collapsible B. = = = Last minutes of sinking ( 02 : 15 – 02 : 20 ) = = = At about 02 : 15 , Titanic 's angle in the water began to increase rapidly as water poured into previously unflooded parts of the ship through deck hatches . Her suddenly increasing angle caused what one survivor called a " giant wave " to wash along the ship from the forward end of the boat deck , sweeping many people into the sea . The parties who were trying to lower collapsible boats A and B , including Chief Officer Henry Wilde , First Officer Murdoch , Second Officer Charles Lightoller and Colonel Archibald Gracie , were swept away along with the two boats ( boat B floated away upside @-@ down with Harold Bride trapped underneath it , and boat A ended up partly flooded and with its canvas not raised ) . Bride , Gracie and Lightoller made it onto boat B , but Murdoch and Wilde perished in the water . Lightoller opted to abandon his post to escape the growing crowds , and dived into the water from the roof of the officers ' quarters . He was sucked into the mouth of a ventilation shaft but was blown clear by " a terrific blast of hot air " and emerged next to the capsized lifeboat . The forward funnel collapsed under its own weight , crushing several people as it fell into the water and only narrowly missing the lifeboat . It closely missed Lightoller and created a wave that washed the boat 50 yards ( 46 m ) clear of the sinking ship . Those still on Titanic felt her structure shuddering as it underwent immense stresses . As first @-@ class passenger Jack Thayer described it : Occasionally there had been a muffled thud or deadened explosion within the ship . Now , without warning she seemed to start forward , moving forward and into the water at an angle of about fifteen degrees . This movement with the water rushing up toward us was accompanied by a rumbling roar , mixed with more muffled explosions . It was like standing under a steel railway bridge while an express train passes overhead mingled with the noise of a pressed steel factory and wholesale breakage of china . Eyewitnesses saw Titanic 's stern lifting high into the air as the ship tilted down in the water . It was said to have reached an angle of 30 – 45 degrees , " revolving apparently around a centre of gravity just astern of midships , " as Lawrence Beesley later put it . Many survivors described a great noise , which some attributed to the boilers exploding . Beesley described it as " partly a groan , partly a rattle , and partly a smash , and it was not a sudden roar as an explosion would be : it went on successively for some seconds , possibly fifteen to twenty " . He attributed it to " the engines and machinery coming loose from their bolts and bearings , and falling through the compartments , smashing everything in their way " . After another minute , the ship 's lights flickered once and then permanently went out , plunging Titanic into darkness . Jack Thayer recalled seeing " groups of the fifteen hundred people still aboard , clinging in clusters or bunches , like swarming bees ; only to fall in masses , pairs or singly as the great afterpart of the ship , two hundred fifty feet of it , rose into the sky . " Titanic was subjected to extreme opposing forces – the flooded bow pulling her down while the air in the stern kept her to the surface – which were concentrated at one of the weakest points in the structure , the area of the engine room hatch . Shortly after the lights went out , the ship split apart . The submerged bow may have remained attached to the stern by the keel for a short time , pulling the stern to a high angle before separating and leaving the stern to float for a few minutes longer . The forward part of the stern would have flooded very rapidly , causing it to tilt and then settle briefly until sinking . The ship disappeared from view at 02 : 20 , 2 hours and 40 minutes after striking the iceberg . Thayer reported that it rotated on the surface , " gradually [ turning ] her deck away from us , as though to hide from our sight the awful spectacle ... Then , with the deadened noise of the bursting of her last few gallant bulkheads , she slid quietly away from us into the sea . " Titanic 's surviving officers and a number of prominent survivors testified that the ship had sunk in one piece , a belief that was affirmed by the British and American inquiries into the disaster . Archibald Gracie , who was on the promenade deck with the band ( by the second funnel ) , stated that " Titanic 's decks were intact at the time she sank , and when I sank with her , there was over seven @-@ sixteenths of the ship already under water , and there was no indication then of any impending break of the deck or ship " . Ballard argued that many other survivors ' accounts indicated that the ship had broken in two as it was sinking . As the engines are now known to have stayed in place along with most of the boilers , the " great noise " heard by witnesses and the momentary settling of the stern were presumably caused by the break @-@ up of the ship rather than the loosening of her fittings or boiler explosions . After they went under , the bow and stern took only a few minutes to sink 3 @,@ 795 metres ( 12 @,@ 451 ft ) , spilling a trail of heavy machinery , tons of coal and large quantities of debris from Titanic 's interior . The two parts of the ship landed about 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) apart on a gently undulating area of the seabed . The streamlined bow section continued to descend at about the angle it had taken on the surface , striking the seabed prow @-@ first at a shallow angle at an estimated speed of 25 – 30 mph ( 40 – 48 km / h ) . Its momentum caused it to dig a deep gouge into the seabed and buried the section up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) deep in sediment before it came to an abrupt halt . The sudden deceleration caused the bow 's structure to buckle downwards by several degrees just forward of the bridge . The decks at the rear end of the bow section , which had already been weakened during the break @-@ up , collapsed one atop another . The stern section seems to have descended almost vertically , probably rotating as it fell . Empty tanks and cofferdams imploded as it descended , tearing open the structure and ripping off the poop deck . The section landed with such force that it buried itself about 15 metres ( 49 ft ) deep at the rudder . The decks pancaked down on top of each other and the hull plating splayed out to the sides . Debris continued to rain down across the seabed for several hours after the sinking . = = = Passengers and crew in the water ( 02 : 20 – 04 : 10 ) = = = In the immediate aftermath of the sinking , hundreds of passengers and crew were left dying in the icy sea , surrounded by debris from the ship . Titanic 's disintegration during her descent to the seabed caused buoyant chunks of debris – timber beams , wooden doors , furniture , panelling and chunks of cork from the bulkheads – to rocket to the surface . These injured and possibly killed some of the swimmers ; others used the debris to try to keep themselves afloat . With a temperature of 28 ° F ( − 2 ° C ) , the water was lethally cold . Second Officer Lightoller described the feeling of " a thousand knives " being driven into his body as he entered the sea . Some of those in the water would have died almost instantly from heart attacks caused by the sudden stress on their cardiovascular systems . Others progressed through the classic symptoms of hypothermia : extreme shivering at first , followed by a slowing and weakening pulse as body temperature dropped , before losing consciousness and dying . Those in the lifeboats were horrified to hear the sound of what Lawrence Beesley called " every possible emotion of human fear , despair , agony , fierce resentment and blind anger mingled – I am certain of those – with notes of infinite surprise , as though each one were saying , ' How is it possible that this awful thing is happening to me ? That I should be caught in this death trap ? ' " Jack Thayer compared it to the sound of " locusts on a summer night " , while George Rheims , who jumped moments before Titanic sank , described it as " a dismal moaning sound which I won 't ever forget ; it came from those poor people who were floating around , calling for help . It was horrifying , mysterious , supernatural . " The noise of the people in the water screaming , yelling , and crying was a tremendous shock to the occupants of the lifeboats , many of whom had up to that moment believed that everyone had escaped before the ship sank . As Beesley later wrote , the cries " came as a thunderbolt , unexpected , inconceivable , incredible . No one in any of the boats standing off a few hundred yards away can have escaped the paralysing shock of knowing that so short a distance away a tragedy , unbelievable in its magnitude , was being enacted , which we , helpless , could in no way avert or diminish . " Only a few of those in the water survived . Among them were Archibald Gracie , Jack Thayer and Charles Lightoller , who made it to the capsized collapsible boat B. Around 12 crew members climbed on board Collapsible B , and they rescued those they could until some 35 men were clinging precariously to the upturned hull . Realising the risk to the boat of being swamped by the mass of swimmers around them , they paddled slowly away , ignoring the pleas of dozens of swimmers to be allowed on board . In his account , Gracie wrote of the admiration he had for those in the water ; " In no instance , I am happy to say , did I hear any word of rebuke from a swimmer because of a refusal to grant assistance ... [ one refusal ] was met with the manly voice of a powerful man ... ' All right boys , good luck and God bless you ' . " Several other swimmers ( probably 20 or more ) reached Collapsible boat A , which was upright but partly flooded , as its sides had not been properly raised . Its occupants had to sit for hours in a foot of freezing water , and many died of hypothermia during the night . Farther out , the other eighteen lifeboats – most of which had empty seats – drifted as the occupants debated what , if anything , they should do to rescue the swimmers . No. 4 boat , having remained near the sinking ship , seems to have been closest to the site of the sinking at around 50 metres ( 160 ft ) away ; this had enabled two people to drop into the boat and another to be picked up from the water before the ship sank . After the sinking , seven more men were pulled from the water , though two later died . Collapsible D rescued one male passenger who jumped in the water and swam over to the boat immediately after it had been lowered . In all the other boats , the occupants eventually decided against returning , probably out of fear that they would be capsized in the attempt . Some put their objections more bluntly ; Quartermaster Hichens , commanding lifeboat No. 6 , told the women aboard his boat that there was no point returning as there were " only a lot of stiffs there . " After about twenty minutes , the cries began to fade as the swimmers lapsed into unconsciousness and death . Fifth Officer Lowe , in charge of lifeboat No. 14 , " waited until the yells and shrieks had subsided for the people to thin out " before mounting an attempt to rescue those in the water . He gathered together five of the lifeboats and transferred the occupants between them to free up space in No. 14 . Lowe then took a crew of seven crewmen and one male passenger who volunteered to help , and then rowed back to the site of the sinking . The whole operation took about three @-@ quarters of an hour . By the time No. 14 headed back to the site of the sinking , almost all of those in the water were dead and only a few voices could still be heard . Lucy , Lady Duff @-@ Gordon , recalled after the disaster that " the very last cry was that of a man who had been calling loudly : ' My God ! My God ! ' He cried monotonously , in a dull , hopeless way . For an entire hour there had been an awful chorus of shrieks , gradually dying into a hopeless moan , until this last cry that I speak of . Then all was silent . " Lowe and his crew found four men still alive , one of whom died shortly afterwards . Otherwise , all they could see were " hundreds of bodies and lifebelts " ; the dead " seemed as if they had perished with the cold as their limbs were all cramped up . " In the other boats , there was nothing the survivors could do but await the arrival of rescue ships . The air was bitterly cold and several of the boats had taken on water . The survivors could not find any food or drinkable water in the boats , and most had no lights . The situation was particularly bad aboard collapsible B , which was only kept afloat by a diminishing air pocket in the upturned hull . As dawn approached , the wind rose and the sea became increasingly choppy , forcing those on the collapsible boat to stand up to balance it . Some , exhausted by the ordeal , fell off into the sea and were drowned . It became steadily harder for the rest to keep their balance on the hull , with waves washing across it . Archibald Gracie later wrote of how he and the other survivors sitting on the upturned hull were struck by " the utter helplessness of our position . " Some swimmers who had reached collapsible A had not enough strength to come aboard , and had to cling to the boat 's sides . The bodies of the majority of the people who died during the night were lowered into the sea to make more room for the survivors . = = = Rescue and departure ( 04 : 10 – 09 : 15 ) = = = Titanic 's survivors were rescued around 04 : 00 on 15 April by the RMS Carpathia , which had steamed through the night at high speed and at considerable risk , as the ship had to dodge numerous icebergs en route . Carpathia 's lights were first spotted around 03 : 30 , which greatly cheered the survivors , though it took several more hours for everyone to be brought aboard . The 30 or more men on collapsible B finally managed to board two other lifeboats , but one survivor died just before the transfer was made . Collapsible A was also in trouble and was now nearly awash ; many of those aboard ( maybe more than a half ) had died overnight . The remaining survivors – an unknown number of men , estimated to be between 10 – 11 and more than 20 , and one woman – were transferred from A into another lifeboat , leaving behind three bodies in the boat , which was left to drift away . It was recovered a month later by the White Star liner Oceanic , with the bodies still aboard . Those on Carpathia were startled by the scene that greeted them as the sun came up : " fields of ice on which , like points on the landscape , rested innumerable pyramids of ice . " Captain Arthur Rostron of Carpathia saw ice all around , including 20 large bergs measuring up to 200 feet ( 61 m ) high and numerous smaller bergs , as well as ice floes and debris from Titanic . It appeared to Carpathia 's passengers that their ship was in the middle of a vast white plain of ice , studded with icebergs appearing like hills in the distance . As the lifeboats were brought alongside Carpathia , the survivors came aboard the ship by various means . Some were strong enough to climb up rope ladders ; others were hoisted up in slings , and the children were hoisted in mail sacks . The last lifeboat to reach the ship was Lightoller 's boat No. 12 , with 74 people aboard a boat designed to carry 65 . They were all on Carpathia by 09 : 00 . There were some scenes of joy as some families and friends were reunited , but in most cases hopes died as loved ones failed to reappear . At 09 : 15 , two more ships appeared on the scene – Mount Temple and Californian , which had finally learned of the disaster when her radio operator returned to duty – but by then there were no more survivors to be rescued . Carpathia had been bound for Fiume , Austria @-@ Hungary ( now Rijeka , Croatia ) , but as she had neither the stores nor the medical facilities to cater for the survivors , Rostron ordered that a course be calculated to return the ship to New York , where the survivors could be properly looked after . Carpathia departed the area , leaving the other ships to carry out a final , fruitless , two @-@ hour search . = = Aftermath = = = = = Grief and outrage = = = When Carpathia arrived at Pier 34 in New York on the evening of 18 April after a difficult voyage through pack ice , fog , thunderstorms and rough seas , some 40 @,@ 000 people were standing on the wharves , alerted to the disaster by a stream of radio messages from Carpathia and other ships . It was only after Carpathia docked – three days after Titanic 's sinking – that the full scope of the disaster became public knowledge . Even before Carpathia arrived in New York , efforts were getting underway to retrieve the dead . Four ships chartered by the White Star Line succeeded in retrieving 328 bodies ; 119 were buried at sea , while the remaining 209 were brought ashore to the Canadian port of Halifax , Nova Scotia , where 150 of them were buried . Memorials were raised in various places – New York , Washington , Southampton , Liverpool , Belfast and Lichfield , among others – and ceremonies were held on both sides of the Atlantic to commemorate the dead and raise funds to aid the survivors . The bodies of most of Titanic 's victims were never recovered , and the only evidence of their deaths was found 73 years later among the debris on the seabed : pairs of shoes lying side by side , where bodies had once lain before eventually decomposing . The prevailing public reaction to the disaster was one of shock and outrage , directed against a number of issues and people : why were there so few lifeboats ? Why had Ismay saved his own life when so many others died ? Why did Titanic proceed into the icefield at full speed ? The outrage was driven not least by the survivors themselves ; even while they were aboard Carpathia on their way to New York , Beesley and other survivors determined to " awaken public opinion to safeguard ocean travel in the future " and wrote a public letter to The Times urging changes to maritime safety laws . In places closely associated with Titanic , the sense of grief was deep . The heaviest losses were in Southampton , home port to 699 crewmembers and also home to many of the passengers . Crowds of weeping women – the wives , sisters and mothers of crew – gathered outside the White Star offices in Southampton for news of their loved ones . Most of them were among the 549 Southampton residents who perished . In Belfast , churches were packed , and shipyard workers wept in the streets . The ship had been a symbol of Belfast 's industrial achievements , and there was not only a sense of grief but also one of guilt , as those who had built Titanic came to feel that they had been responsible in some way for her loss . = = = Public inquiries and legislation = = = In the aftermath of the sinking , public inquiries were set up in Britain and the United States . The US inquiry began on 19 April under the chairmanship of Senator William Alden Smith , while the British inquiry commenced in London under Lord Mersey on 2 May 1912 . They reached broadly similar conclusions : the regulations on the number of lifeboats that ships had to carry were out of date and inadequate ; Captain Smith had failed to take proper heed of ice warnings ; the lifeboats had not been properly filled or crewed ; and the collision was the direct result of steaming into a danger area at too high a speed . Captain Lord of the Californian was strongly criticised by both inquiries for failing to render assistance to Titanic . Neither inquiry found negligence by the International Mercantile Marine Co . ( the parent company ) or the White Star Line ( which owned the Titanic ) to be a factor . The US inquiry concluded that those involved had followed standard practice , and the disaster could thus only be categorised as an " act of God " , and the British inquiry concluded that Smith had followed long @-@ standing practice which had not previously been shown to be unsafe ( the inquiry noted that British ships alone had carried 3 @.@ 5 million passengers over the previous decade with the loss of just 73 lives ) and concluded that he had done " only that which other skilled men would have done in the same position . " The British inquiry also warned that " What was a mistake in the case of the Titanic would without doubt be negligence in any similar case in the future . " The disaster led to major changes in maritime regulations to implement new safety measures , such as ensuring that more lifeboats were provided , that lifeboat drills were properly carried out and that radio equipment on passenger ships was manned around the clock . An International Ice Patrol was set up to monitor the presence of icebergs in the North Atlantic , and maritime safety regulations were harmonised internationally through the International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea ( SOLAS ) ; both measures are still in force today . = = = Cultural impact and wreckage = = = Titanic 's sinking has become a cultural phenomenon , commemorated by artists , film @-@ makers , writers , composers , musicians and dancers from the time immediately after the sinking to the present day . On 1 September 1985 a joint US @-@ French expedition led by Robert Ballard found the wreck of Titanic , and the ship 's rediscovery led to an explosion of interest in Titanic 's story . Numerous expeditions have been launched to film the wreck and , controversially , to salvage objects from the debris field . The first major exhibition of recovered artefacts was held at London 's National Maritime Museum in 1994 – 95 . In 1997 , James Cameron 's eponymous film became the first movie ever to take $ 1 billion at the box office , and the film 's soundtrack became the best selling soundtrack recording of all time . The wreck is steadily decaying , turning to oxide at a rate of 0 @.@ 5 – 1 ton per day ( assuming one ten @-@ thousandth of an inch per day on all surfaces ) . Eventually Titanic 's structure will collapse , and she will be reduced to a patch of rust on the seabed , with any remaining scraps of the ship 's hull mingled with her more durable fittings , like the propellers , bronze capstans , compasses and the telemotor . = = Casualties and survivors = = The number of casualties of the sinking is unclear , due to a number of factors , including confusion over the passenger list , which included some names of people who cancelled their trip at the last minute , and the fact that several passengers travelled under aliases for various reasons and were double @-@ counted on the casualty lists . The death toll has been put at between 1 @,@ 490 and 1 @,@ 635 people . The figures below are from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster . Less than a third of those aboard Titanic survived the disaster . Some survivors died shortly afterwards ; injuries and the effects of exposure caused the deaths of several of those brought aboard Carpathia . Of the groups shown in the table , 49 % of the children , 26 % of the female passengers , 82 % of the male passengers and 78 % of the crew died . The figures show stark differences in the survival rates of the different classes aboard Titanic , especially among women and children . Although less than 10 percent of first- and second @-@ class women ( combined ) were lost , 54 % of those in third class died . Similarly , five of six first @-@ class and all second @-@ class children survived , but 52 of the 79 in third class perished . The only first @-@ class child to perish was Loraine Allison , aged 2 . Proportionately , the heaviest losses were suffered by the second @-@ class men , of whom 92 % died . Additionally , among the pets brought aboard three survived the sinking . = WTF ? ! = WTF ? ! is the seventeenth studio album by German industrial band KMFDM , released on April 26 , 2011 , on KMFDM Records and Metropolis Records . The regular line @-@ up of Sascha Konietzko , Lucia Cifarelli , Jules Hodgson , Andy Selway , and Steve White was joined by a handful of musicians from other industrial and alternative metal acts . The album took about twice as long as usual for the band to produce , and underwent a significant amount of modification during its recording . WTF ? ! reached No. 8 on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums chart . Its first single , " Krank " , hit No. 15 on the Billboard Singles chart , while its second , " Amnesia " , hit No. 3 on the Deutsche Alternative Charts . Critics were generally very positive about the album , and while some felt the album was relatively creative , most felt it stayed close to the same formula the band had used for years . = = Background = = Band leader Sascha Konietzko first mentioned a new album that would feature " a slew of guest musicians " in March 2010 . Former collaborator Bill Rieflin returned to help with WTF ? ! , and Koichi Fukuda also added guitar work . William Wilson , who had previously performed vocals on " Day of Light " , and Free Dominguez , of the group Kidneythieves , were brought in as guest vocalists for one song apiece . In an interview in September 2010 , Konietzko said the new album would be named Zilch . A remixed version of " Rebels in Control " was made available on the band 's website in December 2010 as a show of support for Wikileaks editor @-@ in @-@ chief Julian Assange , and was streamed more than 75 @,@ 000 times in two days . The name of the forthcoming album was also revealed to have been changed to WTF ? ! around the same time . = = Production = = Konietzko explained in an April 2011 interview that the album had taken fourteen months to complete , about twice as long as usual . He said that everything on the album " went through a grinder , was then re @-@ constituted and went through a whole process of re @-@ birthing yet once again " , adding that every single component of the album was redone at least once . Konietzko also commented before the album 's release that due to the significant time difference between his location ( Hamburg , Germany ) and the rest of the band ( on the United States west coast ) , " I take my rest and they work , so it 's like we get two full work days in a 24 hour frame . " The song " Panzerfaust " marks the first time the band has written a song with Italian lyrics , and is a translation of " Liebeslied " from the band 's 1990 album Naïve . The song " Death and Burial of C.R. " is lyrically based on the English nursery rhyme " Who Killed Cock Robin " . The song " Vive La Mort ! " includes the lyrics " aces and eights " , a reference to Wild Bill Hickok 's last hand . = = Release = = The concept for the album cover was conceived jointly by Konietzko and longtime band associate and cover artist Aidan " Brute ! " Hughes . Hughes stated that he achieved a look similar to the angelic look of Renaissance paintings of the Madonna with the artwork . The album 's first single , " Krank " , was released March 8 , 2011 , and debuted at No. 15 on the Billboard Singles Chart . WTF ? ! was released on April 26 , 2012 , and reached No. 8 on Billboard 's Dance / Electronic Albums chart on May 14 , 2011 . It also debuted at No. 1 on the iTunes Electronic Album chart . The song " Amnesia " was released as a single on May 22 , 2012 . It peaked at No. 3 on the Deutsche Alternative Charts in mid @-@ July . The band toured North America in support of the album in August 2011 , with Wilson accompanying the band as a guest vocalist . A longer tour of Europe took place in October and November . = = Reception = = WTF ? ! received very positive reviews , with critics split over whether the album broke new ground compared to previous releases . Some felt the album explored new musical territory . Trey Spencer of Sputnikmusic praised the album and the band 's creativity , saying KMFDM had " stepped outside of their comfort zone by ... opening up to a little experimentation . " William Dashiell Hammett of COMA Music Magazine was strongly complimentary , saying , " The level of musicianship and creativity shown on this album is breathtaking . " Most critics felt KMFDM stayed close to its usual sound on WTF ? ! . David Jeffries of Allmusic commented , " The ' ultra heavy beat ' sounds as ' ultra ' and ' heavy ' as ever on WTF ? ! " He went on to say the album was " an outstanding blast of dark dancefloor destruction " and saying the album should be on " the top shelf " . Gregory Burkart of FearNet mostly praised the album , saying that while the band doesn 't " break new creative ground " on WTF ? ! , which he said wasn 't the " heaviest , fastest or most experimental album " , it was " still rock @-@ solid , sporting some outstanding melodies and rhythms , and many memorable moments " . Ilker Yücel of ReGen Magazine called WTF ? ! a " hard @-@ hitting dose of industrial rock that is as familiar as it is unusual " . He concluded his review by saying , " In short , it ’ s KMFDM by @-@ the @-@ numbers , and after 27 years , that 's not a bad thing at all . " Mark von Pfeiffer of Magnetic said , " WTF ? is typical : electronic used to augment electric to over @-@ human speeds and volumes , outrageous claims made in the 3rd @-@ person " . He also thought the album was more accessible , saying , " This is industrial , but edible for most anyone looking for a bit of roughage on their playlist . " Petra Whiteley of Reflections of Darkness called WTF ? ! " a solid release bursting with power and determination " . She also said of KMFDM , " musically they are not far of their centre and typical sound , which is not a bad thing " . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = All credits come from 2011 liner notes . = = = Band members = = = Sascha Konietzko – vocals , synthesizers , programming , drum programming ( 1 – 3 , 5 , 7 – 11 ) , party balloon solo ( 3 ) , bass guitar ( 3 , 7 – 8 , 11 ) , guitar ( 9 ) , feedback guitar ( 7 ) , metal percussion ( 9 ) , production , mixing Lucia Cifarelli – vocals Jules Hodgson – guitar , synths ( 3 ) , all programming and instruments ( 4 ) , drum programming ( 5 ) , mixing Andy Selway – drums Steve White – guitar , drum programming ( 6 ) , synths ( 6 ) , bass guitar ( 9 ) , keyboards ( 9 ) = = = Additional personnel = = = Free Dominguez – vocals ( 5 ) Che Eckert – news speak ( 3 ) Michael " Quirk " Dorsett – digitar ( 7 ) Koichi Fukuda – guitar ( 2 ) Sebastian Komor – drum programming ( 3 , 10 ) , synth production ( 3 , 10 ) Bill Rieflin – nervous chatter ( 7 ) , jaw shivers ( 7 ) William Wilson – vocals ( 9 ) Frank De Wulf – TB @-@ 303 riff ( 1 ) = = = Production = = = Brian Gardner – mastering Brute ! – artwork Justin Gammon – layout Vibrent Management – post production coordination = Æthelwulf = Æthelwulf ( Old English for " Noble Wolf " ) was King of Wessex from 839 to 858 . In 825 his father , King Egbert , defeated King Beornwulf of Mercia , ending a long Mercian dominance over Anglo @-@ Saxon England south of the Humber . Egbert sent Æthelwulf with an army to Kent , where he expelled the Mercian sub @-@ king and was appointed sub @-@ king . After 830 , Egbert maintained good relations with Mercia , and this was continued by Æthelwulf when he became king in 839 , the first son to succeed his father as West Saxon king since 641 . The Vikings were not a major threat to Wessex during Æthelwulf 's reign . In 843 he was defeated in a battle against the Vikings at Carhampton in Somerset , but achieved a major victory at the Battle of Aclea in 851 . In 853 he joined a successful Mercian expedition to Wales to restore the traditional Mercian hegemony , and in the same year his daughter Æthelswith married King Burgred of Mercia . In 855 Æthelwulf went on pilgrimage to Rome . In preparation he gave a " decimation " , donating a tenth of his personal property to his subjects ; he appointed his eldest surviving son Æthelbald to act as King of Wessex in his absence , and his next son Æthelberht to rule Kent and the south @-@ east . Æthelwulf spent a year in Rome , and on his way back he married Judith , the daughter of the West Frankish King Charles the Bald . When Æthelwulf returned to England , Æthelbald refused to surrender the West Saxon throne , and Æthelwulf agreed to divide the kingdom , taking the east and leaving the west in Æthelbald 's hands . On Æthelwulf 's death in 858 he left Wessex to Æthelbald and Kent to Æthelberht , but Æthelbald 's death only two years later led to the re @-@ unification of the kingdom . In the twentieth century Æthelwulf 's reputation among historians was poor : he was seen as excessively pious and impractical , and his pilgrimage was viewed as a desertion of his duties . Historians in the twenty @-@ first century see him very differently , as a king who consolidated and extended the power of his dynasty , commanded respect on the continent , and dealt more effectively than most of his contemporaries with Viking attacks . He is regarded as one of the most successful West Saxon kings , who laid the foundations for the success of his son , Alfred the Great . = = Background = = At the beginning of the ninth century , England was almost completely under the control of the Anglo @-@ Saxons , with Mercia and Wessex the most important southern kingdoms . Mercia was dominant until the 820s , and it exercised overlordship over East Anglia and Kent , but Wessex was able to maintain its independence from its more powerful neighbour . Offa , King of Mercia from 757 to 796 , was the dominant figure of the second half of the eighth century . King Beorhtric of Wessex ( 786 – 802 ) , married Offa 's daughter in 789 . Beorhtric and Offa drove Æthelwulf 's father Egbert into exile , and he spent several years at the court of Charlemagne in Francia . Egbert was the son of Ealhmund , who had briefly been King of Kent in 784 . Following Offa 's death , King Coenwulf of Mercia ( 796 – 821 ) maintained Mercian dominance , but it is uncertain whether Beorhtric ever accepted political subordination , and when he died in 802 Egbert became king , perhaps with the support of Charlemagne . For two hundred years three kindreds had fought for the West Saxon throne , and no son had followed his father as king . Egbert 's best claim was that he was the great @-@ great @-@ grandson of Ingild , brother of King Ine ( 688 – 726 ) , and in 802 it would have seemed very unlikely that he would establish a lasting dynasty . Almost nothing is recorded of the first twenty years of Egbert 's reign , apart from campaigns against the Cornish in the 810s . The historian Richard Abels argues that the silence of the Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle was probably intentional , concealing Egbert 's purge of Beorhtric 's magnates and suppression of rival royal lines . Relations between Mercian kings and their Kentish subjects were distant . Kentish ealdormen did not attend the court of King Coenwulf , who quarrelled with Archbishop Wulfred of Canterbury ( 805 – 832 ) over the control of Kentish monasteries ; Coenwulf 's primary concern seems to have been to gain access to the wealth of Kent . His successors Ceolwulf I ( 821 –	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
000 prosthetic makeup applications and 2 @,@ 000 molds of different colored aliens . For the specific aesthetic look to the film , Gunn wanted to create " a colorful science @-@ fiction world " , and include elements of 1950s and 60s pulp movies , citing the Ravagers ' spaceships , which he compared to muscle cars , as an example of the latter . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography began around July 6 , 2013 in London , United Kingdom , under the working title of Full Tilt . Filming took place at Shepperton Studios and Longcross Studios . Later in July , Gunn and the film 's cast flew from London to attend San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , where it was revealed that Pace would play Ronan the Accuser , Gillan would be Nebula , del Toro as The Collector , and that Djimon Hounsou had been cast as Korath . Close was later revealed to play Nova Prime Irani Rael . Also at San Diego Comic @-@ Con , Feige stated that Thanos would be a part of the film as the " mastermind " . On August 11 , 2013 , filming began at London 's Millennium Bridge , which was selected as a double for Xandar . In August 2013 , Marvel announced that Bradley Cooper would voice Rocket Raccoon . On September 3 , 2013 , Gunn said that filming was " a little over half [ way ] " complete . Also in September , Vin Diesel stated that he was voicing Groot . However , Marvel did not confirm Diesel 's involvement in the film at the time . On October 12 , 2013 , Gunn announced on social media that filming had completed . Director of photography Ben Davis used Arri Alexa XT cameras for the film , saying , " I ’ m traditionally a photochemical fan , but going with the digital format was the right way for this movie ... the Alexa [ provided ] the right look for this particular film . " During the opening scenes in the 1980s , Davis chose JDC Cooke Xtal ( Crystal ) Express anamorphic prime lenses because they " had more anamorphic artifacts and aberrations , which [ he ] felt added something . " Davis used spherical Panavision Primos for the rest of the film . Additionally , Davis worked closely with production designer Charles Wood in order to achieve the correct lighting looks for each scene . Dealing with two fully CGI characters forced Davis to shoot scenes multiple times , usually once with the references for the characters and once without them in the shot . Gunn revealed that his brother , Sean Gunn , took on multiple roles during the filming process , such as standing in for Rocket , which he noted was beneficial for the other actors , including Saldana , Pratt , and Bautista , who responded positively to Sean and his on @-@ set performances . Special effects makeup designer David White made two life @-@ size versions of Rocket and a bust of Groot as aids for visual effects , with White saying , " it gives [ the filmmakers ] a good indication of where visual effects needs to pick up and whether Rocket can actually reach certain things or use certain devices . " These busts were also used to see how the on @-@ set lighting would affect the characters , to assist with the visual effects lighting process . In January 2015 , Disney revealed that the film came in " slightly over the agreed budget " at $ 232 @.@ 3 million , with Disney receiving a rebate of $ 36 @.@ 4 million from the British government . It was previously estimated to have had a $ 170 million budget . = = = Post @-@ production = = = In November 2013 , Gunn stated that he attempted to use as many practical effects as possible while filming to aid the use of CGI and motion capture during post @-@ production , saying , " Our sets are enormous . We have a prison that is 350 @,@ 000 pounds of steel . Anybody who knows me knows I love the mix of practical and CGI effects ... I can 't wait for people to see it , because it 's astonishingly beautiful . " After the release of Thor : The Dark World , Feige stated that the Infinity Stones would be a focus in the film , as well as going forward into the Phase Three slate of films within the MCU . In a separate interview for The Dark World in November , Feige added that a third , unknown Infinity Stone would be seen in the film , referred to as the " Power Stone " by the Collector . The mid @-@ credits scene in The Dark World revealed Lovibond 's role as the Collector 's aide , later named Carina . In December 2013 , Marvel confirmed that Diesel would voice Groot . A few weeks of additional filming , involving the film 's main cast and crew , occurred in March 2014 at Walt Disney Studios in Burbank , California . In April 2014 , Gunn described Thanos as the " head of the snake " in the film , and confirmed he would appear via performance capture . In May 2014 , Gunn stated that the film features an " enormous " amount of smaller and minor characters from the Marvel Universe , adding that he felt the film had the most characters overall of any Marvel Studios film to date . Costume supervisor Dan Grace added to this by saying , " We really , really get the feeling of the scale and scope of the galaxy . We visit five planets , we see a hundred different races . " The film introduces the alien race Sakaaran , who act as Ronan 's mercenaries , as a replacement to the Badoon , as the Badoon film rights belonged to 20th Century Fox . By the end of May , Josh Brolin was revealed as the voice of Thanos , with Feige confirming in July that Brolin also provided the performance capture for the character . Thanos communicates via hologram for much of the film , though he does appear in a scene with Ronan and Nebula . In June 2014 , Feige added that Thanos and his followers are " the biggest piece of connective tissue that will eventually lead us back into Avengers films in the future . " On casting Brolin , Feige said , We reached out to him and it was one of those things that does not happen all the time but when it does it ’ s very nice , where he was totally intrigued . He was a fan of what we did , he met with Jeremy Latcham in a hotel in London and learned about the characters a little bit . I spoke to him on the phone a few times . We ran it by James who loved it , ran it by Joss [ Whedon ] who loved it because Thanos is in this universe because of Avengers . Then we shot him and recorded for it . On July 7 , 2014 , Gunn announced on social media that he had completed work on the film . In August , regarding the post @-@ credit scene , Gunn revealed that the scene did not involve Howard the Duck when it was originally filmed , rather he was added during post @-@ production , a decision made by " some combination of [ Gunn ] and the editor Fred Raskin " . As the decision to add the character was made late in the post @-@ production process , he had to be designed that day , before being handed off to Sony Pictures Imageworks to animate . Also in August , regarding the pre @-@ credit scene of Groot dancing , Gunn stated that he himself danced to provide motion reference for the animators , and that the decision was made to place the scene before the credits , rather than during or after them , because of positive responses from a test audience , which made Marvel and Gunn feel that they didn 't want " people walking out and missing this thing " . Marvel used design firm Sarofsky once again for the film 's title sequences , after liking their work for Captain America : The Winter Soldier . Sarofsky developed a custom typeface based on the font used in the teaser posters for the opening credits , which was tinted orange to offer a better contrast to the film 's blue and grey imagery . One of the typography solutions offered before the final product wound up being repurposed as the locator cards seen throughout the film . = = = = Visual effects = = = = The film featured 2 @,@ 750 visual effects shots , which make up approximately 90 % of the film . The visual effects were created by : Moving Picture Company ( MPC ) , who worked on creating Groot , as well as Morag , Xandar , the Dark Aster and the final battle on Xandar ; Framestore , who worked on creating Rocket , extending the Kyln prison set and constructing Knowhere ; Luma Pictures , who worked on Thanos ; Method Studios , who worked on creating the Orb opening and revealing its powers , as well as the holographic displays at the Nova Corps command center ; Lola VFX ; Cantina Creative ; Sony Pictures Imageworks , who worked on Howard the Duck and creating the Dark Aster shots with MPC ; CoSA VFX ; Secret Lab ; Rise Visual Effects Studios ; and Technicolor VFX . Pre- and post @-@ visualizations were done by Proof and The Third Floor , with Proof also contributing to the creation of Rocket and Groot . Producer Nik Korda noted how helpful it was to have Sean Gunn and Krystian Godlewski portray Rocket and Groot on set , as it provided references for lighting and on @-@ set performances to the animators . When creating Groot , MPC realized early on that his eyes would be essential in maintaining the character 's human qualities , as his face couldn 't move in the way that humans ' do . MPC visual effects supervisor Nicolas Aithadi explained that , " When you look at humans what makes the eyes interesting is the imperfections – trying to make these two irises not aimed at the same place – trying to make them strange and look more human . " Textures for Groot came from a number of sources , including inspiration from a botanical garden in London , and the character was modeled as individual branches , rigged individually , to simulate a muscle system for the character . One of the major challenges for Framestore in creating Rocket was his fur . Framestore 's Rachel Williams explained that , since " raccoon fur is made up from a layer of short fine hair and a layer of longer thicker hairs " , these layers were separated and animated individually , removing the need to use " guide hairs " to control the movements of thick sections of fur . Framestore and MPC worked closely sharing assets , to ensure shots of Rocket at MPC would match the Rocket created by Framestore , and vice versa for when Groot was needed by the other studio . In order to give Thanos " the performance and the weight that he deserved " , Luma Pictures created a new facial animation system to re @-@ create Josh Brolin as a fully CG character , using his " eyes , some of his cheek , how his muscles move when he talks " . The character 's large jaw , and the deep groves that run down his face , had " to be carefully planned out with the movement of his face . " = = Music = = In August 2013 , Gunn revealed that Tyler Bates would be composing the film 's score . Gunn stated that Bates would write some of the score first so that he can film to the music , as opposed to scoring to the film . In February 2014 , Gunn revealed that the film would incorporate songs from the 1960s and 1970s , such as " Hooked on a Feeling " , on a mixtape in Quill 's Walkman , which acts as a way for him to stay connected to the Earth , home , and family he lost . In May 2014 , Gunn added that using the songs from the 60s and 70s were " cultural reference points " , saying , " It ’ s striking the balance throughout the whole movie , through something that is very unique , but also something that is easily accessible to people at the same time . The music and the Earth stuff is one of those touchstones that we have to remind us that , yeah , [ Quill ] is a real person from planet Earth who ’ s just like you and me . Except that he ’ s in this big outer space adventure . " When choosing the songs , Gunn revealed he " started the process by reading the Billboard charts for all of the top hits of the ' 70s " , downloading " a few hundred " songs that were " semi @-@ familiar — ones you recognize but might not be able to name off the top of your head " and creating a playlist for all the songs that would fit the film tonally . He added that he " would listen to the playlist on my speakers around the house — sometimes I would be inspired to create a scene around a song , and other times I had a scene that needed music and I would listen through the playlist , visualizing various songs , figuring out which would work the best . " Most of the songs were played on set to help " the actors and the camera operators find the perfect groove for the shot " , with David Bowie 's " Moonage Daydream " the only song chosen and added during post @-@ production . Gunn also said that the opening scenes were designed with " Hooked on a Feeling " in mind ; however once Gunn discovered " Come and Get Your Love " , the song used in the sequence , Gunn felt it was a " better fit . " Three albums were released by Hollywood Records on July 29 , 2014 : The film 's score , Guardians of the Galaxy ( Original Score ) , which features the music composed by Bates for the film ; Guardians of the Galaxy : Awesome Mix Vol . 1 ( Original Motion Picture Soundtrack ) , which comprises the twelve songs from Quill 's mixtape ; and a deluxe edition featuring both albums . By August 2014 , the album which mirrored Quill 's mixtape had reached the top of the Billboard 200 chart , becoming the first soundtrack album in history consisting entirely of previously released songs to top the chart . Hollywood Records also released a cassette version of the Awesome Mix Vol . 1 soundtrack on November 28 , 2014 , as an exclusive to Record Store Day participants . The cassette , which is the first cassette Disney Music Group has released since 2003 , comes with a digital download version of the album . = = Release = = The world premiere of Guardians of the Galaxy was held on July 21 , 2014 , at the Dolby Theatre in Hollywood . The film was released theatrically in the United Kingdom on July 31 , 2014 , and in the United States on August 1 , in 3D and IMAX 3D . The film was released in 4 @,@ 080 theaters in the United States , making it the widest August release , breaking the five year record held by G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra ( 4 @,@ 007 theatres ) . The breakdown of venues was : 354 IMAX screens , 3 @,@ 200 3D screens , 350 large format screens and 240 D @-@ Box screens . In its sixth weekend , Guardians of the Galaxy was playing in 69 territories , its most . In June 2014 , Gunn stated that the film had always been planned as a 3D film , and " Unlike many directors , I 've been actively involved with converting every shot to 3D , making sure it works perfectly for the story and the film , making sure it 's spectacular and immersive without being silly , distracting , or overly showy . " Gunn also revealed that the IMAX 3D version would include shifting aspect ratios , to make the viewing experience " even fuller and more encompassing . I 've personally chosen all the places where the changes occur ... The changing aspect ratios in this case are actually a part of the storytelling . " In July 2014 , Gunn revealed that there were multiple scenes he had cut from the film , and he was investigating how to release them , either in an extended cut of the film , or as bonus features on the film 's home media release . = = = Marketing = = = At Disney 's D23 Expo in August 2013 , Feige presented footage first revealed at the San Diego Comic @-@ Con in July 2013 . The first trailer for the film debuted on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! on February 18 , 2014 , with a special introduction by Chris Pratt . The Los Angeles Times said the trailer delivered " some spirited alien action , with exploding spaceships and muscled bad guys , not to mention a few purely comedic moments , " while spotlighting " a number of the offbeat characters . " Total Film noted the similarity of the trailer 's opening clip to the 1981 film , Raiders of the Lost Ark , which Gunn stated was a big influence for Guardians , and made note of the " edgy " humor used throughout . Total Film also noted the similarity of the trailer to the one debuted at Comic @-@ Con and D23 , with a few new shots featuring Nebula and the Collector . Social media response to the trailer was strong , with 88 @,@ 000 mentions across Twitter , Facebook and various blogs in a 12 @-@ hour period . Those numbers were comparable to trailers for other superhero films like Man of Steel and The Amazing Spider @-@ Man 2 , and noteworthy for the late night time period in which it premiered . The trailer received 22 @.@ 8 million views in the 24 hours after it debuted . After the debut of the trailer , Blue Swede 's version of " Hooked on a Feeling " , which was prominently used throughout the trailer , went up 700 % in sales the following day . The line from Serafinowicz 's character , " What a bunch of A @-@ holes . " , was only intended to be featured in the trailers , but due to its positive reception , was included in the final cut of the film . In March 2014 , the Marvel 's Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D. episode " T.A.H.I.T.I. " introduced the Kree race to the MCU , which began a storyline that recurs throughout the series and involves finding a hidden Kree city . Also in March , ABC aired a one @-@ hour television special titled , Marvel Studios : Assembling a Universe , which included a sneak peek of Guardians of the Galaxy . Starting in April 2014 , a two @-@ part comic was released , titled Marvel 's Guardians of the Galaxy Prelude . Written by Dan Abnett and Andy Lanning , with art by Wellington Alves , the first issue focused on the background of Nebula and her bond with Thanos ; the second issue featured the adventures of Rocket and Groot before they join forces with the other Guardians . In June 2014 , Mike Pasciullo , senior VP of Marvel Studios , described the marketing approach for Guardians of the Galaxy by saying that Marvel had " built a robust marketing program for the theatrical release that carefully integrates traditional advertising , social media , digital marketing , strategic promotional partnerships , organic entertainment integrations [ and ] publicity . " In July 2014 , Marvel launched a viral marketing campaign for the film called " Galaxy Getaways " , a fictional travel website that allows users to book passage to some of the planets depicted in the film , including Xandar , Morag , and Knowhere . Beginning July 4 , 2014 , a sneak peek of the film was presented at Disneyland and Disney 's Hollywood Studios in the Magic Eye and ABC Sound Studio theaters , respectively . Approximately 14 minutes of the film was screened on July 7 , 2014 , in IMAX 3D in the United States , and 3D theaters and IMAX 3D in Canada , along with two trailers . The screening was met with positive reviews , praising the humor , the 3D and IMAX conversion , and Cooper 's portrayal of Rocket . However , it was criticized for beginning partway through the film , not allowing viewers to easily acclimate to the film 's tone , and for how the general audience might respond to a film within the MCU without established characters making appearances . On July 12 , 2014 , Gunn and the actors from the film promoted Guardians of the Galaxy at the Lido 8 Cineplex in Singapore . On July 17 , 2014 , Disney Interactive released an action RPG video game titled Guardians of the Galaxy : The Universal Weapon for iOS , Android and Windows devices . The game 's original story was written by Dan Abnett , and was meant to complement the film . On July 21 , Pratt , Saldana , Bautista , Diesel and Cooper appeared on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! to promote the film and debut some additional exclusive content . On July 29 , Pratt and Saldana rang the opening bell of the New York Stock Exchange as part of the film 's marketing strategy . On August 14 , Marvel released the scene of Groot dancing , which was shortly followed by an announcement from Funko that they were releasing a toy " Dancing Groot " . The Hollywood Reporter noted that the quick release of the scene from Marvel two weeks after the film 's theatrical release , along with the rush announcement from Funko , indicated the popularity of both the character and the scene . The scene also produced the word " grooting " , coined by Michael Rooker , in which a person dances similar to Groot , with the word entering the social media lexicon . Also in August , Marvel held a special screening of the film at Children 's Hospital Los Angeles , where Pratt dressed as Star @-@ Lord to entertain the patients . = = = = Merchandise = = = = In June 2012 , Marvel filed eleven trademark applications for Guardians of the Galaxy , covering a variety of consumer products , from video games to cosmetics . Disney Consumer Products partnered with Mad Engine , C @-@ Life , New Era , Hasbro , Disguise , Rubies , Sideshow Collectibles , Lego , KIDdesigns , iHome , Funko , Freeze , Fast Forward , and Innovative Designs to produce merchandise for the film , with releases starting in June 2014 . Mad Engine and C @-@ Life were partnered as the core apparel outfitters , producing a line of T @-@ shirts and fleece jackets , while New Era produced headwear and hats . Hasbro produced toys for the film ; Disguise and Rubies produced the costumes ; and Sideshow Collectibles was given charge of the collectibles . Lego announced three toy sets based on scenes from the film , while iHome created character speakers , Funko made vinyl bobble heads , Freeze crafted 1980s @-@ inspired apparel , and backpacks and stationery were made by Fast Forward and Innovative Designs . Despite first films in a potential new franchise usually being off @-@ limits to licensees , Marvel used Iron Man 's success as evidence of unknown characters becoming hits with audiences to attract partnerships . Licensees embraced Rocket as the film 's potential breakout character , with Drax and Gamora being used for older demographics ; Star @-@ Lord ’ s obsession with 1980s nostalgia , including his " Awesome Mix Vo . 1 " cassette , has also served as a basis for tie @-@ in products . In August 2014 , Funko announced a toy based on " Dancing Groot " , while in October 2014 , Marvel and KID designs announced a replica of dancing Groot , for release in December 2014 . In December 2014 , Disney made a second marketing push , to coincide with the film 's home media release with additional merchandise . Merchandise partners included : KID designs with its replica dancing Groot ; Funko ’ s Fabrikations line with a plush Rocket ; Mattel ’ s Hot Wheels character cars ; C @-@ Life , Hybrid @-@ Jem Sportswear , Freeze , MZ Berger , Accutime , AME and Her Universe with apparel ; ThinkGeek with jewelry and watches ; American Greetings with cards ; Jay Franco with homegoods ; and Vandor with drinkware . Additional partners included Mad Engine , Just Play and Dragon Models . Paul Gitter , senior vice president of Marvel licensing at Disney Consumer Products said , " The demand for Guardians of the Galaxy merchandise has been truly out of this world . Our merchandising and retail partners are doing a tremendous job of providing creative and innovative ways for fans to continue interacting with these popular characters and showcase their fandom year round . " = = = Home media = = = Guardians of the Galaxy was released for digital download by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on November 18 , 2014 and on Blu @-@ ray , Blu @-@ ray 3D , and DVD on November 24 , 2014 , in the United Kingdom and on December 9 in the United States . The digital and Blu @-@ ray releases include behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes , audio commentary , deleted scenes , a blooper reel , and an exclusive preview of Avengers : Age of Ultron . As of October 4 , 2015 , the film has earned over $ 118 million in sales in the US . The film was also included in the 13 @-@ disc box set , titled " Marvel Cinematic Universe : Phase Two Collection " , which includes all of the Phase Two films in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . It was released on December 8 , 2015 . = = Reception = = = = = Box office = = = Guardians of the Galaxy earned $ 333 @.@ 2 million in North America and an estimated $ 441 million in other countries , for a worldwide total of $ 773 @.@ 3 million . The film became the third highest @-@ grossing film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , behind The Avengers and Iron Man 3 . It was the third highest @-@ grossing 2014 film ( behind Transformers : Age of Extinction and The Hobbit : The Battle of the Five Armies ) and the highest @-@ grossing superhero film of 2014 . It had a worldwide opening weekend of $ 160 @.@ 7 million . Deadline.com calculated the net profit for the film to be $ 204 @.@ 2 million , when factoring together " production budgets , P & A , talent participations and other costs , with box office grosses , and ancillary revenues from VOD to DVD and TV , " placing it fifth on their list of 2014 's " Most Valuable Blockbusters " . = = = = North America = = = = Guardians of the Galaxy earned $ 11 @.@ 2 million on its Thursday night pre @-@ opening , surpassing Captain America : The Winter Soldier 's gross ( $ 10 @.@ 2 million ) for the biggest Thursday evening start for a movie in 2014 . IMAX accounted for 17 % of the total gross ( $ 1 @.@ 9 million ) , which was the biggest August pre @-@ release in IMAX format . On its opening day , the film earned $ 37 @.@ 8 million , including the Thursday night earnings . Guardians of the Galaxy was the number one movie during its opening weekend and grossed $ 94 @.@ 3 million , setting an August weekend record . During the opening weekend , IMAX earnings amounted to $ 11 @.@ 7 million and 3 @-@ D showings accounted for 45 % of ticket sales . The film 's success was partially attributed to its appeal to both genders : the opening weekend audience was 44 % female , which is the biggest proportion ever for a MCU film ; 55 % of the opening @-@ weekend audience was over the age of 25 . Although the film fell to second place in its second and third weekends , behind Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles , the film was number one in its fourth , fifth and sixth weekend . By doing so , it became the first film in 2014 to top the domestic box office in non @-@ consecutive weeks , the first film of the summer ( May – August ) to be the number one film in three weekends and the first MCU film to be the top film for four weeks , surpassing Captain America : The Winter Soldier and The Avengers , both of which were number one for three weeks , and tied The Dark Knight for the most weeks at number one among comic book @-@ based films . Phil Contrino , vice president and chief analyst of BoxOffice.com felt Guardians success was " unconventional " and was " shattering expectations " . The film remained in the top 10 for ten weekends . The film was the top grossing film of summer 2014 ( ahead of Transformers : Age of Extinction ) , first of 2014 to pass $ 300 million for its domestic gross , and was the third highest @-@ grossing domestic film of 2014 ( behind American Sniper and The Hunger Games : Mockingjay – Part 1 ) . The film was said to have " injected life " into an otherwise lower than normal summer box office . = = = = Outside North America = = = = Guardians of the Galaxy was released in 42 international markets and grossed $ 67 @.@ 4 million on its opening weekend . The biggest debuts came from Russia ( $ 13 million ) , the United Kingdom ( $ 10 @.@ 8 million ) , Mexico ( $ 6 @.@ 5 million ) , Brazil ( $ 6 @.@ 5 million ) and South Korea ( $ 4 @.@ 7 million ) . The film topped the weekend box office two times , in its first and second weekends . In its eleventh weekend , the film opened in China , earning $ 29 @.@ 8 million , its largest , and became the third highest opening in the country for any Disney release , behind Iron Man 3 and Captain America : The Winter Soldier , and was an all @-@ time industry record opening in October . The following weekend saw an additional $ 21 @.@ 3 million from China , making China the highest grossing market with $ 69 million . The film 's three biggest markets in total earnings were : China ( $ 96 @.@ 5 million ) ; the UK ( $ 47 @.@ 4 million ) ; and Russia ( $ 37 @.@ 5 million ) . = = = Critical response = = = The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 91 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 8 / 10 based on 277 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " Guardians of the Galaxy is just as irreverent as fans of the frequently zany Marvel comic would expect — as well as funny , thrilling , full of heart , and packed with visual splendor . " Metacritic , which uses a weighted average , assigned a score of 76 out of 100 , based on 46 critics , indicating " generally favorable reviews " . CinemaScore audiences gave Guardians of the Galaxy an " A " grade rating on an A + to F scale , while earning an " A + " among under @-@ 18 and 25- to 34 @-@ year @-@ old viewers . Scott Foundas of Variety said " James Gunn 's presumptive franchise @-@ starter is overlong , overstuffed and sometimes too eager to please , but the cheeky comic tone keeps things buoyant — as does Chris Pratt ’ s winning performance " , and praised the film 's look created by cinematographer Ben Davis , production designer Charles Wood , and special effects makeup designer David White . Justin Lowe of The Hollywood Reporter also praised the film 's look , and felt " A well @-@ matched ensemble rises to the challenge of launching a heroic origin film with distinctive style , abundant thrills and no shortage of humor . " The Daily Telegraph 's Robbie Collin said , " A brand new summer family blockbuster this may be , but it plays by old , half @-@ forgotten rules ; trimming out the clutter and cross @-@ referencing for snappy , streamlined , Saturday @-@ cartoon fun " . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said , " Blessed with a loose , anarchic B @-@ picture soul that encourages you to enjoy yourself even when you 're not quite sure what 's going on , the scruffy Guardians is irreverent in a way that can bring the first Star Wars to mind , in part because it has some of the most unconventional heroes this side of the Mos Eisley Cantina . " Manohla Dargis of The New York Times said , " While Guardians takes you down one after another crazy narrative turn , it also pulls you into – and , for the most part , keeps you in – a fully realized other world . " Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times said , " Guardians of the Galaxy is a late summer treat — a mostly lighthearted and self @-@ referential comic @-@ book movie with loads of whiz @-@ bang action , some laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments and a couple of surprisingly beautiful and touching scenes as well , " calling it " a refreshing confection of entertainment . " Jim Starlin , creator of Drax the Destroyer , Gamora , and Thanos , said it " might be Marvel 's best movie yet " . Jake Coyle of the Associated Press was more critical of the film , calling it " terribly overstuffed and many of the jokes get drowned out by the special effects ... The pervasive movie references detract from the stab at freshness , and Guardians depends all too much on the whimsy of ' 70s anthems for an original beat . " He also felt that Close , Reilly and del Toro were underused in the film . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle said , " In place of wit , Guardians offers a sort of generalized willingness to be amusing , an atmosphere of high spirits that feels like lots of people pumping air into a tire that has a hole in it . Everyone is clearly working , but nothing is really happening – and yet the effort is so evident that there 's an impulse to reward it . " Kyle Smith of the New York Post also had a negative response to the film , comparing it to Howard the Duck and Green Lantern , and criticizing the dialogue , villains , soundtrack , lack of suspense , and the characters of Quill , Rocket , and Drax . The film received mixed reviews in China , where viewers complained that the film 's " poor subtitle translation not only spoiled the fun of watching it , but also made it difficult to understand its humor . " = = = Accolades = = = = = Sequel = = Guardians of the Galaxy Vol . 2 is scheduled to be released on May 5 , 2017 , again written and directed by James Gunn . Pratt , Saldana , Bautista , Diesel , Cooper , Rooker , Gillan , Sean Gunn and Close all reprise their roles in the film , and are joined by Pom Klementieff as Mantis , Elizabeth Debicki as Ayesha , Chris Sullivan as Taserface , and Kurt Russell as Ego . = Monroe Edwards = Monroe Edwards ( 1808 – January 27 , 1847 ) was an American slave trader , forger and convicted criminal who was the subject of a well @-@ publicized trial and conviction in 1842 . Originally from Kentucky , Edwards moved to New Orleans then settled in Texas . He smuggled slaves into Brazil in 1832 , and used the proceeds to purchase land in Texas . In 1836 he was again smuggling slaves , this time into Texas . After attempting to swindle his partner out of the profits of the venture , partly with forged documents , Edwards was forced to flee the Republic of Texas to the United States . He then tried to scam money out of various abolitionists in the United States and the United Kingdom , partly with forged letters of introduction . He traveled to the United Kingdom , but his schemes were mainly unsuccessful and he returned to the United States in mid @-@ 1841 . Edwards ' largest swindle involved forged letters from cotton brokers in New Orleans , which he used to secure bank drafts for large sums that he then cashed . His fabrications caught up with him and he was arrested and tried for the forgeries in June 1842 . Convicted partly because his distinctive good looks made him memorable and easily recognizable , and partly from making the same spelling errors in his fakes , Edwards was sentenced to 10 years in prison and died in 1847 while incarcerated . Several sensational accounts of his offenses and trial were published after his death , and he was mentioned in Herman Melville 's 1853 short story " Bartleby , the Scrivener " . = = Early life = = Edwards was born in 1808 in Danville , Kentucky . His father was reported to be Amos Edwards or Moses Edwards , but the name of his mother is unknown . His brother was Amos Edwards , and his uncle was Haden Edwards who lived in Nacogdoches . Nothing is known with certainty of his childhood . As a grown man , he was considered very handsome , and usually dressed fashionably . Some accounts give him the title " Colonel " . Around 1822 , Edwards was sent to New Orleans to learn business from a merchant named Mr. Morgan . By the late 1820s Morgan had established a trading post on San Jacinto Bay near Galveston in what was then Mexican Texas . Some time after , Edwards met a slave trader and joined his new acquaintance on a smuggling trip to acquire slaves in Africa . This first effort ended when they were shipwrecked , but a second attempt in 1832 successfully smuggled slaves into Brazil . Edwards invested the profits from this venture into land in Texas , where in late 1833 he established a plantation on the San Bernard River in present @-@ day Brazoria County , Texas ; he named his new home " Chenango " . Unconnected with his slave trading , Edwards was arrested in 1832 as part of the Anahuac Disturbances , and was briefly imprisoned during the uprising against the Mexican government which ruled Texas . = = Slave trading and forgery = = Edwards ' next efforts in smuggling involved a new partner , Christopher Dart , a lawyer from Natchez , Mississippi . In 1835 Dart invested $ 40 @,@ 000 to buy the contracts of indentured blacks in Cuba and smuggle them into Texas as slaves . Instead providing money for the partnership , Edwards ' contribution was land certificates . At the time , Texas was a Mexican border province . In 1829 , Mexico had abolished slavery as well as the importation of slaves , but gave Texas an exemption from emancipating slaves who were already in the territory . To circumvent the ban on importing slaves , traders instead reclassified them as indentured servants with 99 @-@ year contracts . The Mexican government cracked down on this practice in 1832 , limiting terms of indenture to a maximum of 10 years . Edwards secured further financing from a New Orleans company named George Knight and Company and then went to Cuba where he purchased slaves . In February 1836 Edwards landed 170 black people in Texas , taking advantage of the confusion surrounding the end of the Texas Revolution and the establishment of the independent Republic of Texas , which had not yet outlawed the importation of slaves . William Fisher , the customs collector on the Brazos River , wrote to the Texas Constitutional Convention that Edwards did not report the importation to the authorities , and Fisher went to Edwards ' plantation to confront Edwards . Because of uncertainty about the legality of importing slaves , Fisher did not seize the slaves but referred the issue to the newly formed Texas Government after securing a monetary bond from Edwards . Although the new Texas Republic eventually outlawed the importation of slaves from anywhere but the United States , Edwards ' landing of slaves from Cuba in early 1836 was never prosecuted . After this , Edwards also established a slave market on Galveston Bay , near present @-@ day San Leon . In 1837 , he was sued by Robert Peebles for fraud involving the sale of a slave with tuberculosis to Peebles . Peebles won the case . Edwards then tried to change the deal with Dart . Instead of dividing the smuggled slaves between the two men , Edwards tried to keep all the slaves and instead repay the money Dart had advanced him , with some interest . Dart sued , and at the trial in March 1839 Edwards offered two forged documents claiming that Dart had sold his interest in the slaves to Edwards . In forging the documents , Edwards originally secured Dart 's signature on a document written in a type of ink that could later be chemically removed . After Dart signed the document , Edwards then removed the original wording of the document and substituted a deed selling Dart 's interest in the land and slaves . The documents were determined to be forgeries and on April 2 , 1840 , Dart was awarded $ 89 @,@ 000 . Edwards fled the Republic of Texas to the United States . As part of a plot to discredit both Dart and the government of Texas , Edwards persuaded some abolitionists in Cincinnati to give him money with which he would supposedly liberate the slaves on his plantation in Texas , which he no longer owned . Edwards also tried to get money from the American and Foreign Anti @-@ Slavery Society in New York , but its leader , Lewis Tappan , did not trust him and no money was forthcoming from that source . Edwards then went to England , bearing forged letters of introduction from , among others , Daniel Webster and the American Secretary of State , John Forsyth . One of these letters was to Lord Spencer , who was so impressed he gave Edwards £ 250 as a loan . While in England , Edwards defrauded a company in Liverpool of about $ 20 @,@ 000 , and then used part of the funds to repay Lord Spencer . The Republic of Texas ambassador in London warned the English government against Edwards . Tappan also sent warnings , so Edwards was unable to acquire more money in England and had returned to the United States by June 1841 . = = Final scheme = = Edwards ' next fraudulent scheme involved forging letters to cotton brokers in New Orleans , and using the signatures obtained from their replies to forge letters to brokers in New York City , saying that the fake John Caldwell – Edwards ' alias – had a large amount of cotton on deposit with the New Orleans brokers . Edwards used those letters to secure fraudulent loans from brokers on the security of the non @-@ existent cotton . Two New York brokers – Brown Bros. & Co. and Jacob Little – gave Edwards bank drafts for $ 25 @,@ 000 each . Edwards then cashed the drafts pretending to be Caldwell , but without attempting to disguise his appearance . Unluckily for Edwards , in September 1841 Brown Brothers was informed by the New Orleans brokers that there was no cotton on account for Caldwell , and this prompted the bankers to offer a reward for information on the forger . The police began to search for the forger of the letters , but were unsuccessful until Edwards attempted to distract their attention to an acquaintance , Alexander Powell , who happened to look much like him . Edwards sent an anonymous letter to the New York police , stating that the forger they were hunting was sailing to England , as Powell was about to do . Edwards assumed that by the time the police acted , Powell 's ship would already have sailed . The ship was delayed and the police were able to catch Powell , who told them that Edwards was their forger . After his arrest , Edwards was imprisoned in the Tombs , New York City 's jail . When he was arrested , he had more than $ 44 @,@ 000 in a trunk in his room . While in jail awaiting trial , Edwards forged a letter alleging he had funds in New Orleans , and then showed the letter to one of his lawyers in order to reassure the lawyer about Edwards ' ability to pay for legal counsel . In an attempt to delay his trial , Edwards also forged a letter from a supposed witness , Charles Johnson , stating that he was in Cuba and would not be able to come and testify for Edwards for a while ; this gained Edwards a three @-@ month delay . = = Trial = = Edwards ' trial was in June 1842 and was a media sensation . He secured a defense team of six lawyers , including John J. Crittenden , a sitting U. S. Senator , and Thomas F. Marshall , a sitting U. S. Representative . Both Crittenden and Marshall absented themselves from their legislative duties during the trial . One of the junior lawyers was William M. Evarts , who presented the opening remarks for the defense . Another defense lawyer was John Worth Edmonds , who Edwards paid with a forged check . Edwards ' handsome appearance worked against him , when one of the bankers who had cashed the drafts identified him in court and remarked that he remembered Edwards because of his striking good looks . Edwards had also neglected to dispose of a marked bank bag from one of the banks that cashed the fraudulently obtained draft . A final tie @-@ in was the commonality of misspellings between letters from Edwards and the forged letters . The trial ended with Edwards being convicted and given a 10 @-@ year prison sentence . The trial 's proceedings were published by a New York newspaper , The Herald , and ran to 50 @,@ 000 copies . None of Edwards ' lawyers were ever paid for their services . He was sent to Sing Sing prison , where he attempted to use forged letters to escape . Edwards died in prison on January 27 , 1847 , of consumption . He was insane at the time of his death . = = Legacy = = Edwards earned a mention in Herman Melville 's story " Bartleby , the Scrivener " , who used the names of contemporary events and people to give a modern feel to his short stories . One of Melville 's characters asks Bartleby , when imprisoned in the Tombs , if he is a " gentleman forger " like Edwards . The career of Melville 's narrator in " Bartleby " parallels that of Edmonds , who defended Edwards then went on to be the prison inspector at Sing Sing during Edwards ' prison term , and was known for his attempts to improve the treatment of the prisoners . Melville 's narrator also tries to secure better treatment for Bartleby . The narrator 's description of Bartleby just prior to death , in the words of Robert Wilson , " eerily echoed " the state of Edwards just prior to his death . Edwards was known during and after his trial as the " Great Forger " . The main account of his life and trial is Life and Adventures of the Accomplished Forger and Swindler , Colonel Monroe Edwards , which was written by an editor of the National Police Gazette in 1848 . The account , which was probably written by George Wilkes , is the fullest account of Edwards ' life , but mingles fact with fiction to the extent that it has been listed in bibliographies of American fiction . Wilkes ' account is the source for the story of Kitty Clover , supposedly a slave who loved Edwards , rescued him , and followed him throughout his life . There are other accounts , including two anonymous narratives published in 1842 . = SpongeBob 's Truth or Square = SpongeBob 's Truth or Square is a 2009 made @-@ for @-@ television one @-@ hour comedy special directed by Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , and Tom Yasumi . It stars Tom Kenny , Bill Fagerbakke , Rodger Bumpass , Clancy Brown , Carolyn Lawrence , and Mr. Lawrence . The special originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 6 , 2009 , celebrating the tenth anniversary of the American animated television series SpongeBob SquarePants . The television series follows the adventures of the title character in the underwater city of Bikini Bottom . In the special , SpongeBob and his friends are accidentally locked inside the Krusty Krab on the day of its " eleventy @-@ seventh " anniversary celebration . As they crawl through the ventilation system trying to escape , they look back on shared memories through flashback moments . SpongeBob 's Truth or Square was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Steven Banks , and Paul Tibbitt . Rosario Dawson , LeBron James , Tina Fey , Will Ferrell , Craig Ferguson , Robin Williams , and Ricky Gervais guest starred in the special as themselves . Upon release , the special attracted an estimated 7 @.@ 7 million viewers , and met mixed reviews from critics . = = Plot = = SpongeBob realizes that the Krusty Krab restaurant is celebrating its " eleventy @-@ seventh " anniversary . He remembers his first visit to the Krusty Krab and tells Gary about it . SpongeBob then leaves to go to the Krusty Krab , but as soon as he exits his house , he bumps into the back of a long line of customers waiting to get into the restaurant as well . SpongeBob jumps on top of every person in the line , eventually reaching the Krusty Krab . Mr. Krabs tells SpongeBob and Squidward that it is a perfect opportunity for his business rival , Plankton to steal the Krabby Patty formula . Mr. Krabs has hired Patrick as a security guard so he does not have to pay for a real one , and SpongeBob spectacularly decorates the Krusty Krab . Patrick , Squidward , and Mr. Krabs follow SpongeBob into the freezer where he shows them a giant Krabby Patty ice sculpture that he made himself . However , in attempt to take the ice sculpture outside , they accidentally knock SpongeBob out the open freezer door ; he then rebounds off the kitchen door and back into the freezer . The impact shuts the door and it locks , trapping all four friends inside . Mr. Krabs remembers that there is a way to escape without using the door , which is through the ventilation system . While finding their way through the maze of air vents , they look back at some memorable moments in their lives . To get out of the air shaft , SpongeBob molds Squidward , Patrick , and Mr. Krabs into a battering ram to bust out the shaft , and he finally makes it out , only to find that all the customers have left after waiting for so long without getting any food . However , SpongeBob summons them all back as he sings a song in honor of the Krusty Krab to the tune of O Tannenbaum . Meanwhile , Plankton finally finds the perfect opportunity to steal the Krabby Patty secret formula . He fails , having been caught by Mr. Krabs . The eleventy @-@ seventh anniversary celebration then goes ahead . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Writing and music = = = Truth or Square was written by Luke Brookshier , Nate Cash , Steven Banks , and Paul Tibbitt . The writers have described the television special as " Seinfeld @-@ esque " that parodies the recycled flashback episodes seen in Seinfeld , Friends and other U.S. shows . The featured song , " We 've Got Scurvy " , was sung by American singer and actress Pink . = = = Cast = = = SpongeBob 's Truth or Square stars the series main cast members including Tom Kenny , Bill Fagerbakke , Rodger Bumpass , Clancy Brown , Carolyn Lawrence , and Mr. Lawrence . In addition to the series cast , it featured Rosario Dawson , Craig Ferguson , Will Ferrell , Tina Fey , LeBron James , Triumph , the Insult Comic Dog , and Robin Williams as guest actors appearing as themselves in the live @-@ action sequences , while Ricky Gervais provided vocal cameo as the narrator . Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson said " Over the past decade , SpongeBob has become one of the most beloved characters in television history [ ... ] And we 're excited to cap off the year 's celebration with this star @-@ studded special anniversary event . " = = = Directing and animating = = = Andrew Overtoom , Alan Smart , and Tom Yasumi served as the special 's animation directors . It was a part of the series ' tenth anniversary celebration . The title sequence of SpongeBob for the special was made exclusively for the series ' tenth anniversary . It was animated in stop motion animation , with Cee Lo Green performing the theme . Mark Caballero , Seamus Walsh and Chris Finnegan of Screen Novelties , in 2009 , animated its opening titles . Finnegan claimed that the crew were " thrill [ ed ] " to do the title sequence because " the original title sequence is so recognizable and everyone seen it over and over and it 's so great in its own way . " Executive producer and the episode 's writer Paul Tibbitt said " We don 't just want to redraw it [ the original title sequence ] , we want it to be something special and different [ ... ] So we thought we would do it in three dimensions [ ... ] " Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson lauded the new title sequence and said it is " SO great ! " Some traditional animation on scraps of brown paper are intermixed into the stop motion . Tibbitt said that the " biggest surprise " for him in the new title sequence was " the treatment of Painty the Pirate in the beginning " as seen in a fortune teller machine . Mark Caballero , one of its animators , explained " our idea was like our goal is like the more disturbing , the better because I don 't think there is a fortune telling machine out there that doesn 't disturb when you see it . Tibbitt said " it was a great idea [ ... ] I was just expecting maybe a 3D version of the painting but we got something totally different and it 's very cool . " = = Release = = In a press release , Nickelodeon officially announced the special " event " on October 13 , 2009 . According to the network , the special include " SpongeBob 's first visit to the Krusty Krab as a baby , a vintage Krusty Krab TV commercial , how SpongeBob found his beloved pineapple house , and the time that SpongeBob and Sandy got married ! " Prior to the official announcement of the television special , Entertainment Weekly broke the news by releasing a clip featuring a scene where SpongeBob and Sandy getting married . It originally aired on Nickelodeon in the United States on November 6 , 2009 , along with " The Ultimate SpongeBob SpongeBash " marathon , Square Roots : The Story of SpongeBob SquarePants documentary , and a special SpongeBob episode entitled " To SquarePants or Not to SquarePants " . On November 10 , 2009 , it was released on the DVD compilation of the same name in the United States and Canada , on November 16 , 2009 in region 2 , and on October 29 , 2009 in region 4 . The DVD consists of five season six episodes , a short called Behind the Scenes of the SpongeBob Opening , and karaoke @-@ mode songs : " F.U.N. " , " Campfire Song " , and " We 've Got Scurvy " . It was also released in the series ' season six DVD compilation , alongside 24 other episodes including the special episode " SpongeBob vs. The Big One " . = = = Marketing = = = In 2009 , Burger King tied @-@ in with Nickelodeon to release a toyline based on the special . The toyline features SpongeBob , Patrick , Squidward , Mr. Krabs , Sandy , Plankton , Gary , and a Jellyfishin ' SpongeBob . The book titled The Great Escape ! that was a tie @-@ in to the special was released . The book was written by Emily Sollinger , published by Simon Spotlight / Nickelodeon , and was released on September 8 , 2009 . Another tie @-@ in book to the special was also released . The book titled Good Times ! was written by Erica David , illustrated by the Artifacts Group , and published by Simon Spotlight / Nickelodeon . Good Times ! was first released on September 8 , 2009 , then in 2011 . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = The premiere of SpongeBob 's Truth or Square on Friday , November 6 drew 7 @.@ 7 million total viewers , ranking as basic cable 's number @-@ one entertainment show for the week . It was also ranked as the week 's number one program among children in the demographic groups ages 6 – 11 and 2 @-@ 11 . = = = Critical response = = = SpongeBob 's Truth or Square received mixed critical response from critics and fans . Nancy Basile of the About.com gave the special positive reviews and wrote " I had doubts that the recent Truth or Square special of SpongeBob SquarePants would be funny or clever . I was quite wrong . " She added that " My kids and I were mesmerized . " Jose Strike of the Animation World Network positively reacted to the special and wrote " Truth or Square is a major treat ; in fact , I 'm so happy I think I 'll drop on the deck and flop like a fish ... " Ian Jane of DVD Talk said " Truth or Square isn 't your typical episode , as it mixes up a lot of live action material in with the more traditional animated sequences to very unusual effect . " He added " [ ... ] but there 's enough here in terms of the gags and the jokes that even if it 's not a classic episode , it 's still one worth seeing . " Nickelodeon animation president Brown Johnson said that the special is her favorite among the series . However , it was not immune to negative reception , and was criticized mainly due to the " Patchy the Pirate " segments . Paul Mavis from DVD Talk said " Truth or Square is a strange mix of some truly memorable animated SpongeBob moments interrupted unfortunately by the largely unfunny Patchy the Pirate segments . " He added " All of those amusing moments in Truth or Square , along with the A Charlie Brown Christmas ending , make one forget the patchy Patchy segments in Truth or Square . " Roy Hrab of DVD Verdict gave the episode a negative review saying " Wow ... This is without a doubt the lamest SpongeBob episode I have ever seen [ ... ] In fact , nothing interesting happens at all . The Patchy interludes and reliance on cameos merely draws attention to the episode 's lack of substance . " In 2010 , Tom Kenny won at the 37th Annie Awards for Best Voice Acting in a Television Production category for his performance as the voice of SpongeBob SquarePants in the special . = = Video game = = The video game SpongeBob 's Truth or Square that was based on this SpongeBob SquarePants television special was released for PlayStation Portable , Wii , Xbox 360 , and Nintendo DS . The game was first announce by THQ on May 21 , 2009 . Randy Shoemaker , the vice president for global brand management at THQ , said " SpongeBob 's Truth or Square provides the ultimate SpongeBob experience for kids , parents and SpongeBob fans of all ages [ ... ] The game delivers innovative new gameplay features combined with a story that celebrates 10 incredibly fun and zany years of SpongeBob . Whether you 're an avid SpongeBob fan or a first @-@ time gamer , you 'll want to join the top adventure this game offers . " It was published by THQ , developed by Heavy Iron Studios , and was released on October 26 , 2009 in North America . = Nationals ( Glee ) = " Nationals " is the twenty @-@ first episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the sixty @-@ fifth overall . Written by Ali Adler and directed by Eric Stoltz , the episode is the second of two new episodes that aired back @-@ to @-@ back on Fox in the United States on May 15 , 2012 . It features New Directions facing off against Vocal Adrenaline at the Nationals show choir competition in Chicago , and several special guest stars : Whoopi Goldberg as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux , Jonathan Groff as Vocal Adrenaline director Jesse St. James , Lindsay Lohan as herself judging the competition and Rex Lee playing a Chicago alderman who is another of the judges . The episode received mostly positive reviews , both in general and for the musical performances in particular . While reviewers were not impressed with the judging scene and highly critical of the inclusion of Emma and Will 's having sex for the first time as part of the post @-@ victory sequence , the overall quality was lauded by many . The musical numbers were widely praised , and although some critics felt that Vocal Adrenaline gave better performances than New Directions , the three main competition soloists — Rachel ( Lea Michele ) , Finn ( Cory Monteith ) and Unique ( Alex Newell ) — were especially singled out for encomiums . However , none of the episode 's seven songs charted on the Billboard Hot 100 , though two of the New Directions competition songs , Rachel 's " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " and the group number featuring Finn and her , " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " , did chart on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 03 million American viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 / 7 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was down slightly from " Props " in the previous hour , and more significantly down from " Prom @-@ asaurus " the week before . = = Plot = = The New Directions glee club is in Chicago for the national show choir competition , but Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) is sick in her hotel bed with a bad fever and stomach pains , possibly due to food poisoning . Will ( Matthew Morrison ) drafts Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) into the Troubletones number to add vocal heft with Mercedes sidelined , and Sue ( Jane Lynch ) starts medical measures to restore her to health . During final rehearsals , fights break out among the New Directions members , but are easily resolved because the intensity of their focus is on winning . On the day of the show , Rachel ( Lea Michele ) is accosted by Jesse St. James ( Jonathan Groff ) , her former boyfriend and current director of rival show choir Vocal Adrenaline . Jesse tries to hurt her confidence by bringing up her failed NYADA audition before Carmen Tibideaux ( Whoopi Goldberg ) , but she realizes his intent and that his own uncertainty is showing . The Nationals judges are introduced : Lindsay Lohan , Perez Hilton , and Chicago alderman Martin Fong ( Rex Lee ) . New Directions is the first group to compete , and Mercedes arrives just in time to go onstage with the group , healthy again thanks to Sue . The Troubletones lead off with " The Edge of Glory " . Rachel then performs " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " . Carmen arrives during the number , for which Rachel receives a standing ovation . The finale is " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " , which also brings the audience to its feet , and gets an approving whistle from Carmen . Later , in the lobby , Jesse approaches Carmen and recommends Rachel for NYADA . Mercedes and Kurt go to the Vocal Adrenaline dressing room to wish lead singer Wade " Unique " Adams ( Alex Newell ) good luck , but he tells them that he that he has chosen not to perform because he can no longer take the pressure of his new celebrity status . Kurt suggests that Unique , Wade 's transgender alter ego , might be able to handle what Wade is unable to , and the teen starts to get ready . On stage , Unique and Vocal Adrenaline perform " Starships " and " Pinball Wizard " . The judges name Unique the Nationals MVP , but they award the Nationals trophy to New Directions , with Vocal Adrenaline in second place . Back at McKinley , the glee club members are treated as heroes by the school . Sue is restored as sole coach of the Cheerios , displacing co @-@ coach Roz Washington ( NeNe Leakes ) . At their apartment , Emma ( Jayma Mays ) and Will have sex for the first time . Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) arranges with Finn and Rachel for New Directions to perform the next night at the Teacher of the Year ceremony , which is won by Will . The group congratulates Will and performs " We Are the Champions " . = = Production = = The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Ali Adler and directed by Eric Stoltz . Shooting of the episode had begun by April 18 , 2012 , and continued at least through April 27 , 2012 ; the final episode of the season began filming the following Monday , April 30 , 2012 . The final day of shooting the Nationals competition scenes , April 26 , 2012 , was also the day that the show celebrated filming its 400th musical performance . The New Directions portion of the competition includes three songs : Lady Gaga 's " The Edge of Glory " performed by the Troubletones , Celine Dion 's " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " sung by Michele , and a group performance of Meat Loaf 's " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " with Monteith and Michele as primary leads . These three songs were released as singles for digital download , along with an additional four from the episode : Nicki Minaj 's " Starships " and The Who 's " Pinball Wizard " , both performed by Newell with Vocal Adrenaline , as well as Queen 's " We Are the Champions " performed by New Directions featuring Monteith , Michele , Agron , Colfer , Naya Rivera and Mark Salling , and Grouplove 's " Tongue Tied " , also by New Directions . " The Edge of Glory " and " We Are the Champions " are also featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , The Graduation Album , with the former song retitled " Edge of Glory " in both single and album releases . Special guest stars include Goldberg as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux , Groff as Vocal Adrenaline director Jesse St. James , and actress Lindsay Lohan and gossip columnist Perez Hilton as themselves , in the role of celebrity judges for the competition . Rex Lee plays Alderman Martin Fong , another judge . Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include glee club members Sam Evans ( Chord Overstreet ) , Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) , Joe Hart ( Samuel Larsen ) and Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , Principal Figgins ( Theba ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , synchronized swimming coach Roz Washington ( Leakes ) , retiring teacher Mrs. Hagberg ( Mary Gillis ) and Vocal Adrenaline transgender lead vocalist Wade " Unique " Adams ( Newell ) . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Nationals " was first broadcast on May 15 , 2012 in the United States on Fox , as the second hour in a two @-@ hour special evening with " Props " having aired in the first hour at the show 's regular broadcast time . It received a 2 @.@ 5 / 7 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 6 @.@ 03 million American viewers during its initial broadcast , slightly lower than the 2 @.@ 5 / 8 rating / share and 6 @.@ 09 million viewers during " Props " in the hour before , but a significant decrease from the 2 @.@ 7 / 8 rating / share and 6 @.@ 67 million viewers of the previous week 's episode , " Prom @-@ asaurus " , which was broadcast on May 8 , 2012 . In Canada , which also aired the episode as the second hour of a two @-@ episode special on the same day as its American premiere , viewership rose significantly , by over 16 % to 1 @.@ 56 million viewers from the 1 @.@ 34 million viewers for the first hour . " Nationals " was the tenth most @-@ viewed show of the week as compared to " Props " , which had been fourteenth most @-@ viewed . " Nationals " viewership was still down by over 5 % from the 1 @.@ 65 million viewers who watched " Prom @-@ asaurus " the week before . Although the United Kingdom also aired these two episodes together , " Nationals " aired in the show 's regular time slot , while " Props " aired an hour earlier than usual . Viewership fell in the second hour , though it remained higher than the previous week . " Nationals " first aired on May 17 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 776 @,@ 000 viewers . This was down slightly from the 795 @,@ 000 viewers in the earlier hour , but was an increase of over 4 % from the previous week 's episode , " Prom @-@ asaurus " , which attracted 744 @,@ 000 viewers . In Australia , " Nationals " was broadcast on May 24 , 2012 , a week after " Props " aired , rather than on the same night as in the other three . It was watched by 618 @,@ 000 viewers , up slightly from the 607 @,@ 000 viewers for " Props " on May 17 , 2012 . Glee was the seventeenth most @-@ watched program of the night for the second week in a row . = = = Critical reception = = = The episode was given positive reviews by most critics . Michael Slezak of TVLine described it as a " spectacular hour of jaw @-@ dropping musical numbers and satisfying plot developments " , and The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff called it " one of the finest episodes the show 's ever done and perhaps the best it 's done since the season one finale " . He gave it an " A " grade . Jeff Dodge of BuddyTV said that episode gave " quality to go along with some great music " , and Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker wrote that the evening 's two episodes were a " return to form for the show " . Rae Votta of Billboard , on the other hand , said that by having " Props " and " Nationals " air back to back , " they both lose their individual potent high points and come out blander than they deserve " , and characterized " Nationals " as " jarring and strange " . Both Huffington Post 's Crystal Bell and Washington Post 's Jen Chaney wanted to " be honest " about Vocal Adrenaline vs. New Directions in the competition : Bell said that Vocal Adrenaline " put on the better show " and Chaney wrote that they were " better than New Directions " : " their dance moves were sharper and more in sync , and Unique 's Minaj @-@ esque magnetism factor sold the whole thing " . VanDerWerff wrote that he " could quibble that Vocal Adrenaline had stronger choreography overall " or that he " found Unique a more engaging performer than Rachel " , but that as " New Directions also used its whole ensemble better than Vocal Adrenaline did " , he felt that " either outcome seemed reasonable " . Dodge simply stated , " We all knew that New Directions would win and they 'd get their happily ever after , but it was exciting to see it finally all play out . " Bell wrote that " seeing the judges debate behind @-@ the @-@ scenes kind of takes away the entire title " , though she appreciated Lohan 's Freaky Friday reference . VanDerWerff said that the judging scene " wasn 't very good " , and Votta described it as " mostly waste [ d ] " . Futterman wrote that there was " not really any emotion " in Lohan 's lines , though Strecker thought that the " lines they gave her were pretty funny — if not a bit sad " . Reviewers were critical of what Votta called " a really regrettable sequence where Emma leaves a pamphlet about losing her virginity on Schue 's desk and then they finally have sex " . Bell characterized it as " weird and uncomfortable , and the reasoning was horrendously misogynistic " , and VanDerWerff thought that making it part of the post @-@ Nationals victory montage as " a little too creepy , at best " . Votta thought that though the victory segment " should feel joyous " , it instead feels " awkward and emotion @-@ less " . Will 's being awarded " Teacher of the Year " was called " surprising " by Strecker , who hearkened back to him having " discovered that he wasn 't so good " at teaching Spanish " a few months ago " . Bell asked how it was " possible " for Quinn to so rapidly recover her ability to walk and then dance , something also touched on by VanDerWerff , who was again critical of " Fox 's rampant abuse of the Twitter hashtag thing " by displaying onscreen hashtags during the episode . Strecker praised Jesse 's scenes , and said she " couldn 't stop cracking up " . = = = Music and performances = = = As with the episode , the musical performances were mostly received with enthusiasm by reviewers . VanDerWerff wrote that the " big performances " were " all aces " . Of the seven songs , the one that received the fewest comments was " Tongue Tied " , which Strecker described as " montage music " and graded a " B " . As Chaney noted , it " wasn 't a number so much as a musical celebration of New Directions ' championship status " , but it nevertheless received an " A − " grade from her and from Slezak . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman called it a " spirited take on Grouplove " . Of all the songs performed in competition , " The Edge of Glory " was given the most mixed reception . Chaney gave the song a " C " grade , and said that while it " started strong " the energy level was " lacking " , a word that Futterman used to describe the performance as a whole , to which she added " emotionless and rushed " . A diametric view of the song was evident in the " A − " grades given by both Slezak and Strecker , and the latter also complimented the " different " arrangement while both were enthusiastic about the entire set of three songs : Slezak said New Directions " completely killed it " , and Strecker said this song " kicked off what was a truly an all @-@ time great performance " . That performance continued with " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " , which was widely praised . Dodge said that it , like the prior song , was " covered to perfection " . Although Chaney said she hated that song , she wrote that Michele hit it " out of the park " and gave it an " A " , the same grade Strecker gave with the encomium " outstanding " , and added that she then " rewatched three times " . An " A " was not sufficient for Slezak , who declared that it was " one of Glee 's five best vocals ever " and gave it an " A + " . Futterman " loved " the song except for its ending , which she described as " an abrupt cliffhanger " . The New Directions set closed with " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " . While a number of reviewers , including Chaney and Dodge , questioned the choice of the song for a variety of reasons , they expressed enthusiasm with the final result . Jyll Saskin of MTV called it a " quirky yet catchy song choice " that " was the episode 's standout " , and both Slezak and Strecker gave it an " A " grade ; the latter said it was the " real group number " of the three and added , " The vocals , choreography and energy were all top @-@ notch . " Chaney 's grade of " A − " came with the declaration that " this may have been Finn at his absolute best " and Futterman said he did " a surprisingly decent Meatloaf " ; Futterman added that the " already theatrical song is somehow made better by the show choir arrangement " . VanDerWerff described it as " one of the better New Directions group performances " . The two Vocal Adrenaline performances were generally very well received ; as noted above , Bell and Chaney used very similar words to explain why they thought Vocal Adrenaline was " better " than New Directions . " Starships " , the first number , was also the more praised of the two : Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson said that it " stole the show " for him , and was the best musical number of the night . Flandez called it " an electric and sassy delivery " by Unique , and Strecker asked " is there anything she can 't do " before she gave the performance an " A − " . Futterman thought it felt " more subdued than the warp @-@ speed of Minaj 's hit " though she added that the " stage acrobatics trump everything anyone else does " , and Saskin said it " was fun to watch , but the vocals don 't add much to the original version " . Slezak gave it an " A " grade and praised the " dazzling " choreography of both numbers . " Pinball Wizard " was called " turbo @-@ charged from beginning to end " by Flandez , and both Strecker and Slezak gave the song a " B + " grade ; the former 's enthusiasm was tempered by the arrangement , which was not very " different from just karaoke of the original " , and the dancing on the pinball machines as " a bit much for my taste " . Futterman said that Unique " riffs the hell out the song " , but added that " the robot dancers of Vocal Adrenaline make it hard to glean any personality from the performance " . Dodge wrote , " This one I 'm liking even less than the first " , but Saskin said , " Mercedes needs to watch out , because Unique sure can belt it out ! " The episode 's closing number , " We Are the Champions " , received excellent grades : A from Slezak and Chaney , and an " A − " from Strecker . Saskin wrote that it was " a new Glee classic " , and Chaney said it " worked wonderfully as an assertion of the New Directions ' championship status " . Futterman described the performance as " rife with emotion " and added , " It 's moments like this that are pure and straight to the show 's original appeal " , while Strecker complimented the song choice and how " it really showcased the group 's harmonies " . In December 2012 , TV Guide listed the rendition as one of Glee 's best performances . = = = Chart history = = = Two of the seven singles released for the episode charted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 : " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " , which debuted at number seventy @-@ five , and " Paradise by the Dashboard Light " , which debuted at number ninety @-@ four . Neither song charted on the US Billboard Hot 100 , but two other singles from the episode affected the charting there of songs by the original artists . " Tongue Tied " sold 22 @,@ 000 copies in the Glee version , and did well enough in the Grouplove original to re @-@ enter the Billboard Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ four , close to the song 's previous chart high of sixty @-@ nine , while " Starships " sold 18 @,@ 000 in the Glee version and 174 @,@ 000 in the Nicki Minaj original , which moved from six to five on the Hot 100 , matching its highest chart position to date . " It 's All Coming Back to Me Now " charted at number one at the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles on June 2 , 2012 . = Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy = " Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy " is the fourteenth episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on February 17 , 1994 . In the episode , Lisa challenges the makers of the Malibu Stacy doll to create a less sexist doll . Together with the original creator of Malibu Stacy , Stacy Lovell , Lisa creates the doll Lisa Lionheart in an effort to positively influence young girls . The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . The episode 's plot was inspired by the Teen Talk Barbie line of talking dolls , which spoke short phrases typical of a middle class American teenager . Kathleen Turner guest starred in the episode as Stacy Lovell , creator of Malibu Stacy . It features cultural references to action figures such as Ken and G.I. Joe . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 , and was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired . = = Plot = = Dr. Hibbert introduces a frail Ben Matlock to a crowd of excited seniors at the Grand Opening of the Center for Geriatric Medicine . After seeing his idol mobbed to the ground by fans , Abe becomes aware of his mortality and gives the family their inheritances early . He leaves the family a box of old silver dollars ( which Abe explains he got when Rockefeller flew by his house in a balloon , dropping money ) that they decide to spend at the mall right away . At the mall , Lisa sees the new talking Malibu Stacy doll in a toy store . Throughout the trip home , Abe will not stop telling stories and spouting useless advice , making the family shun him . Grampa asks if its because he reminds them of the grim spectre of death , but Homer explains that although they love him , Grampa is an annoying old crank who is unpleasant to spend time with . Lisa is anxious to hear what the talking Malibu Stacy has to say , but is disappointed with her sexist phrases ( such as " Don 't ask me , I 'm just a girl " and " Thinking too much gives you wrinkles " ) . Lisa is angry that no one else can see the ridiculousness of the doll . She and Abe sit at the kitchen table , bemoaning how they are treated because of their age while both of them decide to change , Abe to get a job , and Lisa to find Malibu Stacy 's creator , Stacy Lovell . Lisa visits Waylon Smithers , owner of the world 's largest Malibu Stacy collection , and asks for help in finding Lovell , who was ousted from the Malibu Stacy company in 1974 . Lisa bikes to Lovell 's house and plays one of the doll 's phrases over the intercom . The gate immediately opens . Lisa and Lovell decide to create a new talking doll , Lisa Lionheart , voiced by Lisa herself . The doll is quietly released , but the executives of Malibu Stacy have a meeting in which they agree that Lisa 's doll is a real threat because it might hurt the sales of their doll . Meanwhile , Abe struggles with his new job at Krusty Burger , suffering a war flashback at the drive @-@ in and losing his false teeth making burgers . He soon becomes angry at the way seniors are treated , and quits . After a slow initial release , Lisa Lionheart suddenly gains popularity among the fans of Malibu Stacy after being featured in Kent Brockman 's news show . At the mall , as kids , and Smithers , rush out to buy Lisa Lionheart , a cart of new Malibu Stacy dolls with new hats is wheeled right into the path of the group running for the Lionheart display . Lisa appeals to them that it is just the same doll with a " stupid , cheap " hat , but they all prefer to stick with Malibu Stacy , largely due to the encouragement of Smithers , except for one little girl , who leaves with a Lisa Lionheart doll . Despite the fact that the doll is a failure , Lisa takes heart that her message was able to get through to at least one little girl . = = Production = = The episode was written by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein , and directed by Jeffrey Lynch . Before the episode aired , Malibu Stacy had already appeared many times on the show as one of Lisa 's dolls . The staff were trying to come up with an idea for an episode by going through the companies in the Simpsons universe , and Oakley suggested an episode involving the Malibu Stacy company . The plot of the episode was inspired by the Teen Talk Barbie line of talking dolls that caused controversy in the United States in the early 1990s . In July 1992 , Mattel released Teen Talk Barbie , which spoke a number of phrases including " Will we ever have enough clothes ? " , " I love shopping ! " , and " Wanna have a pizza party ? " Each doll was programmed to say four out of 270 possible phrases , so that no two dolls were likely to be the same . One of these 270 phrases was " Math class is tough ! " . Although only about 1 @.@ 5 % of all the dolls sold said the phrase , it led to criticism from the American Association of University Women because they deemed that to be demeaning to women . In October 1992 , Mattel announced that Teen Talk Barbie would no longer say the phrase , and offered a swap to anyone who owned a doll that did . Oakley and Weinstein decided to include Abe in the episode because they had an " obsession " with old people . Weinstein said they both " love them and seem to really hate them " at the same time . He also said that they enjoy writing for characters such as Abe and Mr. Burns because of their " out @-@ datedness " , and because he and Oakley get to use dictionaries for looking up " old time slang " . Executive producer David Mirkin thought it was difficult to make Abe funny because he is a " boring and tedious " character . He thinks that even though " Abe 's doing all these complaints , what makes him funny is that the things he says are actually funny in the context of the boring and tedium . " Mirkin thought this was a " big challenge , and Bill and Josh pulled it off very well . " When the episode was in production , Oakley 's wife Rachel Pulido was an enthusiastic Barbie collector . Oakley therefore spent a lot of time going to Barbie conventions across the United States and met many different collectors . At one convention , Oakley met the man who owned the world 's largest Barbie collection . The meeting between the two inspired the part of the episode where Lisa visits Smithers and it is revealed that Smithers is the owner of the world 's largest Malibu Stacy collection . Kathleen Turner guest starred in the episode as Stacy Lovell . Mirkin thought Turner was " completely game " when she showed up at the recording studio to record her lines as she " nailed " her lines really fast . He added that he enjoyed directing her and he thought she had one of the best performances ever on The Simpsons . = = Cultural references = = At the beginning of the episode , Abe watches his idol Ben Matlock talk to a crowd of excited seniors at the Grand Opening of the Center for Geriatric Medicine . Ben Matlock is a character from the NBC / ABC television series Matlock , portrayed by Andy Griffith and created by Dean Hargrove . The crowd cheer for Matlock by singing a slightly changed version of the " We Love You , Conrad " song from stage musical Bye Bye Birdie . Homer dances on giant piano keys recessed in the floor of the toy store , spoofing a scene from the 1988 film Big . Lisa wants Lisa Lionheart to have " the wisdom of Gertrude Stein , the wit of Cathy Guisewite , the tenacity of Nina Totenberg , the common sense of Elizabeth Cady Stanton , and the down @-@ to @-@ earth good looks of Eleanor Roosevelt . " Stacy Lovell 's list of husbands features the action figures Ken , Johnny West , G.I. Joe , Doctor Colossus , and Steve Austin . Lisa 's story about the Malibu Stacy doll saying phrases that are considered demeaning to women is based on the Teen Talk Barbie line of dolls and how they caused controversy . During one scene in the episode , one girl 's Malibu Stacy doll says " My Spidey Sense is tingling ! Anyone call for a web @-@ slinger ? " , a reference to a practical joke by the Barbie Liberation Organization in the early 1990s in which the voiceboxes of talking Barbie and G.I. Joe toys were swapped . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Lisa vs. Malibu Stacy " finished 23rd in the ratings for the week of February 14 – 20 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 6 , equivalent to 11 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson thought the episode was " good but not great " , despite " more than a few strong moments , like the hilarious shot of Bart at the gay rights parade . " He added that " most years this would be an A @-@ list program , but it ’ s one of season five ’ s lesser lights despite a generally high level of quality . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , described the episode as " Lisa at her crusading best , Homer at his stupidest and Abe getting all the best lines again , especially at Krusty Burgers . Kathleen Turner 's spot as the real Malibu Stacy is superb . " Janica Lockhart of The Easterner called the episode a " classic " and added : " The episode takes on misogynist views , but in a humorous way , that only The Simpsons can master . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of A , and DVD Talk 's Bill Gibron gave it a score of 5 out of 5 . The episode is one of Oakley and Weinstein 's favorites from their time as writers on the show . One of Mirkin 's favorite jokes on the show is the scene in this episode where Abe cycles down the street , shouting " Look at me , I 'm acting young ! " before Lisa 's Malibu Stacy doll catches the front wheel of the bike , sending Abe flying into an open grave . In the book The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , Aeon J. Skoble cited the episode as an example in his piece titled : " Do We Admire or Laugh at Lisa ? " . He wrote : " The fact that the less intellectual doll is vastly preferred over Lisa 's doll , even though Lisa 's objections are reasonable , demonstrates the ways in which reasonable ideas can be made to take a back seat to having fun and going with the flow . This debate is often played out in the real world , of course : Barbie is the subject of perennial criticism along the lines of Lisa 's critique of Malibu Stacy , yet remains immensely popular , and in general , we often see intellectual critiques of toys dismissed as ' out of touch ' or elitist . " = Your Cheatin ' Heart = " Your Cheatin ' Heart " is a song written and recorded by country music singer @-@ songwriter Hank Williams in 1952 , regarded as one of country 's most important standards . Country music historian Colin Escott writes that " the song - for all intents and purposes - defines country music . " He was inspired to write the song while driving with his fianceé from Nashville , Tennessee to Shreveport , Louisiana . After describing his first wife Audrey Sheppard as a " Cheatin ' Heart " , he dictated in minutes the lyrics to Billie Jean Jones . Produced by Fred Rose , Williams recorded the song on his last session at Castle Records in Nashville , Tennessee , on September 23 . " Your Cheatin ' Heart " was released in January 1953 . Propelled by Williams ' recent death during a trip to a New Year 's concert in Canton , Ohio , the song became an instant success . It topped Billboard 's Country & Western chart for six weeks , while over a million units were sold . The success of the song continued . Joni James ' version reached number two on Billboard 's Most Played in Jukeboxes the same year , while Ray Charles ' 1962 version reached number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and 13 on the UK Singles Chart . The song ranked at 217 on Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time , and was ranked number 5 on Country Music Television 's 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music . = = Background = = By 1952 , Williams was enjoying a successful streak , releasing multiple hits , including " Honky Tonk Blues " , " Half as Much " , " Settin ' the Woods on Fire " , " Jambalaya ( On the Bayou ) " and " You Win Again " . While his career was soaring , his marriage to Audrey Sheppard became turbulent . He developed serious problems with alcohol , morphine and painkillers prescribed to ease his severe back pain caused by spina bifida . The couple divorced on May 29 , and Williams moved in with his mother . Soon after , Williams met Billie Jean Jones backstage at the Ryman Auditorium , a native of Shreveport , Louisiana , " who was , at the time , dating Faron Young . Williams started dating Jones , upon the end of her relationship with Young and soon began to plan their marriage . While driving from Nashville , Tennessee to Shreveport to announce the wedding to her parents , Williams talked to her about his previous marriage and described Audrey Sheppard as a " cheatin ' heart " , adding that one day she would " have to pay " . Inspired by his line , he instructed Jones to take his notebook and write down the lyrics of the song that he quickly dictated to her . The finished composition included the line " You 'll walk the floor , the way I do " , which evoked Ernest Tubb 's hit " Walking the Floor Over You " . = = Recording and release = = Williams recorded the song on September 23 at the Castle Studios in Nashville . The session , which became Williams ' last , also produced the A @-@ side " Kaw @-@ Liga " , as well as the songs " I Could Never Be Ashamed of You " and " Take These Chains from My Heart " . It was produced by Williams ' publisher Fred Rose , who made minor arrangements of the lyrics of " Your Cheatin ' Heart " . Williams described the song to his friend , Braxton Schuffert , as he was about to play it , as " the best heart song ( he ) ever wrote " . Williams is backed on the session by Tommy Jackson ( fiddle ) , Don Helms ( steel guitar ) , Chet Atkins ( lead guitar ) , Jack Shook ( rhythm guitar ) , and Floyd " Lightnin ' " Chance ( bass ) . While traveling to a scheduled New Year 's show in Canton , Ohio , the driver found Williams dead on the backseat of the car during a stop in Oak Hill , West Virginia . " Your Cheatin ' Heart " was released at the end of January 1953 . Propelled by Williams ' death , the song and the A @-@ side " Kaw @-@ Liga " became a hit , selling over a million records . Billboard initially described the songs as " superlative tunes and performances " , emphasizing the sales potential . Within a short time from its release , the song reached number one on Billboard 's Top C & W Records , where it remained for six weeks . A demo version of Williams singing " Your Cheatin ' Heart " with just his guitar , likely recorded in 1951 , is also available . = = Legacy = = Released in the wake of his passing , the song became synonymous with the myth of Hank Williams as a haunted , lonely figure who expressed pain with an authenticity that became the standard for country music . The name of the song was used as the title of Hank Williams ' 1964 biopic . " Your Cheatin ' Heart " , as well as other songs by Williams were performed on the movie , with George Hamilton dubbing the soundtrack album recorded by Williams ' son , Hank Williams , Jr . In the 2003 documentary series Lost Highway , country music historian Ronnie Pugh comments , " It 's Hank 's anthem , it 's his musical last will and testament . It 's searing , it 's powerful , it 's gripping . If you want to say this is his last and best work , I wouldn 't argue with that . " AllMusic described the track as the " signature song " of Hank Williams , and an " unofficial anthem " of country music . Rolling Stone called it " one of the greatest country standards of all time " , ranking it at number 217 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . The song ranked at number 5 in Country Music Television 's 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music in 2003 @,@ Two Pepsi Super Bowl commercials featured the song , one aired during Super Bowl XXX , featured Williams ' recording while a Coca @-@ Cola deliveryman grabbed a Pepsi . The second one , aired during Super Bowl XLVI , featured the same situation , but with the song covered by Jennifer Nettles of Sugarland . The song forms the title of the 1990 TV drama ' Your Cheatin ' Heart ' by John Byrne . = = Cover versions = = A version of the song by Joni James , released in 1953 , reached number 2 on Billboard 's Most Played in Jukeboxes . James later declared that she did not hear Williams ' original version of the song , but decided to record it after reading the lyrics . In 1953 Frankie Laine 's version reached number 18 on the Most Played in Jukeboxes chart . Louis Armstrong recorded it for Decca Records . Dean Martin sang the song on the Colgate Comedy Hour in 1953 . Gene Vincent recorded a version on December 6 , 1957 at the Capitol Tower in Hollywood . The song appears on Elvis Presley 's 1965 LP Elvis for Everyone . In 1962 , a version by Ray Charles reached number 29 on the Billboard Hot 100 and 23 on the R & B chart , while it also charted at number 13 on the UK Singles Chart . Nat King Cole recorded it for his 1962 album Ramblin ' Rose . George Jones included the song on his 1962 LP My Favorites of Hank Williams . King Curtis cut the song for his 1962 LP Country Soul . Patsy Cline recorded it for her 1962 album Sentimentally Yours . Del Shannon chose to record the song for his 1964 LP Del Shannon Sings Hank Williams . Fats Domino released it as a single in February 1964 and it appears on his album Let the Four Winds Blow . Jerry Lee Lewis recorded the song during his tenure at Sun Records and it also appears on his 1964 album Live at the Star Club , Hamburg . Ernest Tubb included it on his 1968 LP Ernest Tubb Sings Hank Williams . Loretta Lynn included it on her 1966 album " I Like ' Em Country " . Stonewall Jackson included the song on his 1969 LP A Tribute to Hank Williams . James Brown recorded a funky version of the song for his 1969 album Soul on Top . The song appears on the 1973 Glen Campbell LP Glen Travis Campbell . Mick Jagger references the song in the lyrics to the Rolling Stones 1974 single " It 's Only Rock ' n ' Roll ( But I Like It ) . " Moe Bandy recorded the song for his 1983 tribute Sings the Songs of Hank Williams . The The recorded the song for their 1995 tribute album Hanky Panky . LeAnn Rimes recorded the song for her 1999 self @-@ titled album . Beck recorded the song for the 2001 tribute album Timeless : Hank Williams Tribute . Frantic Flintstones recorded their cover of the song in 2002 for their album " Rock it Boy " . Van Morrison covered the song on his 2006 album Pay the Devil . Kelly Clarkson included the song on her 2012 EP The Smoakstack Sessions Vol . 2 = = Chart performance = = = = = Hank Williams = = = = = = Cover versions = = = = Claire Redfield = Claire Redfield ( クレア・レッドフィールド , Kurea Reddofīrudo ) is a fictional character in the Resident Evil ( Biohazard in Japan ) horror franchise by Capcom . Claire is the younger sister of Chris Redfield , an American special police officer who is a protagonist of the first Resident Evil game , and is herself a protagonist of the video games Resident Evil 2 and Resident Evil - Code : Veronica , where she is a zombie outbreak survivor turned a vigilante . She returned as an abducted activist in the video game Resident Evil : Revelations 2 after being absent from the main series for a decade and half since Code : Veronica . Claire has also appeared in various other media , including several additional video games , the computer @-@ animated film Resident Evil : Degeneration , and the non @-@ canon live @-@ action films Resident Evil : Extinction , Resident Evil : Afterlife and the upcoming Resident Evil : The Final Chapter , as well as in the promotion and merchandise for the franchise . She was very well received by critics and became one of the most popular Resident Evil characters . = = Appearances = = = = = In video games = = = Claire first appears in Resident Evil 2 ( 1998 ) , which revolves around her search for her missing brother Chris , an officer in the local police special force STARS . Claire arrives in the Midwestern United States town of Raccoon City to find it overrun by zombies . She soon meets up with a rookie cop Leon S. Kennedy , but along the way she is separated from him . The rest of the game focuses on Claire 's struggle to escape from the city alive . She maintains radio contact with Leon and teams up with a young girl named Sherry , while fighting against the various undead creatures infesting the Raccoon Police Department building , including the mutated scientist William Birkin . Claire eventually escapes from the city through the Umbrella Corporation 's underground research complex along with Leon and Sherry , after the three of them manage to destroy Birkin . As revealed in the epilogue of Resident Evil 3 : Nemesis , Claire left to continue her search for Chris , while Leon and Sherry were rescued by the U.S. military . Claire , still searching for her brother , is a playable for the bulk of Resident Evil - Code : Veronica ( 2000 ) , set three months after the events of Resident Evil 2 . After an unsuccessful infiltration of Umbrella 's medical branch in Paris , Claire finds herself imprisoned on Umbrella @-@ owned Rockfort Island . She escapes following another viral outbreak caused by a rival corporation of Umbrella 's and teams up with fellow ex @-@ prisoner Steve Burnside . Claire manages to discover the whereabouts of her brother and send a message to Leon . Claire , Steve and the arriving Chris escape from the island , only to find themselves in another of Umbrella 's secret labs , this time in Antarctica , before they are taken captive by the antagonist Alexia Ashford . The second half of the game follows Chris trying to save his captured sister from Umbrella . Chris finds his way into the Antarctic lab and rescues her before their final battle with Alexia , which costs Steve 's life , and the siblings escape from the facility via the transport airplane he used to get there . During the game 's ending they vow to put an end to the Umbrella Corporation . In the PlayStation 2 version , Veronica X , Claire also has a brief encounter with the series ' main villain Albert Wesker that would have resulted in her death had Wesker not been called away by his associates . Claire returned as a protagonist in the episodical game Resident Evil : Revelations 2 ( 2015 ) , set between the events of Resident Evil 5 and Resident Evil 6 . Claire is now a member of TerraSave , a non @-@ profit humanitarian aid and protest activism organization . The game follows her and Barry Burton 's daughter Moira as they get kidnapped and find themselves trapped in a mysterious abandoned prison island . There they fight Alex Wesker and the " Afflicted " creatures . In the end both of them survive the events along with Barry , who arrived to look for them , and a little girl named Natalia Korda . Claire is also playable in Resident Evil : The Darkside Chronicles ( 2009 ) , which retells the events of Resident Evil 2 and Code : Veronica , and in Resident Evil : Uprising , a mobile game version of Resident Evil 2 . She is a further playable in the uncanonical spin @-@ off games Resident Evil : The Mercenaries 3D ( 2011 ) , and in Resident Evil : Operation Raccoon City ( 2012 ) where she is also on the game 's bosses in the game 's main mode . In addition , Claire is one of two playable characters in Resident Evil : Zombie Busters , which started as a browser game in the Capcom Party line and in 2011 was converted for mobile phones . She is also an unlockable bonus character in sports game Trick 'N Snowboarder ( 1999 ) , and in 2013 she has been added to the browser @-@ based social game Onimusha Soul , for which she was redesigned to fit the feudal Japan theme . = = = = Behind the scenes = = = = Claire Redfield was originally known as ' Elza Walker ' , the female lead in the original version of Resident Evil 2 ( in 1997 , after a year of work , this version of the game was scrapped by the development team and is now widely referred to as " Resident Evil 1 @.@ 5 " ) . In the released version of the game , rewritten by Noboru Sugimura , Elza Walker , a blond college student and motorcycle racer , was changed into Chris Redfield 's sister named Claire . Her appearance and background remained mostly unchanged , but she was given an explanation for her skills with firearms and other weapons and her reason for coming to Raccoon City was to search for Chris , as opposed to trying to recruit fans at Raccoon City university to form a racing team back in her hometown . She was also given physical features which more closely resemble her brother , her signature jacket with " Made in Heaven " printed on the back , and a sheath for a standard @-@ issue STARS knife from Chris . These changes that occurred were done to connect Resident Evil 2 to the original game . Code : Veronica producer Shinji Mikami said " Claire became a lot tougher than I Imagined . I thought she should look the same , but the game director made her that way because she had such an experience in Resident Evil 2 , she could handle any situation now ! " For Revelations 2 , the now hardened and aggressive Claire was redesigned to be a contrasting character to the young , immature and easily scared Moira Burton , who was defined as a purely supporting character , and they both serve different roles in the story and have different functions . Producer Michiteru Okabe said : " Really , only after did we look back and say , ' Oh , I guess they are both girls . ' Which is good , because it means we ’ re treating them as whole characters and not just as their gender . What we settled on is the idea that you have different roles -- it isn ’ t two against the world , it ’ s one against the world with a helper . " Okabe also said the game 's writer Dai Satō " is a big fan of her personally " which was one of the factors that led to Claire 's return . = = = In films = = = In Paul W. S. Anderson 's film Resident Evil : Extinction ( 2007 ) , Claire is the leader of a convoy of zombie apocalypse survivors who , at the end of the film , go to Alaska in search of a safe haven . A live action spin @-@ off featuring Claire as the main character has also been suggested . In Resident Evil : Afterlife ( 2010 ) , Claire is ambushed by the Umbrella Corporation and manipulated by a device that controls her and impairs her memory by injecting a drug into her bloodstream , before she is rescued by Alice and reunited with her brother Chris . Together , the three manage to defeat Albert Wesker with the help of convoy survivor K @-@ Mart , who had been a close friend of Alice and Claire , and find themselves preparing to fend off an attack by Umbrella led by a device @-@ controlled Jill Valentine . Claire did not return in Resident Evil : Retribution , where she , Chris , and K @-@ Mart are presumed dead but were captured by Umbrella . She is set to return in the sixth and last film in the series , Resident Evil : The Final Chapter , again to be portrayed by Larter . The character of Claire Redfield from the Resident Evil live @-@ action universe did not exist in the early drafts of Extinction , as Jill Valentine was supposed to re @-@ appear from her debut in Resident Evil : Apocalypse . Later , Anderson and producer Jeremy Bolt decided to have a separate game character appear alongside the previous film 's lead Alice : " We thought , rather than bring Jill back , put her with another game heroine . " The Extinction version of Claire has no connection to the video game character and her look has been completely redesigned , including having blonde hair . Since Afterlife , however , Larter was dressed in the outfit more resembling Claire 's costumes in the games and she is red @-@ haired in the follow @-@ up films . The video game series ' Claire plays a major role in the computer @-@ animated film Resident Evil : Degeneration ( 2008 ) , reuniting her with Leon S. Kennedy . The film is set seven years after the events of Resident Evil 2 and Claire has become a prominent TerraSave member . In it , Claire and the police officer Angela Miller are rescued from a bio @-@ terrorist incident at the Harvardville Airport by Leon . Together , the three of them also survive a zombie outbreak at the WilPharma Corporation 's research complex , and eventually expose and arrest the corrupt scientist Frederic Downing . = = = Other appearances = = = A romantic comedy retelling of the story of Resident Evil 2 , centered on Claire , Leon and Ada , was released by Chingwin Publishing in the two @-@ issue Taiwanese comic Èlíng Gǔbǎo II in 1999 . Claire is prominently in S.D. Perry 's 1999 novels Resident Evil : City of the Dead ( a novelization of Resident Evil 2 ) and Resident Evil Code Veronica ( a novelization of the game of the same title and the last book in the series ) , as well as in the 1998 – 1999 manhua Shēnghuà Wēijī 2 ( " Biological Crisis 2 " ) , and in the comic book adaptation series Resident Evil by Capcom ( 1998 ) and Resident Evil : Code Veronica by WildStorm ( 2002 ) . In Perry 's 1999 original @-@ story novel Resident Evil : Underworld , Claire , Leon , Rebecca Chambers and several STARS officers infiltrate an Umbrella facility in Utah to uncover their secrets . She is also one of main characters in Naoki Serizawa 's manga Biohazard : heavenly island , serialized in Weekly Shōnen Champion magazine in 2015 , in which she is a TerraSave investigator on an isolated South American island . Claire appeared in George A. Romero 's Japanese TV commercial for Resident Evil 2 and in a viral marketing video to promote Resident Evil 5 ( despite her not appearing in actual game ) . Several action figures of Claire were released by various manufacturers , including one by Toy Biz in 1998 , as well as two by Moby Dick Toys , two by Palisades Toys , and one by Volks in 2001 . A Claire block @-@ style figure was also released by Dragon in the Kubrick 's Resident Evil line , while Vanilla Chop produced a resin kit . One of costumes for the character C. Viper in the fighting game Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 was inspired by Claire 's iconic look in Resident Evil 2 . = = Reception = = The character of Claire Redfield was very well received by critics and general public alike for her good looks and survival prowess . Readers of German magazine Mega Fun voted her as # 2 " Video @-@ Babe " of 1998 . She was one of the seven nominees for the Nintendo Power Awards 1999 in the category " Best New Hero " for Resident Evil 2 ( the Nintendo 64 version ) , placing third by popular vote , and the staff of Eurogamer nominated her for the Gaming Globes 2000 awards in the category " Female Lead Character " . Claire was chosen as one of the 20 " muses " of video games by Brazilian magazine SuperGamePower in 2001 . Rob Wright of Tom 's Games listed Claire among the 50 greatest female characters in video game history in 2007 and CHIP ranked her as 16th on their 2008 list of top " girls of gaming " . Her guest appearance in Trick 'N Snowboarder placed fifth in GamesRadar 's 2010 list of best character cameos and in 2015 Entertainment Monthly placed Claire Redfield and Steve Burnside among the top ten tragic relationships in video games . Several publications included Claire among the most attractive video game characters . Dreamcast Magazine ranked this " gun @-@ toting , zombie killing , foxy babe " as the fifth top " girl on the Dreamcast " in 2000 , while Dreamcast Das Offizielle Magazin opined she is more beautiful than Lara Croft . Omar Ali of Gaming Target included Claire Redfield and Jill Valentine together in his 2001 list of " all time favorite leading ladies in video games " noting them for being " two girls who made the dead rise up with their looks . " In 2008 , she was included in GameDaily 's list of top " hottest game babes " ( ranked 42nd ) and in UGO 's list of top " videogame hotties " ( ranked 46th ) . In 2011 , Peter Rubin of Complex ranked the live @-@ action version of Claire as 15th on the list of " hottest women in video game movies " and rated Ali Larter 's likeness to the character at 56 % . That same year , Rich Knight of Complex pitted the video game version of Claire against Jill Valentine in the feature " Battle of the Beauties " , category " zombie killer " , but chose Jill over her . Lisa Foiles of The Escapist ranked Claire as the third " cutest redhead " in video games and Brazilian GameHall 's Portal Play Game ranked Claire as the 56th best @-@ looking video game woman ever in 2014 . There was also an urban legend @-@ style rumor of a nude code for Claire in Resident Evil - Code : Veronica . GameDaily featured her among the " chicks who will kick your ass " listed alongside Ada Wong , Jill and Sheva Alomar , and Jesse Schedeen of IGN chose her as one of the characters to recruit for an ultimate counter @-@ zombie strike force . The book Level Up ! : The Guide to Great Video Game Design called Claire a " perfect example " of the theme " opposites attracts " , as she and her fellow Raccoon City survivor Sherry ( a little girl dressed in a Japanese school uniform in RE2 ) " couldn 't be more different . " Featuring her in their 2009 list of top nine greatest video game heroines of all time , Peter Hartlaub of the San Francisco Chronicle chose Claire as an example of a positive female game character that " Brandi Chastain would be proud of . " In 2015 , The Guardian 's Holly Nielsen listed Claire among the attractive female characters who in her opinion " were intelligently written and who were not overtly sexy " and Gita Jackson of Paste wrote an article about Claire Redfield 's wardrobe , which " shows us that femininity , emotionality and practicality aren ’ t exclusive from each other . " Official PlayStation Magazine ( UK ) retrospective on RE2 opined Claire and Leon both " demonstrat [ ed ] the absolute apex of apocalyptic fashion . " IGN included Claire among the characters they would like to see returning for Resident Evil 6 , with Schedeen calling Claire " leagues above that walking bag of useless called Sheva . " PlayStation Universe also chose Claire in her original outfit from Resident Evil 2 as one of the five characters they wanted to appear in Resident Evil 6 's Mercenaries mode as she " is long overdue a canonical appearance in the series . " In 2012 , RE6 producer Hiroyuki Kobayashi wrote they have " heard a lot of love for Jill and Claire recently and people asking if they ’ ll be in the next Resident Evil . " Including Claire among the 30 best characters in the three decades of Capcom 's history , GamesRadar staff commented in 2013 : " Sadly she 's fallen into the background of the series , which makes sense she avoided work as a government zombie hunter , but we hope Capcom has plans for her in the future . Here 's a suggestion : a co @-@ op focused RE that teams Claire up with the almost as underused Jill . It 's your move Capcom . " Reacting to Claire 's return in Revelations 2 IGN 's Mitch Dyer wrote : " The Resident Evil series places women in prominent , powerful , playable roles . Jill Valentine , Rebecca Chambers , Sheva Alomar , and Ada Wong , to name a few . Still , they 're often opposite a male lead . This is the first time a Resident Evil game has revolved around the story of two women . It 's fun to get to play as Claire again . " According to a CVG preview of Revelations 2 , " she 's older , calmer and more capable , but she still retains everything that made her compelling in the first place . Where Rachael from the first Revelations was part centrefold , part melted @-@ ice cream , Claire feels distinct from many women in the Resi universe in that there 's more to her than lady @-@ lumps and lycra . She 's the perfect choice for the game 's brand of isolated horror . " = Laura Secord = Laura Secord ( / ˈsiːkɔːrd /	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
SEE @-@ kord ; née Ingersoll ; 13 September 1775 – 17 October 1868 ) was a Canadian heroine of the War of 1812 . She is known for having walked 20 miles ( 32 km ) out of American @-@ occupied territory in 1813 to warn British forces of an impending American attack . Her contribution to the war was little known during her lifetime , but since her death she has been frequently honoured in Canada . Though Secord had no relation to it , most Canadians associate her with the Laura Secord Chocolates company , named after her on the centennial of her walk . Laura Secord 's father , Thomas Ingersoll , lived in Massachusetts and fought on the side of the Patriots during the Revolutionary War ( 1775 – 1783 ) . In 1795 he moved his family to the Niagara region of Upper Canada after he had applied for and received a land grant . Shortly after , Laura married Loyalist James Secord , who was later seriously wounded at the Battle of Queenston Heights early in the War of 1812 . While he was still recovering in 1813 , the Americans invaded the Niagara Peninsula , including Queenston . During the occupation , Secord acquired information about a planned American attack , and stole away on the morning of 22 June to inform Lieutenant James FitzGibbon in the territory still controlled by the British . The information helped the British and their Mohawk warrior allies repel the invading Americans at the Battle of Beaver Dams . Her effort was forgotten until 1860 , when Edward , Prince of Wales awarded the impoverished widow £ 100 for her service on his visit to Canada . The story of Laura Secord has taken on mythological overtones in Canada . Her tale has been the subject of books , plays , and poetry , often with many embellishments . Since her death , Canada has bestowed honours on her , including schools named after her , monuments , a museum , a memorial stamp and coin , and a statue at the Valiants Memorial in the Canadian capital . = = Personal history = = = = = Family history and early life = = = Thomas Ingersoll ( 1749 – 1812 ) married the seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Elizabeth Dewey on 28 February 1775 . Their first child , Laura , was born in Great Barrington in the colonial Province of Massachusetts Bay on 13 September 1775 . Thomas 's family had lived in Massachusetts for five generations . He was descended from Richard Ingersoll , who had arrived in Salem , Massachusetts , from Bedfordshire , England , in 1629 . Thomas was born in 1749 in Westfield , Massachusetts . Elizabeth , daughter of Israel Dewey , was also born in Westfield , on 28 January 1758 . Thomas moved to Great Barrington in 1774 , where he settled into a house on a small piece of land by the Housatonic River . Over the next several years , his success as a hatmaker allowed him to increase his landholdings and expand his house as his family grew . He spent much time away from home , as he rose through the ranks in the military on the side of the American revolutionaries during the American Revolutionary War . Upon his return to Great Barrington , he was made a magistrate . Elizabeth gave birth to three more girls : Elizabeth Franks on 17 October 1779 ; Mira ( or Myra ) in 1781 ; and Abigail in September 1783 . Abigail was given up for adoption in 1784 to an aunt with the surname Nash . Elizabeth Ingersoll died 20 February 1784 , and Thomas remarried to Mercy Smith , widow of Josiah Smith , on 26 May 1785 . Mercy had no children . She has been credited with teaching her stepdaughters to read and do needlework before her death from tuberculosis in 1789 . By adolescence , Laura was caring for her sisters and looking after the household affairs . Thomas remarried four months after Mercy 's death , on 20 September 1789 , to Sarah " Sally " Backus , a widow with a daughter , Harriet . The couple had a further four girls and three boys . The first boy , Charles Fortescue , was born on 27 September 1791 . Charlotte ( born 1793 ) and Appolonia ( born 1794 ) were the last members of this branch of the Ingersoll family to be born in Massachusetts . Thomas helped suppress Shays ' Rebellion in 1786 , which earned him the rank of major , but in the years following , he witnessed and was offended by the continuing persecution of Loyalists . He realized that in the depressed economic conditions that followed the Revolutionary War , and with his own deep debts , he was unlikely to see his former prosperity again . In 1793 , Thomas met in New York City with Mohawk leader Joseph Brant , who offered to show him the best land for settlement . He and four associates travelled to Upper Canada to petition Lieutenant Governor John Simcoe for a land grant . They received 66 @,@ 000 acres ( 27 @,@ 000 ha ; 103 sq mi ) in the Thames Valley , and founded Oxford @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Thames ( later known as Ingersoll , Ontario ) , on condition that they populate it with forty other families within seven years . After winding up their affairs in Great Barrington , the Ingersoll family moved to Upper Canada in 1795 . = = = Upper Canada , marriage and children = = = Thomas Ingersoll supported his family in their early years in Upper Canada by running a tavern in Queenston while land was being cleared and roads built in the settlement . The family stayed in Queenston until a log cabin was completed on the settlement in 1796 . After Simcoe returned to England in 1796 , opposition grew in Upper Canada to the " Late Loyalists " such as Thomas who had arrived in Canada for the land grants . The grants were greatly reduced , and Thomas 's contract was cancelled for not having all of its conditions fulfilled . Feeling cheated , in 1805 he moved the family to Credit River , close to York ( present @-@ day Toronto ) , where he successfully ran an inn until his 1812 death following a stroke . Sally continued to run it until her own death in 1833 . Laura remained in Queenston when the family moved . She married the wealthy James Secord , likely in June 1797 . The Secord family originated in France , where the name was spelled D 'Secor or Sicar . Five Secord brothers , who were Protestant Huguenots , fled from persecution in France and founded New Rochelle , New York in 1688 . At the time of the American Revolution , Loyalist members of the family anglicized their surname to Secord . The Secord couple lived in a house built in St. Davids , the first floor of which was a shop . Secord gave birth to her first child , Mary , in St. Davids in 1799 . Mary was followed by Charlotte ( 1801 ) , Harriet ( 10 February 1803 ) , Charles Badeau ( 1809 — the only male child ) and Appolonia ( 1810 ) . = = = War of 1812 = = = James Secord served in the 1st Lincoln Militia under Isaac Brock when the War of 1812 broke out . He was among those who helped carry away Brock 's body after Brock was killed in the first attack of the Battle of Queenston Heights in October 1812 . James himself was severely wounded in the leg and shoulder during the battle . Laura heard of his predicament and rushed to his side . Some sources suggest that she found three American soldiers preparing to beat him to death with their gunstocks . She begged them to save her husband 's life , reportedly offering her own in return , when American Captain John E. Wool happened upon the situation and reprimanded the soldiers . This story may have been a later embellishment and may have originated with her grandson , James B. Secord . When the Secords arrived home , they found that the house had been looted in Laura 's absence . Spending the winter in St. Davids , Laura spent the next several months nursing her wounded husband back to health . On 27 May 1813 , the American army launched an attack across the Niagara River , and captured Fort George . Queenston and the Niagara area fell to the Americans . Men of military age were sent as prisoners to the U.S. , though the still @-@ recuperating James Secord was not among them . That June , a number of U.S. soldiers were billeted at the Secords ' home . = = = Secord 's walk = = = On the evening of 21 June , Laura Secord heard of plans for a surprise American attack on British troops led by Lieutenant James FitzGibbon at Beaver Dams , which would have furthered American control in the Niagara Peninsula . It is unclear how she became aware of these plans . According to tradition she overheard a conversation among the billeted Americans as they ate dinner . As her husband was still recovering from his October injuries , Secord set out herself early the next morning to warn the Lieutenant . She reportedly walked 20 miles ( 32 km ) from present @-@ day Queenston through St. Davids , Homer , Shipman 's Corners and Short Hills at the Niagara Escarpment before she arrived at the camp of allied Mohawk warriors who led her the rest of the way to FitzGibbon 's headquarters at the DeCew House . A small British force and a larger contingent of Mohawk warriors were then readied for the American attack . Most of the American forces were casualties or taken prisoner in the Battle of Beaver Dams on 24 June . No mention of Secord was made in reports that immediately followed the battle . = = = Post @-@ war years = = = After the war , with the Secords ' Queenston store in ruins , the family was impoverished . Only James 's small war pension and the rent from 200 acres of land they had in Grantham Township supported them . The Secords ' sixth child , Laura Anne , was born in October 1815 , and their last child , Hannah , was born in 1817 . The Secords ' eldest daughter Mary wedded a doctor , William Trumball , on 18 April 1816 . On 27 March 1817 , Mary gave birth in Ireland to Elizabeth Trumball , the first of Laura and James 's grandchildren . Mary had another daughter , also named Mary , in Jamaica , and brought her children back to Queenston with her in 1821 following her husband 's death . The struggling James petitioned the government in 1827 for some sort of employment . Lieutenant @-@ Governor Peregrine Maitland did not offer him a position , but offered something to Laura . He asked her to be in charge of the yet @-@ to @-@ be @-@ completed Brock 's Monument . At first , she turned it down , but then reluctantly accepted it . When Brock 's Monument opened in 1831 , Secord learned the new Lieutenant @-@ Governor , John Colborne , intended to give the keys to the widow of a member of the monument committee who had died in an accident . On 17 July 1831 , Secord petitioned Colborne to honour Maitland 's promise , and included another certificate from FitzGibbon attesting her contribution to the war . She wrote that Colonel Thomas Clarke had been told by Maitland , " it was too late to think of [ the committee member 's widow ] Mrs. Nichol as I have pledged my word to Mrs. Secord that as soon as possible she should have the key . " Despite her pleas , Secord did not receive the keys to the monument . In 1828 , the Secords ' daughter , Appolonia , died at 18 of typhus , and James was appointed registrar of the Niagara Surrogate Court . He was promoted to judge in 1833 , and his son Charles Badeau took over the registrar position . Charles Badeau 's first son , Charles Forsyth Secord , was born 9 May 1833 . His is the only line of Secords that survived into the 21st century . James became a customs collector in 1835 at the port of Chippawa . The position came with a home in Chippawa , into which the family moved . Charles Badeau took over the Queenston home . Daughter Laura Ann and her son moved into the home in 1837 following her husband 's death . = = = Later life and death = = = James Secord died of a stroke on 22 February 1841 . He was buried , according to his wishes , at Drummond Hill ( now in Niagara Falls ) . James 's death left Laura destitute . His war pension came to an end , and she was unable to keep the land that she still had profitable , and sold off much of it . Governor @-@ General Sydenham denied a 27 February 1841 petition she sent for her son to take over James 's customs position . Sydenham also denied a petition she sent that May for a pension for herself , as James had already received a pension for decades . Possibly with help from better @-@ off members of the family , Secord moved to a red brick cottage on Water Street in November 1841 . Daughter Harriet and her own two daughters joined her in May 1842 , after the alcohol poisoning death of Harriet 's husband . The three would stay with Secord for the rest of her life . Youngest daughter Hannah also moved in when she was widowed in 1844 , and brought two daughters with her . Though she lacked training , for a short time Secord ran a small school out of the home in an effort to support herself . This venture came to an end when the public common school system was introduced in the 1840s . Over the years , the Secords unsuccessfully petitioned the government for some kind of acknowledgement . In 1860 , when Secord was 85 , the Prince of Wales heard of her story while travelling in Canada . At Chippawa , near Niagara Falls , he was made aware of Laura Secord 's plight as an aging widow and sent an award of £ 100 . It was the only official recognition that she received during her lifetime . Laura Secord died in 1868 at the age of 93 . She was interred next to her husband in the Drummond Hill Cemetery in Niagara Falls . Her grave is marked by a monument with a bust on top , and is close to a monument marking the Battle of Lundy 's Lane . The inscription on her grave marker reads : To perpetuate the name and fame of Laura Secord , who walked alone nearly 20 miles by a circuitous difficult and perilous route , through woods and swamps and over miry roads to warn a British outpost at DeCew 's Falls of an intended attack and thereby enabled Lt. FitzGibbon on 24 June 1813 , with fewer than 50 men of the H.M. 49th Regt . , about 15 militiamen and a small force of Six Nations and other Indians under Capt. William Johnson Kerr and Dominique Ducharme to surprise and attack the enemy at Beechwoods ( or Beaver Dams ) and after a short engagement , to capture Col. Bosler of the U.S. Army and his entire force of 542 men with two field pieces . = = Memory and legend = = Her granddaughter described Secord as being 5 feet 4 inches ( 163 cm ) with brown eyes and a fair complexion . James FitzGibbon wrote she was " of slight frame and delicate appearance " . She was skilled at needlework , dressmaking and cooking . According to biographer Peggy Dymond Leavey , her many grandchildren enjoyed hearing their grandmother tell stories of her early life , and her Anglican faith increased with age . In his report of the battle , FitzGibbon stated only that he " received information " about the threat ; it is possible he omitted mention of Secord to protect her family during wartime . He first wrote of Secord in a certificate dated 26 February 1820 , in support of a petition by her husband for a licence to operate a stone quarry in Queenston . In 1827 FitzGibbon wrote : I do hereby Certify that on the 22d. day of June 1813 , Mrs. Secord , Wife of James Secord , Esqr. then of St. David 's , came to me at the Beaver Dam after Sun Set , having come from her house at St. David 's by a circuitous route a distance of twelve miles , and informed me that her Husband had learnt from an American officer the preceding night that a Detachment from the American Army then in Fort George would be sent out on the following morning ( the 23d . ) for the purpose of Surprising and capturing a Detachment of the 49th Regt. then at Beaver Dam under my Command . In Consequence of this information , I placed the Indians under Norton together with my own Detachment in a Situation to intercept the American Detachment and we occupied it during the night of the 22d . – but the Enemy did not come until the morning of the 24th when his Detachment was captured . Colonel Boerstler , their commander , in a conversation with me confirmed fully the information communicated to me by Mrs. Secord and accounted for the attempt not having been made on the 23rd. as at first intended . FitzGibbon wrote in a certificate dated 23 February 1837 that Secord did " acquaint " him with the Americans ' intentions , but does not state whether he used the information . A diary entry of Mohawk chief John Norton talks of " a loyal Inhabitant [ who ] brought information that the Enemy intended to attack " , but does not name the " Inhabitant " . Dominique Ducharme , leader of the Caughwanaga Mohawks in the Battle of Beaver Dams , made no mention of Secord in his reports , nor of receiving information from either Secord or FitzGibbon about the impending American attack . Secord wrote two accounts of her walk , the first in 1853 , and the second in 1861 . Neither account contains details that can be corroborated with military accounts of the battle , such as specific dates or details about troops . Her account changed throughout her life . Historian Pierre Berton noted that she never stated clearly how she learned of the impending attack . She told FitzGibbon that her husband had learned about it from an American officer , but years later told her granddaughter that she had overheard the plans directly from the American soldiers billeted in her home . Berton suggested that Secord 's informant could have been an American still residing in the United States , who would have been charged with treason had Secord revealed her source . In the 1860s , as Secord 's story gained prominence , historian William Foster Coffin added new details , which included the claim that Laura had brought a cow with her as an excuse to leave her home in case the American patrols questioned her . A number of writers have questioned Secord 's story . W. Stewart Wallace , in his 1932 book , The Story of Laura Secord : A Study in Historical Evidence , concluded her story was mostly myth , and that she played no significant role in the outcome of the Battle of Beaver Dams . Historian George Ingram contended in his 1965 book The Story of Laura Secord Revisited that Secord 's debunking had been taken too far . Ruth MacKenzie also burnished Secord 's reputation with Laura Secord : The Legend and the Lady in 1971 . The question of Secord 's actual contribution to the British success has been contested . In the early 1920s , historians suggested that Native scouts had already informed FitzGibbon of the coming attack well before Secord had arrived on 23 June . Historian Ernest Cruikshank wrote in 1895 that " Scarcely had Mrs Secord concluded her narrative , when [ Ducharme 's ] scouts came in ... they had encountered the advance guard of the enemy . " Later , two testimonials were found which FitzGibbon wrote in 1820 and 1827 , which supported Secord 's claim . FitzGibbon asserted that Laura Secord had arrived on 22 June ( not 23 June ) , and that " in consequence of this information " he had been able to intercept the American troops . = = Legacy = = Historian Cecilia Morgan argues that the Secord story became famous in the 1880s when upper @-@ class women sought to strengthen the emotional ties between Canadian women and the British Empire . She writes that they needed a female heroine to validate their claims for women 's suffrage . The first product of their campaign was Sarah Anne Curzon 's verse drama Laura Secord : The Heroine of 1812 in 1887 . The play was responsible for " a deluge of articles and entries on Secord that filled Canadian histories and school textbooks at the turn of the 20th century " . Although critics gave the play negative reviews , it was the first full work devoted to her story and popularized her image . Secord has been compared to French @-@ Canadian heroine Madeleine de Verchères and to American Revolution hero Paul Revere . Her story has been retold and commemorated by generations of biographers , playwrights , poets , novelists and journalists . After she discovered a newspaper clipping of the story , early feminist Emma Currie began a lifelong interest in Secord 's life . After she tracked down information from relatives as far away as Great Barrington , she published a biographical account in 1900 called The Story of Laura Secord , and later successfully petitioned to have a Secord memorial erected in Queenston Heights . The cut stone granite monument stands 7 feet ( 210 cm ) and was dedicated in 1901 . In 1905 , her portrait was hung in Parliament . Playwright Merrill Denison made a radio play of her story in 1931 which mixed serious history with parody . On the centennial of her walk in 1913 , and to capitalize on Canadian patriotic feelings , Frank O 'Connor founded Laura Secord Chocolates . The chain 's first location opened on Yonge and Elm Streets in Toronto . The chocolates came in black boxes adorned with a cameo of Secord . By the 1970s , the company had become the largest candy retailer in Canada . Among most Canadians , the name Laura Secord is more strongly associated with the chocolate company than the historical figure . The Secords ' Queenston homestead was fired upon and looted during the War of 1812 . Restored and given to the Niagara Parks Commission in 1971 , it is now a museum and gift shop at Partition and Queen streets in Queenston . Thomas Ingersoll 's old home on Main Street in Great Barrington , Massachusetts , was used as the town 's Free Library from 1896 until 1913 , after which the Mason Library was built on the site . The Great Barrington Historic District Commission made 18 October 1997 Laura Secord Day , and dedicated a plaque in her honour before Mason Library . Laura Secord is the namesake of a number of schools , including Laura Secord Public School ( also known as Laura Secord Memorial School , 1914 – 2010 ) in Queenston , École Laura Secord School in Winnipeg , Manitoba ( built 1912 ) , and Laura Secord Elementary School in Vancouver , British Columbia . Beaver Dams Battlefield Park has a plaque dedicated to Secord . In 1992 , Canada Post issued a Laura Secord commemorative stamp . In 2003 , the Minister of Canadian Heritage declared Secord a " Person of National Historical Significance " , and in 2006 Secord 's was one of fourteen statues dedicated at the Valiants Memorial in Ottawa . To commemorate the 200th anniversary of her walk , Secord 's image adorned a circulation quarter issued by the Royal Canadian Mint and a postage stamp from Canada Post . = = = = Books = = = = = = = = Journals and magazines = = = = = = = = Newspapers = = = = = = = = Web = = = = = Benzylpiperazine = Benzylpiperazine ( BZP ) is a recreational drug with euphoriant and stimulant properties . The effects produced by BZP are comparable to those produced by amphetamine . Adverse effects have been reported following its use including acute psychosis , renal toxicity and seizures . No deaths have been reported following a sole ingestion of BZP , although there have been at least two deaths from the combination of BZP and MDMA . Its sale is banned in several countries , including Australia , Canada , New Zealand , the United States , the Republic of Ireland , the United Kingdom , Bulgaria , Romania and other parts of Europe . = = History = = = = = Development history = = = It is often claimed that BZP was originally synthesized as a potential antihelminthic ( anti @-@ parasitic ) agent for use in farm animals . However , there are some references to BZP in medical literature that predate interest in piperazines as antihelminthics . Even so , the majority of the early work with the piperazines were investigations into their potential use as antihelminthics with the earliest clinical trials in the literature relating to piperazine being articles in the British Medical Journal in the 1950s . It was discovered that BZP had side effects and was largely abandoned as a worm treatment . It next appears in the literature in the 1970s when it was investigated as a potential antidepressant medication , but rejected when research reported that BZP had amphetamine @-@ like effects and was liable to abuse . The study suggested that BZP “ should be placed under statutory control similar to those regulating the use of amphetamine . ” = = = Recreational history = = = In the early 1990s , the United States Drug Enforcement Administration noted the drug was being used recreationally in California . It also reported that BZP was being used as an adulterant in illicit drugs . Not long after , there was an explosion in the drug 's use worldwide – a situation which was soon followed by legislative control in many countries . Since 1999 , benzylpiperazine use grew sharply in New Zealand due to an initial complete lack of regulation . The New Zealand government attempted to ban the product as of 18 December 2007 , but the necessary second reading of the bill did not happen in time for the law to be passed . It was so widely used that an estimated 5 million pills were sold in New Zealand in 2007 . Piperazine @-@ based stimulants began to appear in Europe in 2000 but remained virtually unavailable in the rest of the world until recently . In early 2006 , pills containing the active ingredients BZP and TFMPP began to appear in the city of Vancouver , Canada , where they first gained popularity with late night party @-@ goers as a safer alternative to many of the illicit street drugs commonly available there . In 2007 piperazine based party @-@ pill formulations started to become widely available nationwide which has caused concern with local authorities such as Health Canada and subsequently BZP has gained much media attention in 2008 . As of May 2008 piperazines such as BZP and TFMPP have been under evaluation by Health Canada in order to determine whether or not party @-@ pills pose a significant health risk to individuals . At this time no official decision has been made regarding these specific piperazines becoming restricted substances , or if they should be banned altogether in Canada . In the United States , it is still used as an adulterant in ecstasy mimic tablets . = = Production and distribution = = BZP is a piperazine derivative which comes as either the hydrochloride salt or a free base . The hydrochloride salt is a white solid while the base form is a slightly yellowish @-@ green liquid . BZP base is corrosive and causes burns . In countries where its purchase is legal , BZP products are often produced in small specialist laboratories . The raw materials can be purchased from various chemical supply agencies and formed into tablets or capsules using relatively cheap production techniques . The resulting product can be marketed at extremely high markup , so end @-@ user prices can be as high as 300 times the bulk cost of raw ingredients . BZP is often marketed ostensibly as a " dietary supplement " to avoid meeting stricter laws that apply to medicines and drugs , despite the fact that BZP has no dietary value . As of late 2005 , the Misuse of Drugs Act ensured it can no longer be classified or marketed as a dietary supplement in New Zealand . Some retailers claim that BZP is a " natural " product , describing it as a " pepper extract " or " herbal high , " when in fact the drug is entirely synthetic , and has not been found to occur naturally . = = Pharmacodynamics = = BZP has been shown to have a mixed mechanism of action , acting on the serotonergic and dopaminergic receptor systems in a similar fashion to MDMA . BZP has amphetamine @-@ like actions on the serotonin reuptake transporter , which increase serotonin concentrations in the extracellular fluids surrounding the cell and thereby increasing activation of the surrounding serotonin receptors . BZP has a lower potency effect on the noradrenaline reuptake transporter and the dopamine reuptake transporter . BZP has a high affinity action at the alpha2 @-@ adrenoreceptor , it is an antagonist at the receptor , like yohimbine , which inhibits negative feedback , causing an increase in released noradrenaline . BZP also acts as a non @-@ selective serotonin receptor agonist on a wide variety of serotonin receptors ; binding to 5HT2A receptors may explain its mild hallucinogenic effects at high doses , while partial agonist or antagonist effects at the 5HT2B receptors may explain some of BZPs peripheral side effects , as this receptor is expressed very densely in the gut , and binding to 5HT3 receptors may explain the common side effect of headaches , as this receptor is known to be involved in the development of migraine headaches . = = Effects = = The effects of BZP are largely similar to amphetamines , with one study finding that former amphetamine addicts were unable to distinguish between dextroamphetamine and BZP administered intravenously . Users report alertness , euphoria and a general feeling of well being . The perception of certain sensations such as taste , colour or music may be subjectively enhanced . The average duration is longer than that of dextroamphetamine , typically lasting 4 – 6 hours with reports as long as 8 hours depending on the dose . A recent study has shown that mixtures of BZP with other piperazine drugs such as TFMPP share certain pharmacodynamic traits with MDMA . = = = Subjective effects = = = Upon ingestion of between 50 mg and 200 mg of BZP , the user may experience any or all of the following : Initial Effects : Feelings of euphoria , wonder , amazement , well @-@ being , energy and elation Rapid mood elevation Enhanced sociability Enhanced appreciation of music Increased desire to move , also slight increase in stereotypy Skin tingling Decreased appetite Repetitive thought patterns Actual and perceived changes in body temperature Mild jaw clenching / bruxism Increased heart rate Dilation of pupils ( see photo ) Nausea Flushing Mild xerostomia ( dry mouth ) Slight urinary incontinence , often described as " leaking " a small amount of urine after urinating ( not due to loss of bladder control ) Later Effects : Mild headache Nausea Hangover @-@ like symptoms ( common with high doses ) Fatigue Indigestion ( similar to acid indigestion / heartburn ) Increased hunger ( and sometimes thirst ) Insomnia Confusion Depression ( particularly with frequent / heavy use ) = = = Tolerance = = = Research into BZP 's tolerance is sparse . Anecdotal evidence from online sources claim tolerance to the central action of BZP will develop quickly . Due to tiredness associated with the body 's recovery from stimulants , such as BZP , it is uncommon for users to be able to sustain a week @-@ long intake . = = = Toxic effects = = = As with most sympathomimetic stimulants there appear to be significant side effects associated with BZP use . BZP reportedly produces insomnia and a mild to severe hangover after the drug effect wears off , however , some manufacturers in New Zealand have started including recovery pills which contain 5 @-@ HTP and vitamins which allegedly ease these hangovers . The major side effects include dilated pupils , blurred vision , dryness of the mouth , extreme alertness , pruritus , confusion , agitation , tremor , extrapyramidal symptoms ( dystonia , akathisia ) , headache , dizziness , anxiety , insomnia , vomiting , chest pain , hallucinations , paresthesia , tachycardia , hypertension , palpitations , collapse , hyperventilation , sweating , hyperthermia and problems with urine retention . The more severe toxic effects include psychosis or adverse psychiatric events , renal toxicity , respiratory failure , hyperthermia , serotonin syndrome , rhabdomyolysis and seizure . Blood benzylpiperazine concentrations have been measured either to confirm clinical intoxication or as part of a medicolegal death investigation . = = = = Christchurch study = = = = The majority of the toxic effects information came from a study conducted between 1 April 2005 to 1 September 2005 . The study recorded all presentations associated with party pill use at the Emergency Department of Christchurch Hospital , New Zealand by recording them on a prospective data collection form . The aim was to study the patterns of human toxicity related to the use of benzylpiperazine @-@ based ' party pills ' . 61 patients presented on 80 occasions . Patients with mild to moderate toxicity experienced symptoms such as insomnia , anxiety , nausea , vomiting , palpitations , dystonia and urinary retention . Significantly , fourteen toxic seizures were recorded with two patients suffering life @-@ threatening toxicity with status epilepticus and severe respiratory and metabolic acidosis . It was concluded that BZP appears to induce toxic seizures in neurologically normal subjects . The results of this study and others like it showed that BZP can cause unpredictable and serious toxicity in some individuals , but the data and dosage collection were reliant on self reporting by drug users , which may result in under @-@ reporting ( or over @-@ reporting ) , and there were complicating factors like the frequent presence of alcohol and other drugs . = = = Risk of fatality = = = A retrospective study carried out at an Auckland emergency department found that BZP presentations only made a minor contribution to their overdose database with most cases not producing any significant toxicity . Several cases where BZP individually or combined with alcohol or other medicines or illicit drugs resulting in complications exist . One such example is the well publicised case of a combination of BZP and MDMA by a 23 @-@ year @-@ old from Greymouth , New Zealand . Ben Rodham , a DJ , ingested a combination of BZP and MDMA in February 2007 , which nearly resulted in his death . Rodham was put into an induced coma in an effort to prevent him from dying . He later recovered . In a case in Zurich in 2001 a 23 @-@ year @-@ old who had taken BZP and ecstasy ( MDMA ) died from a massive cerebral edema 57 hours after hospital admission . = = = Addictive effects = = = One in every 45 ( 2 @.@ 2 % ) last @-@ year users of BZP in New Zealand is classed as dependent upon it , although 97 @.@ 9 % of users said that " it would not be difficult to stop using legal party pills " , and 45 @.@ 2 % of people who reported using both BZP and illegal drugs such as methamphetamine reported that they used BZP so that they did not have to use methamphetamine , which was perceived as more harmful . Still , most of the people who use BZP , even though they say it is quite easy to stop , do not want to , and continue to use the drug , feeling that it helps them to reach higher levels of mood , sociability , and energy . Studies undertaken on animals have indicated that BZP can substitute for methamphetamine in addicted rats , although it is one @-@ tenth as potent and produces correspondingly weaker addictive effects . = = Legal issues = = The drug was classified as a Schedule I controlled substance in the United States in 2002 , following a report by the DEA which incorrectly stated that BZP was 10 to 20 times more potent than amphetamine , when in fact BZP is ten times less potent than dexamphetamine . BZP is banned in all Australian states . Victoria , the last state in which it was legal , changed its classification on 1 September 2006 . This is the date BZP and piperazine analogs become illegal in the federal schedules which are now enacted by all Australian states and territories . BZP is also a banned substance in Japan , along with TFMPP . Both Australia and Japan admit that their scheduling decisions were made primarily in response to the Schedule 1 classification given to BZP in the USA , although some instances of BZP use had been reported by law enforcement authorities in both countries . BZP is also banned in Greece , Poland , Italy , Ireland , Malta , Estonia , Denmark and Sweden . In Canada , Benzylpiperazine and salts of benzylpiperazine are classified as Schedule III controlled substances under the Controlled Drugs and Substances Act . Piperazine and salts of piperazine are classified as Prescription Only Medicines in the UK . Any products containing salts of piperazine would be licensable under the Medicines Act and consequently anyone manufacturing and supplying it legally must hold the relevant licenses to do so . BZP is not a salt of piperazine , but mislabelling of BZP products as containing " piperazine blend " resulted in some prosecutions of suppliers in the UK by the Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency , although none were successful . In May 2009 , the Home Office announced plans to ban BZP , and launched a consultation on the proposal . In October 2009 , it was announced that from 23 December 2009 , BZP and related piperazines would be Class C drugs under the Misuse Of Drugs Act . BZP is not controlled under any UN convention , so the compounds themselves are legal throughout most of the world , although in most countries their use is restricted to pharmaceutical manufacturing and recreational use is unknown . Benzylpiperazine is , however , to be the subject of a European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction ( EMCDDA ) risk assessment , the results of which may determine what , if any , control will placed on BZP throughout the European Union . The risk assessment comes about as the result of a joint Europol – EMCDDA report which concluded that BZP needs to be looked at in more detail . The results were published in June 2007 . The report concluded that the use of BZP can lead to medical problems even if the long effects are still unknown . Taking this concession as a basis , the European Commission has decided to ask the Council to place BZP under control of the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances . On 4 March 2008 , the EU requested countries to place BZP under control within a year and France complied in May 2008 . Based on the recommendation of the EACD , the New Zealand government has passed legislation which placed BZP , along with the other piperazine derivatives TFMPP , mCPP , pFPP , MeOPP and MBZP , into Class C of the New Zealand Misuse of Drugs Act 1975 . A ban was intended to come into effect in New Zealand on 18 December 2007 , but the law change did not go through until the following year , and the sale of BZP and the other listed piperazines became illegal in New Zealand as of 1 April 2008 . An amnesty for possession and usage of these drugs was in effect until October 2008 , at which point they became completely illegal . = = Chemical derivatives = = Pharmaceuticals Befuraline – Antidepressant Bifeprunox – Antipsychotic Buclizine – Antihistamine Chlorbenzoxamine – Gastrointestinal agent Fipexide – Nootropic Imatinib – Anticancer agent Meclozine – Antihistamine Piberaline – Antidepressant Piribedil – Antiparkinsonian agent Trimetazidine – Antianginal Vesnarinone – Cardiotonic Designer drugs 4 @-@ Acetyl @-@ 1 @-@ benzylpiperazine ( AcBZP , AceticBenzylPiperazine ) 4 @-@ Methyl @-@ 1 @-@ benzylpiperazine ( MBZP ) 4 @-@ Bromo @-@ 2 @,@ 5 @-@ dimethoxy @-@ 1 @-@ benzylpiperazine ( 2C @-@ B @-@ BZP ) 1 @,@ 4 @-@ Dibenzylpiperazine ( DBZP ) 3 @,@ 4 @-@ Methylenedioxy @-@ 1 @-@ benzylpiperazine ( MDBZP ) Befuraline , fipexide , and piberaline are all known to metabolize to BZP . All diphenylmethylpiperazines are also technically benzylpiperazines . = 1981 Entumbane Uprising = The 1981 Entumbane Uprising , also known as the Battle of Bulawayo or Entumbane II , occurred between 8 and 12 February 1981 in and around Bulawayo , Zimbabwe amid political tensions in the newly independent state . Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) guerrillas , mainly in the city 's western suburb of Entumbane , rebelled , creating a situation that threatened to develop into a fresh civil war , barely a year after the end of the Bush War . The Rhodesian African Rifles ( RAR ) and other white @-@ commanded elements of the former Rhodesian Security Forces , fighting for the Zimbabwean government as part of the new Zimbabwe National Army , put down the uprising . Groups of Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) fighters attacked both ZIPRA and the government forces during the revolt , which followed a smaller outbreak of fighting between guerrillas in November 1980 . The uprising began in earnest around 20 : 00 local time on 11 February when fighting broke out between the two guerrilla factions in Entumbane , each of which also attacked the local RAR headquarters . When ZIPRA armoured personnel carriers moved on Bulawayo from Essexvale , to the south @-@ east , four armoured cars from the former Rhodesian Armoured Corps , supported by A Company , 1RAR , engaged and defeated them . Meanwhile , C and D Companies , 1RAR were pocketed by numerically superior groups of ZIPRA fighters . By the evening of 12 February , the uprising was over ; C and D Companies were relieved , ZIPRA ceased their attacks and their armoured battle group at Essexvale surrendered to the National Army . The official count of those killed during the uprising was 260 people ; historians place the number of dead higher . The Zimbabwe National Army suffered no fatal casualties . Binda calls the battle the RAR 's greatest victory , writing that the troops were greatly outnumbered , but won through superior professionalism and discipline . Several analysts comment on the irony that Mugabe and ZANU – PF were saved from a major rebellion by white @-@ led ex @-@ Rhodesian troops . The battle was the RAR 's last ; its personnel were reassigned to other units when it was disbanded later in 1981 . The rebellion 's defeat , meanwhile , prompted mass desertions by ZIPRA guerrillas fearing retribution from the Mugabe administration . Indeed , the uprising partially fuelled Mugabe 's bloody Gukurahundi campaign against Matabeleland later in the 1980s . = = Background = = = = = Chimurenga = = = Following the Unilateral Declaration of Independence by the mostly white minority government of Rhodesia ( or Southern Rhodesia ) from the United Kingdom in 1965 , the southern African country entered a period of international isolation as an unrecognised state under Ian Smith . Black nationalist movements , backed by communist powers and themselves variously Marxist – Leninist , launched military campaigns to overthrow Rhodesia 's government and bring majority rule to the country ; the main nationalist groups were the Zimbabwe African National Union ( ZANU ) , which was Chinese @-@ backed , mostly Shona and influenced by Maoism , and the rival Zimbabwe African People 's Union ( ZAPU ) , which was largely Ndebele , more orthodoxly Marxist – Leninist and supported by the Warsaw Pact and associated nations , prominently Cuba . Each nationalist group fielded a guerrilla army — ZANU 's was called the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army ( ZANLA ) , while ZAPU 's was the Zimbabwe People 's Revolutionary Army ( ZIPRA ) . ZAPU was led by Joshua Nkomo , a trade unionist from Bulawayo in Matabeleland , while ZANU was headed from 1975 by a former teacher from Mashonaland , Robert Mugabe . The black nationalist campaigns , referred to by the revolutionaries as the Second Chimurenga ( liberation war ) , began in earnest in December 1972 . During the ensuing Bush War , ZANLA and ZIPRA fought the Rhodesian Security Forces , and also regularly clashed with each other , despite their parent organisations being superficially allied from 1976 as the Patriotic Front . The war ended in December 1979 with the Lancaster House Agreement in London , following which Britain took interim direct control of the country to oversee fresh elections during early 1980 . These were won by ZANU , which added " Patriotic Front " to its name ( thereby becoming " ZANU – PF " ) , and Mugabe became the first Prime Minister of Zimbabwe when the UK granted independence in April 1980 . Nkomo was made Minister of Home Affairs in the new government . = = = Post @-@ independence tensions = = = With the transfer of political power , the Rhodesian Army , ZANLA and ZIPRA began to be merged to form the new Zimbabwe National Army . ZANLA and ZIPRA personnel were mixed into new battalions , guerrillas were picked out for officer training , and old Rhodesian units were variously disbanded or earmarked for reform . In some cases the latter meant only a change of symbolism and nomenclature ; the Rhodesian Air Force , for example , remained almost all white as the Air Force of Zimbabwe . Every one of the approximately 34 @,@ 000 guerrillas was promised a place in the new army . In the meantime they would wait in respective ZANLA and ZIPRA assembly camps around the country with pay and rations identical to those of black privates in the old Rhodesian forces . Though the Chimurenga was over , tensions between ZANLA and ZIPRA cadres , officially referred to in the war 's aftermath as " associated forces " , endured , particularly in Matabeleland . These rifts were partially tribal @-@ based , but largely political ; ZIPRA fighters complained that their counterparts from ZANLA seemed to be favoured for promotions and supplies , while ZANLA suspected ZIPRA of plotting insurrection . ZANU – PF politicians began to call for a one @-@ party state , saying that this would make Zimbabwe stronger . As the process of military integration dragged on , groups of fighters from both forces deserted and roamed the countryside , robbing stores and killing white farmers . Sources differ regarding how much of this was perpetrated by ZANLA personnel and how much by ZIPRA men ; each side blamed the other . Mugabe accused ZIPRA elements of " refusing to recognise the sovereignty of the government " , but stopped short of attacking the ZAPU leadership . With the new army 's ex @-@ guerrilla battalions still far from ready , the Zimbabwean government leaned heavily on former Rhodesian units under white command to maintain law and order during this period . Feeling he needed to secure ZANU – PF 's position , Mugabe signed a secret deal with North Korea in October 1980 whereby the Asian country would provide instructors and equipment for an elite brigade that would handle political dissidents and report directly to the Prime Minister . After the Minister of Finance Enos Nkala railed against Nkomo and ZAPU at a Bulawayo political rally in November 1980 , saying they had " become the enemy of ZANU – PF " and should be challenged by " vigilante committees " , ZANLA and ZIPRA veterans clashed near the city 's western township of Entumbane for two days . Hundreds were killed or wounded before the Prime Minister sent ex @-@ Rhodesian units to intervene . This incident deepened the feeling of distrust and unease that permeated the country and the National Army 's integrated battalions . Concerned by ZAPU 's apparent political marginalisation , ZIPRA commanders in Matabeleland built up their forces . Over 6 @,@ 000 ZIPRA troops assembled at Gwaai River Mine , to the north @-@ west of Bulawayo , with Soviet @-@ made T @-@ 34 tanks , BTR @-@ 152 armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and anti @-@ aircraft guns ; another ZIPRA base at Essexvale , to the south @-@ east , formed an armoured battle group including 10 T @-@ 34s . Tensions escalated further when Mugabe removed Nkomo from Home Affairs on 10 January 1981 and made him a minister without portfolio instead , in what many in Zimbabwe saw as a demotion . According to Brigadier Mike Shute , then head of the Zimbabwe National Army 's 1 Brigade , groups of ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas , theoretically under his command , were soon " all over the place and having continual clashes and minor battles with each other " . Many became convinced that a second civil war was imminent . = = Prelude = = The Zimbabwe National Army 's only regular infantry unit in the Bulawayo area during the first months of 1981 was the 1st Battalion of the Rhodesian African Rifles ( RAR ) , a regiment of mostly white @-@ officered black troops led by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mick McKenna and based at Methuen Barracks on the outskirts of Bulawayo . This had been officially redesignated the 11th Infantry Battalion of the new National Army , but few reforms had taken place so far and in practice the regiment remained almost entirely as before , right down to the old Rhodesian uniforms and insignia . At the end of January 1981 , McKenna had about 500 men ( including officers ) , and a troop of four Eland 90 armoured cars , formerly of the Rhodesian Armoured Corps , under Sergeant Stephen " Skippy " Devine , an Australian veteran of the Rhodesian Light Infantry . Amid the rising tensions in Zimbabwe , Shute and McKenna identified Entumbane , the township on the western outskirts of Bulawayo where the November 1980 clashes had started , as a likely flashpoint . There ZANLA and ZIPRA had camps directly next to each other , each with about 1 @,@ 500 guerrillas . In late January 1981 , McKenna set up an operational headquarters in a beer hall overlooking the two guerrilla camps ; this building , surrounded by six @-@ foot walls , was dubbed " the Alamo " at the suggestion of Lieutenant F W " Chomps " Fleetwood , an American officer in A Company , 1RAR . Worried that a new Entumbane clash would prompt the ZIPRA forces at Gwaai River Mine and Essexvale to join the fray , McKenna set up a string of observation posts on each of the roads leading towards Bulawayo . On 8 February , ZANLA cadres at Connemara Barracks in Gwelo surprised their ZIPRA counterparts , killed over 60 of them and forced the rest to flee into the bush . When the ZIPRA portion of the 13th Infantry Battalion , based at Glenville Camp near Entumbane , learned of this later in the day , it waited until its instructors from the British Army left in the evening , then attacked its ZANLA comrades , killing 12 of them and scattering the rest . Charged with restoring order , McKenna sent Devine 's armoured cars and D Company , 1RAR , commanded by the American Lieutenant Dave Hill , to Glenville . Arriving late in the evening , the Elands drove into the camp and flattened the ZIPRA tents , killing many of the occupants and clearing the way for Hill 's troops . Taken totally by surprise , the ZIPRA troops put up little resistance ; 40 were killed and many more captured , including two officers , Captains Mpofu and Dlamini . On the morning of 9 February , the British instructors were bewildered to find the ZANLA half of their unit gone , and the remaining ZIPRA men squatting in rows in 1RAR captivity . " What happened ? " asked the British sergeant . " I am afraid that while you were away , your battalion fell apart , " replied McKenna . ZIPRA personnel in Bulawayo used civilian vehicles to smuggle weapons and equipment , including mortars , into their Entumbane camp over the next few days . C Company , 1RAR , comprising 96 men under Major Lionel Dyck ( including a detachment from Support Company ) and eight armoured vehicles , noticed this while they were garrisoning the Alamo on 11 February . The major reported to Brigade headquarters that the number of ZIPRA troops at Entumbane appeared to have swelled considerably , and that the chain link fence surrounding the camp had been taken down . Superiors ordered him not to intervene . Anticipating an imminent attack , Dyck used a silenced rifle to shoot out the floodlights surrounding the Alamo , lined up his vehicles against the surrounding walls so his men could stand on them while defending , and ranged mortars on a variety of targets in the ZIPRA complex . = = Uprising = = Soon after fighting broke out between ZANLA and ZIPRA members of a recently integrated Zimbabwe National Army battalion at Ntabazinduna , just north @-@ east of Bulawayo , the two guerrilla camps at Entumbane began exchanging rifle , machine gun and mortar fire at about 20 : 00 on 11 February . Dyck , at the Alamo , reported that both sides were also attacking his position . He radioed Brigade HQ for instructions and was told to pull out ; he replied that this was impossible as he was surrounded . At Shute 's orders , McKenna mobilised the rest of the battalion at an airfield near Brady Barracks within an hour . Meanwhile , a detachment of ZIPRA armoured vehicles left Essexvale for Bulawayo , and was spotted on the road by one of McKenna 's observation posts . Devine was sent with his Elands to intercept them , supported by 12 1RAR men under Major Tony Husher . At an intersection on the outskirts of the city , Devine encountered a ZIPRA BTR @-@ 152 APC and impacted it with a single HEAT round , killing all 20 combatants inside . McKenna then told Devine to advance to the city limits , where he and Husher set up an ambush on the road . Husher 's men shot out all nearby overhead street lights , and some of them went to scout ahead ; Devine positioned two of his Elands on each of the two lanes of the road under cover of darkness . Meanwhile , at Entumbane , the ZIPRA fighters overran the ZANLA camp , killing many and forcing the rest to flee . Sporadic fighting between ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas spread into Bulawayo itself , continuing through the night and into the morning . About 700 ZIPRA combatants continued to attack C Company 's position at the Alamo , putting it under constant machine gun and mortar fire . Pocketed , Dyck responded in kind . About 02 : 00 on 12 February , a ZIPRA guerrilla with an RPD machine gun took up a position in a house to the Alamo 's south @-@ east and " became a nuisance " , as the major put it ; he and Sergeant Vini Hlatshwayo went out with an RPG @-@ 7 rocket launcher and fired at the corner of the house , bringing it down on the gunner and killing him . On the road , two ZIPRA BTR @-@ 152s from Essexvale advanced towards Bulawayo , firing indiscriminately in all directions , and were spotted by Devine around 01 : 30 . The Elands waited in the darkness until the ZIPRA vehicles were about 200 metres ( 660 ft ) away , then fired . Both APCs were directly hit and most of the men inside killed ; the survivors ran off into the night . Fleetwood then arrived at the head of a 1RAR platoon to support Devine and Husher . Around the same time , men of A Company , 1RAR captured a ZIPRA commander who was trying to enter Bulawayo through a back road in a Peugeot station wagon , and 3 Platoon , A Company captured six ZIPRA officers driving into town on the Essexvale Road in a Toyota Land Cruiser . McKenna ordered Hill and D Company to help Dyck by taking up a position between the city and Entumbane . A group of ZIPRA unsuccessfully attacked D Company as it moved west to high ground at Lurkers ' Ridge , just south @-@ east of the Alamo . B Company , meanwhile , took up positions on the railway line just north @-@ east of Lurkers ' Ridge . McKenna told Dyck over the radio that reinforcements would come and to " hang in there " . By about 05 : 00 , Dyck 's ammunition supplies were running low , and the ZIPRA attackers had hit the Alamo a number of times with RPG fire . Nobody inside was killed by these rockets , but when Dyck 's dog was wounded , the major flew into a rage and ordered his men to pour more aggressive machine gun fire on the advancing ZIPRA combatants . He requested air support from Brigade HQ in the form of a Lynx light bomber . The air force turned down the request , but Flight Lieutenant Colin James took off anyway in his Lynx armed with an FN MAG machine gun and SNEB rockets . The ZIPRA cadres concentrated a huge amount of fire on James ' aircraft , and hit it several times , but failed to shoot it down ; the pilot put in a number of ground attacks before returning to base . He reported afterwards that a bullet had entered through the floor of his cockpit and hit his helmet . The 1RAR officers and men expressed great admiration for James 's bravery during this air strike , but his air force superiors were furious that he had gone into the operational area against orders . A National Army relief column including the detachments under Husher , Fleetwood and Devine assembled at Lurkers ' Ridge during the morning of 12 February . Under the command of Captain Tony Clark , it flanked through the townships south of the Alamo , engaging ZIPRA guerrillas along the way , then turned north to relieve Dyck . The Elands led the way , with Devine himself standing upright in the turret of one of them with a machine gun . At one point this was shot out of his hands , prompting him to briefly stop the advance so he could jump down into the street to collect it . By the time the relief column reached the Alamo at 13 : 00 , C Company had been pocketed for 16 hours . Four wounded 1RAR soldiers were evacuated , and Dyck left the building to point out targets for Devine 's armoured cars . During the afternoon , A Company relieved D Company at Lurker 's Ridge , and the ZANLA and ZIPRA guerrillas withdrew into the townships and the surrounding country , sporadically exchanging fire . Devine was sent to Essexvale to engage the rest of ZIPRA 's armoured battle group , which surrendered when he arrived ; the T @-@ 34 tanks were later found by the Zimbabwe National Army to be nonfunctional . By the evening of 12 February , the rebellion was over . = = Aftermath = = Hundreds of people died in the uprising . The official count released at the time was 260 , but historians place the number higher ; Martin Meredith records " more than 300 " dead , while Alexandre Binda writes that the Zimbabwe National Army units alone killed over 400 guerrillas . The Zimbabwe National Army reported no fatal casualties . Hill and Husher were each awarded the Bronze Cross of Zimbabwe for their part in putting down the rebellion , while Dyck received the Silver Cross . In his history of the Rhodesian African Rifles , Binda describes Entumbane as the regiment 's greatest victory , commenting that it was won " by dint of professionalism , discipline and determination " in the face of forces that were far larger numerically . Major Michael P Stewart of the United States Army writes that 1RAR 's actions at Entumbane " saved Mugabe 's government from certain civil war " , and provided the " final blow to the military might of ZIPRA " . A number of analysts comment on the irony that Mugabe and ZANU – PF , who had spent years fighting white rule and the Rhodesian forces during the 1970s , were secured in power barely a year after the Bush War 's end by ex @-@ Rhodesian troops under white command . Binda furthermore highlights the irony that the RAR 's finest hour ( in his view ) came while fighting for Mugabe . Mugabe said that undisciplined ZIPRA guerrillas had instigated the uprising ; he called them " disloyal , misguided and politically motivated armed hooligans and political malcontents " and said that according to information before him their ultimate goal had been to topple his government . He told parliament that there had been a " definite organised pattern " amid the ZIPRA groups that had rebelled . Local ZIPRA commanders claimed ZANLA had started the fighting , while Nkomo and the mayor of Bulawayo blamed Nkala 's inflammatory speech and similar statements from other ZANU – PF politicians . A month after the uprising , ZANU – PF set up a commission tasked with investigating the " mutinous disturbances " at Entumbane and in the integrated battalions at Ntabazinduna , Glenville and Connemara . This body reported to Mugabe in June 1981 , but its findings have never been made public . According to the historian Norma Kriger , it blamed both ZANU – PF and ZAPU and therefore " fell short of government expectations " . Abiodun Alao of King 's College London marks the Entumbane episode as the start of the Zimbabwe National Army 's politicisation . The ex @-@ Rhodesians ' enthusiasm and success during the battle , coupled with Mugabe 's readiness to deploy them , convinced many in ZAPU that ZANU – PF and the white community had united against them , and intensified ZAPU opposition to the government . ZIPRA guerrillas deserted from the assembly points and the National Army en masse following the rebellion 's failure , fearing for their safety . Mugabe 's sense of resolve regarding his political rivals was greatly strengthened , meanwhile ; Entumbane satisfied him that white army officers and airmen could be counted on in future conflicts with ZAPU . The Entumbane engagement was the RAR 's last — its companies were allocated to other 1 Brigade units later in 1981 during the military reform process — but a number of its white officers subsequently led units of the Zimbabwean special forces during the 1980s . Dyck , for example , headed the 1st Parachute Battalion . The Mugabe administration promptly decided to reduce the future army 's size by about 30 @,@ 000 and to disarm and demobilise all ZANLA and ZIPRA personnel who had not yet been integrated , thereby breaking the promise of a place in the army for every guerrilla . After ZIPRA commander Dumiso Dabengwa refused to give the disarming order at Entumbane , Nkomo oversaw a parade of the camp and gave the command to disarm himself , doing so " for the sake of peace " , in Kriger 's words , despite his own opposition to the idea . Mugabe publicly announced his deal with North Korea in August 1981 , and 106 North Korean instructors arrived the same month . Nkomo accused the Prime Minister of creating " a special partisan army divorced from the national army " for the " possible imposition of a one @-@ party state " . In February 1982 , Mugabe announced that huge arms caches had been discovered on ZAPU @-@ owned properties and that this was evidence of a planned ZAPU coup . He likened Nkomo 's presence in the government to " a cobra in the house " and promptly fired him , concurrently arresting ZIPRA leaders and seizing ZAPU property . The new North Korean @-@ trained unit , dubbed 5 Brigade , passed out in December 1982 , and was deployed by Mugabe to Matabeleland , where it remained for the next five years . In what became known as Gukurahundi , it perpetrated a number of brutal massacres and atrocities against civilians in Matabeleland accused of supporting " dissidents " , far exceeding anything that had occurred during the Bush War . Estimates for the number of deaths range from 10 @,@ 000 to 30 @,@ 000 . The campaign officially ended in December 1987 when Mugabe and Nkomo signed a unity accord merging ZAPU into ZANU – PF with the stated goal of a one @-@ party state . = Quarter pony = The Quarter Pony is a breed of pony that is similar to the American Quarter Horse . It stands up to 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) high and was developed from American Quarter Horse foundation bloodstock . The breed was originally developed from Quarter Horses that did not meet the American Quarter Horse Association 's height requirement . It is bred to look like a small Quarter Horse , although the various registries also allow crosses with other breeds , including Paint horse , Appaloosa and Pony of the Americas , all stock types . There are three registries for the Quarter Pony , all with slightly different registration requirements . The first registry was begun in 1964 , and two more were started in the 1970s . The breed is used today in a variety of Western riding disciplines . = = Characteristics = = The Quarter Pony is bred to be an American Quarter Horse built on a smaller scale . Breeders focus most on the height and conformation of the breed , and insist that their ponies display Quarter Horse @-@ type characteristics and stand between 11 @.@ 2 and 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 46 and 58 inches , 117 and 147 cm ) high . Depending on the registry , the Quarter Pony may come in any color or combination or colors , including pinto patterns such as tobiano and overo and spotted Appaloosa patterns . In the early years of the breed , only solid colors were allowed . The breed averages 13 @.@ 2 hands ( 54 inches , 137 cm ) high , however , some breeders are working to breed taller animals between 13 @.@ 2 and 14 hands ( 54 and 56 inches , 137 and 142 cm ) high . The breed has a short , broad head with small ears and wide @-@ set eyes , set on a slightly arched neck . The shoulders are sloping , the withers sharp , the chest broad and deep . The back is short and the hindquarters broad and deep . Quarter Ponies are often used in western riding activities as mounts for children because of their small size , and calm , even temperament . Larger ponies are more suitable for adult riders and sometimes used for rodeo events such as steer wrestling . The Quarter Pony is recognized by several different breed registries that each have different requirements . The American Quarter Pony Association requires that , although parentage may be unknown , the pony must have conformation that is desirable for breeding and be easily recognizable as having Quarter Pony or Quarter Horse breeding. pinto , leopard complex ( Appaloosa ) , and white horses are not eligible for registration , nor are gaited ponies . The National Quarter Pony Association requires that stallions be registered with the AQHA before they can be registered with the NQPA . Mares must have one parent registered with the AQHA , be registered with the AQHA themselves , or go through a special registration process . Geldings simply have to be of Quarter Horse type to be eligible for registration . Horses with Pinto or Appaloosa markings , or with excessive white , are not eligible for registration . The International Quarter Pony Association allows Pinto and Appaloosa markings , and simply requires that ponies be of Quarter @-@ type conformation and good disposition for registry . Any type of pony meeting these requirements may be registered through the hardship registration program , which includes a special inspection . However , if ponies have a parent registered with an approved breed registry ( approved breeds include the Quarter Pony , Quarter Horse , Paint horse , Appaloosa and Pony of the Americas ) , they are automatically eligible for registration , with no inspection required . Crosses with gaited breeds are not accepted for registration . = = History = = The Quarter Pony was originally developed from horses that did not meet the American Quarter Horse Association 's original height requirement of 14 @.@ 2 hands ( 58 inches , 147 cm ) high . This height requirement was later removed , but the Quarter Pony breed continued . Breeders and registries encourage known bloodlines from Quarter Horses , but these are not required by all registries . The American Quarter Pony Association was begun in 1964 with the ideals of a registry which would register small horses and ponies of western type , whose breeding could be unknown but which were desirable for breeding purposes . Crossbred and purebred animals are eligible for registration , as are animals registered with other registries that meet the entry requirements . In 1975 , the National Quarter Pony Association was begun to preserve the smaller , stockier type Quarter Horse when breeding trends were leaning towards taller , leaner animals . The AQPA now registers horses in several foreign countries , as well as all US states and Canadian provinces . The International Quarter Pony Association , begun in the 1970s , also registers Quarter Ponies , and is a worldwide association for ponies of Quarter Horse type . The Quarter Pony Association is an association affiliated with the International Quarter Pony Association , with the goal of promoting the Quarter Pony . In 2005 , the IQPA and the QPA became one organization , with the IQPA acting as the registry and the QPA as the membership branch . As of 2005 , there were an estimated 3 @,@ 000 Quarter Ponies registered with all registering organizations . Registries say that registrations of adult animals outnumber those for foals every year , as many owners wait until the pony is old enough to be shown under saddle before registering them . = 4X = 4X is a genre of strategy @-@ based video and board games in which players control an empire and " eXplore , eXpand , eXploit , and eXterminate " . The term was first coined by Alan Emrich in his September 1993 preview of Master of Orion for Computer Gaming World . Since then , others have adopted the term to describe games of similar scope and design . 4X computer games are noted for their deep , complex gameplay . Emphasis is placed upon economic and technological development , as well as a range of non @-@ military routes to supremacy . Games can take a long time to complete since the amount of micromanagement needed to sustain an empire increases as the empire grows . 4X games are sometimes criticized for becoming tedious for these reasons , and several games have attempted to address these concerns by limiting micromanagement , with varying degrees of success . The earliest 4X games borrowed ideas from board games and 1970s text @-@ based computer games . The first 4X computer games were turn @-@ based , but real @-@ time 4X games are not uncommon . Many 4X computer games were published in the mid @-@ 1990s , but were later outsold by other types of strategy games . Sid Meier 's Civilization is an important example from this formative era , and popularized the level of detail that later became a staple of the genre . In the new millennium , several 4X releases have become critically and commercially successful . In the board ( and card ) game domain , 4X is less of a distinct genre , in part because of the practical constraints of components and playing time . The Civilization board game that gave rise to Sid Meier 's Civilization computer game , for instance , has no exploration and no extermination . Unless extermination is targeted at non @-@ player entities , it tends to be either nearly impossible ( because of play balance mechanisms , since player elimination is usually considered an undesirable feature ) or certainly unachievable ( because victory conditions are triggered before extermination can be completed ) in board games . = = Definition = = The term " 4X " originates from a 1993 preview of Master of Orion in Computer Gaming World by Alan Emrich , in which he rated the game " XXXX " as a pun on the XXX rating for pornography . The four Xs were an abbreviation for " EXplore , EXpand , EXploit and EXterminate " . Other game commentators adopted the " 4X " label to describe a game genre with specific gameplay conventions : Explore means players send scouts across a map to reveal surrounding territories . Expand means players claim new territory by creating new settlements , or sometimes by extending the influence of existing settlements . Exploit means players gather and use resources in areas they control , and improve the efficiency of that usage . Exterminate means attacking and eliminating rival players . Since in some games all territory is eventually claimed , eliminating a rival 's presence may be the only way to achieve further expansion . These four elements of gameplay have been described as the four phases of a 4X computer game session . These phases often overlap with each other and vary in length depending on the game design . For example , the Space Empires series and Galactic Civilizations II : Dark Avatar have a long expansion phase , because players must make large investments in research to explore and expand into every area . = = = Difficulties in definition = = = While many computer strategy games arguably contain a similar " explore , expand , exploit , exterminate " cycle , game journalists , developers and enthusiasts generally apply " 4X " to a more specific class of games , and contrast 4X games with other strategy games such as Command & Conquer . Hence , writers have tried to show how 4X games are defined by more than just having each of the four Xs . Computer gaming sites have stated that 4X games are distinguished by their greater complexity and scale , and their intricate use of diplomacy beyond the standard " friend or foe " seen in other strategy games . Reviewers have also stated that 4X games feature a range of diplomatic options , and that they are well known for their large detailed empires and complex gameplay . In particular , 4X games offer detailed control over an empire 's economy , while other computer strategy games simplify this in favor of combat @-@ focused gameplay . = = Game design = = 4X computer games are a subgenre of strategy games , and include both turn @-@ based and real @-@ time strategy titles . The gameplay involves building an empire , which takes place in a setting such as Earth , a fantasy world , or in space . Each player takes control of a different civilization or race with unique characteristics and strengths . Most 4X games represent these racial differences with a collection of economic and military bonuses . = = = Research and technology = = = 4X games typically feature a technology tree , which represents a series of advancements that players can unlock to gain new units , buildings , and other capabilities . Technology trees in 4X games are typically larger than in other strategy games , featuring a larger selection of choices . Empires must generate research resources and invest them in new technology . In 4X games , the main prerequisite for researching an advanced technology is knowledge of earlier technology . This is in contrast to non @-@ 4X real @-@ time strategy games , where technological progress is achieved by building structures that grant access to more advanced structures and units . Research is important in 4X games because technological progress is an engine for conquest . Battles are often won by superior military technology or greater numbers , with battle tactics playing a smaller part . In contrast , military upgrades in non @-@ 4X games are sometimes small enough that technologically basic units remain important throughout the game . = = = Combat = = = Combat is an important part of 4X gameplay , because 4X games allow a player to win by exterminating all rival players , or by conquering a threshold amount of the game 's universe . Some 4X games , such as Galactic Civilizations , resolve battles automatically , whenever two units from warring sides meet . This is in contrast to other 4X games , such as Master of Orion , that allow players to manage battles on a tactical battle screen . Even in 4X games with more detailed control over battles , victory is usually determined by superior numbers and technology , with battle tactics playing a smaller part . 4X games differ from other combat @-@ focused strategy games by putting more emphasis on research and economics . Researching new technology will grant access to new combat units . Some 4X games even allow players to research different unit components . This is more typical of space 4X games , where players may assemble a ship from a variety of engines , shields , and weaponry . = = = Peaceful competition = = = 4X games allow rival players to engage in diplomacy . While some strategy games may offer shared victory and team play , diplomatic relations tend to be restricted to a binary choice between an ally or enemy . 4X games often allow more complex diplomatic relations between competitors who are not on the same team . Aside from making allies and enemies , players are also able to trade resources and information with rivals . In addition to victory through conquest , 4X games often offer peaceful victory conditions or goals that involve no extermination of rival players ( although war may be still be a necessary by @-@ product of reaching said goal ) . For example , a 4X game may offer victory to a player who achieves a certain score or the highest score after a certain number of turns . Many 4X games award victory to the first player to master an advanced technology , accumulate a large amount of culture , or complete an awe @-@ inspiring achievement . Several 4X games award " diplomatic victory " to anyone who can win an election decided by their rival players , or maintain peace for a specified number of turns . Galactic Civilizations has the diplomatic victory , which involves having at alliances with at least 4 factions and no other faction be out of your alliance , there are two ways to accomplish this , ally with all factions , or ally with the minimum number of factions then destroy the rest . = = = Complexity = = = 4X games are known for their complex gameplay and strategic depth . Gameplay usually takes priority over elaborate graphics . Whereas other strategy games focus on combat , 4X games also offer more detailed control over diplomacy , economics , and research ; creating opportunities for diverse strategies . This also challenges the player to manage several strategies simultaneously , and plan for long @-@ term objectives . To experience a detailed model of a large empire , 4X games are designed with a complex set of game rules . For example , the player 's productivity may be limited by pollution . Players may need to balance a budget , such as managing debt , or paying down maintenance costs . 4X games often model political challenges such as civil disorder , or a senate that can oust the player 's political party or force them to make peace . Such complexity requires players to manage a larger amount of information than other strategy games . Game designers often organize empire management into different interface screens and modes , such as a separate screen for diplomacy , managing individual settlements , and managing battle tactics . Sometimes systems are intricate enough to resemble a minigame . This is in contrast to most real @-@ time strategy games . Dune II , which arguably established the conventions for the real @-@ time strategy genre , was fundamentally designed to be a " flat interface " , with no additional screens . = = = Gameplay = = = Since 4X games involve managing a large , detailed empire , game sessions usually last longer than other strategy games . Game sessions may require several hours of play @-@ time , which can be particularly problematic for multiplayer matches . For example , a small @-@ scale game in Sins of a Solar Empire can last for over 12 hours . However , fans of the genre often expect and embrace these long game sessions ; Emrich wrote that " when the various parts are properly designed , other X 's seem to follow . Words like EXcite , EXperiment and EXcuses ( to one 's significant others ) " . Turn @-@ based 4X games typically divide these sessions into hundreds of turns of gameplay . Because of repetitive actions and long @-@ playing times , 4X games have been criticized for excessive micromanagement . In early stages of a game this is usually not a problem , but later in a game directing an empire 's numerous settlements can demand several minutes to play a single turn . This increases playing @-@ times , which are a particular burden in multiplayer games . 4X games began to offer AI governors that automate the micromanagement of a colony 's build orders , but players criticized these governors for making poor decisions . In response , developers have tried other approaches to reduce micromanagement , and some approaches have been more well received than others . Commentators generally agree that Galactic Civilizations succeeds , which GamingNexus.com attributes to the game 's use of programmable governors . Sins of a Solar Empire was designed to reduce the incentives for micromanagement , and reviewers found that the game 's interface made empire management more elegant . On the other hand , Master of Orion III reduced micromanagement by limiting complete player control over their empire . = = History = = = = = Origin = = = Early 4X games were influenced by board games and text @-@ based computer games from the 1970s . Andromeda Conquest and Reach for the Stars were published in 1983 , and are now seen retrospectively as 4X games . Although Andromeda Conquest was only a simple game of empire expansion , Reach for the Stars introduced the relationship between economic growth , technological progress , and conquest . Prior to Sid Meier , Robert T. Smith created the precursor of all 4X strategy video games : Armada 2525 ( followed up by a version with enhanced graphics : Armada 2525 Deluxe ) . However , due to the financial problems of the publishing company Interstel Corporation , Armada 2525 never got enough marketing and attention from gamers . Future 4X space strategy games such as Master of Orion would go on to adopt the gameplay and concepts found in Armada 2525 . Armada 2526 , the spiritual successor to Armada 2525 was released by Ntronium Games in 2009 , 19 years after the original Armada 2525 was released in 1990 . In 1991 , Sid Meier released Civilization and popularized the level of detail that has become a staple of the genre . Sid Meier 's Civilization was influenced by board games such as Risk and the Avalon Hill board game also called Civilization . A notable similarity between the Civilization computer game and board game is the importance of diplomacy and technological advancement . Sid Meier 's Civilization was also influenced by personal computer games such as the city management game SimCity and the wargame Empire . Civilization became widely successful and influenced many 4X games to come . In 1991 , two highly influential space games were released . VGA Planets was released for the PC , while Spaceward Ho ! was released on the Macintosh . Although 4X space games were ultimately more influenced by the complexity of VGA Planets , Spaceward Ho ! earned praise for its relatively simple yet challenging game design . Spaceward Ho ! is notable for its similarity to the 1993 game Master of Orion , with its simple yet deep gameplay . Master of Orion also drew upon earlier 4X games such as Reach for the Stars , and is considered a classic game that set a new standard for the genre . In a preview of Master of Orion , Emrich coined the term " XXXX " to describe the emerging genre . Eventually , the " 4X " label was adopted by the game industry , and is now applied to several earlier game releases . = = = Peak = = = Following the success of Civilization and Master of Orion , other developers began releasing their own 4X games . In 1994 , Stardock launched its first version of the Galactic Civilizations series for OS / 2 , and the long @-@ standing Space Empires series began as shareware . Ascendancy and Stars ! were released in 1995 , and both continued the genre 's emphasis on strategic depth and empire management . Meanwhile , the Civilization and Master of Orion franchises expanded their market with versions for the Macintosh . Sid Meier 's team also produced Colonization in 1994 and Civilization II in 1996 , while Simtex released Master of Orion in 1993 , Master of Magic in 1994 and Master of Orion II in 1996 . By the late 1990s , real @-@ time strategy games began outselling turn @-@ based games . As they surged in popularity , major 4X developers fell into difficulties . Sid Meier 's Firaxis Games released Sid Meier 's Alpha Centauri in 1999 to critical acclaim , but the game fell short of commercial expectations . Civilization III encountered development problems followed by a rushed release in 2001 . Despite the excitement over Master of Orion III , its release in 2003 was met with criticism for its lack of player control , poor interface , and weak AI . Game publishers eventually became risk @-@ averse to financing the development of 4X games . = = = Real Time Hybrid 4X = = = Eventually real @-@ time 4X games were released , such as Imperium Galactica in 1997 , Starships Unlimited in 2001 , and Sword of the Stars in 2006 , featuring a combination of turn @-@ based strategy and real @-@ time tactical combat . The blend of 4X and real @-@ time strategy gameplay led Ironclad Games to market their 2008 release Sins of a Solar Empire as a " RT4X " game . This combination of features earned the game a mention as one of the top games from 2008 , including GameSpot 's award for best strategy game , and IGN 's award for best PC game . Cross @-@ fertilization between board games and video games continued . For example , some aspects of Master of Orion III were drawn from the first edition of the board game Twilight Imperium . Even Sins of a Solar Empire was inspired by the idea of adapting the board game Buck Rogers Battle for the 25th Century into a real @-@ time video game . Going in the opposite direction , Eagle Games made a board game adaptation of Sid Meier 's Civilization in 2002 , completely different from the board game that had inspired the computer game in the first place . = = = Recent history = = = In 2003 , Stardock released a remake of Galactic Civilizations , which was praised by reviewers who saw the game as a replacement for the Master of Orion series . In 2004 the Creative Assembly released the critically acclaimed Rome : Total War , which has spawned many sequels . Civilization IV was released at the end of 2005 and was considered the PC game of the year according to several reviewers , including GameSpot and GameSpy . It is now considered one of the greatest computer games in history , having been ranked the second @-@ best PC game of all time by IGN . By 2008 , the Civilization series had sold over eight million copies , followed the release of Civilization Revolution for game consoles soon after and Civilization V in 2010 . Meanwhile , Stardock released Galactic Civilizations II , which was considered the sixth @-@ best PC game of 2006 by GameSpy . Additionally , French developer Amplitude Studios released both Endless Space and Endless Legend . These successes have led Stardock 's Brad Wardell to assert that 4X games have excellent growth potential , particularly among less hardcore players . This is in addition to the loyal base of 4X gamers who have supported free software releases such as Freeciv , FreeCol , Freeorion , Golden Age of Civilizations . , and C @-@ evo . = Ken Hall ( footballer ) = Ken Hall ( born 13 November 1980 ) is a former Australian rules football player from Tasmania . He played junior football in his home state and spent two years in the seniors at North Hobart . Hall then moved to Victoria in 2001 to play for Essendon Football Club 's reserves side in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) . He played for the reserves for a year before being drafted onto Essendon 's rookie list for the 2002 season . Hall was promoted to the senior list midway through 2002 and subsequently made his Australian Football League ( AFL ) debut , although he did not record a statistic in what was to be his only AFL match . He was retained on the Bombers ' rookie list for 2003 and was again elevated to the senior list during the season . Although he was often named as an emergency after his promotion , Hall was unable to break into the senior team and Essendon delisted him at the end of 2003 , ending his AFL career . After being delisted Hall played with the Tasmanian Devils in the VFL for four seasons , before rejoining his old side , Tasmanian Football League ( TFL ) team North Hobart , in 2008 . He won two best and fairest awards and captained the club in his time with North Hobart before retiring at the conclusion of the 2011 season . = = Early career = = A Tasmanian native , Hall played junior football for North Hobart Football Club 's under @-@ 18 side in the Tasmanian Football League ( TFL ) , as well as representing his under @-@ 18 state side , the Tassie Mariners , in the TAC Cup . He broke his wrist while playing for North Hobart 's under @-@ 18s in 1997 and broke the same wrist again in April 1998 , this time while playing for the Mariners . Hall recovered from the injury by August and was back playing for the Mariners . In 1999 , Hall was no longer eligible in the under @-@ 18s and so became a regular fixture in North Hobart 's senior side . He played as a defender , occasionally being required to shut down the opposition 's star players , and was regularly named as one of the Demons ' better players . Hall started the 2000 season playing as a centre half @-@ forward for the Demons , despite his relatively small size . In the first game of the year he kicked a match winning goal as North Hobart defeated Clarence by 11 points . By May , Hall was again playing on the half @-@ back line . His form in defence was described as " reliable " and " solid " in the middle of the season by The Mercury . The young Demons side unexpectedly reached the finals and caused an upset in the semi final against the heavily favoured Burnie Dockers ; Hall was named as the Demons ' " best player without question " by The Mercury . At the conclusion of the season , Hall was named as back pocket in the Tasmanian side and as the North Hobart played with the most potential . With the breakup of the TFL at the end of the 2000 season , many of Tasmania 's best young footballers , including Hall , moved interstate to try and break into the Australian Football League ( AFL ) and other quality leagues . Hall began training with AFL side Essendon in December 2000 in the hope of being drafted . The Bombers lost draft picks that year due to salary cap violations and Hall went undrafted , but was instead placed on the Bombers ' supplementary list , playing with Essendon 's reserves side in the Victorian Football League ( VFL ) . = = AFL career = = After impressing with the reserves in 2001 , Hall was drafted by Essendon with the 46th selection in the 2002 AFL Rookie Draft , thereby placing him on the Bombers ' rookie list . Speaking to The Mercury , Hall described the opportunity as exciting said that it has always been his dream to play in the AFL . In the lead @-@ up to the 2002 season Hall played in all three of Essendon 's pre @-@ season matches , of which the Bombers lost every game . Rookie listed players must be promoted to the senior list before they play a senior AFL match , so Hall began the 2002 season playing in the VFL for Essendon 's reserves team . When Dean Solomon suffered a season @-@ ending knee injury in late March , Hall was one of three players in contention to be promoted to the senior list in place of Solomon . After approximately one month of assessment Hall was deemed the most impressive of Essendon 's three rookies and was elevated to the senior list . In early June , Hall played particularly well in defence for the reserves against the Murray Kangaroos , and was subsequently in consideration to play for Essendon 's senior team . Essendon had been plagued by injury throughout 2002 and this , coupled with Hall 's good form in the VFL , resulted in him making his AFL debut in round 12 against Hawthorn . After a poor performance in his debut match , in which he did not record a statistic and spent most of the match on the bench , Hall was dropped backed to the VFL side the following round . Despite showing good form in the VFL for the remainder of 2002 , Hall was unable to break back into the senior Bombers line @-@ up . Although Hall failed to have an impact at AFL level , he played well at VFL level and was third in the reserves ' best and fairest award . Hall was retained on the Bombers ' rookie list for 2003 . Although Essendon had another poor pre @-@ season , losing four of the five matches they played , Hall played in each of the games . He was described as " perform [ ing ] well " in The Age newspaper , and even kicked a goal in the first match . After spending the majority of his career prior to 2003 as a defender , Hall was trialled as a midfielder for the 2003 season , a move which reaped immediate results as he became a " goalscoring weapon " for the Bendigo Bombers — Essendon 's new VFL @-@ affiliate side — as well as becoming well known for his penetrating kicking ability . In early August , Hall kicked four goals in a close win against the Northern Bullants in the VFL , and three days later , Essendon coach Kevin Sheedy declared that Hall and two others were in contention to be promoted to the senior list , even though he had missed out on being elevated two weeks prior . Sheedy proceeded to promote Hall , in place of the injured Joel Reynolds , in order to " see if [ Hall ] will be a viable option come finals time " . He was immediately named in Essendon 's 25 @-@ man squad to play against the Western Bulldogs , but failed to make the starting 22 . Despite not playing a senior match for the entirety of the regular season , there was media speculation that Hall may be selected for Essendon 's elimination final against Fremantle , due to Sheedy stating that he had " little choice " but to select a youthful team for the match and that " it wouldn 't worry [ him ] " to choose an inexperienced player . However , Sheedy elected not to play Hall in the match , instead selecting him as an emergency . Essendon won the match and moved on to the semi final , where Hall was again an emergency . Essendon lost the semi final and was eliminated from the finals series , ending the Bombers ' season . Although he regularly pushed for selection in 2003 and finished equal second in Bendigo 's best and fairest count , Hall was delisted at season 's end . = = Post @-@ AFL career = = After being delisted by the Bombers , Hall was pursued by multiple clubs ; he had offers from VFL sides Coburg , the Tasmanian Devils , Williamstown and Bendigo , as well as South Australian National Football League ( SANFL ) club West Adelaide , before deciding to sign with Devils because he wanted to come home to family and friends . Hall started the 2004 season playing as a forward and , despite moving into the midfield by mid @-@ season , he was still a regular goalkicker . In June he was named in the VFL representative squad to play against the West Australian Football League , but he missed out on the match due to a hip flexor injury that sidelined him for a month . Hall finished the home and away season in fifth place in the The Mercury 's Tasmanian Devils Player of the Year award and in equal third place in the Devils ' best and fairest . In 2005 Hall was among the best on the ground in an interstate match between the VFL and the SANFL , finished in third in the Devils ' best and fairest count , and was runner up in The Mercury 's Tasmanian Devils Player of the Year award . The 2006 season saw Hall named best on ground in his 100th VFL match , a 24 @-@ point win over Frankston . He was again runner up in The Mercury 's Tasmanian Devils Player of the Year award and also finished as runner up in the team 's best and fairest count . In 2007 journalist Matt Burgan , writing for the AFL website , named Hall in his best 22 players currently from Tasmania , with Hall and Cameron Thurley the only two players who were not listed with an AFL club at the time of selection . Hall was named in the Devils ' leadership group at the beginning of the 2007 season . He represented Tasmania in an interstate match against Queensland and was awarded the Lefroy Medal as best on ground for the Tasmanians . Hall finished the year winning his first Tasmanian Devils Player of the Year award and coming third in the best and fairest . After 134 matches and 109 goals in the VFL , Hall left the Devils at the end of the 2007 season , citing work and family reasons — his wife Lauren was expecting their first child in December 2007 . He proceeded to rejoin North Hobart Football Club in the TFL for 2008 . In his first year with the club Hall won the George Miller Medal , awarded to North Hobart 's best and fairest player for the season . In 2009 , he was described as North Hobart 's " star player " , represented the TFL in a match against the QAFL , and was his team 's only representative in the top 10 of the Tassie Medal , awarded to the league 's best and fairest player . By 2010 , Hall was the captain of North Hobart , and was one of only four players in the TFL to have senior AFL experience . Hall had another good season in 2010 ; he won his second George Miller Medal , and was described by his coach as one of the league 's five best players and the " best tackler in the competition " . Despite carrying a nagging ankle injury , Hall started the 2011 season well , with The Mercury 's Brett Stubbs writing that he was arguably the second best player in the league . He missed five weeks during the middle of the season and , although he was named best on ground in his comeback match , Hall said that another injury would probably be the end of his career . He played out the reason of the season and finished in ninth place in the State League Player of the Year award , was named on the half @-@ back flank in the TFL Team of the Year , and finished in the top 20 in the Tassie Medal count . Hall retired from football at the end of the 2011 season ; his coach at North Hobart described Hall as irreplaceable . He came out of retirement in 2013 to spend one season playing for St Virgil 's Old Scholars in the Old Scholars Football Association where he was also an assistant coach . Hall finished second in the league best and fairest in his solitary season for the club . = John Crichton @-@ Stuart , 2nd Marquess of Bute = John Crichton @-@ Stuart , 2nd Marquess of Bute , KT , FRS ( 10 August 1793 – 18 March 1848 ) , styled Lord Mount Stuart between 1794 and 1814 , was a wealthy aristocrat and industrialist in Georgian and early Victorian Britain . He developed the coal and iron industries across South Wales and built the Cardiff Docks . Bute 's father , John , Lord Mount Stuart , died a few months after he was born and as a young child he was brought up first by his mother , the former Lady Elizabeth McDougall @-@ Crichton , and later by his paternal grandfather , John Stuart , 1st Marquess of Bute . He travelled widely across Europe before attending Cambridge University . He contracted an eye condition and remained partially sighted for the rest of his life . Having inherited large estates across Britain , he married his first wife , Lady Maria North , in 1818 , and together they lived a relatively secluded life in Mount Stuart House in Scotland , one of Bute 's four seats . Bute was dour but industrious , with a flair for land management . He focused his daily routine around extensive correspondence with his estate managers , making biennial tours of his lands around the country . The couple did not conceive any children , and Maria died in 1841 . Bute remarried four years later , to Lady Sophia Rawdon @-@ Hastings , and she gave birth to Bute 's only child , John , in 1847 . Bute was a member of the House of Lords and controlled the votes of several members of the House of Commons . He was a political and religious conservative , a follower of the Duke of Wellington , but rarely took part in national debates unless his own commercial interests were involved . Early on , Bute realised the vast wealth that lay in the South Wales coalfields and set about commercially exploiting them through local ironmasters and colliers . He constructed the Cardiff Docks , a major project which , despite running heavily over budget , enabled further exports of iron and coal and magnified the value of his lands in Glamorganshire . When violence broke out in the Merthyr Rising of 1831 , Bute led the government response from Cardiff Castle , despatching military forces , deploying spies and keeping Whitehall informed throughout . The contemporary press praised the marquess as " the creator of modern Cardiff " , and on his death he left vast wealth to his son . = = Background and personal life = = Bute was the son of John , Lord Mount Stuart , and the former Lady Elizabeth McDouall @-@ Crichton . His parents were both from wealthy , aristocratic backgrounds ; his father was due to become the Marquess of Bute , with extensive landholdings in Scotland and in South Wales , and his mother was the sole heir to the Crichton estates , with over 63 @,@ 980 acres ( 25 @,@ 890 ha ) of land in Scotland . Bute 's father died in a riding accident in February 1794 , leaving Elizabeth to give birth to Bute 's younger brother , Patrick Stuart , later that year . Initially Bute was brought up at Dumfries House by his mother and grandmother , but following their deaths he passed into the care of his grandfather , the 1st Marquess of Bute , and travelled with him across England and Europe . His family considered him to be clever and he went to study at Christ 's College in Cambridge in 1809 . Over the next few years he visited the Mediterranean , Scandinavia and Russia , taking a keen interest in land economics . He developed an eye condition during this period and became partially blind , leaving him unable to travel without assistance or to tolerate bright lights , and finding it difficult to read or write . His maternal grandfather , Lord Dumfries , died in 1803 , followed by his paternal grandfather in 1814 , with Bute inheriting both sets of estates and adding Crichton to his surname after Lord Dumfries . As a consequence he held many hereditary titles and posts : in addition to being the Marquess of Bute , he was also the Earl of Windsor , Viscount Mountjoy , Baron Mount Stuart , Baron Cardiff , the Earl of Dumfries and Bute , the Viscount of Ayr and Kingarth , Baron Crichton , Lord Crichton of Sanquhar and Cumnock , and Lord Mount Stuart Cumra and Inchmarnock , and a Baronet of Nova Scotia . He was the Keeper of Rothsay Castle , the Lord Lieutenant and Custos Rotulorum of Glamorgan , the Lord Lieutenant , the hereditary Sheriff and Coroner of Buteshire , and the High Steward of Banbury . Bute had four major seats , Mount Stuart House on the Isle of Bute , Dumfries House in Ayrshire , Luton Hoo in Bedfordshire , and Cardiff Castle in South Wales , with his London town house on Campden Hill in Kensington . Bute preferred to live in Mount Stuart House ; he disliked London and only spent a few weeks in Cardiff Castle each year . Twice each year he would travel from Mount Stuart House through Ayrshire to Edinburgh , down through northern England to London , and on to Cardiff and his South Wales estates . In November 1843 , a fire swept through Luton Hoo House , destroying the interior ; the house 's historic library survived , however , and most of its famous collection of paintings were rescued from the blaze ; it was subsequently sold off by Bute . Concerned about his growing blindness , and not enjoying the social life in London , Bute retired to his estates on the Isle of Bute for the next six years . While recovering , Bute married his first wife , Lady Maria North , in 1818 . Maria was one of the three daughters of the 3rd Earl of Guilford , and a wealthy heiress . £ 40 @,@ 000 was settled on her at the time of her marriage and she was due to inherit a third of her father 's extensive estates . Contemporaries considered Maria a kind and pleasant woman , but she was often unwell and the marriage proved childless . In 1820 his portrait was painted by Henry Raeburn , and published two years later as an engraving by William Ward . In 1827 his father @-@ in @-@ law died and Maria inherited lands worth over £ 110 @,@ 000 . The historian John Davies describes Bute as " dour , remote and overbearing on first acquaintance " but with a " sense of responsibility , considerable imagination and an enormous capacity for hard work " . By the aristocratic standards of the day , Bute lived a reclusive lifestyle . As a result of his personality and poor eyesight , he did not enjoy hunting , shooting , or large social gatherings , nor did he like racehorses or gambling . His first wife 's illnesses added to this sense of exclusion from wider aristocratic society . Compared to other landowners of the period , Bute was relatively philanthropic , giving away around seven to eight percent of his rental income from South Wales in charitable donations , for example . He was keen to fund local schools and to construct new churches , partially because in doing so he was able to discourage any moves towards Nonconformism and the disestablishment of the official Church . In 1841 Lady Maria died , and Bute blamed his excessive focus on the dock programme for exacerbating his wife 's illness . As a result of the original marriage agreement , Bute continued to draw the incomes from his late wife 's property for the remainder of his life , even though officially the estates would ultimately pass to Maria 's sister , Lady Susan , on his own death . He was created a Knight of the Thistle in 1843 by Queen Victoria . In 1845 Bute fell from his horse and injured his eyes further in the accident , making it still harder from him to read and write . Bute remarried the same year , this time to Lady Sophia Rawdon @-@ Hastings , the daughter of the Marquess of Hastings . Sophia was obsessive , hard to please and did not get on well with John 's family , especially his brother . She soon became pregnant , but gave birth to a stillborn child ; the couple 's second child , whom they named John , was successfully born in 1847 . Bute 's relationship with his brother Patrick was often difficult . Their political views did not coincide , as Patrick was much more liberal than Bute and favoured political reform . Although Bute arranged for Patrick to become a Member of Parliament in 1818 , in 1831 their differing views resulted in Bute removing him from Parliament . For many years , Patrick had good reason to expect that Bute would die childless , leaving him to inherit the family estates ; after Bute 's death , he disputed the occupancy of Cardiff Castle with Lady Sophia . = = Landowner and industrialist = = = = = Estate management = = = Bute was determined to develop his different estates and receive the best possible return from them . He was an active , ambitious manager , quick to generate new ideas for the properties , and spent the majority of his time managing his properties . Despite his poor eyesight , he wrote at least six letters to his managers each day . He had a detailed understanding of his various estates and businesses ; he attempted to keep up with affairs in Glamorgan , for example , by reading the local Welsh newspapers from his house in Scotland and through exchanging letters with influential local figures . Bute recognised that his land holdings were too extended and disparate to be easily managed and attempted to rationalise them . He attempted to sell his Luton estates in the early 1820s but failed to obtain an adequate price ; he successfully sold them in the early 1840s . Luton and Luton Hoo was finally sold in 1845 , by then comprising around 3 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 500 ha ) . Unusually for an aristocrat of the period , Bute owned almost all of his lands fully , as an owner in fee simple , rather than having his rights diluted through arrangements with trustees . When he married in 1818 , Bute placed his English and Wales estates into a trustee arrangement for any future children , but this agreement expired with Lady Maria 's death in 1842 ; when he remarried in 1845 a similar trustee agreement was set up , although in this version the Glamorgan estates were administered separately from his other holdings in England and Wales . Bute continued to run his network of estates and estate managers personally , helped by Onesipherus Bruce , a barrister @-@ agent and close friend . As early as 1815 , Bute had his Glamorgan estates fully surveyed , which highlighted that the estates had been neglected for many years and were now in a poor condition . Edward Richards became the senior official in charge of the estates by 1824 and represented Bute on both estate and political affairs across the region . Despite this , Bute retained the final authority over even quite minor issues on the estates , including making decisions on the buttons to be used on local school uniforms or the reuse of a broken flag pole , for example , which could result in considerable delays as letters were sent between South Wales and Scotland . As the complexity of the Glamorgan estates grew , more officials were appointed to help manage the docks , farms and mineral interests , but these all reported separately to Bute , putting increasing pressure on the marquess . On the Isle of Bute , the marquess expanded his properties , purchasing land in Ascog , Kilmahalmag and Etterick Mill . = = = Glamorganshire = = = Bute was closely involved in the developments across Glamorganshire during the first half of the 19th century . The region saw tremendous economic and social changes in a short period of time . The population almost trebled in the first forty years of the century and industrial outputs soured , with the output of pig iron increasing from 34 @,@ 000 to 277 @,@ 000 tons between 1796 and 1830 . Industry and mining replaced agriculture as the main sources of work . In driving forward and responding to these changes , Bute transformed his South Wales estate into a major industrial enterprise . Bute 's land holdings in Glamorgan were spread out across the county and he took steps to consolidate them , selling around 1 @,@ 800 acres ( 730 ha ) of some of the outlying properties in the west and investing heavily in buying 4 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 ha ) of land around Cardiff between 1814 and 1826 . The rising prices of land and the costs of the docks brought an end to this expansion . Estimating the profitability of the Glamorgan estates is challenging because of the way that the accounts were drawn up during the period , but estimates suggest that once land purchases and the dock building cost were factored in , the estates cost the marquesse much more than they delivered in income . Bute borrowed heavily ; he had inherited debts of £ 62 @,@ 500 , but by the time of his death owed £ 493 @,@ 887 . Financing and supporting this debt was difficult , particularly during the early 1840s , when credit was hard to come by , and John was forced to juggle lenders and different lines of credit . He believed that ultimately his investments would provide a rich return , and in 1844 noted that he thought " well of the prospects of my income in the distance " . The economic growth across South Wales drove up the demand for new housing for the growing work force . Bute was not prepared to sell any of his lands for housing , and did not see much profit in building and renting housing himself , but was prepared to lease land in the growing urban areas and mining communities for land development . Initially he attempted to negotiate 63 year long leases , which would have given his successors additional , early flexibility in how they managed the land , but these proved unpopular so he reverted to offering the more typical 99 year leases . None of the contracts offered by Bute allowed the lessee to buy the freehold or automatically renew the lease at the end of this term , which ultimately resulted in substantial political difficulties for the third and fourth marquesses when there was a storm of complaints in the late 19th and early 20th century . Bute left the style of the early developments up to the lessees , but was concerned by the poor results . Bute then began to approve the designs for new buildings personally , laying out some grand streets in the centre of Cardiff and retaining open areas for eventual use as parks . Very little money was invested in the sewage and drainage systems for his new developments , however , and a damning 1850 inquiry showed that this had resulted in cholera outbreaks across the town . At the start of the 19th century , scientific investigation began to indicate that the Glamorgan valleys were rich with coal deposits . Bute , who already owned coal mines in County Durham , commissioned further surveys in 1817 and 1823 – 24 which showed that there were potentially huge profits to be made from the reserves , both from the coal sitting beneath Bute 's own lands , but also from the coal under common lands in the region that Bute could claim through his feudal titles . Bute set about consolidating his rights and existing investments during the late 1820s and 1830s , acquiring extensive rights to the coalfields in the process . Bute established and managed a few colleries – such as that at Rhigos – directly , but given the investment costs and attention they took up , generally preferred to lease out his coal fields and claim a royalty on the coal mined instead . The lessees might be iron @-@ masters , who used the coal in their own operations , or colliery owners who sold the coal on to industrial or domestic customers . The profits increased from £ 872 in the second half of 1826 , to £ 10 @,@ 756 in 1848 – 49 . = = = Cardiff Docks = = = Between 1822 and 1848 Bute played a central role in the creation of the Cardiff Docks . The idea was first put forward to Bute by one of his staff in 1822 , who suggested that , with the right investment , Cardiff could be transformed into a major port for exporting coal and iron . The existing sea port , used by the Glamorganshire Canal , was small and inefficient . The new port would then deliver a direct return to Bute from shipping rates , improve the value of his lands in Cardiff itself and increase the value of the royalties he could charge on his coal fields . Initially Bute opposed plans for docks put forward by the local ironmasters , but then changed his mind and pushed forward with his own scheme shortly afterwards . The first phase was to build a new dock and connecting canal in Cardiff , making the Glamorganshire Canal redundant in the process , at an estimated cost of £ 66 @,@ 600 , considered to opponents to be a " wild speculation " . Parliamentary permission was acquired in 1830 , despite opposition from the local canal companies of iron masters . The project proved more complex than originally planned , driving Bute to become irritable and angry with almost all of his associates , but the dock opened successfully in 1839 . The costs of building the docks had been far more than anticipated , however . Instead of the original estimate , construction costs had soared to £ 350 @,@ 000 , reaching £ 10 @,@ 000 a month in 1837 . Bute had to mortgage his local estates to raise the sums required to finish the project . To make matters worse , when they first opened the docks did not receive the traffic he had expected , particularly from the larger ships ; Bute put this down to a coalition of ironmasters and others intent on ruining him . Bute responded by putting commercial pressure on shipping companies to abandon the Glamorganshire Canal and using his feudal rights to force shippers to move their wharfs to his docks . His efforts paid off and although trade through the docks only came to 8 @,@ 000 tons in 1839 , they then rose quickly , reaching 827 @,@ 000 tons by 1849 . Between 1841 and 1848 the docks brought in a gross income of just under £ 68 @,@ 000 , a relatively disappointing figure compared to the size of the investment . Successive marquesses would find themselves under huge pressure to continue investing and expanding in the docks and subsequent phases of construction over the coming decades . = = Politics = = = = = National = = = Bute was born into the pre @-@ Reform system of government in Britain . The British Parliament was divided into the hereditary House of Lords and the elected House of Commons , but voting systems varied widely across England and in many cases only very small numbers of local people were enfranchised to vote . Some members of the House of Lords , termed " patrons " , often controlled these " closed " or " nominated " seats in the Commons , effectively appointing their own candidates . Criticism of the system , led by the Whigs , grew during the first half of Bute 's life . Bute was a member of the House of Lords , able to vote on national affairs , but he had a reputation for not attending unless to vote on acts relating to his estates or business interests . When he did vote , it was usually as a moderate conservative , and Bute himself described himself as a follower of the Duke of Wellington , by then a leading Tory politician . John was in favour of Catholic Emancipation , opposed to slavery , the New Poor Law and the Game Laws . Like Wellington , he was in favour of repealing the Corn Laws . He passionately opposed electoral reform , however , and any attempts to disestablish the Church of England or Scotland . Bute had strong views on the necessity of encouraging the poor to work , and was in favour of removing the Irish poor from the mainland back to Ireland . He was a notoriously poor public speaker . In addition to his personal role in Parliament , Bute sought to control the votes of members of the House of Commons , primarily to ensure the passage of legislation affecting his business interests . Initially , the Isle of Bute had only 21 voters who were dominated by his private estate , but it only returned a Member of Parliament in alternate elections , and his estates in Luton were too limited to allow him to influence the electoral process there . The best remaining option for Bute was to control the voting in Cardiff , but even here he had to choose his candidate carefully and apply careful financial pressure through his control of leases and rents to ensure their election . In 1832 the Reform Act was passed by Parliament , widening the electorate across the country . The Isle of Bute 's electorate rose to 300 and acquired a permanent Member of Parliament , still controlled by Bute . Cardiff saw a short @-@ term drop in its electorate as a result of the act , and Bute benefited from the granting of the vote to many of his richer agricultural tenants . In the aftermath of the reforms , Bute secretly sponsored the creation of the conservative newspaper the Glamorgan Monmouth and Brecon Gazette and Merthyr Guardian , to increase support across the county , and underwrote its losses for many years . From 1842 to 1846 he acted as Her Majesty 's High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland . He was known for his generosity as a host in this role . He was in office during the schism in the Church of Scotland known as " the Disruption " , when many many ministers of the Church broke away from the established Church to form the Free Church . Bute took a firm line on the matter : when his head @-@ gardener at Mount Stuart House joined the Free Church , he was immediately sacked , and when the minister at one of Bute 's churches in the north of the island attempted to hold a Free Church ceremony there , Bute demanded the keys to the church to be returned and had the property closed up . = = = South Wales = = = = = = = Re @-@ establishing authority = = = = Bute was determined to control the local government around Cardiff , considering it part of his rights and duties as a major landowner and aristocrat . On inheriting his estates , however , he found himself facing a difficult political situation . The Butes ' grip on Glamorganshire had been weakened in the late 18th century , and the management of their political interests had been left for many years in the hands of John Wood , a local solicitor , whose family was embroiled in local politics , with their own set of interests . Glamorgan was also politically split between factions in the west and the east of the county , with most of Bute 's estates in the eastern half . Bute 's residence in the area , Cardiff Castle , was understaffed and regarded as unsuitable as a residence ; consequently he lacked the easy local patronage that would have come with a major , properly functioning establishment . There were tensions between Bute and the new industrialists around the region , including ironmasters such as John Guest , the master of the Dowlais Ironworks . Bute was a financial competitor or landlord with many of these men , and keen to drive as good a deal as possible in his negotiations with them . He also had political differences , seeing himself as a benevolent feudal lord in South Wales , and perceiving the local iron @-@ masters as arrogant , power @-@ hungry individuals , abusing their economic power towards communities and workers . Nonetheless , Bute was able to personally appoint the Constable of Cardiff Castle , and the constable by law acted as the effective mayor of Cardiff , ran the town 's council and had wide powers when appointing local officials . He inherited the title of Lord @-@ Lieutenant of the county in 1815 , giving him the right to recommend the appointments of new magistrates and various other civic posts ; potential candidates for these posts were advised to vote for Bute 's representatives at elections . In 1825 he became the colonel in chief of the Royal Glamorgan Militia , and used this authority to instruct the militia to vote for his candidates . Those who publicly voted against Bute faced charitable donations and support being cut off . His later control of the Cardiff Docks also helped to provide patronage and influence voting behaviour . In 1817 , John Wood died in the midst of a financial scandal , and Bute decided to appoint two of his rivals to the posts of Constable and Cardiff 's Town Clerk . This would have reaffirmed Bute 's power to change the appointments and broken the Wood 's family hold on local power , but it provoked a storm of local political wrangling . The Wood family turned on Bute , arguing that he should abandon his claims to control local Welsh affairs from Scotland . Bute replied by trying to crush the Wood family 's bank and stacking the town council with his appointees in early 1818 . The Woods successfully took legal action , challenging Bute 's authority to take these actions , and anti @-@ Bute violence flared that summer , resulting in arrests by Special Constables appointed by Bute . The pro @-@ Bute faction in Cardiff rallied and the Woods were defeated at the Parliamentary elections that year , the results reaffirming Bute 's authority over the town council . = = = = Merthyr Rising = = = = Bute played a role in the event of the Merthyr Rising , a large , armed industrial protest that occurred in Merthyr Tydfil in South Wales in 1831 . Political tensions amongst the working classes in Glamorgan had grown during the 1820s : although wages were impressive by contemporary standards during good years , they deteriorated quickly during depressions , plunging many into destitution ; sanitation and health standards in the fast @-@ growing industrial communities were appalling , child mortality rates were extremely high . 1831 saw a severe economic depression , with wages falling quickly and food prices rising , and complaints against the local debt courts and their bailiffs were numerous . Nationally , the electoral reform movement was making considerable protests and protests against the Corn Laws – which kept the prices of food high – were growing . In South Wales , several of the major ironmasters were associated with these movements , promoting reform under the Whig administration voted into power between April and June 1831 . By late 1830 , and certainly by the spring of 1831 , trouble in South Wales looked likely and , probably in response , Bute broke from his normal annual plans and in May travelled south from Scotland to Cardiff Castle . With a reform bill looking likely , tensions grew between the different political factions in Glamorganshire and how the potential new parliamentary seats should be shared out , especially between Bute and his conservative allies , Crawshay and Guest . Radical demonstrations occurred in Methyr Tyfil , one of the largest industrial communities , in May , and the crowd set light to effigies of conservative politicians . Violence broke out and arrests were made on 10 May ; the prisoners were released by the angry crowd and the local authorities effectively lost any control of the town . A general insurrection ensued on 30 May . Two local magistrates , J. Bruce and Anthony Hill , were stranded in the Castle Inn in Methyr Tyfil . They swore in around 70 men as special constables , but they were heavily outnumbered by the radical crowds . Bruce wrote an urgent letter to Bute in Cardiff Castle , asking for urgent advice on whether to call in the armed forces , and querying whether the Marquess had readied the Militia for action . Huge crowds marched on the local iron works , stopping production . The messages from Methyr Tyfil reached Bute that afternoon , who began to assemble the Eastern and Central Yeomanry militia units and transport ready for deployment . Bute paused until the morning , hoping to hear better news , but messengers bought more desperate news from Bruce and Hill , and the Yeomanry were dispatched . Meanwhile , an 80 @-@ man unit of the 93rd Foot had arrived in the Castle Inn from Brecon . Bute continued to keep Whitehall informed of the events by letter throughout . On the morning of 3 May , the 93rd Foot reached the Castle Inn , where the magistrates had been joined by the established figures of the town , deputised as constables , including the High Sheriff and most of the ironmasters . Outside , the radical crowds had grown to an estimated number of between 7 @,@ 000 and 10 @,@ 000 . Tensions rose alarmingly and the Riot Act was read in English and Welsh . Violence flared , the crowds attempted to seize the soldiers ' weapons and the soldiers responded with volleys of musket fire . The town 's working classes exploded in anger and set about searching the region for weapons . A messenger escaped the inn to reach Bute in Cardiff , who set about mobilising all the remaining armed forces he had available . Bute also despatched Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Richard Morgan of the Militia into Meyrthr to replace the commander of the 93rd Foot who had been badly injured . The men in the Castle Inn retreated to Penydarren House , who were joined by the initial reinforcements from the Yeomanry , bringing the establishment 's numbers to around 300 , not all of them were armed and able to fight . They faced increasingly well armed insurgents and Bute became increasingly concerned about the quality of the opposition facing his men . Bute sent spies into the insurgency , and nearby Cyfarthfa Castle was pressed into service as an observation post . Bute mobilised military pensioners , and used them to start to bring Penydarren House additional weaponry from Cardiff ; he was advised to be careful , however , in case the shipments fell into the hands of the insurgency . Morgan 's forces were able to prevent the radical crowds from entering either Penydarren or Cyfartha , and Bute arrested potential insurgents in Cardiff . On 16 May , Morgan was in a position to advance in force into Merthyr , pushing forward and taking advantage of the poor communications between the various elements of the insurgency . The uprising collapsed , and over the next few days the authorities regained control , making arrests and forcing the workers back to business . Government inquiries into the incident began and Bute , amongst others , provided analysis and reports to Whitehall . In the aftermath , Richard Lewis , one of the radical crowd , was hanged in Cardiff . The execution proved controversial and it is unknown whether Bute , who had by then left to attend Parliament in London , approved of the decision . = = = = Later years = = = = Concerns over possible violent outbreaks continued for many years . Chartism became prominent in the region in the late 1830s , again causing Bute considerable worries in 1839 and leading to him encouraging the mobilisation of military forces to deal with the threat . Bute began to advocate the creation of a police force to suppress the problems in the northern valleys , for once allying himself with the local ironmasters to overcome rural opposition to the scheme . In 1841 the scheme was passed by the Glamorgan magistrates , with a chief constable and headquarters established that year . In 1835 an act of Parliament reformed the local government structure , introducing a new town corporation structure with an elected mayor for the first time . Bute had to work harder to maintain his influence over the new corporation , using the various levers of influence at his disposal . He was successful , and in practice the elected officials and councillors were controlled Bute and his interests . = = Death = = Bute died in Cardiff on 18 March 1848 , and was buried in Kirtling , alongside Maria , his first wife . His funeral had 31 carriages in attendance and drew large crowds , although his funeral was snubbed by the local ironmasters . The national press gave his death little coverage , but the local Daily Chronicle noted Bute 's unusual achievement in building up the industrial base of his South Wales estates , and particularly praised his role in constructing the Cardiff Docks . The Cardiff Docks , whose opening in 1837 had led the press to praise Bute as " the creator of modern Cardiff " , continued to transform the city over the rest of the century . They would also form a financial liability to Bute successors , the costs of the continual investment needed to maintain and grow the facilities partially off @-@ setting the huge profits that Bute 's son enjoyed from the South Wales coalfields . A subscription was raised across Glamorgan to pay for a statue to be made of him , which was erected in Cardiff 's High Street in 1853 , outside the town hall . In 2000 the statue , Cardiff 's oldest , was moved to Bute Square , but the location was renamed Callaghan Square in 2002 , leading to proposals from local officials that Bute 's statue might be better relocated once again , potentially to outside Cardiff Castle . = Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure = Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure , released in Europe as Crash Bandicoot XS and in Japan as Crash Bandicoot Advance , is a platform game published by Universal Interactive Studios ( along with Konami in the Japanese release ) and developed by Vicarious Visions for the Game Boy Advance . It was released in North America on February 25 , 2002 , in Europe on March 15 , 2002 and in Japan on July 18 , 2002 . Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure is the seventh installment in the Crash Bandicoot video game series and the first Crash Bandicoot game to be released on a handheld console . The game acts as alternate sequel to the first four games , along with N @-@ Tranced for the same platform . The game 's story centers on a plot to shrink the Earth by the main antagonist , Doctor Neo Cortex , through the use of a gigantic weapon named the " Planetary Minimizer " . The protagonist of the story , Crash Bandicoot , must gather Crystals in order to power a device that will return the Earth to its proper size , defeating Doctor Cortex and his minions along the way . The game stemmed from an agreement between Universal Interactive Studios and Konami that enabled them to produce and publish ( respectively ) a Crash Bandicoot game for next @-@ generation handheld game systems , ending the franchise 's exclusivity to Sony @-@ produced consoles . Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure received generally favorable reviews from critics . The game was praised for its graphics and overall design , but critics noted the game 's lack of innovation . = = Gameplay = = Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure is a platform game in which the player controls Crash Bandicoot , who must gather 20 Crystals and reverse the shrinkage of the Earth at the hands of Doctor Neo Cortex , the main antagonist of the story . Much of the game takes place in a series of hubs , from which Crash can teleport to various areas of the Earth . Initially , only the first of four hubs is available for play . Each hub features five levels and a boss level . The goal in each level is to find and obtain a hidden Crystal . After completing all five levels in a hub , the boss level must be completed , in which Crash must defeat the boss character guarding the area . By defeating the boss , a new hub will be accessible for play . When all 20 Crystals are collected and the Earth has been enlarged to its proper size , the game is won . Besides Crystals , Gems and Colored Gems can be collected for extra accomplishment . Gems are rewarded to the player if all of the crates in a level are broken open or if a secret area is completed . Colored Gems are found in special levels and lead to hidden areas . " Relics " can be won by re @-@ entering a level where the Crystal has already been retrieved . To obtain a Relic , the player must initiate the " Time Trial " mode and race through a level in the pre @-@ designated time displayed before entering a level . To begin a Time Trial run , the player must enter a level and activate the floating stopwatch near the beginning of the level to activate the timer ; if the stopwatch is not touched , the level is played regularly . The player must then race through the level as quickly as possible . Scattered throughout the level are yellow crates with the numbers 1 , 2 or 3 on them . When these crates are broken , the timer is frozen for the number of seconds designated by the box . Sapphire , Gold and Platinum Relics can be won depending on the player 's final time . At the beginning of the game , Crash has the ability to jump to navigate ledges , spin in a tornado @-@ like fashion to break open crates and defeat enemies , deliver a body slam to break open tough objects and can either slide across the ground or crouch and crawl to get past low areas . Crash can expand on these abilities by defeating boss characters , often resulting in more powerful attacks or increased jumping and running prowess . Crash starts the game with six lives . Crash loses a life when he is struck by an enemy attack or suffers any other type of damage . More lives can be earned by instructing Crash to collect 100 " Wumpa Fruits " or break open a special crate to collect a life . Crash can be shielded from enemy attack by collecting an Aku Aku mask . Collecting three of these masks allows temporary invulnerability from all minor dangers . = = Plot = = = = = Characters = = = Eight returning characters from previous Crash titles star in Crash Bandicoot : The Huge Adventure . The protagonist of the game , Crash Bandicoot , is an anthropomorphic bandicoot who must reverse the shrinkage of the Earth caused by the main antagonist Doctor Neo Cortex . Crash 's genius sister , Coco Bandicoot , is the creator of the machine necessary to reverse the effects of Cortex 's " Planetary Minimizer " . Aiding Crash is Aku Aku , an ancient wooden mask who can temporarily protect Crash from harm . The main antagonist of the series , Doctor Neo Cortex , is a mad scientist who shrinks the Earth down to the size of a grapefruit with his new " Planetary Minimizer " . Overseeing Cortex 's plot is Uka Uka , the evil twin brother of Aku Aku . Cortex 's minions consist of Tiny Tiger , a hulking muscle @-@ bound beast , Dingodile , a flamethrower @-@ wielding dingo @-@ crocodile hybrid and Doctor N. Gin , Cortex 's cyborg right @-@ hand man . = = = Story = = = In a space station orbiting the Earth , Uka Uka is upset with Doctor Neo Cortex for failing him once again , but Cortex promises a plan that will bring the Earth 's inhabitants down to size . Cortex then introduces his Planetary Minimizer , which he immediately uses to shrink the Earth down to the size of a grapefruit . The situation is brought to Aku Aku 's attention when Cortex taunts the now @-@ microscopic people of Earth . When Aku Aku informs Crash of the Earth 's predicament , Coco assumes that Cortex is using the Crystals to power his shrinking machine , and requests that Crash find the same kind of Crystals in various locations around the world , which she will use to build a device that will reverse the effects of Cortex 's Minimizer . After Crash fends off Dingodile , Doctor N. Gin and Tiny Tiger , Cortex decides to deal with Crash himself by firing the Planetary Minimizer at him . Unfortunately for him , Crash tricks him into shrinking the colored Gems that stabilize the Minimizer , causing it to malfunction . The unrestrained effects of the Minimizer fuse Cortex and the previous bosses together , creating a monster known as Mega @-@ Mix , who chases Crash down the space station 's hallway in an attempt to kill him . Fortunately , Crash escapes back to the Earth just in time for Coco to use the Crystals that he has gathered to return the Earth back to normal again . The Earth is returned to its original size , while the space station above Earth explodes and Cortex and the others escape in an escape pod . = = Development = = On September 21 , 2000 , Konami and Universal Studios announced that they had entered an agreement that would enable Konami to publish a Crash Bandicoot game for next @-@ generation game systems , with Universal Interactive handling the production of the games . The Game Boy Color was originally included alongside the Game Boy Advance in the deal . The agreement served to break the Crash Bandicoot franchise 's exclusivity to Sony @-@ produced consoles and effectively made Crash Bandicoot a mascot character for Universal rather than Sony . That December , Vicarious Visions approached Universal and showed off some of their technology on the Game Boy Advance . Fairly impressed with their work , Universal asked Vicarious Visions to submit a concept . Liking the submitted concept , Universal commissioned a prototype ; the prototype resembled a handheld version of the PlayStation Crash Bandicoot games . Vicarious Visions was	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
from his strenuous fund raising activities ( this time , for a new Chemistry building ) . Later that year , the school 's trustees named the new chemistry building the " Lyman Hall Laboratory of Chemistry " in his honor . = = Lyman Hall building = = Erected in 1905 and named in his honor , The Lyman Hall Laboratory of Chemistry at Georgia Tech is commonly referred to by students as " Lyman Hall " or simply " Lyman " , due to the common mistaken impression that the word " Hall " is a mere descriptor . It now houses the Bursar 's Office after being completely gutted in 1988 , but the quote from geologist Sir Archibald Geikie 's 1905 published work remains on the front of the building : " In the first place I would put accuracy . " The 1903 to 1906 school announcements describe the architecture of the building in great detail : The Lyman Hall Laboratory of Chemistry , which is in the shape of a T , is of brick with limestone trimmings , and is two stories in height , with a full basement . Each floor has an approximate area of 5 @,@ 600 square feet . The lecture @-@ rooms , stock @-@ rooms , library , offices , gas analysis laboratory , photographic and spectroscopic rooms occupy the front , and the laboratories the rear wing . Especial care has been given to lighting and ventilation , the laboratories being lighted on three sides . For the removal of noxious gases , they are amply provided with hoods , each of which has a separate flue leading to a tight wooden fume @-@ box loaced just under the roof . This box communicates with the outer air , and can be provided with forced draught if necessary . The Chemical and Physical laboratories have been fitted up with reference to practical work , and such addition will be made from time to time as may be required for experimental research . The apparatus and appliances are of the newest and best forms , and will be increased as occasion may demand . The building is located within the Georgia Institute of Technology Historic District , and it is included in the 12 @-@ building area listed on the National Register of Historic Places . = Chiswick = Chiswick ( / ˈtʃɪzᵻk / CHIZ @-@ ick ) is a district of west London , England . Most of it is in the London Borough of Hounslow . Other parts of the W4 postcode area , including Chiswick Park tube station , Acton Green , and much of Bedford Park are in the London Borough of Ealing . It contains Hogarth 's House , the former residence of the 18th @-@ century English artist William Hogarth ; Chiswick House , a neo @-@ Palladian villa regarded as one of the finest in England ; and Fuller 's Brewery , London 's largest and oldest brewery . It occupies a meander of the River Thames used for competitive and recreational rowing , with several rowing clubs on the river bank . The finishing post for the Boat Race is just downstream of Chiswick Bridge . Chiswick was historically the ancient parish of St Nicholas in the county of Middlesex , with an agrarian and fishing economy beside the river centred on Church Street . Having good communications with London from an early time , Chiswick became a popular country retreat , and as part of the suburban growth of London in the late 19th and early 20th centuries the population significantly expanded . It became the Municipal Borough of Brentford and Chiswick in 1932 and has formed part of Greater London since 1965 , when it was merged into the London Borough of Hounslow . Sublocalities include Bedford Park , Grove Park , the Glebe Estate , Strand @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Green and those with named tube stations , Turnham Green and Gunnersbury , within its three full @-@ sized wards of the United Kingdom . On a border , the Chiswick or Great West Road Roundabout is the start of the North Circular Road ( A406 ) , South Circular Road ( A205 ) with the eponymous road flying over this . West of Chiswick 's Hogarth Roundabout , the Great West Road from central London converts to the M4 motorway , providing a second mode of transport connection to Heathrow Airport and the M4 corridor . The Great Chertsey Road ( A316 ) runs south @-@ west from the Hogarth Roundabout , becoming the M3 motorway . Historic figures who lived in Chiswick include the poets Alexander Pope and W. B. Yeats , the Italian revolutionary Ugo Foscolo , the Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro and the novelist E. M. Forster . = = History = = Chiswick was first recorded c.1000 as the Old English Ceswican meaning " Cheese Farm " ; the riverside area of Duke 's Meadows is thought to have supported an annual cheese fair up until the 18th century . Chiswick grew up as a village around St Nicholas Church from c . 1181 on Church Street , its inhabitants practising farming , fishing and other riverside trades including a ferry , important as there were no bridges between London Bridge and Kingston throughout the Middle Ages . The area included three other small settlements , the fishing village of Strand @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Green , Little Sutton and Turnham Green on the west road out of London . A decisive skirmish took place on Turnham Green early in the English Civil War . In November 1642 , royalist forces under Prince Rupert , marching from Oxford to retake London , were halted by a larger parliamentarian force under the Earl of Essex . The royalists retreated and never again threatened the capital . In 1864 , John Isaac Thornycroft , founder of the John I. Thornycroft & Company shipbuilding company , established a yard at Church Wharf at the west end of Chiswick Mall . The shipyard built the first naval destroyer , HMS Daring of the Daring class , in 1893 . To cater for the increasing size of warships , Thornycroft moved its shipyard to Southampton in 1909 . In 1822 , the Royal Horticultural Society leased 33 acres ( 13 @.@ 4 ha ) of land in the area south of the High Road between what are now Sutton Court Road and Duke ’ s Avenue . This site was used for its fruit tree collection and its first school of horticulture , and housed its first flower shows . The area was reduced to 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) in the 1870s , and the lease was terminated when the Society ’ s garden at Wisley , Surrey , was set up in 1904 . Some of the original pear trees still grow in the gardens of houses built on the site . The population of Chiswick grew almost tenfold during the 19th century , reaching 29 @,@ 809 in 1901 , and the area is a mixture of Georgian , Victorian and Edwardian housing . Suburban building began in Gunnersbury in the 1860s and in Bedford Park , on the borders of Chiswick and Acton , in 1875 . During the Second World War , Chiswick was bombed repeatedly , with both incendiary and high explosive bombs . Falling anti @-@ aircraft shells and shrapnel also caused damage . The first V @-@ 2 rocket to hit London fell on Chiswick on 8 September 1944 , killing three people , injuring 22 others and causing extensive damage to surrounding trees and buildings . Six houses were demolished by the rocket and many more suffered damage . There is a memorial where the rocket fell on Staveley Road , and a War Memorial at the east end of Turnham Green . = = Governance = = Chiswick St Nicholas was an ancient , and later civil , parish in the Ossulstone hundred of Middlesex . In 1878 the parish gained a triangle of land in the east which had formed a detached part of Ealing . From 1894 to 1927 the parish formed the Chiswick Urban District . In 1927 it was abolished and its former area was merged with that of Brentford Urban District to form Brentford and Chiswick Urban District . The amalgamated district became a municipal borough in 1932 . The borough of Brentford and Chiswick was abolished in 1965 , and its former area was transferred to Greater London to form part of the London Borough of Hounslow . With these changes , Chiswick Town Hall is no longer the local government centre but is still used for some council services . There was a Brentford and Chiswick Parliament constituency from 1918 to 1974 . Chiswick forms part of the Brentford and Isleworth Parliament constituency . The MP is Ruth Cadbury ( Labour ) , elected at the May 2015 general election replacing Mary Macleod ( Conservative ) . For elections to the London Assembly Chiswick is in the South West constituency , represented since 2000 by Tony Arbour , of the Conservative Party . For elections to Hounslow London Borough Council , Chiswick is represented by three electoral wards : Turnham Green , Chiswick Homefields and Chiswick Riverside . Each ward elects three councillors , who serve four @-@ year terms . For 2010 – 14 , all nine councillors were Conservatives . It was one of 35 major centres identified in the statutory planning document of Greater London , the London Plan of 2008 . = = Geography = = Chiswick occupies a meander of the River Thames , 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) west of Charing Cross . The district is built up towards the north with more open space in the south , including the grounds of Chiswick House and Duke 's Meadows . Chiswick has one main shopping area , the Chiswick High Road , forming a long high street in the north . The river forms the southern boundary with Kew , including North Sheen , Mortlake and Barnes in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames . It includes the uninhabited island of Chiswick Eyot , joined to the mainland at low tide . In the east Goldhawk Road and British Grove border Hammersmith in the London Borough of Hammersmith and Fulham . In the north are Bedford Park and South Acton in the London Borough of Ealing , with a boundary partially delineated by the District line . To the west , within Hounslow , are the districts of Gunnersbury and Brentford . Chiswick is in the W4 postcode district of the London post town , which in a tribute to its ancient parish includes Bedford Park and South Acton , mostly within the London Borough of Ealing . Bedford Park , designed largely by Norman Shaw , was described by Nikolaus Pevsner as the first place " where the relaxed , informal mood of a market town or village was adopted for a complete speculatively built suburb " . Some of the most beautiful period mansion blocks in the area , such as Heathfield Court and Arlington Mansions , line the sides of Turnham Green – the site of the Battle of Turnham Green in 1642 . Other suburbs of Chiswick include Grove Park ( south of the A4 , close to Chiswick railway station ) and Strand on the Green , a fishing hamlet until the late 18th century . In 1896 , Bedford Park was advertised as being in Chiswick , though at that time much of it was in Acton . = = Economy = = Chiswick High Road contains a mix of retail , restaurants , food outlets and expanding office and hotel space . The wide streets encourage cafes , pubs and restaurants to provide pavement seating . Lying between the offices at the Golden Mile Great West Road and Hammersmith , office developments and warehouse conversions to offices began from the 1960s . The first in 1961 was 414 Chiswick High Road on the site of the old Empire Cinema . Between 1964 and 1966 , the 18 @-@ storey IBM headquarters was built above Gunnersbury station , designed to accommodate 1500 people . It became the home of the British Standards Institution in 1994 . Chiswick is home to the Griffin Brewery , where Fuller , Smith & Turner brew their prize @-@ winning ales . It and its predecessor companies have been brewing beer on the same site for over 350 years . The original brewery was in the gardens of Bedford House in Chiswick Mall . = = Points of interest = = = = = Chiswick House = = = Chiswick House was designed by the Third Earl of Burlington , and built for him , in 1726 – 29 as an extension to an earlier Jacobean house ( subsequently demolished in 1788 ) ; it is considered to be among the finest surviving examples of Palladian architecture in Britain , with superb collections of paintings and furniture . Its surrounding grounds are among the most important historical gardens in England and Wales , forming one of the first English landscape gardens . = = = Churches = = = St Nicholas Church , near the river Thames , has a 15th @-@ century tower , although the remainder of the church was rebuilt by J.L. Pearson in 1882 – 84 . Monuments in the churchyard mark the burial sites of the 18th @-@ century English artist William Hogarth and William Kent , the architect and landscape designer ; the churchyard also houses a mausoleum ( for Philip James de Loutherbourg ) designed by John Soane , and the tomb of Josiah Wedgwood 's business partner , Thomas Bentley , designed by Thomas Scheemakers . One of Oliver Cromwell 's daughters , Mary Fauconberg , lived at Sutton Court and is buried in the churchyard . Enduring legend has it that the body of Oliver Cromwell was also interred with her , though as the Fauconbergs did not move to Sutton Court until 15 years after his disinterment , it is more likely he was reburied at their home at Newburgh Priory . Private Frederick Hitch VC , hero of Rorke 's Drift , is also buried there . Chiswick 's Roman Catholic church , Our Lady of Grace and St Edward ( the Confessor ) in the Diocese of Westminster , lies on the corner of Dukes Avenue and the High Road . It is a red brick building ; the parish was founded in 1848 , a school began c . 1855 , and a church was opened by Cardinal Wiseman on the present site in 1864 . It was replaced by the present building in 1886 , opened by Cardinal Manning . The heavy debts incurred were paid off and the church consecrated in 1904 . The square tower was added after the First World War by Canon Egan as a war memorial . The church of St. Michael , Sutton Court was designed by W. D. Caroe in 1908 – 1909 . It is a red brick building on Elmwood road , in Tudor style . St Paul 's Church , Grove Park is a Gothic style stone building designed by H. Currey . It was built largely at the Duke of Devonshire 's expense in 1872 . St Michael and All Angels , Bedford Park was initially a temporary iron building from 1876 on Chiswick High Road facing Chiswick Lane . The current building 's foundation stone was laid in 1879 and consecrated in 1880 . It was designed , along with much of Bedford Park , by Norman Shaw , and was called " a very lovely church " by John Betjeman . It is an Anglo @-@ Catholic church , and was attacked on the day it was consecrated for " Popish and Pagan mummeries " by the brewer Henry Smith , churchwarden of St Nicholas , Chiswick . Christchurch , Turnham Green is an early Victorian Gothic building of flint with stone dressings . The main part of the building , by George Gilbert Scott and W. B. Moffat , is from 1843 ; the chancel and northeast chapel were added in 1887 by J. Brooks . The Russian Orthodox Cathedral was built on Harvard Road in 1998 , with a blue and gold dome . = = = Public houses and theatres = = = There are several historic public houses in Chiswick , some of them listed buildings , including the Mawson Arms , the George and Devonshire , the Old Packhorse and The Tabard in Bath Road near Turnham Green station . The Tabard is known for its William Morris interior and its Norman Shaw exterior ; it was built in 1880 . Three more pubs are in Strand @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Green , fronting on to the Thames river path . Chiswick had two well @-@ known theatres in the 20th century . The Chiswick Empire ( 1912 to 1959 ) was at 414 Chiswick High Road . It had 2 @,@ 140 seats , and staged music hall entertainment , plays , reviews , opera , ballet and an annual Christmas pantomime . The Q Theatre ( 1924 to 1959 ) was a small theatre opposite Kew Bridge station . It staged the first works of Terence Rattigan and William Douglas @-@ Home , and many of its plays went on to the West End . The 96 @-@ seat Tabard Theatre ( 1985 ) in Bath Road , upstairs from the Tabard pub but a separate business , is known for new writing and experimental work . = = = Other buildings = = = The Sanderson Factory in Barley Mow Passage , now known as Voysey House , was designed by the architect Charles Voysey in 1902 . It is built in white glazed brick , with Staffordshire blue bricks ( now painted black ) forming horizontal bands , the plinth , and surrounds for door and window openings , and dressings in Portland stone . It was originally a wallpaper printing works , now used as office space . It is a Grade II * listed building . It faces the main factory building and was once joined to it by a bridge across the road . It was Voysey 's only industrial building , and is considered an " important Arts and Crafts factory building " . Chiswick is home to the Arts Educational Schools in Bath Road . = = = Duke 's Meadows = = = Duke 's Meadows stands on land formerly owned by the Duke of Devonshire . In the 1920s , it was purchased by the local council , who developed it as a recreational centre . A promenade and bandstand were built , and the meadows are still used for sport with a rugby club , football pitches , hockey club , several rowing clubs and a golf club . In recent years a local conservation charity , the Dukes Meadows Trust has undertaken extensive restoration work , which saw a long term project of a children 's water play area opened in August 2006 . = = Transport = = Chiswick is situated at the start of the North Circular Road ( A406 ) , South Circular Road ( A205 ) and the M4 motorway , the latter providing a direct connection to Heathrow Airport and the M25 motorway . The Great West Road ( A4 ) runs eastwards into central London via the Hogarth Roundabout where it meets the Great Chertsey Road ( A316 ) which runs south @-@ west , eventually joining the M3 motorway . The southern border of Chiswick runs along the River Thames , which is crossed in this area by Barnes Railway and Foot Bridge , Chiswick Bridge , Kew Railway Bridge and Kew Bridge . River services between Westminster Pier and Hampton Court depart from Kew Gardens Pier just across Kew Bridge . Bus routes on or near Chiswick High Road are ( 27 , 65 , 94 ( from Acton Green ) , 237 , 267 , 272 , 391 , 440 , E3 and H91 ) , as well as the night bus N9 . The 27 and 94 services run 24 hours a day . The District line serves Chiswick with three London Underground stations , Turnham Green , Chiswick Park and Gunnersbury . Turnham Green is an interchange with the Piccadilly line , but only before 06 : 50 and after 22 : 30 , when Piccadilly line trains stop at the station . Chiswick railway station is served by a regular South West Trains service to London Waterloo via Clapham Junction . The North London line crosses Chiswick ( north @-@ south ) ; London Overground stations are Gunnersbury and South Acton . = = Sports = = Chiswick 's local rugby union teams include Chiswick RFC , formerly Old Meadonians RFC . The team plays league games on a Saturday at Dukes Meadows . Chiswick 's cricket club , formely known as Turnham Green and Polytechnic , plays at Riverside Drive . On Chiswick Common is the Rocks Lane Multi Sports Centre , where there are tennis , five @-@ a @-@ side football and netball courts available to hire to the public . Private tennis coaching for individuals and groups is also available . The Chiswick reach of the Thames is heavily used for competitive and recreational rowing . Championship Course from Mortlake to Putney runs past Chiswick Eyot and Duke 's Meadows . The Boat Race is contested on the Championship Course on a flood tide ( in other words from Putney to Mortlake ) with Duke 's Meadows a popular view @-@ point for the closing stages of the race . The finishing post is just downstream of Chiswick Bridge . Other important races such as the Head of the River Race race the reverse course , on an ebb tide . Chiswick is home to several clubs . The University of London Boat Club is based in its boathouse off Hartington Road , which also houses the clubs of many London colleges and teaching hospitals ; recent members include Tim Foster , Gold medallist at the Sydney Olympics and Frances Houghton , World Champion in 2005 , 2006 and 2007 . Quintin Boat Club lies between Chiswick Quay Marina and Chiswick Bridge . Tideway Scullers School is just downriver of Chiswick Bridge ; its members include single sculling World Champion Mahé Drysdale and Great Britain single sculler Alan Campbell . Chiswick High Road was once home to the Chequered Flag garage and its associated motor racing team . = = Notable people = = = = = Eighteenth century = = = One of the first notable people to have lived in Chiswick was the artist William Hogarth , who lived in Chiswick from 1749 , when he bought the house now known as Hogarth 's House . Hogarth lived in the house until his death in 1764 . He is buried in St Nicholas 's churchyard . The house later belonged to the poet and translator of Dante , Henry Francis Cary , who lived there from 1814 to 1833 . Also in the 18th century , between 1716 and 1719 , the poet Alexander Pope , author of The Rape of the Lock , lived in Chiswick – in the building which is now the Mawson Arms at the corner of Mawson Lane . Another 18th @-@ century resident was the actor Charles Holland , who was born in Chiswick in 1733 . = = = Nineteenth century = = = In the 19th century , the Italian writer , revolutionary and poet Ugo Foscolo , died in exile at Turnham Green in 1827 , and was buried at St Nicholas Churchyard , Chiswick . The inventor of the electric telegraph , Francis Ronalds , lived on Chiswick Lane from 1833 to 1852 . Another engineer , John Edward Thornycroft was born in Chiswick in 1872 ; his father , John Isaac Thornycroft , had founded the Chiswick @-@ based John I. Thornycroft & Company shipbuilding company in 1864 , which Thornycroft later joined and developed . The artist Montague Dawson , regarded as one of the best 20th @-@ century painters of the sea , was born in Chiswick in 1895 . The poet W. B. Yeats lived in Woodstock Road as a boy from 1879 , and came back in 1887 to live in Blenheim Road , where , inspired by Chiswick Eyot , he wrote The Lake Isle of Innisfree . The Pissarro family of painters , the impressionist Camille Pissarro , his eldest son Lucien , as well as Felix and Ludovic @-@ Rodo lived in 62 Bath Road , Chiswick around 1897 ; with Camille Pissarro painting a series of notable landscapes of the area . The landscape artist Lewis Pinhorn Wood lived at Homefield Road from 1897 to 1908 . = = = Twentieth century = = = In the twentieth century , the novelist E. M. Forster ( 1879 – 1970 ) lived at 9 Arlington Park Mansions in Chiswick from 1939 until at least 1961 . Notable people born before the Second World War include the theatre and film director Peter Brook ( 1925- ) , zoologist and broadcaster Aubrey Manning ( 1930- ) , and marine geologist Frederick Vine ( 1939- ) . Rock musicians John Entwistle ( 1944 – 2002 ) and Pete Townshend ( 1945- ) of The Who were both born in Chiswick during the Second World War . Those born in Chiswick during the post @-@ war period include the musician Phil Collins ( 1951- ) ; the singer Kim Wilde ( 1960- ) ; the illustrator Clifford Harper ( 1949- ) ; the photographer Derek Ridgers ( 1952- ) ; the actress Kate Beckinsale ( 1973- ) ; and comedian Mel Smith ( 1952 – 2013 ) . Among those who have lived in Chiswick are the novelist Anthony Burgess ( 1917 @-@ 1993 ) , who lived at 24 Glebe Street in the mid @-@ 1960s ; the actor Hugh Grant ( 1960- ) , who grew up in Chiswick , living next to Arlington Park Mansions on Sutton Lane ; the singer Bruce Dickinson ( 1958- ) of the band Iron Maiden ; the TV presenter Kate Humble ( 1968- ) from 1997 to 2010 ; the actress Elizabeth McGovern ( 1961- ) and her husband the film director Simon Curtis ( 1960- ) ; and the model Cara Delevingne ( 1992- ) . The playwright Michael Frayn ( 1933- ) and his daughter the film maker and novelist Rebecca Frayn live in Chiswick . Chiswick residents in 2016 include the singer Sophie Ellis Bextor , the BBC journalists Jeremy Vine , Rageh Omaar and Fergal Keane , the actor Phyllis Logan , the TV presenters Sarah Greene , Gavin Campbell and Mary Nightingale , and the journalist Alice Arnold . = = Demography and housing = = = = In literature = = The novel Vanity Fair ( 1847 / 8 ) by William Makepeace Thackeray opens at Miss Pinkerton 's Academy for Young Ladies in Chiswick Mall . Louis N. Parker 's play Pomander Walk ( 1915 ) has the imagined setting of " a retired crescent of five very small , old @-@ fashioned houses near Chiswick , on the river @-@ bank . ... They are exactly alike : miniature copies of Queen Anne mansions " . = = Nearest places = = = USS Washington ( BB @-@ 47 ) = USS Washington ( BB @-@ 47 ) , a Colorado @-@ class battleship , was the second ship of the United States Navy named in honor of the 42nd state . Her keel was laid down on 30 June 1919 at Camden , New Jersey , by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation . She was launched on 1 September 1921 , sponsored by Miss Jean Summers , the daughter of Congressman John W. Summers of Washington . On 8 February 1922 , two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of Naval Armaments , all construction work ceased on the 75 @.@ 9 % -completed superdreadnought . She was sunk as a gunnery target on 26 November 1924 by the battleships New York and Texas . = = Design = = Washington was 624 feet ( 190 m ) long , and had a beam of 97 @.@ 5 feet ( 29 @.@ 7 m ) and a draft of 30 @.@ 5 feet ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) . She displaced 32 @,@ 600 long tons ( 33 @,@ 123 t ) tons . The ship 's primary armament consisted of eight 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) / 45 caliber guns in four twin gun turrets . This was augmented by a secondary battery of 20 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) / 51 caliber guns . The ship was also armed with eight 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 23 caliber antiaircraft guns . The new underwater protection scheme featured five compartments separated by bulkheads on either side of the ship : an outer empty one , three filled , and an empty inner one . In addition , the eight boilers were moved from their location in previous designs and placed in separate spaces to port and starboard of the turbo @-@ electric power plant , forming another line of defense ; the ship could still sail even if one or even an entire side of boilers was incapacitated due to battle damage . This new arrangement forced the chief aesthetic change between the New Mexicos and Tennessees ; the single large funnel of the former was replaced by two smaller funnels in the latter . = = History = = With fiscal year 1917 appropriations , bids on the four Colorados were opened on 18 October 1916 ; though Maryland 's keel was laid on 24 April 1917 . The other three battleships , including Washington , were not laid down until 1919 – 20 . With the cancellation of the first South Dakota class , the Colorados were the last U.S. battleships to enter service for nearly two decades . They were also the final U.S. battleships to use twin gun turrets — the North Carolina and second South Dakota classes used nine 16 " / 45 caliber guns and the Iowas used nine 16 in / 50 caliber in three triple turrets . Washington was laid down on 30 June 1919 . On 8 February 1922 , two days after the signing of the Washington Naval Treaty for the Limitation of all Naval Armaments , all construction work was stopped on the 75 @.@ 9 percent @-@ completed superdreadnought . By that time , she had her underwater armored protection in place . = = Sinking = = The ship was towed out in November 1924 to be used as a gunnery target . On the first day of testing , the ship was hit by two 400 @-@ pound ( 180 kg ) torpedoes and three 1 tonne ( 1 @.@ 1 short tons ) near @-@ miss bombs causing minor damage and a list of three . She then had 400 pounds ( 180 kg ) of TNT detonated on board , but remained afloat . Two days later , the ship was hit by fourteen 14 @-@ inch shells dropped from 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , but only one penetrated . The ship was finally sunk by Texas and New York with fourteen more 14 @-@ inch shells . After the test , it was decided that the existing deck armor on battleships was inadequate , and that future battleships should be fitted with triple bottoms , which was underwater armor with three layers . = Ya Kun Kaya Toast = Ya Kun Kaya Toast ( Simplified Chinese : 亚坤加椰面包 ) is a Singaporean chain of mass @-@ market , retro @-@ ambience cafes selling toast products ( notably kaya toast ) , soft @-@ boiled eggs and coffee . Founded by Loi Ah Koon in 1944 , Ya Kun remained a small family @-@ run stall for decades , but have expanded rapidly since Loi 's youngest son headed the business in 1999 . They have over fifty outlets , mostly franchised , across six countries , and are a Singaporean cultural icon , known for their traditional brand identity and conservative , people @-@ centric corporate culture . = = History = = In 1926 , Loi Ah Koon ( 黎亚坤 ) emigrated from Hainan to Singapore , where he worked as a coffee @-@ stall assistant , then started a stall selling coffee , crackers and toast at Telok Ayer Basin , together with two other immigrants , who later dropped out , leaving him to run the stall alone . He married while visiting relatives in Hainan and after his wife settled down with him in Singapore , she suggested cutting each slice of bread into half and combining the toast with her homemade kaya , which created their signature kaya toast . Registered in 1944 as Ya Kun Coffeestall ( Ya Kun being Ah Koon in Hanyu Pinyin ) , the stall gradually developed a reputation for delicious kaya toast and friendly service . The couple , their eight children and seven other families lived in a three @-@ storey shophouse across the road , where the Hong Leong Building now stands , and as the children grew up , they helped stir the kaya , run errands , charcoal @-@ grill the bread and eventually , manage the stall . Ya Kun Coffeestall moved to Lau Pa Sat in 1972 , but high rents and renovation of Lau Pa Sat in 1984 sparked a return to the Telok Ayer Market ; nevertheless , the stall continued to attract " customers who came every day , some from as far as Jurong or Woodlands " . In 1998 , the market closed down , so the stall relocated to Far East Square and was renamed Ya Kun Kaya Toast ; the following year , Ah Koon died and his youngest son , Loi Boon Sim Adrin ( 黎文深 ) , took over the business , determined " to keep his father 's legacy going " . Realising that Ya Kun had a lot of goodwill and potential , Adrin decided to expand the business , so the family opened a second store at Tanjong Pagar and , in 2000 , began franchising the brand . Since Ya Kun were incorporated in 2001 , launched their first overseas outlet ( in Indonesia ) in 2002 and expanded their menu ( adding ice cream toast and the Toastwich ) , they have won the 2004 and 2005 Superbrands Award , the 2005 to 2007 SIFST Product Award and the 2008 SPBA @-@ CitiBusiness Regional Brands Award . = = Products and stores = = Ya Kun Kaya Toast have over forty Singaporean outlets , about half of which are franchised , and over thirty overseas outlets , all franchised , across seven countries ( China , Indonesia , Japan , Myanmar , South Korea , Taiwan and the Philippines ) ; they plan to expand to Brunei , India , Malaysia , the Maldives , Thailand and the United Arab Emirates in future . The stores have a retro ambience , with wooden tables and stools , Chinese calligraphy of the company name , posters about their history , traditional methods of preparing food and customer service reflecting Chinese family values . Unlike their main competitors , they have a limited menu that revolves around their core product , kaya toast , with cheese , peanut butter and ice cream as alternative spreads for their thin , brown , crispy bread . To appeal to a wider demographic , Ya Kun also sell French toast and Toastwiches ( their Asian alternative to sandwiches ) ; set meals combine any type of toast with soft @-@ boiled eggs and a beverage , usually coffee or teh tarik . Prices at local Ya Kun stores are slightly higher than those at kopitiams , but lower than prices of comparable products at Western coffeehouse chains operating in Singapore , while food at overseas Ya Kun outlets is relatively expensive . All outlets obtain their ingredients from the same suppliers and some ingredients , notably the kaya and coffee powder , are made at the Ya Kun factory in Bedok , using recipes that only a few of the Loi family know . The chain are " widely regarded as an institution of good kaya toast " and " a Singaporean cultural icon " that the Singapore Tourism Board has promoted as a tourist attraction . A Ming Pao review praised the " crispy but not hard , fragrant but not burnt " toast and fresh kaya , while a Straits Times review described the toast as " evenly sliced " and of " the right texture " , the eggs as " cooked to perfection " and the teh tarik as " not too milky and not overpoweringly sweet either " . = = Management = = Ya Kun Kaya Toast comprises two companies , Ya Kun Singapore , which manages the Ya Kun factory and two corporate outlets , and Ya Kun International , which oversees the chain of outlets and franchising activities . Adrin has an 80 percent share of Ya Kun Singapore and his younger brother , Algie , has a 20 percent share , with other members of the Loi family actively involved in daily activities , while Ya Kun International is fully owned by Adrin Loi . Their corporate culture is conservative and people @-@ centric , with emphasis on preserving their brand identity as their chengnuo ( 承诺 , " commitment " or " promise " ) to their customers , sustainable growth over actively pursuing new opportunities , nurturing family @-@ like relationships among staff ( they do not fire or retrench workers ) and avoiding aggressive conflict with competitors . Although Ya Kun do not publicly disclose their financial figures , a 2009 Lianhe Zaobao article estimated that the company had an annual revenue of S $ 8 million , while a 2012 article in The Star stated they had 300 employees . = = = Cited literature = = = William Koh ( 2010 ) . The Top Toast : Ya Kun and the Singapore Breakfast Tradition . Cengage Learning Asia . ISBN 9814281654 . = Smoke Gets in Your Eyes ( Homicide : Life on the Street ) = " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " is the eighth episode of the first season of the American police drama television series Homicide : Life on the Street . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on March 24 , 1993 . In the episode , Howard and Bayliss attempt to quit smoking , Gee discovers secret asbestos removal in the squad room , and Munch and Bolander investigate the beating death of a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy . The episode was written by James Yoshimura and Tom Fontana , and was directed by Wayne Ewing , who doubled as director of photography . The episode featured a cameo appearance by film director and Baltimore native John Waters as a bartender . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was originally supposed to be the first season finale , but the episode " Night of the Dead Living " was moved to the end of the season because NBC programmers felt it was too slow @-@ paced to show any earlier in the season . During one scene , Munch and Bolander convince a suspect the copy machine is a dangerous lie @-@ detector machine . This was inspired by a real @-@ life trick used by the Baltimore Police Department and documented in David Simon 's 1991 non @-@ fiction book Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , on which the series was based . It was later used in an episode of Simon 's police drama series , The Wire . Since ratings for Homicide had gradually declined throughout the season , NBC announced a decision about whether the series would be renewed would depend on the Nielsen ratings of the final four episodes , including " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " . Nevertheless , it was seen by 7 @.@ 08 million household viewers , which was considered relatively low , although it was an improvement over the previous episode " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " . = = Plot summary = = Howard ( Melissa Leo ) quits smoking , and her partner Felton ( Daniel Baldwin ) fears her edginess will endanger his safety . Bayliss ( Kyle Secor ) also tries to quit smoking , but tries to live vicariously through his smoking partner Pembleton ( Andre Braugher ) . Howard and Bayliss petition Gee ( Yaphet Kotto ) to set up a non @-@ smoking section for the squad room , but an amused Gee refuses because most of the detectives smoke . Howard , Felton , Bayliss and Pembleton find they share a common suspect in a Union Square murder , and plan a joint stakeout . Howard and Bayliss decide to ride together so Pembleton and Felton can smoke in the car . Although outwardly critical and skeptical , Pembleton and Felton are actually impressed with their partners ' willpower and discuss the merits of quitting smoking . Howard and Bayliss , however , talk about nothing but smoking , prompting Bayliss to walk to Pembleton 's car window and ask for a cigarette . As the result , the four detectives almost miss the suspect , and have to engage him in a foot chase to arrest him . Meanwhile , an intrusive public works inspector ( Carter Jahncke ) tests the air quality at the squad room , but insists to an inquisitive Gee that everything is fine . The next day , however , Gee goes upstairs and finds a team wearing protective respirator suits removing hazardous asbestos from the wall . Gee angrily confronts Captain Barnfather ( Clayton LeBouef ) and Colonel Granger ( Gerald F. Gough ) for not informing the detectives about the work , and demands it be stopped until precautionary medical checks can be conducted . Barnfather and Granger insist the removal work is safe , but give in when Gee threatens to go to the media . Meanwhile , Lewis ( Clark Johnson ) brags repeatedly to Crosetti ( Jon Polito ) about his new Ford FE V8 engine and the car he plans to build . Crosetti feigns disinterest , but the next day presents Lewis with a rear @-@ view mirror as a gift . Munch ( Richard Belzer ) and Bolander ( Ned Beatty ) investigate the death of a 14 @-@ year @-@ old boy found dead in a hospital waiting room . The victim , Percy Howell , appeared to suffer sustained blows to the head from a blunt object but waited days before seeking treatment . Although initially suspicious of the boy 's cold and uncaring father ( Dan Moran ) , a devout Christian who makes antisemitic remarks at Munch , the detectives eventually question another teen ( Gavin Goren ) who spent time with Howell right before he died . After convincing the gullible teen that the copy machine was actually an " electrolyte neutron magnetic scanner " that could detect lies , they learn Howell was killed by Colin Dietz ( Joe Fersedi ) , the teenage leader of a gang called the Zaps , with a baseball bat . Munch and Bolander arrest Dietz , who says he loved Howell like a brother and the beating was an initiation . Bolander is deeply disturbed by Dietz 's cold casualness in discussing the murder . Later , Bolander talks to a bartender ( John Waters ) about his divorce , and the episode ends with Bolander drinking alone at the bar , quietly singing an Elvis Presley song . = = Production = = " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was written by James Yoshimura based on a story by executive producer Tom Fontana , and was directed by Wayne Ewing , who doubled as director of photography . The title of the episode refers both to Bayliss and Howard seeking to quit smoking , and to the hazardous asbestos being removed from the squad room . The episode includes a cameo appearance by film director John Waters , who plays a bartender speaking with Bolander in the final scene . Waters , a Baltimore native who develops and sets most of his films in the city , would make another guest appearance in the third season episode , " Law & Disorder " in a different cameo role . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " was originally supposed to be the Homicide : Life on the Street first season finale , but the episode " Night of the Dead Living " was moved to the end of the season . Although originally scheduled as the third episode , NBC programmers were worried " Night of the Dead Living " , which takes place entirely within the detective 's squad room , was too slow @-@ paced for a series still trying to win viewers . Although Homicide producers felt " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " had a sense of resolving storylines , NBC executives believed it was too somber and preferred the ending of " Night of the Dead Living " , which ends with the detectives happily smiling and laughing . During one scene in " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " , Munch and Bolander force a suspect to take a " electrolyte neutron magnetic scan test " , which involved placing his hand on a copy machine and photocopying his hand as they asked him questions . Prior to giving the exam , the detectives loaded papers with the words " True " and " False " into the machine , so when the final copies came out it appeared the machine was giving answers to the questions . The detectives pretended the test was radioactive and dangerous to further make the suspect nervous . This scene was based on a real @-@ life trick used by Baltimore Police Department detectives in 1988 . The real @-@ life instance was featured in Homicide : A Year on the Killing Streets , the 1991 David Simon non @-@ fiction book about a Baltimore Police Department , which was adapted into the Homicide series . This hoax was also used in " More with Less " , the fifth season premiere episode of David Simon 's later police drama series , The Wire . = = Release and reception = = Ratings for Homicide : Life on the Street gradually declined since the series first premiered . In response , NBC announced to fans that a decision about whether Homicide would be renewed or canceled would depend on how the last four episodes of the season fared in the ratings , including " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " . In its original American broadcast on March 24 , 1993 , the episode was watched by 7 @.@ 08 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research , earning the episode a 7 @.@ 6 rating . This constituted a slight increase in viewership compared to the previous week 's episode , " And the Rockets ' Dead Glare " , which was seen by 6 @.@ 61 million viewers and received a 7 @.@ 1 rating . Homicide ranked low in the Nielsen ratings compared to other shows the week of " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " , ranking 77th for the week of March 15 to 21 , with the CBS news magazine series 60 Minutes ranking number one with 21 @.@ 9 million household viewers . " Smoke Gets in Your Eyes " and the rest of the first and second season episodes were included in the four @-@ DVD box @-@ set " Homicide : Life on the Street : The Complete Seasons 1 & 2 " , which was released by A & E Home Video on May 27 , 2003 . = Peppered maskray = The peppered maskray or speckled maskray ( Neotrygon picta ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , found in shallow waters off northeastern Australia . This small , thin @-@ bodied ray attains a maximum width of 32 cm ( 13 in ) . It has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc with a row of tiny thorns along the midline , and a relatively short , whip @-@ like tail with both upper and lower fin folds . Its upper surface has a speckled color pattern consisting of black spots and brownish reticulations on a light yellow to brown background . Favoring soft @-@ bottomed habitats , the peppered maskray is a bottom @-@ dwelling predator consuming mainly crustaceans ( particularly caridean shrimp ) and polychaete worms . It is viviparous , with litter sizes of one to three . The females supply their developing young with histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) during gestation . Although the peppered maskray is a frequent bycatch of bottom trawl fisheries , it is still common and significant portions of its population appear to lie within unfished waters . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed it as Least Concern . = = Taxonomy and phylogeny = = Once thought to be a color morph of the painted maskray ( N. leylandi ) , the peppered maskray was recognized as a distinct species based on molecular data collected for the Barcode of Life project . It was described by Peter Last and William White in a 2008 Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation ( CSIRO ) publication . Their account was based on 13 specimens ; of these , a female 24 cm ( 9 @.@ 4 in ) across caught off Rockhampton , Queensland was designated as the holotype . The specific epithet picta is derived from the Latin pictus ( " painted " or " colored " ) . Phylogenetic analysis using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA has found that the peppered and painted maskrays are sister species . The two are estimated to have diverged c . 10 Ma , during the Miocene . = = Description = = The peppered maskray has a thin , diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc roughly 1 @.@ 2 times wider than long , with slightly concave leading margins and narrowly rounded outer corners . The snout forms an obtuse angle and has a pointed tip . The small , closely spaced eyes are followed by crescent @-@ shaped spiracles . The nostrils are elongated and have a skirt @-@ shaped curtain of skin between them ; the posterior margin of the curtain is fringed and forms two lobes . The small mouth is surrounded by papillae and bears prominent furrows at the corners . There are two papillae on the floor of the mouth . The teeth number 33 – 38 rows in the upper jaw and 31 – 40 rows in the lower ; the teeth are small and vary from pointed to blunt . The five pairs of gill slits are S @-@ shaped . The pelvic fins are medium @-@ sized and triangular with angular corners . The whip @-@ like tail measures 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 times as long as the disc and bears slender stinging spines on the upper surface ; smaller rays usually have one sting , larger rays two . The tail is moderately broad and flattened at the base , becoming very thin behind the sting . Both upper and lower fin folds are present past the sting , with the upper fold shorter than the lower . There are up to 22 small , closely spaced thorns along the midline of the back behind the spiracles ; otherwise , the skin is mostly smooth . This species is light yellow to brown above , with a darker reticulated pattern that may vary from faint to obvious , all overlaid by numerous black spots . Like other Neotrygon species , there is a dark marking across the eyes that resembles a mask . The tail has a pattern of saddles or bands behind the sting ; the tip is white and the ventral fin fold darkens to almost black posteriorly . The underside is plain white . This species reaches 32 cm ( 13 in ) across . = = Distribution and habitat = = The range of the peppered maskray extends along the coast of northeastern Australia , from at least the Wessel Islands off Northern Territory to Hervey Bay in Queensland ; the western boundary of its range is uncertain . It may also be found off New Guinea , though this is unconfirmed . This species is extremely common in some areas , such as the Gulf of Carpentaria . A benthic fish , it is usually found on the inner continental shelf in water less than 25 m ( 82 ft ) deep , but may occur down to 100 m ( 330 ft ) . It favors habitats with sandy or other fine substrate . = = Biology and ecology = = The peppered maskray prefers to pick prey from the surface of the substrate , as opposed to digging for them . Caridean shrimp are by far the most important food source . It also consumes polychaete worms and amphipods , and rarely penaeid prawns , molluscs , and small bony fishes . Compared to smaller rays , larger rays have a more varied diet that incorporates a greater proportion of polychaete worms . Reproduction in the peppered maskray is viviparous ; like other stingrays , the developing embryos are initially nourished by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) provided by the mother . Mature females have a single functional ovary and uterus , on the left side . Females give birth to litters of one to three pups , probably once per year . The newborns are 9 – 11 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 3 in ) across . Males and females reach sexual maturity at around 17 and 18 cm ( 6 @.@ 7 and 7 @.@ 1 in ) across respectively . The maximum lifespan is at least 11 years for males and 18 years for females . = = Human interactions = = The peppered maskray lacks economic value and is discarded by fisheries . It is often caught incidentally in bottom trawls , and due to its small size does not benefit from Turtle Exclusion Devices . In particular , this species accounts for approximately 4 @.@ 5 % of the total catch of the Northern Prawn Fishery ( NPF ) in the Gulf of Carpentaria . Over half of the rays caught by the NPF , including almost all the males , are fatally crushed within the trawl . Despite this mortality , the NPF is not believed to have negatively affected the local population because its operational area does not include the waters where this species is most abundant . The peppered maskray is also caught frequently in scallop trawls operated by the Queensland East Coast Trawl Fishery . Elsewhere in its range , fishing pressure is relatively light due to external factors such as fuel prices . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , because it remains common and its range includes several Marine Protected Areas . = Folie à Deux ( The X @-@ Files ) = " Folie à Deux " is the nineteenth episode of the fifth season of American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was written by Vince Gilligan and directed by Kim Manners . The episode originally aired on May 10 , 1998 in the United States on the Fox network . The episode is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the series ' wider mythology , or fictional history . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 0 , being watched by 17 @.@ 63 million viewers upon its initial broadcast . It received largely positive reviews from critics . The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Mulder encounters a delusional man , Gary Lambert ( Brian Markinson ) , who believes his boss , Greg Pincus ( John Apicella ) , may be a monster — and decides to take an entire office building , including Mulder , hostage to prove it . Lambert is eventually killed , but somehow , Mulder inherits his ability to see Pincus as a monster . After Mulder claims that Pincus is a monster , he is locked in a psychiatric hospital , only to be saved by Scully : the only person who believes him . The episode 's antagonistic bug creature was created by means of a prosthetic suit that was worn by a stuntwoman . The suit was highly ridiculed behind the scenes . To fix the perceived issues with the monster , the production team gave the film to visual effects editor Laurie Kallsen @-@ George , who digitally altered the footage until it was deemed suitable . The episode 's title is a reference to Folie à deux , a form of insanity shared by two people . It usually begins with one person who conceives of a delusional belief and then spreads it to another ; thus , those two share the same delusion . = = Plot = = In Oak Brook , Illinois , Gary Lambert ( Brian Markinson ) , a telemarketer at a company called VinylRight , believes that his seemingly normal boss , Greg Pincus ( John Apicella ) , is an insect @-@ like monster that only he can see . Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) orders Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) to go to Chicago to do a threat assessment of a taped manifesto that mentions VinylRight , which has seen a violent incident at its Kansas City offices . Mulder suspects that the case is a deliberate waste of time and tells Scully not to accompany him . During his meeting with Pincus , Mulder learns that the tape was sent to a local radio station with a demand that it be played twenty @-@ four hours a day ; on the tape , a man – later revealed to be Lambert – claims that a monster " hides in the light " and stalks employees at VinylRight . Mulder calls Scully and asks her to find past X @-@ Files containing the phrase . After one of Lambert 's co @-@ workers , Nancy Aaronson ( Cynthia Preston ) , is turned into a living corpse by Pincus – while appearing normal to everyone else – Lambert flees to his apartment and arms himself with a Type 84S rifle . Meanwhile , Scully calls Mulder to tell him that she found the phrase " hiding in the light " in a 1992 case from Lakeland , Florida that involved similar accusations of hidden monsters . Mulder admits that Scully should come to Chicago to help him with the investigation . He returns to the VinylRight office and unwittingly walks into the middle of a hostage situation , being held captive by Lambert along with Pincus and the other employees . As Scully arrives on the scene , Lambert divides his hostages into " real people " and " monsters " , claiming that Pincus has turned several employees into zombies . Lambert shoots Mark Backus , one of the purported zombies , when he tries to disarm him whilst briefly distracted by Mulder . When Lambert demands a camera to broadcast his warning , Scully arranges for a SWAT officer disguised as a cameraman to be sent in the building . Lambert , not knowing that the camera broadcasts only in a closed @-@ circuit , tells viewers about Pincus being a monster . As the lights are cut , Lambert forces Mulder to look behind him and see that Pincus , for an instant , is a large insect . Just then , the FBI smashes into the room with an armored vehicle and kills Lambert before he can open fire . Mulder questions Pincus and learns that he was present in during the VinylRight incidents in Kansas City and Florida . At his office , Mulder maps out all the reports of monsters " hiding in the light " against places Pincus has lived and worked . He tries to convince Scully that Lambert might have been right , but she accuses him of succumbing to a " Folie à Deux " , or shared psychosis , with Lambert . Mulder asks Scully to do an autopsy of Mark Backus to see if there is any evidence of Lambert 's claims , but Scully refuses . In an effort to prove Lambert right Mulder goes to Lambert 's home with Agent Rice . There , Mulder finds a map of Pincus ' movements and incidents of reported monsters , like the map Mulder made . Looking out a window Mulder sees a corpse @-@ like Nancy Aaronson , a co @-@ worker Lambert called a zombie , watching him . He runs outside to confront her but she drives away in a car with Pincus . Meanwhile , Skinner asks Scully why Mulder has returned to Chicago . Scully covers for him and finds herself committed to performing the autopsy on Mark Backus . She is still reluctant and orders her assistant to only perform an external examination . He observes that the body has been dead for between 48 and 72 hours instead of the 24 hours since the shooting . Back in Oak Brook , Mulder has followed Pincus to the house of VinylRight employee Gretchen Starns . Mulder looks through the window and sees the monster leaning over the woman as she watches TV . Mulder breaks the window and then kicks in the door . Inside the house he sees that Starns has been transformed into a zombie . Behind him , out of his sight , the monster walks across the ceiling . Mulder catches a glimpse of it crawling up the outside of the house . Later at the FBI office , Starns and Pincus complain to A.D. Skinner about Mulder 's behavior . Mulder , seeing Pincus begin to transform into the creature again , draws his weapon . He is restrained by a disbelieving Skinner and then sedated in a hospital . Mulder tells Scully that he saw the monster doing something to the back of his victim 's head and begs her to look for evidence on the back of Backus 's head . Scully examines Backus 's corpse and finds three puncture marks at the top of the spine marking the corners of an equilateral triangle . Mulder , still restrained in his bed at the hospital , sees the silhouette of the monster at the window . He screams for the nurse , but she has already been bitten and opens the window to let the monster in . Scully tries to visit Mulder but the nurse refuses access . Suddenly Scully sees the nurse as a corpse , realizes that Mulder is in danger , and runs into Mulder 's room . There she sees the monster on the wall and shoots at it . It leaps through the partially open window , breaking the glass and wooden frame . Back at FBI headquarters , Scully testifies to Skinner that she believes Mulder is mentally sound and fit for duty , noting that Pincus and several others mysteriously disappeared , that there was an intruder in Mulder 's room , and that Backus did have some sort of chemical in his system . Afterward she tells Mulder that she said it was Folie à deux , and describes it as ' a madness shared by two ' . But she does not specify who the two were . The episode ends with a different man at a telemarketing agency in Camdenton , Missouri noticing the same ominous signs of the creature . = = Production = = = = = Writing and effects = = = " Folie à Deux " was written by Vince Gilligan . He later recalled that the inspiration for the episode was the idea that " there 's a monster around that only you can see — the clinical definition of madness " and called the conceit " scary " . The title is a reference to Folie à deux , a form of insanity shared by two people . It usually begins with one person who conceives of a delusional belief and then spreads it to another ; thus , those two share the same delusion . The episode 's antagonistic bug creature was created by means of a prosthetic suit that was worn by a stuntwoman . The suit was highly ridiculed behind the scenes . Actor Markinson , upon seeing the costume , said " this is what 's driving me crazy ? " Director Kim Manners was highly critical of the monster and later told people that after the episode would air , his career would be " over " . Gilligan attributed the problems due to the episodic work schedule , he noted , " we 're usually on such a short schedule that there has to be a weak link somewhere " . Gilligan also stated that the " over engineered " aspects of the suit made it somewhat comical . To fix the perceived issues with the monster , the production team gave the filmed footage to visual effects editor Laurie Kallsen @-@ George , who " took the footage with the monster in it , erased the monster completely , took the monster to a different screen [ ... ] animated it , and added speed blur " . The effects took a large amount of time to complete . They were only finished at 7 : 30 the morning the episode was scheduled to air . In the end , the monster is not clearly visible in the installment , which allowed the scariness of the episode to be more real , according to Gilligan . = = = Locations = = = Several of the scenes set at Gretchen Starns ' house were filmed in a " turn @-@ of @-@ the @-@ century " home in North Vancouver , British Columbia . Initially , the producers wanted to set the sequence at a tract home , and emulate the " pastel community " featured in movies like Edward Scissorhands ( 1990 ) and The Truman Show ( 1998 ) . However , when a tract home with the necessary attributes did not turn up , the crew decided to shoot the scene in a " spookier " location . Special effect rigging was then installed on the house to allow the bug creature to scale the wall . The elaborate sequence in which the insect creature crawls across a ceiling was made by creating an upside @-@ down mock house set . The actress portraying the creature then crawled on the set and the footage was flipped in post @-@ production . The scenes featuring an armored car smashing through the wall of VinylRight were filmed on a specially constructed soundstage . = = Reception = = = = = Ratings = = = " Folie à Deux " originally aired on the Fox network on May 10 , 1998 , and was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on March 10 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 11 @.@ 0 , with a 17 share , meaning that roughly 11 @.@ 0 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 17 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 63 million viewers . = = = Reviews = = = " Folie à Deux " received largely positive reviews from critics . Francis Dass of New Straits Times was positive toward the episode , considering it " highly watchable " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a glowing review and awarded it an " A " . He praised the way it " starts out as what seems like a Mulder @-@ centric episode , then slowly inverts on itself to become a Scully @-@ centric episode " . VanDerWerff also positively critiqued the manner in which " the monster [ ... ] works on a metaphorical level as well " . He concluded that the episode 's main theme — that " [ m ] adness is always better when shared by two " — was a " great idea " that resulted in " one of the greatest episodes the show ever did " . John Keegan from Critical Myth awarded the episode a 7 out of 10 and called it " a pleasant enough diversion " from the then @-@ upcoming series feature film . He wrote that , while the episode fits the mold of " the traditional late @-@ season summary of the evolving character dynamic " , the entry manages to frame Scully ’ s psychology " in the limelight " without actually " emphasiz [ ing ] Scully herself " . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a largely positive review and awarded it three stars out of four . Vitaris praised the conceit and called the episode " the scariest [ ... ] of the year " . She applauded the " now you see it , now you don 't " appearance of the bug creature and noted that Pincus ' casting was " just right " . She concluded that the episode was " so well realized " and that " there is so much to enjoy " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two compared the entry to the previous fifth season installment " Bad Blood " , calling " Folie à Deux " its " logical extension " . Shearman and Pearson argued that the episode " provide [ s ] a comedy and an effective monster story at the same time . " = Hitler Diaries = The Hitler Diaries ( German : Hitler @-@ Tagebücher ) were a series of sixty volumes of journals purportedly by Adolf Hitler , but forged by Konrad Kujau between 1981 and 1983 . The diaries were purchased in 1983 for 9 @.@ 3 million Deutsche Marks ( $ 3 @.@ 7 million ) by the West German news magazine Stern , which sold serialisation rights to several news organisations . One of the publications involved was The Sunday Times , who asked their independent director , the historian Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper , to authenticate the diaries ; he did so , pronouncing them genuine . At the press conference to announce the forthcoming publication , Trevor @-@ Roper announced that on reflection he had changed his mind , and other historians also raised questions concerning their validity . Rigorous forensic analysis , which had not been performed previously , quickly confirmed that the diaries were fakes . Kujau , born and raised in East Germany , had a history of petty crime and deception . In the mid @-@ 1970s he began selling Nazi memorabilia which he was smuggling from the East , but soon found he could raise the prices by forging additional authentication details which linked ordinary souvenirs to the Nazi leaders . He began forging paintings by Hitler and an increasing number of notes , poems and letters , until he produced his first diary in the mid- to late 1970s . The West German journalist with Stern who " discovered " the diaries and was involved in their purchase was Gerd Heidemann , who had an obsession with the Nazis . When Stern started buying the diaries , Heidemann stole a significant proportion of the money provided . Kujau and Heidemann both spent time in prison for their parts in the fraud , and several newspaper editors lost their jobs . The story of the scandal has been the basis of two films : Selling Hitler ( 1991 ) for the British ITV channel , and Schtonk ! ( 1992 ) for German cinema . = = Background = = = = = Operation Seraglio = = = On 20 April 1945 — Adolf Hitler 's 56th birthday — Soviet troops were on the verge of taking Berlin and the Western Allies had already taken several German cities . Hitler 's private secretary , Martin Bormann , put into action Operation Seraglio , a plan to evacuate the key and favoured members of Hitler 's entourage from the Berlin bunker where they were based , the Führerbunker , to an Alpine command centre near Berchtesgaden — Hitler 's retreat in southern Germany . Ten aeroplanes flew out from Gatow airfield under the overall command of General Hans Baur , Hitler 's personal pilot . The final flight out was a Junkers Ju 352 transport plane , piloted by Major Friedrich Gundlfinger — on board were ten heavy chests under the supervision of Hitler 's personal valet Sergeant Wilhelm Arndt . The plane crashed into the Heidenholz forest , near the Czechoslovak border . Some of the more useful parts of Gundlfinger 's plane were appropriated by locals before the police and SS cordoned off the crash . When Baur told Hitler what had happened , the German leader expressed grief at the loss of Arndt , one of his most favoured servants , and added : " I entrusted him with extremely valuable documents which would show posterity the truth of my actions ! " Apart from this quoted sentence , there is no indication of what was in the boxes . The last of the crash 's two survivors died in April 1980 , and Bormann was assumed to have taken his own life , having disappeared from the Berlin bunker after Hitler 's suicide on 30 April 1945 . In the decades following the war , the possibility of a hidden cache of private papers belonging to Hitler became , according to the journalist Robert Harris , a " tantalizing state of affairs [ that ] was to provide the perfect scenario for forgery " . = = = Konrad Kujau = = = Konrad Kujau was born in 1938 in Löbau , near Dresden , in what would become East Germany . His parents , a shoemaker and his wife , had both joined the Nazi Party in 1933 . The boy grew up believing in the Nazi ideals and idolising Hitler ; Germany 's defeat and Hitler 's suicide in 1945 did not temper his enthusiasm for the Nazi cause . He held a series of menial jobs until 1957 , when a warrant was issued for his arrest in connection with the theft of a microphone from the Löbau Youth Club . He fled to Stuttgart , West Germany , and soon drifted into temporary work and petty crime . After running a dance bar during the early 1960s with his girlfriend , Edith Lieblang — whom he later married — Kujau began to create a fictional background for himself . He told people that his real name was Peter Fischer , changed his date of birth by two years , and altered the story of his time in East Germany . By 1963 the bar had begun to suffer financial difficulties , and Kujau started his career as a counterfeiter , forging 27 Deutsche Marks ' ( DM ) worth of luncheon vouchers ; he was caught and sentenced to five days in prison . On his release he and his wife formed the Lieblang Cleaning Company , although it provided little income for them . In March 1968 , at a routine check at Kujau 's lodgings , the police established he was living under a false identity and he was sent to Stuttgart 's Stammheim Prison . In 1970 Kujau visited his family in East Germany and discovered that many of the locals held Nazi memorabilia , contrary to the laws of the communist government . He saw an opportunity to buy the material cheaply on the black market , and make a profit in the West , where the increasing demand among Stuttgart collectors was raising memorabilia prices up to ten times the amount he would pay . The trade was illegal in East Germany , and the export of what were deemed items of cultural heritage was banned . Among the items smuggled out of East Germany were weapons . In 1974 Kujau rented a shop into which he placed his Nazi memorabilia ; the outlet also became the venue for late @-@ night drinking sessions with friends and fellow collectors , including Wolfgang Schulze , who lived in the US and became Kujau 's agent there . Kujau inflated the value of items in his shop by forging additional authentication details — for example a genuine First World War helmet , worth a few marks , became considerably more valuable after Kujau forged a note indicating that Hitler had worn it at Ypres in late October 1914 . In addition to notes by Hitler , he produced documents supposedly handwritten by Bormann , Rudolf Hess , Heinrich Himmler , Hermann Göring and Joseph Goebbels . He forged passable imitations of his subjects ' genuine handwriting , but the rest of the work was crude : Kujau used modern stationery such as Letraset to create letterheads , and he tried to make his products look suitably old by pouring tea over them . Mistakes in spelling or grammar were relatively common , particularly when he forged in English ; a supposed copy of the 1938 Munich Agreement between Hitler and Neville Chamberlain read , in part : We regard the areement signet last night and the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement as symbolic of the desire of our two peoples never to go to war with one another againe . In the mid- to late 1970s Kujau , an able amateur artist , turned to producing paintings which he claimed were by Hitler , who had been an amateur artist as a young man . Having found a market for his forged works , Kujau created Hitler paintings depicting subjects his buyers expressed interest in , such as cartoons , nudes and men in action — all subjects that Hitler never painted , or would want to paint , according to Charles Hamilton , a handwriting expert and author of books on forgery . These paintings were often accompanied by small notes , purportedly from Hitler . The paintings were profitable for Kujau . To explain his access to the memorabilia he invented several sources in East Germany , including a former Nazi general , the bribable director of a museum and his own brother , whom he re @-@ invented as a general in the East German army . Having found success in passing off his forged notes as those of Hitler , Kujau grew more ambitious and copied , by hand , the text from both volumes of Mein Kampf , even though the originals had been completed by typewriter . Kujau also produced an introduction to a third volume of the work . He sold these manuscripts to one of his regular clients , Fritz Stiefel , a collector of Nazi memorabilia who accepted them and many other Kujau products as genuine . Kujau also began forging a series of war poems by Hitler , which were so amateurish that Kujau later conceded that " a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old collector would have recognised it as a forgery " . = = = Gerd Heidemann = = = Gerd Heidemann was born in Hamburg in 1931 . During the rise of Hitler his parents remained apolitical , but Heidemann , like many other young boys , joined the Hitler Youth . After the war he trained as an electrician , and pursued an interest in photography . He began working in a photographic laboratory and became a freelance photographer for the Deutsche Presse @-@ Agentur and Keystone news agencies , as well as some local Hamburg papers . He had his first work published in Stern in 1951 and four years later joined the paper as a full @-@ time member of staff . From 1961 he covered wars and hostilities across Africa and the Middle East ; he became obsessed with these conflicts and other stories on which he worked , such as the search for identity of the German writer B. Traven . Although he was an excellent researcher — his colleagues called him der Spürhund , the Bloodhound — he would not know when to stop investigating , which led to other writers having to finish off the stories from large quantities of notes . On behalf of Stern , in January 1973 Heidemann photographed the Carin II , a yacht that formerly belonged to Göring . The boat was in a poor state of repair and expensive to maintain , but Heidemann took a mortgage on his Hamburg flat and purchased it . While researching the history of the yacht , Heidemann interviewed Göring 's daughter , Edda , after which the couple began an affair . Through this relationship and his ownership of the boat he was introduced to a circle of former Nazis . He began to hold parties on the Carin II , with the former SS generals Karl Wolff and Wilhelm Mohnke as the guests of honour . Wolff and Mohnke were witnesses at Heidemann 's wedding to his third wife in 1979 ; the couple went on honeymoon to South America accompanied by Wolff , where they met more ex @-@ Nazis , including Walter Rauff and Klaus Barbie , who were both wanted in the West for war crimes . The purchase of the yacht caused Heidemann financial problems , and in 1976 he agreed terms with Gruner + Jahr , Stern 's parent company , to produce a book based on the conversations he was having with the former soldiers and SS men . When the book went unwritten — the material provided by the former SS officer was not sufficiently interesting or verifiable for publication — Heidemann borrowed increasingly large sums from his employers to pay for the boat 's upkeep . In June 1978 he advertised the boat for sale , asking 1 @.@ 1 million DMs ; he received no offers . Mohnke recommended that Heidemann speak to Jakob Tiefenthaeler , a Nazi memorabilia collector and a former member of the SS . Tiefenthaeler was not in a position to buy the yacht , but was happy to act as an agent ; his endeavours did not produce a sale . Realising Heidemann 's financial circumstances , Tiefenthaeler provided him with names of other collectors in the Stuttgart area . The journalist made a trip to the south of Germany and met Stiefel , who purchased some of Göring 's effects . = = = Stern , The Sunday Times and Newsweek = = = Stern ( German for " Star " ) , a German weekly news magazine published in Hamburg , was formed by the journalist and businessman Henri Nannen in 1948 to offer scandal , gossip and human interest stories . It was , according to the German media experts Frank Esser and Uwe Hartung , known for its investigative journalism and was politically left @-@ of @-@ centre . In 1981 Nannen resigned from his position of editor of the magazine , and moved to take the role of " publisher " . In his place Stern had three editors : Peter Koch , Rolf Gillhausen and Felix Schmidt , who were aided by others including the journal 's head of contemporary history , Thomas Walde . Manfred Fischer was CEO of Gruner + Jahr until 1981 when he was promoted to the board of Bertelsmann , their parent company ; he was replaced by Gerd Schulte @-@ Hillen . Wilfried Sorge was one of the Gruner + Jahr managers responsible for international sales . The Sunday Times is a British national broadsheet newspaper , the Sunday sister paper of The Times . In 1968 , under the ownership of Lord Thomson , The Sunday Times had been involved in a deal to purchase the Mussolini diaries for an agreed final purchase price of £ 250 @,@ 000 , although they had only paid out an initial amount of £ 60 @,@ 000 . These turned out to be forgeries undertaken by an Italian mother and daughter , Amalia and Rosa Panvini . In 1981 Rupert Murdoch , who owned several other papers in Australia , New Zealand and the UK , purchased Times Newspapers Ltd , which owned both The Times and its Sunday sister . Murdoch appointed Frank Giles to be the editor of The Sunday Times . The historian Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper became an independent national director of The Times in 1974 . Trevor @-@ Roper — who was created Baron Dacre of Glanton in 1979 — was a specialist on Nazi Germany , who had worked for the British Intelligence Services during and after the Second World War . At the war 's end he had undertaken an official investigation of Hitler 's death , interviewing eyewitnesses to the Führer 's last movements . In addition to the official report he filed , Trevor @-@ Roper also published The Last Days of Hitler ( 1947 ) on the subject . He subsequently wrote about the Nazis in Hitler 's War Directives ( 1964 ) and Hitler 's Place in History ( 1965 ) . Newsweek , an American weekly news magazine , was founded in 1933 . In 1982 the journalist William Broyles was appointed editor @-@ in @-@ chief , while the editor was Maynard Parker ; that year the company had circulation figures of three million readers . = = Production and sale of the diaries = = = = = Production = = = It is unclear when Kujau produced his first Hitler diary . Stiefel says Kujau gave him a diary on loan in 1975 . Schulze puts the date as 1976 , while Kujau says he began in 1978 , after a month 's practice writing in the old German gothic script Hitler had used . Kujau used one of a pile of notebooks he had bought cheaply in East Berlin , and attempted to put the letters " AH " in gold on the front — purchasing plastic , Hong Kong @-@ made letters from a department store , he inadvertently used " FH " rather than " AH " . He took the black ribbon from a genuine SS document , and attached it to the cover using a German army wax seal . For the ink he bought two bottles of Pelikan ink — one black , one blue — and mixed them with water so it would flow more easily from the cheap modern pen he used . Finally he sprinkled tea over the pages and bashed the diaries against his desk to give them an aged look . Kujau showed the first volume to Stiefel , who was impressed and thought it a genuine Hitler diary ; Stiefel wanted to buy it , but when the forger refused , the pair agreed that the collector could have it on loan . In June 1979 Stiefel asked a former Nazi Party archivist , August Priesack , to verify the authenticity of the diary , which he subsequently did . Priesack showed the diary to Eberhard Jäckel of the University of Stuttgart , who also thought the diary to be genuine , and wanted to edit it for publication . News of the diary 's existence soon began to filter through to collectors of Hitler memorabilia . At the end of 1979 Tiefenthaeler contacted Heidemann to say that Stiefel had shown him around his collection , which included a Hitler diary — the only one Kujau had forged to that point . According to Hamilton " the discovery inflamed Heidemann almost to madness " , and he aggressively pressed for what would be a journalistic scoop . Stiefel showed Heidemann the diary in Stuttgart in January 1980 , telling him it was from a plane crash in East Germany , although he refused to tell the journalist the name of his source . The collector spoke to Kujau to see if he would meet Heidemann , but the forger repeatedly refused Heidemann 's requests for nearly a year . Heidemann returned to the Stern offices and spoke to his editor , but both Koch and Nannen refused to discuss the potential story with him , telling him to work on other features . The only person who was interested was Walde , who worked with Heidemann to find the source of the diaries . Their searches for Kujau proved fruitless , so they looked into the crash . Heidemann , who had read Baur 's autobiography , knew of Gundlfinger 's flight , and made a connection between Operation Seraglio and the diary ; in November 1980 the two journalists travelled to Dresden and located the graves of the flight 's crew . In January 1981 Tiefenthaeler gave Kujau 's telephone number to Heidemann , telling the journalist to ask for " Mr Fischer " , one of Kujau 's aliases . During the subsequent phone call Kujau told Heidemann that there were 27 volumes of Hitler 's diaries , the original manuscript of the unpublished third volume of Mein Kampf , an opera by the young Hitler called Wieland der Schmied ( Wieland the Blacksmith ) , numerous letters and unpublished papers , and several of Hitler 's paintings — most of which were still in East Germany . Heidemann offered two million DMs for the entire collection and guaranteed secrecy until everything had been brought over the border . Although the pair did not agree to a deal , they agreed to " the foundations of a deal " , according to Harris ; Kujau 's condition was that he would only deal directly with Heidemann , something that suited the journalist as a way of keeping other members of Stern away from the story . Heidemann and Walde produced a prospectus for internal discussion , outlining what was available for purchase and the costs . The document , signed by Heidemann , finished with a veiled threat : " If our company thinks that the risk is too great , I suggest that I should seek out a publishing company in the United States which could put up the money and ensure that we get the German publication rights . " The pair did not show the prospectus to anyone at Stern , but instead presented it to Gruner + Jahr 's deputy managing director , Dr Jan Hensmann , and Manfred Fischer ; they also requested a 200 @,@ 000 mark deposit from the publisher to secure the rights with Kujau . After a meeting that lasted a little over two hours , and with no recourse to an expert or historian , the deposit was authorised . As soon as the meeting ended , at about 7 pm , Heidemann travelled to Stuttgart , with the deposit money , to meet Kujau . = = = Acquisition = = = At that first meeting on 28 January 1981 , which lasted over seven hours , Heidemann offered Kujau a deposit of only 100 @,@ 000 DMs to agree the deal , which Kujau did not accept . At a second meeting the following day , the reporter revealed an additional lure he had brought with him : a uniform which he said was Göring 's . Kujau tentatively agreed to provide the diaries and told Heidemann that he would call him as soon as he could arrange to receive them from East Germany . As a sign of good faith Heidemann lent the uniform to the forger , to show alongside his collection of other uniforms from the top Nazis ; for his part , Kujau gave the journalist a painting purportedly by Hitler . Both the painting and uniform were fakes . A week later Kujau met Jäckel and Alex Kuhn in connection with the poems he had forged and sold to Stiefel . These had been published by Jäckel and Kuhn in 1980 , but one historian pointed out that one of the poems could not have been produced by Hitler as it had been written by the poet Herybert Menzel . Jäckel was concerned that the poem in question had been accompanied by a letter on Nazi party stationery guaranteeing it as a genuine work by Hitler . Many of the other pieces in Stiefel 's collection were similarly verified , so doubts began to surface over these , too . Kujau claimed ignorance , saying he was only the middleman , but told them that Heidemann , a reputed journalist , had seen the crash site from which the papers originated ; Jäckel advised Stiefel to have his collection forensically examined , and passed 26 suspect poems to the Hamburg district attorney for investigation . Gruner + Jahr also knew about the problems with the poems , and that the source had been Kujau , but he assured them that this source had been elsewhere in East Germany , unconnected to the diaries , and they continued with their deal . Ten days after the meeting with Jäckel and Kuhn , Kujau had prepared three further diaries . The contents were copied from a range of books , newspapers and magazines covering Hitler 's life . Primary among them was the two @-@ volume work by the historian Max Domarus , Hitler : Reden und Proklamationen , 1932 – 45 ( Hitler : Speeches and Proclamations , 1932 – 45 ) , which presents Hitler 's day @-@ to @-@ day activities . Many of the diary 's entries were lists of Nazi party promotions and official engagements . Although Kujau created some personal information about Hitler in the diaries , this was , in the opinion of both Harris and Hamilton , trivia . He began working to a schedule of producing three diaries a month . He later stated that he managed to produce one of the volumes in three hours ; on a separate occasion he wrote three diaries in three days . On 17 February 1981 Kujau flew to Stuttgart and gave Heidemann the three recently prepared diaries , for which Heidemann gave him 35 @,@ 000 DMs . This was a great deal less than the 120 @,@ 000 DMs — 40 @,@ 000 DMs per diary — promised to Kujau in the first meeting , from which Heidemann would also claim a 10 % commission ; the reduction in funds was explained by a need to get an " expert opinion " on the authenticity of the diaries , and the balance was later paid . The following day the reporter delivered the diaries to Gruner + Jahr . In the subsequent meeting with Walde , Hensmann , Sorge and Fischer , Heidemann and Walde again insisted on secrecy about the project , to ensure their acquisition of all the diaries — it was agreed that not even the editors of Stern should be told of the discovery . More importantly , according to Harris , it was decided that they should not have the material examined by a forensic scientist or historian until every diary had been obtained . Fischer committed the company to the future purchases by immediately allocating one million DM to the project . The company also set up a dedicated unit to deal with the diaries in an annex to the main Gruner + Jahr offices . It was headed by Walde , and consisted of an assistant , two secretaries and Heidemann . On receipt of the diaries they were photocopied and transcribed from the gothic script into modern German . Heidemann also entered into a private contract with Gruner + Jahr , which was kept secret from the company 's legal and personnel departments . It contained a deal for him to publish books through the company at a generous royalty rate , and agreed that ten years after publication the original diaries would be given to Heidemann for research purposes , to be handed on to the West German government on his death . He was also to be given a bonus of 300 @,@ 000 DMs for recovering the first eight diaries . The delivery of the diaries continued , although there were tensions between Heidemann and Kujau , partly owing to the journalist 's " domineering personality and duplicity " . Because of the nature of the transactions there were no receipts provided by Heidemann to Gruner + Jahr , and the business was conducted by the company on the basis of trust . By the end of February 1981 , 680 @,@ 000 DMs had been paid for the diaries , only around half of which was received by Kujau . Heidemann had pocketed the rest , defrauding both his employer and the forger in the process . Despite the self @-@ imposed restrictions of secrecy placed on the small circle inside Gruner + Jahr , Heidemann could not resist showing one of the volumes to Mohnke , as the entry referred to the SS Leibstandarte Adolf Hitler , Mohnke 's former regiment . Heidemann read out three entries from the diaries — from 15 , 17 and 18 March — which concerned visits made by Hitler to the regiment while in the Lichterfelde and Friesenstraße barracks . Mohnke informed him that the entries were inaccurate , saying that the Lichterfelde barracks were not occupied by the troops on that date , that the regimental name used in the diary was introduced much later , and that so far as he knew Hitler never visited the Friesenstraße barracks . Heidemann was unmoved by his friend 's revelations , and posited that Hitler had probably written what he was planning to do , not what he had done . Harris suggests that this showed that the journalist " had long ceased operating on a rational wavelength about the diaries " . The circle of those at Gruner + Jahr who knew about the diaries grew in May 1981 when Fischer decided to look into the complicated copyright circumstances surrounding Hitler 's property . He discussed the matter with the company 's legal advisor , Dr Andreas Ruppert , who advised speaking to Werner Maser , a historian who acted as a trustee on such matters to the Hitler family . Heidemann visited Maser in June 1981 and came to a deal that enabled the journalist and Stern , for a	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
. The series is licensed in France by Editions Tonkam , in Italy by Flashbook Editore , in South Korea by Daiwon C.I. , in Hong Kong by Jonesky , in Taiwan by Chingwin Publishing Group , in Indonesia by Elex Media Komputindo , and in Thailand by Vibulkij Publishing . In March 2010 , Viz Media confirmed the series licensing in North America . The first volume , collecting the first three tankōbon volumes , was published October 12 , 2010 , with publication on @-@ going . = = = Anime = = = Cross Game was adapted as an anime television series produced by SynergySP and directed by Osamu Sekita , with character designs by Yuuji Kondō and music by Kotaro Nakagawa . The series aired on the TV Tokyo network beginning on April 5 , 2009 in the 10 : 00 – 10 : 30 am slot ; episodes began syndication later in April 2009 on AT @-@ X and other channels in Japan , and finished airing on March 28 , 2010 . The first DVD volume of episodes was released in Japan on July 24 , 2009 , with additional DVDs released monthly . The opening theme song , " Summer Rain " , was written by Kentarō Kobuchi and sung by Kobukuro . It was released by Warner Music Japan on April 15 , 2009 in both regular and limited edition versions , and peak ranked at # 2 on the Oricon singles chart . The ending theme song for episodes 1 – 13 , " Heartfelt Dream " ( 恋焦がれて見た夢 , Koi Kogarete Mita Yume ) , was composed and sung by Ayaka and arranged by Shintarō Tokita . It was released as a single by Warner Music Japan in both regular and limited edition versions on April 22 , 2009 , and reached # 6 on the Oricon singles chart . The ending theme for episodes 14 @-@ 26 , " Orange Days " ( オレンジDays , Orenji Days ) by Squarehood , was released as a single by Warner Music Japan on August 5 , 2009 . The ending theme song for episodes 27 @-@ 39 was " Moeruyō na Koi ja naikedo " ( 燃えるような恋じゃないけど ) by Tsuru , which was released as a single on November 11 , 2009 . The ending theme song for episodes 40 @-@ 49 was " Rehearsal " ( リハーサル , " Rihaiseru " ) by Natsuko Kondō . The final ending theme , for episode 50 , was Loving Maiden ( 恋スル乙女 , Koisuru Otome ) , also by Kondō . Viz began streaming the Cross Game anime in North America in May 2010 . = = Reception = = In 2009 , the manga series received the 54th Shogakukan Manga Award for shōnen manga in Japan . The first volume of the French edition won the Prix Tam @-@ Tam Dlire Manga 2007 . The manga was also used in an academic paper presented at the 2007 conference of the International Research Society for Children 's Literature as an example of telling a story using " silent " scenes ( scenes with no dialogue ) to powerfully convey a message . The first two volumes of the Japanese edition were described by Anime News Network ( ANN ) as " quietly brilliant " and " the slice @-@ of @-@ life genre at its best " , saying that despite some " storytelling goofs " , there is " no matching the pleasant feelings that come from reading this series . " The French edition was praised by Manga News as a " great success " and " a pure delight as usual , " citing as key ingredients the " appealing and funny characters " put in funny situations , accessible drawing style , and Adachi 's talent for staging baseball scenes ; Adachi was praised for his ability to mix " the sports world which he cherishes so much and the love relationships that are not yet real but so much implied and awaited " and his skill at rendering moving scenes without dialogue . The reviewer noted that while Adachi 's art style has not changed much since Touch , his layouts are cleaner and his action scenes more dynamic than before . Anime Land praised Adachi for his " sense of the elliptical and staging " , the verisimilitude of his stories , appealing secondary characters , and ability to develop comedy in just one panel . The reviewer claimed Adachi 's handling of Wakaba 's death is " remarkable " and that the event " gave real meaning " to the story . The first episode of the anime series was called the " masterpiece of the new season " by ANN , which also complimented the musical score as " understated but highly effective " . Two reviewers at ANN gave it the highest possible rating , and one said that he would have given it a higher rating if possible . Another praised its " honest and heartfelt storytelling " while saying it would be easy to call the episode 's pacing " almost too @-@ languid " . A fourth reviewer found it to be typical of Adachi anime adaptations , but that the production values were " at best , mediocre and , at times , brushing up against the marginal " . Chris Beveridge of Mania.com , after viewing the first episode , said the series had " an older feeling to it " because of the rounder character designs reminiscent of those from the 1980s and 1990s , calling it a " great look " with a " wonderful simplicity " and backgrounds " filled with detail " . Beveridge called the animation " solid " , and stated that the series had " a whole lot of potential " , making him excited to see more . He was impressed with the way the events of episode one were handled in the second episode , comparing the pacing and style to that of Kimagure Orange Road , which he stated is one of his favorites series . He especially liked the way the budding romance was shown between Ko and Wakaba back in the elementary school days , and how it affected the current relationship between Ko and Aoba . Beveridge called the third episode " understated " , moving at a slower pace which helps to begin showing the true nature of several of the characters , and the good pacing continues into the fourth episode where a dynamic between Akaishi , Nakanishi , and Ko is developed . Beveridge praised the character building in the fifth episode , calling the interaction of Ko and Aoba " very charming " and " reminiscent of real childhoods " , with things " starting to fall into place " for the main focus of the series ( high school baseball ) by the end of the sixth episode . He praises the exposition used in the seventh episode , the protective instinct of Ko , Nakanishi , and Akaishi when it comes to Aoba , the use of flashbacks which show how the past is affecting the characters in the present , and the good pacing which " really sets it apart from almost every other sports show " . = Miracle at St. Anna = Miracle at St. Anna is a 2008 American – Italian epic war film directed by Spike Lee , and adapted by James McBride from his eponymous 2003 novel . The film stars Derek Luke , Michael Ealy , Laz Alonso , Omar Benson Miller , Pierfrancesco Favino and Valentina Cervi . Miracle at St. Anna is set primarily in Italy during German @-@ occupied Europe in World War II . It tells the story of four Buffalo Soldiers of the 92nd Infantry Division who seek refuge in a small Tuscan village , where they form a bond with the residents . The story is presented as a flashback , as one survivor reflects upon his experiences in a frame story set in 1980s New York . Several real @-@ life events that occurred during the war , such as the Sant 'Anna di Stazzema massacre , are re @-@ enacted , placing Miracle at St. Anna within the genre of historical fiction . Lee first learned of the novel in 2004 and approached McBride with the idea of a film adaptation . In Europe , the film 's development attracted the attention of Italian film producers , and Lee ’ s reputation as an acclaimed filmmaker helped secure the $ 45 million budget . A majority of the film was shot in Italy , on several locations affected by World War II . Other filming locations included New York , Louisiana and The Bahamas . Frequent Lee collaborator Terence Blanchard composed the score , and the visual effects were created by Industrial Light & Magic . Miracle at St. Anna premiered at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival before it was released on September 26 , 2008 . It was met with mostly negative reviews from critics and drew controversy in Italy over historical inaccuracies . During its theatrical run , Miracle at St. Anna was a box office disappointment , grossing only $ 9 @.@ 3 million worldwide , but gained further $ 10 @,@ 1 million from domestic DVD sales . = = Plot = = In 1983 , Hector Negron , an aged Puerto Rican World War II veteran , works as a post office clerk in New York City . After recognizing a customer , Negron shoots and kills the man with a German Luger pistol . Several hours later , rookie reporter Tim Boyle and Detective Tony Ricci are at the crime scene seeking information . At Negron 's apartment , Boyle , Ricci and other officers discover a finely carved statue head , the Head of the Primavera , a long missing segment from the Ponte Santa Trinita . Also found is a Purple Heart and a photograph revealing that Negron was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross and Silver Star . Negron , in a flashback tells of his war experiences as a young corporal of the segregated 92nd Infantry Division in 1944 Italy . A disastrous attack ensues on German positions across the Serchio River . An officer , Captain Nokes , calls down artillery on the 92nd 's own position , refusing to believe their reports of how far they have advanced . Many American soldiers are killed , leaving Negron stranded on the wrong side of the river with three men : Staff Sergeant Aubrey Stamps , Sergeant Bishop Cummings , and Private Sam Train . Sam rescues an Italian boy named Angelo from a collapsing building , and discovers the Head of the Primavera , which Sam believes to carry magical powers . While traveling through the mountains of Tuscany , the soldiers enter a small village , where they form a bond with the residents . Sam grows especially fond of Angelo , becoming the boy 's father figure . One Italian villager , Renata , soon becomes entangled in a love triangle with Stamps and Bishop , which creates conflict . After Negron gets his damaged backpack radio working , the soldiers contact headquarters and are told to capture an enemy soldier . A local Partisan group arrives with a young German deserter , Hans Brundt , as their prisoner . Earlier , residents of the nearby village of Sant 'Anna di Stazzema were killed by German forces following a betrayal by a Partisan , named Rodolfo , who knows that Brundt can identify him as the traitor . After concealing the fact that German forces are approaching the village in a counterattack , Rodolfo kills Brundt and the Partisan leader before escaping . It is Rodolfo whom Negron will kill 39 years later . Captain Nokes arrives in the village to interrogate Brundt and finds him dead . The Americans prepare to leave the village ahead of a German counterattack , but Sam refuses to leave Angelo behind . After promising to court @-@ martial all four soldiers , Nokes and his contingent drive out of town , but he is killed in the opening German offensive . The remaining American soldiers and Partisans fight the Germans . Sam is fatally wounded after being shot twice while carrying an unconscious Angelo and dies from his injuries . Bishop and Negron hold off the Germans while Stamps tries to move the villagers to safety , but they are too heavily outnumbered . Renata and Stamps are killed , and Bishop dies after successfully reviving Angelo . Negron , in the retreat , is shot in the back and is saved by the radio . After Angelo gives him the Head of the Primavera , Negron gives the boy his rosary and tells him to leave . Negron is spared by a disillusioned German officer who hands over his own Luger and tells Negron to defend himself . American soldiers arrive and secure the village before evacuating the wounded Negron and Angelo , the sole survivors of the German attack . In 1984 , Negron is the defendant in a court proceeding , facing a life sentence for his killing of Rodolfo . He is successfully defended by a powerful executive attorney acting on behalf of a wealthy man . Hector is brought to the Bahamas and is reunited with the Head of the Primavera , accompanied by its new owner who takes out a rosary and reveals himself as an adult Angelo . They both hold Hector 's rosary and happily burst into tears . = = Cast = = Derek Luke as Staff Sergeant Aubrey Stamps : One of four stranded Buffalo Soldiers from the 92nd Infantry Division . Director Spike Lee described Stamps as “ the leader ” of the men , while screenwriter James McBride stated that , “ Stamps is a well @-@ educated college graduate who has both faith and disappointment in the American system . He ’ s deeply divided as to what his place and the place of the Negro in American society is or should be . ” Wesley Snipes was originally cast as Stamps , but could not commit due to his financial troubles . Michael Ealy as Sergeant Bishop Cummings : One of the four soldiers , a womanizer and card player . The character is also known for being arrogant and distrustful , and shows hatred towards his white commanders . Lee stated that the character is “ a happy @-@ go @-@ lucky guy . He does not like to be under the thumb of authority . He likes card games and women . ” Ealy described the character ’ s indifference : “ I think Bishop is the voice that doesn ’ t believe change is going to come , and doesn ’ t believe that he belongs over there fighting . ” Terrence Howard was originally in talks to play Bishop , prior to Ealy 's casting . Laz Alonso as Corporal Hector Negron : Negron first appears in the film 's frame story as a bitter , 70 @-@ year @-@ old World War II veteran living in Harlem , New York who reflects on his experiences during World War II . Negron , a black Puerto Rican , is fluent in English , Spanish and Italian , which enables him to serve as a translator for the Americans and Italians . Alonso first learned of the novel from his agent and read it prior to auditioning for the role . He had to convince Lee that he was fluent in Spanish , and created an audition tape of himself speaking the language , which won him the role . Alonso found difficulty in portraying Negron as an elderly World War II veteran : “ This role was very emotionally draining . Ninety percent of the time , the elderly have outlived most of the people they have loved . When I played Negrón as an old man , I had to focus on everything I ’ ve lost in my life : my dad , friends and love lost , and that was a really depressing thing to do . ” Omar Benson Miller as Private First Class Samuel “ Sam ” Train : The “ biggest ” of the four soldiers , Sam is known for his child @-@ like personality . He befriends a young Italian boy , Angelo Torancelli , and becomes a father figure to the child . Sam is first to discover a finely carved statue head , the Head of the Primavera , which he believes to carry magical powers . Miller was a fan of McBride 's novel prior to learning of the film adaptation by Lee . He fought hard to win the role of Sam , which resulted in him physically preparing for the part : “ My physical prep was a little different than everybody else ’ s , because Spike wanted me for the movie , but he told me I had to lose weight to do it . I had nine weeks to lose 60 pounds . We got it done . ” Matteo Sciabordi as Angelo Torancelli – The Boy : A young Italian boy who befriends Sam Train . Sciabordi appears in his debut film role . Lee issued a casting call for an Italian child actor . 5 @,@ 000 child actors auditioned for the role prior to Sciabordi ’ s casting . Sciabordi described working with co @-@ star Omar Benson Miller : “ Omar was great fun . We were always playing and he even taught me how to play baseball . ” Luigi Lo Cascio portrays an adult Angelo in the film ’ s final scene . Pierfrancesco Favino as Peppi ” The Great Butterfly ” Grotta : The leader of a Partisan group operating in the area . Favino was the filmmakers ' primary choice for the role . McBride suggested that the character represents the great Partisan leaders who led thousands in Italy throughout World War II : " He 's a deeply thoughtful young man . After witnessing several atrocities , he basically snaps and becomes one of the most ruthless and most clever and most sought @-@ after Partisans . Although he 's ruthless against his enemies , he 's always a fair @-@ minded person , deeply kind , fighting for his country — not fighting to kill Germans , fighting to kill the enemy . He 's a leader with a heart . " Valentina Cervi as Renata Salducci : One of the Italian villagers , who proves to be an instant ally of the four soldiers . Renata soon becomes entangled in a love triangle with Stamps and Bishop , which creates conflict . McBride said of the character , " Renata exemplifies the difficulties Italian women faced during the war . Her husband was drafted and she hasn ’ t heard from him in two years . She 's very smart and is one of the few people in her village who has learned some English . She tries very hard to make her father renounce his Fascist beliefs . " John Turturro plays Detective Antonio " Tony " Ricci , who is charged with investigating a post office murder in 1983 ; Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt plays Tim Boyle , the investigative reporter assigned to cover the murder and subsequent discovery of an Italian artifact ; and Kerry Washington plays Zana Wilder , a lawyer hired to represent the suspected post office murderer . Naomi Campbell was originally cast as Wilder in September 2007 , but later pulled out due to scheduling conflicts . Other cast members include John Leguizamo , in a cameo appearance , as Enrico ; D. B. Sweeney as Colonel Jack Driscoll , an advocate for the Buffalo Soldiers ; Robert John Burke as General Ned Almond , a high @-@ ranking officer who opposes the 92nd Division ; Omari Hardwick as Platoon Commander Huggs ; Omero Antonutti as Ludovico Salducci , Renata ’ s Fascist father ; Sergio Albelli as Rodolfo Berelli , a Partisan of questionable loyalties ; Lydia Biondi as Natalina , a village healer ; Michael K. Williams as a frightened soldier ; Christian Berkel as German officer Eicholz ; Jan Pohl as Hans Brundt , the German deserter ; and Alexandra Maria Lara as Mildred Gillars , nicknamed Axis Sally , an American broadcaster employed by the Germans as a propagandist . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = The novel Miracle at St. Anna was written by James McBride originating from his late uncle 's experiences as a World War II soldier . Upon writing the novel , McBride conducted his own research and learned of the 92nd Infantry Division , which consisted of 15 @,@ 000 African @-@ American soldiers , who served in Italy during World War II from August 1944 to November 1945 . McBride interviewed several remaining members of the 92nd Division . " I studied Italian at The New School in New York City , " he explained . " I moved to Italy with my family for six months . I interviewed dozens of Italians — Partisans and Fascists . I interviewed dozens of African @-@ American soldiers who fought in the war , most who have since passed away . I must have read at least 20 books . I went to the Army War College in Carlisle , Pennsylvania . I studied the whole business of what the 92nd did in Italy during the war , to try to get an idea of what really transpired . " The 92nd Division served as the basis for McBride 's novel , which was published in 2003 . Spike Lee first learned of the novel in 2004 and contacted McBride about making a film adaptation . He felt that McBride was the perfect person to write the screenplay , believing that his novel would serve as a guide . Commenting on the difficult process of adapting his book into a screenplay , McBride stated , “ As a novelist , you tend to think internally . You can guide what the character says and you can explore what he or she is thinking . Movies don 't have time to explain . You have to get right to the muscle . ” The film adaptation of Miracle at St. Anna attracted the attention of Italian producers Roberto Cicutto and Luigi Musini , the co @-@ founders of On My Own Produzioni Cinematografiche . Cicutto explained that they knew that Lee was " not just coming to Italy to make a film as an American director , but to make a film that belongs to his culture and to our history . " The film 's budget was an estimated $ 45 million . Under their Own My Own production banner , Cicutto and Musini contributed $ 8 @.@ 74 million . Lee 's reputation as an acclaimed filmmaker in Europe , where he served as a jury member of the 2004 Venice Film Festival , also helped the filmmakers obtain two @-@ thirds of the budget from Italy 's RAI Cinema and France 's TF1 ( $ 30 million ) . Touchstone Pictures provided the remainder ( $ 6 @.@ 26 million ) , and later released the film in North America . Lee described Miracle at St. Anna as an " ensemble piece " and aimed for authenticity in his depiction of American and German soldiers battling in Italy . In casting Italian actors , he held a casting call in Rome . The Italian actors , all born in Rome , were coached to sound as though they were from Tuscany . The actors portraying soldiers underwent a two @-@ week boot camp , supervised by senior military advisor Billy Budd , a 15 @-@ year Royal Marine veteran who had served in the Falklands War . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography for Miracle at St. Anna lasted nine weeks , beginning in October 2007 and concluding in December of that year ; filming took place in Italy , New York , Louisiana and The Bahamas . The film was the first by Lee to be shot in Europe , and the director insisted on shooting on locations where the story is set . Filming began in Tuscany , where the Tuscan regional government gave Lee permission to film where the actual events took place . According to producer Luigi Musini , Miracle at St. Anna was shot along the Gothic Line , which was the major line of defense in the final stages of World War II : " The location is highly representative of what the war was in Italy , what our resistance was . True dramatic episodes took place there . ” The first ten days of filming took place on the Serchio River , covering the battle sequence that opens the film . A scene that recreates the Sant 'Anna di Stazzema massacre was shot where the atrocity took place ; the massacre — in which over 500 villagers were murdered by German occupation forces — is re @-@ enacted in the film . Filming then took place in Rome for one month ; in New York for four days ; in White Castle , Louisiana for two days ; and in The Bahamas for two days . = = = = Design and effects = = = = Matthew Libatique served as cinematographer , having previously collaborated with Lee on the films She Hate Me ( 2004 ) and Inside Man ( 2006 ) . Libatique relied on the use of natural light , which proved challenging for scenes shot indoors . The final battle sequence in the film was especially difficult as the film relied on the use of practical effects and difficult weather conditions . Libatique 's solution was to collaborate with Lee , military advisor Billy Budd , and first assistant director Mike Ellis in creating storyboards to choreograph the scenes . Production designer Tonino Zera was tasked with filling outdoor locations with greenery , rebuilding exteriors and constructing the interior of an Italian barn . Costume designer Carlo Poggiolo consulted with a former Buffalo Soldier of the 92nd Division , prior to designing the American soldiers ' outfits . He also provided contemporary and historical wardrobe pieces . Ernest Dickerson served as the film 's second unit director , cinematographer , and camera operator . The visual effects were created by George Lucas ' Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) . After Lee approached him , Lucas allowed ILM 's team of artists to work on the visual effects for the film . = = = Music = = = Terence Blanchard composed the film score , marking his twelfth collaboration with Lee . For the score , he attempted to make a distinction between American and German soldiers . " That was first done through the use of percussion , using a higher @-@ pitched , tighter sound for Germans , and a fuller @-@ field drum sound for Americans , " he explained . " I also drew a distinction by using French horns for American forces , and a Wagner tuben for German forces . " Scoring the film required the use of a 90 @-@ piece orchestra , which was larger than in any of Lee 's previous films . Blanchard also relied on the use of instruments from the 1940s era , including a mandolin , accordion , slide guitar and rope drum . The film 's soundtrack , titled Miracle at St. Anna : Original Soundtrack , was released in CD and digital downloading formats by Hollywood Records on September 23 , 2008 . = = Release = = Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures released Miracle at St. Anna under Touchstone Pictures . The film 's world premiere was at the 2008 Toronto International Film Festival on September 7 , 2008 . The film later premiered in France at the 34th Deauville American Film Festival on September 10 , 2008 . Miracle at St. Anna premiered in New York City at the Ziegfeld Theatre on September 22 , 2008 . Disney released the film in the United States and Canada on September 26 , 2008 . The film was released in Italy on October 3 , 2008 ; in Romania on April 10 , 2009 ; in Bolivia and Brazil on April 30 , 2009 ; in the United Arab Emirates on May 28 , 2009 ; and in Lebanon on September 10 , 2009 . = = = Box office = = = Miracle at St. Anna grossed $ 7 @,@ 658 @,@ 999 in North America and $ 1 @,@ 404 @,@ 716 from markets elsewhere — a worldwide total of $ 9 @,@ 323 @,@ 833 against a $ 45 million budget . On its opening day in North America , the film debuted at ninth place , grossing $ 967 @,@ 329 from 1 @,@ 185 theaters . The end of the opening weekend saw the film take a total of $ 3 @,@ 477 @,@ 996 — for an average of $ 2 @,@ 935 per theater — finishing as the number eight grossing film of the weekend . Steve Mason of Hollywood.com believed that Miracle at St. Anna 's negative reviews and moviegoers ' declining interest in war films contributed to the film 's poor box office performance . On its second weekend , the film saw a 50 @.@ 1 % decrease in revenue , moving down to fourteenth place and earning an additional $ 1 @,@ 736 @,@ 302 — an average of $ 1 @,@ 465 per theatre . Miracle at St. Anna was pulled out of theatres on November 25 , 2008 after 61 days ( 8 @.@ 7 weeks ) of domestic release . Following its release in North America , Miracle at St. Anna continued to perform poorly in international markets . Its highest gross was in Italy , where it grossed $ 1 @,@ 363 @,@ 754 during its theatrical run . Also contributing to the film 's $ 1 @.@ 4 million gross in international markets was Bolivia ( $ 9 @,@ 821 ) , Brazil ( $ 9 @,@ 821 ) , Lebanon ( $ 3 @,@ 184 ) , Romania ( $ 1 @,@ 465 ) , and the United Arab Emirates ( $ 26 @,@ 492 ) . = = = Litigation = = = Following the theatrical release of Miracle at St. Anna , Spike Lee and the Italian production company On My Own Produzioni Cinematografiche brought a lawsuit against TF1 , alleging that the company failed in its contractual agreement with On My Own to distribute the film in international markets , excluding the United States , Canada and Italy . In its defense , TF1 refused to distribute Miracle at St. Anna , claiming that Lee had made a different film than the one promised , and refused to pay On My Own the € 11 million advance needed to distribute the film internationally . On June 21 , 2011 , a Paris court ruled in Lee and On My Own 's favor , believing that TF1 failed to honor the contract , which proved " disastrous " for the film . TF1 was fined € 32 million ( US $ 46 million ) . TF1 was ordered to pay On My Own € 20 million in damages , plus a further € 1 million for moral prejudice ; Lee was awarded € 1 million , while screenwriter James McBride received € 200 @,@ 000 ; TF1 was also ordered to pay € 13 million to BNP Paribas to cover the advance it had failed to pay . = = = Reception = = = The film has received mostly negative reviews from critics . Rotten Tomatoes sampled 119 reviewers with a 34 % of " fresh " and a weighted average of 5 @.@ 2 / 10 . The website 's consensus states " Miracle at St. Anna is a well @-@ intentioned but overlong , disjointed affair that hits few of the right notes . " Metacritic , another review aggregator , assigned the film a normalized score of 37 % based on 31 reviews from mainstream critics , indicating " generally unfavorable reviews " . Todd McCarthy of Variety called the film " a clunky , poorly constructed drama designed to spotlight the little @-@ remarked role of black American soldiers in World War II . " James Rocchi , writing for Cinematical , gave the film a mixed review : " When Miracle at St. Anna falters , it 's in the moments that seem like they could have been crafted by any other film maker ; when Miracle at St. Anna succeeds , it 's in the moments that could only have been crafted by Lee . " Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post wrote that the film was " overwrought , overproduced , overbusy and overlong " and that " Miracle at St. Anna finally suffers from the worst filmmaking sin of all : the failure of trust , in the story and the audience . " Claudia Puig of USA Today wrote that the film " aspires to be epic , but mostly it 's just unfocused , sprawling and badly in need of editing " and that " [ i ] t tries hard to be inspiring , but it has jarring tonal shifts , stereotyped characters and a lack of narrative perspective . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone described the film as " too long , lazily constructed , and crammed with too many characters and subplots for any director to develop fully outside of an HBO miniseries . " Despite a mostly negative reception , Miracle at St. Anna received some praise . Eric D. Snider , writing for Film.com praised the film , writing , " This is beyond the scope of anything Lee has done before , and he rises to the challenge remarkably well , with battle scenes nearly as visceral and jolting as those in Saving Private Ryan and a multi @-@ layered story involving the U.S. Army , the Nazis , and the Italian resistance movement . " Snider criticized the film 's frame story , which he described as " unnecessary and definitely corny . " James Verniere of the Boston Herald awarded the film an " A " grade , calling it a " masterpiece " and a " classic American WWII movie that both acknowledges the rousing tradition of such war epics as The Longest Day ( 1962 ) and The Big Red One ( 1980 ) and adds something new : paying tribute to the World War II African @-@ American soldiers who made the ultimate sacrifice for their country . Roger Ebert , writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , criticized the editing but praised the film overall , describing it as " epic " with " one of the best battle scenes I can remember , on par with Saving Private Ryan ... Miracle at St. Anna contains richness , anger , history , sentiment , fantasy , reality , violence and life . Maybe too much . Better than too little . " = = = = Controversy = = = = Protests were scheduled for the film 's Italian premiere in Viareggio , Italy , by unspecified organizations . The protesters objected to the plotline of a Partisan collaborating with the Nazis . This runs directly counter to the accepted historical version of events , ruled by an Italian military court in 2005 , that the Sant 'Anna di Stazzema massacre was entirely premeditated by the Germans with no reason except the aim to frighten the population . Giovanni Cipollini , deputy head of the National Association of the Italian Partisans , said the film was a " false reconstruction " and a " travesty of history " . However , Lee , unrepentant , stated " I am not apologizing . " He told Italians there was " a lot about your history you have yet to come to grips with . This film is our interpretation , and I stand behind it . " McBride , the novel 's author , stated : " As a black American , I understand what it 's like for someone to tell your history ... unfortunately , the history of World War Two here in Italy is ours as well , and this was the best I could do ... it is , after all , a work of fiction . ” In light of the film 's controversy , Lee was awarded honorary citizenship by the mayor of Sant 'Anna di Stazzema , Michele Silicani , who defended the film , stating , " It 's true that the film depicts a partisan who betrayed civilians . But above it is the tale of those partisans who fought to the death to defend civilians . " = = = Home media = = = Miracle at St. Anna was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray disc formats by Touchstone Home Entertainment on February 10 , 2009 . The DVD is available in separate anamorphic widescreen and Blu @-@ ray editions , each with Dolby Digital 5 @.@ 1 and 2 @.@ 0 tracks . Upon its release on DVD , Miracle at St. Anna debuted in eighth place , selling 142 @,@ 782 units in its first week . = Al @-@ Muwaffaq = Abu Ahmad Talha ibn Ja 'far ( Arabic : أبو أحمد طلحة بن جعفر ) ( 842 – June 2 , 891 ) , better known by his laqab as al @-@ Muwaffaq bi @-@ Allah ( Arabic : الموفق بالله , " Blessed of God " ) , was an Abbasid prince and military leader , who acted as the virtual regent of the Abbasid Caliphate for most of the reign of his brother , Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tamid . His stabilization of the internal political scene after the decade @-@ long " Anarchy at Samarra " , his successful defence of Iraq against the Saffarids and the suppression of the Zanj Rebellion restored a measure of the Caliphate 's former power and began a period of recovery , which culminated in the reign of al @-@ Muwaffaq 's own son , the Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid . = = Early life = = Talha , commonly known by the teknonym Abu Ahmad , was the son of the Caliph Ja 'far al @-@ Mutawakkil ( r . 847 – 861 ) and a slave concubine , Umm Ishaq . In 861 , he was present in his father 's murder at Samarra by the Turkish military slaves ( ghilman ) : the historian al @-@ Tabari reports that he had been drinking with his father that night , and came upon the assassins while going to the toilet , but after a brief attempt to protect the caliph , he retired to his own rooms when he realized that his efforts were futile . The murder was almost certainly instigated by al @-@ Mutawakkil 's son and heir , al @-@ Muntasir , who immediately ascended the throne ; nevertheless Abu Ahmad 's own role in the affair is suspect as well , given his close ties later on with the Turkish military leaders . According to Hugh N. Kennedy , " it is possible , therefore , that Abu Ahmad had already had close links with the young Turks before the murder , or that they were forged on that night " . This murder opened a period of internal upheaval known as the " Anarchy at Samarra " , where the Turkish military chiefs vied with other powerful groups and with each other over control of the government and its financial resources . It was during this period of turmoil , in February 865 , that Caliph al @-@ Musta 'in ( r . 862 – 866 ) and two of the senior Turkish officers , Wasif and Bugha the Younger , fled Samarra to Baghdad , where they could count on the support of the Tahirids . The Turkish army in Samarra then selected al @-@ Musta 'in 's brother al @-@ Mu 'tazz ( r . 866 – 869 ) as Caliph , and Abu Ahmad was entrusted with the conduct of operations against al @-@ Musta 'in and his supporters . The ensuing siege of Baghdad lasted from February to December 865 , after which a negotiated settlement was reached . Contrary to the agreed terms , however , al @-@ Musta 'in was murdered . It was most likely during this time that Abu Ahmad consolidated his relationship with the Turkish military , especially with Musa ibn Bugha , who played a crucial role during the siege . Abu Ahmad further solidified these ties when he secured a pardon for Bugha the Younger . On his return to Samarra , Abu Ahmad was initially received with honour by the Caliph , but soon he was thrown into prison as a potential rival , along with another of his brothers , al @-@ Mu 'ayyad . The latter was soon executed , but Abu Ahmad survived thanks to the protection of the Turkish military . Eventually , he was released and exiled to Basra before being allowed to return to Baghdad . He was so popular there that at the time of al @-@ Mu 'tazz 's death , there was popular agitation in the city in favour of his elevation to Caliph . Instead , al @-@ Muhtadi ( r . 869 – 870 ) was chosen . = = Regent of the Caliphate = = At the time al @-@ Muhtadi was killed by the Turks in June 870 , Abu Ahmad was at Mecca . Immediately he hastened north to Samarra , where he and Musa ibn Bugha effectively sidelined the new Caliph , al @-@ Mu 'tamid ( r . 870 – 892 ) , and assumed control of the government . Al @-@ Muwaffaq differed from most Abbasid princes of his time through his close association with and participation in military affairs . In this his career echoes that of his grandfather , the Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tasim ( r . 833 – 842 ) . Like him , al @-@ Muwaffaq 's power relied to a great extent on his close association with the Turkish military : following the demands of the Turkish rank and file for one of the Caliph 's brothers to be appointed as their commander , bypassing their own leaders , who were accused of misappropriating salaries , he was appointed the main intermediary between the caliphal government and the Turkish military . In return for the Turks ' loyalty he abolished the other competing corps of the caliphal army such as the Maghariba or the Faraghina , which are no longer mentioned after ca . 870 . Hugh Kennedy sums up the arrangement thus : " al @-@ Muwaffaq assured their status and their position as the army of the caliphate and al @-@ Muwaffaq 's role in the civil administration meant that they received their pay " . Al @-@ Muwaffaq 's close personal relationship with the Turkish military leadership — initially Musa ibn Bugha , as well as Kayghalagh and Ishaq ibn Kundaj after Musa 's death in 877 — his own prestige as a prince of the dynasty , and the exhaustion after a decade of civil strife , allowed him to establish unchallenged control over the Turks , as indicated by their willingness to participate in costly campaigns under his leadership . Within a short time , Abu Ahmad was conferred an extensive governorate covering most of the lands still under caliphal authority : western Arabia , southern Iraq with Baghdad , and Fars . To denote his authority , he assumed an honorific name in the style of the caliphs , al @-@ Muwaffaq bi @-@ Allah . His power was further expanded in 875 , when the Caliph included him in the line of succession after his own son , Ja 'far al @-@ Mufawwad , and divided the empire in two large spheres of government . The western provinces were given to al @-@ Mufawwad , while al @-@ Muwaffaq was given charge of the eastern ones ; in practice , al @-@ Muwaffaq continued to exercise control over the western provinces as well . With al @-@ Mu 'tamid largely confined to Samarra , al @-@ Muwaffaq and his personal secretaries ( Sulayman ibn Wahb , Sa 'id ibn Makhlad , and Isma 'il ibn Bulbul ) ruled the Caliphate from Baghdad . What little autonomy al @-@ Mu 'tamid enjoyed was further curtailed after the death of the long @-@ serving vizier Ubayd Allah ibn Yahya ibn Khaqan in 877 , when al @-@ Muwaffaq assumed the right to appoint the Caliph 's viziers himself . Al @-@ Muwaffaq 's personal secretary Sa 'id ibn Makhlad was the outstanding figure in the Caliphate 's bureaucracy until his own disgrace in 885 , followed after by Isma 'il ibn Bulbul , who served concurrently as vizier to both brothers . = = = Campaigns = = = As the main military leader of the Caliphate , it fell upon al @-@ Muwaffaq to meet the numerous challenges to caliphal authority that sprung up during these years . Indeed , as Michael Bonner writes , " al @-@ Muwaffaq 's decisive leadership was to save the Abbasid caliphate from destruction on more than one occasion " . The main military threats to the Abbasid Caliphate were the Zanj Rebellion in southern Iraq and the ambitions of Ya 'qub ibn al @-@ Layth , the founder of the Saffarid dynasty , in the east . A humble soldier , Ya 'qub , surnamed al @-@ Saffar ( " the Coppersmith " ) , had exploited the decade @-@ long Samarra strife to first gain control over his native Sistan , and then to expand his control . By 873 he ruled over almost all of the eastern lands of the Caliphate , ousting the hitherto dominant Tahirids from power , a move denounced by al @-@ Muwaffaq . Finally , in 875 he seized control of the province of Fars , which not only provided much of the scarce revenue for the Caliphate 's coffers , but was also dangerously close to Iraq . The Abbasids tried to prevent an attack by Ya 'qub by formally recognizing him as governor over all the eastern provinces and by granting him special honours , including adding his name to the Friday prayer and appointment to the influential position of sahib al @-@ shurta ( chief of police ) in Baghdad . Nevertheless , in the next year Ya 'qub began his advance on Baghdad , until he was confronted and decisively beaten by the Abbasids under al @-@ Muwaffaq and Musa ibn Bugha at the Battle of Dayr al- ' Aqul near Baghdad . The Abbasid victory , a complete surprise to many , saved the capital and allowed for the recovery of Ahwaz , but despite Ya 'qub 's death from illness in 879 the Saffarids remained firmly ensconced in their possession of most of Iran . The struggle against the uprising of the Zanj slaves in the marshlands of southern Iraq — according to Michael Bonner " the greatest slave rebellion in the history of Islam " — which began in September 869 , was longer and more difficult , and almost brought the Caliphate to is knees . Due to the Saffarid threat , the Abbasids could not mobilize against the Zanj until 879 . Consequently , the Zanj initially held the upper hand , capturing much of lower Iraq including Basra and Wasit and defeating the Abbasid armies , which were reduced to trying to contain the Zanj advance . The balance tipped after 879 , when al @-@ Muwaffaq 's son Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , the future Caliph al @-@ Mu 'tadid ( r . 892 – 902 ) , was given the command . Abu 'l @-@ Abbas was joined in 880 by al @-@ Muwaffaq himself , and in a succession of engagements in the marshes of southern Iraq , the Abbasid forces drove back the Zanj towards their capital , Mukhtara , which fell in August 883 . Another son of al @-@ Muwaffaq , Harun , also participated in the campaigns . He also served as nominal governor of a few provinces , but died young on 7 November 883 . The victory over the Zanj was celebrated as a major triumph for al @-@ Muwaffaq personally and for his regime : al @-@ Muwaffaq received the victory title al @-@ Nasir li @-@ din Allah , " He who upholds the Faith of God " , while his secretary Sa 'id ibn Makhlad received the title Dhu 'l @-@ Wizaratayn , " Holder of the two vizierates " . At the same time , al @-@ Muwaffaq also had to confront the challenge posed by the ambitious governor of Egypt , Ahmad ibn Tulun . The son of a Turkish slave , Ibn Tulun had been the province 's governor since the reign of al @-@ Mu 'tazz , and expanded his power further in 871 , when he expelled the caliphal fiscal agent and assumed direct control of Egypt 's revenue , which he used to create an army of ghilman of his own . Exploiting the rift between the increasingly powerless Caliph and his brother with demonstrations of support for the former , and relying on his powerful army , Ibn Tulun managed to gain control over Syria and the frontier zone with the Byzantine Empire ( the Thughur ) . By 882 , he governed as a de facto independent ruler , adding his own name to the coins alongside the names of the Caliph and his heir . Al @-@ Muwaffaq tried to counter Ibn Tulun 's advances by naming the trusted Musa ibn Bugha as governor of Egypt , but lack of funds foiled his plans , allowing Ibn Tulun to consolidate his power in the west . In 882 , al @-@ Mu 'tamid tried to escape from Samarra to seek sanctuary with Ibn Tulun , but was apprehended and placed under effective house arrest . This event opened the rift between Ibn Tulun and al @-@ Muwaffaq even further . Ibn Tulun tried to declare jihad against the regent , and the latter had curses against the Tulunid read in the mosques across the Caliphate . After Ibn Tulun 's death in 884 , al @-@ Muwaffaq attempted again to retake control of Egypt from Ibn Tulun 's successor Khumarawayh . Khumarawayh however defeated an expedition under Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , and extended his control over most of the Jazira and Cilicia as well . In 886 , al @-@ Muwaffaq was forced to recognize the Tulunids as governors over Egypt and Syria for 30 years , in exchange for an annual tribute of 300 @,@ 000 gold dinars . With the Zanj subdued , after 883 al @-@ Muwaffaq turned his attention again to the east . Ya 'qub al @-@ Saffar 's brother and successor , Amr ibn al @-@ Layth , had acknowledged the Caliph 's suzerainty and had been rewarded with the governorship over the eastern provinces and the position of sahib al @-@ shurta of Baghdad — essentially the same posts the Tahirids had held — in exchange for an annual tribute , but soon he was having trouble asserting his authority , especially in Khurasan , where Rafi ibn Harthama emerged as the leader of the former Tahirid troops . In 884 / 885 , Amr was formally deprived of his governorship of Khurasan in favour of the Dulafid Ahmad ibn Abd al @-@ Aziz , and the army under the vizier Sa 'id ibn Makhlad conquered most of the province of Fars , forcing Amr himself to come west . After initial success against the general Tark ibn al @-@ Abbas , Amr was routed by Ahmad ibn Abd al @-@ Aziz in 886 , and again in 887 by al @-@ Muwaffaq in person . Nevertheless , the threat by the Tulunids and the Byzantines in the west forced al @-@ Muwaffaq to negotiate a settlement in 888 / 889 that largely restored the previous status quo . In 890 , al @-@ Muwaffaq again attempted to take back Fars , but this time Ahmad ibn Abd al @-@ Aziz was defeated , and another agreement restored peace and Amr 's titles and possessions . Towards the end of the 880s , al @-@ Muwaffaq 's relations with his son Abu 'l @-@ Abbas deteriorated , although the reason is unclear . In 889 , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas was arrested and imprisoned on his father 's orders , where he remained despite the demonstrations of the ghilman loyal to him . He apparently remained under arrest until May 891 , when al @-@ Muwaffaq , already nearing his death , returned to Baghdad after two years in Jibal . By this time , the gout from which he had long suffered had incapacitated him to the extent that he could nor ride , and required a specially prepared litter . It was evident to observers that he was nearing his end . The vizier Ibn Bulbul , who was opposed to Abu 'l @-@ Abbas , called al @-@ Mu 'tamid and al @-@ Mufawwad into the city , but the popularity of Abu 'l @-@ Abbas with the troops and the populace was such that he was released from captivity and recognized as his father 's heir . Al @-@ Muwaffaq died on 2 June , and was buried in al @-@ Rusafah near his mother 's tomb . Two days later , Abu 'l @-@ Abbas succeeded his father in his offices and received the oath of allegiance as second heir after al @-@ Mufawwad . In October 892 , al @-@ Mu 'tamid died and Abu 'l @-@ Abbas al @-@ Mu 'tadid brushed aside his cousin to ascend the throne , quickly emerging as " the most powerful and effective Caliph since al @-@ Mutawakkil " ( Kennedy ) . = I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time = " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey , taken from her eleventh studio album , E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . It was written by Carey , Aldrin Davis , Crystal Johnson and Clifford Harris , and produced by the former two . As the song 's hook and instrumentation is derived from sampling DeBarge 's " Stay with Me " , Mark DeBarge and Etterlene Jordan also share songwriting credits . " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " was released as the album 's third single in the United States , Australasia and select European countries on July 1 , 2008 . Drawing influence from pop , soul and R & B music genres , and featuring a piano and keyboard @-@ driven melody , the song 's lyrics demonstrate the lengths the protagonist will go for her lover , and how she will be ' lovin ' him long time ' . The song received generally positive reviews from music critics , with many considering it a highlight from the album . Many reviewers complimented its production and clever interpolation of the DeBarge sample , while some criticized it for being too simple for an artist of Carey 's caliber . Though expected by critics to have surely become Carey 's nineteenth chart @-@ topping single in the United States , the track only managed to reach a peak position of number fifty @-@ eight on the Billboard Hot 100 . Throughout other countries where it was released , the song achieved relatively weak charting , peaking within the top forty in Japan and Slovakia , and peaking at numbers sixty @-@ nine and eighty @-@ four in Canada and the United Kingdom , respectively . Carey performed " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " on few live televised appearances , in comparison to the strong promotional boost the album 's lead single , " Touch My Body " received . She first performed the song live at the MTV Video Music Awards Japan , on June 2 , 2008 . On July 31 , 2008 , she performed the song as part of a five @-@ piece outdoor concert filmed for Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , as well as at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards to a standing ovation on August 8 , 2008 . Additionally , it was featured on the final scene of You Don 't Mess with the Zohan ( 2008 ) , a film in which Carey made a cameo appearance . The song 's accompanying music video was shot over a three @-@ day interval in Hawaii , and makes usage of the islands scenery , as well as shots of Carey in several bikinis , while swimming with a dolphin . = = Background = = Throughout 2004 , Carey began conceptualizing and working on a new project , eventually titled The Emancipation of Mimi , her tenth studio effort . The album became the best @-@ selling album in the United States of 2005 , and the second best @-@ seller around the world , with over 12 million units sold . It earned a myriad of music industry awards , and brought Carey back to the top of pop music following her decline in 2001 . After completing The Adventures of Mimi Tour , Carey began working on material for her eleventh studio effort , the yet untitled E = MC ² ( 2008 ) . Throughout 2007 , Carey recorded the album in a studio built into her private villa in Anguilla , in the Caribbean . E = MC ² was hailed as one of the most anticipated albums of 2008 , with many critics weighing their opinions on whether Carey would be able to deliver significant success , following her achievements with The Emancipation of Mimi . " Touch My Body " was eventually chosen as the lead single through a vote in between the record executives at Island Records , with the final choices being the former and " I 'm That Chick " ( titled " I 'm That Chick You Like " at that point ) . After choosing the former , the song was sent to radio stations worldwide on February 12 , 2008 and to digital outlets on March 24 , 2008 . " Touch My Body " experiences strong commercial success , becoming Carey 's eighteenth chart @-@ topping single on the Billboard Hot 100 , as well as placing within the top @-@ five in several European countries . As a result , E = MC ² debuted at number one in Canada and the United States , with the highest first @-@ week sales of Carey 's career , and in the top three in Australia and the United Kingdom . Following in a similar formula as her last album , Carey chose a ballad to be the follow @-@ up single , " Bye Bye " . Though receiving praise from music critics , and strong speculation that it would become another worldwide hit for Carey , the song stalled at number nineteen on the Hot 100 , and achieved weak international charting . Subsequently , Carey 's label , Island Records , decided to release an up @-@ tempo and dance @-@ able number that would be easily a " summer hit " . They chose " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , and released it to US radio stations on July 1 , 2008 , and to several European markets throughout August . = = Composition = = " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " is a " mid @-@ tempo " , " party jam " , that draws influence from pop , R & B and soul music genres . Critics elaborated on the song 's " soul " influence , with Melissa Ruggieri from The News & Advance described it as a " soul @-@ thumper " , while Digital Spy 's Nick Levine called it a " nod towards classic soul " . The song 's title is derived from the popular line , " me love you long time " , from the 1987 war film , Full Metal Jacket . Additionally , its hook and instrumentation is derived from sampling DeBarge 's " Stay with Me " . Critics also noted how " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " " recalls " the melody riff and chord progression of the Hill Street Blues 's theme song . The song 's main source of production comes from its " lush keyboard work " , and Carey 's usage of the " double voice " , which she uses throughout the song 's bridge . Carey described the effect as " layering her voice " , so that the bridge would sound like a " swooning bank of a hundred Mariahs " . The song was written by Carey , Aldrin Davis , Crystal Johnson and Clifford Harris , and features Mark DeBarge and Etterlene Jordan on the songwriting credits , due to the inclusion of the samples . " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " was produced by Carey and Davis ( DJ Toomp ) , and is arranged in the key of D Major , with Carey 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of A3 to the high @-@ note of D5 . Lyrically , the song tells of the protagonist 's devotion to her lover , proclaiming that while she knows " you 've got me " , she 'll be " lovin ' him long time " . The first verse begins with " You ain 't even got to worry / About a thing , I 've got you babe / And ain 't nobody takin ' me away / Its not a game I 'm here to stay " , describing her strong emotional attachment to him . As the verse continues , Carey makes references and comparisons to their love and drugs powerful effect over the body and its senses . Carey describes the limits of her love during the chorus , singing " As long as I can breathe " and " Eternally " . During the second verse , she sings how no matter what others say about their relationship , they will continue being together , and describing a private moment they shared , their " Little spot where no one knows " . = = = Lyrical controversy = = = At the time of its release , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " was the subject of controversy with the Asian community , as well as comedian Margaret Cho . In the film Full Metal Jacket , an Asian prostitute approaches US troops and offers to engage in lewd conduct in exchange for money . She uses terms such as " Me so horny " and " me love you long time " , which were heavily parodied and popularized . Accordingly , those terms have been used as humor at the expense of Asian people , and have been described as " racial slurs " by Cho . Other female acts have been known to use the phrase , such as Fergie on her track " London Bridge " ( 2006 ) , and Nelly Furtado in " Maneater " ( 2006 ) . In an interview with MTV News , Cho retracted her earlier comments , and expressed how if used in song , and by a female then it wouldn 't be offensive : " I don 't mind it when it 's used in songs , like when women use it , " Cho continued . " Fergie uses it , that doesn 't bother me . But when it 's shouted in the street and they don 't wait to hear the response ? What if I was actually going to go , ' Oh , OK ' ? They never stick around to hear the answer . " = = Critical reception = = " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Many complimented the song 's production and incorporation of the " Stay with Me " sample , while others were unimpressed with the chorus in general . Chuck Taylor of Billboard assured the song would endure strong success and radio appeal , and complimented its overall production , as well as Carey 's voice : " [ It 's ] a playful , beach @-@ befitting groove , featuring a bright sample from DeBarge 's " Stay With Me , " lushly woven vocals and Carey 's highs doting on fans with her sonic signature . " The Republican 's Kevin O 'Hare claimed the song would be " destined for hits @-@ ville " , while Jennifer Vineyard from MTV News described it as a " joyful romp " . Similarly , the song was described as a " party jam " by Julien Bittencourt from The Day , and " a fun , flirty tease " from Foster 's Daily Democrat 's Nekesa Mumbi Moody . Cathy Rose A. Garcia from The Korea Times complimented the song 's " laid back R & B vibe " , and felt the song was easily one of the album 's best cuts . Digital Spy 's Nick Levine called " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " a " safe @-@ but @-@ classy number " , while aside from an " unfortunate title and chorus " , Gregg Shapiro of Bay Area Reporter said it " virtually glows " . In a separate review for the song , Levine rated it three out of five stars , and wrote " in spite of its predictability , ' I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time ' still makes for a satisfying listen , sounding classy , effortless and as summery as a glass of rosé in the garden after a work . " Journalist for the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation ( NRK ) , Svein Terje Torvik described the song as " One of the album 's best cuts " , while Fox News writer Roger Friedman wrote " its just enough of a new twist to create the most elusive thing of all : a radio smash . Allmusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine chose the song as one of his " top picks " from E = MC ² , and wrote " it has a lightness that so much of the album lacks . " Richard Cromelin from the Los Angeles Times highlighted Carey 's unadorned and raw form of singing in the song , writing " her singing is so direct , understated and unglamorous it 's almost shocking -- like seeing a diva without makeup . " Margeauz Watsman from Entertainment Weekly called the song a " dance @-@ floor anthem " , while PopMatters Evan Sawdey described it as " certainly worthy of some greatest @-@ hits canonization " . Slant Magazine editor Sal Cinquemani felt " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " was a " stroke of genius " , and wrote " [ It ] sounds like a hyperventilating cross between a graduation anthem and an early- ' 80s family sitcom theme song . Listening to it , I felt face to face with a couple of silver spoons : one heroin , the other grape jelly . " = = Commercial performance = = " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " debuted at number 90 on the Billboard Hot 100 on July 18 , 2008 . In its second week , the song leapt twenty @-@ one places , coming in at number sixty @-@ nine , before eventually peaking at number fifty @-@ eight . The song debuted at number sixty @-@ two on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , Carey 's 45th career entry on that chart , and has since peaked at number thirty @-@ six . Similarly , it peaked at number thirty @-@ seven on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Airplay chart . The song peaked at number forty @-@ three on the Hot 100 Airplay . " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " debuted at number eighty @-@ seven on the Canadian Hot 100 , rising to number sixty @-@ nine in its second week and eventually peaking at 22 . The song remained on the chart for a total of fourteen weeks . Though not charting on the main single chart , the song managed to peak at number forty @-@ one on the New Zealand Airplay Chart during the week of August 3 , 2008 . On the Japan Hot 100 , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ seven , and stayed only six weeks within the chart . On the Slovakian Singles Chart , " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " charted for a total of eight weeks , and peaked at number thirty @-@ nine . The song debuted at number eighty @-@ four on the UK Singles Chart due to digital sales , since it was only released as a promo single . = = Remix = = The songs ' official remix features American rapper T.I .. The remix was produced by Carey and DJ Toomp , and was released for digital download on July 1 , 2008 , the same day as the original version of the song . T.I. has one verse in the song , that is found after Carey 's second chorus , prior to the song 's bridge . On July 11 , 2008 , it was announced that the song would be featured in a remix contest , set to begin on July 15 , 2008 . Indaba Music said that the song 's music stems would be available on its website for remixers to use ; the winner would receive $ 5 @,@ 000 as prize with the chance for the remix to be officially released . Carey 's manager Mark Sudack described the point of the competition , " Mariah is the queen of the remix , this contest is a way for her to continue being a pioneer in the remix world , potentially finding a new sound , a new power , a new energy in the online space , as opposed to just the go @-@ to producers of the moment . " The competition received over 1 @,@ 200 entries , with the winners being The Progressions from Riverside , California . = = Music video = = After her promotional activities ended in Japan , Carey flew to Hawaii for a three @-@ day music video shoot from June 8 – 10 , 2008 . The video was directed by Chris Applebaum and premiered on BET 's 106 & Park on July 3 , 2008 at 6 : 00pm ET / PT and on Yahoo ! Music at midnight on the same day . It later appeared on Total Request Live ( TRL ) on July 7 , 2008 . Aside from the video 's original version , the remix also featured an accompanying video , with some additional scenes from T.I. Some of the scenes were filmed on the beaches of Hawaii , while some of the smaller parts were shot in Wet 'n'Wild Hawaii . According to several reports , Carey was seriously injured on the set of the video during shooting on June 9 . Carey 's representative quickly denied the allegation , and said " She was so excited to be shooting in Hawaii . She wanted all her friends to come down and be a part of the shoot . " After watching the music video , Tim Nixon from The Sun called it " mouth @-@ watering " , and wrote " if she carries on churning out three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute visual feasts like this , long may that continue ... " The music video begins with several scenes interspersing , starting with Carey underwater , while holding onto a dolphins fin , as well as Carey lying on a beach at night in a bikini . As the song 's introduction plays , scenes of the Hawaii beaches are shown , as well as close @-@ up glimpses of T.I. Carey then is shown inside a small cabana , singing to the camera and enjoying herself at a small party . Similar scenes of Carey in a gold bikini are shown , as well as more scenes of Hawaiian landscape . By the second verse , Carey , now in a black bikini , is shown at the bottom of a ravine by the beach staring at the sun , then altering to scenes of the party once more . As T.I. ' s verse starts , he 's shown behind a waterfall , in the midst of shrubbery outside , where Mariah then appears sitting in a large body of clear water with golden sand . She then lies in the water , as the scene then switches to her underwater with the dolphin again . = = Live performances = = Following the song 's release in Japan , Carey performed " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " live at the 2008 MTV Video Music Awards Japan on June 2 . The song was also the theme song for the telecast of the Japanese baseball match Carey attended on May 28 , 2008 . On July 31 , 2008 , Carey performed a free concert at the Hollywood and Highland Center shopping mall in Los Angeles , California in front of over 5 @,@ 000 fans . The concert was filmed and presented on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! , as part of Samsung AT & T Summer Krush concert series . She performed five songs , beginning with " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " as a mash @-@ up with " Touch My Body " , and her previous songs , " Shake It Off " and " We Belong Together " from The Emancipation of Mimi ( 2005 ) . As the last song on the short set @-@ list , Carey was joined on stage by Jeezy for a live rendition of " Side Effects " . On August 8 , 2008 , Carey performed a mash @-@ up of the song at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards . She began with " I 'll Be Lovin ' U Long Time " , and worked into the bridge of " Touch My Body " , before reverting to the former song . The performance garnered a standing ovation from the audience and several notable celebrities , notably Will Smith , Fergie , Chris Brown and Jerry O 'Connell . During the final scene of You Don 't Mess with the Zohan , a film in which Carey was featured as a cameo appearance , the song was played and included on the film 's soundtrack . = = Formats and track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Credits for E = MC ² adapted from the album 's liner notes . Mariah Carey - songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals Aldrin Davis - songwriting , producer Crystal Johnson - songwriting , background vocals Clifford Harris - songwriting Mark DeBarge - songwriting Etterlene Jordan - songwriting Phil Tan - audio mixing Josh Houghkirk - audio mixing Bernie Grundman – mastering = = Charts = = = Gerp 's mouse lemur = Gerp 's mouse lemur ( Microcebus gerpi ) is a species of mouse lemur known only from the Sahafina Forest in eastern Madagascar , near Mantadia National Park . Its discovery was announced in 2012 by a German and Malagasy research team . The Sahafina Forest had not been studied until 2008 and 2009 , when Groupe d 'Étude et de Recherche sur les Primates de Madagascar ( GERP ) — a Malagasy @-@ based research and conservation group for which the lemur is named — inventoried the forest 's lemurs . Based on genetic studies , measurements , and photos , the research team confirmed the Gerp 's mouse lemur was an undescribed species , distinct from Goodman 's mouse lemur , which is found 58 @-@ kilometre ( 36 mi ) away . Gerp 's mouse lemur is significantly larger , weighing on average 68 @-@ gram ( 2 @.@ 4 oz ) , compared to Goodman 's mouse lemur , which weighs about 44 g ( 1 @.@ 6 oz ) . Jolly 's mouse lemur , which is its closest relative and a neighbor to the south , is comparably larger , but differs in tail length and genetics . Because it is a recently discovered species , little is known about its behavior , communication , ecology , or reproduction . The species appears to be restricted to a small region of lowland evergreen rain forest , and is seriously threatened by forest loss . = = Evolutionary and taxonomic history = = Gerp 's mouse lemur was discovered by German and Malagasy members of the Malagasy organization Groupe d 'Étude et de Recherche sur les Primates de Madagascar ( GERP ) in a previously unstudied lowland forest known as the Sahafina Forest in eastern Madagascar , near Mantadia National Park . The first recorded specimen ( holotype ) of the species was captured on 25 June 2009 , and was released after genetic samples , measurements , and photographs were taken . At the time , it was not recognized as a distinct species of mouse lemur . Two other paratypes were also measured and recorded , but no physical specimen was obtained by the publication of the initial study . The discovery was published in the journal Primates in 2012 . The species was named after the research and conservation team that described it . Gerp 's mouse lemur differed genetically and physically from all of its nearest neighboring mouse lemur species . Its tail is longer than its closest relative , Jolly 's mouse lemur ( M. jollyae ) , which lives further south and whose tail is 18 % shorter . It also has a higher body mass ( 68 g ( 2 @.@ 4 oz ) ) and is generally larger than Goodman 's mouse lemur ( M. lehilahytsara ) , which weighs about 44 g ( 1 @.@ 6 oz ) . Gerp 's mouse lemur exhibits significant genetic differences from its northern neighbor , Simmons ' mouse lemur ( M. simmonsi ) . The genetics tests initially conducted focused on three different loci of mitochondrial DNA : a partial D @-@ loop region , MT @-@ CYB , and COII . D @-@ loop analysis suggested Jolly 's mouse lemur was Gerp 's mouse lemur 's closest relative ( forming a sister group ) . All three tests showed the mouse lemurs sampled from Sahafina formed a monophyletic clade ( an exclusive family group ) and the species was sufficiently distinct from other mouse lemurs . The authors concluded both the molecular and morphological differences supported the declaration of a new species based on the phylogenetic species concept and a more conservative " integrative taxonomic approach " . = = Anatomy and physiology = = Among mouse lemurs , Gerp 's mouse lemur is larger @-@ bodied and has a long tail , which can be used to store fat . The fur is darker on its back , which is brownish @-@ gray with a broad reddish line down the middle , compared to the front , which varies from a light gray to creamy white and extends from the throat to the genitals . The outer arms and legs contrast the rest of the body with their darker color , and the fingers have sparse , whitish @-@ gray fur . The head is reddish in color , with darker brown surrounding the eyes and a noticeable white stripe across the nose and between the eyes . Its ears are prominent , yet small , with dark brown edges . The tail is covered in dense , long , brownish @-@ gray fur . The undercoat is short and dense , while the guard hairs are sparser . The skin visible on the hands and feet is colored pinkish @-@ brown . Gerp 's mouse lemur weighs around 68 g ( 2 @.@ 4 oz ) and has a tail length of approximately 146 @.@ 5 mm ( 5 @.@ 77 in ) . It is a large @-@ bodied mouse lemur , and belongs to a group of large mouse lemurs ( weighing more than 50 grams ( 1 @.@ 8 oz ) ) , including four eastern species — Simmons ' mouse lemur , Jolly 's mouse lemur , the northern rufous mouse lemur ( M. tavaratra ) , and MacArthur 's mouse lemur ( M. macarthurii ) — as well as six species of western mouse lemur : Claire 's mouse lemur ( M. mamiratra ) , Danfoss ' mouse lemur ( M. danfossi ) , the Bongolava mouse lemur ( M. bongolavensis ) , the golden @-@ brown mouse lemur ( M. ravelobensis ) , the gray mouse lemur ( M. murinus ) , and the reddish @-@ gray mouse lemur ( M. griseorufus ) . Most of these larger mouse lemur species have a long tail , as does Gerp 's mouse lemur , with the exception of Jolly 's mouse lemur and the gray mouse lemur . Its ears are small ( measuring 19 to 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 75 to 0 @.@ 79 in ) ) , which conforms with that of other rainforest mouse lemur species , in contrast to larger @-@ eared mouse lemurs of the dry , western forests ( averaging 21 to 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 83 to 0 @.@ 94 in ) ) . As with all mouse lemurs , no body mass differences could be discerned between the sexes . However , larger samples are needed to confirm this . = = Behavior = = No data are available concerning the behavior , communication , ecology , or reproduction of the Gerp 's mouse lemur , although such data may help support its species status . = = Distribution and habitat = = Gerp 's mouse lemur has only been identified in the Sahafina Forest in eastern Madagascar , about 58 km ( 36 mi ) east of Mantadia National Park , 87 km ( 54 mi ) south of the city of Toamasina , and 18 km ( 11 mi ) from the Indian Ocean . The forest fragment is about 15 @.@ 6 km2 ( 6 @.@ 0 sq mi ) and is surrounded by secondary forest growing in areas previously cut for rice cultivation ( known locally as savoka ) . The Sahafina Forest ranges from 29 to 230 m ( 95 to 755 ft ) above sea level , whereas nearby Mantadia National Park , home of its closest neighboring mouse lemur population ( Goodman 's mouse lemur ) , ranges from 900 to 1 @,@ 200 m ( 3 @,@ 000 to 3 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level . No major rivers separate these highland and lowland forests and their respective mouse lemur populations . The initial study did not conclude whether the large Rianila River or one of the smaller rivers — the Ivonoro and Onibe — further north acts as a species boundary between Gerp 's mouse lemur and Simmons ' mouse lemur ( M. simmonsi ) to the north . Approximately 160 km ( 99 mi ) the south lies the Mangoro River , a very large river that acts as a biogeographic barrier for many species . In 2010 , a genetically distinct form of mouse lemur was sequenced from Marolambo , 25 km ( 16 mi ) south of the river . The geographic range of Gerp 's mouse lemur is unlikely to extend south of this river , but more studies are needed to confirm this . In total , the area between the rivers to the north and south , the highlands to the west , and the ocean to the east is no larger than 7 @,@ 600 km2 ( 2 @,@ 900 sq mi ) ( smaller than the island of Puerto Rico ) and this is the likely extent of its geographic range . = = Conservation status = = There are no protected areas within the known geographic range of Gerp 's mouse lemur . Because it lives in lowland forests , which are more likely to be converted into agricultural land relative to highland rainforests , it faces an elevated conservation risk . Of the 7 @,@ 600 km2 ( 2 @,@ 900 sq mi ) of its potential geographic range , only very small parts remain forested . = Nahuatl = Nahuatl ( / ˈnɑːwɑːtəl / ; Nahuatl pronunciation : [ ˈnaːwatɬ ] ) , known historically as Aztec , is a language or group of languages of the Uto @-@ Aztecan language family . Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by an estimated 1 @.@ 5 million Nahua peoples , most of whom live in central Mexico . All Nahuan languages are indigenous to Mesoamerica . Nahuatl has been spoken in central Mexico since at least the seventh century CE . It was the language of the Aztecs who dominated what is now central Mexico during the Late Postclassic period of Mesoamerican history . During the centuries preceding the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire , the Aztecs had expanded to incorporate a large part of central Mexico , and its influence caused the variety of Nahuatl spoken by the residents of Tenochtitlan to become a prestige language in Mesoamerica . At the conquest , with the introduction of the Latin alphabet , Nahuatl also became a literary language , and many chronicles , grammars , works of poetry , administrative documents and codices were written in it during the 16th and 17th centuries . This early literary language based on the Tenochtitlan variety has been labeled Classical Nahuatl and is among the most studied and best @-@ documented languages of America . Today , Nahuan languages are spoken in scattered communities , mostly in rural areas throughout central Mexico and along the coastline . There are considerable differences among varieties , and some are mutually unintelligible . Huasteca Nahuatl , with over 1 million speakers , is the most @-@ spoken variety . They have all been subject to varying degrees of influence from Spanish . No modern Nahuan languages are identical to Classical Nahuatl , but those spoken in and around the Valley of Mexico are generally more closely related to it than those on the periphery . Under Mexico 's Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas ( " General Law on the Linguistic Rights of Indigenous Peoples " ) promulgated in 2003 , Nahuatl and the other 63 indigenous languages of Mexico are recognized as lenguas nacionales ( " national languages " ) in the regions where they are spoken , enjoying the same status as Spanish within their region . Nahuan languages exhibit a complex morphology characterized by polysynthesis and agglutination . Through a very long period of coexistence with the other indigenous Mesoamerican languages , they have absorbed many influences , coming to form part of the Mesoamerican language area . Many words from Nahuatl have been borrowed into Spanish , and since diffused into hundreds of other languages . Most of these loanwords denote things indigenous to central Mexico which the Spanish heard mentioned for the first time by their Nahuatl names . English words of Nahuatl origin include " avocado " , " chayote " , " chili " , " chocolate " , " atlatl " , " coyote " , " peyote " , " axolotl " and " tomato " . = = Classification = = As a language label , the term " Nahuatl " encompasses a group of closely related languages or divergent dialects within the Nahuan branch of the Uto @-@ Aztecan language family . The Mexican Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas ( National Institute of Indigenous Languages ) recognize 30 different individual varieties within the " language group " labeled Nahuatl . The Ethnologue recognizes 28 varieties with separate ISO codes . Sometimes the label also is used to include the Pipil language ( Nawat ) of El Salvador . Regardless of whether the Nahuatl is considered to label a dialect continuum or a group of separate languages , the varieties form a single branch within the Uto @-@ Aztecan family , descended from a single Proto @-@ Nahuan language . Within Mexico the question of whether to consider individual varieties to be languages or dialects of a single language is highly political . This article focuses on describing the general history of the group and on giving an overview of the diversity it encompasses . For details on individual varieties or subgroups , see the individual articles . In the past , the branch of Uto @-@ Aztecan to which Nahuatl belongs has been called " Aztecan " . From the 1990s onward , the alternative designation " Nahuan " has been frequently used as a replacement especially in Spanish @-@ language publications . The Nahuan ( Aztecan ) branch of Uto @-@ Aztecan is widely accepted as having two divisions : " General Aztec " and Pochutec . General Aztec encompasses the Nahuatl and Pipil languages . Pochutec is a scantily attested language , which became extinct in the 20th century , and which Campbell and Langacker classify as being outside of general Aztec . Other researchers have argued that Pochutec should be considered a divergent variant of the western periphery . " Nahuatl " denotes at least Classical Nahuatl together with related modern languages spoken in Mexico . The inclusion of Pipil into the group is debated . Lyle Campbell ( 1997 ) classified Pipil as separate from the Nahuatl branch within general Aztecan , whereas dialectologists like Una Canger , Karen Dakin , Yolanda Lastra and Terrence Kaufman have preferred to include Pipil within General Aztecan branch , citing close historical ties with the eastern peripheral dialects of General Aztec . Current subclassification of Nahuatl rests on research by Canger ( 1980 ) Canger ( 1988 ) and Lastra de Suárez ( 1986 ) . Canger introduced the scheme of a Central grouping and two Peripheral groups , and Lastra confirmed this notion , differing in some details . Canger & Dakin ( 1985 ) demonstrated a basic split between Eastern and Western branches of Nahuan , considered to reflect the oldest division of the proto @-@ Nahuan speech community . Canger originally considered the central dialect area to be an innovative subarea within the Western branch , but in 2011 , he suggested that it arose as an urban koiné language with features from both Western and Eastern dialect areas . Canger ( 1988 ) tentatively included dialects of La Huasteca in the Central group , while Lastra de Suárez ( 1986 ) places them in the Eastern Periphery , which was followed by Kaufman ( 2001 ) . = = = Terminology = = = The terminology used to describe varieties of spoken Nahuatl is inconsistently applied . Many terms are used with multiple denotations , or a single dialect grouping goes under several names . Sometimes , older terms are substituted with newer ones or with the speakers ' own name for their specific variety . The word Nahuatl is itself a Nahuatl word , probably derived from the word nāhuatlahtōlli [ naːwat ͡ laʔˈtoːlli ] ( " clear language " ) . The language was formerly called " Aztec " because it was spoken by the Central Mexican peoples known as Aztecs Nahuatl pronunciation : [ asˈteːkah ] . During the period of th Aztec empire centered in Mexico @-@ Tenochtitlan the language came to be identified with the politically dominant mēxihcah [ meːˈʃiʔkaʔ ] ethnic group , and consequently the Nahuatl language was often described as mēxihcacopa [ meːʃiʔkaˈkopa ] ( literally " in the manner of Mexicas " ) or mēxihcatlahtolli " Mexica language " . Now , the term " Aztec " is rarely used for modern Nahuan languages , but linguists ' traditional name of " Aztecan " for the branch of Uto @-@ Aztecan that comprises Nahuatl , Pipil , and Pochutec is still in use ( although some linguists prefer " Nahuan " ) . Since 1978 , the term " General Aztec " has been adopted by linguists to refer to the languages of the Aztecan branch excluding the Pochutec language . The speakers of Nahuatl themselves often refer to their language as either Mexicano or some word derived from mācēhualli , the Nahuatl word for " commoner " . One example of the latter is the case for Nahuatl spoken in Tetelcingo , whose speakers call their language mösiehuali . The Pipil people of El Salvador do not call their own language " Pipil " , as most linguists do , but rather nawat . The Nahuas of Durango call their language Mexicanero . Speakers of Nahuatl of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec call their language mela 'tajtol ( " the straight language " ) . Some speech communities use " Nahuatl " as the name for their language although it seems to be a recent innovation . Linguists commonly identify localized dialects of Nahuatl by adding as a qualifier the name of the village or area where that variety is spoken . = = History = = = = = Pre @-@ Columbian period = = = On the issue of geographic origin , linguists during the 20th century agreed that the Uto @-@ Aztecan language family originated in the southwestern United States . Evidence from archaeology and ethnohistory supports a southward diffusion across the American continent thesis , specifically that speakers of early Nahuan languages migrated from Aridoamerica into central Mexico in several waves . But recently , the traditional assessment has been challenged by Jane H. Hill , who proposes instead that the Uto @-@ Aztecan language family originated in central Mexico and spread northwards at a very early date . This hypothesis and the analyses of data that it rests upon have received serious criticism . The proposed migration of speakers of the Proto @-@ Nahuan language into the Mesoamerican region has been placed at sometime around AD 500 , towards the end of the Early Classic period in Mesoamerican chronology . ; Before reaching the Mexican Plateau , pre @-@ Nahuan groups probably spent a period of time in contact with the Corachol languages Cora and Huichol of northwestern Mexico ( which are also Uto @-@ Aztecan ) . The major political and cultural center of Mesoamerica in the Early Classic period was Teotihuacan . The identity of the language ( s ) spoken by Teotihuacan 's founders has long been debated , with the relationship of Nahuatl to Teotihuacan being prominent in that enquiry . While in the 19th and early 20th centuries it was presumed that Teotihuacan had been founded by speakers of Nahuatl , later linguistic and archaeological research tended to disconfirm this view . Instead , the timing of the Nahuatl influx was seen to coincide more closely with Teotihuacan 's fall than its rise , and other candidates such as Totonacan identified as more likely . But recently , evidence from Mayan epigraphy of possible Nahuatl loanwords in Mayan languages has been interpreted as demonstrating that other Mesoamerican languages may have been borrowing words from Proto @-@ Nahuan ( or its early descendants ) significantly earlier than previously thought , bolstering the possibility of a significant Nahuatl presence at Teotihuacan . In Mesoamerica the Mayan , Oto @-@ Manguean and Mixe – Zoque languages had coexisted for millennia . This had given rise to the Mesoamerican language area ( " language area " refers to a set of language traits have become common among the area 's languages by diffusion and not by evolution within a set of languages belonging to a common genetic subgrouping ) . After the Nahuas migrated into the Mesoamerican cultural zone , their language too adopted some of the traits defining the Mesoamerican Linguistic Area . Examples of such adopted traits are the use of relational nouns , the appearance of calques , or loan translations , and a form of possessive construction typical of Mesoamerican languages . A language which was the ancestor of Pochutec split from Proto @-@ Nahuan ( or Proto @-@ Aztecan ) possibly as early as AD 400 , arriving in Mesoamerica a few centuries earlier than the main bulk of speakers of Nahuan languages . Some Nahuan groups migrated south along the Central American isthmus , reaching as far as Nicaragua . The critically endangered Pipil language of El Salvador is the only living descendant of the variety of Nahuatl once spoken south of present @-@ day Mexico . Beginning in the 7th century Nahuan speakers rose to power in central Mexico . The people of the Toltec culture of Tula , which was active in central Mexico around the 10th century , are thought to have been Nahuatl speakers . By the 11th century , Nahuatl speakers were dominant in the Valley of Mexico and far beyond , with settlements including Azcapotzalco , Colhuacan and Cholula rising to prominence . Nahua migrations into the region from the north continued into the Postclassic period . One of the last of these migrations to arrive in the Valley of Mexico settled on an island in the Lake Texcoco and proceeded to subjugate the surrounding tribes . This group was the Mexica , who over the course of the next three centuries founded an empire named Tenochtitlan . Their political and linguistic influence came to extend into Central America and Nahuatl became a lingua franca among merchants and elites in Mesoamerica , e.g. , among the Maya K 'iche ' people . As Tenochtitlan grew to become the largest urban center in Central America , it attracted speakers of Nahuatl from diverse areas giving birth to an urban form of Nahuatl with traits from many dialects . This urbanized variety of Tenochtitlan is what came to be known as Classical Nahuatl as documented in colonial times . = = = Colonial period = = = With the arrival of the Spanish in 1519 , the tables were turned on the Nahuatl language : it was displaced as the dominant regional language , but remained important in Nahua communities under Spanish rule . There is extensive colonial @-@ era documentation in Nahuatl for Tlaxcala , Cuernavaca , Culhuacan , Coyoacan , Toluca and others in the Valley of Mexico and beyond . Since the 1970s , scholars working in a branch of Mesoamerican ethnohistory known as the New Philology have translated to English and analyzed a great number of this type of documentation . Since the Spanish made alliances with first the Nahuatl speakers from Tlaxcala and later with the conquered Mexica of Tenochtitlan or Aztecs , the Nahuatl language continued spreading throughout Mesoamerica in the decades after the conquest . Spanish expeditions with thousands of Nahua soldiers marched north and south to conquer new territories . Society of Jesus missions in northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States often included a barrio of Tlaxcaltec soldiers who remained to guard the mission . For example , some fourteen years after the northeastern city of Saltillo was founded in 1577 , a Tlaxcaltec community was resettled in a separate nearby village , San Esteban de Nueva Tlaxcala , to cultivate the land and aid colonization efforts that had stalled in the face of local hostility to the Spanish settlement . As for the conquest of modern @-@ day Central America , Pedro de Alvarado conquered Guatemala with the help of tens of thousands of Tlaxcaltec allies , who then settled outside of modern @-@ day Antigua Guatemala . As a part of their missionary efforts , members of various religious orders ( principally Franciscan and Dominican friars and Jesuits ) introduced the Latin alphabet to the Nahuas . Within the first twenty years after the Spanish arrival , texts were being prepared in the Nahuatl language written in Latin characters . Simultaneously , schools were founded , such as the Colegio de Santa Cruz de Tlatelolco in 1536 , which taught both indigenous and classical European languages to both Indians and priests . Missionary grammarians undertook the writing of grammars , also called artes , of indigenous languages for use by priests . The first Nahuatl grammar , written by Andrés de Olmos , was published in 1547 — three years before the first French grammar . By 1645 four more had been published , authored respectively by Alonso de Molina ( 1571 ) , Antonio del Rincón ( 1595 ) , Diego de Galdo Guzmán ( 1642 ) , and Horacio Carochi ( 1645 ) . Carochi 's is today considered the most important of the colonial era grammars of Nahuatl . Carochi has been particularly important for scholars working in the New Philology , such that there is a 2001 English translation of Carochi 's 1645 grammar by James Lockhart . Through contact with Spanish the Nahuatl language adopted many loan words , and as bilingualism intensified , even began changing the grammatical structure under influence by Spanish . In 1570 King Philip II of Spain decreed that Nahuatl should become the official language of the colonies of New Spain in order to facilitate communication between the Spanish and natives of the colonies . This led to the Spanish missionaries teaching Nahuatl to Indians living as far south as Honduras and El Salvador . During the 16th and 17th centuries , Classical Nahuatl was used as a literary language , and a large corpus of texts from that period is in existence today . Texts from this period include histories , chronicles , poetry , theatrical works , Christian canonical works , ethnographic descriptions , and administrative documents . The Spanish permitted a great deal of autonomy in the local administration of indigenous towns during this period , and in many Nahuatl speaking towns Nahuatl was the de facto administrative language both in writing and speech . A large body of Nahuatl literature was composed during this period , including the Florentine Codex , a twelve @-@ volume compendium of Aztec culture compiled by Franciscan Bernardino de Sahagún ; Crónica Mexicayotl , a chronicle of the royal lineage of Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozómoc ; Cantares Mexicanos , a collection of songs in Nahuatl ; a Nahuatl @-@ Spanish / Spanish @-@ Nahuatl dictionary compiled by Alonso de Molina ; and the Huei tlamahuiçoltica , a description in Nahuatl of the apparition of the Our Lady of Guadalupe . Grammars and dictionaries of indigenous languages were composed throughout the colonial period , but their quality was highest in the initial period . The friars found that learning all the indigenous languages was impossible in practice , so they concentrated on Nahuatl . For a time , the linguistic situation in Mesoamerica remained relatively stable , but in 1696 , Charles II of Spain issued a decree banning the use of any language other than Spanish throughout the Spanish Empire . In 1770 another decree , calling for the elimination of the indigenous languages , did away with Classical Nahuatl as a literary language . Until Mexican Independence in 1821 , the Spanish courts admitted Nahuatl testimony and documentation as evidence in lawsuits , with court translators rendering it in Spanish . = = = Modern period = = = Throughout the modern period the situation of indigenous languages has grown increasingly precarious in Mexico , and the numbers of speakers of virtually all indigenous languages have dwindled . Although the absolute number of Nahuatl speakers has actually risen over the past century , indigenous populations have become increasingly marginalized in Mexican society . In 1895 , Nahuatl was spoken by over 5 % of the population . By 2000 , this proportion had fallen to 1 @.@ 49 % . Given the process of marginalization combined with the trend of migration to urban areas and to the United States , some linguists are warning of impending language death . At present Nahuatl is mostly spoken in rural areas by an impoverished class of indigenous subsistence agriculturists . According to the Mexican national statistics institute , INEGI , 51 % of Nahuatl speakers are involved in the farming sector and 6 in 10 receive no wages or less than the minimum wage . From the early 20th century to at least the mid @-@ 1980s , educational policies in Mexico focused on the hispanicization ( castellanización ) of indigenous communities , teaching only Spanish and discouraging the use of indigenous languages . As a result , today there is no group of Nahuatl speakers having attained general literacy in Nahuatl ; while their literacy rate in Spanish also remains much lower than the national average . Even so , Nahuatl is still spoken by well over a million people , of whom around 10 % are monolingual . The survival of Nahuatl as a whole is not imminently endangered , but the survival of certain dialects is , and some dialects have already become extinct within the last few decades of the 20th century . The 1990s saw the onset of diametric changes in official Mexican government policies towards indigenous and linguistic rights . Developments of accords in the international rights arena combined with domestic pressures ( such as social and political agitation by the Zapatista Army of National Liberation and indigenous social movements ) led to legislative reforms and the creation of decentralized government agencies like National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples ( CDI ) and Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas ( INALI ) with responsibilities for the promotion and protection of indigenous communities and languages . In particular , the federal Ley General de Derechos Lingüísticos de los Pueblos Indígenas [ " General Law on the Language Rights of the Indigenous Peoples " , promulgated 13 March 2003 ] recognizes all the country 's indigenous languages , including Nahuatl , as " national languages " and gives indigenous people the right to use them in all spheres of public and private life . In Article 11 , it grants access to compulsory , bilingual and intercultural education . Nonetheless , progress towards institutionalizing Nahuatl and securing linguistic rights for its speakers has been slow . = = Demography and distribution = = Today , a spectrum of Nahuan languages are spoken in an scattered areas stretching from the northern state of Durango to Tabasco in the southeast . Pipil , the southernmost Nahuan language , is spoken in El Salvador by a small number of speakers . According to IRIN @-@ International , the Nawat Language Recovery Initiative project , there are no reliable figures for the contemporary numbers of speakers of Pipil . Numbers may range anywhere from " perhaps a few hundred people , perhaps only a few dozen " . According to the 2000 census by INEGI , Nahuatl is spoken by an estimated 1 @.@ 45 million people , some 198 @,@ 000 ( 14 @.@ 9 % ) of whom are monolingual . There are many more female than male monolinguals , and females represent nearly two thirds of the total number . The states of Guerrero and Hidalgo have the highest rates of monolingual Nahuatl speakers relative to the total Nahuatl speaking population , at 24 @.@ 2 % and 22 @.@ 6 % , respectively . For most other states the percentage of monolinguals among the speakers is less than 5 % . This means that in most states more than 95 % of the Nahuatl speaking population are bilingual in Spanish . The largest concentrations of Nahuatl speakers are found in the states of Puebla , Veracruz , Hidalgo , San Luis Potosí , and Guerrero . Significant populations are also found in the State of Mexico , Morelos , and the Federal District , with smaller communities in Michoacán and Durango . Nahuatl became extinct in the states of Jalisco and Colima during the 20th century . As a result of internal migrations within the country , Nahuatl speaking communities exist in all of Mexico 's states . The modern influx of Mexican workers and families into the United States has resulted in the establishment of a few small Nahuatl speaking communities in that country , particularly in California , New York , Texas , New Mexico and Arizona . = = Phonology = = Nahuan languages are defined as a subgroup of Uto @-@ Aztecan by having undergone a number of shared changes from the Uto @-@ Aztecan protolanguage ( PUA ) . The table below shows the phonemic inventory of Classical Nahuatl as an example of a typical Nahuan language . In some dialects , the / t ͡ ɬ / phoneme , so common in Classical Nahuatl , has changed into either / t / , as in Isthmus Nahuatl , Mexicanero and Pipil , or into / l / , as in Nahuatl of Pómaro , Michoacán . Many dialects no longer distinguish between short and long vowels . Some have introduced completely new vowel qualities to compensate , as is the case for Tetelcingo Nahuatl . Others have developed a pitch accent , such as Nahuatl of Oapan , Guerrero . Many modern dialects have also borrowed phonemes from Spanish , such as / b , d , ɡ , f / . = = = Phonemes = = = * The glottal phoneme , called the " saltillo , " occurs only after vowels . In many modern dialects it is realized as an [ h ] , but in others , as in Classical Nahuatl , it is a glottal stop [ ʔ ] . In many Nahuatl dialects vowel length contrast is vague , and in others it has become lost entirely . The dialect of Tetelcingo ( nhg ) developed the vowel length into a difference in quality : long / iː eː aː oː / to tense / i ʲe ɔ u / and short / i e a o / to lax / ɪ e a o / . = = = Allophony = = = Most varieties have relatively simple patterns of sound alternation ( allophony ) . In many dialects , the voiced consonants are devoiced in word @-@ final position and in consonant clusters : / j / devoices to a voiceless palato @-@ alveolar sibilant / ʃ / , / w / devoices to a voiceless glottal fricative [ h ] or to a voiceless labialized velar approximant [ ʍ ] , and / l / devoices to voiceless alveolar lateral fricative [ ɬ ] . In some dialects , the first consonant in almost any consonant cluster becomes [ h ] . Some dialects have productive lenition of voiceless consonants into their voiced counterparts between vowels . The nasals are normally assimilated to the place of articulation of a following consonant . The voiceless alveolar lateral affricate [ t ͡ ɬ ] is assimilated after / l / and pronounced [ l ] . = = = Phonotactics = = = Classical Nahuatl and most of the modern varieties have fairly simple phonological systems . They allow only syllables with maximally one initial and one final consonant . Consonant clusters occur only word @-@ medially and over syllable boundaries . Some morphemes have two alternating forms : one with a vowel i to prevent consonant clusters and one without it . For example , the absolutive suffix has the variant forms -tli ( used after consonants ) and -tl ( used after vowels ) . Some modern varieties , however , have formed complex clusters from vowel loss . Others have contracted syllable sequences , causing accents to shift or vowels to become long . = = = Stress = = = Most Nahuatl dialects have stress on the penultimate syllable of a word . In Mexicanero from Durango , many unstressed syllables have disappeared from words , and the placement of syllable stress has become phonemic . = = Morphology and Syntax = = The Nahuatl languages are agglutinative , polysynthetic languages that make extensive use of compounding , incorporation and derivation . That is , they can add many different prefixes and suffixes to a root until very long words are formed , and a single word can constitute an entire sentence . The following verb shows how the verb is marked for subject , patient , object , and indirect object : / ni @-@ mits @-@ teː @-@ tla @-@ makiː @-@ ltiː @-@ s / I @-@ you @-@ someone @-@ something @-@ give @-@ CAUSATIVE @-@ FUTURE " I shall make somebody give something to you " ( Classical Nahuatl ) = = = Nouns = = = The Nahuatl noun has a relatively complex structure . The only obligatory inflections are for number ( singular and plural ) and possession ( whether the noun is possessed , as is indicated by a prefix meaning ' my ' , ' your ' , etc . ) . Nahuatl has neither case nor gender , but Classical Nahuatl and some modern dialects distinguish between animate and inanimate nouns . In Classical Nahuatl the animacy distinction manifested with respect to pluralization , as only animate nouns could take a plural form , and all inanimate nouns were uncountable ( as the words " bread " and " money " are uncountable in English ) . Now , many speakers do not maintain this distinction and all nouns may take the plural inflection . One dialect , that of the Eastern Huasteca , has a distinction between two different plural suffixes for animate and inanimate nouns . In most varieties of Nahuatl , nouns in the unpossessed singular form generally take an " absolutive " suffix . The most common forms of the absolutive are -tl after vowels , -tli after consonants other than l , and -li after l . Nouns that take the plural usually form the plural by adding one of the plural absolutive suffixes -tin or -meh , but some plural forms are irregular or formed by reduplication . Some nouns have competing plural forms . Plural animate noun w. reduplication : / koː ~ kojo @-@ ʔ / PLURAL ~ coyote @-@ PLURAL " coyotes " ( Classical Nahuatl ) Nahuatl distinguishes between possessed and unpossessed forms of nouns . The absolutive suffix is not used on possessed nouns . In all dialects , possessed nouns take a prefix agreeing with number and person of its possessor . Possessed plural nouns take the ending - / waːn / . Possessed plural : / no @-@ kal @-@ waːn / my @-@ house @-@ PLURAL " my houses " ( Classical Nahuatl ) Nahuatl does not have grammatical case but uses what is sometimes called a relational noun to describe spatial ( and other ) relations . These morphemes cannot appear alone but must occur after a noun or a possessive prefix . They are also often called postpositions or locative suffixes. in some ways these locative constructions resemble and can be thought of as locative case constructions . Most modern dialects have incorporated prepositions from Spanish that are competing with or that have completely replaced relational nouns . Noun compounds are commonly formed by combining two or more nominal stems or combining a nominal stem with an adjectival or verbal stem . = = = Pronouns = = = Nahuatl generally distinguishes three persons , both in the singular and plural numbers . In at least one modern dialect , the Isthmus @-@ Mecayapan variety , there has come to be a distinction between inclusive ( I / we and you ) and exclusive ( we but not you ) forms of the first person plural : Much more common is an honorific / non @-@ honorific distinction , usually applied to second and third persons but not first . = = = Verbs = = = The Nahuatl verb is quite complex and inflects for many grammatical categories . The verb is composed of a root , prefixes , and suffixes . The prefixes indicate the person of the subject , and person and number of the object and indirect object , whereas the suffixes indicate tense , aspect , mood and subject number . Most Nahuatl dialects distinguish three tenses : present , past , and future , and two aspects : perfective and imperfective . Some varieties add progressive or habitual aspects . Many dialects distinguish at least the indicative and imperative moods , and some also have optative and vetative / prohibitive moods . Most Nahuatl varieties have a number of ways to alter the valency of a verb . Classical Nahuatl had a passive voice ( also sometimes defined as an impersonal voice ) , but this is not found in most modern varieties . However the applicative and causative voices are found in many modern dialects . Many Nahuatl varieties also allow forming verbal compounds with two or more verbal roots . The following verbal form has two verbal roots and is inflected for causative voice and both a direct and indirect object : ni @-@ kin @-@ tla @-@ kwa @-@ ltiː @-@ s @-@ neki I @-@ them @-@ something @-@ eat @-@ CAUSATIVE @-@ FUTURE @-@ want " I want to feed them " ( Classical Nahuatl ) Some Nahuatl varieties , notably Classical Nahuatl , can inflect the verb to show the direction of the verbal action going away from or towards the speaker . Some also have specific inflectional categories showing purpose and direction and such complex notions as " to go in order to " or " to come in order to " , " go , do and return " , " do while going " , " do while coming " , " do upon arrival " , or " go around doing " . Classical Nahuatl and many modern dialects have grammaticalised ways to express politeness towards addressees or even towards people or things that are being mentioned , by using special verb forms and special " honorific suffixes " . = = = Reduplication = = = Many varieties of Nahuatl have productive reduplication . By reduplicating the first syllable of a root a new word is formed . In nouns this is often used to form plurals , e.g. / tlaːkatl / " man " → / tlaːtlaːkah / " men " , but also in some varieties to form diminutives , honorifics , or for derivations . In verbs reduplication is often used to form a reiterative meaning ( i.e. expressing repetition ) , for example in Nahuatl of Tezcoco : / wetsi / " he / she falls " / we : -wetsi / " he / she falls several times " / weʔ @-@ wetsi @-@ ʔ / " they fall ( many people ) " = = = Syntax = = = Some linguists have argued that Nahuatl displays the properties of a non @-@ configurational language , meaning that word order in Nahuatl is basically free . Nahuatl allows all possible orderings of the three basic sentence constituents . It is prolifically a pro @-@ drop language : it allows sentences with omission of all noun phrases or independent pronouns , not just of noun phrases or pronouns whose function is the sentence subject . In most varieties independent pronouns are used only for emphasis . It allows certain kinds of syntactically discontinuous expressions . Michel Launey argues that Classical Nahuatl had a verb @-@ initial basic word order with extensive freedom for variation , which was then used to encode pragmatic functions such as focus and topicality . The same has been argued for some contemporary varieties . newal no @-@ nobia I my @-@ fianceé " My fiancée " ( and not anyone else 's ) ( Michoacán Nahual ) It has been argued that Classical Nahuatl syntax is best characterised by " omnipredicativity " , meaning that any noun or verb in the language is in fact a full predicative sentence . A radical interpretation of Nahuatl syntactic typology , this nonetheless seems to account for some of the language 's peculiarities , for example , why nouns must also carry the same agreement prefixes as verbs , and why predicates do not require any noun phrases to function as their arguments . For example , the verbal form tzahtzi means " he / she / it shouts " , and with the second person prefix titzahtzi it means " you shout " . Nouns are inflected in the same way : the noun " conētl " means not just " child " , but also " it is a child " , and ticonētl means " you are a child " . This prompts the omnipredicative interpretation , which posits that all nouns are also predicates . According to this interpretation a phrase such as tzahtzi in conētl should not be interpreted as meaning just " the child screams " but , rather , " it screams , ( the one that ) is a child " . = = Contact phenomena = = Nearly 500 years of intense contact between speakers of Nahuatl and speakers of Spanish , combined with the minority status of Nahuatl and the higher prestige associated with Spanish has caused many changes in modern Nahuatl varieties , with large numbers of words borrowed from Spanish into Nahuatl , and the introduction of new syntactic constructions and grammatical categories . For example , a construction like the following , with several borrowed words and particles , is common in many modern varieties ( Spanish loanwords in boldface ) : pero āmo tēchentenderoah lo que tlen tictoah en mexicano but not they @-@ us @-@ understand @-@ PLURAL that which what we @-@ it @-@ say in Nahuatl " But they don 't understand what we say in Nahuatl " ( Malinche Nahuatl ) In some modern dialects basic word order has become a fixed subject – verb – object , probably under influence from Spanish . Other changes in the syntax of modern Nahuatl include the use of Spanish prepositions instead of native postpositions or relational nouns and the reinterpretation of original postpositions / relational nouns into prepositions . In the following example , from Michoacán Nahual , the postposition -ka meaning " with " appears used as a preposition , with no preceding object : ti @-@ ya ti @-@ k @-@ wika ka tel you @-@ go you @-@ it @-@ carry with you " are you going to carry it with you ? " ( Michoacán Nahual ) In this example from Mexicanero Nahuat , of Durango , the original postposition / relational noun -pin " in / on " is used as a preposition . Also , " porque " , a conjunction borrowed from Spanish , occurs in the sentence . amo wel kalaki @-@ yá pin kal porke ȼakwa @-@ tiká im pwerta not can he @-@ enter @-@ PAST in house because it @-@ closed @-@ was the door " He couldn 't enter the house because the door was closed " ( Mexicanero Nahuat ) Many dialects have also undergone a degree of simplification of their morphology that has caused some scholars to consider them to have ceased to be polysynthetic . = = Vocabulary = = Many Nahuatl words have been borrowed into the Spanish language , most of which are terms designating things indigenous to the American continent . Some of these loans are restricted to Mexican or Central American Spanish , but others have entered all the varieties of Spanish in the world . A number of them , such as " chocolate " , " tomato " and " avocado " have made their way into many other languages via Spanish . Likewise a number of English words have been borrowed from Nahuatl through Spanish . Two of the most prominent are undoubtedly chocolate and tomato ( from Nahuatl tomatl ) . Other common words such as coyote ( from Nahuatl coyotl ) , avocado ( from Nahuatl ahuacatl ) and chile or chili ( from Nahuatl chilli ) . The word chicle is also derived from Nahuatl tzictli " sticky stuff , chicle " . Some other English words from Nahuatl are : Aztec ( from aztecatl ) ; cacao ( from Nahuatl cacahuatl ' shell , rind ' ) ; ocelot ( from ocelotl ) . In Mexico many words for common everyday concepts attest to the close contact between Spanish and Nahuatl , so many in fact that entire dictionaries of " mexicanismos " ( words particular to Mexican Spanish ) have been published tracing Nahuatl etymologies , as well as Spanish words with origins in other indigenous languages . Many well known toponyms also come from Nahuatl , including Mexico ( from the Nahuatl word for the Aztec capital mexihco ) and Guatemala ( from the word cuauhtēmallan ) . = = Writing and literature = = = = = Writing = = = Traditionally , Pre @-@ Columbian Aztec writing has not been considered a true writing system , since it did not represent the full vocabulary of a spoken language in the way that the writing systems of the Old World or the Maya Script did . Therefore , generally Aztec writing was not meant to be read , but to be told . The elaborate codices were essentially pictographic aids for memorizing texts , which include genealogies , astronomical information , and tribute lists . Three kinds of signs were used in the system : pictures used as mnemonics ( which do not represent particular words ) , logograms which represent whole words ( instead of phonemes or syllables ) , and logograms used only for their sound values ( i.e. used according to the rebus principle ) . However , epigrapher Alfonso Lacadena has argued that by the eve of the Spanish invasion , one school of Nahua scribes , those of Tetzcoco , had developed a fully syllabic script which could represent spoken language phonetically in the same way that the Maya script did . Some other epigraphers have questioned the claim , arguing that although the syllabicity was clearly extant in some early colonial manuscripts ( hardly any pre @-@ Columbian manuscripts have survived ) , this could be interpreted as a local innovation inspired by Spanish literacy rather than a continuation of a pre @-@ Columbian practice . The Spanish introduced the Latin script , which was used to record a large body of Aztec prose , poetry and mundane documentation such as testaments , administrative documents , legal letters , etc . In a matter of decades pictorial writing was completely replaced with the Latin alphabet . No standardized Latin orthography has been developed for Nahuatl , and no general consensus has arisen for the representation of many sounds in Nahuatl that are lacking in Spanish , such as long vowels and the glottal stop . The orthography most accurately representing the phonemes of Nahuatl was developed in the 17th century by the Jesuit Horacio Carochi , building on the insights of another Jesuit , Antonio del Rincon . Carochi 's orthography used two different diacritics : a macron to represent long vowels and a grave for the saltillo , and sometimes an acute accent for short vowels . This orthography did not achieve a wide following outside of the Jesuit community . When Nahuatl became the subject of focused linguistic studies in the 20th century , linguists acknowledged the need to represent all the phonemes of the language . Several practical orthographies were developed to transcribe the language , many using the Americanist transcription system . With the establishment of Mexico 's Instituto Nacional de Lenguas Indígenas in 2004 , new attempts to create standardized orthographies for the different dialects were resumed ; however to this day there is no single official orthography for Nahuatl . Apart from dialectal differences , major issues in transcribing Nahuatl include : whether to follow Spanish orthographic practice and write / k / with c and qu , / kʷ / with cu and uc , / s / with c and z , or s , and / w / with hu and uh , or u . how to write the " saltillo " phoneme ( in some dialects pronounced as a glottal stop [ ʔ ] and in others as an [ h ] ) , which has been spelled with j , h , ’ ( apostrophe ) , or a grave accent on the preceding vowel , but which traditionally has often been omitted in writing . whether and how to represent vowel length , e.g. by double vowels or by the use of macrons . = = = Literature = = = Among the indigenous languages of the Americas , the extensive corpus of surviving literature in Nahuatl dating as far back as the 16th century may be considered unique . Nahuatl literature encompasses a diverse array of genres and styles , the documents themselves composed under many different circumstances . It appears that the preconquest Nahua had a distinction much like the European distinction between " prose " and " poetry " , the first called tlahtolli " speech " and the second cuicatl " song " . Nahuatl tlahtolli prose has been preserved in different forms . Annals and chronicles recount history , normally written from the perspective of a particular altepetl ( locally based polity ) and often combining mythical accounts with real events . Important works in this genre include those from Chalco written by Chimalpahin , from Tlaxcala by Diego Muñoz Camargo , from Mexico @-@ Tenochtitlan by Fernando Alvarado Tezozomoc and those of Tex	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
a Chinese Marshal , was compiled from various documents that Peng had written about his life . Much of the material for Memoirs was drawn from the " confessions " that Peng had written during the Cultural Revolution , and the book focused on Peng 's early life , before the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . In 1988 , China released a set of stamps to commemorate the ninetieth anniversary of Peng 's birth . In modern China , Peng is considered one of the greatest military leaders of the twentieth century . = Walking on Air ( Katy Perry song ) = " Walking on Air " is a song recorded by American singer Katy Perry for her fourth studio album , Prism ( 2013 ) , included as its fourth track . It was released to digital retailers on September 30 , 2013 , by Capitol Records , as the record 's second promotional single , following the release of " Dark Horse " . The song was part of a poll promoted by Pepsi , along with " Dark Horse " , where fans could vote for which song they wanted to become the first promotional single from Prism . Inspired by CeCe Peniston and Crystal Waters , " Walking on Air " is a deep house song influenced by 1990s Eurodance . Upon its release , " Walking on Air " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who highlighted its catchiness , but were ambivalent towards its musical composition . The track entered several charts with moderate digital downloads , including reaching number 34 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . Internationally , it charted in the top 20 in various countries , including Australia , Canada , and New Zealand . Perry promoted " Walking on Air " with several live performances , including at the 2013 iTunes Festival and Saturday Night Live . = = Background and release = = " Walking on Air " was produced and programmed by Swedish record producers Klas Åhlund and Max Martin . It was recorded and engineered at Apmamman and MXM Studios , located in Stockholm , Sweden and Conway Recording Studios in Hollywood , California . It was engineered by Michael Illbert , Peter Carlsson , and Sam Holland , and assisted by Cory Bice . Serban Ghenea later mixed the song at MixStar Studios , in Virginia Beach , Virginia . Background vocals were provided by Sabina Ddumba and the Tensta Gospel Choir . In a press release on August 20 , 2013 , PepsiCo announced a partnership with Perry to promote her fourth studio album Prism : the company announced a social " tweet @-@ to @-@ unlock " voting program , where fans could unlock song titles and their respective lyrics , by tweeting the hashtag # KATYNOW . The chosen tracks for the campaign were " Walking on Air " and " Dark Horse " . Once tweets voting for each song reached a certain number , their respective samples were unlocked and fans could start to vote for which one they wanted to have an early release on digital retailers . The winner was " Dark Horse " , which was released on September 17 , 2013 on the iTunes Store . However , after the release of the aforementioned song , the iTunes release of " Walking on Air " was announced , slated for September 30 . = = Composition = = Composed in the key of F ♯ minor , " Walking on Air " is a deep house song set in a 4 / 4 time signature at a moderately fast tempo of 128 beats per minute . The melody spans the tonal range of E3 to E5 , while the music follows the chord progression of F ♯ m – E – C ♯ m – D. Throughout the song , various elements of 90s Eurodance and disco music can be heard . The track opens with Perry singing in her lower register over stacatto synths until the song 's " propulsive " beat begins . The singer has cited CeCe Peniston 's " Finally " and Crystal Waters ' " 100 % Pure Love " as inspirations for the sound she was aiming for with this song . Perry 's vocals near the end of " Walking on Air " were also compared to those of Christina Aguilera . Written by Perry , Klas Åhlund , Max Martin , Adam Baptiste , and Caméla Leierth , " Walking on Air " discusses a love " so strong that even heaven is jealous " . Gil Kaufman from MTV commented on the song 's composition : " Between her wailing diva vocals , a gospel choir that kicks in during the final minute and the driving beat , Perry has captured a unique sound that both recalls the classic 1970s disco era as well as the EDM thump of today 's clubs . " HitFix writer Melinda Newman opined that the song was " redolent of ' 90s dance thumpers and is light as cotton candy and just as enjoyable " , adding that it would " make you long for C + C Music Factory " . The song was also described as evoking the music of Swedish singer Robyn , an artist of whom Perry is a fan . = = Reception = = = = = Critical reaction = = = Critical commentary of " Walking on Air " was mostly favorable : Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine was very positive of the song : he described it as " surprisingly soulful , throwback " to 1990s deep house , although he noted that Åhlund decided to give Perry a different sound from the Euro electro @-@ pop he had produced for Body Talk ( 2010 ) . Greg Kot from Chicago Tribune deemed the single a " catchy pop tune " , while Randall Roberts from the Los Angeles Times wrote that the song 's " euphoria " was " infectious " , and Rob Harvilla from Spin classified it as " delicious " . Also , Elysa Gardner from USA Today recommended readers to download " Walking on Air " . Other reviews were mixed . Writing for The Guardian , Alexis Petridis criticized Prism for not having anything " sonically adventurous " , noting that the album mainly had 1990s pop @-@ house in its songs , giving the example of the " jangling piano riff " present on " Walking on Air " , but still found those melodies to be stronger than the ones found on Jessie J 's second studio album Alive ( 2013 ) . In a mixed to positive review of the song , Will Hermes from Rolling Stone described the song as " frothy " . Marah Eakin from The A.V. Club commented that " when Perry does stretch [ ..... ] she tends to falter " , and mentioned " Walking on Air " and " Dark Horse " as examples . Consequence of Sound 's Chris Bosman described the song as a " vanilla re @-@ interpretation of Hercules and Love Affair " . Helen Brown from The Daily Telegraph classified " Walking on Air " as a " forgettable bit of Nineties rave nostalgia " , while James Reed from The Boston Globe deemed it " buoyant " , and ABC News music writer Mesfin Fekadu called it " irresistible " . Kyle Anderson from Entertainment Weekly described the track as a " David Guetta @-@ esque blast of dancefloor adrenaline " . Sam Lansky from website Idolator wrote that the song was " pleasurable " , while Trent Wolbe from The Verge said it was a " triumphant ode " to various artists from the 1990s . = = = Commercial performance = = = On the week ending October 7 , 2013 , " Walking on Air " debuted at number 12 on the New Zealand Singles Chart . In Australia , the song charted on the ARIA Digital Track Chart at number 18 . On the week ending October 19 , 2013 , " Walking on Air " debuted at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 and debuted at number eight on Billboard Hot Digital Songs with 113 @,@ 000 downloads . As of November 2013 , the song has sold a total of 150 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . = = Live performances = = On September 30 , 2013 , Perry performed " Walking on Air " during her headlining set of the 2013 iTunes Festival at the Roundhouse . For the performance , she wore a black leather corset , a tartan miniskirt and fishnet tights , all part of a " racy " outfit . On October 12 , 2013 , the singer performed the song again on Saturday Night Live , where she was the musical guest of the episode . She wore a " ' 90s schoolgirl outfit " composed of a plaid skirt , knee socks and a white crop top . Kelci Shipley from MTV wrote that Perry " caught a case of retro fever for her performance of ' Walking On Air ' " . On her 29th birthday , October 25 , 2013 , Perry performed the song at Lakewood High School in Lakewood , Colorado . On May 25 , 2014 , she performed it in Glasgow at Radio 1 's Big Weekend . = = Credits and personnel = = Recording places Recorded at Apmamman and MXM Studios ( Stockholm , Sweden ) ; Conway Recording Studios ( Hollywood , California ) Mixed at MixStar Studios ( Virginia Beach , Virginia ) Personnel Songwriting – Katy Perry , Klas Åhlund , Max Martin , Adam Baptiste , Caméla Leierth Production – Klas Åhlund , Max Martin Engineering – Michael Illbert , Peter Carlsson , Sam Holland Engineering assistant – Cory Bice Mixing – Serban Ghenea Mixing engineer – John Hanes Lead vocals – Katy Perry Background vocals – Sabina Ddumba , Tensta Gospel Choir Programming – Klas Åhlund , Max Martin Credits adapted from Prism liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Release history = = = Misty Copeland = Misty Danielle Copeland ( born September 10 , 1982 ) is an American ballet dancer for American Ballet Theatre ( ABT ) , one of the three leading classical ballet companies in the United States . On June 30 , 2015 , Copeland became the first African American woman to be promoted to principal dancer in ABT 's 75 @-@ year history . Copeland was considered a prodigy who rose to stardom despite not starting ballet until the age of 13 . By age 15 , her mother and ballet teachers , who were serving as her custodial guardians , fought a custody battle over her . Meanwhile , Copeland , who was already an award @-@ winning dancer , was fielding professional offers . The 1998 legal issues involved filings for emancipation by Copeland and restraining orders by her mother . Both sides dropped legal proceedings , and Copeland moved home to begin studying under a new teacher who was a former ABT member . In 1997 , Copeland won the Los Angeles Music Center Spotlight Award as the best dancer in Southern California . After two summer workshops with ABT , she became a member of ABT 's Studio Company in 2000 and its corps de ballet in 2001 , and became an ABT soloist in 2007 . As a soloist from 2007 to mid @-@ 2015 , she was described as having matured into a more contemporary and sophisticated dancer . In addition to her dance career , Copeland has become a public speaker , celebrity spokesperson and stage performer . She has written two autobiographical books and narrated a documentary about her career challenges , A Ballerina 's Tale . In 2015 , she was named one of the 100 most influential people in the world by Time , appearing on its cover . She performed on Broadway in On the Town , toured as a featured dancer for Prince and appeared on the reality television shows A Day in the Life and So You Think You Can Dance . She has endorsed products and companies such as T @-@ Mobile , Dr Pepper , Seiko and Under Armour . = = Early life = = Copeland was born in Kansas City , Missouri , and raised in the San Pedro community of Los Angeles , California . Copeland 's father , Doug Copeland , is German American and African American , while her mother , Sylvia DelaCerna , is Italian American and African American and was adopted by African American parents . Misty Copeland is the youngest of four children from her mother 's second marriage and has two younger half @-@ siblings , one each from her mother 's third and fourth marriages . Copeland did not see her father between the ages of two and twenty @-@ two . Her mother , a former Kansas City Chiefs cheerleader , had studied dance . She is a trained medical assistant , but worked mostly in sales . Between the ages of three and seven , Copeland lived in Bellflower , California , with her mother and her mother 's third husband , Harold Brown , a Santa Fe Railroad sales executive . The family moved to San Pedro , where Sylvia eventually married her fourth husband , radiologist Robert DelaCerna , and where Misty attended Point Fermin Elementary School . When she was seven , Copeland saw the film Nadia on television and its subject Nadia Comăneci became her new role model . Copeland never studied ballet or gymnastics formally until her teenage years , but she enjoyed choreographing flips and dance moves to Mariah Carey songs in her youth . Following in the footsteps of her older sister Erica , who had starred on the Dana Middle School drill team that won statewide competitions , Copeland became captain of the Dana drill team . Her captaincy was only a part of her responsibilities . She was also the sixth grade class treasurer and a hall monitor that year . Copeland 's natural grace came to the attention of her classically trained Dana drill team coach , Elizabeth Cantine , in San Pedro . By 1994 , Copeland 's mother had separated from Robert . After living with various friends and boyfriends , DelaCerna moved with all of her children into two small rooms at the Sunset Inn in Gardena , California . In early 1996 , Cantine convinced Copeland to attend a ballet class at her local Boys & Girls Club . Cynthia Bradley , a friend of Cantine 's , taught a free ballet class at the club once a week . Copeland attended several classes as a spectator before participating . DelaCerna allowed Copeland to go to the club after school until the workday ended . Bradley invited Copeland to attend class at her small local ballet school , San Pedro Dance Center . Copeland initially declined the offer , however , because her mother did not have a car , was working 12 – 14 hours a day , and her oldest sister Erica was working two jobs . Copeland began her ballet studies at the age of 13 at the San Pedro Dance Center when Cynthia Bradley began picking her up from school . After three months of study , Copeland was en pointe . She told Copeland that she would have to give up ballet , but Bradley wanted Copeland to continue and offered to host her . DelaCerna agreed to this , and Copeland moved in with Bradley and her family . Eventually , Copeland and DelaCerna signed a management contract and a life @-@ story contract with Bradley . Copeland spent the weekdays with the Bradleys near the coast and the weekends at home with her mother , a two @-@ hour bus ride away . Copeland would spend most of her next three years with the Bradleys . By the age of fourteen , Copeland was the winner of a national ballet contest and won her first solo role . The Bradleys introduced Copeland to books and videos about ballet . When she saw Paloma Herrera , a principal ballerina with ABT , perform at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion , Copeland began to idolize her as much as she did Mariah Carey . The media first noticed her when she drew 2 @,@ 000 patrons per show as she performed as Clara in the The Nutcracker at the San Pedro High School after only eight months of study . A larger role as Kitri in Don Quixote at the San Pedro Dance Center and a featured role in The Chocolate Nutcracker , an African American version of the tale , narrated by Debbie Allen , soon followed . The latter was presented at UCLA 's Royce Hall . Copeland 's role was modified especially for her , and included ethnic dances . During this period , Copeland received far more personal attention from the Bradley family than her mother could give each of her six children , even attending a synagogue with Bradley 's parents and young son . In addition to Bradley 's intensive ballet training , her husband , a modern @-@ dance teacher , served as Copeland 's pas @-@ de @-@ deux instructor and partner . The summer before her fifteenth birthday , Bradley began to homeschool Copeland for 10th grade to free up more time for dance . At fifteen years old , Copeland won first place in the Los Angeles Music Center Spotlight Awards at the Chandler Pavilion in March 1998 . Copeland said it was the first time she ever battled nervousness . The winners received scholarships between $ 500 and $ 2500 . Copeland 's victory in the 10th annual contest among gifted high school students in Southern California secured her recognition by the Los Angeles Times as the best young dancer in the Greater Los Angeles Area . Copeland attended the summer workshop at the San Francisco Ballet School in 1998 . She and Bradley selected the workshop over offers from the Joffrey Ballet , ABT and Dance Theater of Harlem , among others . Of the programs she auditioned for , only New York City Ballet declined to make her an offer . San Francisco Ballet , ABT and New York City Ballet are regarded as the three preeminent classical ballet companies in the US . During the six week workshop at San Francisco , Copeland was placed in the most advanced classes and was under a full tuition plus expenses scholarship . At the end of the workshop , she received one of the few offers to continue as a full @-@ time student at the school . She declined the offer because of the encouragement from her mother to return home , the prospect of continuing personal training from the Bradley family and dreams of a subsequent summer with ABT . = = Custody battle = = Copeland returned to her mother 's home and frequent arguments . Her mother resented the Bradleys ' influence and soon decided that Copeland would cease study with the Bradleys . Copeland was distraught with fear that she would not be able to dance . She had heard the term emancipation while in San Francisco ; the procedure was common among young performers to secure their financial and residential independence . The Bradleys introduced Copeland to Steven Bartell , a lawyer who explained the emancipation petition process . The Bradleys encouraged her to be absent from home when the emancipation petition was delivered to her mother . Copeland ran away from home for three days and stayed with a friend , while Bartell filed the emancipation papers . After her mother reported Copeland missing , she was told about the emancipation petition . Three days after running away , Copeland was returned to her mother by the police . DelaCerna engaged lawyer Gloria Allred and applied for a series of restraining orders , which included the Bradleys ' five @-@ year @-@ old son , who had been Copeland 's roommate , and Bartell . The order was partly intended to preclude contact between the Bradleys and Copeland , but it did not have proper legal basis , since there had been no stalking and no harassment . The custody controversy was highly publicized in the press ( especially Los Angeles Times and Extra ) , starting in August and September 1998 . Parts of the press coverage spilled over into op @-@ ed articles . The case was heard in Torrance , in the Superior Court of Los Angeles County . DelaCerna claimed that the Bradleys had brainwashed Copeland into filing suit for emancipation from her mother , Allred claimed that the Bradleys had turned Copeland against her mother by belittling DelaCerna 's intelligence . The Bradleys noted that the management contract gave them authority over her career , but they stated that they would wait until Copeland became eighteen before seeking twenty percent of Copeland 's earnings . After DelaCerna stated that she would always make sure Copeland could dance , both the emancipation papers and restraining orders were dropped . Copeland , who claimed she did not understand the term emancipation , withdrew the petition after informing the judge that such charges no longer represented her wishes . Still , DelaCerna wanted the Bradleys out of her daughter 's life . Copeland re @-@ enrolled at San Pedro High School for her junior year ( 1998 – 99 ) , on pace to graduate with her original class of 2000 . DelaCerna sought Cantine 's advice on finding a new ballet school . Copeland began ballet study at Lauridsen Ballet Centre with former ABT dancer Diane Lauridsen , although her dancing was now restricted to afternoons in deference to her schooling . Late in 1998 , all parties appeared on Leeza Gibbons ' talk show , Leeza , where Copeland sat silently as the adults " bickered shamelessly " . As a student , Copeland had a 3 @.@ 8 / 4 @.@ 0 GPA through her junior year of high school . In 2000 , DelaCerna stated that Copeland 's earnings from ballet were set aside in a savings account and only used as needed . = = American Ballet Theatre = = = = = Early ABT career = = = Copeland auditioned for several dance programs in 1999 , and each made her an offer to enroll in its summer program . She performed with ABT as part of its 1999 and 2000 Summer Intensive programs . During the summer of 1999 , the topic of whether Copeland would stay if invited came up , and she responded affirmatively , although her mother insisted finishing high school was important . During that summer , she was told that she would likely be invited to stay after she graduated in 2000 , and by the end of the summer she was asked to skip her senior year and join the studio company . Copeland returned to California for her senior year , even though ABT arranged to pay for her performances , housing accommodations and academic arrangements . She studied at the Summer Intensive Program on full scholarship for both summers and was declared ABT 's National Coca @-@ Cola Scholar in 2000 . In the 2000 Summer Intensive Program , she danced the role of Kitri in Don Quixote . Copeland ' strongest memory from the summer is working with Tharp on what Copeland calls Tharp 's " seminal work " , Push Comes to Shove " . Of the 150 dancers in the 2000 Summer Intensive Program , she was one of six selected to join the junior dance troupe . In September 2000 , she joined the ABT Studio Company , which is ABT 's second company , and became a member of its Corps de ballet in 2001 . As part of the Studio Company , she performed the Pas de Deux in Tchaikovsky 's The Sleeping Beauty . Eight months after joining the company , she was sidelined for nearly a year by a lumbar stress fracture . When Copeland joined the company , she weighed 108 pounds ( 49 @.@ 0 kg ) ( she is 5 feet 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) tall ) . At age 19 , her puberty had been delayed , a situation common in ballet dancers . After the lumbar fracture , her doctor told her that inducing puberty would help to strengthen her bones , and he prescribed birth control pills . Copeland recalls that in one month she gained 10 pounds , and her small breasts swelled to double D @-@ cup size : " Leotards had to be altered for me ... to cover my cleavage , for instance . I hated this sign that I was different from the others . ... I became so self @-@ conscious that , for the first time in my life , I couldn ’ t dance strong . I was too busy trying to hide my breasts . " Management noticed and called her in to talk about her body . The professional pressure to conform to conventional ballet aesthetics resulted in body image struggles and a binge eating disorder . Copeland says that , over the next year , new friendships outside of ABT , including with Victoria Rowell and her boyfriend , Olu Evans , helped her to regain confidence in her body . She explained , " My curves became an integral part of who I am as a dancer , not something I needed to lose to become one . I started dancing with confidence and joy , and soon the staff at ABT began giving me positive feedback again . And I think I changed everyone ’ s mind about what a perfect dancer is supposed to look like . " During her years in the corps , as the only Black woman in the company , Copeland also felt the burden of her ethnicity in many ways and contemplated a variety of career choices . Recognizing that Copeland 's isolation and self @-@ doubt were standing in the way of her talent , ABT 's artistic director , Kevin McKenzie , asked writer and arts figure Susan Fales @-@ Hill , then vice @-@ chair of ABT 's Board of Directors , to mentor Copeland . Fales @-@ Hill introduced Copeland to Black women trailblazers who encouraged Copeland and helped her to gain perspective . Early career reviews mentioned Copeland as more radiant than higher ranking dancers , and she was named to the 2003 class of Dance Magazine 's " 25 to Watch " . In 2003 , she was favorably reviewed for her roles as a member of the corps in La Bayadère and William Forsythe 's workwithinwork . Recognition continued in 2004 for roles in ballets such as Raymonda , workwithinwork , Amazed in Burning Dreams , Sechs Tänze , Pillar of Fire , " Pretty Good Year " , " VIII " and " Sinfonietta , where she " stood out in the pas de trois – whether she was gliding across the floor or in a full lift , she created the illusion of smoothness " . She also danced the Hungarian Princess in Tchaikovsky 's Swan Lake . The 2004 season is regarded as her breakthrough season . She was included in the 2004 picture book by former ABT dancer Rosalie O 'Connor titled Getting Closer : A Dancer 's Perspective . Also in 2004 , she met her biological father for the first time and regretted that she had not done so sooner . In 2005 , her most notable performance was in George Balanchine 's Tarantella. she also danced the Lead Polovtsian Girl in " Polovtsian Dances " from Prince Igor . In 2006 , she was acknowledged for her meticulous classical performance style in Giselle and created a role in Jorma Elo 's Glow – Stop . That year , she also returned to Southern California to perform at Orange County Performing Arts Center and danced one of the cygnets and reprised her role as the Hungarian Princess in Swan Lake in New York . In both 2006 and 2007 , Copeland danced the role of Blossom in James Kudelka 's Cinderella . Copeland 's " old @-@ style " performance continued to earn her praise in 2007 . In 2007 , she danced the Fairy of Valor in The Sleeping Beauty . Other roles that Copeland played before she was appointed a soloist by ABT included Twyla Tharp roles in In the Upper Room and Sinatra Suite as well as a role in Mark Morris 's Gong . = = = Soloist = = = Copeland was appointed a soloist at ABT in August 2007 , one of the youngest ABT dancers promoted to soloist . Although , she was described by early accounts as the first African American woman promoted to soloist for ABT , Anne Benna Sims and Nora Kimball were soloists with ABT in the 1980s . Male soloist Keith Lee also preceded her . As of 2008 , Copeland was the only African @-@ American woman in the dance company during her entire ABT career , and the only male African American in the company , Danny Tidwell , left in 2005 . In an international ballet community with a lack of diversity , she was so unusual as an African American ballerina , that she endured cultural isolation . She has been described in the press as the Jackie Robinson of classical ballet . Copeland feels that since the female dancer is the focus of ballet , her history as a trail @-@ blazing performer and role model has extra significance . Copeland was a standout among her peers . In her first season as a soloist at New York City Center , in which avant @-@ garde ballets works were performed , she presented a Balanchine Ballo della Regina role , earning praise . Also in 2007 , she created a leading role in C. to C. ( Close to Chuck ) , choreographed by Jorma Elo to A Musical Portrait of Chuck Close , Études 2 , 9 & 10 , by Philip Glass . Her performances of Tharp 's works in the same season were recognized , and she was described as more sophisticated and contemporary as a soloist than she had been as a corps dancer . Her summer 2008 Metropolitan Opera House ( the Met ) season performances in Don Quixote and Sleeping Beauty were also well received . During the 2008 – 09 season , Copeland received publicity for roles in Twyla Tharp 's Baker 's Dozen and Paul Taylor 's Company B. During the 2009 Spring ABT season at the Met , Copeland performed Gulnare in Le Corsaire and leading roles in Taylor 's Airs and Balanchine 's Pas de Deux from Swan Lake . Her Annenberg Fellowship that year included training for the Pas de Deux . Late that year , she performed in ABT 's first trip to Beijing at the new National Center for the Performing Arts . In 2009 , Copeland created a role in Aszure Barton 's One of Three . In 2010 , Copeland performed in Birthday Offering at the Met and at the Guggenheim Museum danced to David Lang 's music . She also created the Spanish Dance in ABT artist @-@ in @-@ residence Alexei Ratmansky 's new version of The Nutcracker , premiered at the Brooklyn Academy of Music . In early 2011 , she was well received at the Kennedy Center as the Milkmaid in Ratmansky 's The Bright Stream , a remake of a banned comic ballet . In Black History Month in 2011 , Copeland was selected by Essence as one of its 37 Boundary @-@ breaking black women in entertainment . That same month , she toured with Company B , performed at Sadler 's Wells Theatre in London . In May , she created a role in Ratmansky 's Dumbarton , danced to Stravinsky 's chamber concerto , Dumbarton Oaks . Alastair Macaulay of The New York Times found the piece too intimate for the cavernous Met , but he noted : " Misty Copeland gives sudden hints of need and emotional bleakness in a duet ... too much is going on to explain itself at one viewing ; but at once I know I ’ m emotionally and structurally gripped . " Her Summer 2011 ABT solos included the peasant pas de deux in Giselle and , in Ratmansky 's The Bright Stream at the Met in June , her reprise of the Milkmaid was called " luminous , teasingly sensual " . She reprised the role again in July at the Dorothy Chandler Pavilion in Los Angeles with a performance described as " sly " . As a flower girl , she was described as glittering in Don Quixote . In August , she performed at the Vail International Dance Festival in the Gerald Ford Amphitheater in Vail , Colorado . In November , she danced in Taylor 's Black Tuesday . In 2012 , Copeland began achieving solo roles in full @-@ length standard repertory ballets rather than works that were mostly relatively modern pieces . She starred in The Firebird , with choreography by Ratmansky at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa , California . It premiered on March 29 , 2012 . The performance was hailed by Laura Bleiberg in the Los Angeles Times as one of the year 's best dance performances . That year , Copeland was recognized by The Council of Urban Professionals as their Breakthrough Leadership Award winner . She also danced the role of Gamzatti in La Bayadère at the Met to praise from Alastair Macaulay of The New York Times , who noted her " adult complexity and worldly allure " . The Firebird was again performed at the Met in June 2012 , with Copeland to alternate in the lead . It was Copeland 's first leading role at ABT . Backstage described it as her " most prestigious part " to date . After only one New York performance in the role , Copeland withdrew from the entire ABT season due to six stress fractures in her tibia . She was sidelined for seven months after her October surgery . Upon her return to the stage , she danced the Queen of the Dryads in Don Quixote in May 2013 . Nelson George began filming a documentary leverage the chance to present her comeback . Copeland reprised her role as Gulnare in June 2013 in the pirate @-@ themed Le Corsaire . She also played an Odalisque in the same ballet . Later in the year , she danced in Tharp 's choreography of Bach Partita for Violin No. 2 in D minor for solo violin , and as Columbine in ABT 's revival of Ratmansky 's Nutcracker at the Brooklyn Academy of Music . In May 2014 , Copeland performed the lead role of Swanilda in Coppélia at the Met . According to Los Angeles Times writer Jevon Phillips , she is the first African American woman to dance the role . The same month , she was praised in the dual role of Queen of the Dryads and Mercedes in Don Quixote by Brian Seibert of The New York Times , although Jerry Hochman of Critical Dance felt that she was not as impressive in the former role as in the latter . Later in May , the Met staged a program of one @-@ act ballets consisting of Theme and Variations , Duo Concertant and Gaîté Parisienne , featuring Copeland in all three . Siebert praised her work as the lead in Balanchine 's choreography of Igor Stravinsky 's Duo Concertant for violin and piano performed by Benjamin Bowman and Emily Wong . Of her Flower Girl in Gaîté Parisienne , Apollinaire Scherr of The Financial Times wrote that she " tips like a brimming watering can into the bouquets her wooers hold out to her " . Copeland was a " flawless " demi @-@ soloist in Theme and Variations , according to Colleen Boresta of Critical Dance . In June 2014 at the Met , she danced the Fairy Autumn in the Frederick Ashton Cinderella , cited for her energetic exuberance in the role by Hochman , who missed the " varied texture and nuance that made it significantly more interesting " in the hands of ABT 's Christine Shevchenko . That month , she played Lescaut 's Mistress in Manon in which role Marjorie Liebert of BroadwayWorld.com described her as " seductive and ingratiating " . Also in June , she performed the role of Gamzatti in La Bayadère . Copeland performed the Odette / Odile double role in Swan Lake in September when the company toured in Brisbane , Australia . Her ascension to more prominent roles occurred as three ABT principal dancers ( Paloma Herrera , Julie Kent and Xiomara Reyes ) entered their final seasons before retirement . In early October , Copeland performed several pieces including a principal role in Tharp 's Bach Partita at Chicago 's Auditorium Theatre . In October , Copeland made her New York debut in one of the six principal roles in Tharp 's Bach Partita and created a role in Liam Scarlett 's With a Chance of Rain . That December , when ABT revived Ratmansky 's Nutcracker at the Brooklyn Academy of Music , Copeland played the role of Clara , the Princess . The same month , at the Kennedy Center Honors , she was described as " sublime " in Tchaikovsky 's Pas de Deux by the New York City CBS News affiliate . In March 2015 , Copeland danced the role of Princess Florine in The Sleeping Beauty at the Segerstrom Center for the Arts in Costa Mesa , California . She made her American debut as Odette / Odile in Swan Lake with The Washington Ballet , opposite Brooklyn Mack as Prince Siegfried , in April at the Eisenhower Theater in the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts . The performance was the company 's first presentation of Swan Lake in its 70 @-@ year history . In May 2015 , she played Cowgirl in Rodeo , Bianca in Othello and Zulma in Giselle . She was selected for the 2015 Time 100 . As a result , Copeland appeared on the cover of Time , making her the first dancer on the cover since Bill T. Jones in 1994 . In June , Copeland created the small role of the Fairy Fleur de farine ( Wheat flower ) in Ratmansky 's The Sleeping Beauty . The same month , she made her debut in Romeo and Juliet on short notice a few days before her scheduled debut performance on June 20 . Later in June , Copeland made her New York debut in the Odette / Odile double role from Swan Lake that is described by Macauley as " the most epic role in world ballet " . Her performance at the Met was regarded as a success . Her performance in the role had been anticipated as a " a crowning achievement " in wide @-@ ranging media outlets and by a broad spectrum of fans and supporters . Wilkinson and Anderson were on hand to present her bouquets on stage . Some viewed this performance as a sign that her promotion to principal was forthcoming . = = = Principal dancer = = = On June 30 , 2015 , Copeland became the first African @-@ American woman to be promoted to principal ballerina in ABT 's 75 @-@ year history . Copeland 's achievement was groundbreaking , as there have been very few African @-@ American principal ballerinas at major companies . Lauren Anderson became a principal at Houston Ballet in 1990 , the first principal ballerina at any major American company . According to the 2015 documentary about Copeland , A Ballerina 's Tale , " there has never been a Black female principal dancer at a major international company " . Copeland next accepted the role of Ivy Smith in the Broadway revival of On The Town , which she played for two weeks from August 25 to September 6 . Her debut on Broadway was favorably reviewed in The New York Times , The Washington Post , and other media . In October in New York , Copeland performed in the revival of Tharp 's choreography of the Brahms @-@ Haydn Variations , in Frederick Ashton 's Monotones I , and " brought a seductive mix of demureness and sex appeal to ' Rum and Coca @-@ Cola ' " in Paul Taylor 's Company B. The same month , she created the role of His Loss in AfterEffect by Marcelo Gomes , danced to Tchaikovsky 's Souvenir de Florence , at Lincoln Center . When ABT brought Ratmansky 's Nutcracker to Segerstrom Center for the Arts in December 2015 , Copeland reprised the role of Clara . In January 2016 , Copeland reprised the role of Princess Florine in The Sleeping Beauty at the Kennedy Center , choreographed by Ratmansky . Her spring 2016 schedule also includes leads in ABT productions of The Firebird , La Fille Mal Gardee , Le Corsaire , The Golden Cockerel , Swan Lake and Romeo and Juliet . = = Other appearances , modeling , writings and ventures = = = = = Other stage , television and film appearances = = = In March 2009 , Copeland filmed a music video with Prince for a cover of " Crimson and Clover " , the first single from his 2009 studio album Lotusflower . Prince asked her to dance along to the song in improvised ballet movements . She described his instructions as " Be you , feel the music , just move " , and upon request for further instruction , " Keep doing what you 're doing " . She also began taking acting lessons in 2009 . During the New York City and New Jersey portions of Prince 's Welcome 2 America tour , Copeland performed a pas de deux en pointe to his song " The Beautiful Ones " , the opening number at the Izod Center and Madison Square Garden . Prince had previously invited her onstage at a concert in Nice , France . In April 2011 , she performed alongside Prince on the Lopez Tonight show , dancing to " The Beautiful Ones . " In 2011 , she was featured in the Season 1 , episode 5 of the Hulu web series A Day in the Life . Copeland was a guest judge for the 11th season of FOX 's So You Think You Can Dance . New Line Cinema has optioned her memoir , Life in Motion , for a screen adaptation , and the Oxygen network has expressed interest in producing a reality docuseries about Copeland mentoring a Master Class of aspiring young dancers . A Ballerina 's Tale , a documentary film about Copeland , debuted at the Tribeca Film Festival in April 2015 . The film was released through video on demand in October 2015 the day before its limited release in theaters . It was first aired in February 2016 as part of PBS ' Independent Lens series . In May 2015 , she was featured on 60 Minutes in a segment with correspondent Bill Whitaker . In June , she served as a presenter at the 69th Tony Awards . She was included in the 2015 International Best Dressed List , published by Vanity Fair. in October 2015 , she performed on The Late Show with Stephen Colbert with musical accompaniment by Yo @-@ Yo Ma , who played " Courante " from Bach 's Cello Suite No. 2 . She walked the runway at New York Fashion Week in February 2016 to support the American Heart Association 's " Go Red for Women " campaign to increase awareness of the dangers of heart disease for women . She appeared in the March issue of Harper 's Bazaar recreating Edgar Degas ballerina poses in a photospread ahead of a Museum of Modern Art exhibition : " Edgar Degas : A Strange New Beauty " . The feature was praised by several media outlets . Sebastian Smee of The Boston Globe , however , argued that contemporary ballet performers take Degas ' ballet @-@ themed work too seriously . In February 2016 , Copeland and President Barack Obama were interviewed together in the first of a three part video series with Time and Essence magazines on topics of race , gender , achievement and creating opportunity for young people . Copeland has been cast to dance the lead ballerina role in a forthcoming Disney film , The Nutcracker and the Four Realms , based on the 1816 story " The Nutcracker and the Mouse King " . = = = Ventures and writing = = = In 2011 , she unveiled a line of dancewear , called M by Misty , that she designed . She has also produced celebrity calendars . In 2014 , Copeland released a memoir , Life in Motion : An Unlikely Ballerina , co @-@ authored by Charisse Jones . Her 2014 children 's picture book , titled Firebird , with illustrator Christopher Myers , has a message of empowerment for young people of color . In November 2015 , she announced a third book , Ballerina Body , planned to be a health and fitness guide . = = = Modelling and endorsements = = = Copeland was featured in T @-@ Mobile 's ads for the BlackBerry in 2010 and an ad for Dr. Pepper in 2013 . In 2013 , she became a spokesperson for Project Plié , a national initiative to broaden the pipeline of leadership within ballet . She also became a brand ambassador for Seiko in 2015 . In 2016 , Mattel created a Misty Copeland Barbie doll . In 2014 , Copeland became a sponsored athlete for Under Armour , which paid her more than her ballet career . Her Under Armour women @-@ focused ad campaign was widely publicized , and resulted in her being named an ABC World News Person of the week . The ad campaign was recognized by Adweek as one of The 10 Best Ads of 2014 and as " The year 's best campaign targeting women " . Copeland ( along with Steph Curry and Jordan Spieth ) was credited with leading to a surge in demand for Under Armor products . = = Honors = = In 2008 , Copeland won the Leonore Annenberg Fellowship in the Arts , which funds study with master teachers and trainers outside of ABT . The two @-@ year fellowships are in recognition of " young artists of extraordinary talent with the goal of providing them with additional resources in order to fully realise their potential " . In 2013 , she was named National Youth of the Year Ambassador by the Boys & Girls Clubs of America . In 2014 , Copeland was named to the President 's Council on Fitness , Sports , and Nutrition and received an honorary doctorate from the University of Hartford for her contributions to classical ballet and helping to diversify the art form . Copeland was a Dance Magazine Awards 2014 honoree . After her promotion as principal dancer , Copeland was named one of Glamour 's Women of the Year for 2015 ; one of ESPN 's 2015 Impact 25 athletes and influencers who have made the greatest impact for women in sports ; and , by Barbara Walters , one of the 10 " most fascinating " people of 2015 . In 2016 , Copeland won a Shorty Award for Best in Dance in Social Media . = = Personal life = = Copeland lives with her fiancé , attorney Olu Evans , on Manhattan 's Upper West Side . The couple were introduced to each other around 2004 by Evans ' cousin , Taye Diggs . Copeland announced her engagement to Evans in a 2015 cover story in Essence magazine . Copeland , when she has free time , enjoys cooking and relaxing , preferring not " to be around a lot of people " . = = Published works = = Copeland , Misty ( with Charisse Jones ) ( 2014 ) . Life in Motion : An Unlikely Ballerina . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 4767 @-@ 3798 @-@ 0 . Copeland , Misty ( 2014 ) . Firebird . G.P. Putnam 's Sons Books for Young Readers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 399 @-@ 16615 @-@ 0 . = Tumbler Ridge = Tumbler Ridge is a district municipality in the foothills of the Canadian Rockies in northeastern British Columbia , Canada , and a member municipality of the Peace River Regional District . The municipality of 1 @,@ 558 square kilometres ( 602 sq mi ) , with its population of 2 @,@ 710 people , incorporates a townsite and a large area of mostly Crown Land . The housing and municipal infrastructure , along with regional infrastructure connecting the new town to other municipalities , were built simultaneously in 1981 by the provincial government to service the coal industry as part of the British Columbia Resources Investment Corporation 's Northeast Coal Development . In 1981 , a consortium of Japanese steel mills agreed to purchase 100 million tonnes of coal over 15 years for US $ 7 @.@ 5 billion from two mining companies , Denison Mines Inc. and the Teck Corporation , who were to operate the Quintette mine and the Bullmoose mine respectively . Declining global coal prices after 1981 , and weakening Asian markets in the late 1990s , made the town 's future uncertain and kept it from achieving its projected population of 10 @,@ 000 people . The uncertainty dissuaded investment and kept the economy from diversifying . When price reductions were forced onto the mines , the Quintette mine was closed in 2000 production and the town lost about half its population . Coal prices began to rise after the turn of the century , leading to the opening of the Peace River Coal Trend mine by Northern Energy & Mining Inc . ( now owned by Anglo American Met Coal ) and the Wolverine Mine , originally owned by Western Canadian Coal , which was purchased by Walter Energy in 2010 . After dinosaur footprints , fossils , and bones were discovered in the municipality , along with fossils of Triassic fishes and cretaceous plants , the Peace Region Paleontology Research Centre opened in 2003 . The research centre and a dinosaur museum were funded in part by the federal Western Economic Diversification Canada to decrease economic dependence on the coal industry . In 2014 , both operating coal mines were put into " care and maintenance mode " . This means the mines are effectively closed , but are still allowed to restart without needing to go through the process of getting a new mines act permit . Economic diversification has also occurred with oil and gas exploration , forestry , and recreational tourism . Nearby recreational destinations include numerous trails , mountains , waterfalls , snowmobiling areas and provincial parks , such as Monkman Provincial Park , Bearhole Lake Provincial Park , and Gwillim Lake Provincial Park . = = History = = Archaeological evidence show a human presence dating back 3 @,@ 000 years . The nomadic Sekani , followed by the Dunneza and then the Cree , periodically lived in temporary settlements around the future municipality . Formal exploratory and surveying expeditions were conducted by S. Prescott Fay , with Robert Cross and Fred Brewster in 1914 , J.C. Gwillim in 1919 , Edmund Spieker in 1920 , and John Holzworth in 1923 . Spieker coined the name Tumbler Ridge , referring to the mountains northwest of the future town , by altering Gwillim 's map that named them Tumbler Range . Permanent settlers were squatters , five families by 1920 , who maintained trap lines . In the 1950s and 1960s , oil and natural gas exploration and logging was conducted through the area , and 15 significant coal deposits were discovered . Coal prices rose after the 1973 oil crisis leading to 40 government studies examining the viability of accessing the coal , given the 1 @,@ 130 km ( 700 mi ) to the nearest port and the mountainous barrier . With these coal deposits in mind , a purchasing agreement was signed in 1981 by two Canadian mining companies , a consortium of Japanese steel mills , and the governments of British Columbia and Canada . As part of the deal , the provincial government committed , under the North East Coal Development plan , to build a new town near the deposits , two highways off Highway 97 , a power line from the W. A. C. Bennett Dam at Hudson 's Hope , and a branch rail line through the Rocky Mountains . An alternative of using work camps staffed by people from Dawson Creek and Chetwynd was also considered . Massive initial investments were required as planning for the new town began in 1976 with the objective of having a fully functioning town ready before residents arrived . Coordinated through the provincial Ministry of Municipal Affairs the town , regional infrastructure , and mining plants were all built simultaneously . When the municipality was incorporated in April 1981 the area was completely forested . During that year building sites and roadways were cleared and in the winter the water and sewerage system was built . In 1982 , houses and other buildings were constructed . Full production at the mines was reached the following year . In early 1983 , the families of the managers at the Bullmoose Minesite , led by Dean Sawas appealed to the British Columbia government and were able to create a new settlement , called Bullmoose Settlement . This was done because Dean 's wife was expecting and he wanted his child to have something different to say about her birthplace . He wanted her to be able to say that a settlement had been created for her and that she was , and would always be the only one born at that place . At her birth , Alicia V. Sawas was also written into the Tumbler Ridge records as the first child born in the Quintette area . Bullmoose Settlement was closed down after the reduction in mine activities with just the one birth . In 1984 , world coal prices were dropping and the Japanese consortium requested a reduction in the price of coal from the Tumbler Ridge mines . As price reduction requests continued , the concern over the viability of the mines led the BC Assessment Authority to lower the 1987 property assessments for the Quintette mine from CAD $ 156 million to $ 89 million and the Bullmoose mine $ 70 million to $ 43 million . This lowered their taxes as they tried to enforce the purchasing agreement at the Supreme Court of Canada . Their 1990 ruling required the Quintette Operations Company to reduce coal prices and reimburse the Japanese consortium $ 4 @.@ 6 million . The company responded by reducing production , cutting employment , and applying for court protection from creditors . This allowed Teck to acquire 50 % interest and take over management of the Quintette mine , but it was unable to stop further job losses . As most residents left town , apartment blocks were closed and the mine companies bought back all but 11 houses in the town . After 30 % of the workforce had been laid off , new contracts with the Japanese consortium were signed in 1997 , allowing re @-@ hirings to begin , but with lower export levels . The North East Coal Development was projected to create a net benefit of CAD $ 0 @.@ 9 billion ( 2000 ) , but incurred a net loss of $ 2 @.@ 8 billion and half the expected regional employment . The population declined as many residents were unable to find other work in the town , even as a sawmill for specialty woods opened in 1999 . After Teck closed the Quintette mine in August 2000 and shifted production to the lower cost Bullmoose mine , the town council established the Tumbler Ridge Revitalization Task Force to investigate ways to boost and diversify the economy . The Task Force negotiated the return of the housing stock from the mines to the free market , grants from the province to become debt @-@ free , and stabilized funds from the province for healthcare and education . The discovery of dinosaur tracks in 2000 by two local boys while playing near a creek , led to major fossil and bone discoveries from the Cretaceous Period . To survey and study the finds , government funding was secured to found both the Tumbler Ridge Museum Foundation and Peace Region Palaeontology Research Centre . After the Bullmoose mine exhausted its supply of coal in 2003 , world coal prices increased , making exploration and mining in Tumbler Ridge economically feasible again . Western Canadian Coal opened new open @-@ pit mining operations creating the Dillon mine using Bullmoose mining infrastructure , the Brule mine near Chetwynd using new infrastructure ( projected 11 @-@ year life span ) , and the Wolverine mine . These mines were purchased by Walter Energy in 2010 , but world coal prices began to drop again in 2011 , and in April 2014 , Walter put their Canadian operations into " care and maintenance mode " , laying off nearly 700 people . The Peace River Coal Trend Mine was issued its mines act permit in 2005 , and was a partnership between NEMI Northern Energy and Mining Inc . , Anglo American , Hillsborough Resources and Vitol Anker International . In 2011 , Anglo American bought out the rest of the partners to become sole owner of the property . Anglo American started working on the Roman Pit next to their existing Trend operation in 2014 , hoping to reduce the cost of production per tonne of coal . However , in late 2014 , they announced the mine would be going into care and maintenance mode as well . As of Fall , 2015 , there are no coal mines operating in Tumbler Ridge . However , HD Mining is continuing work on the Murray River Coal Mine , a proposed Underground Longwall Mine near Tumbler Ridge . The company was issued its Environmental Assessment Certificate from the BC Government in October 2015 , though construction on the mine , if it were to go ahead , is not expected to begin until after a Mines Act Permit is issued , which is not expected until late 2016 . On September 22 , 2014 , the area around Tumbler Ridge was designated North America 's second Geopark . = = Demographics = = Population projections in 1977 were for 3 @,@ 568 residents in 1981 , 7 @,@ 940 in 1985 , and 10 @,@ 584 in 1987 , after which the level was expected to stabilize . However , requests for lower coal prices shortly after the production began placed a persistent insecurity over the viability of the mines , and therefore the town , discouraging long term investments . Temporary work camps , where workers numbered between 200 and 2 @,@ 000 , were used during the construction of the town and mines . The planners of the town advised the mining companies to hire workers who were married , believing they would live in Tumbler Ridge longer and reduce employment turn @-@ over . The population rose slowly to 3 @,@ 833 people in 1984 , nearly half the projected level . The 1986 Canadian census , the first census to include Tumbler Ridge , recorded 4 @,@ 566 residents after which in @-@ migration ended and the population level began to fluctuate . The population peaked in 1991 at 4 @,@ 794 people but then declined to a low of 1 @,@ 932 people in 2001 . Since then , population growth has been led by new mining activities and increased exploration following higher world energy prices . The town 's population is currently in a state of flux as people dependent on the mines for work leave , while other people , attracted by the town 's low rent , arrive . The Canada 2006 Census reported 2 @,@ 454 residents living in 1 @,@ 045 households and 765 families . This was 27 % more people than the previous census five years earlier when the town was at its lowest population level since opening . The median age increased from 38 @.@ 8 years in 2001 to 42 @.@ 2 in 2006 , as the proportion of the population aged over 65 rose from 5 % to 11 % . In 2006 , of those over 15 years of age , 62 % were married , higher than the 54 % provincial average . The town has few visible minorities as 94 % of Tumbler Ridge residents were Canadian @-@ born and 93 % had English as their first language . Though not included as a minority , 9 % of residents claimed to have an Aboriginal identity . Reflecting the nature of the industrial jobs available in town , in 2001 , only 12 % of residents between 20 and 64 years of age completed university , half of the provincial average , and 26 % did not complete high school , much higher than the 19 % provincial average . In 2005 , the five officer Tumbler Ridge Royal Canadian Mounted Police municipal detachment reported 346 Criminal Code offences . This translated into a crime rate of 137 Criminal Code offences per 1 @,@ 000 people , higher than the provincial average of 119 offences . During that year , the RCMP reported lower crime rates in Tumbler Ridge , compared with the provincial averages , in all categories except bicycle thefts , property damage , impaired driving , and cannabis @-@ related offences . Until 2005 , the town had a lower crime rate than the province , except between 2001 and 2003 after the Quintette mine closure and a large out @-@ migration from the town . In 2004 the Tumbler Ridge RCMP reported no robbery or shoplifting offences , and only 4 @.@ 5 theft @-@ from @-@ motor @-@ vehicle offences per 1 @,@ 000 people compared with 20 provincially . = = Geography and climate = = The townsite is located on a series of southern @-@ facing gravel terraces on a ridge of Mount Bergeron , overlooking the confluence of the Murray and Wolverine Rivers . The site , above the floodplain of the Murray River , has well @-@ drained soils with easy access to aquifers with potable water . The rocks , mostly shale and mudstone but lacking quartzite , make the mountains less rugged than their neighbouring ranges . The terraces grow Lodgepole Pine , White Spruce , Trembling Aspen trees . Moose and elk are common . Escarpments to the east and north could pose a snow avalanche threat but are kept forested for stability . In 2006 , the town was evacuated for several days as four forest fires approached the town . Major coal deposits indicate the site was a swampy forest during the Cretaceous . Paleontologists have discovered tracks or fossils from ankylosauria , ornithopods ( including a Hadrosaurus ) , and theropods . Fossils of Cretaceous plants such as ferns , redwoods , cycads , and ginkgo , and Triassic fishes and reptiles such as coelacanth , weigeltisaurus , and ichthyosaur have been recovered . The town experiences a continental climate . Arctic air masses move predominantly southwestly from the Mackenzie Valley towards the Rocky Mountains and through the mountains north of town . The town is in a rain shadow behind Mount Bergeron , though much of the precipitation is lost in the mountains beforehand . Town planners laid out the roads so that they run along wind breaks , and buildings and parks are located in wind shadows . After examining other resource towns in Canada , the planners followed socio @-@ spatial guidelines and principles in physical planning . The coal mining facilities were well separated from the townsite to minimize the feeling of a company town . An attempt to mitigate potential lifestyle conflicts between families and childless households was made by separating the low @-@ density , single @-@ family dwellings from the low @-@ rise apartments . The apartment blocks were planned for areas with clusters of trees and excellent viewscapes , but close to the town plaza . The low @-@ density residences that were more likely to have children living in them were oriented around elementary schools and parks . Cul @-@ de @-@ sacs were avoided in favour of better linkages and pedestrian access . = = Infrastructure = = Two highways diverge from Highway 97 and intersect in Tumbler Ridge : Highway 52 ( Heritage Highway ) which runs 98 km ( 61 mi ) south at Arras , and Highway 29 which runs 90 km ( 56 mi ) southeast from Chetwynd . At the intersection Highway 29 ends but Highway 52 continues south through Tumbler Ridge , then unpaved , it runs northeast to Highway 2 near the Alberta border . In town , the 28 km ( 17 mi ) of paved roads are laid out in a curvilinear pattern that use two arterial roads , MacKenzie Way and Monkman Way , to connect each section of town . Service roads from the townsite to the mines and forestry areas are maintained by the industries but are unpaved . The unmanned Tumbler Ridge Airport , with its 1 @,@ 219 m ( 4 @,@ 000 ft ) asphalt runway , is used by chartered and local flights . The closest airports with regularly scheduled flights are in Dawson Creek , Fort St John and Grande Prairie . The rail line into town is a 132 km ( 82 mi ) formerly electrified branch line through the Rocky Mountains constructed by BC Rail to transport coal to the Ridley Terminal at the Port of Prince Rupert . The branch line includes two major tunnels : the 9 km ( 6 mi ) Table Tunnel and the 6 km ( 4 mi ) Wolverine Tunnel . The town funds its own 21 @-@ member volunteer fire department , water treatment system , and sewage disposal system . Drinking water is drawn from two springs south of the townsite where it is stored in a 7 million litre reservoir before being chlorinated and pumped into town . The storm sewers empty into the Murray River , but the sanitary sewage is processed through a lagoon system and released into the Murray River north of town . Both the town and the province , through the Northern Health Authority , operate the Tumbler Ridge Community Health Centre . The closest hospitals with over @-@ night beds are in Chetwynd and Dawson Creek . The two public schools , Tumbler Ridge Elementary School and Tumbler Ridge Secondary School are run by the School District 59 Peace River South . Post @-@ secondary courses , programs , and industry training are offered by Northern Lights College at the secondary school and community centre . = = Economy = = Tumbler Ridge was built to provide a labour force for the coal mining industry , which has remained the dominant employer throughout the town 's history . The mining companies had a contract to sell 100 million tons of coal to a consortium of Japanese steel mills over 15 years for US $ 7 @.@ 5 billion ( 1981 ) . The Quintette Operating Corporation ( QOC ) was formed by partnership between Denison Mines ( 50 % ) , Mitsui Mining ( 20 % ) , Tokyo Boeki ( 20 % ) , and other smaller firms , and began blasting at the Quintette mine in October 1982 . The Bullmoose Operating Corporation was formed by the Teck Corporation ( 51 % ) , Lornex ( 39 % ) , Nissho Iwai ( 10 % ) and worked the smaller Bullmoose mine . The economic viability of the mining companies were in question since the world coal prices began falling in the early 1980s and the Japanese consortium requested reduced prices . After the Supreme Court ruled that the coal prices must be reduced , the QOC filed for court protection from its creditors allowing the Teck Corporation to take over management in 1992 . By 1996 , even as lay @-@ offs continued , over half the town 's labour force were employed at one of the two mines . New contracts with the Japanese consortium , signed 1997 , moved production to the lower cost Bullmoose mine but guaranteed production until 2003 when that mine was expected to be exhausted . The Quintette mine was closed altogether on August 31 , 2000 . While there was an intent by the town 's planners to move to a more diversified economy , the few initiatives in this direction were not supported by the industries or local decision @-@ makers . Uncertainty about the town 's future had been a serious concern to residents since the 1984 price reduction demands , but it was not until the closure of the Quintette mine that the town seriously investigate a diversification . Since then employment has been generated in tourism ( attractions from dinosaur fossil discoveries , outdoor recreation , and nearby provincial parks ) , forestry , and oil and gas exploration . A $ 1 @.@ 4 billion Murray River coal mine project near Tumbler Ridge , operated by HD Mining International , a company majority @-@ owned by Huiyong Holdings Group , a private company from China uses long @-@ wall mining in which " coal is extracted along a wall in large blocks and then carried out on a conveyor belt . " Penggui Yan , CEO of HD Mining and its controlling shareholder , was a manager of the state @-@ owned China Shenhua Energy Co ( CSEC ) , China 's largest coal company , which had developed a highly advanced long @-@ wall mining technology . In 2013 HD mining brought in 52 workers from China through the federal Temporary Foreign Worker Program ( TFWP ) claiming a requirement of the job is an ability to speak Mandarin . The hiring was challenged in a Vancouver federal court by two labour unions in April 2013 , The unions claimed there were qualified Canadian job applicants , however the case was dismissed by Justice Russell Zinn who found there was nothing to support the unions claim . = = Culture , recreation and media = = After dinosaur trackways were discovered in 2000 , and bones in 2002 , the Tumbler Ridge Museum Foundation began excavations and opened the Peace Region Palaeontology Research Centre . Fossils and bones are displayed at both locations . Tours and educational programs related to dinosaur , the trackways , and the wilderness are offered . Tumbler Ridge 's location among the Rocky Mountains has allowed for the development of numerous trail systems for motorized and non @-@ motorized recreation . The trails and open areas span numerous mountains . Kinuseo Falls along the Murray River in the Monkman Provincial Park is the most popular destination for visitors to Tumbler Ridge . Two other provincial parks are just outside the municipal boundaries : Bearhole Lake Provincial Park and Gwillim Lake Provincial Park . Annual events held in Tumbler Ridge include the Grizfest Music Festival , Emperor 's Challenge – promoted as the most beautiful and most challenging half @-@ marathon in the world – and the Ridge Ramble Cross @-@ Country Ski Race . The Grizfest Music Festival ( formerly Grizzly Valley Days ) is a two @-@ day concert held on the August long weekend , and includes a parade , dance , art show , and other community @-@ wide events . The Emperor 's Challenge , also in August , is a 21 km ( 13 mi ) marathon up Roman Mountain . Tumbler Ridge has one newspaper published in the community , the locally owned and operated Tumbler Ridge News ( formerly Community Connections ) . The Tumbler Ridge Observer formerly covered the town and was published by the Peace River Block Daily News in Dawson Creek . The Ridge Blog was a short @-@ lived online news source . One newsletter , Coffee Talk , based out of Chetwynd , is circulated in the town . No radio station , or television station broadcasts from the town but there are local repeaters for stations from larger centres . In Fall 2014 Tumbler Ridge was designated a full member of UNESCO 's Global Geopark Network being only the second Geopark in North America and the first in the West . The Tumbler Ridge Geopark Committee is dedicated to developing tourism and business in the area . = = Government and politics = = The District of Tumbler Ridge 's council @-@ manager form of municipal government is headed by a mayor ( who also represents Tumbler Ridge on the Peace River Regional District 's governing board ) and a six @-@ member council ; these positions are subject to at @-@ large elections every three years . Don McPherson was elected mayor on November 15 , 2014 , succeeding Darwin Wren . Sherry Berringer was elected as school trustee for a third term , sitting on the board of School District 59 . The city funds a volunteer fire department headed by full @-@ time fire chief Matt Treit . Tumbler Ridge is part of the Peace River South provincial electoral district , represented , since 2013 , by Mike Bernier in the Legislative Assembly of British Columbia . Prior to Bernier , the riding was represented by Blair Lekstrom who was elected in the 2001 provincial election , with 72 % support from the town 's polls and re @-@ elected in 2005 with 64 % and in 2009 with 70 % support . Before Lekstrom , Peace River South was represented by Jack Weisgerber as a member of the Social Credit Party of British Columbia ( 1986 – 1994 ) and Reform Party of British Columbia ( 1994 – 2001 ) . In 1996 , as leader of the Reform Party , Weisgerber won re @-@ election despite the Tumbler Ridge polls placing him second to the New Democratic Party candidate . Federally , Tumbler Ridge is in the Prince George — Peace River riding , represented in the Canadian House of Commons by Conservative Party Member of Parliament Bob Zimmer . Before Zimmer , who was elected in May 2011 , the riding was represented by Jay Hill since 1993 . The riding was represented by Frank Oberle of the Progressive Conservative Party from 1972 to 1993 . Oberle served as Canada 's Minister of Science and Technology in 1985 and Minister of Forestry in 1989 . = Surfer Rosa = Surfer Rosa is the first full @-@ length album by the American alternative rock band Pixies , released in March 1988 on the British independent record label 4AD . The album 's unusual and offbeat subject matter includes references to mutilation and voyeurism ; this is augmented by experimental recording techniques and a distinctive drum sound . Surfer Rosa contains many of the elements present in Pixies ' earlier output , including Spanish lyrics and references to Puerto Rico . Because of 4AD 's independent status , distribution in the United States was handled by British label Rough Trade Records ; however , it failed to chart in either the UK or the U.S. " Gigantic " was the only single taken from the release ( in a re @-@ recorded version ) , and only reached number 93 on the UK Singles Chart . Despite this , Surfer Rosa was re @-@ released in the U.S. by Elektra Records in 1992 , and in 2005 was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America . Surfer Rosa is often cited as a favorite of music critics and is frequently included on professional lists of the all @-@ time best rock albums . Many alternative rock artists , including Billy Corgan and PJ Harvey , have cited the album as inspirational ; Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain frequently acknowledged that Surfer Rosa was a strong influence on Nevermind , and , in 1993 , Cobain hired the album 's recording engineer Steve Albini to record his band 's album In Utero . = = Background = = Before the release of Pixies ' debut mini @-@ album Come On Pilgrim in October 1987 , Ivo Watts @-@ Russell , head of 4AD , suggested they return to the studio to record a full @-@ length album . The original plan was to record new material at Fort Apache Studios , where the band had produced The Purple Tape and Come On Pilgrim . However , due to differences between the band 's manager Ken Goes and The Purple Tape producer Gary Smith , Pixies ended up looking for a new producer and recording studio . On the advice of a 4AD colleague , Watts @-@ Russell looked to hire Steve Albini , ex @-@ frontman of Big Black , as the record 's engineer and producer . Having sent a pre @-@ release tape of Come On Pilgrim to Albini , Pixies ' manager , Ken Goes , invited him to a Boston dinner party at drummer David Lovering 's house a few weeks after Come On Pilgrim 's release . Albini met the band that evening , and they discussed how the next record should sound and be recorded . According to Albini , " [ the band and I ] were in the studio the next day . " Paul Kolderie , who had worked at Fort Apache Studios with Smith , recommended the Boston recording studio Q Division to Albini . This created tension between Smith and Kolderie , and Kolderie later remarked that " Gary almost killed me for the suggestion , he thought I was scheming to get the project . " = = Recording and production = = Pixies entered Q Division in December 1987 , booking ten working days of studio time in which to record the album . 4AD allocated the band a budget of US $ 10 @,@ 000 . Albini 's producer 's fee was US $ 1 @,@ 500 , and he received no royalties ; Albini has a practice of refusing royalties from records he produces , viewing it as " an insult to the band . " Along with Albini in the studio , Q Division 's Jon Lupfer acted as studio assistant . The recording process took the entire booked period of ten working days to complete , with extra vocal mixes subsequently added in the studio . Albini planned to mix the record " somewhere else " , but according to Lupfer , " He was unhappy there with it . " Albini used unusual recording techniques . For Kim Deal 's backing vocals in " Where Is My Mind ? " and her lead vocals on " Gigantic " , Albini moved the studio equipment and recorded in a studio bathroom to achieve real , rather than studio , echo ; according to John Murphy , Deal 's husband at the time , " Albini didn 't like the studio sound . " Albini later said that the record could have been completed in a week , but " we ended up trying more experimental stuff basically to kill time and see if anything good materialized . " An example was " Something Against You " , where Albini filtered Black Francis ' voice through a guitar amp for " a totally ragged , vicious texture . " = = = Studio banter = = = The recording of a conversation held between Francis and Albini can be heard at the end of " Oh My Golly ! " . According to Lupfer , " it was a concept he [ Albini ] was going for to get some studio banter . " As Deal was leaving the studio to smoke a cigarette , she exclaimed " If anybody touches my stuff , I 'll kill ya . " Francis replied with " I 'll kill you , you fucking die , if anybody touches my stuff " . The track begins at this point , with Francis explaining the conversation to Albini , whose voice is not heard on the track . Lupfer later admitted that Albini knew " perfectly well what was going on . " " I 'm Amazed " begins with Deal recounting a story in which one of her former teachers who was " into field hockey players " was discreetly fired . Francis finishes Deal 's sentences , joking that her response to hearing of the teacher 's activities was to try to join the team . Albini later observed the use of studio banter on Surfer Rosa : " It 's on their record forever so I think now they are obliged to say that they 're ok with it , but I honestly don 't know that that idea would 've ever come up if I hadn 't done it . There are times when things like that are revealing and entertaining and I kind of felt it was a bit gimmicky on this record . " = = Music = = Like Come On Pilgrim , Surfer Rosa displays a mix of musical styles ; pop guitar songs such as " Broken Face " , " Break My Body " , and " Brick Is Red " are featured alongside slower , more melodic tracks exemplified by " Where Is My Mind ? " . The album includes heavier material , and prominently features the band 's trademark quiet @-@ loud dynamic . Frontman and principal songwriter Black Francis wrote the material , the only exception being " Gigantic , " which was co @-@ written with Kim Deal . " Gigantic " is one of only two Pixies album tracks on which Deal sang lead vocals . Surfer Rosa 's lyrical content includes examinations of mutilation and incest in " Break My Body " and " Broken Face " , while references to superheroes appear on " Tony 's Theme " . Voyeurism appears in " Gigantic " , and surrealistic lyrics are featured on " Bone Machine " and " Where Is My Mind ? " . Puerto Rico references and Spanish lyrics are found on the tracks " Oh My Golly ! " and " Vamos . " The latter track was previously featured on Come On Pilgrim , and appears on Surfer Rosa as a rerecorded version of the original song . Many of the themes explored on previous recordings are revisited on Surfer Rosa ; however , unlike on the band 's later albums , the songs in Surfer Rosa are not preoccupied with one overarching topic . Other unusual and offbeat subject matter is raised on the album . " Cactus " is narrated by a prison inmate who requests his girlfriend smear her dress with blood and mail it to him . " Gigantic " is an " unabashed praisesong to a well @-@ endowed black man , " and borrows from the 1986 film Crimes of the Heart , in which a married woman falls in love with a teenager . Francis was inspired to write " Where Is My Mind ? " after scuba diving in the Caribbean . He later said he had " this very small fish trying to chase me . I don 't know why — I don 't know too much about fish behavior . " = = Release = = Surfer Rosa was released in the UK by 4AD on March 21 , 1988 , entering the UK Indie Chart the following week . It spent 60 weeks in the chart , peaking at number 2 . Until August of that year it was only available in the U.S. as an import . Although the label held worldwide distribution rights to Pixies , they did not have access to a distributor outside the UK . When 4AD signed a distribution deal with Rough Trade 's U.S. branch , the album was released on vinyl and cassette as part of the Surfer Rosa / Come On Pilgrim release . While Surfer Rosa / Come On Pilgrim has remained in print on CD in the UK , subsequent U.S. releases have seen the two released on separate CDs . These separate releases first appeared in January 1992 , when Elektra Records first reissued the band 's first two albums . After 4AD reacquired rights to the band 's U.S. distribution , they released both as separate CDs . Surfer Rosa was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 2005 , 17 years after its original release . " Gigantic " was the only single taken from Surfer Rosa . The track and its B @-@ side , " River Euphrates " , were rerecorded by Gil Norton at Blackwing Studios in London , early in May 1988 . The remixed single was well met by critics . The single failed to sell , and spent just one week at number 93 on the UK Singles Chart . Despite the poor commercial performance of both Surfer Rosa and " Gigantic " , Ivo Watts @-@ Russell has said that the response to the album was " times five " compared with Come On Pilgrim . = = Packaging = = Surfer Rosa 's cover artwork features a photograph of a topless " friend of a friend " of the band , posing as a flamenco dancer , pitched against a wall which displays a crucifix and a torn poster . Simon Larbalestier , who contributed pictures to all Pixies album sleeves , decided to build the set because " we couldn 't find the atmosphere we wanted naturally . " According to Larbalestier , Black Francis came up with the idea for the cover as he wrote songs in his father 's " topless Spanish bar " ; Larbalestier added the crucifix and torn poster , and they " sort of loaded that with all the Catholicism . " Commenting on the cover in 2005 , Francis said , " I just hope people find it tasteful . " The cover booklet expands on the theme , and features photographs of the flamenco dancer in several other poses ; there are no song lyrics or written content , apart from album credits , in the booklet . Albini 's name does not appear on the original record sleeve . The booklet 's photographs were taken in one day at a pub opposite the 4AD offices , because , according to Larbalestier , " it was one of the few places that had a raised stage " . In an 1988 interview with Joy Press , Black Francis described the concept as referring to " a surfer girl , " who " walks along the Beach of Binones , has a surfboard , very beautiful . " When questioned about the topless element , he replied , " For the first record , I told them I liked nudity . I like body lines — not necessarily something in bad taste , didn 't even have to be female , just body lines ... like that Obsession ad , you know ? " According to Melody Maker , the album was originally entitled " Gigantic " after Deal 's song , but the band feared misinterpretation of the cover and changed it to " Surfer Rosa . " The " name " of the cover woman , and the album title , comes from the " Oh My Golly ! " lyric , " Besando chichando con surfer rosa . " = = Critical reception = = The UK music press reviews of Surfer Rosa were generally positive . Q 's Ian Cranna wrote that " what sets the Pixies apart are their sudden bursts of memorable pop melody , " and noted that " they could have a bright future ahead of them . " NME 's Mark Sinker , reviewing the album in March 1988 , said " they force the past to sound like them " , while Dave Henderson from Underground magazine found the songs " well crafted , well delivered sketches which embrace commercial ideals as well as bizarre left @-@ field out of control moments " . American music magazine Spin described it as " beautifully brutal " , and named Pixies their musicians of the year . In a less enthusiastic review for The Village Voice , Robert Christgau found the band 's guitar riffs recognizable and their strong rhythms unique but felt they had been overrated by critics who hailed them as " the Amerindie find of the year " . In retrospect , he wrote that while Francis ' fey and philosophically limited lyrics were somewhat annoying , Surfer Rosa now seems " audaciously funny and musically prophetic " . At the end of 1988 , Surfer Rosa was named one of the year 's best albums on English critics ' year @-@ end lists . Independent music magazines Melody Maker and Sounds named Surfer Rosa as their album of the year ; NME and Record Mirror placed the album 10th and 14th , respectively . However , Surfer Rosa failed to appear on The Village Voice 's Pazz & Jop , an annual poll of American critics . It also did not appear on any end @-@ of @-@ year list in the United States . A number of music magazines have since positioned Surfer Rosa as one of the quintessential alternative rock records of the 1980s . The album has appeared on several all @-@ time best album lists , and is consistently placed as one of the best albums of the 1980s in any genre . = = Legacy = = Both Surfer Rosa and Steve Albini 's production of the album have been influential on alternative rock , and on grunge in particular . Nirvana 's Kurt Cobain cited Surfer Rosa as the basis for Nevermind 's songwriting . When he first heard the album , Cobain discovered a template for the mix of heavy noise and pop he was aiming to achieve . He remarked in 1993 that he " heard songs off of Surfer Rosa that I 'd written but threw out because I was too afraid to play them for anybody . " Cobain hired Albini to produce Nirvana 's 1993 album In Utero , primarily due to his contribution to Surfer Rosa . The Smashing Pumpkins ' Billy Corgan described Surfer Rosa as " the one that made me go , ' holy shit ' . It was so fresh . It rocked without being lame . " Corgan was impressed by the album 's drum sound , and acknowledged that The Smashing Pumpkins used to study the record for its technical elements . Musician PJ Harvey said that Surfer Rosa " blew my mind , " and that she " immediately went to track down Steve Albini . " Cobain listed Surfer Rosa as number 2 of the top 50 albums he thought were most influential to Nirvana 's sound in his journal in 1993 . People connected with the band were impressed by the record . Ivo Watts @-@ Russell recalled : " I remember when I first heard Surfer Rosa thinking , ' I didn 't know the Pixies could sound like The Fall . ' That was my immediate reaction , in other words , incredibly raw . " Gary Smith , who at the time was in a disagreement with the band , admitted he " was really happy that they had made such a forceful , aggressive , record . " Dinosaur Jr . ' s J Mascis , comparing the record to the later Pixies albums Bossanova and Trompe le Monde , said he thought that Steve Albini 's production " sounded way better than the other ones . " In 1991 , as Pixies were recording Trompe le Monde , Albini described his impressions of Pixies during the recording of Surfer Rosa to the fan magazine Forced Exposure : " A patchwork pinch loaf from a band who at their top dollar best are blandly entertaining college rock . Their willingness to be ' guided ' by their manager , their record company and their producers is unparalleled . Never have I seen four cows more anxious to be led around by their nose rings . " Albini later apologized for his remarks , saying , " to this day I regret having done it . I don 't think that I regarded the band as significantly as I should have . " = = Track listing = = All tracks written by Black Francis , except where noted . " Bone Machine " – 3 : 02 " Break My Body " – 2 : 05 " Something Against You " – 1 : 47 " Broken Face " – 1 : 30 " Gigantic " ( Francis / Kim Deal ) – 3 : 55 " River Euphrates " – 2 : 33 " Where Is My Mind ? " – 3 : 53 " Cactus " – 2 : 16 " Tony 's Theme " – 1 : 52 " Oh My Golly ! " – 1 : 48 " Vamos " – 4 : 18 " I 'm Amazed " – 1 : 42 " Brick Is Red " – 2 : 00 = = Personnel = = All information taken from the CD release of Surfer Rosa . Black Francis – vocals , rhythm guitar , acoustic guitar Kim Deal – bass , backing vocals , vocals on " Gigantic " ( credited as Mrs. John Murphy ) Joey Santiago – lead guitar David Lovering – drums Steve Albini – production , audio engineering Simon Larbalestier , Vaughan Oliver – Cover image , album booklet imagery Published by Rice ' n ' Beans Music BMI = = Accolades = = The information regarding accolades attributed to Surfer Rosa is adapted from Acclaimedmusic.net. ( * ) designates unordered lists . = Grolier Codex = The Grolier Codex ( sometimes referred to as the Sáenz Codex ) is a Maya book of a pre @-@ Columbian type but of disputed authenticity . It first appeared in a private collection in the 20th century and was displayed at the Grolier Club in New York , hence its name . The codex consists of a fragment of a Maya book , containing almanacs of Venus represented in a simplistic fashion . The Grolier Codex would be only the fourth surviving pre @-@ Columbian Maya book if genuine . The codex is said to have been recovered from a cave in the Mexican state of Chiapas in the 1960s , together with a mosaic mask and some blank pages of pre @-@ Columbian fig @-@ bark paper . It was displayed at the Grolier Club from April 20 to June 5 , 1971 , and is now held in Mexico City . In 1973 , Michael D. Coe published the first half @-@ size recto @-@ side facsimile of the codex in The Maya Scribe and His World , produced by the Grolier Club . The codex contains a Venus almanac that , in structure , is closely related to the Venus almanac contained in the Dresden Codex . The codex , although displaying Mixtec stylistic features , is judged to be Maya ( if genuine ) based upon the use of bark paper instead of the deerhide preferred for Mixtec codices and because of the presence of Maya day signs and numbering . The codex is poorly preserved ; the surviving page fragments display a number of figures in central Mexican style , combined with Maya numbering and day glyphs . The document is currently held by the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico city and is not on public display . The physics institute of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México subjected the codex to non @-@ destructive testing in an effort to determine its authenticity . The results were published in 2007 and were mixed ; the document apparently contains genuine pre @-@ Columbian materials but certain aspects , such as seemingly artificially induced wear and tear , are suspect . The researchers concluded that they were unable to prove or disprove the pre @-@ Columbian nature of the codex . = = Physical characteristics = = The Grolier Codex is a screenfold book fashioned from bark paper , coated with stucco on both sides and painted on one side . Eleven pages survive of a twenty @-@ page book . The lower portions of the pages are badly damaged by moisture , eroding and staining bottom of each page . The eleventh page is particularly badly damaged with only the central portion remaining , making it unclear whether this page belongs to the codex or not . The greatest height of any of the surviving page fragments is 18 centimetres ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) and the average page width is 12 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 4 @.@ 9 in ) . Five single sheets of bark paper were found associated with the codex , they had no stucco coating and were brown and water stained . Two of these had adhered to the codex and the other three may have once been with the codex but had separated . One of these sheets had a painted line in the same red hematite pigment used in the codex itself . A smaller sheet of bark paper was attached to the lined sheet and this smaller piece was submitted for radiocarbon dating . This testing produced a date for the sheet of AD 1230 ± 130 . = = Content = = Each page of the codex has been painted on one side with a standing figure facing left . Each figure holds a weapon and most grip a rope leading to a restrained captive . Colours used on the codex include hematite red , black , blue @-@ green , a red wash and a brown wash , all upon a strong white background . The left @-@ hand side of each page is marked by a column of day signs ; where this column is complete these total thirteen in all . Each day sign is associated with a bar @-@ and @-@ dot numerical coefficient . Six pages depict a figure bearing weapons and accompanied by a captive ( pages 1 – 4 , 6 and 9 ) , two pages ( 5 and 8 ) both depict a figure hurling a dart at a temple . Page 7 of the codex shows a passive warrior standing in front of a tree . Page 11 depicts a death god with a javelin , pointing his weapon at a water vessel containing a snail . Page 10 is a badly damaged fragment with the subject largely obliterated . Based on the surviving portion , Michael Coe thought it depicted a standing figure wearing a waterbird headdress and bearing an atlatl . The figures represented on each page differ from those on the other Maya codices and are far more similar to the Mixtec codices and Toltec art styles of central Mexico . The heads of the death gods painted in the Grolier Codex are almost identical to those represented in the Laud Codex and Fejérváry @-@ Mayer Codex , including the red colouring of the portion of the teeth closest to the gums . The pages of the Grolier Codex contain seven hieroglyphs representing days ; the style of these glyphs differs from that of the other three Maya codices but is most similar to the glyphs of the Dresden Codex . The glyphs are arranged in vertical columns incorporating day signs accompanied by a number ; each date corresponds to a manifestation of Venus . Whereas the Venus almanac in the Dresden Codex documents the planet after inferior conjunction as the morning star , the Grolier Codex documents all four of the stations of Venus : rising after inferior conjunction as morning star in the east , disappearance before superior conjunction , reappearance as evening star in the west and disappearance before inferior conjunction . = = Discovery = = The codex is said to have been found enclosed in a wooden box in a dry cave in the highlands of Chiapas near Tortuguero ; it was said to have been found with a turquoise mask that is now in the collection of Dumbarton Oaks . In 1965 Mexican collector Dr. Josué Sáenz was taken by two men on a light plane to a remote airstrip in the foothills of the Sierra Madre near Tortuguero in Tabasco state ; the compass of the plane was covered with a cloth but Sáenz recognized his approximate location . At the airstrip he was shown the codex along with some other looted Maya artifacts and was told that he could take the items back to Mexico City for authentication before purchasing them . The antiquities expert that Sáenz consulted declared that the artifacts were fakes but Sáenz later purchased the codex and permitted Michael Coe to display the codex at the Grolier Club in 1971 . In 1976 , the United States @-@ Mexico Artifacts Treaty of 1970 was invoked by the Attorney General of Mexico . This resulted in the seizure of the codex and its return to Mexico . Sáenz donated the codex to the Mexican government and it is currently kept in a vault in the Museo Nacional de Antropología in Mexico City and is not on public display . The claimed discovery of the Grolier Codex would make it the only pre @-@ Columbian codex discovered in the course of the 20th century , except for some codex fragments excavated by archaeologists . = = Authenticity = = English Mayanist J. Eric S. Thompson cast strong doubts upon the authenticity of the Grolier Codex in his 1975 article The Grolier Codex , published in volume 27 of the Contributions of the University of California . Thompson argued that the codex was a modern forgery and that the unusual mix of styles in the document was not due to the mixing of cultures but rather due to the hand of a forger . Thompson queried the illustration of all four stations of Venus in the codex , noting that other Mesoamerican codices only illustrated the more spectacular appearance of Venus as morning star . Following Thompson 's attack upon the veracity of the codex , a number of scholars published their opinions that the document is genuine over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s , including John B. Carlson , Yuri Knorozov , Thomas A. Lee , Jr . , Jesús Ignacio Mora Echeverría , George E. Stuart , and Karl Taube . In 2000 , German epigrapher Nikolai Grube expressed his belief that the document is genuine , based upon the preciseness of the Venus almanac . However , in a later publication from 2012 , he clearly calls the codex a forgery . In 2002 , French archaeologist Claude @-@ François Baudez commented – like Thompson before – that the codex serves no divinatory purpose and was useless as an aid to a Maya priest ; he believes that the document is the product of a forger using pre @-@ Columbian materials but relatively ignorant of his subject . The codex is notable in its use of prominent illustrations of uniform size and the almost complete absence of hieroglyphic text ; the deities lack names and the cardinal directions are unmarked . In a paper published in 2003 , the authors ( including Mayanist Stephen D. Houston ) argue that the iconography and lack of hieroglyphic text are the result of a strong central Mexican stylistic influence . The radiocarbon dating of an associated sheet of unstuccoed bark paper had been used to support a 13th @-@ century date for the Grolier Codex . Large quantities of pre @-@ Columbian bark paper have been found in dry caves , so a genuine piece of blank pre @-@ Columbian paper may have been used by a forger as a base for painting a falsified codex . The fact that the codex is painted on one side only while the three uncontested Maya codices are all painted on both sides has been used as an argument against its authenticity , although Michael Coe has argued that parts of non @-@ Maya Mesoamerican codices had sometimes been left blank for many years before being painted in a style distinct from the opposite side . Baudez , in his 2002 critique of the Grolier Codex , noted that the fact that the codex is only painted on one side is irrelevant in determining its authenticity , since there are many examples of Mesoamerican codices not being painted on both sides . Further doubts have been cast upon how Sáenz acquired the codex and the iconography of the document itself . Archaeologist Donna Yates considers that Coe 's account of Sáenz being contacted by an unnamed person and flown to a remote airstrip by unidentified persons to be " fantastical " . As of 2012 , the authenticity of the document was still disputed , although Carlson has published a further article reaffirming its legitimacy , citing 2002 radiocarbon testing of samples from the codex itself as well his own epigraphic and iconographic analyses . = = = Iconography = = = The artifact shows a number of idiosyncrasies that raise questions concerning its authenticity . The numbering systems used in the codex conflict . The Maya bar @-@ and @-@ dot system is used to mark units , but the central Mexican dot system is used to mark multiples of twenty ( for example by using 11 dots instead of 2 bars and a dot , as would be the case in the bar @-@ and @-@ dot system where a bar indicates 5 and a dot indicates 1 ) . Some bar @-@ and @-@ dot numbers are placed within a cartouche decorated with a knot at the top . The only other instance of such a cartouche being used with numbers is in the Dresden Codex , where the cartouche has a very specific function , indicating a negative date count from the zero year of the great cycle of the Mesoamerican Long Count calendar ( roughly equivalent to the function of BC in the Gregorian calendar ) . In the Grolier Codex , where the numbers mark intervals between stations of Venus , the use of this cartouche appears meaningless . In the Grolier Codex captives are shown bound with cords leading to their necks , however the most common convention in Mesoamerican art is the depiction of captives bound by the arms or wrists . Some of the figures in the codex represent deities ( on pages 1 – 2 , 4 – 6 and 9 ) and some represent mortal warriors without supernatural attributes ( on pages 3 , 7 and 8 ) . Both the deities and the mortals are performing the same actions such as the capture of a prisoner , or conquest symbolised by a spear passing through a temple . Although the codex depicts the stations of Venus , none of the warlike figures is identified with attributes normally associated with the planet in Maya or central Mexican art . On page 9 , a bound captive is depicted from a high point of view with a sense of perspective that French Mesoamericanist and iconographer Claude @-@ François Baudez considers is alien to Mesoamerican art . God K ( K 'awiil ) is depicted twice in the codex but is incorrectly shown with human incisors instead of snake fangs . = = = Materials = = = The paper used for the Grolier Codex appears to be authentic pre @-@ Columbian bark paper and the contents of the document have not been copied directly from any of the generally accepted Maya codices , although they do resemble pages 46 to 50 of the Dresden Codex . A number of non @-@ destructive techniques have been applied to the codex in an effort to authenticate it , and the results were published in 2008 . The analysis revealed that only pre @-@ Columbian materials had been used in its creation ; no modern inorganic materials were detected . Some inconsistencies were revealed however ; cuts along the page edges seem to have been made with a sharp blade in order to give the appearance of natural wear and tear and the supposed water staining did not permeate the paper . The researchers commented that the staining appeared to be the result of drops of dye or ink being applied to the surface of the codex . In conclusion the researchers were unable to support or refute the pre @-@ Columbian nature of the codex . Unusually for a document that supposedly was stored in a cave for centuries , the paint of the codex still appears fresh . = = = = Testing = = = = The codex was tested in the Instituto de Física of the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México in Mexico City using a 3 megaelectronvolt pelletron particle accelerator . Testing methods applied to the codex included ultraviolet imaging , infrared reflectography , optical microscopy , particle @-@ induced X @-@ ray emission and Rutherford backscattering spectrometry ( RBS ) . The specific aim of this non @-@ destructive testing was to compare the materials used in the codex with those used in other pre @-@ Columbian codices . The testing showed that the base layer onto which the codex was painted is composed of gypsum , a material used as a base layer for paintings since antiquity . The black paint was analysed with RBS and found to be a carbon @-@ based pigment consistent with other pre @-@ Columbian Mexican codices . The red colour used in the codex is red ochre , an iron @-@ based pigment . There is not much blue colouration in the Grolier Codex and the presence of the distinctive Maya Blue pigment could not be confirmed . Analysis revealed the blue pigment used on the codex does not contain cobalt and does contain clay . The investigators concluded that the codex does contain some original pre @-@ Columbian materials but could not confirm that the document is authentic . = Håkons Hall = Håkons Hall , sometimes anglicized as Håkon Hall and Haakons Hall , is an arena located at Stampesletta in Lillehammer , Norway . With a spectator capacity of 11 @,@ 500 people , it is the largest handball and ice hockey venue in the country . Håkons Hall is regularly used for handball and ice hockey tournaments , concerts , exhibitions , conferences and banquets . The venue is owned by Lillehammer Municipality via the subsidiary Lillehammer Olympiapark , which owns all the Olympic venues in Lillehammer . The Norwegian Olympic Museum is located in the arena , which is located next to the smaller Kristins Hall . The hall opened on 1 February 1993 having cost 238 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) . It was built to host the ice hockey tournament at the 1994 Winter Olympics , and has since hosted the opening and closing ceremonies of the 1994 Winter Paralympics , the 1999 IIHF World Championship in ice hockey , the World Women 's Handball Championship in 1993 and 1999 , the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 , the 2008 European Men 's Handball Championship and the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship . Lillehammer IK has occasionally played ice hockey matches at the arena . = = Construction = = Lillehammer received its first indoor ice rink in 1988 , with the opening of Kristins Hall . That same year , the town was awarded the 1994 Winter Olympics , which required the construction of a larger venue for the Olympic ice hockey matches . The naming of the arena was decided by the Lillehammer Municipal Council in October 1988 , as part of a broader branding policy , based on the history of the Birkebeiner . Håkons Hall is named for Haakon Haakonarson , a medieval king of Norway who as a child was transported across by mountains by skiers . Kristin and Håkon became the mascots for the Olympics , and the twin arenas at Stampesletta were named accordingly . Protests were made in Bergen , as local patriots felt it was not suitable that a sports venue had such a similar name to Håkonshallen , a medieval hall in Bergen . In June 1989 , the municipal council voted to locate most of the Lillehammer venues in the Stampesletta area , and to place Håkons Hall adjacent to Kristins Hall . This was controversial and many councilors voted for the original decentralized plan , with the venues spread out through the municipality . The application for the Olympics called for building up to five ice venues in Lillehammer . For post @-@ Olympic use , Kristins Hall was designated as the main ice rink for Lillehammer , while it was planned that Håkons Hall would be used for larger events . On 8 December 1989 , the International Olympic Committee rejected two demands from the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) for the ability to host a minimum of 12 @,@ 000 spectators in the larger ice hockey venue and for a women 's ice hockey tournament . The decision about the location of the ice hockey venues was made on 10 October 1990 . Håkons Hall would be the main venue , supplemented by Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall in Gjøvik . The proposal to have figure skating at Håkons Hall was rejected , and instead it was to be held at Hamar Olympic Amphitheatre in Hamar . In 1990 , the Norwegian Cycling Federation recommended Håkons Hall as one of several possible places to build a velodrome for the Union Cycliste Internationale 's 1993 UCI Track Cycling World Championships . The same year , Håkons Hall was proposed to supplement Oslo Spektrum as a venue for a proposed pan @-@ European professional ice hockey league . Construction was approved by the Parliament of Norway in April 1990 , including funding . Original design plans called for a simple hangar @-@ like design , and original cost estimates were for NOK 191 million . However , in March 1991 , the municipal council decided to increase spending on the venue to make it more aesthetic . The re @-@ design also included telescopic stands and better acoustics , to allow for more flexible use after the Olympics . The main contractor was Veidekke and construction cost NOK 238 million . Grants were given from the Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate and SINTEF for energy economization . The work on the hall was concluded on 1 February 1993 . It was the 27th indoor ice hockey rink in Norway . = = Facilities = = The structure is dug out of the ground so it does not appear monumental in size from the outside . The roof consists of four sections held up by double trussed beams in glued laminated timber , with lengths up to 85 @.@ 4 meters ( 280 ft ) . The hall is 127 meters ( 417 ft ) long and has a total surface area of 23 @,@ 000 square meters ( 250 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The main hall has a floor area of 3 @,@ 500 square meters ( 38 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , with an activity area of 76 by 44 meters ( 249 by 144 ft ) . The maximum ceiling height is 40 meters ( 130 ft ) , and there is a direct drive @-@ in entrance to the hall for exhibitions . The venue has a capacity for 11 @,@ 500 seated spectators . The stands are flexible and telescopic , allowing for flexibility in hall use and seating capacity . The arena can be configured with a 330 square meters ( 3 @,@ 600 sq ft ) stage . The hall can be set up to serve 2 @,@ 000 people at a banquet , or divided up to serve smaller groups . The venue also features a cafeteria which can seat 200 people . For trade fairs , the venue offers 3 @,@ 500 square meters ( 38 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , in addition to the VIP and lobby facilities . The same area can also be used for conferences , and the venue can be split up into section to create group rooms , theme rooms and banquet rooms . Håkons Hall Sports Centre is part of the complex which supplements the main hall with a recreational training facility . It can make use of the main hall for two handball or football courts , or six volleyball or badminton courts . In addition , there is a permanent health club , a climbing wall , an aerobic room , a golf center with two golf simulators and a putting green , and two badminton courts , all served by 13 changing rooms . The venue also features a 370 meters ( 1 @,@ 210 ft ) long running track . The cooling and heating systems for Håkons Hall and Kristins Hall are connected , allowing them to function as energy reserves for each other . The Norwegian Olympic Museum is located at Håkons Hall . The museum opened on 27 November 1997 , and is the only museum in Northern Europe dedicated to the entirety of Olympic history . Since 2006 , the museum has been operated as part of Maihaugen . = = Events = = During the 1994 Winter Olympics , Håkons Hall hosted the ice hockey tournament along with Gjøvik Olympic Cavern Hall between 12 and 26 February . Håkons Hall hosted 21 games , including the final which saw Sweden beat Canada in a penalty shootout . In the 1994 Winter Paralympics , Håkons Hall was used for the opening and closing ceremonies . The first major international tournament in the hall was some matches of the 1993 World Women 's Handball Championship . Lillehammer IK plays its home matches at Kristins Hall , but in 1995 the play @-@ off match between it and neighbor town rivals Storhamar Dragons was played at Håkons Hall . The match saw more than 5 @,@ 000 spectators , the record for Lillehammer IK . In 1995 , the award ceremony for Spellemannsprisen , Norwegian music 's highest award , was held at Håkons Hall . Norway hosted the 1999 IIHF Ice Hockey World Championship in Oslo , Lillehammer and Hamar . Håkons Hall featured Group D , consisting of Russia , Finland , Belarus and Kazakhstan , as well as the semi @-@ finals , the bronze final and the final . Tickets were sold as twins , with two games being staged with a one @-@ hour interlude on the same ticket . The same year , Håkons Hall was one of seven venues used for the 1999 World Women 's Handball Championship . In addition to group stage and play @-@ off matches , it was awarded the final . Oslo Spektrum was also considered to hold the final , but with only 8 @,@ 500 seats and a higher rent , Håkons Hall was preferred . Håkons Hall hosted the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2004 on 20 November 2004 , won by María Isabel with " Antes Muerta que Sencilla " . Norway was the host of the 2008 European Men 's Handball Championship ; the group stage games were played in four other Norwegian cities , while the play @-@ off and final was played in Håkons Hall in January 2008 . The final saw Denmark beat Croatia in front of 9 @,@ 052 spectators . In 2010 , Idrettsgallaen , a show to honor the past year 's Norwegian sports and athletes achievements , was hosted at Håkons Hall . Norway and Denmark co @-@ hosted the 2010 European Women 's Handball Championship in December 2010 , with the matches played in Norway being at Håkons Hall and Arena Larvik . Lillehammer featured Norway 's group in the first and second group stages , while the knockout stage was played in Denmark . = Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind ( film ) = Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind ( Japanese : 風の谷のナウシカ , Hepburn : Kaze no Tani no Naushika ) is a 1984 Japanese animated epic science fantasy adventure film written and directed by Hayao Miyazaki , based on his own 1982 manga of the same name . Isao Takahata produced the film for Tokuma Shoten and Hakuhodo , with Topcraft animating . Joe Hisaishi , in his first collaboration with Miyazaki , composed the film 's musical score . The film stars the voices of Sumi Shimamoto , Goro Naya , Yoji Matsuda , Yoshiko Sakakibara and Iemasa Kayumi . Taking place in a post @-@ apocalyptic world in the far future , the film tells the story of Nausicaä ( Shimamoto ) , the young princess of the Valley of the Wind . She becomes embroiled in a struggle with Tolmekia , a kingdom that tries to use an ancient weapon to eradicate a jungle of mutant giant insects , and attempts to stop the Tolmekians from enraging these creatures . The film was released in Japan on 11 March 1984 . While created before Studio Ghibli was founded , the film is considered to be the beginning of the studio and is often included as part of the Studio 's works , including the Studio Ghibli Collection DVDs and Blu @-@ rays . Widely acclaimed for its story , themes , characters and animation , Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind is frequently ranked as one of the greatest animated films of all time . = = Plot = = One thousand years have passed since the Seven Days of Fire , an apocalyptic war that destroyed civilization and created the vast Toxic Jungle , a poisonous forest swarming with giant mutant insects . In the kingdom of the Valley of the Wind , a prophecy predicts a saviour " clothed in blue robes , descending onto a golden field , to join bonds with the great Earth and guide the people to the pure lands at last " . Nausicaä , the princess of the Valley of the Wind , explores the jungle and communicates with its creatures , including the gigantic , armored trilobite @-@ like creatures called Ohm . She hopes to understand the jungle and find a way for it and humans to co @-@ exist . One night , during a visit by the Valley 's swordsmaster Lord Yupa , a cargo aircraft from the kingdom of Tolmekia crashes in the Valley . Nausicaä tries to rescue a passenger , the wounded Princess Lastelle of Pejite , who pleads with Nausicaä to destroy the cargo before dying . The cargo is an embryo of a Giant Warrior , one of the lethal bioweapons that caused the Seven Days of Fire . The Tolmekians , a military state , seized the embryo and Lastelle from Pejite , but their plane was attacked by mutant insects and crashed . One of the insects emerges wounded from the wreckage and seems poised to attack the frightened villagers , but Nausicaä uses a small bullroarer to calm it and guides it away from the Village on her jet @-@ powered glider . The next morning , Tolmekian troops , led by Princess Kushana and Officer Kurotowa , kill Nausicaä 's father and take the Giant Warrior embryo . Kushana plans to mature the Giant Warrior and use it to burn the Toxic Jungle . Nausicaä kills several Tolmekian soldiers before Yupa intervenes . Kushana announces her decision to leave for Pejite with Nausicaä and five hostages from the Valley . Before they leave , Yupa discovers a secret garden of jungle plants reared by Nausicaä ; according to Nausicaä 's findings , plants that grow in clean soil and water are not toxic , but the jungle 's soil has been tainted by humankind . An agile Pejite interceptor shoots down the Tolmekian ship carrying Kushana and her detachment . It crash @-@ lands in the jungle , disturbing several Ohm , which Nausicaä soothes . She leaves to rescue Asbel , the Pejite pilot and twin brother of Lastelle , but both are swallowed by quicksand and arrive in a non @-@ toxic area below the jungle . Nausicaä realizes that the jungle plants purify the polluted topsoil , producing clean water and soil underground . Nausicaä and Asbel return to Pejite but find the capital ravaged by insects . A band of surviving Pejites reveal that they lured the creatures to eradicate the Tolmekians , and are doing the same in the Valley to recapture the Giant Warrior . They capture Nausicaä , but with the help of Asbel and his mother , Nausicaä escapes on a glider . While flying home , she finds a team of Pejite soldiers using a wounded baby Ohm to lead a furious herd of thousands of Ohm into the Valley . The Tolmekians deploy tanks and later the Giant Warrior against the herd , but their tanks ' firepower cannot harm the Ohm , and the Giant Warrior , hatched prematurely , disintegrates . Nausicaä liberates the baby Ohm and gains its trust . Her dress stained by its blue blood , she and the baby Ohm stand before the raging herd and are both run over , killing Nausicaä . The herd calms , and the Ohm use their golden tentacles to revive her . She walks atop the hundreds of golden Ohm tentacles as through golden fields , revealing Nausicaä to be the saviour from the prophecy . The Ohm and Tolmekians leave the Valley and the Pejites remain with the Valley people , helping them to rebuild . Meanwhile , deep underneath the Toxic Jungle , a new non @-@ toxic tree sprouts next to Nausicaä 's lost aviation goggles . = = Voice cast = = = = Production = = Hayao Miyazaki made his credited directorial debut in 1979 with The Castle of Cagliostro , a film which was a distinct departure from the antics of the Lupin III franchise , but still went on to receive the Ofuji Noburo Award at the 1979 Mainichi Film Concours . Although Cagliostro was not a box office success , Toshio Suzuki , editor of the magazine Animage , was impressed by the film and encouraged Miyazaki to produce works for Animage 's publisher , Tokuma Shoten . Miyazaki 's film ideas were rejected , and Tokuma asked him to do a manga : this led to the creation of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind . Miyazaki began writing and drawing the manga in 1982 , and it quickly became Animage 's most popular feature . Hideo Ogata and Yasuyoshi Tokuma , the founders of Animage and Tokuma Shoten respectively , encouraged Miyazaki to work on a film adaptation . Miyazaki initially refused , but agreed on the condition that he could direct . In the early stages , Isao Takahata , credited as executive producer , reluctantly joined the project even before the animation studio was chosen . An outside studio to produce the film was needed because Tokuma Shoten did not own an animation studio : Miyazaki and Takahata chose the minor studio Topcraft . The production studio 's work was known to both Miyazaki and Takahata and was chosen because its artistic talent could transpose the sophisticated atmosphere of the manga to the film . On 31 May 1983 , work began on the pre @-@ production of the film . Miyazaki encountered difficulties in creating the screenplay , with only sixteen chapters of the manga to work with . Miyazaki would take elements of the story and refocus the narrative and characters to the Tolmekian invasion of Nausicaä 's homeland . Takahata would enlist the experimental and minimalist composer Joe Hisaishi to do the score for the film . In August , the animation work began on the film and was produced by animators hired for the one film and paid per frame . One notable animator was Hideaki Anno , who later wrote and directed Neon Genesis Evangelion . Anno was assigned to draw the challenging God Warrior 's attack sequence , which according to Toshio Suzuki is a " high point in the film " . The film was released in March 1984 , with a production schedule of only nine months and with a budget equivalent to $ 1 million . = = Themes = = Miyazaki 's work on Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind was inspired by a range of works including Ursula K. Le Guin 's Earthsea , Brian Aldiss 's Hothouse , Isaac Asimov 's Nightfall , and J.R.R Tolkien 's Lord of the Rings . Dani Cavallaro also suggests inspiration from The Princess Who Loved Insects folktale , and the works of William Golding . Nausicaä , the character , was inspired in name and personality , by Homer 's Phaeacian princess in the Odyssey . While a connection to Frank Herbert 's Dune is often made there is no confirmation apart from the name " Ohmu " being a syllabic rendition of the English " worm " . Miyazaki 's imagination was sparked by the mercury poisoning of Minamata Bay and how nature responded and thrived in a poisoned environment , using it to create the polluted world of Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind . Ian DeWeese @-@ Boyd agrees , " Her commitment to love and understanding — even to the point of death — transforms the very nature of the conflict around her and begins to dispel the distorting visions that have brought it about . " The most prominent themes are the anti @-@ war and environmental focus of the film . Nausicaä , the heroine , believes in the value of life regardless of its form and through her actions stops a war . Loy and Goodhew state there is no evil portrayed in the film , but the Buddhist roots of evil : greed , ill will and delusion . Fear is what drives the conflicts , the fear of the poisoned forest results in the greed and resentment . Nausicaä , in addition to being a transformative force , leads people to understand and respect nature which is portrayed as welcoming , spiritual , and restorative for those who enter it peacefully . The film was released , in 1984 , with a recommendation from the World Wide Fund for Nature ( WWF ) . On 30 July 1995 , a subtitled version of the film was screened at the Institute of Contemporary Arts , in London , as part of the " Building Bridges " film festival , marking the fiftieth anniversary of the Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki . In her 25 March 2013 presentation at Colorado College , on " Tapestries of Apocalypse : From Angers to ' Nausicaa ' and Beyond " , Dr. Susan J. Napier places the film and in particular the tapestry , depicted underneath the opening credits , within the tradition of artistic representation of apocalypses and apocalyptic visions . She explores the role such expressions play in understanding apocalyptic events and post @-@ event recovery . = = Releases = = The film was released by Toei Company on 11 March 1984 . The film would gross about 1 @.@ 48 billion yen at the box office , sell 914 @,@ 767 tickets and make an additional 742 million yen in distribution income . Home releases include the original April 1984 Laserdisc release and as part of Juburi ga Ippai Sutajio Jiburi LD Zenshuu ( Ghibli Complete Collection : Studio Ghibli Complete LD Collection ) from August 1996 , the original March 1984 VHS version by Animage and re @-@ release by Buena Vista on 19 September 1997 . Three DVD sets were released in Japan with a regular DVD and figure set released on 19 November 2003 and a collectors set following on 7 December 2003 . = = = Warriors of the Wind = = = New World Pictures produced a 95 @-@ minute English @-@ dubbed adaptation of the film , titled Warriors of the Wind , and it was released theatrically in the United States in June 1985 , with the VHS video release in December 1985 . In the late 1980s , Vestron Video would release the film and First Independent Video would re @-@ release it in 1993 with another minute cut from the film . The voice actors and actresses were not informed of the film 's plotline and the film was heavily edited to market it as a children 's action @-@ adventure film . Consequently , part of the film 's narrative meaning was lost : some of the environmentalist themes were diluted as was the main subplot of the Ohmu , altered to turn them into aggressive enemies . Most of the characters ' names were changed , including the titular character who became Princess Zandra . The United States cover for the VHS release featured a cadre of male characters who are not in the film , riding the resurrected God Warrior — including a still @-@ living Warrior shown briefly in a flashback . Approximately 22 minutes of the original film 's running time were edited for the release of Warriors of the Wind . Scenes deleted from that version include the opening and ending title sequences , most of Nausicaä 's interactions with the shed Ohm shell , Yupa 's discovery of her secret garden , flashbacks to Nausicaä 's childhood , most of the scene involving her and Asbel in the Toxic Jungle 's non @-@ toxic underground , and several scenes leading up to the Ohm stampede and the awakening of the Giant Warrior . Dissatisfied with Warriors of the Wind , Miyazaki adopted a strict " no @-@ edits " clause for further foreign releases of Studio Ghibli 's films . On hearing Miramax co @-@ chairman Harvey Weinstein would attempt to edit Princess Mononoke to make it more marketable , one of Studio Ghibli 's production staff members sent an authentic katana with a simple message : " No cuts " . Warriors of the Wind also prompted Miyazaki to allow translator Toren Smith of Studio Proteus to create an official , faithful translation of the Nausicaä manga for Viz Media . = = = 2005 English re @-@ release = = = On October 18 , 2003 , Cindy and Donald Hewitt , the scriptwriters of Disney 's English dubs of Spirited Away and Porco Rosso , revealed that an uncut and redubbed version of Nausicaä was in pre @-@ production , and that Patrick Stewart and Uma Thurman had been cast . Natalie Portman was originally intended to voice Nausicaä , but Alison Lohman was eventually assigned the role . Nausicaä was released on DVD by Buena Vista Home Entertainment on 22 February 2005 for Region 1 . This DVD includes both English dub and the Japanese audio track with English subtitles . Optimum Home Entertainment released the film in Region 2 and the Region 4 DVD	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
is distributed by Madman Entertainment . A remastered Blu @-@ ray sourced from a 6K filmscan was released on 14 July 2010 in Japan . It includes an uncompressed Japanese LPCM stereo track , an English dub and English subtitles . On 18 October 2010 a Blu @-@ ray version was released in Region B by Optimum Home Entertainment . The film was released on Blu @-@ ray in the United States and Canada on 8 March 2011 by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment . = = = Other language releases = = = Spain first released two versions of the cut film , both called Guerreros del Viento ( " Warriors of the Wind " ) with the first in 1987 and again 1991 , and then a version of the original uncut film under the Nausicaä del Valle del Viento title in 2010 . France has had both versions of the movie appear with two cut versions named La Princesse des Etoiles ( " The Princess of the Stars " ) and Le vaisseau fantôme ( " The Ghost Ship " ) : the uncut film had a regular and collector 's DVD set released on 18 April 2007 . In Germany UFA released the 86 minute long cut version on VHS as Sternenkrieger ( literally " Star Warriors " ) in 1986 and Universum Anime released the uncut DVD release on 5 September 2005 . The 2007 Hungarian release , titled Nauszika - A szél harcosai ( " Nausicaä - The Warriors of the Wind " ) is uncut despite the title 's reference . The Korean DVD release of the uncut film was on 3 March 2004 . China has had three releases of Nausicaä : the first on Video CD and two DVD releases . = = Reception = = Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind received largely positive reviews from film critics . The film is frequently ranked among the best animated films in Japan , and is seen by critics as a seminal influence on the development of anime , as the film 's success led to the foundation of Studio Ghibli and several other anime studios . Theron Martin of Anime News Network praised the film for its character designs , as well as Hayao Miyazaki 's direction and Joe Hisaishi 's score . He also said that the film " deserves a place on any short list of all @-@ time classic anime movies . " Common Sense Media , which serves to inform parents about media for children , rated the film positively and cited its good role models and positive messages , but also cautioned parents about its dramatic setting and violent scenes . As of August 2015 , review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 87 % of critics gave the film positive reviews , based on 15 reviews with an average rating of 8 / 10 . Final Fantasy creator Hironobu Sakaguchi has cited the manga and film as an influence on his series . As such , the horseclaws in the film were used as an inspiration for the Chocobos in the games . Numerous games have used Ohmu @-@ like creatures , assumed to be reference to the film including Metal Slug 3 Cyber Core and Viewpoint . The game Crystalis , known in Japan as God Slayer : Haruka Tenkū no Sonata ( ゴッド・スレイヤーはるか天空のソナタ ) , shares common elements with the film , including an insect that resembles an Ohmu . Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies praised the animation techniques of Miyazaki , stating that " the real strength of this film is the script , packed with incident , excitement and passion , and the soundtrack " of Joe Hisaishi . Disney 's English dub was well received by audiences and critics , especially in comparison to Warriors of the Wind , with the leading voice actors frequently being praised for their performances . However , in conducting a comparative analysis of the Japanese @-@ language anime with their English translations , Eriko Ogihara @-@ Schuck believes that although Disney 's dub eschewed the dualistic , good versus evil worldview of Warriors of the Wind , it also “ Christianiz [ ed ] Miyazaki 's animism ” . According to her , the translators of the film were working a language suffused with Judeo @-@ Christian idioms not found in Japanese , which they introduce to the text , such as the nature of man 's relationship with the environment and animals as seen in Judeo @-@ Christian narratives and cultural practices . Examples of these changes include when Nausicaä describes an insect as a " good boy " , a term often used in describing domesticated animals ( instead of a " good child " , as in the Japanese version ) , and when Nausicaä converses with the wounded baby Ohm - in Japanese , she does not consider forgiveness from the baby a possibility , while the English version has her asking for it , albeit admitting the difficulty for the Ohm to do so . As a result of these changes , Nausicaä 's death and subsequent resurrection by the Ohm herd present her as a Christ figure whose self @-@ sacrifices are for mankind , rather than for nature . Ogihara @-@ Schuck believes that Disney erased animistic motifs almost entirely from the film , even more so than Warriors of the Wind , in order to make it more accessible for American audiences due the film 's non @-@ specific setting , since animism was retained in their versions of My Neighbour Totoro , Princess Mononoke , Spirited Away and Ponyo , as well as their own production Pocahontas . = = Gliders = = Various gliders are seen in the film and the protagonist , Nausicaä , uses a jet @-@ assisted one @-@ person glider @-@ shaped machine with folding wings . According to the accompanying film book released in Japan , the glider is called Möwe ( メーヴェ , Mēve , or " mehve " in the English manga ) , the German word meaning gull . An official scale model lists it as having an approximate wingspan of 5 @.@ 8 meters ( 1 / 20 model measured to be 29 cm ) , while the design notes indicate it has a mass of only 12 kg . In 2004 , the Japanese @-@ led OpenSky Aircraft Project began attempts to build a real @-@ life , working personal jet glider based on the glider from the film . Two full @-@ size gliders with no power source carrying the code name M01 and M02 , with a half @-@ sized jet @-@ powered remote controlled mock up called moewe 1 / 2 was built . The designer and tester of the project refused the official endorsement of the project by Studio Ghibli and Hayao Miyazaki , noting that he did not want to cause trouble for them if an accident occurred . A jet powered version ( registration number JX0122 ) was finally able to take off under its own power for the first time on 3 September 2013 . = = Soundtracks = = The film 's score was composed by Joe Hisaishi , while the vocal theme song " Kaze no Tani no Naushika " was produced by Haruomi Hosono ( Yellow Magic Orchestra and Happy End member ) and sung by Narumi Yasuda . Numerous soundtracks and albums relating to the film have been released . Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Image Album < Bird Person > ( 風の谷のナウシカイメージアルバム鳥の人 ) released 25 November 1983 Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Symphony < The Legend of Wind > ( 風の谷のナウシカシンフォニー風の伝説 ) released 25 February 1984 Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Soundtrack < Toward the Far Away Land > ( 風の谷のナウシカサウンドトラックはるかな地へ ) released 25 March 1984 Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Drama Version < God of Wind > ( 風の谷のナウシカ・ドラマ編 ) released 25 April 1984 Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Best Collection ( 風の谷のナウシカ BEST ) released 25 November 1986 Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Hi @-@ tech Series ( 風の谷のナウシカ・ハイテックシリーズ ) released 25 October 1989 Nausicaä of the Valley of Wind : Piano Solo Album < For the Easy Use with Beyer > released 15 March 1992 = = Other media = = = = = Manga = = = Miyazaki 's manga version of Nausicaä was written over a period of 12 years , with breaks taken to work on Studio Ghibli films . Serialized in Tokuma Shoten 's Animage magazine , the first chapter was published in February 1982 and the last chapter in March 1994 . Miyazaki adapted and altered the work for the film because only sixteen chapters of the manga were written at the time of the film 's production . The manga would continue to be produced until the seventh and final book was released on 15 January 1995 . The English localization was initially done by Toren Smith and Dana Lewis of Studio Proteus . After Miyazaki resumed production of the manga , Viz Media chose a new team and continued to release the rest of manga . = = = Video games = = = Three video games were released based on the manga and the film . All three of the titles were developed by Technopolis Soft and published by Technopolis Soft and Tokuma Shoten . Nausicaä in the Nick of Time also known as Nausicaä 's Close Call ( Naushika Kiki Ippatsu or Nausicaä Kiki Ippatsu ) is a Japanese shoot ' em up video game developed and published by Technopolis Soft for the NEC PC @-@ 6001 computer system in 1984 . The game marketed as Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind and known by its title screen as Kaze no Tani no Nausicaä ( 風の谷のナウシカ , Nausicaä Adventure Game ) , is an adventure game developed by Technopolis Soft for the NEC PC @-@ 8801 : it was released in the 1980s , most likely 1984 . The third game , Wasure ji no Nausicaä Game ( 忘れじのナウシカ・ゲーム , Nausicaä 's Forgotten Game ) for the MSX is the most well @-@ known of the releases and has been frequently and erroneously referred to as a game where the player kills the Ohmu . These games signaled the end of video game adaptations for Hayao Miyzaki 's films . The only other games based on Miyazaki films were the LaserDisc arcade game Cliff Hanger and the MSX2 platform @-@ adventure game Lupin III : The Castle of Cagliostro , both of which were based on The Castle of Cagliostro . Luke Plunkett describes these " two awful adaptations " as the reason Miyazaki does not allow further video game adaptations of his films . = = = Other = = = An art book titled , The Art of Nausicaä ( ジ・アート・オブ風の谷のナウシカ , Ji āto Obu kaze no tani no naushika ) was released by Tokuma Shoten on 20 June 1984 . It contains artwork during the early stages of production of the film and commentary of assistant director Kazuyoshi Katayama . Kaze no tani no Naushika Miyazaki Hayao Suisaiga @-@ shū ( 風の谷のナウシカ宮崎駿水彩画集 , literally " Nausicaä of the Valley of the Wind : Hayao Mizayaki Watercolor Art book " ) was released by Tokuma Shoten on 5 September 1995 . The art book contains artwork of the manga in watercolor , examples of storyboards for the film , autographed pictures by Hayao Miyazaki and interviews on the birth of Nausicaä . The book has been translated in English and French . Two bunkobon volumes containing the story boards were released , on 31 March 1984 . In 2001 , the Nausicaä storyboards were re @-@ released , bundled into a single , larger , volume as part 1 of the Studio Ghibli Story boards collection . A selection of layout designs for the film was also incorporated in the Studio Ghibli Layout Designs exhibition tour , which started in the Museum of Contemporary Art Tokyo ( 28 July 2008 to 28 September 2008 ) and subsequently travelled to different museums around Japan and Asia , concluding in the Fukuoka Asian Art Museum ( 12 October 2013 to 26 January 2014 ) . The exhibition catalogues contain annotated reproductions of the displayed artwork . Tokuma Shoten released a film comic , in four volumes , one each week from 20 November 1990 to 20 December 1990 . A two @-@ volume children 's version was released on 31 March 1998 . = Porsche RS Spyder = The RS Spyder ( Type 9R6 ) is a racing car designed by Porsche in conjunction with Penske to compete in Le Mans Prototype Class 2 ( LMP2 ) racing . The car takes its name from the legendary 550 Spyder of the 1950s ( combined with Porsche 's common " RennSport " ( lit . : racing sports ) designation ) . The car marked Porsche 's first return to the top level of sports prototype racing since the firm abandoned its Porsche LMP in 1999 . The RS Spyder made its debut in the final event of the 2005 American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) at Laguna Seca winning its class . Since then the RS Spyder has won the ALMS LMP2 Championship in 2006 , 2007 and 2008 and took class honours at Le Mans in 2008 and 2009 . The outright victory at the 2008 12 Hours of Sebring was the first major victory for Porsche in endurance racing for five years and it was also the first time in 24 years that the non @-@ premier class won the 12 Hours of Sebring overall . Regulation changes for the 2011 season rendered the RS Spyder obsolete but the car has left a legacy in the Porsche 918 , which uses a development of the Spyder 's engine and the 919 which carried Porsche 's racing program on into the LMP 1 category starting in 2014 . = = Design = = The RS Spyder was designed completely in @-@ house by Porsche engineers . The chassis is a rigid carbon fibre monocoque with both the engine and transmission being integral stressed members . The 3 @.@ 4 litre 90 @-@ degree V8 racing engine was designed from scratch as was the six @-@ speed electro @-@ pneumatic sequential gearbox . Braking is via six @-@ piston caliper carbon @-@ fibre brake mounted on suspension controlled by four @-@ way , spring / damper units activated by pushrods with adjustable torsion @-@ bar springs . The car has a dry weight of 825 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 819 lb ) in 2010 specification but was initially 750 kilograms ( 1 @,@ 650 lb ) . Since its introduction in 2005 the engine , which initially produced 478 horsepower ( 356 kW ) has been developed and modified to meet the changing regulations of both the ALMS and the ACO . For 2008 the engine developed 503 horsepower ( 375 kW ) using direct fuel injection and 440 horsepower ( 330 kW ) in 2009 @-@ spec with air restrictor limitations . = = Race results = = = = = 2005 = = = The RS Spyder made its race debut at the final round of the 2005 American Le Mans Series , the Monterey Sports Car Championship at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca , entered by Penske Racing and driven by Lucas Luhr and Sascha Maassen from the Porsche Junioren factory team . The sole RS Spyder finished first in class and fifth overall . = = = 2006 = = = During 2006 , Penske entered two RS Spyders in the ALMS and won seven class victories including outright victory at the Mid @-@ Ohio race . This was the first LMP2 victory in a race since 2003 and the first major result for Porsche since the 1998 24 Hours of Le Mans . The results ensure victory for Penske in the LMP2 Championship and also for Sascha Maassen in the drivers ' standings . = = = 2007 = = = For 2007 , Porsche unveiled the 2007 @-@ spec RS Spyder ( known as the RS Spyder Evo ) , which included an increase in power to 503 horsepower ( 375 kW ) . Dyson Racing joined Penske in the ALMS . 2007 would be the most successful year for the RS Spyder with Penske repeating their outright victory in the ALMS series a further eight times and also securing an additional three class victories . Penske again won the LMP2 class in ALMS and Romain Dumas won the LMP2 Drivers Championship . During the season the RS Spyder won eight races while the Audi R10 TDI from the largest P1 class won only four . = = = 2008 = = = Rule changes increased the RS Spyder 's weight to 825 kg and Porsche introduce a new direct injection engine developing 503 horsepower ( 375 kW ) . A Penske car driven by Timo Bernhard , Romain Dumas , and Emmanuel Collard , secured the overall victory at the 2008 12 Hours of Sebring , winning it on the 20th anniversary of Porsche 's last overall win at the race . Penske had another outright victory at the Utah Grand Prix and also recorded an additional three class wins . At Petit Le Mans a 3rd RS Spyder was entered by Penske in an attempt to lock out the manufacturers ' championship against Acura . Penske won both the LMP2 Team and drivers ' championship for Timo Bernhard and Romain Dumas . Porsche won the manufacturers ' championship by 1 point ahead of Acura . Danish Team Essex together with Van Merksteijn Motorsport of The Netherlands and Horag Racing of Switzerland participate in the Le Mans Series ( LMS ) all with 2008 @-@ spec RS Spyder . Team Essex and Van Merksteijn also entered the 24 Hours of Le Mans , marking the debut for the RS Spyder at the event . A RS Spyder from Van Merksteijn Motorsport driven by Jeroen Bleekemolen , Peter van Merksteijn and Jos Verstappen , came first in class and 10th overall with the Essex team coming second in class ( 12th overall ) . A RS Spyder won its class in every LMS race giving it a 1 @-@ 2 @-@ 3 in the LMP2 standing and securing the drivers championship for Jos Verstappen and the Team championship for Van Merksteijn Motorsport . = = = 2009 = = = New restrictor rules brought the RS Spyder 's power down to approximately 440 horsepower ( 330 kW ) , and the wingspan was limited by the rules , effectively decreasing downforce . Penske did not compete in the ALMS in 2009 but Team CytoSport , who had previously competed in LMP1 in 2007 , purchased an ex @-@ Dyson Racing RS Spyder and took part in four races with a best result of second in class at Road America . In LMS , Team Essex only competed in the 1000 km race at Spa taking the class victory and also securing the class victory at Le Mans , finishing 10th overall with Casper Elgaard , Kristian Poulsen and Emmanuel Collard at the wheel . Team Goh also took part in the race with an ex @-@ Van Merksteijn Motorsport car . = = = 2010 = = = CytoSport announced in February 2010 that it would contest the full ALMS in a RS Spyder . It was also announced that Sascha Maassen would join the regular drivers Klaus Graf and Greg Pickett at the longer races at Sebring , Laguna Seca and Road Atlanta . Cytosport used a full @-@ width rear wing for the entire season , unlike arch @-@ rivals Highcroft HPD . The CytoSport RS Spyder won the LMP2 class at the 12 Hours of Sebring and took their first outright victory at Northeast Grand Prix at Lime Rock . CytoSport continued their winning success by taking outright victory at a shortened race at Mosport . They also finished the season second behind Patrón Highcroft Racing in the championship and Klaus Graf finished second in the drivers ' standings . No RS Spyders were entered in the 2010 24 Hours of Le Mans . The 2011 LMP2 regulations rendered the RS Spyder obsolete due to the costs exceeding the LMP2 budget limit . = = Gallery = = = = Race victories = = * Bold indicates pole position * Italic indicates fastest lap = Wujing Zongyao = The Wujing Zongyao , known in English as the Complete Essentials for the Military Classics , is a Chinese military compendium written from around 1040 to 1044 . It contains the earliest known written formulas for gunpowder , made from saltpeter , sulphur , and charcoal , along with many added ingredients . The book was compiled during the Northern Song dynasty by scholars such as Zeng Gongliang , Ding Du ( 丁度 ) and Yang Weide ( 楊惟德 ) , whose writing influenced many later Chinese military writers . The compendium was published under the auspices of Emperor Renzong , who also authored the book 's preface . The book covers a wide range of subjects , everything from naval warships to different types of catapults . In addition to formulas for gunpowder , the compendium contains details on various gunpowder weapons such as incendiary bombs , fire arrows , incendiary projectiles , grenades , and smoke bombs . It also describes an early form of the compass ( using thermoremanence ) , and has the oldest illustration of a Chinese Greek fire flamethrower with a double @-@ acting two @-@ piston cylinder @-@ pump capable of shooting a continuous blast of flame . = = History = = The Wujing Zongyao was compiled under the imperial sponsorship of Emperor Renzong of Song ( r . 1022 – 1063 AD ) , partially as a response to the Song dynasty 's war with the Tanguts of Western Xia . A team of Chinese scholars compiled the treatise of the Wujing Zongyao from 1040 to 1044 , in order to improve the knowledge of all the known martial techniques used in warfare . Its chief editor was Zeng Gongliang , while he was assisted by the prominent astronomer Yang Weide and the scholar Ding Du . After five years , the book was published with a preface authored by Emperor Renzong . Historian Peter Lorge theorizes that the purpose of the compendium was to disseminate military knowledge to a wider government audience . Emperor Renzong was concerned that many officials were unfamiliar with the military classics . Lorge remarks that Zeng Gongliang , the chief editor , was a government official rather than a military general . The book was likely written to be read by other government officials . Parts of the Wujing Zongyao were copied form older sources ; historian Ralph D. Sawyer calls it " essentially a cut @-@ and @-@ paste job . " The book contains many passages from earlier classical military writings whose original authors are left unidentified , a common practice at the time . During the Song dynasty , the Wujing Zongyao was appended to two other books : the Xingjun xuzhi and the Baizhan qifa , which were written by anonymous authors . The Wujing Zongyao was one of 347 military treatises listed in the biographical chapters of the Song Shi ( 1345 AD ) , the historical work that embodied part of the Twenty @-@ Four Histories . Of these 347 different military treatises from the Song dynasty period , only the Wujing Zongyao , the Huqianjing ( Tiger Seal Manual ) of Xu Dong in 1004 AD , and fragments of similar works found in the later Yonglo Datian have survived . The original text of the Wujing Zongyao was kept in the Imperial Library , while a number of hand @-@ written copies were distributed elsewhere , including a copy given to Wang Shao by Emperor Shenzong of Song in 1069 AD . However , with the sacking of the capital Kaifeng in the Jin – Song wars by the invading Jurchens in 1126 AD , the enormous amount of prized literature found in the Imperial Library was lost , including the original copy of the Wujing Zongyao . After the original was lost , there was only a scarce number of surviving copies rewritten by hand . There was a scarcity because the book was meant to be kept a secret amongst a few trustees of the government , as publishing and printing many copies using woodblock printing would have allowed the possibility of it falling into enemy hands . Nevertheless , from a remaining copy of the Wujing Zongyao , it was remade into a newly published edition in 1231 AD during the Southern Song dynasty era . Then , during the Ming Dynasty ( 1368 – 1644 AD ) , a book published in 1439 AD featured fragments of the original Wujing Zongyao edition of 1231 while omitting some material and combining it with two other books , the preface of this book written by Li Jin . Then there was a reprinted edition of the entire Wujing Zongyao in 1510 AD , this complete version being the oldest extant copy available . Furthermore , the historian Joseph Needham asserts that this edition of 1510 AD is the most reliable in its faithfulness to the original version , since it was printed from blocks that were re @-@ carved directly from tracings of the edition made in 1231 AD . After the edition of 1510 was printed , other Ming Dynasty copies were made . This included the Jiajing edition ( 1522 – 1566 AD ) , the Wanli edition ( 1573 – 1619 AD ) of Quanzhou , and the Wanli edition ( 1573 – 1619 ) of Jinling by Tang Xinyün ( preserved by Cunjingge ) . During the Qing Dynasty ( 1644 – 1911 AD ) it was also reprinted in two different editions during the 18th century , and again in 1934 with the Shanghai edition . The Xu Wujing Zongyao ( 續武經總要 ; literally " Continuation of Wujing Zongyao " ) is a sequel or " continuation " of the Wujing Zongyao written in the late Ming dynasty . The book primarily discusses army formations and military deployments . It was written by Fan Jingwen ( 1587 – 1644 ) , who was then the Vice President of the Board of War ( 兵部尚書 ; bingbu shangshu ) . Fan wrote the book because he felt that reprints of the Wujing Zongyao circulating at that time were out of date and did not take into account the technological and strategic changes that had occurred since the Song dynasty . The only surviving copy of the Xu Wujing Zongyao is held by Fudan University Library . = = Compass and navigation = = In the 3rd century , the Chinese engineer Ma Jun invented the south @-@ pointing chariot . This was a wheeled vehicle that employed differential gearing in order to lock a figurine of an immortal in place on the end of a long wooden staff , the figure having its arm stretched out and always pointing to the southern cardinal direction . Although the authors of the Wujing Zongyao were mistaken in believing that the design of the south @-@ pointing chariot was not handed down ( as it was reinvented during the Song period and combined with an odometer ) , they described a new device which allowed one to navigate . This was the ' south pointing fish ' ( a thermoremanence compass ) , essentially a heated iron ( or preferably steel ) object cut in the shape of a fish and suspended in a bowl of water . The Wujing Zongyao part 1 volume 15 text stated : When troops encountered gloomy weather or dark nights , and the directions of space could not be distinguished , they let an old horse go on before to lead them , or else they made use of the south @-@ pointing carriage , or the south @-@ pointing fish to identify the directions . Now the carriage method has not been handed down , but in the fish method a thin leaf of iron is cut into the shape of a fish two inches long and half an inch broad , having a pointed head and tail . This is then heated in a charcoal fire , and when it has become thoroughly red @-@ hot , it is taken out by the head with iron tongs and placed so that its tail points due north . In this position it is quenched with water in a basin , so that its tail is submerged for several tenths of an inch . It is then kept in a tightly closed box . To use it , a small bowl filled with water is set up in a windless place , and the fish is laid as flat as possible upon the water @-@ surface so that it floats , whereupon its head will point south . It was during the Song dynasty that the compass became associated with maritime navigation . Several decades after the Wujing Zongyao was written , the scientist and statesman Shen Kuo ( 1031 – 1095 AD ) wrote of the first truly magnetized compass needle in his book Dream Pool Essays ( 1088 AD ) . With a more efficient compass magnetized by lodestone , the thermoremanence compass fell out of use . The later maritime author Zhu Yu soon wrote of the magnetic needle compass as a means to navigate at sea , in his book Pingzhou Table Talks of 1119 AD . = = Gunpowder = = = = = Gunpowder weapons = = = The Wujing Zongyao records detailed descriptions of different gunpowder weapons such as incendiary projectiles , smoke bombs , fire arrows , and grenades . It documents incendiary projectiles containing low @-@ nitrate gunpowder , which were launched from catapults or lowered down from city walls at besiegers . Examples of these incendiaries include the " swallow @-@ tail " incendiary ( 燕尾炬 ; yanweiju ) and the flying incendiary ( 飛炬 ; feiju ) . The swallow @-@ tail incendiary was made of straw that had been tied together and dipped in fat or oil . Chinese soldiers defending a city under siege would light the incendiary and lower it onto any wooden structure of the invading army to engulf it in fire . The flying incendiary visually resembled the swallow @-@ tail incendiary , but was lowered using an iron chain from a swape lever installed within the walls of the city . The book also describes an ' igniter ball ' used in warfare and for finding the firing range . The Wujing Zongyao stated the following : The ' igniter ball ' ( yin huo qiu ) is made of paper round like a ball , inside which is put between three and five pounds of powdered bricks . Melt yellow wax and let it stand until clear , then add powdered charcoal and make it into a paste permeating the ball ; bind it up with hempen string . When you want to find the range of anything , shoot off this fire @-@ ball first , then other incendiary balls can follow . Gunpowder was attached to fire arrows ( 火箭 ) , an incendiary arrow that functioned like a rocket . The Wujing Zongyao records that fire arrows were launched from bows or crossbows . The gunpowder used for fire arrows was likely a low @-@ nitrate powder , and the quantity of gunpowder varied according to the type of bow . In the book , the force of gunpowder is said to be enough to launch an arrow , but only when the elasticity of the crossbow is sufficient . The Wujing Zongyao discusses various types of incendiary bombs and grenades . They used a low @-@ nitrate gunpowder that , while not powerful enough to cause an explosion , was effective for incendiary weapons . The huoqiu ( 火毬 ; literally " fire ball " ) was filled with gunpowder and launched using a trebuchet . Upon impact , the huoqiu would start a fire among an invading army . Chinese bombs such as the thunder clap bomb or pili pao used a greater percentage of gunpowder than that of the huoqiu . The gunpowder mixture for a bomb was placed within a rigid container that held in the expanding gas , allowing for more powerful explosions . The thunder clap bomb was constructed with a container made from bamboo . In the Wujing Zongyao and other military texts , the distinction between a bomb and a grenade is ambiguous . At the time , the Chinese usually did not categorize gunpowder weapons according to their delivery method . One of the few exceptions is the shoupao , or hand bomb , which is analogous to the hand grenade . = = = Formulas = = = Gunpowder was invented in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists . The earliest reference to gunpowder comes from the Daoist book Zhenyuan miaodao yaolue , written circa 850 . The use of gunpowder in warfare began in China during the early 10th century , with the advent of the black @-@ powder @-@ impregnated fuse that was used to light the burst of the Chinese two @-@ piston flamethrower . It was not until the Wujing Zongyao that the exact formulas for early Chinese black powder was revealed . In the Wujing Zongyao there are three formulas for black powder provided , including one for an explosive bomb launched from a trebuchet catapult , another for a similar bomb with hooks attached so that it could latch on to any wooden structure and set it on fire , and another formula specified for a poison @-@ smoke bomb used for chemical warfare . The Wujing Zongyao 's first recorded black @-@ powder formula used in these bombs held a potassium nitrate level of 55 @.@ 4 % to 55 @.@ 5 % , sulfur content of 19 @.@ 4 % to 26 @.@ 5 % , and carbonaceous content of 23 % to 25 @.@ 2 % . The first step for making gunpowder is to powder and mix together sulphur , saltpetre , charcoal , pitch , and dried lacquer . Tung oil , dried plants , and wax are mixed next to create a paste . The paste and powder are combined and carefully stirred . Then the mixture is placed inside a paper container , wrapped up , and tied using hemp twine . Several precautions are taken to prevent the gunpowder from becoming damp . For the second labeled formula , the inner ball alone had a nitrate percentage of 61 @.@ 5 % to 50 @.@ 2 % , a sulfur content of 30 @.@ 8 % to 25 @.@ 1 % , and if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 24 @.@ 7 % , if just taking the charcoal content alone , the carbon level was 7 @.@ 7 % . If the outer coating and inner ball are both included with the second black @-@ powder formula , that would yield a nitrate level of 34 @.@ 7 % to 54 @.@ 8 % , a sulfur content of 17 @.@ 4 % to 27 @.@ 4 % , and if all carbonaceous material is used , 47 @.@ 9 % carbon , if only charcoal is used , 17 @.@ 8 % . If the inner ball of the third black @-@ powder formula is only considered , it held nitrate levels of 39 @.@ 6 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 49 @.@ 4 % nitrate if excluding the poisons , and 60 % if charcoal is specified alone . The sulfur content was 19 @.@ 8 % if all carbonaceous matter was considered , 24 @.@ 7 % if this excluded poisons , and 30 % if charcoal is specified alone . The carbon content was 40 @.@ 5 % if all carbonaceous matter was considered , 25 @.@ 9 % if this excluded poisons , and 10 % if charcoal alone was specified . If both the inner ball and outer coating are considered for the third formula , that would yield a nitrate level of 27 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 31 @.@ 2 % if this excluded poisons , and 51 @.@ 7 % if charcoal alone was used . The sulfur content would be 13 @.@ 5 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken , 15 @.@ 6 % if this excluded the poisons , and 25 @.@ 9 % if only charcoal alone was specified . The carbon content was 59 @.@ 5 % if all carbonaceous matter was taken into account , 53 @.@ 2 % if this excluded poisons , and 22 @.@ 4 % if charcoal alone was specified . The first black @-@ powder concoction was simply labeled as the " method for making the fire @-@ chemical " , with its ingredients and measured weight ( in ounces ) of each ingredient listed in the section below with the others listed in similar fashion . 1st formula Total weight = 82 @.@ 2 oz . 2nd formula Total weight = 116 @.@ 3 oz . 3rd formula Total weight = 114 @.@ 3 oz . = = Naval technology = = The Wujing Zongyao 's illustrated descriptions of warships had a significant influence on later naval handbooks and encyclopedias such as the naval section of the Wubei Zhi from circa 1628 . These works would incorporate illustrations of ships originally from the Wujing Zongyao . The use of pictures from the Wujing Zongyao would continue to appear in Japanese naval texts up until the 18th century . The illustrations were used by both Nishikawa Joken 's Ka @-@ i Tsūshō @-@ kō ( Studies on the Intercourse and Trade with Chinese and Barbarians ) in 1708 and Kanazawa Kanemitsu 's Wakan Senyōshū ( Collected Studies on the Ships used by the Chinese and Japanese ) in 1766 . Wujing Zongyao divides Chinese warships into six categories : Tower ships ( lou chuan ) , combat or war junks ( dou xian or zhan xian ) , covered swoopers ( meng chong ) , flying barques ( zou ge ) , patrol boats ( you ting ) , and sea hawk ships ( hai hu ) . The Wujing Zongyao 's typology for classifying Chinese warships would reappear in later naval texts for many centuries . = = Double @-@ acting piston flamethrower = = The Wujing Zongyao describes a flamethrower with a double @-@ acting two @-@ piston cylinder @-@ pump capable of shooting a continuous blast of flame . The first Chinese battle to use the double @-@ piston pump flamethrower was the Battle of Langshan Jiang in 919 AD . In the Battle of Langshan Jiang ( Wolf Mountain River , 狼山江 ) , the naval fleet of the Wenmu King of Wuyue defeated the fleet of the Kingdom of Wu because he had used ' fire oil ' ( huo yóu , 火油 ) to burn his fleet ; this signified the first Chinese use of gunpowder in warfare , since a slow @-@ burning match fuse was required to ignite the flames . Greek fire is likely based on distilled petroleum and is a weapon of Byzantine origin . The Chinese author Lin Yu explained in his book of 919 AD that Greek fire was acquired from their Arab maritime trade contacts in the Indian Ocean . Furthermore , the Chinese had been using the piston syringe since the Han Dynasty ( 202 BC – 220 AD ) . However , it was the later Wujing Zongyao that would provide the first illustrated drawing and greater textual explanation for how this flamethrower operated . In describing the drawn illustration of the flamethrower in the book , the Wujing Zongyao states : On the right is the petrol flamethrower ( lit. fierce fire oil @-@ shooter ) . The tank is made of brass , and supported on four legs . From its upper surface arise four ( vertical ) tubes attached to a horizontal cylinder above ; they are all connected with the tank . The head and the tail of the cylinder are large ( the middle ) is of narrow ( diameter ) . In the tail end there is a small opening as big as a millet grain . The head end has ( two ) round openings 1 ½ inches in diameter . At the side of the tank there is a hole with a ( little ) tube which is used for filling , and this is fitted with a cover . Inside the cylinder there is a ( piston- ) rod packed with silk floss , the head of which is wound round with hemp waste about ½ inches thick . Before and behind , the two communicating tubes are ( alternately ) occluded ( lit. controlled ) , and ( the mechanism ) thus determined . The tail has a horizontal handle ( the pump handle ) , in front of which there is a round cover . When ( the handle is pushed ) in ( the pistons ) close the mouth of the tubes ( in turn ) . Before use the tank is filled with rather more than three catties of the oil with a spoon through a filter ; at the same time gunpowder ( composition ) is placed in the ignition chamber at the head . When the fire is to be started one applies a heated branding iron ( to the ignition chamber ) , and the piston @-@ rod is forced fully into the cylinder — then the man at the back is ordered to draw the piston rod fully backwards and work it ( back and forth ) as vigorously as possible . Whereupon the oil ( the petrol ) comes out through the ignition chamber and is shot forth as blazing flame . Then the text goes on to provide further instructions about equipment , maintenance , and repair of flamethrowers : When filling , use the bowl , the spoon and filter ; for igniting there is the branding iron ; for maintaining ( or renewing ) the fire there is the container . The branding iron is made sharp like an awl so that it may be used ot unblock the tubes if they get stopped up . There are tongs with which to pick up the glowing fire , and there is a soldering iron for stopping up leaks . If the tanks or the tubes get cracked and leak they may be mended by using green wax . Altogether there are 12 items of equipment , all of brass except the tongs , the branding iron , and the soldering iron . Another method is to fix a brass gourd @-@ shaped container inside a large tube ; below it has two feet , and inside there are two small feet communicating with them ( comm : all made of brass ) and there is also the piston . The method of shooting is as described above . If the enemy comes to attack a city , these weapons are placed on the great ramparts , or else in outworks , so that large numbers of assailants cannot get through . = = Illustrations from the Wujing Zongyao = = = Brazilian monitor Ceará = The Brazilian monitor Ceará was the fifth ship of the Pará @-@ class river monitors built for the Brazilian Navy during the Paraguayan War in the late 1860s . Ceará arrived in Paraguay in mid @-@ 1868 and provided fire support for the army for the rest of the war . The ship was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla after the war . Ceará was scrapped in 1884 . = = Design and description = = The Pará @-@ class monitors were designed to meet the need of the Brazilian Navy for small , shallow @-@ draft armoured ships capable of withstanding heavy fire . The monitor configuration was chosen as a turreted design did not have the same problems engaging enemy ships and fortifications as did the central battery ironclads already in Brazilian service . The oblong gun turret sat on a circular platform that had a central pivot . It was rotated by four men via a system of gears ; 2 @.@ 25 minutes were required for a full 360 ° rotation . A bronze ram was fitted to these ships as well . The hull was sheathed with Muntz metal to reduce biofouling . The ships measured 39 meters ( 127 ft 11 in ) long overall , with a beam of 8 @.@ 54 meters ( 28 ft 0 in ) . They had a draft between of 1 @.@ 51 – 1 @.@ 54 meters ( 4 ft 11 in – 5 ft 1 in ) and displaced 500 metric tons ( 490 long tons ) . With only 0 @.@ 3 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) of freeboard they had to be towed between Rio de Janeiro and their area of operations . Their crew numbered 43 officers and men . = = = Propulsion = = = The Pará @-@ class ships had two direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single 1 @.@ 3 @-@ meter ( 4 ft 3 in ) propeller . Their engines were powered by two tubular boilers at a working pressure of 59 psi ( 407 kPa ; 4 kgf / cm2 ) . The engines produced a total of 180 indicated horsepower ( 130 kW ) which gave the monitors a maximum speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) in calm waters . The ships carried enough coal for one day 's steaming . = = = Armament = = = Ceará had a single 120 @-@ pounder Whitworth rifled muzzle loader ( RML ) in her gun turret . The gun had a maximum range of about 5 @,@ 540 meters ( 6 @,@ 060 yd ) . The 7 @-@ inch ( 178 mm ) shell of the 120 @-@ pounder gun weighed 151 pounds ( 68 @.@ 5 kg ) while the gun itself weighed 16 @,@ 660 pounds ( 7 @,@ 556 @.@ 8 kg ) . Most unusually the guns ' Brazilian @-@ designed iron carriage was designed to pivot vertically at the muzzle ; this was done to minimize the size of the gunport through which splinters and shells could enter . = = = Armor = = = The hull of the Pará @-@ class ships was made from three layers of wood that alternated in orientation . It was 457 millimeters ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) thick and was capped with a 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) layer of peroba hardwood . The ships had a complete wrought iron waterline belt , 0 @.@ 91 meters ( 3 @.@ 0 ft ) high . It had a maximum thickness of 102 millimetres amidships , decreasing to 76 millimeters ( 3 in ) and 51 millimeters ( 2 in ) at the ship 's ends . The curved deck was armored with 12 @.@ 7 millimeters ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) of wrought iron . The gun turret was shaped like a rectangle with rounded corners . It was built much like the hull , but the front of the turret was protected by 152 millimeters ( 6 in ) of armor , the sides by 102 millimetres and the rear by 76 millimetres . Its roof and the exposed portions of the platform it rested upon were protected by 12 @.@ 7 millimetres of armor . The armored pilothouse was positioned ahead of the turret . = = Service = = Ceará was laid down at the Arsenal de Marinha da Côrte in Rio de Janeiro on 8 December 1866 , during the Paraguayan War , which saw Argentina and Brazil allied against Paraguay . She was launched on 22 March 1868 and commissioned the following month . The monitor arrived in Paraguay in May 1868 . On 31 August she bombarded enemy positions on the Tebicuary River to provide cover for advancing troops . The ship destroyed Paraguayan defenses on the Manduvirá River on 18 April 1869 . Ceará , together with her sister ships Piauí and Santa Catharina , broke through the Paraguayan defenses at Guaraio on 29 April and drove off the defenders . After the war she was assigned to the Mato Grosso Flotilla and was scrapped in 1884 . = Anytime You Need a Friend = " Anytime You Need a Friend " is a song by American singer @-@ songwriter Mariah Carey . The song was written and produced by Carey and Walter Afanasieff , for her third studio album , Music Box ( 1993 ) . It was released on May 31 , 1994 through Columbia Records , as the fourth and final single from the album . The song is influenced by pop , R & B and gospel music genres . While the album focused heavily on pop oriented and radio friendly material , " Anytime You Need a Friend " deviated from the formula , finishing as the only gospel @-@ infused song on Music Box . Lyrically , the song 's protagonist tells her love interest that anytime he may need a friend , she will be there unconditionally for him . Throughout the song 's bridge and climax , critics noted the lyrics altering from those of a friend , to those of a lover . The song was well received by contemporary music critics , many of which praised Carey 's large spanning vocal range , as well as its gospel influence that they felt was missing on most of Music Box . Aside from its critical acceptance , the song achieved strong worldwide chart positions and peaked at number twelve on the US Billboard Hot 100 , but became her first single to miss out the top @-@ ten . Additionally , it peaked at number five in Canada and topped the singles charts in Finland and the Netherlands . The song attained a top @-@ twenty peak position in Australia , France , Ireland , New Zealand , Switzerland and the United Kingdom . Carey performed " Anytime You Need a Friend " live on several televised talk and award shows around the world , including the Late Show with David Letterman , the British music chart program Top of the Pops and German entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? . Additionally , the song served as a closing number on Carey 's Music Box and Daydream World Tours , and was featured on her compilation albums , Greatest Hits ( 2001 ) and The Ballads ( 2008 ) . Although several remixes were commissioned for the song , the C + C remix became the most notable , being produced by C + C Music Factory 's David Cole and Robert Clivillés , and the first of Carey 's remixes to feature her on production credits . The song 's music video was filmed by Danielle Federici , in New York during the summer of 1994 . The video was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white fashion , and features Carey 's first image makeover , where she appears with a straightened hairstyle for the first time in her career . Additionally , the music video showcases scenes of Carey singing by a large church choir in a foyer , as well as several people , ranging from a small child to an elderly man , who are alone and depressed . As the video progresses , the child and man are befriended after brief interludes and prayers to God . The song 's C + C remix also features its own music video , displaying behind the scenes footage of Carey and her staff enjoying themselves during the original video 's filming . = = Background and recording = = For her third studio effort , Columbia Records decided to market Carey in a similar fashion to that of her debut , only having her produce a more commercial and radio @-@ friendly album . Their plans were to tone down Carey 's vocals , and soften the album 's production , leaving a more contemporary pop record . Agreeing to the change , Carey and Afanasieff began writing and recording material for her third studio effort , Music Box ( 1993 ) . On the album 's first track " Dreamlover " , Carey worked with Dave Hall throughout the song 's entire production . In order to help with some of the song 's arrangements , Mottola enrolled the help of Walter Afanasieff , who took on the completed track and transformed it into a more commercial hit . Music Box received mixed critical response from contemporary critics , who suggested that in lowering Carey 's vocal bombast , her energy level decreased and felt the album had an " absence of passion . " The only song that was not subject to the common criticism was " Anytime You Need a Friend , " which some called the album 's only real glimpse of Carey 's upper vocal registers , and one of the only passionate and gospel moments on Music Box . In an interview , Carey described that although the album 's main goal was to be more commercial and radio @-@ friendly than her previous release , she felt the need to include at least one song that featured a church choir and traces of the music that influenced her growing up as a child . = = Composition = = " Anytime You Need a Friend " is a mid @-@ tempo song which draws influence from pop , R & B and gospel musical genres . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by EMI Music Publishing , the song is written in the key of C major , while the beat is set in the signature of common time , which moves at a moderate pace of 83 beats per minute . It has a sequence of Am / C – Bm7 ( no5 ) – E7 / G ♯ – Am as its chord progression . Carey 's vocals in the song span over three octaves , from the low note of an E3 to the high note of a B ♭ 6 . The song was written by Carey and Afanasieff , with production helmed by the pair as well . After the song 's bridge , a church choir is introduced and featured throughout its final chorus and climax . Carey 's vocals are layered over the background gospel @-@ styled vocals on the final chorus , after which she uses the whistle register to close the song . The song 's lyrics describe a relationship the protagonist has with another individual , telling them that anytime they need a friend , she will be there unconditionally . Throughout the song , the lyrics seemingly show the evolving relationship between the couple . Carey sings Anytime you need a friend / I will be here / You 'll never be alone again / So don 't you fear / Even if you 're miles away / I 'm by your side / So don 't you ever be lonely / Love will make it alright , which hints at a current friendship where more still uncovered emotions are present . Author Chris Nickson explains on the song 's switch in relationship , as the lyrics change to If you just believe in me / I will love you endlessly / Take my hand / Take me into your heart / I 'll be there forever baby / I won 't let go / I 'll never let go . The protagonist is willing to accept the relationship as only a friend , but tells her partner that no matter his feelings for her , she loves him and still wishes to be loved by him , something she will never forget or " let go . " = = Critical reception = = " Anytime You Need a Friend " was generally well received by contemporary music critics , many of whom praised the song 's gospel influence as well as Carey 's vocal range . Following the mixed reception to the song 's parent album , Music Box , " Anytime You Need a Friend " was deemed a strong contrast to the album 's pop influence . Critics agreed that through lowering Carey 's vocal bombast , the album suffered due to lowered passion and energy levels . The song however , was considered the only standout from the album , altering heavily from the pop oriented formula of Music Box . J.D. Considine from The Baltimore Sun wrote " Where another singer might have been tempted to turn " Anytime You Need a Friend " into a full @-@ blown sanctified sing @-@ out , Carey and producer Walter Afanasieff use the gospel harmonies on the chorus as contrast for Carey 's pop soul vocal . " A writer from Portland Press Herald called the song one of Carey 's " original classics " , and felt it earned a place on her compilation album # 1 's , even though it did not top the Billboard Hot 100 . In an article from the Fort Worth Star @-@ Telegram , a writer commented that Carey 's vocal range in the song sounds as if it 's from a " glass @-@ shattering dimension " and complimented her incorporation of the gospel genre and church choir into the song 's climax . Christopher John Farley from Time described the song as " gospel flavored " and wrote " ' Anytime You Need a Friend ' demonstrates Carey 's vocal power , although too fleetingly . " While calling it " undeniably strong " , David Browne from Entertainment Weekly gave the song a mixed review , writing " ' Anytime You Need a Friend ' feature gospel @-@ inflected choirs seemingly intended to demonstrate that Carey has soul — which she doesn 't — but they 're beautifully arranged , and they serve as a nice counterpoint to Carey 's own lapses into show @-@ offy vocal gymnastics . " Suraya Attas from The Straits Times described Carey 's voice as husky , and felt it " exploited her vocal range to the fullest . " In 2003 , The Daily Record named " Anytime You Need a Friend " one of the " World 's Greatest First Dance Songs . " USA Today critic John T. Jones called the song " inspirational " , while a writer from The Atlanta Journal @-@ Constitution branded it " the center of the album . " " Anytime You Need A Friend " won a BMI Pop Award and an ASCAP Pop Music Award for the Songwriter Award in 1995 . = = Chart performance = = " Anytime You Need a Friend " became the first of Carey 's singles to not reach the top @-@ ten on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The song debuted at number 45 on the chart and eventually peaked at number 12 , remaining in the top @-@ 40 for 18 weeks and on the chart for 21 . Despite this , it was popular on US radio and was ranked number thirty @-@ seven on the 1994 Year @-@ End Charts , giving Carey three singles in the top half of the chart . On the Year @-@ End Hot Adult Contemporary Tracks , " Anytime You Need a Friend " finished at number 21 and number 39 on the Hot Dance Music Club Play Singles Year @-@ End Chart . In Canada , the song debuted at number 82 on the Canadian RPM Singles Chart during the week of May 23 , 1994 . Seven weeks later , the song reached its peak of number five on the singles chart , spending three consecutive weeks at the position and a total of 20 weeks on the chart . On the RPM Year @-@ End Charts , " Dreamlover " finished at number 39 . On the week dated June 19 , 1994 on the Australian Singles Chart , the song entered at number 48 . Weeks later , it ascended to its peak position of number 12 , where it stayed for one week , and a total of 17 weeks fluctuating inside the singles chart . " Anytime You Need a Friend " was certified gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , " Anytime You Need a Friend " reached the number one position on the singles chart . In France , the single entered the chart at number 43 during the week of October 29 , 1994 . After spending one week at its peak position of number 12 , the song fluctuated inside the singles chart for a total of 16 weeks . In Germany and Ireland , " Anytime You Need a Friend " reached numbers 31 and 16 on their respective singles charts . On the New Zealand Singles Chart dated June 26 , 1994 , the song entered the chart at number nine . After spending two weeks at its peak position of number five , and a total of 14 weeks in the singles chart , the song was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting shipments of over 7 @,@ 500 units . In Switzerland , " Anytime You Need a Friend " peaked at number 15 , however spending 17 weeks fluctuating in the Swiss Singles Chart . On the UK Singles Chart week dated June 18 , 1994 , the song debuted at number nine . The following week , it reached its peak position of number eight , spending a total of ten weeks in the singles chart . Following a live performance of the song by Eoghan Quigg on the fifth series of the British talent show The X Factor , " Anytime You Need a Friend " re @-@ surged onto the singles chart at number 96 on November 22 , 2008 . As of 2010 , MTV estimates sales of the song in the United Kingdom to be at 100 @,@ 000 units . = = Remixes = = " Anytime You Need a Friend " was remixed by David Cole and Robert Clivillés of C + C Music Factory . Although over fifteen various edits and extended mixes were created , for the most part they are based on the " C + C Club Mix . " Other variations , extended mixes , and edits include but are not limited to the " All That and More Mix , " " Dave 's Empty Pass , " and the " Boriqua Tribe Mix " . Cory Rooney and Mark Morales created a " Soul Convention Mix " and a stringapella for the song . Because of the large number of remixes , two maxi singles were released in the US Carey was given co @-@ producing credit for both the C & C mixes and the Soul Convention / Stringapella , the first time that she had been given producing credit on remixes of her songs . Gregg Shapiro from the Windy City Times complimented the remix , writing " the presence of each improves on the original . They have something new to say ; even with the songs that began as dance tracks . " Jose F. Promis gave the C + C remix two and a half out of five stars , writing how the remix found Carey " getting quite gritty and earthy . " He concluded his review with " It made for a topnotch dancefloor number , and stands as an excellent example of early- to mid- ' 90s dance music , not to mention being one of the singer 's most compelling , underrated , and forgotten efforts . " = = Music videos = = The music video , directed by Danielle Federici , was filmed during the early summer of 1994 . It was filmed in black @-@ and @-@ white , and features Carey walking along the streets of New York , watching several different people , ranging from a small child to an elderly man , lonely and in need of a friend . Additionally , aside from several scenes of Carey and a large church choir in a large antechamber , the video is known as the first video in which Carey appears with straightened hair . Throughout her career up until that point , Carey had famously sported long , auburn curls . However , the video presented Carey 's first image makeover , where she appears with bangs and a long straightened hairstyle . The video begins with scenes of Carey walking down a long New York street , with the addition of close ups of Carey 's face . As she stares down the road , she witnesses a small girl , sitting alone in an alley corner , glaring into the sky . As the first chorus begins , Carey enters a large foyer , with a choir dressed in black singing perched atop a large staircase . During the second verse , she similarly witnesses an older man , who is sitting on a withered stoop . Consecutively , during the song 's bridge , Carey watches as the small child 's mother carries her to a nearby playground where her friends are frolicking and playing . Similarly , the elderly man is met with some other elderly citizens , who accompany him to another building nearby . During the song 's climax , Carey joins the choir , flailing her hands wildly towards the sky , and smiling and gazing into the cloudy morning . Renee Graham from The Boston Globe gave the video two out of four stars . She complimented on the fact that the video captured the song 's lyrical essence and how it managed to portray it in a clear and concise way . Although calling it " simple , " Graham commented that " Videos have never really been Mariah Carey 's thing , and frankly , they 've never had to be . Carey has a killer voice , so the last thing she 'd want to do is overshadow her singing with a lot of choreography , complicated story lines or explosions . " Author Chris Nickson compared several parts of the video to religion and belief in God . During such scenes when Carey appears with the choir , he felt it seemed as though they were both channeling a common entity through music ; God . Additionally , he claimed it was more evident with each passing scene of the video , as each of the lonely people in the video gaze up into the skies , possibly praying or searching for an answer to their loneliness . A video was commissioned for the C + C club mix of the song . Known as the C + C video edit , it was also directed by Danielle Federici and serves as a behind the scenes addendum to the main music video . It is also filmed in black and white , and is composed of clips of Carey and her friends during filming of the video , where they chat , laugh and enjoy time with each other . Carey 's husband at the time Tommy Mottola made a cameo appearance in the video , appearing alongside Carey during the second verse . The remix video was later included on the 1995 home video release , Fantasy : Mariah Carey at Madison Square Garden . = = Live performances = = Carey promoted " Anytime You Need a Friend " on several live televised performances throughout the United States , Europe and Asia . Carey 's performance of the song at an intimate concert at Proctor 's Theatre on July 15 , 1993 was filmed and released as the VHS Here Is Mariah Carey . Carey performed the song during a live appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , which was followed by an interview regarding the album . During the performance , a live band and several male and female background vocalists were featured . Promotion through Europe included a visit and performance on the British music chart program Top of the Pops , German entertainment show Wetten , dass .. ? , Hey Hey It 's Saturday in Australia , and the 1993 Japanese Music Fair . Aside from the several televised appearances , Carey performed the song throughout her Music Box Tour ( 1993 ) and Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) . During the shows in 1993 , Carey featured the song as the fifteenth song on the set @-@ list , and was performed in a similar fashion as on her televised appearances . Prior to beginning the song , Carey urged the crowd to " never be lonely " and " always try and find that special person in your life . " Following the show in Chicago , Chicago Tribune critic Greg Kot felt that her performance of the song truly " demonstrated that her multi @-@ octave voice is no studio fabrication . " During her shows at the Tokyo Dome during 1996 , Carey sported a long and wavy hairstyle , while wearing a long black gown . She sang the original version of the song , up until half way through the last chorus , until merging into the C + C remix . Several background vocalists were once again featured on stage , all donning black garbs . However , once the remix began , six male dancers made their way to the right and left sides of the stage , performing heavy dance routines as Carey walked around the stage . Once the remix began , the lighting was altered . Aside from the usual fluorescent lighting that was used throughout the show , additional pink and purple lighting was added for the number , as it served for the shows closing and final song . During her succeeding shows in Europe , Carey 's outfits altered as well as her hairstyle . She wore a long , white strapless gown and sported her hair in a straightened ponytail style . Since 1996 , Carey has not performed the song live on television or on her tours . = = Other versions = = In a review done by Digital Spy for Leona Lewis ' debut album , Spirit , Nick Levine felt the song " Footprints in the Sand " borrowed heavily from Carey 's track , writing " ' Footprints In The Sand ' seems hellbent on revisiting Mariah Carey 's schlock @-@ pop masterwork ' Anytime You Need A Friend . ' " " Anytime You Need a Friend " was covered on several different occasions on a variety of reality and talent competitions . Some became heavily popularized by the media due to the nature of the performance or performer . On the fifth season of the British talent program The X Factor , contestant Eoghan Quigg performed a live cover of the song during a " Mariah Carey " themed week . The song was chosen by Simon Cowell , who felt it would fit his younger vocals . Following the performance , he received acclaim from all three judges . Following the show 's end , Quigg embarked on a live tour throughout 2009 alongside the other finalists , performing the song at each show alongside fellow contestant , Diana Vickers . Similarly , on the fourth season of the reality talent show America 's Got Talent , a trio of children named Michael , Avery and Nadia , together forming " The Voices of Glory , " performed a live rendition of the song . Their performance was well received by the judges , with David Hasselhoff exclaiming " Wonderful , wonderful , wonderful job . " = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = These credits were adapted from the Music Box liner notes . " Anytime You Need a Friend " was recorded at Right Track Studios , New York , and mixed at Sony Music Studios , New York . = = Charts and certifications = = = Turban Head eagle = The Turban Head eagle , also known as the Capped Bust eagle , was a ten @-@ dollar gold piece , or eagle , struck by the United States Mint from 1795 to 1804 . The piece was designed by Robert Scot , and was the first in the eagle series , which continued until the Mint ceased striking gold coins for circulation in 1933 . The common name is a misnomer ; Liberty does not wear a turban but a cap , believed by some to be a pileus or Phrygian cap ( Liberty cap ) : her hair twisting around the headgear makes it resemble a turban . The eagle was the largest denomination authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 , which established the Bureau of the Mint . It was not struck until 1795 , as the Mint at first struck copper and silver coins . The number of stars on the obverse was initially intended to be equal to the number of states in the Union , but with the number at 16 , that idea was abandoned in favor of using 13 stars in honor of the original states . The initial reverse , featuring an eagle with a wreath in its mouth , proved unpopular and was replaced by a heraldic eagle . Increases in the price of gold made it profitable for the coins to be melted for their precious metal content , and in 1804 , President Thomas Jefferson ended coinage of eagles ; the denomination was not struck again for circulation for more than thirty years . Four 1804 @-@ dated eagles were struck in 1834 for inclusion in sets of US coins to be given to foreign potentates . These 1804 " Plain 4 " coins differ from the eagles actually struck in 1804 in the way the " 4 " in the date is styled , and are among the most valuable US coins . = = Inception = = In 1791 , Congress passed a resolution authorizing President George Washington to establish a mint . Feeling that the resolution was inadequate , President Washington asked legislators to pass a comprehensive law which would govern the new facility . The result was the Mint Act of 1792 , which prescribed the specifications of the new US coins , the highest denomination being the eagle , or ten @-@ dollar piece . The passage of the Mint Act was followed by the establishment in Philadelphia of the Mint , which by 1793 was striking cents and half cents . Coinage of precious metal pieces was delayed ; Congress had required that the assayer and chief coiner each post a security bond of $ 10 @,@ 000 , a huge sum in those days . In 1794 , Congress lowered the chief coiner 's bond to $ 5 @,@ 000 and the assayer 's to $ 1 @,@ 000 , and President Washington 's appointees to those positions were able to qualify and take office . Silver coinage began that year . The first deposit of gold to be struck into coins was made at the Mint in February 1795 , by Moses Brown of Boston . Around May 1795 , the first Mint director , David Rittenhouse , set engraver Robert Scot the task of preparing dies for an issue of gold coins . Rittenhouse resigned in June , before the work came to fruition , and was replaced by Henry deSaussure . The new director took office on July 9 , 1795 , and pressed to have the gold coin project completed with great speed . DeSaussure also publicized that the Mint would be striking gold pieces , the new nation 's first ; the first half eagles ( five @-@ dollar pieces ) were struck 22 days later . Dies for the eagle coinage were prepared , most likely by Scot and by long @-@ time Mint employee Adam Eckfeldt . = = Design = = The three designs for the Turban Head eagle — the obverse and the two reverses — are all by Scot . They are identical to designs used on other silver and gold coins of the period — the Mint did not yet put denominations on gold pieces . The origin of Scot 's obverse is uncertain . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule suggests a similarity between Scot 's portrayal of Liberty on the eagle and the portrait on the 1792 half disme ( deemed by some the first Federal coinage ) , and speculates that the ultimate inspiration may have been Martha Washington , the President 's wife . He also contends that a bust should have drapery only if intended as part of a statue : " Greco @-@ Roman classicism has been misunderstood here " . Numismatic historian Walter Breen believes that Scot probably " copied some unlocated contemporaneous engraving of a Roman copy of a Hellenistic goddess , altering the hair , adding drapery and an oversize soft cap " . Breen disputes Vermeule 's contention that the cap is a pileus , the hat given to emancipated slaves as a symbol of their freedom . In support of his argument , he reproduces an 1825 letter from then Mint Director Samuel Moore , stating that the cap on the gold coins was " not the Liberty cap in form , but probably conforming to the fashionable dress of the day " . Numismatic author David Lange contends the headgear is a mob cap , much in fashion at the time . The reverse that appeared on the eagle from 1795 to mid @-@ 1797 depicts an eagle clutching a victory wreath , perched on a branch and surrounded by the nation 's name . Vermeule contends that the appearance of the bird is " difficult to describe " but that it has " a healthy individuality and an almost @-@ rustic charm " . Breen suggests that the branch is from a palm tree , and that this is in tribute to deSaussure , a South Carolinian . The reverse coined from 1797 featured a heraldic eagle based on the Great Seal of the United States . Breen points to what he deems a blunder on Scot 's part : the bird holds arrows and an olive branch , but carries the arrows in the dexter , or dominant right claw , symbolizing a preference for war over peace . = = Production = = Coinage of eagles followed shortly after production of half eagles began , although the exact date is uncertain . The first group produced is believed to have been struck in August and September 1795 ; 1 @,@ 097 eagles were made available for circulation on September 22 . Four hundred of these were immediately paid out to the Bank of Pennsylvania , which had deposited gold at the Mint for striking into eagles . One piece was put aside for the Mint 's coin collection by Eckfeldt . Numismatic author Dean Albanese considers the legend that Washington provided the gold for the first 400 eagles to be improbable ; holding $ 4 @,@ 000 in coin would have tied up much of Washington 's capital in unproductive cash . Albanese suggests that as many surviving 1795 eagles are found with little wear , Washington may have had the government purchase pieces to give to dignitaries . By some reports , one eagle was presented to Washington , though whether it was from this first coinage is uncertain . In the 1790s , the production of coin dies was difficult , expensive , and time @-@ consuming . Mechanical reproduction of such dies was not yet possible ; accordingly , coins of the same year struck from different dies can be distinguished from each other . Dies still in use at the end of the year often saw continued use , sometimes with the date re @-@ engraved . These different dies are reflected in significant varieties today : some 1795 eagles have 13 leaves on the palm branch , others only nine . Minting of eagles was interrupted in late 1795 because of the death of the Assayer to the United States Mint , Albion Cox . At that time , the Mint used unpowered screw presses to strike coins : striking such large coins using muscle power was difficult , and few Turban Head eagles show the entire design strongly . At the end of 1795 , the Mint had 176 eagles on hand ; coinage resumed ( with 1795 @-@ dated dies ) in late March 1796 , after most of the stock on hand had been paid out . As the half eagle approximated the size of a number of foreign gold coins , such as the British guinea and the French louis d 'or , it was accepted readily in international commerce and was of a suitable value for many business transactions . DeSaussure is believed to have struck half eagles first for that reason , after consultation with bank officials . The eagle lacked such equivalents , was too high in value for many transactions , and rapidly became unpopular . The eagles originally had 15 stars on the obverse , representing the fifteen states as of 1795 . With the admission of Tennessee as a state in 1796 , a sixteenth star was added to the obverse . The first 1796 eagles were delivered by the Mint on June 2 , the day after Tennessee 's admission . Breen notes that as Tennessee 's statehood had been uncertain owing to opposition in Congress until shortly before the actual admission , the 16 @-@ star eagles most likely were not prepared until just before it became a state on June 1 . Other 1796 coins , with smaller denominations , are known to have been struck on polished blanks for presentation in connection with the statehood celebrations ; it is likely eagles were struck in this way as well . With the possibility of additional states being added to the Union in years to come , Mint officials decided to have the obverse feature only 13 stars , representing the original states of the Union . The Mint 's coinage was decreased due to yellow fever epidemics in Philadelphia in 1796 , 1797 , 1801 , and 1803 ; it struck fewer eagles in those four years , giving priority to more popular coins . The public disliked Scot 's original reverse design , deeming the depicted eagle scrawny and unworthy of a great nation such as the United States aspired to be . The new Mint director , Elias Boudinot , asked Scot to redesign the reverse . The so @-@ called Heraldic Eagle design was struck on quarter eagles as early as 1796 , but did not appear on the eagle until the following year , with the other gold denomination , the half eagle , following in 1798 . The initial design ( dubbed by some the " Plain Eagle " ) had been struck in relatively small numbers , 13 @,@ 344 over the design 's three @-@ year life . Some 1797 dies were re @-@ engraved with an 8 over the final 7 ( catalogued as 1798 / 7 ) , to allow them to bear the year of issue ; coins struck from them are the only 1798 @-@ dated eagles . Nevertheless , unaltered 1797 dies were used even after the 1798 / 7 pieces ; this can be shown because the same reverse die was used for both issues , and on the 1797 @-@ dated pieces , the reverse die displays greater wear . All 1798 and later eagles have only 13 stars on the obverse , however some 1798 / 7 eagles have nine stars on the left and four on the right , while others have seven on the left and six on the right . Only 2 @,@ 000 pieces were struck in 1798 , but the following year demand for the eagle surged , and over 37 @,@ 000 were struck . The precious metal composition of US coins was calculated such that gold would be fifteen times as valuable per ounce as silver . By the turn of the 19th century , the price of gold in terms of silver had risen to approximately 15 @.@ 75 to one . This made it profitable for merchants to buy gold coins at face value using silver coins , and export the gold to Europe . Gold vanished from circulation in the United States by 1800 . By 1801 , almost no bullion was being deposited at the Mint , causing the Jefferson administration to consider its closure . The eagle was especially desired by exporters , as the larger size and value made it more convenient to handle . Although the Mint remained open , on December 31 , 1804 , President Thomas Jefferson ordered that eagles and silver dollars no longer be struck , ending the Turban Head eagle series . Coin dealer and author Q. David Bowers suggests that while a majority of eagles remained in the United States , enough were exported to make continuing their mintage an exercise in futility . Coinage of eagles did not resume until 1838 ( after Congress decreased the gold content of American coins , eliminating the incentive to export them ) , when a new design , by Christian Gobrecht , was struck . = = 1804 issues = = Although the Mint coined 1803 @-@ dated eagles in 1804 , a total of 3 @,@ 757 eagles dated 1804 were struck in that year . These pieces , dubbed the " Crosslet 4 " variety ( Plain 4 eagles have a short projection of the cross @-@ stroke of the 4 extending to the right of the upright , Crosslet 4 have short vertical extensions of the cross @-@ stroke at the end of the projection ) , were extensively melted at the time , and the few known today are very collectible . R.S. Yeoman , in his " Red Book " valuing US coins published during 2012 , values the Crosslet 4 at $ 125 @,@ 000 in MS @-@ 63 ranging down to $ 55 @,@ 000 in more circulated , Almost Uncirculated @-@ 50 condition . Many surviving Turban Head eagles were sold by exchange agents to coin dealers or collectors in the 1850s and afterwards as the hobby became more popular and the pieces acquired a modest premium over their melt value . In 1834 , the United States Government intended to present a set of then @-@ current US coins to four Asian rulers the US had either made agreements with or else hoped to treat with . Neither the silver dollar nor the eagle had been struck since 1804 , but they were still considered current coins . Putting the date of striking on the pieces would make them appear to be in violation of Jefferson 's prohibition which remained in force . Mint Director Moore decided to strike 1804 @-@ dated dollars and eagles for the sets , and four 1804 eagles were struck . They differ from the pieces struck thirty years earlier , lacking a crosslet on the right side of the crossbar of the 4 . Two were presented , to the Sultan of Muscat and the King of Siam , before the diplomat in charge of the expedition , Edmund Roberts , died of disease in Macao , and his mission was abandoned . The remaining two sets were returned to the United States . The existence of the Plain 4 pieces was revealed in 1869 , when one was reproduced in the American Journal of Numismatics . The significance and history of the pieces was at first unrecognized , and the revelation prompted no particular excitement . How the pieces returned to US authorities came to be dispersed is unknown . The set given to the King of Siam was sold at auction by descendants of Anna Leonowens , who served as schoolteacher to the children of King Mongkut of Siam in the 1860s , although how it came into her possession is uncertain . Today , three of the pieces are in private collections , the fourth is in the Harry W. Bass , Jr . Collection , displayed in the Money Museum of the American Numismatic Association in Colorado Springs , Colorado . The Siam set sold most recently for $ 8 @.@ 5 million . From his experience of many years as a coin dealer , Albanese believes that the eagle in that set is not the original , but another of the four 1804 Plain 4 eagles , purchased to replace one sold to a collector . = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is the third studio album by the American alternative rock band The Smashing Pumpkins , released on October 24 , 1995 on Virgin Records . Produced by frontman Billy Corgan with Flood and Alan Moulder , the 28 @-@ track album was released as a two @-@ disc CD and triple LP . The album features a wide array of styles , as well as greater musical input from bassist D 'arcy Wretzky and second guitarist James Iha . Led by the single " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " , the record debuted at number one on the Billboard charts , the only such occurrence for the group with first week sales of 246 @,@ 500 units . The album spawned five more singles — " 1979 " , " Zero " , " Tonight , Tonight " , the promotional " Muzzle " , and " Thirty @-@ Three " — over the course of 1996 , and was certified diamond by the RIAA , equivalent to over 10 million units sold . Praised by critics for its ambition and scope , Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness earned the band seven Grammy Award nominations in 1997 , including Album of the Year and Record of the Year ( " 1979 " ) , as well as 9 MTV Music Video Awards nominations , 8 of which were for " Tonight , Tonight " , including " Video of the Year " . Not only did they all become hits on both mainstream rock and modern rock stations , but " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " , " 1979 " , " Tonight , Tonight " , and " Thirty @-@ Three " also became the band 's first Top 40 hits , crossing over to pop radio stations . = = Recording and production = = After the 13 @-@ month tour in support of The Smashing Pumpkins ' second album Siamese Dream ( 1993 ) , Billy Corgan immediately began writing songs for the band 's next record . From the outset , the band intended the new record to be a double album , partly inspired by The Beatles ' eponymous album . Corgan said , " We almost had enough material to make Siamese Dream a double album . With this new album , I really liked the notion that we would create a wider scope in which to put other kinds of material we were writing . " Corgan felt that the band 's musical approach was running its course , and wanted the band to approach the album as if it were its last . Corgan described the album at the time to the music press as " The Wall for Generation X " , a comparison with Pink Floyd 's 1979 album , one of the highest selling and best known concept albums of all time . The band decided to forgo working with Butch Vig , who had produced the group 's previous albums , and selected Flood and Alan Moulder as co @-@ producers . Corgan explained , " To be completely honest , I think it was a situation where we 'd become so close to Butch that it started to work to our disadvantage ... I just felt we had to force the situation , sonically , and take ourselves out of normal Pumpkin recording mode . I didn 't want to repeat past Pumpkin work . " Flood immediately pushed the band to change its recording practices . Corgan later said , " Flood felt like the band he would see live wasn 't really captured on record " . In April 1995 , the band began recording in a rehearsal space , instead of entering the studio straight away . At these sessions , the band recorded rough rhythm tracks with Flood . Originally designed to create a rough draft for the record , the rehearsal space sessions ended up yielding much of the new album 's rhythm section parts . Flood also insisted the band set aside time each day devoted to jamming or songwriting , practices the band had never engaged in before during recording sessions . Corgan said , " Working like that kept the whole process very interesting — kept it from becoming a grind . " Corgan sought to eliminate the tension that permeated the Siamese Dream recording sessions . Corgan said regarding the problems with recording Siamese Dream , " [ T ] o me , the biggest offender was the insidious amounts of time that everyone spends waiting for guitar parts to be overdubbed . There were literally weeks where no one had anything to do but sit and wait . " The band decided to counter idleness by using two recording rooms at the same time . This tactic allowed Corgan to work on vocals and song arrangements while recording was done in the other . During these sessions , Flood and Corgan would work in one room as Moulder , guitarist James Iha , and bassist D 'arcy Wretzky worked in a second . Iha and Wretzky had a much greater role in the recording of the album , unlike the prior albums where Corgan was rumored to have recorded all the bass and guitar parts himself . James Iha commented about the recording sessions , The big change is that Billy is not being the big ' I do this — I do that ' . It 's much better . The band arranged a lot of songs for this record , and the song writing process was organic . The circumstances of the last record and the way that we worked was really bad . Following the rehearsal space sessions , the band recorded overdubs at the Chicago Recording Company . Pro Tools was used for recording guitar overdubs as well as for post @-@ production electronic looping and sampling . Wretzky also recorded numerous backup vocal parts , but all were cut except the one recorded for " Beautiful " . When the recording sessions concluded , the band had 57 completed songs which were up for contention to be included on Mellon Collie . The album was originally going to have 32 songs , but this was cut back to 28 songs . Corgan jokingly stated in a 1995 interview with MTV News that the tracks were narrowed down through playing parcheesi . = = Music = = The songs of Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness are intended to hang together conceptually , with the two halves of the album representing day and night . Despite this , Corgan has rejected the term concept album to describe it , and it was at the time described as more " loose " and " vague " than the band 's previous records . However , Billy Corgan has also said that the album is based on " the human condition of mortal sorrow " . Corgan aimed the album 's message at people aged 14 to 24 years , hoping " to sum up all the things I felt as a youth but was never able to voice articulately . " He summed up by stating , " I 'm waving goodbye to me in the rear view mirror , tying a knot around my youth and putting it under the bed . " The sprawling nature of the album means that it utilizes several different diverse styles amongst the songs , contrasting what some critics felt was the " one dimensional flavor " of the previous two albums . A much wider variety of instrumentation is used , such as piano ( " Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness " ) , synthesizers and drum loops ( " 1979 " ) , a live orchestra ( " Tonight , Tonight " ) , and even salt shakers and scissors ( " Cupid de Locke " ) . All guitars on the album were tuned down a half @-@ step in order to " make the music a little lower " , according to Corgan . On some songs , like " Jellybelly " , the first string was tuned down an additional whole step to C ♯ ( referred to by Corgan as " the ' grunge tuning ' " ) . There was a greater variety to the number of guitar overdubs utilized than on previous albums . Iha said , " [ I ] n the past , everything had to be overdubbed and layered — guitar overkill . That wasn 't really the train of thought this time , although we did that too . " " To Forgive " consists of only one live guitar take , while " Thru the Eyes of Ruby " contains approximately 70 guitar tracks . The various sections of " Porcelina of the Vast Oceans " were recorded at various times , with different instruments and recording setups , and were digitally composited in Pro Tools . Corgan and Iha shared soloing duties ; Iha estimated that the guitar solo duties were divided " half and half " on the record . Corgan has said that " For the solo in ' Fuck You ( An Ode to No One ) , ' I played until my fingers saw blood , You can 't play a weak guitar solo in such a propulsive song . It 's got to be attack @-@ style . " He explains this method by saying " ... I put on the headphones and stand one foot away from the amp . I turn the amp up so loud that I literally have to play harder than the feedback , because if I stop playing even for an instant , the whole thing explodes . " All but two songs on the album were written by Corgan . The closing track from the first disc , " Take Me Down " , was written and sung by Iha , while the album 's final track , " Farewell and Goodnight " , features lead vocals by all four band members and , according to the BMI database , was written solely by Iha , despite being credited on the album liner notes as being written by both Iha and Corgan . Iha wrote additional songs during the making of the album , but they did not make the final cut . Corgan said in a 1995 Rolling Stone interview , " [ T ] here are some B sides that James did that are really good . They just don 't fit in the context of the album . And part of me feels bad . But over the seven years we 've been together , the least uptight part of the band has been the music . " = = Release and reception = = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was released on October 24 , 1995 . The night before , the band played a release party show at the Riviera Theater in Chicago and took part in a live FM broadcast across the United States The following week , Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness debuted at number one on the Billboard 200 , an unusual feat for a double @-@ disc album that cost over US $ 20 . The album was certified diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America . Originally 5 @,@ 000 vinyl triple LP ( 3xLP ) copies were pressed . The vinyl edition has two additional tracks ( " Tonite Reprise " & " Infinite Sadness " ) which are not included in CD and cassette releases . Later re @-@ pressing led up to 23 @,@ 000 pressed but unnumbered copies . In 2012 , a remastered 4xLP vinyl edition was repressed . = = = Critical reception = = = The album received critical acclaim . Christopher John Farley of Time called the album " the group 's most ambitious and accomplished work yet " . Farley wrote , " One gets the feeling that the band [ ... ] charged ahead on gut instincts ; the sheer scope of the album ( 28 songs ) didn 't allow for second @-@ guessing or contrivance . " Time selected Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness as the best album of the year in its year @-@ end " Best of 1995 " list . Entertainment Weekly gave the album an A rating ; reviewer David Browne praised the group 's ambition and wrote , " Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is more than just the work of a tortured , finicky pop obsessive . Corgan presents himself as one of the last true believers : someone for whom spewing out this much music results in some sort of high art for the ages . He doesn 't seem concerned with persistent alterna @-@ rock questions of ' selling out ' , and good for him : He 's aiming for something bigger and all @-@ conquering . " IGN gave the album a score of 9 @.@ 5 out of 10 and said , " As the band 's magnum opus it single @-@ handedly changed the face of Alternative Rock . That said , it 's not just music , but a work of art . " The Music Box gave it all five stars and said , " Indeed , for all its melodramatic self @-@ indulgence , Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness is one of the best double albums of new material to be released by anyone in a long time . " Rolling Stone gave the album three out of five stars . Reviewer Jim DeRogatis praised the album as " one of the rare epic rock releases whose bulk is justified in the grooves " . The writer stated that the album 's main flaw was Corgan 's lyrics , describing the songwriter as " wallowing in his own misery and grousing about everyone and everything not meeting his expectations . " DeRogatis contended that while Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness " may even match The Wall in its sonic accomplishments " , Corgan 's lyrics lacked in comparison . Mojo reviewer Ben Edmunds also praised the music while criticizing Corgan 's lyrics . Edmunds wrote , " [ Corgan 's ] lyrics appear to be the repository for the worst aspects of his most treasured influences . He writes with a heavy metal aptitude for wordplay and an inflated prog @-@ rock conviction of its worth , a deadening combination . But there 's a sliver of distance in his rage @-@ mongering now that comments as well as expresses . " In his Consumer Guide , Robert Christgau picked out one song from the album , " 1979 " , as a " choice cut " ( ) . = = = Singles = = = The album spawned five singles . While Corgan considered issuing " Jellybelly " as the album 's first single , he told Chart it was passed over in favor of " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " because " ' Bullet 's one of those songs where , you know , it 's easy to sing along to and [ he affects a drawl ] ya gotta sell them records . " " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " was The Smashing Pumpkins ' first single to reach the Top 40 on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 22 . " 1979 " , the album 's second single , charted at number 12 , becoming the band 's highest @-@ charting American hit . The " Zero " single was released as an EP with six b @-@ sides . All three of these singles were certified gold by the RIAA . " Tonight , Tonight " and " Thirty @-@ Three " , the album 's final singles , reached number 36 and number 39 on the Billboard charts , respectively . While it was not commercially released as a single , the song " Muzzle " reached number eight on the Modern Rock Tracks chart and number ten on the Mainstream Rock Tracks chart . = = = Accolades = = = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness earned The Smashing Pumpkins nominations in seven categories at the 1997 Grammy Awards , the second @-@ highest number of nominations that year . The group was nominated for Album of the Year , Record of the Year ( " 1979 " ) , Best Alternative Music Performance , Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ( " 1979 " ) , Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal ( " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " ) , Best Pop Instrumental Performance ( " Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness " ) , and Best Music Video , Short Form ( " Tonight , Tonight " ) at the 1997 Grammy Awards . The band won a single award , for Best Hard Rock Performance with Vocal for " Bullet with Butterfly Wings " ; it was the group 's first . Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness also ranked at number 14 on the 1995 Village Voice Pazz & Jop critics ' poll , and 487 on Rolling Stone 's list of The 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . = = Track listing = = Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness was intended as a two @-@ record set . The CD and cassette versions of the album are divided into two discs , entitled Dawn to Dusk and Twilight to Starlight . The vinyl version , however , is divided into three records with six sides , entitled Dawn / Tea Time , Dusk / Twilight , and Midnight / Starlight . The vinyl release also features two bonus songs ( " Tonite Reprise " and " Infinite Sadness " ) , and a completely rearranged track order . In 2012 the album was remastered and re @-@ released as a 6 disc edition , with 3 bonus discs of music and a DVD and also on 4 Vinyl LPs which contained the regular CD track order instead of the original LP order . All songs written by Billy Corgan , except where noted . = = = Compact disc / cassette version / 2012 vinyl reissue = = = = = = Original vinyl version = = = = = = 2012 CD / DVD reissue = = = As part of EMI Music 's extensive reissue campaign , a special edition of the album was released on December 4 , 2012 . The 5 @-@ CD disc set consists of 64 bonus tracks of previously unreleased material , demos and alternate versions of Mellon Collie era songs — including full versions of tracks notably featured as parts of the " Pastichio Medley " from the Zero EP — as well as six new mixes of original album songs . The package also includes a DVD consisting of footage from two live shows : Tracks 1 – 11 taken from the group 's concert of May 15 , 1996 at the Brixton Academy in London , England , originally filmed by MTV Europe , and tracks 12 – 15 from their show of April 7 , 1996 at the Philipshalle in Düsseldorf , Germany that was filmed by the German TV show Rockpalast . The bonus content and special features were curated from the band 's archives by Corgan , and have been remastered from the original master tapes by Bob Ludwig . = = Chart positions and sales certifications = = = = Personnel = = The Smashing Pumpkins Jimmy Chamberlin – drums , vocals on " Farewell and Goodnight " Billy Corgan – lead vocals , lead and rhythm guitar , piano , mellotron , production , mixing , string arrangement on " Tonight , Tonight " , art direction and design James Iha – lead and rhythm guitar ; backing vocals , mixing , and additional production on " Take Me Down " and " Farewell and Goodnight " D 'arcy Wretzky – bass guitar , vocals on " Beautiful " and " Farewell and Goodnight " Additional musicians Chicago Symphony Orchestra – orchestra in " Tonight , Tonight " Greg Leisz – pedal and lap steel guitar on " Take Me Down " Technical staff Roger Carpenter – technical assistance John Craig – illustration Flood – production , mixer Andrea Giacobbe – photograph Barry Goldberg – additional vocal recording , mixing assistance Adam Green – technical assistance Dave Kresl – string recording assistance Tim " Gooch " Lougee – technical assistance Guitar Dave Mannet – technical assistance Jeff Moleski – technical assistance Alan Moulder – production , mixer Frank Olinsky – art direction and design Claudine Pontier – recording assistance Audrey Riley – string arrangement on " Tonight , Tonight " Chris Shepard – recording Russ Spice – technical assistance Howie Weinberg – mastering Bob Ludwig – mastering ( 2012 remaster ) = Crystallographic defects in diamond = Imperfections in the crystal lattice of diamond are common . Such crystallographic defects in diamond may be the result of lattice irregularities or extrinsic substitutional or interstitial impurities , introduced during or after the diamond growth . The defects affect the material properties of diamond and determine to which type a diamond is assigned ; the most dramatic effects are on the diamond color and electrical conductivity , as explained by the band theory . The defects can be detected by different types of spectroscopy , including electron paramagnetic resonance ( EPR ) , luminescence induced by light ( photoluminescence , PL ) or electron beam ( cathodoluminescence , CL ) , and absorption of light in the infrared ( IR ) , visible and UV parts of the spectrum . Absorption spectrum is used not only to identify the defects , but also to estimate their concentration ; it can also distinguish natural from synthetic or enhanced diamonds . = = Labeling of diamond centers = = There is a tradition in diamond spectroscopy to label a defect @-@ induced spectrum by a numbered acronym ( e.g. GR1 ) . This tradition has been followed in general with some notable deviations , such as A , B and C centers . Many acronyms are confusing though : Some symbols are too similar ( e.g. , 3H and H3 ) . Accidentally , same labels were given to different centers detected by EPR and optical techniques ( e.g. , N3 EPR center and N3 optical center have no relation ) . Whereas some acronyms are logical , such as N3 ( N for natural , i.e. observed in natural diamond ) or H3 ( H for heated , i.e. observed after irradiation and heating ) , many are not . In particular , there is no clear distinction between the meaning of labels GR ( general radiation ) , R ( radiation ) and TR ( type @-@ II radiation ) . = = Defect symmetry = = The symmetry of defects in crystals is described by the point groups . They differ from the space groups describing the symmetry of crystals by absence of translations , and thus are much fewer in number . In diamond , only defects of the following symmetries have been observed thus far : tetrahedral ( Td ) , tetragonal ( D2d ) , trigonal ( D3d , C3v ) , rhombic ( C2v ) , monoclinic ( C2h , C1h , C2 ) and triclinic ( C1 or CS ) . The defect symmetry allows predicting many optical properties . For example , one @-@ phonon ( infrared ) absorption in pure diamond lattice is forbidden because the lattice has an inversion center . However , introducing any defect ( even " very symmetrical " , such as N @-@ N substitutional pair ) breaks the crystal symmetry resulting in defect @-@ induced infrared absorption , which is the most common tool to measure the defect concentrations in diamond . In synthetic diamond grown by the high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature synthesis or chemical vapor deposition , defects with symmetry lower than tetrahedral align to the direction of the growth . Such alignment has been also been observed in gallium arsenide and thus is not unique to diamond . = = Extrinsic defects = = Various elemental analyses of diamond reveal a wide range of impurities . They mostly originate , however , from inclusions of foreign materials in diamond , which could be nanometer @-@ small and invisible in an optical microscope . Also , virtually any element can be hammered into diamond by ion implantation . More essential are elements which can be introduced into the diamond lattice as isolated atoms ( or small atomic clusters ) during the diamond growth . By 2008 , those elements are nitrogen , boron , hydrogen , silicon , phosphorus , nickel , cobalt and perhaps sulfur . Manganese and tungsten have been unambiguously detected in diamond , but they might originate from foreign inclusions . Detection of isolated iron in diamond has later been re @-@ interpreted in terms of micro @-@ particles of ruby produced during the diamond synthesis . Oxygen is believed to be a major impurity in diamond , but it has not been spectroscopically identified in diamond yet . Two electron paramagnetic resonance centers ( OK1 and N3 ) have been assigned to nitrogen – oxygen complexes . However , the assignment is indirect and the corresponding concentrations are rather low ( few parts per million ) . = = = Nitrogen = = = The most common impurity in diamond is nitrogen , which can comprise up to 1 % of a diamond by mass . Previously , all lattice defects in diamond were thought to be the result of structural anomalies ; later research revealed nitrogen to be present in most diamonds and in many different configurations . Most nitrogen enters the diamond lattice as a single atom ( i.e. nitrogen @-@ containing molecules dissociate before incorporation ) , however , molecular nitrogen incorporates into diamond as well . Absorption of light and other material properties of diamond are highly dependent upon nitrogen content and aggregation state . Although all aggregate configurations cause absorption in the infrared , diamonds containing aggregated nitrogen are usually colorless , i.e. have little absorption in the visible spectrum . The four main nitrogen forms are as follows : = = = = C @-@ nitrogen center = = = = The C center corresponds to electrically neutral single substitutional nitrogen atoms in the diamond lattice . These are easily seen in electron paramagnetic resonance spectra ( in which they are confusingly called P1 centers ) . C centers impart a deep yellow to brown color ; these diamonds are classed as type Ib and are commonly known as " canary diamonds " , which are rare in gem form . Most synthetic diamonds produced by high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature ( HPHT ) technique contain a high level of nitrogen in the C form ; nitrogen impurity originates from the atmosphere or from the graphite source . One nitrogen atom per 100 @,@ 000 carbon atoms will produce yellow color . Because the nitrogen atoms have five available electrons ( one more than the carbon atoms they replace ) , they act as " deep donors " ; that is , each substituting nitrogen has an extra electron to donate and forms a donor energy level within the band gap . Light with energy above ~ 2 @.@ 2 eV can excite the donor electrons into the conduction band , resulting in the yellow color . The C center produces a characteristic infrared absorption spectrum with a sharp peak at 1344 cm − 1 and a broader feature at 1130 cm − 1 . Absorption at those peaks is routinely used to measure the concentration of single nitrogen . Another proposed way , using the UV absorption at ~ 260 nm , has later been discarded as unreliable . Acceptor defects in diamond ionize the fifth nitrogen electron in the C center converting it into C + center . The latter has a characteristic IR absorption spectrum with a sharp peak at 1332 cm − 1 and broader and weaker peaks at 1115 , 1046 and 950 cm − 1 . = = = = A @-@ nitrogen center = = = = The A center is probably the most common defect in natural diamonds . It consists of a neutral nearest @-@ neighbor pair of nitrogen atoms substituting for the carbon atoms . The A center produces UV absorption threshold at ~ 4 eV ( 310 nm , i.e. invisible to eye ) and thus causes no coloration . Diamond containing nitrogen predominantly in the A form as classed as type IaA . The A center is diamagnetic , but if ionized by UV light or deep acceptors , it produces an electron paramagnetic resonance spectrum W24 , whose analysis unambiguously proves the N = N structure . The A center shows an IR absorption spectrum with no sharp features , which is distinctly different from that of the C or B centers . Its strongest peak at 1282 cm − 1 is routinely used to estimate the nitrogen concentration in the A form . = = = = B @-@ nitrogen center = = = = There is a general consensus that B center ( sometimes called B1 ) consists of a carbon vacancy surrounded by four nitrogen atoms substituting for carbon atoms . This model is consistent with other experimental results , but there is no direct spectroscopic data corroborating it . Diamonds where most nitrogen forms B centers are rare and are classed as type IaB ; most gem diamonds contain a mixture of A and B centers , together with N3 centers . Similar to the A centers , B centers do not induce color , and no UV or visible absorption can be attributed to the B centers . Early assignment of the N9 absorption system to the B center have been disproven later . The B center has a characteristic IR absorption spectrum ( see the infrared absorption picture above ) with a sharp peak at 1332 cm − 1 and a broader feature at 1280 cm − 1 . The latter is routinely used to estimate the nitrogen concentration in the B form . Note that many optical peaks in diamond accidentally have similar spectral positions , which causes much confusion among gemologists . Spectroscopists use for defect identification the whole spectrum rather than one peak , and consider the history of the growth and processing of individual diamond . = = = = N3 nitrogen center = = = = The N3 center consists of three nitrogen atoms surrounding a vacancy . Its concentration is always just a fraction of the A and B centers . The N3 center is paramagnetic , so its structure is well justified from the analysis of the EPR spectrum P2 . This defect produces a characteristic absorption and luminescence line at 415 nm and thus does not induce color on its own . However , the N3 center is always accompanied by the N2 center , having an absorption line at 478 nm ( and no luminescence ) . As a result , diamonds rich in N3 / N2 centers are yellow in color . = = = Boron = = = Diamonds containing boron as a substitutional impurity are termed type IIb . Only one percent of natural diamonds are of this type , and most are blue to grey . Boron is an acceptor in diamond : boron atoms have one less available electron than the carbon atoms ; therefore , each boron atom substituting for a carbon atom creates an electron hole in the band gap that can accept an electron from the valence band . This allows red light absorption , and due to the small energy ( 0 @.@ 37 eV ) needed for the electron to leave the valence band , holes can be thermally released from the boron atoms to the valence band even at room temperatures . These holes can move in an electric field and render the diamond electrically conductive ( i.e. , a p @-@ type semiconductor ) . Very few boron atoms are required for this to happen — a typical ratio is one boron atom per 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 carbon atoms . Boron @-@ doped diamonds transmit light down to ~ 250 nm and absorb some red and infrared light ( hence the blue color ) ; they may phosphoresce blue after exposure to shortwave ultraviolet light . Apart from optical absorption , boron acceptors have been detected by electron paramagnetic resonance . = = = Phosphorus = = = Phosphorus could be intentionally introduced into diamond grown by chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) at concentrations up to ~ 0 @.@ 01 % . Phosphorus substitutes carbon in the diamond lattice . Similar to nitrogen , phosphorus has one more electron than carbon and thus acts as a donor ; however , the ionization energy of phosphorus ( 0 @.@ 6 eV ) is much smaller than that of nitrogen ( 1 @.@ 7 eV ) and is small enough for room @-@ temperature thermal ionization . This important property of phosphorus in diamond favors electronic applications , such as UV light emitting diodes ( LEDs , at 235 nm ) . = = = Hydrogen = = = Hydrogen is one of the most technological important impurities in semiconductors , including diamond . Hydrogen @-@ related defects are very different in natural diamond and in synthetic diamond films . Those films are produced by various chemical vapor deposition ( CVD ) techniques in an atmosphere rich in hydrogen ( typical hydrogen / carbon ratio > 100 ) , under strong bombardment of growing diamond by the plasma ions . As a result , CVD diamond is always rich in hydrogen and lattice vacancies . In polycrystalline films , much of the hydrogen may be located at the boundaries between diamond ' grains ' , or in non @-@ diamond carbon inclusions . Within the diamond lattice itself , hydrogen @-@ vacancy and hydrogen @-@ nitrogen @-@ vacancy complexes have been identified in negative charge states by electron paramagnetic resonance . In addition , numerous hydrogen @-@ related IR absorption peaks are documented . It is experimentally demonstrated that hydrogen passivates electrically active boron and phosphorus impurities . As a result of such passivation , shallow donor centers are presumably produced . In natural diamonds , several hydrogen @-@ related IR absorption peaks are commonly observed ; the strongest ones are located at 1405 , 3107 and 3237 cm − 1 ( see IR absorption figure above ) . The microscopic structure of the corresponding defects is yet unknown and it is not even certain whether or not those defects originate in diamond or in foreign inclusions . Gray color in some diamonds from the Argyle mine in Australia is often associated with those hydrogen defects , but again , this assignment is yet unproven . = = = Nickel and cobalt = = = When diamonds are grown by the high @-@ pressure high @-@ temperature technique , nickel , cobalt or some other metals are usually added into the growth medium to facilitate catalytically the conversion of graphite into diamond . As a result , metallic inclusions are formed . Besides , isolated nickel and cobalt atoms incorporate into diamond lattice , as demonstrated through characteristic hyperfine structure in electron paramagnetic resonance , optical absorption and photoluminescence spectra , and the concentration of isolated nickel can reach 0 @.@ 01 % . This fact is by all means unusual considering the large difference in size between carbon and transition metal atoms and the superior rigidity of the diamond lattice . Numerous Ni @-@ related defects have been detected by electron paramagnetic resonance , optical absorption and photoluminescence , both in synthetic and natural diamonds . Three major structures can be distinguished : substitutional Ni , nickel @-@ vacancy and nickel @-@ vacancy complex decorated by one or more substitutional nitrogen atoms . The " nickel @-@ vacancy " structure , also called " semi @-@ divacancy " is specific for most large impurities in diamond and silicon ( e.g. , tin in silicon ) . Its production mechanism is generally accepted as follows : large nickel atom incorporates substitutionally , then expels a nearby carbon ( creating a neighboring vacancy ) , and shifts in @-@ between the two sites . Although the physical and chemical properties of cobalt and nickel are rather similar , the concentrations of isolated cobalt in diamond are much smaller than those of nickel ( parts per billion range ) . Several defects related to isolated cobalt have been detected by electron paramagnetic resonance and photoluminescence , but their structure is yet unknown . = = = Silicon = = = Silicon is a common impurity in diamond films grown by chemical vapor deposition and it originates either from silicon substrate or from silica windows or walls of the CVD reactor . It was also observed in natural diamonds in dispersed form . Isolated silicon defects have been detected in diamond lattice through the sharp optical absorption peak at 738 nm and electron paramagnetic resonance . Similar to other large impurities , the major form of silicon in diamond has been identified with a Si @-@ vacancy complex ( semi @-@ divacancy site ) . This center is a deep donor having an ionization energy of 2 eV , and thus again is unsuitable for electronic applications . Si @-@ vacancies constitute minor fraction of total silicon . It is believed ( though no proof exists ) that much silicon substitutes for carbon thus becoming invisible to most spectroscopic techniques because silicon and carbon atoms have the same configuration of the outer electronic shells . = = = Germanium = = = Germanium is normally absent in diamond , but it can be introduced during the growth or by subsequent ion implantation . Germanium in diamond can be detected optically via the germanium @-@ vacancy center , which has similar properties to those of the Si @-@ vacancy center . = = = Sulfur = = = Around the year 2000 , there was a wave of attempts to dope synthetic CVD diamond films by sulfur aiming at n @-@ type conductivity with low activation energy . Successful reports have been published , but then dismissed as the conductivity was rendered p @-@ type instead of n @-@ type and associated not with sulfur , but with residual boron , which is a highly efficient p @-@ type dopant in diamond . So far ( 2009 ) , there is only one reliable evidence ( through hyperfine interaction structure in electron paramagnetic resonance ) for isolated sulfur defects in diamond . The corresponding center called W31 has been observed in natural type @-@ Ib diamonds in small concentrations ( parts per million ) . It was assigned to a sulfur @-@ vacancy complex – again , as in case of nickel and silicon , a semi @-@ divacancy site . = = Intrinsic defects = = The easiest way to produce intrinsic defects in diamond is by displacing carbon atoms through irradiation with high @-@ energy particles , such as alpha ( helium ) , beta ( electrons ) or gamma particles , protons , neutrons , ions , etc . The irradiation can occur in the laboratory or in the nature ( see Diamond enhancement – Irradiation ) ; it produces primary defects named frenkel defects ( carbon atoms knocked off their normal lattice sites to interstitial sites ) and remaining lattice vacancies . An important difference between the vacancies and interstitials in diamond is that whereas interstitials are mobile during the irradiation , even at liquid nitrogen temperatures , however vacancies start migrating only at temperatures ~ 700 ° C. Vacancies and interstitials can also be produced in diamond by plastic deformation , though in much smaller concentrations . = = = Isolated carbon interstitial = = = Isolated interstitial has never been observed in diamond and is considered unstable . Its interaction with a regular carbon lattice atom produces a " split @-@ interstitial " , a defect where two carbon atoms share a lattice site and are covalently bonded with the carbon neighbors . This defect has been thoroughly characterized by electron paramagnetic resonance ( R2 center ) and optical absorption , and unlike most other defects in diamond , it does not produce photoluminescence . = = = Interstitial complexes = = = The isolated split @-@ interstitial moves through the diamond crystal during irradiation . When it meets other interstitials it aggregates into larger complexes of two and three split @-@ interstitials , identified by electron paramagnetic resonance ( R1 and O3 centers ) , optical absorption and photoluminescence . = = = Vacancy @-@ interstitial complexes = = = Most high @-@ energy particles , beside displacing carbon atom from the lattice site , also pass it enough surplus energy for a rapid migration through the lattice . However , when relatively gentle gamma irradiation is used , this extra energy is minimal . Thus the interstitials remain near the original vacancies and form vacancy @-@ interstitials pairs identified through optical absorption . Vacancy @-@ di @-@ interstitial pairs have been also produced , though by electron irradiation and through a different mechanism : Individual interstitials migrate during the irradiation and aggregate to form di @-@ interstitials ; this process occurs preferentially near the lattice vacancies . = = = Isolated vacancy = = = Isolated vacancy is the most studied defect in diamond , both experimentally and theoretically . Its most important practical property is optical absorption , like in the color centers , which gives diamond green , or sometimes even green – blue color ( in pure diamond ) . The characteristic feature of this absorption is a series of sharp lines called GR1 @-@ 8 , where GR1 line at 741 nm is the most prominent and important . The vacancy behaves as a deep electron donor / acceptor , whose electronic properties depend on the charge state . The energy level for the + / 0 states is at 0 @.@ 6 eV and for the 0 / - states is at 2 @.@ 5 eV above the valence band . = = = Multivacancy complexes = = = Upon annealing of pure diamond at ~ 700 ° C , vacancies migrate and form divacancies , characterized by optical absorption and electron paramagnetic resonance . Similar to single interstitials , divacancies do not produce photoluminescence . Divacancies , in turn , anneal out at ~ 900 ° C creating multivacancy chains detected by EPR and presumably hexavacancy rings . The latter should be invisible to most spectroscopies , and indeed , they have not been detected thus far . Annealing of vacancies changes diamond color from green to yellow @-@ brown . Similar mechanism ( vacancy aggregation ) is also believed to cause brown color of plastically deformed natural diamonds . = = = Dislocations = = = Dislocations are the most common structural defect in natural diamond . The two major types of dislocations are the glide set , in which bonds break between layers of atoms with different indices ( those not lying directly above each other ) and the shuffle set , in which the breaks occur between atoms of the same index . The dislocations produce dangling bonds which introduce energy levels into the band gap , enabling the absorption of light . Broadband blue photoluminescence has been reliably identified with dislocations by direct observation in an electron microscope , however , it was noted that not all dislocations are luminescent , and there is no correlation between the dislocation type and the parameters of the emission . = = = Platelets = = = Most natural diamonds contain extended planar defects in the < 100 > lattice planes , which are called platelets . Their size ranges from nanometers to many micrometers , and large ones are easily observed in an optical microscope via their luminescence . For a long time , platelets were tentatively associated with large nitrogen complexes — nitrogen sinks produced as a result of nitrogen aggregation at high temperatures of the diamond synthesis . However , direct measurement of nitrogen in the platelets by EELS ( an analytical technique of electron microscopy ) revealed very little nitrogen . The currently accepted model of platelets is a large regular array of carbon interstitials . Platelets produce sharp absorption peaks at 1359 – 1375 and 330 cm − 1 in IR absorption spectra ; remarkably , the position of the first peak depends on the platelet size . As with dislocations , a broad photoluminescence centered at ~ 1000 nm was associated with platelets by direct observation in an electron microscope . By studying this luminescence , it was deduced that platelets have a " bandgap " of ~ 1 @.@ 7 eV . = = = Voidites = = = Voidites are octahedral nanometer @-@ sized clusters present in many natural diamonds , as revealed by electron microscopy . Laboratory experiments demonstrated that annealing of type @-@ IaB diamond at high temperatures and pressures ( > 2600 ° C ) results in break @-@ up of the platelets and formation of dislocation loops and voidites , i.e. that voidites are a result of thermal degradation of platelets . Contrary to platelets , voidites do contain much nitrogen , in the molecular form . = = Interaction between intrinsic and extrinsic defects = = Extrinsic and intrinsic defects can interact producing new defect complexes . Such interaction usually occurs if a diamond containing extrinsic defects ( impurities ) is either plastically deformed or is irradiated and annealed . Most important is the interaction of vacancies and interstitials with nitrogen . Carbon interstitials react with substitutional nitrogen producing a bond @-@ centered nitrogen interstitial showing strong IR absorption at 1450 cm − 1 . Vacancies are efficiently trapped by the A , B and C nitrogen centers . The trapping rate is the highest for the C centers , 8 times lower for the A centers and 30 times lower for the B centers . The C center ( single nitrogen ) by trapping a vacancy forms the famous nitrogen @-@ vacancy center , which can be neutral or negatively charged ; the negatively charged state has potential applications in quantum computing . A and B centers upon trapping a vacancy create corresponding 2N @-@ V ( H3 and H2 centers , where H2 is simply a negatively charged H3 center ) and the neutral 4N @-@ 2V ( H4 center ) . The H2 , H3 and H4 centers are important because they are present in many natural diamonds and their optical absorption can be strong enough to alter the diamond color ( H3 or H4 – yellow , H2 – green ) . Boron interacts with carbon interstitials forming a neutral boron – interstitial complex with a sharp optical absorption at 0 @.@ 552 eV ( 2250 nm ) . No evidence is known so far ( 2009 ) for complexes of boron and vacancy . In contrast , silicon does react with vacancies , creating the described above optical absorption at 738 nm . The assumed mechanism is trapping of migrating vacancy by substitutional silicon resulting in the Si @-@ V ( semi @-@ divacancy ) configuration . A similar mechanism is expected for nickel , for which both substitutional and semi @-@ divacancy configurations are reliably identified ( see subsection " nickel and cobalt " above ) . In an unpublished study , diamonds rich in substitutional nickel were electron irradiated and annealed , with following careful optical measurements performed after each annealing step , but no evidence for creation or enhancement of Ni @-@ vacancy centers was obtained . = 1894 – 95 Small Heath F.C. season = The 1894 – 95 season was the 14th season of competitive association football and third season in the Football League played by Small Heath F.C. , an English football club based in Birmingham . In 1893 – 94 , Small Heath finished in second place in the divisional championship and gained promotion by defeating Darwen 3 – 1 in a test match . The club had struggled financially during the season , and there were suggestions that it might have disbanded had promotion not been secured . In their first season in the First Division , they finished in 12th place in the 16 @-@ team division , thus avoiding the possibility of relegation via the test matches . Small Heath entered the 1894 – 95 FA Cup at the first round proper , and for the second consecutive year lost in that round to the eventual losing finalists , who this season were West Bromwich Albion . In local competitions , they were eliminated in the semi @-@ final of the Birmingham Senior Cup , also by West Bromwich Albion , and lost to Aston Villa in the final of the Mayor of Birmingham 's Charity Cup . The committee opted not to compete in the United Counties League , a supplementary competition . Twenty @-@ one different players represented the club in nationally organised competitive matches during the season and there were nine different goalscorers . Two players , Bill Purves and – for the third consecutive season – Billy Ollis , appeared in every League match , and none of the first @-@ choice eleven missed more than four League matches . The top scorer , for the second year running , was inside @-@ forward Frank Mobley with 13 goals . The match against Sunderland attracted a crowd estimated at 15 @,@ 000 , around double the highest attendance from previous years . = = Background = = Having won the inaugural Second Division title in 1892 – 93 but missed out on promotion via the test match system , in 1893 – 94 they finished second in the division and were promoted to the First Division by defeating Darwen 3 – 1 in the test match . The club had been in financial difficulty during the season , and the Birmingham Daily Post speculated that failure in the test match " would in all probability have meant the disbanding of the club " . The accounts showed income of £ 1 @,@ 816 and expenditure of £ 2 @,@ 039 , a deficit of £ 222 on the year . Nevertheless , in preparation for the new season , the club began work on a grandstand and relaid the pitch . All the regular first @-@ choice players signed on again for the new campaign , apart from goalkeeper George Hollis . Of the less regular team members , Bernard Pumfrey left for Midland League club Gainsborough Trinity , William Reynolds and Gilbert Smith were released to join Birmingham & District League club Berwick Rangers , and Chris Charsley retired from League football to concentrate on his police career . Small Heath signed the former Sunderland full back Jack Oliver , whom they had failed to recruit earlier in the season , and forward Charlie Letherbarrow from Walsall , but those were the only major signings . The squad was boosted by players from local football , who included Alec Leake , Bill Lewis and a young Billy Pratt . Alfred Jones continued as secretary @-@ manager , and Caesar Jenkyns retained the captaincy . There were no changes to the team 's kit of light blue shirts with navy collar trim , cuffs and pocket , white knickerbockers and navy socks . = = Review = = = = = September – October = = = Small Heath 's First Division campaign began on Saturday 1 September with a visit to local rivals and League champions Aston Villa , which turned out rather closer than predicted . Jack Hallam opened the scoring from a Tommy Hands cross with the first League goal of the season , " for the match was started punctually , and it would have been a sheer impossibility to score faster than the Small Heath player did . " Villa equalised some 20 minutes	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
a Belgian @-@ made 9 × 17mm ( .380 ACP ) Fabrique Nationale model 1910 semi @-@ automatic pistol . Pistol serial numbers 19074 , 19075 , 19120 and 19126 were supplied to the assassins ; Princip used # 19074 . According to Albertini , " the first bullet wounded the Archduke in the jugular vein , the second inflicted an abdominal wound on the Duchess . " Princip was immediately arrested . At his sentencing , Princip stated that his intention had been to kill Governor Potiorek , rather than Sophie . Both victims remained seated upright , but died while being driven to the Governor 's residence for medical treatment . As reported by Count Harrach , Franz Ferdinand 's last words were " Sophie , Sophie ! Don 't die ! Live for our children ! " followed by six or seven utterances of " It is nothing . " in response to Harrach 's inquiry as to Franz Ferdinand 's injury . These utterances were followed by a long death rattle . Sophie was dead on arrival at the Governor 's residence . Franz Ferdinand died 10 minutes later . = = = Funeral = = = The bodies were transported to Trieste by the battleship SMS Viribus Unitis and then to Vienna by special train . Even though most foreign royalty had planned to attend , they were pointedly disinvited and the funeral was just the immediate imperial family , with the dead couple 's three children excluded from the few public ceremonies . The officer corps was forbidden to salute the funeral train , and this led to a minor revolt led by Archduke Karl , the new heir to the throne . The public viewing of the coffins was curtailed severely and even more scandalously , Montenuovo tried unsuccessfully to make the children foot the bill . The Archduke and Duchess were interred at Artstetten Castle because his wife could not be buried at the Imperial Crypt . = = = Aftermath = = = All of the assassins were eventually caught . Those in Austro @-@ Hungarian custody were tried together with members of the infiltration route who had helped deliver them and their weapons to Sarajevo . Mehmedbašić was arrested in Montenegro , but was allowed to " escape " to Serbia where he joined Major Tankosić 's auxiliaries , but in 1916 Serbia imprisoned him on other false charges ( see criminal penalty section below ) . Anti @-@ Serb rioting broke out in Sarajevo and various other places within Austria @-@ Hungary in the hours following the assassination until order was restored by the military . On the night of the assassination , country @-@ wide anti @-@ Serb pogroms and demonstrations were also organized in other parts of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire , particularly on the territory of modern @-@ day Bosnia and Herzegovina and Croatia . They were organized and stimulated by Oskar Potiorek , the Austro @-@ Hungarian governor of Bosnia and Herzegovina . The first anti @-@ Serb demonstrations , led by the followers of Josip Frank , were organized in early evening of 28 June in Zagreb . The following day , anti @-@ Serb demonstrations in Sarajevo became more violent and could be characterized as a pogrom . The police and local authorities in the city did nothing to prevent anti @-@ Serb violence . Writer Ivo Andrić referred to the violence in Sarajevo as the " Sarajevo frenzy of hate . " Two Serbs were killed on the first day of pogrom in Sarajevo , many were attacked , while around 1 @,@ 000 houses , shops , schools and institutions ( such as banks , hotels , printing houses ) owned by Serbs were razed or pillaged . = = Trials and punishment = = = = = Sarajevo trial ( October 1914 ) = = = Austro @-@ Hungarian authorities arrested and prosecuted the Sarajevo assassins ( except for Mehmedbašić who had escaped to Montenegro and was released from police custody there to Serbia ) together with the agents and peasants who had assisted them on their way . The top count in the indictments was conspiracy to commit high treason involving official circles in the Kingdom of Serbia . Conspiracy to commit high treason carried a maximum sentence of death which conspiracy to commit simple murder did not . The trial was held from 12 October to 23 October with the verdict and sentences announced on 28 October 1914 . The adult defendants , facing the death penalty , portrayed themselves at trial as unwilling participants in the conspiracy . The examination of defendant Veljko Cubrilović ( who helped coordinate the transport of the weapons and was a Narodna Odbrana agent ) is illustrative of this effort . Cubrilović stated to the court : " Princip glared at me and very forcefully said ' If you want to know , it is for that reason and we are going to carry out an assassination of the Heir and if you know about it , you have to be quiet . If you betray it , you and your family will be destroyed . ' " Under questioning by defense counsel Cubrilović described in more detail the basis of the fears that he said had compelled him to cooperate with Princip and Grabež . " Cubrilović explained that he was afraid a revolutionary organization capable of committing great atrocities stood behind Princip and that he therefore feared his house would be destroyed and his family killed if he did not comply and explained that he knew such an organization existed in Serbia , at least at one time . When pressed for why he risked the punishment of the law , and did not take the protection of the law against these threats he responded : " I was more afraid of terror than the law . " In order to refute the charge , the conspirators from Belgrade , who because of their youth did not face the death penalty , focused during the trial on putting blame on themselves and deflecting it from official Serbia and modified their court testimony from their prior depositions accordingly . Princip stated under cross examination : " I am a Yugoslav nationalist and I believe in unification of all South Slavs in whatever form of state and that it be free of Austria . " Princip was then asked how he intended to realize his goal and responded : " By means of terror . " Cabrinović , though , testified that the political views that motivated him to kill Franz Ferdinand were views held in the circles he traveled in within Serbia . The court did not believe the defendants ' stories claiming to hold official Serbia blameless . The verdict ran : " The court regards it as proved by the evidence that both the Narodna Odbrana and military circles in the Kingdom of Serbia in charge of the espionage service , collaborated in the outrage . " Prison terms , death sentences and acquittals were as follows : At trial Čabrinović had expressed his regrets for the murders . Following sentencing , Čabrinović received a letter of complete forgiveness from the three young children the assassins had orphaned . Čabrinović and Princip died of tuberculosis in prison . Those under the age of 20 years at the time of the crime could receive a maximum sentence of 20 years under Austrian @-@ Hungarian law . The court heard arguments regarding Princip 's age , as there was some doubt as to his true date of birth but concluded that Princip was under 20 at the time of the assassination . Because Bosnia and Herzegovina had not yet been assigned to Austria or to Hungary , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Minister administered Bosnia and Herzegovina and had responsibility for recommending clemency to the Kaiser . = = = Salonika trial ( spring 1917 ) = = = In late 1916 and early 1917 , secret peace talks took place between Austria @-@ Hungary and France . There is circumstantial evidence that parallel discussions were held between Austria @-@ Hungary and Serbia with Prime Minister Pašić dispatching his righthand man Stojan Protić and Regent Alexander dispatching his confidant Colonel Petar Živković to Geneva on secret business . Charles I of Austria laid out Austria @-@ Hungary 's key demand for returning Serbia to the control of the Serbian Government in exile : that Serbia should provide guarantees that there be no further political agitation emanating from Serbia against Austria @-@ Hungary . For some time , Regent Alexander and officers loyal to him had planned to get rid of the military clique headed by Apis as Apis represented a political threat to Alexander 's power . The Austro @-@ Hungarian peace demand gave added impetus to this plan . On 15 March 1917 Apis and the officers loyal to him were indicted , on various false charges unrelated to Sarajevo ( the case was retried before the Supreme Court of Serbia in 1953 and all defendants were exonerated ) , by Serbian Court Martial on the French @-@ controlled Salonika front . On 23 May Apis and eight of his associates were sentenced to death ; two others were sentenced to 15 years in prison . One defendant died during the trial and the charges against him were dropped . The Serbian High Court reduced the number of death sentences to seven . Regent Alexander commuted four of the remaining death sentences , leaving just three death sentences in place . Amongst those tried , four of the defendants had confessed their roles in Sarajevo and their final sentences were as follows : In justifying the executions , Prime Minister Pašić wrote to his envoy in London : " ... Dimitrijević ( Apis ) besides everything else admitted he had ordered Franz Ferdinand to be killed . And now who could reprieve them ? " As the three condemned men were driven to their execution , Apis remarked to the driver " Now it is clear to me and clear to you too , that I am to be killed today by Serbian rifles solely because I organized the Sarajevo outrage . Vojislav Tankosić died in battle in late 1915 and so was not put on trial . = = Controversy about responsibility = = = = = Serbia 's " warning " to Austria @-@ Hungary = = = Following the assassinations , Serbian Ambassador to France Milenko Vesnić and Serbian Ambassador to Russia Spalaiković put out statements claiming that Serbia had warned Austria @-@ Hungary of the impending assassination . Serbia soon thereafter denied making warnings and denied knowledge of the plot . Prime Minister Pašić himself made these denials to Az Est on 7 July and to the Paris Edition of the New York Herald on 20 July . Other voices eventually spoke out on the “ warning ” . As Serbian Education Minister Ljuba Jovanović wrote in Krv Sloventsva , in late May or early June , Prime Minister Pašić reviewed the plot of the impending assassination with members of his cabinet . On 18 June , a telegram , lacking in specifics , ordered Serbia 's Ambassador to Vienna , Jovan Jovanović , to warn Austria @-@ Hungary that Serbia had reason to believe there was a conspiracy to assassinate Franz Ferdinand in Bosnia . On 21 June , Ambassador Jovanović met with Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Minister Bilinski . According to Serbian Military Attaché to Vienna , Colonel Lesanin , Ambassador Jovanović , spoke to Bilinski and " ... stressed in general terms the risks the Archduke heir apparent might run from the inflamed public opinion in Bosnia and Serbia . Some serious personal misadventure might befall him . His journey might give rise to incidents and demonstrations that Serbia would deprecate but that would have fatal repercussions on Austro @-@ Serbian relations . " Jovanović came back from the meeting with Bilinski and told Lesanin that " ... Bilinski showed no sign of attaching great importance to the total message and dismissed it limiting himself to remarking when saying goodbye and thanking him : ' Let us hope nothing does happen . ' " The Austro @-@ Hungarian Finance Minister took no action based on Jovanović 's remarks . In 1924 J. Jovanović went public stating that his warning had been made on his own initiative , and what he said was that " Among the Serb youths ( in the army ) there may be one who will put a ball @-@ cartridge in his rifle or revolver in place of a blank cartridge and he may fire it , the bullet might strike the man giving provocation ( Franz Ferdinand ) . " J. Jovanović 's account changed back and forth over the years and never adequately addressed Colonel Lesanin 's statement . Bilinski did not speak openly on the subject , but his press department chief confirmed that a meeting had taken place including a vague warning , but there was no mention of an ethnic Serb Austro @-@ Hungarian soldier shooting Franz Ferdinand . In the days leading up to the assassination , Pašić was caretaker prime minister because during this period the Serbian Government briefly fell to a political alliance led by the Serbian Military . The military favored promoting Jovan Jovanović to Foreign Minister , and Jovanović 's loyalties one might expect to have been divided and his orders therefore carried out poorly . By choosing a military loyalist to convey the message , and by not including any of the specifics such as the conspirators ' names and weapons , Pašić , a survivor , hedged his bets against the various possible outcomes and consequences of the impending assassination . = = = Rade Malobabić = = = In 1914 , Rade Malobabić was Serbian Military Intelligence 's chief undercover operative against Austria @-@ Hungary . His name appeared in Serbian documents captured by Austria @-@ Hungary during the war . These documents describe the running of arms , munitions , and agents from Serbia into Austria @-@ Hungary under Malobabić 's direction . Owing to the suppression by Serbia of Apis 's confession and of the Salonika trial transcripts historians did not initially link Malobabić closely to the Sarajevo attack . Apis 's confession , however , states that " I engaged Malobabić to organize the assassination on the occasion of the announced arrival of Franz Ferdinand to Sarajevo . " At the Salonika trial , Colonel Ljubomir Vulović ( head of the Serbian Frontiers Service ) testified : ' In 1914 on occasion of my official trip from Loznica to Belgrade , I received a letter at the General Staff [ signed by Marshal Putnik , Serbia 's top military officer ] noting that agents of Malobabić would come and a teacher whose name I don 't recall ( Danilo Ilić was a teacher but it is unclear if the teacher in question was Ilić as Ilić can be placed in Brod but not Loznica ) so I could sent [ sic ] them into Bosnia . ' Because of that ' I went to Loznica and either that day or very soon afterwards sent Rade and that teacher into Bosnia . ' Soon thereafter occurred the Sarajevo assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand . " On the eve of his execution , Malobabić told a priest : " They ordered me to go to Sarajevo when that assassination was to take place , and when everything was over , they ordered me to come back and fulfill other missions , and then there was the outbreak of the war . " Vladimir Dedijer in The Road to Sarajevo presented additional testimonial evidence that Malobabić arrived in Sarajevo on the eve of the Sarajevo attack and gave the final go ahead for the operation to Danilo Ilić . This meshes with Dedijer 's theory that Djuro Ŝarac had given instructions to Ilić on 16 June cancelling the assassination . Soon after their confessions , Serbia executed Malobabić , Vulović , and Apis on false charges . Serbia published no clarifications of their confessions with regards to the Sarajevo attack . = = = " Black Hand " or Serbian military intelligence ? = = = An alternative theory to the Sarajevo attack being a Serbian Military Intelligence Operation was that it was a " Black Hand " operation . The " Black Hand " was a shadowy organization formed in Serbia as a counterweight to the Bulgaria @-@ sponsored Internal Macedonian Revolutionary Organization ( IMRO ) . After Serbia 's victory over Bulgaria in Macedonia in the Balkan Wars , the " Black Hand " became moribund because of the death of its president and the failure to replace him , an inactive secretary , casualties , broken links between its three @-@ man cells , and a drying up of funding . By 1914 the " Black Hand " was no longer operating under its constitution but rather as a creature of the Chief of Serbian Military Intelligence , Apis , and its active ranks were composed mostly of Serbian officers loyal to Apis . Apis 's confession to ordering the operation that begins with the phrase " As the Chief of the Intelligence Department of the General Staff " , the fact that the military chain of command was invoked , the moribund nature of the " Black Hand " and the fact that under the " Black Hand " constitution Article 16 , such an assassination could only be ordered by a vote of the Supreme Council Directorate , the President or the Secretary and no such order was made , are factors in favor of assigning responsibility to Serbian Military Intelligence . The fact that Milan Ciganović was involved , that the key officers involved were " Black Hand " members , that " Black Hand " Provincial Director for Bosnia and Herzegovina Vladimir Gaćinović was consulted and that there was no official budget for the operation favors assigning responsibility to the " Black Hand " . = = = The newspaper clipping = = = At trial , it was noted that the three assassins from Belgrade tried to take all blame on themselves . Čabrinović claimed the idea of killing Franz Ferdinand came from a newspaper clipping he received in the mail at the end of March announcing Franz Ferdinand 's planned visit to Sarajevo . He then showed the newspaper clipping to Princip and the next day they agreed they would kill Franz Ferdinand . Princip explained to the court he had already read about Franz Ferdinand 's upcoming visit in German papers . Princip went on to testify that , at about the time of Easter ( 19 April ) , he wrote an allegorical letter to Ilić informing him of the plan to kill Franz Ferdinand . Grabež testified that he and Princip , also at about the time of Easter , agreed between them to make an assassination of either Governor Potiorek or Franz Ferdinand and a little later settled on Franz Ferdinand . The defendants refused or were unable to provide details under examination . On 26 March Ilić and Mehmedbašić had already agreed to kill Franz Ferdinand based on instructions from Belgrade predating the newspaper clipping and the discussions amongst the three assassins in Belgrade . = = = Narodna Odbrana = = = Serbian Military Intelligence – through remnants of the " Black Hand " – penetrated the Narodna Odbrana , using its clandestine tunnel to smuggle the assassins and their weapons from Belgrade to Sarajevo . In the 5 June 1914 report by the President of the Narodna Odbrana Boža Milanović to Prime Minister Pašić one can sense the frustration of the President over the hijacking of his organization in the final sentence dealing with Sarajevo : " Boža has informed all the agents that they should not receive anyone unless he produces the password given by Boža . " = = = Milan Ciganović = = = Prime Minister Pašić received early information of the assassination plan . The information was received by Pašić early enough , according to Education Minister Ljuba Jovanović , for the government to order the border guards to prevent the assassins from crossing . This places the cabinet minister discussions in late May and the information release to some time before that . Albertini concluded that the source of the information was most likely Milan Ciganović . Bogiĉević made a more forceful case . The circumstantial evidence against Ciganović includes his sinecure government job , his protection by the Chief of Police and Serbia 's failure to arrest him ( Austria @-@ Hungary demanded Serbia arrest Major Vojislav Tankosić and Ciganović , but Serbia arrested only Tankosić and lied saying that Ciganović could not be found ) , Serbia 's protection of Ciganović during the war , and the government 's provision for Ciganović after it . In 1917 , all of the Sarajevo conspirators within Serbia 's control were tried at Salonika on false charges , except Ciganović , who even gave evidence against his comrades at the trial . = = = Russian military attaché 's office = = = Apis 's confession to ordering the assassination of Franz Ferdinand states that Russian Military Attaché Artamonov promised Russia 's protection from Austria @-@ Hungary if Serbia 's intelligence operations became exposed and that Russia had funded the assassination . Artamonov denied the involvement of his office in an interview with Albertini . Artamonov stated that he went on vacation to Italy leaving Assistant Military Attaché Alexander Werchovsky in charge and though he was in daily contact with Apis he did not learn of Apis 's role until after the war had ended . Albertini writes that he " remained unconvinced by the behavior of this officer . " Werchovsky admitted the involvement of his office and then fell silent on the subject . There is evidence that Russia was at least aware of the plot before 14 June . De Schelking writes : On 1 June 1914 ( 14 June new calendar ) , Emperor Nicholas had an interview with King Charles I of Roumania , at Constanza . I was there at the time ... yet as far as I could judge from my conversation with members of his ( Russian Foreign Minister Sazonov 's ) entourage , he ( Sazonov ) was convinced that if the Archduke ( Franz Ferdinand ) were out of the way , the peace of Europe would not be endangered . = = Consequences = = The murder of the heir to the Austro @-@ Hungarian Empire and his wife produced widespread shock across Europe , and there was initially much sympathy for the Austrian position . Within two days of the assassination , Austria @-@ Hungary and Germany advised Serbia that it should open an investigation , but Secretary General to the Serbian Ministry of Foreign Affairs Slavko Gruic , replied " Nothing had been done so far and the matter did not concern the Serbian Government . " An angry exchange followed between the Austrian Chargé d 'Affaires at Belgrade and Gruic . After conducting a criminal investigation , verifying that Germany would honor its military alliance , and persuading the skeptical Hungarian Count Tisza , Austria @-@ Hungary issued a formal letter to the government of Serbia . The letter reminded Serbia of its commitment to respect the Great Powers ' decision regarding Bosnia @-@ Herzegovina , and to maintain good neighborly relations with Austria @-@ Hungary . The letter contained specific demands aimed at preventing the publication of propaganda advocating the violent destruction of Austria @-@ Hungary , removing the people behind this propaganda from the Serbian Military , arresting the people on Serbian soil who were involved in the assassination plot and preventing the clandestine shipment of arms and explosives from Serbia to Austria @-@ Hungary . This letter became known as the July Ultimatum , and Austria @-@ Hungary stated that if Serbia did not accept all of the demands in total within 48 hours , it would recall its ambassador from Serbia . After receiving a telegram of support from Russia , Serbia mobilized its army and responded to the letter by completely accepting point # 8 demanding an end to the smuggling of weapons and punishment of the frontier officers who had assisted the assassins and completely accepting point # 10 which demanded Serbia report the execution of the required measures as they were completed . Serbia partially accepted , finessed , disingenuously answered or politely rejected elements of the preamble and enumerated demands # 1 – 7 and # 9 . The shortcomings of Serbia 's response were published by Austria @-@ Hungary . Austria @-@ Hungary responded by breaking diplomatic relations . The next day , Serbian reservists being transported on tramp steamers on the Danube crossed onto the Austro @-@ Hungarian side of the river at Temes @-@ Kubin and Austro @-@ Hungarian soldiers fired into the air to warn them off . The report of this incident was initially sketchy and reported to Emperor Franz @-@ Joseph as " a considerable skirmish " . Austria @-@ Hungary then declared war and mobilized the portion of its army that would face the ( already mobilized ) Serbian Army on 28 July 1914 . Under the Secret Treaty of 1892 Russia and France were obliged to mobilize their armies if any of the Triple Alliance mobilized . Russia 's mobilization set off full Austro @-@ Hungarian and German mobilizations . Soon all the Great Powers except Italy had chosen sides and gone to war . Princip 's weapon , along with the car in which the Archduke was riding , his bloodstained uniform and the chaise longue on which he died , are on permanent display in the Heeresgeschichtliches Museum in Vienna , Austria . The bullet fired by Gavrilo Princip , sometimes referred to as " the bullet that started World War I " , is a museum exhibit in the Konopiště Castle near the town of Benešov in the Czech Republic . = Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 = The Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 ( c.23 ) is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom that protects whistleblowers from detrimental treatment by their employer . Influenced by various financial scandals and accidents , along with the report of the Committee on Standards in Public Life , the bill was introduced to Parliament by Richard Shepherd and given government support , on the condition that it become an amendment to the Employment Rights Act 1996 . After receiving the Royal Assent on 2 July 1998 , the Act came into force on 2 July 1999 . It protects employees who make disclosures of certain types of information , including evidence of illegal activity or damage to the environment , from retribution from their employers , such as dismissal or being passed over for promotion . In cases where such retribution takes place the employee may bring a case before an employment tribunal , which can award compensation . As a result of the Act , many more employers have instituted internal whistleblowing procedures , although only 38 percent of individuals surveyed worked for a company with such procedures in place . The Act has been criticised for failing to force employers to institute such a policy , containing no provisions preventing the " blacklisting " of employees who make such disclosures , and failing to protect the employee from libel proceedings should his allegation turn out to be false . = = Background = = Prior to the 1998 Act , whistleblowers in the United Kingdom had no protection against being dismissed by their employer . Although they could avoid being sued for breach of confidence thanks to a public interest defence , this did not prevent subtle or open victimisation in the workplace , including disciplinary action , dismissal , failure to gain promotion or a pay rise . During the early to mid @-@ 1990s , interest in whistleblower protection grew , partially because of a series of financial scandals and health and safety accidents , which investigations into showed could have been prevented if employees had been permitted to voice their concerns , and partially because of the work of the Committee on Standards in Public Life . In 1995 and 1996 , two private member 's bills dealing with whistleblowers were introduced to Parliament , by Tony Wright and Don Touhig respectively , but both efforts fell through . When Richard Shepherd proposed a similar bill , however , he got government support for it on the condition that it be an amendment to the Employment Rights Act 1996 rather than a new area of law in its own right . Public Concern at Work , a UK @-@ based whistleblowers charity , was involved in the drafting and consultation stages of the bill . The case of Graham Pink added to the pressure to introduce whistleblower protection legislation . The Public Interest Disclosure Bill was introduced to the House of Commons by Shepherd in 1997 , and given its second reading on 12 December before being sent to a committee . After being passed by the Commons it moved to the House of Lords on 27 April 1998 , and was passed on 29 June , receiving the Royal Assent on 2 July and becoming the Public Interest Disclosure Act 1998 . Originally scheduled to come into force on 1 January 1999 , the Act instead became applicable law on 2 July . = = Contents of the Act = = Section 1 of the Act inserts sections 43A to L into the Employment Rights Act 1996 , titled " Protected Disclosures " . It provides that a disclosure which the whistleblower makes to their employer , a " prescribed person " , in the course of seeking legal advice , Ministers of the Crown , individuals appointed by the Secretary of State for this purpose , or , in limited circumstances , " any other person " , is protected . In addition , the disclosure must be one which the whistleblower " reasonably believes " shows a criminal offence , a failure to comply with legal obligations , a miscarriage of justice , danger to the health and safety of employees , damage to the environment , or the hiding of information which would show any of the above actions . These disclosures do not have to be of confidential information , and this section does not abolish the public interest defence ; in addition , it can be the disclosure of information about actions which have already occurred , are occurring , or could occur in the future . In Miklaszewicz v Stolt Offshore Ltd , the Employment Appeal Tribunal confirmed that the disclosure does not have to have been made after the Act came into force ; it is sufficient for the dismissal or other persecution by the employer to have happened after that time . The list of " prescribed persons " is found in the Public Interest Disclosure ( Prescribed Persons ) Order 1999 , and includes only official bodies ; the Health and Safety Executive , the Data Protection Registrar , the Certification Officer , the Environment Agency and the Secretary of State for Trade and Industry . An employee will be protected if he " makes a disclosure in good faith " to one of these people , and " reasonably believes that the relevant failure ... is a matter in respect of which the person is prescribed and the information is substantially true " . Other prescribed persons include the Scottish Environment Protection Agency , in relation to " acts or omissions which have an actual or potential effect on the environment ... including those relating to pollution " . If an employee does make such a disclosure , Section 2 inserts a new Section 47B , providing that the employee shall suffer no detriment in their employment as a result . This includes both negative actions and the absence of action , and as such covers discipline , dismissal , or failing to gain a pay rise or access to facilities which would otherwise have been provided . If an employee does suffer a detriment , he is permitted to make a complaint before an employment tribunal under Section 3 . In front of an employment tribunal , the law is amended in Sections 4 and 5 to provide compensation , and to reverse the burden of proof ; if an employee has been dismissed for making a protected disclosure , this dismissal is automatically considered unfair . Similarly , under Section 6 , an employee cannot be given priority when discussing redundancies simply because he made such a disclosure . These sections take into account Section 7 , which notes that there is no requirement of age or length of employment before they come into effect . Under Section 8 , the Secretary of State could pass a statutory instrument setting out the rules and limits surrounding compensation for the employee 's dismissal after making a protected disclosure ; until this is done , Section 9 provided interim remedies , which were the same as in other cases of unfair dismissal . The Secretary of State did pass such an instrument , the Public Interest Disclosure ( Compensation ) Regulations 1999 , but Section 8 has now been repealed under Section 44 of the Employment Relations Act 1999 . Under Section 10 , the Act applies to crown servants , excepting under Section 11 , those who are employees of MI5 , MI6 or GCHQ . The Act does exclude , in Sections 12 and 13 , serving police officers and those employed outside the United Kingdom . = = Assessment and Impact = = Terry Corbin , writing in the Criminal Law and Justice Weekly , notes that the result of the Act has been that many more employers have developed internal processes for reporting issues ; partially due to their desire to fix problems before they become publicly reported , and partially because if an employee chooses to not use these processes and instead act under the 1998 Act , there is a greater chance the employer can depict his behaviour as " unreasonable " . However , a survey done by Public Concern At Work showed that in 2010 , only 38 percent of those surveyed worked for companies with whistleblowing policies in place , and only 23 percent knew that legal protection for whistleblowers existed . The number of cases brought by whistleblowers to employment tribunals has increased more than tenfold , from 157 in 1999 / 2000 to 1 @,@ 761 in 2008 / 9 . David Lewis , writing in the Industrial Law Journal , highlights what he perceives as weaknesses in the legislation . Firstly , it does not force employers to make a policy relating to disclosures . Secondly , it does not prevent employers from " blacklisting " and refusing to hire those who are known within the industry to have made disclosures in previous jobs . The complexity of the law was also criticised , as was the fact that , if such a disclosure turns out to be incorrect , the employee may be sued for libel by his employer . Volunteers and self @-@ employed people are not covered , nor are those who , in disclosing the information , commit a criminal offence . At the same time , the law does not make any provision for psychological harm caused by whistleblowing , which research shows is an increasing likelihood . = Stephen , King of England = Stephen ( c . 1092 / 6 – 25 October 1154 ) , often referred to as Stephen of Blois , was a grandson of William the Conqueror . He was King of England from 1135 to his death , and also the Count of Boulogne in right of his wife . Stephen 's reign was marked by the Anarchy , a civil war with his cousin and rival , the Empress Matilda . He was succeeded by Matilda 's son , Henry II , the first of the Angevin kings . Stephen was born in the County of Blois in middle France ; his father , Count Stephen @-@ Henry , died while Stephen was still young , and he was brought up by his mother , Adela . Placed into the court of his uncle , Henry I , Stephen rose in prominence and was granted extensive lands . Stephen married Matilda of Boulogne , inheriting additional estates in Kent and Boulogne that made the couple one of the wealthiest in England . Stephen narrowly escaped drowning with Henry I 's son , William Adelin , in the sinking of the White Ship in 1120 ; William 's death left the succession of the English throne open to challenge . When Henry I died in 1135 , Stephen quickly crossed the English Channel and with the help of his brother Henry of Blois , a powerful ecclesiastic , took the throne , arguing that the preservation of order across the kingdom took priority over his earlier oaths to support the claim of Henry I 's daughter , the Empress Matilda . The early years of Stephen 's reign were largely successful , despite a series of attacks on his possessions in England and Normandy by David I of Scotland , Welsh rebels , and the Empress Matilda 's husband , Geoffrey of Anjou . In 1138 the Empress 's half @-@ brother Robert of Gloucester rebelled against Stephen , threatening civil war . Together with his close advisor , Waleran de Beaumont , Stephen took firm steps to defend his rule , including arresting a powerful family of bishops . When the Empress and Robert invaded in 1139 , however , Stephen was unable to crush the revolt rapidly , and it took hold in the south @-@ west of England . Captured at the battle of Lincoln in 1141 , Stephen was abandoned by many of his followers and lost control of Normandy . Stephen was freed only after his wife and William of Ypres , one of his military commanders , captured Robert at the Rout of Winchester , but the war dragged on for many years with neither side able to win an advantage . Stephen became increasingly concerned with ensuring that his son Eustace would inherit his throne . The King tried to convince the Church to agree to crown Eustace to reinforce his claim ; Pope Eugene III refused , and Stephen found himself in a sequence of increasingly bitter arguments with his senior clergy . In 1153 the Empress 's son , Henry FitzEmpress , invaded England and built an alliance of powerful regional barons to support his claim for the throne . The two armies met at Wallingford , but neither side 's barons were keen to fight another pitched battle . Stephen began to examine a negotiated peace , a process hastened by the sudden death of Eustace . Later in the year Stephen and Henry agreed to the Treaty of Winchester , in which Stephen recognised Henry as his heir in exchange for peace , passing over William , Stephen 's second son . Stephen died the following year . Modern historians have extensively debated the extent to which Stephen 's personality , external events , or the weaknesses in the Norman state contributed to this prolonged period of civil war . = = Early life ( 1096 – 1135 ) = = = = = Childhood = = = Stephen was born in Blois in France , in either 1092 or 1096 . His father was Stephen @-@ Henry , Count of Blois and Chartres , an important French nobleman , and an active crusader , who played only a brief part in Stephen 's early life . During the First Crusade Stephen @-@ Henry had acquired a reputation for cowardice , and he returned to the Levant again in 1101 to rebuild his reputation ; there he was killed at the battle of Ramlah . Stephen 's mother , Adela , was the daughter of William the Conqueror and Matilda of Flanders , famous amongst her contemporaries for her piety , wealth and political talent . She had a strong matriarchal influence on Stephen during his early years . France in the 12th century was a loose collection of counties and smaller polities , under the minimal control of the king of France . The king 's power was linked to his control of the rich province of Île @-@ de @-@ France , just to the east of Stephen 's home county of Blois . In the west lay the three counties of Maine , Anjou and Touraine , and to the north of Blois was the Duchy of Normandy , from which William the Conqueror had conquered England in 1066 . William 's children were still fighting over the collective Anglo @-@ Norman inheritance . The rulers across this region spoke a similar language , albeit with regional dialects , followed the same religion , and were closely interrelated ; they were also highly competitive and frequently in conflict with one another for valuable territory and the castles that controlled them . Stephen had at least four brothers and one sister , along with two probable half @-@ sisters . Stephen 's eldest brother was William , who under normal circumstances would have ruled the county . William was probably intellectually disabled , and Adela instead had the title passed over him to her second son , Theobald , who went on later to acquire the county of Champagne as well as Blois and Chartres . Stephen 's remaining older brother , Odo , died young , probably in his early teens . His younger brother , Henry of Blois , was probably born four years after him . The brothers formed a close @-@ knit family group , and Adela encouraged Stephen to take up the role of a feudal knight , whilst steering Henry towards a career in the church , possibly so that their personal career interests would not overlap . Unusually , Stephen was raised in his mother 's household rather than being sent to a close relative ; he was taught Latin and riding , and was educated in recent history and Biblical stories by his tutor , William the Norman . = = = Relationship with Henry I = = = Stephen 's early life was heavily influenced by his relationship with his uncle Henry I. Henry seized power in England following the death of his elder brother William Rufus . In 1106 he invaded and captured the Duchy of Normandy , controlled by his eldest brother , Robert Curthose , defeating Robert 's army at the battle of Tinchebray . Henry then found himself in conflict with Louis VI of France , who took the opportunity to declare Robert 's son William Clito the Duke of Normandy . Henry responded by forming a network of alliances with the western counties of France against Louis , resulting in a regional conflict that would last throughout Stephen 's early life . Adela and Theobald allied themselves with Henry , and Stephen 's mother decided to place him in Henry 's court . Henry fought his next military campaign in Normandy , from 1111 onwards , where rebels led by Robert of Bellême were opposing his rule . Stephen was probably with Henry during the military campaign of 1112 , when he was knighted by the King , and was definitely present at court during the King 's visit to the Abbey of Saint @-@ Evroul in 1113 . Stephen probably first visited England in either 1113 or 1115 , almost certainly as part of Henry 's court . Henry became a powerful patron of Stephen 's ; Henry probably chose to support him because Stephen was part of his extended family and a regional ally , yet not sufficiently wealthy or powerful in his own right to represent a threat to either the King or his heir , William Adelin . As a third surviving son , even of an influential regional family , Stephen still needed the support of a powerful patron such as the King to progress in life . With Henry 's support , Stephen rapidly began to accumulate lands and possessions . Following the battle of Tinchebray in 1106 , Henry confiscated the County of Mortain from William , the Count of Mortain , and the Honour of Eye , a large lordship previously owned by Robert Malet . In 1113 , Stephen was granted both the title and the honour , although without the lands previously held by William in England . The gift of the Honour of Lancaster also followed after it was confiscated by Henry from Roger the Poitevin . Stephen was also given lands in Alençon in southern Normandy by Henry , but the local Normans rebelled , seeking assistance from Fulk , the Count of Anjou . Stephen and his older brother Theobald were comprehensively beaten in the subsequent campaign , which culminated in the battle of Alençon , and the territories were not recovered . Finally , the King arranged for Stephen to marry Matilda in 1125 , the daughter and only heiress of the Count of Boulogne , who owned both the important continental port of Boulogne and vast estates in the north @-@ west and south @-@ east of England . In 1127 , William Clito , a potential claimant to the English throne , seemed likely to become the Count of Flanders ; Stephen was sent by the King on a mission to prevent this , and in the aftermath of his successful election , William Clito attacked Stephen 's lands in neighbouring Boulogne in retaliation . Eventually a truce was declared , and William Clito died the following year . = = = The White Ship and succession = = = In 1120 , the English political landscape changed dramatically . Three hundred passengers embarked on the White Ship to travel from Barfleur in Normandy to England , including the heir to the throne , William Adelin , and many other senior nobles . Stephen had intended to sail on the same ship but changed his mind at the last moment and got off to await another vessel , either out of concern for overcrowding on board the ship , or because he was suffering from diarrhoea . The ship foundered en route , and all but two of the passengers died , including William Adelin . With Adelin dead , the inheritance to the English throne was thrown into doubt . Rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain ; in some parts of France , male primogeniture , in which the eldest son would inherit a title , was becoming more popular . It was also traditional for the King of France to crown his successor whilst he himself was still alive , making the intended line of succession relatively clear , but this was not the case in England . In other parts of Europe , including Normandy and England , the tradition was for lands to be divided up , with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands — usually considered to be the most valuable — and younger sons being given smaller , or more recently acquired , partitions or estates . The problem was further complicated by the sequence of unstable Anglo @-@ Norman successions over the previous sixty years — William the Conqueror had gained England by force , William Rufus and Robert Curthose had fought a war between them to establish their inheritance , and Henry had only acquired control of Normandy by force . There had been no peaceful , uncontested successions . With William Adelin dead , Henry had only one other legitimate child , Matilda , but as a woman she was at a substantial political disadvantage . Despite Henry taking a second wife , Adeliza of Louvain , it became increasingly unlikely that he would have another legitimate son , and he instead looked to Matilda as his intended heir . Matilda claimed the title of Holy Roman Empress through her marriage to Emperor Henry V , but her husband died in 1125 , and she was remarried in 1128 to Geoffrey , the Count of Anjou , whose lands bordered the Duchy of Normandy . Geoffrey was unpopular with the Anglo @-@ Norman elite : as an Angevin ruler , he was a traditional enemy of the Normans . At the same time , tensions continued to grow as a result of Henry 's domestic policies , in particular the high level of revenue he was raising to pay for his various wars . Conflict was curtailed , however , by the power of the King 's personality and reputation . Henry attempted to build up a base of political support for Matilda in both England and Normandy , demanding that his court take oaths first in 1127 , and then again in 1128 and 1131 , to recognise Matilda as his immediate successor and recognise her descendants as the rightful rulers after her . Stephen was amongst those who took this oath in 1127 . Nonetheless , relations between Henry , Matilda , and Geoffrey became increasingly strained towards the end of the King 's life . Matilda and Geoffrey suspected that they lacked genuine support in England , and proposed to Henry in 1135 that the King should hand over the royal castles in Normandy to Matilda whilst he was still alive and insist on the Norman nobility swearing immediate allegiance to her , thereby giving the couple a much more powerful position after Henry 's death . Henry angrily declined to do so , probably out of a concern that Geoffrey would try to seize power in Normandy somewhat earlier than intended . A fresh rebellion broke out in southern Normandy , and Geoffrey and Matilda intervened militarily on behalf of the rebels . In the middle of this confrontation , Henry unexpectedly fell ill and died near Lyons @-@ la @-@ Forêt . = = Succession ( 1135 ) = = Stephen was a well established figure in Anglo @-@ Norman society by 1135 . He was extremely wealthy , well @-@ mannered and liked by his peers ; he was also considered a man capable of firm action . Chroniclers recorded that despite his wealth and power he was a modest and easy @-@ going leader , happy to sit with his men and servants , casually laughing and eating with them . He was very pious , both in terms of his observance of religious rituals and his personal generosity to the church . Stephen also had a personal Augustinian confessor appointed to him by the Archbishop of Canterbury , who implemented a penitential regime for him , and Stephen encouraged the new order of Cistercians to form abbeys on his estates , winning him additional allies within the church . Rumours of his father 's cowardice during the First Crusade , however , continued to circulate , and a desire to avoid the same reputation may have influenced some of Stephen 's rasher military actions . His wife , Matilda , played a major role in running their vast English estates , which contributed to the couple being the second @-@ richest lay household in the country after the King . The landless Flemish nobleman William of Ypres had joined Stephen 's household in 1133 , alongside Faramus of Boulogne , a Flemish relative and friend of Matilda 's . Meanwhile , Stephen 's younger brother Henry of Blois had also risen to power under Henry I. Henry of Blois had become a Cluniac monk and followed Stephen to England , where the King made him Abbot of Glastonbury , the richest abbey in England . The King then appointed him Bishop of Winchester , one of the richest bishoprics , allowing him to retain Glastonbury as well . The combined revenues of the two positions made Henry of Winchester the second @-@ richest man in England after the King . Henry of Winchester was keen to reverse what he perceived as encroachment by the Norman kings on the rights of the church . The Norman kings had traditionally exercised a great deal of power and autonomy over the church within their territories . From the 1040s onwards , however , successive popes had put forward a reforming message that emphasised the importance of the church being " governed more coherently and more hierarchically from the centre " and established " its own sphere of authority and jurisdiction , separate from and independent of that of the lay ruler " , in the words of historian Richard Huscroft . When news began to spread of Henry I 's death , many of the potential claimants to the throne were not well placed to respond . Geoffrey and Matilda were in Anjou , rather awkwardly supporting the rebels in their campaign against the royal army , which included a number of Matilda 's supporters such as Robert of Gloucester . Many of these barons had taken an oath to stay in Normandy until the late king was properly buried , which prevented them from returning to England . Stephen 's elder brother Theobald was further south still , in Blois . Stephen , however , was in Bolougne , and when news reached him of Henry 's death he left for England , accompanied by his military household . Robert of Gloucester had garrisoned the ports of Dover and Canterbury and some accounts suggest that they refused Stephen access when he first arrived . Nonetheless Stephen probably reached his own estate on the edge of London by 8 December and over the next week he began to seize power in England . The crowds in London traditionally claimed a right to elect the king of England , and they proclaimed Stephen the new monarch , believing that he would grant the city new rights and privileges in return . Henry of Blois delivered the support of the church to Stephen : Stephen was able to advance to Winchester , where Roger , who was both the Bishop of Salisbury and the Lord Chancellor , instructed the royal treasury to be handed over to Stephen . On 15 December , Henry delivered an agreement under which Stephen would grant extensive freedoms and liberties to the church , in exchange for the Archbishop of Canterbury and the Papal Legate supporting his succession to the throne . There was the slight problem of the religious oath that Stephen had taken to support the Empress Matilda , but Henry convincingly argued that the late King had been wrong to insist that his court take the oath . Furthermore , the late King had only insisted on that oath to protect the stability of the kingdom , and in light of the chaos that might now ensue , Stephen would be justified in ignoring it . Henry was also able to persuade Hugh Bigod , the late King 's royal steward , to swear that the King had changed his mind about the succession on his deathbed , nominating Stephen instead . Stephen 's coronation was held a week later at Westminster Abbey on 22 December . Meanwhile , the Norman nobility gathered at Le Neubourg to discuss declaring Theobald king , probably following the news that Stephen was gathering support in England . The Normans argued that the count , as the eldest grandson of William the Conqueror , had the most valid claim over the kingdom and the duchy , and was certainly preferable to Matilda . Theobald met with the Norman barons and Robert of Gloucester at Lisieux on 21 December , but their discussions were interrupted by the sudden news from England that Stephen 's coronation was to occur the next day . Theobald then agreed to the Normans ' proposal that he be made king , only to find that his former support immediately ebbed away : the barons were not prepared to support the division of England and Normandy by opposing Stephen . Stephen subsequently financially compensated Theobald , who in return remained in Blois and supported his brother 's succession . = = Early reign ( 1136 – 39 ) = = = = = Initial years ( 1136 – 37 ) = = = Stephen 's new Anglo @-@ Norman kingdom had been shaped by the Norman conquest of England in 1066 , followed by the Norman expansion into south Wales over the coming years . Both the kingdom and duchy were dominated by a small number of major barons who owned lands on both sides of the English Channel , with the lesser barons beneath them usually having more localised holdings . The extent to which lands and positions should be passed down through hereditary right or by the gift of the king was still uncertain , and tensions concerning this issue had grown during the reign of Henry I. Certainly lands in Normandy , passed by hereditary right , were usually considered more important to major barons than those in England , where their possession was less certain . Henry had increased the authority and capabilities of the central royal administration , often bringing in " new men " to fulfil key positions rather than using the established nobility . In the process he had been able to maximise revenues and contain expenditures , resulting in a healthy surplus and a famously large treasury , but also increasing political tensions . Stephen had to intervene in the north of England immediately after his coronation . David I of Scotland invaded the north on the news of Henry 's death , taking Carlisle , Newcastle and other key strongholds . Northern England was a disputed territory at this time , with the Scottish kings laying a traditional claim to Cumberland , and David also claiming Northumbria by virtue of his marriage to the daughter of the former Anglo @-@ Saxon earl Waltheof . Stephen rapidly marched north with an army and met David at Durham . An agreement was made under which David would return most of the territory he had taken , with the exception of Carlisle . In return , Stephen confirmed David 's son Prince Henry 's possessions in England , including the Earldom of Huntingdon . Returning south , Stephen held his first royal court at Easter 1136 . A wide range of nobles gathered at Westminster for the event , including many of the Anglo @-@ Norman barons and most of the higher officials of the church . Stephen issued a new royal charter , confirming the promises he had made to the church , promising to reverse Henry 's policies on the royal forests and to reform any abuses of the royal legal system . Stephen portrayed himself as the natural successor to Henry I 's policies , and reconfirmed the existing seven earldoms in the kingdom on their existing holders . The Easter court was a lavish event , and a large amount of money was spent on the event itself , clothes and gifts . Stephen gave out grants of land and favours to those present and endowed numerous church foundations with land and privileges . Stephen 's accession to the throne still needed to be ratified by the Pope , however , and Henry of Blois appears to have been responsible for ensuring that testimonials of support were sent both from Stephen 's elder brother Theobald and from the French king Louis VI , to whom Stephen represented a useful balance to Angevin power in the north of France . Pope Innocent II confirmed Stephen as king by letter later that year , and Stephen 's advisers circulated copies widely around England to demonstrate Stephen 's legitimacy . Troubles continued across Stephen 's kingdom . After the Welsh victory at the battle of Llwchwr in January 1136 and the successful ambush of Richard Fitz Gilbert de Clare in April , south Wales rose in rebellion , starting in east Glamorgan and rapidly spreading across the rest of south Wales during 1137 . Owain Gwynedd and Gruffydd ap Rhys successfully captured considerable territories , including Carmarthen Castle . Stephen responded by sending Richard 's brother Baldwin and the Marcher Lord Robert Fitz Harold of Ewyas into Wales to pacify the region . Neither mission was particularly successful , and by the end of 1137 the King appears to have abandoned attempts to put down the rebellion . Historian David Crouch suggests that Stephen effectively " bowed out of Wales " around this time to concentrate on his other problems . Meanwhile , Stephen had put down two revolts in the south @-@ west led by Baldwin de Redvers and Robert of Bampton ; Baldwin was released after his capture and travelled to Normandy , where he became an increasingly vocal critic of the King . The security of Normandy was also a concern . Geoffrey of Anjou invaded in early 1136 and , after a temporary truce , invaded later the same year , raiding and burning estates rather than trying to hold the territory . Events in England meant that Stephen was unable to travel to Normandy himself , so Waleran de Beaumont , appointed by Stephen as the lieutenant of Normandy , and Theobald led the efforts to defend the duchy . Stephen himself only returned to the duchy in 1137 , where he met with Louis VI and Theobald to agree to an informal regional alliance , probably brokered by Henry , to counter the growing Angevin power in the region . As part of this deal , Louis recognised Stephen 's son Eustace as Duke of Normandy in exchange for Eustace giving fealty to the French king . Stephen was less successful , however , in regaining the Argentan province along the Normandy and Anjou border , which Geoffrey had taken at the end of 1135 . Stephen formed an army to retake it , but the frictions between his Flemish mercenary forces led by William of Ypres and the local Norman barons resulted in a battle between the two halves of his army . The Norman forces then deserted the King , forcing Stephen to give up his campaign . Stephen agreed to another truce with Geoffrey , promising to pay him 2 @,@ 000 marks a year in exchange for peace along the Norman borders . In the years following his succession , Stephen 's relationship with the church became gradually more complex . The royal charter of 1136 had promised to review the ownership of all the lands that had been taken by the crown from the church since 1087 , but these estates were now typically owned by nobles . Henry of Blois 's claims , in his role as Abbot of Glastonbury , to extensive lands in Devon resulted in considerable local unrest . In 1136 , Archbishop of Canterbury William de Corbeil died . Stephen responded by seizing his personal wealth , which caused some discontent amongst the senior clergy . Stephen 's brother Henry wanted to succeed to the post , but Stephen instead supported Theobald of Bec , who was eventually appointed , while the papacy named Henry papal legate , possibly as consolation for not receiving Canterbury . Stephen 's first few years as king can be interpreted in different ways . From a positive perspective , he stabilised the northern border with Scotland , contained Geoffrey 's attacks on Normandy , was at peace with Louis VI , enjoyed good relations with the church and had the broad support of his barons . There were significant underlying problems , nonetheless . The north of England was now controlled by David and Prince Henry , Stephen had abandoned Wales , the fighting in Normandy had considerably destabilised the duchy , and an increasing number of barons felt that Stephen had given them neither the lands nor the titles they felt they deserved or were owed . Stephen was also rapidly running out of money : Henry 's considerable treasury had been emptied by 1138 due to the costs of running Stephen 's more lavish court and the need to raise and maintain his mercenary armies fighting in England and Normandy . = = = Defending the kingdom ( 1138 – 39 ) = = = Stephen was attacked on several fronts during 1138 . First , Robert of Gloucester rebelled against the King , starting the descent into civil war in England . An illegitimate son of Henry I and the half @-@ brother of the Empress Matilda , Robert was one of the most powerful Anglo @-@ Norman barons , controlling estates in Normandy as well as the Earldom of Gloucester . He was known for his qualities as a statesman , his military experience , and leadership ability . Robert had tried to convince Theobald to take the throne in 1135 ; he did not attend Stephen 's first court in 1136 and it took several summonses to convince him to attend court at Oxford later that year . In 1138 , Robert renounced his fealty to Stephen and declared his support for Matilda , triggering a major regional rebellion in Kent and across the south @-@ west of England , although Robert himself remained in Normandy . In France , Geoffrey of Anjou took advantage of the situation by re @-@ invading Normandy . David of Scotland also invaded the north of England once again , announcing that he was supporting the claim of his niece the Empress Matilda to the throne , pushing south into Yorkshire . Anglo @-@ Norman warfare during the reign of Stephen was characterised by attritional military campaigns , in which commanders tried to seize key enemy castles in order to allow them to take control of their adversaries ' territory and ultimately win a slow , strategic victory . The armies of the period centred on bodies of mounted , armoured knights , supported by infantry and crossbowmen . These forces were either feudal levies , drawn up by local nobles for a limited period of service during a campaign , or , increasingly , mercenaries , who were expensive but more flexible and often more skilled . These armies , however , were ill @-@ suited to besieging castles , whether the older motte @-@ and @-@ bailey designs or the newer , stone @-@ built keeps . Existing siege engines were significantly less powerful than the later trebuchet designs , giving defenders a substantial advantage over attackers . As a result , slow sieges to starve defenders out , or mining operations to undermine walls , tended to be preferred by commanders over direct assaults . Occasionally pitched battles were fought between armies but these were considered highly risky endeavours and were usually avoided by prudent commanders . The cost of warfare had risen considerably in the first part of the 12th century , and adequate supplies of ready cash were increasingly proving important in the success of campaigns . Stephen 's personal qualities as a military leader focused on his skill in personal combat , his capabilities in siege warfare and a remarkable ability to move military forces quickly over relatively long distances . In response to the revolts and invasions , Stephen rapidly undertook several military campaigns , focusing primarily on England rather than Normandy . His wife Matilda was sent to Kent with ships and resources from Boulogne , with the task of retaking the key port of Dover , under Robert 's control . A small number of Stephen 's household knights were sent north to help the fight against the Scots , where David 's forces were defeated later that year at the battle of the Standard in August by the forces of Thurstan , the Archbishop of York . Despite this victory , however , David still occupied most of the north . Stephen himself went west in an attempt to regain control of Gloucestershire , first striking north into the Welsh Marches , taking Hereford and Shrewsbury , before heading south to Bath . The town of Bristol itself proved too strong for him , and Stephen contented himself with raiding and pillaging the surrounding area . The rebels appear to have expected Robert to intervene with support that year , but he remained in Normandy throughout , trying to persuade the Empress Matilda to invade England herself . Dover finally surrendered to the queen 's forces later in the year . Stephen 's military campaign in England had progressed well , and historian David Crouch describes it as " a military achievement of the first rank " . The King took the opportunity of his military advantage to forge a peace agreement with Scotland . Stephen 's wife Matilda was sent to negotiate another agreement between Stephen and David , called the treaty of Durham ; Northumbria and Cumbria would effectively be granted to David and his son Prince Henry , in exchange for their fealty and future peace along the border . Unfortunately , the powerful Ranulf , Earl of Chester , considered himself to hold the traditional rights to Carlisle and Cumberland and was extremely displeased to see them being given to the Scots . Nonetheless , Stephen could now focus his attention on the anticipated invasion of England by Robert and Matilda 's forces . = = = Road to civil war ( 1139 ) = = = Stephen prepared for the Angevin invasion by creating a number of additional earldoms . Only a handful of earldoms had existed under Henry I and these had been largely symbolic in nature . Stephen created many more , filling them with men he considered to be loyal , capable military commanders , and in the more vulnerable parts of the country assigning them new lands and additional executive powers . Stephen appears to have had several objectives in mind , including both ensuring the loyalty of his key supporters by granting them these honours , and improving his defences in key parts of the kingdom . Stephen was heavily influenced by his principal advisor , Waleran de Beaumont , the twin brother of Robert of Leicester . The Beaumont twins and their younger brother and cousins received the majority of these new earldoms . From 1138 onwards , Stephen gave them the earldoms of Worcester , Leicester , Hereford , Warwick and Pembroke , which — especially when combined with the possessions of Stephen 's new ally , Prince Henry , in Cumberland and Northumbria — created a wide block of territory to act as a buffer zone between the troubled south @-@ west , Chester , and the rest of the kingdom . With their new lands , the power of the Beamounts grew to the point where David Crouch suggests that it became " dangerous to be anything other than a friend of Waleran " at Stephen 's court . Stephen took steps to remove a group of bishops he regarded as a threat to his rule . The royal administration under Henry I had been headed by Roger , the Bishop of Salisbury , supported by Roger 's nephews , Alexander and Nigel , the Bishops of Lincoln and Ely respectively , and Roger 's son , Roger le Poer , who was the Lord Chancellor . These bishops were powerful landowners as well as ecclesiastical rulers , and they had begun to build new castles and increase the size of their military forces , leading Stephen to suspect that they were about to defect to the Empress Matilda . Roger and his family were also enemies of Waleran , who disliked their control of the royal administration . In June 1139 , Stephen held his court in Oxford , where a fight between Alan of Brittany and Roger 's men broke out , an incident probably deliberately created by Stephen . Stephen responded by demanding that Roger and the other bishops surrender all of their castles in England . This threat was backed up by the arrest of the bishops , with the exception of Nigel who had taken refuge in Devizes Castle ; the bishop only surrendered after Stephen besieged the castle and threatened to execute Roger le Poer . The remaining castles were then surrendered to the King . Stephen 's brother , Henry of Blois , was alarmed by this , both as a matter of principle , since Stephen had previously agreed in 1135 to respect the freedoms of the church , and more pragmatically because he himself had recently built six castles and had no desire to be treated in the same way . As the papal legate , he summoned the King to appear before an ecclesiastical council to answer for the arrests and seizure of property . Henry asserted the Church ’ s right to investigate and judge all charges against members of the clergy . Stephen sent Aubrey de Vere as his spokesman to the council , who argued that Roger of Salisbury had been arrested not as a bishop , but rather in his role as a baron who had been preparing to change his support to the Empress Matilda . The King was supported by Hugh , Archbishop of Rouen , who challenged the bishops to show how canon law entitled them to build or hold castles . Aubrey threatened that Stephen would complain to the pope that he was being harassed by the English church , and the council let the matter rest following an unsuccessful appeal to Rome . The incident successfully removed any military threat from the bishops , but it may have damaged Stephen 's relationship with the senior clergy , and in particular with his brother Henry . = = Civil war ( 1139 – 54 ) = = = = = Initial phase of the war ( 1139 – 40 ) = = = The Angevin invasion finally arrived in 1139 . Baldwin de Redvers crossed over from Normandy to Wareham in August in an initial attempt to capture a port to receive the Empress Matilda 's invading army , but Stephen 's forces forced him to retreat into the south @-@ west . The following month , however , the Empress was invited by the Dowager Queen Adeliza to land at Arundel instead , and on 30 September Robert of Gloucester and the Empress arrived in England with 140 knights . The Empress stayed at Arundel Castle , whilst Robert marched north @-@ west to Wallingford and Bristol , hoping to raise support for the rebellion and to link up with Miles of Gloucester , a capable military leader who took the opportunity to renounce his fealty to the King . Stephen promptly moved south , besieging Arundel and trapping Matilda inside the castle . Stephen then agreed to a truce proposed by his brother , Henry of Blois ; the full details of the truce are not known , but the results were that Stephen first released Matilda from the siege and then allowed her and her household of knights to be escorted to the south @-@ west , where they were reunited with Robert of Gloucester . The reasoning behind Stephen 's decision to release his rival remains unclear . Contemporary chroniclers suggested that Henry argued that it would be in Stephen 's own best interests to release the Empress and concentrate instead on attacking Robert , and Stephen may have seen Robert , not the Empress , as his main opponent at this point in the conflict . Stephen also faced a military dilemma at Arundel — the castle was considered almost impregnable , and he may have been worried that he was tying down his army in the south whilst Robert roamed freely in the west . Another theory is that Stephen released Matilda out of a sense of chivalry ; Stephen was certainly known for having a generous , courteous personality and women were not normally expected to be targeted in Anglo @-@ Norman warfare . Having released the Empress , Stephen focused on pacifying the south @-@ west of England . Although there had been few new defections to the Empress , his enemies now controlled a compact block of territory stretching out from Gloucester and Bristol south @-@ west into Devon and Cornwall , west into the Welsh Marches and east as far as Oxford and Wallingford , threatening London . Stephen started by attacking Wallingford Castle , held by the Empress 's childhood friend Brien FitzCount , only to find it too well defended . Stephen left behind some forces to blockade the castle and continued west into Wiltshire to attack Trowbridge , taking the castles of South Cerney and Malmesbury en route . Meanwhile , Miles of Gloucester marched east , attacking Stephen 's rearguard forces at Wallingford and threatening an advance on London . Stephen was forced to give up his western campaign , returning east to stabilise the situation and protect his capital . At the start of 1140 , Nigel , the Bishop of Ely , whose castles Stephen had confiscated the previous year , rebelled against Stephen as well . Nigel hoped to seize East Anglia and established his base of operations in the Isle of Ely , then surrounded by protective fenland . Stephen responded quickly , taking an army into the fens and using boats lashed together to form a causeway that allowed him to make a surprise attack on the isle . Nigel escaped to Gloucester , but his men and castle were captured , and order was temporarily restored in the east . Robert of Gloucester 's men retook some of the territory that Stephen had taken in his 1139 campaign . In an effort to negotiate a truce , Henry of Blois held a peace conference at Bath , to which Stephen sent his wife . The conference collapsed over the insistence by Henry and the clergy that they should set the terms of any peace deal , which Stephen found unacceptable . Ranulf of Chester remained upset over Stephen 's gift of the north of England to Prince Henry . Ranulf devised a plan for dealing with the problem by ambushing Henry whilst the prince was travelling back from Stephen 's court to Scotland after Christmas . Stephen responded to rumours of this plan by escorting Henry himself north , but this gesture proved the final straw for Ranulf . Ranulf had previously claimed that he had the rights to Lincoln Castle , held by Stephen , and under the guise of a social visit , Ranulf seized the fortification in a surprise attack . Stephen marched north to Lincoln and agreed to a truce with Ranulf , probably to keep him from joining the Empress 's faction , under which Ranulf would be allowed to keep the castle . Stephen returned to London but received news that Ranulf , his brother and their family were relaxing in Lincoln Castle with a minimal guard force , a ripe target for a surprise attack of his own . Abandoning the deal he had just made , Stephen gathered his army again and sped north , but not quite fast enough — Ranulf escaped Lincoln and declared his support for the Empress , and Stephen was forced to place the castle under siege . = = = Second phase of the war ( 1141 – 42 ) = = = While Stephen and his army besieged Lincoln Castle at the start of 1141 , Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf of Chester advanced on the King 's position with a somewhat larger force . When the news reached Stephen , he held a council to decide whether to give battle or to withdraw and gather additional soldiers : Stephen decided to fight , resulting in the battle of Lincoln on 2 February 1141 . The King commanded the centre of his army , with Alan of Brittany on his right and William of Aumale on his left . Robert and Ranulf 's forces had superiority in cavalry and Stephen dismounted many of his own knights to form a solid infantry block ; he joined them himself , fighting on foot in the battle . Stephen was not a gifted public speaker , and delegated the pre @-@ battle speech to Baldwin of Clare , who delivered a rousing declaration . After an initial success in which William 's forces destroyed the Angevins ' Welsh infantry , the battle went badly for Stephen . Robert and Ranulf 's cavalry encircled Stephen 's centre , and the king found himself surrounded by the enemy army . Many of Stephen 's supporters , including Waleran de Beaumont and William of Ypres , fled from the field at this point but Stephen fought on , defending himself first with his sword and then , when that broke , with a borrowed battle axe . Finally , he was overwhelmed by Robert 's men and taken away from the field in custody . Robert took Stephen back to Gloucester , where the King met with the Empress Matilda , and was then moved to Bristol Castle , traditionally used for holding high @-@ status prisoners . He was initially left confined in relatively good conditions , but his security was later tightened and he was kept in chains . The Empress now began to take the necessary steps to have herself crowned queen in his place , which would require the agreement of the church and her coronation at Westminster . Stephen 's brother Henry summoned a council at Winchester before Easter in his capacity as papal legate to consider the clergy 's view . He had made a private deal with the Empress Matilda that he would deliver the support of the church , if she agreed to give him control over church business in England . Henry handed over the royal treasury , rather depleted except for Stephen 's crown , to the Empress , and excommunicated many of Stephen 's supporters who refused to switch sides . Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury was unwilling to declare Matilda queen so rapidly , however , and a delegation of clergy and nobles , headed by Theobald , travelled to see Stephen in Bristol and consult about their moral dilemma : should they abandon their oaths of fealty to the King ? Stephen agreed that , given the situation , he was prepared to release his subjects from their oath of fealty to him , and the clergy gathered again in Winchester after Easter to declare the Empress " Lady of England and Normandy " as a precursor to her coronation . When Matilda advanced to London in an effort to stage her coronation in June , though , she faced an uprising by the local citizens in support of Stephen that forced her to flee to Oxford , uncrowned . Once news of Stephen 's capture reached him , Geoffrey of Anjou invaded Normandy again and , in the absence of Waleran of Beaumont , who was still fighting in England , Geoffrey took all the duchy south of the river Seine and east of the river Risle . No help was forthcoming from Stephen 's brother Theobald this time either , who appears to have been preoccupied with his own problems with France — the new French king , Louis VII , had rejected his father 's regional alliance , improving relations with Anjou and taking a more bellicose line with Theobald , which would result in war the following year . Geoffrey 's success in Normandy and Stephen 's weakness in England began to influence the loyalty of many Anglo @-@ Norman barons , who feared losing their lands in England to Robert and the Empress , and their possessions in Normandy to Geoffrey . Many started to leave Stephen 's faction . His friend and advisor Waleran was one of those who decided to defect in mid @-@ 1141 , crossing into Normandy to secure his ancestral possessions by allying himself with the Angevins , and bringing Worcestershire into the Empress 's camp . Waleran 's twin brother , Robert of Leicester , effectively withdrew from fighting in the conflict at the same time . Other supporters of the Empress were restored in their former strongholds , such as Bishop Nigel of Ely , and others still received new earldoms in the west of England . The royal control over the minting of coins broke down , leading to coins being struck by local barons and bishops across the country . Stephen 's wife Matilda played a critical part in keeping the King 's cause alive during his captivity . Queen Matilda gathered Stephen 's remaining lieutenants around her and the royal family in the south @-@ east , advancing into London when the population rejected the Empress . Stephen 's long @-@ standing commander William of Ypres remained with the queen in London ; William Martel , the royal steward , commanded operations from Sherborne in Dorset , and Faramus of Boulogne ran the royal household . The queen appears to have generated genuine sympathy and support from Stephen 's more loyal followers . Henry 's alliance with the Empress proved short @-@ lived , as they soon fell out over political patronage and ecclesiastical policy ; the bishop met Stephen 's wife Queen Matilda at Guildford and transferred his support to her . The King 's eventual release resulted from the Angevin defeat at the rout of Winchester . Robert of Gloucester and the Empress besieged Henry in the city of Winchester in July . Queen Matilda and William of Ypres then encircled the Angevin forces with their own army , reinforced with fresh troops from London . In the subsequent battle the Empress 's forces were defeated and Robert of Gloucester himself was taken prisoner . Further negotiations attempted to deliver a general peace agreement but Queen Matilda was unwilling to offer any compromise to the Empress , and Robert refused to accept any offer to encourage him to change sides to Stephen . Instead , in November the two sides simply exchanged Robert and the King , and Stephen began re @-@ establishing his authority . Henry held another church council , which this time reaffirmed Stephen 's legitimacy to rule , and a fresh coronation of Stephen and Matilda occurred at Christmas 1141 . At the beginning of 1142 Stephen fell ill , and by Easter rumours had begun to circulate that he had died . Possibly this illness was the result of his imprisonment the previous year , but he finally recovered and travelled north to raise new forces and to successfully convince Ranulf of Chester to change sides once again . Stephen then spent the summer attacking some of the new Angevin castles built the previous year , including Cirencester , Bampton and Wareham . In September , he spotted an opportunity to seize the Empress Matilda herself in Oxford . Oxford was a secure town , protected by walls and the river Isis , but Stephen led a sudden attack across the river , leading the charge and swimming part of the way . Once on the other side , the King and his men stormed into the town , trapping the Empress in the castle . Oxford Castle , however , was a powerful fortress and , rather than storming it , Stephen had to settle down for a long siege , albeit secure in the knowledge that Matilda was now surrounded . Just before Christmas , the Empress left the castle unobserved , crossed the icy river on foot and made her escape to Wallingford . The garrison surrendered shortly afterwards , but Stephen had lost an opportunity to capture his principal opponent . = = = Stalemate ( 1143 – 46 ) = = = The war between the two sides in England reached a stalemate in the mid @-@ 1140s , while Geoffrey of Anjou consolidated his hold on power in Normandy . 1143 started precariously for Stephen when he was besieged by Robert of Gloucester at Wilton Castle , an assembly point for royal forces in Herefordshire . Stephen attempted to break out and escape , resulting in the battle of Wilton . Once again , the Angevin cavalry proved too strong , and for a moment it appeared that Stephen might be captured for a second time . On this occasion , however , William Martel , Stephen 's steward , made a fierce rear guard effort , allowing Stephen to escape from the battlefield . Stephen valued William 's loyalty sufficiently to agree to exchange Sherborne Castle for his safe release — this was one of the few instances where Stephen was prepared to give up a castle to ransom one of his men . In late 1143 , Stephen faced a new threat in the east , when Geoffrey de Mandeville , the Earl of Essex , rose up in rebellion against the King in East Anglia . Stephen had disliked the baron for several years , and provoked the conflict by summoning Geoffrey to court , where the King arrested him . Stephen threatened to execute Geoffrey unless the baron handed over his various castles , including the Tower of London , Saffron Walden and Pleshey , all important fortifications because they were in , or close to , London . Geoffrey gave in , but once free he headed north @-@ east into the Fens to the Isle of Ely , from where he began a military campaign against Cambridge , with the intention of progressing south towards London . With all of his other problems and with Hugh Bigod still in open revolt in Norfolk , Stephen lacked the resources to track Geoffrey down in the Fens and made do with building a screen of castles between Ely and London , including Burwell Castle . For a period , the situation continued to worsen . Ranulf of Chester revolted once again in the summer of 1144 , splitting up Stephen 's Honour of Lancaster between himself and Prince Henry . In the west , Robert of Gloucester and his followers continued to raid the surrounding royalist territories , and Wallingford Castle remained a secure Angevin stronghold , too close to London for comfort . Meanwhile , Geoffrey of Anjou finished securing his hold on southern Normandy and in January 1144 he advanced into Rouen , the capital of the duchy , concluding his campaign . Louis VII recognised him as Duke of Normandy shortly after . By this point in the war , Stephen was depending increasingly on his immediate royal household , such as William of Ypres and others , and lacked the support of the major barons who might have been able to provide him with significant additional forces ; after the events of 1141 , Stephen made little use of his network of earls . After 1143 the war ground on , but progressing slightly better for Stephen . Miles of Gloucester , one of the most talented Angevin commanders , had died whilst hunting over the previous Christmas , relieving some of the pressure in the west . Geoffrey de Mandeville 's rebellion continued until September 1144 , when he died during an attack on Burwell . The war in the west progressed better in 1145 , with the King recapturing Faringdon Castle in Oxfordshire . In the north , Stephen came to a fresh agreement with Ranulf of Chester , but then in 1146 repeated the ruse he had played on Geoffrey de Mandeville in 1143 , first inviting Ranulf to court , before arresting him and threatening to execute him unless he handed over a number of castles , including Lincoln and Coventry . As with Geoffrey , the moment Ranulf was released he immediately rebelled , but the situation was a stalemate : Stephen had few forces in the north with which to prosecute a fresh campaign , whilst Ranulf lacked the castles to support an attack on Stephen . By this point , however , Stephen 's practice of inviting barons to court and arresting them had brought him into some disrepute and increasing distrust . = = = Final phases of the war ( 1147 – 52 ) = = = England had suffered extensively from the war by 1147 , leading later Victorian historians to call the period of conflict " the Anarchy " . The contemporary Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle recorded how " there was nothing but disturbance and wickedness and robbery " . Certainly in many parts of the country , such as Wiltshire , Berkshire , the Thames Valley and East Anglia , the fighting and raiding had caused serious devastation . Numerous " adulterine " , or unauthorised , castles had been built as bases for local lords — the chronicler Robert of Torigny complained that as many as 1 @,@ 115 such castles had been built during the conflict , although this was probably an exaggeration as elsewhere he suggested an alternative figure of 126 . The previously centralised royal coinage system was fragmented , with Stephen , the Empress and local lords all minting their own coins . The royal forest law had collapsed in large parts of the country . Some parts of the country , though , were barely touched by the conflict — for example , Stephen 's lands in the south @-@ east and the Angevin heartlands around Gloucester and Bristol were largely unaffected , and David I ruled his territories in the north of England effectively . The King 's overall income from his estates , however , declined seriously during the conflict , particularly after 1141 , and royal control over the minting of new coins remained limited outside of the south @-@ east and East Anglia . With Stephen often based in the south @-@ east , increasingly Westminster , rather than the older site of Winchester , was used as the centre of royal government . The character of the conflict in England gradually began to shift ; as historian Frank Barlow suggests , by the late 1140s " the civil war was over " , barring the occasional outbreak of fighting . In 1147 Robert of Gloucester died peacefully , and the next year the Empress Matilda left south @-@ west England for Normandy , both of which contributed to reducing the tempo of the war . The Second Crusade was announced , and many Angevin supporters , including Waleran of Beaumont , joined it , leaving the region for several years . Many of the barons were making individual peace agreements with each other to secure their lands and war gains . Geoffrey and Matilda 's son , the future King Henry II , mounted a small mercenary invasion of England in 1147 but the expedition failed , not least because Henry lacked the funds to pay his men . Surprisingly , Stephen himself ended up paying their costs , allowing Henry to return home safely ; his reasons for doing so are unclear . One potential explanation is his general courtesy to a member of his extended family ; another is that he was starting to consider how to end the war peacefully , and saw this as a way of building a relationship with Henry . The young Henry FitzEmpress returned to England again in 1149 , this time planning to form a northern alliance with Ranulf of Chester . The Angevin plan involved Ranulf agreeing to give up his claim to Carlisle , held by the Scots , in return for being given the rights to the whole of the Honour of Lancaster ; Ranulf would give homage to both David and Henry Fitzempress , with Henry having seniority . Following this peace agreement , Henry and Ranulf agreed to attack York , probably with help from the Scots . Stephen marched rapidly north to York and the planned attack disintegrated , leaving Henry to return to Normandy , where he was declared duke by his father . Although still young , Henry was increasingly gaining a reputation as an energetic and capable leader . His prestige and power increased further when he unexpectedly married Eleanor of Aquitaine in 1152 ; Eleanor was the attractive Duchess of Aquitaine and the recently divorced wife of Louis VII of France , and the marriage made Henry the future ruler of a huge swathe of territory across France . In the final years of the war , Stephen began to focus on the issue of his family and the succession . Stephen 's eldest son was Eustace and the King wanted to confirm him as his successor , although chroniclers recorded that Eustace was infamous for levying heavy taxes and extorting money from those on his lands . Stephen 's second son , William , was married to the extremely wealthy heiress Isabel de Warenne . In 1148 , Stephen built the Cluniac Faversham Abbey as a resting place for his family . Both Stephen 's wife , Queen Matilda , and his older brother Theobald died in 1152 . = = = Argument with the church ( 1145 – 52 ) = = = Stephen 's relationship with the church deteriorated badly towards the end of his reign . The reforming movement within the church , which advocated greater autonomy from royal authority for the clergy , had continued to grow , while new voices such as the Cistercians had gained additional prestige within the monastic orders , eclipsing older orders such as the Cluniacs . Stephen 's dispute with the church had its origins in 1140 , when Archbishop Thurstan of York died . An argument then broke out between a group of reformers based in York and backed by Bernard of Clairvaux , the head of the Cistercian order , who preferred William of Rievaulx as the new archbishop , and Stephen and his brother Henry of Blois , who preferred various Blois family relatives . The row between Henry and Bernard grew increasingly personal , and Henry used his authority as legate to appoint his nephew William of York to the post in 1144 only to find that , when Pope Innocent II died in 1145 , Bernard was able to get the appointment rejected by Rome . Bernard then convinced Pope Eugene III to overturn Henry 's decision altogether in 1147 , deposing William , and appointing Henry Murdac as archbishop instead . Stephen was furious over what he saw as potentially precedent @-@ setting papal interference in his royal authority , and initially refused to allow Murdac into England . When Theobald , the Archbishop of Canterbury , went to consult with the Pope on the matter against Stephen 's wishes , the King refused to allow him back into England either , and seized his estates . Stephen also cut his links to the Cistercian order , and turned instead to the Cluniacs , of which Henry was a member . Nonetheless , the pressure on Stephen to get Eustace confirmed as his legitimate heir continued to grow . The King gave Eustace the County of Boulogne in 1147 , but it remained unclear whether Eustace would inherit England . Stephen 's preferred option was to have Eustace crowned while he himself was still alive , as was the custom in France , but this was not the normal practice in England , and Celestine II , during his brief tenure as pope between 1143 and 1144 , had banned any change to this practice . Since the only person who could crown Eustace was Archbishop Theobald , who refused to do so without agreement from the current pope , Eugene III , the matter reached an impasse . At the end of 1148 , Stephen and Theobald came to a temporary compromise that allowed Theobald to return to England . Theobald was appointed a papal legate in 1151 , adding to his authority . Stephen then made a fresh attempt to have Eustace crowned at Easter 1152 , gathering his nobles to swear fealty to Eustace , and then insisting that Theobald and his bishops anoint him king . When Theobald refused yet again , Stephen and Eustace imprisoned both him and the bishops and refused to release them unless they agreed to crown Eustace . Theobald escaped again into temporary exile in Flanders , pursued to the coast by Stephen 's knights , marking a low point in Stephen 's relationship with the church . = = = Treaties and peace ( 1153 – 54 ) = = = Henry FitzEmpress returned to England again at the start of 1153 with a small army , supported in the north and east of England by Ranulf of Chester and Hugh Bigod . Stephen 's castle at Malmesbury was besieged by Henry 's forces , and the King responded by marching west with an army to relieve it . Stephen unsuccessfully attempted to force Henry 's smaller army to fight a decisive battle along the river Avon . In the face of the increasingly wintry weather , Stephen agreed to a temporary truce and returned to London , leaving Henry to travel north through the Midlands where the powerful Robert de Beaumont , Earl of Leicester , announced his support for the Angevin cause . Despite only modest military successes , Henry and his allies now controlled the south @-@ west , the Midlands and much of the north of England . Over the summer , Stephen intensified the long @-@ running siege of Wallingford Castle in a final attempt to take this major Angevin stronghold . The fall of Wallingford appeared imminent and Henry marched south in an attempt to relieve the siege , arriving with a small army and placing Stephen 's besieging forces under siege themselves . Upon news of this , Stephen gathered up a large force and marched from Oxford , and the two sides confronted each other across the River Thames at Wallingford in July . By this point in the war , the barons on both sides seem to have been eager to avoid an open battle . As a result , instead of a battle ensuing , members of the church brokered a truce , to the annoyance of both Stephen and Henry . In the aftermath of Wallingford , Stephen and Henry spoke together privately about a potential end to the war ; Stephen 's son Eustace , however , was furious about the peaceful outcome at Wallingford . He left his father and returned home to Cambridge to gather more funds for a fresh campaign , where he fell ill and died the next month . Eustace 's death removed an obvious claimant to the throne and was politically convenient for those seeking a permanent peace in England . It is possible , however , that Stephen had already begun to consider passing over Eustace 's claim ; historian Edmund King observes that Eustace 's claim to the throne was not mentioned in the discussions at Wallingford , for example , and this may have added to Stephen 's son 's anger . Fighting continued after Wallingford , but in a rather half @-@ hearted fashion . Stephen lost the towns of Oxford and Stamford to Henry while the King was diverted fighting Hugh Bigod in the east of England , but Nottingham Castle survived an Angevin attempt to capture it . Meanwhile , Stephen 's brother Henry of Blois and Archbishop Theobald of Canterbury were for once unified in an effort to broker a permanent peace between the two sides , putting pressure on Stephen to accept a deal . The armies of Stephen and Henry FitzEmpress met again at Winchester , where the two leaders would ratify the terms of a permanent peace in November . Stephen announced the Treaty of Winchester in Winchester Cathedral : he recognised Henry FitzEmpress as his adopted son and successor , in return for Henry doing homage to him ; Stephen promised to listen to Henry 's advice , but retained all his royal powers ; Stephen 's remaining son , William , would do homage to Henry and renounce his claim to the throne , in exchange for promises of the security of his lands ; key royal castles would be held on Henry 's behalf by guarantors , whilst Stephen would have access to Henry 's castles ; and the numerous foreign mercenaries would be demobilised and sent home . Stephen and Henry sealed the treaty with a kiss of peace in the cathedral . = = Death = = Stephen 's decision to recognise Henry as his heir was , at the time , not necessarily a final solution to the civil war . Despite the issuing of new currency and administrative reforms , Stephen might potentially have lived for many more years , whilst Henry 's position on the continent was far from secure . Although Stephen 's son William was young and unprepared to challenge Henry for the throne in 1153 , the situation could well have shifted in subsequent years — there were widespread rumours during 1154 that William planned to assassinate Henry , for example . Historian Graham White describes the treaty of Winchester as a " precarious peace " , capturing the judgement of most modern historians that the situation in late 1153 was still uncertain and unpredictable . Certainly many problems remained to be resolved , including re @-@ establishing royal authority over the provinces and resolving the complex issue of which barons should control the contested lands and estates after the long civil war . Stephen burst into activity in early 1154 , travelling around the kingdom extensively . He began issuing royal writs for the south @-@ west of England once again and travelled to York where he held a major court in an attempt to impress upon the northern barons that royal authority was being reasserted . After a busy summer in 1154 , however , Stephen travelled to Dover to meet the Count of Flanders ; some historians believe that the King was already ill and preparing to settle his family affairs . Stephen fell ill with a stomach disorder and died on 25 October at the local priory , being buried at Faversham Abbey with his wife Matilda and son Eustace . = = Legacy = = = = = Aftermath = = = After Stephen 's death , Henry II succeeded to the throne of England . Henry vigorously re @-@ established royal authority in the aftermath of the civil war , dismantling castles and increasing revenues , although several of these trends had begun under Stephen . The destruction of castles under Henry was not as dramatic as once thought , and although he restored royal revenues , the economy of England remained broadly unchanged under both rulers . Stephen 's remaining son William I of Blois was confirmed as the Earl of Surrey by Henry , and prospered under the new regime , with the occasional point of tension with Henry . Stephen 's daughter Marie I of Boulogne also survived her father ; she had been placed in a convent by Stephen , but after his death left and married . Stephen 's middle son , Baldwin , and second daughter , Matilda , had died before 1147 and were buried at Holy Trinity Priory , Aldgate . Stephen probably had three illegitimate sons , Gervase , Ralph and Americ , by his mistress Damette ; Gervase became Abbot of Westminster in 1138 , but after his father 's death Gervase was removed by Henry in 1157 and died shortly afterwards . = = = Historiography = = = Much of the modern history of Stephen 's reign is based on accounts of chroniclers who lived in , or close to , the middle of the 12th century , forming a relatively rich account of the period . All of the main chronicler accounts carry significant regional biases in how they portray the disparate events . Several of the key chronicles were written in the south @-@ west of England , including the Gesta Stephani , or " Acts of Stephen " , and William of Malmesbury 's Historia Novella , or " New History " . In Normandy , Orderic Vitalis wrote his Ecclesiastical History , covering Stephen 's reign until 1141 , and Robert of Torigni wrote a later history of the rest of the period . Henry of Huntingdon , who lived in the east of England , produced the Historia Anglorum that provides a regional account of the reign . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle was past its prime by the time of Stephen , but is remembered for its striking account of conditions during " the Anarchy " . Most of the chronicles carry some bias for or against Stephen , Robert of Gloucester or other key figures in the conflict . Those writing for the church after the events of Stephen 's later reign , such as John of Salisbury for example , paint the King as a tyrant due to his argument with the Archbishop of Canterbury ; by contrast , clerics in Durham regarded Stephen as a saviour , due to his contribution to the defeat of the Scots at the battle of the Standard . Later chronicles written during the reign of Henry II were generally more negative : Walter Map , for example , described Stephen as " a fine knight , but in other respects almost a fool . " A number of charters were issued during Stephen 's reign , often giving details of current events or daily routine , and these have become widely used as sources by modern historians . Historians in the " Whiggish " tradition that emerged during the Victorian period traced a progressive and universalist course of political and economic development in England over the medieval period . William Stubbs focused on these constitutional aspects of Stephen 's reign in his 1874 volume the Constitutional History of England , beginning an enduring interest in Stephen and his reign . Stubbs ' analysis , focusing on the disorder of the period , influenced his student John Round to coin the term " the Anarchy " to describe the period , a label that , whilst sometimes critiqued , continues to be used today . The late @-@ Victorian scholar Frederic William Maitland also introduced the possibility that Stephen 's reign marked a turning point in English legal history — the so @-@ called " tenurial crisis " . Stephen remains a popular subject for historical study : David Crouch suggests that after King John he is " arguably the most written @-@ about medieval king of England " . Modern historians vary in their assessments of Stephen as a king . Historian R. H. Davis 's influential biography paints a picture of a weak king : a capable military leader in the field , full of activity and pleasant , but " beneath the surface ... mistrustful and sly " , with poor strategic judgement that ultimately undermined his reign . Stephen 's lack of sound policy judgement and his mishandling of international affairs , leading to the loss of Normandy and his consequent inability to win the civil war in England , is also highlighted by another of his biographers , David Crouch . Historian and biographer Edmund King , whilst painting a slightly more positive picture than Davis , also concludes that Stephen , while a stoic , pious and genial leader , was also rarely , if ever , his own man , usually relying upon stronger characters such as his brother or wife . Historian Keith Stringer provides a more positive portrayal of Stephen , arguing that his ultimate failure as king was the result of external pressures on the Norman state , rather than the result of personal failings . = = = Popular representations = = = Stephen and his reign have been occasionally used in historical fiction . Stephen and his supporters appear in Ellis Peters ' historical detective series Brother Cadfael , set between 1137 and 1145 . Peters ' depiction of Stephen 's reign is an essentially local narrative , focused on the town of Shrewsbury and its environs . Peters paints Stephen as a tolerant man and a reasonable ruler , despite his execution of the Shrewsbury defenders after the taking of the city in 1138 . In contrast , Stephen is depicted unsympathetically in both Ken Follett 's historical novel The Pillars of the Earth and the TV mini @-@ series adapted from it . = = Issue = = Stephen of Blois married Matilda of Boulogne in 1125 . They had the following issue : Eustace ( c . 1130 – 1153 ) , who succeeded his parents as Count Eustace IV of Boulogne Matilda ( died before 1141 ) , married Waleran de Beaumont , 1st Earl of Worcester Marie ( 1133 – 1182 ) , who succeeded as Countess Marie I of Boulogne Baldwin ( died before 1135 ) Adela ( died before 1146 ) William ( c . 1137 – 1159 ) , who succeeded as Count William I of Boulogne King Stephen 's illegitimate children by a certain Damette were : Gervase , Abbot of Westminster Ralph Americ = = Ancestors = = = I Will Possess Your Heart = " I Will Possess Your Heart " is an alternative rock song recorded by the American band Death Cab for Cutie . The song depicts a one @-@ sided obsessive relationship , which led Paste to name it one of the 25 creepiest songs about love . It is notable for its five @-@ minute instrumental introduction as well as its music video which required location shooting across four continents . The song was the lead single from their sixth studio album , Narrow Stairs ( 2008 ) . The music is dominated by a repetitive bass guitar riff interspersed with piano chords and Ben Gibbard 's vocals . It was released on March 18 , 2008 in two versions : a full eight @-@ minute album version , and a four @-@ minute radio edit that omitted most of the instrumental introduction . The song was critically acclaimed and nominated for the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song . The music video , released on April 11 , 2008 , features scenes of a young woman traveling alone to various places around the world , interspersed with the band performing in an industrial freezer room . The shoot involved the actress , director , and a crew of two traveling 27 @,@ 977 miles in 13 days , and was shot on consumer @-@ grade camcorders to achieve a sense of total realism and so that the film crew would blend in as tourists . The video won the 2008 MTV Video Music Award for Best Editing and was nominated for the Best Cinematography award . = = Writing and composition = = The song 's lyrics depict a one @-@ sided obsessive relationship from the point of view of the pursuer , who implores the object of his affection that she needs to " spend some time " with him so that he might " possess [ her ] heart . " Songwriter and lead vocalist Ben Gibbard noted that , although fictional , the song was inspired by the experiences of some of his friends . He added : The song is basically about a stalker . It ’ s about this nice guy who wants this girl he can ’ t have , and he believes they ’ ll be together once she realizes how great he is — he just has to wait it out . That ’ s the part that makes the song really creepy , the delusion of thinking that they were meant to be together . It ’ s a really dark song . A lot of the material is about the inevitable disappointment people feel as they move through life , and things don ’ t feel the way they expect . No experience will ever match up to the idealized version in your mind . The song is written in the key of F major with a moderate tempo of 134 beats per minute . The music is dominated by a distinctive 4 @-@ bar bass guitar riff that is repeated through nearly all of the song . This is interspersed with piano chords that generally follow a D @-@ D / C @-@ F @-@ G progression . The lead vocals have a range of D3 – G4 . The instrumentation also includes multiple guitar parts , drums , and backup vocals . Gibbard characterized the song as " five minutes of build and then a three @-@ minute song " , referring to the lengthy instrumental introduction that takes up more than half the song . Like the other songs on Narrow Stairs , it was recorded with all band members playing together in the studio , directly to tape without any overdubs . Gibbard credited Nick Harmer 's bass line with being integral to the song , noting inspiration from bassists Eric Avery and Simon Gallup . Harmer said of the bass line , " I immediately gravitated to the creepy , stalker @-@ ish theme that Ben created with the lyrics and the piano chords .... I liked the idea that once a stalker gets obsessed with an idea , it just keeps repeating in his head , so I wanted the bass line to have a repetitive , incessant theme . " The song was released on March 18 , 2008 , initially as a " surprise stream " on the band 's website , and soon after was picked up by radio stations . It was released in two versions : the album version of the song is over eight minutes long , while the radio edit largely removes the instrumental introduction , shortening the song to four minutes . = = Reception = = The song received acclaim from critics . James Montgomery of MTV News said of the song , " there are moments on Stairs that stop you dead in your tracks , send shivers up your spine and make you go ' Whoa ' ... like the first four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half minutes of ' I Will Possess Your Heart , ' a propulsive whirl of stalking bass line , spindly guitars and stabbing piano . " Will Hermes noted in Rolling Stone that the sense of menace in the song was " playing against type for a guy with one of rock 's purest voices — a vibrato @-@ less , bell @-@ clear high tenor whose choirboy quality only throws the darkness here into relief . " Blender 's Jonah Weiner concurred , stating " it 's a pleasant surprise to hear Gibbard inhabit such a self @-@ consciously creepy role , rather than play the occasionally errant , essentially good @-@ hearted boyfriend who soft @-@ shoes through so many of his tales . " In 2011 , Tyler Kane of Paste included the song in a list of " the 25 creepiest songs about love " . " I Will Possess Your Heart " was named the iTunes UK song of the year 2008 and was ranked # 36 on the Triple J Hottest 100 of 2008 in Australia . The song was nominated for the 2009 Grammy Award for Best Rock Song , but lost to " Girls in Their Summer Clothes " by Bruce Springsteen . = = Music video = = = = = Synopsis = = = The music video features scenes of a young woman traveling alone to various places around the world , interspersed with the band performing in an industrial freezer room . Throughout her journey , the woman keeps a neutral expression and barely reacts to the sights around her . The video was shot in New York City , London , Paris , Frankfurt , Tokyo , Hokkaido , Tunis , Carthage , Bangkok , Siem Reap , and Phnom Penh . = = = Filming = = = Aaron Stewart @-@ Ahn was selected to direct the video based on his previous work directing the video for Death Cab For Cutie 's " Stable Song " , as well as work documenting the band 's live performances . Stewart @-@ Ahn said that the theme of travel had been inspired by Death Cab for Cutie 's earlier song " Transatlanticism " , as well as his own extensive experience traveling solo , adding that " I ’ ve always felt that travel is a defining human experience that changes you forever , and hope that this depiction of wanderlust , obsessiveness , repetition , and loneliness conveys some of that . ” He also said " The idea is that the band is performing in an incredibly cold environment while this woman is traveling around the world , moving toward progressively warmer climes . The farther she gets from the song 's obsessive protagonist , the more her world opens up , and the less reliable his memories of her become . " The shoot involved the actress , director , and a crew of two traveling 27 @,@ 977 miles in 13 days . The young woman was portrayed by Lindsay Burdge , who would years later become known for lead roles in several independent films such as A Teacher and The Sideways Light . On his directing , Stewart @-@ Ahn said " The goal was absolute realism ; nothing was staged . " Much of the film was shot on camcorder , including a Panasonic AG @-@ HVX200 and a consumer @-@ grade Canon HV30 , so as to blend in by looking like tourists . He noted that the trip to Hokkaido was taken on a whim , and during the trip the team realized that daylight would be gone by the time they would reach their intended destination , so they exited the train at Asari and took what would become the final shot of the video there . Stewart @-@ Ahn selected Shawn Kim to direct the shots of the band , and although they never met in person they established visual motifs to unite their respective parts of the video . The scenes of the band were shot in a food storage facility in Los Angeles at temperatures below 12 ° F. Unlike Stewart @-@ Ahn 's section of the video , Kim used a professional Arriflex 435 camera and Panavision E @-@ Series lenses , which he felt added to the coldness of the image . The two sets used were at different temperatures , and since bringing the large anamorphic lenses from a colder to a warmer temperature would result in condensation , a separate set of lenses needed to be used for each set . = = = Release and reception = = = The music video for " I Will Possess Your Heart " was released on MTV.com and VH1.com on April 11 , 2008 , and immediately added to those channels ' rotations . Two versions of the video were released , a full length version running 8 : 31 which features the album version of the song , and a shorter 4 : 22 version which features the radio edit , omitting most of the instrumental introduction . The video won the 2008 MTV Video Music Award for Best Editing for editors Aaron Stewart @-@ Ahn and Jeff Buchanan . It was also nominated for the Best Cinematography award , but lost to Wyatt Troll for The White Stripes ’ " Conquest " . = = Track listing = = US CD : " I Will Possess Your Heart " ( 7 " edit ) " I Will Possess Your Heart " ( 10 " edit ) " I Will Possess Your Heart " ( album version ) US 7 " vinyl : " I Will Possess Your Heart " ( radio edit ) " The Ice Is Getting Thinner " ( demo ) = = Credits and personnel = = Words by Benjamin Gibbard Song by Benjamin Gibbard , Nicholas Harmer , Jason McGerr , and Christopher Walla Produced by Christopher Walla Recorded by Christopher Walla and Will Markwell at Two Sticks Audio , Seattle , Washington Mixed by Christopher Walla at The Alberta Court , Portland , Oregon Mastered by Roger Seibel at SAE Mastering , Phoenix , Arizona Artwork and layout by EE Storey = = Charts = = = You Are the Apple of My Eye = You Are the Apple of My Eye ( Chinese : 那些年，我們一起追的女孩 , literally " Those Years , The Girl We Went After Together " ) is a 2011 Taiwanese Romance film . It is based on the semi @-@ autobiographical novel of the same name by Taiwanese author Giddens Ko , who also made his directorial debut with the film . The film stars Ko Chen @-@ tung as Ko Ching @-@ teng , a prankster and a mischievous student who eventually becomes a writer . Michelle Chen stars as Shen Chia @-@ yi , an honor student who is very popular amongst the boys in her class . You Are the Apple of My Eye was filmed almost entirely on location in Changhua County , including at the high school which Giddens attended . The lyrics of " Those Years " , the film 's main theme , were written by Giddens . The song , which was well received by the public , was nominated for Best Original Film Song at the 48th Golden Horse Awards . The film 's world premiere was at the 13th Taipei Film Festival on 25 June 2011 , and it was subsequently released in Taiwanese cinemas on 19 August . Well received by film critics , the movie set box @-@ office records in Taiwan , Hong Kong , and Singapore . Ko Chen @-@ tung won the Best Newcomer award at the Golden Horse Awards for his role in the film . = = Plot = = The story begins in 1994 . An outstanding student , Shen Chia @-@ yi is popular among her teachers and classmates . Ko Ching @-@ teng , mischievous and a poor student , claims that he has no interest in her , despite being her classmate since junior high school . One day , Ching @-@ teng is caught masturbating during class , and the principal reseats him , placing him in front of Chia @-@ yi . One day , Chia @-@ yi forgets her English textbook . Ching @-@ teng slips her his own book and tells their teacher he forgot his own textbook ; he then endures a long lecture and is punished . Chia @-@ yi , touched by Ching @-@ teng 's generosity , prepares a practice exam for him in return , to encourage him to study . She also convinces him to stay after school to study with her . Their relationship grows , and Ching @-@ teng 's grades gradually improve . On graduation , Ching @-@ teng enrolls at the National Chiao Tung University . Chia @-@ Yi , who did not do well on the admission exam because she was ill on that day , only manages to enter the National Taipei University of Education with her mediocre test results . Depressed and upset , she is consoled by Ching @-@ teng , who calls her long @-@ distance almost every night from university . During the winter holiday season that year , the two go on their first " date " , during which Ching @-@ teng asks Chia @-@ yi if she loves him . However , fearing she would say no , he decides that he would rather not hear her answer ( it is revealed later that her reply would have been " yes " ) . Ching @-@ teng later organizes a fight night and invites Chia @-@ yi to watch , hoping to impress her with his " strength " . On the contrary , Chia @-@ yi finds it childish for Ching @-@ teng to injure himself for no reason . This upsets Ching @-@ teng , sparking a quarrel that causes the two to break up . During the two years after their breakup , Ching @-@ teng has no contact with Chia @-@ yi . He qualifies for a graduate research course at Tunghai University , where he begins writing stories online . Ching @-@ teng only regains contact with Chia @-@ yi after the 921 earthquake , when he calls to see if she is okay . During their long conversation with each other , they both lament the fact that they were not fated to become a couple . Years later , in 2005 , Chia @-@ yi suddenly calls Ching @-@ teng to tell him that she is getting married . All of her old friends gather at the wedding , making jokes and trying to embarrass her somewhat @-@ older husband . They are surprised that their past emotions have transformed into deep friendship and serenity . Ching @-@ teng begins to work on a web novel about his experiences with Chia @-@ yi . Later , when they gather to congratulate the bride and groom , the friends joke that they should be able to kiss the bride . The husband says that anybody who wants to kiss the bride has to kiss him like that first . Ching @-@ teng grabs the groom and pushes him onto the table , kissing him like he would kiss Chia @-@ yi . During their kiss , he remembers how he regrets their fight from years ago , and what could have happened had he apologized for being childish . = = Cast = = Ko Chen @-@ tung as Ko Ching @-@ teng ( nicknamed " Ko @-@ teng " ) , a mischievous schoolboy who later becomes a writer ( Ko Ching @-@ teng is the real name of the director , Giddens ) . Michelle Chen as Shen Chia @-@ yi , an outgoing student who consistently scores well in tests . Although she disdains boys less intelligent than herself , she decides to help Ching @-@ teng improve his grades . In the process , she falls in love with him . Owodog as Tsao Kuo @-@ sheng ( nicknamed " Lao Tsao " ) , one of Ching @-@ teng 's friends . He had a crush on Chia @-@ yi , and once asked Ching @-@ teng to deliver a love letter he had written for her . Steven Hao as Hsieh Ming @-@ ho ( nicknamed " A @-@ he " ) , one of Ching @-@ teng 's friends . He loves to eat , and is the butt of his friends ' jokes due to this . He is the only person in the group who has dated Chia @-@ yi . Tsai Chang @-@ hsien as Liao Ying @-@ hung , one of Ching @-@ teng 's best friends . He likes to crack jokes and perform magic tricks , and later becomes a librarian . Yen Sheng @-@ yu as Hsu Bo @-@ chun ( nicknamed " Boner " ) , one of Ching @-@ teng 's friends Wan Wan as Hu Chia @-@ wei , Chia @-@ yi 's best friend . She likes to draw pictures , and after graduating from school becomes a manga artist known as " The Queen of Blogs " ( 部落格天后 ) . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = You Are the Apple of My Eye is based on Giddens ' semi @-@ autobiographical novel of the same name . He changed some details of the story to make the film more dramatic ; for example , Ching @-@ teng and Chia @-@ yi 's fight actually took place over the phone , not in the rain as depicted . Giddens said , " although some of the reasons for the events in the film were changed , the main storyline remained unchanged " . Asked if he was pressured by the recent success of Taiwanese films at the box office , he replied " No , I am more pressured by whether the film is nice to watch , whether it will succeed in the box office , and whether it will become an embarrassment for me . Also , if the film is not nice , it will be a letdown to Chen @-@ tung	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
= = = Critics = = = Maggie Lee of The Hollywood Reporter described the film as a " larky retro coming @-@ of @-@ age confection " . She praised the film , saying that it " injects a fresh , tart edge to the genre with a constantly self @-@ mocking boys ' angle " , which she described as an " alternative to Asian teen movies that tend to be syrupy " . She said that " the youthful cast has a limited register but offer enough self @-@ conscious blasé posing . " She described the film 's texture as " slightly over @-@ bright " . Russell Edwards , reviewing for Variety , criticized the second part of this film , which he says is " unable to maintain the outlandish phallocentric humor of its first hour " . He further criticized the last quarter of the film , which Edwards says " sees Giddens overestimating the charm of his own story " . Edwards praised the film 's cast which , he said , were the film 's " greatest asset " . He also praised the film as " a much more robust production than many similar youth @-@ skewing Taiwanese romancers over the past decade " . Serene Lim , a reviewer for Today , labelled the film a " gentle tale of a teenage romance " . She said that " Ko 's talents as a novelist are evident " , although his " attention to detail can get indulgently long @-@ winded at times " . Lim singled out Ko Chen @-@ tung for praise , saying that " [ he ] thoroughly deserves his Golden Horse nomination for Best Newcomer , given his turn as the impetuous rebel made good " ; overall , she gave the film a rating of 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 . Yong Shu Hoong , writing for Singapore @-@ based Mypaper , said that the " flashback sequences can reek of oversentimentality " , although the reviewer added that " the thrills , rivalries and heartbreak associated with high school romance are well depicted with nostalgia and humour " and gave it a rating of 3 out of 5 . The film was rated by Mtimes Movies as the " 2nd Best Chinese Film of 2011 " . Film Business Asia gave the film a rating of 7 / 10 , with Derek Elley describing it as " a confident feature " and " slickly packaged in every department " , the latter making it " easy to miss the fact there 's nothing at all original here " . He praised the cast as " well @-@ chosen individually and relaxed as an ensemble " . He added , " apart from a slightly draggy second half , the material sustains itself at almost two hours , with generally trim editing by co @-@ executive director Liao . " He concluded by summarizing the film 's plot as a " simple teenage rom @-@ com , a will @-@ they / won 't @-@ they between two opposites , but capped by a neat finale that does deliver some real emotion " . = = = Box office = = = You Are the Apple of My Eye grossed more than NT $ $ 20 million at the Taiwanese box office during its soft launch . This makes it the first Taiwanese film to gross over NT $ $ 20 million before its official release date . The film crossed the NT $ 200 million mark ten days after its official opening . In total , the film earned over NT $ 420 million at the Taiwanese box office , making it the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of 2011 in Taiwan . In Hong Kong , You Are the Apple of My Eye grossed a total of HK $ 1 @,@ 397 @,@ 571 during its premiere ( representing 50 @.@ 6 percent of Hong Kong box @-@ office earnings ) on 20 October 2011 . Four days after its release the film had earned a total of HK $ 11 @,@ 525 @,@ 621 , breaking the record for the highest @-@ grossing film debuting in the month of October . It also set a record for the highest @-@ grossing opening weekend for a Taiwanese film at the Hong Kong box office , previously held by Lust , Caution in 2007 with a gross of $ 11 @,@ 441 @,@ 946 . The film recorded the highest Hong Kong opening @-@ four @-@ day attendance in 2011 with 211 @,@ 163 attending , breaking 3D Sex and Zen : Extreme Ecstasy 's previous record of 143 @,@ 222 . The film also has the highest four @-@ day gross of a 2D film in 2011 , and remained the highest @-@ grossing film in Hong Kong cinemas for four consecutive weekends . During the final hours of 2011 , it was announced that You Are the Apple of My Eye had grossed over HK $ 61 @.@ 28 million , making it the all @-@ time highest @-@ grossing Taiwanese film at the Hong Kong box office . At the Macau box office , You Are the Apple of My Eye earned more than HK $ 100 @,@ 000 in its opening weekend , with nearly 100 @-@ percent attendance . In Singapore You Are the Apple of My Eye earned a total of SGD $ 675 @,@ 000 , making it the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film in Singapore that weekend despite the film 's NC @-@ 16 rating ( which meant that only viewers over age 16 were admitted ) ; this surprised the film 's distributor , 20th Century Fox . The film broke the record for highest opening weekend for a Taiwanese film in Singapore , previously held by the 2007 film Secret . It surpassed the performance of other Taiwanese films such as Monga , Cape No. 7 and Lust , Caution . You Are the Apple of My Eye was the highest @-@ grossing Asian film of 2011 at the Singapore box office , with earnings of SGD $ 2 @.@ 93 million . At China box office , You Are the Apple of My Eye became the most popular Taiwanese film , surpassing the previous record set by Cape No. 7 in 2008 . It was the third @-@ highest @-@ earning film on its debut weekend , grossing about 27 million yuan . The film subsequently crossed the 50 @-@ million @-@ yuan @-@ gross mark on 13 January 2012 . = = = Accolades = = = = Battle of Narva ( 1944 ) = The Battle of Narva was a military campaign between the German Army Detachment " Narwa " and the Soviet Leningrad Front fought for possession of the strategically important Narva Isthmus on 2 February – 10 August 1944 during World War II . The campaign took place in the northern section of the Eastern Front and consisted of two major phases : the Battle for Narva Bridgehead ( February to July 1944 ) and the Battle of Tannenberg Line ( July – August 1944 ) . The Soviet Kingisepp – Gdov Offensive and Narva Offensives ( 15 – 28 February , 1 – 4 March and 18 – 24 March ) were part of the Red Army Winter Spring Campaign of 1944 . Following Joseph Stalin 's " Broad Front " strategy , these battles coincided with the Dnieper – Carpathian Offensive ( December 1943 – April 1944 ) and the Lvov – Sandomierz Offensive ( July – August 1944 ) . A number of foreign volunteers and local Estonian conscripts participated in the battle as part of the German forces . By giving its support to the illegal German conscription call , the underground National Committee of the Republic of Estonia had hoped to recreate a national army and restore the independence of the country . As a continuation of the Leningrad – Novgorod Offensive of January 1944 , the Soviet Estonian operation pushed the front westward to the Narva River , aiming to destroy " Narwa " and to thrust deep into Estonia . The Soviet units established a number of bridgeheads on the western bank of the river in February while the Germans maintained a bridgehead on the eastern bank . Subsequent attempts failed to expand their toehold . German counterattacks annihilated the bridgeheads to the north of Narva and reduced the bridgehead south of the town , stabilizing the front until July 1944 . The Soviet Narva Offensive ( July 1944 ) led to the capture of the city forcing the German troops to retreat to their prepared Tannenberg Defence Line in the Sinimäed Hills 16 kilometres from Narva . In the ensuing Battle of Tannenberg Line , the German army group held its ground . Stalin 's main strategic goal — a quick recovery of Estonia as a base for air and seaborne attacks against Finland and an invasion of East Prussia — was not achieved . As a result of the tough defence of the German forces the Soviet war effort in the Baltic Sea region was hampered for seven and a half months . = = Background = = = = = Terrain = = = Terrain played a significant role in operations around Narva . The elevation above sea level rarely rises above 100 meters in the area and the land is cut by numerous waterways , including the Narva and Plyussa Rivers . The bulk of the land in the region is forested and large swamps inundate areas of low elevation . The effect of the terrain on operations was one of channelization ; because of the swamps , only certain areas were suitable for large @-@ scale troop movement . On a strategic scale , a natural choke point was present between the northern shore of Lake Peipus and the Gulf of Finland . The 45 kilometre wide strip of land was entirely bisected by the Narva River and had large areas of wilderness . The primary transportation routes , the Narva – Tallinn highway and railway , ran on an east @-@ west axis near and parallel to the coastline . There were no other east @-@ west transportation routes capable of sustaining troop movement on a large scale in the region . = = = Preceding actions = = = On 14 January 1944 , the Leningrad Front launched the Krasnoye Selo – Ropsha Offensive , aimed at forcing the German 18th Army back from its positions near Oranienbaum . On the third day of the offensive , the Soviets broke through German lines and pushed westward . The Army Group North evacuated the civilian population of Narva . = = = Soviet aims = = = By 1944 it was fairly routine practice for Stavka to assign its operating fronts new and more ambitious missions while the Soviet Armed Forces were conducting major offensive operations . The rationale was that relentless pressure might trigger a German collapse . For the 1943 / 1944 winter campaign , Stalin ordered the Red Army to conduct major offensives along the entire Soviet @-@ German front in a continuation of the ' Broad Front ' strategy he had pursued since the beginning of the war . This was applied in consonance with his long @-@ standing rationale that , if the Red Army applied pressure along the entire front , German defences were likely to break in at least one section . The Soviet winter campaign included major assaults across the entire expanse the front in the Ukraine , Belorussia and against the German Panther Line in the region of the Baltic Sea . Breaking through the Narva Isthmus situated between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipus was of major strategic importance to the Soviet Armed Forces . The success of the Estonian operation would have provided an unobstructed lane to advance along the coast to Tallinn , forcing the German Army Group North to escape from Estonia for fear of getting cornered . For the Baltic Fleet trapped in an eastern bay of the Gulf of Finland , Tallinn was the closest exit to the Baltic Sea . The ejection of the Army Group North from Estonia would have made Finland subject to air and amphibious attacks originating from Estonian bases . The prospect of an invasion of East Prussia through Estonia appealed even more to Stavka , as it could bring German resistance to a standstill . With the participation of Leonid Govorov , commander of the Leningrad Front , and Vladimir Tributz , commander of the Baltic Fleet , a scheme was prepared to destroy the Army Group North . Stalin ordered the capture of Narva at all costs no later than 17 February : " It is mandatory that our forces seize Narva no later than 17 February 1944 . This is required both for military as well as political reasons . It is the most important thing right now . I demand that you undertake all necessary measures to liberate Narva no later than the period indicated . ( signed ) I. Stalin " After the failure of the Leningrad Front , Stalin gave a new order on 22 February : to break through the " Narwa " defence , give a shock at Pärnu , eliminate the German forces in Estonia , direct two armies at Southeast Estonia , keep going through Latvia and open the road to East Prussia and Central Europe . On the same day , the Soviet Union presented Finland with peace conditions . While Finland regarded the terms as unacceptable , the war waging around them appeared dangerous enough to keep negotiating . To influence Finland , Stalin needed to take Estonia . His wish was an order to the commanders of the Leningrad Front , with their heads at stake . After reinforcements , the Narva front acquired the highest concentration of forces at any point on the Eastern Front in March 1944 . By July 1944 , a detailed plan was prepared for the Soviet advance to Tallinn . = = = Soviet deployments = = = Three Soviet armies were deployed at the maximum concentration of forces in March 1944 . The 2nd Shock Army was placed north of Narva , the 59th Army was positioned south of Narva and the 8th Army south of the 59th Army along the 50 km long Narva River stretching down to Lake Peipus . Detailed information on the size of the Soviet forces at the Narva front during the Winter @-@ Spring campaign has not been published by any sources . It is impossible to give an overview on the Soviet strength until the Red Army archival information is made available to non @-@ Russian investigators or published . Estonian historian Hannes Walter has estimated the number of Soviet troops in the Battle of Narva at 205 @,@ 000 , which is in accordance with the number of divisions multiplied by the assumed sizes of the divisions presented by the Estonian historian Mart Laar . The order of battle of the Leningrad Front as of 1 March 1944 : 2nd Shock Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Fedyuninsky 43rd Rifle Corps – Major General Anatoli Andreyev 109th Rifle Corps – Major General Ivan Alferov 124th Rifle Corps – Major General Voldemar Damberg 8th Army – Lieutenant General Filip Starikov 6th Rifle Corps – Major General Semyon Mikulski 112th Rifle Corps – Major General Filip Solovev 59th Army – Lieutenant General Ivan Korovnikov 117th Rifle Corps – Major General Vasili Trubachev 122nd Rifle Corps – Major General Panteleimon Zaitsev Separate detachments : 8th Estonian Rifle Corps – Lieutenant General Lembit Pärn 14th Rifle Corps – Major General Pavel Artyushenko 124th Rifle Division – Colonel Mikhail Papchenko 30th Guards Rifle Corps – Lieutenant General Nikolai Simonyak 46th , 260th and 261st Separate Guards Heavy Tank and 1902nd Separate Self @-@ propelled Artillery regiments 3rd Breakthrough Artillery Corps – Major General N. N. Zhdanov 3rd Guards Tank Corps – Major General I. A. Vovchenko At the start of the Narva Offensive ( July 1944 ) , the Leningrad Front deployed 136 @,@ 830 troops , 150 tanks , 2 @,@ 500 assault guns and 800 + aircraft . = = = German and Finnish aims = = = The Oberkommando des Heeres believed it was crucial to stabilize the front on the Narva River . A Soviet breakthrough here would have meant the loss of the northern coast of Estonia and with it loss of control of the Gulf of Finland , giving the Soviet Baltic Fleet access to the Baltic Sea . A breakthrough by the fleet would have threatened German control of the entire Baltic Sea and the shipment of iron ore imports from Sweden . The loss of Narva would have meant fuel derived from the adjacent Kohtla @-@ Järve oil shale deposits ( 32 kilometers west of Narva on the coast ) would be denied to the German war machine . As Colonel General Georg Lindemann said in his daily order to the 11th Infantry Division : We are standing on the border of our native land . Every step backwards will carry the war through the air and water to Germany . As Finland was negotiating with the Soviet Union for peace , the Oberkommando des Heeres paid attention to the Narva front , using every means to convince the Finnish Defence Command that their defence was going to hold . The German command informed their Finnish colleagues in detail about the events on the Narva front while a delegation of the Finnish Defence Command visited Narva in spring 1944 . Besides being a narrow corridor well suited for defence , the terrain in the area of Narva was dominated by forests and swamps . Directly behind the Narva River lay the city itself , ideally positioned as a bastion from which defending forces could influence combat to both the north and south of the city along the river valley . This position was the northern segment of the German Panther Line and it was where Generalfeldmarschall Georg von Küchler in charge of the Army Group wanted to set up his defence . Hitler initially refused and replaced von Küchler with Generalfeldmarschall Walter Model as the commander of the Army Group North . Model agreed with von Küchler , and as one of Hitler 's favourites he also was allowed more freedom . Using this freedom to his advantage , Model managed to fall back and begin establishing a line along the Narva River with a strong bridgehead on the eastern bank in Ivangorod . This appeased Hitler and followed the German standard operating procedure for defending a river line . On 1 February 1944 , the High Command of Army Group North tasked the Sponheimer Group ( renamed Army Detachment " Narwa " on 23 February ) to defend the segment of the Panther Line at the isthmus between the Gulf of Finland and Lake Peipus at all costs . Stalin presented Finland with his peace terms on 8 February 1944 , after the initial Soviet success . With the tactical victories of " Narwa " from mid @-@ February to April , Finland terminated the negotiations on 18 April 1944 . = = = Aims of the Estonian resistance movement = = = During the course of the occupation of Estonia by Nazi Germany , Estonian expectations of regaining their independence began to diminish . Pursuant to the Constitution of Estonia , formally still in force , Estonian politicians formed an underground National Committee of the Republic of Estonia which convened on 14 February 1944 . As President Konstantin Päts was currently imprisoned by the Soviet authorities , the acting head of state according to the Constitution was the former Prime Minister Jüri Uluots . The German @-@ appointed Estonian Self @-@ Administration had previously attempted several unsuccessful general mobilisation calls , which were illegal under the Hague Conventions ( 1899 and 1907 ) and opposed by Uluots . In February 1944 when the Leningrad Front reached the vicinity of Narva and the Soviet return became a real threat , Uluots switched his stand on the German draft . In a radio speech on 7 February , Uluots reasoned that armed Estonians could become useful against both Germans and Soviets . He also hinted that Estonian troops on Estonian soil would have : " ... a significance much wider than what I could and would be able to disclose here . " Along with other Estonian politicians , Uluots saw resistance against the Soviet Armed Forces as a means of preventing the restoration of Soviet power and restoring Estonia ’ s independence once the war was over . The conscription call was received with popular support and the mobilisation brought together 38 @,@ 000 men who were formed into seven border guard regiments and the fictitiously named 20th Estonian SS @-@ Volunteer Division , commonly referred to among the German Armed Forces as the Estonian Division . Combined with the Finnish Infantry Regiment 200 ( voluntary Estonians in the Finnish army ) and the conscripts within the Waffen SS , a total of 70 @,@ 000 Estonian troops were under Nazi German arms in 1944 . = = = Formation of Army Detachment " Narwa " = = = In February 1944 , the L and LIV Army Corps along with the III ( Germanic ) SS Panzer Corps were on the left flank of the 18th Army as they retreated to Narva . On 4 February , the Sponheimer Group was released from the 18th Army and subordinated directly to the Army Group North . In support of the forces already in place , Hitler ordered reinforcements . The Panzer Corps Feldherrnhalle , with over 10 @,@ 000 troops and their equipment , was airlifted from Belorussia into Estonia via the airfield at Tartu on 1 February . A week later , the 5th Battalion of the Panzergrenadier Großdeutschland Division arrived at the front . The Grenadier Regiment Gnesen ( an ad hoc regiment formed from replacement army units in Poland ) was sent from Germany and arrived on 11 February . Three days later , the 214th Infantry Division was transferred from Norway . Over the next two weeks various units were added to the group , including the 11th SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Division " Nordland " , several divisions of the Wehrmacht , the Estonian Division and local Estonian border guard and Estonian Auxiliary Police battalions . Infantry General Otto Sponheimer was replaced by General Johannes Frießner and the Sponheimer Group was renamed Army Detachment " Narwa " on 23 February . The Army Group North ordered the deployment of " Narwa " on 22 February in the following positions : III SS Panzer Corps deployed to Narva , Ivangorod Bridgehead on the east bank of the river and north of Narva ; the XXXXIII Army Corps against the Krivasoo Bridgehead south of the city ; and the XXVI Army Corps to the sector between the Krivasoo Bridgehead and Lake Peipus . As of 1 March 1944 , there were a total of 123 @,@ 541 personnel subordinated to the Army Group in the following order of battle : III SS ( Germanic ) Panzer Corps – SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Felix Steiner 11th SS Panzergrenadier Division " Nordland " 4th SS Panzergrenadier Brigade " Nederland " 20th Waffen Grenadier Division of the SS ( 1st Estonian ) XXVI Army Corps – General Anton Grasser 11th Infantry Division 58th Infantry Division 214th Infantry Division 225th Infantry Division ( Wehrmacht ) 3rd Estonian Border Guard Regiment ( as of 15 April ) XXXXIII Army Corps – General der Infanterie Karl von Oven 61st Infantry Division 170th Infantry Division 227th Infantry Division Feldherrnhalle Panzergrenadier Division Gnesen Grenadier Regiment Separate units : Eastern sector , coastal defence ( the staff of the 2nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Division as the HQ ) – Lieutenant General Alfons Luczny Estonian Regiment " Reval " 3 Estonian police battalions 2 Estonian eastern battalions Other military units : Artillery Command No. 113 High Pioneer Command No. 32 502nd Heavy Tank Battalion 752nd Anti @-@ Tank Battalion 540th Special Infantry ( Training ) Battalion In the summer of 1944 , the Panzergrenadier Division Feldherrnhalle and seven infantry divisions were removed from the Narva Front , leaving 22 @,@ 250 troops at the location . = = Combat activity = = = = = Formation of bridgeheads = = = Launching the Kingisepp – Gdov Offensive on 1 February , the Soviet 2nd Shock Army 's 109th Rifle Corps captured the town of Kingisepp on the first day . The German 18th Army was forced into new positions on the eastern bank of the Narva River . Forward units of the 2nd Shock Army crossed the river and established several bridgeheads on the west bank to the north and south of the city of Narva on 2 February . The 2nd Shock Army expanded the bridgehead in the Krivasoo Swamp south of Narva five days later , temporarily cutting the Narva – Tallinn Railway behind the III SS Panzer Corps . Govorov was unable to encircle the smaller German Army Group , which called in reinforcements . These came mostly from the newly mobilised Estonians , motivated to resist the looming Soviet return . At the same time , the Soviet 108th Rifle Corps landed units across Lake Peipus 120 kilometres south of Narva and established a bridgehead around the village of Meerapalu . By a coincidence , the I.Battalion , SS Volunteer Grenadier Regiment 45 ( 1st Estonian ) , which was headed for Narva , reached the same area . A battalion of the 44th Infantry Regiment ( consisting of personnel from East Prussia ) , the I.Battalion , 1st Estonian and an air squadron destroyed the Soviet bridgehead on 15 – 16 February . The Mereküla Landing Operation was conducted as the 517 @-@ strong 260th Independent Naval Infantry Brigade landed at the coastal borough of Mereküla behind the Sponheimer Group lines . However , the unit was almost completely destroyed . = = = Narva Offensives , 15 – 28 February and 1 – 4 March = = = The Soviet 30th Guards Rifle Corps and the 124th Rifle Corps launched a new Narva Offensive on 15 February . The resistance by units of the Sponheimer Group exhausted the Soviet army , which halted its offensive . Both sides used the pause for bringing in additional forces . The fresh SS Volunteer Grenadier Regiments 45 and 46 ( 1st and 2nd Estonian ) accompanied by units of the " Nordland " Division destroyed the Soviet bridgeheads north of Narva by 6 March . The newly arrived 59th Army attacked westwards from the Krivasoo Swamp and encircled the strong points of the 214th Infantry Division and Estonian 658th and 659th Eastern Battalions . The resistance of the encircled units gave the German command time to move in all available forces and to stop the 59th Army units ' advance . = = = 6 – 24 March = = = The Soviet air force conducted an air raid , leveling the historic town of Narva on 6 March . An air and artillery shock of 100 @,@ 000 shells and grenades at the " Nordland " and " Nederland " detachments in Ivangorod prepared the way for the 30th Guards Rifle Division 's attack on 8 March . Simultaneous pitched battles took place north of the town , where the 14th Rifle Corps supported by the artillery of the 8th Estonian Rifle Corps attempted to re @-@ establish a bridgehead . Regiments of the Estonian SS Division repulsed the attacks , causing great Soviet losses . Soviet air assaults against civilians in Estonian towns were a part of the offensive , aimed at forcing the Estonians away from supporting the German side . The Soviet Long Range Aviation branch assaulted the Estonian capital of Tallinn on the night of 8 – 9 March . Approximately 40 % of the housing was destroyed in the city ; 25 @,@ 000 people were left homeless and 500 civilians were killed . The result of the air raid was the opposite of what the Soviets intended , as people felt disgusted by the Soviet atrocities ; more men answered the German conscription call . The Soviet tank attack at Auvere Station was stopped by a squadron of the 502nd Heavy Tank Battalion on 17 March . The ensuing offensive continued for another week until the Soviet forces had suffered enough casualties to switch over to a defensive stance . This enabled " Narwa " to take the initiative . = = = Strachwitz offensive = = = The Strachwitz Battle Group annihilated the Soviet 8th Army shock troop wedge at the western end of the Krivasoo Bridgehead on 26 March . The German battle group destroyed the eastern tip of the bridgehead on 6 April . Generalmajor Hyacinth Graf Strachwitz von Groß @-@ Zauche und Camminetz , inspired by the success , tried to eliminate the whole bridgehead but was unable to proceed due to the spring thaw that had rendered the swamp impassable for the Tiger I tanks . By the end of April , the parties had mutually exhausted their strengths . Relative calm settled on the front until late July 1944 . = = = The Soviets capture Narva = = = The Soviet breakthrough in Belorussia forced the Army Group North to withdraw a large portion of their troops from Narva to the central part of the Eastern Front and to Finland . As there were insufficient forces for the defence of the former front line at Narva in July , the German army detachment began preparations for withdrawal to the Tannenberg defence line in the Sinimäed Hills 16 kilometres from Narva . The commanders of the Leningrad Front were unaware of the preparations ; they designed a new Narva Offensive . Shock troops from the Finnish front were concentrated near the town , giving the Leningrad Front a 4 : 1 superiority both in manpower and equipment . Before the German forces had implemented their plan , the Soviet 8th Army launched their offensive ; the Battle of Auvere was the result . The I.Battalion , 1st Estonian and the 44th Infantry Regiment repulsed the attack , inflicting heavy losses on the 8th Army . The " Nordland " and " Nederland " detachments in Ivangorod left their positions quietly during the night before 25 July . The evacuation was carried out according to the German plans until the 2nd Shock Army resumed the offensive in the morning . Supported by 280 @,@ 000 shells and grenades from 1360 assault guns , the army crossed the river north of the town . The II.Battalion , 1st Estonian Regiment kept the Soviet shock Army from capturing the highway behind the retreating troops . The defensive operation led to the destruction of the SS Volunteer Panzergrenadier Regiment 48 " General Seyffardt " due to tactical errors . The Soviet forces captured Narva on 26 July . = = = Tannenberg Line = = = The Soviet vanguard 201st and 256th Rifle Divisions attacked the Tannenberg Line and captured part of the Orphanage Hill , the easternmost of the area . The Anti @-@ Tank Company , SS Panzergrenadier Regiment 24 " Danmark " returned the hill to the hands of the " Narwa " the following night . The III ( Germanic ) SS Panzer Corps repulsed subsequent Soviet attempts to capture the hills by tanks on the following day . The SS Reconnaissance Battalion 11 and the I.Battalion , Waffen Grenadier Regiment 47 ( 3rd Estonian ) launched a counterattack during the night before 28 July . The assault collapsed under the Soviet tank fire which destroyed the Estonian battalion . In a pitched battle carried over to the next day without a break in the fighting , the two Soviet armies forced " Narwa " into new positions at the Grenadier Hill , the central one . The climax of the Battle of Tannenberg Line was the Soviet attack of 29 July . The shock units suppressed the German resistance on the Orphanage Hill , while the Soviet main forces suffered heavy casualties in the subsequent assault at the Grenadier Hill . The Soviet tanks encircled it and the Tower Hill , the westernmost one . Steiner , the commander of the III SS Panzer Corps , sent out the remaining seven tanks , which hit the surprised Soviet armour and forced them back . This enabled an improvised battle group consisting of different nationalities led by Hauptsturmführer Paul Maitla to launch a counterattack which recaptured the Grenadier Hill . Of the 136 @,@ 830 Soviets initiating the offensive , a few thousand had survived . The Soviet tank regiments had been demolished . With swift reinforcements , the two Soviet armies continued their attacks . The Stavka demanded the destruction of the " Narwa " and the capture of Rakvere by 7 August . The 2nd Shock Army was back to 20 @,@ 000 troops by 2 August while numerous attempts using unchanged tactics failed to break the multinational defence of the " Narwa " . Leonid Govorov , the commander of the Leningrad Front terminated the offensive on 10 August . = = Casualties = = During the Soviet era , the losses in the battle of Narva were not released by the Soviets . In recent years , Russian authors have published some figures but not for the whole course of the battles . The number of Soviet casualties can only be estimated indirectly . The Army Detachment " Narwa " lost 23 @,@ 963 personnel as dead , wounded and missing in action in February 1944 . During the following months through to 30 July 1944 , an additional 34 @,@ 159 German personnel were lost , 5 @,@ 748 of them dead and 1 @,@ 179 missing in action . The total German casualties during the initial phase of the campaign was approximately 58 @,@ 000 men , 12 @,@ 000 of them dead or missing in action . From 24 July to 10 August 1944 , the German forces buried 1709 men in Estonia . Adding the troops missing in action , the number of dead in the period is estimated at approximately 2 @,@ 500 . Accounting the standard ratio of 1 / 4 of the wounded as irrecoverable losses , the number of German casualties in the later period of the battle was approximately 10 @,@ 000 . The total German casualties during the Battle of Narva is estimated at 14 @,@ 000 dead or missing and 54 @,@ 000 wounded or sick . = = Aftermath = = = = = Baltic Offensive = = = On 1 September , Finland announced the cessation of military cooperation with Germany to sign an armistice with the Soviet Union . On 4 September , Finland opened access for the Soviets to Finnish waters . With the Soviet offensive at Riga threatening to complete their encirclement , the Army Group North started preparations for the withdrawal of troops from Estonia in an operation codenamed Aster . The possible transportation corridors were thoroughly prepared using maps at headquarters . On 14 September , a provisional order to start preparations for withdrawal was given to the " Nordland " Division . On 17 September 1944 , a naval force under Vice @-@ Admiral Theodor Burchardi began evacuating elements of the German formations and Estonian civilians . Within six days , around 50 @,@ 000 troops and 1 @,@ 000 prisoners had been removed . The elements of the 18th Army in Estonia were ordered to withdraw into Latvia . The Soviet 1st , 2nd and 3rd Baltic Fronts launched their Baltic Offensive on 14 September . The operation was aimed at cutting off the Army Group North in Estonia . After much argument , Adolf Hitler agreed to allow the total evacuation of the troops in mainland Estonia . The 2nd Shock Army launched its Tallinn Offensive on 17 September from the Emajõgi River Front in South Estonia . At midnight on 18 September , the Army Detachment " Narwa " left its positions in the Tannenberg Line . The 8th Army reconnaissance reported the evacuation five hours after it had been completed and the Soviets started to chase the troops towards Estonian harbours and the Latvian border . The III SS Panzer Corps reached Pärnu by 20 September , while the II SS Corps retreated southwards to form the 18th Army 's rearguard . The Soviet armies advanced to take Tallinn on 22 September . The Soviets had demolished the harbour at Haapsalu by 24 September . The German Panzer Corps evacuated Vormsi Island just off the coast on the following day , successfully completing the evacuation of mainland Estonia with only minor casualties . The 8th Army went on to take the remaining West Estonian archipelago in the Moonsund Landing Operation . The Baltic Offensive resulted in the expulsion of the German forces from Estonia , a large part of Latvia , and Lithuania . During the withdrawal from Estonia , the German command released thousands of native Estonian conscripts from military service . The Soviet command began conscripting Baltic natives as areas were brought under Soviet control . While some ended up serving on both sides , thousands joined the Forest Brothers partisan detachments to avoid conscription . Army Group North land lines of communication were permanently severed from Army Group Centre and it was relegated to the Courland Pocket , an occupied Baltic seashore area in Latvia . On 25 January , Adolf Hitler renamed Army Group North the " Courland " , implicitly realising that there was no possibility of restoring a new land corridor between Courland and East Prussia . The Red Army commenced the encirclement and reduction of the pocket , enabling the Soviets to focus on operations towards East Prussia . The Army Group Courland retained a possibility of being a major threat . Operations by the Red Army against the Courland Pocket continued until the surrender of Army Group Courland on 9 May 1945 , when close to 200 @,@ 000 Germans were taken prisoner there . = = = Outcome for Finland = = = The lengthy German defence during the Battle of Narva denied the Soviets the use of Estonia as a favorable base for amphibious invasions and air attacks against Helsinki and other Finnish cities . Stavka 's hopes of assaulting Finland from Estonia and forcing it into capitulation were diminished . Finnish Chief of Defence Carl Gustav Emil Mannerheim repeatedly reminded the German side that in the event their troops in Estonia retreated , Finland would be forced to make peace even on extremely unfavourable terms . Thus , the prolonged Battle of Narva helped Finland avoid a Soviet occupation , sustained its capacity for resistance and enabled them to enter negotiations for the Moscow Armistice on their own terms . = = = Attempt to restore Estonian Government = = = The lengthy German defence prevented a swift Soviet breakthrough into Estonia and gave the underground National Committee of the Republic of Estonia enough time to attempt to re @-@ establish Estonian independence . On 1 August 1944 , the national committee pronounced itself Estonia 's highest authority and on 18 September 1944 , acting head of state Uluots appointed a new government led by Otto Tief . Over the radio in English , the government declared its neutrality in the war . The government issued two editions of the Riigi Teataja ( State Gazette ) but did not have time to distribute them . On 21 September , the national forces seized the government buildings in Toompea , Tallinn and ordered the German forces to leave . The flag of Estonia was hoisted at the tower of Pikk Hermann , to be removed by the Soviets four days later . The Estonian Government in Exile served to carry the continuity of the Estonian state forward until 1992 , when it handed its credentials over to the incoming President , Lennart Meri . = = = Civilian refugees = = = The delay of the Soviet advance allowed over 25 @,@ 000 Estonians and 3 @,@ 700 Swedes to flee to neutral Sweden and 6 @,@ 000 Estonians to Finland . Thousands of refugees died on boats and ships sunk in the Baltic Sea . In September , 90 @,@ 000 soldiers and 85 @,@ 000 Estonian , Finnish and German refugees and Soviet prisoners of war were evacuated to Germany . The sole German cost of this evacuation was the loss of a steamboat . More German naval evacuations followed from Estonian ports , where up to 1 @,@ 200 people were drowned in Soviet attacks . = = = Soviet reoccupation = = = Soviet rule of Estonia was re @-@ established by force , and sovietisation followed , which was mostly carried out in 1944 – 1950 . The forced collectivisation of agriculture began in 1947 , and was completed after the mass deportation of Estonians in March 1949 . All private farms were confiscated , and farmers were made to join the collective farms . Besides the armed resistance of the Forest Brothers , a number of underground nationalist schoolchildren groups were active . Most of their members were sentenced to long terms of imprisonment . The punitive actions decreased rapidly after Stalin 's death in 1953 ; from 1956 – 58 , a large part of the deportees and political prisoners were allowed to return to Estonia . Political arrests and numerous other kind of crimes against humanity were committed all through the occupation period until the late 1980s . After all , the attempt to integrate Estonian society into the Soviet system failed . Although the armed resistance was defeated , the population remained anti @-@ Soviet . This helped the Estonians to organise a new resistance movement in the late 1980s , regain their independence in 1991 , and then rapidly develop a modern society . = 166th Aviation Brigade ( United States ) = The 166th Aviation Brigade was an aviation training brigade of the United States Army headquartered at Fort Hood , Texas . It was a subordinate unit of First Army - Division West . An " AC / RC " ( Active Component / Reserve Component ) formation , the 166th Aviation Brigade was the sole organization responsible for the post @-@ mobilization training of United States Army Reserve & National Guard aviation units . The unit was formerly designated as 3rd Brigade , 75th Division . From 1997 , the 166th Aviation Brigade has trained other aviation units for front @-@ line service . As such , it has never seen combat , and has thus never earned any campaign streamers or unit awards . As the only brigade in the First Army responsible for training aviation units , the 166th Aviation Brigade is the principal unit for training Army Reserve and Army National Guard assets preparing to deploy to contingencies around the world , which means it is responsible for 47 percent of all Army Aviation assets . The 166th Aviation Brigade partners with its First Army - Division West sister brigade , the 479th Field Artillery Brigade for its combat aviation brigade ( CAB ) mobilizations , but maintains validation authority , or final approval over a CAB 's successful completion of mobilization training . The 166th Aviation Brigade inactivated at Fort hood on 24 June 2015 . = = Organization = = The 166th Aviation Brigade consists of eight battalions from five regiments . Its Headquarters and Headquarters Company is located at Fort Hood , its Reserve Component battalions are located at Fort Des Moines , Iowa , Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , Fort Riley , Kansas and Jefferson Barracks , Missouri , and its Active Component battalions are located at Fort Riley , Kansas , Fort Stewart , Georgia , Fort Knox , Kentucky and Fort Hood , Texas . The 1st Battalion , 291st Aviation Regiment is the brigade 's primary assault helicopter training unit , specializing in fast @-@ attack helicopters such as the AH @-@ 64 Apache . The 2nd Battalion , 291st Aviation Regiment is the brigade 's primary utility , lift , and air ambulance helicopter training unit , specializing in utility helicopters such as the UH @-@ 60 Black Hawk and the CH @-@ 47 Chinook . The 1st Battalion , 337th Regiment ( Training Support ) specializes in mobilization and de @-@ mobilization for aviation units . The remaining battalions , including the 1st Battalion , 351st Regiment ( Training Support ) , 3rd Battalion , 382nd Regiment ( Logistics Support ) , and the 1st , 2nd , and 3rd Battalions of the 383rd Regiment ( Combat Support / Combat Sustainment Support ) specialize in areas of general instruction about other aspects of mobilization , conducting exercises , and logistics management . While its Reserve Component battalions have somewhat maintained their former mission of training National Guard and Army Reserve units in Iowa , Kansas , Nebraska , and Missouri as they did before the brigade reflagged , they have shifted toward supporting the brigade 's primary mission - the mobilization of Combat Aviation Brigades ( CABs ) by either assisting with ground training , or training and evaluating the CABs ' aviation support battalions . = = History = = The 166th Aviation Brigade was first constituted 16 September 1988 in the Army Reserve as Headquarters , 166th Aviation Group . It took two years for the formation to be organized and the unit was finally activated on 16 September 1990 in Germany . It received a distinctive unit insignia on 3 April 1991 . Its headquarters was at Illesheim . The formation was inactivated on 15 June 1997 in Germany . Over the next four months , the unit 's inactive components were reorganized and redesignated as a brigade sized unit , allowing it to take on a larger support staff that could command more soldiers . This transformation occurred as the brigade was reassigned to the continental United States . It was activated on 24 October 1997 as the 166th Aviation Brigade at Fort Riley , Kansas . It was also activated into the Active duty force . The brigade began to undertake training support duties for units in the process of mobilization and de @-@ mobilization . It was also tasked to provide support for local authorities in the event of peacetime crises and natural disasters . Soldiers of the brigade also participated in assistance with community projects around the Fort Riley community , including repairing and refurbishing run down properties for shelter house projects as well as disabled veterans . After two years of duty , the brigade was inactivated on 16 October 1999 at Fort Riley , Kansas . As part of the Army 's Transformation Plan , the 3rd Brigade , 75th Division was redesignated as the 166th Aviation Brigade , under the command of Division West of the First Army . Its mission would be to train and mobilize aviation units of the Army 's reserve and national guard components . It was to be the only brigade under the First Army that specialized in training for Army aviation units . It was activated 1 December 2006 as a reserve unit at Fort Riley . The brigade became a partner organization of the 1st Infantry Division , which was stationed at Fort Riley and could provide better support than the headquarters of First Army Division West , which was headquartered at Fort Carson , Colorado and maintained units all over the western United States . The brigade received a shoulder sleeve insignia on 13 June 2007 , but it has not been authorized for wear due to First Army policy requiring its units to wear its SSI . In the summer of 2008 , the brigade 's combat service / combat sustainment support battalions took part in equipment testing and training in Rapid City , South Dakota . It tested the Multifunction Agile Remote Control Robot IV , a route clearance robot , with the assistance of the South Dakota National Guard . The bulk of the brigade spent the summer at Fort Sill , Oklahoma to train aviation assets for deploying units . In June 2008 , the brigade trained the aviation assets of the 34th Infantry Division in air combat , air assault , and other tactics related to aviation . For this mission , the brigade was assisted by the 479th Field Artillery Brigade , which handled ground exercises . As part of a new training routine , the brigade trained the 34th Infantry Division 's aviation units at Fort Rucker , spending a longer time training the unit because it continued to train the brigade as it mobilized and prepared to deploy . Other units trained with the Division , but none through the entire mobilization process . This process used new and never @-@ before @-@ used facilities to streamline training exercises . Purportedly , it gave the 166th Aviation Brigade much additional time for training , as the streamlining process made some programs more efficient , cutting time needed to prepare for them in half . After extensive evaluation , the 166th Aviation Brigade completed training for the Combat Aviation Brigade ( CAB ) , 34th Infantry Division on 4 August 2008 . The brigade returned to Fort Riley for a month before beginning the process over again with pre @-@ mobilization training of the CAB , 28th Infantry Division , and returned to Fort Sill for post @-@ mobilization training in late January 2008 . As part of a First Army realignment of training support brigades , the Department of the Army approved a change of station for First Army - Division West and two of its training support brigades . The 166th Aviation Brigade moved to Fort Hood , Texas on 15 July 2009 . The brigade 's Active Component battalions , all of which are aviation units , moved at a later date , most likely the summer 2010 ( with the exception of 1st Battalion , 291st Regiment , which was already located at the installation ) .The 166th Aviation Brigade inactivated at Fort hood on 24 June 2015 . = = Honors = = As the brigade has been in a training and supporting role for the Army since its creation , the 166th Aviation Brigade has never been awarded a campaign streamer for campaign participation . It has also never been awarded a unit decoration . = Baby ( Justin Bieber song ) = " Baby " is a song by Canadian recording artist Justin Bieber . It was released as the lead single from the latter half of Bieber 's debut album , My World 2 @.@ 0 . The track was written by Bieber with Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , both of whom worked with Bieber on " One Time " , and also by R & B singer Christina Milian and labelmate , rapper Ludacris . It was available for digital download on January 18 , 2010 . The song received airplay directly after release , officially impacting mainstream and rhythmic radio on January 26 , 2010 . The song is uptempo R & B , blending together dance @-@ pop and hip @-@ hop elements , while using influences of doo @-@ wop music . The song has received positive reviews from critics who complimented the song 's effective lyrics and chorus , and commended Ludacris ' part and the song 's ability to have an urban twist . The song was a commercial success , peaking at number one in France , and charting in the top ten of the United Kingdom , Canada , the United States , Australia , Norway , Japan , Ireland , Hungary , Belgium ( Flanders ) , Slovakia and New Zealand . The accompanying music video takes place in a mall / bowling @-@ alley setting . The video features several cameos such as Drake , Lil Twist and Tinashe , in which Bieber chases after a girl . As of May 2013 , the song has sold 3 @.@ 9 million digital downloads in the United States . The official music video is the fifteenth most @-@ viewed video all @-@ time on YouTube , and is also , as of 2016 , the YouTube video with the most dislikes . It had been the most @-@ viewed from July 12 , 2010 until November 24 , 2012 , when it was surpassed by the music video for " Gangnam Style " by Psy . Bieber performed the song several times , including Saturday Night Live , and the ninth season of American Idol . Bieber also performed an acoustic rendition of the remix version with Drake at the 2010 Juno Awards . The official remix in the United Kingdom features British hip @-@ hop artist Chipmunk . = = Background and writing = = " Baby " was written by Bieber with Christopher " Tricky " Stewart and Terius " The @-@ Dream " Nash , both of whom worked with Bieber on " One Time " , R & B singer and The @-@ Dream 's then wife Christina Milian and labelmate , Ludacris . When asked how the collaboration initially came about , Bieber said , " [ Ludacris and I ] both live in Atlanta . I met him a year prior to this and we figured it was a perfect collaboration for him , so we invited him out to do it . " Bieber first premiered the song performing on MuchMusic on December 28 , 2009 . A few days before the release of the single , Bieber posted an acoustic version of the song to his YouTube with his guitarist Dan Kanterr , similar to the way he did with " Favorite Girl " . Billboard said that : " Bieber delivers his characteristically clean vocals with conviction : " My first love broke my heart for the first time / and I 'm like , ' baby , baby , baby , no ! ' I thought you 'd always be mine . " Also in a review of the acoustic version Bill Lamb of About.com said that " I think the vocals here will convince some that Justin Bieber really does have the vocal chops . " = = Style and composition = = The song is predominantly upbeat , featuring Bieber 's R & B vocals over a backdrop containing a dance infused beat , full of keyboard and " disco string " synths . The song is composed in the key of E ♭ major with Bieber 's vocal range spanning from the low @-@ note of G3 to the high @-@ note of C5 . According to Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone , the song " blends winks at Fifties doo @-@ wop with hip @-@ hop chants " , comparing the style and the lyrics " My first love broke my heart for the first time / And I was like / Baby , baby , baby , ooooh / I thought you 'd always be mine " to fifties ballads like " Tears on My Pillow " , " Why Do Fools Fall in Love " and " Earth Angel " . Lyrically , Bieber 's lines explain his distress over his lost love , and promise to get it back , featured in lines like , " And I wanna play it cool / But I 'm losin ' you … / I 'm in pieces / So come and fix me … " . The chorus features the distinct and repetitive " baby , baby , baby , ohhhh ( nooooo ) " hook . After the second verse , Ludacris comes in with the verse @-@ rap , an anecdote of young love when he was thirteen , as it runs " When I was 13 / I had my first love / She had me going crazy / Oh , I was star @-@ struck / She woke me up daily / Don 't need no Starbucks … " . A famous section of the song plays " Baby , Baby baby oh . Like baby , baby baby oh " . It is the catchphrase of the song that identifies the song . = = Critical reception = = Nick Levine of Digital Spy felt the song was " no great departure from what he 's given us before " , but felt the production of Tricky and The @-@ Dream helped give the song a " simple " , " big " chorus about " puppy love " that works . Melanie Bertoldi of Billboard said , " The midtempo number 's undeniably contagious chorus should keep Bieber 's tween fan base satisfied , and Ludacris ' brief cameo adds a welcome urban twist . " Bertoli went on to say , " The matchup adds a layer of maturity to Bieber 's repertoire and should further solidify his growing presence on the charts . " Rap @-@ Up magazine said that " the sweet pop fare gets a little street cred courtesy of the teen sensation 's labelmate Ludacris . " Jody Rosen of Rolling Stone appreciated the song 's vintage doo @-@ wop and fifties aesthetic and hip @-@ hop chants , and said the song included " one of the catchiest choruses concocted by the @-@ Dream and Tricky Stewart , the duo behind " Umbrella " and " Single Ladies . " Luke O 'Neill of Boston Globe had mixed thoughts about the song calling Ludacris ' cameo " goofy " , and said , the song " effects a musical anachronism , albeit a catchy one , but in this sped @-@ up recycling moment all styles all at once are grist for the mill . " = = Chart performance = = In the United States , " Baby " debuted at number five on the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming Bieber 's highest charting single in the US . Bieber then went on to surpass this chart position when " Boyfriend " debuted at number two in April 2012 . The song was also Ludacris 's biggest song to date , solo or featuring , since 2007 's " Glamorous " . " Baby " was beaten out as the week 's highest debut by Taylor Swift 's " Today Was a Fairytale " , which debuted at number two . The debuting of the pair of songs was just the third time in history that the Hot 100 had two new top @-@ five debuts . The instance had last happened in 2003 when American Idol 's Ruben Studdard and Clay Aiken 's debut singles charted at number one and two . During its first week of radio impact , the song had over 1400 spins , and was the top gainer for mainstream and rhythmic radio formats . The song debuted at thirty @-@ three on the Pop Songs chart on the week labeled February 13 , 2010 . The song missed out becoming the greatest gainer by one spot , which was Kesha 's " Blah Blah Blah " . However the following week , the song did collect greatest gainer recognition , jumping to twenty @-@ five on the chart , and has since peaked at sixteen . On August 2 , 2010 , the song was certified double @-@ platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 units . As of May 2013 , the song has sold 3 @.@ 9 million digital downloads in the United States . With the inclusion of streaming in the RIAA certifications in 2013 , the song became the highest certificated single of all time with 12XPlatinum ( passing " Candle in the Wind 1997 " by Elton John with 11XPlatinum ) . " Baby " debuted and peaked on the Canadian Hot 100 at number three , becoming his highest charting single at the time . On the issue dated February 8 , 2010 , the song debuted in Australia on the official ARIA Singles Chart at number thirty @-@ seven . After twelve weeks of ascending and descending the charts the single reached a peak of three . " Baby " has since been certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for shipments of 70 @,@ 000 units . In New Zealand , the song entered the chart at nineteen . After weeks of ascending and descending the charts , " Baby " reached a peak of four . The song dropped to the number five position the following week and after weeks of fluctuating around the chart it attained the number four position once again . It has since been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) . The song peaked at number three on the UK Singles Chart on the issue date March 14 , 2010 . The following week , " Baby " fell to number four , but climbed back to its previous peak position of three on the issue date March 28 , 2010 . In the process of climbing the charts , " Baby " gained a new peak of two on the R & B Singles Chart . As of June 2012 , Baby has sold 442 @,@ 432 copies in the United Kingdom . = = Music video = = Filming for the music video began during the week of January 25 , 2010 , in Los Angeles . It was filmed at Universal CityWalk by director Ray Kay , who had previously directed videos for Beyoncé Knowles , Lady Gaga , Alexandra Burke , and Cheryl Cole , among others . Ludacris said that the video " is like a 2010 version of Michael Jackson 's " The Way You Make Me Feel " . " Bieber said that the video " will capture the song 's message of trying to woo back a girl . " In explaining the concept of the video , Bieber said , " It starts off , I really like this girl , but we didn 't [ get ] along ; we couldn 't be together . Basically I want her back and [ I 'm ] kind of going through the whole thing . I 'm chasing her around , trying to get her , and she 's kind of playing hard to get , but I 'm persistent . I keep going . " The video premiered exclusively on Vevo on Friday , February 19 , 2010 . Singer and actress Jasmine Villegas portrays Bieber 's love interest in the video . Bieber 's friends , Young Money artists Drake and Lil Twist also appeared in the video , along with Tinashe and jerkin ' crew The Rangers . The video takes place in a mall @-@ like setting with a bowling alley and more . After the video was released , MTV commented on the video being the new version of " The Way You Make Me Feel " saying , " .. and the choreography does use a few of Jackson 's less @-@ suggestive moves . " The MTV review goes on saying , " most of the video takes place in the bowling alley , there are also scenes of Bieber in other settings , hanging out with Luda , doing the moonwalk , messing with his hair and mugging for the camera . Regardless of his lady 's apparent frustration with him , Bieber eventually wins her over . The video concludes with the pair walking off into the night holding hands . " Rapper Drake appears in the video . Billboard reviewed the video , saying , " Those new dance moves he 's showing off can only mean one thing : all over the world , tweens ' hearts are melting right now . " In July 2010 , the video became the most viewed video in YouTube history until it was surpassed by Psy 's hit single , " Gangnam Style " , in November 2012 . On March 5 , 2014 , " Baby " became the second video , after " Gangnam Style " , to receive 1 billion views on YouTube , and is the fifteenth most viewed video on the site , with over 1 @.@ 41 billion views as of July 2016 . Despite this , the video has many more dislikes than it has likes . Although the song has received over 4 @.@ 7 million likes , the song has received over 6 @.@ 4 million dislikes . = = Live performances = = Bieber premiered an acoustic version of the song on December 28 , 2009 , on MuchMusic . He sang the song on VH1 's Pepsi Super Bowl Fan Jam , along with other performers Rihanna , JoJo and Timbaland , and on CBS ' The Early Show as a part of their Super Bowl programming . He performed the song the first time with Ludacris on BET 's SOS : Saving Ourselves – Help for Haiti Telethon , on February 6 , 2009 , which also aired on VH1 , and MTV . During the chorus , he changed the lyrics to " Baby , baby , Haiti " , to show support for the cause , and the reason everyone came together for the show . In the week of his album release , he performed the song on The View and 106 & Park . Bieber also performed the song at the 2010 Kids Choice Awards on March 27 . Bieber performed the song along with " U Smile " on the eighteenth episode of season thirty five of Saturday Night Live . Bieber performed an acoustic rendition of the song along with a freestyle by good friend Drake at the 2010 Juno Awards . In April 2010 , Bieber noted that due to his voice changing , he could no longer hit all the notes in " Baby " , and for live performances , the key is lowered . Bieber performed the song live in Sydney , Australia on April 26 , 2010 , in the Sunrise studios after his public performance was cancelled . Bieber also performed the song on May 11 , 2010 , on The Oprah Winfrey Show . Bieber performed the song on June 4 , 2010 , on the Today Show along with " Never Say Never " , " Somebody to Love " , and " One Time " . He performed the song with " Somebody to Love " at the 2010 MuchMusic Video Awards . = = Track listing = = = = Charts and certifications = = = = = Chart precession and succession = = = = = Release history = = = So Yesterday = " So Yesterday " is a song recorded by American singer Hilary Duff for her second studio album , Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) . It was written and produced by The Matrix ( a production team consisting of Lauren Christy , Scott Spock and Graham Edwards ) , with additional writing from Charlie Midnight . The song is influenced by pop rock music , and the lyrics chronicle the protagonist getting over a breakup with her boyfriend , declaring him as " so yesterday " . The song received mixed reviews from music critics , with some of them noting its close similarity to Avril Lavigne 's works , while others named it one of Duff 's best songs ever . " So Yesterday " premiered on AOL Music 's " First Listen " on June 27 , 2003 . It was serviced to mainstream radio in the United States on July 15 , 2003 . The song became Duff 's first single to chart in the US Billboard Hot 100 , reaching number forty @-@ two . It was moderately successful outside the US , reaching top forty in most countries it charted . The song reached number eight in Australia and was certified platinum by Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) . The song was accompanied by a music video , directed by Chris Applebaum , which showed Duff playing a prank on her ex @-@ boyfriend . It was successful on various music video channels like MTV and MuchMusic . Duff performed the song on her Metamorphosis Tour and has since performed it on all her concert tours . The song is also featured on the compilations Most Wanted ( 2005 ) , 4Ever Hilary ( 2006 ) and Best of Hilary Duff ( 2008 ) , and the music video game Band Hero . = = Background and release = = Although Duff recorded songs like " I Can 't Wait " , " Why Not " and " What Dreams Are Made Of " , which received substantial airplay on Radio Disney , executives at Buena Vista Music Group , Duff 's record label , planned to help her reach a more mature audience . So , Andre Recke , an executive at Buena Vista , along with Duff and her mother , enlisted the songwriting and production team " The Matrix " ( consisting of Lauren Christy , Scott Spock and Graham Edwards ) to produce songs for Duff 's debut album Metamorphosis ( 2003 ) . " So Yesterday " became one of three songs produced by the team for the album , and was the last song recorded for the album . Duff herself has said that when she first heard the song , she did not really like it ; however , her opinion changed after she listened to it more often . She then decided she would give the song a " 100 percent " and not comment negatively of it . According to her , she " ended up loving it " , stating , " It was such a fun song , and it means a lot . " Bob Cavallo , chairman of Buena Vista Records , said that the song was " more mature than the past work that she 's done . " " So Yesterday " premiered on AOL Music 's " First Listen " on June 27 , 2003 , and it drew over 500 @,@ 000 streams in two days . It was released to mainstream radio in the United States on July 15 , and was the " most added " song on the format in its first two weeks of release . The song is featured on all of Duff 's compilations album , including Most Wanted ( 2005 ) , 4ever ( 2006 ) and her greatest hits album , Best of Hilary Duff ( 2008 ) . It is also featured on the music video game Band Hero as a bonus download . = = Composition = = Lyrically , the song talks about someone who has got over a broken relationship , declaring the partner as " so yesterday " . According to Duff , the song 's lyrics are very empowering towards breaking up with someone and getting over it . In a 2006 interview with Instinct , Duff said that people often told her that " So Yesterday " was " the ultimate post @-@ breakup anthem " . She said her mother instilled the notion of inner strength in her , and that she wanted the music she makes to be positive . " I don 't think there 's very much of that out there anymore . " , she said . She stressed the importance of strong songs that are not all about how " a boy broke your heart and you 're never going to get on your feet again " , saying it was good for girls to hear . Musically , " So Yesterday " is moderately paced , with influences of pop and rock music and moves at a tempo of 76 bpm . The song is set in the signature of common time , and is written in the key of C ♭ major . The song has the sequence of Am – G – Fmaj7 as its chord progression . Duff 's vocal range in the song spans from the note of G ♯ 3 to the note of B ♯ 4 . = = Reception = = Upon its release , the song received mixed reviews from critics . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic gave a positive review and commented that the song sounded natural coming from a teenager like Duff . He also noted the influence of Avril Lavigne on the song . Billboard gave a mixed review , also commenting on Lavigne 's influence on the song . Similarly , Spence D. of IGN Music was mixed in his review stating , " [ it 's ] like bubblegum ice cream : smooth and sweet at first listen , but the flavor eventually wears off , leaving somewhat generic pop anthems that will most likely be forgotten by the aforementioned throngs of young girl worshippers as they age along with Duff . " While reviewing Duff 's compilation Most Wanted , Talia Kraines of BBC Music commented that the song was Duff 's best . Similarly , Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine , noted the track as " kind of cute . " Elysa Gardner of USA Today gave a negative review on the song 's title writing , " [ That ] song title may , unfortunately , prove prophetic for an artist who seems so content to merely ride the wave of the moment " = = Chart performance = = " So Yesterday " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 of August 16 , 2003 , at number 53 , and eventually peaked at number 42 . It spent 20 weeks on the Hot 100 . The song topped the US Billboard Hot 100 Singles Sales chart , making Duff the first artist in four months not affiliated with American Idol , to top the chart . The song peaked at number two in Canadian Singles Chart . In Australia the song debuted at number thirty @-@ nine , peaked at number eight in its eighth week , and remained on the chart for twenty weeks . It was the forty @-@ ninth best selling single of 2003 in Australia , and was certified platinum in 2004 . In Japan , the song reached number 199 on the Oricon weekly charts . In United Kingdom , the song debuted at number nine on the UK Singles Chart . The song peaked in the top ten on the charts in other European countries such as the Netherlands and France . As of July 27 , 2014 , the song had sold 252 @,@ 000 copies in the United States . = = Music video = = The music video premiered on MTV on July 24 , 2003 . It was directed by Chris Applebaum . It was also featured on MTV 's Making the Video two days after the video 's premiere on July 26 , 2003 . According to Disney Music Group chairman Bob Cavallo , care was taken to see that the video would not be offensive to Duff 's young fans and parents , but would work for MTV . In the video , Duff 's plays a break @-@ up prank on her aloof boyfriend . While he is at the beach , she steals his clothes , including an orange T @-@ shirt that reads " Everything is bigger in Texas ! " . She spends several days taking snapshots of strangers wearing the T @-@ shirt and anonymously sneaking them into his mailbox . His bewilderment turns to dismay when he receives the final package returning the garment along with a picture of Duff smiling , looking back , and wearing a shirt that declares , " you 're so yesterday " . Throughout the whole video , Duff is shown performing the song with her band . The music video ranked at number one on Total Request Live . It was a staple on the UK incarnation of Total Request Live , reaching a peak of # 4 . In late August 2003 it was the most streamed music video on AOL . = = Live performances = = " So Yesterday " was performed at the 31st American Music Award in November 2003 . The song was also performed at the British chart program Top of the Pops in 2003 . Duff performed an acoustic version of the song at Sessions @ AOL and Studio Disney . Apart from the live television performances , the song was performed on many of Duff 's tours . " So Yesterday " was performed on every show on her Metamorphosis Tour ( 2003 ) . The live acoustic performance at Sessions @ AOL was taped and is featured on Duff 's video compilation All Access Pass , and the performance at the Metamorphosis tour is featured on Duff 's live video compilation The Girl Can Rock . = = Track listings = = = = Credits and personnel = = Songwriters : Lauren Christy , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards , Charlie Midnight Production : The Matrix Instruments and programming : The Matrix Recording and mixing : The Matrix Source = = Charts = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = = Amy Winehouse = Amy Jade Winehouse ( 14 September 1983 – 23 July 2011 ) was an English singer and songwriter known for her deep expressive contralto vocals and her eclectic mix of musical genres , including soul ( sometimes labelled as blue @-@ eyed soul and neo soul ) , rhythm and blues , and jazz . Winehouse 's debut album , Frank ( 2003 ) , was a critical success in the UK and was nominated for the Mercury Prize . Her follow @-@ up album , Back to Black ( 2006 ) , led to five 2008 Grammy Awards , tying the then record for the most wins by a female artist in a single night , and made her the first British female to win five Grammys , including three of the general field " Big Four " awards : Best New Artist , Record of the Year and Song of the Year . Winehouse won three Ivor Novello Awards : in 2004 , Best Contemporary Song for " Stronger Than Me " ; in 2007 , Best Contemporary Song again , this time for " Rehab " ; and in 2008 , Best Song Musically and Lyrically for " Love Is a Losing Game . " She also won the 2007 Brit Award for Best British Female Artist , having been nominated for Best British Album , with Back to Black . Winehouse died of alcohol poisoning on 23 July 2011 , aged 27 . Her album Back to Black posthumously became , for a time , the UK 's best @-@ selling album of the 21st century . In 2012 , Winehouse was ranked 26th on VH1 's 100 Greatest Women In Music . The BBC has called her " the pre @-@ eminent vocal talent of her generation . " = = Early life = = Amy Winehouse was born in Chase Farm Hospital in north London , to Jewish parents . Her father , Mitchell " Mitch " Winehouse , was a window panel installer then a taxi driver ; her mother , Janis Winehouse ( née Seaton ) , a pharmacist . The Winehouse ancestors were Russian and Polish immigrants to London . Amy had an older brother , Alex ( born 1979 ) , and the family lived in London 's Southgate area , where she attended Osidge Primary School . Many of Winehouse 's maternal uncles were professional jazz musicians . Amy 's paternal grandmother , Cynthia , was a singer and dated the English jazz saxophonist Ronnie Scott . She and Amy 's parents influenced Amy 's interest in jazz . Her father Mitch often sang Frank Sinatra songs to her , and whenever she got chastised at school she would sing " Fly Me to the Moon " before going up to the headmistress to be told off . Winehouse 's parents separated when she was nine , and she lived with her mother and stayed with her father and his girlfriend in Hatfield Heath , Essex on weekends . In 1992 her grandmother Cynthia suggested she attend the Susi Earnshaw Theatre School , where she went on Saturdays to further her vocal education and to learn to tap dance . She attended the school for four years and founded a short @-@ lived rap group called Sweet ' n ' Sour with Juliette Ashby , her childhood friend before seeking full @-@ time training at Sylvia Young Theatre School . Winehouse was allegedly expelled at 14 for " not applying herself " and also for piercing her nose . Sylvia Young has denied this — " She changed schools at 15 — I 've heard it said she was expelled ; she wasn 't . I 'd never have expelled Amy " — as has Mitch Winehouse . She also appeared in an episode of The Fast Show , 1997 , with other children from the Sylvia Young School and later attended the Mount School , Mill Hill ; the BRIT School in Selhurst , Croydon ; Osidge JMI School and then Ashmole School . = = Musical career = = = = = Early career = = = After toying around with her brother Alex 's guitar , Winehouse bought her own when she was 14 and began writing music a year later . Soon after , she began working for a living , including , at one time , as an entertainment journalist for the World Entertainment News Network , in addition to singing with local group the Bolsha Band . In July 2000 , she became the featured female vocalist with the National Youth Jazz Orchestra ; her influences were to include Sarah Vaughan and Dinah Washington , the latter whom she was already listening to at home . Amy 's best friend , soul singer Tyler James , sent her demo tape to an A & R person . Winehouse signed to Simon Fuller 's 19 Management in 2002 and was paid £ 250 a week against future earnings . While being developed by the management company , she was kept as a recording industry secret although she was a regular jazz standards singer at the Cobden Club . Her future A & R representative at Island ( Universal ) , Darcus Beese , heard of her by accident when the manager of The Lewinson Brothers showed him some productions of his clients , which featured Winehouse as key vocalist . When he asked who the singer was , the manager told him he was not allowed to say . Having decided that he wanted to sign her , it took several months of asking around for Beese to eventually discover who the singer was . However , Winehouse had already recorded a number of songs and signed a publishing deal with EMI by this time . Incidentally , she formed a working relationship with producer Salaam Remi through these record publishers . Beese introduced Winehouse to his boss , Nick Gatfield , and the Island head shared his enthusiasm in signing the young artist . Winehouse was signed to Island , as rival interest in Winehouse had started to build to include representatives of EMI and Virgin starting to make moves . Beese told HitQuarters that he felt the reason behind the excitement , over an artist who was an atypical pop star for the time , was due to a backlash against reality TV music shows , which included audiences starved for fresh , genuine young talent . = = = 2003 – 05 : Debut album Frank = = = Winehouse 's debut album , Frank , was released on 20 October 2003 . Produced mainly by Salaam Remi , many songs were influenced by jazz and , apart from two covers , Winehouse co @-@ wrote every song . The album received positive reviews with compliments over the " cool , critical gaze " in its lyrics and brought comparisons of her voice to Sarah Vaughan , Macy Gray and others . The album entered the upper levels of the UK album chart in 2004 when it was nominated for BRIT Awards in the categories of " British Female Solo Artist " and " British Urban Act . " It went on to achieve platinum sales . Later in 2004 , she and Remi won the Ivor Novello Award for Best Contemporary Song , for their first single together , " Stronger Than Me . " The album was also shortlisted for the 2004 Mercury Music Prize . In the same year , she performed at the Glastonbury Festival – Jazzworld , the V Festival and the Montreal International Jazz Festival ( 7 July 2004 , at the Club Soda ) . After the release of the album , Winehouse commented that she was " only 80 percent behind [ the ] album " because Island Records had overruled her preferences for the songs and mixes to be included . Further singles from the album were " Take the Box , " " In My Bed " / " You Sent Me Flying " and " Pumps " / " Help Yourself . " = = = 2006 – 07 : international success , Back to Black and touring = = = In contrast to her jazz @-@ influenced former album , Winehouse 's focus shifted to the girl groups of the 1950s and 1960s . Winehouse hired New York singer Sharon Jones 's longtime band , the Dap @-@ Kings , to back her up in the studio and on tour . Mitch Winehouse relates in Amy , My Daughter how fascinating watching her process was : her perfectionism in the studio and how she would put what she had sung on a CD and play it in his taxi outside to know how most people would hear her music . In May 2006 , Winehouse 's demo tracks such as " You Know I 'm No Good " and " Rehab " appeared on Mark Ronson 's New York radio show on East Village Radio . These were some of the first new songs played on the radio after the release of " Pumps " and both were slated to appear on her second album . The 11 @-@ track album , completed in five months , was produced entirely by Salaam Remi and Ronson , with the production credits being split between them . Ronson said in a 2010 interview that he liked working with Winehouse because she was blunt when she did not like his work . She in turn thought that when they first met , he was a sound engineer and that she was expecting an older man with a beard . Promotion of Back to Black soon began and , in early October 2006 Winehouse 's official website was relaunched with a new layout and clips of previously unreleased songs . Back to Black was released in the UK on 30 October 2006 . It went to number one on the UK Albums Chart for two weeks in January 2007 , dropping then climbing back for several weeks in February . In the US , it entered at number seven on the Billboard 200 . It was the best @-@ selling album in the UK of 2007 , selling 1 @.@ 85 million copies over the course of the year . The album spawned a number of hit singles . The first single released from the album was the Ronson @-@ produced " Rehab . " The song reached the top ten in the UK and the US . Time magazine named " Rehab " the Best Song of 2007 . Writer Josh Tyrangiel praised Winehouse for her confidence , saying , " What she is mouthy , funny , sultry , and quite possibly crazy " and " It 's impossible not to be seduced by her originality . Combine it with production by Mark Ronson that references four decades worth of soul music without once ripping it off , and you 've got the best song of 2007 . " The album 's second single and lead single in the US , " You Know I 'm No Good , " was released in January 2007 with a remix featuring rap vocals by Ghostface Killah . It ultimately reached number 18 on the UK singles chart . The title track , " Back to Black , " was released in the UK in April 2007 and peaked at number 25 , but was more successful across mainland Europe . " Tears Dry on Their Own , " " Love Is a Losing Game " were also released as singles , but failed to achieve the same level of success . A deluxe edition of Back to Black was also released on 5 November 2007 in the UK . The bonus disc features B @-@ sides , rare , and live tracks , as well as " Valerie . " Winehouse 's debut DVD I Told You I Was Trouble : Live in London was released the same day in the UK and 13 November in the US . It includes a live set recorded at London 's Shepherd 's Bush Empire and a 50 @-@ minute documentary charting the singer 's career over the previous four years . Frank was released in the United States on 20 November 2007 to positive reviews . The album debuted at number 61 on the Billboard 200 chart . In addition to her own album , she collaborated with other artists on singles . Winehouse was a vocalist on the song " Valerie " on Ronson 's solo album Version . The song peaked at number two in the UK , upon its October single release . " Valerie " was nominated for a 2008 Brit Award for " Best British Single . " Her work with ex @-@ Sugababe Mutya Buena , " B Boy Baby , " was released on 17 December 2007 . It served as the fourth single from Buena 's debut album , Real Girl . Winehouse was also in talks of working with Missy Elliott for her album , Block Party . Winehouse toured in conjunction with the Back to Black album 's release , performing headliners in September and November 2006 , including a Little Noise Sessions charity concert at the Union Chapel in Islington , North London . On 31 December 2006 , Winehouse appeared on Jools Holland 's Annual Hootenanny live on the BBC and performed a cover of Marvin Gaye 's " I Heard It Through the Grapevine " along with Paul Weller and Holland 's Rhythm and Blues Orchestra . She also performed Toots and the Maytals ' " Monkey Man . " She began a run of another fourteen gigs beginning in February 2007 . At his request , Hollywood star Bruce Willis introduced Winehouse before her performance of " Rehab " at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards in Universal City , California . She had made awards organizers nervous when she went on a Las Vegas jaunt in the hours before the show . During the summer of 2007 , she performed at various festivals , including the Isle of Wight Festival and Glastonbury Festival in England , Lollapalooza festival in Chicago , Belgium 's Rock Werchter and Virgin Music Festival in Baltimore . The rest of her tour , however , did not go as well . In November 2007 the opening night of a 17 @-@ date tour was marred by booing and walkouts at the National Indoor Arena in Birmingham . A critic for the Birmingham Mail said it was " one of the saddest nights of my life ... I saw a supremely talented artist reduced to tears , stumbling around the stage and , unforgivably , swearing at the audience . " Other concerts ended similarly , with , for example , fans at her Hammersmith Apollo performance in London saying that she " looked highly intoxicated throughout , " until she announced on 27 November 2007 , that her performances and public appearances were cancelled for the remainder of the year , citing her doctor 's advice to take a complete rest . A statement issued by concert promoter Live Nation blamed " the rigours involved in touring and the intense emotional strain that Amy has been under in recent weeks " for the decision . Mitch Winehouse wrote about her nervousness before public performances in his 2012 book , Amy , My Daughter . = = = 2008 : Continued success and acclaim = = = On 13 January 2008 , Back to Black held the number @-@ one position on the Billboard Pan European charts for the third consecutive week . On 20 February 2008 , Winehouse performed at the 2008 Brit Awards , performing " Valerie " with Mark Ronson , followed by " Love Is a Losing Game . " She urged the crowd to " make some noise for my Blake . " In February 2008 , Winehouse also won Grammy Awards in the following categories : Record of the Year , Song of the Year , Best Female Pop Vocal Performance for the single " Rehab , " and Best Pop Vocal Album . Additionally , Back to Black was nominated for Album of the Year . Ronson 's work with her won the Grammy Award for Producer of the Year , in the non @-@ classical category . The singer also earned a Grammy as Best New Artist , earning her an entry in the 2009 edition of the Guinness Book of World Records for Most Grammy Awards won by a British Female Act . She ended her acceptance speech for Record of the Year with , " This is for London because Camden town ain 't burning down , " in reference to the Camden Market fire . Winehouse was forced to perform " You Know I 'm No Good " and " Rehab " for the awards ceremony via satellite , as her visa approval had not been processed in time . After the Grammys , the album 's sales increased , catapulting Back to Black to number two on the US Billboard 200 , after it initially peaked in the seventh position . A special deluxe edition of Back to Black topped the UK album charts on 2 March 2008 . Meanwhile , the original edition of the album was ranked at number 30 in its 68th week on the charts , while Frank charted at number 35 . In Paris , she performed what was described as a " well @-@ executed 40 @-@ minute " set at the opening of a Fendi boutique in early March . By 12 March , the album had sold a total of 2 @,@ 467 @,@ 575 copies — 318 @,@ 350 copies had been sold in the previous 10 weeks — putting the album on the UK 's top @-@ 10 best @-@ selling albums of the 21st century for the first time . On 7 April , Back to Black was in the top position of the pan @-@ European charts for the sixth consecutive and thirteenth aggregate week . Amy Winehouse – The Girl Done Good : A Documentary Review , a 78 @-@ minute DVD , was released on 14 April 2008 . The documentary features interviews with those who knew her at a young age , people who helped her achieve success , jazz music experts , and music and pop @-@ culture specialists . At the 2008 Ivor Novello Awards in May , Winehouse became the first @-@ ever artist to receive two nominations for the top award : best song , musically and lyrically . She won the award for " Love Is a Losing Game " and was nominated for " You Know I 'm No Good . " " Rehab , " a Novello winner for best contemporary song in 2006 , also received a 2008 nomination for best @-@ selling British song . Winehouse was also nominated for a 2008 MTV Europe Award in the " Act of the Year " category . Although her father , manager and various members of her touring team reportedly tried to dissuade her , Winehouse performed at the Rock in Rio Lisboa festival in Portugal in May 2008 . Although the set was plagued by a late arrival and problems with her voice , the crowd warmed to her . In addition to her own material she performed two Specials covers . Winehouse performed at Nelson Mandela 's 90th Birthday Party concert at London 's Hyde Park on 27 June , and the next day at the Glastonbury Festival . On 12 July , at the Oxegen Festival she performed a well @-@ received 50 @-@ minute set which was followed the next day by a 14 song set at T in the Park . On 16 August she played at the Staffordshire leg of the V Festival , and the following day played the Chelmsford leg of the festival . Organizers said that Winehouse attracted the biggest crowds of the festival . Audience reaction was reported as mixed . On 6 September , she was Bestival 's Saturday headliner , where her performance was described as polished — terminated by a curfew as the show running overdue , after Winehouse started an hour late — and her storming off stage . A clip of Winehouse 's music was included in the " Roots and Influences " area that looked at connections between different artists at the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame Annex NYC , which opened in December 2008 . One thread started with Billie Holiday , continued with Aretha Franklin and Mary J. Blige , and then finished with Winehouse . Back to Black was the world 's seventh @-@ biggest @-@ selling album of 2008 . The album 's sales meant that the market performance of Universal Music 's recorded music division did not drop to levels experienced by the overall music market . = = = 2009 – 11 : Final projects before death = = = In a poll of U.S. residents conducted for VisitBritain by Harris Interactive , the results of which were released in March 2009 , one @-@ fifth of those polled indicated they had listened to Winehouse 's music during the previous year . Winehouse performed with Rhythms del Mundo on their cover of the Sam Cooke song , " Cupid , " for an Artists Project Earth benefit album that was released on 13 July 2009 . Winehouse and Ronson contributed a cover of Lesley Gore 's " It 's My Party " to the Quincy Jones tribute album Q Soul Bossa Nostra released 9 November 2010 . Winehouse and drummer Questlove of The Roots had agreed to form a group but her problems obtaining a visa delayed their working together : Salaam Remi had already created some material with Winehouse as part of the project . According to The Times , Universal Music pressed her for new material in 2008 , and Winehouse as of 2 September had not been near a recording studio . In late October Winehouse 's spokesman was quoted as saying that Winehouse had not been given a deadline to complete her third album , for which she was learning to play drums . In May 2009 Winehouse returned to performing at a jazz festival in Saint Lucia amid torrential downpours and technical difficulties . During her set it was reported she was unsteady on her feet and had trouble remembering lyrics . She apologised to the crowd for being " bored " and ended the set in the middle of a song . To a cheering crowd on 23 August at the V festival , Winehouse sang with The Specials on their songs " You 're Wondering Now " and " Ghost Town . " During her stay in Saint Lucia , she also worked on new music with Salaam Remi . Island claimed that a new album would be due in 2010 with Island co @-@ president Darcus Beese saying , " I 've heard a couple of song demos that have absolutely floored me . " In July 2010 , Winehouse was quoted as saying her next album would be released no later than January 2011 , saying " It 's going to be very much the same as my second album , where there 's a lot of jukebox stuff and songs that are ... just jukebox , really . " Ronson said the same month however that he had not started to record the album . She performed " Valerie " with Ronson at a movie premiere but forgot some of the song 's lyrics . In October Winehouse performed a four @-@ song set to promote her fashion line . In December 2010 , she played a 40 @-@ minute concert at a Russian oligarch 's party in Moscow , the tycoon hand picking the songs . During January 2011 , she played five dates in Brazil , with opening acts of Janelle Monáe and Mayer Hawthorne . On 11 February 2011 , Winehouse cut short a performance in Dubai following booing from the audience . Winehouse was reported to be tired , distracted and " tipsy " during the performance . On 18 June 2011 , Winehouse started her twelve @-@ leg 2011 European tour in Belgrade . Local media described her performance as a scandal and disaster , and she was booed off the stage due to her apparently being too drunk to perform . It was reported that she was unable to remember the city she was in , the lyrics of her songs or — when trying to introduce them — the names of the members of her band . The local press also claimed that Winehouse was forced to perform by her bodyguards , who did not allow her to leave the stage when she tried to do so . She then pulled out of performances in Istanbul and Athens which had been scheduled for the following week . On 21 June , it was announced that she had cancelled all shows of her tour and would be given " as long as it takes " to sort herself out . Winehouse 's last public appearance took place at Camden 's Roundhouse , London on 20 July 2011 , when she made a surprise appearance on stage to support her goddaughter , Dionne Bromfield , who was singing " Mama Said " with The Wanted . Winehouse died on 23 July 2011 . On the week of 26 July 2011 , Frank , Back to Black and the Back to Black EP re @-@ entered the Billboard 200 at number 57 , number 9 and number 152 respectively , with the album climbing to number 4 the following week . Back to Black also topped the Billboard Digital Albums chart on the same week and was the second best @-@ seller at iTunes . " Rehab " re @-@ entered and topped the Billboard Hot Digital Songs chart as well , selling up to 38 @,@ 000 more digital downloads . As of August 2011 , " Back to Black " was the best @-@ selling album in the UK in the twenty @-@ first century . Winehouse 's last recording was a duet with American singer Tony Bennett for his latest album , Duets II , released on 20 September 2011 . Their single from the album , " Body and Soul , " was released on 14 September 2011 on MTV and VH1 to commemorate what would have been her 28th birthday . Her father , Mitch Winehouse , launched the Amy Winehouse Foundation with the goal of raising awareness and support for organisations that help vulnerable , young adults with problems such as addiction . Proceeds from " Body and Soul " benefit the Amy Winehouse Foundation . The song received the Grammy for Best Pop Duo / Group Performance at the 54th Grammy Awards on 12 February 2012 . Winehouse 's father , Mitch Winehouse , picked up the award at the awards ceremony with his wife Janis , saying , " We shouldn 't be here . Our darling daughter should be here . These are the cards that we 're dealt . " When interviewed by Jon Stewart on The Daily Show on 29 September 2011 , Bennett stated that in hindsight , he believed Amy : was in trouble at that time because she had a couple of engagements that she didn 't keep up . But what people didn 't realize at that time , that she really knew , and in fact I didn 't even know it when we were making the record , and now looking at the whole thing ; she knew that she was in a lot of trouble ; that she wasn 't going to live . And it wasn 't drugs . It was alcohol toward the end . . . . It was such a sad thing because . . . she was the only singer that really sang what I call the ' right way ' because she was a great jazz @-@ pop singer . . . . She was really a great jazz singer . A true jazz singer . And I regret that because that 's the ' right way ' to sing . An album of previously unreleased material , titled Lioness : Hidden Treasures , was released on 6 December 2011 . It debuted at the top of the UK Albums Chart with the biggest first @-@ week sales of Winehouse 's career . It debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling 114 @,@ 000 units , making it her highest @-@ debuting album in the US . = = Image = = Winehouse 's greatest love was 1960s girl groups . Her stylist , Alex Foden , borrowed her " instantly recognisable " beehive hairdo ( a weave ) and she borrowed her Cleopatra makeup from The Ronettes . Her imitation was so successful , as The Village Voice reports : " Ronnie Spector — who , it could be argued , all but invented Winehouse 's style in the first place when she took the stage at the Brooklyn Fox Theater with her fellow Ronettes more than 40 years ago — was so taken aback at a picture of Winehouse in the New York Post that she exclaimed , " I don 't know her , I never met her , and when I saw that pic , I thought , ' That 's me ! ' But then I found out , no , it 's Amy ! I didn 't have on my glasses . " The New York Times style reporter , Guy Trebay , discussed the multiplicity of influences on Winehouse 's style after her death . Trebay noted , " her stylish husband , Blake Fielder @-@ Civil , may have influenced her look . " Additionally , Trebay observed : She was a 5 @-@ foot @-@ 3 almanac of visual reference , most famously to Ronnie Spector of the Ronettes , but also to the white British soul singer Mari Wilson , less famous for her sound than her beehive ; to the punk god Johnny Thunders ... ; to the fierce council @-@ house chicks ... ( see : Dior and Chanel runways , 2007 and 2008 ) ... to a lineage of bad girls , extending from Cleopatra to Louise Brooks 's Lulu and including Salt @-@ n @-@ Pepa , to irresistible man traps that always seemed to come to the same unfortunate end . Former Rolling Stone editor Joe Levy , who had put her on the magazine 's cover , broke her look down this way : Just as her best music drew on sampling — assembling sonic licks and stylistic fragments borrowed from Motown , Stax , punk and early hip @-@ hop — her personal style was also a knowing collage . There was a certain moment in the ' 90s when , if you were headed downtown and turned left , every girl looked like Bettie Page . But they did not do what Winehouse did , mixing Bettie Page with Brigitte Bardot and adding that little bit of Ronnie Spector . Mitch Winehouse later revealed that the influence for the bold red lipstick , thick eyebrows and heavy eyeliner came from Latinas she saw in Miami , on her trip there to work with Salaam Remi on Back to Black . This same look , however , was repeatedly denigrated by the British press . At the same time that the NME Awards nominated Winehouse in the categories of " Best Solo Artist " and " Best Music DVD " in 2008 , they awarded her " Worst Dressed Performer . " Winehouse was also ranked number two on Richard Blackwell 's 48th annual " Ten Worst Dressed Women " list , behind Victoria Beckham . = = Other ventures = = Winehouse joined a campaign to stop a block of flats being built beside the George Tavern , a famous London East End music venue . Campaign supporters feared the residential development would end the spot 's lucrative sideline as a film and photo location , on which it relies to survive . As part of a breast cancer awareness campaign , Winehouse appeared in a revealing photograph for the April 2008 issue of Easy Living magazine . Winehouse had an estimated £ 10m fortune , tying her for tenth place in the 2008 The Sunday Times listing of the wealth of musicians under age 30 . The following year her fortune had dropped to an estimated £ 5m . Her finances are run by Mitch and Janis Winehouse . It was reported she earned about £ 1m singing at two private parties during Paris Fashion Week. as well as another £ 1m to perform at a Moscow Art Gallery for Russian oligarch Roman Abramovich . Winehouse loaned a vintage dress used in her video for " Tears Dry on Their Own " as well as a DVD to the British Music Experience , a new museum dedicated to the history of British pop music . The museum , located in The O2 , opened on 9 March 2009 . In January 2009 , Winehouse announced that she was launching her own record label . The first act on her Lioness Records is Winehouse 's 13 @-@ year @-@ old goddaughter , Dionne Bromfield . Her first album , featuring covers of classic soul records , was released on 12 October 2009 . Winehouse is the backing singer on several tracks on the album and she performed backing vocals for Bromfield on the television programme Strictly Come Dancing on 10 October . Winehouse and her family are the subject of a 2009 documentary shot by Daphne Barak titled Saving Amy . Winehouse entered into a joint venture in 2009 with EMI to launch a range of wrapping paper and gift cards containing song lyrics from her album Back to Black . On 8 January 2010 , a television documentary , My Daughter Amy , aired on Channel 4 . Saving Amy was released as a paperback book in January 2010 . Winehouse collaborated on a 17 piece fashion collection with the Fred Perry label . It was released for sale in October 2010 . According to Fred Perry 's marketing director " We had three major design meetings where she was closely involved in product style selection and the application of fabric , colour and styling details , " and gave " crucial input on proportion , colour and fit . " The collection consists of " vintage @-@ inspired looks including Capri pants , a bowling dress , a trench coat , pencil skirts , a longline argyle sweater and a pink @-@ and @-@ black checkerboard @-@ printed collared shirt . " At the behest of her family , three forthcoming collections up to and including autumn / winter 2012 that she had designed prior to her death will be released . = = Controversy = = Winehouse 's dichotomous public image of critical and commercial success versus personal turmoil proved to be controversial . The New Statesman called Winehouse " a filthy @-@ mouthed , down @-@ to @-@ earth diva , " while Newsweek called her " a perfect storm of sex kitten , raw talent and poor impulse control . " Karen Heller with The Philadelphia Inquirer summarised the maelstrom this way : She 's only 24 with six Grammy nominations , crashing headfirst into success and despair , with a codependent husband in jail , exhibitionist parents with questionable judgement , and the paparazzi documenting her emotional and physical distress . Meanwhile , a haute designer Karl Lagerfeld appropriates her dishevelled style and eating issues to market to the elite while proclaiming her the new Bardot . By 2008 , her continued drug problems threatened her career . Even as Nick Gatfield , the president of Island Records , toyed with the idea of releasing Winehouse " to deal with her problems , " he remarked on her talent , saying , " It 's a reflection of her status [ in the U.S. ] that when you flick through the TV coverage [ of the Grammys ] it 's her image they use . " Post @-@ Grammys , some questioned whether Winehouse should have been honoured with the awards given her recent personal and drug problems , including Natalie Cole , who introduced Winehouse at the ceremony and who herself battled substance @-@ abuse problems while winning a Grammy for Best New Artist in 1975 . ( Winehouse was prevented from traveling to and performing at the Grammy Awards ceremony in the US due to failing a drug test . ) In a newspaper commentary , the executive director of the UN Office on Drugs and Crime , Antonio Maria Costa , said that the alleged drug habits of Winehouse and other celebrities sent a bad message " to others who are vulnerable to addiction " and undermine the efforts of other celebrities trying to raise awareness of problems in Africa , now that more cocaine used in Europe passes through that continent . Winehouse 's spokesperson noted that " Amy has never given a quote about drugs or flaunted it in any way . She 's had some problems and is trying to get better . The U.N. should get its own house in order . " It has been argued that Winehouse became a staple in popularity polls not because of her musical contributions but because of her lifestyle . In January 2008 , her record label stated they believed the extensive media coverage she had received increased record sales . In an April 2008 poll conducted by Sky News , Winehouse was named the second greatest " ultimate heroine " by the UK population at large , topping the voting for that category of those polled under 25 years old . Psychologist Donna Dawson commented that the results demonstrated that women like Winehouse who had " a certain sense of vulnerability or have had to fight against some adversity in their lives " received recognition . In July 2008 , BBC Radio Scotland 's head , Jeff Zycinski , stated that the BBC , and media in general , were complicit in undermining celebrities , including Winehouse . He said that public interest in the singer 's lifestyle did not make her lifestyle newsworthy . Rod McKenzie , editor of the BBC Radio One programme Newsbeat , replied : " If you play [ Amy Winehouse 's ] music to a certain demographic , those same people want to know what 's happening in her private life . If you don 't cover it , you 're insulting young license fee payers . " In The Scotsman , British singer and songwriter Lily Allen was quoted to have said – " I know Amy Winehouse very well . And she is very different to what people portray her as being . Yes , she does get out of her mind on drugs sometimes , but she is also a very clever , intelligent , witty , funny person who can hold it together . You just don 't see that side . " = = Awards and nominations = = Among the awards and recognition for her debut album Frank , Winehouse earned an Ivor Novello Award from the British Academy of Songwriters for Best Contemporary Song ( " Stronger Than Me " ) , a Brit Award nomination for Best British Female Solo Artist , and an inclusion in Robert Dimery 's 2006 book , 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . Her second studio album , Back to Black , produced numerous nominations , including two Brit Awards ( Best British Album , and won her Best British Female Solo Artist ) , six Grammy Awards ( including five wins ) , four Ivor Novello Awards , four MTV Europe Music Awards , three MTV Video Music Awards , three World Music Awards , and it was nominated for the Mercury Prize ( Album of the Year ) and a MOBO Awards ( Best UK Female ) . During her career , Winehouse received 23 awards from 60 nominations . On 13 February 2012 , Winehouse was ranked 26th on VH1 's 100 Greatest Women In Music list . = = Charity work = = Throughout her life Winehouse donated her money , music and time to many charities , particularly those concerned with children . She was once named " the most charitable act " by Pop World . While this side of her personality was never well known to the general public , throughout both the arts community and the charity community she was known for her generosity . Among the charities she supported are Adopt @-@ A @-@ Minefield , Anti @-@ Slavery International , Breast Cancer Campaign , CARE , Children of the Andes , Children 's Medical Research Institute , Christian Children 's Fund , City at Peace , UK charity telethon Comic Relief , London 's Great Ormond Street Hospital for sick children , Greenpeace , Healthlink Worldwide , Hear the World , Heifer International , Holy Apostles Soup Kitchen , the Red Cross , LIFEbeat , Lifeline and Rape Crisis PMB , Opportunity International , Oxfam , Rights and Humanity , Save the Children , Save the Music Foundation , St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital , Teenage Cancer Trust , Christina Noble Children 's Foundation , Little Dreams Foundation , Lotus Outreach , Nelson Mandela Children 's Fund , UNHCR , UNICEF , V @-@ Day , WaterAid , and World Neighbors . In 2008 , Winehouse appeared naked in an issue of Easy Living Magazine to raise awareness of breast cancer . In 2009 , she appeared on a CD called Classics alongside musicians such as The Rolling Stones , The Killers and many Cuban musicians to raise awareness of climate change . In March 2011 , Winehouse donated over £ 20 @,@ 000 worth of clothes to a local charity shop in London . In 2012 , it was revealed that she had paid for the medical tests for a man called Julian Jean DeBaptiste in Saint Lucia in 2009 . " I had surgery on 1 July 2009 ... it cost a fortune and Amy paid for the whole thing . I tried to thank her but she just hugged me and told me not to say anything . Her generosity gave me my life back . " = = Legacy = = = = = Artwork and Tussauds wax figure = = = London 's Mall Galleries opened an exhibition in May 2008 that included a sculpture of Winehouse , titled Excess . The piece , created by Guy Portelli , had a miniature of the singer lying on top of a cracked champagne bottle , with a pool of spilled liquid underneath . The body was covered with what appeared to be tiny pills , while one outstretched hand held a glass . Another piece , a print titled Celebrity 1 by artist Charlotte Suckling , was shown in the same exhibition . A wax sculpture of Winehouse went on display at the London Madame Tussauds on 23 July 2008 . The singer did not attend the unveiling , although her parents did . A sculpture by Marco Perego , titled The Only Good Rock Star Is a Dead Rock Star , that depicts Winehouse lying in a pool of blood with an apple and a bullet hole in her head after being shot by	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
30 October 2015 , along with the DVD that includes music featured in the documentary by film composer Antônio Pinto and classic tracks by Winehouse . The film has received various accolades , including the Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature at the 2016 Oscars , Best Music Film at the 2016 Grammy Awards , the BAFTA for Best Documentary , the MTV Movie Award for Best Documentary , in addition to a nomination for the BAFTA Award for Best British Film . The success of the film has also led Winehouse her second posthumous nomination for Best British Female Solo Artist at the 2016 Brit Awards . On 5 November 2015 , it was announced that a new drama biopic about Winehouse 's life simply entitled as Amy Winehouse is in production , directed and written by Kirsten Sheridan . It was also revealed that actress Noomi Rapace is in talks to star as Winehouse . = = Personal life = = = = = Relationships = = = Winehouse dated chef @-@ musician Alex Clare ( sometimes referred to as Alex Claire ) in 2006 , while on a break from her on @-@ off boyfriend and future husband , Blake Fielder @-@ Civil . She and Clare lived together briefly , and in a pattern that Fielder @-@ Civil would later repeat , Clare famously sold his story to the News of the World , which published it under the headline " Bondage Crazed Amy Just Can 't Beehive in Bed . " Fielder @-@ Civil ( born August 1978 ) , a former video production assistant , had dropped out of Bourne Grammar School and , aged 16 , moved to London from his native Lincolnshire . In a June 2007 interview , Winehouse admitted she could sometimes be violent toward him after she had been drinking , saying : " If he says one thing I don 't like , then I 'll chin him . " In August 2007 , they were photographed , bloodied and bruised , in the streets of London after an alleged fight , although she contended her injuries were self @-@ inflicted . Winehouse married Fielder @-@ Civil on 18 May 2007 , in Miami Beach , Florida . Winehouse 's parents and in @-@ laws publicly reported their numerous concerns , the latter citing fears that the two might commit suicide . Fielder @-@ Civil 's father encouraged fans to boycott Winehouse 's music , and Mitch Winehouse said this would not help . Fielder @-@ Civil was quoted in a British tabloid as saying he introduced Winehouse to crack cocaine and heroin . During a visit with Mitch Winehouse at the prison in July 2008 , Fielder @-@ Civil reportedly said that he and Winehouse would cut themselves to ease the pain of withdrawal . From 21 July 2008 to 25 February 2009 , Fielder @-@ Civil was imprisoned following his guilty plea on charges of trying to pervert the course of justice and of grievous bodily harm with intent . The incident , in July 2007 , involved his assault of a pub landlord that broke the victim 's cheek . According to the prosecution , the landlord accepted £ 200 @,@ 000 as part of a deal to " effectively throw the [ court ] case and not turn up , " and he testified that the money belonged to Winehouse , but she pulled out of a meeting with the men involved in the plot , to attend an awards ceremony . Mitch Winehouse , as manager of his daughter 's money , has denied the payoff came from her . When Winehouse was spotted with aspiring actor Josh Bowman on holiday in Saint Lucia , in early January 2009 , she said she was " in love again , and I don 't need drugs . " She commented that her " whole marriage was based on doing drugs " and that " for the time being I 've just forgotten I 'm even married . " On 12 January , Winehouse 's spokesman confirmed that " papers have been received " for what Fielder @-@ Civil 's solicitor has said are divorce proceedings based on a claim of adultery . In March , Winehouse was quoted in a magazine as saying , " I still love Blake and I want him to move into my new house with me — that was my plan all along ... I won 't let him divorce me . He 's the male version of me and we 're perfect for each other . " Nonetheless , an uncontested divorce was granted on 16 July 2009 and became final on 28 August 2009 . Fielder @-@ Civil received no money in the settlement . = = = Substance abuse and mental illness = = = Winehouse 's battles with substance abuse were the subject of much media attention . In 2005 , she went through a period of drinking , heavy drug use , and weight loss . People who saw her during the end of that year and early 2006 reported a rebound that coincided with the writing of Back to Black . Her family believes that the mid @-@ 2006 death of her grandmother , who was a stabilising influence , set her off into addiction . In August 2007 , Winehouse cancelled a number of shows in the UK and Europe , citing exhaustion and ill health . She was hospitalised during this period for what was reported as an overdose of heroin , ecstasy , cocaine , ketamine and alcohol . In various interviews , she admitted to having such problems with self @-@ harm , depression , and eating disorders . Winehouse told a magazine that the drugs were to blame for her hospitalisation and that " I really thought that it was over for me then . " Soon afterward , Winehouse 's father commented that when he had made public statements regarding her problems he was using the media because it seemed the only way to get through to her . In an interview with The Album Chart Show on British television , Winehouse said she was manic depressive and not alcoholic , adding that that sounded like " an alcoholic in denial . " A US reporter writes that Winehouse was a " victim of mental illness in a society that doesn 't understand or respond to mental illness with great effectiveness . " In December 2007 , Winehouse 's spokesman reported that the singer was in a physician @-@ supervised programme and was channelling her difficulties by writing a lot of music . The British tabloid The Sun posted a video of a woman , alleged to be Winehouse , apparently smoking crack cocaine and speaking of having taken ecstasy and valium . Winehouse 's father moved in with her , and Island Records , her record label , announced the abandonment of plans for an American promotion campaign on her behalf . In late January 2008 , Winehouse reportedly entered a rehabilitation facility for a two @-@ week treatment program . On 23 January 2008 , the video was passed on to the Metropolitan Police , who questioned her on 5 February . No charges were brought . On 26 March 2008 , Winehouse 's spokesman said she was " doing well . " Her record company reportedly believed that her recovery remained fragile . By late April 2008 , her erratic behaviour , including an allegation of assault , caused fear that her drug rehabilitation efforts had been unsuccessful , leading to efforts by Winehouse 's father and manager to seek assistance in having her involuntarily committed . Her dishevelled appearance during and after a scheduled club night in September sparked new rumours of a relapse . Photographers were quoted as saying she appeared to have cuts on her legs and arms . According to her physician , Winehouse quit illegal substances in 2008 . In an October 2010 interview , speaking of her decision to quit drugs , Winehouse said , " I literally woke up one day and was like , ' I don 't want to do this any more ' . " Drinking alcohol emerged as a problem with Winehouse abstaining for a few weeks then lapsing . The physician said that Winehouse was treated with Librium for alcohol withdrawal and anxiety , and underwent psychological and psychiatric evaluations in 2010 , but refused psychological therapy . = = = Violence and legal difficulties = = = In 2006 , Winehouse admitted punching a female fan in the face for criticising her having taken Blake Fielder @-@ Civil as a husband . She then attacked her own spouse as he attempted to calm her down . In October 2007 , Winehouse and Fielder @-@ Civil were arrested in Bergen , Norway , for possession of seven grams of cannabis . The couple were later released and fined 3850 kroner ( around £ 350 ) . Winehouse first appealed the fines , but later dropped the appeal . On 26 April 2008 , Winehouse was cautioned after she admitted to police she slapped a 38 @-@ year @-@ old man in the face , a " common assault " offence , her first of two . She voluntarily turned herself in and was held overnight . Police said , at her arrival she was " in no fit state " to be interviewed . Ten days later , Winehouse was arrested on suspicion of possessing drugs after a video of her apparently smoking crack cocaine was passed to the police in January , but was released on bail a few hours later because they could not confirm , from the video , what she was smoking . The Crown Prosecution Service considered charging her , but cleared her when it could not establish that the substance in the video was a controlled drug . Some members of Parliament reacted negatively . Two London residents were subsequently charged with conspiracy to supply cocaine and ecstasy to Winehouse . One of the pair was sentenced to two years in prison on 13 December 2008 , while the other received a two @-@ year community order . On 5 March 2009 , Winehouse was arrested and charged with common assault following a claim by Sharene Flash that Winehouse hit her in the eye at the September 2008 Prince 's Trust charity ball . Winehouse 's spokesperson announced the cancellation of the singer 's US Coachella Festival appearance in light of the new legal issue , and Winehouse appeared in court on 17 March to enter her plea of not guilty . On 23 July , her trial began with prosecutor Lyall Thompson charging that Winehouse acted with " deliberate and unjustifiable violence " while appearing to be under the influence of alcohol or another substance . She testified that she did not punch Flash , but tried to push her away because she was scared of her ; she cited her worry that Flash would sell her story to a tabloid , Flash 's height advantage , and Flash 's " rude " behaviour . On 24 July , District Judge Timothy Workman ruled that Winehouse was not guilty , citing the facts that all but two of the witnesses were intoxicated at the time of the incident and that medical evidence did not show " the sort of injury that often occurs when there is a forceful punch to the eye . " On 19 December 2009 , Winehouse was arrested for a third time on charges of common assault , plus another charge of public order offence after assaulting the front @-@ of @-@ house manager of the Milton Keynes Theatre after he asked her to move from her seat . = = = Paparazzi = = = With the paparazzi taking photographs of her wherever they could , Winehouse obtained an injunction against a leading paparazzi agency , Big Pictures , under the Protection from Harassment Act 1997 ; the resultant court order issued by the High Court in 2009 banned them from following her . Photographers were also banned from following her within 100 metres of her London home and photographing Winehouse in her home or the homes of her friends and relatives . According to a newspaper report , sources close to the singer said legal action was taken out of concern for the safety of Winehouse and those close to her . = = = Respiratory and other health problems = = = On 23 June 2008 , Winehouse 's publicist corrected earlier misstatements by Mitch Winehouse that his daughter had early stage emphysema , instead claiming she had signs of what could lead to early @-@ stage emphysema . Mitch Winehouse had also stated that his daughter 's lungs were operating at 70 percent capacity and that she had an irregular heartbeat . He said that these problems had been caused by her chain smoking crack cocaine . The singer 's father also reported that doctors had warned Winehouse that , if she continued smoking crack cocaine , she would have to wear an oxygen mask and would eventually die . In a radio interview , Mitch Winehouse said the singer was responding " fabulously " to treatment , which included being covered with nicotine patches . British Lung Foundation spokesman Keith Prowse noted this type of condition could be managed with treatment . Prowse also said the condition was not normal for a person her age but " heavy smoking and inhaling other substances like drugs can age the lungs prematurely . " Norman H. Edelman of the American Lung Association explained that if she stopped smoking , her lung functions would decline at the rate of a normal person , but continued smoking would lead to a more rapid decline in lung function . Winehouse was released from the London Clinic 24 hours after returning from a temporary leave to perform at Nelson Mandela 's 90th birthday and at a concert in Glastonbury , and continued receiving treatment as an outpatient . In July 2008 , Winehouse stated that she had been diagnosed with " some areas of emphysema " and said she was getting herself together by " eating loads of healthy food , sleeping loads , playing my guitar , making music and writing letters to my husband every day . " She also kept a vertical tanning bed in her flat . Winehouse began precautionary testing on her lungs and chest on 25 October 2008 at the London Clinic for what was reported as a chest infection . Winehouse was in and out of the facility and was granted permission to set her own schedule regarding home leave . She returned to the hospital on 23 November 2008 for a reported reaction to her medication . = = Death = = Winehouse 's bodyguard said that he arrived at her residence three days before her death and felt she was somewhat intoxicated . He observed moderate drinking over the next few days . He observed her " laughing , listening to music and watching TV at 2 a.m. the day of her death " . According to the bodyguard , at 10 a.m. he observed her lying on her bed and tried unsuccessfully to rouse her . This did not raise much suspicion because she usually slept late after a night out . According to the bodyguard , shortly after 3 p.m. , he checked on her again and observed her lying in the same position as before , leading to a further check , in which he concluded that she was not breathing and had no pulse . He said he subsequently called emergency services . At 3 : 54 p.m. BST on 23 July 2011 , two ambulances were called to Winehouse 's home in Camden , London . Winehouse was pronounced dead at the scene . Shortly afterwards , the Metropolitan Police confirmed that she had died . After her death was announced , media and camera crews appeared , as crowds gathered near Winehouse 's residence to pay their respects . Forensic investigators entered the flat as police cordoned off the street outside ; they recovered one small and two large bottles of vodka from her room . After her death , the singer broke her second Guinness World Record : for the most songs by a woman to simultaneously appear on the UK singles chart , with eight . A coroner 's inquest reached a verdict of misadventure . The report released on 26 October 2011 explained that Winehouse 's blood alcohol content was 416 mg per 100 ml ( 0 @.@ 416 % ) at the time of her death , more than five times the legal drink @-@ drive limit . According to the coroner , " The unintended consequences of such potentially fatal levels was her sudden death . " Winehouse 's record label , Universal Republic , released a statement that read in part : " We are deeply saddened at the sudden loss of such a gifted musician , artist and performer . " Many musical artists have since paid tribute to Winehouse including U2 , M.I.A. , Lady Gaga , Marianne Faithfull , Bruno Mars , Nicki Minaj , Keisha Buchanan , Rihanna , George Michael , Adele , Kelly Clarkson , Courtney Love , and the punk rock band Green Day , who wrote a song in her tribute titled " Amy " . In her 2012 album Banga , singer Patti Smith released " This Is the Girl , " written as a homage to Winehouse . Because she died seventeen years after Kurt Cobain 's death , there was a large amount of media attention devoted to the 27 Club once again . Three years earlier , she had expressed a fear of dying at that age . Family and friends attended Winehouse 's funeral on 26 July 2011 at Edgwarebury Lane cemetery in north London . Her mother and father , Janis and Mitch Winehouse , close friend Kelly Osbourne , producer Mark Ronson , and her boyfriend Reg Traviss were among those in attendance at the private service led by Rabbi Frank Hellner . Her father delivered the eulogy , saying " Goodnight , my angel , sleep tight . Mummy and Daddy love you ever so much . " Carole King 's " So Far Away " closed the service with mourners singing along . She was later cremated at Golders Green Crematorium . The family planned to sit a two @-@ day shiva . Winehouse 's parents set up The Amy Winehouse Foundation to prevent harm from drug misuse among young people , and Amy Winehouse 's brother Alex is an employee . Winehouse did not leave a will ; her estate is inherited by her parents . On 17 December 2012 , British authorities reopened the probe of Winehouse 's death . On 8 January 2013 , a second inquest confirmed that Winehouse died of accidental alcohol poisoning . In a late June 2013 interview , Alex Winehouse revealed his belief that his sister 's eating disorder , and the consequent physical weakness , was the primary cause of her death : She suffered from bulimia very badly . That 's not , like , a revelation – you knew just by looking at her … She would have died eventually , the way she was going , but what really killed her was the bulimia … I think that it left her weaker and more susceptible . Had she not had an eating disorder , she would have been physically stronger . = = Postmortem retrospectives = = Winehouse 's parents have each written memoirs about their daughter and donated the proceeds from both books to the Amy Winehouse Foundation . In the introduction to Mitch Winehouse 's biography , entitled Amy : My Daughter ( 2012 ) , he explained : " Apart from being her father , I was also her friend , confidant and adviser — not that she always took my advice , but she always heard me out . " Her mother Janis published Loving Amy : A Mother 's Story , in 2014 . Winehouse is the subject of Amy ( 2015 ) , a documentary directed by Asif Kapadia and produced by James Gay @-@ Rees , Kapadia , and Universal Music . Kapadia and Gay @-@ Rees introduced the project at the 2013 Cannes Film Festival . The film debuted at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival and won the 2016 Academy Award for Best Documentary Feature . An exhibit of Winehouse 's personal items , co @-@ curated by her brother and sister @-@ in @-@ law , entitled Amy Winehouse : A Family Portrait , was on display at the Jewish Museum London from 3 July 2013 until 15 September 2013 . Display items , such as books and music , were featured together with captions written by Winehouse 's brother . In late 2011 , there were reports that Winehouse 's former boyfriend , Reg Traviss , was developing a film about her . Winehouse 's father Mitch Winehouse , who owns the copyright to his daughter 's music , said he would not authorize the use of her music for the film . = = Discography = = Frank ( 2003 ) Back to Black ( 2006 ) = = Filmography = = Amy ( 2015 ) = Pennsylvania Route 405 = Pennsylvania Route 405 ( PA 405 ) is a 27 @.@ 963 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 45 @.@ 002 km ) state highway that runs in the north @-@ central part of the U.S. state of Pennsylvania . The southern terminus of PA 147 in West Chillisquaque Township near the borough of Milton . The route heads northward along the West Branch Susquehanna River through Milton , Watsontown and Muncy until entering Hughesville , where it terminates at an intersection with U.S. Route 220 ( US 220 ) . PA 405 originated as the Muncy and Hughesville Plank Road , a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) plank road from Muncy to Hughesville , created in 1853 . The plank road also consisted of a bridge over the Muncy Canal on the outskirts of the community . PA 405 was assigned in 1941 , after switching between numerous designations , including alignments of US 15 , US 111 , US 220 , and US 711 . The alignment of PA 405 was extended to its current southern terminus when PA 147 was realigned onto a new highway . As part of the Central Susquehanna Valley Transportation Project , PA 405 will continue south from its current southern terminus , replacing the stretch of PA 147 until its junction with PA 61 in Sunbury , its new southern terminus . PA 147 will have an new alignment between those two junctions and will not be duplexed with PA 405 at any point . = = Route description = = = = = PA 147 to Watsontown = = = PA 405 begins at an intersection with PA 147 in Chillisquaque . The route heads to the northwest , heading along a parallel to PA 147 near rural farms and houses . The route reaches the center of Chillisquaque , where it turns westward for a distance through an isolated area along the West Branch of the Susquehanna River . The route meets the shoreline , where PA 405 turns to the northwest along a rural , unpopulated stretch of West Chillisquaque Township . The route heads northward , crossing through a deep patch of forests . A short distance later , the forests dissipate , and PA 405 intersects with PA 45 ( the Purple Heart Highway ) just across the river from Lewisburg . PA 405 continues northward along the Susquehanna River , intersecting with a former alignment of PA 45 a short distance later . The route continues through the rural farmland along the river , entering the small community of East Lewisburg . North of East Lewisburg , PA 405 passes a large farmland plot before leaving the shoreline of the Susquehanna West Branch . The route continues northward a short distance from the Susquehanna River before entering the community of Milton . In Milton , PA 405 crosses over a set of railroad tracks and turns onto Ferry Lane . The route heads eastward until turning northward onto Garfield Street , heading past homes and businesses and intersecting with PA 642 ( Mahoning Street ) . The route continues northward onto South Arch Street , intersecting with Center Street , where it turns northward . At the end of the block , PA 405 intersects with PA 254 ( Broadway ) . The highway continues northward , intersecting with local streets and paralleling railroad tracks . At the intersection with 10th Street , PA 405 turns to the northwest and leaves the community of Milton . The route returns to the shoreline of the West Branch of the Susquehanna River , continuing northward along the Turbot Hills Golf Course . The route continues northward , intersecting with Golf Course Road , where the route becomes surrounded by forests . A short distance later , PA 405 crosses under the four lane alignment of Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) and intersects an old alignment of the Susquehanna Trail . The route continues northward along the West Branch of the Susquehanna River , passing a large industrial complex before reaching a merge in the railroad tracks . At the merge , PA 405 enters the community of Watsontown . = = = Watsontown to Hughesville = = = After entering Watsontown , PA 405 passes the local memorial park and intersects with PA 44 ( South Main Street ) . PA 405 and PA 44 become concurrent along Main Street into downtown Watsontown . The two highways continue several blocks from the Susquehanna River , intersecting with Brimmer Avenue . The surroundings of the highways are highly populated , and the two routes continue in Watsontown until an intersection with East 11th Street , when the two roads leave the community . PA 405 and PA 44 continue northward , intersecting with local roads in a rural region north of Watsontown . The highways continue , entering the community of Dewart , where PA 44 turns to the west towards the Susquehanna West Branch . PA 405 continues northward , bypassing around Dewart and crossing the railroad tracks it had been paralleling for the distance . The route continues northward , leaving Dewart at an intersection with Delaware Drive . The route heads northward , crossing through the rural areas before intersecting with PA 54 , where they merge . PA 405 and PA 54 continue through a deep patch of forests before crossing the river , entering the community of Montgomery . In Montgomery , PA 405 and PA 54 continue for a short distance along Second Street , until Montgomery Street , where PA 405 turns to the northeast , while PA 54 turns to the northwest . PA 405 continues along Montgomery Street , passing through downtown . At an intersection with School House Road , the highway leaves Montgomery . PA 405 continues to the northeast along a set of railroad tracks and at an intersection with Saegers Station Road , enters the community of Saegers . At a merge with Private 158 Road , PA 405 turns to the north , passing the small community to the north . At an intersection with Armstrong Road , the highway turns to the northeast , leaving Saegers . The route continues to the east , crossing over the West Branch once again , entering the community of Muncy . In Muncy , the highway heads to the southeast along Water Street into the community center , where it turns to the northeast . The route leaves Muncy a short distance later , interchanging with I @-@ 180 Exit 13 . PA 405 heads to the northeast until reaching Muncy Creek , where it turns to the southeast , intersecting with the western terminus of PA 442 . PA 405 continues farther , intersecting with local roads , running along South Main Street for a distance , entering the community of Hughesville , where the highway becomes densely populated . The route heads northward , intersecting with the western terminus of PA 118 . The route continues northward for a short distance , with the Route 405 designation terminating at an intersection with US 220 . = = History = = = = = Old roads = = = The short alignment of PA 405 from Muncy to Hughesville contains the most of the highway 's history . The bridge over the West Branch of the Susquehanna River was originally privately maintained , with the charter for its construction coming down from the Pennsylvania State Legislature on March 13 , 1835 . The charter designated the company that owned the bridge as the Susquehanna Bridge Company at Walton 's Landing ( now Muncy ) and the state appointed eleven commissioners to help erect the toll bridge . In 1853 , a portion of land from the Susquehanna River West Branch ( which was a canal at the time ) was chartered to become a canal . The canal was constructed in 1848 by a privately maintained company for $ 3 @,@ 000 ( 1848 USD ) . The bridge over the canal that currently uses PA 405 was constructed in 1854 at a cost of $ 27 @,@ 000 ( 1854 USD ) , nine times the amount to construct the canal . The portion of PA 405 from Muncy to Hughesville was also chartered in 1853 , consisting of a plank road between the two towns . = = = Designation = = = On May 31 , 1911 , the state of Pennsylvania signed the Sproul Road Bill , which started a drastic state takeover of highways . Originally , only several routes were assigned around the state . The stretch of PA 405 from the southern terminus to the current day intersection with PA 44 was designated as Legislative Route 18 . The portion of PA 405 along the PA 44 concurrency to Delwart was designated as Legislative Route 240 ( most of this alignment is PA 44 ) . The stretch from Delwart to Montgomery was not designated in 1911 . From Montgomery to Muncy , PA 405 follows more of Legislative Route 240 . After Muncy , PA 405 follows Legislative Route 19 until the current terminus in Hughesville . When the switch was made in 1924 from the old highway system in Pennsylvania , the alignment of PA 405 was designated as PA 4 from the community of Chillisquaque to the intersection with the Susquehanna Trail . PA 4 was designated in 1925 along the main alignment of the Susquehanna Trail . The route designation remained in place for a short time . The stretch from Muncy to Hughesville ( which followed the alignment of the Penn 's Plank Road ) , was designated in 1926 as an alignment of US 220 . The portion of PA 4 from Chillisquaque to the Susquehanna trail was also designated as US 111 and US 711 , both decommissioned spurs of US 11 in 1926 . US 111 remained in place until 1936 , while US 711 and PA 4 were decommissioned in 1928 and 1930 respectively . In 1928 , the segment of PA 4 from Watsontown to Muncy was re @-@ designated as PA 14 . In 1936 , US 111 was decommissioned , and the route from Chillisquaque to Watsontown was redesignated as part of US 15 . PA 14 , US 220 and US 15 remained on most of PA 405 's alignment until 1941 , when the alignment of all three routes were changed . Upon the decommissioning , PA 405 was designated onto the alignment from the Susquehanna Trail ( where it intersected with PA 147 ) to Hughesville . The alignment of PA 405 south of the Susquehanna Trail was part of PA 147 until 1972 , when it was realigned , and PA 405 was extended to Chillisquaque . = = = Proposed extension = = = PA 405 currently has its southern terminus at PA 147 in the community of Chillisquaque . Near that intersection , PA 147 turns into a super @-@ 2 freeway towards Williamsport . The Central Susquehanna Valley Transportation Project is proposing to extend the super @-@ two freeway alignment of PA 147 on a new freeway along the opposite side of the Susquehanna . The designation of PA 405 is proposed to be extended over the non @-@ freeway alignment of PA 147 down to an intersection with PA 61 in Sunbury . An interchange with PA 405 would also be constructed . The 12 miles ( 19 km ) long project will also involve a realignment of US 11 / US 15 onto the new alignment as well , a proposal that lost funding in the 1970s . As of July 2009 , the design is 40 % completed , while the project was put on a freeze by Governor Edward Rendell . The project , which will take $ 9 million ( 2009 USD ) to study and design , and another $ 525 million ( 2009 USD ) to construct . = = Major intersections = = = Hiroki Kikuta = Hiroki Kikuta ( 菊田裕樹 , Kikuta Hiroki , born August 29 , 1962 ) is a Japanese video game composer and game designer . His major works are Secret of Mana , Seiken Densetsu 3 , Sōkaigi , and Koudelka , for which he also acted as producer and concept designer . He has composed music for seven other games , and worked as a concept designer in addition to composer for the unreleased MMORPG Chou Bukyo Taisen . He became interested in music at an early age , but earned a degree in Religious Studies , Philosophy , and Cultural Anthropology from Kansai University . He spent the next few years working first as a manga illustrator , then as a composer for anime series , before coming to work for Square in 1991 . After composing the soundtracks for his first three best @-@ known works , he formed his own video game production company , Sacnoth , for which he was the president and CEO . After producing and composing Koudelka in 1999 , he left to become a freelance composer . Since his departure he has formed his own record label , Norstrilia , through which he produces albums of his own compositions and collaborations with other artists , as well as his previous scores . His music has been performed in concerts such as the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Cologne , Germany in September 2009 , and selections of his works have been published as piano arrangements in sheet music books . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Kikuta was born in Aichi Prefecture , Japan . He first became interested in music at the age of ten after hearing songs by Emerson , Lake & Palmer . He began writing his own songs two years later , after listening to country blues music ; it inspired him to study acoustic guitar and write his own songs in hope of one day becoming a singer / songwriter . He was also inspired as a child by music from movies . It was not until he got a synthesizer , however , that he began to feel his potential as a composer . Kikuta went on to earn an interdisciplinary degree in Religious Studies , Philosophy , and Cultural Anthropology from Kansai University , which he attended from 1981 to 1984 . He never received any form of formal musical training , and instead taught himself by reading music theory books and listening to a wide variety of musical genres . After graduating from Kansai , Kikuta worked first as a manga illustrator and later as an anime composer . The manga he illustrated , including one titled Raven , were done under the pen name " Yuuki Ni Juu Roku " . As an anime composer , he worked on The Adventure of Robin Hood and The Legend of Snow White . In 1991 , Kikuta was hired by Square ( now Square Enix ) , as a composer . After being rejected by his first choice , Nihon Falcom , he applied to Square without expecting to be hired , as they had many applicants for the job and he had never played any of the company 's games . At the interview , however , Nobuo Uematsu was attracted to their shared love of progressive rock , and he was chosen over 100 other applicants . He started off debugging Final Fantasy IV and creating sound effects for Romancing SaGa , as there were not enough game projects in development to open up new jobs for Square 's new hires , but Kikuta was soon given game soundtracks to compose . = = = Career = = = During his seven years at Square , Kikuta composed the soundtracks to only three games : Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System and Soukaigi for the PlayStation . Kikuta says that he was given complete freedom to compose the soundtracks , in that he was given no direction at all as to how to compose the music ; he began working on the music before the design of the game was finalized . This freedom was helped by the fact that Uematsu ran the music group as a separate division in the company from the game developers . Kikuta was originally chosen for Secret of Mana after Kenji Ito , who had composed the first game in the Mana series , Final Fantasy Adventure , was forced to drop the project due to other demands , such as the soundtrack to Romancing SaGa . Rather than create MIDI versions of his compositions , like most game composers of that time did , and hand these over to the sound engineering department , Kikuta made his own samples that matched the hardware capabilities of the Super Nintendo . This way he would know exactly how the pieces would sound on the system 's hardware instead of having to deal with audio hardware differences between the original composition and the Super Nintendo . Kikuta spent nearly 24 hours a day in his office working on the soundtrack , alternating between composing and editing . Secret of Mana led to an arranged album , Secret of Mana + , which is composed of a single 50 @-@ minute track made up of " experimental " sounds like waterfalls , bird calls , and cell phone sounds . For Seiken Densetsu 3 , Kikuta was assisted by a sound programmer , Hidenori Suzuki , which allowed him to compose over three times the amount of music he had created for Secret of Mana . The move to the PlayStation for Soukaigi allowed Kikuta to focus on creating live music for the soundtrack , rather than tweaking the synthesizer instruments to make the music files fit in the game cartridge as he had to for the Super Nintendo . He used the added audio processing power to expand his musical creativity , including pieces such as songs in unintelligible Thai and Malaysian by Japanese singers . The game itself , however , was not a success , and Kikuta decided that he wanted more direct control over the next project he worked on . After Kikuta finished Soukaigi , he left Square and founded the video game development company Sacnoth , assuming the position of the president and CEO from 1998 to 1999 . During this time , the company created Koudelka for the PlayStation ; Kikuta was credited as the concept designer , game planner , scenario writer , producer and composer . His philosophy in designing video games is that the best projects have a limited number of people designing the overall experience and making key decisions . He tried to follow this philosophy in creating Koudelka , and tried to bring a sense of " obsessive passion " to the project , reading what he claims were over 100 books on British history and taking the design team on a trip to Wales to study the country . The game was released in December 1999 to poor reviews which criticized the game 's combat system , though they praised the concept , art direction , and music . Kikuta left Sacnoth soon after ; the company changed its name to Nautilus and went on to produce four more games including the Shadow Hearts series before folding in 2007 . In March 2001 , Kikuta founded Norstrilia , named after the novel of the same name . The company serves as his private record label , and publishes his albums . For the next few years he worked as concept designer , game planner , and composer for Chou Bukyo Taisen , a Chinese MMORPG , the original design for which he proposed to Enix . Development of the game ceased in 2004 due to disagreements between Enix and the Chinese company that was to maintain the game while it was in progress and it was never released . Since then he has gone on to score six other games , including the eroge visual novel Sora no Iro , Mizu no Iro and the MMORPG Concerto Gate . None of these games have been released outside Japan ; to date the only video games that Kikuta has worked on to appear in North America or Europe are Secret of Mana and Koudelka . Kikuta released Lost Files , his first album of original music , in 2006 . The album includes the demo tapes Kikuta submitted when first applying for the job of game composer at Square , using the sound source of the Nintendo Entertainment System . It was followed in August 2007 by his second original album , Alphabet Planet . He has also composed three other albums and two singles in conjunction with other singers or performers ; these albums have been released though his Norstrilia label and are the only works he has been credited as composing for since Concerto Gate was released in 2007 . His next album , due to be released in spring 2010 , is another album of original works , entitled Tiara . = = Legacy = = A piece from Secret of Mana was performed by the Tokyo Symphony Orchestra for the third Orchestral Game Music Concert in 1993 , while one from Seiken Densetsu 3 was performed for the fifth event in 1996 . The same Secret of Mana track was also performed at the fifth Symphonic Game Music Concert in 2007 in Leipzig , Germany . Music from Secret of Mana made up one fourth of the music in the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Cologne in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . Two compilation books of piano sheet music from the Mana series have been published as Seiken Densetsu Best Collection Piano Solo Sheet Music first and second editions ; songs from Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 are featured in both . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . Selections of remixes of Kikuta 's work appear on Japanese remix albums , called dōjin , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked ReMix . Kikuta has said that he enjoys listening to these works , mentioning OverClocked ReMix by name . = = Musical style and influences = = Kikuta finds composing music to be natural , " like breathing " . He considers it to be his " vocation " , and contrasts it with designing and creating video games , which he calls his " wish " and finds to be very difficult to do in comparison to composition . Kikuta does not worry about the style of music that he composes , considering it to only be a tool or method . As a result , his music is frequently composed of combinations of styles mixed together . He is inspired to create his music by things that he has seen , especially while traveling ; he credits much of the musical imagery in Secret of Mana and Seiken Densetsu 3 as being inspired by several islands in Fiji he has visited . Rather than trying to be a " pure artist " that creates art for art 's sake , Kikuta says that his primary goal in composing is to entertain the listeners . He has not been influenced by other video game composers , though he claims to admire Hitoshi Sakimoto , whom he worked with at Square . He has named Pink Floyd as his single biggest musical influence , and guitarist Allan Holdsworth as the artist he would most like to collaborate with . Kikuta 's favorite song that he has composed is " Overture " from Concerto Gate . = = Works = = = James Wilson ( House ) = Dr. James Evan Wilson , M.D. , is a fictional character on the Fox medical drama House . He is played by Robert Sean Leonard . The character first appears in the show 's pilot episode when he introduces a medical case to Dr. Gregory House . Wilson is Dr. House 's only true friend , and frequently provides him with consultations and aid . Wilson is the head of the Department of Oncology at Princeton @-@ Plainsboro Teaching Hospital . During the show 's run , the characters of House and Wilson have been compared to Sherlock Holmes and Dr Watson . Wilson 's portrayer , Robert Sean Leonard , has stated that his character and Dr. House were originally supposed to play these roles ; but Dr. House 's diagnostic team has taken over Dr. Watson 's part . Leonard also read the script of the pilot episode of CBS ' Numb3rs and was planning to audition . He auditioned for House instead because he felt he would more enjoy playing the character that House went to for help and because he liked The Odd Couple dynamic of the relationship . The character was positively received . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger described Wilson as " the only irreplaceable supporting character " of the show , as well as Maureen Ryan of the Chicago Tribune , who stated that Wilson can " never , never , never , never " leave the show . The character 's name is derived from two neighboring buildings ( James Administration Building and Wilson Hall ) at McGill University 's downtown campus , in Montreal , Quebec . = = Character biography = = Wilson is one of three brothers . He has an undergraduate degree from McGill University , and graduate degrees from Columbia University and the University of Pennsylvania . He is Jewish . Shortly after a medical convention in New Orleans , after graduating medical school , Wilson accidentally broke an antique mirror and started a bar fight when another customer repeatedly played " Leave A Tender Moment Alone " by Billy Joel to the frustration of Wilson , who was going through a divorce with his first wife at the time . Out of interest , House bailed him out and hired an attorney to clear his name , thus starting their professional and personal relationship . In the Season 1 episode " Histories " , it is revealed that one of his brothers is homeless and that Wilson is unaware if he is still alive as he has not seen him in nine years . Wilson has a history of failed marriages : he is married to his third wife during Season 1 and , with the discovery of his wife 's infidelity , separates from her during Season 2 . After the failure of his third marriage , Wilson lives in various temporary accommodations ( including a stint at House 's own apartment ) until he meets Amber Volakis , who is a female substitute for House . He is described as " nearly 40 " in " Don 't Ever Change " , in Season 4 . Wilson and House 's relationship has been sorely tested on many occasions . He was diagnosed with stage II thymoma in the Season 8 episode " Body and Soul " . In the end of the subsequent episode ( in which Wilson and House take an abrupt vacation , and Wilson assumes a much more carefree personality ) , House performed a CT scan to check the status of the cancer . House 's stunned facial expression and silence when the results are displayed seemingly does not bode well for Wilson 's future prognosis , which would be revealed in the final two episodes of the series . It is later revealed that Wilson , should he pursue the most extensive treatment , could live for one to three years , perhaps . He opts to cease the intensive chemotherapy treatment after the ultimately unsuccessful first round , choosing to make the most of the remaining five months or so he would likely have for as long as possible ; ultimately , after many tense conversations , House accepts his decision . However , due to the serious vandalism House caused in the toilet system and plumbing , which ultimately destroyed a room containing an MRI scanner ( where some of his team members were with a patient ) , Foreman and the hospital lawyer notify House that the matter became externally known to the police ; subsequently , his parole officer had his parole revoked by the court . House must report to prison again to serve the remaining six months of his approximately year @-@ long sentence he got earlier , in the last season , when he ran his car into Cuddy 's house . In the series finale , at House 's funeral , Wilson gives an honest description of House as opposed to everyone 's kind words and gets a text message telling him to " Shut up , you idiot . " To his shock , Wilson discovers House alive and well having faked his death and House asks Wilson how he wants to spend his last five months . Sometime later , an unkempt Wilson and House are seen in the countryside on motorcycles , Wilson having presumably quit his job to spend his last five months as he wants . He asks House about what they will do when the cancer gets bad , but House simply tells him that " cancer is boring " and they ride off together . = = Characterization = = House describes Wilson as " a buddy of mine people say ' Thank you ' to , when he tells them they are dying . " House also describes Wilson as an " emotional vampire " . On a date with Dr. Lisa Cuddy ( Lisa Edelstein ) , Wilson evades a question as to whether or not he wants children . However , Wilson defends House when House 's career is in jeopardy , after billionaire entrepreneur and then chairman of Princeton @-@ Plainsboro 's Board Edward Vogler ( Chi McBride ) proposes a motion for House 's dismissal . Wilson is the only one to vote against the motion . In response , Vogler proposes and succeeds in obtaining Wilson 's dismissal , but Wilson is soon reinstated thanks to Cuddy after she convinces the board that Vogler is the real threat to the hospital and his money is not worth his business @-@ obsessed mindset . In a late Season episode it is revealed that Wilson suffers from clinical depression and takes medication . Wilson is also seen to write with his left hand , a trait he shares with Cuddy and Foreman , but when he performs detailed medical work , such as injections or incisions , or gesticulates while speaking , appears to be right @-@ handed in general , suggesting he may be ambidextrous . Wilson attempts to change House 's drug habits , with little success . After Cuddy makes a bet to prove House 's addiction to Vicodin , House concedes to Wilson that he has an addiction but says that the addiction is not a problem . It is , in fact , Wilson who usually writes House 's Vicodin prescriptions ( with Cuddy writing a few merely for leverage in her dealings with House ) . In Season 3 , when Detective Michael Tritter ( David Morse ) threatens to jail House for his Vicodin addiction after finding a huge stash in his apartment , Wilson attempts to convince House to go to rehab as the situation worsens . After Tritter pressures Wilson to testify several times , Wilson reluctantly agrees , unknown to House . Before this , Wilson watches House punch Dr. Robert Chase , insult Cuddy , and incorrectly diagnose a child with a condition that would have required the amputation of her left arm and leg . Near the end of Season 4 , Wilson starts a romantic relationship with Amber Volakis , who is essentially a female version of House , and who competed for one of the open jobs on House 's team in the wake of Foreman , Chase , and Cameron 's departure . In the Season 4 finale , she dies in a bus crash sustained while picking up a drunken House from a bar . Her death eventually leads Wilson to conclude that his relationship with House serves to enable House 's dysfunctions . To remove himself from House 's influence , he resigns from Princeton @-@ Plainsboro at the beginning of Season 5 . The two reconcile when Wilson forces House to attend the funeral of House 's father . Wilson realizes that he had been afraid of losing House , who is his true friend , and that Wilson 's life didn 't get any better when he resigned . He then returns to Princeton @-@ Plainsboro . During Season 5 , it is revealed that Wilson 's homeless brother Danny suffered from schizophrenia since adolescence , which is what caused him to run away . Wilson blames himself for his brother 's homelessness , having hung up on Danny right before he disappeared . Wilson also reveals to House that he took the position at Princeton @-@ Plainsboro because it was near the place he had last seen Danny . When Wilson finds out that Danny is in the Psychiatric Ward of New York Mercy Hospital [ fictional ] , House offers to come with him to keep him company , noting that it could end badly . However , when Wilson is let in to see his brother , House is busy with a differential with his team . In Season 6 , Episode 15 , " Private Lives " , House discovers that Wilson , in his youth , had been an actor in a porno flick titled " Feral Pleasures " . Throughout the episode , after House hangs movie posters all over the hospital , people start paraphrasing a quote by Wilson 's character : " Be not afraid . The forest nymphs have taught me how to please a woman " . In addition , Wilson proposes a joke marriage to House in " The Down Low " . Gay references have been made to the relationship between the two characters of the show . House has made a comment about the relationship ( " I 'm gay ! ... Oh that 's not what you meant . It would explain a lot , though : no girlfriend , always with Wilson , the obsession with sneakers ... " ) . Barbara Barnett said that " House is the needy one in the relationship , and Wilson the doormat " Verne Gay of Newsday described House 's love for Wilson as " touching and genuine " . However , Robert Sean Leonard compared the relationship between the two to that of Cesar Millan and his Pit Bull , while Hugh Laurie said that it 's " not just buddydom " . The two characters appeared on the October 13 , 2008 , cover of TV Guide . = = Concept and creation = = Robert Sean Leonard was not initially interested in auditioning for the role of James Wilson . He believes that he got the role because of his friendship with Bryan Singer , whom he had met in the past , shortly after he was paid for his role in Dead Poets ' Society . Singer borrowed money from him to shoot Lion 's Den starring his friend Ethan Hawke , who also attended high school with Singer . In 2004 , Leonard received the scripts for the pilot of both House and CBS ' Numb3rs ( in which he was asked to audition for the part of Charlie Eppes ) . He thought the script for Numb3rs was " kinda cool " . However , he decided to audition for the part of Wilson on House , because his character on Numb3rs was in almost every scene of the show . Within the scope of a popular comparison that draws parallels between House and Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's Sherlock Holmes , Wilson is equivalent to Doctor Watson . In two @-@ parts episodes such as Euphoria , Part 1 and Euphoria , Part 2 , and House 's Head and Wilson 's Heart , Wilson 's voice is heard narrating the story , while Dr. Watson is the character who narrates the stories in most of Sherlock Holmes novels . Leonard has said that his character and House were originally intended to play roles similar to Dr. Watson and Sherlock Holmes , respectively , in the series although he believes that House 's team has assumed the role of Watson since the show has begun . Producer Katie Jacobs believes that Wilson and House both hide from mature relationships , which brings the two closer together . She has said that the difference between the two characters is that Wilson finds it hard to say no because he wants to please the other person . The similarities between Dr. Wilson and Dr. Watson was also one of the reasons that made Leonard choose House over Numb3rs . Leonard has said that Wilson is one of the few characters to voluntarily maintain a relationship with House , because neither of them work for one another and thus his character has " nothing to lose " by telling him the truth . His character is one of the few who can make House laugh . Katie Jacobs has said that Wilson 's moving into House 's apartment after a failed relationship in " Sex Kills " symbolizes his taking " emotional refuge " in his friend . Leonard said that he is content with the size of his role , and wants to continue playing the character . He has also stated that he would " kill himself " if he had a role as big as the other cast members . = = Reception = = Responses to Leonard 's performance were mostly positive . In a recap of the pilot episode , Tom Shales of The Washington Post quoted " Leonard has been playing upstanding young men for what seems like forever , but he 's still one of the most outstanding upstanding young men in the acting racket " . However , Sherwin Nurland of Slate stated that Leonard often seems so detached that " he 'd be better off in another show " . In a recap of the season four episode " Ugly " Nina Smith of TV Guide said that she thinks that the most convincing writing of the show has always been the scenes in which Cuddy and Wilson " spar " with House . In a 2008 press conference , Katie Jacobs , who works as an executive producer for the show , praised Leonard for being equally adept at comedy and drama . TV Gal , of Zap2it , stated that she " truly appreciates " what Leonard brings to the show , being the only character who " truly stands up to House " and " quietly and subtly " giving the show " some of its best moments " . In an article about whom to keep if the writers of House decided to minor down the cast , Maureen Ryan , of the Chicago Tribune said that Wilson can " never , never , never , never " leave the show . Ryan also listed Wilson on her list of " 5 Great Characters " , saying that Leonard is the " underrated linchpin of the excellent “ House ” cast " . After Wilson 's temporary departure during House 's fifth season , Mary McNamara of the Los Angeles Times immediately stated that she wanted the character to return to the show . Linda Stasi of The New York Post said that Dr. House 's relationship with Lucas Douglas ( Michael Weston ) , who temporarily replaced Wilson , was far more natural than House 's relationship with Wilson . Critics from TV Guide , Entertainment Weekly , Blog Critics and USA Today , all found Leonard 's performance in the season 4 finale worthy of an Emmy Award . = Thriller ( song ) = " Thriller " is a song recorded by American singer Michael Jackson , composed by Rod Temperton , and produced by Quincy Jones . It is the seventh and final single released by Epic Records from his 1982 studio album Thriller . A 14 @-@ minute video showing Jackson in a Halloween @-@ themed performance premiered on November 14 , 1983 , in Los Angeles , California . It was first shown on MTV on December 2 , 1983 . The song was not released as a single until January 23 , 1984 . " Thriller " has appeared on multiple greatest hits compilation albums from Jackson , including HIStory ( 1995 ) , Number Ones ( 2003 ) , The Essential Michael Jackson ( 2005 ) and Michael Jackson 's This Is It ( 2009 ) and was remixed for the Immortal album in 2011 . The song has a voice @-@ over from actor Vincent Price . In the song , sound effects such as a creaking door , thunder , feet walking on wooden planks , winds and howling dogs can be heard , and the lyrics contain frightening themes and elements . " Thriller " received positive reviews from critics and became Jackson 's seventh top @-@ ten single on the Billboard Hot 100 Chart from the album , while reaching the top of the charts in France and Belgium and the top ten in many other countries . " Thriller " was adapted by " American Werewolf In London " director John Landis into a highly successful music video , known independently as " Michael Jackson 's Thriller " . At fourteen minutes the video is substantially longer than the song , which ties together a narrative featuring Jackson and actress Ola Ray in a setting heavily inspired by horror films of the 1950s . In the video 's most iconic scene , Jackson leads other actors costumed as zombies in a choreographed dance routine . Though it garnered some criticism for its occult theme and violent imagery , the video was immediately popular and received high critical acclaim , being nominated for six MTV Video Music Awards in 1984 and winning three . In 2009 it was added to the National Film Registry by the Library of Congress , the first music video ever selected . = = Background and composition = = " Thriller " was written by Rod Temperton , and produced by Quincy Jones . Written by Rod Temperton ; an inspiration was the Jacksons hit , " This Place Hotel " . Early titles include " Starlight " , " Starlight Sun " and " Give Me Some Starlight " . The title was changed to ' Thriller ' after Michael told Temperton he wanted something that would appeal to kids . While still titled " Starlight " , the song 's hook lyrics were " Give me some starlight ! Starlight sun ... " , but after the song was changed to " Thriller " the hook was rewritten to " ' Cause this is thriller ! Thriller night ... " . Temperton commented , Originally , when I did my Thriller demo , I called it Starlight . Quincy said to me , ' You managed to come up with a title for the last album , see what you can do for this album . ' I said , ' Oh great , ' so I went back to the hotel , wrote two or three hundred titles , and came up with the title ' Midnight Man ' . The next morning , I woke up , and I just said this word ... Something in my head just said , this is the title . You could visualize it on the top of the Billboard charts . You could see the merchandising for this one word , how it jumped off the page as ' Thriller ' . While Temperton was writing " Thriller " he stated that he 'd " always envisioned " a " talking section at the end " on the song , but did not really know what " to do with it " , until deciding " to have somebody , a famous voice , in the horror genre , to do this vocal . " Jones ' then @-@ wife , Peggy Lipton , who knew Vincent Price , suggested Price for the vocal part , which Price agreed to do . " Thriller " is considered a disco @-@ funk song . Set in the key of C ♯ Modern Dorian , its instrumentation consists of synthesizer , guitar , trumpet , flugelhorn , saxophone , flute and trombone . The song has a moderate tempo of 118 @.@ 31 beats per minute . The lyrics and sound effects on " Thriller " pertain to frightful elements and themes . = = Recording and production = = " Thriller " , along with other songs from Thriller , was recorded by Jackson over the course of eight weeks , in 1982 . Jackson recorded the song at Westlake Recording Studios on Santa Monica Boulevard in Los Angeles , California . Bruce Swedien , the song 's engineer , said of the song being recorded , When we started ' Thriller ' , the first day at Westlake , we were all there and Quincy [ Jones , the producer ] walked in followed by me and Michael and Rod Temperton and some of the other people . Quincy turned to us and he said , ' OK guys , we 're here to save the recording industry . ' Now that 's a pretty big responsibility – but he meant it . And that 's why those albums , and especially ' Thriller ' , sound so incredible . The basic thing is , everybody who was involved gave 150 percent … Quincy 's like a director of a movie and I 'm like a director of photography , and it 's Quincy 's job to cast [ it ] . Quincy can find the people and he gives us the inspiration to do what we do . Swedien and Jones stated that Vincent Price recorded his introduction and voice @-@ over rap for the song in two takes ; Jones , acknowledging that doing a voice @-@ over for a song is " difficult " , praised Price and described his recording takes as being " fabulous " . Swedien said of Jackson recording the song , that , " I tried all sorts of things with Michael – for instance , he would sing the main vocal part and we 'd double it one time and then I 'd ask him to step away from the mic and do it a third time and that really changed the acoustics in the room so it gave Michael 's vocals a unique character … We recorded some of those background vocals in the shower stall at Westlake . " Throughout the song , sound effects such as a creaking door , thunder , feet walking on wooden planks , winds and howling dogs can be heard . Bruce Cannon , a sound effects editor for " Thriller " , said that , " Things like the lightning may have come from old Hollywood movies – we 'll never know which movies – but the best sound @-@ effects editors do go out in the desert and find a coyote , so I have a feeling that was a real howl . " The backing track , especially the bassline , has certain similarities to the 1981 number @-@ one R & B hit " Give It to Me Baby " by Rick James . The bass part was made from two modified Minimoogs playing in unison . = = Critical reception = = " Thriller " is a contemporary critical favourite . Ashley Lasimone , of AOL 's Spinner.com , noted that it " became a signature for Jackson " and described " the groove of its bassline , paired with Michael 's killer vocals and sleek moves " as having " produced a frighteningly great single . " Jon Pareles of The New York Times noted that ' Billie Jean ' , ' Beat It ' , ' Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' ' and " the movie in the song ' Thriller ' " , were the songs , unlike the " fluff " " P.Y.T. " , that were " the hits that made Thriller a world @-@ beater ; along with Mr. Jackson 's stage and video presence , listeners must have identified with his willingness to admit terror . " Ann Powers of the Los Angeles Times described " Thriller " as " adequately groovy " with a " funked @-@ out beat " and lyrics " seemingly lifted from some little kid 's ' scary storybook ' " . 50 Cent told NME that the song is the one he wished he 'd written : " I had his poster on my wall . He had me moonwalkin ' around my bedroom . I 'd love to have written any Michael Jackson song , so maybe start with one of the greatest . " = = Chart performance = = Prior to " Thriller " ' s official release as a single , six other songs from the album had charted . " Thriller " became Jackson 's seventh and final Billboard Hot 100 top @-@ ten single from his Thriller album . In Billboard issue date February 11 , 1984 , the song entered the charts at number 20 on the Hot 100 . The song entered the top ten the following week at number eight . One week later , it reached number five , then the next week it rose to number four ; its peak position which it held for a second week . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on December 4 , 1989 , for sales of over one million physical units in the U.S. ( the requirement for gold and platinum singles was lowered after 1989 ) . It has sold a further 3 @.@ 6 million copies in digital downloads as of October 2014 in the US . For the issue date February 25 , 1984 , " Thriller " charted at number 19 on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs Chart . The following week , the song placed at number five . On March 10 , 1984 , it charted at number 3 , where it peaked . " Thriller " peaked at number 24 on Billboard 's Adult Contemporary Chart . " Thriller " debuted on the UK Singles Chart on November 19 , 1983 , at number 24 , and the following week charted at number ten , where it peaked ; the song appeared on the chart for 25 weeks . Beginning on February 5 , 1984 , " Thriller " peaked on the French Singles Chart at number one and topped the chart for four consecutive weeks . " Thriller " also topped the Belgian VRT Top 30 Chart for two weeks in January 1984 . Following Jackson 's death , his music experienced a surge in popularity . In the week of Jackson 's death , " Thriller " was Jackson 's best @-@ selling track in the US , with sales of 167 @,@ 000 copies on the Billboard Hot Digital Singles Chart . On July 11 , 2009 , " Thriller " charted on the Billboard Hot Digital Singles Chart at number two ( its peak ) , and the song remained in the charts ' top ten for three consecutive weeks . In the United Kingdom , the song charted at number 23 the week of Jackson 's death . The following week , the song reached its peak at number 12 on the UK Single Chart . On July 12 , 2009 , " Thriller " peaked at number two on the Italian Singles Chart and was later certified gold by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry . " Thriller " reached at number three on the Australian ARIA Chart and Swiss Singles Chart and topped the Spanish Singles Charts for one week . The song also placed within the top ten on the German Singles Chart , Norwegian Singles Chart and Irish Singles Chart , at number nine , number seven and number eight respectively . " Thriller " also landed at number 25 on the Danish Singles Chart . In the third week of July " Thriller " peaked at number 11 in Finland . The song finished at # 78 for the year on Billboard Hot 100 of 1982 . In 2013 , the song re @-@ entered the Billboard Hot 100 at number 42 . = = Music video = = In his 1988 book Moonwalk , Jackson expressed interest in having director John Landis direct the music video for " Thriller " . Having seen Landis ' previous work on the horror film An American Werewolf in London , Jackson envisioned the main character of his short film to undergo similar transitions parallel to those of the characters in Landis ' horror film . Hence , Landis was asked to direct the video seeing as Michael felt he would make the best fit towards properly conveying his personal concepts for the short feature film . Landis accepted Jackson ’ s invitation and production began soon thereafter , filming in various locations in New York and Los Angeles . Contrary to reports of $ 800 @,@ 000 to $ 1 million production budgets , Landis stated that the music video was made for $ 500 @,@ 000 . Within the same excerpt of Moonwalk , Jackson noted how he personally financed much of the short film for " Thriller " out of his own pocket . Due to all the technical details of production and the nature of the video , the budget nearly doubled in costs . John Branca — Jackson 's attorney and advisor — suggested creating a documentary outlining the process of creating the short film . The behind @-@ the @-@ scenes documentary was aimed towards seeking a third @-@ party sponsor to finance the project and thus alleviate some of the costs of the doubled budget . The documentary was entitled , " The Making of Thriller " , and achieved significant sales among audiences . Jackson also said of making the music video , in an interview that aired on December 11 , 1999 , for MTV 's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made : My idea was to make this short film with conversation ... I like having a beginning and a middle and an ending , which would follow a story . I 'm very much involved in complete making and creating of the piece . It has to be , you know , my soul . Usually , you know , it 's an interpretation of the music . [ ... ] It was a delicate thing to work on because I remember my original approach was , ' How do you make zombies and monsters dance without it being comical ? ' So I said , ' We have to do just the right kind of movement so it doesn 't become something that you laugh at . ' But it just has to take it to another level . So I got in a room with [ choreographer ] Michael Peters , and he and I together kind of imagined how these zombies move by making faces in the mirror . I used to come to rehearsal sometimes with monster makeup on , and I loved doing that . So he and I collaborated and we both choreographed the piece and I thought it should start like that kind of thing and go into this jazzy kind of step , you know . Kind of gruesome things like that , not too much ballet or whatever . The music video of the song also included on the video albums : Video Greatest Hits - HIStory , HIStory on Film , Volume II , Number Ones , on the bonus DVD of Thriller 25 and Michael Jackson 's Vision . Following the release of the music video , a 45 @-@ minute documentary was released that provided candid glimpses behind the scenes of the music video 's production . Entitled Making Michael Jackson 's Thriller , it , like the music video , was shown heavily on MTV for a time and was the top @-@ selling home @-@ video release of all time at one point , with over nine million copies sold . MTV paid $ 250 @,@ 000 for the exclusive rights to show the documentary ; Showtime paid $ 300 @,@ 000 for pay @-@ cable rights ; and Vestron Video reportedly paid $ 500 @,@ 000 to market the cassette , in a profit participation agreement . = = = Concept = = = Set in the 1950s , Michael and his unnamed date ( Ola Ray ) run out of gas near a dark wooded area . They walk off into the forest , and Michael asks her if she would be his " girl " ; she accepts and he gives her a ring . He warns her , however , that he is " different " . A full moon appears , and Michael begins convulsing in agony , transforming into a werecat . His date runs away in terror , but the werecat catches up to her , knocking her down and begins lunging at her with his claws . The scene then cuts to a modern @-@ day movie theater where Michael and his date , along with a repulsed audience , are actually watching the scene unfold in a movie called Thriller . Michael 's date leaves the theater as Michael hands his popcorn to a stranger , catches up to her , and assures her that " It 's only a movie " . Some debate follows as to whether or not she was scared by the movie . They then walk down a foggy road as Michael teases her by singing the verses of " Thriller " . They pass a nearby graveyard , in which zombies begin to rise out of their caskets as Vincent Price performs his soliloquy . The zombies corner Michael and his date threateningly , and suddenly , Michael becomes a zombie himself . The zombies then break into an elaborate song and dance number , followed by the main chorus of " Thriller " ( during which Michael was reverted to human form ) , frightening his date to the point where she runs for cover . Michael ( turned back into a zombie ) and his fellow corpses then back the frightened girl into the corner of a nearby abandoned house . Michael then reaches for his date 's throat as she lets out a bloodcurdling scream , only to awake and realize it was all a dream . Michael then offers to take her home , and she happily obliges . As they walk out of the house , Michael turns around and looks at the camera , thus revealing his yellow werewolf eyes and fangs from the beginning of the video , as we hear Vincent Price 's haunting laugh . = = = Reception = = = Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly commented on the music video , " Every aspect of the 14 @-@ minute horror musical , directed with creepy @-@ comical zest by John Landis , is beyond iconic , from Michael 's red leather ensemble to the immortal ( no pun ) herky @-@ jerky zombie dance and bwah @-@ ha @-@ ha Vincent Price narration . " Though the video was met with widespread praise , it was also criticized for its content . In 1982 , the National Coalition on Television Violence ( NCTV ) classified more than half of 200 MTV music videos surveyed as " too violent " . Both " Thriller " and Jackson 's duet with Paul McCartney , " Say , Say , Say " made the list . The Los Angeles Times quoted Dr. Thomas Radecki , chairman of the NCTV , as saying , " It 's not hard to imagine young viewers after seeing ' Thriller ' saying , ' Gee , if Michael Jackson can terrorize his girlfriend , why can 't I do it too ? ' The music video was nominated for six awards at the 1984 MTV Video Music Awards , winning three out of six of the nominations . " Thriller " won Viewers Choice , Best Overall Performance and Best Choreography — but lost Best Concept Video , Best Male Video and Video of the Year . The music video was listed as the " Greatest Video " on VH1 's " VH1 : 100 Greatest Videos " in 2001 . MTV listed the music video as being the " Greatest Music Video Ever Made " on their list , " MTV : 100 Greatest Music Videos Ever Made " in 1999 . In July 2011 , the music video was named one of " The 30 All @-@ TIME Best Music Videos " by TIME magazine . = = Live performances = = Jackson performed " Thriller " on all three of his solo world concert tours . From the Dangerous Tour onwards , half the song was always performed by a masked backup dancer as Jackson prepared for his next song as part of a stage illusion . Despite Jackson performing multiple songs from his Thriller album , " Thriller " was not included on The Jacksons set list during their Victory Tour in 1984 , as Michael Jackson was not satisfied with the way the song sounded live . Jackson performed " Thriller " during his first world tour as a solo artist , the Bad world tour , lasting sixteen months , from 1987 to 1989 , for a total of 123 shows . During the Bad tour , in both legs , the jacket had flashing lights in the middle of the song and at the end . An impersonator was only used for the introduction of the song ; a masked dancer emerges from the costume tent at the side of the stage , and goes back in hiding while Jackson himself , also masked at first , swings down from a rope on the other side of the stage before taking off his mask . " Thriller " was also performed during Jackson 's second world tour , the Dangerous Tour , where stage illusions were used to transition between " Thriller " and " Billie Jean " . In the middle of " Thriller " , Jackson secretly switched places with a masked backup dancer who finishes the song appearing as Jackson prepares for Billie Jean . When the song ends , Jackson appears fully dressed on the upper floor as " Billie Jean " begins . In the third leg of the Dangerous Tour , there was no upper floor but the masked dancer still performed the latter half of the song . Jackson performed " Thriller " for all of his 82 shows during his third , and final , world tour , the HIStory World Tour . Once again , a masked dancer posing as Jackson was used as a stage illusion , this time to the transition between " Thriller " and " Beat It " . As with the Dangerous tour , Jackson switches with the background dancer in the middle of the song . At the end of Thriller , the masked dancer is taken by the zombie dancers into a coffin where it appears he is impaled with spikes and burned . Jackson would appear at the side of the stage in a cherry @-@ picker , starting off " Beat It " . Jackson had planned to perform " Thriller " during his 50 @-@ show concert series , which would have been his fourth concert tour , entitled This Is It from 2009 to 2010 . For Jackson 's performance of the song , he had planned for the stage that he was to perform on to be set up with a background that looked like a " graveyard " ( which was a brief setting in the music video ) with 3 @-@ D effects . Jackson would emerge from a giant black widow spider . According to a setlist that was released in March 2009 , " Thriller " was to close out the 16 @-@ song show , although the film Michael Jackson 's This Is It , which documents the concert series , lists 18 songs and " Man in the Mirror " as the closing song for the planned shows . Live versions of the song are available on the DVDs Live at Wembley July 16 , 1988 and Live in Bucharest : The Dangerous Tour . = = Cover versions = = 1980s In 1984 , English comedian Lenny Henry recorded a spoof video of Thriller , entitled " Thinner " . In 1989 , American composer Henry Mancini and The Royal Philharmonic Orchestra recorded an orchestral version of the song . 2000s In 2000 , British death metal band Ten Masked Men covered the song on their album Return of the Ten Masked Men . In 2001 , American @-@ born Australian singer Joe Dolce covered the song on a compilation album , Andrew Denton 's Musical Challenge . In 2003 , Scottish rock band Aereogramme recorded " Thriller " for their Livers & Lungs EP . In 2003 , German a cappella group Maybebop covered the song for their album Heiße Luft . In 2004 , English electronic music group The Prodigy sampled " Thriller " on their The Way It Is . In 2007 , Ian Brown covered " Thriller " . Amos Barshad and Nick Catucci , of NYMag.com , commented that " before you dismiss " the song , if you " give it a listen " , Brown ’ s " louche , drugged @-@ out reinvention is actually pretty great . " In 2008 , German group Wise Guys recorded an a cappella version of the song as " Schiller " for their tenth album Frei ! . The stage choreography based on Michael Jackson 's music video and member Ferenc also recites a part of Friedrich Schiller 's Die Bürgschaft . In 2008 , " Thriller " was also covered by Ben Gibbard , lead singer of Death Cab for Cutie and The Postal Service . In 2008 , industrial metal band Gothminister covered Jackson 's song for their album Happiness in Darkness . In October 2009 , Imogen Heap covered " Thriller " for BBC Radio 1 Live Lounge . 2010s In 2010 , Italian gothic metal band The LoveCrave released a cover of " Thriller " on their album Soul Saliva . In 2011 , Patrick Stump covered the song in an a cappella mash @-@ up tribute along with several other Michael Jackson songs over pre @-@ recorded backing vocals . In 2012 , Italian jazz trumpeter Enrico Rava released a version on his tribute album Rava on the Dance Floor . In 2013 , Jiordan Tolli covered an stripped @-@ down slower version of song for fifth season of The X Factor Australia during week two . The cover was released as an single on September 3 , 2013 . Tolli 's performance of " Thriller " debuted at number 63 on the ARIA Singles Chart . In 2014 and 2015 , Demi Lovato covered the song on her Demi World Tour . This version included a remixed dancing at the end , which Lovato would dance to with fellow background dancers . = = Appearances in other media = = Michael Jackson 's Thriller music video , particularly the songs dance routine in the video , have been referenced in television series and films including Donga ( 1985 ) , Coming to America ( 1988 ) , The Malibu Beach Vampires ( 1991 ) , South Park ( 1997 ) , Dead & Breakfast ( 2004 ) , 13 Going on 30 ( 2004 ) , Bo ! in the USA ( 2006 ) . The Chemical Brothers said in a January 2002 interview that if their song " My Elastic Eye " is played on large speakers , the bass would resemble " Thriller " . In 2011 , the cast of American musical TV series Glee ( Naya Rivera , Kevin McHale and Cory Monteith with New Directions ) performed " Thriller " as a mash up with " Heads Will Roll " by Yeah Yeah Yeahs in episode " The Sue Sylvester Shuffle " . Pop singer Britney Spears made a reference to " Thriller " in her music video for " I Wanna Go " ( 2011 ) . In the ending of her video actor Guillermo Díaz leads Spears out of the room . He then turns to the camera with glowing red eyes and his laugh is heard , similar to Vincent Price . = = Personnel = = = = Charts and certifications = = = = = Sales and certifications = = = = = Track listing = = = Royal Artillery Memorial = The Royal Artillery Memorial is a stone memorial at Hyde Park Corner in London , dedicated to casualties in the Royal Regiment of Artillery in the First World War . The memorial was designed by Charles Jagger and Lionel Pearson , and features a giant sculpture of a BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch Mk I howitzer upon a large plinth of Portland stone , with stone reliefs depicting scenes from the conflict . Four bronze figures of artillery men are positioned around the outside of the memorial . The memorial is famous for its realist contrast with other First World War memorials , such as the Cenotaph designed by Edwin Lutyens , and attracted much public debate during the 20th century . = = History = = The First World War , which took place between 1914 and 1918 , saw the extensive use of artillery , particularly on the Western Front . Technical advances , combined with the relatively static nature of trench warfare , made these guns a key element of the conflict : over half the casualties in the war were caused by artillery . Artillery guns and their crews were themselves targets , however , and 49 @,@ 076 members of the Royal Artillery died during the conflict . In the years after the war , many former servicemen , including gunners , found the scale of the losses difficult to deal with , or felt that the events challenged their trust in the political leadership that had led them into the war . Visual reminders of the conflict were often avoided : mutilated servicemen , for example , were banned in the 1920s from joining in veterans ' marches , and those with facial injuries often hid them in public . The Royal Artillery War Commemoration Fund ( RAWCF ) was formed in 1918 , made up a mixture of senior officers and other ranks . The RAWCF 's intention was to remember the artillery men who had died during the war , and after some discussions of various options , including purchasing a house for wounded soldiers , or building a number of small shrines across the country , the RAWCF decided to construct a single memorial to the fallen Royal Artillery servicemen . Memorials to lost servicemen from the previous major conflict , the South African War fought between 1899 and 1902 , had , however , been widely criticised as being unimaginative and unimpressive . As a result of these problems , the prominent artist Sir Edward Poynter had put forward recommendations that far more care , time and funding be given to the construction of future war memorials , which were taken on board by the RAWCF . The RAWCF sought a design that would be " unmistakably recognisable " as an artillery monument , and were insistent that the eventual designer take detailed advice from a junior officer who had served in the war . The RAWCF first examined a design by Captain Adrian Jones , who had produced the Boer War Cavalry Memorial a few years before , but his design was rejected . Next , the committee contacted the artists Edwin Lutyens , Herbert Baker and Aston Webb . Lutyens ' sent in three designs , each costed at less than £ 15 @,@ 000 ( less than £ 607 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms ) , but they were felt to be too similar to the Cenotaph and to give insufficient prominence to the artillery . After the RAWCF insisted that a howitzer be prominently incorporated into the designs , Lutyens withdrew . Baker disagreed with the concept of single service monuments , but submitted a proposal costed at over £ 25 @,@ 000 ( over £ 1 @,@ 010 @,@ 000 in 2009 terms ) , which was declined and Baker subsequently withdrew from the project ; Webb declined to submit a proposal and also withdrew . The committee then approached Charles Jagger in early 1921 . Jagger had been trained as a metal engraver before attending the Royal College of Art . He served in the infantry during the First World War and was injured at the battles of Gallipoli and Neuve @-@ Église , being awarded the Military Cross . At the end of the war , Jagger became involved in the design of war memorials , in particular the stark , brutal sculpture at the Hoylake and West Kirby War Memorial . Jagger was approached by the RAWCF both because of his reputation as a designer and because of his service as an infantry officer , although the American artist John Sargent , a patron of Jagger 's , may have encouraged the committee to consider the young artist . The RAWCF requested that he submit a model for a realist sculpture , to include a group of soldiers in bronze on a pedestal . Jagger decided to work with the architect Lionel Pearson , who designed the stone structure of the memorial , and through June and July 1921 the RAWCF and the authorities considered the proposal . Jagger 's model was similar to the eventual memorial , but had only two gunners at either end of an oblong memorial ; the howitzer on the top was smaller than the eventual version , and pointed sideways , rather than lengthways along the pedestal . In reporting to the committee , Jagger said that he felt strongly that the design should unashamedly focus on the events of the war , noting that it " should in every sense be a war memorial " . Jagger explained that the artillery had " terrific power " and was the " last word in force " , and that the howitzer he had chosen was the only suitable weapon to symbolise those capabilities . There were concerns on the committee that the design would offend some members of the public , especially women , but the RAWCF eventually voted 50 to 15 in favour of accepting the design and the proposed cost of £ 25 @,@ 000 . Jagger was formally awarded the contract for the memorial in March 1922 . Due to the pressures of other projects , Jagger did not begin work on the memorial until the following year , by which point he had decided to alter the design . The revised memorial would be a third @-@ larger than before , forming a crucifix , guarded by three bronze soldiers ; after much discussion , it was agreed that the howitzer would point south to produce a pleasing silhouette from the park . A lengthy , year @-@ long debate occurred within the RAWCF as to what inscription should be placed on the memorial , adding to the delay . Jagger then decided that the fourth side of the memorial should feature a dead soldier ; after considerable debate , the RAWCF also agreed to this modification . Jagger 's work continued to take longer than planned , partially due to shortages of staff , the need to approve each amendment to the plan and practical problems on the site itself . The names of his models for two of the statues are known : William Fosten for the Driver and another ex @-@ gunner called Metcalfe for the Ammunition Carrier . The work was opened four months late on 18 October 1925 by Prince Arthur and the Reverend Alfred Jarvis . Despite the delay , the RAWCF and Jagger left on very good terms , the committee exceptionally pleased with the final memorial to the Royal Artillery . Over the years , pollution and water penetration caused damage to the bronzes and stonework . English Heritage conducted a major restoration of the memorial during 2011 , completed in time for Remembrance Day . On 14 January 1970 the memorial was protected under UK law as a Grade II * listed building , but in July 2014 its status was raised to Grade I ; it was one of five memorials in London receiving a higher grade to mark the centenary of the outbreak of World War I. = = Design and symbolism = = The Royal Artillery Memorial today is located in what Malcolm Miles has termed the " leafy traffic island " of Hyde Park Corner in central London . The memorial is 43 feet long , 21 feet wide and 30 feet high ( 13 m by 6 m by 9 m ) ; the pedestal and the one @-@ third oversized replica of a BL 9 @.@ 2 @-@ inch howitzer , modelled on a gun in the Imperial War Museum , that sits on top of it are made of Portland stone . Cast by the A. B. Burton foundry , four bronze figures are placed on each side of the memorial : a driver to the west side , an artillery captain on the east , a shell carrier to the south , and a dead soldier on the north . Carved stone reliefs show various detailed military scenes from the First World War . The memorial 's main inscription on the west and east faces reads " In proud remembrance of the forty @-@ nine thousand and seventy @-@ six of all ranks of the Royal Regiment of Artillery who gave their lives for King and country in the Great War 1914 — 1919 " . The memorial forms a sharp contrast with both the earlier monuments of the South African War and most contemporary monuments to the First World War . Memorials of the South African War typically included figures of soldiers , sometimes dying in conflict , but always heroically in a " beautiful death " . Classical symbolism was often used to distance the event of death from the observer , as typified in William Colton 's work at Worcester . Most First World War memorials reacted to the criticism of this approach by adopting cleaner architectural forms , but still retaining the ideal of a " beautiful death " , an approach which can be seen at Lutyens ' Southampton War Memorial , the precursor to his more famous Cenotaph in London . These memorials frequently used abstract , beautiful designs intended to remove the viewer from the real world , and focus them on an idealised sense of self @-@ sacrifice . Soldiers in these memorials were still frequently depicted as Homeric warriors , and classical ideals and symbols remained popular , as can be seen at the Machine Gun Corps Memorial by Francis Derwent Wood , displayed close to the Royal Artillery Memorial itself . Where dead soldiers were shown , they were depicted in an image of serenity and peace , often physically distanced from the viewer on a high platform , the entire effect reflected by the silence that traditionally surrounds ceremonies at the Cenotaph . The Royal Artillery Monument attempted a very different effect . Jagger takes a realist approach to his figures , embracing detailed images of military power with none of the classical symbolism of other monuments , or even Jagger 's own pre @-@ war pieces . The art historian Reginald Wilenski likens the memorial to the work of Frank Brangwyn , who focused on depicting the physical labour of soldiers and workers during the war . The memorial shows the three upright bronze figures stood at ease , rather than to attention ; the driver even leans back against the parapet , his cape hanging over his outstretched arms , suggesting an attitude of exhaustion or contemplation . The faceless , heavily laden statue of the fallen soldier appears less at rest than tired , pulled down as if by a great weight . At the same time , the sheer size of the memorial , including the oversized gun and the larger @-@ than @-@ life bronze figures , exudes a sense of strength and power ; the figures are stocky , confident and imposing . This strength and power contributes to the sense of masculinity that pervades the work , from the phallic image of the howitzer , to the solid , muscular figures of the gunners . Despite the realist nature of the bronze statues in the design , commentators have often also noted the dehumanising aspects of the memorial . Its sheer size and bulk of the howitzer serves to distance the observer , dehumanising the soldiers in a similar way to the Cubist war paintings of Wyndham Lewis and Richard Nevinson . Even the carved stone reliefs have an aggressive , hostile quality to them , a consequence of their focus on surface detail at the expense of the humans in the design . When questioned about his lifelike depictions , Jagger remarked to The Daily Express newspaper that the " experience in the trenches persuaded me of the necessity for frankness and truth " . Using what historian John Glaves @-@ Smith describes as themes of " endurance and sacrifice , not dynamism and conflict " , the memorial can be felt to speak to its audience about the experience of war in a way that the Cenotaph , for example , does not . = = Critical reception = = The Royal Artillery Memorial has continued to be the subject of much critical discussion . After the unveiling , a vigorous debate occurred in the British newspapers about the memorial . The Times was critical , comparing it unfavourably to the Cenotaph , while The Daily Mail highlighted the cost of the monument , and argued that the money could have been better spent on directly caring for injured veterans . Both the dead soldier and the howitzer drew particular comment ; art critic Selwyn Image complained about having any sort of artillery gun on the monument , whilst Lord Curzon was quoted as describing the howitzer as " a toad squatting , which is about to spit fire out of its mouth ... nothing more hideous could ever be conceived " . Modernists , such as Roger Fry , criticised the conventional , secure structure that underpins the memorial . Other opinions were more positive . The Manchester Guardian noted that the frankness of the portrayal was a " terrible revelation long overdue " , and hoped that veterans would be able to show the monument to their wives and children as a way of explaining the events of the war . Ex @-@ servicemen were quoted by the newspaper as reminiscing about the war as they examined the statue , and remarking on how the bronze figures had captured the reality of their time in the artillery . The Illustrated London News reported how , two days after the official ceremony , a crowd had gathered in the rain just before dawn to conduct a small ceremony at the memorial ; the newspaper felt that this said more about the quality of the memorial than the more negative writings of art critics . These voices eventually held sway , and the memorial came to be popularly termed " the special Cenotaph of the Gunners " , with Lord Edward Gleichen praising it in 1928 as " a strikingly imaginative and most worthy representation " . By the 1930s , it was one of the best known monuments in Europe . In later years , the reputation of the work diminished . The art critic Geoffrey Grigson echoed the comments of Lord Curzon , when he complained in 1980 that the memorial was a " squat toad of foolish stone " . A renewed focus on Jagger 's works , including the Royal Artillery memorial , in the 1980s has led to a fresh reappraisal of the piece ; the most recent critical work on the memorial has described it as a " work of the highest quality and distinction " . = Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman = Maria : or , The Wrongs of Woman is the 18th @-@ century British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft 's unfinished novelistic sequel to her revolutionary political treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) . The Wrongs of Woman was published posthumously in 1798 by her husband , William Godwin , and is often considered her most radical feminist work . Wollstonecraft 's philosophical and gothic novel revolves around the story of a woman imprisoned in an insane asylum by her husband . It focuses on the societal rather than the individual " wrongs of woman " and criticizes what Wollstonecraft viewed as the patriarchal institution of marriage in eighteenth @-@ century Britain and the legal system that protected it . However , the heroine 's inability to relinquish her romantic fantasies also reveals women 's collusion in their oppression through false and damaging sentimentalism . The novel pioneered the celebration of female sexuality and cross @-@ class identification between women . Such themes , coupled with the publication of Godwin 's scandalous Memoirs of Wollstonecraft 's life , made the novel unpopular at the time it was published . Twentieth @-@ century feminist critics embraced the work , integrating it into the history of the novel and feminist discourse . It is most often viewed as a fictionalized popularization of the Rights of Woman , as an extension of Wollstonecraft 's feminist arguments in Rights of Woman , and as autobiographical . = = Composition and plot summary = = = = = Drafts = = = Wollstonecraft struggled to write The Wrongs of Woman for over a year ; in contrast , she had dashed off A Vindication of the Rights of Men ( 1790 ) , her reply to Edmund Burke 's Reflections on the Revolution in France ( 1790 ) , in under a month and A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) in six weeks . Godwin comments : She was sensible how arduous a task it is to produce a truly excellent novel ; and she roused her faculties to grapple with it . All her other works were produced with a rapidity , that did not give her powers time fully to expand . But this was written slowly and with mature consideration . She began it in several forms , which she successively rejected , after they were considerably advanced . She wrote many parts of the work again and again , and , when she had finished what she intended for the first part , she felt herself more urgently stimulated to revise and improve what she had written , than to proceed , with constancy of application , in the parts that were to follow . She also researched the book more than her others . By assuming the responsibilities of fiction editor and reviewing almost nothing but novels , she used her editorial position at Joseph Johnson 's Analytical Review to educate herself regarding novelistic techniques . She even visited Bedlam Hospital in February 1797 to research insane asylums . At Wollstonecraft 's death in 1797 , the manuscript was incomplete . Godwin published all of the pieces of the manuscript in the Posthumous Works , adding several sentences and paragraphs of his own to link disjunct sections . = = = Plot summary = = = The Wrongs of Woman begins in medias res with the upper @-@ class Maria 's unjust imprisonment by her husband , George Venables . Not only has he condemned Maria to live in an insane asylum , but he has also taken their child away from her . She manages to befriend one of her attendants in the asylum , an impoverished , lower @-@ class woman named Jemima , who , after realizing that Maria is not mad , agrees to bring her a few books . Some of these have notes scribbled in them by Henry Darnford , another inmate , and Maria falls in love with him via his marginalia . The two begin to communicate and eventually meet . Darnford reveals that he has had a debauched life ; waking up in the asylum after a night of heavy drinking , he has been unable to convince the doctors to release him . Jemima tells her life story to Maria and Darnford , explaining that she was born a bastard . Jemima 's mother died while she was still an infant , making her already precarious social position worse . She was therefore forced to become a servant in her father 's house and later bound out as an apprentice to a master who beat her , starved her , and raped her . When the man 's wife discovers that Jemima is pregnant with his child , she is thrown out of the house . Unable to support herself , she aborts her child and becomes a prostitute . She becomes the kept woman of a man of some wealth who seems obsessed with pleasure of every kind : food , love , etc . After the death of the gentleman keeping her , she becomes an attendant at the asylum where Maria is imprisoned . In chapters seven through fourteen ( about half of the completed manuscript ) , Maria relates her own life story in a narrative she has written for her daughter . She explains how her mother and father loved their eldest son , Robert , more than their other children and how he ruled " despotically " over his siblings . To escape her unhappy home , Maria visited that of a neighbor and fell in love with his son , George Venables . Venables presented himself to everyone as a respectable and honorable young man ; in actuality , he was a libertine . Maria 's family life became untenable when her mother died and her father took the housekeeper as his mistress . A rich uncle who was fond of Maria , unaware of Venables ' true character , arranged a marriage for her and gave her a dowry of £ 5 @,@ 000 . Maria quickly learned of her husband 's true character . She tried to ignore him by cultivating a greater appreciation for literature and the arts , but he became increasingly dissolute : he whored , gambled , and bankrupted the couple . Maria soon became pregnant after unwanted sexual encounters with her husband . As Maria 's uncle is leaving for the continent , he warns Maria of the consequences should she leave her husband . This is the first that separation or divorce are discussed in the novel and Maria seems to take his words as inspiration rather than the warning they are meant to be . After Venables attempts to pay one of his friends to seduce Maria ( a man referred to only as ' Mr. S ' ) so that he can leave her for being an adulteress , Maria tries to leave him . She initially escapes and manages to live in several different locations , often with other women who have also been wronged by their husbands , but he always finds her . When she tries to leave England with her newborn child and the fortune her now deceased uncle has left them , her husband seizes the child and imprisons Maria in the asylum . At this point the completed manuscript breaks off . = = = Fragmentary endings = = = The fragmentary notes for the remainder of the novel indicate two different trajectories for the plot and five separate conclusions . In both major plot arcs , George Venables wins a lawsuit against Darnford for seducing his wife ; Darnford then abandons Maria , flees England , and takes another mistress . When she discovers this treachery , Maria loses the child she was carrying by Darnford ( either through an abortion or a miscarriage ) . In one ending , Maria commits suicide . In another , more complete ending , Maria is saved from suicide by Jemima who has found her first daughter . Maria agrees to live for her child ( as Wollstonecraft herself had done after her second suicide attempt ) . Jemima , Maria and Maria 's daughter form a new family . = = Style = = In her pieces for the Analytical Review , Wollstonecraft developed a set of criteria for what constitutes a good novel : A good tragedy or novel , if the criterion be the effect which it has on the reader , is not always the most moral work , for it is not the reveries of sentiment , but the struggles of passion — of those human passions , that too frequently cloud the reason , and lead mortals into dangerous errors ... which raise the most lively emotions , and leave the most lasting impression on the memory ; an impression rather made by the heart than the understanding : for our affections are not quite voluntary as the suffrages of reason . ( emphasis Wollstonecraft 's ) Wollstonecraft believed that novels should be " probable " and depict " moderation , reason , and contentment " . Thus it is surprising that The Wrongs of Woman draws inspiration from works such as Ann Radcliffe 's A Sicilian Romance ( 1790 ) and relies on gothic conventions such as the literal and figurative " mansion of despair " to which Maria is consigned . But it does so to demonstrate that gothic horrors are a reality for the average Englishwoman . Using elements of the gothic , Wollstonecraft can , for example , portray Maria 's husband as tyrannical and married life as wretched . As Wollstonecraft herself writes in the " Preface " to The Wrongs of Woman : In many instances I could have made the incidents more dramatic , would I have sacrificed my main object , the desire of exhibiting the misery and oppression , peculiar to women , that arise out of the partial laws and customs of society . One model for Wollstonecraft 's novel was Godwin 's Caleb Williams ( 1794 ) , which demonstrated how an adventurous and gothic novel could offer a social critique . = = = Narrator = = = The Wrongs of Woman usually uses third @-@ person narration , although large sections of Maria 's and Jemima 's tales are in first @-@ person narrative . The narrator often relates Maria 's feelings to the reader through the new technique of free indirect discourse , which blurs the line between the third @-@ person narrator and the first @-@ person dialogue of a text . Wollstonecraft juxtaposes the events of the novel with both Maria 's own retelling of them and her innermost feelings . The first @-@ person stories allow Maria and Jemima to address each other as equals : their stories of suffering , while still allowing each character to retain an individualized sense of self , are a levelling and bonding force between the two . = = = Jacobin novel = = = The Wrongs of Woman is what in the late eighteenth century was called a Jacobin novel , a philosophical novel that advocated the ideals of the French Revolution . Wollstonecraft 's novel argues along with others , such as Mary Hays 's Memoirs of Emma Courtney ( 1796 ) , that women are the victims of constant and systematic injustice . Wollstonecraft uses the philosophical dialogues in her novel to demonstrate women 's powerlessness . Like other Jacobin novels , The Wrongs of Woman relies on a web of suggestive character names to convey its message : Jemima is named for Job 's daughter ; Henry Darnford 's name resembles that of Henry Darnley , the second husband of Mary , Queen of Scots ; and George Venables shares a name with the notorious womanizer George , Prince of Wales . Wollstonecraft added to the reality of her philosophical text by quoting from familiar literature , such as Shakespeare , alluding to important historical events , and referencing relevant facts . The Wrongs of Woman comments on the state of women in society by rewriting earlier texts with a feminist slant , such as Henry Fielding 's Tom Jones ; Fielding 's Mrs. Fitzpatrick becomes Wollstonecraft 's Maria . These rhetorical strategies made the philosophical elements of the novel more palatable to the public . = = Themes = = At the end of the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft promised her readers a second part to the work . Rather than giving them another philosophical treatise , however , she offered them a novel tinged with autobiography , appropriately titled The Wrongs of Woman . In her " Preface " , she writes that the novel should be considered the story of " woman " and not the story of an " individual " . Wollstonecraft attempts to detail , as the scholar Anne K. Mellor has phrased it , " the wrongs done to women and the wrongs done by women " ( emphasis Mellor 's ) . The wrongs done to women include stifling and sexually repressed marriages , which Wollstonecraft describes using the language of slavery , while the wrongs done by women include a false sense of self @-@ worth generated through the language of sensibility . Unlike Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction ( 1788 ) , The Wrongs of Woman offers solutions to these problems , namely an empowering female sexuality , a purpose @-@ filled maternal role , and the possibility of a feminism that crosses class boundaries . = = = Marriage and slavery = = = In metaphors carried over from the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft describes marriage as a prison and women as slaves within it in The Wrongs of Woman . In the first chapter Maria laments , " [ is ] not the world a vast prison , and women born slaves ? " and later she makes a politically charged allusion to the French prison , the Bastille : " marriage had bastilled me for life " . Moreover , Maria 's body is bought and sold like a slave 's : she is worth £ 5 @,@ 000 on the open marriage market and her new husband attempts to sell her into prostitution . Commenting on her condition , Maria states : " a wife being as much a man 's property as his horse , or his ass , she has nothing she can call her own " . In the Rights of Woman , Wollstonecraft had used the metaphor of slavery not only to describe the horrors of marriage as it currently existed but also to offer a juxtaposition to the possibility of a new kind of marriage , one which assumed equality between affectionate and rational partners . In The Wrongs of Woman , this option is never presented ; instead , the reader is shown a series of disastrous marriages in which women are abused , robbed , and abandoned . " Wollstonecraft 's fundamental insight in Maria " , according to scholar Mary Poovey , " concerns the way in which female sexuality is defined or interpreted — and , by extension , controlled — by bourgeois institutions . The primary agent of this control is marriage " . Wollstonecraft deconstructs the ideology of marriage , by which women are exchangeable commodities , are objectified , and are denied their natural rights . = = = Sensibility and sentimentalism = = = Sensibility in the second half of the eighteenth century was considered both a physical and a moral phenomenon . Physicians and anatomists believed that the more sensitive people 's nerves , the more emotionally affected they would be by their surroundings . Since women were thought to have keener nerves than men , it was also believed that women were more emotional than men . The emotional excess associated with sensibility also theoretically produced an ethic of compassion : those with sensibility could easily sympathize with people in pain . Thus historians have credited the discourse of sensibility and those who promoted it with the increased humanitarian efforts , such as the movement to abolish the slave trade , of the eighteenth century . But sensibility was also thought to paralyze those who had too much of it ; they were weakened by constant vicarious suffering . By the time Wollstonecraft was writing The Wrongs of Woman , sensibility had already been under sustained attack for a number of years . Sensibility , which had initially promised to draw individuals together through sympathy , was now viewed as " profoundly separatist " ; novels , plays , and poems that employed the language of sensibility asserted individual rights , sexual freedom , and unconventional familial relationships based only upon feeling . Sensibility seemed to many , particularly during a time of political reaction , to offer too much political power to women and to emasculate British men needed for fighting France . All of Wollstonecraft 's writings betray a tortured relationship with the language of sensibility and The Wrongs of Woman is no exception . As feminist scholar Mitzi Myers has observed , Wollstonecraft is usually described as an " enlightened philosopher strenuously advocating the cultivation of reason as the guide to both self @-@ realization and social progress " , but her works do not unambiguously support such a model of selfhood . Her emphasis on " feeling , imagination , and interiority " mark her as a Romantic , particularly in Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) . Repeatedly , in both her fiction and non @-@ fiction , Wollstonecraft argues that the proper understanding of one 's emotions leads to a transcendent virtue . However , because Wollstonecraft herself is contradictory and vague in the unfinished Wrongs of Woman , there is no real scholarly consensus on what exactly the novel says about sensibility . Wollstonecraft is intentionally breaking the conventions of sentimental fiction , but exactly what her goals are in doing so is unclear . For example , Maria and Jemima can seemingly be identified with the traditional categories of " reason " ( Jemima ) and " sensibility " ( Maria ) , but since such couples were usually male and female , Wollstonecraft 's characterization challenges conventional definitions of gender . Some critics interpret Maria 's story ironically , arguing that the juxtaposition of Maria 's sentimental and romantic narrative with Jemima 's harsh and bleak narrative encourages such a reading . In this interpretation , Maria 's narrative is read as a parody of sentimental fiction that aims to demonstrate the " wrongs " that women inflict upon themselves when they overindulge in sensibility . Although Wollstonecraft promotes sensibility in this text , it is not the same kind that she condemns in the Rights of Woman ; proper sensibility , she contends , rests on sympathy and , most importantly , is controlled by reason . A woman with this kind of sensibility would not be " blown about by every gust of momentary feeling " . Other critics see The Wrongs of Woman as a " negation " of the anti @-@ sentimental arguments offered in the Rights of Woman . Citing Jemima 's infrequent appearances in the narrative and the narrator 's own use of the language of sensibility , they have difficulty in accepting the claim that the novel is undercutting or questioning the rhetoric of sensibility . = = = = Female desire = = = = One of the key differences between Wollstonecraft 's novels and her philosophical treatises , as feminist critic Cora Kaplan has argued , is that her fiction values female emotion while her treatises present it as " reactionary and regressive , almost counter @-@ revolutionary " . The Rights of Woman portrays sexuality as a masculine characteristic , and while Wollstonecraft argues that some masculine characteristics are universal , this is not one of them . In The Wrongs of Woman , however , she accepts , relishes , and uses the sexualized female body as a medium of communication : Maria embraces her lust for Darnford and establishes a relationship with him . While in the Rights of Woman she had emphasized companioniate relationships , arguing that passions should cool between lovers , in The Wrongs of Woman , she celebrates those passions . Challenging contemporary moralists such as John Gregory and Rousseau , Wollstonecraft claimed that women could be fully sexualized beings . Initially , Maria wants to marry Venables because of his charitable nature ; she believes him to be the romantic hero that she has read about in novels . However , she later realizes his duplicity : [ George ] continued to single me out at the dance , press my hand at parting , and utter expressions of unmeaning passion , to which I gave a meaning naturally suggested by the romantic turn of my thoughts . ... When he left us , the colouring of my picture became more vivid — Whither did not my imagination lead me ? In short , I fancied myself in love — in love with the disinterestedness , fortitude , generosity , dignity , and humanity , with which I had invested the hero I dubbed . One of the important questions raised by the novel is whether Maria is deluded in her relationship with Darnford . Maria writes an autobiography for her daughter in which she admits that she was misled by Venables , but critics disagree over the extent to which she is also misled by Darnford . Some suggest that Maria repeats her mistake and imagines Darnford as a hero , citing as evidence Maria 's refusal to leave the madhouse , when she is free to do so , because she wants to remain with him , as well as her infatuation with Rousseau 's novel Julie , or the New Heloise . She imagines Darnford as its " hero " , St. Preux , the sometime lover but not husband of Julie . Maria 's reading and the plots she conjures in her imagination as a result of that reading are the cause of her downfall in this interpretation : unable or unwilling to separate fiction from reality , she incorporates Darnford into her romantic fantasies . Other critics , while agreeing that Maria is led astray by Darnford , argue that it is not her sexuality and eroticism that are the problem , but her choice of partner . They argue that Wollstonecraft is not portraying female sexuality as inherently detrimental , as she had in Mary and the Rights of Woman , rather she is criticizing the directions it often takes . = = = Class and feminism = = = The structure of The Wrongs of Woman , with its interwoven tales of the similarly abused upper @-@ middle @-@ class Maria , the lower @-@ middle @-@ class sailor 's wife Peggy , the working @-@ class shopkeeper , the boarding @-@ house owner , and the working @-@ class domestic servant Jemima , is an " unprecedented " representation of the shared concerns of women in a patriarchal society . Wollstonecraft wrote in a letter , published as part of the preface to The Wrongs of Woman , that she aimed " to show the wrongs of different classes of women , equally oppressive , though , from the difference of education , necessarily various " . Her novel is newly inclusive and one of the first works in the history of feminist literature that hints at a cross @-@ class argument that women of different economic positions have the same interests because they are women . In her narration , Jemima asks " who ever risked anything for me ? — Who ever acknowledged me to be a fellow @-@ creature ? " It is not until Maria grasps her hand in sympathy that she feels this ; furthermore , it is Jemima 's story that first prods Maria 's own " thoughts [ to ] take a wider range " and " thinking of Jemima 's peculiar fate and her own , she was led to consider the oppressed state of women , and to lament that she had given birth to a daughter " . Jemima is the most fleshed out of the lower @-@ class women in the novel ; through her Wollstonecraft refuses to accept the submissiveness traditionally associated with femininity and expresses a frustrated anger that would have been viewed as unseemly in Maria . Jemima 's tale also challenges assumptions regarding prostitutes . Wollstonecraft rewrites the traditional narrative of the redeemed prostitute ( e.g. , Daniel Defoe 's Some Considerations on Streetwalkers ( 1726 ) ) . The novel presents prostitutes as " an exploited class " , akin to wives who are dependent on men , and demonstrates how they are a product of their environment . By making both Jemima and Maria prostitutes , Wollstonecraft rejects two contemporary stereotypes of the prostitute : the image of the woman who takes pleasure in her actions and is in love with her keeper and the image of the victim desirous of pity . Thus , rather than simply repulsing or eliciting the compassion of the reader , Jemima and Maria presumably forge a stronger , more lasting bond with the female reader who shares their plight . Nevertheless , Jemima 's tale still retains elements of Wollstonecraft 's bourgeois ethos ; Jemima and the other working @-@ class women are only presented as Maria 's equal in suffering ; " women are linked across class , then , but less in solidarity than in hopelessness . " As Wollstonecraft scholar Barbara Taylor comments , " Maria 's relationship with Jemima displays something of the class fissures and prejudices that have marked organised feminist politics from their inception . " Jemima is taught to appreciate the finer things in life when she is a kept mistress and Maria later promises to care for her . Importantly , though , in one version of the ending , it is Jemima who rescues Maria and finds her child . = = = Motherhood and the feminine self = = = While some scholars emphasize The Wrongs of Woman 's criticism of the institution of marriage and the laws restricting women in the eighteenth century , others focus on the work 's description of " the experience of being female , with the emotional violence and intellectual debilitation " that accompanies it ( emphasis in original ) . It is in Wollstonecraft 's depiction of a female mind educating itself and creating a specifically feminine sense of self that she " breaks new ground " . Maria 's role as mother allows her to instruct herself , thereby creating her own sense of self ; in advising her daughter through the manuscript she is writing , Maria learns about herself and realizes her past errors . Her ability to formulate her own selfhood can be contrasted to the heroine of Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction , who transfers her maternal cravings from character to character . Furthermore , while patriarchal marriages are one of the great wrongs perpetrated upon women , Wollstonecraft argues that a greater wrong is women 's lack of independence . Because they are unable to find respectable , well @-@ paid work , they are reliant upon men . Women such as Jemima are reduced to hard physical labor , stealing , begging , or prostituting themselves in order to survive ; they are demeaned by this work and think meanly of themselves because of it . Because male @-@ female relationships are inherently unequal in her society , Wollstonecraft endeavours to formulate a new kind of friendship in The Wrongs of Woman : motherhood and sisterhood . It is Maria 's pathetic story regarding the kidnapping of her child that first interests Jemima in her plight . The novel fragments also suggest that the tale might not end with a marriage , but rather with the creation of a new kind of family , one constituted by two mothers for Maria 's child . With Jemima 's rescue of Maria , Wollstonecraft appears to reject the traditional romantic plot and invent a new one , necessitated by the failure of society to grant women their natural rights . While more recent critics have emphasized the revolutionary aspects of the cross @-@ class friendship between Jemima and Maria , others have questioned the extent of that radicalism , arguing that Jemima 's story occupies a small section of the novel and is abruptly truncated . Mary Poovey also maintains that Wollstonecraft fails to extend her critique of marriage and society from the individual to the systemic level . = = = Autobiographical elements = = = Like Wollstonecraft 's first novel , Mary : A Fiction , The Wrongs of Woman is heavily autobiographical ; the two novels even repeat many of the same biographical details . After being abandoned by her lover and the father of her child , Gilbert Imlay ( the model for Darnford ) , Wollstonecraft attempted to commit suicide . Her despair over these events is written into the book as well as many other experiences from the mid @-@ 1790s . Moreover , Maria Venables 's family history shows clear similarities to Wollstonecraft 's own . Like Maria , Wollstonecraft had a mother who favored an elder brother and she also devotedly cared for that mother during her dying days , only to be pushed away during the final moments of her life . Wollstonecraft also looked after her sisters like Maria does , albeit without the help of a wealthy uncle . Perhaps most strikingly , Wollstonecraft 's sister Eliza left her husband , at Wollstonecraft 's prodding , much as Maria leaves hers . As Kelly explains , autobiography is common in Jacobin novels . Philosophical novels were expected to be autobiographical ; audiences believed that the philosophizing novelists would draw on their own experiences in order to illustrate their abstract principles . = = Reception and legacy = = The Posthumous Works , of which The Wrongs of Woman was the largest part , had a " reasonably wide audience " when it was published in 1798 , but it " was received by critics with almost universal disfavor " . This was in large part because the simultaneous release of Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman revealed Wollstonecraft 's illegitimate child and her love affairs . Most reviewers and readers transferred the unconventional and unorthodox life Wollstonecraft herself had lived onto Maria and much that Maria had said and done onto Wollstonecraft , thereby realizing Wollstonecraft 's fears that her books would be read only as a mirror of her life . The eighteenth @-@ century moralist Hannah More , for example , called The Wrongs of Woman a " vindication of adultery " . Many critics and even personal acquaintances failed to grasp Wollstonecraft 's fundamental point , that Maria 's " wrongs " are political , not personal . She wrote to one friend who had criticized it : I am vexed and surprised at your not thinking the situation of Maria sufficiently important , and can only account for this want of – shall I say it ? delicacy of feeling , by recollecting that you are a man – For my part I cannot suppose any situation more distressing than for a woman of sensibility with an improving mind to be bound , to such a man as I have described , for life – obliged to renounce all the humanizing affections , and to avoid cultivating her taste lest her perception of grace , and refinement of sentiment should sharpen to agony the pangs of disappointment . Even Godwin , her husband , complained , " I do not want a common @-@ place story of a brutal , insensible husband . " Both the Anti @-@ Jacobin Review and the Monthly Review reviewed the novel harshly . The Anti @-@ Jacobin Review , attacking both Wollstonecraft and her book as well as Godwin 's Political Justice and Memoirs , wrote : The restrictions upon adultery constitute , in Maria 's opinion , A MOST FLAGRANT WRONG TO WOMEN . Such is the moral tendency of this work , such are the lessons which may be learned from the writings of Mrs. Wollstonecraft ; such the advantages which the public may derive from this performance given to the world by Godwin , celebrated by him , and perfectly consonant to the principles of his Political Justice . — But as there have been writers , who have in theory promulgated opinions subversive of morality , yet in their conduct have not been immoral , Godwin has laboured to inform the world , that the theory of Mrs. Wollstonecraft was reduced to practice ; that she lived and acted , as she wrote and taught . [ Footnote in original : We could point out some of this lady 's pupils , who have so far profited by the instructions received from her , as to imitate her conduct , and reduce her principles to practice . ] ( emphasis in original ) Under the heading " Prostitution " in the index to the magazine , the editors listed only one entry : Mary Wollstonecraft . Partially because of these reactions , female sexuality would not be celebrated so overtly in Britain for another century . While Wollstonecraft 's arguments in The Wrongs of Woman may appear commonplace in light	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
imeter armor above the forecastle deck that reduced to 180 millimeters ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) between the forecastle and upper decks and 130 millimeters below the upper deck . The forward conning tower had walls 280 millimeters thick those of the aft conning tower were 180 millimeters thick . = = Construction and service = = Leonardo da Vinci , named after the artist and inventor , was built by the Odero Shipbuilding Co . , at their Sestri Ponente , Genoa shipyard . She was laid down on 18 July 1910 , launched on 14 October 1911 , and completed on 17 May 1914 . The ship saw no combat during the war and spent most of it at anchor . She capsized in Taranto harbor , in 11 metres ( 36 ft ) of water , after an internal magazine explosion on the night of 2 / 3 August 1916 while loading ammunition . Casualties included 21 officers and 227 enlisted men . The subsequent investigation blamed Austro @-@ Hungarian saboteurs , but unstable propellant may well have been responsible . The Regia Marina wanted to raise the ship and rejected initial plans to demolish the wreck with explosives . They ultimately settled on a plan to make the ship 's hull airtight and raise it using compressed air and pontoons . This required that the ship 's coal , ammunition , and gun turrets be removed or cut loose , respectively , by divers to reduce her weight . A further complication was that the largest drydock in Taranto had a maximum depth of only 12 @.@ 2 metres ( 40 ft ) and the upside @-@ down Leonardo da Vinci drew 15 @.@ 2 metres ( 50 ft ) . This meant that her funnels had to be cut off as well . All of this preparation required over two years and the ship was refloated on 17 September 1919 . A deep channel had been dredged from her location to the drydock and she was moved there . A special wooden framework had to be built to support her , still inverted , after the water in the drydock had been drained . Her decks were not designed to handle the stresses involved in her unique situation and had to be reinforced to withstand the weight of the hull and preliminary repairs were made in preparation for righting her . A deep spot in the harbor was dredged for this task and some 400 long tons ( 410 t ) of ballast were added in spots calculated to assist in the righting effort . The primary work was done by 7 @,@ 500 long tons ( 7 @,@ 600 t ) of water pumped into the ship 's starboard side and she was successfully righted on 24 January 1921 . The Regia Marina planned to modernize Leonardo da Vinci by replacing her center turret with six 102 @-@ millimeter ( 4 in ) AA guns , but ultimately lacked the funds to do so and sold her for scrap on 22 March 1923 . = The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess = The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説トワイライトプリンセス , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu : Towairaito Purinsesu ) is an action @-@ adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the GameCube and Wii home video game consoles . It is the thirteenth installment in the The Legend of Zelda series . Originally planned for release on the GameCube in November 2005 , Twilight Princess was delayed by Nintendo to allow its developers to refine the game , add more content , and port it to the Wii . The Wii version was released alongside the console in North America in November 2006 , and in Japan , Europe , and Australia the following month . The GameCube version was released worldwide in December 2006 . The story focuses on series protagonist Link , who tries to prevent Hyrule from being engulfed by a corrupted parallel dimension known as the Twilight Realm . To do so , he takes the form of both a Hylian and a wolf , and is assisted by a mysterious creature named Midna . The game takes place hundreds of years after Ocarina of Time and Majora 's Mask , in an alternate timeline from The Wind Waker . At the time of its release , Twilight Princess was considered the greatest entry in the Zelda series by many critics , including writers for 1UP.com , Computer and Video Games , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , GamesRadar , IGN , and The Washington Post . It received several Game of the Year awards , and was the most critically acclaimed game of 2006 . As of September 2015 , 8 @.@ 85 million copies of the game have been sold worldwide , making it the best @-@ selling title in the series . In 2011 , the Wii version was rereleased under the Nintendo Selects label . A high @-@ definition remaster for the Wii U , The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess HD , was released in March 2016 . = = Gameplay = = The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess is an action @-@ adventure game focused on combat , exploration , and puzzle @-@ solving . It uses the basic control scheme introduced in Ocarina of Time , including context @-@ sensitive action buttons and L @-@ targeting ( Z @-@ targeting on the Wii ) , a system that allows the player to keep Link 's view focused on an enemy or important object while moving and attacking . Link can walk , run , and attack , and will automatically jump when running off of or reaching for a ledge . Link uses a sword and shield in combat , complemented with secondary weapons and items , including a bow and arrows , a boomerang , and bombs . While L @-@ targeting , projectile @-@ based weapons can be fired at a target without the need for manual aiming . The context @-@ sensitive button mechanic allows one button to serve a variety of functions , such as talking , opening doors , and pushing , pulling , and throwing objects . The on @-@ screen display shows what action , if any , the button will trigger , determined by the situation . For example , if Link is holding a rock , the context @-@ sensitive button will cause Link to throw the rock if he is moving or targeting an object or enemy , or place the rock on the ground if he is standing still . The GameCube and Wii versions feature several minor differences in their controls . The Wii version of the game makes use of the motion sensors and built @-@ in speaker of the Wii Remote . The speaker emits the sounds of a bowstring when shooting an arrow , Midna 's laugh when she gives advice to Link , and the series ' trademark " chime " when discovering secrets . The player controls Link 's sword by swinging the Wii Remote . Other attacks are triggered using similar gestures with the Nunchuk . Unique to the GameCube version is the ability for the player to control the camera freely , without entering a special " lookaround " mode required by the Wii ; however , in the GameCube version , only two of Link 's secondary weapons can be equipped at a time , as opposed to four in the Wii version . The game features nine dungeons — large , contained areas where Link battles enemies , collects items , and solves puzzles . Link navigates these dungeons and fights a boss at the end in order to obtain an item or otherwise advance the plot . The dungeons are connected by a large overworld , across which Link can travel on foot ; on his horse , Epona ; or by teleporting with Midna 's assistance . When Link enters the Twilight Realm , the void that corrupts parts of Hyrule , he transforms into a wolf . He is eventually able to transform between his Hylian and wolf forms at will . As a wolf , Link loses the ability to use his sword , shield , or any secondary items ; he instead attacks by biting and defends primarily by dodging attacks . However , " Wolf Link " gains several key advantages in return — he moves faster than he does as a human ( though riding Epona is still faster ) and digs holes to create new passages and uncover buried items , and has improved senses , including the ability to follow scent trails . He also carries Midna , a small imp @-@ like creature who gives him hints , uses an energy field to attack enemies , helps him jump long distances , and eventually allows him to " warp " to any of several preset locations throughout the overworld . Using Link 's wolf senses , the player can see and listen to the wandering spirits of those affected by the Twilight , as well as hunt for enemy ghosts named Poes . The artificial intelligence ( AI ) of enemies in Twilight Princess is more advanced than that of enemies in The Wind Waker . Enemies react to defeated companions and to arrows or slingshot pellets that pass by , and can detect Link from a greater distance than was possible in previous games . There is very little voice acting in the game , as is the case in most The Legend of Zelda titles to date . Link remains silent in conversation , but grunts when attacking or injured and gasps when surprised . His emotions and responses are largely indicated visually by nods and facial expressions . Other characters have similar language @-@ independent verbalizations , including laughter , surprised or fearful exclamations , and screams . Midna has the most voice acting — her on @-@ screen dialogue is often accompanied by a babble of pseudo @-@ speech , which was produced by scrambling English phrases sampled by Japanese voice actress Akiko Kōmoto . = = Plot = = Twilight Princess takes place several centuries after Ocarina of Time and Majora 's Mask . The game begins with a youth named Link , who is working as a ranch hand in Ordon Village . One day , the village is attacked by Bulblins , who carry off the village 's children with Link in pursuit before he encounters a wall of Twilight . A Shadow Beast pulls him beyond the wall into the Twilight @-@ shrouded forest , where he is transformed into a wolf and imprisoned . Link is soon freed by an imp @-@ like Twilight creature named Midna , who offers to help him if he obeys her unconditionally . She guides him to Princess Zelda , who explains that Zant , the King of the Twilight , infiltrated Hyrule Castle and forced her to surrender . The conquered kingdom was enveloped in Twilight , rendering all its inhabitants besides Link and Zelda spirits . In order to save Hyrule , Link must first revive the Light Spirits by entering the Twilight @-@ covered regions and , as a wolf , recovering the Spirits ' light from the Twilight beings that stole it . Once revitalized , each Spirit returns Link to his Hylian form . During this time , Link also helps Midna acquire the Fused Shadows , fragments of a relic containing powerful dark magic . In return , she aids Link in rescuing Ordon Village 's children and assisting the monkeys of Faron , the Gorons of Eldin , and the Zoras of Lanayru . After restoring the Light Spirits and obtaining the Fused Shadows , Link and Midna are ambushed by Zant , who relieves Midna of the fragments . She ridicules him for abusing his tribe 's magic , but Zant reveals that his power comes from another source as he uses it to revert Link to his wolf state . Failing to seduce Midna into joining forces with him , Zant leaves her to die from the world 's light . Upon bringing a dying Midna to Zelda , Link learns he needs the Master Sword to lift Zant 's curse . Zelda sacrifices herself to heal Midna with her power before vanishing mysteriously . Moved by Zelda 's selflessness , Midna begins to care more about Link and the fate of the light world . After gaining the Master Sword , Link is cleansed of the curse that kept him in wolf form . Deep within the Gerudo Desert , Link and Midna locate the Mirror of Twilight , the only known gateway between Hyrule and the Twilight Realm , but discover it is broken . The Sages there explain that Zant tried to destroy it , but merely managed to shatter it into fragments ; only the true ruler of the Twili can completely destroy the Mirror of Twilight . They also relate that they once used it to banish Ganondorf , the Gerudo tribe leader who attempted to steal the Triforce , to the Twilight Realm when executing him failed . Link and Midna set out to retrieve the missing shards of the Mirror . Once the portal has been restored , the Sages reveal to Link that Midna is the true ruler of the Twilight Realm , usurped by Zant when he cursed her into her current form . Confronting Zant , Link and Midna learn that Zant 's coup was made possible when he forged a pact with Ganondorf , who asked for Zant 's assistance in subjugating Hyrule . After Link defeats Zant , Midna recovers the Fused Shadows and destroys Zant after learning that only Ganondorf 's death can release her from her curse . Returning to Hyrule , Link and Midna find Ganondorf in Hyrule Castle , with a lifeless Zelda suspended above his head . Ganondorf fights Link by possessing Zelda 's body and by transforming into a massive boar @-@ like beast , but Link defeats him and Midna is able to resuscitate Zelda . Ganondorf then revives , and Midna teleports Link and Zelda outside the castle so she can hold him off with the Fused Shadows . However , as Hyrule Castle collapses , it is revealed that Ganondorf was victorious as he crushes Midna 's helmet . Ganondorf engages Link on horseback ; assisted by Zelda and the Light Spirits , Link eventually knocks Ganondorf off his horse and they duel on foot before Link strikes down Ganondorf and plunges the Master Sword into his chest . With Ganondorf dead , the Light Spirits revivify Midna and restore her to her true form . After bidding farewell to Link and Zelda , Midna returns home and destroys the Mirror of Twilight with a tear to maintain balance between Hyrule and the Twilight Realm . As Hyrule Castle is rebuilt , Link leaves Ordon Village , heading to parts unknown . = = Development = = = = = Creation = = = In 2003 , Nintendo announced that a new The Legend of Zelda game was in the works for the GameCube by the same team that had created the cel @-@ shaded The Wind Waker . At the following year 's Game Developers Conference , director Eiji Aonuma unintentionally revealed that the game 's sequel was in development under the working title The Wind Waker 2 ; it was set to use a similar graphical style to that of its predecessor . Nintendo of America told Aonuma that North American sales of The Wind Waker were sluggish because its cartoon appearance created the impression that the game was designed for a young audience . Concerned that the sequel would have the same problem , Aonuma expressed to producer Shigeru Miyamoto that he wanted to create a realistic Zelda game that would appeal to the North American market . Miyamoto , hesitant about solely changing the game 's presentation , suggested the team 's focus should instead be on coming up with gameplay innovations . He advised that Aonuma should start by doing what could not be done in Ocarina of Time , particularly horseback combat . In four months , Aonuma 's team managed to present realistic horseback riding , which Nintendo later revealed to the public with a trailer at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2004 . The game was scheduled to be released the next year , and was no longer a follow @-@ up to The Wind Waker ; a true sequel to it was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 , in the form of Phantom Hourglass . Miyamoto explained in interviews that the graphical style was chosen to satisfy demand , and that it better fit the theme of an older incarnation of Link . The game runs on a modified The Wind Waker engine . Prior Zelda games have employed a theme of two separate , yet connected , worlds . In A Link to the Past , Link travels between a " Light World " and a " Dark World " ; in Ocarina of Time , as well as in Oracle of Ages , Link travels between two different time periods . The Zelda team sought to reuse this motif in the series ' latest installment . It was suggested that Link transform into a wolf , much like he metamorphoses into a rabbit in the Dark World of A Link to the Past . The story of the game was created by Aonuma , and later underwent several changes by scenario writers Mitsuhiro Takano and Aya Kyogoku . Takano created the script for the story scenes , while Kyogoku and Takayuki Ikkaku handled the actual in @-@ game script . Aonuma left his team working on the new idea while he directed The Minish Cap for the Game Boy Advance . When he returned , he found the Twilight Princess team struggling . Emphasis on the parallel worlds and the wolf transformation had made Link 's character unbelievable . Aonuma also felt the gameplay lacked the caliber of innovation found in Phantom Hourglass , which was being developed with touch controls for the Nintendo DS . At the same time , the Wii was under development with the code name " Revolution " . Miyamoto thought that the Revolution 's pointing device , the Wii Remote , was well suited for aiming arrows in Zelda , and suggested that Aonuma consider using it . = = = Wii transition = = = Aonuma had anticipated creating a Zelda game for what would later be called the Wii , but had assumed that he would need to complete Twilight Princess first . His team began work developing a pointing @-@ based interface for the bow and arrow , and Aonuma found that aiming directly at the screen gave the game a new feel , just like the DS control scheme for Phantom Hourglass . Aonuma felt confident this was the only way to proceed , but worried about consumers who had been anticipating a GameCube release . Developing two versions would mean delaying the previously announced 2005 release , still disappointing the consumer . Satoru Iwata felt that having both versions would satisfy users in the end , even though they would have to wait for the finished product . Aonuma then started working on both versions in parallel . Transferring GameCube development to the Wii was relatively simple , since the Wii was being created to be compatible with the GameCube . At E3 2005 , Nintendo released a small number of Nintendo DS game cards containing a preview trailer for Twilight Princess . They also announced that Zelda would appear on the Wii ( then codenamed " Revolution " ) , but it was not clear to the media if this meant Twilight Princess or a different game . The team worked on a Wii control scheme , adapting camera control and the fighting mechanics to the new interface . A prototype was created that used a swinging gesture to control the sword from a first @-@ person viewpoint , but was unable to show the variety of Link 's movements . When the third @-@ person view was restored , Aonuma thought it felt strange to swing the Wii Remote with the right hand to control the sword in Link 's left hand , so the entire Wii version map was mirrored . Details about Wii controls began to surface in December 2005 when British publication NGC Magazine claimed that when a GameCube copy of Twilight Princess was played on the Revolution , it would give the player the option of using the Revolution controller . Miyamoto confirmed the Revolution controller @-@ functionality in an interview with Nintendo of Europe and Time reported this soon after . However , support for the Wii controller did not make it into the GameCube release . At E3 2006 , Nintendo announced that both versions would be available at the Wii launch , and had a playable version of Twilight Princess for the Wii . Later , the GameCube release was pushed back to a month after the launch of the Wii . Nintendo staff members reported that demo users complained about the difficulty of the control scheme . Aonuma realized that his team had implemented Wii controls under the mindset of " forcing " users to adapt , instead of making the system intuitive and easy to use . He began rethinking the controls with Miyamoto to focus on comfort and ease . The camera movement was reworked and item controls were changed to avoid accidental button presses . In addition , the new item system required use of the button that had previously been used for the sword . To solve this , sword controls were transferred back to gestures — something E3 attendees had commented they would like to see . This reintroduced the problem of using a right @-@ handed swing to control a left @-@ handed sword attack . The team did not have enough time before release to rework Link 's character model , so they instead flipped the entire game — everything was made a mirror image . Link was now right @-@ handed , and references to " east " and " west " were switched around . The GameCube version , however , was left with the original orientation . The Twilight Princess player 's guide focuses on the Wii version , but has a section in the back with mirror @-@ image maps for GameCube users . = = = Music = = = The game 's score was composed by Toru Minegishi and Asuka Ohta , with series regular Koji Kondo serving as the sound supervisor . Minegishi took charge of composition and sound design in Twilight Princess , providing all field and dungeon music . For the trailers , three pieces were written by different composers , two of which were created by Mahito Yokota and Kondo . Michiru Ōshima created orchestral arrangements for the three compositions , later to be performed by an ensemble conducted by Yasuzo Takemoto . Kondo 's piece was later chosen as music for the E3 2005 trailer and for the demo movie after the game 's title screen . Media requests at the trade show prompted Kondo to consider using orchestral music for the other tracks in the game as well , a notion reinforced by his preference for live instruments . He originally envisioned a full 50 @-@ person orchestra for action sequences and a string quartet for more " lyrical moments " , though the final product used sequenced music instead . Kondo later cited the lack of interactivity that comes with orchestral music as one of the main reasons for the decision . Both six- and seven @-@ track versions of the game 's soundtrack were released on November 19 , 2006 , as part of a Nintendo Power promotion and bundled with replicas of the Master Sword and the Hylian Shield . = = = Technical issues = = = Following the discovery of a buffer overflow vulnerability in the Wii version of Twilight Princess , an exploit known as the " Twilight Hack " was developed , allowing the execution of custom code from a Secure Digital ( SD ) card on the console . A specifically designed save file would cause the game to load unsigned code , which could include Executable and Linkable Format ( ELF ) programs and homebrew Wii applications . Versions 3 @.@ 3 and 3 @.@ 4 of the Wii Menu prevented copying exploited save files onto the console until circumvention methods were discovered , and version 4 @.@ 0 of the Wii Menu patched the vulnerability . = = = Wii U version = = = A high @-@ definition remaster of the game , The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess HD , was developed by Tantalus Media for the Wii U. Announced during a Nintendo Direct presentation on November 12 , 2015 , it features enhanced graphics and Amiibo functionality . The game was released in North America and Europe on March 4 , 2016 ; in Australia on March 5 , 2016 ; and in Japan on March 10 , 2016 . Certain bundles of the game contain a Wolf Link Amiibo figurine , which unlocks a Wii U @-@ exclusive dungeon called the " Cave of Shadows " and can carry data over to The Legend of Zelda : Breath of the Wild . Other Zelda @-@ related Amiibo figurines have distinct functions : Link and Toon Link replenish arrows , Zelda and Sheik restore Link 's health , and Ganondorf causes Link to take twice as much damage . A CD containing 20 musical selections from the game was available as a GameStop preorder bonus in North America ; it is included with the limited @-@ edition bundle in other regions . = = Reception = = = = = Reviews = = = Twilight Princess was released to universal critical acclaim and commercial success . It received perfect scores from major publications such as 1UP.com , Computer and Video Games , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , GamesRadar , and GameSpy . On the review aggregator Metacritic , Twilight Princess holds scores of 95 / 100 for the Wii version and 96 / 100 for the GameCube version , indicating " universal acclaim " . GameTrailers in their review called it one of the greatest games ever created . On release , Twilight Princess was considered to be the greatest Zelda game ever made by many critics including writers for 1UP.com , Computer and Video Games , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , GamesRadar , IGN and The Washington Post . Game Informer called it " so creative that it rivals the best that Hollywood has to offer " . GamesRadar praised Twilight Princess as " a game that deserves nothing but the absolute highest recommendation " . Cubed3 hailed Twilight Princess as " the single greatest videogame experience " . Twilight Princess 's graphics were praised for the art style and animation , although the game was designed for the GameCube , which is technically lacking compared to the next generation consoles . Both IGN and GameSpy pointed out the existence of blurry textures and low @-@ resolution characters . Despite these complaints , Computer and Video Games felt the game 's atmosphere was superior to that of any previous Zelda game , and regarded Twilight Princess 's Hyrule as the best version ever created . PALGN praised the game 's cinematics , noting that " the cutscenes are the best ever in Zelda games " . Regarding the Wii version , GameSpot 's Jeff Gerstmann said the Wii controls felt " tacked @-@ on " , although 1UP.com said the remote @-@ swinging sword attacks were " the most impressive in the entire series " . Gaming Nexus considered Twilight Princess 's soundtrack to be the best of this generation , though IGN criticized its MIDI @-@ formatted songs for lacking " the punch and crispness " of their orchestrated counterparts . Hyper 's Javier Glickman commended the game for its " very long quests , superb Wii controls and being able to save anytime " . However , he criticised it for " no voice acting , no orchestral score and slightly outdated graphics " . = = = Awards = = = Twilight Princess received the awards for Best Artistic Design , Best Original Score , and Best Use of Sound from IGN for its GameCube version . Both IGN and Nintendo Power gave Twilight Princess the awards for Best Graphics and Best Story . Twilight Princess received Game of the Year awards from GameTrailers , 1UP.com , Electronic Gaming Monthly , Game Informer , Games Radar , GameSpy , Spacey Awards , X @-@ Play and Nintendo Power . It was also given awards for Best Adventure Game from the Game Critics Awards , X @-@ Play , IGN , GameTrailers , 1UP.com , and Nintendo Power . The game was considered the Best Console Game by the Game Critics Awards and GameSpy . The game placed 16th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's list of the 100 Greatest Nintendo Games of All Time . IGN ranked the game as the 4th @-@ best Wii game . Nintendo Power ranked the game as the third @-@ best game to be released on a Nintendo system in the 2000s decade . = = = Sales and legacy = = = During its first week , the game was sold with three of every four Wii purchases . The game had sold 5 @.@ 82 million copies on the Wii as of March 31 , 2011 , and 1 @.@ 32 million on the GameCube as of March 31 , 2007 . As of September 30 , 2015 , the game has sold 8 @.@ 85 million copies worldwide on both platforms , making it the best @-@ selling installment in the series . A Japan @-@ exclusive manga series based on Twilight Princess , penned and illustrated by Akira Himekawa , was first released on February 8 , 2016 . The series is available solely via publisher Shogakukan 's MangaOne mobile application . While the manga adaptation began almost ten years after the initial release of the game on which it is based , it launched only a month before the release of the high @-@ definition remake . To commemorate the launch of the My Nintendo loyalty program in March 2016 , Nintendo released My Nintendo Picross : The Legend of Zelda : Twilight Princess , a Picross puzzle game developed by Jupiter for download to the Nintendo 3DS . = Michael Plumb = John Michael Plumb ( born March 28 , 1940 ) is an American equestrian and Olympic champion who competes in the sport of three @-@ day eventing . He holds the title of the US Olympic competitor who has competed in the greatest number of Olympics , winning two team gold medals , three team silvers and one individual silver . He has also competed at the World Equestrian Games and Pan @-@ American Games , winning medals at both , as well as competing in the Rolex Kentucky Three Day and steeplechase events . He has been named to the Hall of Fame of the United States Eventing Association ( USEA ) , as well as winning annual USEA awards , and is the only equestrian rider to have been inducted to the United States Olympic Hall of Fame . He was previously married to fellow Olympian Donnan Plumb , and the couple has three sons . = = Personal life = = Plumb was born in Islip , New York , and grew up in Syosset , New York . His father , Charles , was a steeplechase rider and huntsman , and his mother , Meem , was also an equestrian . Plumb began riding at the Meadow Brooks Hounds Pony Club , where he participated in Pony Club . In 1972 , he graduated from the University of Delaware . He married Donnan Sharp Plumb , a dressage rider who competed in the 1968 Summer Olympics ; they later divorced . The couple had three sons – Hugh , Matt and Charlie ; Charlie became a successful event rider . Matt and Hugh had a career in auto racing . = = Career = = = = = Competition = = = Plumb began his international competitive three @-@ day event career at the 1959 Pan American Games in Chicago , Illinois . Throughout his career he competed for the United States in several other Pan @-@ American Games , and won three gold medals , including an individual gold in 1963 and team golds in 1963 and 1967 . Plumb also competed at several Eventing World Championships , accruing four medals . In 1974 he assisted the US team to a silver , while also taking silver in the individual competition , and helped the US team to bronze medals in both 1978 and 1982 . As of 2008 , Plumb was the US Olympic athlete with the greatest number of appearances in any sport at the Games . He was named to the US team in every Olympic games between 1960 ( his first ) and 1984 , as well as appearing for the last time at the 1992 Summer Olympics , and competed at all of the Games except for 1980 , when the US did not compete . During his seven Olympic appearances , he gathered multiple medals . At the 1960 Summer Olympics , Plumb took an individual 15th , while the US team did not finish the competition . At the 1964 Games , he repeated his individual performance , while the US team improved to take the silver medal . At these Games , he became the first rider ever to win a medal on a horse that he had never previously ridden in competition . Plumb had planned to ride his main event horse , Markham , but on the flight to the Games in Tokyo , the horse panicked , possibly due to a bad experience previously suffered in a horse trailer . In order to keep him from destroying his stall and potentially the aircraft , the horse was euthanized . Plumb instead rode Bold Minstrel , a horse loaned to him by another top @-@ level eventer . In 1968 , at Ciudad de Mexico , Plumb took an individual 14th , while the US team again finished with a silver . In 1970 , when Jack le Goff became coach of the United States eventing team , Plumb was one of only three active US riders with international experience in the sport . Between then and 1984 , when le Goff retired , the US eventing team , with Plumb as part , amassed three team and three individual medals , as well as additional triumphs at the World Equestrian Games and Pan @-@ American Games . At the 1972 Summer Olympics , the US team took the silver medal for the third Games in a row , while Plumb finished 20th individually . At the 1976 Games , Plumb achieved his only individual medal , taking silver , while the US team took gold . Despite the US boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics , Plumb competed at the alternate games in Fontainebleau , France . The team repeated this performance at the 1984 Olympics , while Plumb took an individual 10th place . In 1988 , he was slated to make the US Equestrian Team , but was not able to compete due to a fall that resulted in a broken collarbone . In 1992 , Plumb competed in his last Olympics , placing 48th individually while the team took 10th . Plumb has ridden in steeplechase competitions , and in 1976 placed second at the Maryland Hunt Cup , an event which his father had won in 1929 . He has also competed multiple times at the Rolex Kentucky Three Day . = = = Influence = = = In 2002 , Plumb was named as one of the 50 most influential horsemen of the 20th century by the equine magazine Chronicle of the Horse . In 2003 , Plumb was inducted to the United States Eventing Association Hall of Fame , along with one of his horses , Plain Sailing . Good Mixture , another of Plumb 's horses , was inducted in 2009 . In 2008 , Plumb became the first ( and to date , only ) equestrian to be inducted into the United States Olympic Hall of Fame . The United States Eventing Association awarded Plumb their Leading Rider of the Year Award on ten occasions . Plumb is known for his training abilities with both horses and other riders , and as of 2008 he continued to ride and train at his stables in Southern Pines , North Carolina . Plumb is reticent about discussing his accomplishments , but colleagues have referred to him as the " ultimate team member " who could be counted on to be at the top of his game and a consistent performer . As team captain at the 1992 Barcelona Olympics , he was noted for helping his teammates understand everything that was going on around them . His athleticism and personal courage have been praised by those who know him , such as Michael Page , chef d ’ equipe for the 1986 US World Championship team , who recounted how Plumb medaled at the competition despite three broken ribs . Plumb admits to being completely focused on riding and " not a social person " , with former coach Jack le Goff saying that " horses are his only reason for being on earth " . = Lipid = Lipids are a group of naturally occurring molecules that include fats , waxes , sterols , fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( such as vitamins A , D , E , and K ) , monoglycerides , diglycerides , triglycerides , phospholipids , and others . The main biological functions of lipids include storing energy , signaling , and acting as structural components of cell membranes . Lipids have applications in the cosmetic and food industries as well as in nanotechnology . Lipids may be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules ; the amphiphilic nature of some lipids allows them to form structures such as vesicles , multilamellar / unilamellar liposomes , or membranes in an aqueous environment . Biological lipids originate entirely or in part from two distinct types of biochemical subunits or " building @-@ blocks " : ketoacyl and isoprene groups . Using this approach , lipids may be divided into eight categories : fatty acids , glycerolipids , glycerophospholipids , sphingolipids , saccharolipids , and polyketides ( derived from condensation of ketoacyl subunits ) ; and sterol lipids and prenol lipids ( derived from condensation of isoprene subunits ) . Although the term lipid is sometimes used as a synonym for fats , fats are a subgroup of lipids called triglycerides . Lipids also encompass molecules such as fatty acids and their derivatives ( including tri- , di- , monoglycerides , and phospholipids ) , as well as other sterol @-@ containing metabolites such as cholesterol . Although humans and other mammals use various biosynthetic pathways both to break down and to synthesize lipids , some essential lipids cannot be made this way and must be obtained from the diet . = = Categories of lipids = = = = = Fatty acids = = = Fatty acids , or fatty acid residues when they are part of a lipid , are a diverse group of molecules synthesized by chain @-@ elongation of an acetyl @-@ CoA primer with malonyl @-@ CoA or methylmalonyl @-@ CoA groups in a process called fatty acid synthesis . They are made of a hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxylic acid group ; this arrangement confers the molecule with a polar , hydrophilic end , and a nonpolar , hydrophobic end that is insoluble in water . The fatty acid structure is one of the most fundamental categories of biological lipids , and is commonly used as a building @-@ block of more structurally complex lipids . The carbon chain , typically between four and 24 carbons long , may be saturated or unsaturated , and may be attached to functional groups containing oxygen , halogens , nitrogen , and sulfur . If a fatty acid contains a double bond , there is the possibility of either a cis or trans geometric isomerism , which significantly affects the molecule 's configuration . Cis @-@ double bonds cause the fatty acid chain to bend , an effect that is compounded with more double bonds in the chain . Three double bonds in 18 @-@ carbon linolenic acid , the most abundant fatty @-@ acyl chains of plant thylakoid membranes , render these membranes highly fluid despite environmental low @-@ temperatures , and also makes linolenic acid give dominating sharp peaks in high resolution 13 @-@ C NMR spectra of chloroplasts . This in turn plays an important role in the structure and function of cell membranes . Most naturally occurring fatty acids are of the cis configuration , although the trans form does exist in some natural and partially hydrogenated fats and oils . Examples of biologically important fatty acids include the eicosanoids , derived primarily from arachidonic acid and eicosapentaenoic acid , that include prostaglandins , leukotrienes , and thromboxanes . Docosahexaenoic acid is also important in biological systems , particularly with respect to sight . Other major lipid classes in the fatty acid category are the fatty esters and fatty amides . Fatty esters include important biochemical intermediates such as wax esters , fatty acid thioester coenzyme A derivatives , fatty acid thioester ACP derivatives and fatty acid carnitines . The fatty amides include N @-@ acyl ethanolamines , such as the cannabinoid neurotransmitter anandamide . = = = Glycerolipids = = = Glycerolipids are composed of mono- , di- , and tri @-@ substituted glycerols , the best @-@ known being the fatty acid triesters of glycerol , called triglycerides . The word " triacylglycerol " is sometimes used synonymously with " triglyceride " . In these compounds , the three hydroxyl groups of glycerol are each esterified , typically by different fatty acids . Because they function as an energy store , these lipids comprise the bulk of storage fat in animal tissues . The hydrolysis of the ester bonds of triglycerides and the release of glycerol and fatty acids from adipose tissue are the initial steps in metabolizing fat . Additional subclasses of glycerolipids are represented by glycosylglycerols , which are characterized by the presence of one or more sugar residues attached to glycerol via a glycosidic linkage . Examples of structures in this category are the digalactosyldiacylglycerols found in plant membranes and seminolipid from mammalian sperm cells . = = = Glycerophospholipids = = = Glycerophospholipids , usually referred to as phospholipids , are ubiquitous in nature and are key components of the lipid bilayer of cells , as well as being involved in metabolism and cell signaling . Neural tissue ( including the brain ) contains relatively high amounts of glycerophospholipids , and alterations in their composition has been implicated in various neurological disorders . Glycerophospholipids may be subdivided into distinct classes , based on the nature of the polar headgroup at the sn @-@ 3 position of the glycerol backbone in eukaryotes and eubacteria , or the sn @-@ 1 position in the case of archaebacteria . Examples of glycerophospholipids found in biological membranes are phosphatidylcholine ( also known as PC , GPCho or lecithin ) , phosphatidylethanolamine ( PE or GPEtn ) and phosphatidylserine ( PS or GPSer ) . In addition to serving as a primary component of cellular membranes and binding sites for intra- and intercellular proteins , some glycerophospholipids in eukaryotic cells , such as phosphatidylinositols and phosphatidic acids are either precursors of or , themselves , membrane @-@ derived second messengers . Typically , one or both of these hydroxyl groups are acylated with long @-@ chain fatty acids , but there are also alkyl @-@ linked and 1Z @-@ alkenyl @-@ linked ( plasmalogen ) glycerophospholipids , as well as dialkylether variants in archaebacteria . = = = Sphingolipids = = = Sphingolipids are a complicated family of compounds that share a common structural feature , a sphingoid base backbone that is synthesized de novo from the amino acid serine and a long @-@ chain fatty acyl CoA , then converted into ceramides , phosphosphingolipids , glycosphingolipids and other compounds . The major sphingoid base of mammals is commonly referred to as sphingosine . Ceramides ( N @-@ acyl @-@ sphingoid bases ) are a major subclass of sphingoid base derivatives with an amide @-@ linked fatty acid . The fatty acids are typically saturated or mono @-@ unsaturated with chain lengths from 16 to 26 carbon atoms . The major phosphosphingolipids of mammals are sphingomyelins ( ceramide phosphocholines ) , whereas insects contain mainly ceramide phosphoethanolamines and fungi have phytoceramide phosphoinositols and mannose @-@ containing headgroups . The glycosphingolipids are a diverse family of molecules composed of one or more sugar residues linked via a glycosidic bond to the sphingoid base . Examples of these are the simple and complex glycosphingolipids such as cerebrosides and gangliosides . = = = Sterol lipids = = = Sterol lipids , such as cholesterol and its derivatives , are an important component of membrane lipids , along with the glycerophospholipids and sphingomyelins . The steroids , all derived from the same fused four @-@ ring core structure , have different biological roles as hormones and signaling molecules . The eighteen @-@ carbon ( C18 ) steroids include the estrogen family whereas the C19 steroids comprise the androgens such as testosterone and androsterone . The C21 subclass includes the progestogens as well as the glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids . The secosteroids , comprising various forms of vitamin D , are characterized by cleavage of the B ring of the core structure . Other examples of sterols are the bile acids and their conjugates , which in mammals are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol and are synthesized in the liver . The plant equivalents are the phytosterols , such as β @-@ sitosterol , stigmasterol , and brassicasterol ; the latter compound is also used as a biomarker for algal growth . The predominant sterol in fungal cell membranes is ergosterol . = = = Prenol lipids = = = Prenol lipids are synthesized from the five @-@ carbon @-@ unit precursors isopentenyl diphosphate and dimethylallyl diphosphate that are produced mainly via the mevalonic acid ( MVA ) pathway . The simple isoprenoids ( linear alcohols , diphosphates , etc . ) are formed by the successive addition of C5 units , and are classified according to number of these terpene units . Structures containing greater than 40 carbons are known as polyterpenes . Carotenoids are important simple isoprenoids that function as antioxidants and as precursors of vitamin A. Another biologically important class of molecules is exemplified by the quinones and hydroquinones , which contain an isoprenoid tail attached to a quinonoid core of non @-@ isoprenoid origin . Vitamin E and vitamin K , as well as the ubiquinones , are examples of this class . Prokaryotes synthesize polyprenols ( called bactoprenols ) in which the terminal isoprenoid unit attached to oxygen remains unsaturated , whereas in animal polyprenols ( dolichols ) the terminal isoprenoid is reduced . = = = Saccharolipids = = = Saccharolipids describe compounds in which fatty acids are linked directly to a sugar backbone , forming structures that are compatible with membrane bilayers . In the saccharolipids , a monosaccharide substitutes for the glycerol backbone present in glycerolipids and glycerophospholipids . The most familiar saccharolipids are the acylated glucosamine precursors of the Lipid A component of the lipopolysaccharides in Gram @-@ negative bacteria . Typical lipid A molecules are disaccharides of glucosamine , which are derivatized with as many as seven fatty @-@ acyl chains . The minimal lipopolysaccharide required for growth in E. coli is Kdo2 @-@ Lipid A , a hexa @-@ acylated disaccharide of glucosamine that is glycosylated with two 3 @-@ deoxy @-@ D @-@ manno @-@ octulosonic acid ( Kdo ) residues . = = = Polyketides = = = Polyketides are synthesized by polymerization of acetyl and propionyl subunits by classic enzymes as well as iterative and multimodular enzymes that share mechanistic features with the fatty acid synthases . They comprise a large number of secondary metabolites and natural products from animal , plant , bacterial , fungal and marine sources , and have great structural diversity . Many polyketides are cyclic molecules whose backbones are often further modified by glycosylation , methylation , hydroxylation , oxidation , and / or other processes . Many commonly used anti @-@ microbial , anti @-@ parasitic , and anti @-@ cancer agents are polyketides or polyketide derivatives , such as erythromycins , tetracyclines , avermectins , and antitumor epothilones . = = Biological functions = = = = = Membranes = = = Eukaryotic cells feature compartmentalized membrane @-@ bound organelles that carry out different biological functions . The glycerophospholipids are the main structural component of biological membranes , such as the cellular plasma membrane and the intracellular membranes of organelles ; in animal cells the plasma membrane physically separates the intracellular components from the extracellular environment . The glycerophospholipids are amphipathic molecules ( containing both hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions ) that contain a glycerol core linked to two fatty acid @-@ derived " tails " by ester linkages and to one " head " group by a phosphate ester linkage . While glycerophospholipids are the major component of biological membranes , other non @-@ glyceride lipid components such as sphingomyelin and sterols ( mainly cholesterol in animal cell membranes ) are also found in biological membranes . In plants and algae , the galactosyldiacylglycerols , and sulfoquinovosyldiacylglycerol , which lack a phosphate group , are important components of membranes of chloroplasts and related organelles and are the most abundant lipids in photosynthetic tissues , including those of higher plants , algae and certain bacteria . Plant thylakoid membranes have the largest lipid component of a non @-@ bilayer forming monogalactosyl diglyceride ( MGDG ) , and little phospholipids ; despite this unique lipid composition , chloroplast thylakoid membranes have been shown to contain a dynamic lipid @-@ bilayer matrix as revealed by magnetic resonance and electron microscope studies . A biological membrane is a form of lamellar phase lipid bilayer . The formation of lipid bilayers is an energetically preferred process when the glycerophospholipids described above are in an aqueous environment . This is known as the hydrophobic effect . In an aqueous system , the polar heads of lipids align towards the polar , aqueous environment , while the hydrophobic tails minimize their contact with water and tend to cluster together , forming a vesicle ; depending on the concentration of the lipid , this biophysical interaction may result in the formation of micelles , liposomes , or lipid bilayers . Other aggregations are also observed and form part of the polymorphism of amphiphile ( lipid ) behavior . Phase behavior is an area of study within biophysics and is the subject of current academic research . Micelles and bilayers form in the polar medium by a process known as the hydrophobic effect . When dissolving a lipophilic or amphiphilic substance in a polar environment , the polar molecules ( i.e. , water in an aqueous solution ) become more ordered around the dissolved lipophilic substance , since the polar molecules cannot form hydrogen bonds to the lipophilic areas of the amphiphile . So in an aqueous environment , the water molecules form an ordered " clathrate " cage around the dissolved lipophilic molecule . The formation of lipids into protocell membranes represents a key step in models of abiogenesis , the origin of life . = = = Energy storage = = = Triglycerides , stored in adipose tissue , are a major form of energy storage both in animals and plants . The adipocyte , or fat cell , is designed for continuous synthesis and breakdown of triglycerides in animals , with breakdown controlled mainly by the activation of hormone @-@ sensitive enzyme lipase . The complete oxidation of fatty acids provides high caloric content , about 9 kcal / g , compared with 4 kcal / g for the breakdown of carbohydrates and proteins . Migratory birds that must fly long distances without eating use stored energy of triglycerides to fuel their flights . = = = Signaling = = = In recent years , evidence has emerged showing that lipid signaling is a vital part of the cell signaling . Lipid signaling may occur via activation of G protein @-@ coupled or nuclear receptors , and members of several different lipid categories have been identified as signaling molecules and cellular messengers . These include sphingosine @-@ 1 @-@ phosphate , a sphingolipid derived from ceramide that is a potent messenger molecule involved in regulating calcium mobilization , cell growth , and apoptosis ; diacylglycerol ( DAG ) and the phosphatidylinositol phosphates ( PIPs ) , involved in calcium @-@ mediated activation of protein kinase C ; the prostaglandins , which are one type of fatty @-@ acid derived eicosanoid involved in inflammation and immunity ; the steroid hormones such as estrogen , testosterone and cortisol , which modulate a host of functions such as reproduction , metabolism and blood pressure ; and the oxysterols such as 25 @-@ hydroxy @-@ cholesterol that are liver X receptor agonists . Phosphatidylserine lipids are known to be involved in signaling for the phagocytosis of apoptotic cells and / or pieces of cells . They accomplish this by being exposed to the extracellular face of the cell membrane after the inactivation of flippases which place them exclusively on the cytosolic side and the activation of scramblases , which scramble the orientation of the phospholipids . After this occurs , other cells recognize the phosphatidylserines and phagocytosize the cells or cell fragments exposing them . = = = Other functions = = = The " fat @-@ soluble " vitamins ( A , D , E and K ) – which are isoprene @-@ based lipids – are essential nutrients stored in the liver and fatty tissues , with a diverse range of functions . Acyl @-@ carnitines are involved in the transport and metabolism of fatty acids in and out of mitochondria , where they undergo beta oxidation . Polyprenols and their phosphorylated derivatives also play important transport roles , in this case the transport of oligosaccharides across membranes . Polyprenol phosphate sugars and polyprenol diphosphate sugars function in extra @-@ cytoplasmic glycosylation reactions , in extracellular polysaccharide biosynthesis ( for instance , peptidoglycan polymerization in bacteria ) , and in eukaryotic protein N @-@ glycosylation . Cardiolipins are a subclass of glycerophospholipids containing four acyl chains and three glycerol groups that are particularly abundant in the inner mitochondrial membrane . They are believed to activate enzymes involved with oxidative phosphorylation . Lipids also form the basis of steroid hormones . = = Metabolism = = The major dietary lipids for humans and other animals are animal and plant triglycerides , sterols , and membrane phospholipids . The process of lipid metabolism synthesizes and degrades the lipid stores and produces the structural and functional lipids characteristic of individual tissues . = = = Biosynthesis = = = In animals , when there is an oversupply of dietary carbohydrate , the excess carbohydrate is converted to triglycerides . This involves the synthesis of fatty acids from acetyl @-@ CoA and the esterification of fatty acids in the production of triglycerides , a process called lipogenesis . Fatty acids are made by fatty acid synthases that polymerize and then reduce acetyl @-@ CoA units . The acyl chains in the fatty acids are extended by a cycle of reactions that add the acetyl group , reduce it to an alcohol , dehydrate it to an alkene group and then reduce it again to an alkane group . The enzymes of fatty acid biosynthesis are divided into two groups , in animals and fungi all these fatty acid synthase reactions are carried out by a single multifunctional protein , while in plant plastids and bacteria separate enzymes perform each step in the pathway . The fatty acids may be subsequently converted to triglycerides that are packaged in lipoproteins and secreted from the liver . The synthesis of unsaturated fatty acids involves a desaturation reaction , whereby a double bond is introduced into the fatty acyl chain . For example , in humans , the desaturation of stearic acid by stearoyl @-@ CoA desaturase @-@ 1 produces oleic acid . The doubly unsaturated fatty acid linoleic acid as well as the triply unsaturated α @-@ linolenic acid cannot be synthesized in mammalian tissues , and are therefore essential fatty acids and must be obtained from the diet . Triglyceride synthesis takes place in the endoplasmic reticulum by metabolic pathways in which acyl groups in fatty acyl @-@ CoAs are transferred to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol @-@ 3 @-@ phosphate and diacylglycerol . Terpenes and isoprenoids , including the carotenoids , are made by the assembly and modification of isoprene units donated from the reactive precursors isopentenyl pyrophosphate and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate . These precursors can be made in different ways . In animals and archaea , the mevalonate pathway produces these compounds from acetyl @-@ CoA , while in plants and bacteria the non @-@ mevalonate pathway uses pyruvate and glyceraldehyde 3 @-@ phosphate as substrates . One important reaction that uses these activated isoprene donors is steroid biosynthesis . Here , the isoprene units are joined together to make squalene and then folded up and formed into a set of rings to make lanosterol . Lanosterol can then be converted into other steroids such as cholesterol and ergosterol . = = = Degradation = = = Beta oxidation is the metabolic process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria and / or in peroxisomes to generate acetyl @-@ CoA . For the most part , fatty acids are oxidized by a mechanism that is similar to , but not identical with , a reversal of the process of fatty acid synthesis . That is , two @-@ carbon fragments are removed sequentially from the carboxyl end of the acid after steps of dehydrogenation , hydration , and oxidation to form a beta @-@ keto acid , which is split by thiolysis . The acetyl @-@ CoA is then ultimately converted into ATP , CO2 , and H2O using the citric acid cycle and the electron transport chain . Hence the citric acid cycle can start at acetyl @-@ CoA when fat is being broken down for energy if there is little or no glucose available . The energy yield of the complete oxidation of the fatty acid palmitate is 106 ATP . Unsaturated and odd @-@ chain fatty acids require additional enzymatic steps for degradation . = = Nutrition and health = = Most of the fat found in food is in the form of triglycerides , cholesterol , and phospholipids . Some dietary fat is necessary to facilitate absorption of fat @-@ soluble vitamins ( A , D , E , and K ) and carotenoids . Humans and other mammals have a dietary requirement for certain essential fatty acids , such as linoleic acid ( an omega @-@ 6 fatty acid ) and alpha @-@ linolenic acid ( an omega @-@ 3 fatty acid ) because they cannot be synthesized from simple precursors in the diet . Both of these fatty acids are 18 @-@ carbon polyunsaturated fatty acids differing in the number and position of the double bonds . Most vegetable oils are rich in linoleic acid ( safflower , sunflower , and corn oils ) . Alpha @-@ linolenic acid is found in the green leaves of plants , and in selected seeds , nuts , and legumes ( in particular flax , rapeseed , walnut , and soy ) . Fish oils are particularly rich in the longer @-@ chain omega @-@ 3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) . A large number of studies have shown positive health benefits associated with consumption of omega @-@ 3 fatty acids on infant development , cancer , cardiovascular diseases , and various mental illnesses , such as depression , attention @-@ deficit hyperactivity disorder , and dementia . In contrast , it is now well @-@ established that consumption of trans fats , such as those present in partially hydrogenated vegetable oils , are a risk factor for cardiovascular disease . A few studies have suggested that total dietary fat intake is linked to an increased risk of obesity and diabetes . However , a number of very large studies , including the Women 's Health Initiative Dietary Modification Trial , an eight @-@ year study of 49 @,@ 000 women , the Nurses ' Health Study and the Health Professionals Follow @-@ up Study , revealed no such links . None of these studies suggested any connection between percentage of calories from fat and risk of cancer , heart disease , or weight gain . The Nutrition Source , a website maintained by the Department of Nutrition at the Harvard School of Public Health , summarizes the current evidence on the impact of dietary fat : " Detailed research — much of it done at Harvard — shows that the total amount of fat in the diet isn 't really linked with weight or disease . " = Chelsea Manning = Chelsea Elizabeth Manning ( born Bradley Edward Manning , December 17 , 1987 ) is a United States Army soldier who was convicted by court @-@ martial in July 2013 of violations of the Espionage Act and other offenses , after disclosing to WikiLeaks nearly three @-@ quarters of a million classified or unclassified but sensitive military and diplomatic documents . Manning was sentenced in August 2013 to 35 years imprisonment , with the possibility of parole in the eighth year , and to be dishonorably discharged from the Army . Manning is a trans woman who , in a statement the day after sentencing , said she had felt female since childhood , wanted to be known as Chelsea , and desired to begin hormone replacement therapy . From early life and through much of her Army life , Manning was known as Bradley ; she was diagnosed with gender identity disorder while in the Army . Assigned in 2009 to an Army unit in Iraq as an intelligence analyst , Manning had access to classified databases . In early 2010 , she leaked classified information to WikiLeaks and confided this to Adrian Lamo , an online acquaintance . Lamo informed Army Counterintelligence , and Manning was arrested in May that same year . The material included videos of the July 12 , 2007 Baghdad airstrike , and the 2009 Granai airstrike in Afghanistan ; 251 @,@ 287 U.S. diplomatic cables ; and 482 @,@ 832 Army reports that came to be known as the Iraq War Logs and Afghan War Diary . Much of the material was published by WikiLeaks or its media partners between April and November 2010 . Manning was ultimately charged with 22 offenses , including aiding the enemy , which was the most serious charge and could have resulted in a death sentence . She was held at the Marine Corps Brig , Quantico in Virginia , from July 2010 to April 2011 under Prevention of Injury status — which entailed de facto solitary confinement and other restrictions that caused domestic and international concern — before being transferred to Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , where she could interact with other detainees . She pleaded guilty in February 2013 to 10 of the charges . The trial on the remaining charges began on June 3 , 2013 , and on July 30 she was convicted of 17 of the original charges and amended versions of four others , but was acquitted of aiding the enemy . She is serving a 35 @-@ year sentence at the maximum @-@ security U.S. Disciplinary Barracks at Fort Leavenworth . Reaction to Manning 's disclosures , arrest , and sentence was mixed . Denver Nicks , one of her biographers , writes that the leaked material , particularly the diplomatic cables , was widely seen as a catalyst for the Arab Spring that began in December 2010 , and that Manning was viewed as both a 21st @-@ century Tiananmen Square Tank Man and an embittered traitor . Reporters Without Borders condemned the length of the sentence , saying that it demonstrated how vulnerable whistleblowers are . = = Background = = = = = Early life = = = Born Bradley Edward Manning in 1987 in Oklahoma City , Oklahoma , she was the second child of Susan Fox , originally from Wales , and Brian Manning , an American . Brian had joined the United States Navy in 1974 at the age of 19 , and served for five years as an intelligence analyst . Brian met Susan in a local Woolworths while stationed in Wales at Cawdor Barracks . Manning 's older sister was born in 1976 . The couple returned to the United States in 1979 , settling first in California . After their move near Crescent , Oklahoma they bought a two @-@ story house with an above @-@ ground swimming pool and 5 acres ( 2 hectares ) of land , where they kept pigs and chickens . Manning 's sister Casey , 11 years her senior , told the court @-@ martial that both their parents were alcoholics , and that their mother had drunk continually while pregnant with Chelsea . Captain David Moulton , a Navy psychiatrist , told the court that Manning 's facial features showed signs of fetal alcohol syndrome . Casey became Manning 's principal caregiver , waking at night to make a bottle for the baby . The court heard that Manning was fed only milk and baby food until the age of two . As an adult she reached 5 ft 2 in ( 1 @.@ 57 m ) and weighed around 105 pounds ( 48 kg ) . Manning 's father took a job as an information technology ( IT ) manager for a rental car agency , which required travel . The family lived several miles out of town and Manning 's mother was unable to drive . She spent her days drinking , while Manning was left largely to fend for herself , playing with Legos or on the computer . Brian would stock up on food before his trips , and leave pre @-@ signed checks that Casey mailed to pay the bills . A neighbor said that whenever Manning 's elementary school went on field trips , she would give her own son extra food or money so he could make sure Manning had something to eat . Friends and neighbors considered the Mannings a troubled family . = = = Parents ' divorce , move to Wales = = = Those who knew Manning said that even as a child , she always had a mind of her own . She was an atheist who was openly opposed to religion , for example , remaining silent during the part of the Pledge of Allegiance that refers to God . In a 2011 interview Manning 's father said , " People need to understand that he 's a young man that had a happy life growing up . " He also said that Manning excelled at the saxophone , science , and computers , creating her first website at the age of ten . Manning taught herself how to use PowerPoint , won the grand prize three years in a row at the local science fair , and in sixth grade , took top prize at a statewide quiz bowl . A childhood friend of Manning 's , speaking about a conversation they had when Manning was 13 , said " he told me he was gay . " The friend also said that Manning 's home life was not good and that her father was very controlling . Around this time , Manning 's parents divorced . She and her mother Susan moved out of the house to a rented apartment in Crescent , Oklahoma . Susan 's instability continued and in 1998 she attempted suicide ; Manning 's sister drove their mother to the hospital , with the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Manning sitting in the back of the car trying to make sure their mother was still breathing . Manning 's father remarried in 2000 , the same year as his divorce . His new wife was also named Susan and had a son from a previous relationship . Manning apparently reacted badly when the son changed his surname to Manning too ; she started taking running jumps at the walls , telling her mother : " I 'm nobody now . " In November 2001 , Manning and her mother left the United States and moved to Haverfordwest , Wales , where her mother had family . Manning attended the town 's Tasker Milward secondary school . A schoolfriend there told Ed Caesar for The Sunday Times that Manning 's personality was " unique , extremely unique . Very quirky , very opinionated , very political , very clever , very articulate . " Manning 's interest in computers continued , and in 2003 , she and a friend set up a website , angeldyne.com , a message board that offered games and music downloads . Manning became the target of bullying at the school because she was the only American and was viewed as effeminate . Manning had identified to two friends in Oklahoma as gay , but was not open about it at school in Wales . The students would imitate her accent , and apparently abandoned her once during a camping trip ; her aunt told The Washington Post that Manning awoke to an empty camp site one morning , after everyone else had packed up their tents and left without her . = = = Return to the United States = = = Fearing that her mother was becoming too ill to cope , in 2005 ( at the age of 17 ) Manning returned to the United States . She moved in with her father in Oklahoma City , where he was living with his second wife and her child . Manning got a job as a developer with a software company , Zoto , and was apparently happy for a time , but was let go after four months . Her boss told The Washington Post that on a few occasions , Manning had " just locked up , " and would simply sit and stare , and in the end communication became too difficult . The boss told the newspaper that " nobody 's been taking care of this kid for a really long time . " By then , Manning was living as an openly gay man . Her relationship with her father was apparently good , but there were problems between Manning and her stepmother . In March 2006 , Manning reportedly threatened her stepmother with a knife during an argument about Manning 's failure to get another job ; the stepmother called the police and Manning was asked to leave the house . Manning drove to Tulsa in a pickup truck her father had given her , at first sleeping in it , then moving in with a friend from school . The two got jobs at Incredible Pizza in April . Manning moved on to Chicago before running out of money and again having nowhere to stay . Her mother arranged for Brian 's sister , Debra , a lawyer in Potomac , Maryland , to take Manning in . Nicks writes that the 15 months Manning spent with her aunt were among the most stable of her life . Manning had a boyfriend , took several low @-@ paid jobs , and spent a semester studying history and English at Montgomery College , but left after failing an exam . = = Military service = = = = = Enlistment in the Army = = = Manning 's father spent weeks in the fall of 2007 asking her to consider joining the Army . Hoping to gain a college education through the G.I. Bill , and perhaps to study for a PhD in physics , she enlisted in September that year . She told her Army supervisor later that she had also hoped joining such a masculine environment would resolve her gender identity disorder . Manning began basic training at Fort Leonard Wood , Missouri , on October 2 , 2007 . She wrote that she soon realized she was neither physically nor mentally prepared for it . Six weeks after enlisting , she was sent to the discharge unit . She was allegedly being bullied , and in the opinion of another soldier , was having a breakdown . The soldier told The Guardian : " The kid was barely five foot ... He was a runt , so pick on him . He 's crazy , pick on him . He 's a faggot , pick on him . The guy took it from every side . He couldn 't please anyone . " Denver Nicks writes that Manning , who was used to being bullied , fought back — if the drill sergeants screamed at her , she would scream at them — to the point where they started calling her " General Manning . " The decision to discharge her was revoked , and she started basic training again in January 2008 . After graduating in April , she moved to Fort Huachuca , Arizona , in order to attend Advanced Individual Training ( AIT ) for Military Occupational Specialty ( MOS ) 35F , intelligence analyst , receiving a TS / SCI security clearance ( Top Secret / Sensitive Compartmented Information ) . According to Nicks , this security clearance , combined with the digitization of classified information and the government 's policy of sharing it widely , gave Manning access to an unprecedented amount of material . Nicks writes that Manning was reprimanded while at Fort Huachuca for posting three video messages to friends on YouTube , in which she described the inside of the " Sensitive Compartmented Information Facility " ( SCIF ) where she worked . Upon completion of her initial MOS course , Manning received the Army Service Ribbon and the National Defense Service Medal . = = = Move to Fort Drum , deployment to Iraq = = = In August 2008 , Manning was sent to Fort Drum in Jefferson County , New York , where she joined the 2nd Brigade Combat Team , 10th Mountain Division , and trained for deployment to Iraq . In the fall of 2008 while stationed there , she met Tyler Watkins , who was studying neuroscience and psychology at Brandeis University , near Boston . Watkins was her first serious relationship , and she posted happily on Facebook about it , regularly traveling 300 miles ( 480 km ) to Boston on visits . Watkins introduced her to a network of friends and the university 's hacker community . She also visited Boston University 's " hackerspace " workshop , known as " Builds " , and met its founder , David House , the MIT researcher who was later allowed to visit her in jail . In November 2008 , she gave an anonymous interview to a high @-@ school reporter during a rally in Syracuse in support of gay marriage : " I was kicked out of my home and I once lost my job . The world is not moving fast enough for us at home , work , or the battlefield . I 've been living a double life . ... I can 't make a statement . I can 't be caught in an act . I hope the public support changes . I do hope to do that before ETS [ Expiration of Term of Service ] . " Nicks writes that Manning would travel back to Washington , D.C. , for visits . An ex @-@ boyfriend helped her find her way around the city 's gay community , introducing her to lobbyists , activists , and White House aides . Back at Fort Drum , she continued to display emotional problems and , by August 2009 , had been referred to an Army mental @-@ health counselor . A friend told Nicks that Manning could be emotionally fraught , describing an evening they had watched two movies together — The Last King of Scotland and Dancer in the Dark — after which Manning cried for hours . By September 2009 her relationship with Watkins was in trouble ; they reconciled for a short time , but it was effectively over . After four weeks at the Joint Readiness Training Center ( JRTC ) in Fort Polk , Louisiana , Manning was deployed to Forward Operating Base Hammer , near Baghdad , arriving in October 2009 . From her workstation there , she had access to SIPRNet ( the Secret Internet Protocol Router Network ) and JWICS ( the Joint Worldwide Intelligence Communications System ) . Two of her superiors had discussed not taking her to Iraq ; it was felt she was a risk to herself and possibly others , according to a statement later issued by the Army — but the shortage of intelligence analysts held sway . In November 2009 , she was promoted from Private First Class to Specialist . = = = Contact with gender counselor = = = In November 2009 Manning wrote to a gender counselor in the United States , said she felt female , and discussed having surgery . The counselor told Steve Fishman of New York Magazine in 2011 that it was clear Manning was in crisis , partly because of her gender concerns , but also because she was opposed to the kind of war in which she found herself involved . She was by all accounts unhappy and isolated . Because of the military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " policy ( known as DADT and in effect until September 20 , 2011 ) , Manning was unable to live as an openly gay man without risk of being discharged . But she apparently made no secret of her orientation : her friends said she kept a fairy wand on her desk . When she told her roommate she was attracted to men , he responded by suggesting they not speak to each other . Manning 's working conditions included 14- to 15 @-@ hour night shifts in a tightly packed , dimly lit room . On December 20 , 2009 , during a counseling session with two colleagues to discuss her poor time @-@ keeping , Manning was told she would lose her one day off a week for persistent lateness . She responded by overturning a table , damaging a computer that was sitting on it . A sergeant moved Manning away from the weapons rack , and other soldiers pinned her arms behind her back and dragged her out of the room . Several witnesses to the incident believed her access to sensitive material ought to have been withdrawn at that point . The following month , January 2010 , she began posting on Facebook that she felt hopeless and alone . = = = State of mind over release of material = = = Manning told Amnesty International These documents were important because they relate to two connected counter @-@ insurgency conflicts in real @-@ time from the ground . Humanity has never had this complete and detailed a record of what modern warfare actually looks like . Once you realize that the co @-@ ordinates represent a real place where people live that the dates happened in our recent history ; that the numbers are actually human lives – with all the love , hope , dreams , hatred , fear , and nightmares that come with them – then it 's difficult to ever forget how important these documents are . = = = Release of material to WikiLeaks = = = Manning said her first contact with WikiLeaks took place in January 2010 , when she began to interact with them on IRC and Jabber . She had first noticed them toward the end of November 2009 , when they posted 570 @,@ 000 pager messages from the September 11 attacks . On January 5 , 2010 , Manning downloaded the 400 @,@ 000 documents that became known as the Iraq War logs . On January 8 she downloaded 91 @,@ 000 documents from the Afghanistan database , the Afghan War logs . She saved the material on CD @-@ RW , and smuggled it through security by labeling the CD @-@ RW media " Lady Gaga " . She then copied it onto her personal computer . The next day she wrote a message in a readme.txt file ( see right ) , which she told the court was initially intended for The Washington Post . Manning copied the files from her laptop to an SD card for her camera so that she could take it with her to the United States while on R & R leave . Army investigators later found the SD card in Manning 's basement room in her aunt 's home in Potomac , Maryland . On January 23 Manning flew to the United States via Germany for two weeks of leave . It was during this visit that she first went out dressed as a woman , wearing a wig and makeup . After her arrest , her former partner , Tyler Watkins , told Wired that Manning had said during the visit that she had found some sensitive information and was considering leaking it . Manning contacted The Washington Post and The New York Times to ask if they were interested in the material ; the Post reporter did not sound interested and the Times did not return the call . Manning decided instead to pass it to WikiLeaks , and on February 3 sent them the Iraq and Afghan War logs via Tor . She returned to Iraq on February 11 , with no acknowledgement from WikiLeaks that they had received the files . On or around February 18 she passed WikiLeaks a diplomatic cable , dated January 13 , 2010 , from the U.S. Embassy in Reykjavík , Iceland . They published it within hours , which suggested to Manning that they had received the other material too . She found the Baghdad helicopter attack ( " Collateral murder " ) video in a Judge Advocate 's directory , and passed it to WikiLeaks on or around February 21 . In late March she sent them a video of the May 2009 Granai airstrike in Afghanistan ; this was the video later removed and apparently destroyed by Daniel Domscheit @-@ Berg when he left the organization . Between March 28 and April 9 she downloaded the 250 @,@ 000 diplomatic cables , and uploaded them to a WikiLeaks dropbox on April 10 . Manning told the court that , during her interaction with WikiLeaks on IRC and Jabber , she developed a friendship with someone there , believed to be Julian Assange ( although neither knew the other 's name ) , which she said made her feel she could be herself . Army investigators found 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats , in unallocated space on her MacBook 's hard drive , between Manning and someone believed to be Assange . She wrote in a statement that the more she had tried to fit in at work , the more alienated she became from everyone around her . The relationship with WikiLeaks had given her a brief respite from the isolation and anxiety . = = = Email to supervisor , recommended discharge = = = On April 24 , 2010 , Manning sent an email to her supervisor , Master Sergeant Paul Adkins — with the subject line " My Problem " — saying she was suffering from gender identity disorder . She attached a photograph of herself dressed as a woman and with the filename breanna.jpg. She wrote : This is my problem . I 've had signs of it for a very long time . It 's caused problems within my family . I thought a career in the military would get rid of it . It 's not something I seek out for attention , and I 've been trying very , very hard to get rid of it by placing myself in situations where it would be impossible . But , it 's not going away ; it 's haunting me more and more as I get older . Now , the consequences of it are dire , at a time when it 's causing me great pain in itself ... Adkins discussed the situation with Manning 's therapists , but did not pass the email to anybody above him in his chain of command ; he told Manning 's court @-@ martial that he was concerned the photograph would be disseminated among other staff . Captain Steven Lim , Manning 's company commander , said he first saw the email after Manning 's arrest , when information about hormone replacement therapy was found in Manning 's room on base ; at that point Lim learned that Manning had been calling herself Breanna . Manning told former " grey hat " hacker Adrian Lamo that she had set up Twitter and YouTube accounts as Breanna to give her female identity a digital presence , writing to Lamo : " I wouldn 't mind going to prison for the rest of my life [ for leaking information ] , or being executed so much , if it wasn 't for the possibility of having pictures of me ... plastered all over the world press ... as [ a ] boy ... [ ... ] the CPU is not made for this motherboard ... " On April 30 she posted on Facebook that she was utterly lost , and over the next few days wrote that she was " not a piece of equipment , " and was " beyond frustrated " and " livid " after being " lectured by ex @-@ boyfriend despite months of relationship ambiguity ... " On May 7 , according to Army witnesses , Manning was found curled in a fetal position in a storage cupboard ; she had a knife at her feet and had cut the words " I want " into a vinyl chair . A few hours later she had an altercation with a female intelligence analyst , Specialist Jihrleah Showman , during which she punched Showman in the face . The brigade psychiatrist recommended a discharge , referring to an " occupational problem and adjustment disorder . " Manning 's supervisor removed the bolt from her weapon , making it unable to fire , and she was sent to work in the supply office , although at this point her security clearance remained in place . As punishment for the altercation with Showman , she was demoted from Specialist ( E @-@ 4 ) to Private First Class ( E @-@ 3 ) three days before her arrest on May 27 . Ellen Nakashima writes that , on May 9 , Manning contacted Jonathan Odell , a gay American novelist in Minneapolis , via Facebook , leaving a message that she wanted to speak to him in confidence ; she said she had been involved in some " very high @-@ profile events , albeit as a nameless individual thus far . " On May 19 , according to Army investigators , she emailed Eric Schmiedl , a mathematician she had met in Boston , and told him she had been the source of the Baghdad airstrike video . Two days later , she began the series of chats with Adrian Lamo that led to her arrest . = = Publication of leaked material = = = = = WikiLeaks = = = WikiLeaks was set up in late 2006 as a disclosure portal , initially using the Wikipedia model , where volunteers would write up restricted or legally threatened material submitted by whistleblowers . It was Julian Assange — an Australian Internet activist and journalist , and the de facto editor @-@ in @-@ chief of WikiLeaks — who had the idea of creating what Ben Laurie called an " open @-@ source , democratic intelligence agency . " The open @-@ editing aspect was soon abandoned , but the site remained open for anonymous submissions . According to Daniel Domscheit @-@ Berg , a former WikiLeaks spokesperson , part of the WikiLeaks security concept was that they did not know who their sources were . The New York Times wrote in December 2010 that the U.S. government was trying to discover whether Assange had been a passive recipient of material from Manning , or had encouraged or helped her to extract the files ; if the latter , Assange could be charged with conspiracy . Manning told Lamo in May 2010 that she had developed a working relationship with Assange , communicating directly with him using an encrypted Internet conferencing service , but knew little about him . WikiLeaks did not identify Manning as their source . Army investigators found pages of chats on Manning 's computer between Manning and someone believed to be Julian Assange . Nicks writes that , despite this , no decisive evidence was found of Assange offering Manning any direction . = = = Reykjavik13 = = = On February 18 , 2010 , WikiLeaks posted the first of the material from Manning , the diplomatic cable from the U.S. Embassy in Reykjavík , a document now known as Reykjavik13 . On March 15 WikiLeaks posted a 32 @-@ page report written in 2008 by the U.S. Department of Defense about WikiLeaks itself , and on March 29 it posted U.S. State Department profiles of politicians in Iceland . = = = Baghdad airstrike = = = WikiLeaks named the Baghdad airstrike video " Collateral Murder , " and Assange released it on April 5 , 2010 , during a press conference at the National Press Club in Washington , D.C. The video showed two American helicopters firing on a group of ten men in the Amin District of Baghdad . Two were Reuters employees there to photograph an American Humvee under attack by the Mahdi Army . Pilots mistook their cameras for weapons . The helicopters also fired on a van , targeted earlier by one helicopter , that had stopped to help wounded members of the first group . Two children in the van were wounded and their father was killed . Pilots also engaged a building where retreating insurgents were holed up . The Washington Post wrote that it was this video , viewed by millions , that put WikiLeaks on the map . According to Nicks , Manning emailed a superior officer after the video aired and tried to persuade her that it was the same version as the one stored on SIPRNet . Nicks writes that it seemed as though Manning wanted to be caught . = = = Afghan War logs , Iraq War logs = = = WikiLeaks and three media partners — The New York Times , The Guardian , and Der Spiegel — began publishing the 91 @,@ 731 documents that became known as the Afghan War logs on July 25 , 2010 . This was followed on October 22 , 2010 , by 391 @,@ 832 classified military reports covering the period January 2004 to December 2009 ; these became known as the Iraq War logs . Nicks writes that the publication of the former was a watershed moment , the " beginning of the information age exploding upon itself . " = = = Diplomatic cables , Guantanamo Bay files = = = Manning was also responsible for the " Cablegate " leak of 251 @,@ 287 State Department cables , written by 271 American embassies and consulates in 180 countries , dated December 1966 to February 2010 . The cables were passed by Assange to his three media partners , plus El País and others , and published in stages from November 28 , 2010 , with the names of sources removed . WikiLeaks said it was the largest set of confidential documents ever to be released into the public domain . The rest of the cables were published unredacted by WikiLeaks on September 1 , 2011 , after David Leigh and Luke Harding of The Guardian published the passphrase for a file that was still online ; Nicks writes that one Ethiopian journalist had to leave his country and the U.S. government said it had to relocate several sources . Manning was also the source of the Guantanamo Bay files leak , obtained by WikiLeaks in 2010 and published by The New York Times on April 24 , 2011 . = = = Granai airstrike = = = Manning said she gave WikiLeaks a video , in late March 2010 , of the Granai airstrike in Afghanistan . The airstrike occurred on May 4 , 2009 , in the village of Granai , Afghanistan , killing 86 to 147 Afghan civilians . The video was never published ; Julian Assange said in March 2013 that Daniel Domscheit @-@ Berg had taken it with him when he left WikiLeaks , and had apparently destroyed it . = = Manning and Adrian Lamo = = = = = First contact = = = On May 20 , 2010 , Manning contacted Adrian Lamo , a former " grey hat " hacker convicted in 2004 of having accessed The New York Times computer network two years earlier without permission . Lamo had been profiled that day by Kevin Poulsen in Wired magazine ; the story said Lamo had been involuntarily hospitalized and diagnosed with Asperger syndrome . Poulsen , by then a reporter , was himself a former hacker who had used Lamo as a source several times since 2000 . Indeed it was Poulsen who , in 2002 , had told The New York Times that Lamo had gained unauthorized access to its network ; Poulsen then wrote the story up for SecurityFocus . Lamo would hack into a system , tell the organization , then offer to fix their security , often using Poulsen as a go @-@ between . Lamo said Manning sent him several encrypted emails on May 20 . He said he was unable to decrypt them but replied anyway and invited the emailer to chat on AOL IM . Lamo said he later turned the emails over to the FBI without having read them . = = = Chats = = = In a series of chats between May 21 and 25 , Manning — using the handle " bradass87 " — told Lamo that she had leaked classified material . She introduced herself as an Army intelligence analyst , and within 17 minutes , without waiting for a reply , alluded to the leaks . Lamo replied several hours later . He said : " I 'm a journalist and a minister . You can pick either , and treat this as a confession or an interview ( never to be published ) & enjoy a modicum of legal protection . " They talked about restricted material in general , then Manning made her first explicit reference to the leaks : " This is what I do for friends . " She linked to a section of the May 21 , 2010 , version of Wikipedia 's article on WikiLeaks , which described the WikiLeaks release in March that year of a Department of Defense report on WikiLeaks itself . She added " the one below that is mine too " ; the section below in the same article referred to the leak of the Baghdad airstrike ( " Collateral Murder " ) video . Manning said she felt isolated and fragile , and was reaching out to someone she hoped might understand . Manning said she had started to help WikiLeaks around Thanksgiving in November 2009 — which fell on November 26 that year — after WikiLeaks had released the 9 / 11 pager messages ; the messages were released on November 25 . She told Lamo she had recognized that the messages came from an NSA database , and that seeing them had made her feel comfortable about stepping forward . Lamo asked what kind of material Manning was dealing with ; Manning replied : " uhm ... crazy , almost criminal political backdealings ... the non @-@ PR @-@ versions of world events and crises ... " Although she said she dealt with Assange directly , Manning also said Assange had adopted a deliberate policy of knowing very little about her , telling Manning : " lie to me . " Lamo again assured her that she was speaking in confidence . Manning wrote : " but im not a source for you ... im talking to you as someone who needs moral and emotional fucking support , " and Lamo replied : " i told you , none of this is for print . " Manning said the incident that had affected her the most was when 15 detainees had been arrested by the Iraqi Federal Police for printing anti @-@ Iraqi literature . She was asked by the Army to find out who the " bad guys " were , and discovered that the detainees had followed what Manning said was a corruption trail within the Iraqi cabinet . She reported this to her commanding officer , but said " he didn 't want to hear any of it " ; she said the officer told her to help the Iraqi police find more detainees . Manning said it made her realize , " i was actively involved in something that i was completely against ... " She explained that " i cant separate myself from others ... i feel connected to everybody ... like they were distant family , " and cited Carl Sagan , Richard Feynman and Elie Wiesel . She said she hoped the material would lead to " hopefully worldwide discussion , debates , and reforms. if not ... than [ sic ] we 're doomed as a species . " She said she had downloaded the material onto music CD @-@ RWs , erased the music and replaced it with a compressed split file . Part of the reason no one noticed , she said , was that staff were working 14 hours a day , seven days a week , and " people stopped caring after 3 weeks . " = = = Lamo approaches authorities , chat logs published = = = Shortly after the first chat with Manning , Lamo discussed the information with Chet Uber of the volunteer group ProjectVIGILANT , which researches cybercrime , and with Timothy Webster , a friend who had worked in Army counterintelligence . Both advised Lamo to go to the authorities . His friend reported the conversation to United States Army Counterintelligence , and Lamo was contacted by counterintelligence agents shortly thereafter . He told them he believed Manning was endangering lives . He was largely ostracized by the hacker community afterwards . Nicks argues , on the other hand , that it was thanks to Lamo that the government had months to ameliorate any harm caused by the release of the diplomatic cables . Lamo met with FBI and Army investigators on May 25 in California , and showed them the chat logs . On or around that date he also passed the story to Kevin Poulsen of Wired , and on May 27 gave him the chat logs and Manning 's name under embargo . He met with the FBI again that day , at which point they told him Manning had been arrested in Iraq the day before . Poulsen and Kim Zetter broke the news of the arrest in Wired on June 6 . Wired published around 25 percent of the chat logs on June 6 and 10 , and the full logs in July 2011 , after the material about Manning 's gender identity disorder had appeared elsewhere . = = Legal proceedings = = = = = Arrest and charges = = = Manning was arrested by the U.S. Army Criminal Investigation Division ( CID ) , on May 27 , 2010 , and transferred four days later to Camp Arifjan in Kuwait . She was charged with several offenses in July , replaced by 22 charges in March 2011 , including violations of Articles 92 and 134 of the Uniform Code of Military Justice ( UCMJ ) , and of the Espionage Act . The most serious charge was " aiding the enemy , " a capital offense , although prosecutors said they would not seek the death penalty . Another charge , which Manning 's defense called a " made up offense " but of which she was found guilty , read that Manning " wantonly [ caused ] to be published on the internet intelligence belonging to the US government , having knowledge that intelligence published on the internet is accessible to the enemy . " = = = Detention = = = While in Kuwait , Manning was placed on suicide watch after her behavior caused concern . She was moved from Kuwait to the Marine Corps Base Quantico , Virginia , on July 29 , 2010 , and classified as a maximum custody detainee with Prevention of Injury ( POI ) status . POI status is one stop short of suicide watch , entailing checks by guards every five minutes . Her lawyer , David Coombs , a former military attorney , said Manning was not allowed to sleep between 5 am ( 7 am on weekends ) and 8 pm , and was made to stand or sit up if she tried to . She was required to remain visible at all times , including at night , which entailed no access to sheets , no pillow except one built into her mattress , and a blanket designed not to be shredded . Manning complained that she regarded it as pretrial punishment . Her cell was 6 × 12 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 x 3 @.@ 6 m ) with no window , containing a bed , toilet and sink . The jail had 30 cells built in a U shape , and although detainees could talk to one another , they were unable to see each other . Her lawyer said the guards behaved professionally , and had not tried to harass or embarrass Manning . She was allowed to walk for up to one hour a day , meals were taken in the cell , and she was shackled during visits . There was access to television when it was placed in the corridor , and she was allowed to keep one magazine and one book . Because she was in pretrial detention , she received full pay . On January 18 , 2011 , after Manning had an altercation with the guards , the commander of Quantico classified her as a suicide risk . Manning said the guards had begun issuing conflicting commands , such as " turn left , don 't turn left , " and upbraiding her for responding to commands with " yes " instead of " aye . " Shortly afterwards , she was placed on suicide watch , had her clothing and eyeglasses removed , and was required to remain in her cell 24 hours a day . The suicide watch was lifted on January 21 after a complaint from her lawyer , and the brig commander who ordered it was replaced . On March 2 she was told that her request for removal of POI status — which entailed among other things sleeping wearing only boxer shorts — had been denied . Her lawyer said Manning joked to the guards that , if she wanted to harm herself , she could do so with her underwear or her flip @-@ flops . The comment resulted in Manning being ordered to strip naked in her cell that night and sleep without clothing . On the following morning only , Manning stood naked for inspection . Following her lawyer 's protest and media attention , Manning was issued a sleeping garment on or before March 11 . The detention conditions prompted national and international concern . Juan E. Mendez , United Nations Special Rapporteur on torture , told The Guardian that the U.S. government 's treatment of Manning was " cruel , inhuman and degrading . " In January 2011 Amnesty International asked the British government to intervene because of Manning 's status as a British citizen by descent , although Manning 's lawyer said Manning did not regard herself as a British citizen . The controversy claimed a casualty in March that year when State Department spokesman Philip J. Crowley criticized Manning 's treatment and resigned two days later . In early April , 295 academics ( most of them American legal scholars ) signed a letter arguing that the treatment was a violation of the U.S. Constitution . On April 20 the Pentagon transferred Manning to the Midwest Joint Regional Correctional Facility , a new medium @-@ security facility at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , where she was placed in an 80 @-@ square @-@ foot cell with a window and a normal mattress , able to mix with other pretrial detainees and keep personal objects in her cell . = = = Evidence presented at Article 32 hearing = = = In April 2011 , a panel of experts , having completed a medical and mental evaluation of Manning , ruled that she was fit to stand trial . An Article 32 hearing , presided over by Lieutenant Colonel Paul Almanza , was convened on December 16 , 2011 , at Fort Meade , Maryland ; the hearing resulted in Almanza 's recommending that Manning be referred to a general court @-@ martial . She was arraigned on February 23 , 2012 , and declined to enter a plea . During the Article 32 hearing , the prosecution , led by Captain Ashden Fein , presented 300 @,@ 000 pages of documents in evidence , including chat logs and classified material . The court heard from two Army investigators , Special Agent David Shaver , head of the digital forensics and research branch of the Army 's Computer Crime Investigative Unit ( CCIU ) ; and Mark Johnson , a digital forensics contractor from ManTech International , who works for the CCIU . They testified that they had found 100 @,@ 000 State Department cables on a workplace computer Manning had used between November 2009 and May 2010 ; 400 @,@ 000 military reports from Iraq and 91 @,@ 000 from Afghanistan on an SD card found in her basement room in her aunt 's home in Potomac , Maryland ; and 10 @,@ 000 cables on her personal MacBook Pro and storage devices that they said had not been passed to WikiLeaks because a file was corrupted . They also recovered 14 to 15 pages of encrypted chats , in unallocated space on Manning 's MacBook hard drive , between Manning and someone believed to be Julian Assange . Two of the chat handles , which used the Berlin Chaos Computer Club 's domain ( ccc.de ) , were associated with the names Julian Assange and Nathaniel Frank . Johnson said he found SSH logs on the MacBook that showed an SFTP connection , from an IP address that resolved to Manning 's aunt 's home , to a Swedish IP address with links to WikiLeaks . Also found was a text file named " Readme " , attached to the logs and apparently written by Manning to Assange , which called the Iraq and Afghan War logs " possibly one of the most significant documents of our time , removing the fog of war and revealing the true nature of 21st century asymmetric warfare . " The investigators testified they had also recovered an exchange from May 2010 between Manning and Eric Schmiedl , a Boston mathematician , in which Manning said she was the source of the Baghdad helicopter attack ( " Collateral Murder " ) video . Johnson said there had been two attempts to delete material from the MacBook . The operating system had been re @-@ installed in January 2010 , and on or around January 31 , 2010 , an attempt had been made to erase the hard drive by doing a " zero @-@ fill , " which involves overwriting material with zeroes . The material was recovered after the overwrite attempts from unallocated space . Manning 's lawyers argued that the government had overstated the harm the release of the documents had caused , and had overcharged Manning to force her to give evidence against Assange . The defense also raised questions about whether Manning 's confusion over her gender identity affected her behavior and decision making . = = = Guilty plea , trial , sentence = = = The judge , Army Colonel Denise Lind , ruled in January 2013 that any sentence would be reduced by 112 days because of the treatment Manning received at Quantico . On February 28 , Manning pleaded guilty to 10 of the 22 charges . Reading for over an hour from a 35 @-@ page statement , she said she had leaked the cables " to show the true cost of war . " Prosecutors pursued a court @-@ martial on the remaining charges . The trial began on June 3 , 2013 . Manning was convicted on July 30 , on 17 of the 22 charges in their entirety , including five counts of espionage and theft , and an amended version of four other charges ; she was acquitted of aiding the enemy . The sentencing phase began the next day . Captain Michael Worsley , a military psychologist who had treated Manning before her arrest , testified that Manning had been left isolated in the Army , trying to deal with gender @-@ identity issues in a " hyper @-@ masculine environment . " David Moulton , a Navy forensic psychiatrist who saw Manning after the arrest , said Manning had narcissistic traits , and showed signs of both fetal alcohol syndrome and Asperger syndrome . He said that , in leaking the material , Manning had been " acting out [ a ] grandiose ideation . " A defense psychiatrist , testifying to Manning 's motives , suggested a different agenda : Well , Pfc Manning was under the impression that his leaked information was going to really change how the world views the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq , and future wars , actually . This was an attempt to crowdsource an analysis of the war , and it was his opinion that if ... through crowdsourcing , enough analysis was done on these documents , which he felt to be very important , that it would lead to a greater good ... that society as a whole would come to the conclusion that the war wasn 't worth it ... that really no wars are worth it . On August 14 , Manning apologized to the court : " I am sorry that my actions hurt people . I 'm sorry that they hurt the United States . I am sorry for the unintended consequences of my actions . When I made these decisions I believed I was going to help people , not hurt people . ... At the time of my decisions I was dealing with a lot of issues . " Manning 's offenses carried a maximum sentence of 90 years . The government asked for 60 years as a deterrent to others , while Manning 's lawyer asked for no more than 25 years . She was sentenced on August 21 to 35 years in prison , reduction in rank to private ( private E @-@ 1 or PVT ) , forfeiture of all pay and allowances , and a dishonorable discharge . She was given credit for 1 @,@ 293 days of pretrial confinement , including 112 days for her treatment at Quantico , and will be eligible for parole after serving one @-@ third of the sentence . There may also be additional credit for good behavior , which means she could be released after eight years . She is confined at the United States Disciplinary Barracks ( USDB ) at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas . On April 14 , 2014 , Manning 's request for clemency was denied , as a result of which the case will go to the United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals for further review . = = = Request for presidential pardon = = = On September 3 , 2013 , Manning 's lawyer applied for a presidential pardon for his client . Coombs filed a Petition for Pardon / Commutation of Sentence to President Obama through the pardon attorney at the Department of Justice and Secretary of the Army John M. McHugh . In the petition , which was filed with the legal name " Bradley Manning " and used male @-@ gender pronouns , Coombs contended that Manning 's disclosures did not cause any " real damage , " and that the documents in question did not merit protection as they were not sensitive . The request for a pardon included a supporting letter from Amnesty International which said that Manning 's leaks had exposed violations of human rights . Coombs 's letter touched on Manning 's role as a whistleblower , asking that Manning be granted a full pardon or that her sentence be reduced to time served . = = = United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals = = = In April 2015 , Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she wrote , " I am now preparing for my court @-@ martial appeal before the first appeals court . The appeal team , with my attorneys Nancy Hollander and Vince Ward , are hoping to file our brief before the court in the next six months . We have already had success in getting the court to respect my gender identity by using feminine pronouns in the court filings ( she , her , etc . ) . " = = Reaction to disclosures = = The publication of the leaked material , particularly the diplomatic cables , attracted in @-@ depth coverage worldwide , with several governments blocking websites that contained embarrassing details . Alan Rusbridger , editor of The Guardian , said : " I can 't think of a time when there was ever a story generated by a news organisation where the White House , the Kremlin , Chávez , India , China , everyone in the world was talking about these things . ... I 've never known a story that created such mayhem that wasn 't an event like a war or a terrorist attack . " United States Navy Admiral Michael Mullen , then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff , said the leaks had placed the lives of American soldiers and Afghan informants in danger . Journalist Glenn Greenwald argued that Manning was the most important whistleblower since Daniel Ellsberg leaked the Pentagon Papers in 1971 . In an impromptu questioning session after a fundraiser , captured on a cell phone video , President Barack Obama said that Manning " broke the law " , which was later criticized as " unlawful command influence " on Manning 's upcoming trial . Manning and WikiLeaks were credited as catalysts for the Arab Spring that began in December 2010 , when waves of protesters rose up against rulers across the Middle East and North Africa , after the leaked cables exposed government corruption . In Tunisia , where the uprisings began on December 17 , 2010 , one of the leaked cables — published around 10 days earlier — showed that the President 's daughter and her husband had their ice cream flown in from Saint @-@ Tropez . A Washington Post editorial asked why an apparently unstable Army private had been able to access and transfer sensitive material in the first place . According to a biographer , Manning 's sexuality came into play by illustrating for the far right that gay people were unfit for military service , while the American mainstream thought of Manning as a gay soldier driven mad by bullying . = = Non @-@ military tributes = = In 2011 , Manning was awarded a " Whistleblowerpreis " by the German Section of the International Association of Lawyers against Nuclear Arms and the Federation of German Scientists . In 2012 , she was awarded " People 's Choice Award " awarded by Global Exchange . In 2013 , she was awarded the Sean MacBride Peace Prize by the International Peace Bureau . In 2014 , she was awarded the Sam Adams Award by Sam Adams Associates for Integrity in Intelligence . Icelandic and Swedish Pirate Party MPs nominated Manning and fellow whistleblower Edward Snowden for the 2014 Nobel Peace Prize . In a statement to the Nomination Committee , the Pirate Party members said Manning and Snowden " have inspired change and encouraged public debate and policy changes that contributed to a more stable and peaceful world " . In 2013 , Roots Action launched a petition nominating Manning for the prize that received more than 100 @,@ 000 supporting signatures . In April 2015 a bronze statute of Manning , Edward Snowden , and Julian Assange was erected in Berlin 's Alexanderplatz . Germany 's Green Party sponsored the statue created by Italian sculptor David Dormino . = = Gender transition = = = = = 2013 = = = On August 22 , 2013 , the day after sentencing , Manning 's attorney issued a press release to the Today show announcing that his client was a female , and asked that she be referred to by her new name of Chelsea and feminine pronouns . Manning 's statement included the following : As I transition into this next phase of my life , I want everyone to know the real me . I am Chelsea Manning . I am a female . Given the way that I feel , and have felt since childhood , I want to begin hormone therapy as soon as possible . I hope that you will support me in this transition . I also request that , starting today , you refer to me by my new name and use the feminine pronoun ( except in official mail to the confinement facility ) . I look forward to receiving letters from supporters and having the opportunity to write back . The news media split in its reaction to Manning 's request ; some organizations used the new name and pronouns , and others continued to use the former ones . Advocacy groups such as GLAAD , the National Lesbian and Gay Journalists Association , and the Human Rights Campaign ( HRC ) encouraged media outlets to refer to Manning by her self @-@ identified name and pronoun . = = = 2014 = = = In April 2014 , the Kansas District Court considered a petition from Manning for a legal name change . The petition was granted that month . An Army spokesman stated that while the Army will update personnel records to acknowledge the name change , the military will continue to regard Manning as a male . Manning is seeking hormone therapy and the right to live as a woman while confined , consistent with her gender dysphoria , which has been confirmed by two Army medical specialists . Such treatment is provided in civilian federal prisons when it is found to be medically necessary , but it is not available in military prisons . The Pentagon policy considers transgender individuals ineligible to serve . In July , the Federal Bureau of Prisons rejected a request by the Army to transfer Manning from the USDB to a civilian facility for treatment of her gender dysphoria . Instead , the Army will keep Manning in military custody and begin rudimentary gender treatment , which could include allowing her to wear female undergarments and possibly receive hormone treatments . No decision was announced regarding whether or not Manning will be transferred from the all @-@ male USDB to a female facility . On August 12 , 2014 , the ACLU and Manning 's civilian attorney David Coombs said Manning was not receiving treatment for her gender identity condition as previously approved by Secretary of Defense Hagel . They notified the USDB , Hagel and other Defense Department officials that a lawsuit would be filed if they did not confirm by September 4 that treatment would be provided . On August 22 , Army spokeswoman Lt. Col. Alayne Conway told NBC News , " The Department of Defense has approved a request by Army leadership to provide required medical treatment for an inmate diagnosed with gender dysphoria . " Although Conway would not discuss " the medical needs of an individual , " she did say , " In general terms , the initial stages of treatment for individuals with gender dysphoria include psychotherapy and elements of the ' real life experience ' therapy . Treatment for the condition is highly individualized and generally is sequential and graduated . " The Army declined to say when treatment might begin . In September , Manning filed a lawsuit in federal district court in Washington , D.C. , against Secretary of Defense Hagel , claiming she had " been denied access to medically necessary treatment " for gender disorder . She sued to be allowed to grow her hair longer and use cosmetics , and to receive hormone treatments " to express her female gender . " = = = 2015 = = = On February 12 , 2015 , USA Today reported that the commandant of the USDB wrote in a February 5 memo , " After carefully considering the recommendation that ( hormone treatment ) is medically appropriate and necessary , and weighing all associated safety and security risks presented , I approve adding ( hormone treatment ) to Inmate Manning 's treatment plan . " According to USA Today , Manning remained a soldier , and the decision to administer hormone therapy was a first for the Army . Manning was not allowed to grow her hair longer . Her ACLU attorney said that the delay in approving her hormone treatment " came with a significant cost to Chelsea and her mental health . " On March 5 , in response to Manning 's request for an order compelling the military to use pronouns that conform to her chosen gender identity , the U.S. Army Court of Criminal Appeals ruled , " Reference to appellant in all future formal papers filed before this court and all future orders and decisions issued by this court shall either be neutral , e.g. , Private First Class Manning or appellant , or employ a feminine pronoun . " On March 14 , the digital library host Cryptome posted an unsigned public copy of a court document , filed March 10 , wherein the parties to Manning 's September 2014 lawsuit against Secretary of Defense Hagel agreed to stay proceedings for seven months , after which time they would address how the litigation should proceed in light of Manning 's status at that time . The document revealed that the Army was then providing Manning with weekly psychotherapy , including psychotherapy specific to gender dysphoria ; cross @-@ sex hormone therapy ; female undergarments ; the ability to wear prescribed cosmetics in her daily life at the USDB ; and speech therapy . In April 2015 , Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she disclosed , I finally began my prescribed regime of hormones to continue my overdue gender transition in February . It 's been such an amazing relief for my body and brain to finally come into alignment with each other . My stress and anxiety levels have tapered off quite considerably . Overall , things are beginning to move along nicely . = = Prison life = = In March 2015 , Bloomberg News reported that Manning can be visited only by those she had named before her imprisonment , and not by journalists . She cannot be photographed or give interviews on camera . Manning is not allowed to browse the web , but consults print news and has access to new gender theory texts . In April 2015 , Amnesty International posted online a letter from Manning in which she described her daily life . " My days here are busy and very routine , " Manning wrote . " I am taking college correspondence courses for a bachelor 's degree . I also work out a lot to stay fit , and read newspapers , magazines and books to keep up @-@ to @-@ date on current events around the world and learn new things . " Also that month , Cosmopolitan published the first interview with Manning in prison , conducted by mail . Cosmo reported that Manning is optimistic about recent progress but says not being allowed to grow her hair long is " painful and awkward … I am torn up . I get through each day okay , but at night , when I 'm alone in my room , I finally burn out and crash . " Manning said it was " very much a relief " to announce that she is a woman , and did not fear the public response . " Honestly , I 'm not terribly worried about what people out there might think of me . I just try to be myself . " According to Cosmo , Manning has her own cell with " two tall vertical windows that face the sun , " and can see " trees and hills and blue sky and all the things beyond the buildings and razor wire . " Manning denies being harassed by other inmates , and claims some have become confidantes . = = = Writing = = = In February 2015 , Katharine Viner , editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Guardian US , announced that Manning had joined The Guardian as a contributing opinion writer on war , gender , and freedom of information . Viner added that Manning would not be paid in this capacity . In 2014 , The Guardian had published two op @-@ eds by Manning : " How to make Isis fall on its own sword " ( September 16 ) and " I am a transgender woman and the government is denying my civil rights " ( December 8 ) . Manning 's debut under the new arrangement , " The CIA 's torturers and the leaders who approved their actions must face the law , " appeared on March 9 , 2015 . In April 2015 , Manning began communicating via Twitter , under the handle @ xychelsea , by using a voice phone to dictate to intermediaries , who then tweet on her behalf . = = = Suicide attempt = = = On July 5 , 2016 , Manning was taken to a hospital after what media sources characterized as a suicide attempt . The following week , Manning confirmed through an attorney statement that she attempted to end her own life . = Action of 25 September 1806 = The Action of 25 September 1806 was a naval battle fought during the Napoleonic Wars off the French Biscay port of Rochefort . A French squadron comprising five frigates and two corvettes , sailing to the French West Indies with supplies and reinforcements , was intercepted by a British squadron of six ships of the line that was keeping a close blockade of the port as part of the Atlantic campaign of 1806 . The British ships , under the command of Commodore Sir Samuel Hood , spotted the French convoy early in the morning of 25 September , just a few hours after the French had left port , and immediately gave chase . Although the French ships tried to escape , they were heavily laden with troops and stores , and the strong winds favoured the larger ships of the line , which caught the French convoy after a five @-@ hour pursuit , although they had become separated from one another during the chase . At 05 : 00 the leading British ship , HMS Monarch , was within range and opened fire on the French squadron , which divided . One frigate went north and was intercepted by HMS Mars , while another , accompanied by the two corvettes , turned south and managed to outrun HMS Windsor Castle . The main body of the French force remained together and met the attack of Monarch and the British flagship HMS Centaur with their broadsides . Although outnumbered and outclassed by the British squadron the French ships fought hard , inflicting damage on the leading British ships and severely wounding Commodore Hood . Eventually the strength of the British squadron told , and despite a fierce resistance the French ships surrendered one by one , the British capturing four of the seven vessels in the squadron . = = Background = = The principal naval campaign of 1806 was fought in the Atlantic Ocean , following a raid by two large French battle squadrons on British trade routes , focused particularly on the Caribbean . The security of the French Caribbean was under severe threat during the wars , as the Royal Navy dominated the region and restricted French movements both between the islands and between the West Indies and France itself . This dominance was enforced by rigorous blockade , in which British ships attempted to ensure that no French military or commercial vessel was able to enter or leave French harbours both in Europe and in the French colonies . In the Caribbean , this strategy was designed to destroy the economies and morale of the French West Indian territories in preparation for attack by British expeditionary forces . To counter this strategy , the French government repeatedly sent convoys and individual warships to the French Caribbean islands with supplies of food , military equipment and reinforcements . These resupply efforts ranged from small individual corvettes to large battle squadrons and were under orders to avoid conflict wherever possible . Despite these orders , many were intercepted by British blockade forces , either in the Caribbean or off the French coast itself . The largest French resupply effort of the Napoleonic Wars was a squadron under Contre @-@ Admiral Corentin @-@ Urbain Leissègues , sent to Santo Domingo in December 1805 with troops and supplies . In conjunction with a second squadron under Vice @-@ Admiral Jean @-@ Baptiste Willaumez , this force was then ordered to raid British trade routes and disrupt the movement of British merchant shipping across the Atlantic . Leissègues reached Santo Domingo in February 1806 , but within days a British battle squadron had intercepted and destroyed his force at the Battle of San Domingo . Willaumez was able to avoid attack by British forces during the spring of 1806 , and cruised in the Caribbean during much of the summer , but his force was eventually dispersed by a hurricane in August and the survivors forced to shelter on the American Eastern Seaboard . Unaware of the dispersal of Willaumez 's squadron , the British naval authorities sought to block its return to Europe by stationing strong battle squadrons off the principal French Atlantic ports . One of their most important targets was the city of Rochefort , heavily fortified port in which a powerful French naval force was based , and a squadron of six Royal Navy ships of the line was assigned to watch it in case Willaumez attempted to return there . In August , command of the blockade squadron was awarded to Commodore Sir Samuel Hood , a highly experience naval commander . In Rochefort , an expedition was planned to carry supplies to the French West Indies while the British were distracted by Willaumez 's operations . Assigned to the operation was Commodore Eleonore @-@ Jean @-@ Nicolas Soleil , an officer who had served on Allemand 's expedition , a successful operation the year before . To carry the supplies and reinforcements , Soleil was provided with seven ships : Four large modern frigates rated at 40 @-@ guns but actually carrying 44 – 46 , a smaller and older frigate of 36 guns and two small corvettes of 16 guns each . All of the ships were heavily laden , each carrying as many as 650 men , but it was hoped that their size and speed would allow them to defeat anything smaller than they were and to escape anything larger . = = Battle = = Soleil 's squadron departed Rochefort on the evening of 24 September , aiming to bypass Hood 's squadron in the dark . However at 01 : 00 on 25 September , with the wind coming from the northeast , lookouts on HMS Monarch spotted sails to the east . Hood 's squadron was spread out , tacking southeast towards the Chassiron Lighthouse at Saint @-@ Denis @-@ d 'Oléron with HMS Centaur in the centre , HMS Revenge to the east ( or windward ) and Monarch to the west . HMS Mars was also close by , with the rest of the squadron spread out in the rear . Hood 's immediate reaction was that the sails must belong to a squadron of French ships of the line , and ordered his ships to form a line of battle in anticipation . Even as the signal was raised however , lookouts on Monarch identified the strangers as frigates and Hood abandoned his previous orders and raised a new signal ordering a general chase , confident that his ships could destroy the convoy even without the power and defensive capability of a line of battle . As soon as Soleil realised that he had been spotted he gave orders for his ships to sail to the southwest as fast as possible , hoping to outdistance the British squadron . However his convoy were all heavily laden and were therefore slower than they would normally be , while the heavy swell and strong winds favoured the large ships of the line . The chase continued throughout the night , until by 04 : 00 Monarch was clearly gaining on the convoy , with Centaur 8 nautical miles ( 15 km ) behind . At 05 : 00 , Captain Richard Lee was close enough to fire his bow @-@ chasers , small guns situated at the front of his ship , at the rearmost French frigate , the Armide . Captain Jean @-@ Jacques @-@ Jude Langlois returned the fire with his stern @-@ chasers and the French ships raised the Tricolour in anticipation of battle . Recognising that he was facing an overwhelming British force , Soleil split his ships , sending Thétis and the corvettes Lynx and Sylphe southwards and Infatigable to the north . This had limited success in achieving the desired effect of dividing the pursuit , with Captain William Lukin taking HMS Mars out of the British line in pursuit of Infatigable while the slow HMS Windsor Castle was sent after the three south bound ships , but the main body of the Royal Navy squadron remained on course . At 10 : 00 , Soleil accepted that his remaining ships would rapidly be overhauled by Monarch and drew them together , forming a compact group with which to receive the British attack . He also ordered his captains to focus their fire on the enemy sails , rigging and masts , hoping to inflict enough damage to delay the pursuit and allow his force to escape . Within minutes Monarch was heavily engaged with Armide and Minerve but Captain Lee found himself at a disadvantage : the heavy swell that has suited his ship during the chase also prevented him from opening his lower gunports in case of flooding . This halved his available cannon and as a result his isolated ship began to suffer severe damage to its rigging and sails from the frigates ' gunnery . Within 20 minutes , Monarch was unable to manoeuvree , but Lee continued fighting until Centaur could reach the melee , the flagship opening fire at 11 : 00 . Hood passed the battling Monarch and Minerve , concentrating his fire on Armide and the flagship Gloire . For another 45 minutes the battle continued , Centaur suffering damage to her rigging and sails from the French shot and taking casualties from musket fire from the soldiers carried aboard . Among the wounded was Commodore Hood , who was shot in the right forearm , the ball eventually lodging in his shoulder . Hood retired below and command passed to his second in command , Lieutenant Case . At 11 : 45 , Armide surrendered to Centaur , followed 15 minutes later by Minerve . Both ships had suffered heavy damage and casualties in the unequal engagement and could not hope to continue their resistance with the rest of the British squadron rapidly approaching . To the north , Infatigable had failed to outrun Mars and Captain Lukin forced the frigate to surrender after a brief cannonade . With three ships lost and the other three long disappeared to the south , Soleil determined to flee westwards , hoping the damage he had inflicted on Centaur 's sails was sufficient to prevent her pursuit . However , Gloire had also been damaged and could not distance herself from the British flagship sufficiently before support arrived in the form of Mars . With his ship undamaged , Lukin was able to easily catch the fleeing frigate and opened fire at 14 : 30 , combat continuing for half an hour before Soleil surrendered , his frigate badly damaged . To the south , Windsor Castle had proven far too slow to catch the smaller French ships , which had easily outrun the second rate and escaped . = = Aftermath = = It took some time for the British squadron to effect repairs on their ships and prizes in preparation for the journey back to Britain . They had suffered light casualties of nine killed and 29 wounded , but among the more seriously injured was Hood , whose arm had been amputated during the battle . [ Note A ] French losses were much heavier but are unknown : Hood did not include them in his official report but promised to provide them soon afterwards in a follow up letter , which , if it was written , has never been located . All four of the captured frigates were large new vessels that were immediately purchased for service in the Royal Navy , Gloire and Armide retaining their names while Infatigable became HMS Immortalite and Minerve became HMS Alceste . Although Hood and his men were commended at the time , subsequent historical focus has been on the bravery of the inexperienced French crews in resisting an attack by an overwhelming force for so long . William James wrote in 1827 of the " gallant conduct on the part of the French ships " and William Lair	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Three main theories on the origins of insect flight are that wings developed from paranotal lobes , extensions of the thoracic terga ; that they are modifications of movable abdominal gills as found on aquatic naiads of mayflies ; or that they developed from thoracic protrusions used as radiators . = = = Fossils = = = Fossils from the Devonian ( 400 million years ago ) are all wingless , but by the Carboniferous ( 320 million years ago ) , more than 10 different genera of insects had fully functional wings . There is little preservation of transitional forms between the two periods . The earliest winged insects are from this time period ( Pterygota ) , including the Blattoptera , Caloneurodea , primitive stem @-@ group Ephemeropterans , Orthoptera and Palaeodictyopteroidea . Very early Blattopterans ( during the Carboniferous ) had a very large discoid pronotum and coriaceous forewings with a distinct CuP vein ( an unbranched wing vein , lying near the claval fold and reaching the wing posterior margin ) . Even though the oldest definitive insect fossil is the Devonian Rhyniognatha hirsti , estimated at 396 – 407 million years old , it possessed dicondylic mandibles , a feature associated with winged insects . During the Permian , the dragonflies Odonata were the dominant aerial predator and probably dominated terrestrial insect predation as well . True Odonata appeared in the Permian and all are amphibian . Their prototypes are the oldest winged fossils , go back to the Devonian , and are different from other wings in every way . Their prototypes may have had the beginnings of many modern attributes even by late Carboniferous and it is possible that they even captured small vertebrates , for some species had a wing span of 71 cm . The earliest beetle @-@ like species during the Permian had pointed , leather like forewings with cells and pits . Hemiptera , or true bugs had appeared in the form of Arctiniscytina and Paraknightia having forewings with unusual venation , possibly diverging from Blattoptera . A single large wing from a species of Diptera in the Triassic ( 10 mm instead of usual 2 – 6 mm ) was found in Australia ( Mt . Crosby ) .This family Tilliardipteridae , despite of the numerous ' tipuloid ' features , should be included in Psychodomorpha sensu Hennig on account of loss of the convex distal 1A reaching wing margin and formation of the anal loop . = = = Hypotheses = = = Paranotal hypothesis : This hypothesis suggests that the insect 's wings developed from paranotal lobes , a preadaptation found in insect fossils that is believed to have assisted stabilization while hopping or falling . In favor of this hypothesis is the tendency of most insects , when startled while climbing on branches , to escape by dropping to the ground . Such lobes would have served as parachutes and enable the insect to land more softly . The theory suggests that these lobes gradually grew larger and in a later stage developed a joint with the thorax . Even later would appear the muscles to move these crude wings . This model implies a progressive increase in the effectiveness of the wings , starting with parachuting , then gliding and finally active flight . Still , lack of substantial fossil evidence of the development of the wing joints and muscles poses a major difficulty to the theory , as does the seemingly spontaneous development of articulation and venation , and it has been largely rejected by experts in the field . Epicoxal hypothesis : This theory suggested that a possible origin for insect wings might have been the movable abdominal gills found in many aquatic insects , such as on naiads of mayflies . According to this theory these tracheal gills , which started their way as exits of the respiratory system and over time were modified into locomotive purposes , eventually developed into wings . The tracheal gills are equipped with little winglets that perpetually vibrate and have their own tiny straight muscles . Endite @-@ exite hypothesis : The hypothesis with perhaps the strongest evidence is that which stems from the adaptation of endites and exites , appendages on the respective inner and outer aspects of the primitive arthropod limb . This was advanced by Trueman based on a study by Goldschmidt in 1945 on Drosophila melanogaster , in which a pod variation displayed a mutation transforming normal wings to what was interpreted as a triple @-@ jointed leg arrangement with some additional appendages but lacking the tarsus , where the wing 's costal surface normally would be . This mutation was reinterpreted as strong evidence for a dorsal exite and endite fusion , rather than a leg , with the appendages fitting in much better with this hypothesis . The innervation , articulation and musculature required for the evolution of wings are already present in podomeres . Paranota plus leg gene recruitment hypothesis : The fossil larvae of Coxoplectoptera provided important new clues to the disputed question of the evolutionary origin of insect wings . Before the larvae fossil discovery the paranotal @-@ hypothesis and the leg @-@ exite @-@ hypothesis have been considered as incompatible alternative explanations , which have both been supported by a set of evidences from the fossil record , comparative morphology , developmental biology and genetics . The expression of leg genes in the ontogeny of the insect wing has been universally considered as conclusive evidence in favour of the leg @-@ exite @-@ hypothesis , which proposes that insect wings are derived from mobile leg appendages ( exites ) . However , the larvae of Coxoplectoptera show that the abdominal gills of mayflies and their ancestors , which are generally considered as corresponding structures to insect wings , articulated within the dorsal tergite plates . This cannot be seen in modern mayfly larvae , because their abdominal tergites and sternites are fused to rings , without any traces left even in embryonic development . If larval gills and wings are corresponding ( " serial homologous " ) structures and thus share the same evolutionary origin , the new results from Coxoplectoptera demonstrate that also wings are of tergal origin , as proposed by the classical paranotal @-@ hypothesis . Staniczek , Bechly & Godunko ( 2011 ) therefore suggested a new hypothesis that could reconcile the apparently conflicting evidence from paleontology and developmental genetics : wings first originated as stiff outgrowths of tergal plates ( paranota ) , and only later in evolution became mobile , articulated appendages through secondary recruiting of leg genes . Suggestions have been made that wings may have evolved initially for sailing on the surface of water as seen in some stoneflies . An alternative idea is that it drives from directed aerial gliding descent — a preflight phenomena found in some apterygote , a wingless sister taxa to the winged insects . The earliest fliers were similar to dragonflies with two sets of wings , direct flight muscles , and no ability to fold their wings over their abdomens . Most insects today , which evolved from those first fliers , have simplified to either one pair of wings or two pairs functioning as a single pair and using a system of indirect flight muscles . Natural selection has played an enormous role in refining the wings , control and sensory systems , and anything else that affects aerodynamics or kinematics . One noteworthy trait is wing twist . Most insect wings are twisted , as are helicopter blades , with a higher angle of attack at the base . The twist generally is between 10 and 20 degrees . In addition to this twist , the wing surfaces are not necessarily flat or featureless ; most larger insects have wing membranes distorted and angled between the veins in such a way that the cross @-@ section of the wings approximates an airfoil . Thus , the wing 's basic shape already is capable of generating a small amount of lift at zero angle of attack ( see Insect wing ) . Most insects control their wings by adjusting tilt , stiffness , and flapping frequency of the wings with tiny muscles in the thorax ( below ) . Some insects evolved other wing features that are not advantageous for flight , but play a role in something else , such as mating or protection . Some insects , occupying the biological niches that they do , need to be incredibly maneuverable . They must find their food in tight spaces and be capable of escaping larger predators – or they may themselves be predators , and need to capture prey . Their maneuverability , from an aerodynamic viewpoint , is provided by high lift and thrust forces . Typical insect fliers can attain lift forces up to three times their weight and horizontal thrust forces up to five times their weight . There are two substantially different insect flight mechanisms , and each has its own advantages and disadvantages – just because odonates have a more primitive flight mechanism does not mean they are less able fliers ; they are , in certain ways , more agile than anything that has evolved afterward . = = Morphogenesis = = While the development of wings in insects is clearly defined in those who are members of Endopterygota , which undergo complete metamorphosis ; in these species , the wing develops while in the pupal stage of the insects life cycle . However , insects that undergo incomplete metamorphosis do not have a pupal stage , therefore they must have a different wing morphogenesis . Insects such as those that are hemimetabolic have wings that start out as buds , which are found underneath the exoskeleton , and do not become exposed until the last instar of the nymph . The first indication of the wing buds is of a thickening of the hypodermis , which can be observed in insect species as early the embryo , and in the earliest stages of the life cycle . During the development of morphological features while in the embryo , or embryogenesis , a cluster of cells grow underneath the ectoderm which later in development , after the lateral ectoderm has grown dorsally to form wind imaginal disc . An example of wing bud development in the larvae , can be seen in those of White butterflies ( Pieris ) . In the second instar the histoblast become more prominent , which now form a pocket @-@ like structure . As of the third and fourth instars , the histoblast become more elongated . This greatly extended and evaginated , or protruding , part is what becomes the wing . By the close of the last instar , or fifth , the wing is pushed out of the wing @-@ pocket , although continues to lie under the old larval cuticle while in its prepupal stage . It is not until the butterfly is in its pupal stage that the wing @-@ bud becomes exposed , and shortly after eclosion , the wing begins to expand and form its definitive shape . The development of tracheation of the wings begin before the wing histoblast form , as it is important to note that they develop near a large trachea . During the fourth instar , cells from the epithelium of this trachea become greatly enlarged extend into the cavity of the wing bud , with each cell having developed a closely coiled tracheole . Each trachcole is of unicellular origin , and is at first intracellular in position ; while tracheae are of multicellular origin and the lumen of each is intercellular in position . The development of tracheoles , each coiled within a single cell of the epithelium of a trachea , and the subsequent opening of communication between the tracheoles and the lumen of the trachea , and the uncoiling and stretching out of the tracheoles , so that they reach all parts of the wing . In the earlier stages of its development , the wing @-@ bud is not provided with special organs of respiration such as tracheation , as it resembles in this respect the other portions of the hypodermis of which it is still a part . It should be noted , however , that the histoblast is developed near a large trachea , a cross @-@ section of which is shown in , which represents sections of these parts of the first , second , third and fourth instars respectively . At the same time the tracheoles uncoil , and extend in bundles in the forming vein @-@ cavities of the wing @-@ bud . At the molt that marks the beginning of the pupal stadium stage , they become functional . At the same time , the larval tracheoles degenerate ; their function having been replaced by the wing tracheae . = = Nomenclature = = Most of the nomenclature of insect orders is based on the Ancient Greek word for wing , πτερόν ( pteron ) , as the suffix -ptera . = = Adaptations = = = = = Variation = = = Insect wings are fundamental in identifying and classifying species as there is no other set of structures in studying insects more significant . Each order and insect family has distinctive wing shapes and features . In many cases , even species may be distinguished from each other by differences of color and pattern . For example , just by position one can identify species , albeit to a much lesser extent . Though most insects fold their wings when at rest , dragonflies and some damselflies rest with their wings spread out horizontally , while groups such as the caddisflies , stoneflies , alderflies , and lacewings hold their wings sloped roof @-@ like over their backs . A few moths wrap their wings around their bodies , while many flies and most butterflies close their wings together straight upward over the back . Many times the shape of the wings correlates with the type of insect flight . The best @-@ flying insects tend to have long , slender wings . In many species of Sphingidae ( sphinx moths ) , the forewings are large and sharply pointed , forming with the small hind wings a triangle that is suggestive of the wings of fast , modern airplanes . Another , possibly more important correlation , is that of the size and power of the muscles to the speed and power of flight . In the powerfully flying insects , the wings are most adapted for the stresses and aerodynamics of flight . The veins are thicker , stronger , and closer together toward the front edge ( or " leading edge " ) and thinner yet flexible toward the rear edge ( or " trailing edge " ) . This makes the insect wing an excellently constructed airfoil , capable of exerting both propulsion and lift while minimizing drag . Variation of the wing beat may also occur , not just amongst different species , but even among individuals at different times . In general , the frequency is dependent upon the ratio between the power of the wing muscles and the resistance of the load . Large @-@ winged , light @-@ bodied butterflies may have a wing beat frequency of 4 – 20 per second whereas small @-@ winged , heavy @-@ bodied flies and bees beat their wings more than 100 times a second and mosquitoes can beat up to 988 – 1046 times a second . The same goes for flight ; though it is generally difficult to estimate the speed of insects in flight , most insects can probably fly faster in nature than they do in controlled experiments . = = = Coleoptera = = = In species of Coleoptera ( beetles ) , the only functional wings are the hind wings . The hind wings are longer than the elytra , folded longitudinally and transversely under the elytra . The wing is rotated forwards on its base into flight position . This action spread the wing and unfolded longitudinally and transversely . There is the spring mechanism in the wing structure , sometimes with the help of abdomen movement , to keep the wing in folded position . The beetle wing venation is reduced and modified due to the folding structure , which include : Costa ( C ) , Subcosta posterior ( ScP ) – at the leading wing marginal , fused for most of the length . Radius anterior ( RA ) – divided into two branches beyond the middle of the wing . Radius posterior ( RP ) – basal connection is lost . Media posterior ( MP ) – branches , long and strong vein . Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) Anal veins ( AA , AP ) – veins behind the cubitus , separated by anal fold . In most species of beetles , the front pair of wings are modified and sclerotised ( hardened ) to form elytra and they protect the delicate hindwings which are folded beneath . The elytra are connected to the pterathorax ; being called as such because it is where the wings are connected ( pteron meaning " wing " in Greek ) . The elytra are not used for flight , but tend to cover the hind part of the body and protect the second pair of wings ( alae ) . The elytra must be raised in order to move the hind flight wings . A beetle 's flight wings are crossed with veins and are folded after landing , often along these veins , and are stored below the elytra . In some beetles , the ability to fly has been lost . These include some ground beetles ( family Carabidae ) and some " true weevils " ( family Curculionidae ) , but also some desert and cave @-@ dwelling species of other families . Many of these species have the two elytra fused together , forming a solid shield over the abdomen . In a few families , both the ability to fly and the elytra have been lost , with the best known example being the glow @-@ worms of the family Phengodidae , in which the females are larviform throughout their lives . = = = Lepidoptera = = = The two pairs of wings are found on the middle and third segment , or mesothorax and metathorax respectively . In the more recent genera , the wings of the second segment are much more pronounced , however some more primitive forms have similarly sized wings of both segments . The wings are covered in scales arranged like shingles , forming the extraordinary variety seen in color . The mesothorax is evolved to have more powerful muscles to propel moth or butterfly through the air , with the wing of said segment having a stronger vein structure . The largest superfamily , Noctuidae , has the wings modified to act as Tympanal or hearing organs Modifications in the wing 's venation include : Costa ( C ) – not found in Butterflies . Subcosta ( Sc ) + Radius 1 ( Sc + R1 ) – at the leading wing marginal , fused or very close for most of the length , in hind wing fused and well developed in the humeral area , subcosta never branches in butterfly . Radius ( R2 @-@ R5 ) – radius divides into branches beyond the middle of the wing up to five branches in Papilionidae . On forewing , the last R is stalked in all butterflies except Hesperiidae is separated . Radius sector ( Rs ) – in hind wing . Media ( M1 @-@ M3 ) – the basal section has been lost . Cubitus anterior ( CuA1 @-@ CuA2 ) – CuP section has been lost . Anal veins ( A , 1A + 2A , 3A ) – either one vein A , or two veins 1A + 2A , 3A . Humeral vein – The hind wing of most butterflies has the humeral vein , except Lycaenidae There is the enlargement of the humeral area of the hind wing which is overlapped with the fore wing . The humeral vein strengthened the hind wing overlapped area so that the two wings coupling better . The wings , head parts of thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales , from which feature the order ' Lepidoptera ' derives its names , the word " lepteron " in Ancient Greek meaning ' scale ' . Most scales are lamellar , or blade @-@ like and attached with a pedicel , while other forms may be hair @-@ like or specialized as secondary sexual characteristics . The lumen or surface of the lamella , has a complex structure . It gives color either due to the pigmentary colors contained within or due to its three @-@ dimensional structure . Scales provide a number of functions , which include insulation , thermoregulation , aiding gliding flight , amongst others , the most important of which is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide which help the organism protect itself by camouflage , mimicry , and to seek mates . = = = Odonata = = = Species of Odonata ( Damselflies and dragonflies ) both have two pairs of wings which are about equal in size and shape and are clear in color . There are five , if the R + M is counted as 1 , main vein stems on dragonfly and damselfly wings , and wing veins are fused at their bases and the wings cannot be folded over the body at rest , which also include : Costa ( C ) – at the leading edge of the wing , strong and marginal , extends to the apex of the wing . Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , it is unbranched , joins C at nodus . Radius and Media ( R + M ) – third and fourth longitudinal vein , the strongest vein on the wing , with branches , R1 @-@ R4 , reach the wing margin , the media anterior ( MA ) are also reach the wing margin . IR2 and IR3 are intercalary veins behind R2 and R3 respectively . Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , cubitus posterior ( CuP ) is unbranched and reach the wing margin . Anal veins ( A1 ) – unbranched veins behind the cubitus . A nodus is formed where the second main vein meets the leading edge of the wing . The black pterostigma is carried near the wing tip . The main veins and the crossveins form the wing venation pattern . The venation patterns are different in different species . There may be very numerous crossveins or rather few . The Australian Flatwing Damselfly 's wings are one of the few veins patterns . The venation pattern is useful for species identification . Almost all Anisoptera settle with the wings held out sideways or slightly downward , however most Zygoptera settle with the wings held together , dorsal surfaces apposed . The thorax of Zygoptera is so oblique that when held in this way the wings fit neatly along the top of the abdomen . They do not appear to be held straight up as in butterflies or mayflies . In a few zygopteran families the wings are held horizontally at rest , and in one anisopteran genus ( e.g. Cordulephya , Corduliidae ) the wings are held in the typical damselfly resting position . Adult species possess two pairs of equal or subequal wings . There appear to be only five main vein stems . A nodus is formed where the second main vein ( subcosta ) meets the leading edge of the wing . In most families a conspicuous pterostigma is carried near the wing tip . Identification as Odonata can be based on the venation . The only likely confusion is with some lacewings ( order Neuroptera ) which have many crossveins in the wings . Until the early years of the 20th century Odonata were often regarded as being related to lacewings and were given the ordinal name Paraneuroptera , but any resemblance between these two orders is entirely superficial . In Anisoptera the hindwing is broader than the forewing and in both wings a crossvein divides the discoidal cell into a Triangle and Supertriangle . = = = Orthoptera = = = Species of Orthoptera ( Grasshoppers and crickets ) have forewings that are tough opaque tegmina , narrow which are normally covering the hind wings and abdomen at rest . The hind wings are board membranous and folded in fan @-@ like manner , which include the following venation : Costa ( C ) – at the leading marginal of the forewing and hind wing , unbranched . Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , unbranched . Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , branched to Rs in forewing and hind wing . Media anterior ( MA ) – fourth longitudinal vein , branched in basal part as Media posterior ( MP ) . Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , on forewing and hind wing dividing near the wing base into branched CuA , and unbranched CuP . Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus , unbranched , two in forewing , many in hind wing . = = = Phasmatodea = = = Costa ( C ) – at the leading marginal of the hind wing , unbranched , absent in forewing . Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , unbranched . Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , branched to Rs in hind wing , unbranched in forewing . Media anterior ( MA ) – fourth longitudinal vein , branched in basal part as Media posterior ( MP ) . Cubitus ( Cu ) – fifth longitudinal vein , unbranched . Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus , unbranched , two in forewing , many in hind wing 1A @-@ 7A in one group and the rest in another group . Stick insect have forewings that are tough , opaque tegmina , short and covering only the base part of the hind wings at rest . Hind wings from costa to Cubitus are tough and opaque like the forewings . The large anal area are membranous and folded in fan @-@ like manner . There are no or very few branching in Stick Insect wing veins . = = = Dermaptera = = = Other orders such as the Dermaptera ( earwigs ) , Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , crickets ) , Mantodea ( praying mantis ) and Blattodea ( cockroaches ) have rigid leathery forewings that aren 't used for flying , sometimes called tegmen ( pl. tegmina ) , elytra , or pseudoelytron . = = = Hemiptera = = = In Hemiptera ( true bugs ) , the forewings may be hardened , though to a lesser extent than in the beetles . For example , the anterior part of the front wings of stink bugs is hardened , while the posterior part is membranous . They are called hemelytron ( pl. hemelytra ) . They are only found in the suborder Heteroptera ; the wings of the Homoptera , such as the cicada , are typically entirely membranous . Both forewings and hindwings of Cicada are membranous , most species are glass @-@ like although some are opaque . Cicadas are not good fliers and most fly only a few seconds . When flying , forewing and hind wing are hooked together by a grooved coupling along the hind wing costa and forewing margin . Most species have a basic venation as shown in the following picture . Costa ( C ) – at the leading wing marginal , in forewing extends to the node and lies close to Sc + R. Subcosta + Radius ( Sc + R ) – in forewing Sc and R fused together to the node . Radial sector ( Rs ) arises near the node and unbranches . Radius anterior ( RA ) Radius posterior ( RP ) Media ( M ) – branches to M1 to M4 . Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) – branches to CuA1 and CuA2 . Cubitus posterior ( CuP ) – unbranches . Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus , 1A and 2A fused in the forewing , CuP and 2A are folded . Also notice there are the ambient veins and peripheral membranes on the margin of both wings . = = = Diptera = = = In the Diptera ( true flies ) , there is only one pair of functional wings , with the posterior pair of wings are reduced to halteres , which help the fly to sense its orientation and movement , as well as to improve balance by acting similar to gyroscopes . In Calyptratae , the very hindmost portion of the wings are modified into somewhat thickened flaps called calypters which cover the halteres . Costa ( C ) – not found in Diptera . Subcosta ( Sc ) – became the leading wing vein , unbranched . Radius ( R ) – branched to R1 @-@ R5 . Media ( M ) – branched to M1 @-@ M4 . Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) - unbranched , CuP is reduced in Diptera . Some species CuA and 1A are separated , some species meets when reaching the wing margin , some species fused . Anal veins ( A ) – only two anal veins 1A and 2A are present , 2A is not distinctive in some species . Discal Cell ( dc ) – well defined in most species . = = = Blattodea = = = Species of Blattodea ( cockroaches ) have a forewing , are also known as tegmen , that is more or less sclerotized . It is used in flight as well as a form of protection of the membranous hind wings . The veins of hind wing are about the same as front wing but with large anal lobe folded at rest between CuP and 1A . The anal lobe usually folded in a fan @-@ like manner . Costa ( C ) – at the leading edge of the wing . Subcosta ( Sc ) – second longitudinal vein , it is relatively short . Radius ( R ) – third longitudinal vein , with many pectinate branches . Media ( M ) – fourth longitudinal vein , reach the wing margin . Cubitus anterior ( CuA ) – fifth longitudinal vein , with dichotomous branches occupy large part of tegmen . Cubitus posterior ( CuP ) – is unbranched , curved and reach the wing margin . Anal veins ( A ) – veins behind the cubitus . = = = Hymenoptera = = = The Hymenoptera adults , include sawflies , wasps , bees and non @-@ working ants , all of which have two pairs of membranous wings . Costa ( C ) – not found in Hymenoptera . Subcosta ( Sc ) – unbranched . Radius ( R ) – branched to R1 @-@ R5 . Media ( M ) – M is unbranched , in forewing M is fused with Rs for part of its length . Cubitus ( CuA ) – unbranched , CuP is absent in Hymenoptera . Anal veins ( A ) – only two anal veins 1A and 2A are present , 2A is not distinctive in some species . Wing @-@ coupling – Row of hooks on the leading edge of hind wing engage the hind margin of the forewing , strongly couple the wings in flight . Line of wing folding – Some species , including Vespidae , the forewing are longitudinally folded along the ' line of wing folding ' at rest . Pterostigma – is present for some species . The forward margin of the hind wing bears a number of hooked bristles , or " hamuli " , which lock onto the fore wing , keeping them held together . The smaller species may have only two or three hamuli on each side , but the largest wasps may have a considerable number , keeping the wings gripped together especially tightly . Hymenopteran wings have relatively few veins compared with many other insects , especially in the smaller species . = = = Other families = = = Termites are relatively poor fliers and are readily blown downwind in wind speeds of less than 2 km / h , shedding their wings soon after landing at an acceptable site , where they mate and attempt to form a nest in damp timber or earth . Wings of most termites have three heavy veins along the basal part of the front edge of the forewing and the crossveins near the wing tip are angled , making trapezoidal cells . Although subterranean termite wings have just two major veins along the front edge of the forewing and the cross veins towards the wingtip are perpendicular to these veins , making square and rectangular cells . Species of Thysanoptera ( thrips ) have slender front and hind wings with long fringes of hair , called fringed wings . While species of Trichoptera ( caddisfly ) have hairy wings with the front and hind wings clothed with setae . = Lucy Li = Lucy Li ( born October 1 , 2002 ) is an American female amateur golfer . She currently holds records as the youngest qualifier for the U.S. Women 's Amateur and the U.S. Women 's Open . She is the second youngest qualifier for the U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links , but the youngest ever to advance to match play in that event . Li was an age group winner at the inaugural Masters Drive , Chip , and Putt Championship in Augusta , Georgia . She is currently a student of Jim McLean . = = Background = = Born in Stanford , California , Li now lives in Redwood Shores . Her father , Warren Li , is a San Francisco Bay Area computer consultant and stockbroker . Her mother , Amy Zeng , is a former Hewlett @-@ Packard employee . Warren and Amy were raised in China and moved to the United States from Australia in 1998 . Warren has a Ph.D. in computer science , while Amy has a master 's degree in the field . Lucy was born in 2002 . She lived with her Aunt Tao Zeng four months per year to train in Florida near Trump National Doral Miami and McLean 's Golf School . Li is homeschooled . She performs some of her schoolwork through independent study in the months she is in Florida . Li took diving lessons at Stanford University and was platform diving from 10 metres ( 32 @.@ 8 ft ) at age 4 . She was also active in gymnastics and music . Some sources claim that she began practicing at Mariners Point Golf Center at about age 4 or 5 , with informal coaching from her mother and Aunt . Other sources claim that she began playing golf at age 7 while watching her older brother Luke , a Princeton University student , who was hitting balls at a driving range . Li likes to tell the latter story , but Mariners Point head pro , Joby Ross , confirmed that at about 3 or 4 years old Li was very boisterous about her interest in the sport to the point of throwing tantrums when being asked to leave . At age 7 her parents called Jim McLean , who also coaches or has coached Lexi Thompson , Cristie Kerr , Keegan Bradley and Erik Compton , and arranged a visit to meet him at Doral . Afterwards , the family made summer living arrangements with her Aunt . Then , McLean began working with her . Li 's practice course is Cinnabar Hills in San Jose . = = Career = = Li holds record for youngest match @-@ play qualifier in U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links history ( 10 years , 8 months , 16 days ) , surpassing Michelle Wie 's 2000 record by a mere 7 days . Li was the second youngest qualifier in May 2013 for the U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links before becoming the youngest to advance to match play that June . The lone person younger than Li was Allisen Corpuz , who qualified in 2008 . She is also the youngest U.S. Women 's Amateur qualifier , surpassing Latanna Stone 's 2012 record age of 10 years , 11 months and 2 days by beginning the first day of the tournament at age 10 years , 10 months and 4 days old on August 5 , 2013 . In 2014 , at the first ever Drive , Chip and Putt Championship on the Sunday preceding the 78th edition Masters Tournament at Augusta National Golf Club , she won the Girls 10 – 11 age division . The event was televised on the Golf Channel and was sponsored by the United States Golf Association , Professional Golfers ' Association of America and Augusta National to increase youth participation in the sport . Over 10 @,@ 000 youth from over 110 sites participated in a qualification process that yielded 88 qualifiers from 8 age / gender brackets from each of 11 regions . On May 19 , 2014 , she became the youngest ( age 11 ) to qualify for the U.S. Women 's Open , surpassing Thompson 's record ( 12 years , 4 months , 18 days ) from the 2007 Open . Notably , Li not only qualified , but she won her qualifying event by seven strokes at Old Course at Half Moon Bay Golf Links . Thompson missed the cut in 2007 with a 36 @-@ hole 168 total . Li was the second youngest to compete ; nine years prior to the introduction of qualification in 1976 , Beverly Klass played in the 1967 Open at age 10 years , 7 months , and 21 days . Although Li 's qualification was largely heralded , some were befuddled at the state of the sport when a sixth grader could even qualify for one of the most prestigious events of the year . Li , who had reached a 1 @.@ 5 handicap by April , had a handicap better than threshold 2 @.@ 4 , making her eligible to participate in qualifications . Li was 11 years , 8 months , and 19 days on June 19 , the opening round of the 2014 U.S. Women 's Open , held at Course No. 2 of Pinehurst Resort & Country Club . Edel Golf designed custom clubs that Golf Digest described as " blinged @-@ out " for Li to use in the Open . In the first round on Thursday , Li shot a 78 ( + 8 ) , which had been the highest score that anyone who made the cut in the 2013 Open had tallied . She followed that up with a second 78 on Friday for 156 ( + 16 ) and missed the cut by seven strokes . She then walked the course as a fan that Sunday . She scheduled an appearance in the July U.S. Women 's Amateur Public Links in DuPont , Washington next . Li shot 74 and 70 to qualify for match play where she lost to Alice Chen in sudden @-@ death of the first round after posting a stroke play equivalent of a 71 . She did not schedule any other USGA events in 2014 , deciding instead to play local events and be an 11 @-@ year @-@ old . In 2015 , she did not qualify for the 2015 U.S. Women 's Open . = Union Stock Yards = The Union Stock Yard & Transit Co . , or The Yards , was the meatpacking district in Chicago for more than a century , starting in 1865 . The district was operated by a group of railroad companies that acquired swampland and turned it into a centralized processing area . By the 1890s , the railroad money behind the Union Stockyards was Vanderbilt money . The Union Stockyards operated in the New City community area for 106 years , helping Chicago become known as " hog butcher for the world " and the center of the American meatpacking industry for decades . The stockyards became the focal point of the rise of some of the earliest international companies . These companies refined novel industrial innovations and influenced financial markets . Both the rise and fall of the district owe their fortunes to the evolution of transportation services and technology in America . The stockyards have become an integral part of the popular culture of Chicago 's history . From the Civil War until the 1920s and peaking in 1924 , more meat was processed in Chicago than in any other place in the world . Construction began in June 1865 with an opening on Christmas Day in 1865 . The Yards closed at midnight on Friday , July 30 , 1971 , after several decades of decline during the decentralization of the meatpacking industry . The Union Stock Yard Gate was designated a Chicago Landmark on February 24 , 1972 , and a National Historic Landmark on May 29 , 1981 . = = History = = Before construction of the various private stockyards , tavern owners provided pastures and care for cattle herds waiting to be sold . With the spreading service of railroads , several small stockyards were created in and around the City of Chicago . In 1848 , a stockyard called the Bulls Head Market was opened to the public . The Bulls Head Stock Yards were located at Madison Street and Ogden Avenue . In the years that followed , several small stockyards were scattered throughout the city . Between 1852 and 1865 , five ( 5 ) railroads were constructed to Chicago . The stockyards that sprang up were usually built along various rail lines of these new railroad companies . Some railroads built their own stockyards in Chicago . The Illinois Central and the Michigan Central railroads combined to build the largest set of pens on the lake shore east of Cottage Grove Avenue from 29th Street to 35th Street . In 1878 , the New York Central Railroad managed to buy a controlling interest in the Michigan Central Railroad . In this way , Cornelius Vanderbilt , owner of the New York Central Railroad , got his start in the stockyard business in Chicago . Several factors contributed to consolidation of the Chicago stockyards : westward expansion of railroads between 1850 and 1870 , which drove great commercial growth in Chicago as a major railroad center , and the Mississippi River blockade during the Civil War that closed all north @-@ south river trade . The United States government purchased a great deal of beef and pork to feed the Union troops fighting the Civil War . As a consequence , hog receipts at the Chicago stockyards rose from 392 @,@ 000 hogs in 1860 to 1 @,@ 410 @,@ 000 hogs over the winter butchering season of 1864 @-@ 1865 ; over the same time period , beef receipts in Chicago rose from 117 @,@ 000 head to 339 @,@ 000 head . With an influx of butchers and small meat packing concerns , the number of businesses greatly increased to process the flood of livestock being shipped to the Chicago stockyards . The goal was to butcher and process the livestock locally rather than transferring it to other northern cities for butchering and processing . Keeping up with the huge number of animals arriving each day proved impossible until a new wave of consolidation and modernization altered the meatpacking business in the post @-@ Civil War era . The Union Stock Yards , designed to consolidate operations , was built in 1864 on swampland south of the city . It was south and west of the earlier stock yards in an area bounded by Halsted Street on the east , South Racine Avenue on the west , with 39th Street as the northern boundary and 47th Street as the southern boundary . Led by the Alton , Chicago & St. Louis Railroad and the Lake Shore and Michigan Southern Railway a consortium of nine railroad companies ( hence the " Union " name ) acquired the 320 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 3 km2 ) swampland area in southwest Chicago for $ 100 @,@ 000 in 1864 . The stockyards were connected to the city 's main rail lines by 15 miles ( 24 km ) of track . In 1864 , the Union Stock Yards were located just outside the southern boundary of the City of Chicago . Within five years the area was incorporated into the city . Eventually , the 375 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 52 km2 ) site had 2300 separate livestock pens , room to accommodate 75 @,@ 000 hogs , 21 @,@ 000 cattle and 22 @,@ 000 sheep at any one time . Additionally , hotels , saloons , restaurants , and offices for merchants and brokers sprang up in the growing community around the stockyards . Led by Timothy Blackstone , a founder and the first president of the Union Stock Yards and Transit Company , " The Yards " experienced tremendous growth . Processing two million animals yearly by 1870 , in two decades the number rose to nine million by 1890 . Between 1865 and 1900 , approximately 400 million livestock were butchered within the confines of the Yards . By the start of the 20th century , the stockyards employed 25 @,@ 000 people and produced 82 percent of the domestic meat consumed nationally . In 1921 , the stockyards employed 40 @,@ 000 people . Two thousand men worked directly for the Union Stock Yard & Transit Co . , and the rest worked for companies such as meatpackers , which had plants in the stockyards . By 1900 , the 475 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 92 km2 ) stockyard contained 50 miles ( 80 km ) of road , and had 130 miles ( 210 km ) of track along its perimeter . At its largest size , The Yards covered nearly 1 square mile ( 3 km2 ) of land , from Halsted Street to Ashland Avenue and from 39th ( now Pershing Rd . ) to 47th Streets . At one time , 500 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 2 @,@ 000 m3 ) a day of Chicago River water were pumped into the stockyards . So much stockyard waste drained into the South Fork of the river that it was called Bubbly Creek due to the gaseous products of decomposition . The creek bubbles to this day . When the City permanently reversed the flow of the Chicago River in 1900 , the intent was to prevent the Stock Yards ' waste products , along with other sewage , from flowing into Lake Michigan and contaminating the City 's drinking water . The meatpacking district was served between 1908 and 1957 by a short Chicago ' L ' line with several stops , devoted primarily to the daily transport of thousands of workers and even tourists to the site . The line was constructed when the City of Chicago forced the removal of surface trackage on 40th Street . Evolving methods of transportation and distribution led to declining business and the closing of the Union Stock Yards in 1971 . National Wrecking Company negotiated a contract whereby National Wrecking cleared a 102 @-@ acre site and removed some 50 acres of animal pens , auxiliary buildings and the eight story Exchange Building . It took approximately eight months to complete the job and ready the site for the building of an industrial park . = = = Effect on industry = = = The size and scale of the stockyards , along with technological advancements in rail transport and refrigeration , allowed for the creation of some of America 's first truly global companies led by entrepreneurs such as Gustavus Franklin Swift and Philip Danforth Armour . Philip Armour was the first person to build a modern large @-@ scale meatpacking plant in Chicago in 1867 . The Armour plant was built at 45th Street and Elizabeth Avenue immediately to the west of the Union Stockyards . This new plant employed the modern " assembly line " ( or rather dis @-@ assembly line ) method of work . The mechanized process with its killing wheel and conveyors helped inspire the automobile assembly line that Henry Ford popularlized in 1913 . For a time the Armour plant , located on a twelve ( 12 ) acre site , was renowned as the largest factory in the world . In addition , hedging transactions by the stockyard companies was pivotal in the establishment and growth of the Chicago @-@ based commodity exchanges and futures markets . Selling on the futures market allowed the seller to have a guaranteed price at a set time in the future . This was extremely helpful to those sellers who expected their cattle or hogs to come to market with a glut of other cattle or hogs when prices might necessarily be substantially lower than the guaranteed futures price . Following the arrival of Armour in 1867 , Gustav Swift 's company arrived in Chicago in 1875 and built another modern large @-@ scale meatpacking plant at 42nd Street and South Justine Street . The Morris Company built a meatpacking plant at 42nd Street and Elizabeth Street . The Hammond Company and the Wilson Company also built a meatpacking plants in the area west of the Chicago stockyards . Eventually , meatpacking byproduct manufacturing of leather , soap , fertilizer , glue ( such as the large glue factory located at 44th Street and Loomis Street ) , pharmaceuticals , imitation ivory , gelatin , shoe polish , buttons , perfume , and violin strings prospered in the neighborhood . Additionally , there was a " Hair Factory , " located at 44th Street and Ashland Avenue , which processed hair from butchered animals into saleable items . Next to the Union Stock Yards , the International Amphitheatre building was built on west side of Halsted Street at 42nd Street in the 1930s , originally to hold the annual International Live Stock Exposition which began in 1900 . However , the International Amphitheatre became a venue for many events ( including the 1952 and 1956 Democratic National Conventions , the 1952 and 1960 Republican National Conventions and most famously the 1968 Democratic National Convention ) and its use continued for years after the stockyards closed in 1971 . = = = Fires = = = The Chicago Union Stock Yards Fire started on December 22 , 1910 , destroying $ 400 @,@ 000 of property and killing twenty @-@ one firemen , including the Fire Marshal James J. Horan . Fifty engine companies and seven hook and ladder companies fought the fire until it was declared extinguished by Chief Seyferlich on December 23 . In 2004 , a memorial to all Chicago firefighters who have died in the line of duty was erected just behind the Union Stock Yards Gate at the intersection of Exchange Avenue and Peoria Street . A larger fire occurred on Saturday , May 19 , 1934 , which burned almost 90 % of the stockyards , including the exchange building , stockyard inn , and the International Livestock Exposition building . This larger fire was seen as far away as Indiana , and caused approximately $ 6 million worth of damages . While only one watchman was killed , a few cattle also perished , but the yards were in business the following Sunday evening . = = = Workers and Unions = = = Following the opening of the new Union Stockyards on December 25 , 1865 , a community of workers began living in the area just west of the packing plants between Ashland Avenue and South Robey Street and bounded on the north by 43rd Street and on the south by 47th Street . At first , the residents were overwhelmingly Irish and German — 60 % Irish and 30 % German . Officially designated the " Town of Lake " until its incorporation into the City of Chicago in about 1870 , the neighborhood was known locally as " Packingtown . " However , much later in the 1930s , the community would become known as the " Back of the Yards . " The overwhelming sensation about the neighborhood was the smell of the community caused not just by the packing plants located immediately to the east , but also by the 345 @-@ acre Chicago Union Stock Yards containing 2 @,@ 300 pens of livestock , located further east from the packing plants . = = = Back of the Yards Community = = = Settlement in the area that was to become known as the " Back of the Yards " began in the 1850s before there were any meat packers or stockyards in the area . At this time the area was known as the " Town of Lake . " Indeed , the area would continue to be called Town of Lake until 1939 . Witness that the newspaper of the area was called the Town of Lake Journal . Only with the founding of the community organization called the " Back of the Yards Neighborhood Council " in 1939 did the neighborhood west and south of the meat packinghouses start being called the " Back of the Yards . " It was a name that the residents proudly claimed as their own . In 1939 , the Town of Lake Journal officially changed its name to Back of the Yards Journal . Pioneers to the area first called " Town of Lake " were S. S. Crocker and John Caffrey . Indeed , Crocker earned the nickname " Father of the Town of Lake . " By February 1865 the area was incorporated officially as " Town of Lake " the area still consisted of fewer than 700 persons . In the early 1860s the meat packing industry of the United States was still located in Cincinnati , Ohio , the original " Porkopolis " of the pre @-@ Civil War era . However , with the end of the American Civil War , the meat packing industry had started to move westward along with the westward migration of the population of the United States . For the meat packing industry moving west meant coming to Chicago . As early as 1827 , Archibauld Clybourn had established himself as a butcher in a log slaughter house on the north branch of the Chicago River and supplied most to the garrison of Fort Dearborn . Other small butchers came later . In 1848 , the Bull 's Head Stockyard began operations at Madison Street and Ogden Avenue on the West Side of Chicago . Operations for this early stockyard , however , still meant holding and feeding cattle and hogs in transit to meat packing plants further east — Indianapolis and , of course , Cincinnati . = = Decline and current use = = The prosperity of the stockyards was due to both the concentration of railroads and the evolution of refrigerated railroad cars . Its decline was due to further advances in post @-@ World War II transportation and distribution . Direct sales of livestock from breeders to packers , facilitated by advancement in interstate trucking , made it cheaper to slaughter animals where they were raised and excluded the intermediary stockyards . At first , the major meatpacking companies resisted change , but Swift and Armour both surrendered and vacated their plants in the Yards in the 1950s . In 1971 , the area bounded by Pershing Road , Ashland , Halsted , and 47th Street became The Stockyards Industrial Park . The neighborhood to the west and south of the industrial park is still known as Back of the Yards , and is still home to a thriving immigrant population . = = = Gate = = = A remnant of the Union Stock Yard Gate still arches over Exchange Avenue , next to the firefighters ' memorial , and can be seen by those driving along Halsted Street . This limestone gate , marking the entrance to the stockyards , survives as one of the few relics of Chicago 's heritage of livestock and meatpacking . The steer head over the central arch is thought to represent " Sherman , " a prize @-@ winning bull named after John B. Sherman , a founder of the Union Stock Yard and Transit Company . The gate is a designated U.S. National Historic Landmark . = = In popular culture = = In 1906 Upton Sinclair published The Jungle , uncovering the horrid conditions in the stockyards around the start of the 20th century . The stockyards are referred to in Carl Sandburg 's poem Chicago : " proud to be Hog Butcher , Tool Maker , Stacker of Wheat , Player with Railroads and Freight Handler to the Nation . " Frank Sinatra mentioned the yards in his 1964 song " My Kind of Town , " and the stockyards receive a mention in the opening chapter of Thomas Pynchon 's novel Against the Day . The Skip James song " Hard Times Killing floor blues " refers to the nickname of the slaughter part of the stockyards during the great depression in the 1930s . The Yards were a major tourist stop , with visitors such as Rudyard Kipling , Paul Bourget and Sarah Bernhardt . The play Saint Joan of the Stockyards , a version of the story of Joan of Arc by Bertolt Brecht takes place in the stockyards . The 1950 film Union Station with William Holden has the final scene at the Union Stockyards . = 2007 Appalachian State vs. Michigan football game = The 2007 Appalachian State vs. Michigan football game was a regular season college football game between the Appalachian State Mountaineers and Michigan Wolverines . It was held at Michigan Stadium in Ann Arbor on September 1 , 2007 , and was the first game of the season for both teams . The Wolverines entered the game ranked No. 5 in both major Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) polls and media outlets considered them to be preseason favorites to win the Big Ten conference championship as well as possible contenders for the national championship , while the Mountaineers were ranked No. 1 in The Sports Network 's Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) poll and were preseason favorites to win their third consecutive FCS national championship . Games between FBS and FCS teams typically result in lopsided victories for the FBS team , and the Appalachian State – Michigan game was not expected to be an exception . The predicted outcome was a lopsided victory for Michigan , and Las Vegas sportsbooks did not give a betting line . The game was the first to be broadcast on the then @-@ new Big Ten Network , and began with a strong first half for Appalachian State , who held a 28 – 17 lead at the end of the half . Michigan regained the lead at 32 – 31 in the fourth quarter , but Appalachian State took the lead for a second time on a short field goal with 26 seconds left . The Mountaineers blocked a game @-@ winning field goal attempt from Michigan at the end of regulation to secure a 34 – 32 win . Immediately hailed as one of the greatest upsets in college football history , the game served as the lead story of SportsCenter and was the cover story for the following week 's edition of Sports Illustrated . Appalachian State became the second FCS team to defeat a ranked FBS team , and as a result of the game Michigan dropped out of the top 25 of the AP Poll entirely , marking the first time a team had fallen from the top five to out of the poll entirely as the result of a single game . In the aftermath of the game , the Associated Press amended their polling policy to make FCS teams eligible for the AP Poll , which had previously been limited to FBS teams . The Appalachian State Mountaineers finished the 2007 season with a 13 – 2 record and won a third consecutive FCS title . They also became the first FCS team to receive votes in the final AP Poll , tying South Florida for the 34th overall ranking . Michigan finished their season 9 – 4 , winning the Capital One Bowl , and ranked No. 18 in the final AP Poll . A rematch in 2014 at Michigan Stadium was won decisively by the Wolverines , 52 – 14 . The 2014 rematch was the Mountaineers ' first game as an FBS school . = = Background = = = = = Divisions and subdivisions = = = The National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) is split into three divisions : Division I , Division II , and Division III . According to the NCAA , Division I consists of " the largest programs that provide the most athletically related financial aid for student @-@ athletes " . Division I football is split into two subdivisions : the Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) and the Football Championship Subdivision ( FCS ) . USA Today notes that the FBS is considered the tier at which major Division I universities play , while the FCS is a tier in which smaller programs compete . FBS member teams are allowed to have up to 85 scholarship players , while FCS member teams are allowed to award 63 scholarships . However , FCS teams can divide their 63 scholarships by giving some players ' partial scholarships ' . FBS teams vie to play in bowl games , while FCS teams aim to qualify for a postseason tournament . The two subdivisions were created in 1978 , and no other Division I sports are split in such a manner . The difference between the two subdivisions is great enough that John V. Lombardi , a former chancellor at UMass , which played FCS football before moving to FBS in 2012 , and a former president at FBS @-@ level Florida and Louisiana State , said that " even a crummy team in [ FBS ] football has higher visibility than a great team in [ FCS ] . " FBS teams are allowed to schedule FCS teams , and one win against an FCS team can be counted towards their bowl @-@ eligible status provided the FCS team meets certain scholarship requirements . FCS teams are often paid upwards of USD $ 500 @,@ 000 for participating in games against FBS teams . This arrangement generally results in lopsided losses for FCS teams , but the money FCS schools earn from games against FBS teams helps fund their athletic departments , as well as offering broader exposure for their athletic programs . = = = Scheduling = = = Appalachian State had routinely scheduled FBS teams , playing against schools such as LSU ( 2005 ) , Auburn ( 1999 ) , Kansas ( 2005 ) , and NC State ( 2006 ) . They also had games against Wake Forest in every season from 1979 to 1996 , as well as in 1998 , 2000 , and 2001 . Appalachian State had won six of these games , all of them against Wake Forest . The Mountaineers had not beaten an FBS team since 2000 . Michigan , a historic college football power with a large fan base , had never played an FCS team . According to Appalachian State athletic director Charlie Cobb , both schools had gaps in their schedule as late as February 2007 ; the friendship between Mountaineers coach Jerry Moore and Wolverines coach Lloyd Carr played a key role in completing the deal . While attempting to determine the amount of money Appalachian State would be paid for playing Michigan , negotiations between the two schools reached a halt . Moore went to school officials and urged them to accept any offer Michigan gave them ; he recalled telling them that " It 's an opportunity game . It 'll be a one @-@ shot , once @-@ in @-@ a @-@ lifetime deal to go up there and play . It 's an unbelievable environment . " Appalachian State ultimately settled on a $ 400 @,@ 000 payment in return for playing against Michigan to open the 2007 season . = = Pre @-@ game = = Michigan was expected to handily defeat Appalachian State , who entered the game as considerable underdogs . Las Vegas sports books did not offer a betting line because they believed that it would be a mismatch . The day before the game , an Associated Press article said that the Mountaineers were " almost certain to lose badly " and " aren 't expected to be anything more than sacrificial lambs . " Another article predicted that Michigan would easily win , but that Michigan 's inexperienced secondary could possibly be tested by quarterback Armanti Edwards . This weakness is what the Mountaineers hoped to capitalize on : they spent most of the week leading up to the game studying game film , and felt that the Michigan defense had a tendency to leave the middle of the field defenseless . On the other hand , the Mountaineers lacked the depth of the Wolverines , having 22 fewer scholarship players . = = = Appalachian State Mountaineers = = = Appalachian State were ranked as the No. 1 team in the preseason FCS poll from The Sports Network , receiving 67 out of 70 first @-@ place votes . The team had won the previous two FCS national championships and were favorites to win a third consecutive title according to media outlets . They had also won their last 14 games , the longest in either Division I subdivision at the time . They had an overall record of 6 – 34 – 1 against major FBS teams . The Mountaineers ran a no @-@ huddle , spread option system , which they implemented in 2005 , their first championship season . Two of the major offensive weapons for the team were Edwards , who had scored 15 passing touchdowns and 15 rushing touchdowns in 2006 , and running back Kevin Richardson , who had scored an FCS @-@ record 30 rushing touchdowns in 2006 . The defensive unit for the Mountaineers was helmed by Corey Lynch , a safety ; the Mountaineer defense ranked 11th in rush defense and 35th in pass defense during the 2006 season , but the team lost five of its six best tacklers from that season , as well as defensive lineman Marques Murrell , who led the FCS in sacks during the 2006 season . Despite losses at the defensive line , the secondary , the team 's defensive strong point , remained virtually intact from the previous season . The Mountaineers ' kicker was senior Julian Rauch , who made 10 out of 14 field goal attempts during the 2006 season . = = = Michigan Wolverines = = = Michigan entered the game as the No. 5 @-@ ranked team in both the AP Poll and the Coaches ' Poll . Media outlets projected the team as favorites to win the Big Ten conference , and as contenders for a national championship . Michigan featured a strong senior class of offensive tackle Jake Long , tailback Mike Hart , and quarterback Chad Henne , each of whom had decided to stay in school rather than declare eligibility for the NFL Draft . The players attributed their decision to several factors , such as Michigan having lost their last three games to rival Ohio State and the Wolverines ' streak of three consecutive bowl losses . The three also desired to finish their college careers on a high note . Mark Schlabach of ESPN.com stated that " [ the trio ] , along with receivers Mario Manningham and Adrian Arrington , gives Michigan what could potentially be one of the most explosive offenses in college football " . Prior to the season , the team named Hart and Long as captains , along with linebacker Shawn Crable , a fifth @-@ year senior . Michigan aimed to open the game in a three @-@ receiver formation , which has the potential to spread the opposing defense out ; Michigan coach Lloyd Carr noted that " when you have some of the skill that we have at the wide receiver positions and can spread a defense out , that 's [ a ] positive . " At the same time , Michigan was anticipated to run only a limited selection of plays from this set , to limit the ability of their upcoming opponents to develop an effective game plan against them . Michigan 's defense , which led the FBS in run defense in 2006 , lost seven starters from the previous season , including four All @-@ Americans ( cornerback Leon Hall and defensive linemen Alan Branch , David Harris , and LaMarr Woodley ) , each of whom were drafted in the first two rounds of the 2007 NFL Draft . Wolverines linebacker Chris Graham , a senior , expected the defense to be defined by speed , noting that each position on the defense was " loaded in speed " . = = Game summary = = = = = Broadcast and game notes = = = The game was the first ever to be broadcast on the Big Ten Network . At the time the network had approximately 17 million subscribers , most of which came from a deal with DirecTV . According to Mark Silverman , the president of the Big Ten Network , only a " small percentage " of Wolverine fans were able to watch it . Silverman attributed this to the fact that Comcast and Charter , two of the major cable television providers in the state of Michigan , did not carry the Big Ten Network . Thom Brennaman provided play @-@ by @-@ play commentary , Charles Davis performed as the color analyst , and Charissa Thompson reported from the sidelines . The game marked Thompson 's debut as a sideline analyst on any network , while Brennaman and Davis were more experienced , having covered high @-@ profile college football games such as the 2007 Fiesta Bowl and the 2007 BCS National Championship Game for Fox Sports . The weather during the game was clear and sunny , with temperatures in the mid @-@ 70s ° F ( low @-@ 20s ° C ) and wind heading north at 10 – 15 miles ( 16 – 24 kilometers ) per hour . The referee , the head of the officiating team , was John O 'Neill . Overall attendance was recorded as 109 @,@ 218 . The game kicked off at 12 : 07 p.m. and ended at 3 : 40 p.m. , having lasted a total of three hours and thirty @-@ seven minutes . = = = First quarter = = = Michigan received the ball first , with Mike Massey returning the Julian Rauch kick to the Michigan 33 @-@ yard line . Michigan gained a first down after converting a third and one with a three @-@ yard run by Mike Hart . Chad Henne then completed an 18 @-@ yard pass to Massey , followed by a 33 @-@ yard rush from Hart , pushing Michigan to the four @-@ yard line of Appalachian State . Hart then ran the ball in for a touchdown , and the ensuing extra point made the score 7 – 0 . Appalachian State 's CoCo Hillary took the kickoff to the 26 @-@ yard line of the Mountaineers . After the Mountaineers opened with a run for no gain and a six @-@ yard completion , Armanti Edwards completed a 68 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Dexter Jackson . The extra point was converted , tying the score at 7 – 7 . The following two drives resulted in three @-@ and @-@ outs for both teams , but after a Mountaineer punt went out of bounds at the Michigan 48 @-@ yard line , the Wolverines mounted a ten @-@ play , 52 @-@ yard drive culminating in a ten @-@ yard touchdown pass from Henne to Greg Matthews . The extra point gave Michigan a 14 – 7 lead . Appalachian State started their drive with 3 : 09 left in the quarter at their own 35 @-@ yard line , completing nine plays and driving to the Michigan 36 yard @-@ line before the end of the quarter . = = = Second quarter = = = Following the start of the second quarter , Appalachian State ran another six plays , ending the drive with a nine @-@ yard touchdown pass by Edwards to Hans Batichon . The extra point again evened the score , this time at 14 – 14 . Michigan was forced into a three @-@ and @-@ out and had to punt the ball , with Appalachian State starting their next drive at the Michigan 37 . On the fifth play of the next drive , the Mountaineers scored a touchdown on a 20 @-@ yard pass from Edwards to Jackson . The Mountaineers converted the extra point attempt , giving them the lead at 21 – 14 . Michigan began their next drive at their 20 @-@ yard line , and drove down to the Appalachian State 40 @-@ yard line in four plays . Their next play , a Brandon Minor run for five yards , was followed by a Minor run for no yards and an incomplete pass . The Wolverines opted to go for it on fourth down but failed to convert , turning the ball over to Appalachian State . The following Mountaineer drive featured nine running plays in a row , the last a six @-@ yard run by Edwards for a touchdown . The extra point was successful , increasing the Mountaineer lead and making the score 28 – 14 . Michigan returned the next kickoff to their 32 @-@ yard line , with 2 : 15 left on the clock . The Wolverines drove to the Appalachian five @-@ yard line , ultimately settling for a field goal with 23 seconds left , cutting Appalachian State 's lead to eleven points . = = = Third quarter = = = Appalachian State returned the opening kickoff of the second half to their own 36 @-@ yard line , but Michigan defender Morgan Trent intercepted an Edwards throw on the second play of the drive . Michigan took possession at the Appalachian State 40 @-@ yard line , driving to the 25 @-@ yard line before kicking a field goal to decrease the Mountaineer lead to eight points . Appalachian State began play after the kickoff at their own 24 @-@ yard line , driving 64 yards in 11 plays and scoring a 31 @-@ yard field goal to make the score 31 – 20 Appalachian State . After the ensuing kickoff , Michigan ran four plays before Minor fumbled the ball on the fifth . The fumble was recovered by Appalachian State defender Pierre Banks at the Michigan 28 @-@ yard line . However , Appalachian State failed to get a first down on the ensuing drive , and Rauch missed a 46 @-@ yard field goal attempt . Michigan went three @-@ and @-@ out on their next drive and had to punt , but a fumble by Edwards on the following Appalachian State drive was recovered by Michigan defender John Thompson , giving them control of the ball at the Appalachian State 31 @-@ yard line . Michigan drove 31 yards over six plays , scoring a touchdown on a four @-@ yard run by Hart . The Wolverines went for a two @-@ point conversion , but failed to convert , making the score 31 – 26 in favor of Appalachian State . Appalachian State received the kickoff at their own 26 @-@ yard line with 19 seconds left in the third quarter , and the quarter ended following a six @-@ yard completion by Edwards to Batichon . = = = Fourth quarter = = = Appalachian State continued their drive but were forced to punt after a three @-@ and @-@ out . Michigan began their drive at the Appalachian State 34 @-@ yard line , but a Henne pass was intercepted by Mountaineer defender Leonard Love on the fourth play of the drive . Love returned the ball 26 @-@ yards , and Appalachian State began the drive at their own 41 @-@ yard line , but were forced to punt after going three @-@ and @-@ out . Michigan got the ball at their own 24 @-@ yard line and mounted a nine @-@ play , 43 @-@ yard drive to the Appalachian State 33 @-@ yard line . On the final play , a fourth and five , Henne 's pass fell incomplete , turning the ball over to Appalachian State , who were again forced to punt after a three @-@ and @-@ out . After returning the punt to their own 46 @-@ yard line , Hart ran the ball 54 yards for a touchdown , giving Michigan the lead 32 – 31 with 4 : 36 left . Michigan chose to go for two , but the conversion attempt failed . Edwards was picked off on the first play of the ensuing drive , giving Michigan control of the ball at the Appalachian State 43 @-@ yard line . Michigan ran five plays before attempting a 43 @-@ yard field goal . The attempt was blocked , however , giving Appalachian State control of the ball with 1 : 37 left . With no timeouts left , the Mountaineers drove 69 yards down the field in just over a minute in game time , setting up a Rauch field goal from 24 yards out with 26 seconds left . The attempt was good , giving Appalachian State a 34 – 32 lead . Michigan regained control of the ball on the ensuing kickoff , and a 46 @-@ yard pass from Henne to Mario Manningham gave the Wolverines a 37 @-@ yard field goal attempt with six seconds left on the clock . The attempt was blocked by Corey Lynch , securing a 34 – 32 win by the Mountaineers . = = = Broadcast Calls = = = Thom Brennaman 's call of the final play for the Big Ten Network : David Jackson and Steve Brown 's call of the final play for Appalachian State Radio : = = = Scoring summary = = = = = Statistical summary = = Appalachian State recorded 227 yards through the air , while Michigan finished with 233 yards . Michigan finished with significantly more rushing yards , recording 246 rushing yards as opposed to the 160 rushing yards gained by Appalachian State . In total , the Wolverines recorded 479 total yards of offense , while Appalachian State recorded 387 total yards . The Wolverines recorded 23 first downs , four more than the Mountaineers , while Appalachian State turned the ball over three times , one more than Michigan . Both teams recorded seven penalties , but Michigan recorded more penalty yards . Appalachian State held the edge in time of possession , holding the ball for 31 minutes and 12 seconds ; Michigan held the ball for 28 minutes and 48 seconds . Appalachian State quarterback Armanti Edwards completed 17 of 23 passes for 227 yards , three touchdowns , and two interceptions while averaging 9 @.@ 9 yards per throw . Kevin Richardson led the team in rushing yards , running the ball 24 times for 88 yards , and Edwards was second on the team with 17 rushes for 62 yards and one touchdown . Edwards accounted for all four Mountaineer touchdowns . Dexter Jackson led the team in receiving , catching three passes for 98 yards and two touchdowns ; he also had one carry for 19 yards . Michigan quarterback Chad Henne completed 19 of 37 passes for 233 yards , with an average of 6 @.@ 3 yards per throw ; he threw one touchdown and one interception . Mike Hart , who missed almost two quarters due to a thigh injury , led Michigan in rushing , recording 188 yards and three touchdowns on 23 carries . Greg Matthews led the Wolverines in receiving , accounting for 68 yards and one touchdown on seven catches . Pierre Banks led the Mountaineers in tackles , recording 12 tackles overall . Banks also recorded the only sack for the Mountaineers and recovered a fumble . Corey Lynch finished second with 11 tackles , as well as blocking a kick . Leonard Love recorded the only interception for the Mountaineers . For Michigan , Shawn Crable led the team with 10 tackles . Crable also forced a fumble and recorded 1 @.@ 5 sacks . Chris Graham finished with 9 tackles , the second @-@ most on the Wolverines . Brandent Englemon and Morgan Trent each intercepted a pass , while Tim Jamison , Terrance Taylor , and Will Johnson received full or partial credit for sacks . = = Aftermath = = = = = Appalachian State = = = Appalachian State was unanimously selected as the No. 1 team in the FCS football poll in the week after their victory against Michigan . Although several voters in the AP Poll stated they would like to vote for Appalachian State , the Mountaineers were ineligible to receive votes because the poll was only limited to FBS teams ; in response , the AP amended their policy the following week to allow FCS teams to receive votes in the AP Poll . The Mountaineers received 19 points in the week 3 edition of the AP Poll and 5 points in the week 4 edition of the AP Poll . The team also extended their winning streak to 17 games before losing to Wofford in week 5 . Appalachian State lost to rival Georgia Southern in week 7 , dropping them to 5 – 2 and 2 – 2 in the Southern Conference ( SoCon ) , which placed them in a poor position to repeat for a third consecutive time as conference champions . However , the Mountaineers won all of their remaining regular season games to finish 9 – 2 , and their 5 – 2 Southern Conference record was good enough to earn a share of the SoCon conference title with Wofford . After close victories over James Madison ( 28 – 27 ) and Eastern Washington ( 38 – 35 ) in the first two rounds of the FCS playoffs , Appalachian State easily defeated Richmond ( 55 – 35 ) in the semifinals and Delaware ( 49 – 21 ) in the championship game , winning their third consecutive FCS National Championship . They became the first team to win three consecutive FCS titles , and the first Division I football team to win three consecutive titles since Army , who had won three straight titles from 1944 to 1946 . At the end of the season , the Mountaineers became the first FCS team to receive votes in the final AP Poll . They received five votes , which placed Appalachian State at a tie for 34th overall with South Florida . = = = Michigan = = = Michigan 's loss to Appalachian State effectively ended their chances of winning a national championship . The Wolverines dropped out of the top 25 entirely on the AP Poll the following week , the first time a team had missed the top 25 in the AP Poll the week after they were in the top 10 . In their next game , Michigan lost to Oregon 39 – 7 , the largest margin of defeat for Michigan at Michigan Stadium since 1968 . Following the loss to Oregon , Michigan won their next eight games , leading the team to rank as high as No. 13 in the AP Poll . After Michigan lost their final two games , ending the regular season with an 8 – 4 record , they dropped off the poll entirely . After Michigan 's season @-@ ending loss to Ohio State , Carr announced he would retire as the team 's coach after their bowl game . The Wolverines received an invitation to the Capital One Bowl , where they defeated Florida 41 – 35 to finish their season 9 – 4 . Following their win in the Capital One Bowl , Michigan finished at No. 18 in the final AP Poll . = = = Media reaction = = = Thom Brennaman immediately hailed the game as one of the greatest upsets in the history of sports ; Charissa Thompson told coach Jerry Moore that it was " one of the greatest upsets in college football history . " Many media outlets described it as one of , if not the greatest , upsets in the history of college football . The win marked the first time an FCS team had beaten a ranked FBS program . Dan Wetzel of Yahoo ! Sports wrote that : " This game was supposed to be the prime example of what had gone wrong in money hungry college football . The powers that be had expanded the season a couple years back , adding an extra game so big schools could bring in cream @-@ puff opponents while collecting millions in revenue . Michigan had never played a I @-@ AA opponent in its history . Now we know why , the Wolverines were ducking them . Instead of an easy tune @-@ up for Michigan , Appalachian State leaves with its most profound victory ever and a check for $ 400 @,@ 000 that was supposed to be their pay for getting punished . " Sports Illustrated writer Stewart Mandel wrote that he felt " utterly unqualified " to put the game into perspective , and said " there 's no logical reason whatsoever this should have happened . But it did . And it wasn 't the slightest bit fluky . " He also expressed disappointment that he would not be able to vote for the Mountaineers in his AP Poll ballot , explaining that " it may well turn out that Michigan was grossly overrated , but all I know is this : There will not be 25 other teams that accomplish more this opening weekend than Appalachian State did Saturday . There won 't even be five . " Pat Forde of ESPN.com called it " the most astonishing college football result I can remember , " saying that " we 'll still be talking about it a few decades from now . Especially in the locker rooms of every huge underdog , where they 'll say , ' If Appalachian State can beat Michigan , why can 't we shock the world , too ? . ' " He felt the upset was particularly impressive because upsets of such a magnitude do not happen often in college football . The New York Times writer Viv Bernstein called the game " one of the biggest upsets in college football history " and called it " a stunning upset by any measure . " The game was the lead story on SportsCenter and was the cover story for the following week 's edition of Sports Illustrated ; Appalachian Statewide receiver Dexter Jackson was featured on the cover , which has the headline " Alltime Upset : Appalachian State Stuns No. 5 Michigan . " In 2012 , Jerry Hinnen of CBS Sports described it as " the biggest upset of the past five years of college football " , and described it as having " set the table " for an " epically chaotic " 2007 season as well as " four years ' worth of headline @-@ making upsets to follow . " Dennis Dodd of CBS Sports said in 2012 that " we may never see its likes again . " He said that the game " reminded us why the college game is the best , " but felt that such a result would become more unlikely in the future , as many conferences are moving to increase to nine conference games , reducing the need to play FCS teams . Since Appalachian State 's victory , two other FCS teams have defeated ranked FBS teams . In 2010 , James Madison defeated 13th @-@ ranked Virginia Tech 21 – 16 . In 2013 , Eastern Washington beat 25th @-@ ranked Oregon State , 49 – 46 . The year also saw North Dakota State record a 24 @-@ 21 victory over Kansas State , the defending Big 12 champions . = = = Reaction in Boone and on other campuses = = = Just minutes after the game ended , Appalachian State students began celebrating on the two main streets in Boone , North Carolina : King Street and Rivers Street . The group eventually advanced to Kidd Brewer Stadium , Appalachian State 's home field , and tore down one of the goalposts . The students proceeded to carry the goalpost over a mile before depositing it in the front yard of the school 's chancellor , Kenneth E. Peacock . He was fine with this , saying " as good as today was for Appalachian State , they can take it up there and put it down . I can 't wait to get there and see it . " Several students jumped nude into the duck pond behind ASU 's dining hall , a campus tradition for celebrating big football victories . When the team returned to their stadium in buses at 11 : 00 p.m. , they were greeted by a crowd of thousands of students and fans . It took the team 20 minutes to get from their buses to the locker room due to the crowd . The celebration in Boone was not limited to Appalachian State 's campus ; the Boone Mall was " flooded " with cars , and a sports apparel shop carrying ASU gear , Sports Fanatic , reported that sales were seven times higher than normal . In Ann Arbor , Michigan , the reaction was far different . The Ann Arbor News reported that the Michigan fans who attended the game were " shell @-@ shocked . " Appalachian State 's win also proved popular among fans of Michigan 's rivals . The Associated Press reported that , following the end of Ohio State 's 38 @-@ 6 home victory against Youngstown State , Ohio Stadium aired the final minutes of the Appalachian State @-@ Michigan game on the stadium 's big screen ; although most of the fans had already left , the outcome " elicited a large roar " from the remaining attendees . Similarly , The Daily Collegian reported that as Penn State was closing a 59 @-@ 0 home victory over Florida International , the update " Twenty seconds to play fourth quarter , Appalachian State 34 , Michigan 32 " was announced over the stadium 's loudspeak . The student section and several Penn State players quickly crowded inside of Beaver Stadium to watch the closing seconds on in @-@ stadium televisions ; when the game @-@ winning kick was blocked , they " converged into a mosh pit " in celebration . The Detroit Free Press reported that the loudest cheers during Michigan State 's home victory against UAB came when the scoreboard displayed the final score of the Appalachian State vs. Michigan game ; to conclude his postgame press conference , Michigan State defensive coordinator Pat Narduzzi stated : " And Michigan lost , too . " The Ohio State locker room erupted into a " roar " after the players learned of Michigan 's loss . Conversely , Michigan State running back Javon Ringer expressed disappointment at the game 's result , saying " I kinda really wanted [ Michigan ] to be undefeated for us . " Ohio State coach Jim Tressel gave a similar reaction , saying that " I 'm never glad when a conference opponent loses outside of your game with them ... You 're always rooting for your brethren in the Big Ten . " ESPN.com reported that in the hours after the game , " at least one street vendor was doing brisk business selling freshly minted Mountaineers T @-@ shirts near the Ohio State campus " , while stores near the campus were " swamped with requests for gear bearing the Mountaineers ' gold and black colors and logo " , primarily from Ohio State fans who were rejoicing over their rival 's defeat . Appalachian State 's campus bookstore received a large number of phone calls from people wanting to buy gear , many of them from Ohio , but were unable to sell them in large quantities due to a state law prohibiting university bookstores from selling items to people who are not students , faculty , or alumni . = = = Rematch = = = In 2011 Appalachian State and Michigan agreed to play a rematch , scheduled for 2014 to be the season @-@ opener for both teams . Appalachian State will be paid $ 850 @,@ 000 to play this game . Michigan 's athletic director , Dave Brandon , felt a rematch would be an excellent way to gain attention for Michigan football and said " The networks were fighting over who gets to televise that game . " Jerry Moore said that " To have the University of Michigan invite us back is the ultimate compliment for us as a program and a university . We 're grateful for the opportunity to have a new generation of players experience a gameday at the Big House and to test themselves against college football 's all @-@ time winningest program . " Appalachian State played their first year of football in the FBS in 2014 and joined the Sun Belt Conference as full members . The rematch would be much different this time around , with Michigan beating Appalachian State 52 – 14 ; Appalachian State never held a lead in the game . = Psilocybe tampanensis = Psilocybe tampanensis is a very rare psychedelic mushroom in the Strophariaceae family . Originally collected in the wild in a sandy meadow near Tampa , Florida in 1977 , the fungus has never again been reported in Florida , but was later collected in Mississippi . The original Florida specimen was cloned , and descendants remain in wide circulation . The fruit bodies ( mushrooms ) produced by the fungus are yellowish @-@ brown in color with convex to conic caps up to 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter atop a thin stem up to 6 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) long . Psilocybe tampanensis forms psychoactive truffle @-@ like sclerotia that are known and sold under the nickname " philosopher 's stones " . The fruit bodies and sclerotia are consumed by some for recreational or entheogenic purposes . In nature , sclerotia are produced by the fungus as a form of protection from wildfires and other natural disasters . = = Taxonomy = = The species was described scientifically by Steven H. Pollock and Mexican mycologist and Psilocybe authority Gastón Guzmán in a 1978 Mycotaxon publication . According to Paul Stamets , Pollock skipped a " boring taxonomic conference " near Tampa , Florida to go mushroom hunting , and found a single specimen growing in a sand dune , which he did not recognize . Pollock later cloned the specimen and produced a pure culture , which remains widely distributed today . The type specimen is kept at the herbarium of the Instituto Politécnico Nacional in Mexico . Guzmán classified P. tampanensis in his section Mexicanae , a grouping of related Psilocybe species characterized primarily by having spores with lengths greater than 8 micrometers . = = Description = = The cap ranges in shape from convex or conic with a slight umbo , expanding in age to become flattened or with a slight central depression ; it reaches diameters of 1 – 2 @.@ 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 – 0 @.@ 9 in ) . The surface is smooth , not striate ( grooved ) , ochraceous brown to straw brown , buff to yellowish @-@ grey when dry , with slight bluish tones at the margin , hygrophanous , and somewhat sticky when wet . The gills are more or less adnate ( broadly attached to the stem slightly above the bottom of the gill , with most of the gill fused to the stem ) and brown to dark purple brown in color with lighter edges . The stem is 2 – 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 – 2 @.@ 4 in ) long , 1 – 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 04 – 0 @.@ 08 in ) thick , and equal in width throughout to slightly enlarged near the base . There are fibrils near the top of the stem . The partial veil is cortinate ( cobweb @-@ like , similar to the partial veil of Cortinarius species ) , and soon disappears . The flesh is whitish to yellowish , and bruises blue when injured . The taste and odor are slightly farinaceous ( similar to freshly ground flour ) . The spore print is purple @-@ brown . When viewed with a microscope , the spores of P. tampanensis are somewhat rhombic in face view and roughly elliptical in side view ; they have dimensions of 8 @.@ 8 – 9 @.@ 9 by 8 – 8 @.@ 8 by 5 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 6 μm . Spores appear brownish @-@ yellow when mounted in a solution of potassium hydroxide , and have a thick , smooth wall , a distinct germ pore , and a short appendage . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , hyaline ( translucent ) , and measure 14 – 22 by 8 – 10 µm . The cheilocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) measure 16 – 22 by 4 – 9 µm , and are lageniform ( flask @-@ shaped ) with flexous thin necks that are 2 @.@ 2 – 3 µm thick , and infrequently have irregular branches . There are no pleurocystidia ( cystidia on the gill face ) . Clamp connections are present in the hyphae . = = = Similar species = = = Guzmán considers Psilocybe tampanensis to be intermediate in form between P. mexicana and P. caerulescens . Psilocybe mexicana has a more Mycena @-@ like fruit body shape , and longer basidia measuring 22 – 24 by 7 @.@ 7 – 11 μm . It is known only from Mexico and Guatemala . Psilocybe caerulescens , found in the USA and Venezuela , is also somewhat similar , but has a collybioid habit ( small to medium @-@ sized mushrooms with a convex cap ) , with spores measuring 6 @.@ 7 – 8 by 5 @.@ 2 – 6 @.@ 5 by 3 @.@ 3 – 5 @.@ 2 μm , and cheilocystidia that are 15 – 22 by 4 @.@ 4 – 5 @.@ 5 μm . = = Habitat and distribution = = For almost two decades after its discovery , Psilocybe tampanensis was known only from the type locality , southeast of Brandon , Florida . In 1996 , Guzmán reported finding it in a meadow with sandy soil in a deciduous forest in Pearl River County , Mississippi , a habitat similar to that of the type location . Due to its scarcity , however , its habitat preferences are not known with certainty . Like all Psilocybe species , it is saprobic . Like some other psychoactive grassland species such as Psilocybe semilanceata , Conocybe cyanopus , P. tampanensis can form sclerotia – a hardened mass of mycelia that is more resistant to adverse environmental conditions than normal mycelia . This truffle @-@ like form gives the fungus some protection from wildfires and other natural disasters . Other Psilocybe species known to produce sclerotia include Psilocybe mexicana and Psilocybe caerulescens . Sclerotia are also produced when the species is grown in culture . = = Recreational use = = Psilocybe tampanensis contains the psychedelic compounds psilocin and psilocybin , and is consumed for recreational and entheogenic purposes . The species was found to be one of the most popular psychoactive mushrooms confiscated by German authorities in a 2000 report , behind Psilocybe cubensis , Psilocybe semilanceata , and Panaeolus cyanescens . The alkaloid content in the confiscated samples ranged from not detectable to 0 @.@ 19 % psilocybin , and 0 @.@ 01 to 0 @.@ 03 % psilocin . According to mycologist Michael Beug , dried fruit bodies can contain up to 1 % psilocybin and psilocin ; in terms of psychoactive potency , Stamets considers the mushroom " moderately to highly active " . The psychoactive compounds are also present in the sclerotia : in one analysis , the levels of psilocybin obtained from sclerotia ranged from 0 @.@ 31 % to 0 @.@ 68 % by dry weight , and were dependent upon the composition of the growth medium . Sclerotia are sold under the nickname " philosopher 's stones " . They have been described as " resembling congealed muesli " , and having a somewhat bitter taste similar to walnut . Strains existing as commercial cultivation kits sold originally in countercultural drug magazines are derived from the original fruit body found by Pollock in Florida . Methods were originally developed by Pollock , and later extended by Stamets in the 1980s to cultivate the sclerotia on a substrate of rye grass ( Lolium ) , and on straw . Sclerotia prepared in this way take from 3 to 12 weeks to develop . Pollock was granted a US patent in 1981 for his method of producing sclerotia . = = = Legal status = = = Psilocin and psilocybin are scheduled drugs in many countries , and mushrooms containing them are prohibited by extension . In the United States , Federal law was passed in 1971 that put the psychoactive components into the most restricted schedule I category . For about three decades following this , several European countries remained relatively tolerant of mushroom use and possession . In the 2000s ( decade ) , in response to increases in prevalence and availability , all European countries banned possession or sale of psychedelic mushrooms ; the Netherlands was the last country to enact such laws in 2008 . However , they did not include psilocybin @-@ containing sclerotia in the 2008 law , and thus , psilocybin @-@ containing fungal compounds are available commercially in the Netherlands . In parallel legal developments in Asia , P. tampanensis was one of 13 psychoactive mushrooms specifically prohibited by law in Japan in 2002 . = Hurricane Hernan ( 2002 ) = Hurricane Hernan was the second of three Category 5 hurricanes during the 2002 Pacific hurricane season . The twelfth tropical cyclone , tenth named storm and sixth hurricane of the season , Hernan originated from a tropical wave that formed in the Atlantic Ocean and crossed to the Pacific Ocean . The wave spawned a low pressure system which organized into a tropical depression on August 30 , a tropical storm on August 31 and a hurricane later that day . Hernan rapidly intensified and reached peak intensity as a Category 5 storm on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . Proceeding northwest , it maintained this strength for eight hours , but on September 2 it entered cooler waters and began to weaken . By September 6 it had degenerated into a remnant area of low pressure . Hernan was the second most intense hurricane of the season , and it maintained Category 5 status for the second @-@ longest time of the season , behind Hurricane Kenna . Although Hernan remained far from land , swells of 15 to 20 feet ( 4 to 6 meters ) caused minor beach erosion along the coast of Mexico . In addition , an associated remnant plume of moisture generated light shower activity in southern California as it tracked just offshore . = = Meteorological history = = On August 16 , a tropical wave left the coast of Africa . It traveled westward across the Atlantic Ocean , crossing over Central America and emerging in the eastern Pacific , where it merged with a pre @-@ existing intertropical convergence zone disturbance . The system gradually developed moderate convection , and on August 30 it had developed sufficient convection to be designated Tropical Depression 10 @-@ E. The depression produced persistent strong thunderstorms , primarily in two areas of deep convection located to the northeast and west of the center of circulation . Although the center was elongated , wind shear over the system remained light and outflow was good , which led forecasters to predict modest intensification . On the afternoon of August 30 , banding features became evident , and the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hernan with sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Further organization occurred , and the center of circulation became encircled by convective thunderstorms . On August 31 , the storm was upgraded to Hurricane Hernan as it moved northwestward about 400 miles ( 634 km ) southwest of Acapulco . Light wind shear and favorable ocean temperatures led to steady intensification of the storm , and satellite images indicated that an eye had developed late on August 31 . Minimum pressure lowered to 987 mb ( hPa ) , and the maximum winds increased to 100 mph , Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . The storm quickly reached Category 3 , a major hurricane , and soon after , Category 4 . As it did so , its eye became ragged , while its lateral movement to the northwest rose to 17 mph around the southern periphery of a strong deep @-@ layer ridge over the United States . By September 1 , the hurricane reached its peak intensity of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 921 mb ( hPa ) . It had reached Category 5 , the second of three such powerful storms that would do so during the season . By September 2 , the storm 's convective thunderstorms warmed slightly , indicating weakening to just below Category 5 . An eyewall replacement cycle took place , and two eye structures formed as gradual weakening continued . By September 2 , the storm was downgraded to Category 3 just before it turned slightly to the west . The storm underwent another eyewall replacement cycle as winds decreased further . As the storm entered cooler waters , winds decreased to 100 mph ( 160 km / h ) , below major hurricane intensity . Soon Hernan was downgraded to Category 1 , and the eye became cloud @-@ filled . On September 5 , Hernan was downgraded to a tropical storm as winds rapidly weakened to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) despite developing a new band of convection . That same day , the storm was downgraded to a tropical depression as it began to lose tropical characteristics . Strong wind shear developed , further dissipating the depression . On September 6 , the system degenerated into a remnant low @-@ pressure system which spawned a remnant plume of moisture that meandered off the coast of California , producing light showers . = = Impact and intensity = = Hurricane Hernan remained far from shore and caused little damage to land . It brought light wind to Socorro Island off the coast of Mexico . Rough surf caused minor impact ; in the open waters near the center of Hernan , waves generated by the storm were unofficially estimated to exceed 70 feet ( 21 meters ) . However , official buoys reported swells of 57 feet ( 17 meters ) . Along the coast of Mexico , waves reached 15 to 20 feet ( 4 to 6 meters ) , causing minor beach erosion . A portion of Hernan 's remnant moisture off the southern California coast produced light rainfall and slippery roads . Hernan had no known effects on shipping . When Hernan grew from tropical storm to Category 5 , it intensified at a rate of 1 @.@ 73 mbar ( hPa ) per hour , just under the threshold for " rapid intensification " . However , for a 12 @-@ hour period from August 31 to September 1 , it deepened at 2 @.@ 58 mbar ( hPa ) per hour , within the range of " explosive deepening " due to favorable conditions including light wind shear and warm water . = New York State Route 285 = New York State Route 285 ( NY 285 ) was a state highway in Oneida County , New York , in the United States . The southern terminus of the 6 @.@ 87 @-@ mile ( 11 @.@ 06 km ) route was at an intersection with NY 69 west of the hamlet of Taberg in the town of Annsville . Its northern terminus was in the community of Thompson Corners , where it ended at a junction with County Route 67A ( CR 67A ) and CR 70 . NY 285 was little more than a connector between NY 69 and Thompson Corners , as it did not pass through any other areas of interest . NY 285 initially extended from Taberg to the hamlet of Florence when it was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . It was truncated to Thompson Corners c . 1935 , but extended slightly in the 1960s when NY 69 was realigned to bypass Taberg . Ownership and maintenance of NY 285 was transferred to Oneida County on September 1 , 1988 , and the NY 285 designation was removed just over two months later . The route is now County Route 70A . = = Route description = = NY 285 began at an intersection with NY 69 southwest of the hamlet of Taberg in the town of Annsville . The route headed northward , intersecting with Main Street , which connected NY 285 to Taberg . Here , NY 285 turned to the northwest and became Taberg – Florence Road . Just outside Taberg , the route passed Saint Patrick 's Cemetery , as well as the remains of an old Protestant cemetery situated directly across NY 285 from it . As it continued northwestward through a rural portion of Oneida County , NY 285 passed a junkyard near the intersection with Pond Hill Road . Past an intersection with Carlisle Road , NY 285 entered a state reforestation area . As such , the surrounding landscape became mostly forested areas . Near the center of the reforestation area , the highway intersected with Skinner Settlement Road ( CR 85 ) . After passing over Corkin Hill , NY 285 headed downhill into the town of Florence . After crossing into Florence , NY 285 remained in the reforestation area , and continued towards Thompson Corners on a linear , northwesterly routing . It passed Greely Cemetery , then continued to Thompson Corners , a very small community in southeastern Florence . NY 285 terminated here at an intersection with Empeyville Road ( CR 67A ) and Wolcott Hill Road ( CR 70 ) . CR 70 turned northwest at this junction to follow NY 285 's right @-@ of @-@ way to the hamlet of Florence and eventually to the Oneida County line . = = History = = NY 285 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York to a highway connecting NY 69 ( Main Street ) in Taberg to the isolated hamlet of Florence in the town of the same name via Thompson Corners . The route was truncated southeastward to Thompson Corners c . 1935 . In the early 1960s , NY 69 was rerouted to follow a new purpose @-@ built highway that bypassed most of Taberg to the south . Most of NY 69 's original alignment through the hamlet was transferred to the town of Annsville ; however , its former western approach into Taberg along Taberg Road was realigned to meet the bypass and became a short extension of NY 285 . On September 1 , 1988 , ownership and maintenance of NY 285 was transferred from the state of New York to Oneida County . The portion of the exchange relating to NY 285 was described in New York State Highway Law as follows , with annotations in brackets : ... to transfer to the county of Oneida for future maintenance as part of the county highway system in Oneida and to issue official orders of abandonment of those portions of highway described as follows : " beginning at a point on or near state highway five thousand one hundred thirty @-@ nine [ NY 69 ] , west of the hamlet of Taberg , thence running generally northwesterly to a county highway in or near the hamlet of Thompson Corners . In return , the state of New York assumed maintenance over a portion of River Street ( CR 32 ) that connected NY 69 in Oriskany to NY 49 in Marcy . This highway became NY 922E , an unsigned reference route . Meanwhile , the NY 285 designation remained in place until November 4 , 1988 , when it was officially removed from the highway . The former routing of NY 285 became CR 70A , a spur of the pre @-@ existing CR 70 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route was in Oneida County . = Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke , BWV 84 = Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke ( I am content in my good fortune ) , BWV 84 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed the solo cantata for soprano in Leipzig in 1727 for the Sunday Septuagesima , and led the first performance , probably on 9 February 1727 . Bach composed the work in his fourth year as Thomaskantor in Leipzig . The text is similar to a cantata text Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Stande ( I am content with my position ) , which Picander published in 1728 , but it is not certain that he wrote also the cantata text . Its thoughts about being content are in the spirit of the beginning Enlightenment , expressed in simple language . The closing chorale is the 12th stanza of the hymn " Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende " by Ämilie Juliane von Schwarzburg @-@ Rudolstadt . Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke is one of the few works which Bach called " Cantata " himself . Bach structured the work in five movements , alternating arias and recitatives , and a closing chorale . The scoring requires only a small ensemble of a soprano soloist , three additional vocal parts for the chorale , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe , strings and basso continuo . While the first aria is pensive and elegiac , the second aria is of dancing folk @-@ like character . = = History and words = = Bach wrote the solo cantata in Leipzig , in his fourth year as Thomaskantor ( director of church music ) in Leipzig , for the third Sunday before Lent , called Septuagesima . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were taken from the First Epistle to the Corinthians , " race for victory " ( 1 Corinthians 9 : 24 – 10 : 5 ) , and from the Gospel of Matthew , the parable of the Workers in the Vineyard ( Matthew 20 : 1 – 16 ) . Bach had already composed two cantatas for the occasion in earlier years , Nimm , was dein ist , und gehe hin , BWV 144 , in 1724 , and the chorale cantata Ich hab in Gottes Herz und Sinn , BWV 92 , in 1725 . Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke is one of the few works which Bach called " Cantata " himself . As in the earlier years , the cantata text is related to the gospel in the general way that the Christian should be content with his share of good fortune , without envy of others who may seem more fortunate . The title and the text show similarities to Picander 's Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Stande ( I am content with my position ) , published in 1728 . It is unclear if both texts are by Picander , or if Picander based his on a former one , or if Picander 's was already available at the time of the composition but was changed . As the Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann observes , the thoughts are in the spirit of the beginning Enlightenment , " praise of frugality , of modesty with that which God has allocated to us , of satisfaction , of lack of envy towards others " . The language is no longer the " rhetorical pathos of baroque poetry " , but " radicality and artistry of the imagery . The language is simple and terse ; it is rational rather than figurative . " The closing chorale is the 12th stanza of the funeral hymn " Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende " by Ämilie Juliane von Schwarzburg @-@ Rudolstadt ( 1686 ) . Bach had used its first stanza in his cantatas Wo gehest du hin ? BWV 166 ( 1724 ) and in Wer weiß , wie nahe mir mein Ende ? BWV 27 ( 1726 ) . Bach led the first performance , probably on 9 February 1727 . = = Scoring and structure = = Bach structured the cantata in five movements . A sequence of alternating arias and recitatives is concluded by a chorale . Bach scored the work for soprano soloist , a four @-@ part choir only in the chorale , and a Baroque instrumental ensemble of oboe ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo . The heading of the autograph score reads : " J.J. Dominica Septuagesimae Cantata " , which means : " Jesus help . Cantata for the Sunday Septuagesima " . Bach added a more precise extra page : " Dominica Septuages . / Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke / à / Soprano Solo è / 3 Ripieni / 1 Hautbois / 2 Violini / Viola / e Continuo / di / Joh : Seb : Bach " . The scoring is modest , appropriate for the weeks leading to Lent . The duration is given as about 15 minutes . In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from the book on all cantatas by the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown . = = Music = = Although the vocal and instrumental parts are limited , Bach achieves variety by movements of different instrumentation and character . = = = 1 = = = The opening aria , " Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke , das mir der liebe Gott beschert . " ( I am content with the fortune that my dear God bestows on me . ) , is slow and pensive , accompanied by all instruments , reminiscent of the slow movement of an oboe concerto . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted in 2000 the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage , noted in the project diary that Bach , who possibly was not content with his situation in Leipzig , composed music portraying " ambivalence and complexity " . His music is " dynamic and fluctuating " , capturing " wistful , resigned , elegiac " moods . The musicologist Julian Mincham notes that the aria compares to Ich bin in mir vergnügt , BWV 204 ( I am content in myself ) which he describes as " also a highly personal work for solo soprano with a similar theme , exploring comparable human emotions " . = = = 2 = = = The first recitative , " Gott ist mir ja nichts schuldig " ( God indeed owes me nothing ) , is secco . = = = 3 = = = The second aria , " Ich esse mit Freuden mein weniges Brot und gönne dem Nächsten von Herzen das Seine . " ( I eat my little bit of bread with joy and heartily leave to my neighbor his own . ) , is dancing and accompanied by two obbligato parts , oboe and violin . They express in vivid figuration in the violin and a slightly simplified version in the oboe the text " ein fröhlicher Geist , ein dankbares Herze , das lobet und preist " ( a happy spirit , a thankful heart , that gives praise ) . Hofmann observes that the aria depicts a " pastoral idyll with a rustic musical scene – a tribute to the Enlightenment utopia of simple , happy country life . " The violin 's figuration suggests the drone of bagpipes or hurdy @-@ gurdy . The voice leaps in upward sixths , in " folk @-@ like character " and conveying " contented tranquillity " . Mincham notes that the first four notes of the oboe ritornello are the first four notes of the closing chorale turned to major . = = = 4 = = = The second recitative , " Im Schweiße meines Angesichts will ich indes mein Brot genießen " ( In the sweat of my brow I will meanwhile enjoy my bread ) , is accompanied by the strings . = = = 5 = = = The chorale , " Ich leb indes in dir vergnüget und sterb ohn alle Kümmernis " ( Meanwhile I live contented in You and die without any trouble ) , is a four @-@ part setting of the tune " Wer nur den lieben Gott lässt walten " by Georg Neumark . Gardiner interprets the marking a soprano solo e a 3 ripieni ( for soprano and three ripieno parts ) as meaning that no instruments play colla parte with the voices . = = Selected recordings = = The listing is taken from the selection provided on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . In the following table , large choirs and orchestras are marked by red background , ensembles playing on period instruments in historically informed performance are marked by a green background under the header Instr .. = Kumari 21F = Kumari 21F is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film directed by Palnati Surya Pratap , and written and co @-@ produced by Sukumar with Vijay Bandreddi and Thomas Reddy under their banners Sukumar Writings and P. A. Motion Pictures . Devi Sri Prasad composed the film 's music and R. Rathnavelu was its director of photography . Kumari 21F focuses on a romantic relationship between Siddhu , a chef and Kumari , a struggling model . Siddhu 's friends doubt Kumari 's character and she rejects his proposal , citing a lack of maturity . The film 's centrepiece revolves around Siddhu 's realisation and his attempts to unite with Kumari after an incident . The film was produced on a budget of ₹ 60 — 150 million . Sukumar took inspiration from his college days in Razole where a young woman went to a picnic with some young men ; a major undertaking for a woman at that time , which earned her the undeserved label of a " loose " character . Raj Tarun and Hebah Patel were signed to play the roles of Siddhu and Kumari . Neither Prasad nor Rathnavelu was charged remuneration for the film . Principal photography commenced in December 2014 and was finished in 70 working days ; according to Rathnavelu , lighting played a key role during the filming process and digital low lighting photography techniques were used . Kumari 21F was released worldwide on 20 November 2015 in about 500 screens . It received critical acclaim ; praise was directed towards the film 's climax , performances , cinematography and music . Kumari 21F grossed ₹ 380 million and earned a distributor share of ₹ 180 million during its run . It was declared a commercial success based on the return on distributor 's investment of ₹ 100 million and became the 12th highest grossing Telugu film of the year . = = Plot = = Siddhu is a chef leading a middle class life with his mother in K.G.B. colony . His father Ravikanth is accused of having an extra @-@ marital affair that leads to the separation of his parents . Siddhu aims to be a chef on a cruise liner in Singapore and his financial status does not support him . His friends Shankar , Srinu and Suresh steal money from people who use the local ATM ; they hide in some local ruins for three days and Siddhu cooks for them and provides liquor , receiving a share of the money in return . Siddhu meets Kumari , a struggling model from Mumbai who has recently moved to the colony . They fall in love ; Siddhu is often confused by Kumari 's bold and daring attitude . His friends tell Siddhu is not Kumari 's first boyfriend and she may have had past relationships . Siddhu grows suspicious about her virginity and Kumari realises this . She rejects his marriage proposal , saying he does not have the maturity to love her . Siddhu tries to make Kumari jealous by romancing his neighbour Madhu , but his ploy fails . Kumari continues to love him unconditionally ; her attitude confuses Siddhu . Siddhu 's friends discover Kumari is actually Meena , a Mumbai @-@ based model who was caught in a police raid at a brothel . She rejects their sexual advances , which angers them . Siddhu refuses to leave her , further angering the trio . After an ATM robbery , the trio escapes and Srinu loses his cellphone ; Kumari finds it and hands it to the police . The trio shelter in the ruins ; when Siddhu meets them , Shankar reveals that Kumari is actually Meena and shares a video of a press meet issued by the Mumbai police that features her and others linked to a prostitution case . Kumari rejects Siddhu 's advances that night ; the following day , he discovers his father never had an extra @-@ marital relationship and his mother misunderstood . To make sure Siddhu is happy , Kumari asks him to visit her that night to fulfill his desire . The trio reach Kumari 's house before Siddhu , sedate her with narcotics mixed with juice and rape her . Siddhu arrives to propose to her and finds the trio there . After chasing them away , he reads Kumari 's letter that makes him recognise his lack of maturity . He starts rearranging everything to make sure Kumari is not aware of the assault . He sees blood stains on her sari and assumes she is a virgin . He removes the sari , washes away the stains , and puts it back . When Kumari gains consciousness , Siddhu tells her she fell asleep after the trio left and he was waiting for her . She is suspicious but Siddhu persuades her and proposes marriage her , to which she agrees . The police arrests Siddhu and interrogates him to find the whereabouts of his friends , which he refuses to reveal . He is released from jail and marries Kumari . Three years later , Siddhu is running a kitchen in Hyderabad and the inspector plans to close the case because he could not find the trio . It is revealed that Siddhu has chained them in the ruins and has been feeding and torturing them for the past three years ; they beg him to kill them . The film ends with Siddhu beating the trio after feeding them and saying he is not mature enough to forgive them . = = Cast = = Raj Tarun as Siddhu Hebah Patel as Meena Kumari Noel Sean as Shankar Naveen Neni as Suresh Sudharshan as Sollu Srinu Hema as Siddhu 's mother Bhanu as Madhu = = Production = = = = = Development = = = In October 2014 , Sukumar announced he would co @-@ produce a film along with Vijay Bandreddi and Thomas Reddy under the banner P.A. Motion pictures . P. Surya Pratap , who made his directorial debut with Current ( 2009 ) , was chosen to direct this film . Sukumar titled the film Kumari 21F because it is about a 21 @-@ year @-@ old woman named Kumari . He said it is not a female @-@ centric film and both the lead roles , for which Raj Tarun and Sheena Bajaj were chose , would be equally important . Tarun charged a remuneration of ₹ 25 million . Sukumar wrote the film 's story and screenplay , taking inspiration from his college days in Razole where a young woman went to a picnic with some young men ; a major undertaking for a woman at the time . Rumours were spread and the woman was labelled as a " loose " character , which stayed in Sukumar 's mind . He defined Kumari as an " honest and genuine human being who isn 't afraid of expressing herself " and the " sort of girl most people would know " , despite going overboard at times with her characterisation during the scripting stage . Sukumar 's technicians Devi Sri Prasad and R. Rathnavelu were signed as the film 's music composer and director of photography respectively . In an interview with Behindwoods in December 2014 , Rathnavelu said the necessity of rejuvenating himself after Lingaa ( 2014 ) , the film 's script and his friendship with Sukumar were the reasons for choosing to work for this film . Neither Rathnavelu nor Prasad charged any remuneration for the film . Hebah Patel replaced Bajaj after the makers were impressed with her performance in Ala Ela ( 2015 ) . Patel went through many workshops for her role that occupied 80 % of the screen space ; her voice was dubbed by Lipsika . Tarun did little preparation for his role because he felt it was " brilliantly conceived " and an extension of the roles he played in Uyyala Jampala ( 2014 ) and Cinema Choopistha Maava ( 2015 ) . = = = Filming = = = Kumari 21F was produced on a budget of ₹ 60 — 150 million . The film 's principal photography commenced in December 2014 , and was finished in 70 working days . Initially , Krishna Nagar , Hyderabad , was chosen as the film 's backdrop . Rathnavelu felt they would create a noisy , crowded environment if shot there and chose to shoot in an isolated colony and in confined spaces . 60 % of the film was shot at the R & B colony in Malakpet , Hyderabad . The song " Bang Bang Bangkok " was filmed in picturesque locales in Bangkok , and was choreographed by Prasad . Prasad said he composed a few signature steps during the composition of the song , which Sukumar and Rathnavelu liked . They wanted him choreograph the song . According to Rathnavelu , lighting played a key role in Kumari 21F . He shot the film with limited equipment and mostly used natural light . The experience he gained working on Haridas ( 2013 ) helped him with this film ; he used Digital low lighting photography techniques , thereby using 80 % of the generally required lighting . He found the climax sequences challenging to film because the emphasis was more on visuals rather than dialogue . Patel said of her experience during the filming of some intimate sequences , " There were so many people on the sets , so it was obviously uncomfortable . But then , I got myself mentally prepared for this kind of thing in a workshop I had undergone before the shoot . It also helped that I became good friends with Raj Tarun and that made things way less awkward " . Tarun said he and Patel " put in a part of us into the characters to make the romance more believable " . = = Music = = The official soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad and consists of five songs . Lyrics were written by Ramanjaneyulu , Krishna Kanth and Chandrabose for one song each . Prasad wrote the lyrics for " Bang Bang Bangkok " , which he sang with Ranina Reddy and Rita . A lyric from the song , " Good boy goes to heaven , Bad boy goes to Bangkok " , was well received . For " Meghaalu Lekunna " , which was sung by Yazin Nisar , Sri Mani wrote the pallavi and Anantha Sreeram wrote the charanams . " Meghaalu Lekunna " was recorded using a live orchestra , which Nisar found " rare these days " . The soundtrack album was released on 31 October 2015 at Shilpakala Vedika , Hyderabad , with actor Allu Arjun attending the event as the guest of honour . Aditya Music marketed the soundtrack album . Karthik Srinivasan of The Hindu said the song " Meghaalu Lekunna " , " sounds at best like the Telugu version of a song by the Hindi pop band Euphoria " , that the tune is " similarly lush and folkish " , and that Prasad does " some interesting things in the interludes — the use of violins and solo @-@ violin in the first and second interludes , to be specific " . Madhavi Tata of Outlook India called Prasad 's music , particularly " Love Cheyyala Vadda " ( " To love or not to " ) , a " winner " . The Times of India gave the soundtrack 2 stars out of 5 and said the album " falls desperately short " of the standards expected from Prasad . The reviewer called " Meghaalu Lekunna " a "	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
AllGame 's Brett Alan Weiss believed that Metroid II would please fans of the original Metroid , and they noticed that the backgrounds were more detailed in this Game Boy iteration . Marcel Van Duyn of Nintendo Life noted that the difficulty was improved over the original game because of the inclusion of " hot spots " that restores health and missiles . On the other hand , Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com was particularly critical of the game , finding the game painful to play and describing it as " something of a dark spot on a brilliant series ' reputation . " Parish found the game 's premise " ambitious " , adding that it provided the series a vital crux : " Samus ' actions in Metroid II fuel the plots of both its sequels : Super Metroid [ ... ] and Metroid Fusion " . GameTrailers similarly commented that it told one of the most pivotal chapters in the series ' overall plot . Van Duyn praised Metroid II 's visual detail , writing that " the platforms in the foreground and the enemies on and around them are all quite detailed , so you can easily identify what you 're trying to kill . " In contrast , Jones considered the graphics average , and noted that the walls appeared mostly the same , which confuses players when wandering through identical tunnels . Parish complained that aside from Samus , the visuals for the environment are " bland and repetitive , full of monotonous rocks and sand with few details to differentiate the various areas , and the enemies are mostly simple and boxy . " Parish also found the music " downright painful " , which he contrasted with the " moody , atmospheric compositions " the series was known for . Van Duyn cited the music as the " only bad point " in the game , stating that the ambient sounds " tend to get annoying after hearing them again and again . " Jones said that " [ a ] lot of the time there is no music , just a steady beat , but when you get into certain areas a slow , moody tune begins to play in the background . " GameTrailers noted that the game is too linear , and was unimpressed with its audio and visuals . In the September 1997 , Nintendo Power 12 staff members voted in a list for the top 100 games of all time . The magazine placed Metroid II at 34th place on their list of 100 games of all time . In their Top 200 Games list , Nintendo Power also ranked the game as the 85th best game on a Nintendo console , and Videogames.com included it in their list of the best Game Boy games . Nintendo Power listed it as the 12th @-@ best Game Boy / Game Boy Color video game , praising it for introducing several staple abilities to the series . Game Informer 's Ben Reeves called it the ninth best Game Boy game and noted that it was polarizing among fans . = = Sequel and legacy = = Super Metroid , a follow @-@ up to Metroid II , was released for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System in 1994 . Metroid series co @-@ creator Yoshio Sakamoto remarked at the 2010 Game Developers Conference that he was " very moved " by the ending in Metroid II , which influenced him on creating Super Metroid . Due to the black and white color palette used in Metroid II , and no Metroid games released for the Game Boy Color , there have been attempts to create colored versions of Metroid II . A programmer using the pseudonym DoctorM64 created Project Another Metroid 2 Remake , also known as AM2R . The project aims to update the game 's appearance by emulating , and in some cases trumping , the visual designs of Super Metroid and Metroid : Zero Mission . Frank Caron of Ars Technica claims that it features " incredible graphics " and he consider it a " painstaking recreation of the original level design " . He observed , " [ t ] he animations are incredibly smooth , colors vibrant , and backgrounds well @-@ detailed . " AM2R is scheduled for release on August 6 , 2016 . = Heian Palace = The Heian Palace was the original imperial palace of Heian @-@ kyō ( present @-@ day Kyoto ) , the capital of Japan , from 794 to 1227 . The palace , which served as the imperial residence and the administrative centre of for most of the Heian period ( from 794 to 1185 ) , was located at the north @-@ central location of the city in accordance with the Chinese models used for the design of the capital . The palace consisted of a large rectangular walled enclosure , which contained several ceremonial and administrative buildings including the government ministries . Inside this enclosure was the separately walled residential compound of the emperor or the Inner Palace . In addition to the emperor 's living quarters , the Inner Palace contained the residences of the imperial consorts , as well as certain official and ceremonial buildings more closely linked to the person of the emperor . The original role of the palace was to manifest the centralised government model adopted by Japan from China in the 7th century — the Daijō @-@ kan and its subsidiary Eight Ministries . The palace was designed to provide an appropriate setting for the emperor 's residence , the conduct of great affairs of state , and the accompanying ceremonies . While the residential function of the palace continued until the 12th century , the facilities built for grand state ceremonies began to fall into disuse by the 9th century . This was due to both the abandonment of several statutory ceremonies and procedures and the transfer of several remaining ceremonies into the smaller @-@ scale setting of the Inner Palace . From the mid @-@ Heian period , the palace suffered several fires and other disasters . During reconstructions , emperors and some of the office functions resided outside the palace . This , along with the general loss of political power of the court , acted to further diminish the importance of the palace as the administrative centre . Finally in 1227 the palace burned down and was never rebuilt . The site was built over so that almost no trace of it remains . Knowledge of the palace is thus based on contemporary literary sources , surviving diagrams and paintings , and limited excavations conducted mainly since the late 1970s . = = Location = = The palace was located at the northern centre of the rectangular Heian @-@ kyō , following the Chinese model ( specifically that of the Tang dynasty capital of Chang 'an ) adopted already for the Heijō Palace in the earlier capital Heijō @-@ kyō ( in present @-@ day Nara ) , and Nagaoka @-@ kyō . The south @-@ eastern corner of the Greater Palace was located in the middle of the present @-@ day Nijō Castle . The main entrance to the palace was the Suzakumon gate ( 35 ° 0 ′ 49 ″ N 135 ° 44 ′ 32 ″ E ) , which formed the northern terminus of the great Suzaku Avenue that ran through the centre of the city from the Rashōmon gate . The palace thus faced south and presided over the symmetrical urban plan of Heian @-@ kyō . In addition to the Suzaku Gate , the palace had 13 other gates located symmetrically along the side walls . A major avenue ( 大路 , ōji ) led to each of the gates , except for the three along the northern side of the palace , which was coterminous with the northern boundary of the city itself . = = History = = The palace was the first and most important structure to be erected at the new capital of Heian @-@ kyō , where the court moved in 794 following Emperor Kanmu 's order . The palace was not completely ready by the time of the move , however — the Daigokuden was completed only in 795 , and the government office in charge of its construction was disbanded only in 805 . The grand Chinese @-@ style compounds of Chōdō @-@ in and Buraku @-@ in started to fall into disuse quite early on , in parallel with the decline of the elaborate Chinese @-@ inspired ritsuryō government processes and bureaucracy , which were gradually either abandoned or reduced to empty forms . The centre of gravity of the palace complex moved to the Inner Palace or Dairi , and the Shishinden and later even the Seiryōden overtook the Daigokuden as loci for the conduct of official government business . In parallel with the concentration of activity within the Dairi , the Greater Palace began to be regarded as increasingly unsafe , especially by night . One reason may be the prevalent superstition of the period : uninhabited buildings were avoided for fear of spirits and ghosts , and even the great Buraku @-@ in compound was thought to be haunted . In addition , the level of actual security maintained at the palace went into decline , and by the early 11th century only one palace gate , the Yōmeimon in the east , appears to have been guarded . Hence burglary and even violent crime became a problem within the palace by the first half of 11th century . Fires were a constant problem as the palace compound was constructed almost entirely of wood . The Daigokuden was reconstructed after fires in 876 , 1068 and in 1156 despite its limited use . However , after the major fire of 1177 which destroyed much of the Greater Palace , the Daigokuden was never again rebuilt . The Burakuin was destroyed by a fire in 1063 and was never rebuilt . As of 960 , the Dairi was also repeatedly destroyed by fires , but it was systematically rebuilt and used as the official imperial residence until the late 12th century . During periods of rebuilding the Dairi following fires , the emperors frequently had to stay at their secondary sato @-@ dairi ( 里内裏 ) palaces within the city . Often these secondary palaces were provided by the powerful Fujiwara family , which especially in the latter part of the Heian period exercised de facto control of politics by providing consorts to successive emperors . Thus the residences of the emperors ' maternal grandparents started to usurp the residential role of the palace even before the end of the Heian period . The institution of rule by retired emperors or the insei system ( 院政 , insei ) from 1086 further added to the declining importance of the palace as retired emperors exercised power from their own residential palaces inside and outside the city . After a fire in 1177 , the original palace complex was abandoned and emperors resided in smaller palaces ( the former sato @-@ dairi ) within the city and villas outside it . In 1227 a fire finally destroyed what remained of the Dairi , and the old Greater Palace went into complete disuse . In 1334 Emperor Go @-@ Daigo issued an edict to rebuild the Greater Palace , but no resources were available to support this and the project came to nothing . The present Kyoto Imperial Palace is located immediately to the west of the site of the Tsuchimikado Mansion ( 土御門殿 , tsuchimikadodono ) , the great Fujiwara residence in the north @-@ eastern corner of the city . The Jingi @-@ kan , the final standing section of the palace , remained in use until 1585 . = = Greater Palace ( Daidairi ) = = The Greater Palace ( 大内裏 , daidairi ) was a walled rectangular area extending approximately 1 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 87 mi ) from north to south between the first and second major east @-@ west avenues ( Ichijō ōji ( 一条大路 ) and Nijō ōji ( 二条大路 ) and 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) from west to east between the Nishi Ōmiya ōji ( 西大宮大路 ) and Ōmiya ōji ( 大宮大路 ) north @-@ south avenues . The three main structures within the Greater Palace were the Official Compound Chōdō @-@ in ( 朝堂院 ) , the Reception Compound Buraku @-@ in ( 豊楽院 ) and the Inner Palace ( 内裏 , dairi ) . = = = Chōdō @-@ in = = = Chōdō @-@ in was a rectangular walled enclosure situated directly to the north of the Suzakumon gate in the centre of the southern wall of the Greater Palace . It was based on Chinese models and followed Chinese architectural styles , and archaeological evidence from earlier capitals shows that this building complex was present in earlier palaces and had a remarkably stable design from the 7th century onwards . = = = = Daigokuden = = = = The main building within the Chōdō @-@ in was the Daigokuden ( 大極殿 ) or the Great Audience Hall , facing south at the northern end of the compound . This was a large ( approximately 52 m ( 170 ft ) east to west and 20 m ( 65 ft ) north to south ) Chinese @-@ style building with white walls , vermilion pillars and green tiled roofs , intended to host the most important state ceremonies and functions . The southern part of the Chōdō @-@ in was occupied by the Twelve Halls where the bureaucracy was seated for ceremonies according to strict order of precedence . The Heian Jingū shrine in Kyoto includes an apparently faithful reconstruction of the Daigokuden in somewhat reduced scale . It was in the Chōdō @-@ in that Accession Audiences were held , the emperor was supposed to preside over early morning deliberations on major state affairs by the bureaucracy , receive monthly reports from officials , hold New Year Congratulations and receive foreign ambassadors . However , the practice of the morning deliberations ceased to be followed by 810 as did the monthly reports . Foreign ambassadors were no longer received for most of the Heian period , and the New Year celebrations were abbreviated and moved into the Dairi by the end of the 10th century , leaving the Accession Audiences and certain Buddhist ceremonials as the only ones held in the Chōdō @-@ in . = = = Buraku @-@ in = = = The Buraku @-@ in was another large rectangular Chinese @-@ style compound , situated to the west of the Chōdō @-@ in . It was built for official celebrations and banquets and used also for other types of entertainment such as archery contests . Like the Chōdō @-@ in , also the Buraku @-@ in had a hall at the central northern end of the enclosure overseeing the court . This hall , the Burakuden ( 豊楽殿 ) , was used by the emperor and courtiers presiding over activities in the Buraku @-@ in . However , like the Chōdō @-@ in , the Buraku @-@ in also fell gradually into disuse as many functions were moved to the Dairi . Its site is one of the few within the palace area that has been excavated . = = = Other buildings = = = Apart from the Inner Palace , the remaining area of the Greater Palace was occupied by ministries , lesser offices , workshops , storage buildings and the large open space of the Banqueting Pine Grove or En no Matsubara ( 宴の松原 ) to the east of the Dairi . The buildings of the Council of State or Daijōkan ( 太政官 ) were situated in a walled enclosure immediately to the east of the Chōdō @-@ in , laid out in the typical symmetrical plan of buildings opening to a courtyard in the south . The palace also housed the Shingon @-@ in ( 真言院 ) , apart from Tō @-@ ji and Sai @-@ ji , the only Buddhist establishment permitted within the capital . Its placement right next to the Inner Palace shows the influence of the Shingon sect during the early Heian Period . = = Inner Palace ( Dairi ) = = The Inner Palace or Dairi was located to the north @-@ east of the Chōdō @-@ in , somewhat to the east of the central north @-@ south axis of the Greater Palace . Its central feature was the Throne Hall . The Dairi encompassed the emperor 's quarters and the pavilions of the imperial consorts and ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting ( collectively , the Kōkyū ) . The Dairi was enclosed within two sets of walls . In addition to the Dairi itself , the outer walls enclosed some household offices , storage areas , and the Chūwain ( 中和院 ) , a walled area of Shinto buildings associated with the emperor 's religious functions , situated to the west of the Dairi itself , at the geographic centre of the Greater Palace . The principal gate of the larger enclosure was the Kenreimon gate ( 建礼門 ) , located in the southern wall along the median north @-@ south axis of the Dairi . The Dairi proper , the residential compound of the emperor , was enclosed within another set of walls to the east of Chūwain . It measured approximately 215 m ( 710 ft ) north to south and 170 m ( 560 ft ) east to west . The main gate was the Shōmeimon gate ( 承明門 ) at the centre of the southern wall of the Dairi enclosure , immediately to the north of the Kenreimon gate . In contrast to the solemn official Chinese @-@ style architecture of the Chōdō @-@ in and the Buraku @-@ in , the Dairi was built in more intimate Japanese architectural style — if still on a grand scale . The Inner Palace represented a variant of the shinden style architecture used in the aristocratic villas and houses of the period . The buildings , with unpainted surfaces and gabled and shingled cypress bark roofs , were raised on elevated wooden platforms and connected to each other with covered and uncovered slightly elevated passages . Between the buildings and passages were gravel yards and small gardens . = = = Shishinden = = = The largest building of the Dairi was the Throne Hall or Shishinden ( 紫宸殿 ) , a building reserved for official functions . It was a rectangular hall measuring approximately 30 m ( 98 ft ) east to west and 25 m ( 82 ft ) north to south , and situated along the median north @-@ south axis of the Dairi , overseeing a rectangular courtyard and facing the Shōmeimon gate . A tachibana orange tree and a sakura cherry tree stood symmetrically on both sides of the front staircase of the building . The courtyard was flanked on both sides by smaller halls connected to the Shishinden , creating the same configuration of buildings ( influenced by Chinese examples ) that was found in the aristocratic shinden style villas of the period . The Shishinden was used for official functions and ceremonies that were not held at the Daigokuden of the Chōdō @-@ in complex . It took over much of the intended use of the larger and more formal building from an early date , as the daily business of government ceased to be conducted in the presence of the emperor in the Daigokuden already at the beginning of the ninth century . Connected to this diminishing reliance on the official government procedures described in the Ritsuryō code was the establishment of a personal secretariat to the emperor , the Chamberlain 's Office or Kurōdodokoro ( 蔵人所 ) . This office , which increasingly took over the role of coordinating the work of government organs , was set up in the Kyōshōden ( 校書殿 ) , the hall to the south @-@ west of the Shishinden . = = = Jijūden = = = To the north of the Shishinden stood the Jijūden ( 仁寿殿 ) , a similarly constructed hall of somewhat smaller size that was intended to function as the emperor 's living quarters . However , beginning already in the ninth century , the emperors often chose to reside in other buildings of the Dairi . A third still smaller hall , the Shōkyōden ( 承香殿 ) was located next to the north along the main axis of the Dairi . After the Dairi was rebuilt following a fire in 960 , the regular residence of the emperors moved to the smaller Seiryōden ( 清涼殿 ) , an east @-@ facing building located immediately to the north @-@ west from Shishinden . Gradually the Seiryōden began to be used increasingly for meetings as well , with emperors spending much of their time in this part of the palace . The busiest part of the building was the Courtiers Hall ( 殿上間 , Tenjōnoma ) , where high @-@ ranking nobles came to meet in the presence of the emperor . = = = Other buildings = = = The empress , as well as the official and unofficial imperial consorts , was also housed in the Dairi , occupying buildings in the northern part of the enclosure . The most prestigious buildings , housing the empress and the official consorts , were the ones that had appropriate locations for such use according to the originally Chinese design principles ( the Kokiden ( 弘徽殿 ) , the Reikeiden ( 麗景殿 ) and the Jōneiden ( 常寧殿 ) , as well as the ones closest to the imperial residence in Seiryōden ( the Kōryōden ( 後涼殿 ) and the Fujitsubo ( 藤壷 ) ) . The lesser consorts and ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting occupied other buildings in the northern half of the Dairi . One of the Imperial Regalia of Japan , the emperor 's replica of the sacred mirror , was also housed in the Unmeiden hall ( 温明殿 ) of the Dairi . The present @-@ day Kyoto Imperial Palace , located in what was the north @-@ eastern corner of Heian @-@ kyō , reproduces much of the Heian @-@ period Dairi , in particular the Shishinden and the Seiryōden . = Montpelier , Brighton = Montpelier is an inner suburban area of Brighton , part of the English city and seaside resort of Brighton and Hove . Developed together with the adjacent Clifton Hill area in the mid @-@ 19th century , it forms a high @-@ class , architecturally cohesive residential district with " an exceptionally complete character " . Stucco @-@ clad terraced housing and villas predominate , but two of the city 's most significant Victorian churches and a landmark hospital building are also in the area , which lies immediately northwest of Brighton city centre and spreads as far as the ancient parish boundary with Hove . Development was initially stimulated when one of the main roads out of Brighton was turnpiked in the late 18th century , but the hilly land — condemned as " hideous masses of unfledged earth " by John Constable , who painted it nevertheless — was mostly devoted to agriculture until the 1820s . The ascent of Brighton from provincial fishing town to fashionable resort prompted a building boom in the next quarter @-@ century , and Montpelier and Clifton Hill were transformed into districts of architecturally homogeneous streets with carefully designed , intricately detailed housing . Little demolition , infilling or redevelopment has occurred since , and hundreds of buildings have been granted listed status . The whole suburb is also one of 34 conservation areas in the city of Brighton and Hove . Historic buildings include The Temple — local landowner Thomas Read Kemp 's house , now a private school — the former Royal Alexandra Hospital for Children , currently being redeveloped , and large mid 19th @-@ century houses such as Montpelier Hall . The area also has several set @-@ piece residential squares and crescents such as Clifton Terrace , Powis Square , Vernon Terrace , Montpelier Crescent and Montpelier Villas . The architectural partnership of Amon Wilds , his son Amon Henry Wilds and Charles Busby — the most important architects in Regency era Brighton and Hove — designed many of these . Montpelier 's range of churches includes some of the city 's finest , but others have been demolished in the postwar period . = = Location and character = = Montpelier is a centrally located inner suburb of the city of Brighton and Hove . The Lanes , the ancient centre of Brighton , is about 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) to the southeast , and central Hove is about 1 @.@ 1 miles ( 1 @.@ 8 km ) to the west . London is 50 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 81 @.@ 3 km ) to the north . There is no single official definition of the area covered by Montpelier and Clifton Hill , but most authorities ( including Brighton and Hove City Council ) define it as the area west of West Hill and east of the ancient parish boundary between Brighton and Hove . The Seven Dials area and the road junction of that name are to the north , forming the apex of the roughly triangular area , and the major city @-@ centre shopping street Western Road lies to the south . Two roads form important through routes for cross @-@ city traffic : Montpelier Road runs south – north from the city centre to Seven Dials , and the west – east Upper North Street links the city centre to Hove . Both are busy , but traffic is limited in the smaller residential streets . Dyke Road — the ancient route from Brighton to Devil 's Dyke and Steyning and eventually on to London — forms the conservation area 's eastern boundary except at the southern end , where it extends east of the road to include St Nicholas ' Church ( Brighton 's original parish church ) , Wykeham Terrace and other small parts of West Hill . The land rises gently from the southwest to a summit at Clifton Hill . Writing in 1833 , J.D. Parry said that the hill " commands a magnificent view , and has very fine air " . John Constable , who stayed in Brighton several times during the 1820s , was less impressed : he described it as " hideous masses of unfledged earth called the country " . Nevertheless , he produced several paintings of the area , which provide a record of its appearance just before it became suburbanised . Geologically , Montpelier is built on grassy downland and sheep @-@ pasture , beneath which is chalk . This pattern is repeated across the rest of the city , most of the Sussex coast and for several miles inland . The chalk , " one of the most complete and accessible strata anywhere in Europe " , was formed about 100 million years ago . As in other areas where chalk is prevalent , the soil above it is rendzina . Found in thin layers and with a high calcium content , it has a poor agricultural value . In common with the rest of Brighton , the area has a temperate climate : its Köppen climate classification is Cfb . It is characterised by mild , calm weather with high levels of sunshine , sea breezes and a " healthy , bracing air " attributed to the low level of tree cover . Average rainfall levels increase as the land rises : the 1958 – 1990 mean was 740 millimetres ( 29 in ) on the seafront and about 1 @,@ 000 millimetres ( 39 in ) at the top of the South Downs above Brighton . Locally , a distinction is made between the northern part of the area towards the top of the hill — this area is known as Clifton or Clifton Hill — and the lower land to the south and west , as far as the Hove boundary and Western Road , known as Montpelier . The names are also used interchangeably , and some sources make further distinctions : the area around Powis Grove , Powis Villas , Powis Road and St Michael and All Angels Church is called Powis in one study of the area . Although Montpelier first appears as the name of the area on a map of 1824 , this still makes it the earliest Montpelier in England — predating those in Bristol , Cheltenham and elsewhere in taking and adapting the name of the French spa resort Montpellier . The town was popular with rich English people in the 18th century for convalescence : it had an excellent climate and good medical facilities . The term " Montpelier Estate " is sometimes used for the area as a whole . = = = Demography and politics = = = Montpelier and Clifton Hill are predominantly residential : about 20 % of buildings have other uses , primarily commercial and retail . Some areas have clusters of small shops , and there are many pubs and restaurants . The southern part of Montpelier is very close to Brighton 's main retail area , Western Road and the Churchill Square shopping centre . Many streets provide long southward views towards the sea . The area forms part of Brighton and Hove City Council 's Regency ward , one of 21 wards in the city . This is part of the Brighton Pavilion parliamentary constituency , which elected Caroline Lucas of the Green Party at the 2010 General Election . She held the seat with an increased majority at the 2015 General Election . Regency is classified as a " Prospering Metropolitan B " ward by the Office for National Statistics . 0 @.@ 91 % of the United Kingdom population live in such a ward , whose characteristics include much lower proportions of children , manufacturing sector workers , detached houses and households with more than one car than the national average , and much higher proportions of single @-@ person households , people qualified to degree level and privately rented accommodation than the average . Population density is also much higher in Prospering Metropolitan B wards than in the United Kingdom as a whole . The Regency ward covers 235 @.@ 5 acres ( 95 @.@ 3 ha ) of central Brighton , bounded by Seven Dials to the north , the ancient Brighton / Hove parish boundary to the west , the English Channel to the south and Dyke Road , North Street and Old Steine to the east . It therefore includes territory that is not part of Montpelier , whose southern boundary at Western Road runs through the middle of the ward . At the time of the United Kingdom Census 2001 , for which the size of the ward was measured at 88 acres ( 36 ha ) , Regency had a population of 8 @,@ 510 . Its population density of 96 @.@ 25 persons per hectare was much higher than that of the city Brighton and Hove ( 29 @.@ 98 ) and of South East England as a whole ( 4 @.@ 2 ) . The ethnic mix is similar to that of the wider city and of South East England as a whole : in the Census , 93 @.@ 3 % of people in Regency classified themselves as White , 2 @.@ 1 % as Mixed , 1 @.@ 88 % as Asian or Asian British , 1 @.@ 79 % as Chinese or Other , and 0 @.@ 93 % as Black British . The largest differences in comparison to Brighton and Hove overall were the lower proportion of White people and the higher proportion belonging to Chinese or other ethnic groups . The gender balance is significantly different from that of the city as a whole : while 48 @.@ 38 % of Brighton and Hove 's residents were male ( as recorded by the 2001 Census ) , the proportion rose to 54 @.@ 49 % of people in Regency ward . = = History = = The South Downs , a range of chalk hills , surrounded the ancient fishing and farming village of Brighton ( formerly Brighthelmston ) . The downland pasture sloped down to the English Channel coast and was farmed in one of two ways : some parts were divided into strips according to a local system of " laines " , furlongs " and " paul @-@ pieces " , and other areas were left for the grazing of sheep . The area now covered by Montpelier was an example of the latter . The five laines around Brighton were based on land with a relatively gentle slope ; when the gradient or height made the land too difficult to work , no more strips were marked out and the rest of the land was given over to grazing . A map of Brighton from the 1740s shows that a large section in the northwest of the parish — north of West Laine , west of North Laine and bisected by the road to Steyning — was marked as " sheep down " . It had no official name at the time , but by 1792 it had become known as Church Hill in reference to St Nicholas ' Church , the parish church of Brighton which stood on a hillock near the road . The part west of the road was sometimes described as " Church Hill – West Side " ; the corresponding " East Side " later became known as West Hill during Brighton 's 19th @-@ century growth . The road became a turnpike in 1777 , increasing its importance , and became known as Dyke Road . Vine 's Mill , one of several windmills built on the Downs around Brighton , was erected in 1810 . The sheep down was not common land : its ownership has been traced back to the 11th century ( to Canute , Earl Godwin and his son King Harold ) , and by the late 18th century it was held by two influential local landowners . Thomas Kemp held about 41 acres ( 17 ha ) , and John Sackville , 3rd Duke of Dorset owned over 5 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) . When Kemp died in 1811 , his landholding transferred to his son Thomas Read Kemp . The Kemp family first acquired the land in 1770 , when it was sold to them by the Friend family — whose history of large @-@ scale land acquisition around Brighton goes back to the late 16th century and the purchase of the former St Bartholomew 's Priory and its grounds . Thomas Read Kemp had moved out of Brighton in 1807 , but decided to return in 1819 . By this time he was enjoying " a rich social life " and his considerable inherited wealth . As he owned so much land around Brighton , there were many sites he could choose for his new home ; he selected a remote site near the track ( running from the seafront to the Ditchling Road ) which later became Montpelier Road . At the time there were only three people living on the farmland of " Church Hill – West Side " , including an eccentric former marine corporal who occupied a cave in a former chalk pit . He had been invalided out of the Navy after fighting in the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801 , but retained his military interest : he made chalk models to sell , and rigged up four pistols to form a miniature battery which he would fire to celebrate military anniversaries . Read Kemp 's house , probably designed by Amon Wilds or his son Amon Henry Wilds , was called The Temple ( and was popularly nicknamed " Kemp 's Folly " or " the Brighton Mansion " ) . He may have chosen the secluded site because it was close to the chalybeate spring at St Ann 's Well in the neighbouring parish of Hove , popularised by Dr Richard Russell in the 1750s but known to generations of shepherds before that for the health @-@ giving effect it had on their sheep . The iron @-@ rich water was used in " a primitive little spa " for about 100 years , and the associated Pump Room and gardens were popular with visitors long after that . The increasing popularity of Brighton as a resort resulted in an " exponential growth in housing " . In 1783 , just after the first expansion outside the ancient four @-@ street village , there were 600 houses ; in 1801 there were 1 @,@ 282 , by 1811 another 1 @,@ 096 had been completed , and in 1821 there were 4 @,@ 299 . The land of Church Hill was ideal for development — land ownership was not complex , unlike in many of the laines , and the sheltered southwest @-@ facing slopes were close to both St Ann 's Well and the centre of Brighton 's fashionable social scene around Old Steine . The area developed rapidly as a residential district from the 1820s , and was one of the earliest of Brighton 's many 19th @-@ century suburbs . From 1823 , Read Kemp became heavily involved in his speculative Kemp Town estate on the edge of Brighton , and he moved to a house there in 1827 ( after which The Temple became a boys ' school ) . He began selling plots of land throughout the area , and streets and areas of housing took shape . Montpelier Road was one of the first to develop , on the site of the long track which had given Read Kemp access to the seafront from his house ; it is not named before 1820 , but it appears on a map of 1822 . Houses such as numbers 53 – 56 , by Amon Henry Wilds , and the semi @-@ detached villas of numbers 91 – 96 , date from about 1830 . Hampton Place , a sloping terrace of " especially pretty houses " , was an 1820s development by speculator William Hallett , who occupied one of the houses himself . Around the same time , Amon Henry Wilds and Charles Busby built several houses on a former track which became Clifton Road , and work started at Montpelier Terrace with the construction of a pair of villas in 1823 . Montpelier Lodge ( c . 1830 ) on Montpelier Terrace stood out from the surrounding stuccoed buildings due to its red @-@ brick walls ; it also had an elaborate entrance with Doric columns and a delicately patterned fanlight . Development accelerated after Thomas Read Kemp was declared bankrupt in 1837 , forcing him to sell all his land and move to France . Parcels of land were rapidly developed with terraced streets ( especially to the south , leading up from Western Road ) and set @-@ piece squares and crescents . The Temple was still isolated until 1834 – 35 , when the firm of George Cheesman & Son built a new vicarage for the Vicar of Brighton Henry Michell Wagner . The " austere Neo @-@ Tudor " house stood back from the nearest road . In about 1840 , Wagner 's sister moved to the newly built Belvedere House nearby , and encouraged development of the adjacent road which became Montpelier Place . ( The four @-@ storey houses of Belvedere Terrace were built on her behalf in the grounds of Belvedere House in about 1852 . ) Brighton was connected to the railway network in 1840 when a line to Shoreham @-@ by @-@ Sea opened , followed in 1841 by the completion of the link to London . This stimulated growth even further , and the 1840s were a boom period for Montpelier . ( Brighton as a whole grew rapidly in the 1840s — between 1841 and 1851 , 2 @,@ 806 new houses were built compared to 437 for the preceding decade — but the effect was greater in Montpelier because the station was close by at the foot of West Hill . ) During the 1840s , Montpelier Villas and Montpelier Crescent were laid out , several houses were built in Clifton Road , Montpelier Road and Montpelier Terrace were fully built up , Upper North Street became an important route lined with " modest yet grandly treated " houses , the " very attractive composition " of Clifton Terrace was built ( it was finished in 1847 ) , Victoria Street was laid out with bay @-@ fronted terraced houses , and Windlesham House was constructed near The Temple . This became the New Sussex Hospital in 1921 after alterations by the Clayton & Black architecture firm , but is now flats called Temple Heights . Developments in the 1850s included Powis Square , Villas and Road , Norfolk Terrace and Vernon Terrace . The Powis area took its name from property developer John Yearsley , who was from Welshpool in Powys . Yearsley bought several acres of land on a leasehold basis from the Kemp family in 1846 ; he acquired the freehold soon after . ( Thomas Read Kemp died in France in 1844 , seven years after leaving Brighton to escape his debts . ) Land was also acquired and developed by the prominent Hallett , Wisden , Baring and Faithfull families . ( The Baring baronets were related to Thomas Read Kemp by marriage ; Henry Faithfull , who worked with Yearsley to develop the Powis area , was the brother of MP George Faithfull ; and Thomas and John Wisden were prolific builders . ) Denmark Terrace , a continuation of Vernon Terrace , was erected in the 1860s ; at its south end it met Temple Gardens , the road on which The Temple stood . Also of the 1860s were parts of Norfolk Road ( where development had started 30 years before ) , St Michael 's Place ( 1868 – 69 ) with terraced houses " impressive in their length and height " , and some infill development in Montpelier Terrace , Clifton Place , Powis Road and Vernon Terrace . Montpelier 's residential development was nearly complete by the 1870s , as suggested by an Ordnance Survey map of that time which shows undeveloped fields only in the area beyond Vernon Terrace . In 1870 or 1871 , Brighton Children 's Hospital — established three years earlier in Western Road — moved to a new building on the site of the former Church Road School in West Hill . In 1880 – 81 , Thomas Lainson built the new Royal Alexandra Hospital for Sick Children nearby at the junction of Dyke Road and Clifton Hill . It was extended and altered in 1904 , 1906 and 1927 – 28 . Some more houses were built in the Edwardian era , mostly in the characteristic Edwardian style with bright red brick " standing out amongst the stucco " . Examples include some in Temple Gardens and Vernon Gardens in the 1890s , a row on one side of Denmark Terrace , Windlesham Road ( where numbers 14 and 16 , built in 1903 , are especially elaborate ) and 18 – 25 Clifton Road ( 1903 – 04 , with ornate gables and turreted corners ) . In 1902 , the London & Brighton Express Electric Railway Company sought permission to build a new surface railway line from Westminster to a terminus near the junction of Montpelier Road and Western Road , passing Clifton Hill . Hove Council supported the parliamentary Bill , but nothing came of it ; when the promoters proposed it again in 1903 , the council were no longer interested . Additions and alterations to the streetscape have been minimal since the early 20th century . Windlesham House became the New Sussex Hospital for Women in 1921 following alterations by Clayton & Black , who similarly rebuilt a 19th @-@ century house on Montpelier Road as a chapel for Brighton 's Christian Scientist community in the same year . The hospital was extended to the rear in the 1930s ( but new flats called York Mansions were built on the site in 2001 ) , and the Royal Alexandra Hospital absorbed a neighbouring villa . Additions to the Brighton & Hove High School , which had taken over The Temple , included a " drab " set of classrooms in the 1960s , a later administration block and a glazed sports hall in 2001 – 02 ( the last two were designed by architects Morgan Carn Partnership ) . Demolitions included the former Emanuel Reformed Episcopal Church on Norfolk Terrace ( replaced by a Baptist church ) in 1965 , The Dials Congregational Church in 1972 ( built in 1871 ; replaced by sheltered accommodation ) and Belvedere House ( replaced in the 1970s by the Park Royal flats ) . Other blocks of flats were built in that decade on spare land on Montpelier Terrace and Clifton Terrace . = = Buildings = = = = = Churches = = = The Montpelier and Clifton Hill areas have four extant churches and one former church building which is now in secular use . Three of these buildings have listed status . Another three churches were demolished in the postwar period . The Anglican St Michael and All Angels Church has been a centre of Anglo @-@ Catholicism and High church worship since it opened in 1861 . It was one of several daughter churches planted out of St Paul 's Church in the early Victorian era . George Frederick Bodley designed the original building on behalf of his friend Rev. Charles Beanlands , a curate at St Paul 's , and work started in 1858 . William Burges then supplied plans for an extension in 1865 , but these were not executed until 1893 – 95 by J.S. Chapple , an architect from the recently deceased Burges ' office . The two parts are connected by a four @-@ bay arcade inside , and Bodley 's original nave has become an aisle . The building is a tall red @-@ brick and stone Gothic Revival structure with traceried lancet windows . The internal fittings combine " grandeur and artistry in a most satisfying way " , and the 19th @-@ century stained glass has been called the best in Sussex . The church is Grade I @-@ listed . St Mary Magdalen 's Church , another brick and stone Gothic Revival building , was designed for the area 's Roman Catholics in 1861 – 64 by Gilbert Blount . Frederick Walters added a complementary school and presbytery in 1871 and 1891 respectively , and the complex takes up a large site on Upper North Street . A tall tower with a landmark broach spire stands almost separated from the Decorated Gothic nave and chancel . The interior has contrasting stone ( intricately carved to Blount 's designs ) and marble , and Joseph Cribb carved the effigies of Saint Joseph and Saint George which flank the entrance . St Mary Magdalen 's has Grade II @-@ listed status . The First Church of Christ , Scientist , serving the city 's Christian Scientists , is a " notable " former house on Montpelier Road . It was built in the early 1850s and was converted into a church by local architects Clayton & Black in 1921 . The exterior is rusticated and has an elaborate pediment and large pilasters flanking the tiered windows . A panelled gallery survives inside . E. Joseph Wood 's Montpelier Place Baptist Church of 1966 replaced the former Emanuel Reformed Episcopal Church . The low brown @-@ brick building stands on a corner site at the top of Norfolk Terrace . There are echoes of Coventry Cathedral in the treatment of the façade , which has two gabled bays linked by an arcaded wall with a sawtooth @-@ style roof . Each bay has vertical rows of recessed bricks . A flat @-@ roofed church hall adjoins . The Grade II * -listed former St Stephen 's Church on Montpelier Place closed in 1939 and is now used as a day centre for homeless people . George Cheesman designed the plain stuccoed Classical façade , with Doric pilasters and an octagonal lantern , in 1851 . Behind it lies the opulent former ballroom of the Castle Inn , built by John Crunden in 1776 and later transported to Montpelier Place . Arthur Blomfield made additions to the church in 1889 . It was refurbished after a fire in 1988 . Christ Church stood on Montpelier Road south of Western Road between 1837 and 1982 . George Cheesman designed it and Edmund Scott undertook restoration in 1886 ; both architects worked on other local churches as well . The Gothic Revival building had a galleried interior and a spire matching that at Chichester Cathedral . It was gutted in an arson attack in 1978 ; the exterior survived , but it was demolished in 1982 in favour of the International / Modern @-@ style Christ Church House flats . The congregation of the church moved to nearby St Patrick 's Church . The Dials Congregational Church stood at the junction of Clifton Road and Dyke Road ( the site of the present Homelees House ) between 1870 and 1972 , although it closed in 1969 . Its 150 @-@ foot ( 46 m ) " Rhenish helm " -topped clock tower was prominent on the skyline , and behind was a large horseshoe @-@ shaped auditorium . The Romanesque Revival building , described as " uncouth " by Nikolaus Pevsner , was designed by Thomas Simpson . Work on Homelees House , a sheltered housing scheme , began in 1985 . Norfolk Road Methodist Church , designed by C.O. Ellison , stood on Norfolk Road from 1868 until 1965 . It was a large Early English / Decorated Gothic Revival flint and stone building with a tower and spire , and it had an extensive array of stained glass . Externally and internally — where the main aisle led the eye to the central altar , and the lectern and pulpit stood to one side — there was little to distinguish it from an Anglican church , and it was known as the " Methodist Cathedral of the South " . Demographic changes meant the congregation dwindled , and the church closed in 1964 and was demolished the following year to be replaced by Braemar House , a large block of flats with a " bland red @-@ brick façade " . = = = Other public buildings = = = The Royal Alexandra Hospital for Sick Children , " an important part of Brighton life and a well known local landmark " , was officially opened on 21 July 1881 and was used until 22 June 2007 , when a new children 's hospital opened on the Royal Sussex County Hospital campus elsewhere in the city . Designed by Thomas Lainson , it was a three @-@ storey Queen Anne @-@ style building of red brick with terracotta dressings and mouldings , enlivened by Dutch gables , cupolas and a moulded cartouche . Extensions included a colonnade of balconies ( later enclosed ) by the Clayton & Black firm in 1906 and a Vernacular @-@ style recessed wing of two storeys in 1927 – 28 , partly tile @-@ hung and with timber decoration to the gables . The first mention of its potential closure came in 2001 , when the Government allocated £ 28 million towards new facilities at the Royal Sussex County Hospital on Eastern Road in Kemptown . By 2004 , it seemed likely that the building would be demolished and the site redeveloped with luxury flats . Montpelier residents were unsuccessful in their attempt to get the former hospital listed by English Heritage , who stated that Lainson 's original design had been altered so much that much of its character had been lost . Taylor Wimpey , a housebuilding company , bought the hospital in December 2006 , but their proposals to clear the site and build a combined residential development and GP surgery were refused twice by the city council , in 2007 and 2008 . In 2009 Taylor Wimpey appealed against the latest refusal to grant planning permission for 149 flats and a four @-@ day public inquiry was held at Brighton Town Hall in May 2009 . The local conservation group , the Montpelier and Clifton Hill Association , led the opposition to Taylor Wimpey 's plans to demolish the hospital . The planning inspector , John Papworth , turned down Taylor Wimpey 's appeal , praising the architectural quality of Thomas Lainson 's main building . " I consider that the main block and particularly its southern façade and the southern end of the Dyke Road frontage contribute positively to the character and appearance of the conservation area , ” said Papworth . In 2010 Taylor Wimpey abandoned its plans to clear the site and put forward a compromise plan , which kept the main Lainson building but demolished the later ancillary buildings on the site . This plan , which was supported by the Montpelier and Clifton Hill Association was approved by the council in 2011 . Flats on the site went on sale ( marketed as Royal Alexandra Quarter ) in 2012 . The iconic main hospital building , to be called the Lainson building , is currently being restored and converted to provide 20 flats . The Temple , now the main part of Brighton and Hove High School , was built in 1818 – 19 by Amon Wilds or his son Amon Henry Wilds , and has been described as " certainly exotic enough for their tastes " . The Wilds , along with Charles Busby , were the three architects most closely associated with the development of Brighton and Hove in the Regency era and the exuberant , confident and strongly planned architecture which still characterises the city . The Temple was an early commission : they only moved to Brighton in 1814 . The north and east walls retain their original appearance : long colonnades are formed by a series of arches on top of paired vertical features of " bizarre form " . These have unusual capitals and have been described as resembling Egyptian @-@ style pilasters or engaged columns . The west and south façades also had these , but the building was drastically altered in 1911 – 12 : the domed roof was replaced by a mansard , a curious central spiral staircase housed in a cylindrical structure was removed , and chimneys were taken away . The dimensions of the building match those of Solomon 's Temple in Jerusalem . The Temple is a Grade II listed building , and the large flint and brick wall surrounding the building is also listed at Grade II ; it is decorated with stone lion heads . An extension was also built at the southwest corner in 1891 . Junior pupils shared the building with the senior school until 1904 , after which they moved several times : to Norfolk Terrace , Montpelier Crescent , the former vicarage ( in 1922 ) and finally to new facilities in Hove . The former vicarage is now the school 's sixth @-@ form . George Cheesman & Son designed it on behalf of Vicar of Brighton Henry Michell Wagner in 1834 – 35 ; it is a stuccoed building with prominent gables and windows with mullions and transoms . An ornate staircase survives inside . = = = Residential squares and terraces = = = = = = = Clifton Terrace = = = = This runs east – wast across the slope of the hill , and has private gardens on the site of the former windmill which moved to Albion Hill in 1837 . Most construction work took place in 1846 – 47 , but the 23 @-@ house terrace and its gardens were not finished until 1851 . The houses combine the Regency @-@ style " gaiety and exuberance " with the " charm and vigour " of Victorian architecture , and the use of angled bay windows set below tented canopies is a late example of this distinctive local practice . Each house is built as a villa , mostly with a three @-@ window range shared across two neighbouring houses ( the middle window is blank ) . Numbers 12 – 14 project slightly and are taller . The houses are raised above the roadway , giving views into the private gardens on the south side and " a commanding view of the sea " . Number 25 , which stands separately and was also listed , was originally the Clifton Arms pub . = = = = Denmark Terrace = = = = The " heavy Italianate detailing " of the large four @-@ storey bay @-@ fronted houses on the east side identifies them as 1860s buildings . There are prominent cornices and pairs of porches whose style is reminiscent of the work of 18th @-@ century architect James Gibbs , and some houses are also linked by iron balconies on the top floor ( a balcony runs along the whole length of the terrace at first @-@ floor level ) . " Cheery " red @-@ brick Edwardian houses face the terrace . = = = = Montpelier Crescent = = = = Described as " the one great showpiece of the area " and " the grandest of [ Amon Henry Wilds ' ] many works " , this crescent was developed over about 12 years from 1843 . The main section , numbers 7 – 31 , was built between 1843 and 1847 and is Grade II * -listed . A further 13 houses ( listed at Grade II ) were added in four blocks , two at each end , in about 1855 . The houses are arranged as linked villas , alternating between triplets and pairs : this layout is unique , and the placement of the crescent to face inland towards the South Downs rather than the sea is also unusual . Most houses are of five bays with a central pediment . Recessed entrances , Corinthian pilasters topped by ammonite capitals and decorative mouldings characterise the houses . The gardens in front of the crescent are an important area of open space within the conservation area . = = = = Montpelier Villas = = = = Ten pairs of " delightful " semi @-@ detached villas , five on each side of the road , make up this mid @-@ 1840s development by Amon Henry Wilds . They are in the Italianate style with influences of Regency architecture , and have two bow windows with bonnet @-@ style canopies above , stuccoed walls with extensive rustication , prominently bracketed eaves and cast iron balconies . The " charming " houses are set in spacious plots in a former bluebell wood . The street was completed over the course of three years from about 1845 . All of the villas are listed buildings . = = = = Norfolk Terrace , Norfolk Road and Belvedere Terrace = = = = Norfolk Terrace is an 1850s development . On the west side , the first ( northernmost ) 13 houses are a tall terrace by Thomas Lainson , arranged as four pairs of flat @-@ fronted houses with a wider central elevation whose windows are large and round @-@ arched . The building is in the Italianate style . South of that , the next six houses ( with segmental bay windows and cast iron balconies ) have become the Abbey Hotel . Belvedere Terrace , built in 1852 for Mary Wagner , forms part of the east side of the road . It has four storeys , bow windows and balconies at first @-@ floor level . Two blocks of flats now occupy the site of Belvedere House , demolished in 1965 , but its cobbled flint garden wall survives . Various smaller @-@ scale houses , some of which are listed , line Norfolk Road , which developed between the 1830s and the 1860s ; canted bay windows and cast iron balconies are characteristic features . The street used to be called Chalybeate Street . = = = = Powis Grove , Road , Square and Villas = = = = Powis Square is a rare example in Brighton of a fully enclosed inland square : most such developments are on the seafront , and its architectural details and scale are similar to these . It is horseshoe @-@ shaped , and one side is formed by Powis Road . The square was developed by John Yearsley over a few years around 1850 : the leasehold to the land was granted on 17 September 1846 , and in 1852 seven people had moved in and another 14 houses were built but unoccupied . In some cases façades were built first and the structure of the house came later . A builder called Stephen Davey was responsible for many of the houses , which were originally planned to be flat @-@ fronted but which were given bow fronts when built . They rise to three storeys and have features of Georgian , Victorian and Palladian design . A small garden in the centre of the square , taken over by Brighton Corporation in 1887 , enhances its intimate scale . Powis Road 's houses are not listed , unlike those of Powis Square , and were built a decade later . They also have three storeys , and their façades have canted bay windows and cast iron balconies . St Michael and All Angels Church stands at the southern end . Powis Grove leads through to the east side of Powis Square and has various buildings of the mid 19th @-@ century , and Powis Villas has some listed detached and semi @-@ detached houses of the 1850s and a short terrace with a long canopied veranda . = = = = Vernon Terrace = = = = This long , tall terrace of houses blocked the view of the South Downs that Montpelier Crescent had when it was first built . Along with the crescent , it forms " a townscape of outstanding quality " . Only the west side of the road has houses , as the open space outside Montpelier Crescent fronts the east side . The terrace is in two parts : that to the south dates from the 1850s and is Grade II @-@ listed in two parts . Numbers 1 – 6 have been dated to about 1860 and rise to three storeys ( except numbers 1 and 6 , which have an extra storey ) . Their individual detailing is slightly different , but pilastered doorcases , architraves , first @-@ floor cast iron balconies and small pediments above the windows are common themes . Numbers 7 – 16 date from 1856 – 57 and are each of four storeys with a three @-@ window range ; there is a mixture of bow windows and canted bays . Many windows have architraves and cornices , and there are bow @-@ fronted cast iron balconies at first @-@ floor level ( and to the second and third floors at number 8 ) . = = = Windmills = = = Vine 's Mill , a post mill , only took that name in 1818 . William Vine moved to the area from Patcham , where he had previously been a miller , in August 1818 , having bought the mill at a recent auction . A house came with the windmill ; it survives under the name " Rose Cottage " on Vine Place , which also took its name from him ( it was previously called Mill Place ) . A storm in 1828 damaged the mill , but it was repaired . It was the subject of two paintings by Constable in the 1820s and a locally famous watercolour by Henry Bodle , who married into the Vine family , in 1843 . By this time Vine had died and the mill had been bought by Edward Cuttress of Round Hill . It was demolished in 1849 or 1850 , and the gardens at 6 and 7 Powis Villas now occupy the site . A second windmill stood nearby and has been confused with Vine 's Mill in some sources . It is missed off most maps and has been called " something of an enigma " . It was a fan @-@ tailed post mill , larger than Vine 's Mill and of a more modern design — although one historian stated that it existed in 1780 . It did not receive an official name until the mid @-@ 19th century , by which time it had been moved to Windmill Street on Albion Hill in the Carlton Hill area of Brighton : because it had stood where the private gardens of Clifton Terrace were later built , it became known as the Clifton Gardens Mill . The Windmill Inn on Upper North Street , licensed in 1828 , is close to the site of both mills ; sources disagree on which one it was named after . = = = The Coach House = = = Now a Grade II listed building , The Coach House stands on Clifton Hill . It was built as the coach house of Aberdeen Lodge ( now 5 Powis Villas ) . Statue @-@ maker Joseph Rogers Browne built this house for himself , along with the neighbouring villas at numbers 6 and 7 . He later wanted accommodation for his carriages , so in 1852 he erected the brick , flint and stucco building with space for two coaches and three horses . There was also a hay loft and a separate room for the coachman , and the exterior had Coade stone decoration . By the 1920s it had become a garage ; in 1937 , after this closed , the Royal Alexandra Children 's Hospital bought it and used it to store their ambulances . Local conservationists set up a limited company , which bought the building in 2006 , intending to turn it into a community centre and museum ; but it was repossessed in 2008 and was thereafter used for storage by a clothes shop . In its assessment of the building 's architectural importance when granting listed status in 2005 , English Heritage described it as a " substantially intact and rare survival " with " polite architectural and sculptural features " . = = Heritage and conservation area = = A building or structure is defined as " listed " when it is placed on a statutory register of buildings of " special architectural or historic interest " by the Secretary of State for Culture , Media and Sport , a Government department , in accordance with the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 . English Heritage , a non @-@ departmental public body , acts as an agency of this department to administer the process and advise the department on relevant issues . As of February 2001 , there were 24 listed buildings with Grade I status , 70 Grade II * -listed and 1 @,@ 124 Grade II @-@ listed buildings in Brighton and Hove . Grade I @-@ listed buildings are defined as being of " exceptional interest " and greater than national importance ; Grade II * , the next highest status , is used for " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " ; and the lowest grade , Grade II , is used for " nationally important buildings of special interest " . Many of Montpelier 's buildings are listed : in 1981 , 320 individual buildings were covered by an English Heritage listing , and the figure in 2010 was 351 . In the United Kingdom , a conservation area is a principally urban area " of special architectural or historic interest , the character or appearance of which it is desirable to preserve or enhance " . Such areas are identified by local authorities according to criteria defined by Sections 69 and 70 of the Planning ( Listed Buildings and Conservation Areas ) Act 1990 . The Montpelier & Clifton Hill conservation area , one of 34 in the city of Brighton and Hove , was created in 1973 . Its boundaries were extended in 1977 , and it now covers 75 @.@ 4 acres ( 30 @.@ 5 ha ) . = = Notable residents = = Many famous people have lived in Montpelier . Sara Forbes Bonetta , an African princess who became a favourite of Queen Victoria , lived at 17 Clifton Hill prior to her marriage at St Nicholas ' Church in 1862 to a merchant who lived at Victoria Road ; she was unhappy in Brighton , describing the house as a " desolate little pigsty " . Frederick William Robertson , a preacher , theologian and divine whose ministry at Brighton 's Holy Trinity Church was nationally famous , lived at 9 Montpelier Terrace from 1847 until 1850 , then at 60 Montpelier Road until his death in 1853 . Another resident of Montpelier Road was Dr William King , an important figure in the British cooperative movement , who owned number 23 . Eleanor Marx lived at 6 Vernon Terrace for a time in the late 19th century . Screenwriter Edward Knoblock 's home was at 20 Clifton Terrace , and another resident of that street was playwright and author Alan Melville : he lived at number 17 from 1951 until 1973 and then at 28 Victoria Street until his death in 1983 . Author Francis King lived at 17 Montpelier Villas , close to the 5 Powis Grove home of former MP Thomas Skeffington @-@ Lodge . He look legal action after noticing an " unflattering " resemblance to himself in King 's 1970 novel A Domestic Animal ; King had to sell his house to pay the legal costs after losing the case . Journalist and television personality Gilbert Harding — " the most @-@ watched man on British television " during the 1950s — lived at 20 Montpelier Villas until his death in 1960 . Bandleader Ray Noble 's birthplace , 1 Montpelier Terrace , has a blue plaque commemorating his time in Brighton . = Hustler 's Ambition = " Hustler 's Ambition " is a song by American rapper 50 Cent . Written by 50 Cent and produced by B @-@ Money " B $ " , the song was released as the first single from the soundtrack to the film Get Rich or Die Tryin ' ( 2005 ) . Built around a soul – influenced production sampling the Frankie Beverly and Maze song " I Need You " , " Hustler 's Ambition " features lyrics regarding 50 Cent 's rise to fortune and fame , intended to mirror the experience faced by 50 Cent 's character in the film : it marks a shift from influence of hardcore hip hop present in 50 Cent 's earlier work . " Hustler 's Ambition " was released to digital retailers in the United States in October 2005 via Interscope Records , with a CD release following in February 2006 . The song received generally favorable reviews from music critics , many of whom complimented the soulful production and 50 Cent 's delivery . Some also found the song to be more musically diverse than the music 50 Cent recorded at the beginning of his career . The song achieved commercial success on a number of music charts , reaching the top 25 of charts across Europe and Australasia , although it only reached number 65 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , making it one of 50 Cent 's least successful songs in the country . A music video for " Hustler 's Ambition " was directed by Anthony Mandler , and shows 50 Cent performing the song inside a warehouse whilst preparing for a boxing match . = = Background and recording = = In late 2003 , following the commercial success achieved by 50 Cent 's debut studio album Get Rich or Die Tryin ' , Interscope Records head Jimmy Iovine asserted that 50 Cent had a high enough profile to move into making films . Plans for a film were revealed the following year , when 50 Cent revealed that he would be writing and directing his first motion picture , a semi @-@ autobiographical work based on his difficult childhood experiences , with the Oscar @-@ nominated director Jim Sheridan assisting in the production of the film . The film was originally known under the title Locked and Loaded , although this later became Get Rich or Die Tryin ' . Get Rich or Die Tryin ' was released to cinemas in 2005 , and received generally mixed reviews from contemporary film critics . 50 Cent wrote the whole of " Hustler 's Ambition " during a break from filming Get Rich or Die Tryin ' in his trailer on the set of the film . The song 's title was to match that of the film , which had the other working title of Hustler 's Ambition at the time , although the then upcoming release of the film Hustle & Flow , which featured Terrence Howard , a co @-@ star of Get Rich or Die Tryin ' , in its cast led 50 Cent to change the title of the film . American soul singer Frankie Beverly is also credited as having written " Hustler 's Ambition " , as a sample of his song " I Need You " – a collaboration with funk group Maze from their 1978 album Golden Time of Day – is included in the song 's introduction . The production for " Hustler 's Ambition " was provided by record producer Brian Hughes under his production name B @-@ Money " B $ " , with recording carried out by Ky Miller at G @-@ Unit Studios – a recording studio in New York City . The song 's mixing process was carried out by Pat Viala , with mastering handled by Brian " Big Bass " Gardner . = = Composition and lyrics = = " Hustler 's Ambition " is a hip hop song of three minutes and fifty @-@ seven seconds in length . After opening with a sample of the Frankie Beverly and Maze song " I Need You " , the instrumentation provided by B @-@ Money " B $ " is built around a " solid bassline " , and features background vocals that harmonize with 50 Cent 's voice . As with much of the material from earlier in 50 Cent 's career , the song follows a rags to riches theme of " getting rich or dying trying " , according to Azeem Ahmad of musicOMH . 50 Cent 's lyrics muse " exactly how far he wants to go " in the entertainment business following his rapid rise to fame over the preceding two years , as well as his believed superiority to other contemporary artists : " Look at me , this is the life I chose / Niggaz around me so cold , man my heart done froze ... I 'm just triple beam , dreamin / niggaz be , schemin " . Writing for The Michigan Daily , Andrew Kahn noted the " old @-@ school , pre @-@ fame hunger " present in " Hustler 's Ambition " due to the use of the " I Need You " sample . Steve Juon of RapReviews commented on 50 Cent 's enunciation on the song , observing how the background vocals " never distract from 50 's words " and that his " skills as an orator helped him rise to his current station in life " . = = Reception = = " Hustler 's Ambition " received generally favourable reviews from music critics . David Jeffries of AllMusic called the song " a clever number " and compared it to the material found on 50 Cent 's debut album , Get Rich or Die Tryin ' , commenting that it " recall [ s ] the looser moments of his debut " . Although Azeem Ahmad noted " Hustler 's Ambition " to be more musically diverse that 50 Cent 's previous work in his review of the song for musicOMH , he also wrote that " it 's hardly inspiring to those expecting a slice of raw hip @-@ hop " , although he concluded that that the song sounded better after repeated listenings and that 50 Cent had " once again hit the jackpot " . Andrew Kahn of The Michigan Daily felt the song to be " by far [ his ] best solo song on the album " , and also wrote that it sounded " superior to most of The Massacre 's tracks " . In his review for the Get Rich or Die Tryin ' soundtrack for PopMatters , Mike Schiller observed that " Hustler 's Ambition " effectively represents the struggles that 50 Cent 's character faces in the corresponding film , pointing out that it emphasizes his " hunger for money " and also noted the song to be a " subtle shift in perspective " of 50 Cent 's music , in that it had moved from " club bangers that serve no particular purpose other than to get people dancing " to " raps ... spit through the voice of a fictionalized version of his own younger self " . = = Chart performance = = Despite being released in the wake of several commercially prosperous singles from 50 Cent 's preceding studio album , The Massacre ( 2005 ) , including " Candy Shop " and " Just a Lil Bit " , " Hustler 's Ambition " did not match the chart success of previous 50 Cent singles . In the United States , the song first appeared at number 4 on the US Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart for the week ending October 22 , 2005 , and debuted at number 22 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart the following week . It debuted at number 73 on the US Billboard Hot 100 for the chart dated November 5 , 2005 , and went on to peak at number 65 , making it 50 Cent 's second lowest peaking song at the time , behind only the 2004 single " If I Can 't " , which reached number 76 . It also reached a peak of number 64 on the US Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , and number 49 on the now @-@ defunct US Pop 100 chart . Outside the United States , " Hustler 's Ambition " was also modestly commercially successful , although it achieved little longetivity on the charts . It debuted and peaked at number 23 in Australia for the week dated March 5 , 2006 , charting for a total of seven weeks , and appeared at number 17 in New Zealand on March 20 in its first of five chart appearances . The song made appearances on several singles charts in mainland Europe , peaking at number 41 in Austria , number 22 in Germany and number 40 in The Netherlands . The song 's highest peak position was achieved in Switzerland , where it debuted and reached its peak of number 10 , and charted at number 39 in the Flanders region of Belgium and number 25 in the Wallonia region . In the British Isles , " Hustler 's Ambition " reached number 11 on Ireland and peaked at number 13 in the United Kingdom . = = Music video = = A music video for " Hustler 's Ambition " was directed by Anthony Mandler , and is of four minutes and 54 seconds in length . It opens with an off @-@ camera monologue from 50 Cent , explaining the hardships often faced by those in poorer communities , whilst – on @-@ camera this time – he enters a warehouse , passing two men as he arrives , containing several pieces of recording equipment . Shots of 50 Cent travelling around the warehouse are then interspersed with those of him performing " Hustler 's Ambition " into a microphone : after arriving in one room , he is shown to be repeatedly hitting a punching bag and lifting weights , as he trains for an upcoming boxing match . Other members of G @-@ Unit Records , including singer Olivia , are then shown to be present in the warehouse as 50 Cent continues to perform the song . Arriving at another boxing match and watching it from a balcony , 50 Cent recognizes a member of the crowd as one of the men he saw outside the warehouse : he then leaves the warehouse , with the video concluding with the fight ending and 50 Cent facing the camera on the street outside the warehouse . = = Track listing = = Digital download ( United States ) " Hustler 's Ambition " – 3 : 58 " Hustler 's Ambition " ( Clean Version ) – 3 : 58 CD single ( Germany ) " Hustler 's Ambition " – 3 : 58 " In da Club " ( Live Glasgow Version ) – 3 : 06 " P.I.M.P. " ( Live Glasgow Version ) – 2 : 42 " Hustler 's Ambition " ( UK Edit Version ) ( Video ) – 4 : 55 = = Credits and personnel = = The credits for " Hustler 's Ambition " are adapted from the liner notes of the soundtrack to Get Rich or Die Tryin ' . Recording Recorded at G @-@ Unit Studios , New York City . Personnel 50 Cent – songwriting , vocals B @-@ Money " B $ " – songwriting , production Frankie Beverly – songwriting Ky Miller – recording Pat Viala – mixing Brian " Big Bass " Gardner – mastering Samples Contains a sample of " I Need You " , as written by Frankie Beverly and performed by Frankie Beverly & Maze . = = Charts = = = = Release history = = = German destroyer Z2 Georg Thiele = The German destroyer Z2 Georg Thiele was a Type 1934 destroyer built for the Kriegsmarine in the mid @-@ 1930s . At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . During the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign , Georg Thiele fought in both naval Battles of Narvik and had to be beached to allow her crew to abandon ship safely after she had been severely damaged by British fire . = = Design and description = = Georg Thiele had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 223 long tons ( 2 @,@ 259 t ) at standard load and 3 @,@ 156 long tons ( 3 @,@ 207 t ) at deep load . The two Wagner geared steam turbine sets , each driving one propeller shaft , were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 PS ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) using steam provided by six high @-@ pressure Wagner boilers . The ship had a designed speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) , but her maximum speed was 38 @.@ 7 knots ( 71 @.@ 7 km / h ; 44 @.@ 5 mph ) . Georg Thiele carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots . The ship carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the aft superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . Georg Thiele carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Enough depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of 16 charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of 60 mines . A system of passive hydrophones designated as ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) was fitted to detect submarines . The crew numbered 10 officers and 315 enlisted men , plus an additional four officers and 19 enlisted men if serving as a flotilla flagship . = = Construction and career = = The ship was ordered on 7 July 1934 and laid down at Deutsche Werke , Kiel , on 25 October 1934 as yard number K243 . She was launched on 18 August 1935 and completed on 27 February 1937 . The ship was named after Lieutenant Commander ( Korvettenkapitan ) Georg Thiele who commanded the Seventh Half Flotilla of torpedo boats in the Battle off Texel in October 1914 . Georg Thiele was assigned to the 1st Destroyer Division on 1 December 1937 and made a port visit to Ulvik , Norway in April 1938 , together with her sisters Z3 Max Schultz and Z4 Richard Beitzen . Upon her return she was taken in hand by Deutsche Werke to have her bow rebuilt to reduce the amount of water that came over the bow in head seas . This increased her length by .30 meters ( 1 ft 0 in ) . The ship participated in the 22 August Fleet Review for Adolf Hitler and Miklós Horthy , Regent of the Kingdom of Hungary , and the following fleet exercise . In December , Georg Thiele , together with her sisters Z3 Leberecht Maass , Max Schultz , and Richard Beitzen , sailed to the area of Iceland to evaluate their seaworthiness in a North Atlantic winter with their new bows . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , the ship was one of the destroyers that escorted Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland to occupy Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May . Days before the outbreak of World War II , in the early morning hours of 27 August 1939 , Max Schultz accidentally collided with and sank the torpedo boat Tiger near Bornholm . Max Schultz 's bow was severely damaged and she had to be towed , stern @-@ first , by Georg Thiele until two tugboats arrived and took over the tow to Swinemünde . When World War II began , Georg Thiele was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . The ship began a refit in late 1939 that was completed in early April 1940 . = = = Norwegian Campaign = = = Georg Thiele was allocated to Group 1 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung in April 1940 . The group 's task was to transport the 139th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 139 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) and the headquarters of the 3rd Mountain Division ( 3 . Gebirgs @-@ Division ) to seize Narvik . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . The German destroyers reached the Ofotfjord on the morning of 9 April and Commodore Friedrich Bonte took his flagship Wilhelm Heidkamp , Georg Thiele and Bernd von Arnim down the fjord to Narvik . A heavy snowstorm allowed Thiele and von Arnim to enter the harbor without challenge and tie up at a pier . The mountain troops immediately began disembarking , but the ships were spotted by the coast defense ship Norge a few minutes later . The latter ship immediately opened fire and was able to fire approximately 13 shells at 600 – 800 meters ( 660 – 870 yd ) range before von Arnim sank the Norwegian ship with torpedoes . None of the Norwegian shells hit either of the two German destroyers due to the darkness and falling snow , despite the short range . Thiele and von Arnim were the first to refuel from the single tanker that had made it safely to Narvik and later moved to the Ballangenfjord , a southern arm of the Ofotfjord , closer to the entrance . Shortly before dawn on 10 April , the five destroyers of the British 2nd Destroyer Flotilla surprised the five German destroyers in Narvik harbor . They torpedoed two destroyers and badly damaged the other three while suffering only minor damage themselves . As they were beginning to withdraw they encountered the three destroyers of the 4th Flotilla which had been alerted in the Herjansfjord when the British began their attack . The Germans opened fire first , but the gunnery for both sides was not effective due to the mist and the smoke screen laid by the British as they retreated down the Ofotfjord . The German ships had to turn away to avoid a salvo of three torpedoes fired by one of the destroyers in Narvik , but Thiele and von Arnim had also been alerted and were coming up to engage the British . The two German destroyers crossed the T of the British flotilla and were able to fire full broadsides at a range of only 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) . They first engaged the British flagship , HMS Hardy , and badly damaged her . Both of her forward guns were knocked out and the forward superstructure was set afire . Hardy was forced to beach herself lest she sink , and the German ships switched their fire to HMS Havock , the next ship in line . Their fire was relatively ineffective and both sides fired torpedoes without scoring any hits . Havock pulled out and dropped to the rear to fight off any pursuit by the ships of the 4th Flotilla . This placed HMS Hunter in the lead and she was quickly set on fire by the German ships . Thiele probably also hit her with a torpedo and she was rammed from behind by HMS Hotspur when the latter ship lost steering control . Hotspur was able to disengage , but Hunter capsized shortly afterward . The three remaining British ships were able to escape from the Germans under the cover of a smoke screen . Georg Thiele had been badly damaged by the British ships as she 'd been hit seven times that knocked her forward gun and her fire @-@ control equipment , flooded one magazine , started fires , and killed thirteen crewmen . On the night of 12 / 13 April , Commander Erich Bey , the senior surviving German officer , received word to expect an attack the following day by British capital ships escorted by a large number of destroyers and supported by carrier aircraft . Thiele had only four guns ready and six remaining torpedoes by this time . The battleship Warspite and nine destroyers duly appeared on 13 April , although earlier than Commander Bey had expected , and caught the Germans out of position . The five operable destroyers , including Thiele , charged out of Narvik harbor and engaged the British ships . Although no hits were scored , they did inflict splinter damage on several of the destroyers . Lack of ammunition forced the German ships to retreat to the Rombaksfjorden ( the easternmost branch of the Ofotfjord ) , east of Narvik , where they might attempt to ambush pursuing British destroyers . Thiele still had some ammunition and torpedoes left and took up position at the Straumen narrows with Z18 Hans Lüdemann to give the remaining two destroyers time to scuttle themselves at the head of the fjord . The pursuing British destroyers initially engaged the latter ship until it exhausted its ammo and retreated to the head of the fjord itself and then switched their attentions to Thiele . The German ship struck the first blow when one of her torpedoes blew the bow off Eskimo , but the return fire from the British ships started several fires and damaged her so heavily that Korvettenkapitän Max @-@ Eckart Wolff , the ship 's captain , ordered her run aground to allow her crew to abandon ship safely . Fourteen men had been killed during the battle and another 28 wounded . The surviving crew of the ship took part in the land fighting at Narvik in the following weeks . Wolff served as a battalion commander in the Marine @-@ Regiment Berger during the land battle . He was awarded the Iron Cross First Class on 12 May 1940 and the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross the following August for his leadership of Z2 at Narvik . The ship later broke in two and capsized . Parts of the bow of Georg Thiele remain visible above the water in Rombaksbotten to this day . = Movieland = Movieland , also known as Movieland.com , Moviepass.tv and Popcorn.net , is a subscription @-@ based movie download service that has been the subject of thousands of complaints to the Federal Trade Commission , the Washington State Attorney General 's Office , the Better Business Bureau , and other agencies by consumers who said they were held hostage by its repeated pop @-@ up windows and demands for payment , triggered after a free 3 @-@ day trial period . Many said they had never even heard of Movieland until they saw their first pop @-@ up . Movieland advertised that the service had " no spyware " , and that no personal information would need to be filled out to begin the free trial . The Federal Trade Commission ( FTC ) filed a complaint against Movieland and eleven other defendants in August 2006 , charging them with having " engaged in a nationwide scheme to use deception and coercion to extract payments from consumers . " The Attorney General of the state of Washington also filed a complaint , charging Movieland and several other defendants with violating that state 's Computer Spyware Act and its Consumer Protection Act . = = Overview = = Movieland advertises its movie download service by using pop @-@ up ads at other sites . The ads offer a three @-@ day free trial , with access to members @-@ only content including music , news , updated sports scores and adult movies . The ads say there are no forms to fill out , and no need to provide a credit card number or an e @-@ mail address , making the trial appear anonymous . The site 's homepage states that it has " No Spyware " , is " Virus Free " , and " No Extra Charge " . The site installs a program , MediaPipe , which is used to access the service . = = Early consumer complaints = = Movieland.com began operations sometime in the fall of 2005 or earlier . Consumer complaints began soon thereafter . Most consumers claimed they had never signed up for the free trial , never used the service , and never even heard of Movieland until they got their first pop @-@ up demand for payment . Some said they found the software on their computers after downloading a screensaver or other free utility . The company denied that it installed its software by stealthy means . Media coverage as early as January 2006 recounted consumer complaints and mentioned that several anti @-@ spyware companies were buying Google advertisements boasting their product 's ability to " Remove Movieland Now " . In a report updated February 20 , 2008 , the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School calls Movieland 's MediaPipe component " badware " because " it does not fully disclose what it is installing , does not completely remove all components and ' obligations ' during the uninstall process , and modifies other software without disclosure . " Richard Stiennon of IT @-@ Harvest referred to Movieland as a form of " Ransomware " due to its behaviour . As of July 2008 , the MediaPipe report is still cited by the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard Law School . = = Complaints by the FTC = = On August 8 , 2006 , the FTC filed a complaint in United States District Court " to obtain preliminary and permanent injunctive relief , rescission of contracts , restitution , disgorgement and other equitable relief for Defendants ' deceptive and unfair acts or practices in violation of Section 5 ( a ) of the FTC Act " . The complaint alleged that the defendants were demanding payment to fix a problem that they themselves created , and were installing disruptive software that could not be removed through reasonable means . According to the FTC complaint , Movieland repeatedly bombarded consumers with pop @-@ up windows , accompanied by music that lasted nearly a minute . They demanded a minimum payment of $ 29 @.@ 95 to end the recurring pop @-@ up cycle , claiming that consumers had signed up for a three @-@ day free trial and did not cancel the service before the trial period was over . The complaint charged that : Installation of Defendants ' download manager is merely a smoke screen concealing Defendants ' true purpose : to install software and other files onto consumers ' computers that enable Defendants to launch pop @-@ up windows on consumers computers demanding payments to Defendants . These pop @-@ up windows , which display both textual and audiovisual payment demands , significantly disrupt consumers ' use of their computers . After Defendants cause these pop @-@ up payment demands to display on a particular computer for the first time , they cause them to redisplay again and again with ever @-@ increasing frequency . " The pop @-@ ups had a large dark background and took up much of the screen , blocking access to other windows , and did not contain close or minimize buttons ; forcing the user to continue . The first pop @-@ up showed the date and time " our content access software was installed on your system and your 3 day free trial began " , the text " Click ' Continue ' to purchase your license and stop these reminders " , and a graphic reading " STOP THESE REMINDERS NOW " and " CLICK CONTINUE " . The only option offered was the button labeled " Continue " . Clicking " Continue " brought up the next pop @-@ up , a 40 @-@ second audiovisual clip featuring a woman who introduced herself as " your personal customer service representative " and stated " Because you did not cancel during your trial period , you are now legally obligated to make your payment as per the terms and conditions you agreed to when you installed our content delivery software . " As the clip neared its conclusion , a new dialog box entitled " PAYMENT OPTIONS " appeared . Choosing its " Close this window " option ended the pop @-@ ups until the unvarying cycle began again . In addition , the complaint alleged that the defendants made numerous false statements in attempting to collect payments from consumers , claiming that the computer owner or someone else consented to receiving the pop @-@ up payment demands until they paid , the owner of any computer that received the pop @-@ ups was legally obligated to pay Movieland , and that the computer owner was obligated to satisfy any contract that any other person entered into while using the computer . The only customer service telephone number provided was a 900 number . When consumers called it , a recorded greeting told them that they would incur a $ 34 @.@ 95 charge if they did not hang up within three seconds . The complaint also alleged that the defendants made it difficult or impossible for consumers to uninstall the software . Those attempting to remove it through the Windows Control Panel " Add or Remove Programs " function were redirected to a web page telling them that they had to pay the $ 29 @.@ 95 fee to stop the pop @-@ ups . The only way many consumers could regain control of their computers was to pay the fee , or pay a computer technician to remove the software . = = = Movieland 's position = = = Movieland representatives said the downloads were not spyware and did not get on computers accidentally , insisting they were not " drive @-@ by downloads " . They said the FTC lawsuit was " improperly brought " , and pointed out that at the time the complaint was filed a federal judge rejected the FTC 's request for a temporary restraining order that would have immediately ended the cited billing practices . The terms of service at the Movieland web site warned that if users did not cancel or pay during the three @-@ day period , pop @-@ up billing reminders would begin and " will appear more frequently until you choose one of the payment options and pay for the license . " Movieland said the pop @-@ ups were " an anti @-@ fraud mechanism " that cannot be received without consumers intentionally downloading the software through several intentional steps , each of which has a default setting of " cancel " . The company also stated " there are no extrinsic programs ( adware or otherwise ) bundled with our software . " The company disputed the FTC claim that the software was " very difficult to get rid of " , and said it could be removed using the Windows Control Panel . = = = Defendants = = = The following ten companies and two individuals were named as defendants in the FTC complaint : Digital Enterprises , Inc. d / b / a Movieland.com Triumphant Videos , Inc. d / b / a Popcorn.net Pacificon International , Inc. d / b / a Vitalix Alchemy Communications , Inc . AccessMedia Networks , Inc . Innovative Networks , Inc . Film Web , Inc . Binary Source , Inc. d / b / a Moviepass.tv Mediacaster , Inc. d / b / a Mediacaster.net CS Hotline , Inc . Easton Herd , sole officer and director of Digital Enterprises and Triumphant Videos Andrew Garroni , an officer or director of Pacificon , Alchemy , Film Web , and Binary Source = = = Pre @-@ trial stipulations = = = In November 2006 , the defendants and the FTC signed stipulations governing their pre @-@ trial conduct . Without admitting any wrongdoing , violation of the law , or involvement in the acts and practices alleged in the complaint , the defendants agreed to make clear and prominent disclosures prior to any software download or installation , to not download or install software without the user 's explicit consent and without disclosing clearly and prominently in the site 's terms of service the nature , frequency , and duration of any pop @-@ up windows that may appear regarding any purported obligation for payment . The pop @-@ ups also must not lock out access to the rest of the computer . They also agreed to fixed limits on how many pop @-@ ups they can generate on a computer ( maximum of 5 per day , 1 per hour ) , the requirement to provide a mute button for any sound content in the pop @-@ ups and be able to close the windows , and provide a hyperlink with toll @-@ free number and email utility , to request stopping the pop @-@ ups under certain conditions . The defendants also promised to clearly label any single @-@ click download or install buttons , and not pre @-@ select these as the default . They are also required to not represent that consumers have any " legal " or " contractual " obligation to pay for the software unless the computer owner has provided personal identification and agreed to pay , and that failure to pay will result in collection proceedings or affect the computer owner 's credit status unless the owner has provided personal identification such as a credit card and agreed to pay . Customer service agents may state that they " believe " the computer owner is responsible for paying for the download , and offer several purchase options including a one @-@ time 30 @-@ day non @-@ renewing license for $ 29 @.@ 95 , after which access to the service will terminate . = = = FTC settlement = = = The FTC complaint was scheduled to be tried in United States District Court in January 2008 , but before trial , the defendants chose to settle out of court with both the FTC . Movieland settled with the FTC in September 2007 . Without admitting any wrongdoing or violation of the law , the defendants agreed to make permanent the terms of the pre @-@ trial stipulations including limiting the number , frequency and duration of the billing pop @-@ ups ; and to pay the FTC $ 501 @,@ 367 to reimburse consumers who paid for the program as a result of the repeated pop @-@ up demands . The defendants also agreed to stop offering anonymous free trials , have users certify at install time that they are at least 18 years of age , provide an install @-@ time link to their terms of service or end user license agreement , not download software that reinstalls itself after a user has removed it , and to prominently post removal instructions at their web sites . The agreement also requires Herd and Garroni to notify the FTC of any change of name , address or employment status , and of any new business affiliations , for five years . = = Complaints by the State of Washington = = On August 14 , 2006 , Rob McKenna , the Attorney General of the state of Washington charged Movieland , Digital Enterprises , Herd , and Garroni with violating the state 's Computer Spyware Act and its Consumer Protection Act . The complaint , filed in King County Superior Court in Seattle , alleged misrepresentations and unlawful business acts and practices similar to those alleged in the FTC complaint , and further alleged violations of Washington state law . The defendants were subject to fines of up to $ 100 @,@ 000 per violation of the Spyware Act and $ 2 @,@ 000 per violation of the Consumer Protection Act if found liable . They were also subject to paying restitution to affected consumers . = = = Alleged violations of law = = = The alleged violations of Washington state law included taking control of a user 's computer in violation of the Spyware Act and the Consumer Protection Act ( CPA ) , by remotely installing billing software that initiates and controls the pop @-@ up cycle , misrepresenting the ability to uninstall software in violation of the same acts , by listing the software in Add / Remove Programs although the software cannot be uninstalled , unconscionable business practices in violation of the CPA , by the " aggressive and harassing " billing method used and the failure to disclose it , including use of a billing method " that forces payment by completely obstructing users ' access to their computers " , threats , harassment and intimidation in billing practices in violation of the CPA , by threatening collection proceedings and an adverse effect on users ' credit records , while in fact defendants do not even know the consumer 's name ; and referring to consumers ' " legal obligation " to pay , when in fact there is no legally binding contract , failure to disclose material facts in violation of the CPA , the " aggressive , relentless , threatening " form of the payment demands ; the fact that the uninstallation option for the software will be disabled ; and that the defendants " transmit software to the user 's computer surreptitiously " , and misrepresentations in violation of the CPA , including stating the software contains " no spyware " when in fact the software itself constitutes spyware by its behavior . In announcing the suit following a seven @-@ month investigation , Washington Attorney General Rob McKenna rejected one possible defense . " The defendants ' claim that users are legally obligated to pay for their service lacks merit because consumers did not provide knowing consent to the installation of the relentless pop @-@ up demands " , he said . " Furthermore , computer owners are not responsible to satisfy contracts that other people , including minors , entered into while using a computer . " He also said that the defendants ' threats of collection proceedings and adverse effects on users ' credit ratings were empty , as the defendants had no way to personally identify computer users . Assistant Attorney General Paula Selis said the tactics forced some consumers to give in and pay between $ 20 and $ 100 for the service . She said , " We sued them because we were getting complaints from consumers who felt that they were being harassed and held over a barrel for payments that they didn 't agree to make . " Selis said , " It was harassment , it was intimidation of the consumer . It was using a high @-@ pressure tactic to make him or her pay for something they were not legally obligated to pay . " = = = Settlement = = = Movieland settled with Washington in April 2007 under terms similar to the FTC settlement but specific to Washington consumers , agreeing to pay Washington $ 50 @,@ 000 as consumer reimbursement and to prominently state all important contract terms , including the cost of the subscription service , in advertisements . = Surface tension = Surface tension is the elastic tendency of a fluid surface which makes it acquire the least surface area possible . Surface tension allows insects ( e.g. water striders ) , usually denser than water , to float and stride on a water surface . At liquid @-@ air interfaces , surface tension results from the greater attraction of liquid molecules to each other ( due to cohesion ) than to the molecules in the air ( due to adhesion ) . The net effect is an inward force at its surface that causes the liquid to behave as if its surface were covered with a stretched elastic membrane . Thus , the surface becomes under tension from the imbalanced forces , which is probably where the term " surface tension " came from . Because of the relatively high attraction of water molecules for each other through a web of hydrogen bonds , water has a higher surface tension ( 72 @.@ 8 millinewtons per meter at 20 ° C ) compared to that of most other liquids . Surface tension is an important factor in the phenomenon of capillarity . Surface tension has the dimension of force per unit length , or of energy per unit area . The two are equivalent , but when referring to energy per unit of area , it is common to use the term surface energy , which is a more general term in the sense that it applies also to solids . In materials science , surface tension is used for either surface stress or surface free energy . = = Causes = = The cohesive forces among liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon of surface tension . In the bulk of the liquid , each molecule is pulled equally in every direction by neighboring liquid molecules , resulting in a net force of zero . The molecules at the surface do not have the same molecules on all sides of them and therefore are pulled inwards . This creates some internal pressure and forces liquid surfaces to contract to the minimal area . Surface tension is responsible for the shape of liquid droplets . Although easily deformed , droplets of water tend to be pulled into a spherical shape by the imbalance in cohesive forces of the surface layer . In the absence of other forces , including gravity , drops of virtually all liquids would be approximately spherical . The spherical shape minimizes the necessary " wall tension " of the surface layer according to Laplace 's law . Another way to view surface tension is in terms of energy . A molecule in contact with a neighbor is in a lower state of energy than if it were alone ( not in contact with a neighbor ) . The interior molecules have as many neighbors as they can possibly have , but the boundary molecules are missing neighbors ( compared to interior molecules ) and therefore have a higher energy . For the liquid to minimize its energy state , the number of higher energy boundary molecules must be minimized . The minimized quantity of boundary molecules results in a minimal surface area . As a result of surface area minimization , a surface will assume the smoothest shape it can ( mathematical proof that " smooth " shapes minimize surface area relies on use of the Euler – Lagrange equation ) . Since any curvature in the surface shape results in greater area , a higher energy will also result . Consequently , the surface will push back against any curvature in much the same way as a ball pushed uphill will push back to minimize its gravitational potential energy . = = Effects of surface tension = = = = = Water = = = Several effects of surface tension can be seen with ordinary water : A. Beading of rain water on a waxy surface , such as a leaf . Water adheres weakly to wax and strongly to itself , so water clusters into drops . Surface tension gives them their near @-@ spherical shape , because a sphere has the smallest possible surface area to volume ratio . B. Formation of drops occurs when a mass of liquid is stretched . The animation shows water adhering to the faucet gaining mass until it is stretched to a point where the surface tension can no longer keep the drop linked to the faucet . It then separates and surface tension forms the drop into a sphere . If a stream of water was running from the faucet , the stream would break up into drops during its fall . Gravity stretches the stream , then surface tension pinches it into spheres . C. Flotation of objects denser than water occurs when the object is nonwettable and its weight is small enough to be borne by the forces arising from surface tension . For example , water striders use surface tension to walk on the surface of a pond by the following way . Nonwettability of leg of the water strider means no attraction between molecules of the leg and molecules of the water , so when the leg pushes down the water , the surface tension of the water only tries to recover its flatness from its deformation due to the leg . This behavior of the water push the water strider upward so it can stand on the surface of the water as long as its mass is small enough so that the water can support it . The surface of the water behaves like an elastic film : the insect 's feet cause indentations in the water 's surface , increasing its surface area and tendency of minimization of surface curvature ( so area ) of the water pushes the insect 's feet upward . D. Separation of oil and water ( in this case , water and liquid wax ) is caused by a tension in the surface between dissimilar liquids . This type of surface tension is called " interface tension " , but its chemistry is the same . E. Tears of wine is the formation of drops and rivulets on the side of a glass containing an alcoholic beverage . Its cause is a complex interaction between the differing surface tensions of water and ethanol ; it is induced by a combination of surface tension modification of water by ethanol together with ethanol evaporating faster than water . = = = Surfactants = = = Surface tension is visible in other common phenomena , especially when surfactants are used to decrease it : Soap bubbles have very large surface areas with very little mass . Bubbles in pure water are unstable . The addition of surfactants , however , can have a stabilizing effect on the bubbles ( see Marangoni effect ) . Note that surfactants actually reduce the surface tension of water by a factor of three or more . Emulsions are a type of solution in which surface tension plays a role . Tiny fragments of oil suspended in pure water will spontaneously assemble themselves into much larger masses . But the presence of a surfactant provides a decrease in surface tension , which permits stability of minute droplets of oil in the bulk of water ( or vice versa ) . = = Physics = = = = = Physical units = = = Surface tension , usually represented by the symbol γ , is measured in force per unit length . Its SI unit is newton per meter but the cgs unit of dyne per cm is also used . <formula> = = = Surface area growth = = = Surface tension can be defined in terms of force or energy.In terms of force : surface tension <formula> of a liquid is the force per unit length . In the illustration on the right , the rectangular frame , composed of three unmovable sides ( black ) that form a " U " shape , and a fourth movable side ( blue ) that can slide to the right . Surface tension will pull the blue bar to the left ; the force <formula> required to hold immobile the movable side is proportional to the length <formula> of the movable side . Thus the ratio <formula> depends only on the intrinsic properties of the liquid ( composition , temperature , etc . ) , not on its geometry . For example , if the frame had a more complicated shape , the ratio <formula> , with <formula> the length of the movable side and <formula> the force required to stop it from sliding , is found to be the same for all shapes . We therefore define the surface tension as <formula> . The reason for the <formula> is that the film has two sides , each of which contributes equally to the force ; so the force contributed by a single side is <formula> . In terms of energy : surface tension <formula> of a liquid is the ratio of 1 ) the change in the energy of the liquid , and 2 ) the change in the surface area of the liquid ( that led to the change in energy ) . This can be easily related to the previous definition in terms of force : if <formula> is the force required to stop the side from starting to slide , then this is also the force that would keep the side in the state of sliding at a constant speed ( by Newton 's Second Law ) . But if the side is moving to the right ( in the direction the force is applied ) , then the surface area of the stretched liquid is increasing while the applied force is doing work on the liquid . This means that increasing the surface area increases the energy of the film . The work done by the force <formula> in moving the side by distance <formula> is <formula> ; at the same time the total area of the film increases by <formula> ( the factor of 2 is here because the liquid has two sides , two surfaces ) . Thus , multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of <formula> by <formula> , we get <formula> . This work <formula> is , by the usual arguments , interpreted as being stored as potential energy . Consequently , surface tension can be also measured in SI system as joules per square meter and in the cgs system as ergs per cm2 . Since mechanical systems try to find a state of minimum potential energy , a free droplet of liquid naturally assumes a spherical shape , which has the minimum surface area for a given volume . The equivalence of measurement of energy per unit area to force per unit length can be proven by dimensional analysis . = = = Surface curvature and pressure = = = If no force acts normal to a tensioned surface , the surface must remain flat . But if the pressure on one side of the surface differs from pressure on the other side , the pressure difference times surface area results in a normal force . In order for the surface tension forces to cancel the force due to pressure , the surface must be curved . The diagram shows how surface curvature of a tiny patch of surface leads to a net component of surface tension forces acting normal to the center of the patch . When all the forces are balanced , the resulting equation is known as the Young – Laplace equation : <formula> where : Δp is the pressure difference , known as the Laplace pressure . <formula> is surface tension . Rx and Ry are radii of curvature in each of the axes that are parallel to the surface . The quantity in parentheses on the right hand side is in fact ( twice ) the mean curvature of the surface ( depending on normalisation ) . Solutions to this equation determine the shape of water drops , puddles , menisci , soap bubbles , and all other shapes determined by surface tension ( such as the shape of the impressions that a water strider 's feet make on the surface of a pond ) . The table below shows how the internal pressure of a water droplet increases with decreasing radius . For not very small drops the effect is subtle , but the pressure difference becomes enormous when the drop sizes approach the molecular size . ( In the limit of a single molecule the concept becomes meaningless . ) = = = Floating objects = = = When an object is placed on a liquid , its weight Fw depresses the surface , and is balanced by the surface tension forces on either side Fs , which are each parallel to the water 's surface at the points where it contacts the object . Notice that the horizontal components of the two Fs arrows point in opposite directions , so they cancel each other , but the vertical components point in the same direction and therefore add up to balance Fw . The object 's surface must not be wettable for this to happen , and its weight must be low enough for the surface tension to support it . <formula> = = = Liquid surface = = = To find the shape of the minimal surface bounded by some arbitrary shaped frame using strictly mathematical means can be a daunting task . Yet by fashioning the frame out of wire and dipping it in soap @-@ solution , a locally minimal surface will appear in the resulting soap @-@ film within seconds . The reason for this is that the pressure difference across a fluid interface is proportional to the mean curvature , as seen in the Young @-@ Laplace equation . For an open soap film , the pressure difference is zero , hence the mean curvature is zero , and minimal surfaces have the property of zero mean curvature . = = = Contact angles = = = The surface of any liquid is an interface between that liquid and some other medium . The top surface of a pond , for example , is an interface between the pond water and the air . Surface tension , then , is not a property of the liquid alone , but a property of the liquid 's interface with another medium . If a liquid is in a container , then besides the liquid / air interface at its top surface , there is also an interface between the liquid and the walls of the container . The surface tension between the liquid and air is usually different ( greater than ) its surface tension with the walls of a container . And where the two surfaces meet , their geometry must be such that all forces balance . Where the two surfaces meet , they form a contact angle , <formula> , which is the angle the tangent to the surface makes with the solid surface . The diagram to the right shows two examples . Tension forces are shown for the liquid @-@ air interface , the liquid @-@ solid interface , and the solid @-@ air interface . The example on the left is where the difference between the liquid @-@ solid and solid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> , is less than the liquid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> , but is nevertheless positive , that is <formula> In the diagram , both the vertical and horizontal forces must cancel exactly at the contact point , known as equilibrium . The horizontal component of <formula> is canceled by the adhesive force , <formula> . <formula> The more telling balance of forces , though , is in the vertical direction . The vertical component of <formula> must exactly cancel the force , <formula> . <formula> Since the forces are in direct proportion to their respective surface tensions , we also have : <formula> where <formula> is the liquid @-@ solid surface tension , <formula> is the liquid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> is the solid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> is the contact angle , where a concave meniscus has contact angle less than 90 ° and a convex meniscus has contact angle of greater than 90 ° . This means that although the difference between the liquid @-@ solid and solid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> , is difficult to measure directly , it can be inferred from the liquid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> , and the equilibrium contact angle , <formula> , which is a function of the easily measurable advancing and receding contact angles ( see main article contact angle ) . This same relationship exists in the diagram on the right . But in this case we see that because the contact angle is less than 90 ° , the liquid @-@ solid / solid @-@ air surface tension difference must be negative : <formula> = = = = Special contact angles = = = = Observe that in the special case of a water @-@ silver interface where the contact angle is equal to 90 ° , the liquid @-@ solid / solid @-@ air surface tension difference is exactly zero . Another special case is where the contact angle is exactly 180 ° . Water with specially prepared Teflon approaches this . Contact angle of 180 ° occurs when the liquid @-@ solid surface tension is exactly equal to the liquid @-@ air surface tension . <formula> = = Methods of measurement = = Because surface tension manifests itself in various effects , it offers a number of paths to its measurement . Which method is optimal depends upon the nature of the liquid being measured , the conditions under which its tension is to be measured , and the stability of its surface when it is deformed . du Noüy ring method : The traditional method used to measure surface or interfacial tension . Wetting properties of the surface or interface have little influence on this measuring technique . Maximum pull exerted on the ring by the surface is measured . Du Noüy @-@ Padday method : A minimized version of Du Noüy method uses a small diameter metal needle instead of a ring , in combination with a high sensitivity microbalance to record maximum pull . The advantage of this method is that very small sample volumes ( down to few tens of microliters ) can be measured with very high precision , without the need to correct for buoyancy ( for a needle or rather , rod , with proper geometry ) . Further , the measurement can be performed very quickly , minimally in about 20 seconds . First commercial multichannel tensiometers [ CMCeeker ] were recently built based on this principle . Wilhelmy plate method : A universal method especially suited to check surface tension over long time intervals . A vertical plate of known perimeter is attached to a balance , and the force due to wetting is measured . Spinning drop method : This technique is ideal for measuring low interfacial tensions . The diameter of a drop within a heavy phase is measured while both are rotated . Pendant drop method : Surface and interfacial tension can be measured by this technique , even at elevated temperatures and pressures . Geometry of a drop is analyzed optically . For details , see Drop . Bubble pressure method ( Jaeger 's method ) : A measurement technique for determining surface tension at short surface ages . Maximum pressure of each bubble is measured . Drop volume method : A method for determining interfacial tension as a function of interface age . Liquid of one density is pumped into a second liquid of a different density and time between drops produced is measured . Capillary rise method : The end of a capillary is immersed into the solution . The height at which the solution reaches inside the capillary is related to the surface tension by the equation discussed below . Stalagmometric method : A method of weighting and reading a drop of liquid . Sessile drop method : A method for determining surface tension and density by placing a drop on a substrate and measuring the contact angle ( see Sessile drop technique ) . Vibrational frequency of levitated drops : The natural frequency of vibrational oscillations of magnetically levitated drops has been used to measure the surface tension of superfluid 4He . This value is estimated to be 0 @.@ 375 dyn / cm at T = 0 K. Resonant oscillations of spherical and hemispherical liquid drop : The technique is based on measuring the resonant frequency of spherical and hemispherical pendant droplets driven in oscillations by a modulated electric field . The surface tension and viscosity can be evaluated from the obtained resonant curves . = = Effects = = = = = Liquid in a vertical tube = = = An old style mercury barometer consists of a vertical glass tube about 1 cm in diameter partially filled with mercury , and with a vacuum ( called Torricelli 's vacuum ) in the unfilled volume ( see diagram to the right ) . Notice that the mercury level at the center of the tube is higher than at the edges , making the upper surface of the mercury dome @-@ shaped . The center of mass of the entire column of mercury would be slightly lower if the top surface of the mercury were flat over the entire crossection of the tube . But the dome @-@ shaped top gives slightly less surface area to the entire mass of mercury . Again the two effects combine to minimize the total potential energy . Such a surface shape is known as a convex meniscus . We consider the surface area of the entire mass of mercury , including the part of the surface that is in contact with the glass , because mercury does not adhere to glass at all . So the surface tension of the mercury acts over its entire surface area , including where it is in contact with the glass . If instead of glass , the tube was made out of copper , the situation would be very different . Mercury aggressively adheres to copper . So in a copper tube , the level of mercury at the center of the tube will be lower than at the edges ( that is , it would be a concave meniscus ) . In a situation where the liquid adheres to the walls of its container , we consider the part of the fluid 's surface area that is in contact with the container to have negative surface tension . The fluid then works to maximize the contact surface area . So in this case increasing the area in contact with the container decreases rather than increases the potential energy . That decrease is enough to compensate for the increased potential energy associated with lifting the fluid near the walls of the container . If a tube is sufficiently narrow and the liquid adhesion to its walls is sufficiently strong , surface tension can draw liquid up the tube in a phenomenon known as capillary action . The height to which the column is lifted is given by : <formula> where <formula> is the height the liquid is lifted , <formula> is the liquid @-@ air surface tension , <formula> is the density of the liquid , <formula> is the radius of the capillary , <formula> is the acceleration due to gravity , <formula> is the angle of contact described above . If <formula> is greater than 90 ° , as with mercury in a glass container , the liquid will be depressed rather than lifted . = = = Puddles on a surface = = = Pouring mercury onto a horizontal flat sheet of glass results in a puddle that has a perceptible thickness . The puddle will spread out only to the point where it is a little under half a centimetre thick , and no thinner . Again this is due to the action of mercury 's strong surface tension . The liquid mass flattens out because that brings as much of the mercury to as low a level as possible , but the surface tension , at the same time , is acting to reduce the total surface area . The result of the compromise is a puddle of a nearly fixed thickness . The same surface tension demonstration can be done with water , lime water or even saline , but only on a surface made of a substance to which water does not adhere . Wax is such a substance . Water poured onto a smooth , flat , horizontal wax surface , say a waxed sheet of glass , will behave similarly to the mercury poured onto glass . The thickness of a puddle of liquid on a surface whose contact angle is 180 ° is given by : <formula> where In reality , the thicknesses of the puddles will be slightly less than what is predicted by the above formula because very few surfaces have a contact angle of 180 ° with any liquid . When the contact angle is less than 180 ° , the thickness is given by : <formula> For mercury on glass , γHg = 487 dyn / cm , ρHg = 13 @.@ 5 g / cm3 and θ = 140 ° , which gives hHg = 0 @.@ 36 cm . For water on paraffin at 25 ° C , γ = 72 dyn / cm , ρ = 1 @.@ 0 g / cm3 , and θ = 107 ° which gives hH2O = 0 @.@ 44 cm . The formula also predicts that when the contact angle is 0 ° , the liquid will spread out into a micro @-@ thin layer over the surface . Such a surface is said to be fully wettable by the liquid . = = = The breakup of streams into drops = = = In day @-@ to @-@ day life all of us observe that a stream of water emerging from a faucet will break up into droplets , no matter how smoothly the stream is emitted from the faucet . This is due to a phenomenon called the Plateau – Rayleigh instability , which is entirely a consequence of the effects of surface tension . The explanation of this instability begins with the existence of tiny perturbations in the stream . These are always present , no matter how smooth the stream is . If the perturbations are resolved into sinusoidal components , we find that some components grow with time while others decay with time . Among those that grow with time , some grow at faster rates than others . Whether a component decays or grows , and how fast it grows is entirely a function of its wave number ( a measure of how many peaks and troughs per centimeter ) and the radii of the original cylindrical stream . = = Thermodynamics = = As stated above , the mechanical work needed to increase a surface is <formula> . Hence at constant temperature and pressure , surface tension equals Gibbs free energy per surface area : <formula> where <formula> is Gibbs free energy and <formula> is the area . Thermodynamics requires that all spontaneous changes of state are accompanied by a decrease in Gibbs free energy . From this it is easy to understand why decreasing the surface area of a mass of liquid is always spontaneous ( <formula> ) , provided it is not coupled to any other energy changes . It follows that in order to increase surface area , a certain amount of energy must be added . Gibbs free energy is defined by the equation , <formula> , where <formula> is enthalpy and <formula> is entropy . Based upon this and the fact that surface tension is Gibbs free energy per unit area , it is possible to obtain the following expression for entropy per unit area : <formula> Kelvin 's Equation for surfaces arises by rearranging the previous equations . It states that surface enthalpy or surface energy ( different from surface free energy ) depends both on surface tension and its derivative with temperature at constant pressure by the relationship . <formula> = = = Thermodynamics of soap bubbles = = = The pressure inside an ideal ( one surface ) soap bubble can be derived from thermodynamic free energy considerations . At constant temperature and particle number , <formula> , the differential Helmholtz energy is given by <formula> where <formula> is the difference in pressure inside and outside of the bubble , and <formula> is the surface tension . In equilibrium , <formula> , and so , <formula> . For a spherical bubble , the volume and surface area are given simply by <formula> , and <formula> . Substituting these relations into the previous expression , we find <formula> , which is equivalent to the Young – Laplace equation when Rx = Ry . For real soap bubbles , the pressure is doubled due to the presence of two interfaces , one inside and one outside . = = = = Influence of temperature = = = = Surface tension is dependent on temperature . For that reason , when a value is given for the surface tension of an interface , temperature must be explicitly stated . The general trend is that surface tension decreases with the increase of temperature , reaching a value of 0 at the critical temperature . For further details see Eötvös rule . There are only empirical equations to relate surface tension and temperature : Eötvös : <formula> Here V is the molar volume of a substance , TC is the critical temperature and k is a constant valid for almost all substances . A typical value is k = 2 @.@ 1 x 10 − 7 [ J K − 1 mol − 2 / 3 ] . For water one can further use V = 18 ml / mol and TC = 647 K ( 374 ° C ) . A variant on Eötvös is described by Ramay and Shields : <formula> where the temperature offset of 6 kelvins provides the formula with a better fit to reality at lower temperatures . Guggenheim @-@ Katayama : <formula> <formula> is a constant for each liquid and n is an empirical factor , whose value is 11 / 9 for organic liquids . This equation was also proposed by van der Waals , who further proposed that <formula> could be given by the expression , <formula> , where <formula> is a universal constant for all liquids , and <formula> is the critical pressure of the liquid ( although later experiments found <formula> to vary to some degree from one liquid to another ) . Both Guggenheim @-@ Katayama and Eötvös take into account the fact that surface tension reaches 0 at the critical temperature , whereas Ramay and Shields fails to match reality at this endpoint . = = = = Influence of solute concentration = = = = Solutes can have different effects on surface tension depending on their structure : Little or no effect , for example sugar Increase surface tension , inorganic salts Decrease surface tension progressively , alcohols Decrease surface tension and , once a minimum is reached , no more effect : surfactants What complicates the effect is that a solute can exist in a different concentration at the surface of a solvent than in its bulk . This difference varies from one solute / solvent combination to another . Gibbs isotherm states that : <formula> <formula> is known as surface concentration , it represents excess of solute per unit area of the surface over what would be present if the bulk concentration prevailed all the way to the surface . It has units of mol / m2 <formula> is the concentration of the substance in the bulk solution . <formula> is the gas constant and <formula> the temperature Certain assumptions are taken in its deduction , therefore Gibbs isotherm can only be applied to ideal ( very dilute ) solutions with two components . = = = = Influence of particle size on vapor pressure = = = = The Clausius – Clapeyron relation leads to another equation also attributed to Kelvin , as the Kelvin equation . It explains why , because of surface tension , the vapor pressure for small droplets of liquid in suspension is greater than standard vapor pressure of that same liquid when the interface is flat . That is to say that when a liquid is forming small droplets , the equilibrium concentration of its vapor in its surroundings is greater . This arises because the pressure inside the droplet is greater than outside . <formula> <formula> is the standard vapor pressure for that liquid at that temperature and pressure . <formula> is the molar volume . <formula> is the gas constant <formula> is the Kelvin radius , the radius of the droplets . The effect explains supersaturation of vapors . In the absence of nucleation sites , tiny droplets must form before they can evolve into larger droplets . This requires a vapor pressure many times the vapor pressure at the phase transition point . This equation is also used in catalyst chemistry to assess mesoporosity for solids . The effect can be viewed in terms of the average number of molecular neighbors of surface molecules ( see diagram ) . The table shows some calculated values of this effect for water at different drop sizes : The effect becomes clear for very small drop sizes , as a drop of 1 nm radius has about 100 molecules inside , which is a quantity small enough to require a quantum mechanics analysis . = = Surface tension of water and of seawater = = The two most abundant liquids on Earth are fresh water and seawater . This section gives correlations of reference data for the surface tension of both . = = = Surface tension of water = = = The surface tension of pure liquid water in contact with its vapor has been given by IAPWS as <formula> where both T and the critical temperature , TC = 647 @.@ 098 K , are expressed in kelvin . The region of validity the entire vapor @-@ liquid saturation curve , from the triple point ( 0 @.@ 01 ° C ) to the critical point . It also provides reasonable results when extrapolated to metastable ( supercooled ) conditions , down to at least − 25 ° C. This formulation was originally adopted by IAPWS in 1976 , and was adjusted in 1994 to conform to the International Temperature Scale of 1990 . The uncertainty of this formulation is given over the full range of temperature by IAPWS . For temperatures below 100 ° C , the uncertainty is <formula> 0 @.@ 5 % . = = = Surface tension of seawater = = = Nayar et al. published reference data for the surface tension of seawater over the salinity range of 20 ⩽ S ⩽ 131 g / kg and a temperature range of 1 ⩽ t ⩽ 92 ° C at atmospheric pressure . The uncertainty of the measurements varied from 0 @.@ 18 to 0 @.@ 37 mN / m with the average uncertainty being 0 @.@ 22 mN / m . This data is correlated by the following equation <formula> where <formula> is the surface tension of seawater in mN / m , <formula> is the surface tension of water in mN / m , S is the Reference Salinity in g / kg , and t is temperature in degrees Celsius . The average absolute percentage deviation between measurements and the correlation was 0 @.@ 19 % while the maximum deviation is 0 @.@ 60 % . The range of temperature and salinity encompasses both the oceanographic range and the range of conditions encountered in thermal desalination technologies . = = Data table = = = = Gallery of effects = = = Edwin Alderson = Lieutenant General Sir Edwin Alfred Hervey Alderson KCB ( 8 April 1859 – 14 December 1927 ) was a senior British Army officer who served in several campaigns of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries . During the First World War he was placed in command of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the first half of the war but made enemies amongst the Canadian political and military elite and suffered disastrous casualties during operations in 1915 / 16 which forced his sidelining and eventual retirement from service . Despite the opposition he faced , Alderson transformed the ill @-@ trained and poorly prepared Canadian recruits into tough , veteran soldiers and laid the foundations for later victories at Vimy Ridge and in other operations . An accomplished sportsman , Alderson wrote several books and was a keen proponent of hunting and yachting , pastimes he believed to be at risk from developments in motor sports . = = Early life = = Born in 1859 in Capel St Mary , a village in Suffolk , Edwin Alderson was the son of Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Edward Mott Alderson and his wife Catherine Harriett Swainson . He attended Ipswich School from 1873 to 1876 . At 17 Edwin gained a commission in the Norfolk Artillery Militia and at 19 transferred to the 1st Foot ( later Royal Scots Regiment ) on 4 December 1878 . He transferred again ten days later , replacing a promoted officer , to his father 's regiment , the 97th Foot ( soon to become the Queen 's Own Royal West Kent Regiment ) . Joining the regiment in Halifax , Nova Scotia , Alderson was soon transferred to Gibraltar and later South Africa , where he was detached to the Mounted Infantry Depot at Laing 's Nek . = = = Mounted Infantry = = = The Mounted Infantry Depot was a post where young officers could be stationed , forming a ready reserve of young , educated officers available as volunteers for staff or command positions in African colonial campaigns . It was whilst attached to this post that Alderson saw service in the First Boer War in 1881 in the Transvaal . The following year , Alderson served in the 1882 Anglo @-@ Egyptian War , fighting at the battles of Kassassin and Tel @-@ el @-@ Kebir . Two years later , Alderson was attached to the Mounted Camel Regiment during the failed expedition to relieve Khartoum and rescue General Gordon . During this campaign , Alderson was presented with the Bronze Medal of the Royal Humane Society after diving into the Nile to rescue a drowning soldier . For his service in these campaigns , Alderson was promoted to Captain and was stationed at Aldershot with the European Mounted Infantry Depot . The same year he married the daughter of the vicar of Syresham , Northamptonshire , a Miss Alice Mary Sergeant . The next ten years of Alderson 's career were spent on staff duties and with his old regiment in England and Ireland . He also undertook training at the Staff College , Camberley and in 1896 was sent to Mashonaland as a commander of a regiment of local troops during the Second Matabele War . Following the campaign 's successful conclusion , Alderson returned to Aldershot and wrote his first book , " With the Mounted Infantry and the Mashonaland Field Force , 1896 " , an account of the war and a thesis on the tactical uses of mounted infantry . A second book on military tactics followed in 1898 called The Counter @-@ attack . His third book , " Pink and scarlet " was published in 1900 and was another tactical treatise concerning the relationship between fox @-@ hunting and the cavalry and the connection that these gentlemanly and	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
204 @,@ 000 after granite was substituted for brownstone in the design . The new city hall design dates from the period that is typically regarded as Richardson 's architectural peak . His design was similar to his other designs done in his unique Romanesque style . Architectural historian Henry @-@ Russell Hitchcock described city hall as " one of Richardson 's most Romanesque designs " and the building 's NRHP nomination added : " Albany City Hall 's banded arches , rhythmic fenestration , bold expression of materials and corner placement of the tower are characteristic features of Richardson 's work often to be repeated by his followers . " The building is a load @-@ bearing masonry design laid out in a rectangle , with a 202 @-@ foot ( 62 m ) tall , Venetian @-@ style tower on its southwest corner topped with a pyramidal roof . The main structure is three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stories tall and the front ( west ) face is nine bays wide . The exterior walls are rusticated Milford ( Rhode Island ) granite with Longmeadow ( Massachusetts ) brownstone trim . Save for the bold asymmetrical placement of the tower ( which is a prime example of Richardson 's disregard for architectural correctness and known for being one of his best tower designs ) , the building is noted for its general simplicity in design . The entranceway is a simple triple @-@ arch loggia ; other design elements on the front façade are limited to its windows and a quadruple @-@ arch balcony off the Common Council chamber . The building is simultaneously noted for its general simplicity and care for small details , especially its intricate carvings . The entranceway is flanked by multiple tiers of relief sculpture and gargoyles . Most of the stone cutters originally brought to Albany to work on the capitol were later hired to do the sculptural details on city hall . Many elements of the exterior design are representations of interior functionality . Because the Common Council chamber is located on the second floor ( above the entrance ) , that story is the same height as the first @-@ floor entrance hall . The tower is essentially window @-@ less because it was meant to be the city archive ; a round staircase extends up the southeast corner of the tower for access . The short tower on the building 's southeast corner was originally meant to be the transition between city hall and the ( to @-@ be built ) jail , complete with a " bridge of sighs " to transport inmates straight from their cells in the jail to the court rooms in city hall . Due to lack of funds at the time ( the building 's initial budget doubled , ending up at $ 325 @,@ 000 ( $ 7 @.@ 97 million in modern dollars ) including furnishings ) , Richardson devoted most of his efforts to the building 's exterior . A report from the Times Union states , " There wasn 't enough money for Richardson to do the job as thoroughly as he would have liked . He said in his writing that if there wasn 't sufficient money , he 'd rather do it right on the outside and leave it to a future generation to finish the interior . The interior was finished by city architects a good 30 years after Richardson built it . " The interior was redesigned by Ogden and Gander in 1917 . The mayor 's office is on the first floor of the tower , the Council chamber and offices are on the building 's second floor , and the city clerk 's office is on the second floor of the tower . The mayor 's office contains a painting of the city 's first mayor , Pieter Schuyler . With the leadership of William Gorham Rice in 1927 , a carillon was added to the tower ; it contained sixty bells ( though it could produce only 47 different notes since top notes have double bells ) made by John Taylor & Co in England . Financed by public donations ( from upwards of 25 @,@ 000 people ) , it cost $ 63 @,@ 000 ( $ 8 @.@ 65 million in modern dollars ) and was the first municipal carillon in the United States . In 1986 Mayor Thomas Whalen had the carillon restored , which included replacing 30 bells and adding two notes to its repertoire . The 49 bells weigh 27 short tons ( 24 @,@ 000 kg ) . The largest bell is 5 feet 9 inches ( 1 @.@ 75 m ) in diameter and weighs 10 @,@ 953 pounds ( 4 @,@ 968 kg ) . The carillon is still in use and plays multiple concerts during the week . The clock faces on the tower were added in the 1920s , possibly around the time the carillon was added . The 1897 image of the city hall above shows the tower without the clock faces ( though the stonework shows obvious intent to have clock faces installed ) . City hall was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 4 , 1972 . = Pim Fortuyn List = The Pim Fortuyn List ( Dutch : Lijst Pim Fortuyn , LPF ) was a right @-@ wing populist political party in the Netherlands . The eponymous founder of the party was Pim Fortuyn , a charismatic former university professor and political columnist who initially had planned to contest the 2002 general election as leader of the Livable Netherlands ( LN ) party . He was however dismissed as party leader in February 2002 due to controversial remarks he made in a newspaper interview on immigration @-@ related issues , and instead founded LPF a few days later . After gaining support in opinion polls , Fortuyn was assassinated on 6 May 2002 , days before the election . The party held onto its support , and went on to become the second @-@ largest party in the election . The LPF formed part of a coalition government with the Christian Democratic Appeal ( CDA ) and the People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( VVD ) , but internal conflicts in the LPF led to the coalition 's break @-@ up and fresh elections after a few months . Following the 2003 election , the party was left in opposition . It became clear that the party was not viable without its original leader , and it went into decline until it was finally dissolved in 2008 . = = History = = = = = Background = = = Fortuyn announced his intention to run for parliament in a television interview on 20 August 2001 . An unusual aspect of this was that it was not yet clear which political party he would be a candidate for . Although he was already in contact with the Livable Netherlands ( LN ) party , he initially also considered running for the CDA or creating his own list . On 25 November he was chosen as party leader for the LN . The LN functioned as the national extension of a movement that had contested municipal but never national elections . Fortuyn concluded his acceptance speech by saying the words that would become his slogan ; " At your service ! " Almost immediately after Fortuyn became leader , LN went from 2 % in opinion polls to about 17 % . In January 2002 , it was announced that Fortuyn also would head the Livable Rotterdam ( LR ) list for the March 2002 local elections . The official 2002 election study found that immigration and integration problems were the second most important issue for voters after issues concerning the health care system . Helped by the many speeches and interviews given by Fortuyn , immigration issues became the major topic of the national political agenda , thereby forcing other parties to react . Until February , the LN had received disproportionate and generally sympathetic coverage in the media . The situation took a dramatic turn on 9 February , when Fortuyn was interviewed in de Volkskrant , one of the leading national newspapers . Against the strong advice of his campaign team , he made several controversial statements ; including one that said Islam was " a backward culture " , that no more asylum seekers would be allowed into the country , and , if necessary , the possible repeal of anti @-@ racism clauses in the Dutch Constitution to protect freedom of speech . Fortuyn was dismissed as party leader the next day , and in a television interview said that the split was irreparable , although he would have preferred to remain in the party . He founded Pim Fortuyn List ( LPF ) on 11 February . Opinion polls soon showed that he took most of LN 's supporters with him , leaving LN with its original 2 % , while Fortuyn soared to 17 % . The local LR — which held on to Fortuyn as its leader — was hugely successful in the March 2002 local elections , as it won more than one third of the vote and became Rotterdam 's strongest party . = = = Fortuyn assassination = = = It was reported in February 2002 that Fortuyn did not dare to appear in public owing to death threats . In March , he was attacked by pie @-@ throwing activists at the presentation of his new book De puinhopen van acht jaar Paars ( which became the bestselling book by a Dutch author in the Netherlands in 2002 ) . Despite this , the authorities did not provide protection for Fortuyn , nor did he request protection . On 6 May , Fortuyn was assassinated outside a radio studio . This was the first political murder in the Netherlands for centuries ( excluding the Second World War ) . Some claimed that by " demonising " Fortuyn , the political left and the media had created a climate of opinion that had made the assassination possible . Campaigning immediately stopped , and although some suggested postponing the elections , the campaign resumed ( half @-@ heartedly ) after his funeral four days later . His funeral was broadcast live on television and , according to Cas Mudde , lead " to scenes of mass hysteria not seen since the Dutch national football team won the European Championship in 1988 . " The murder of Fortuyn , together with that of Theo van Gogh two years later , would result in a polarisation in the political debate in the Netherlands , and subsequently radical changes in immigration @-@ related policies and public discourse . = = = First Balkenende cabinet ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = = The LPF decided to maintain Fortuyn 's candidacy , and delayed naming a new leader until after the election . The 2002 general election proved a great success for the LPF , yielding 17 % of the votes and 26 seats in the House of Representatives — by far a record number of seats in the Netherlands for a new party — to become the second largest party . LN also made it into Parliament , with two seats . The Labour Party ( PvdA ) and People 's Party for Freedom and Democracy ( VVD ) saw their largest @-@ ever losses , while the Christian Democratic Appeal ( CDA ) won large gains . CDA leader Jan Peter Balkenende had earlier announced that his party would follow a tougher line towards asylum seekers , and he later agreed with much of Fortuyn 's criticism of the purple coalition and Holland 's multicultural society . As leader of the strongest party , Balkenende became the leading candidate for Prime Minister . Following the election , Mat Herben was chosen as LPF party leader as Fortuyn 's successor . Together with the CDA and the VVD , the party formed part of the governing coalition , and supplied several members for the Balkenende cabinet . The party was granted four of fourteen cabinet seats , for immigration , economics , health and sports . But without its original leader and lack of a clearly defined organisational structure , the LPF soon succumbed to highly public internal squabbles . By October 2002 , the break @-@ up of the government coalition was triggered by the bickering of LPF Ministers Eduard Bomhoff and Herman Heinsbroek . = = = Opposition and disintegration ( 2003 – 2006 ) = = = In the January 2003 general election , the LPF shrank to 5 @.@ 7 % support and eight seats . Following the election the LPF was exchanged for the Democrats 66 in the government coalition , and would find it hard to maintain support in opposition . Besides Joost Eerdmans , most of its Members of Parliament were not very visible , while party leader Herben had enough work just keeping the party from further infighting . The party also went into financial straits , and as the new coalition continued most of the former coalition 's policies , it was hard for the LPF to oppose the government . The LPF won just 2 @.@ 6 % of the vote in the 2004 European Parliament election , and did not win a seat . In this election , Paul van Buitenen surprisingly won two seats with his anti @-@ corruption Europe Transparent ( although it was not successful in the long term ) . By 2004 , the LPF had fallen to a less than 1 % support and disintegrated . The party had lost most of its members , and the parliamentary faction had declared itself independent from the party . = = = List Five Fortuyn ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = The LPF participated in the 2006 general election under its new name List Five Fortuyn ( Lijst Vijf Fortuyn ) . On 25 September 2006 , the party released its campaign commercial , which featured new leader Olaf Stuger coming down from " heaven " with a parachute and presenting himself as a " reincarnation " of Pim Fortuyn . Marten Fortuyn , brother of Pim Fortuyn , declared it " outrageous and tasteless . " In the election , LVF did not receive enough votes to secure a seat with support of only 0 @.@ 2 % . In July 2007 , the party voted to dissolve itself on 1 January 2008 . Fortuyn 's political heritage scattered among various politicians , many of which were not successful . These include Marco Pastors , leader of the One NL , and Hilbrand Nawijn , leader of the Party for the Netherlands — none of which managed to win a seat in the 2006 election . More importantly however , the party had been squeezed out by the tougher line on immigration issues by mainstream politicians such as Minister for Integration and Immigration Rita Verdonk , who largely adopted Fortuyn 's policies . By the end of the decade , former LPF supporters had mostly moved to support Geert Wilders and his Party for Freedom ( PVV ) . = = Ideology = = = = = Fortuynism = = = The ideology or political style that is derived from Pim Fortuyn , and in turn the LPF , is often called Fortuynism . Observers variously saw him as a political protest targeting the alleged elitism and bureaucratic style of the Dutch purple coalitions or as offering an appealing political style . The style was characterized variously as one " of openness , directness and clearness " , populism or simply as charisma . Another school holds Fortuynism as a distinct ideology , with an alternative vision of society . Some argued that Fortuynism was not just one ideology , but contained liberalism , populism and nationalism . During the 2002 campaign , Fortuyn was accused of being on the " extreme right " , although others saw only certain similarities . While he employed anti @-@ immigration rhetoric , he was neither a radical nationalist nor a defender of traditional authoritarian values . On the contrary , Fortuyn wanted to protect the socio @-@ culturally liberal values of the Netherlands , women 's rights and sexual minorities ( he was openly homosexual himself ) , from the " backward " Islamic culture . The LPF also won support from some ethnic minorities ; one of Fortuyn 's closest associates was of Cape Verdean origin , and one of the party 's MPs was a young woman of Turkish descent . = = = Foreign policy = = = Although the LPF was established post @-@ 9 / 11 , Fortuyn had already developed a worldview based on the " clash between civilizations " , namely between " modernity " and Islam , or Western society and Islamic culture . The LPF supported NATO , but was eurosceptic and saw the European Union as a " bureaucracy which barely interests its citizens , let alone inspires them . " The party did however not oppose the project of European integration in general , but rather its present organization , lack of democracy and threat to national sovereignty . Opposing the full membership of Turkey , Albania , Ukraine , Belarus and Russia , the LPF maintained that the European Union " shouldn 't cross the Bosporus and the Ural " . = = Election results = = = = = Parliament = = = = = = European Parliament = = = = = Organisation = = = = = Leadership = = = = California State Route 195 = State Route 195 ( SR 195 ) was a state highway in the U.S. state of California , branching westward from SR 111 to SR 86 near the town of Mecca and the Salton Sea . The route formerly extended east to Interstate 10 ( I @-@ 10 ) near Joshua Tree National Park as a longer route extending to Blythe and points further east . After the main route was shifted north , the older route remained as an alternate known as Box Canyon Road . The route was designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering , although the Box Canyon Road portion was removed as a state highway in 1972 . Following the construction of the SR 86 expressway , SR 195 was curtailed in 2009 , and removed entirely in 2014 . = = Route description = = Before the route was mostly removed in 2009 , it began at Harrison Street , the old routing of SR 86 , in Riverside County . It then headed north as Pierce Street until intersecting 66th Street , where SR 195 turned east . The highway intersected SR 86 and continued to the town of Mecca , where it met its north end at SR 111 . The route loosely paralleled the northern end of the Salton Sea , passing through farmland for its entire length . In 2013 , SR 195 had an annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) of 4500 at Buchanan Street , and 6 @,@ 000 at the eastern terminus with SR 111 , the latter of which was the highest AADT for the highway . = = History = = Route 64 , a highway from Mecca to Blythe , was added to the state highway system in 1919 . In 1935 , Pierce Street from Route 26 near Oasis to Avenue 66 , and Avenue 66 from Route 26 to Mecca were added to the state highway system . Two years later , Pierce Street was designated as Route 203 , and Avenue 66 was designated as Route 204 . By 1926 , the road existed east of Mecca to Blythe , but was unpaved ; by 1930 , the road connected from Mecca to the road along the western side of the Salton Sea to Indio and points further west . Between 1932 and 1934 , the road east of Mecca had been paved . The western part of the road , known as the Box Canyon road , from Mecca to Blythe served as part of US 60 and US 70 until it was eventually bypassed in favor of a more direct route to Indio , diverging at Shavers ' Summit . Between 1934 and 1936 , US 60 and US 70 had made the shift north towards Indio , and the portion between US 99 and Mecca was paved . Initial opposition was later overcome after the road was washed out during a storm and forced motorists to take refuge in the nearby foothills . By 1940 , the SR 195 designation was signed . In the 1940s , the highway continued due west of Mecca to end at an intersection with US 99 , rather than turning south . In 1953 , efforts to remove the road from Mecca to the highway from Blythe to Indio , from the state highway system were met with community opposition , since it served as an alternate route for the other highway . State Senator Nelson Dilworth proposed legislation to require the road from Banning through Idyllwild to Mountain Center to be added to the state highway system if SR 195 was removed , as the two were of roughly the same length , but the latter remained in the system . SR 195 was officially designated in the 1964 state highway renumbering . The original alignment continued past SR 111 and the Salton Sea before ending at US 60 , which later became I @-@ 10 , at the southern end of Joshua Tree National Park . The Division of Highways proposed deleting this part of the state highway in 1971 , though similar plans had been revived in 1969 . This portion was removed in 1972 . In 1988 , the California Transportation Commission ( CTC ) approved shifting SR 111 onto the new SR 86 expressway after it was completed , using SR 195 to make the connection . When the SR 86 expressway was fully constructed , SR 195 was to be removed from the state highway system according to state law ; that expressway was finished in 2001 . However , this removed the connection from the highway portion of SR 111 to the new expressway carrying both SR 111 and SR 86 north from the state highway system . Caltrans officially deleted most of SR 195 in 2009 , leaving a gap in SR 111 following deletions of the old routing that was now bypassed by the expressway . In December 2014 , with Riverside County and Caltrans both supporting , the CTC transferred the remaining portion of SR 195 , from the new SR 86 expressway to SR 111 , to become part of SR 111 . SR 195 still appears in Caltrans documents dated from 2014 . = = Major intersections = = Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was when the route was established , based on the 1972 routing , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The entire route was in Riverside County . = 66th Division ( United Kingdom ) = The 66th ( 2nd East Lancashire ) Division was an infantry division of the British Army , part of the Territorial Force , which saw service in the trenches of the Western Front , during the later years of the Great War . Disbanded after the war , it was reformed in 1939 in the Territorial Army as the 66th Infantry Division but disbanded in 1940 , without seeing active service in the Second World War . The division was created shortly after the outbreak of the First World War at the end of August 1914 , as the 2nd East Lancashire Division , a second @-@ line formation of the East Lancashire Division , composed primarily of soldiers from eastern Lancashire and the industrial towns around Manchester . After training and home service , it deployed to the Western Front in early 1917 ; its first major combat came in October of that year , at the Battle of Poelcappelle . In March 1918 , it suffered extremely heavy losses during Operation Michael the German Spring Offensive and was withdrawn from the line and reduced to a cadre to be rebuilt . It returned to the front in time for the Battle of Cambrai , part of the Hundred Days Offensive and the Battle of the Selle . Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 , it was stationed in Belgium , where it was demobilised in March 1919 . The division was not reformed after the war but was reconstituted as the 66th Infantry Division ( with no regional title ) , again as a duplicate of the 42nd Division , during the hurried expansion of the Territorial Army in early 1939 . It was active for slightly over a year , before being disbanded in June 1940 , having only seen home service with most of its component units being transferred to other divisions . = = First World War = = = = = Formation and home service = = = The division was created at the end of August 1914 , as the 2nd East Lancashire Division , a second @-@ line formation of the East Lancashire Division . Territorial Force soldiers could not be deployed overseas without their consent and the Territorial units were accordingly split into a " first line " , with men who had volunteered for overseas service and a " second line " , which was intended for home service , by the ten percent who refused to volunteer on 12 August . The second line units also served to absorb the large number of recruits who had joined the Territorial Force following the outbreak of war . The first commander was Brigadier @-@ General Charles Beckett , a 65 @-@ year @-@ old retired officer , who had commanded a Yeomanry brigade some years earlier . As with the original East Lancashire Division , the 2nd East Lancashire was organised in three infantry brigades of four battalions each . These were later numbered as the 197th ( Lancashire Fusiliers ) Brigade , composed of the 2 / 5th , 2 / 6th , 2 / 7th and 2 / 8th Lancashire Fusiliers ; the 198th ( East Lancashire ) Brigade , composed of the 2 / 4th and 2 / 5th East Lancashire Regiment and the 2 / 9th and 2 / 10th Manchester Regiment ; and the 199th ( Manchester ) Brigade , composed of the 2 / 5th , 2 / 6th , 2 / 7th and 2 / 8th Manchester Regiment . The 197th Brigade drew its men from Bury and Salford , Greater Manchester ; the 198th Brigade from Blackburn , Burnley Ashton @-@ under @-@ Lyne and Oldham and the 199th Brigade from Wigan , Manchester and Ardwick . The division also raised second @-@ line Territorial artillery , Royal Army Medical Corps and Royal Engineer units , all from the Lancashire – Manchester recruiting area and had an attached squadron of the Bedfordshire Yeomanry . For two years , the 2nd East Lancashire Division ( numbered the 66th Division in August 1915 ) , provided trained replacements for its parent unit and carried out home defence duties in England . Elements of the division assembled near Southport in late 1914 , then moved south to the Kent – Sussex area in May 1915 and to Essex in early 1916 . In early 1915 , the 2 / 5th Lancashire Fusiliers , a second @-@ line battalion , was detached for overseas service and joined the 51st ( Highland ) Division . The battalion was replaced by another duplicate battalion , the 3 / 5th Lancashire Fusiliers , which became one of the few third @-@ line territorial battalions to see active service . One of the three companies of Royal Engineers , was sent to France in 1915 to join the 48th ( South Midland ) Division and during 1916 , three of the four heavy and howitzer artillery batteries were withdrawn or broken up . Following the Military Service Act of January 1916 , all Territorial soldiers were deemed to liable for overseas service and in February 1917 , the 66th Division was instructed to prepare for a move to continental Europe and received a new and experienced commander , Major @-@ General Herbert Lawrence . = = = Flanders and Poelcappelle , 1917 = = = The division arrived in France in early 1917 as part of the last batch of second @-@ line Territorial divisions to be sent from Britain , and was attached to the First Army . On 12 April , Brigadier @-@ General Godfrey Matthews , a former Royal Marine officer commanding 198th Brigade , was wounded by shellfire and died the next day . In June , the division was transferred to the XV Corps of the Fourth Army on the relatively quiet coastal sector in Flanders . During the summer , XV Corps was held ready for Operation Hush , an amphibious landing by the 1st Division and a coastal offensive by the rest of XV Corps , which was planned to support an advance from Passchendaele Ridge east of Ypres , by the Fifth Army . The operation was postponed several times and was cancelled in October . At the end of September , the 66th Division was relieved by its parent unit , the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Division . After a few days of overlap , where many men were able to meet friends and relations they had not seen since 1914 , the division moved south to the Ypres area . The division was assigned to II Anzac Corps , a predominantly Australian formation and the 199th Brigade moved into the front line to replace the 3rd Australian Division on 5 October . The relief was badly mismanaged , leaving the Australian staff officers doubtful of the efficiency of the division . On 9 October , the division made its debut in the Battle of Poelcappelle . On the night of 8 / 9 October , the 197th and 198th brigades had begun to cover the 2 @.@ 5 miles ( 4 @.@ 0 km ) to the front line , which usually took about 1 1 ⁄ 2 hours . Despite starting ten hours before the attack , the 197th Brigade was late . At zero hour , the 198th Brigade attacked on the left flank of the divisional front , into defences which had been little damaged by the artillery bombardment , advancing behind a meagre creeping barrage and were held up 300 yards ( 270 m ) short of the first objective . The 197th Brigade arrived late on the right flank , exhausted and disorganised after a twelve @-@ hour march through mud but attacked as soon as it arrived . The brigade rapidly advanced over drier sandy ground and reached the final objective , 700 yards ( 640 m ) short of Passchendaele village at 10 : 00 a.m. ; an officer 's patrol entered the village and found it empty . Around midday , the 197th Brigade battalions near the village withdrew their flanks , to gain touch with the units on either side at the first objective ; the troops in the centre misinterpreted this and also withdrew the same distance . A German counter @-@ attack was repulsed at 5 : 10 p.m. and before nightfall , the divisional commander ordered a short withdrawal , to link with the 49th Division on the left and to avoid enfilade fire from the Bellevue Spur . The brigade ended the day 500 yards ( 460 m ) beyond the start line for the loss of 3 @,@ 119 casualties ; the division was relieved by the 3rd Australian Division on the night of 10 / 11 October . A second senior officer was killed in action , when Brigadier @-@ General Arthur Lowe , commanding the divisional artillery , was killed near Ypres on 24 November . In late December 1917 , a new commanding officer , Major @-@ General Neill Malcolm was appointed to the 66th Division . Malcolm was a decorated veteran of several colonial wars , who had served in staff posts since being wounded in the Second Boer War and had most recently served as chief of staff of the Fifth Army . The division was reorganised over the winter , with the brigade machine @-@ gun companies being consolidated into a battalion and a pioneer battalion , the 1 / 5th Border Regiment joining the division . The most substantial change was the loss of three battalions , the 3 / 5th Lancashire Fusiliers and 2 / 8th and 2 / 10th Manchester Regiment , one from each brigade . This was a change made in all British divisions , to bring the remaining battalions in France up to strength and to increase the ratio of artillery to infantry . At this point , there was a general exchange of men between the 42nd and 66th Divisions ; the core of the 1 / 6th Lancashire Fusiliers , 1 / 4th East Lancashires , and 1 / 9th Manchesters were transferred to the 66th Division , where they amalgamated with their second @-@ line counterparts , while the 42nd Division received the men from the disbanded battalions in the 66th Division . The division remained in the Passchendaele area until February 1918 . = = = Battle of St. Quentin = = = In March 1918 , the 66th Division was assigned to XIX Corps in the Fifth Army , holding an area north of Saint @-@ Quentin , bordering the 24th Division of XIX Corps on the right and 16th ( Irish ) Division of VII Corps on the left . The corps sector was between the River Cologne in the north and the Omicron in the south . Under a new defence in depth scheme , small strongpoints in a " forward zone " was to delay and disrupt an attack , harassing it with machine @-@ gun fire . The main body of the division remained in a " battle zone " further back , to make local counter @-@ attacks into the forward zone or in reserve in a third " rear zone " . The British were used to deliberate attacks in trench warfare conditions , not the rapid counter @-@ attacks on the defensive that the German army had perfected since early 1915 and felt vulnerable in what they saw as exposed positions . Combat units were still kept too close to the front line ( across the front , 84 percent of battalions were in the two forward zones ) , leaving them vulnerable to an attack and a lack of manpower meant that very few of the defensive positions necessary for the scheme to work had been prepared in the rear zone of the Fifth Army . On the morning of 21 March , the German spring offensive began at the Battle of St. Quentin . Elements of the German 25th Division and 208th Division attacked through a thick fog at dawn , overrunning the two battalions ( 4th East Lancashires and 2 / 8th Lancashire Fusiliers ) which held positions in the forward zone . By 10 @.@ 30 am , they had reached the " battle zone " , where the fighting intensified . On the right flank , near the boundary with 24th Division , a reserve company of 2 / 7th Manchesters held a defensive position from 11 : 00 am to 7 : 00 pm , when they surrendered , having lost 70 percent casualties and run out of ammunition . To their left , the 2 / 6th Manchesters held out until the early afternoon , when the 160 survivors were forced to retreat further into the battle zone . The northern element of the division 's defensive plan was a fortified quarry outside the village of Templeux @-@ le @-@ Guérard , held by the 2 / 7th Lancashire Fusiliers and 1 / 5th Border Regiment but this had been quickly surrounded and bypassed by the attackers , to be mopped up later in the day , with only a few men escaping . The village was defended by the 2 / 6th Lancashire Fusiliers and an artillery battery ; in the course of the day , the battery was destroyed while the fusiliers were pushed back towards the edge of the village , clinging on to their positions as night fell . During the day , 711 men of 66th Division had been killed ; while detailed figures are not available this would suggest around 1 @,@ 000 men were wounded and another 2 @,@ 000 captured . British casualties for the day were 7 @,@ 500 killed , 10 @,@ 000 wounded and 21 @,@ 000 captured ; 66th Division is known to have lost 711 men killed . On the morning of 22 March , German attacks continued to push back the remaining units of the 66th Division , now supported by the 1st Cavalry Division and a handful of tanks . The composite force managed a fighting retreat , with most units avoiding encirclement . Shortly after noon the remnants of the division were ordered to retreat behind the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Division , which were preparing fresh defences on the original Green Line along the edge of the rear zone . The 66th Division retreated through the new defensive line by 4 : 00 pm , with the aid of the 5th Durham Light Infantry ( DLI ) , which had been temporarily transferred to support them and the 50th Division took over the front line . Over the following days , the divisions of XIX Corps fell back towards the line of the River Somme , where the 66th Division ( plus the 5th DLI ) took up positions on the west bank of the river around Barleux and Foucaucourt @-@ en @-@ Santerre , west of Peronne . On 24 March , the German army crossed the Somme and the 2 / 8th Lancashire Fusiliers counter @-@ attacked the bridgeheads without success but continued to hold a line close to the river . Expecting a follow @-@ up attack the next day , 149th Brigade was temporarily attached to 66th Division and both units were slowly pushed back from the banks of the Somme , withdrawing to Assevillers as night fell on 25 March . The remnants of the 66th Division were holding a position south of the Somme , with the 50th Division to the right and troops from the Third Army over the river to the left . An attack on the morning of 26 March , opening the Battle of Rosières , pushed back the units on the north bank and the 66th Division retired , losing contact with the 50th Division , which fell back on Rosières @-@ en @-@ Santerre to avoid being flanked . " Little 's Composite Battalion " with the remaining troops of the 198th Brigade , moved from reserve to Foucaucourt and defended the village until the early afternoon , retired to Framercourt and then filled a 3 @,@ 000 @-@ yard ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) gap between the 66th and 39th divisions . The battalion had been formed from stragglers and reinforcement drafts by Lieutenant @-@ Colonel W. B. Little , commander of 1 / 5th Borders , who had been on leave when the German offensive began and moved up towards the front line during 25 March . Other British troops were north of the 66th Division around Vauvilliers and by that night , the line south of the Somme was held by 16th , 39th , 66th and 50th divisions . The battle continued continued on 27 March , with the 66th Division pushed back to Harbonniers . That night , the division took up positions between Wiencourt and Guillaucourt , facing north on a line of about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The three brigade headquarters had moved forward to reinforce the front line ; until the 66th Division was reorganised later in the year , casualties were so numerous that the brigade structure was not reformed and the brigadiers took turns to command the infantry . On the morning of 28 March , a German attack broke through at Guillaucourt and the 66th Division retreated south to Cayeux @-@ en @-@ Santerre , with the 39th Division on the left . By nightfall , the line had been pushed back to Ignaucourt , a few miles from Amiens . Elements of the division remained in the fighting line as late as 30 March , when they fought in a counter @-@ attack near Aubercourt under the command of one of the 66th Division brigadiers . The division was relieved by part of the 18th Division on the night of 30 / 31 March . After ten days ' fighting , only 2 @,@ 500 men remained in the division and it had almost ceased to function as an organised unit . Two of the three infantry brigades and eight of the twelve infantry battalions had lost their commanders and the front @-@ line strength was reduced to 1 @,@ 200 riflemen , fewer than a company per battalion . A proposal to disband the division was discussed in the first week of April but quickly rejected . On 29 March , near Vauchelles @-@ lès @-@ Domart , Malcolm had been badly wounded in his good leg ( he was lame in the other , following an injury in South Africa ) and left the division to recover , command being taken temporarily by Brigadier @-@ General A. J. Hunter . On 31 March , Keppel Bethell , who had commanded the New Army 74th Brigade in the 25th Division since October 1916 , was promoted to take over the division . At 35 , Bethell became the youngest man to command a division during the war ; while a temporary Major @-@ General , he still held the substantive rank of captain . A driven and mercurial figure , Bethell inspired both admiration and loathing from his contemporaries , who saw him as an outstanding commander but with a furious and often unjustified , temper . During his time at 74th Brigade , relations with his staff had diminished to the point where they refused to take meals with him . He also believed in commandeering from other units and after leaving 25th Division , he repeatedly returned to poach staff officers and battalion commanders . The 74th Brigade would later provide the new divisional GSO.2 , Walter Guinness ( transferred after Bethell 's intervention to the Chief of Staff at army headquarters ) and the GSO.3 , John Marriott ( simply taken by Bethell from hospital ) . This approach extended to reorganising his new command . On 2 April , Bethell sent Gordon Macready , the divisional GSO.1 , to acquire several hundred guns in order to reform the 66th Division as a machine @-@ gun division , an idea that appears to have been entirely Bethell 's own . After raiding other divisions and emptying the Machine Gun Corps training school , Bethell reported to Field Marshal Douglas Haig that the division was ready to return to combat ; he was surprised to find that his friend " Duggie " disapproved of these methods , rejected the proposal and informed him that his division would instead be withdrawn and used as a training unit . Bethell was later offered a new division but chose to remain in the 66th Division , hoping that it would return to the front lines at a later date . = = = Reconstitution = = = Following its losses , the 66th Division was reduced to cadre early in May ; which meant that infantry battalions were cut to ten officers and about 45 men , the surplus being sent to base depots ; the artillery , engineer and machine @-@ gun units were distributed among other formations . The divisional artillery was attached to XIX Corps during the Battle of the Avre on 4 April and with XI Corps at the Battle of the Lys later in the month . During the summer , Bethell continued planning for the rebuilding of the division , having recruited a staff he felt he could work with , expecting that experienced men would become available as drafts returned from the Mediterranean . Overseas divisions there had suffered fewer casualties and the reduction from four to three battalions per brigade meant that large numbers of men would be returning . While reinforcements were assembled , the divisional cadres of the 66th Division and the 39th Division were used to train five American divisions in the British zone . The training process was complicated by a rigid schedule laid down by the American high command , who strongly objected to any deviation from their plans . In July , the American divisions moved up to the front and British troops began to arrive from Salonika and Palestine , though the assembly of the division was delayed by the returning men being given home leave and having to spend time acclimatising . The division had a complicated organisational history during this period , with a large number of units being attached or withdrawn for short periods , while others were merged or disbanded . About thirty infantry battalions were attached for short periods and the divisional artillery and supply columns remained in support of the front line , while one ambulance company was later transferred to serve with the American 27th Division . The future of the division was again in doubt by early September ; the 197th Brigade had been transferred to a training role and the division was expected to be disbanded . Bethell argued for retaining the division and was ordered to prepare it for front @-@ line service ; the 197th Brigade was replaced by the South African Brigade to bring the division back up to strength . By the end of September , following amalgamations and reorganisation , the division was left with the South African Brigade ( 1st , 2nd , and 4th South African Infantry regiments ) , the 198th Brigade ( 5th Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers , 6th Royal Dublin Fusiliers and 6th Lancashire Fusiliers ) and the 199th Brigade , with the 9th Manchester Regiment , 5th Connaught Rangers and 18th King 's ( Liverpool Regiment ) . The divisional pioneers were the 9th Gloucestershire Regiment . Less than a year and a half after arriving in France , the division retained only the 6th Lancashire and 9th Manchester of its twelve original battalions and both of these had been amalgamated with other units from the 42nd Division . = = = Hundred Days Offensive = = = The division reached the forward areas on 27 September , under the command of XIII Corps , the reserve corps of the Fourth Army and moved into the line on 5 October , relieving the 25th Division . The division attacked at dawn on 8 October , in the opening phase of the Second Battle of Cambrai and captured the village of Serain by nightfall against determined resistance . After this breakthrough , the division moved forward 14 miles ( 23 km ) in three days , with patrols of the Connaught Rangers entering the outskirts of Le Cateau on 10 October . On the night of 16 October , the divisional pioneers and engineers bridged the Selle and the South African Brigade crossed in thick fog to capture Le Cateau , in a costly attack . The river crossing was the opening stage of the Battle of the Selle ( 17 – 25 October ) , the final advance into Germany . The division was withdrawn for a short rest , moving back into the line on 2 November . From this point onwards the 66th Division moved almost continually , in close pursuit of the retreating German army . It supported the 25th Division at the Battle of the Sambre on 4 November and on 7 November leapfrogged past the 25th Division to advance as one of the leading units of the Fourth Army . Supplies ran short and the supply services struggled to bring up sufficient food and ammunition over cratered roads and wrecked bridges and the main British advance was forced to halt . On 9 November , to maintain the pursuit , the Fourth Army improvised " Bethell 's Force " , consisting of 5th Cavalry Brigade , the South African Brigade and two RAF squadrons , along with various support units from 66th Division . It began pushing forward on 10 November and advanced several miles along a broad front , with a second advance on 11 November , only stopped at the last minute by the divisional staff , who had received warning that the armistice would begin at 11 am . At the Armistice of 11 November 1918 , Bethell 's Force had reached the Sivry – Beaumont area . From 27 September to 12 November the division had incurred 2 @,@ 195 casualties , and during the Hundred Days offensive was one of only two Allied divisions to succeed in every attack . The 66th Division was ordered to move north to secure eastern Belgium . On 18 November , it began to move north into the Namur region , where it was stationed between Huy and Rochefort . The division remained there while it demobilised and was disbanded on 24 March 1919 . Bethell remained in Germany as Colonel @-@ Commandant of the 2nd Rhine Brigade , headquartered at Wiesbaden . = = Second World War = = = = = Background = = = Throughout the 1930s tensions built between Nazi Germany and the United Kingdom as well as its allies . During late 1937 , and throughout 1938 , German demands for the annexation of Czechoslovakia 's Sudetenland led to an international crisis . In an attempt to avoid war , British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain met with German Chancellor Adolf Hitler in September and brokered the Munich Agreement . The agreement averted war and allowed Germany to annex the Sudetenland . While it had been intended as an agreement to reconcile differences , and for future issues to be resolved peacefully , relations between both countries soon deteriorated . On 15 March 1939 , Germany breached the terms of the agreement by invading and occupying the remnants of the Czech state . In response , on 29 March , the British Secretary of State for War Leslie Hore @-@ Belisha announced plans to increase the Territorial Army from 130 @,@ 000 men to 340 @,@ 000 and in so doing double the number of territorial divisions . The intended plan of action was for the existing units to recruit over their allowed establishments ( aided by an increase in pay for territorials , the removal of restrictions on promotion that had been a major hindrance to recruiting during the preceding years , the construction of better quality barracks , and an increase in supper @-@ time rations ) and then form ' Second Line ' divisions from small cadres that could be built upon . As a result , the 66th Infantry Division was to be created as a Second Line unit , a duplicate of the First Line 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Infantry Division . In April , limited conscription was introduced . At that time 34 @,@ 500 ' Militiamen ' , all of the age of 20 , were conscripted into the regular army with the intent of being trained for six months before being deployed to the forming second line units . However , despite the intention for the army to grow in size , the programme was complicated by a lack of central guidance on the expansion and duplication process , and issues regarding the lack of facilities , equipment , and instructors . = = = History = = = Despite the ongoing efforts and some regiments being able to recruit the required numbers to form new battalions , the whole process had – in the words of historian James P. Levy – " not progressed beyond the paper stage when [ the Second World War ] began in September . " The 66th Infantry Division finally became active on 27 September 1939 , although its constituent units had already formed and had been administered by the 42nd ( East Lancashire ) Infantry Division . The division was headquartered in Manchester , and was again composed of the 197th , 198th , and 199th Infantry Brigades . Major @-@ General Arthur William Purser was given command , and the division was assigned to Western Command . In November , the division was transferred to Northern Command . On 10 January , Major @-@ General Alan Cunningham was given command of the division . By May , the division was based north of Manchester , spread out across parts of Lancashire and Yorkshire . The war @-@ time deployment of the Territorial Army envisioned it being deployed piecemeal , to reinforce the regular army that had already been deployed to the European mainland , as equipment became available . The plan envisioned the deployment of the whole force in waves , as divisions completed their training , with the final divisions not being deployed until a year had elapsed from the outbreak of war . As a result , the division did not leave the United Kingdom as the British Expeditionary Force was evacuated from France during May and June of 1940 . As soon as the troops returned from France , the British Army began implementing lessons learned from the campaign and re @-@ organizing formations . As part of this , the army 's five motor divisions ( made up of two brigades ) were to be reformed as regular infantry divisions ( made up of three brigades ) . As a result , the 66th Infantry Division was disbanded on 23 June . The 197th Infantry Brigade was transferred to the 59th ( Staffordshire ) Infantry Division , the 198th Infantry Brigade went to the 1st London Division , and the 199th Infantry Brigade was assigned to the 55th ( West Lancashire ) Infantry Division . = = General officer commanding = = The division had the following commanders during the First World War : The division had the following commanders during the Second World War : = Hot Fuzz = Hot Fuzz is a 2007 British satirical action comedy film directed by Edgar Wright , written by Wright and Simon Pegg , and starring Pegg and Nick Frost . The three and the film 's producer Nira Park had previously worked together on the television series Spaced and the 2004 film Shaun of the Dead . The film follows two police officers attempting to solve a series of mysterious deaths in Sandford , a fictional small English village . Over a hundred action films were used as inspiration for developing the script . Filming took place over eleven weeks in early 2006 , and featured an extensive cast along with various uncredited cameos . Visual effects were developed by ten artists to expand on or add explosions , gore , and gunfire scenes . Debuting on 14 February 2007 in the United Kingdom and 20 April in the United States , Hot Fuzz received critical and commercial success . Shortly after the film 's release , two different soundtracks were released in the UK and US . The film is the second in Wright and Pegg 's Three Flavours Cornetto trilogy and was preceded by 2004 's Shaun of the Dead and followed by 2013 's The World 's End , each of them featuring a different flavour of Cornetto ice cream . It is also the most financially successful film in the trilogy . = = Plot = = Police Constable Nicholas Angel , a high @-@ achieving member of the Metropolitan Police Service , is promoted to Sergeant . He is then transferred to the village of Sandford , Gloucestershire , for making his colleagues look bad by comparison . The village is generally devoid of any crime , with its local Neighbourhood Watch Alliance ( NWA ) helping to keep the peace . To Angel 's frustration , the local police service is lazy and complacent . He meets police officer Danny Butterman , the son of town chief Inspector Frank Butterman . Danny is assigned as Angel 's new partner , and constantly discusses his love for action and buddy cop films . Angel and Danny attend a rendition of " Romeo and Juliet " , with its leading roles played by Martin Blower and Eve Draper . After everyone leaves , Blower and Draper are killed by a cloaked figure . The next morning , they are found decapitated in Blower 's convertible . Angel suspects foul play , but everyone else passes it off as an accident . Angel is called to solve a neighborhood argument , discovering and confiscating a large stash of unlicensed firearms in an elderly man 's shed . Danny invites Angel to a drink at the local bar , where Angel discusses how he can 't stop thinking of work . They meet Simon Skinner , the local supermarket manager , and George Merchant , who made a fortune selling kitchen goods . Danny takes Angel home and the two binge @-@ watch action movies . An unseen person causes a gas explosion that destroys Merchant 's mansion , killing him . The incident is deemed an accident and Angel is ridiculed for believing otherwise . At the local fair , Tim Messenger , editor and journalist at The Sandford Citizen newspaper , approaches Angel , claiming to have information regarding Merchant , and requests to meet him alone . An unseen person pushes a church spire onto Messenger 's head , killing him . Angel declares the incident to be a murder and Inspector Butterman believes him . Angel reads through the copies of The Sandford Citizen and discovers a link between the victims . Angel stops at the flower shop of Leslie Tiller , and learns that she intends to sell her shop and move to the city . As he is distracted , Tiller is murdered by a cloaked figure . Angel gives chase but fails to catch the murderer . Piecing together what he knows , he accuses Skinner of the murders . However , Skinner 's alibi is backed up by video footage . Angel considers the possibility of more than one killer being involved , but Inspector Butterman shoots down his idea . As Angel returns home , he is attacked by Michael Armstrong , one of Skinner 's supermarket employees . Angel subdues Armstrong , then discovers the NWA 's meeting location . Angel confronts the NWA and tries to arrest them . They confess to the murders , their motive being that the victims are a threat to Sandford 's chances of winning " Village of the Year " . After Inspector Butterman reveals himself to be the leader , Angel flees and discovers the bodies of many victims . As Angel is cornered , Danny appears , and after faking Angel 's murder , begs him to leave Sandford for his own safety . At a gas station , Angel is inspired by the movies he watched with Danny , and returns to Sandford . He arms himself with the confiscated guns and reunites with Danny . After several gunfights with the NWA members , the two rally their colleagues and besiege the supermarket , forcing Skinner to flee with Inspector Butterman . After a chase , they are both arrested . Angel 's former superiors beg him to return to London , as the crime rate has risen heavily in his absence , but Angel remains in Sandford . As the police officers process the paperwork , Tom Weaver , the last NWA member , who works in the station attempts to kill Angel . Danny takes a bullet for Angel , and in the process Weaver accidentally activates a confiscated sea mine , which destroys the station but kills no one . One year later , Angel and Danny are in charge of the Sandford Police as Inspector and Sergeant , respectively . = = Cast = = = = = Sandford Police Service = = = Simon Pegg as Sergeant ( Sgt ) Nicholas " Nick " Angel Nick Frost as Police Constable ( PC ) Danny Butterman Jim Broadbent as Inspector Frank Butterman Paddy Considine as Detective Sergeant ( DS ) Andy Wainwright Rafe Spall as Detective Constable ( DC ) Andy Cartwright Kevin Eldon as Sergeant ( Sgt ) Tony Fisher Olivia Colman as Police Constable ( PC ) Doris Thatcher Karl Johnson as Police Constable ( PC ) Bob Walker Bill Bailey as Desk Sergeant ( Sgt ) Turner ( both ) = = = Neighbourhood Watch Alliance and Associates = = = Timothy Dalton as Simon Skinner Edward Woodward as Prof. Tom Weaver Billie Whitelaw as Joyce Cooper Eric Mason as Maj. Bernard Cooper Stuart Wilson as Dr. Robin Hatcher Paul Freeman as Rev. Philip Shooter Rory McCann as Michael " Lurch " Armstrong Kenneth Cranham as James Reaper Maria Charles as Mrs. Reaper Peter Wight as Roy Porter Julia Deakin as Mary Porter Trevor Nichols as Greg Prosser Elizabeth Elvin as Sheree Prosser Patricia Franklin as Annette Roper Lorraine Hilton as Amanda Paver Tim Barlow as Mr. Treacher Anne Reid as Leslie Tiller = = = Sandford residents = = = Ben McKay as Peter Cocker Adam Buxton as Tim Messenger David Threlfall as Martin Blower Lucy Punch as Eve Draper David Bradley as Arthur Webley , the farmer Ron Cook as George Merchant Stephen Merchant as Peter Ian Staker Alice Lowe as Tina Edgar Wright ( uncredited ) as Shelf Stacker = = = Cameos = = = Martin Freeman as Met Sgt. Steve Coogan ( uncredited ) as Met Insp. Bill Nighy as Met Ch . Insp. Peter Jackson ( uncredited ) as a man dressed as Father Christmas Cate Blanchett ( uncredited ) as Janine Garth Jennings ( uncredited ) as a Crack Addict While writing the script , the film 's director and writer , Edgar Wright , as well as Pegg , intended to include Frost as the partner for Pegg 's character . Frost revealed that he would do the film only if he could name his character , and he chose " Danny Butterman " . = = Production = = = = = Writing = = = Wright wanted to write and direct a cop film because " there isn 't really any tradition of cop films in the UK ... We felt that every other country in the world had its own tradition of great cop action films and we had none . " Wright and Pegg spent eighteen months writing the script . The first draft took eight months to develop , and after watching 138 cop @-@ related films for dialogue and plot ideas and conducting over fifty interviews with police officers for research , the script was completed after another nine months . The title was based on the various two @-@ word titles of action films in the 1980s and 1990s . In one interview Wright declared that he " wanted to make a title that really had very little meaning ... like Lethal Weapon and Point Break and Executive Decision . " In the same interview , Pegg joked that many action films ' titles " seem to be generated from two hats filled with adjectives and nouns and you just , ' Okay , that 'll do . ' " = = = Preparation and filming = = = During the latter half of 2005 , Working Title approached several towns in South West England looking for an appropriate filming location . Pegg commented , " We 're both [ Pegg and Wright ] from the West Country so it just seemed like it was the perfect and logical thing to drag those kind of ideas and those genres and those clichés back to our beginnings to where we grew up , so you could see high @-@ octane balls @-@ to @-@ the @-@ wall action in Frome " . Stow @-@ on @-@ the @-@ Wold was considered amongst others , but after being turned away , the company settled upon Wells in Somerset , Wright 's hometown , of which he has said " I love it but I also want to trash it " . Wells Cathedral was digitally painted out of every shot of the cathedral city , as Wright wanted the Church of St. Cuthbert to be the centre building for the fictional town of Sandford ; however , the Bishop 's Palace is identifiable in some shots ( and was itself used as the setting for some scenes ) . While shooting scenes in their uniforms , Pegg and Frost were often mistaken for genuine police officers and asked for directions by passers @-@ by . Filming also took place at the Hendon Police College , including the driving school skid pan and athletic track . Filming commenced on 19 March 2006 and lasted for eleven weeks . After editing , Wright ended up cutting half an hour of footage from the film . = = = Homage = = = Wright has said that Hot Fuzz takes elements from his final amateur film , Dead Right , which he described as both " Lethal Weapon set in Somerset " and " a Dirty Harry film in Somerset " . He uses some of the same locations in both films , including the Somerfield supermarket , where he used to work as a shelf @-@ stacker . In the scene in the Somerfield store , when Angel is confronting a chav for shoplifting , a DVD copy of Shaun of the Dead can be seen for a few frames . The title is Zombies ' Party , the Spanish and Portuguese title for the film . Further homages to Shaun of the Dead are also present in the film . In one scene , Nicholas wants to chase a shoplifter by jumping over garden fences ; however , Danny is reluctant . Nicholas says , " What 's the matter , Danny ? You never taken a shortcut before ? " He smiles arrogantly before jumping over three in a row ( according to the DVD commentary , Pegg vaulted over three fences , and a stunt man did a back flip over the fourth ) . When Danny attempts it , he trips and falls through the fence . This is almost identical to a scene in Shaun of the Dead , including the fall @-@ through @-@ fence gag ( in Shaun of the Dead , however , it happens to Pegg 's character rather than Frost 's , and he falls over the fence rather than through it ) . The DVD commentary says that Frost purposely looked back at the camera after crashing through the fence , to show that he had done the stunt rather than someone else . Frost 's characters ( Danny in Hot Fuzz , Ed in Shaun of the Dead ) have a liking for Cornettos . Pegg and Wright have referred to Hot Fuzz as being the second film in " Three Flavours Cornetto Trilogy " with Shaun of the Dead as the first and The World 's End as the third . Various scenes in Hot Fuzz feature a variety of action film DVDs such as Supercop and scenes from Point Break and Bad Boys II . Wright revealed that he had to get permission from every actor in each video clip , including stunt men , to use the clips and for the use of the DVD covers had to pay for the rights from the respective studios . The film parodies clichés used in other action movies . On the topic of perceived gun fetishes in these movies , Pegg has said , " Men can 't do that thing , which is the greatest achievement of humankind , which is to make another human , so we make metal versions of our own penises and fire more bits of metal out of the end into people 's heads ... It 's our turn to grab the gun by the hilt and fire it into your face . " Despite this , Pegg maintains that the film is not a spoof , in that " They lack the sneer that a lot of parodies have that look down on their source material . Because we 're looking up to it . " The film also includes various references to The Wicker Man , in which Edward Woodward had played a policeman tough on law and order . = = = Effects = = = To illustrate the destruction of the mansion as a result of the gas explosion , gas mortars were placed in front of the building to create large @-@ scale fireballs . The wave of fire engulfs the camera , and to achieve that effect , gas mortars were used again but were fired upwards into a black ceiling piece that sloped up towards the camera . When the sequence was shot at a high speed , the flames appeared to surge across the ground . For one of the final scenes of the film , the Sandford police station is destroyed by an explosion . Part of the explosion was created by using a set model that showed its windows being blown out , while the building remained intact . The actual destruction of the building was depicted by exploding a miniature model of the station . Similar to the work in Shaun of the Dead , blood and gore was prevalent throughout the film . Visual effects supervisor Richard Briscoe revealed the rationale for using the large amounts of blood : " In many ways , the more extreme you make it , the more people know it is stylised and enjoy the humour inherent in how ridiculous it is . It 's rather like the ( eventually ) limbless Black Knight in Monty Python 's Holy Grail . " The most time @-@ consuming gore sequence involved a character 's head being crushed by a section of a church . A dummy was used against a green screen and the head was detonated at the point when the object was about to impact the body . Throughout the film , over seventy gunfight shots were digitally augmented ; Briscoe 's rationale for adding the additional effects was that " The town square shootout , for example , is full of extra little hits scattered throughout , so that it feels like our hero characters really do have it all going off , all around them . It was a great demonstration of [ how ] seemingly very trivial enhancements can make a difference when combined across a sequence . " = = Promotion = = The first two teaser trailers were released on 16 October 2006 . Wright , Pegg , and Frost maintained several video blogs , which were released at various times throughout the production of the film . Wright and Frost held a panel at the 2006 Comic @-@ Con convention in San Diego , California to promote Hot Fuzz , which included preliminary footage and a question and answer session . The two returned to the convention again in 2007 to promote the US DVD release . Advance screenings of the film took place on 14 February 2007 in the UK and the world premiere was on 16 February 2007 . The premiere included escorts from motorcycle police officers and the use of blue carpet instead of the traditional red carpet . = = Release = = = = = Critical reception = = = The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 91 % approval rating with an average rating of 7 @.@ 7 / 10 based on 199 reviews . The website 's consensus reads , " The brilliant minds behind Shaun of the Dead successfully take a shot at the buddy cop genre with Hot Fuzz . The result is a bitingly satiric and hugely entertaining parody . " It also has a Metacritic score of 81 / 100 . Olly Richards of Empire praised the chemistry between Pegg and Frost , saying : " After almost a decade together , they ’ re clearly so comfortable in each other ’ s presence that they feel no need to fight for the punchline , making them terrific company for two hours " . Johnny Vaughan of The Sun already called it the " most arresting Brit @-@ com of 2007 " . Phillip French of The Observer , who did not care for Shaun of the Dead , warmed to the comedy team in this film . The film also received positive reviews in the United States . Derek Elley of Variety praised Broadbent and Dalton as " especially good as Angel 's hail @-@ fellow @-@ well @-@ met superior and oily No. 1 suspect " . As an homage to the genre , the film was well received by screenwriter Shane Black . On Spill.com , it got their 2nd @-@ highest rating of ' Full Price ! ! ' . The Daily Mirror gave Hot Fuzz only 2 / 5 , stating that " many of the jokes miss their target " as the film becomes more action @-@ based . Daily Mail also shared The Mirror 's view , saying , " It 's the lack of any serious intent that means too much of it is desperately unamusing , and unamusingly desperate " . Anthony Quinn of The Independent said , " The same impish spirit [ as in Spaced ] is uncorked here , but it has been fatally indulged " . = = = Box office = = = The film generated £ 7 @.@ 1 million in its first weekend of release in the United Kingdom on 14 February 2007 . In the 20 April US opening weekend , the film grossed $ 5 @.@ 8 million from only 825 cinemas , making it the highest per @-@ cinema average of any film in the top ten that week . Its opening weekend take beat the $ 3 @.@ 3 million opening weekend gross of Pegg and Wright 's previous film , Shaun of the Dead . In its second weekend of release , Rogue Pictures expanded the film 's cinema count from 825 to 1 @,@ 272 and it grossed $ 4 @.@ 9 million , representing a 17 % dip in the gross . Altogether , Hot Fuzz grossed $ 80 @,@ 573 @,@ 774 worldwide . In nine weeks , the film earned nearly twice what Shaun of the Dead made in the US , and more than three times its gross in other countries . = = = Home media = = = The DVD was released on 11 June 2007 in the UK . Over one million DVDs were sold in the UK in the first four weeks of its release . The two @-@ disc set contains the feature film with commentaries , outtakes , storyboards , deleted scenes , a making @-@ of documentary , video blogs , featurettes , galleries , and some hidden easter eggs . The DVD also features Wright 's last amateur film , Dead Right , which he described as " Hot Fuzz without the budget " . Due to the above release date , the film arrived on region 2 DVD earlier than the theatrical release date in Germany on 14 June 2007 . In the commentary with director Wright and fellow filmmaker Quentin Tarantino , they discuss nearly 200 films . The US DVD and HD DVD release was on 31 July 2007 . It opened at # 2 at the American DVD sales chart , selling 853 @,@ 000 units for over $ 14m in revenue . As per the latest figures , 1 @,@ 923 @,@ 000 units have been sold , acquiring revenue of $ 33 @.@ 3 million . The HD DVD edition has more special features than the standard DVD release . A three @-@ disc collector 's edition was released on 27 November 2007 and a Blu @-@ ray edition on 22 September 2009 . = = Soundtrack = = The soundtrack album , Hot Fuzz : Music from the Motion Picture , was released on 19 February 2007 in the United Kingdom , and on 17 April 2007 in the United States and Canada . The UK release contains 22 tracks , and the North American release has 14 . The film 's score is by British composer David Arnold , who scored the James Bond film series from 1997 to 2008 . The soundtrack album 's " Hot Fuzz Suite " is a compilation of excerpts from Arnold 's score . According to the DVD commentary , the scenes where Nicholas Angel is at a convenience store , while leaving Sandford , and his return to the police station while arming for the final shootout ( found in the track " Avenging Angel " ) , were scored by Robert Rodríguez , who did not see the rest of the film while writing the music . Other music from the film is a mix of 1960s ' and 1970s ' British rock ( The Kinks , T.Rex , The Move , Sweet , The Troggs , Arthur Brown , Cloud 69 , Cozy Powell , Dire Straits ) , new wave ( Adam Ant , XTC ) and a Glaswegian indie band ( The Fratellis ) . The soundtrack album features dialogue extracts by Pegg , Frost , and other cast members , mostly embedded in the music tracks . The song selection also includes some police @-@ themed titles , including Supergrass ' " Caught by the Fuzz " as well as " Here Come the Fuzz " , which was specially composed for the film by Jon Spencer 's Blues Explosion . = Nashville Sounds = The Nashville Sounds are a Minor League Baseball team of the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) and the Triple @-@ A affiliate of the Oakland Athletics . They are located in Nashville , Tennessee , and are named for the city 's association with the music industry . The team plays its home games at First Tennessee Park which opened in 2015 and is partially located on the former site of the historic Sulphur Dell ballpark . The Sounds previously played at Herschel Greer Stadium from its opening in 1978 until the end of the 2014 season . Established as an expansion team of the Double @-@ A Southern League in 1978 , the Sounds were replaced by a Triple @-@ A American Association team in 1985 . The Triple @-@ A Sounds carried on the history of the Double @-@ A team that preceded it . The Sounds later joined the PCL in 1998 . The team has served as a farm club for seven major league franchises . A total of 26 managers have led the club and its more than 1 @,@ 100 players . As of the completion of the 2015 season , the team has played in 5 @,@ 445 regular season games and compiled a win – loss record of 2 @,@ 794 – 2 @,@ 651 ( .513 ) . The team fielded in 1980 was recognized as one of the 100 greatest minor league teams of all time . The 2006 team tied the record for the longest game in PCL history . Of the three nine @-@ inning perfect games in the history of the PCL , two have been pitched by members of the Sounds . In 2016 , Forbes listed the Sounds as the 19th @-@ most valuable Minor League Baseball team with a value of $ 30 @.@ 5 million . The Sounds won the PCL Championship in 2005 as the Triple @-@ A affiliate of the Milwaukee Brewers . Previous league titles won by the team are the Southern League Championship in 1979 as the Double @-@ A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds , and again in 1982 as the Double @-@ A affiliate of the New York Yankees . = = Team history = = = = = Double @-@ A ( 1978 – 1984 ) = = = Nashville 's professional baseball history dates back to 1885 , beginning with the Nashville Americans . They were followed by the Blues , Tigers , Seraphs , Centennials , and Vols . The city was without a professional baseball team for 14 years after the Double @-@ A Vols ceased operations after their 1963 season . In 1978 , the Nashville Sounds were added as an expansion team in the Double @-@ A Southern League . Fans responded well to the return of baseball to the city , evidenced by Nashville leading the Southern League in attendance in each of their seven seasons as a member of the league . President and part owner Larry Schmittou , head coach of the Vanderbilt University baseball team from 1968 to 1978 , was instrumental in bringing professional baseball back to Nashville . Schmittou 's business philosophy revolved around earning profits not from ticket sales , but from the sale of souvenirs and concessions . This philosophy also involved promoting entertainment value , or fun , instead of promoting the baseball game . The franchise was later recognized for its promotion efforts when it won the Larry MacPhail Award for outstanding minor league promotions in 1978 , 1980 , and 1981 . With the help of country music star Conway Twitty , who heard about the proposed team in local newspapers , Schmittou brought in other recording artists such as Larry Gatlin and Jerry Reed , as well as other Nashvillians , as Sounds shareholders . The club played their home games at a newly constructed facility , Herschel Greer Stadium , located south of downtown Nashville at the foot of St. Cloud Hill in Fort Negley Park . Schmittou invited fans to submit suggestions for the team 's name . Among the finalists were Stars , Notes , Hits , and Strings . > The chosen name , Sounds , is a play on the term " Nashville sound " , a subgenre of American country music that traces its roots to the area in the late @-@ 1950s . The team 's wordmark and color scheme were lifted from the Memphis Sounds of the American Basketball Association ( ABA ) , who used them for one season in 1974 before the team relocated and became the Baltimore Claws . When the ABA merged with the National Basketball Association in 1976 , some of the copyrights were allowed to lapse , and Nashville 's baseball team adopted the abandoned schemes . The color blue was added to Memphis ' red and white palette . Nashville 's original logo , which was used from 1978 into 1998 , and was initially sketched by Schmittou , reflects the city 's association with the country music industry . It depicts a mustachioed old @-@ time baseball player , nicknamed " Slugger " , swinging at a baseball with a guitar , a staple of country music , in place of a bat . Further illustrating the city 's musical ties is the typeface , with letters resembling musical notes and treble clefs , used to display the team name . A minor league ice hockey team also owned by Schmittou from 1981 to 1983 , the Nashville South Stars , used a nearly @-@ identical ( albeit hockey @-@ themed ) wordmark and logo as the Sounds , except with green and gold colors to match its affiliated National Hockey League club , the Minnesota North Stars . = = = = Reds era ( 1978 – 1979 ) = = = = As the Double @-@ A affiliate of the Cincinnati Reds , the Sounds played their first game on April 15 , 1978 , against the Memphis Chicks at Memphis ' Tim McCarver Stadium , which they lost , 4 – 2 . Meanwhile , construction on Greer Stadium continued in order to be ready for the home opener . The team requested to open the season on the road and had to swap a series with the Chattanooga Lookouts in order to have enough time to complete the stadium . On April 26 , the Sounds played their first home game , a 12 – 4 victory , against the Savannah Braves in front of a sellout crowd of 8 @,@ 156 fans . The home opener was scheduled to take place the previous evening , but was rained out . Tractors and grading machines were still preparing the field on game day , and the electricity was turned on only five minutes before the gates opened . The sod , which arrived late , was laid the day before the scheduled opening game with the help of an estimated group of 50 fans who heard an announcement from general manager Farrell Owens on local radio stations inviting them to a " sod party " . The Sounds finished ninth out of ten teams during their inaugural campaign of 1978 under manager Chuck Goggin , but led all of minor league baseball in attendance by drawing 380 @,@ 000 fans . Additionally , Bruce Berenyi was selected as the league 's Most Outstanding Pitcher . Under manager George Scherger , the Sounds started the 1979 season poorly , before rallying to win 20 of 31 games in late May and June . They entered the last day of the first half of the season in first place , but lost their game to cross @-@ state rivals the Memphis Chicks and finished in second place . The Sounds and Chicks met again on the last day of the second half in a split doubleheader ; both games were won by Nashville . The two teams then faced @-@ off in a best @-@ of @-@ three series to determine the Western Division champion . The Sounds won the series two games to one before advancing to the Southern League championship series against the Columbus Astros . Nashville captured their first league title by defeating the Astros three games to one . Schmittou wanted to give each player a $ 1 @,@ 000 bonus for winning the pennant , but as that would have been against the National Association 's rules , he settled for buying them championship rings instead . Geoff Combe won the league 's Most Outstanding Pitcher Award . Also in 1979 , the team played host to the Southern League All @-@ Star Game . The contest pitted a team of the league 's all @-@ stars against the major league Atlanta Braves . The all @-@ stars defeated the Braves , five runs to two . Nashville 's Duane Walker was named the MVP . Originally , the Reds allowed Nashville to use a designated hitter ( DH ) in their lineup . However , this allowance was later revoked , as the Reds were a part of the National League which did not use a DH . President Larry Schmittou issued an ultimatum : if Cincinnati would not let the Sounds use a DH in their lineups , they would not renew their contract and would look for a new major league affiliate . The Reds did not renege on their decision to prohibit the designated hitter , so the Sounds looked for a new affiliate after 1979 . Schmittou was then approached by five or six clubs looking to enter the Southern League as a Sounds affiliate . = = = = Yankees era ( 1980 – 1984 ) = = = = Larry Schmittou had originally been encouraged by the New York Yankees organization to establish the Sounds as a Triple @-@ A team , but he refused to go back on a previous promise to partner with the Reds at Double @-@ A. After the split with Cincinnati , the Sounds made their first affiliation switch in 1980 , becoming the Double @-@ A affiliate of the Yankees . Managers Stump Merrill ( 1980 – 81 ) and Johnny Oates ( 1982 ) and future major leaguers such as Steve Balboni , Don Mattingly , Buck Showalter , Otis Nixon , Willie McGee , Pat Tabler , and Dan Pasqua helped lead Nashville to first or second @-@ place divisional finishes from 1980 to 1984 . The 1980 Sounds finished the first half of the season one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half games behind the Memphis Chicks . In the second half , the team finished in first place , 14 games ahead of the second @-@ place team . In the Western Division championship series , Nashville lost to Memphis , three games to one . Nine Southern League records were set during the season , the team 's pitching staff led the league in ERA and strikeouts , and Steve Balboni , the league MVP , led the league in runs , home runs , and total bases . Pitcher Andy McGaffigan was selected as the league 's top pitcher . The team also set a league attendance record , when a total of 575 @,@ 676 fans visited Greer Stadium . This record still stands as of the completion of the 2015 season . In 2001 , the 1980 Sounds were ranked as the sixty @-@ ninth greatest minor league baseball team of all @-@ time by baseball historians . On April 16 , 1981 , the New York Yankees made a stop in Nashville to play an exhibition game against the Sounds . The 10 – 1 Yankees victory was played in front of a standing room only crowd of 17 @,@ 318 fans . Also on hand for the game were Yankees owner George Steinbrenner , coach Yogi Berra , and players Reggie Jackson , Bucky Dent , Lou Piniella , Bobby Murcer , Goose Gossage , Tommy John , and Johnny Oates . The Sounds won the second half of the season and went on to win the Western Division championship after defeating the Memphis Chicks in three straight games . The team suffered in the best @-@ of @-@ five league championship series , falling to the Orlando Twins , 3 – 1 . Jamie Werly won the Southern League Most Outstanding Pitcher Award . Don Mattingly and Willie McGee , who both played for the Sounds in 1981 , were later promoted to the major leagues . In 1985 , Mattingly was named the American League Most Valuable Player and McGee named the National League MVP . The 1982 Sounds won the second half of the season and met the Knoxville Blue Jays in the division playoffs . After defeating the Blue Jays , 3 – 1 , the Sounds advanced to the league championship series to play against the Jacksonville Suns . Nashville defeated the Suns , three games to one , clinching the Southern League championship , giving the franchise their second league title . Brian Dayett was selected as the Southern League MVP , and Stefan Wever was the league 's Most Outstanding Pitcher . Wever was the fifth Sounds pitcher in five years to win the award . The New York Yankees returned for another exhibition game against the Sounds on April 28 , 1983 . New York had a four @-@ run lead going into the bottom of the ninth inning , but a five @-@ run rally with two outs propelled the Sounds to a 5 – 4 win in front of 13 @,@ 641 fans . Among the Yankees in attendance for the game were Billy Martin , Yogi Berra , Goose Gossage , Ken Griffey , Sr. , Dave Winfield , Lou Piniella , and Willie Randolph . During the season , manager Doug Holmquist , frustrated with the team 's disappointing first half , instituted a system of fines for player infractions or poor performance on the field . The program ranged from a US $ 10 fine for a pitcher walking a batter with one on and two outs to a US $ 100 fine for missing curfew . Rebounding , Nashville won the second half pennant , earning the team a shot at the Western Division championship . The Sounds , however , lost the fifth game of the best @-@ of @-@ five series to the Birmingham Barons by a score of seven runs to five , ending their season . On June 21 , during a road trip to Orlando , Florida , teammates Scott Bradley , Mike Pagliarulo , Erik Peterson , and Buck Showalter were walking back to their hotel when Peterson was hit by an automobile . When he began to convulse , Bradley put his fingers down Peterson 's throat to keep him from swallowing his tongue . He survived , but with a bruised leg and several lacerations to the head , and he returned to play later in the season . The Southern League All @-@ Star Game returned to Nashville in 1983 . Not only did the Sounds host the event , but they also served as the all @-@ star team 's competition . The all @-@ stars recorded the victory with a score of three runs to two . The Sounds were one game shy of winning the first half pennant in 1984 . Winning the first half title is something that eluded the team during its entire seven @-@ year span at the Double @-@ A level . Nashville captured the second half title , however , for the sixth consecutive season , after defeating Knoxville in a playoff game . The two teams met again in the divisional playoffs , but Knoxville emerged the victor , ending the Sounds ' season . One important highlight of the first half of 1984 took place on May 4 , when Jim Deshaies pitched the club 's first no @-@ hitter against the Columbus Astros in the second game of a seven @-@ inning doubleheader . The 5 – 1 Sounds victory was cut short of being a perfect game following three walks and a batter being hit by a pitch , advancing the runner home for the only Astros run of the game . = = = Triple @-@ A ( 1985 – present ) = = = In 1983 , Sounds President Larry Schmittou noticed a 5 % drop in season ticket sales , a higher ratio of no @-@ shows from season ticket holders , and a slight decline in overall attendance . These issues with spectator turnout were accompanied by a decline in local media coverage , particularly in regard to road games . In order to boost interest in the team , Schmittou tried , unsuccessfully , to purchase a Triple @-@ A franchise late in the 1983 season . Attendance continued to drop in 1984 , as season ticket sales were down 12 % and overall attendance was down almost 20 % . Schmittou and team owners arrived at terms in June 1984 to purchase the Evansville Triplets of the American Association , with plans to move the franchise from Evansville , Indiana , to Nashville for the 1985 season . In order to prove to the team 's Nashville banks , which would back the purchase , that the move was financially viable , Schmittou commissioned a survey to evaluate the potential turnout for a Triple @-@ A team versus a Double @-@ A team . Though the research proved to team owners that the move was a sensible decision , the banks were not impressed . As a result , the team switched banks and went ahead with the purchase and relocation . Schmittou had planned to send Nashville 's existing Southern League franchise to Evansville to continue as the Triplets at Double @-@ A. However , when the City of Evansville balked at the request for stadium upgrades , the team was instead moved to Huntsville , Alabama , where it became the Huntsville Stars . The Triple @-@ A Sounds carried on the history of the Double @-@ A team that preceded it . The Triplets ' legacy was retired , and the Stars were established as an entirely @-@ new franchise . = = = = Tigers era ( 1985 – 1986 ) = = = = The Sounds entered the Triple @-@ A playing level in 1985 as an affiliate of the Detroit Tigers playing in the American Association . They played their first Triple @-@ A game on April 11 , a 3 – 1 win , against the Buffalo Bisons at Greer Stadium . The next day , Nashville competed in an exhibition game against their major league affiliate . The Tigers outlasted the Sounds , winning by a score of 9 – 3 in the tenth inning . Seven games into the season , manager Lee Walls came down with an illness , and Nashville outfielder Leon Roberts became the acting manager for seven games until Gordon Mackenzie was brought on to lead the club for the rest of year . On July 17 , Bryan Kelly pitched the club 's second no @-@ hitter against the Oklahoma City 89ers , in which the Sounds won , 6 – 0 . Nashville ended the season in second place in the Eastern Division , two and a half games out of first behind the eventual league champion Louisville Redbirds . The 1986 team was managed by former player Leon Roberts who had temporarily lead the team the previous season . The Sounds finished third in their division with a 68 – 74 regular season record , their first losing season since the inaugural 1978 campaign . Also that season , the Sounds were enlisted to serve as the competition in the Southern League All @-@ Star Game , held in Huntsville , Alabama . The game was won by Nashville with a score of four runs to two . = = = = Reds era , part II ( 1987 – 1992 ) = = = = The Sounds rejoined the Cincinnati Reds farm system in 1987 , this time as their Triple @-@ A affiliate . As a result , a number of minor leaguers played in the Reds organization at two different levels with Nashville . Spending the beginning of the 1987 season around the top of the standings , the team hit a slump after losing a few key players midseason . The result was a 64 – 76 record and a last place finish . One player lost due to injuries was third baseman Chris Sabo . Sabo was promoted to Cincinnati in 1988 and was named the National League Rookie of the Year , a first for any former Sounds player . The 1988 Sounds were in last @-@ place and had a losing record until making numerous management changes late in the season . During a two @-@ week period in July and August 1988 , the Sounds went through five different managers . The team started the season with Jack Lind , who left due to health problems . His position was filled on an interim basis by pitching coach Wayne Garland until former manager George Scherger , manager of the 1979 Southern League championship Sounds , was brought in . He retired after one game and was replaced by Jim Hoff , who stayed a few days before taking up a position with the Reds ' front office . Finally , former Texas Rangers manager Frank Lucchesi was hired to lead the Sounds for the rest of the season . Lucchesi managed the team 's last 39 games , leading them to a final record of 73 – 69 . They finished second in the East Division , sixteen games behind the Indianapolis Indians who went on to win the league championship . Greer Stadium was home to a rare baseball occurrence on August 6 and August 7 , 1988 , when Nashville and Indianapolis exchanged no @-@ hitters on back @-@ to @-@ back nights . First , Indianapolis ' Randy Johnson and Pat Pacillo combined for a no @-@ hit loss against the Sounds , a 1 – 0 Nashville win . That game was won by Nashville when Lenny Harris walked to first base , stole second base , stole third base , and then came home , scoring on a groundout . The next night , Nashville 's Jack Armstrong pitched a no @-@ hit game against the Indians , a 4 – 0 Sounds victory . This was the first time in American Association history that teams played in back @-@ to @-@ back no @-@ hit games , and was the third no @-@ hitter in Sounds franchise history . After finishing in third @-@ place with a 74 – 72 record in 1989 , the Sounds returned in 1990 to experience their most successful season as a part of the American Association , when they compiled an 86 – 61 record under manager Pete Mackanin . Ending the regular season in a tie with the Buffalo Bisons , the Sounds won the Eastern Division championship in a one @-@ game playoff . The extra @-@ inning affair was ended by Chris Jones ' two @-@ run homer in the top of the eighteenth inning . The Sounds advanced to their first American Association championship series , where they lost to the Omaha Royals three games to two . Left @-@ hander Chris Hammond won the league 's Most Valuable Pitcher Award for 1990 . That year , Nashville set their all @-@ time attendance record when a total of 605 @,@ 122 fans came out to Greer Stadium . In 1991 , the Sounds started the year in first @-@ place , where they remained for only ten days . By May 1 , the team had fallen into third @-@ place in the Eastern Division , where they remained for the rest of the season . Nashville posted a losing record every month during the season and finished the year 16 games behind first @-@ place Buffalo . The following year was Nashville 's last as a Reds affiliate . The team posted a 67 – 77 record in 1992 , winding up in fourth @-@ place . = = = = White Sox era ( 1993 – 1997 ) = = = = Nashville switched affiliations again in 1993 , this time becoming the top farm club of the Chicago White Sox . In addition to a new affiliation , the 1993 season also brought the addition of Greer Stadium 's signature guitar @-@ shaped scoreboard . In their first year with the White Sox , the Sounds clinched the East Division title with an 81 – 62 record . In the league championship series , the Iowa Cubs defeated the Sounds in extra innings in game seven . Nashville 's Rick Renick , who managed the club from 1993 to 1996 , was named the American Association Manager of the Year in his first season . The Sounds shared Greer Stadium with the Southern League 's Nashville Xpress , previously known as the Charlotte Knights , during the 1993 and 1994 seasons . This came about when Charlotte acquired a Triple @-@ A expansion franchise in 1993 , leaving the city 's Double @-@ A team without a home . Sounds owner Larry Schmittou offered Greer as a temporary home ballpark for the team . In order to accommodate an additional team at Greer , the Xpress scheduled its home games during the Sounds ' road trips . Baseball America ranked the dual Nashville teams as number one on its list of the " top 10 happenings in minor league baseball . " In 1995 , the Xpress relocated to Wilmington , North Carolina , and became the Port City Roosters . In 1994 , the Sounds earned an 83 – 61 record , placing them in second . They also made their second consecutive appearance in the league 's championship series . In the first round , Nashville swept the New Orleans Zephyrs in three straight games to advance to the league finals . In the best @-@ of @-@ five series , the Indianapolis Indians defeated the Sounds three games to one . Nashville hosted the midseason Triple @-@ A All @-@ Star Game in 1994 . Sounds players Ray Durham , Drew Denson , and Scott Ruffcorn were selected for the event , however Ruffcorn was later placed on the disabled list and replaced by Steve Schrenk . Durham won the " Stars of Stars " award , recognizing him as the most valuable All @-@ Star representing the American Association . Ruffcorn won the association 's Most Valuable Pitcher Award for 1994 . The Sounds compiled a 68 – 76 record , 20 games out of first @-@ place , in 1995 . Originally , Michael Jordan , who played with the White Sox 's Double @-@ A Birmingham Barons in 1994 , was signed to play the 1995 season as a non @-@ drafted free agent for the Sounds . However , with the ongoing MLB strike , Jordan decided to quit the sport rather than becoming a replacement player and being labeled a strikebreaker . The team improved their record in 1996 , ending up with 77 wins and 67 losses . Despite a decent winning percentage , Nashville failed to secure a spot in the playoffs . Outfielder Jeff Abbott won the Rookie of the Year Award , and Rick Renick earned his second Manager of the Year Award . This season marked the last that Larry Schmittou was the team 's principal owner . With the city prepared to welcome a National Football League franchise , the Tennessee Titans , Schmittou felt that revenue would be drawn away from his baseball team . He sold his entire financial interest in the Sounds to Al Gordon , president of AmeriSports Companies LLC . The following year , Nashville put together a 74 – 68 campaign , again failing to win either half of the season , excluding them from the postseason . In addition to being selected for both the midseason and postseason All @-@ Star teams , outfielder Magglio Ordóñez garnered the league 's Most Valuable Player and Rookie of the Year Awards . = = = = Pirates era ( 1998 – 2004 ) = = = = Following the 1997 season , the American Association , of which the Sounds were a member , disbanded , and its teams were absorbed by the two remaining Triple @-@ A leagues — the International League and Pacific Coast League . Nashville joined the Pacific Coast League ( PCL ) . The franchise also picked up a new major league affiliation , becoming the top farm club of the Pittsburgh Pirates . For the first time since the team 's foundation in 1978 , the Sounds adopted a new logo , color scheme , and uniforms that were introduced over the course of the 1998 and 1999 seasons . The original red , white , and blue colors were replaced by black and red . The new team logo , replacing the original " Slugger " , consisted of a black and red music note enclosed in a circle of the same colors bearing the team name . In 1998 , the team 's first season as a Pirates affiliate , the Sounds finished last in the division with a 67 – 76 record . The Sounds were led by manager Trent Jewett who would go on to win 320 games from 1998 to 2000 and 2003 to 2004 , placing him first on the all @-@ time wins list for Sounds managers . Improving from the previous year , the 1999 team put together an 80 – 60 record , but their second @-@ place finish left them out of the postseason picture . Nashville finished the 2000 season with a 63 – 79 record , resulting in a last @-@ place finish in the divisional standings . Former All @-@ Star Sounds infielder Marty Brown returned to the club to serve as its 25th manager in 2001 , becoming the third former Nashville player to serve as the team 's skipper . The Sounds compiled a 64 – 77 record , leaving them in third @-@ place . On June 30 , Tike Redman became the first Sounds player to hit for the cycle . Redman also holds the Sounds franchise record for the most triples ( 30 ) during his career with the team . The season resulted in a third @-@ place divisional finish with a 72 – 71 record in 2002 . Chad Hermansen , who played for the Sounds from 1998 to 2002 , holds three career franchise records : runs ( 303 ) , home runs ( 92 ) , and runs batted in ( 286 ) . On April 7 , 2003 , right @-@ hander John Wasdin pitched the first perfect game in Nashville Sounds history in his first start of the season against the Albuquerque Isotopes . The 4 – 0 Sounds win was only the second nine @-@ inning perfect game in PCL history . That year , Trent Jewett led the Sounds to an 81 – 62 record . The team clinched the Eastern Division title , giving them their first postseason berth as a member of the Pacific Coast League and first postseason appearance since 1994 . Nashville met Albuquerque in the American Conference championship series , defeating the Isotopes three games to one . The Sounds then lost the best @-@ of @-@ five league championship series in three straight games to the Sacramento River Cats . On May 21 , 2004 , catcher J. R. House became the second Sounds player to hit for the cycle . The team completed the 2004 campaign with a 63 – 79 record , finishing last in the division . Early in the season , Jason Bay played four games in Nashville before being promoted to Pittsburgh . Following the major league season , he was named the National League Rookie of the Year . This made him the second former player from Nashville to receive such honors . = = = = Brewers era ( 2005 – 2014 ) = = = = The Sounds changed affiliates in 2005 , welcoming the Milwaukee Brewers as their sixth different major league franchise . Coincidentally , the major / minor league sports connection between Nashville and Milwaukee was duplicated from 2005 to 2014 , but with reverse roles , in ice hockey , as the Milwaukee Admirals were the top @-@ level minor league affiliate of the National Hockey League 's Nashville Predators . The Sounds also debuted a new oval @-@ shaped logo with a baseball player silhouetted against a yellow background hitting a ball toward the Nashville skyline with the city 's name written above and the team name written in script below . The new Brewers affiliate was managed by Frank Kremblas and featured top prospects such as Rickie Weeks , Prince Fielder , Nelson Cruz , and Corey Hart . The Sounds ' new affiliation started well as the club won the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
ato withdrew from the Jonas Brothers Live in Concert tour , entering a treatment facility for " physical and emotional issues " . It was reported that she decided to enter treatment after punching female dancer Alex Welch ; her management and family conducted a formal intervention after this incident to convince her she needed help . Lovato said she took " 100 percent , full responsibility " for the incident . On January 28 , 2011 , Lovato completed inpatient treatment at Timberline Knolls and returned home . She acknowledged that she had had bulimia , had harmed herself , and had been " self @-@ medicating " with drugs and alcohol " like a lot of teens do to numb their pain " . She added that she " basically had a nervous breakdown " and was diagnosed with bipolar disorder during her treatment . Lovato later said that she had used cocaine several times a day and smuggled cocaine onto airplanes . In April 2011 , Lovato became a contributing editor for Seventeen magazine , writing an article that described her struggles . In March 2012 , MTV aired a documentary ( Demi Lovato : Stay Strong ) about Lovato 's rehab and recovery . She began work on her fourth album the following month . In January 2013 , it was reported that Lovato had been living in a sober @-@ living facility in Los Angeles for more than a year because she felt it was the best way to avoid returning to her addictions and eating disorder . = = = Beliefs = = = Lovato is a Christian and she prays with her band before they perform . She is an active supporter of gay rights . When the Defense of Marriage Act was struck down in June 2013 , she tweeted : " Gay , straight , lesbian , bi . ... No one is better than any one else . What an incredible day for California AND for equality . " Lovato later said : " I believe in gay marriage , I believe in equality . I think there 's a lot of hypocrisy with religion . But I just found that you can have your own relationship with God , and I still have a lot of faith . " In an early November 2013 interview with Latina magazine , she said that she finds spirituality to be an important part of maintaining balance in life . She said : " I 'm the closest I 've ever been with God . I have my own relationship with God and that 's all that matters " . On December 23 , 2011 , Lovato posted a message on Twitter criticizing her former network for airing episodes of Shake It Up and So Random ! in which characters joked about eating disorders . Disney Channel publicity officials quickly took action , apologizing to Lovato and removing the episodes from the network 's broadcast and video on demand sources after additional criticism ( following Lovato 's post ) on the network 's public @-@ relations account . Lovato identifies as a feminist . She spoke at the 2016 Democratic National Convention in Philadelphia , July 25 . = = Filmography = = = = Discography = = Don 't Forget ( 2008 ) Here We Go Again ( 2009 ) Unbroken ( 2011 ) Demi ( 2013 ) Confident ( 2015 ) = = Concert tours = = = = Publications = = Staying Strong : 365 Days a Year , Feiwel & Friends ( November 19 , 2013 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 250 @-@ 05144 @-@ 8 Staying Strong : A Journal , Feiwel & Friends ( October 7 , 2014 ) , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 250 @-@ 06352 @-@ 6 = Clotted cream = Clotted cream ( sometimes called scalded , clouted , Devonshire or Cornish cream ) is a thick cream made by indirectly heating full @-@ cream cow 's milk using steam or a water bath and then leaving it in shallow pans to cool slowly . During this time , the cream content rises to the surface and forms " clots " or " clouts " . It forms an essential part of a cream tea . Although its origin is uncertain , the cream 's production is commonly associated with dairy farms in southwest England and in particular the counties of Cornwall and Devon . The current largest commercial producer in the UK is Rodda 's in Redruth , Cornwall , which can produce up to 25 tons ( 25 @,@ 000 kg ; 55 @,@ 000 lb ) of clotted cream a day . In 1998 the term Cornish clotted cream became a Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) by European Union directive , as long as the milk is produced in Cornwall and the minimum fat content is 55 % . = = Description = = Clotted cream has been described as having a " nutty , cooked milk " flavour , and a " rich sweet flavour " with a texture that is grainy , sometimes with oily globules on the crusted surface . It is a thick cream , with a very high fat content ( a minimum of 55 percent , but an average of 64 percent ) ; in the United States it would be classified as butter . For comparison , the fat content of single cream is only 18 percent . Despite its popularity , virtually none is exported due to its short shelf life . Due to its high saturated fat content , the regular consumption of clotted cream is usually thought to be bad for health , though some dairy fat in the diet is considered beneficial . A 2006 survey of nutrition professionals ranked clotted cream as the least healthy of 120 foods selected to be representative of the British diet . According to the United Kingdom 's Food Standards Agency , a 100 @-@ gram ( 3 @.@ 5 oz ) tub of clotted cream provides 586 kilocalories ( 2 @,@ 450 kJ ) , roughly equivalent to a 200 @-@ gram ( 7 @.@ 1 oz ) cheeseburger . = = History = = Originally made by farmers to reduce the amount of waste from their milk , clotted cream has become so deep @-@ rooted in the culture of southwest Britain that it is embedded as part of the region 's tourist attraction . While there is no doubt of its strong and long association with Cornwall and Devon , it is not clear of its actual antiquity , or more recent development . The Oxford Companion to Food follows traditional folklore by suggesting it may have been introduced to Cornwall by Phoenician traders in search of tin . It is similar to kaymak ( or kajmak ) , a Near Eastern delicacy that is made throughout the Middle East , southeast Europe , Iran , Afghanistan , India , and Turkey . A similar clotted cream known as ' urum ' ( өрөм ) is also made in Mongolia . However , contemporary ancient food experts , noting Strabo 's commentaries on Britain ; " They live off their herds ... As they have mines of tin and lead , they give these metals and hides from their cattle to the sea traders ... instead of olive oil they use butter . " have proposed that the early Britons would probably have clotted cream to preserve its freshness . More recently , regional archaeologists have associated the stone fogou ( dial . ' fuggy @-@ hole ' ) , or souterrains , found across Atlantic Britain , France , and Ireland as a possible form of " cold store " for dairy production of milk , cream , and cheese in particular . Similar functions are ascribed the linney ( dial . ' lean @-@ to ' ) stone @-@ built form , often used as a dairy in later medieval longhouses in the same regions . It has long been disputed whether clotted cream originated in Devon or Cornwall , and which county makes it the best . There is evidence that the monks of Tavistock Abbey were making clotted cream in the early 14th century . After their abbey had been ransacked by Vikings in 997 CE , the monks rebuilt it with the help of Ordulf , Earl of Devon . Local workers were drafted in to help with the repairs , and the monks rewarded them with bread , clotted cream , and strawberry preserves . The 1658 cookery book The Compleat Cook had a recipe for " clouted cream " . In the 19th century it was regarded as better nourishment than " raw " cream because that cream was liable to go sour and be difficult to digest , causing illness . An article from 1853 calculates that creating clotted cream will produce 25 percent more cream than regular methods . In Devon , it was so common that in the mid @-@ 19th century it was used in the formative processes of butter , instead of churning cream or milk . The butter made in this way had a longer lifespan and was free from any negative flavours added by the churning . It has long been the practice for local residents in southwest England , or those on holiday , to send small tins or tubs of clotted cream by post to friends and relations in other parts of the British Isles . Food regulations for perishable goods prohibit it being sent abroad . = = = EU directives = = = In 1993 , an application was made for the name Cornish clotted cream to have a Protected Designation of Origin ( PDO ) in the European Union for cream produced by the traditional recipe in Cornwall . This was accepted in 1998 . Cornish clotted cream must be made from milk produced in Cornwall and have a minimum butterfat content of 55 percent . The unique , slightly yellow , Cornish clotted cream colour is due to the high carotene levels in the grass . = = Preparation = = Traditionally , clotted cream was created by straining fresh cow 's milk , letting it stand in a shallow pan in a cool place for several hours to allow the cream to rise to the surface , then heating it either over hot cinders or in a water bath , before a slow cooling . The clots that had formed on the top were then skimmed off with a long @-@ handled cream @-@ skimmer , known in Devon as a reamer or raimer . By the mid @-@ 1930s , the traditional way of using milk brought straight from the dairy was becoming a rarity in Devon because using a cream separator actively separated the cream from the milk using centrifugal force , which produced far more clotted cream than the traditional method from the same amount of milk . As a farmer 's wife in Poundsgate said , " the separator saves a whole cow ! " Today , there are two distinct modern methods for making clotted cream . The " float cream method " includes scalding a floating layer of double cream in milk ( skimmed or whole ) in shallow trays . To scald , the trays are heated using steam or very hot water . After the mixture has been heated for up to an hour it is slowly cooled for 12 hours or more , before the cream is separated and packaged . The " scald cream method " is similar , but the milk layer is removed and a layer of cream which has been mechanically separated to a minimum fat level is used . This cream is then heated in a similar manner , but at a lower temperature and after a set amount of time it is then chilled and packaged . In the United Kingdom the resultant cream is deemed to be equivalent to pasteurised for legal purposes . Unlike pasteurisation , however , there is no requirement for the temperatures to be recorded on thermograph charts . As the temperatures are lower than used in standard pasteurisation , much care is needed in ensuring high standards of hygiene . The largest UK manufacturer is Rodda 's , a family @-@ owned business based in Scorrier , Cornwall . Founded in 1890 , the company was producing over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 @,@ 000 kg ) per year in 1985 , and in 2010 the managing director said that they might produce as little as 5 or 6 tons ( 5 @,@ 000 or 6 @,@ 000 kg ) a day in January , but up to 25 tons ( 25 @,@ 000 kg ) a day as Christmas approached . In the early 1980s , Rodda 's signed deals with international airlines to serve small tubs of clotted cream with the in @-@ flight desserts . The company considers the annual Wimbledon tennis championships one of their peak selling periods . As a by @-@ product , for every 100 imperial gallons ( 450 l ; 120 US gal ) of milk used , 94 imperial gallons ( 430 l ; 113 US gal ) of skimmed milk is produced , which is then used in food manufacture . One Devon manufacturer , Definitely Devon was purchased by Robert Wiseman Dairies in March 2006 , closing one of the two Devon dairies and moving all production to Okehampton . However , in 2011 Robert Wiseman sold the Definitely Devon Brand to Rodda 's , who moved the production of Definitely Devon to Cornwall , which caused some controversy as the name was not changed , prompting an investigation by Trading Standards . Throughout Cornwall and southwest England , clotted cream manufacture is a cottage industry , with many farms and dairies producing cream for sale in local outlets . Clotted cream is also produced in Somerset , Dorset , Herefordshire , Pembrokeshire , and the Isle of Wight . When authentic clotted cream is not available , there are ways to create a substitute product , such as by mixing mascarpone with whipped cream , a little sugar , and vanilla extract . = = Uses = = = = = Cream tea = = = Clotted cream is an essential part of a cream tea , a favourite with tourists in Cornwall and Devon . It is served on scones — or the more traditional " splits " in Cornwall — with strawberry or raspberry jam , along with a pot of tea . Traditionally , there are differences in the way it is eaten in each county : in Devon , the cream is traditionally spread first on the scone , with the jam dolloped on top . In Cornwall the jam is spread first with a dollop of cream . Cream teas spread to southern Australia as early immigrants from Cornwall and Devon took their traditional recipes with them . In 2010 , Langage Farm in Devon started a campaign for " Devon cream tea " to have protected designation of origin similar to " Cornish clotted cream " . One variation on a cream tea is called " Thunder and Lightning " which consists of a round of bread topped with clotted cream and golden syrup , honey , or treacle . = = = Confectionery = = = Clotted cream can be used as an accompaniment to hot or cold desserts . Clotted cream , especially clotted cream from Devon , where it is less yellow due to lower carotene levels in the grass , is regularly used in baking . It is used throughout southwest England in the production of ice cream. and fudge . = = = Savoury dishes = = = Clotted cream is used in some savoury dishes , and can be incorporated into mashed potato , risotto or scrambled eggs . = = = Historical = = = Cabbage cream ( which does not contain cabbage ) was a delicacy in the mid @-@ 17th century : layers of clotted cream were interspersed with sugar and rosewater , creating a cabbage effect when served . It was a common accompaniment to junket , a milk @-@ based dessert which went out of fashion in the mid @-@ 20th century . = = Literature and folklore = = Clotted cream was mentioned in The Shepheardes Calendar , a poem by Edmund Spenser in 1579 : As with many Cornish and Devonian icons , clotted cream has become entrenched in local folklore . For example , one myth tells of Jenny who enticed the giant Blunderbore ( sometimes called Moran ) by feeding him clotted cream . He eventually fell in love with her and made her his fourth wife . Another myth , from Dartmoor , tells of a princess who wanted to marry an elven prince , but according to tradition had to bathe in pure cream first . Unfortunately , a witch who wanted the prince for her daughter kept souring the cream . Eventually , the prince offered the princess clotted cream , which the witch was unable to sour . = Edmund Andros = Sir Edmund Andros ( 6 December 1637 – 24 February 1714 ) was an English colonial administrator in North America . He was the governor of the Dominion of New England during most of its three @-@ year existence . At other times , Andros served as governor of the provinces of New York , East and West Jersey , Virginia , and Maryland . Before his service in North America , he served as bailiff of Guernsey . His tenure in New England was authoritarian and turbulent , as his views were decidedly pro @-@ Anglican , a negative quality in a region home to many Puritans . His actions in New England resulted in his overthrow during the 1689 Boston revolt . Andros was considered to have been a more effective governor in New York and Virginia , although he became the enemy of prominent figures in both colonies , many of whom worked to remove him from office . Despite these enmities , he managed to negotiate several treaties of the Covenant Chain with the Iroquois , establishing a long @-@ lived peace involving the colonies and other tribes that interacted with that confederacy . His actions and governance generally followed the instructions he was given upon appointment to office , and he received approbation from the monarchs and governments that appointed him . Andros was recalled to England from Virginia in 1698 , and resumed the title of bailiff of Guernsey . Although he no longer resided entirely on Guernsey , he was appointed lieutenant governor of the island , and served in this position for four years . Andros died in 1714 . = = Early life = = Andros was born in London on 6 December 1637 . Amice Andros , his father , was Bailiff of Guernsey and a staunch supporter of Charles I. His mother was Elizabeth Stone , whose sister was a courtier to the king 's sister , Queen Elizabeth of Bohemia . Although it has been claimed that Andros was present at the surrender in 1651 of Guernsey 's Castle Cornet , the last royalist stronghold to surrender in the English Civil War , there is no firm evidence to support this . It is possible that he fled Guernsey with his mother in 1645 . In 1656 , he was apprenticed to his uncle , Sir Robert Stone , captain of a cavalry company . Andros then served in two winter campaigns in Denmark , including the relief of Copenhagen in 1659 . As a result of these experiences he gained fluency in French , Swedish , and Dutch . He remained a firm supporter of the Stuarts while they were in exile . Charles II , after his restoration to the throne , specifically commended the Andros family for its support . Andros served as a courtier to Elizabeth of Bohemia from 1660 until her death in 1662 . In 1671 , he married Mary Craven , the daughter of Thomas Craven of Burnsall in the West Riding of Yorkshire ( now North Yorkshire ) , the son of a cousin to the Earl of Craven , one of the queen 's closest advisors , and a friend who served as his patron for many years . During the 1660s he served in the English army against the Dutch . He was next commissioned a major in the regiment of Sir Tobias Bridge , which was sent to Barbados in 1666 . He returned to England two years later , carrying despatches and letters . = = Governor of New York = = After his father died in 1674 , Andros was named to succeed as bailiff of Guernsey . He was also appointed by the Duke of York to be the first proprietary governor of the Province of New York . The province 's territory included the former territories of New Netherland , ceded to England by the Treaty of Westminster , including all of present @-@ day New Jersey , the Dutch holdings on the Hudson River from New Amsterdam ( renamed New York City ) to Albany , as well as Long Island , Martha 's Vineyard , and Nantucket . In 1664 Charles II had granted James all of this territory , as well as all of the land in present @-@ day Maine between the Kennebec and St. Croix Rivers , but with the intervening Dutch retaking of the territory , Charles issued a new patent to James . Andros arrived in New York harbor in late October , and negotiated the handover of the Dutch territories with local representatives and Dutch Governor Anthony Colve , which took place on 10 November 1674 . Andros agreed to confirm the existing property holdings and to allow the Dutch inhabitants of the territory to maintain their Protestant religion . = = = Connecticut boundary dispute = = = Andros was also involved in boundary disputes with the neighboring Connecticut Colony . Dutch claims had originally extended as far east as the Connecticut River , but these claims had been ceded in the 1650 Treaty of Hartford , and reduced to a boundary line 20 miles ( 32 km ) east of the Hudson in 1664 . York 's territorial claim did not acknowledge these , and Andros announced to Connecticut authorities his intentions to reclaim that territory ( which included Connecticut capital , Hartford ) in early 1675 . Connecticut leaders pointed out the later revisions to Connecticut 's boundaries , but Andros pressed his claim , arguing that those revisions had been superseded by York 's grant . Andros used the outbreak of King Philip 's War in July 1675 as an excuse to go by ship to Connecticut with a small military force to establish the duke 's claim . When he arrived at Saybrook at the mouth of the river on 8 July he found the fort there occupied by Connecticut militia , who were flying the English flag . Andros came ashore , had a brief conversation with the fort commander , read his commission , and returned to New York City . This was the full extent of Andros ' attempt to claim the territory , but it would be remembered in Connecticut when later attempts were made to assert New York authority . = = = King Philip 's War = = = Following his Connecticut expedition , Andros traveled into Iroquois country to establish relations there . He was well received , and agreed to continue the Dutch practice of supplying firearms to the Iroquois . This action successfully blunted French diplomatic successes with the Iroquois . It also led to charges in New England that Andros provided arms to Indians allied to King Philip ( as the Wampanoag leader Metacom was known to the English ) ; in fact , Andros provided gunpowder to Rhode Island that was used in the Great Swamp Fight against the Narragansetts in December 1675 , and specifically outlawed the sale of munitions to tribes known to be allied to Philip . The charges poisoned the atmosphere between Andros and Massachusetts leaders , even though Andros ' conduct met with approval in London . In the meeting with the Iroquois Andros was given the name " Corlaer " , which was used thereafter by the Iroquois to refer to the New York governor ( in the same way the French governor was dubbed " Onontio " ) . One other consequence was the establishment at Albany of a colonial department for Indian affairs , with Robert Livingston as its first head . Philip was known to be in the Berkshires in western Massachusetts that winter , and New Englanders accused Andros of sheltering him . Historian John Fiske suggests that Philip 's purpose was not to draw the Iroquois into the conflict , but instead to draw the Mahicans into the conflict with a view toward attacking Albany . An offer by Andros to send New York troops into Massachusetts to attack Philip was rebuffed , based on the idea that it was covert ploy to again assert authority to the Connecticut River . Instead , Mohawks from the Albany area did battle with Philip , driving him eastward . When Connecticut authorities later appealed to Andros for assistance , Andros replied that it was " strange " that they would do so , considering their previous behavior , and refused to help . In July 1676 Andros established a haven for the Mahicans and other Indian war refugees at Schaghticoke . Although the conflict came to an end in southern New England in 1676 , there continued to be friction between the Abenakis of northern New England and English settlers . These prompted Andros to send a force to the duke 's territory in Maine , where they established a fort at Pemaquid ( present @-@ day Bristol ) . Andros annoyed Massachusetts fishermen by restricting their use of the duke 's land for drying fish . In November 1677 Andros departed for England , where he would spend the next year . During this visit he was knighted as a reward for his performance as governor , and he sat in on meetings of the Lords of Trade in which agents for Massachusetts Bay defended its charter , and gave detailed accounts of the state of his colony . = = = Southern border disputes = = = The southernmost territories of the duke , roughly encompassing northern Delaware , were desired by Charles Calvert , Baron Baltimore , who sought to extend the reach of his proprietary Province of Maryland into the area . At the same time Calvert was seeking an end to a frontier war with the Iroquois to the north , having persuaded the intervening Susquehannocks to move to the Potomac River , well within Maryland territory . Furthermore , the Lenape , who dominated Delaware Bay , were unhappy with seizures of their lands by Virginia and Maryland settlers , and war between these groups had been imminent in 1673 when the Dutch retook New York . When Andros came to New York , he moved to stabilize the situation . He befriended the Lenape sachems ( chiefs ) , convincing them to act as mediators between the English and other tribes . Peace appeared to be imminent when Bacon 's Rebellion broke out in Maryland , resulting in an attack on the Susquehannock fort on the Potomac . The surviving Susquehannocks sneaked out of the fort one night , some of them making their way east toward Delaware Bay . In June 1676 Andros offered , in exchange for their moving into his jurisdiction , to protect them from their enemies among the Virginian and Maryland settlers . He also extended an offer given by the Mohawk for the Susquehannocks to settle among them . These offers were well received , but Maryland authorities were unable to convince their Indian allies to make the peace offered by Andros , and organized them to march toward the Delaware , which would also fulfil the goal of strengthening the Maryland claim to the area . Andros responded by urging the Susquehannocks to retreat into New York , where they would be beyond Maryland 's reach , and delivering a strongly worded threat to Maryland , that it would either have to acknowledge his sovereignty over the Susquehannocks , or they would have to peacably take them back . He also offered his services as a mediator , pointing out that the absence of the Susquehannocks now left Maryland settlements open to direct attack by the Iroquois . In a council held at the Lenape village of Shackamaxon ( site of present @-@ day Philadelphia ) in February and March 1677 , all of the major parties met , but no final agreements were reached , and Andros ordered the Susquehannocks remaining with the Lenape to disperse to other parts of New York in April . Maryland sent Henry Coursey to New York to engage Andros and eventually the Iroquois in peace talks , while at the same time they sent surveyors to lay out plots on land also claimed by New York on Delaware Bay . Coursey was instructed to offer Andros what was in essence a £ 100 bribe that an Indian peace might be reached in exchange for that land . Andros refused the bribe , and Coursey ended up being compelled to negotiate further through Andros and the Mohawk in Albany . The peace agreed in negotiations that followed in Albany in the summer of 1677 is considered one of the foundations of the set of alliances and treaties called the Covenant Chain . Although Andros was unable to prevent Baltimore from granting some land on the Delaware , he did successfully blunt the Maryland leader 's attempt to control an even greater portion of land . The duke eventually deeded those lands to William Penn , and they became part of the state of Delaware . = = = Control of the Jerseys = = = Governance of the Jerseys also created problems for Andros . James had awarded the territory west of the Hudson River to proprietors John Berkeley and George Carteret , and Berkeley had then deeded the western portion ( which became known as West Jersey ) to a partnership of Quakers . Berkeley had not transferred his proprietary rights to this group , and the exact nature of the rights James had given both Berkeley and Carteret was disputed , in part because James believed that the second patent granted to him in 1674 overrode the earlier grants he had made to Berkeley and Carteret . This resulted in conflict when Andros attempted to extend his government over East Jersey , the territory governed on behalf of Carteret by the latter 's cousin Philip . Possibly based on orders given to him during his visit to England , Andros began to assert New York authority over East Jersey after George Carteret 's death in 1680 . Despite a friendly personal relationship between Andros and Governor Carteret , the issue of governance eventually prompted Andros to have Carteret arrested . In a dispute centering on the collection of customs duties in ports on the Jersey side of the Hudson , Andros in 1680 sent a company of soldiers to Philip Carteret 's home in Elizabethtown . According to Carteret 's account of the incident , he was beaten by the troops , who jailed him in New York . In a trial over which Andros presided , Carteret was acquitted by a jury on all charges . Carteret returned to New Jersey , but injuries he sustained in the arrest affected his health , and he died in 1682 . In the aftermath of the incident the Duke of York surrendered his claims to East Jersey to the Carterets . A less contentious standoff also occurred when settlers sent by William Penn sought to establish what is now Burlington , New Jersey . Andros insisted they had no right to settle there without the duke 's permission , but agreed to allow their settlement after they agreed to receive commissions falling under the authority of the New York gubernatorial administration . This situation was permanently resolved in 1680 when York renounced in favor of Penn his remaining claims to West Jersey . = = = Recall and analysis = = = The political opponents of Andros in the colony brought a number of charges against him to the Duke of York . Among them were accusations of favoritism toward Dutch businessmen , and engaging in business for private gain rather than that of the duke . Statements were also made to the duke that claimed that his revenues were lower than they should have been ; this , in addition to the other complaints , led the duke to order Andros back to England to explain the situation . Andros left the province in January 1681 , charging Anthony Brockholls with the administration of the New York government . Expecting a short visit to England , his wife remained in New York . During his time in New York he was thought to have demonstrated good administrative abilities , but his manner was considered imperious by his opponents among the colonists , and he made numerous enemies during his tenure as governor . = = Dominion of New England = = In 1686 he was appointed governor of the Dominion of New England . He arrived in Boston on 20 December 1686 , and immediately assumed the reins of power . His commission called for governance by himself , with a council . The initial composition of the council included representatives from each of the colonies the dominion absorbed , but because of the inconvenience of travel and the fact that travel costs were not reimbursed , the council 's quorums were dominated by representatives from Massachusetts and Plymouth . The Lords of Trade had insisted that he govern without an assembly , something he expressed concern over while his commission was being drafted . In a brief work , Sir Edmund Andros , historian Henry Ferguson attested to the fact that the deliberation of certain policies by an assembly of legislators may have proven inefficient . The Dominion initially consisted of the territories of the Massachusetts Bay Colony ( including present @-@ day Maine ) , Plymouth Colony , Rhode Island , Connecticut and New Hampshire , and was extended to include New York , and East and West Jersey in 1688 . Andros ' wife , who had joined him in Boston , died there in 1688 not long after her arrival . = = = Church of England = = = Shortly after his arrival , Andros asked each of the Puritan churches in Boston if its meetinghouse could be used for services of the Church of England . When he was rebuffed , he demanded and was given keys to Samuel Willard 's Third Church in 1687 . Services were held there under the auspices of Rev. Robert Ratcliff until 1688 , when King 's Chapel was built . These actions highlighted him as pro @-@ Anglican in the eyes of local Puritans , who would later accuse him of involvement in a " horrid Popish plot . " = = = Revenue laws = = = His council engaged in a lengthy process to harmonize dominion and English laws . This work consumed such a great amount of time that Andros in March 1687 issued a proclamation stating that pre @-@ existing laws would remain in effect until they were revised . Since Massachusetts had no pre @-@ existing tax laws , a scheme of taxation was created that would apply to the entire dominion . Developed by a committee of landowners , the first proposal derived its revenues from import duties , principally alcohol . After much debate , a different proposal was abruptly proposed and adopted , essentially reviving previous Massachusetts tax laws . These laws had been unpopular with farmers who felt the taxes on livestock were too high . To bring in immediate revenue , Andros also received approval to increase the import duties on alcohol . The first attempts to enforce the revenue laws were met with stiff resistance from a number of Massachusetts communities . Several towns refused to choose commissioners to assess the town population and estates , and officials from a number of them were consequently arrested and brought to Boston . Some were fined and released , while others were imprisoned until they promised to perform their duties . The leaders of Ipswich , who had been most vocal in their opposition to the law , were tried and convicted of misdemeanor offenses . The other provinces did not resist the imposition of the new law , even though , at least in Rhode Island , the rates were higher than they had been under the previous colonial administration . Plymouth 's relatively poor landowners were hard hit because of the high rates on livestock , and funds derived from whaling , once sources of profit for the individual towns , were now directed to the dominion government . = = = Town meeting laws = = = One consequence of the tax protest was that Andros sought to restrict town meetings , since these were where that protest had begun . He therefore introduced a law that limited meetings to a single annual meeting , solely for the purpose of electing officials , and explicitly banning meetings at other times for any reason . This loss of local power was widely hated . Many protests were made that the town meeting and tax laws were violations of the Magna Carta , which guaranteed taxation by representatives of the people . It was noted that those who made these complaints had , during the colonial charter , excluded large numbers of voters through the requirement of church membership , and then taxed them . = = = Land title reform = = = Andros had been instructed to bring colonial land title practices more in line with those in England , and introduce quit @-@ rents as a means of raising colonial revenues . Titles previously issued in Massachusetts , New Hampshire , and Maine under the colonial administration often suffered from defects of form ( for example , lacking an imprint of the colonial seal ) , and most of them did not include a quit @-@ rent payment . Land grants in colonial Connecticut and Rhode Island had been made before either colony had a charter , and there were conflicting claims in a number of areas . The manner in which Andros approached the issue was necessarily divisive , since it threatened any landowner whose title was in any way dubious . Some landowners went through the confirmation process , but many refused , since they did not want to face the possibility of losing their land , and they viewed the process as a thinly veiled land grab . The Puritans of Plymouth and Massachusetts , some of whom had extensive landholdings , were among the latter . Since all of the existing land titles in Massachusetts had been granted under the now @-@ vacated colonial charter , Andros essentially declared them to be void , and required landowners to recertify their ownership , paying fees to the dominion and becoming subject to the charging of a quit @-@ rent . Andros attempted to compel the certification of ownership by issuing writs of intrusion , but large landowners who owned many parcels contested these individually , rather than recertifying all of their lands . = = = Connecticut charter = = = Since Andros ' commission included Connecticut , he asked Connecticut Governor Robert Treat to surrender the colonial charter not long after his arrival in Boston . Unlike Rhode Island , whose officials readily acceded to the dominion , Connecticut officials formally acknowledged Andros ' authority , but did little to assist him . They continued to run their government according to the charter , holding quarterly meetings of the legislature and electing colony @-@ wide officials , while Treat and Andros negotiated over the surrender of the charter . In October 1687 Andros finally decided to travel to Connecticut to personally see to the matter . Accompanied by an honour guard , he arrived in Hartford on 31 October , and met that evening with the colonial leadership . According to legend , during this meeting the charter was laid out on the table for all to see . The lights in the room unexpectedly went out , and when relit , the charter had disappeared . The charter was said to have been hidden in a nearby oak tree ( referred to afterward as the Charter Oak ) so that a search of nearby buildings would not locate the document . Whatever the truth of the account , Connecticut records show that its government formally surrendered its seals and ceased operation that day . Andros then traveled throughout the colony , making judicial and other appointments , before returning to Boston . On 29 December 1687 , the dominion council formally extended its laws over Connecticut , completing the assimilation of the New England colonies . = = = Inclusion of New York and the Jerseys = = = On 7 May 1688 , the provinces of New York , East Jersey , and West Jersey were added to the Dominion . Because they were remote from Boston , where Andros had his seat , New York and the Jerseys were run by Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson from New York City . Nicholson , an army captain and protégé of colonial secretary William Blathwayt , came to Boston in early 1687 as part of Andros ' honor guard , and had been promoted to his council . During the summer of 1688 , Andros traveled first to New York , and then to the Jerseys , to establish his commission . Dominion governance of the Jerseys was complicated by the fact that the proprietors , whose charters had been revoked , had retained their property , and petitioned Andros for what were traditional manorial rights . The dominion period in the Jerseys was relatively uneventful , due to their distance from the power centers , and the unexpected end of the dominion in 1689 . = = = Indian diplomacy = = = In 1687 the governor of New France , the Marquis de Denonville , launched an attack against Seneca villages in what is now western New York . His objective was to disrupt trade between the English at Albany and the Iroquois confederation , to which the Seneca belonged , and to break the Covenant Chain , a peace Andros had negotiated in 1677 while he was governor of New York . New York Governor Thomas Dongan appealed for help , and King James ordered Andros to render assistance . James also entered into negotiations with Louis XIV of France , which resulted in an easing of tensions on the northwestern frontier . On New England 's northeastern frontier , however , the Abenaki harbored grievances against English settlers , and began an offensive in early 1688 . Andros made an expedition into Maine early in the year , in which he raided a number of Indian settlements . He also raided the trading outpost and home of Jean @-@ Vincent d 'Abbadie de Saint @-@ Castin on Penobscot Bay . His careful preservation of the Catholic Castin 's chapel would be a source of later accusations of " popery " against Andros . When Andros took over the administration of New York in August 1688 , he met with the Iroquois at Albany to renew to covenant . In this meeting he annoyed the Iroquois by referring to them as " children " ( implying subservience to the English ) , rather than " brethren " ( implying equality ) . He returned to Boston amid further attacks on the New England frontier by Abenaki parties , who admitted that they were doing so in part because of French encouragement . During Andros 's presence in New York , the situation in Maine had deteriorated again , as well , with English colonists raiding Indian villages and taking prisoners . These actions were taken in accordance with a directive issued by dominion councillors remaining in Boston , who ordered that frontier militia commanders were to take into custody any Abenaki suspected of participating in the raids . This directive sparked a problem in Maine , when twenty Abenaki , including women and children , were taken into custody by colonial militia . The local authorities were faced with the dilemma of housing the captives , shipping them first to Falmouth and then to Boston , angering other natives in the area , who seized English hostages to ensure the safe return of the captives . Andros castigated the Mainers for their unwarranted acts and ordered the Indians released and returned to Maine . A brief skirmish during the process of exchanging captives resulted in the deaths of four English hostages , and sparked discontent in Maine . Faced with this discord , Andros returned to Maine with a significant force , and began the construction of additional fortifications to protect the settlers . Andros spent the winter in Maine , and returned to Boston in March upon hearing rumors of revolution in England and discontent in Boston . = = = Revolt = = = On 18 April 1689 , soon after news reached Boston of the overthrow of James II of England , the colonists of Boston rose up against his rule . A well @-@ organized " mob " descended on the city , arresting dominion officials and Anglicans . Andros had his quarters in Fort Mary , a garrison house on the south side of the city , where a number of officials took refuge . The old Massachusetts colonial leadership , restored due to the rebellion and headed by ex @-@ governor Simon Bradstreet , then summoned Governor Andros to surrender , for his own safety because of the mob which they claimed " whereof we were wholly ignorant " . He refused , and instead tried to escape to the Rose , the sole element of the Royal Navy present near Boston at the time of the revolt . However , the boat sent from the Rose was intercepted by militia , and Andros was forced back into Fort Mary . Negotiations ensued , and Andros agreed to leave the fort to meet with the rebel council . Promised safe conduct , he was marched under guard to the townhouse where the council had assembled . There he was told that " they must & would have the Government in their own hands " , and that he was under arrest . He was taken to the home of dominion treasurer John Usher , and held under close watch . After Fort Mary fell into rebel hands on the 19th , Andros was moved there from Usher 's house . He was confined there with Joseph Dudley and other dominion officials until 7 June , when he was transferred to Castle Island . It is during this period of captivity that he is said to have attempted an escape dressed in women 's clothing . The story , although it circulated widely , was disputed by the Anglican minister Robert Ratcliff , who claimed that story and others had " not the least foundation of Truth " , and that they were " falsehoods , and lies " propagated to " render the Governour odious to his people . " He did make a successful escape from Castle Island on 2 August , after his servant plied the sentries with drink . He managed to flee to Rhode Island , but was quickly recaptured and thereafter kept in virtual solitary confinement . He and others were held for 10 months before being sent to England for trial . The Massachusetts agents in London refused to sign the charges made against him , so the court summarily dismissed them , and freed him . When Andros was questioned about the various accusations that had been levelled against him , he pointed out that all of his actions had been taken to bring colonial laws into conformance with English law , or they were specifically taken in pursuit of his commission and instructions . While Andros was in captivity , the New York government of Lieutenant Governor Francis Nicholson was simultaneously deposed by a military faction led by Jacob Leisler , in an event that came to be known as Leisler 's Rebellion . Leisler would govern New York until 1691 , when he was captured and executed by a force led by newly appointed provincial governor Henry Sloughter . Andros was eventually allowed to depart for England ; by that point , the Dominion of New England had effectively ceased to exist , with the colonies in the dominion having reverted to their previous forms of governance . Massachusetts and its surrounding territories were reorganized into the Province of Massachusetts Bay in 1691 . = = Governor of Virginia = = Andros was well received at court upon his return to England . The king in particular recalled that Andros had visited his court in the Netherlands , and expressed approval of Andros ' service . In search of employment , Andros offered his services as a spy , offering the idea of going to Paris , ostensibly to meet with the exiled James , but to actually attempt to acquire French military plans . This plan was rejected . While in England he married for the second time , to Elizabeth Crisp Clapham , in July 1691 . She was the widow of Christopher Clapham , who was connected by that marriage to his first wife 's family . Andros ' next opportunity for employment came with the resignation in February 1692 of Lord Effingham as governor of the Province of Virginia . Although Francis Nicholson , formerly dominion lieutenant governor , was then serving as lieutenant governor or Virginia and sought the superior position , William awarded the governorship to Andros , and awarded Nicholson yet another lieutenant governorship , this time that of Maryland . This was destined to make Andros ' tenure more difficult , because his relationship with Nicholson had deteriorated for other reasons . The exact reasons for this enmity are unclear : one contemporary wrote that Nicholson " especially [ resented ] Sir Edmund Andros , against whom he has a particular pique on account of some earlier dealings " . Andros arrived in Virginia on 13 September 1692 , and began his duties a week later . Nicholson graciously received him , and not long after sailed for England . Andros settled at Middle Plantation ( the future site of Williamsburg ) , where he would live until 1695 . He worked to organize the provincial records , the maintenance of which had suffered since Bacon 's Rebellion , and promoted the enforcement of laws designed to prevent slave rebellions . He encouraged the diversification of Virginia 's economy , which was then almost entirely dependent on tobacco . The export @-@ oriented economy was also being badly hurt by the ongoing Nine Years ' War , because of which merchant ships were required to travel in convoys . For several years Virginia did not receive any military escorts , so their products were not going to market in Europe . Andros encouraged the introduction of new crops like cotton and flax , and the manufacture of fabric . Virginia was the first colonial posting in which Andros had to work with a local assembly . His relationship with the House of Burgesses was generally cordial , but he encountered some resistance , especially to measures related to the war and colonial defenses . He hired armed vessels to patrol the colony 's waters and contributed financially to New York 's colonial defenses , which formed a bulwark against the possibility of French and Indian incursions into Virginia . In 1696 Andros was ordered by the king to send troops to New York , for which the burgesses reluctantly appropriated £ 1 @,@ 000 . Andros ' management of colonial defense and Indian relations were successful : Virginia , unlike New York and New England , was not attacked during the war . During his tenure , Andros made an enemy of James Blair , a prominent Anglican minister . Blair was working to establish a new college for educating Anglican ministers , and he believed that Andros was not supportive of the idea . However , Blair and Nicholson worked closely together on this idea , with Nicholson often coming from Maryland for meetings on the subject . The two men were united in their dislike of Andros , and their activities helped to cause Andros ' resignation . The College of William and Mary was founded in 1693 . Despite Blair 's claims that Andros was unsupportive , Andros donated the cost of the bricks to construct the college 's chapel from his own funds , and convinced the House of Burgesses to approve funding of £ 100 per year for the college . Blair 's complaints , many of them vague and inaccurate , made their way to London , where proceedings into Andros ' conduct began at the Board of Trade and the ecclesiastical courts of the Church of England in 1697 . Andros had lost most of his support on the Board of Trade when a Whig faction came to power , and his advocates were unable to sway the board in favor of him . Anglican bishops staunchly supported Blair and Nicholson . In March 1698 Andros , complaining of fatigue and illness , asked to be recalled . = = Later years = = Andros ' recall was announced in London in May 1698 ; he was replaced by Nicholson . He returned to England , and resumed his post as bailiff of Guernsey . He divided his time between Guernsey and London , where he had a house in Denmark Hill . His second wife died in 1703 , and he married for the third time in 1707 , to Elizabeth Fitzhebert . In 1704 Queen Anne named him lieutenant governor of Guernsey , a post he held until 1708 . He died in London on 24 February 1714 and was buried at St Anne 's Church , Soho . His wife died in 1717 and was buried nearby . The church was destroyed during the Second World War , and there is no longer any trace of their graves . He had no issue by any of his wives . = = Legacy = = Andros remains a notorious figure in New England , especially in Connecticut . Connecticut officially excludes him from its list of colonial governors , but his portrait hangs in the Hall of Governors in the State Museum across from the State Capitol in Hartford . Although he was disliked in the colonies , he was recognized in England as an effective administrator , implementing the policies that he had been ordered to carry out and advancing the crown 's agenda . Biographer Mary Lou Lustig notes that he was " an accomplished statesman , a brave soldier , a polished courtier , and a devoted servant " , but that his style was often " autocratic , arbitrary , and dictatorial " , that he lacked tact , and that he had difficulty reaching compromises . Similarly , Andros was featured as an antagonist in the 1879 novel Captain Nelson , described as a " romance of colonial days " . Andros appears in several episodes of The Witch of Blackbird Pond , where his conflict with the Connecticut colonists forms the background to the protagonist 's more personal problems . It is believed that Andros Island in the Bahamas was named for him . Early proprietors of the Bahamas included members of his first wife 's family , the Cravens . = Trevor Philips = Trevor Philips is a fictional character and one of the three lead protagonists of Grand Theft Auto V , a video game in the Grand Theft Auto series made by Rockstar Games . He appears as one of the three main protagonists , alongside Michael De Santa and Franklin Clinton . He is played by actor Steven Ogg , who provided the voice and motion capture for the character . Rockstar based Trevor 's appearance on Ogg 's physical appearance , while his personality was inspired by Charles Bronson . Grand Theft Auto V co @-@ writer Dan Houser described Trevor as purely driven by desire and resentment . To make players care for the character , the designers gave the character more emotions . Trevor is shown to truly care about people very close to him , despite his psychopathic actions . Trevor is considered one of the most controversial characters in video game history . Although the general attention given to Trevor by critics and gamers was mostly very positive , he has been criticised by many critics and players because of his violent personality and actions , but has also been praised for fitting in the world of the game . His design and personality have drawn comparisons to other influential video game and film characters . Many reviewers have called Trevor a likeable and believable character , and felt that he is one of the few protagonists in the Grand Theft Auto series that would willingly execute popular player actions , such as murder and violence . = = Character design = = Grand Theft Auto V co @-@ writer Dan Houser explained that Trevor " appeared to [ Rockstar ] pretty much out of nowhere as the embodiment of another side of criminality [ ... ] If Michael was meant to be the idea of some version of criminal control [ ... ] what about the guy who didn 't do that ? " He later described Trevor as " the person who 's driven purely by desire , resentment , no thought for tomorrow whatsoever , completely id rather than ego @-@ driven . " He stated that Trevor " kills without remorse , like a true psychopath , but very sentimental for the right reasons when it suits him . " Rockstar drew upon game protagonist archetypes during the scripting the characters ; Trevor was considered to embody insanity . Houser said the team characterised Michael and Trevor as juxtapositions of each other . He said , " Michael is like the criminal who wants to compartmentalise and be a good guy some of the time and Trevor is the maniac who isn 't a hypocrite " . He said that having three lead characters would help move the game 's plot into more original territory than its predecessors , which traditionally followed a single protagonist rising through the ranks of a criminal underworld . In Grand Theft Auto V , Steven Ogg portrayed Trevor . During the initial audition process , Ogg noticed an on @-@ set chemistry between him and Ned Luke ( who portrayed Michael ) , which he felt helped secure them the roles . Ogg said , " When [ Luke ] and I went in the room together we immediately had something " . While the actors knew their auditions were for Rockstar Games , it was when they signed contracts that they learned they would be involved in a Grand Theft Auto title . Ogg felt Trevor 's characterisation had evolved over time . He said , " Nuances and character traits that began to appear — his walk , his manner of speech , his reactions , definitely informed his development throughout the game " . The actors began working on the game in 2010 . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology . Dialogue for scenes with characters seated in vehicles was recorded in studios . Because the actors had their dialogue and movements recorded on @-@ set , they considered their performances were no different from those of film or television roles . Their dialogue was scripted so that it did not allow the actors to ad @-@ lib ; however they sometimes made small changes to the performance with approval from the directors . = = Attributes = = Trevor is depicted as a sociopath in Grand Theft Auto V. He is relentless and easily kills without remorse . However , he is honest about everything and rarely shows hypocrisy , which he often points out in others . He appears to be very insecure about being born in Canada , and takes offence to people mocking his accent . Despite his sociopathic actions , Trevor is very emotional ; he seems to care about people very close to him , and he can be truly loyal to them . These people include his mother , Ashley Butler , Patricia Madrazo , Maude , Michael De Santa and his children Tracey and Jimmy , Lamar Davis , Ron , Lester , Wade and Franklin Clinton . Nevertheless , the other characters regard Trevor as dangerously unstable ; during the prologue , Michael leads Trevor into a trap where he is supposed to be shot and killed , and later implores Franklin to plead insanity if he is ever arrested with Trevor . It is implied that the knowledge and extent of Trevor 's crimes , the belief that Trevor 's depravity escalated without anyone to keep him in check and his silence on the matter all weigh heavily on Michael 's conscience . When portraying Trevor , Ogg cites Tom Hardy 's depiction of English criminal Charles Bronson in the 2008 biopic Bronson as a strong stylistic influence on his portrayal of Trevor . Ogg reflected that while Trevor embodies the violent , psychopathic Grand Theft Auto anti @-@ hero archetype , he wanted players to sympathise with Trevor 's story . " To elicit other emotions was tough , and it was the biggest challenge and it 's something that meant a lot to me , " Ogg said . = = Appearances = = = = = Grand Theft Auto V = = = Trevor is Canadian , born just north of the border of the United States . He grew up with a physically abusive father and an emotionally abusive mother . Trevor had a brother , Ryan , who died prior to the game 's events . Trevor 's father abandoned him in a shopping mall , which Trevor burnt down in retaliation . This upbringing combined with Trevor 's violent temper led Trevor to be severely unhinged , leading to numerous fights at school , including an assault on a teacher . Trevor loved planes , and at some point entered the military as a pilot , but was quickly forced to leave after being reproved in a psychological evaluation . Later on , Trevor committed crimes , the first one being a small robbery that landed him in jail for six months . He would continue his criminal ways , including using his piloting skills to become a smuggler . Trevor eventually met Michael Townley and both men realised that they wanted to earn money by performing large heists , and both men became successful in doing so . However , their partnership began to strain after Michael married a stripper named Amanda and started a family with her . During one of their heists with their mutual accomplice Brad Snider , Michael and Brad are shot by police while Trevor escapes , and he believes Michael died and Brad was sent to jail . Trevor eventually settles in Sandy Shores , Blaine County , where he establishes a small criminal enterprise that he dubs " Trevor Philips Industries " that smuggles weapons and manufactures methamphetamine , which he hopes will grow into a large empire . Due to raging abandonment issues , Trevor surrounds himself with two loyal friends that he kidnapped and brainwashed from their previous lives named " Nervous " Ron Jakowski and Wade Hebert . Trevor also enters an uneasy truce with his competitors in Sandy Shores , including The Lost Motorcycle Club led by Johnny Klebitz , the Varrios Los Aztecas gang , and the O 'Neil Brothers . Nine years after the fateful heist , Trevor finds out that Michael faked his death , and is so spooked and enraged that he breaks the truce and kills most of his competition in one burst of violence , a deadly streak that continues when a potential game @-@ changing deal with the Triads falls through . He drives to Los Santos , taking over the apartment and ruining the life of Wade 's cousin Floyd , and reunites with Michael , who now took on the name " De Santa " . After Michael introduces Trevor to Franklin Clinton , the two perform heists again , this time including Franklin . Trevor is determined to rob anything guarded by Merryweather Security Consulting , a private security firm that he dislikes , but he often fails . After not getting paid for a job , Trevor kidnaps Patricia , the wife of kingpin Martin Madrazo . Due to her kind maternal nature and his own abandonment issues , Trevor falls in love with her and only returns her after much demanding from Michael . However , the two stay in contact until the end of the game . Trevor eventually discovers that Michael set him and Brad up , and that Brad is not in jail but buried in Michael 's fake grave . This leads to Trevor vowing to kill Michael , but needing him alive for one last heist . When that heist is successful , Trevor is so pleased that he lifts the death vow but still hates Michael . Near the end of the game , Franklin is given a choice : kill Trevor , kill Michael , or let them live and face their enemies . If the latter is chosen , Trevor kills Haines , before capturing Weston , and killing him alongside Michael and Franklin . Trevor once again considers Michael his friend , albeit a friend that he hates , which Michael accepts . If the second option is chosen , Trevor ends all contact with Franklin and says to stay away from him after finding out about Michael 's death . If the first option is chosen , Franklin meets up with Trevor , before chasing him with Michael to an oil plant . When Trevor crashes into an oil tank , causing himself to be covered in oil , either Franklin or Michael shoot the oil , setting Trevor alight and killing him . If Trevor and Michael are spared , they continue to spend time together with Franklin , during which Trevor eventually admits that he over @-@ reacted after learning the truth about Brad , and refers to himself and Michael as friends . = = = Grand Theft Auto Online = = = Trevor appears as a main character in Grand Theft Auto Online , the online multiplayer mode of Grand Theft Auto V. He provides missions to the player character once they reach Rank 13 ; after the player steals Trevor 's rolling meth lab , Trevor demands that they are to complete jobs for him to settle the issue . The jobs that Trevor demands generally consist of stealing drugs from rival groups , specifically the Lost Motorcycle Club , while killing the dealers . The narrative of Grand Theft Auto Online is set several months prior to the events of the single @-@ player story . = = Cultural impact = = = = = Reception = = = Trevor 's character was met with generally positive feedback following the release of Grand Theft Auto V. Edge singled out Trevor as the stand @-@ out of the three protagonists , which they owed to his volatile personality . Like Edge , Caroline Petit of GameSpot considered Trevor " a truly horrible , terrifying , psychotic human being — and a terrific character . " Eurogamer 's Tom Bramwell , however , felt that Trevor undermined the other characters because he was a " shallow and unconvincing " sensationalised anti @-@ hero , and that " his antics derail [ ed ] the narrative " and overshadowed the character development of Michael and Franklin . Xav de Matos of Joystiq found all three characters unlikable to the extent that they had an alienating effect on the story , noting that " though each character has a valid motivation for his journey , it 's difficult to want them to succeed . " He also felt that the ambivalence between Trevor and Michael was a tired device by the conclusion of the story as it became a " seemingly endless cycle " of conflict between them . Lucas Sullivan of GamesRadar praised Trevor for being the first character in the series that " makes sense " . He stated that , upon their first playthrough of a Grand Theft Auto game , most players " carjacked some poor schlub , then started doing 90mph on the sidewalk , mowing over civilians " , as opposed to playing peacefully . " Trevor 's existence isn 't a commentary on any group of people – he 's just the first logical fit to the way people have been playing GTA games for the past decade , " he said . Sullivan concluded that Trevor is one of the few protagonists in the Grand Theft Auto series that would willingly execute popular player actions , such as murder and violence . Trevor has been compared to many other characters in video games and films . Calvin Khan of IGN compared Trevor to Heath Ledger 's Joker in the 2008 film The Dark Knight . Khan felt that Trevor is the only character in Grand Theft Auto V not trying to fake his persona , stating " Trevor absolutely knows that he 's a monster but just doesn 't care . He enjoys causing misery and harm , lives for it and embraces it and – much like Heath Ledger 's Joker – he exists purely for unadulterated anarchy . " He also felt that Trevor 's only reasoning for hurting people and messing everything up around him is simply because it 's just too much fun not to . Khan concluded saying that it 's clear that the world through the eyes of Trevor is already royally broken and he sees no harm in messing it up some more , hence the reason for Trevor 's actions . Trevor won the Cheat Code Central 's 7th Annual Cody Awards for " Best Male Character " and was nominated for various other awards . Those include the Spike VGX 2013 for " Character of the Year " , won by BioShock Infinite 's Lutece Twins , Hardcore Gamer 's Game of the Year Awards 2013 for " Best New Character " , won by The Last of Us 's Ellie and Destructoid 's Best of 2013 for " Best Character " , also won by the Lutece Twins . Steven Ogg was also nominated for his work as Trevor in Spike VGX 2013 for " Best Voice Actor " , won by Troy Baker , Telegraph Video Game Awards 2013 for " Best Performer " , also won by Troy Baker and 10th British Academy Video Games Awards for " Performer " , won by Ashley Johnson . = = = Controversies = = = The mission " By the Book " from Grand Theft Auto V was criticised for its depiction of torture . In the mission , Trevor interrogates a man named Ferdinand Kerimov ( called Mr. K ) for information about a suspected Azerbaijani fugitive who poses a threat to the FIB ( the game 's version of the FBI ) . Trevor uses torture equipment on the restrained man , which players select from a table . Once Mr. K provides the FIB with the information , Trevor is asked to kill him , but instead drives him to the airport , providing him an opportunity to escape . While driving Kerimov , Trevor monologues about the ineffectiveness of torture , pointing out Kerimov 's readiness to supply the FIB with the information without being tortured , and expressing that torture is used as a power play " to assert ourselves " . Reviewers echoed that while the mission served as political commentary on the use of torture by the United States government , its use of torture was in poor taste . GameSpot 's Petit felt that placing the torture scene in context with the monologue created a hypocrisy in the mission 's function as a commentary device , and IGN 's MacDonald felt it " pushed the boundaries of taste " . In an editorial , Bramwell discussed whether the political commentary was overshadowed by the violent content , comparing the mission to Call of Duty : Modern Warfare 2 's " No Russian " controversy . He considered the sequence lacking enough context to justify its violence and summarised its function as " flawed " . Labour MP Keith Vaz expressed concern that underage players could be exposed to the mission . Keith Best of Freedom from Torture said the torturer role @-@ play " crossed a line " . Tom Chick defended the torture sequence , and wrote that unlike the " No Russian " mission or the 2012 film Zero Dark Thirty , the underlying political commentary on torture in " By the Book " necessitated the violent content . = Punctuated equilibrium = Punctuated equilibrium ( also called punctuated equilibria ) is a theory in evolutionary biology which proposes that once species appear in the fossil record they will become stable , showing little net evolutionary change for most of their geological history . This state is called stasis . When significant evolutionary change occurs , the theory proposes that it is generally restricted to rare and geologically rapid events of branching speciation called cladogenesis . Cladogenesis is the process by which a species splits into two distinct species , rather than one species gradually transforming into another . Punctuated equilibrium is commonly contrasted against phyletic gradualism , the belief that evolution generally occurs uniformly and by the steady and gradual transformation of whole lineages ( called anagenesis ) . In this view , evolution is seen as generally smooth and continuous . In 1972 , paleontologists Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould published a landmark paper developing their theory and called it punctuated equilibria . Their paper built upon Ernst Mayr 's model of geographic speciation , I. Michael Lerner 's theories of developmental and genetic homeostasis , as well as their own empirical research . Eldredge and Gould proposed that the degree of gradualism commonly attributed to Charles Darwin is virtually nonexistent in the fossil record , and that stasis dominates the history of most fossil species . = = History = = Punctuated equilibrium originated as a logical extension of Ernst Mayr 's concept of genetic revolutions by allopatric and especially peripatric speciation as applied to the fossil record . Although some of the basic workings of the theory were proposed and identified by Mayr in 1954 , historians of science generally recognize the 1972 paper by Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould as the foundation of the new paleobiological research program . Punctuated equilibrium differs from Mayr 's theory mainly in that Eldredge and Gould placed considerably greater emphasis on stasis , whereas Mayr was generally concerned with explaining the morphological discontinuity ( or " sudden jumps " ) found in the fossil record . Mayr later complimented Eldredge and Gould 's paper , stating that evolutionary stasis had been " unexpected by most evolutionary biologists " and that punctuated equilibrium " had a major impact on paleontology and evolutionary biology . " A year before their 1972 Eldredge and Gould paper , Niles Eldredge published a paper in the journal Evolution which suggested that gradual evolution was seldom seen in the fossil record and argued that Ernst Mayr 's standard mechanism of allopatric speciation might suggest a possible resolution . The Eldredge and Gould paper was presented at the Annual Meeting of the Geological Society of America in 1971 . The symposium focused its attention on the possibility that modern microevolutionary studies could revitalize various aspects of paleontology and macroevolution . Tom Schopf , who organized that year 's meeting , assigned Gould the topic of speciation . Gould recalls that " Eldredge 's 1971 publication [ on Paleozoic trilobites ] had presented the only new and interesting ideas on the paleontological implications of the subject — so I asked Schopf if we could present the paper jointly . " According to Gould " the ideas came mostly from Niles , with yours truly acting as a sounding board and eventual scribe . I coined the term punctuated equilibrium and wrote most of our 1972 paper , but Niles is the proper first author in our pairing of Eldredge and Gould . " In his book Time Frames Eldredge recalls that after much discussion the pair " each wrote roughly half . Some of the parts that would seem obviously the work of one of us were actually first penned by the other — I remember for example , writing the section on Gould 's snails . Other parts are harder to reconstruct . Gould edited the entire manuscript for better consistency . We sent it in , and Schopf reacted strongly against it — thus signaling the tenor of the reaction it has engendered , though for shifting reasons , down to the present day . " John Wilkins and Gareth Nelson have argued that French architect Pierre Trémaux proposed an " anticipation of the theory of punctuated equilibrium of Gould and Eldredge . " = = The fossil record = = The fossil record of an evolutionary progression typically consists of species that suddenly appear , and ultimately disappear , in many cases close to a million years later , without any change in external appearance . Graphically , these fossil species are represented by horizontal lines , whose lengths depict how long each of them existed . The horizontality of the lines illustrates the unchanging appearance of each of the fossil species depicted on the graph . During each species ' existence new species appear at random intervals , each also lasting many hundreds of thousands of years before disappearing without a change in appearance . The exact relatedness of these concurrent species is generally impossible to determine . This is illustrated in the following diagram depicting the evolution of modern humans from the time that the Hominins separated from the line that led to the evolution of our closest living primate relatives , the chimpanzees . For similar evolutionary time lines , showing the identical pattern of evolutionary change , see , for instance , the paleontological list of African dinosaurs , Asian dinosaurs , the Lampriformes and Amiiformes . ( Note the different time scales in these different diagrams . ) = = Theoretical mechanisms = = = = = Punctuational change = = = When Eldredge and Gould published their 1972 paper , allopatric speciation was considered the " standard " model of speciation . This model was popularized by Ernst Mayr in his 1954 paper " Change of genetic environment and evolution , " and his classic volume Animal Species and Evolution ( 1963 ) . Allopatric speciation suggests that species with large central populations are stabilized by their large volume and the process of gene flow . New and even beneficial mutations are diluted by the population 's large size and are unable to reach fixation , due to such factors as constantly changing environments . If this is the case , then the transformation of whole lineages should be rare , as the fossil record indicates . Smaller populations on the other hand , which are isolated from the parental stock , are decoupled from the homogenizing effects of gene flow . In addition , pressure from natural selection is especially intense , as peripheral isolated populations exist at the outer edges of ecological tolerance . If most evolution happens in these rare instances of allopatric speciation then evidence of gradual evolution in the fossil record should be rare . This hypothesis was alluded to by Mayr in the closing paragraph of his 1954 paper : Rapidly evolving peripherally isolated populations may be the place of origin of many evolutionary novelties . Their isolation and comparatively small size may explain phenomena of rapid evolution and lack of documentation in the fossil record , hitherto puzzling to the palaeontologist . " As time went on Gould moved away from wedding punctuated equilibrium to allopatric speciation , particularly as evidence accumulated in support of other modes of speciation . Gould was particularly attracted to Douglas Futuyma 's work on the importance of reproductive isolating mechanisms . Other biologists have also applied punctuated equilibrium to non @-@ sexual species , including the evolution of viruses . = = = Stasis = = = Before Eldredge and Gould alerted their colleagues to the prominence of stasis in the fossil record , most evolutionists considered stasis to be rare or unimportant . George Gaylord Simpson , for example , believed that phyletic gradual evolution ( called horotely in his terminology ) comprised 90 % of evolution . However one meta @-@ analysis examining 58 published studies on speciation patterns in the fossil record showed that 71 % exhibited stasis , 63 % of which were also associated with punctuated patterns of evolutionary change . According to Michael Benton , " it seems clear then that stasis is common , and that had not been predicted from modern genetic studies . " Many hypotheses have been proposed to explain the putative causes of stasis . Gould was initially attracted to I. Michael Lerner 's theories of developmental and genetic homeostasis . However this hypothesis was rejected over time , as evidence accumulated against it . Other plausible mechanisms which have been suggested include : habitat tracking , stabilizing selection , the Stenseth @-@ Maynard Smith stability hypothesis , constraints imposed by the nature of subdivided populations , normalizing clade selection , and koinophilia . Evidence for the existence of stasis has also been corroborated from the genetics of sibling species , species which are morphologically indistinguishable , but whose proteins have diverged sufficiently to suggest they have been separated for millions of years . A paramount example of evolutionary stasis is the fern Osmunda claytoniana . Based on paleontological evidence it has remained unchanged , even at the level of fossilized nuclei and chromosomes , for at least 180 million years . According to Gould , " stasis may emerge as the theory 's most important contribution to evolutionary science . " Philosopher Kim Sterelny adds , " In claiming that species typically undergo no further evolutionary change once speciation is complete , they are not claiming that there is no change at all between one generation and the next . Lineages do change . But the change between generations does not accumulate . Instead , over time , the species wobbles about its phenotypic mean . Jonathan Weiner 's The Beak of the Finch describes this very process . " The fossil record includes well documented examples of phyletic gradualism and punctuational evolution . As such , much debate persists over the prominence of stasis in the fossil record . = = = Hierarchical evolution = = = Punctuated equilibrium has also been cited as contributing to the hypothesis that species are Darwinian individuals , and not just classes , thereby providing a stronger framework for a hierarchical theory of evolution . = = Common misconceptions = = Much confusion has arisen over what proponents of punctuated equilibrium actually argued , what mechanisms they advocated , how fast the punctuations were , what taxonomic scale their theory applied to , how revolutionary their claims were intended to be , and how punctuated equilibrium related to other ideas like quantum evolution , saltationism , and mass extinction . = = = Saltationism = = = The punctuational nature of punctuated equilibrium has engendered perhaps the most confusion over Eldredge and Gould 's theory . Gould 's sympathetic treatment of Richard Goldschmidt , the controversial geneticist who advocated the idea of " hopeful monsters , " led some biologists to conclude that Gould 's punctuations were occurring in single @-@ generation jumps . This interpretation has frequently been exploited by creationists to mischaracterize the weakness of the paleontological record , and to portray contemporary evolutionary biology as advancing neo @-@ saltationism . In an often quoted remark , Gould stated , " Since we proposed punctuated equilibria to explain trends , it is infuriating to be quoted again and again by creationists — whether through design or stupidity , I do not know — as admitting that the fossil record includes no transitional forms . Transitional forms are generally lacking at the species level , but they are abundant between larger groups . " Although there exist some debate over how long the punctuations last , supporters of punctuated equilibrium generally place the figure between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 years . = = = Quantum evolution = = = Quantum evolution was a controversial hypothesis advanced by Columbia University paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson , who was regarded by Stephen Jay Gould as " the greatest and most biologically astute paleontologist of the twentieth century . " Simpson 's conjecture was that according to the geological record , on very rare occasions evolution would proceed very rapidly to form entirely new families , orders , and classes of organisms . This hypothesis differs from punctuated equilibrium in several respects . First , punctuated equilibrium was more modest in scope , in that it was addressing evolution specifically at the species level . Simpson 's idea was principally concerned with evolution at higher taxonomic groups . Second , Eldredge and Gould relied upon a different mechanism . Where Simpson relied upon a synergistic interaction between genetic drift and a shift in the adaptive fitness landscape , Eldredge and Gould relied upon ordinary speciation , particularly Ernst Mayr 's concept of allopatric speciation . Lastly , and perhaps most significantly , quantum evolution took no position on the issue of stasis . Although Simpson acknowledged the existence of stasis in what he called the bradytelic mode , he considered it ( along with rapid evolution ) to be unimportant in the larger scope of evolution . In his Major Features of Evolution Simpson stated , " Evolutionary change is so nearly the universal rule that a state of motion is , figuratively , normal in evolving populations . The state of rest , as in bradytely , is the exception and it seems that some restraint or force must be required to maintain it . " Despite such differences between the two models , earlier critiques — from such eminent commentators as Sewall Wright as well as Simpson himself — have argued that punctuated equilibrium is little more than quantum evolution relabeled . = = = Multiple meanings of gradualism = = = Punctuated equilibrium is often portrayed to oppose the concept of gradualism , when it is actually a form of gradualism . This is because even though evolutionary change appears instantaneous between geological sedimentary layers , change is still occurring incrementally , with no great change from one generation to the next . To this end , Gould later commented that " Most of our paleontological colleagues missed this insight because they had not studied evolutionary theory and either did not know about allopatric speciation or had not considered its translation to geological time . Our evolutionary colleagues also failed to grasp the implication ( s ) , primarily because they did not think at geological scales " . Richard Dawkins dedicated a chapter in The Blind Watchmaker to correcting , in his view , the wide confusion regarding rates of change . His first point is to argue that phyletic gradualism — understood in the sense that evolution proceeds at a single uniform rate of speed , called " constant speedism " by Dawkins — is a " caricature of Darwinism " and " does not really exist . " His second argument , which follows from the first , is that once the caricature of " constant speedism " is dismissed , we are left with one logical alternative , which Dawkins terms " variable speedism . " Variable speedism may also be distinguished one of two ways : " discrete variable speedism " and " continuously variable speedism . " Eldredge and Gould , believing that evolution jumps between stability and relative rapidity , are described as " discrete variable speedists , " and " in this respect they are genuinely radical . " They believe that evolution generally proceeds in bursts , or not at all . " Continuously variable speedists , " on the other hand believe that " evolutionary rates fluctuate continuously from very fast to very slow and stop , with all intermediates . They see no particular reason to emphasize certain speeds more than others . In particular , stasis , to them , is just an extreme case of ultra @-@ slow evolution . To a punctuationist , there is something very special about stasis . " Dawkins therefore commits himself here to an empirical claim about the geological record , in contrast to his earlier claim that " The paleontological evidence can be argued about , and I am not qualified to judge it . " It is this particular commitment that Eldredge and Gould have aimed to overturn . = = Criticism = = Richard Dawkins believes that the apparent gaps represented in the fossil record document migratory events rather than evolutionary events . According to Dawkins , evolution certainly occurred but " probably gradually " elsewhere . However , the punctuational equilibrium model may still be inferred from both the observation of stasis and examples of rapid and episodic speciation events documented in the fossil record . Dawkins also emphasizes that punctuated equilibrium has been " oversold by some journalists " , but partly due to Eldredge and Gould 's " later writings " . Dawkins contends that the theory " does not deserve a particularly large measure of publicity " . It is a " minor gloss , " an " interesting but minor wrinkle on the surface of neo @-@ Darwinian theory , " and " lies firmly within the neo @-@ Darwinian synthesis " . In his book Darwin 's Dangerous Idea , philosopher Daniel Dennett is especially critical of Gould 's presentation of punctuated equilibrium . Dennett argues that Gould alternated between revolutionary and conservative claims about the theory , and that each time Gould made a revolutionary statement — or appeared to do so — he was criticized , and thus retreated to a traditional neo @-@ Darwinian position . Gould responded to Dennett 's claims in The New York Review of Books , and in his technical volume The Structure of Evolutionary Theory . Literary scholar Heidi Scott argued that Gould 's use of analogy and metaphor constitutes a non @-@ scientific discourse attempting to validate a scientific hypothesis . She claims that Gould — particularly in his popular essays — uses a variety of strategies from literature , political science , and personal anecdotes to substantiate the general pattern of punctuated equilibrium in the context of natural science ( long periods of stasis interrupted by rapid , catastrophic change ) . Gould responded that critics often made the mistake of confusing the context of discovery with the context of justification . While Gould is celebrated for the color and energy of his prose , as well as his interdisciplinary knowledge , critics such as Scott have concerns that the theory has gained undeserved credence among non @-@ scientists because of Gould 's rhetorical skills . " Punctuated equlibrium " has also been seized upon and misinterpreted by some creationists as refuting evolution of new species by natural selection , since classical Darwinian theory emphasized gradual change rather than punctuated change . John Lyne and Henry Howe , in a more positive evaluation , state that " re @-@ analysis of existing fossil data has shown , to the increasing satisfaction of the paleontological community , that Eldredge and Gould were correct in identifying periods of evolutionary stasis which are interrupted by much shorter periods of evolutionary change . " = = Darwin 's theory = = The sudden appearance of most species in the geologic record and the lack of evidence of substantial gradual change in most species — from their initial appearance until their extinction — has long been noted , including by Charles Darwin who appealed to the imperfection of the record as the favored explanation . When presenting his ideas against the prevailing influences of catastrophism and progressive creationism , which envisaged species being supernaturally created at intervals , Darwin needed to forcefully stress the gradual nature of evolution in accordance with the gradualism promoted by his friend Charles Lyell . He privately expressed concern , noting in the margin of his 1844 Essay , " Better begin with this : If species really , after catastrophes , created in showers world over , my theory false . " It is often incorrectly assumed that he insisted that the rate of change must be constant , or nearly so , but even the first edition of On the Origin of Species states that " Species of different genera and classes have not changed at the same rate , or in the same degree . In the oldest tertiary beds a few living shells may still be found in the midst of a multitude of extinct forms ... The Silurian Lingula differs but little from the living species of this genus " . Lingula is among the few brachiopods surviving today but also known from fossils over 500 million years old . In the fourth edition ( 1866 ) of On the Origin of Species Darwin wrote that " the periods during which species have undergone modification , though long as measured in years , have probably been short in comparison with the periods during which they retain the same form . " Thus punctuationism in general is consistent with Darwin 's conception of evolution . According to early versions of punctuated equilibrium , " peripheral isolates " are considered to be of critical importance for speciation . However , Darwin wrote , " I can by no means agree ... that immigration and isolation are necessary elements .... Although isolation is of great importance in the production of new species , on the whole I am inclined to believe that largeness of area is still more important , especially for the production of species which shall prove capable of enduring for a long period , and of spreading widely . " The importance of isolation in forming species had played a significant part in Darwin 's early thinking , as shown in his Essay of 1844 . But by the time he wrote the Origin he had downplayed its importance . He explained the reasons for his revised view as follows : Throughout a great and open area , not only will there be a greater chance of favourable variations , arising from the large number of individuals of the same species there supported , but the conditions of life are much more complex from the large number of already existing species ; and if some of these species become modified and improved , others will have to be improved in a corresponding degree , or they will be exterminated . Each new form , also , as soon as it has been improved , will be able to spread over the open and continuous area , and will thus come into competition with many other forms ... the new forms produced on large areas , which have already been victorious over many competitors , will be those that will spread most widely , and will give rise to the greatest number of new varieties and species . They will thus play a more important role in the changing history of the organic world . Thus punctuated equilibrium contradicts some of Darwin 's ideas regarding the specific mechanisms of evolution , but generally accords with Darwin 's theory of evolution by natural selection . = = Supplemental modes of rapid evolution = = Recent work in developmental biology has identified dynamical and physical mechanisms of tissue morphogenesis that may underlie abrupt morphological transitions during evolution . Consequently , consideration of mechanisms of phylogenetic change that have been found in reality to be non @-@ gradual is increasingly common in the field of evolutionary developmental biology , particularly in studies of the origin of morphological novelty . A description of such mechanisms can be found in the multi @-@ authored volume Origination of Organismal Form ( MIT Press ; 2003 ) . = = Language change = = In linguistics , R. M. W. Dixon has proposed a punctuated equilibrium model for language histories , with reference particularly to the prehistory of the indigenous languages of Australia and his objections to the proposed Pama – Nyungan language family there . Although his model has raised considerable interest , it does not command majority support within linguistics . Separately , recent work using computational phylogenetic methods claims to show that punctuational bursts play an important factor when languages split from one another , accounting for anywhere from 10 to 33 % of the total divergence in vocabulary . Note that punctuational bursts also occurs in mythology in even greater proportions . = William Montagu , 1st Earl of Salisbury = William Montagu , alias de Montacute , 1st Earl of Salisbury , 3rd Baron Montagu , King of Mann ( 1301 – 30 January 1344 ) was an English nobleman and loyal servant of King Edward III . The son of William Montagu , 2nd Baron Montagu , he entered the royal household at an early age and became a close companion of the young Prince Edward . The relationship continued after Edward was crowned king following the deposition of Edward II in 1327 . In 1330 , Montagu was one of Edward 's main accomplices in the coup against Roger Mortimer , who until then had been acting as the king 's protector . In the following years Montagu served the king in various capacities , primarily in the Scottish Wars . He was richly rewarded , and among other things received the lordship of the Isle of Man . In 1337 , he was created Earl of Salisbury , and given an annual income of 1000 marks to go with the title . He served on the Continent in the early years of the Hundred Years ' War , but in 1340 he was captured by the French , and in return for his freedom had to promise never to fight in France again . Salisbury died of wounds suffered at a tournament early in 1344 . Legend has it that Montagu 's wife Catherine was raped by Edward III , but this story is almost certainly French propaganda . William and Catherine had six children , most of whom married into the nobility . Modern historians have called William Montague Edward 's " most intimate personal friend " and " the chief influence behind the throne from Mortimer 's downfall in 1330 until his own death in 1344 . " = = Family background = = William Montagu , born at Cassington , Oxfordshire in 1301 , was the second but eldest surviving son of William Montagu , 2nd Baron Montagu , and Elizabeth de Montfort , daughter of Sir Peter Montfort of Beaudesert , Warwickshire. by Matilda / Maud de la Mare daughter and heiress of Henry de la Mare of Ashtead , Surrey , Royal Justice , Seneschal of William Longspree II Earl of Salisbury . The Montagu family , a West Country family with roots going back to the Conquest , held extensive lands in Somerset , Dorset and Devon . The father , William Montagu , distinguished himself in the Scottish Wars during the reign of Edward I , and served as steward of Edward II 's household . Some members of the nobility , including Thomas of Lancaster , viewed Montagu with suspicion , as a member of a court party with undue influence on the king . For this reason he was sent to Aquitaine , to serve as seneschal . Here he died on 18 October 1319 . Even though he sat in parliament as a baron , the second lord Montagu never rose above a level of purely regional importance . = = Early service = = The younger William was still a minor at the time of his father 's death , and entered the royal household as a ward of the king in 1320 . On 21 February 1323 he was granted his father 's lands and title . His service to Edward II took him abroad to the Continent in both 1320 and 1325 . In 1326 he was knighted . After the deposition of Edward II in 1327 , Montagu continued in the service of Edward 's son Edward III . He helped the new king in repelling the Scottish invasion of 1327 , and was created knight banneret in 1328 . Montagu enjoyed a close relationship with Edward III , and accompanied him abroad on a diplomatic mission in 1329 . That same year he was sent on an embassy to negotiate a marriage alliance with King Philip VI of France . His most important task , however , came in connection with a mission to the Papacy in Avignon . The young king — along with his government — was under the dominance of his mother Isabella and her lover Roger Mortimer , who had been responsible for the deposition of the king 's father . Montagu explained the king 's situation , and Pope John XXII asked for a special signal that assure him that he was dealing with the king in person . After Montagu 's return , Richard Bury , Keeper of the Privy Seal , wrote to inform the pope that only letters containing the words pater sancte ( holy father ) , in Edward 's own handwriting , were indeed from the king . Only Edward , Bury and Montagu were party to the scheme . = = Coup against Mortimer = = When Mortimer discovered the conspiracy against him , Montagu was brought in for interrogation – along with the king – but gave nothing away . Afterward he supposedly advised Edward to move against his protector , because " It was better that they should eat the dog than that the dog should eat them " . On 19 October 1330 , while Mortimer and Isabella were entrenched in Nottingham Castle , the constable of the castle showed Montagu a secret entrance through an underground tunnel . Along with William de Bohun , Robert Ufford , and John Neville and others , he entered the castle , where he met up with the king . A short brawl followed before Mortimer was captured . The queen stormed into the chamber shouting " Good son , have pity on noble Mortimer " . Edward did not obey his mother 's wishes , and a few weeks later Mortimer was executed for treason in London . As a reward for his part in the coup , Montagu was given lands worth £ 1000 , including the Welsh lordship of Denbigh that had belonged to Mortimer . His family also benefited ; his brother Simon Montacute became Bishop of Worcester and later of Ely . Another brother , Edward Montagu , 1st Baron Montagu , married Alice of Norfolk , a co @-@ heir of Thomas of Brotherton , 1st Earl of Norfolk . = = Service under Edward III = = In the years to come , Montagu acted as Edward 's closest companion . In April 1331 , the two went on a secret expedition to France , disguised as merchants so they would not be recognised . In September of the same year , Montagu held a tournament at Cheapside , where he and the king were costumed as Tartars . From 1333 onwards , Montagu was deeply engaged in the Scottish Wars , and distinguished himself at the Siege of Berwick and the Battle of Halidon Hill . It was after this event that his lordship over the Isle of Man was recognised , a right he held from his grandfather . The lordship was at the moment of a purely theoretical nature , however , since the island was still under Scottish control . In February 1334 Montagu was sent on a commission to Edinburgh , to demand Edward Balliol 's homage to Edward . In the great summer campaign of 1335 , it was Montagu who provided the largest English contingent , with 180 men @-@ at @-@ arms and 136 archers . He was well rewarded for his contributions : after the Scots had been forced to cede the Lowlands , Montagu was granted the county of Peeblesshire . He was also allowed to buy the wardship of Roger Mortimer 's son Roger for 1000 marks , a deal that turned out to be very lucrative for Montagu . At this point , however , the fortunes were turning for the English in Scotland . Montagu campaigned in the north again in 1337 , but the siege of Dunbar met with failure . Following the abortive attempt in Scotland , Edward III turned his attention to the continent . = = The Hundred Years ' War = = Montagu was created Earl of Salisbury on 16 March 1337 . This was one of six comital promotions Edward III made that day , in preparation for what was to become the Hundred Years ' War . To allow Montagu to support his new status , the king granted him land and rent of a value of 1000 marks a year . The money was provided from the royal stannaries of Cornwall . A contemporary poem tells of a vow made by the earl on the eve of the wars – he would not open one of his eyes while fighting in France . The story is probably a satire ; the truth was that Montagu had already lost the use of one of his eyes in a tournament . In April 1337 , Montagu was appointed to a diplomatic commission to Valenciennes , to establish alliances with Flanders and the German princes . In July 1338 , he accompanied the king on another mission to the continent , again providing the greatest number of soldiers , with 123 men @-@ at @-@ arms and 50 archers . In September of that year he was made Marshal of England . After the death of Thomas of Brotherton , Earl of Norfolk , this office had come into the hands of Norfolk 's daughter Margaret . The king did not trust the office with her husband , so he decided instead to bestow it on his trusted companion , Montagu . Edward 's policy of building alliances put him in great debt , and when he left the Low Countries to return to England late in 1338 , Salisbury had to stay behind as surety to the king 's debtors , along with the king 's family and the Earl of Derby . The earl had earlier voiced concerns about the costly alliances , but he nevertheless remained loyal to the king 's strategy . While Edward was away , Salisbury was captured by the French at Lille in April 1340 , and imprisoned in Paris . Reportedly , King Philip VI of France wanted to execute Salisbury and Robert Ufford , Earl of Suffolk , who was captured with him . Philip was , however , dissuaded by John of Bohemia , who argued that the earls could come in handy in an exchange , should any French noblemen be captured . Though released on parole in September , it was not until May 1342 that he reached a final settlement with the French . Salisbury was freed in a prisoner exchange , but only on the condition that he never fight in France again . = = Final years = = Salisbury had long been frustrated by the failure of the government in England to provide sufficient funds for the war effort . On his return , however , he played little part in the conflict of 1341 between King Edward and Chancellor John Stratford . In May that year he was appointed to a committee to hear the king 's charges against Stratford , but little came from this . In 1342 – 43 he fought with Robert of Artois in the Breton War of Succession , and in 1343 helped negotiate the Truce of Malestroit . It was probably sometime after this he made good his claim on the Isle of Man , by conquering the island which was until then held by the Scots . His final international commission took place late in 1343 , when he accompanied Henry of Grosmont , Earl of Derby , on a diplomatic mission to Castile . Early in 1344 he was back in England , where he took part in a great tournament at Windsor . It was during this tournament , according to the chronicler Adam Murimuth , that he received wounds that would prove fatal . Salisbury died on 30 January 1344 . He was buried at Bisham Priory in Berkshire , adjoining his home , Bisham Manor . He had founded the priory himself in 1337 , on his elevation to the earldom . King Edward 's financial obligations were never paid in full during the earl 's lifetime , and at Salisbury ' death the king owed him £ 11 @,@ 720 . Of this , some £ 6374 were written off by his executors in 1346 . = = Family = = In or before 1327 Salisbury married Catherine , daughter of William de Grandison , 1st Baron Grandison . Two anecdotal stories revolve around Catherine Montagu ; in one she is identified as the " Countess of Salisbury " from whose dropped garter Edward III named the Order of the Garter . In the other , Edward III falls in love with the countess , and arranges to be alone with her so he can rape her . Neither story is supported by contemporary evidence , and the latter almost certainly is a product of French propaganda . William and Catherine had six children , most of whom made highly fortunate matches with other members of the nobility . The first Earl of Salisbury made enormous additions to the family fortune ; at the time of his father 's death , the lands had been valued at just over £ 300 . In 1344 , only the annual income of the lands has been estimated to more than £ 2 @,@ 300 , equivalent to about £ 1 @.@ 83 million in present @-@ day terms . Edward was also free with granting franchises to Salisbury , including the return of writs , which gave the earl authority in his lands normally held by the royally appointed sheriff . Salisbury 's oldest son William succeeded his father in July 1349 , while still a minor , as William Montagu , 2nd Earl of Salisbury . The younger William was one of the founding members of the Order of the Garter , but he never enjoyed the same favour with the king as his father had . The children of William and Catherine were as follows : = = In fiction = = Salisbury is a character in Les Rois maudits ( The Accursed Kings ) , a series of French historical novels by Maurice Druon . He was portrayed by Serge Maillat in the 1972 French miniseries adaptation of the series . = African river martin = The African river martin ( Pseudochelidon eurystomina ) is a passerine bird , one of two members of the river martin subfamily of the swallow family , Hirundinidae . When discovered , it was not initially recognised as a swallow , but a later understanding of differences in structure , including its stout beak and robust legs and feet , led to its current placement in a separate subfamily shared only with the Asian white @-@ eyed river martin . The African river martin is a large swallow , mainly black with a blue @-@ green gloss to the head and a greener tint to the back and wings . The under @-@ wings are brownish , the underparts are purple @-@ black , and the flight feathers are black . This martin has red eyes , a broad orange @-@ red bill and a black , square tail . Young birds are similar in appearance to the adults , but have browner plumage . This species has a variety of unmusical calls , and displays both in flight and on the ground , although the purpose of the terrestrial display is unknown . The main breeding areas are in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) along the Congo River and its tributary , the Ubangi , in habitats characterised by a mixture of tropical forest types including swampy or seasonally flooded woodland . The African river martin is migratory , wintering in coastal savanna in southern Gabon and the Republic of the Congo . Breeding also occurs in these coastal areas , but it is unknown whether the migrants are raising a second brood or if there is a separate resident population . This martin feeds in flocks throughout the year , catching a variety of insects in the air , especially flying ants . It does not use perches during the breeding season , although it will often land on the ground . The African river martin nests in burrows in river sand banks , often alongside rosy bee @-@ eaters , but its incubation and fledging times are not known . It also digs tunnels for night @-@ time shelter when in its wintering areas . It appears to be common within its restricted range , despite being caught in large numbers by the local population for food , and large flocks are sometimes seen . However , due to a lack of detailed information about its breeding range and population numbers , this species is classed as Data Deficient by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . = = Taxonomy = = When German zoologist Gustav Hartlaub first described the African river martin in 1861 , it was not initially thought to be a member of the swallow and martin family , and he placed it with the rollers . Later authors either placed it in its own monotypic family , or with the woodswallows . A 1938 study of this martin 's anatomy by Percy Lowe revealed that the species was closest to the swallows and martins , but sufficiently distinct from them to be placed in a separate subfamily , Pseudochelidoninae . The only other member of the subfamily is the white @-@ eyed river martin Pseudochelidon sirintarae , known only from one site in Thailand and possibly extinct . These two species possess a number of features which distinguish them from other swallows and martins , including their robust legs and feet , stout bills , large syrinxes ( vocal organs ) and different bronchial structure . Genetic studies confirmed that the two river martins form a distinct clade from the typical swallows in the Hirundininae subfamily . The two river martins are in some ways intermediate between typical swallows and other passerine birds , and the arrangement of their leg muscles is more like that of a typical passerine than of a swallow . The extent of their differences from other swallows and the wide geographical separation of these two martins suggest that they are relict populations of a group of species that diverged from the main swallow lineage early in its evolutionary history . Like other early hirundine lineages , these martins nest in self @-@ excavated burrows , rather than adopted nest holes or mud nests . Their physical characteristics and breeding behaviour suggest that they may be the most primitive of the swallows . The genus name Pseudochelidon ( Hartlaub , 1861 ) comes from the Ancient Greek language prefix ψευδο / pseudo , meaning " false " , and χελιδον / chelidôn , meaning " swallow " . The species name reflects the superficial similarity to the rollers of the genus Eurystomus . The African and Asian Pseudochelidon species differ markedly in the size of their bills and eyes , suggesting that they have different feeding ecologies , with the white @-@ eyed river martin probably able to take much larger prey . The African species has a softer , fleshier , and much less prominent gape ( fleshy interior of the bill ) than its Thai relative . The bill of the white @-@ eyed river martin also averages 22 @.@ 5 % wider than that of the African river martin . Following a suggestion by the Thai bird 's discoverer , Kitti Thonglongya , Richard Brooke proposed in 1972 that the white @-@ eyed river martin was sufficiently different from the African species to be placed in a separate genus Eurochelidon , leaving the African martin in a monotypic genus . This treatment was contested by other authorities , and most authors retain the two species in Pseudochelidon , BirdLife International being a notable exception . = = Description = = The adult African river martin is a large swallow , 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long . It is mainly black , with a silky blue @-@ green gloss to the head , becoming distinctly green on the back and wing coverts . The underparts , other than the brownish under @-@ wings , are purple @-@ black , and the flight feathers are black . The black square tail is 4 @.@ 8 cm ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) long , and the soft feather shafts project beyond the barbed section . This feature is most pronounced in the two central feathers , which in the related white @-@ eyed river martin are greatly elongated . The African river martin has brown legs with a 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) long tarsus , red eyes , pink eye @-@ rings , and a broad orange @-@ red bill . The wing length averages 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) . The sexes are similar in appearance . There are many bird species in which there is sexual dichromatism which is not apparent to the human eye , but spectroscopic analysis of this martin 's head feathers suggests that the colour differences between the sexes are small even to the birds ' perception . Juveniles are duller and have sooty brown heads . The moult to adult plumage takes place in the wintering areas and is largely complete by October . The African river martin has a strong , fast flight interspersed with glides . It is a vocal species with a variety of sounds . It has a jingling song given in the aerial breeding display , and a number of contact calls , kee @-@ r @-@ r , chee @-@ chee and similar short , unmusical sounds . Flocks call together , cheer @-@ cheer @-@ cheer , as they take to the air , and this martin is very vocal during migration , giving harsh gull @-@ like calls . = = Distribution and habitat = = The African river martin breeds along the Congo River and its tributary , the Ubangi in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , an area estimated at 47 @,@ 000 km2 ( 18 @,@ 150 mi2 ) . This part of Africa is poorly known , and this martin may also breed on other tributaries , such as the Kasai , or on other suitable rivers . It also breeds in southern Gabon and the Republic of the Congo . The DRC breeding population is migratory , wintering in coastal savanna in Gabon , but it is not known if the birds nesting at the coast are a separate population , or if the migrants are breeding again in the wintering area . Westwards migration from the DRC is from June to early September , with birds arriving at the coast from mid @-@ August to mid @-@ September . Return migration is mainly from December to March . Three or four birds were seen passing through the southern Central African Republic in 1994 . This martin 's breeding requirement is forested rivers with islands that have sandy banks for nest burrows , and its habitat in the DRC is tropical forest with over 200 cm ( 78 @.@ 5 in ) of rain a year . This area is a patchwork of dry , seasonally flooded and permanently wet woodland , and seasonally flooded savanna , all of which are subject to inundation by the Congo River and its tributaries . The swamp forests contain trees such as Symphonia globulifera , raffia palms and Mitragyna species , and the riverbanks are often lined with arrowroot . This specialised habitat is shared with two other restricted @-@ range birds , the Congo sunbird and the Congo martin . The main coastal breeding area in Gabon , around Gamba , has a similar mosaic of habitats , with mangroves , swamp forests , wet evergreen woodlands and seasonally wet savanna . There are also two large lagoons , and drier areas of grassland and forest . All the breeding areas form part of a belt of forest that stretches from southern Cameroon through Gabon to the northern parts of the Republic of Congo , and extends through most of the DRC up to its eastern mountains . Outside of the breeding season , this martin roosts in reed @-@ beds or riverine vegetation . = = Behaviour = = The African river martin has flight displays in which pairs or small groups chase each other while making jingling calls . It also displays on the ground , with the wings drooped and slightly open , and the head raised but held horizontally ; the function of these terrestrial displays is uncertain . This species nests in colonies in sandbanks along forested rivers from December to April when the river is low . The colonies , sometimes shared with rosy bee @-@ eaters in Gabon , may contain up to 800 birds , each pair excavating a 1 – 2 m ( 39 – 79 in ) long tunnel in the sandbar . Two to four unspotted white eggs are laid onto a few twigs and leaves in the pocket at the end of the tunnel . The eggs measure 21 @.@ 9 mm – 26 @.@ 0 mm × 16 @.@ 4 mm – 18 @.@ 2 mm ( 0 @.@ 86 in – 1 @.@ 02 in × 0 @.@ 65 in – 0 @.@ 72 in ) . The incubation and fledging times are unknown , although it is believed that both parents care for the nestlings . In the breeding areas , this martin rarely uses perches other than the ground , and once it has landed , it may walk around or cleanse itself with the sand . It feeds in flocks often far from the colony . Wintering birds use elevated perches much more readily , landing on treetops , wires and roofs , and feed in flight over rivers and forests , often far from water . The flocks feed on insects including flies , small beetles and bugs , but mainly on winged ants . Wintering birds dig tunnels in the sand in which to roost overnight . = = Status = = The total population size of the African river martin is unknown . In the late 1980s , it appeared to be common , if local , and large numbers were seen on migration in Gabon . However , it is particularly poorly studied in the Democratic Republic of the Congo ( DRC ) , and it is not known if there is any relationship between the birds breeding in the DRC and those breeding in coastal areas of Gabon and Congo . Several hundred birds were seen at Conkouati @-@ Douli National Park in Congo in 1996 and a flock of 15 @,@ 000 birds was seen in Gabon in 1997 . Investigations in	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
ized as part of a larger force in Naples that consisted of the ironclads Francesco Morosini , Lepanto , and Ruggiero di Lauria , the protected cruiser Elba , the torpedo cruiser Folgore , and five torpedo boats . This second squadron was stocked with coal and ammunition in the event that it would need to reinforce the squadron at Smryna . In 1896 , she took part in the annual summer maneuvers in July as part of the First Division of the Reserve Squadron , which also included the ironclads Re Umberto and Lepanto and the protected cruiser Ettore Fieramosca . In 1898 , Calatafimi was assigned to the Reserve Squadron , which included the ironclads Lepanto , Francesco Morosini , and Ruggiero di Lauria , three protected cruisers , and the torpedo cruiser Goito . The following year , she returned to the Active Squadron , where she served with six ironclads , the armored cruiser Vettor Pisani , the protected cruiser Lombardia , and Goito . The ship was sold for scrap in March 1907 and subsequently broken up . = Delaware Route 299 = Delaware Route 299 ( DE 299 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . It runs 9 @.@ 77 mi ( 15 @.@ 72 km ) from Maryland Route 282 ( MD 282 ) at the Maryland border east of Warwick , Maryland to DE 9 in Mathews Corners , passing through Middletown and Odessa . It overlaps U.S. Route 301 ( US 301 ) from just east of the Maryland border to the west end of Middletown . It is also concurrent with DE 15 along the eastern part of the US 301 concurrency . The road runs through a mix of suburban development . Delaware Route 299 was originally designated as DE 4 in 1938 , running as far east as US 13 in Odessa . By 1957 , DE 4 became DE 299 to match MD 299 ( now MD 282 ) and was extended east to DE 9 in 1959 . Over the years , several different routes had followed the DE 299 alignment including DE 71 west of Middletown between 1959 and 1987 and US 301N between Middletown and Odessa from 1959 to 1971 . In 2008 , a widening of DE 299 in the western part of Middletown began ; it was completed in November 2010 . = = Route description = = DE 299 heads east from the Maryland border on Warwick Road , passing through farmland . At the state line , the road continues west into Maryland as MD 282 . Shortly after the state line , it merges onto US 301 and heads to the northeast on Middletown Warwick Road . DE 15 joins with the two routes , heading from the south on Levels Road , and they head into the commercial western part of Middletown . At the point DE 15 makes a left onto Bunker Hill Road , US 301 continues straight and DE 299 makes a right onto Main Street , heading east across Norfolk Southern 's Delmarva Secondary rail line into the downtown area of Middletown . In the center of town , DE 299 intersects DE 71 ( Broad Street ) . After running through the downtown area , the route heads east through suburban commercial development in the eastern part of Middletown , passing to the north of Middletown High School , and becomes Middletown Odessa Road . It intersects the DE 1 toll road at a diamond interchange and heads east through a mix of farms and homes into Odessa , becoming Main Street . In Odessa , the route is lined with homes and intersects US 13 , which is split onto 5th Street northbound and 6th Street southbound . Following this intersection , the road runs through the Odessa Historic District . Past Odessa , DE 299 crosses the Appoquinimink River and heads to the southeast on Old State Road into housing developments . The route makes a left turn onto Taylors Bridge Road briefly and ends at DE 9 in Mathews Corners . Portions of DE 299 are designated as part of the Delaware Byways system . The section between Silver Lake Road in Middletown and DE 9 is part of the Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad Byway while the section between US 13 in Odessa and DE 9 is a spur of the Delaware 's Bayshore Byway . DE 299 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 16 @,@ 456 vehicles at the west end of the DE 15 concurrency to a low of 433 vehicles at the Old State Road intersection . The portion of DE 299 concurrent with US 301 is part of the National Highway System . = = History = = By 1920 , what is now DE 299 existed as an unimproved county road . This county road was paved by 1924 . The present @-@ day alignment of DE 299 became a state highway by 1935 . The current DE 299 was originally designated as DE 4 in 1938 , running between the Maryland border and US 13 in Odessa . By 1957 , DE 4 was renumbered to DE 299 to match MD 299 ( now MD 282 ) across the border and DE 71 was designated concurrent with most of the route west of Middletown . US 301 was designated along the DE 71 / DE 299 concurrency in 1959 while US 301N was designated between DE 71 and US 13 . Also at this time , DE 299 was extended east to DE 9 . The US 301N designation was removed between Middletown and Odessa in 1971 . DE 71 was rerouted off US 301 / DE 299 by 1987 . By 1994 , DE 15 was designated to follow a portion of US 301 / DE 299 west of Middletown . In July 2008 , a widening project began on US 301 / DE 299 between United Drive and the east end of the concurrency . This widening to four lanes was completed in November 2010 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in New Castle County . = New Guinea Air Warning Wireless = The New Guinea Air Warning Wireless , also known as the " New Guinea Air Warning Wireless Company " , " NGAWW " , or " The Spotters " , was a unique signals unit of the Australian Army formed in January 1942 in Port Moresby , Territory of Papua , during World War II , to provide early warning of Japanese air attack , and subsequently providing surveillance of shipping and ground based troops . During the first month of operations 16 stations were established , with positions set up along the Papuan coast as well as in the mountains near Port Moresby . They often operated behind Japanese lines and were at risk of being captured by the Japanese due to the nature of their operations , while a number of outstations were over @-@ run and the men manning them killed . By the end of 1942 the company was maintaining 61 operational stations and had a strength of 180 men . Eventually , at its peak in late 1944 there were more than 150 spotter stations deployed on islands and mainland territories throughout Papua , New Guinea and Dutch New Guinea . The company 's headquarters moved to Nadzab in June 1944 , by which time stations had been established as far as Hollandia . However , in September 1944 the Australian military decided that it would not agree to American requests for the unit to serve outside the Australian area of operations and it was subsequently withdrawn after being left without a future operational role . Returning to Australia , it was disbanded in April 1945 . Many of its members received awards for their actions , with the company having the distinction of being Australia 's most highly decorated signals unit of World War II . = = History = = = = = Makeshift arrangements = = = The unit that became the New Guinea Air Warning Wireless Company ( NGAWW ) was initially formed in Port Moresby in late January 1942 from volunteers primarily from the 39th Infantry Battalion , a Militia battalion sent to hastily garrison Port Moresby following Japan 's entry into the war . The unit was raised as a result of the experiences of the ill @-@ fated Australian garrison at Rabaul , where the lack of an early warning system to detect Japanese air raids and the movement of an invasion force had complicated its defence before it was ultimately overwhelmed . Operating in a similar manner as the Coastwatchers , they were considered a " top @-@ secret " signals unit . The role of the NGAWW was initially to provide warning of Japanese air raids around Port Moresby . Later , it would be expanded to allow the reporting of Japanese movements by air , land and sea across the South West Pacific Area ( SWPA ) . Other tasks included the long @-@ range transmission of general intelligence about the enemy , friendly force information , meteorological data and the provision of administrative communications for the Australian New Guinea Administrative Unit ( ANGAU ) . Attached to New Guinea Force , the company was conceived by Major Donald Small , Chief Signals Officer of the 8th Military District , who , having experienced the Japanese air raids on Rabaul , observed that the lack of an effective early @-@ warning system around New Britain had resulted in the defenders being caught by surprise when attacked . By employing volunteers from Army units stationed in the area , he planned a network of observation posts , each equipped with a wireless transmitter to screen Port Moresby around a 150 @-@ kilometre ( 93 mi ) radius , providing early warning of air raids , in addition to data on their size , height and strength . The decision of the territory administration to withdraw the civilian wireless operators following the entry of Japan into the war had also left holes in the coastwatching network , reducing its effectiveness . In the nine days following the fall of Rabaul , hasty arrangements were made by Small to assemble an ad hoc group of volunteer infantrymen with only a little signals training using civilian wireless equipment for deployment to the north coast with the assistance of two Short Sunderland flying boats from the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) . = = = Initial activities = = = The first group of " spotters " left Port Moresby on 1 February 1942 for the Samarai area , at the strategically important tip of Papua . The NGAWW issued its first air warning on 3 February after spotters at Tufi observed Japanese aircraft heading towards Port Moresby to attack it for the first time . During the first month of operations 16 stations were established , with positions set up along the Papuan coast as well as in the mountains near Port Moresby . The control station for this group was located at Awala , while there was a rear link to company headquarters at Rouna , approximately 34 kilometres ( 21 mi ) from Port Moresby . However , whilst the outer perimeter was able to provide the anti @-@ aircraft defences at Port Moresby with approximately an hour 's warning of an air raid , the system would be unable to track approaching aircraft if they changed course after crossing the reporting line . As a consequence a second , inner perimeter , was established in March , at a range of 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from Port Moresby to provide ten minutes ' warning of an attack . The air warning system was set up so that the inner perimeter stations were under RAAF control , while the outer stations were supervised by the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) . In addition , there were a number of spotter stations set up and manned by the New Guinea Volunteer Rifles , as well as a few civilian stations reporting to ANGAU . In March the crew of a shot @-@ down Japanese bomber were engaged from an observation post at Gona by a team of spotters , resulting in the killing of the first Japanese in Papua by Australian ground forces . Working with Kanga Force , a network was set up around Wau in May . For three weeks in June 1942 , spotters manned an observation post in a tree just 300 yards ( 270 m ) from the Japanese airstrip at Salamaua . Spotter Ross Kirkwood was photographed by Damien Parer in this post with an agreement not to release the pictures . Yet the photos were soon published in a newspaper in Sydney and the observation post was attacked by the Japanese the day after , with Kirkwood forced to make a narrow escape . In July 1942 , the Buna station reported the landing of Japanese forces in Papua , an event which marked the commencement of the Kokoda Track Campaign . = = = Formation of the NGAWW = = = Following the rapid expansion that had been required to provide effective coverage in response to the crises caused by the initial Japanese movements a review of the makeshift organisation was undertaken . In October 1942 , the NGAWW Company was officially formed as part of New Guinea Force Signals to consolidate the Army , RAAF and Coastwatcher stations . Meanwhile , efforts were made to standardise equipment across the network and to implement common procedures . The company subsequently came under command of New Guinea Force Signals and its headquarters was established at 9 @-@ mile near Port Moresby . Captain Thomas Warren was in command of the company at this time . The establishment of the company at this time included a headquarters , a Moresby area section , a sub @-@ area section , and a spotting station . Sub @-@ area sections were raised as required and at various times were located at Milne Bay , Dobodura , Wau , Bena Bena , Bulolo , Nadzab , Gusap , Hollandia and Aitape . By the end of 1942 the company was maintaining 61 operational stations and had a strength of 180 men . In mid @-@ 1943 , Warren was transferred to Milne Force and he handed over command temporarily to Captain Gordon King . In October 1943 , the unit was given " Separate Independent Establishment " status under the control of New Guinea Force , becoming the only non @-@ commando independent company . Prior to this they had been known as No. 4 Company , 18th Line of Communication Signals ( NGAWW Company ) . They were subsequently authorised to wear the commando " double diamond " colour patch in 1944 . The Unit Colour Patch was made up of the double diamonds of the independent companies ( later commando companies ) in purple ( denoting divisional engineeers or signals ) on a grey background with the white over blue flash of the Corps of Signals , initially in a zigzag pattern forming a " W " , but later as a rectangle in the centre of the field . The grey background represented a unit of the Second Australian Imperial Force ( Second AIF ) and distinguished it from units raised as part of the First AIF during World War I. The officer commanding , Major Cyril Guiney , who had recently taken over command , applied for an increased establishment at this time to expand the size of the unit and allow it to take an increased role in anticipation of employment outside of SWPA ; however , this was ultimately not approved . = = = Subsequent operations = = = In some cases , travelling through unmapped areas , men took up to six weeks just to reach their destinations . They often had to carry all their supplies , arms and their radio , often with the help of Papuan carriers . Teams of two or three spotters typically maintained the stations , each led by an acting non @-@ commissioned @-@ officer ( NCO ) , working in isolation from friendly forces in remote locations for extended periods of time . The teams survived on limited rations , usually supplemented by native food sources . Once their initial supplies were expended they usually had to fend for themselves , although stations were also sometimes re @-@ supplied by airdrop or by sea , but usually only in the event of a failure of mission essential equipment , or when petrol for the radios ran low . Spotting stations were usually only lightly armed , being usually equipped with just one Owen Gun with 600 rounds for the NCO in charge , and a rifle with only 50 rounds for each other man . Personnel from the company were often at risk of being captured by the Japanese due to the nature of their operations , while a number of outstations were over @-@ run and the men manning them killed . Indeed , the landing of Japanese forces on Papua in 1942 had required a shift from providing air raid warnings to furnishing military intelligence . As a result , many stations found themselves isolated behind Japanese lines , relying on the support of the native population whilst evading capture in order to continue operating . Later , as the tide of war turned in the Allies ' favour , it became necessary for the spotters to move ahead of the advancing Allied forces and also compelled the spotters to work in close proximity to Japanese forces . In 1944 , a team operated a station on Lake Rombebai , 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) in advance of the nearest Allied forces . Between them the spotters rescued or buried more than 200 crashed American and Australian airmen , caring for the injured and arranging safe transport for others . In early 1944 , the unit was reorganised as the war moved north and planning began for it to deploy further afield . Major Lennard Cumpston took over command from Guiney in March . Meanwhile , in March and April a number of stations closed or transferred to ANGAU following a reduction in the threat of large @-@ scale air raids against Australian controlled territory . As debate about the future employment of Australian forces in the Pacific continued , the future of the unit was in doubt and there was consideration given to it being disbanded . However , following a request from the Americans a detachment of 43 signalers , cipher operators , and medical orderlies was subsequently attached to US forces during operations as part of the advance to Hollandia and Tadji , with the NGAWW being the only Australian unit involved in this action . In April 1944 , five USAAF personnel , as well as four officers and 20 enlisted men from the US Signal Corps , were seconded to the NGAWW to be trained as spotters for the purpose of establishing the American Air Warning Wireless Unit to function in the Philippines . The company 's headquarters moved to Nadzab in June 1944 , by which time stations had been established as far as Hollandia , with many behind Japanese lines . Eventually , at its peak in late 1944 there were more than 150 spotter stations deployed on islands and mainland territories throughout Papua , New Guinea and Dutch New Guinea . However , in September 1944 the Australian military decided that it would not agree to American requests for the unit to serve outside the Australian area of operations and it was subsequently withdrawn after being left without a future operational role . Meanwhile , Captain John Marsh took over command from Cumpston who was posted to Washington as a liaison officer . Marsh then oversaw the closure of the remaining network and the preparation of the unit for shipping back to Australia . The spotters were subsequently concentrated at Nadzab , with many meeting each other face @-@ to @-@ face for the first time . The unit left New Guinea in December 1944 . = = = Disbandment = = = After Christmas leave the company concentrated at Balcombe in Victoria where it was officially disbanded on 20 April 1945 , although many of the men continued to serve in other signals units until the end of the war . Although complete records were unable to be maintained , a nominal roll of the unit lists the names of approximately 792 men that served in the NGAWW . During its service , the unit lost eight men killed in action , while another three died of other causes while on active service . The company had the distinction of being Australia 's most highly decorated signals unit of World War II , with its members receiving one MBE , ten Military Medals , and ten Mentions in Dispatches . Numerous Commendation Cards were also awarded by the Commander @-@ In @-@ Chief . Flight Lieutenant Leigh Vial ( then an RAAF pilot officer working as a Coastwatcher ) was also awarded the US Distinguished Service Cross for service behind the lines around Salamaua during a joint mission with NGAWW personnel . = = Equipment = = The spotters were initially equipped with Teleradio 3A sets and amateur equipment ; however , many outstations later had these replaced by improved 3B and 3BZ sets to provide higher power communications . This occurred following a decision to standardise on the 3B following the formation of the NGAWW . In addition , some teams operating in more difficult jungle and mountain terrain , such as that closer to Port Moresby , were equipped with RAAF supplied ATR @-@ 2 radios which were lighter than the Teleradio 3A sets provided to the more distant outstations . The Australian @-@ designed and manufactured Type 3 Teleradio transmitter / receiver had been developed prior to the war by Amalgamated Wireless ( Australasia ) ( AWA ) to provide long @-@ range wireless communications across Australia and in the surrounding islands of New Guinea , the Solomons , and Fiji where the plantations , airstrips , mines and settlements were widely separated . The isolated nature of civilian out @-@ stations in these areas meant that there was no other means of communication available . Even before the outbreak of hostilities the RAN had organised many civilian wireless users in the islands of the Pacific into networks of " spotters " , known as Coastwatchers , in order to provide reports of any suspicious activities . Some were issued with the new 3B sets ; however , following suggestions for improvements as the spotters developed their communications techniques , the Teleradio 3BZ was developed by AWA in 1942 . Although it had many similarities to the 3B , its receiver had been partially modified and it had a transmitter which had been redesigned to include six crystal channels . It had also been " tropicalised " to protect it against the effects of the moist environment by reducing its susceptibility to mildew , rot and fungus . The Type 3 set consisted of three main cases containing the transmitter , receiver and speaker . Other parts included the headphones , key , microphone , 6 or 12 volt accumulators , as well as a small petrol charging generator or a pedal generator based on a bicycle frame ( often operated using native labour ) . Often the equipment used by a Coastwatcher would include parts from the 3A , 3B and 3BZ , or whatever other items were locally available to them , yet they were commonly referred to as the " 3BZ " regardless of this . Total weight was approximately 100 kilograms ( 200 lb ) including ancillaries , with the generator weighing 30 kilograms ( 60 lb ) , while the receiver was 15 kilograms ( 32 lb ) . The steel cases of the 3B and 3BZ were 41 centimetres ( 16 in ) wide , 26 centimetres ( 10 in ) high , and 26 centimetres ( 10 in ) deep . Depending on the aerial used , the 3B provided a range of up to 400 kilometres ( 250 mi ) . = = Legacy = = After the war the Australian Signal Officer @-@ in @-@ Chief , Major @-@ General Colin Simpson , paid tribute to the spotters , writing that they were " infantrymen without a typical battlefield , artillerymen without field pieces and tank crews without tanks . Apart from a hard core of very talented personnel , all that most spotters had in common was an abysmal ignorance of anything to do with signals . Yet they won the respect of our Allies and every branch of the Australian forces " . He continued , stating that " they were dedicated to their duty and they never failed . The New Guinea Air Warning Wireless Company is a Signal unit of which very little has been heard as their duties were top secret at all times . It can be stated that the successful course of the war could have been seriously delayed , if not greatly prolonged , if this signal unit had not operated so efficiently . " Within the Australian Army the role of long range clandestine communications is currently performed by the 301st and 126th Signals Squadrons , which form part of the 1st and 2nd Commando Regiment respectively , and the 152nd Signal Squadron which operates with the Special Air Service Regiment . They trace their lineage back to units such as the Coastwatchers , New Guinea Air Warning Wireless and the " M " and " Z " Special Units . The role pioneered by these and other units during World War II is now known as Special Reconnaissance ( SR ) : " Special Forces teams are infiltrated behind enemy lines to provide the theater commander with intelligence on the enemy or to gather information on the terrain , local populace , etc. of an area . Verify , through observation or other collection methods , information concerning enemy capabilities , intentions , and activities in support of strategic / operational objectives or conventional forces . Reconnaissance and surveillance actions conducted at strategic or operational levels to complement national and theater @-@ level collection efforts . Collect meteorological , hydrographic , geographic , and demographic data ; provide target acquisition , area assessment , and post @-@ strike reconnaissance data . " = = Commanding Officers = = The following officers commanded the NGAWW : Major Donald William Francis Small ( 1942 ) ; Captain Thomas Richard Warren ( 1942 – 43 ) ; Captain Gordon Charles Allen King ( 1943 ) ; Major Cyril Kevin Guiney ( 1943 – 44 ) ; Major Lennard Wesley Cumpston ( 1944 ) ; and Captain John Henry Marsh ( 1944 – 45 ) . = Sjumandjaja = Sjumandjaja ( Perfected Spelling : Syumanjaya ; 5 August 1934 – 19 July 1985 ) was an Indonesian director , screenwriter , and actor . During his career he wrote numerous films , directed fourteen , acted in ten , and produced nine ; he also won five Citra Awards from the Indonesian Film Festival . His films reflected social realism . Sjumandjaja was born in Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) , Dutch East Indies , and grew up there . During high school , he became interested in creative writing and acting , eventually joining the Senen Artists ' Group . In 1956 , when one of his short stories was adapted into a film , Sjumandjaja became active in the filmmaking industry , writing two films for the production company Persari . After receiving a government scholarship , he moved to Moscow and attended the All @-@ Union State Institute of Cinematography . Upon returning to Indonesia in 1965 , Sjumandjaja took a job at the Ministry of Information and continued writing screenplays . In 1971 , after leaving the ministry , he directed his first feature film , Lewat Tengah Malam ( Past Midnight ) . He continued to write and direct films until his death from a heart attack on 19 July 1985 . Reportedly a strict director , Sjumandjaja valued creative value over receiving a director 's fee . He married three times and had three children , two with his first wife and one with his second . His son , Sri Aksana , is the former drummer of Dewa 19 , and his daughter Djenar Maesa Ayu is also a Citra Award @-@ winning director . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Sjumandjaja was born in Batavia on 5 August 1934 . The fifth of eight children , Sjumandjaja was ethnically Javanese but soon became accustomed to the local Betawi culture . He studied Quran reading for a period of three days , but stopped after numerous disagreements with the teacher . When he was ten years old , his father died , leaving Sjumandjaja to be raised by his mother . During the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies from 1942 to 1945 , he witnessed several forced labourers being beaten to death near his home during the construction of Kemayoran Airport . While attending high school at Taman Siswa , Sjumandjaja became interested in drama . Together with his schoolmates S. M. Ardan and Savitri ( daughter of dramatist Sanusi Pane ) , he put on a production of Utuy Tatang Sontani 's play " Awal dan Mira " ( " Awal and Mira " ) ; another schoolmate , Misbach Yusa Biran , directed . During this period , Sjumandjaja was also a member of the Senen Artists ' Group , named after its meeting place in Senen , together with his former classmates and several others such as future Minister of Information Harmoko . With the group he wrote short stories , poems , and works of literary criticism . In 1956 , Sjumandjaja played a role in Terang Bulan Terang di Tengah Kali ( Moon Shining Light in the Middle of the Stream ) , written by Ardan and directed by Wim Umboh . That same year , his short story " Kerontjong Kemajoran " ( " Keroncong from Kemayoran " ) was adapted into a film by the production company Persari under the title Saodah . The following year , another of Sjumandjaja 's short stories , " Anakku Sajang " ( " My Dear Child " ) was adapted by the company ; he took on the role of assistant director for the film . Sjumandjaja became an employee of Persari in 1958 , under the leadership of Asrul Sani . In 1959 , Sjumandjaja received a government scholarship to study in Moscow . After a year @-@ long preparatory course , in 1960 he enrolled at the All @-@ Union State Institute of Cinematography ; he was the first Indonesian student to attend the institute . A womanizer on campus , he graduated summa cum laude from the institute in 1964 or 1965 . His submission , Bajangan ( Shadows ) , a film based on a story by Erskine Caldwell , was a 25 @-@ minute long black and white profile of a woman waiting for her grandson . He was only the seventh person to graduate summa cum laude from the institution , and the first foreigner . = = = Film career = = = After returning to Indonesia in 1965 , Sjumandjaja worked at the Ministry of Information ; from 1966 to 1968 he was the head of the film directorate and succeeded in passing a bill which used the profits from film imports to fund local productions . He later continued directing and screenwriting while taking a five @-@ year term as the head of the Jakarta Art Bureau . His 1971 feature film debut , Lewat Tengah Malam ( Past Midnight ) , produced by Allied Film Indonesia , brought him under close supervision by the Suharto @-@ led government for its social critique , while Pengantin Remadja ( Teenage Newlyweds ) , which he wrote , won an award at the 1971 Asian Film Festival . This was followed by Flambojan ( Flamboyant ; 1972 ) . In 1972 , Sjumandjaja founded his production company Matari Film ; the company 's first film , Si Doel Anak Betawi ( Doel the Betawi Child ) , which he directed , was critically acclaimed and led to a surge in popularity for both Betawi culture and the film 's star Rano Karno . Two of his later films , Si Mamad ( The One Called Mamad ; 1974 ) and Pinangan ( A Proposal ; 1976 ) , were based on the works of Anton Chekov , while the 1975 film Laila Majenun ( Laila is Possessed ) was an adaptation of West Side Story . After filming Yang Muda Yang Bercinta ( The Young Fall in Love ) , which was delayed by the censorship board , in 1977 , he took another hiatus to deal with health issues . During this period he became a more devout Muslim . On 25 December 1978 , Sjumandjaja announced his return with a new film , Kabut Sutra Ungu ( Mist of Purple Silk ) , an adaptation of the novel by Ike Soepomo . Kabut Sutra Ungu was followed by several more films , including Bukan Sandiwara ( Not a Play ; 1980 ) , the biopic of female emancipation figure Kartini R. A. Kartini ( 1981 ) , and Budak Nafsu ( Slave to Lust ; 1983 ) , which was based on the novel Fatimah by Titie Said . Sjumandjaja 's last film before his death , Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam ( Sharp Pebbles ) was released in 1984 . After suffering from a heart attack during prayer at Soepomo 's home on 19 July 1985 , Sjumandjaja was brought to Dr. Cipto Mangunkusumo Hospital in Jakarta . He died at 3 : 50 p.m. local time ( UTC + 7 ) and was buried the following day at Kawi @-@ Kawi Public Cemetery . He left behind a nearly finished film , Jakarta Opera , which had been exerting himself heavily to complete . It was later completed by Sutomo Gandasubrata . = = Directing style = = Sjumandjaja was reportedly a very strict director and unwilling to receive criticism from actors . According to El Manik , who played a Japanese soldier in Budak Nafsu , Sjumandjaja refused to listen to El Manik 's concern that a Japanese man would not be able to speak Indonesian fluently , instead telling the actor to write Japanese dialog himself if he wanted . Gandasubrata recalled that Sjumandjaja fired his own father @-@ in @-@ law from Jakarta Opera when the latter could not perform to the director 's expectations . According to producer Manoo Sukmajaya , Sjumandjaja would refuse to accept a directing offer if he found the script uninteresting , valuing creative worth over the director 's fee . Sjumandjaja was influenced by numerous Russian works , which he had seen while in the Soviet Union . These works included Mikhail Kalatozov 's Letyat Zhuravli ( The Cranes Are Flying ; 1957 ) , Grigori Chukhrai 's Sorok Pervyy ( The Forty @-@ First ; 1956 ) , and Ballada o Soldate ( Ballad of a Soldier ; 1959 ) . The romanticism in these post @-@ Stalinist works was reflected in Sjumandjaja 's work up until Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam . His works have also been classified as social realism , with films such as Si Mamad and Atheis reflecting issues relevant to modern society . Several of his films , such as Yang Muda Yang Bercinta , contain themes of self @-@ awareness and discovery , while Budak Nafsu contained what Marselli , writing in Kompas , described as a " vulgar eroticism " . Technique @-@ wise , Sjumandjaja used the camera to emphasise the narrative . Bajangan , his first work , used long shots to show the main character 's lonesomeness . He would often use several shots to show the psychological issues faced by his characters , focusing on both the characters and the space around them . He also used references to well @-@ known cultural works ; a scene in Kartini was framed so to reflect Leonardo da Vinci 's The Last Supper . = = Accolades = = Sjumandjaja received five Citra Awards at the Indonesian Film Festival ( FFI ) for his works , namely Best Screenplay for Laila Majenun ( FFI 1976 ) , Best Director and Best Screenplay for Si Doel Anak Modern ( FFI 1977 ) , Best Director for Budak Nafsu ( FFI 1984 ) , and Best Screenplay for Kerikil @-@ Kerikil Tajam ( FFI 1985 ) . = = Personal life = = Sjumandjaja first marriage was to ballet dancer Farida Utoyo , whom he met and married while in the Soviet Union ; Utoyo was studying at the Moscow State Academy of Choreography . With Utoyo he had two sons , Aridya Yudistira and Sri Aksana ( former drummer of Dewa 19 ) . The couple 's separation in the early 1970s served as his inspiration for Flambojan ( Flamboyant ; 1972 ) . After divorcing Utoyo , Sjumandjaja married actress Tuti Kirana before the release of Si Doel Anak Betawi . In 1973 the couple had a daughter , Djenar Maesa Ayu , who later became a writer @-@ cum @-@ director and won a Citra Award for her debut film Mereka Bilang , Saya Monyet ! ( They Say I 'm a Monkey ! ; 2007 ) . In 1982 his relationship with Kirana soured , and the couple divorced . In 1984 he married a third wife , Zoraya Perucha . Sjumandjaja was known as a heavy drinker , which contributed to his health issues . Starting with beer while in high school , he later switched to hard liquor despite suffering from liver issues while still in his teens . Towards the end of his life , when he became more religious , he drank less . = = Filmography = = = = = Actor = = = = = = Director = = = = = = Writer = = = = = = Producer = = = = Walter Dix = Walter Dix ( born January 31 , 1986 ) is an American sprinter who specializes in the 100 meters and 200 meters . He is the fourth @-@ fastest 200 @-@ meter runner ever with a best of 19 @.@ 53 seconds , and has broken the 10 @-@ second barrier in the 100 meters , with a best of 9 @.@ 88 seconds . Dix was a highly successful amateur athlete , setting a state record in the 100 m and trying out for the US Olympic Team at the age of eighteen . He joined Florida State University and in his first year he broke the 100 m American junior record and won at the NCAA Outdoor Championships . After a fourth @-@ place finish at the 2005 US Championships , Dix continued with his collegiate success , setting an NCAA record of 19 @.@ 69 seconds in the 200 m and coming within one hundredth of the 100 m record . He completed a 100 m , 200 m , and 4 × 100 meter relay sweep at the 2007 NCAA Outdoor Championships , the first to do so since John Carlos in 1969 . He closed his amateur career in 2008 : another NCAA 200 m title made him the third most decorated track athlete in NCAA history , and he won gold and silver at the 2008 US Olympic Trials . Dix turned professional in mid @-@ 2008 , signing a multimillion @-@ dollar contract with Nike . He reached the Olympic finals in the 100 and 200 m , and won two bronze medals ; the only American track athlete to win two individual medals at the 2008 Summer Olympics . He suffered an injury at the 2009 US Championships , thus missing out on the World Championships , and a contract dispute with his agent resulted in only a handful of appearances that season . In 2011 he was both the 100 and 200 m American champion and won silver medals in the events at the 2011 World Championships . An injury at the 2012 Olympic trials meant he missed a second Olympic appearance . = = Early life = = The son of a track and field coach , Walter Dix competed at athletics meetings from a young age , specialising in sprinting and the long jump . His speed also translated well to the football field , and he often played the sport at school . Dix was an accomplished high school runner : in his final year at Coral Springs High School in 2004 he recorded 10 @.@ 28 seconds in the 100 meters , then third all @-@ time on the Florida high school record list behind only Houston McTear and Curtis Johnson , and broke the 200 meters Florida high school record with 20 @.@ 62 seconds . Aside from J @-@ Mee Samuels ' 10 @.@ 28 seconds in the 100 m , these were the two fastest marks by a high school athlete that year . Both these times were within the Olympic standard for the events . He competed at the US Olympic Trials in the 200 m , but did not progress beyond the heats stage . = = College track athletics = = He began attending Florida State University ( FSU ) in late 2004 , working with coach Bob Braman . At his first regional meeting for the university , he won the 60 @-@ meter dash , 200 m and 4 × 400 meter relay , and was chosen as the Atlantic Coast Conference rookie of the year . He made his first major impact at the NCAA Indoor Championships : after a sixth @-@ place finish in the 60 m , he came second in the 200 m with a world junior record of 20 @.@ 37 s , beaten only by Wallace Spearmon . Following this , he became USA Track & Field 's Athlete of the Week after setting an American junior record in the 100 m . Running in the Icahn Stadium at the 2005 NCAA East Regional Championships , his heat @-@ winning time of 10 @.@ 06 seconds bettered Stanley Floyd 's 25 @-@ year @-@ old mark . Dix went on to win the 100 m final and also won the 200 m in 20 @.@ 23 seconds , the fourth fastest time by an American junior sprinter . At his first NCAA Outdoor Championships , Dix became FSU 's first winner at the championships since 1980 , and the first to do so as a freshman . He won the 100 m in 10 @.@ 21 seconds , beating the defending NCAA champions DaBryan Blanton and Tyson Gay to the title . After recording a personal best of 20 @.@ 18 seconds in the semifinals , he managed a fourth @-@ place finish in the 200 m race . Dix competed at his first US senior championships that year and , as the only amateur to reach the 100 m final , he finished fourth . The only athletes to beat him were Leonard Scott , reigning Olympic Champion Shawn Crawford and the eventual world champion Justin Gatlin . = = = Multiple NCAA champion = = = Dix 's second year at FSU was characterised by success in the 200 m . He won his first indoor NCAA title in the 200 m and was runner @-@ up in the 60 m , having set a personal best of 6 @.@ 59 seconds in the heats . His time of 20 @.@ 27 seconds in the 200 m final was the fastest indoor run in the world that year . His fastest of the season came at the Reebok invitational and his time of 20 @.@ 25 seconds placed him as the 13th fastest runner in 2006 . He completed a 200 m NCAA Championship double by taking the outdoor title , and he also finished as runner @-@ up in the 100 m , second to Xavier Carter . In his third year as an FSU athlete he won four NCAA Division I titles , starting with a 200 m win indoors . In the 2007 NCAA East Regional final , he won the 100 m dash in 10 @.@ 05 seconds . His performance in the 200 m was more impressive however : he set the all @-@ time collegiate record of 19 @.@ 69 seconds in the 200 m , breaking Joe DeLoach 's record that had stood since 1988 . This made him the sixth fastest 200 m runner ever and it was the seventh fastest run in history at the time . At the NCAA Outdoor Championships that year , he won three separate national titles , beating all opposition in the 100 m , 200 m , and 4 × 100 meter relay races . This achievement made him the first man to win the three races at an NCCA Championships since John Carlos did so in 1969 . Dix 's time of 9 @.@ 93 seconds in the 100 m was a world @-@ leader at that point of the season , and was just 0 @.@ 01 behind Ato Boldon 's NCAA record . For these accomplishments , he was again named USATF 's Athlete of the Week . In his final year as an amateur athlete , he spent much of early 2008 battling a hamstring injury . However , he returned in April to win his third 200 m NCAA outdoor title , while placing fourth in the 100 m . Although his personal bests rivalled those of top professional athletes , Dix decided to finish his degree in social science at FSU , as his graduation in May 2008 allowed him to focus on the Olympic Trials thereafter . Over the course of his college career , Dix became only the second athlete to win three NCAA 200 m outdoor titles ( after Ralph Metcalfe ) and , with six outdoor NCAA titles , he is listed as the joint third on all @-@ time list . Furthermore , he finished with two indoor titles and 18 All @-@ American honors . = = Professional career = = = = = 2008 Olympic Games = = = Competing at the 2008 US Olympic Trials in Eugene , Oregon , Dix qualified for the 2008 Summer Olympics in both the 100 and 200 m events . After recording a personal @-@ best @-@ equaling 9 @.@ 93 seconds in the 100 m semifinals , he took second place behind Tyson Gay with a wind @-@ assisted 9 @.@ 80 seconds . He stated that his NCAA experience had helped raise his confidence and that he was less nervous than he was at the 2005 US Championships . The 200 m favorite Gay suffered an injury in the qualifying rounds , and Dix and Crawford both finished the 200 m final with 19 @.@ 86 seconds , with Dix elected the winner by a photo finish . After signing a sponsorship deal with Nike worth around $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a year , described by his agent as " the largest deal ever for a track athlete just coming out of college " , Dix stated that his aims for the Olympics were personal bests in the individual sprints and a gold in the relay race . Competing in his first Olympics , Dix qualified for the 100 m final with a season 's best of 9 @.@ 95 seconds . In the final he registered a personal best of 9 @.@ 91 seconds , finishing behind new world record holder Usain Bolt of Jamaica and Richard Thompson of Trinidad and Tobago . The Olympic bronze medal was Dix 's first medal at a major international competition . A few days later , he finished fifth in the 200 m final with a time of 19 @.@ 98 seconds , some distance off the winner Usain Bolt who had broken the world record . However , it transpired that both the silver and bronze medalists ( Churandy Martina of the Netherlands Antilles and American Wallace Spearmon ) had stepped out of their lanes thus they were disqualified . As a result , Dix received his second Olympic bronze medal . Further disqualifications occurred in the heats of the Olympic 4 × 100 meter relay race : Darvis Patton and Tyson Gay misjudged a baton pass , causing the American team to be eliminated and spoiling any chance of Dix receiving a relay medal . He finished the Olympics as the only American sprinter to medal in two individual events . Dix closed the season with two sub @-@ 10 second runs at the Weltklasse and Athletissima meetings , finishing second to a Jamaican on both occasions ( Bolt and Asafa Powell ) . = = = Low @-@ key 2009 = = = The year after the Olympics , Dix began the season with a world @-@ leading time of 10 @.@ 00 seconds in Tallahassee in April . He also set a world @-@ leading relay time of 37 @.@ 92 seconds with Travis Padgett , Shawn Crawford and Darvis Patton at the Penn Relays . However , he failed to maintain this strong form through the rest of 2009 . Coach Teddy Long planned to improve Dix 's start and acceleration in his races , but the two parted company in April . He placed third behind Michael Rodgers and Asafa Powell at the Prefontaine Classic but , unusually , this proved to one of the highlights of a low @-@ profile year for Dix . He competed at the US Championships , but injuries forced him out of both the 100 m and 200 m races and he did not qualify for the World Championships . Furthermore , he entered a legal battle with his management company , regarding whether they merited the 20 % portion of his multimillion @-@ dollar sponsorship contract with Nike . The dispute with his agent Kimberly Holland was resolved in July : although the terms were undisclosed , Dix left Holland 's Icon Management and decided to be his own agent . With his father as his coach , a legal battle and no major races to prepare for , Dix ran only a handful of local meetings in the rest of 2009 . = = = Return to top level = = = Dix returned to national competition with an appearance at the 2010 USA Indoor Track and Field Championships . He took fourth place in the final and set a new 60 m indoor best of 6 @.@ 58 seconds . Event winner Ivory Williams was disqualified after testing positive for marijuana and Dix was upgraded to third . He opened his outdoor season at the Seminole Twilight meet in May , recording 9 @.@ 98 seconds in the 100 m and 19 @.@ 89 seconds for the 200 m . He began to participate in Diamond League meetings , competing on the European circuit for the first time . He beat Wallace Spearmon at the Golden Gala 's 200 m race , breaking Michael Johnson 's meet record . He also took to the national stage , winning the 100 m and finishing as the 200 m runner @-@ up at the 2010 USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships . A week later , Dix beat Tyson Gay at the Prefontaine Classic for another meet record of 19 @.@ 72 seconds . In August at a meet in Nottwil , Switzerland , Dix ran a new personal best of 9 @.@ 88 seconds , finishing second behind Nesta Carter who also set a new personal best of 9 @.@ 86 seconds . An injury at the London Grand Prix brought an end to his season . In the first meeting of the 2011 IAAF Diamond League , at the Qatar Athletic Super Grand Prix , he won the 200 m with a time of 20 @.@ 06 seconds . Dix took further 200 m victories at the Eugene and London legs of the series , while Usain Bolt won the other three 200 m mid @-@ season legs . He achieved a 100 / 200 sprint double at the 2011 USA Track and Field Championships , winning in the absence of Tyson Gay and Wallace Spearmon . Running in both the events at the 2011 World Championships in Athletics , he first secured the silver medal in the 100 m final – defending champion Bolt was disqualified for a false start and Dix was runner @-@ up to another Jamaican , Yohan Blake , in a comparatively slow 10 @.@ 08 seconds . In the 200 @-@ meter final Bolt beat the field but Dix was the closest to him , running 19 @.@ 70 seconds to take his second silver of the tournament . He attempted to gain a third medal in the 4 × 100 metres relay final , but a mid @-@ race collision between Darvis Patton and Britain 's Harry Aikines @-@ Aryeetey meant the American team 's baton never reached Dix 's final leg . At the Diamond League 200 m final at the Memorial Van Damme he ran a personal best of 19 @.@ 53 seconds . Blake was even faster ( 19 @.@ 26 ) , however , leaving Dix in second place even as he became the fourth fastest 200 m runner of all @-@ time and then won the league series . He moved to Southern California in 2012 to train with John Smith and opened his outdoor season with a wind @-@ aided run of 9 @.@ 85 seconds . A 200 m win followed at the Doha Diamond League meet . He entered the 2012 US Olympic Trials and reached the 100 m final but , having pulled a muscle in his semi @-@ final , he finished last in the race . This brought an end to his season . = = 2015 Annual Bests = = Event Result Wind Venue Date 55m i 6 @.@ 31 Gainesville ( USA ) 23 @.@ 01 @.@ 2015 60m 6 @.@ 67 Daytona Beach ( USA ) 21 @.@ 02 @.@ 2015 100m 10 @.@ 17 + 1 @.@ 4 Rieti ( ITA ) 13 @.@ 09 @.@ 2015 200m 20 @.@ 41 Daytona Beach ( USA ) 21 @.@ 02 @.@ 2015 400m 47 @.@ 86 Tampa ( USA ) 13 @.@ 03 @.@ 2015 = = Personal life = = Walter Dix is the son of Washington and Plinnie Dix . His father , a former sprinter , is an assistant principal and track coach at New River Middle School , while his mother is a high school teacher . He has two older brothers , Alex and William , who also were track runners . While attending Florida State University , Dix became a member of the Phi Beta Sigma fraternity . = = Personal bests = = As of 2013 , Dix 's best in the 200 m outdoors makes him the fourth fastest man of all time , while his indoor best for the distance makes him the seventh fastest . His best in the 100 m is the eighth fastest by an American athlete . All information from IAAF Profile = = Major competition record = = = Hurricane Paine ( 1986 ) = Hurricane Paine contributed to one of the most significant flooding events in Oklahoma history . The 16th tropical storm and 8th hurricane of the 1986 Pacific hurricane season , Paine formed on September 28 off the southeast coast of Mexico . It moved around a ridge , later turning to the north and brushing the Baja California Peninsula . By that time , Paine had attained peak winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , but it weakened slightly before hitting the Mexican state of Sonora . The remnant moisture combined with a cold front to produce heavy rainfall in the south @-@ central United States . In Mexico , Paine produced rainfall along much of the coastline , with maxima in inland Oaxaca , Jalisco , and Sonora where it moved ashore . Prior to the arrival of the remnants of Paine in the United States , there was an extended period of heavy rainfall , which caused at least 10 deaths , forced thousands of people from their homes , and resulted in heavy flooding damage . The moisture from Paine produced the highest daily rainfall for any station in Oklahoma . Severe river flooding occurred along the Osage and Arkansas Rivers . The overall flooding event caused $ 350 million in damage , of which half came from crop losses . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Hurricane Paine were from a system that entered the eastern Pacific Ocean through Central America on September 27 . By the next day , it organized into Tropical Depression 27 while located about 185 miles ( 300 km ) southwest of the coast of Guatemala . With a high pressure system to its north , the depression moved generally westward at first , although an approaching upper @-@ level trough influenced a more northerly track . The depression slowly organized while paralleling the Mexican coastline , and it was upgraded to Tropical Storm Paine on September 30 , while the storm was about 350 miles ( 565 km ) west @-@ southwest of Acapulco . Tropical Storm Paine quickly intensified after it was first upgraded to a tropical storm . Late on September 30 , a NOAA reconnaissance plane flew into the storm , one of two cyclones in the basin that warranted aircraft data , the other being Hurricane Newton . The plane observed sustained winds of 82 mph ( 133 km / h ) , and as a result , Paine was upgraded to hurricane status . As it neared the Baja California Peninsula , the hurricane turned more northward , and late on October 1 reached peak winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) , while located just offshore of the southern tip of Baja California . Hurricane Paine did not intensify further due to the presence of mid @-@ level wind shear , as well as insufficient moisture in the air ; nevertheless , it was located over an area of 82 @.@ 9 ° F ( 28 @.@ 3 ° C ) water temperatures . The outer eyewall moved across Cabo San Lucas , and the resultant land interaction was believed to have slightly weakened the inner core of the hurricane . After reaching its peak intensity , the hurricane turned north @-@ northeastward , making landfall near San José , Sonora with winds of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . Paine rapidly dissipated over land , although the remnants continued northeastward across Mexico into Texas and the south @-@ central United States . Moisture from the system combined with an advancing cold front , producing heavy rainfall over Oklahoma and southeastern Kansas . = = Impact = = As a tropical cyclone , Paine brought rainfall to most of Mexico , including heavier amounts along the coastline and interior northern Oaxaca . The highest total in the country was 12 @.@ 01 inches ( 30 @.@ 5 cm ) in Apazulco , Jalisco . Light precipitation fell in the southern portion of the Baja California Peninsula , and where Paine moved ashore , upwards of 7 inches ( 18 cm ) fell across its path . In the area around where it made landfall , strong winds knocked down trees and caused disruptions to city services . In the south @-@ central United States , the remnants of Paine dropped moderate to heavy rainfall in regions that already received above normal rainfall . Isolated locations in Texas , northern Oklahoma , and southeastern Kansas received over 10 inches ( 25 @.@ 4 cm ) of precipitation , and the highest total in the United States was 11 @.@ 35 inches ( 28 @.@ 8 cm ) at Fort Scott , Kansas . Moderate rainfall extended northeastward through Missouri and Illinois . In Barnsdall , Oklahoma , a station recorded 10 @.@ 42 inches ( 26 @.@ 5 cm ) on September 29 , which was the highest daily precipitation for any station in the state . In combination with previous storms , some locations received over 20 inches of rainfall in an 8 @-@ day period , which produced severe river flooding along the Osage and Arkansas Rivers . The flooding resulted in record discharge rates along many streams and creeks , while many reservoirs were nearly filled to capacity . The Mississippi River in St. Louis reached the fifth highest flood stage on record . Prior to its arrival , flooding across the central United States killed six people , forced thousands of people from their homes , and left at least $ 76 million in damage ( 1986 USD ) . Additional flooding from Paine exacerbated the situation ; the flooding affected 52 of the 77 counties in Oklahoma , which resulted in a total of $ 350 million in damage , half of which from agriculture . The remnants of Paine brought about the end of the extended period of rainfall , which overall had forced 55 @,@ 000 people from their homes , including 1 @,@ 200 in East Saint Louis , Illinois where a floodgate broke . It was described as one of the worst floods in Oklahoma history . = ToeJam & Earl = ToeJam & Earl is an action video game developed by Johnson Voorsanger Productions and published by Sega for the Sega Genesis video game console . Released in 1991 , it centers on the titular ToeJam and Earl — alien rappers who have crash @-@ landed on Earth . As they attempt to escape the planet , players assume the role of either character and collect pieces of their wrecked spacecraft . ToeJam & Earl 's design was heavily influenced by the role @-@ playing video game Rogue , and took from it such features as the random generation of levels and items . It references and parodies 1980s and early 90s urban culture and is set to a funk soundtrack . The game was positively received by critics , who praised its originality , soundtrack , humor and two @-@ player cooperative mode . It attained sleeper hit status despite low initial sales , and its protagonists were used as mascots by Sega . ToeJam & Earl was followed by two sequels : ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron and ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth , released for the Mega Drive and Xbox , respectively . The sequels ' commercial and critical success was mixed . A fourth title , ToeJam & Earl : Back in the Groove , is currently in development with funds from Kickstarter . The game was re @-@ released for the Wii 's Virtual Console in December 2006 and re @-@ released again on PlayStation Network and Xbox Live Arcade in November 2012 . = = Synopsis = = ToeJam & Earl has been called a surreal , comic satire , and a " daringly misanthropic commentary on Earthly life " . ToeJam is red and has three legs . Earl is fat and orange . ToeJam wears a large gold medallion and a backwards baseball cap , while Earl is marked by high @-@ tops and oversized sunglasses ; both outfits are " over @-@ the @-@ top appropriations " of 1990s urban culture . Their speech features California slang . The game is set to a soundtrack which has been described both as jazz @-@ funk , and as hip hop . For the game 's unique sound , composer John Baker was inspired by Herbie Hancock and The Headhunters . In the game 's opening sequence , ToeJam explains that Earl 's erratic piloting abilities have resulted in a crash @-@ landing on planet Earth . He says that they must find the widely scattered pieces of their spacecraft 's wreckage to return to their home planet , Funkotron . The player guides the characters as they avoid Earth 's antagonistic inhabitants and search for the debris . Should the player succeed , the final sequence depicts ToeJam and Earl escaping the planet in their reconstructed spacecraft . Under the player 's control , the characters proceed across a purple landscape that represents Funkotron , and are greeted by their friends and family . = = Gameplay = = ToeJam & Earl takes place from a 3 / 4 perspective in a 2D game world . Its gameplay mechanics were inspired by Rogue , which has led to its description as a Roguelike or dungeon @-@ crawl game . The game contains both single @-@ player and two @-@ player cooperative modes . The latter displays a single screen when both characters are near each other , but splits it apart when they are not . Playing the game with two players reveals dialogue and jokes between the characters not heard in the single player game . The game is set on Earth , which is represented by randomly generated islands that float in space , each one a layer above the last . They are connected by elevators . Some islands contain pieces of spacecraft wreckage , of which the player must collect 10 to win the game . The player character drops to the island below if he falls from an island 's edge , which necessitates that the player again locate an elevator . Each island is populated by antagonistic " Earthlings " , such as phantom ice @-@ cream trucks , aggressive packs of " nerds " , giant hamsters , Bogeymen , man @-@ eating mailboxes , and chickens armed with mortars that shoot tomatoes . Certain Earthlings aid the player . The game has been described as " largely non @-@ violent " , as the protagonists can only attack enemies with thrown tomatoes — one of many temporary , randomly generated power @-@ ups . Power @-@ ups are contained in wrapped presents , which are categorized by appearance . The contents of a present are unknown to the player until it is opened ; afterwards , all presents of that appearance are identified . Identification of presents ' contents is a central gameplay mechanic . Each power @-@ up has a unique effect : while one might increase the player characters ' running speed , another distracts enemies . Certain presents contain harmful power @-@ ups , such the loss of a " life " , or the " randomizer " , which hides the identity of all presents . In the game 's cooperative mode , if one player character opens a present in the vicinity of the other , its contents affect both characters . As players open more presents , the chances of accidentally opening the randomizer are increased , which prevents the game from becoming easier as more presents are identified . = = Development = = ToeJam & Earl creator Greg Johnson became a fan of Rogue as a university student . After he left university , he worked on games for Electronic Arts , including Starflight ( 1986 ) . After the completion of Starflight 2 , Johnson conceived ToeJam & Earl — first the characters , then the plot — while on a beach in Hawaii . The idea was a combination of Rogue 's gameplay concepts and a lighter version of Starflight 's science @-@ fiction themes . Johnson met programmer Mark Voorsanger through a mutual friend , while walking on Mount Tam in 1989 . He related the concept of ToeJam & Earl to Voorsanger , and the two resolved to make the game together . They formed Johnson Voorsanger Productions , and serious work on the game began soon after . Their status as commercial game designers allowed them to meet with Sega of America , and they used cards covered in landscape drawings to demonstrate their idea of randomly generated levels . Sega marketing manager Hugh Bowen was immediately interested in the concept and he enlisted the aid of producer Scott Berfield to sell the game to management ; Sega wanted innovative games and new mascots to compete with Nintendo . The game 's small development team was composed of Johnson 's previous colleagues , and its music was composed by John Baker . The team 's goal was to make a humorous game that was " original , easy to understand and offered an immediate response to the player 's actions " . The designers wanted to include a two @-@ player mode so that they could play together , and considered ToeJam & Earl " a two player game with a one player option . " While Sega believed that hardware issues would prevent the feature from working , Voorsanger successfully implemented it . In a 1992 interview with Sega Visions , Johnson stated that the characters ToeJam and Earl evolved as reflections of his and Voorsanger 's personalities . Voorsanger disagreed , and called the characters " two different aspects of Greg 's personality " . Steve Purcell has stated that he contributed character designs to the game . = = Reception = = ToeJam & Earl received positive reviews , which Bill Paris of UGO described as " almost unanimous critical acclaim " . However , Sega deemed it a commercial failure due to low initial sales . The game built a cult following through word of mouth , and it was further aided by the Mega Drive 's Christmas 1991 sales spike , caused by the release of Sonic the Hedgehog . ToeJam & Earl was later considered a " cult " success . Mean Machines found the game addictive and original , but found fault with its slow @-@ paced combat . One of the reviewers said , " Not everyone will like it — it 's not normal enough for mass appeal — but I think it 's destined to become a massive cult classic " . GamePro called the game 's originality " incredible " , and praised its graphics , music and humor . MegaTech praised the graphics , and the 2 @-@ player option , and said the game was " great fun - pure and simple " . Mega said that it was " An OK game , but one which becomes completely essential when played with someone else . Got any friends ? Buy this . Haven 't got any friends ? Buy this and make some " . The game also appeared at number 26 on its list of the best games of all time . Entertainment Weekly praised the " absolutely hilarious " sound effects and music . Jeff Csatari of Boys ' Life called it " another hot game " for the Mega Drive , alongside Sonic the Hedgehog . Ed Martinez of Game Informer commended the game 's soundtrack and unique concept , but found it to be too easy . A review published in both the Chicago Tribune and Rome News @-@ Tribune likened ToeJam and Earl to " an outer @-@ space , rap version of Abbott and Costello " . The reviewers called it " the funniest game we 've seen in a long time " , and praised its soundtrack , graphics and action . The Toronto Star acclaimed the game 's " hilariously designed split @-@ screen two @-@ player mode " , and said , " If you 've got a Sega @-@ Genesis system , you simply must check out [ this ] awesome rap ' n ' roll game " . Sega Visions praised the game 's " no @-@ repetitive action " and said , " This is the zaniest game that ever rocked Sega 's Genesis system . " Several months after the game 's release , Mega ranked it the 13th best Mega Drive game in its All @-@ Time Top 100 feature . The magazine praised the game 's " superbly manic and zany action " , and deemed it both " original and insane " . The Channel 4 video game programme GamesMaster gave the game a 70 % rating . ToeJam & Earl was re @-@ released on the Nintendo Wii 's Virtual Console in 2006 . Official Nintendo Magazine scored the game 85 % , and praised its humor , originality and two @-@ player mode . However , the reviewer believed that the game 's enjoyability had diminished with time . GameSpot felt that the game 's 1990s idioms were dated , but that the gameplay — particularly the two @-@ player mode — was still enjoyable by modern standards . Jeremy Parish of 1UP found the game 's two @-@ player co @-@ operative mode more enjoyable than its single @-@ player , and described the graphics and sound as " oddly primitive " . Parish considered it " one of the best games to hit VC to date " . Eurogamer 's reviewer negatively received the game , and believed its gameplay to be unsatisfying and overly slow . IGN called the game 's visuals a " mixed bag " and derided the slow pace , but praised its unpredictability and believed that its sound design was " one thing you absolutely can 't fault " . = = Legacy = = ToeJam and Earl became " one of Sega 's second tier mascots , alongside Sonic " , and one of the Mega Drive 's " key exclusive franchises " . The characters appeared in a spin @-@ off light gun game , Ready , Aim , Tomatoes , developed by Johnson Voorsanger Productions as one of six mini @-@ games for the Menacer 6 @-@ game cartridge . In early 1992 , the developers began work on a sequel to ToeJam & Earl , and spent three months expanding on the original game 's concept by adding indoor areas and more terrain types . Sega was not impressed by the sequel , and believed it to be unmarketable . The team redesigned it as a platform game , as Sega was inclined to publish games in this genre . The game , titled ToeJam & Earl in Panic on Funkotron , was highly anticipated , and was a commercial and critical success when it released in 1993 . However , fans of the original game were disappointed by the change in design to a perceived generic style . Due to poor North American sales of the Sega Saturn , Sega 's next generation video game console , the ToeJam & Earl franchise was neglected . A ToeJam & Earl game planned for the Dreamcast was cancelled ( a beta of the game was preserved , and on Christmas Day 2013 released on the internet by enthusiasts ) , but a third installment , ToeJam & Earl III : Mission to Earth , was released for the Xbox in 2002 . The release returned to the concepts of the original game , but generated mixed reviews and poor sales . A new ToeJam & Earl game is currently in development by HumaNature Studios . ToeJam & Earl has been called " weird " , " strange " , and " thoroughly odd " . Critics have difficulty in determining a genre for the game ; it has been called a platform game and Roguelike , as well as action and action @-@ adventure . While ToeJam & Earl 's success did not match that of the Mega Drive 's other popular titles , it has been considered a " classic " , and a " cult " game . Prior to ToeJam & Earl III 's conception , research by its developers found that the original ToeJam & Earl was preferred over its sequel . In an IGN survey , 65 % of respondents cited it as their favorite of the three games . The game was set to be re @-@ released on Xbox Live Arcade after winning a poll arranged by Sega , but this became uncertain because Johnson owns the rights to the characters rather than Sega . The game , along with its sequel , was announced as part of Sega Vintage Collection series for release on November 7 , 2012 , to be released individually on PlayStation Network and as a collection on Xbox Live Arcade . The notion of a ToeJam & Earl game for the Nintendo DS failed to generate interest from publishers , but Johnson has reiterated the possibility of such a game in the future . In February 2015 , Johnson announced a new title , ToeJam & Earl : Back in the Groove , which is being developed independently from Sega and funded by Kickstarter . The game revisits the format of the original game , featuring 2D character models on 3D worlds with overhead perspective , and is planned to support online multiplayer . The game was seeking a funding target of $ 400 @,@ 000 USD by March 27 , 2015 , and reached its goal on March 25 , 2015 . On the last funding day , it reached $ 508 @,@ 638 USD with 8 @,@ 873 backers , so the game will feature " old school " skins for ToeJam and Earl , the Hyper Funk Zone from ToeJam and Earl : Panic on Funkotron , and will include bonus playable characters such as ToeJam 's cousin GeekJam , Earl 's Mom , Lewanda and Peabo from ToeJam and Earl : Panic On Funkotron and even Latisha from ToeJam and Earl III : Mission to Earth . = Flag of Singapore = The national flag of Singapore was adopted in 1959 , the year Singapore became self @-@ governing within the British Empire . It was reconfirmed as the national flag when the Republic gained independence on 9 August 1965 . The design is a horizontal bicolour of red above white , overlaid in the canton ( upper @-@ left quadrant ) by a white crescent moon facing a pentagon of five small white five @-@ pointed stars . The elements of the flag denote a young nation on the ascendant , universal brotherhood and equality , and national ideals . Vessels at sea do not use the national flag as an ensign . Merchant vessels and pleasure craft fly a civil ensign of red charged in white with a variant of the crescent and stars emblem in the centre . Non @-@ military government vessels such as coast guard ships fly a state ensign of blue with the national flag in the canton , charged with an eight @-@ pointed red and white compass rose in the lower fly . Naval warships fly a naval ensign similar to the state ensign , but in white with a red compass rose emblem . Rules defined by the Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Act govern the use and display of the national flag . These have been relaxed to allow citizens to fly the flag from vehicles during national holidays and from homes at any time of the year . = = History = = Singapore was under British rule in the 19th century , having been amalgamated into the Straits Settlements together with Malacca and Penang . The flag that was used to represent the Settlements was a British Blue Ensign containing three gold crowns — one for each settlement — separated by a red inverted pall , which resembles an inverted Y. The Settlement of Singapore had no separate flag , although the city was granted a coat of arms which featured a lion in 1911 . During the occupation of Singapore by the Japanese during the Second World War , the Japanese national flag was used on land by the military and during public events . Soon after the Second World War , Singapore became an independent Crown colony and adopted its own flag . It was modified from the Straits Settlements flag to reduce the number of crowns from three to one . Singapore became self @-@ governing within the British Empire on 3 June 1959 . Six months later , upon the installation of the new Yang di @-@ Pertuan Negara ( head of state ) on 3 December 1959 , the national flag was officially adopted , along with the state coat of arms and the national anthem Majulah Singapura ( " Onward Singapore " ) . Then @-@ Deputy Prime Minister Toh Chin Chye discussed the creation of the national flag in a 1989 interview : [ A ] lthough we were self governing it was necessary right from the beginning that we should rally enough different races together as a Singapore nation ... [ A ] part from the anthem we have to produce the flag and the crest , we insisted that it was a Singapore state flag and should be flown side by side with the Union Jack . The design of the flag was completed in two months by a committee headed by Toh . He initially wanted the flag 's entire background to be red , but the Cabinet decided against this , as red was regarded as a rallying point for communism . According to an account given by Lee Kuan Yew , the Chinese population wanted five stars , which were modeled off the flag of the People 's Republic of China and the Muslim population wanted a crescent moon . Both of these symbols were combined to create the national flag of Singapore . On 30 November 1959 , the Singapore State Arms and Flag and National Anthem Ordinance 1959 was passed to regulate the use and display of the State Arms and State Flag and the performance of the National Anthem . When presenting the motion to the Legislative Assembly of Singapore on 11 November 1959 , Sinnathamby Rajaratnam , the Minister for Culture , stated : " National flags , crest and anthem express symbolically the hopes and ideals of a people ... The possession of a national flag and crest is , for a people , symbolic of self @-@ respect . " In September 1962 , the people of Singapore voted to join the Federation of Malaysia . The process was completed on 16 September 1963 , when the Malaysian flag was hoisted on Singapore by Prime Minister Lee Kuan Yew . The Singapore flag was reconfirmed as the national flag when Singapore became fully independent from Malaysia on 9 August 1965 . = = Design = = The Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Rules define the flag 's composition and the symbolism of its elements : red symbolizes " universal brotherhood and equality of man " , and white , " pervading and everlasting purity and virtue " . The waxing crescent moon " represents a young nation on the ascendant " . The five stars " stand for the nation 's ideals of democracy , peace , progress , justice and equality " . During the second half of the 20th century , the star and crescent symbol came to be recognized as a symbol of Islamism , and Singapore 's flag came to be seen in this context by the nation 's Muslim activists . It remains the only non @-@ Muslim nation to have a crescent moon in its national flag . The ratio of the flag is two units high by three units wide . For the manufacturing of flags , the Government of Singapore stated that the shade of red used on the flag is Pantone 032 . According to guidelines published by the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ( MICA ) , the flag may be reproduced in any size and displayed at all times , but it must be in its specified proportions and colours . MICA recommends the sizes 915 by 1 @,@ 370 mm ( approx . 36 by 54 in ) , 1 @,@ 220 by 1 @,@ 830 mm ( approx . 48 by 72 in ) , and 1 @,@ 830 by 2 @,@ 740 mm ( approx . 72 by 108 in ) . The material that is recommended for the national flag is bunting wool . = = Regulations and guidelines = = Until 2004 , the flag was used exclusively on or in front of buildings owned by the government , ministries , statutory boards and educational institutions on a year @-@ round basis . The flag could only be flown by individuals and non @-@ governmental organisations during the month of August to mark the country 's national day on 9 August . During the National Day celebrations period ( 1 July — 30 September ) , rules governing the flying of the national flag outside buildings are relaxed . The flag may be displayed on any vehicle ( other than a hearse ) , vessel or aircraft , and may be incorporated as part of any costume or attire , so long as this is done in a respectful manner . These restrictions on individuals and non @-@ governmental organisations were relaxed in 2	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
004 to allow the flag to be flown year @-@ round under certain conditions . A statement from the Ministry of Information and the Arts ( now MICA , the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts ) said that " [ t ] he national flag , national anthem and Singapore lion head ... are our most visible symbols of our sovereignty , pride and honour " and urged Singaporeans to use those " rallying " symbols to " identify with the nation " . No rationale was provided for the changes , although BBC News correspondents noted that the government had recently been trying to rally patriotic sentiment dampened by economic issues . ( In 2003 , unemployment in Singapore reached a 17 @-@ year @-@ high of 5 @.@ 9 % , and the severe acute respiratory syndrome ( SARS ) epidemic in East Asia seriously affected the island 's tourist trade , causing Singapore Airlines to suffer a financial loss for the first time in its history . ) Following requests by Singaporeans , guidelines for the use of the flag were further broadened in 2006 to give residents a variety of opportunities to express their loyalty to Singapore during National Day celebrations such as the National Day Parade . MICA permitted them to display the flag on vehicles and on themselves or belongings with minimal restrictions , from the middle of July to the end of August for a trial period . The period was extended in 2007 to three months from July to September . Singaporean citizens , government and non @-@ governmental organisations may display or fly the national flag throughout the year to identify themselves with the nation , and especially encouraged to do so during occasions of national celebration or national significance . Non @-@ Singaporean businesses and organisations are also allowed to display the flag throughout the year . The use and display of the flag is governed by Part III of the Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Rules made under the Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Act . It is an offence to knowingly contravene specified provisions of the Singapore Arms and Flag and National Anthem Rules ; the penalty is a fine not exceeding S $ 1 @,@ 000 . The Singaporean government dictates that no person may treat the national flag with disrespect , such as allowing the flag to touch the ground . The flag must not be displayed below any other flag , emblem or object ; dipped in salute to any person or thing ; or displayed or carried flat or horizontally , but always aloft and free . Within Singapore , the national flag takes precedence over all other flags , subject to international practice . As such , when it is displayed or flown with other flags , it must be in a position of honour ; that is , it should be positioned , where practical , either above all other flags or , if displayed side by side with other flags on the same level , to the left of the other flags ( as seen by a person facing the flags ) . When the flag is raised or carried in a procession with other flags , it must be done so in front of the other flags in a single file , or on the right as seen by the standard bearers if the flags are carried side by side ( i.e. , on the left as seen by the viewer ) . The standard bearer must carry the flag high on his or her right shoulder . When the flag is displayed on a platform or stage , it must be above all decorations and be behind and above any person speaking from the platform or stage . If it is displayed from a staff standing on the platform or stage , it must be on the right side of the person speaking from the platform or stage . Finally , when the flag is hung , it must be hung against a vertical wall or other vertical flat surface , with the crescent and stars on the top left position as seen by any spectator facing the flag and the wall or surface . When the flag is displayed outside a building , it shall be displayed on or in front of the building only from a flagpole . If the flag is flown at night , it should be properly illuminated . The flag must not be displayed on any motor vehicle except on one in which the President of Singapore or any Government minister is travelling on official business . The flag may not be displayed on any private vessel or aircraft . No person may use or apply the flag or any image of it for any commercial purposes or as part of any furnishing , decoration , covering or receptacle , except in such circumstances as may be approved ( by MICA ) in which there is no disrespect for the flag . Further , it is not permitted to use the flag as part of any trademark , or to produce or display any flag which bears any graphics or word superimposed on the design of the national flag . The flag or any image of it may also not be used or applied as or as part of any costume or attire . The Government may ask for the flag to be lowered to half @-@ mast in the event of the death of an important person or for national mourning . No person is permitted to use the flag at any private funeral ceremony . However , the national flag can be draped on a coffin during a military or state funeral . No person may display any flag that is damaged or dirty . Any worn out or damaged flag should be packed into a sealed black trash bag before being disposed and not left visible in dustbins . = = Use of the national flag = = = = = During National Day celebrations = = = Singaporeans are encouraged to display the national flag outside their homes during National Day celebrations , and residents ' committees , particularly those of public housing estates , often arrange co @-@ ordinated displays . However , some Singaporeans decline to do so as they associate it with the People 's Action Party , the ruling party in Parliament , rather than with the nation . During the period beginning 1 July and ending on 30 September of each year , any person may , without the need for the approval of the Minister under paragraph ( 4 ) , incorporate the Flag or an image thereof as part of any costume or attire except that he shall do so in a manner that does not give rise to any disrespect to the Flag . On National Day in 2007 at the Padang , 8 @,@ 667 volunteers holding up red and white umbrellas formed the largest @-@ ever representation of Singapore 's flag at an event organised by Young NTUC , a youth movement associated with the National Trades Union Congress . = = = At other times = = = Outside the National Day celebrations period , the national flag of Singapore is flown from all buildings housing government and government @-@ related departments , such as armed forces installations , court houses , offices , and educational institutions . A picture of the flag is commonly found in each classroom , and schools conduct ceremonies at the beginning and the end of the school day at which the national flag is raised and lowered , the national anthem is sung and the national pledge is taken . The national flag is sometimes flown by Singapore @-@ registered vessels , although this is considered incorrect , as such vessels are required to hoist proper national colours either when entering or leaving port . The ensign is red and charged with a circle enclosing a crescent surmounted by five stars in a circle , all in white . The national flag is not used by coast guard ships and military warships ; both classes of ships have their own specific ensigns . The Singapore Government makes announcements regarding the lowering of the flag to half @-@ mast in the event of a death of an important personage or mourning affecting the nation . The flag has been flown at half @-@ mast during the funerals of former presidents and senior politicians , and on 9 January 2005 as a mark of respect for those who perished in the 2004 Asian Tsunami disaster . = = = In culture = = = Singaporean composer Lim Su Chong composed a song in 1969 entitled Five Stars Arising which took the elements of the national flag as its theme . The lyrics of the song speak of a new moon , five stars and a new flag " arising out of the stormy sea " . The moon is " [ y ] outhful and bright and bearing hope , and tranquil as can be " , each of the stars is " a lamp to guide our way ; a lamp for all to see " and the flag is " [ c ] rimson as the blood of all mankind , yet white and pure and free " . The song is often sung during National Day celebrations . In January 2003 , Singaporean artist Justin Lee Chee Kong was prevented by the Media Development Authority ( MDA ) from exhibiting a painting entitled Double Happiness — A Fantasy in Red , which consisted of an image of the Singapore flag with various red images of the Chinese characters for double happiness . The move was made on the grounds that " the National Flag is a national symbol and no words or graphics should be superimposed on it " . Lee reported that the work was simply a display of one 's love for their country and an expression of joy at Singapore 's success , and in a press statement , he asked that the piece be " treated as an artistic and complimentary interpretation of a national icon " . When interviewed by The New Paper , he said " I know as a citizen that we are not allowed to do it , but this is art and I am an artist . " He also complained about double standards as a Chinese artist , Gu Wen Da , had recently exhibited a national flag made of hair at the Esplanade - Theatres on the Bay . Lee felt the use of hair to create the nation 's flag meant that the flag was in the wrong colours , and was distasteful . Also in 2003 , The Rolling Stones performed in Singapore as part of their 2002 / 2003 Licks World Tour . At the first performance , there were two inflatable dolls on stage . Both of the dolls had flags placed in their crotch area ; one had the Rolling Stones logo and the other had a Singapore flag . Because of the illegal use of the state flag , and for fear of dealing with the government , the dolls and the flags were removed from the second concert by the organizer . In August 2007 , a Singaporean pub , Loof , sent an electronic direct mailer ( e @-@ flyer ) to at least 1 @,@ 500 members on its mailing list featuring a close @-@ up shot of the crotch of a female model wearing a red swimsuit or pair of underpants bearing the crescent and five stars of the national flag . This was done as part of the pub 's publicity campaign for its National Day events . According to Loof 's marketing manager , " [ T ] he ad was definitely not meant as an insult to the country or anyone . I hope that the ad will be taken in the spirit of humour and fun . " A majority of people polled by The New Paper felt the advertisement was disrespectful and in bad taste . MICA said that the advertisement did not breach the law as it only reproduced some components of the flag — it did not , for example , incorporate the flag 's red and white background together . However , K.U. Menon , director of MICA 's National Resilience Division , said : " MICA does not encourage such ads which treat the national flag with disrespect . [ ... ] Symbols should be treated with some measure of dignity and we hope Loof will withdraw the ad on its own initiative . " In November 2010 , during the Asian Games held in China , the Singaporean men 's water polo team 's swim trunks came under controversy for inappropriately displaying elements of the Singaporean Flag . Critics deemed the garment insulting and an embarrassment to the country , with the crescent moon positioned in the centre of the brief , directly over the crotch area . The garment had been designed by the team itself but had not received prior approval from the Ministry of Information , Communications and the Arts . However , even after the controversy came to light , the team was still able to continue wearing it as competition rules did not permit changing a team 's uniform midway through the Games . The team was apologetic over the blunder and promised to tweak the design after that competition . = = Other flags of Singapore = = In addition to the national flag and ensigns , there are other flags used for official purposes . = = = Articles = = = Smith , Whitney ( 1966 ) . A History of the Symbols of Singapore . Flag Bulletin 5 ( Winchester , Mass . : Flag Research Center ) . pp. 60 – 67 . ISSN 0015 @-@ 3370 . . " No conflict , clear @-@ cut symbol of unity " . The Sunday Times . 1981 @-@ 08 @-@ 09 @.@ p . 13 . Aslaksen , Helmer ( 2007 @-@ 03 @-@ 11 ) . " The mathematics and astronomy of the Singapore flag " . Department of Mathematics , National University of Singapore . Retrieved 2007 @-@ 11 @-@ 03 . = = = Books = = = Singapore Legislative Assembly ( 1959 ) . State Arms and Flag and National Anthem of Singapore ( Legislative Assembly ( New Series ) Misc . 2 of 1959 ) . Singapore : Printed at the Government Printing Office . State Arms & Flag of Singapore . Singapore : Publicity Division , Ministry of Culture . 1977 . Crampton , William ( 1992 ) . The World of Flags : A Pictorial History ( Rev. ed . ) . London : Studio Editions. p . 88 . The National Symbols Kit . Singapore : Prepared by Programmes Section , Ministry of Information and the Arts . 1999 . A kit on the key symbols of Singapore consisting of eight fact sheets , one booklet , one CD and one national flag . = = = Other media = = = Singapore Broadcasting Corporation ( 1988 ) . Flag and Anthem , 3 December 1959 [ videorecording ] . Singapore : Television Corporation of Singapore . A documentary on the national flag and anthem of Singapore . Gives an account on how the present design of the flag was arrived at , and includes an interview with the national anthem 's composer , Zubir Said . = St George 's Academy = St George 's Academy is a co @-@ educational comprehensive secondary school based in the English market town of Sleaford in Lincolnshire , with a satellite school at nearby Ruskington . Its origins date to 1908 , when Sleaford Council School opened at Church Lane to meet the growing demand for elementary education in the town . After the Education Act 1944 , the senior department became a secondary modern . A second school building was constructed at Westholme in the 1950s and expanded in 1983 , allowing the Church Lane site to close ; to mark the occasion , it was renamed St George 's School . After it became grant @-@ maintained , the school received a Technology specialism , became a Technology College in 1994 and later converted to Foundation status . Coteland 's School in Ruskington federated with St George 's in 2007 ; they merged to form the Academy in 2010 . The Sleaford school opened with a capacity for 600 pupils in 1908 , but St George 's had 2 @,@ 220 on roll across both sites in 2015 , of which 374 attended the Sixth Form ; the Ruskington site , with roughly 350 pupils , makes up a small proportion of the total . Pupils generally sit examinations for ten General Certificate of Secondary Education ( GCSE ) qualifications in Year Eleven ( aged 15 – 16 ) , and they have a choice of three or four A @-@ levels in the sixth form , which is part of the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form consortium . In 2013 , 88 % of pupils achieved five GCSEs at grade A * -C and 51 % achieved that including English and mathematics . An Office for Standards in Education , Children 's Services and Skills ( Ofsted ) inspection in 2015 graded St George 's Academy as " good " in every category . = = History = = = = = Elementary school = = = During most of the 19th century , schooling in England was provided either on a fee @-@ paying basis or by the Church . To ensure that all children had access to elementary education , the Forster Act 1870 set up Local School Boards to provide elementary schools for all children aged 5 to 10 . From 1880 , schooling became compulsory for that age group . The Education Act 1902 consolidated these boards into local education authorities and allowed them to subsidise schools with money raised from local rate @-@ payers . Alongside a grammar school for boys , a private school for girls and a mixed National School , Sleaford had four elementary schools in 1905 : two Wesleyan ( one was for infants ) , one Catholic and one other infants school . The construction of the Bass maltings ( 1901 – 1906 ) and the Rauceby Asylum ( 1897 – 1902 ) led to an increase in the town 's population and school inspectors found that the four schools could not accommodate every child in the town . The indebted Wesleyan schools could not afford any enlargements so the town 's elementary school managers opted for Kesteven County Council to take responsibility under the 1902 Act . The Council built a schoolhouse on Church Lane at the cost of £ 11 @,@ 500 , which opened as Sleaford Council School on 4 May 1908 . The staff and pupils at the Wesleyan schools were transferred there ; its first headmaster was H. H. Godfrey , who had been master at the Wesleyan school . Built with a capacity of 600 pupils , 280 were on roll when teaching commenced . From the outset , the school was run as an elementary school with an infants ' department . In 1918 , the Fisher Act raised the school leaving age to 14 and many schools subsequently split into junior and senior departments ; to accommodate senior children at Sleaford Council School , the County Council proposed formally introducing separate departments , one for infants and junior pupils ( those aged below 10 ) , and another for the remaining ( senior ) pupils . The Board of Education approved these plans in 1922 . In 1935 the County Council reorganised schooling in Sleaford so that the Council School 's senior department received all the town 's children in elementary education aged over 10 . The Board of Education sanctioned these changes on the condition that new classrooms be added to the Council school to accommodate Senior pupils and a new Infants ' department be erected at the site . Financial setbacks and delays over the purchasing of land meant that the new Infants ' school was not completed until 1939 . = = = Secondary Modern and new site = = = The Education Act 1944 made secondary education available to all children up to the age of 15 ; a ' tripartite system ' of secondary schools was established to provide curricula based on aptitude and ability : grammar schools for " academic " pupils , secondary moderns for practical studies , and technical schools for science and engineering . Pupils were allocated to them depending on their score in the eleven @-@ plus examination . The Senior department at the Sleaford Council School became its own school in March 1945 and was designated a secondary modern ; the County Council announced in May 1947 that the Infants ' School would close and the former Senior school would be allocated £ 50 @,@ 000 for adaptions as part of its conversion into a secondary modern for boys . The school would use parkland at Westholme for playing fields , where a separate secondary modern for girls would be constructed and the High School rebuilt . In 1957 the Secondary Education Sub @-@ Committee amended the plans so that a new mixed secondary modern school be built on Westholme to replace the Church Lane school , which would become a further education college . The school would be allocated over 18 acres ( 7 @.@ 3 ha ) of the parkland . By 1960 , a new school building at Westholme had opened but Sleaford Secondary Modern was now split between there and the Church Lane site . = = = Comprehensive debate = = = The educational opportunities for secondary modern pupils were limited compared to those at grammar schools , prompting criticism of the selection system ; grammar schools and the eleven plus were also criticised for alienating working @-@ class families . A reluctance to improve secondary moderns or expand grammar schools under the Conservatives prompted the Labour Government to issue Circular 10 / 65 in 1965 which requested local education authorities convert to a comprehensive system . In 1971 , Sleaford parents voted in favour of comprehensive education , but rejected the Council 's proposals . New plans were unveiled in 1973 : the High School and the Secondary Modern sites were to become mixed 11 – 16 schools and Carre 's would become a sixth form college . Parents voted for the plans ( 1 @,@ 199 to 628 ) , albeit with a 50 % turnout . The County Council approved them , but allowed governors a veto . Following negotiations with governors at Carre 's , the scheme was revised in 1974 so that Carre 's and the High School became 11 – 18 schools ; the secondary modern would be closed , Westholme absorbed by the High School and the Church Lane site by Carre 's . Despite support from most staff and all three headteachers , the new Lincolnshire County Council voted to return the scheme for further consultation in January 1975 , a moved the Sleaford Standard called " politically motivated " . Two of the leading opponents , councillors Eric Fairchild and Reg Brealey , were governors at the secondary modern and Brealey was a former pupil . He proposed a three @-@ school system , arguing it offered more choice : the secondary modern would be consolidated at Westholme as a single @-@ site 11 – 16 school ; Carre 's and the High School would operate Sixth Forms . Fairchild argued that this would be more popular and cheaper . After the Government ordered the Council to submit a comprehensive proposal in 1977 , it voted to submit the three @-@ school system , which had become popular with parents and was championed by Brealey , who had become chairman of the Governors . But , the Labour Education Secretary , Shirley Williams , dismissed the proposals in 1978 on grounds that the Sixth Forms would be too small . The council then voted against the two @-@ school system again . = = = St George 's : rebuilding , growth and specialist status = = = In the 1979 general election , a Conservative government came to power and the Council shifted focus towards retaining Grammar Schools where they still existed and improving schools where work had been put on hold during the comprehensive debate ; despite 90 % of English councils adopting comprehensive education , Lincolnshire had resisted . In 1979 , the schools sub @-@ committee recommended that the Westholme site be rebuilt . By December , the Council had approved the consolidation of the school at Westholme , but the catchment area was decreased to protect the smaller schools at Billingborough and Billinghay , causing controversy amongst parents in affected areas and governors at the school . A new building was constructed at Westholme between 1981 and 1983 , allowing the Church Lane site to close in 1983 − 4 . Reg Brealey donated £ 250 @,@ 000 in 1982 towards the establishment of a languages centre , which opened in 1985 . To commemorate the new buildings and the end of the dual @-@ site format , the Board of Governors voted to adopt a new name : St George 's School , which came into effect from September 1984 . A new badge , to be worn on pupil 's blazers , was designed by pupil Stephen Robinson : it featured a gold sword atop a red dragon on a blue shield , bordered with gold , all above a scroll with the motto Loyalty . By 1991 , St George 's was grant @-@ maintained ; in 1992 , it was awarded Technology School status , which was accompanied by a Government grant of £ 500 @,@ 000 and a gift of £ 250 @,@ 000 made by Reg Brealey ; these contributed to the construction of a Science and Technology building , which opened in 1994 . Sponsored by Brealey , St George 's was one of the first schools designated a Technology College ( a specialist school ) in England in February 1994 , a status renewed in 1997 . More extensions followed : an English building in 1994 , a library with art and physics classrooms in 1997 , a sports hall in 2001 , and a science building in 2005 . In 2000 , the Technology College status was renewed for the second time and the school received the Schools Curriculum and Sportsmark awards and was recognised as the 10th most improved specialist school in the country . After the abolition of grant @-@ maintained status in 1998 , St George 's converted to a Foundation School . = = = Federation , merger and conversion to an Academy = = = In 2002 , Ofsted recommended that Lincolnshire County Council review schools with under 600 pupils . Two years later , the Council 's education officers suggested that some of these schools merge , close or federate to make them more economical . One such school was Lafford High in Billinghay , which had been under @-@ performing in GCSE and A @-@ level league tables . St George 's became federated with Lafford and another small village school , Aveland High in Billingborough in 2005 and 2006 respectively . A plan to merge them into an Academy was announced the following year ; Coteland 's School in Ruskington was allowed to opt @-@ in . When David Veal retired as headteacher of Coteland 's in 2007 , the school joined the federation ; with that , Paul Watson became executive head of all four schools . Despite improvements , the village schools were performing below the national average and Aveland was one of the lowest performing schools academically in Lincolnshire . The County Council began consulting parents in 2008 about closing Lafford due to falling numbers . Despite denials from Watson , parents complained that he had lost " passion " for the school and that St George 's " cherry @-@ picked " the most able pupils . After a heated meeting with them in 2008 , Watson resigned as Principal at Lafford and the school closed in 2010 . The first Academy plans outlined a £ 24 million grant for rebuilding Aveland and refurbishing Lafford . Despite a delay in 2008 , the scheme was revived the following year : the three remaining schools would merge and up to £ 40 million of funds were being considered to pay for the redevelopment of each site . The chairman of the governors , Graham Arnold , pledged to raise £ 2 million towards the scheme . A feasibility report indicated that Aveland was not sustainable due to falling enrolment and would have to close ; instead the remaining two sites would be redeveloped with £ 20 million of Government funding . The scheme was approved and , on 4 January 2010 , St George 's combined with Coteland 's and Aveland to become St George 's Academy . As planned , September 2012 saw the Billingborough site close and the remaining pupils transfer to the other sites . The oldest part of the Sleaford site was demolished and main building and sixth form centre constructed in its place , while new science and IT buildings were added and a new IT system rolled out ; the original post @-@ war buildings at the Ruskington site were pulled down and a new school built . = = School structure = = St George 's Academy is a state @-@ run comprehensive secondary school and Sixth Form serving pupils aged between 11 and 18 . It converted to an Academy on 4 January 2010 and is run by St George 's Academy Trust and sponsored by the University of Lincoln , Lincolnshire County Council and Graham Arnold , who is the main sponsor . The school operates across two sites : one at Westholme , Sleaford , and the other in Ruskington , which approximately 350 pupils attend . The school is co @-@ educational and has a maximum capacity of 2 @,@ 500 pupils ; as of January 2014 , there are 2 @,@ 220 pupils on roll : 1 @,@ 175 boys and 1 @,@ 045 girls . 11 @.@ 2 % of these pupils receive free school meals . St George 's can admit up to 380 pupils annually . Upon admission , pupils are allocated a mixed ability form , where they are registered , taught Life Skills and have access to pastoral support from their tutors . For all other lessons , pupils are setted by ability . Each year group has a progress manager with responsibility for the students in that year . Since the Education Act 2002 , years 7 , 8 and 9 have been grouped into Key Stage 3 and years 10 and 11 into Key Stage 4 , which co @-@ ordinates how the National Curriculum is taught . At St George 's , a manager is assigned to each Key Stage for pastoral support . Before the conversion to Academy status , the school uniform consisted of a navy @-@ blue blazer with the school emblem sewn on , a white shirt , navy @-@ blue tie and dark @-@ grey trousers ( girls could wear plain @-@ blue skirts ) for all pupils in years 7 – 10 ; year 11 pupils could wear a dark @-@ blue jumper , shirt and grey trousers . Since 2010 , girls no longer wear ties , and must wear a revere collar blouse . Dark @-@ grey trousers or a pleated dark @-@ grey skirt are available for girls to wear ; boys have dark @-@ grey trousers . All pupils wear a blue blazer , but those in Key Stage 3 have bright blue piping on their lapels ; shirts are white until Year 11 , when thin blue stripes are worn . There is capacity for 450 pupils in the Sixth Form , including up to 50 people from outside the Academy . Along with Carre 's Grammar School , St George 's is part of the Sleaford Joint Sixth Form , which was founded in 1983 and included Kesteven and Sleaford High School until it withdrew in 2010 . It provides a common timetable across both sites and allows for pupils to choose from A @-@ Level options offered at both schools . Pupils may apply to be based at either school , where their pastoral and tutorial activities take place . Pupils are required meet minimum grade requirements for their subject choices and may have interviews to revise offers where appropriate . The Sixth Form has been based in the Arnold Centre since 2012 . Sixth Formers are not required to wear school uniform , but must wear business @-@ like attire , namely a lounge suit for boys , including a tie , and a business suit for girls , with either full @-@ length trousers , or a knee @-@ length skirt or dress . = = Curriculum = = = = = Key Stages 3 and 4 = = = As of 2014 , the school follows the National Curriculum in Years 7 – 11 and offers a range of GCSEs ( national exams taken by pupils aged 14 – 16 ) and A @-@ Levels ( national exams taken by pupils aged 16 – 18 ) . The school has no affiliation with a particular religious denomination , but religious education is given throughout the school , and pupils may opt to take the subject as part of their GCSE course . Although morning assemblies take place and are Christian in nature , they are non @-@ denominational ; in some cases , local clergy attend as guest speakers . Pupils participate in a number of educational visits throughout their school career and Year 10 pupils are offered the opportunity to participate in a work experience programme , which usually lasts for two @-@ weeks . For Key Stage 3 pupils , the curriculum comprises English , mathematics , science , technology , a modern foreign language , art , Information and Communications Technology ( ICT ) , geography , history , religious education ( RE ) , physical education ( PE ) , and a life skills programme , incorporating citizenship , sex and relationships education and personal and social education . The school offers French , Spanish and German as foreign languages and , in Year 8 , pupils take a second language to supplement the one studied in Year 7 . The use of ICT is central to all teaching and is taught as a subject in Key Stage 3 . In Key Stage 4 ( Years 10 and 11 ) , pupils study a core curriculum comprising English , mathematics , science , PE , RE and citizenship . They are required to take GCSEs in English , mathematics and science , alongside two option blocks , plus either a modern foreign language or a vocational course . English Language is taught in Year 10 and Literature the following year . Mathematics in taken by all pupils ; they may opt @-@ in for a GCSE in Statistics in Year 10 , and the most able pupils may take Further Maths at GCSE in Year 11 . Science courses are based on ability ; pupils may study for three separate science qualifications , a dual or single award in Science or BTEC Applied Science. pupils may choose a modern foreign language ( French , Spanish or German ) , a humanity ( history or geography ) , computing or separate sciences ( biology , chemistry and physics ) for their options as part of the English Baccalaureate . Additionally , the school offers six technology courses at GCSE ( electronics , food technology , graphics , product design , resistant materials and textiles ) , as well as art and design , drama , music , PE , RE and child development GCSE qualifications . Vocational courses are also offered at Level 2 , including applied business , construction , engineering , health and social care , ICT , music , performing arts , and travel and tourism . Pupils also participate in work @-@ related learning . = = = Sixth Form = = = The majority of pupils take four A @-@ levels subjects in Year 12 , with most choosing to focus on three in Year 13 . The Joint Sixth Form allows pupils to choose from 63 vocational or academic subjects including : art and photography ( separate A @-@ Level or BTEC options ) , applied Science , biology , bricklaying , business ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , childcare , carpentry , chemistry , computing or ICT ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , drama or performing arts ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , electronics , engineering , English ( language and / or literature ) , film or media studies , French , German , geography , government and politics , health and social care , history , hospitality and catering , law , mathematics and further mathematics , music ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , philosophy and ethics , psychology , physical education or sport ( A @-@ Level or BTEC ) , physics , product design , public services , light vehicle maintenance , Spanish , sociology , travel and tourism , and work skills . = = = Examinations = = = In 2013 , 88 % of pupils achieved five GCSEs at grade A * -C and 51 % achieved that including English and Maths , the thirty @-@ fourth highest percentage in the county ( out of ninety @-@ six ) . Figures for the 2010 / 11 cohort show that 84 % of pupils continue in education after leaving Year 11 , with 45 % carrying on to Sixth Form , 33 % going into Further Education and 6 % participating in an apprenticeship programme . In 2013 , 50 % of pupils achieved at least three A @-@ Levels at grades A * -E and 4 % achieved at least three A @-@ Levels at a minimum of AAB grades including at least two " facilitating subjects " ; the average point score per pupil was 660 @.@ 4 and the average grade per entry was a D + . = = = Extracurricular activities = = = School clubs and societies include singing and drama clubs , chess club , sports clubs , film club and computer games club . A student council system is in place which acts as a forum between pupils and staff ; elected representatives of each year group attend fortnightly , pupil @-@ run meetings to discuss school policies with staff . On the Ruskington site , a pupil @-@ run Interact Club , sponsored by the Rotary Club of Sleaford and Kesteven , coordinates charitable and community work in the school . The school newspaper club produces an annual newsletter and the school takes part in the BBC School Report day . Badminton , association football , volleyball , trampolining and gymnastics clubs are run every week at the Academy . The physical education department runs Inter @-@ House sports competitions and co @-@ ordinates school rugby , association football , basketball , boccia and netball teams . The music department hosts a junior and senior choir , swing band , Woodwind ensemble , Samba group and Vocal groups ; the music rehearsal rooms can be booked for band practice . Pupils can audition for parts in the school 's annual musical production and summer cabaret . For a fee , pupils may take up music lessons taught by tutors at the school . The school has supported music students in local and regional music festivals . = = Sites and property = = = = = Church Lane , Sleaford ( 1908 – 1984 ) = = = The site at Church Lane was acquired at a cost of £ 900 in c . 1908 ; it was undeveloped when the previous Ordnance Survey map was completed in 1905 . The schoolhouse was constructed to the plans of Mr Dunne of Lincoln by the contractors Messrs Wright and Son , also of Lincoln , who secured the contract for £ 7 @,@ 442 . The school building had entrances for girls and boys , who were taught separately in six classrooms ; the assembly hall was 62 by 28 feet ( 18 @.@ 9 by 8 @.@ 5 m ) with a domed ceiling . An infants ' department consisted of three classrooms , while a workshop and kitchen were housed in separate buildings . When teaching was transferred to the Westholme site in 1984 , the original schoolhouse was demolished . The Infants ' School buildings survived until the early 2000s , when they were also torn down to make way for the new buildings of its successor , Church Lane Primary School . = = = Westholme , Sleaford ( 1957 – present ) = = = Westholme House was designed by Charles Kirk the younger and built by his firm Kirk and Parry in c . 1849 . The Gothic stone mansion , off Westgate , is situated in grounds spanning 32 acres ( 13 ha ) ( as of 2011 ) . The Victorian buildings also include stables , which Sir Nikolaus Pevsner called " charming " , and two Tudor @-@ style lodges . Initially occupied by Kirk 's business partner Thomas Parry , the businessman and Liberal politician Samuel Pattinson lived at the house from at least 1924 until his death in 1942 . His wife , Betsy Sharpley Pattinson , died the same year and their trustees auctioned off the furniture at Westholme in 1944 . During the Second World War , the grounds were occupied by the War Department , but by 1945 Kesteven County Council had acquired the land and planned to use it for educational purposes . In 1957 , the Council proposed a new mixed secondary modern school building on the site and , by 1960 , the new building housed Sleaford Secondary Modern , which operated there and at the Church Lane premises . A new building at Westholme was constructed from 1981 to 1983 at the cost of £ 1 million . It included a gymnasium , changing facilities , and music , technology and domestic science classrooms . A civic centre opened in the main building with conference rooms and a bar which could be hired out . Run by a committee of Town Councillors , school governors and the headmaster , the centre could also let out the school hall and gymnasium to the public . A languages centre , partially funded by Reg Brealey , opened in 1985 . Fitted with a satellite dish that could pick up signals from Russia , the centre housed a computer laboratory and classrooms ; a local reporter described it as " probably the most advanced in the country " at the time its designs were released to the public . In 1994 , science , technology and English buildings opened followed by a library and art centre in 1997 . A second sports hall was completed in 2001 and extended in 2003 to include ICT classrooms ; science and construction buildings were completed in 2005 , a childcare centre in 2008 and an art building in c . 2009 . The school 's conversion to an Academy included a £ 20 million grant , which funded renovations around the site and the construction of two new buildings : a science and IT building , and the Arnold Centre , which opened in 2012 and included a new hall , Sixth Form centre , library , drama studio and classrooms . = = = Billingborough ( 2010 – 2012 ) = = = The Lord Lieutenant of Lincolnshire , the Earl of Ancaster , opened Billingborough County Secondary Modern School in 1963 . On 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) of playing ground , including tennis courts , the steel @-@ framed building was constructed by Messrs. Fosters of Grantham under the supervision of J. W. H. Barnes , county architect . It housed an assembly hall and dining space , gymnasium and three @-@ storeys of classrooms alongside workshops for practical subjects . Following the closure of the Billingborough site , the buildings were demolished in 2014 . = = = Ruskington ( 2010 – present ) = = = In 1947 , Kesteven County Council outlined its 15 @-@ year plan for secondary education , which included the construction of a new secondary modern school at Ruskington . The buildings were completed in the 1950s and teaching commenced at Ruskington Secondary Modern School in 1956 ; the buildings were officially opened by Sir John Wolfenden , Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University of Reading , the following year . Built on a 9 @-@ acre ( 3 @.@ 6 ha ) site at a cost of £ 100 @,@ 658 , the new school buildings consisted of a three @-@ storeys of classrooms and a gymnasium , assembly / dining hall , library and greenhouse . The buildings were built around a prefabricated steel frame and modular concrete blocks clad in brick . Much of the site was devoted to playing fields , which were supplemented by eight grass tennis courts and playground . These buildings were demolished in 2012 and work began on a new school as part of the Academy development plans . A hall and classrooms were completed in January 2015 as the first phase of the rebuilding ; work on the second phase , which is planned to include vocational classrooms and a technology suite , began two months later and was scheduled for completion in September 2015 . With the second phase complete , the new campus buildings were officially opened on 6 November 2015 . = = Headteachers = = The first headmaster at Sleaford Council School was H. H. Godfrey , who had been schoolmaster at the Weslyan school on Westgate since the 1890s . His successor at the Senior department , A. R. N. Rooksby , had taught in Grantham , a background not dissimilar to the third headmaster , F. A. Speechley . Appointed in 1973 , John Hodgson was the first university @-@ educated headteacher of the school . All four remained in the role for at least twenty years , with Hodgson being the longest serving at 25 years . Upon retirement , he was succeeded by Paul Watson , who had served at two Lincolnshire schools before his appointment ; he formally used the title " principal " instead of headteacher . He was at St George 's for 15 years until he retired and gave way to Wayne Birks , in 2014 . = Ravi Shankar = Ravi Shankar , KBE ( IPA : [ ˈrɔbi ˈʃɔŋkɔr ] ; 7 April 1920 – 11 December 2012 ) , born Rabindra Shankar Chowdhury , his name often preceded by the title Pandit ( ' Master ' ) , was a known Indian musician and a composer of Hindustani classical music . He was one of the best @-@ known exponents of the sitar in the second half of the 20th century and influenced many other musicians throughout the world . Shankar was born to a Bengali family in India , and spent his youth touring India and Europe with the dance group of his brother Uday Shankar . He gave up dancing in 1938 to study sitar playing under court musician Allauddin Khan . After finishing his studies in 1944 , Shankar worked as a composer , creating the music for the Apu Trilogy by Satyajit Ray , and was music director of All India Radio , New Delhi , from 1949 to 1956 . In 1956 he began to tour Europe and the Americas playing Indian classical music and increased its popularity there in the 1960s through teaching , performance , and his association with violinist Yehudi Menuhin and Beatles guitarist George Harrison . His influence on the latter helped popularize the use of Indian instruments in pop music throughout the 1960s . Shankar engaged Western music by writing compositions for sitar and orchestra , and toured the world in the 1970s and 1980s . From 1986 to 1992 , he served as a nominated member of Rajya Sabha , the upper chamber of the Parliament of India . He continued to perform until the end of his life . In 1999 , Shankar was awarded India 's highest civilian honour , the Bharat Ratna . = = Early life = = Shankar was born on 7 April 1920 in Varanasi , British India , to a Bengali family , as the youngest of seven brothers . His father , Shyam Shankar , was a Middle Temple barrister and scholar from East Bengal ( now Bangladesh ) . A respected statesman , lawyer and politician , he served for several years as dewan ( chief minister ) of Jhalawar , Rajasthan , and used the Sanskrit spelling of the family name and removed its last part . Shyam was married to Hemangini Devi who hailed from a small village named Nasrathpur in Mardah block of Ghazipur district , near Benares , and her father was a prosperous landlord . Shyam later worked as a lawyer in London , England , and there he married a second time while Devi raised Shankar in Varanasi , and did not meet his son until he was eight years old . Shankar shortened the Sanskrit version of his first name , Ravindra , to Ravi , for " sun " . Shankar had six siblings , only four of whom lived past infancy : Uday ( who became a famous choreographer and dancer ) , Rajendra , Debendra and Bhupendra . Shankar attended the Bengalitola High School in Benares between 1927 and 1928 . At the age of ten , after spending his first decade in Varanasi , Shankar went to Paris with the dance group of his brother , choreographer Uday Shankar . By the age of 13 he had become a member of the group , accompanied its members on tour and learned to dance and play various Indian instruments . Uday 's dance group toured Europe and the United States in the early to mid @-@ 1930s and Shankar learned French , discovered Western classical music , jazz , cinema and became acquainted with Western customs . Shankar heard Allauddin Khan - the lead musician at the court of the princely state of Maihar - play at a music conference in December 1934 in Calcutta , and Uday convinced the Maharaja of Maihar in 1935 to allow Khan to become his group 's soloist for a tour of Europe . Shankar was sporadically trained by Khan on tour , and Khan offered Shankar training to become a serious musician under the condition that he abandon touring and come to Maihar . = = Career = = = = = Training and work in India = = = Shankar 's parents had died by the time he returned from the European tour , and touring the West had become difficult because of political conflicts that would lead to World War II . Shankar gave up his dancing career in 1938 to go to Maihar and study Indian classical music as Khan 's pupil , living with his family in the traditional gurukul system . Khan was a rigorous teacher and Shankar had training on sitar and surbahar , learned ragas and the musical styles dhrupad , dhamar , and khyal , and was taught the techniques of the instruments rudra veena , rubab , and sursingar . He often studied with Khan 's children Ali Akbar Khan and Annapurna Devi . Shankar began to perform publicly on sitar in December 1939 and his debut performance was a jugalbandi ( duet ) with Ali Akbar Khan , who played the string instrument sarod . Shankar completed his training in 1944 @.@ he moved to Mumbai and joined the Indian People 's Theatre Association , for whom he composed music for ballets in 1945 and 1946 . Shankar recomposed the music for the popular song " Sare Jahan Se Achcha " at the age of 25 . He began to record music for HMV India and worked as a music director for All India Radio ( AIR ) , New Delhi , from February 1949 to January 1956 . Shankar founded the Indian National Orchestra at AIR and composed for it ; in his compositions he combined Western and classical Indian instrumentation . Beginning in the mid @-@ 1950s he composed the music for the Apu Trilogy by Satyajit Ray , which became internationally acclaimed . He was music director for several Hindi movies including Godaan and Anuradha . = = = 1956 – 69 : International career = = = V. K. Narayana Menon , director of AIR Delhi , introduced the Western violinist Yehudi Menuhin to Shankar during Menuhin 's first visit to India in 1952 . Shankar had performed as part of a cultural delegation in the Soviet Union in 1954 and Menuhin invited Shankar in 1955 to perform in New York City for a demonstration of Indian classical music , sponsored by the Ford Foundation . Shankar declined to attend because of problems in his marriage , but recommended Ali Akbar Khan to play instead . Khan reluctantly accepted and performed with tabla ( percussion ) player Chatur Lal in the Museum of Modern Art , and he later became the first Indian classical musician to perform on American television and record a full raga performance , for Angel Records . Shankar heard about the positive response Khan received and resigned from AIR in 1956 to tour the United Kingdom , Germany , and the United States . He played for smaller audiences and educated them about Indian music , incorporating ragas from the South Indian Carnatic music in his performances , and recorded his first LP album Three Ragas in London , released in 1956 . In 1958 , Shankar participated in the celebrations of the tenth anniversary of the United Nations and UNESCO music festival in Paris . From 1961 , he toured Europe , the United States , and Australia , and became the first Indian to compose music for non @-@ Indian films . Chatur Lal accompanied Shankar on tabla until 1962 , when Alla Rakha assumed the role . Shankar founded the Kinnara School of Music in Mumbai in 1962 . Shankar befriended Richard Bock , founder of World Pacific Records , on his first American tour and recorded most of his albums in the 1950s and 1960s for Bock 's label . The Byrds recorded at the same studio and heard Shankar 's music , which led them to incorporate some of its elements in theirs , introducing the genre to their friend George Harrison of the Beatles . Harrison became interested in Indian classical music , bought a sitar and used it to record the song " Norwegian Wood ( This Bird Has Flown ) " . This led to Indian music being used by other musicians and created the raga rock trend . Harrison met Shankar in London in June 1966 and visited India later that year for six weeks to study sitar under Shankar in Srinagar . During the visit , a documentary film about Shankar named Raga was shot by Howard Worth , and released in 1971 . Shankar 's association with Harrison greatly increased Shankar 's popularity and Ken Hunt of AllMusic would state that Shankar had become " the most famous Indian musician on the planet " by 1966 . In 1967 , he performed at the Monterey Pop Festival and won a Grammy Award for Best Chamber Music Performance for West Meets East , a collaboration with Yehudi Menuhin . The same year , the Beatles won the Grammy Award for Album of the Year for Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band , which included " Within You Without You " by Harrison , a song that was influenced by Indian classical music . Shankar opened a Western branch of the Kinnara School of Music in Los Angeles , in May 1967 , and published an autobiography , My Music , My Life , in 1968 . In 1968 , he scored for the movie Charly . He performed at the Woodstock Festival in August 1969 , and found he disliked the venue . In the 1970s Shankar distanced himself from the hippie movement . = = = 1970 – 2012 : International career = = = In October 1970 Shankar became chair of the department of Indian music of the California Institute of the Arts after previously teaching at the City College of New York , the University of California , Los Angeles , and being guest lecturer at other colleges and universities , including the Ali Akbar College of Music . In late 1970 , the London Symphony Orchestra invited Shankar to compose a concerto with sitar . Concerto for Sitar & Orchestra was performed with André Previn as conductor and Shankar playing the sitar . Hans Neuhoff of Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart has criticized the usage of the orchestra in this concert as " amateurish " . George Harrison organized the charity Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 , in which Shankar participated . After the musicians had tuned up on stage for over a minute , the crowd broke into applause , to which the amused Shankar responded : " If you like our tuning so much , I hope you will enjoy the playing more . " Although interest in Indian music had decreased in the early 1970s , the concert album became one of the best @-@ selling recordings to feature the genre and won Shankar a second Grammy Award . During the 1970s , Shankar and Harrison worked together again , recording Shankar Family & Friends in 1973 and touring North America the following year to a mixed response after Shankar had toured Europe with the Harrison @-@ sponsored Music Festival from India . The demanding schedule weakened Shankar , and he suffered a heart attack in Chicago in November 1974 , causing him to miss a portion of the tour . In his absence , Shankar 's sister @-@ in @-@ law , singer Lakshmi Shankar , conducted the touring orchestra . The touring band visited the White House on invitation of John Gardner Ford , son of US President Gerald Ford . Shankar toured and taught for the remainder of the 1970s and the 1980s and released his second concerto , Raga Mala , conducted by Zubin Mehta , in 1981 . Shankar was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Music Score for his work on the 1982 movie Gandhi , but lost to John Williams ' ET He served as a member of the Rajya Sabha , the upper chamber of the Parliament of India , from 12 May 1986 to 11 May 1992 , after being nominated by Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi . Shankar composed the dance drama Ghanashyam in 1989 . His liberal views on musical co @-@ operation led him to contemporary composer Philip Glass , with whom he released an album , Passages , in 1990 . Shankar underwent an angioplasty in 1992 due to heart problems , after which George Harrison participated in a number of Shankar 's projects . Because of the positive response to Shankar 's 1996 career compilation In Celebration , Shankar wrote a second autobiography , Raga Mala , with Harrison as editor . He performed in between 25 and 40 concerts every year during the late 1990s . Shankar taught his daughter Anoushka Shankar to play sitar and in 1997 became a Regents ' Professor at University of California , San Diego . In the 2000s , he won a Grammy Award for Best World Music Album for Full Circle : Carnegie Hall 2000 and toured with Anoushka , who released a book about her father , Bapi : Love of My Life , in 2002 . Anoushka performed a composition by Shankar for the 2002 Harrison memorial Concert for George and Shankar wrote a third concerto for sitar and orchestra for Anoushka and the Orpheus Chamber Orchestra . In June 2008 , Shankar played what was billed as his last European concert , but his 2011 tour included dates in the United Kingdom . On 1 July 2010 , at the Southbank Centre 's Royal Festival Hall , London , England , Anoushka Shankar , on sitar , performed with the London Philharmonic Orchestra , conducted by David Murphy what was billed the first Symphony by Ravi Shankar . This performance was recorded and is available on CD . It is 40 : 52 minutes long and is composed of 4 movements ( in the tempi allegro ( fast ) , slow , scherzo ( fast ) , finale ( fast ) ) like a classical Western symphony but uses an Indian raga as the mode for each movement : I. Allegro ( Kafi Zila ) 9 : 21 minutes , II . Lento ( Ahir Bhairav ) 7 : 52 minutes , III . Scherzo ( DoGa Kalyan ) 8 : 49 minutes IV . Finale ( Banjara ) 14 : 50 minutes . The website of the Ravi Shankar Foundation provides the information that " The symphony was written in Indian notation in 2010 , and has been interpreted by his student and conductor , David Murphy . " The information available on the website does not explain this process of " interpretation " of Ravi Shankar 's notation by David Murphy , nor how Ravi Shankar 's Indian notation could accommodate Western orchestral writing . = = Style and contributions = = Shankar developed a style distinct from that of his contemporaries and incorporated influences from rhythm practices of Carnatic music . His performances begin with solo alap , jor , and jhala ( introduction and performances with pulse and rapid pulse ) influenced by the slow and serious dhrupad genre , followed by a section with tabla accompaniment featuring compositions associated with the prevalent khyal style . Shankar often closed his performances with a piece inspired by the light @-@ classical thumri genre . Shankar has been considered one of the top sitar players of the second half of the 20th century . He popularised performing on the bass octave of the sitar for the alap section and became known for a distinctive playing style in the middle and high registers that used quick and short deviations of the playing string and his sound creation through stops and strikes on the main playing string . Narayana Menon of The New Grove Dictionary noted Shankar 's liking for rhythmic novelties , among them the use of unconventional rhythmic cycles . Hans Neuhoff of Musik in Geschichte und Gegenwart has argued that Shankar 's playing style was not widely adopted and that he was surpassed by other sitar players in the performance of melodic passages . Shankar 's interplay with Alla Rakha improved appreciation for tabla playing in Hindustani classical music . Shankar promoted the jugalbandi duet concert style and claims to have introduced new ragas Tilak Shyam , Nat Bhairav and Bairagi . = = Recognition = = = = = Indian governmental honours = = = Sangeet Natak Akademi Award ( 1962 ) Padma Bhushan ( 1967 ) Sangeet Natak Akademi Fellowship ( 1975 ) . Padma Vibhushan ( 1981 ) Kalidas Samman from the Government of Madhya Pradesh for 1987 – 88 Bharat Ratna ( 1999 ) = = = Other governmental and academic honours = = = Ramon Magsaysay Award ( 1992 ) and the . Commander of the Legion of Honour of France ( 2000 ) Honorary Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( KBE ) by Elizabeth II for " services to music " ( 2001 ) Honorary degrees from universities in India and the United States . Honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters Honorary Doctor of Laws from the University of Melbourne , Australia ( 2010 ) = = = Arts awards = = = 1964 fellowship from the John D. Rockefeller 3rd Fund Silver Bear Extraordinary Prize of the Jury at the 1957 Berlin International Film Festival ( for composing the music for the movie Kabuliwala ) . UNESCO International Music Council ( 1975 ) Fukuoka Asian Culture Prize ( 1991 ) Praemium Imperiale for music from the Japan Art Association ( 1997 ) Polar Music Prize ( 1998 ) Five Grammy Awards 1967 : Best Chamber Music Performance - West Meets East ( with Yehudi Menuhin ) 1973 : Album of the Year - The Concert for Bangladesh ( with George Harrison ) 2002 : Best World Music Album - Full Circle : Carnegie Hall 2000 2013 : Best World Music Album - The Living Room Sessions Pt . 1 Lifetime Achievement Award received at the 55th Annual Grammy Awards Nominated for an Academy Award . Posthumous nomination in the 56th Annual Grammy Awards for his album " The Living Room Sessions Part 2 " . First recipient of the Tagore Award in recognition of his outstanding contribution to cultural harmony and universal values ( 2013 ; posthumous ) = = = Other honours and tributes = = = American jazz saxophonist John Coltrane named his son Ravi Coltrane after Shankar . On April 7 , 2016 Google published a Google Doodle to honor his work . = = Personal life and family = = Shankar married Allauddin Khan 's daughter Annapurna Devi in 1941 and their son , Shubhendra Shankar , was born in 1942 . Shankar separated from Devi during the 1940s and had a relationship with Kamala Shastri , a dancer , beginning in the late 1940s . An affair with Sue Jones , a New York concert producer , led to the birth of Norah Jones in 1979 . He separated from Shastri in 1981 and lived with Sue until 1986 . In 1989 he married Sukanya Rajan , whom he had known since the 1970s , at Chilkur Temple in Hyderabad , India . Their daughter Anoushka Shankar was born in 1981 . Shankar 's son , Shubhendra " Shubho " Shankar , often accompanied him on tours . He could play the sitar and surbahar , but elected not to pursue a solo career . Shubhendra died of pneumonia in 1992 . Ananda Shankar , the experimental fusion musician , is his nephew . Norah Jones became a successful musician in the 2000s , winning eight Grammy Awards in 2003 . Anoushka Shankar was nominated for a Grammy Award for Best World Music Album in 2003 . Anoushka and her father were both nominated for Best World Music Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards for separate albums . Shankar was a Hindu , and a devotee of the Hindu deity , Hanuman . As well , he was an " ardent " devotee of the revered , Bengali Hindu saint , Sri Anandamayi Ma . Shankar used to visit Anandamayi Ma frequently and performed for her on various occasions . Shankar wrote of his hometown , Varanasi , and his initial encounter with " Ma " : " Varanasi is the eternal abode of Lord Shiva , and one of my favorite temples is that of Lord Hanuman , the monkey god . The city is also where one of the miracles that have happened in my life took place : I met Ma Anandamayi , a great spiritual soul . Seeing the beauty of her face and mind , I became her ardent devotee . Sitting at home now in Encinitas , in Southern California , at the age of 88 , surrounded by the beautiful greens , multi @-@ colored flowers , blue sky , clean air , and the Pacific Ocean , I often reminisce about all the wonderful places I have seen in the world . I cherish the memories of Paris , New York , and a few other places . But Varanasi seems to be etched in my heart ! " In his later years , Shankar became a vegetarian . He wore a large diamond ring which he said was " manifested " by Sathya Sai Baba . He lived with Sukanya in Encinitas , California . Shankar performed his final concert , with daughter Anoushka , on 4 November 2012 at the Terrace Theater in Long Beach , California . = = Illness and death = = On 6 December 2012 , Shankar was admitted to Scripps Memorial Hospital in La Jolla , San Diego , California after complaining of breathing difficulties . He died on 11 December 2012 at around 16 : 30 PST after undergoing heart valve replacement surgery . The Swara Samrat festival organized on 5 – 6 January 2013 was dedicated to Ravi Shankar and Ali Akbar Khan where musicians like Shivkumar Sharma , Birju Maharaj , Hari Prasad Chaurasia , Zakir Hussain , and Girija Devi performed . = = Discography = = = = Books = = Shankar , Ravi ( 1968 ) . My Music , My Life . Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 20113 @-@ 1 . Shankar , Ravi ( 1979 ) . Learning Indian Music : A Systematic Approach . Onomatopoeia . OCLC 21376688 . Shankar , Ravi ( 1997 ) . Raga Mala : The Autobiography of Ravi Shankar . Genesis Publications . ISBN 0 @-@ 904351 @-@ 46 @-@ 7 . = Bronwyn Bancroft = Bronwyn Bancroft ( born 1958 ) is an Australian artist , notable for being amongst the first Australian fashion designers invited to show her work in Paris . Born in Tenterfield , New South Wales , and trained in Canberra and Sydney , Bancroft worked as a fashion designer , and is an artist , illustrator , and arts administrator . In 1985 , Bancroft established a shop called Designer Aboriginals , selling fabrics made by Aboriginal artists including herself . She was a founding member of Boomalli Aboriginal Artists Co @-@ operative . Art work by Bancroft is held by the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales and the Art Gallery of Western Australia . She has provided art work for more than 20 children 's books , including Stradbroke Dreaming by writer and activist Oodgeroo Noonuccal , and books by artist and writer Sally Morgan . She has received design commissions , including one for the exterior of a sports centre in Sydney . Bancroft has a long history of involvement in community activism and arts administration , and has served as a board member for the National Gallery of Australia . Her painting Prevention of AIDS ( 1992 ) was used in a campaign to raise awareness of HIV / AIDS in Australia . Bancroft has served on the boards of copyright collection agency Viscopy and Tranby Aboriginal College , and the Artists Board at the Museum of Contemporary Art , Sydney . = = Early life = = A Bundjalung woman , Bancroft was born in Tenterfield , a town in rural New South Wales , in 1958 . She was the youngest of seven children of Owen Cecil Joseph Bancroft , known as " Bill " — an Aboriginal Australian from the Djanbun clan — and Dot , who is of Scottish – Polish ancestry . Bancroft has said that her great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandmother Pemau was one of only two or three survivors from her clan , the rest murdered when their land was settled by a white farmer . Her grandfather and uncle worked in local goldmines . She recalled that her father 's education was obstructed by discrimination because he was Aboriginal . His lack of formal training meant that he had to work away from home cutting railroad sleepers , while her mother worked at home as a dressmaker . Bancroft 's father was an engineer during World War II , managing barges at Madang and Rabaul . Following her father 's advice on the importance of getting an education or a trade , Bancroft completed high school in Tenterfield before moving to Canberra in 1976 with her husband @-@ to @-@ be Ned Manning , who had also been her teacher . There Bancroft completed a Diploma of Visual Communications through the Canberra School of Art , followed by a Master of Studio Practice and a Master of Visual Arts ( Paintings ) at the University of Sydney . She never returned to live in Tenterfield , although her three sisters were living there in 2004 . Her father died around 1990 . Bancroft has three children : Jack was born in 1985 , Ella in 1988 . She separated from Manning when they were very young ; her third child Rubyrose was born in 1999 . Jack was awarded NSW Young Australian of the Year in 2010 for his work arranging the mentoring of Indigenous school students . = = Career = = = = = Art and design = = = Bancroft was a founding member of the Boomalli Aboriginal Artists Co @-@ operative , one of Australia 's oldest Indigenous @-@ run artists ' organisations , established in 1987 . She served in the roles of chairperson , director , and treasurer during its first two decades . In 1985 , she opened a shop in Sydney called Designer Aboriginals , selling the work of designers including her own fabrics , and staffed by her Indigenous female students . Bancroft , Euphemia Bostock and Mini Heath were the first Australian fashion designers invited to show their works in Paris , where Bancroft 's painted designs on cloth were exhibited at the 1987 Printemps Fashion Parade . Two years later , in 1989 , she contributed to a London exhibition , Australian Fashion : The Contemporary Art . Despite these successes , she moved away from the fashion industry , telling an interviewer in 2005 that she had not done fabric design for 15 years . Described as " an instinctive colourist " , Bancroft has since worked primarily as a painter , and has developed " a glowing style reminiscent of stained glass windows " . She has cited as influences the American painter Georgia O 'Keeffe , European painters Joan Miró , Wassily Kandinsky , and Marc Chagall , and Australian Indigenous artists such as Emily Kngwarreye , Rover Thomas , and Mary MacLean . Although initially known as a fabric and textile designer , Bancroft has worked with many artistic media , including " jewellery design , painting , collage , illustration , sculpture and interior decoration " . Art works by Bancroft are held by the National Gallery of Australia , the Art Gallery of New South Wales , the Art Gallery of Western Australia and the Queensland Art Gallery . The National Gallery holds one of her screenprints , Entrapped , created in 1991 . Between 1989 and 2006 , Bancroft held eight solo exhibitions and participated in at least 53 group exhibitions , including shows at the Australian Museum in Sydney , the National Gallery of Australia in Canberra , and the National Gallery of Victoria . Her art has been exhibited in Indonesia , New Zealand , the USA , France , and Germany . In 2004 , Bancroft was commissioned to design a large mural covering the exterior of a sports centre housing two basketball courts at Tempe Reserve in Marrickville , New South Wales . The mural depicts a snake , a man , and a woman , representing both biblical and Indigenous Australian creation stories . It also includes the goanna , the ancestral totem of the Marrickville area 's original inhabitants , the Wangal people . Bancroft ventured into illustrating children 's books in 1993 , when she provided the artwork for Fat and Juicy Place written by Dianna Kidd . The book was shortlisted for the Children 's Book Council of Australia 's Book of the Year and won the Australian Multicultural Children 's Book Award . In the same year , she illustrated Stradbroke Dreamtime by Indigenous activist and writer Oodgeroo Noonuccal . She was the third artist to have provided images for successive editions of the book , of which the first edition was released in 1972 . Bancroft has since contributed artwork for over 20 children 's books , including some by prominent Australian writer and artist Sally Morgan , whom she regards as a mentor and friend . These books include Dan 's grandpa ( 1996 ) and Sam 's bush journey ( 2009 ) . The two artists collaborated on an exhibition of prints at Warrnambool Art Gallery in Victoria in 1991 . Researcher and museum curator Margo Neale has described the art of both Bancroft and Morgan as depicting " their relationship to country and family in generally high @-@ keyed works , celebrating and commemorating through personal or collective stories in mainly figurative narratives . " As well as working with established writers , Bancroft has created a number of children 's books in her own right , including An Australian 1 2 3 of Animals and An Australian ABC of Animals , which have been favourably reviewed as imaginative and well @-@ illustrated . Her style of illustration has been described as " bold and mysterious " , and as " traditional Australian Aboriginal representation rendered in bright , eye @-@ catching colors . " In 2009 Bancroft received an Australian literary award — the Dromkeen Medal — for her contribution to children 's literature . In May 2010 , the Governor @-@ General of Australia Quentin Bryce launched Bancroft 's latest book , Why I Love Australia . A long @-@ time supporter of Bancroft 's work , Ms Bryce said : " Why I love Australia is a work and title that , again , speaks volumes of its author and illustrator . It simply and exquisitely rejoices in telling a story of this magnificent , sacred land we share : the mountains , rivers and gorges ; seas and coral reefs ; grasslands and bushlands ; saltpans and snow ; houses and streets ; the jewelled night sky , and so much more . " Bancroft 's art has also appeared in the publications of a number of other individuals and organisations , including as cover art for books from the Australian Museum and the New South Wales Education Department , for Larissa Behrendt 's novel Home , and for Roberta Sykes 's controversial autobiographical narratives Snake Cradle and Snake Dancing , among others . = = = Administration and activism = = = Bancroft has been active in arts organisations , and served two terms on the board of the National Gallery of Australia during the 1990s . She was chair of the Visual Arts Board of the New South Wales Ministry for the Arts , and of the National Indigenous Arts Advocacy Organisation from 1993 to 1996 . In the lead @-@ up to the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney , Bancroft was a member of the design committee that advised on the development of the games ' official logo , and has acted as a judge for the $ 35 @,@ 000 Country Energy Art Prize . Bancroft was a member of the board of directors of the Australian copyright collection agency , Viscopy , and while serving in that position has been an advocate of resale royalty rights for artists . She has observed that " resale royalties are an intrinsic link to the improvement of the inherent rights of Australian artists to a fair income " . She was a member of the Sydney Museum of Contemporary Art 's Artist Advisory Group in 2005 , and is a member of the Museum 's Artists Board . She has served on the board of the Indigenous training organisation , Tranby Aboriginal College . Within and beyond her artistic works , Bancroft has demonstrated concern for a range of social issues , particularly those affecting Indigenous Australians . Her painting Prevention of AIDS ( 1992 ) was reproduced on posters and postcards aimed at raising awareness of HIV / AIDS , and was one of several of her images commissioned by the federal Department of Health to highlight issues regarding the disease in the Indigenous community . In 2000 , two years after the death of activist Mum ( Shirl ) Smith , Bancroft and the Boomalli Aboriginal Artists Co @-@ operative organised a fund @-@ raising exhibition of art works in Smith 's honour . Bancroft is a director of the Australian Indigenous Mentoring Experience , a not @-@ for @-@ profit organisation that aims to increase senior high school and university admission rates for Indigenous students . She has taught and mentored Indigenous school students such as Jessica Birk , a winner of the Australia Council 's inaugural Emerging and Young Artist Award in May 2009 . = = Selected published works = = Walking the boundaries ( illustrator ) , Angus & Robertson , 1993 , ISBN 0 @-@ 207 @-@ 17796 @-@ 1 Stradbroke dreamtime ( illustrator ) , Angus & Robertson , 1993 , ISBN 0 @-@ 207 @-@ 17938 @-@ 7 Dirrangun ( illustrator ) , Angus & Robertson , 1994 , ISBN 0 @-@ 207 @-@ 18482 @-@ 8 Dan 's Grandpa ( illustrator ) , Fremantle Press , 1996 , ISBN 1 @-@ 86368 @-@ 159 @-@ 0 Leaving ( illustrator ) , Roland Harvey , 2000 , ISBN 0 @-@ 949714 @-@ 75 @-@ 5 The Outback ( illustrator ) , with Annaliese Porter , Magabala Books , 2005 , ISBN 1 @-@ 875641 @-@ 86 @-@ 6 An Australian ABC of Animals , Little Hare Books , 2005 , ISBN 1 @-@ 877003 @-@ 97 @-@ 2 Ready to Dream ( illustrator ) , Bloomsbury , 2008 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 59990 @-@ 049 @-@ 0 An Australian 1 , 2 , 3 of animals , Little Hare Books , 2009 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 921541 @-@ 11 @-@ 7 W is for wombat : my first Australian word book , Little Hare Books , 2009 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 921541 @-@ 17 @-@ 9 Why I love Australia , Little Hare Books , 2010 , ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 921541 @-@ 78 @-@ 0 = = Major collections = = Artbank Art Gallery of New South Wales Art Gallery of Western Australia Australian Museum Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet ( Australia ) National Gallery of Australia National Museum of Australia New York Public Library Print Collection Newark Museum Parliament House Art Collection Queensland Art Gallery = M @-@ 179 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 179 is a 16 @.@ 963 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 27 @.@ 299 km ) state trunkline highway in the western portion of the US state of Michigan . It runs from US Highway 131 ( US 131 ) at exit 61 outside of Bradley to M @-@ 43 just west of Hastings in the Lower Peninsula . The highway crosses through forest land and provides access to state recreational areas . M @-@ 179 has been given the Chief Noonday Recreational Heritage Route designation by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) . Prior to October 1998 , this highway was the eastern portion of county road A @-@ 42 . The number was formally assigned by the next year . This is not the first time the number was used in Michigan , an unrelated M @-@ 179 previously existed in the 1930s through the 1950s farther north . = = Route description = = M @-@ 179 begins at an interchange with US 131 just west of Bradley . From there , the road travels to the east past the Gun Lake Casino and through the community before bending around the southern edge of Sager Lake . After passing the lake , the highway resumes its easterly course and continues through the rural forest areas of eastern Allegan County , where the road is known as 129th Avenue . M @-@ 179 crosses the county line and heads into Barry County north of Gun Lake . The road is then locally known as Chief Noonday Road . Here it continues its eastward trek until it winds its way through the Yankee Springs State Recreation Area . After passing through the recreation area , the road continues to the east passing through wooded area before a slight curve to the north , after which it continues to the east and terminates at a junction with M @-@ 43 just west of Hastings . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains the roadway as a part of the state highway system . As a part of this role , the department tracks the average annual daily traffic on its roadways , a calculation of the number of vehicles to use a highway segment on any average day of the year . In 2009 , MDOT determined that 5 @,@ 622 vehicles in Allegan County and 4 @,@ 253 vehicles in Barry County used M @-@ 179 daily . For the whole length of the highway , the commercial traffic was calculated to be 246 trucks daily in 2009 . No section of the highway has been listed on the National Highway System , a system of roads important to the nation 's economy , defense , and mobility . M @-@ 179 has been named the Chief Noonday Trail Recreational Heritage Route ( now a Pure Michigan Byway ) by MDOT for its " natural beauty " and access to recreational areas . = = History = = The original version of M @-@ 179 was established in 1935 as a shortcut near Le Roy between US 131 and what was M @-@ 63 . That route was turned back to local control in late 1958 or 1959 , and the designation disappeared from the system . ( The original M @-@ 63 itself was decommissioned a few years later in 1961 . ) On October 1 , 1998 , as part of the Rationalization process , a jurisdictional transfer turned county road A @-@ 42 between US 131 and M @-@ 43 over to the state , which the state later designated as M @-@ 179 for the following year . = = Major intersections = = = Tzachas = Tzachas ( Greek : Τζαχᾶς ) , also known as Chaka Bey ( Turkish : Çaka Bey ) was an 11th @-@ century Seljuk Turkish military commander who ruled an independent state based in Smyrna ( present @-@ day Izmir ) . Originally in Byzantine service , he rebelled and seized Smyrna , much of the Aegean coastlands of Asia Minor and the islands lying off shore in 1088 – 91 . At the peak of his power , he even declared himself Byzantine emperor , and sought to assault Constantinople in conjunction with the Pechenegs . In 1092 , a Byzantine naval expedition under John Doukas inflicted a heavy defeat on him and retook Lesbos , while in the next year he was treacherously slain by his son @-@ in @-@ law Kilij Arslan I. Smyrna and the rest of Tzachas ' former domain were recovered by the Byzantines a few years later , in c . 1097 . = = Life = = Very little is known about his life , and that mostly from only one source , the Alexiad of the Byzantine princess Anna Komnene , daughter of Emperor Alexios I Komnenos ( r . 1081 – 1118 ) . He is also mentioned in the 13th @-@ century Danishmendname , but it is not a very reliable source due to the semi @-@ legendary nature of its material . According to the Alexiad , Tzachas was originally a raider , who was	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
– 2011 . A Freedom House " Freedom on the Net " survey classified " Net status " as " Not free " and noted that more than 1 @,@ 000 websites were blocked in Bahrain . The Press Freedom Index ( by Reporters Without Borders ) declined significantly : in 2002 Bahrain was ranked number 67 and by 2010 it had fallen to number 144 . The Freedom of the Press report ( by Freedom House ) classified Bahrain in 2011 as " Not Free " . Human Rights Watch has described Bahrain 's record on human rights as " dismal " , and having " deteriorated sharply in the latter half of 2010 " . = = = = Torture = = = = During the period between 1975 and 1999 known as the " State Security Law Era " , the Bahraini government frequently used torture , which resulted in a number of deaths . After the Emir Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa succeeded his father Isa bin Salman Al Khalifa in 1999 , reports of torture declined dramatically and conditions of detention improved . However Royal Decree 56 of 2002 gave effective immunity to all those accused of torture during the uprising in the 1990s and before ( including notorious figures such as Ian Henderson and Adel Flaifel . ) . Towards the end of 2007 the government began employing torture again and by 2010 its use had become common again . = = = = Shia grievances = = = = The Shia majority ruled by the Sunni Al khalifa family since the eighteenth century have long complained of what they call systemic discrimination . They are blocked from serving in important political and military posts and the government has reportedly naturalized Sunnis originally from Pakistan and Syria in what Shia say is an attempt to increase the percentage of Sunnis in the population . According to Khalil al @-@ Marzooq of Al Wefaq , the number of those granted Bahraini nationality between 2001 and 2008 is 68 thousand . According to al @-@ Marzooq , this number was calculated using official estimates by subtracting the population in 2001 ( 405 @,@ 000 ) and natural increase ( 65 @,@ 000 ) from the population in 2008 ( 537 @,@ 000 ) . In a rally against " political naturalization " , Sunni opposition activist Ibrahim Sharif estimated that 100 @,@ 000 were naturalized by 2010 and thus comprised 20 % of Bahraini citizens . The government rejected accusations of undertaking any " sectarian naturalization policy " . Shia grievances were exacerbated when in 2006 Salah Al Bandar , then an adviser to the Cabinet Affairs Ministry , revealed an alleged political conspiracy aiming to disenfranchise and marginalize Shias , who comprise about 60 % of the population . = = = = 2010 crackdown = = = = In August 2010 , authorities launched a two @-@ month @-@ long crackdown , referred to as the Manama incident , arresting hundreds of opposition activists , most of whom were members of the Shia organizations Haq Movement and Al Wafa ' Islamic party , in addition to human rights activists . The arrestees were accused of forming a " terrorist network " aiming to overthrow the government . However , a month later Al Wefaq opposition party , which was not targeted by the crackdown , won a plurality in the parliamentary election . = = Calls for a revolution = = Inspired by the successful uprisings in Egypt and Tunisia , opposition activists began in January to post on a large scale to the social media websites Facebook and Twitter and online forums , and to send e @-@ mails and text messages with calls to stage major pro @-@ democracy protests . The Bahraini government blocked a Facebook page which had 14 @,@ 000 " likes " calling for a revolution and a " day of rage " on 14 February ; however the " likes " had risen to 22 @,@ 000 few days later . Another online group called " The Youth of the February 14th Revolution " described itself as " unaffiliated with any political movement or organisation " and rejected any " religious , sectarian or ideological bases " for their demands . They issued a statement listing a number of demands and steps it said were unavoidable in order to achieve " change and radical reforms " . Bahraini youths described their plans as an appeal for Bahrainis " to take to the streets on Monday 14 February in a peaceful and orderly manner in order to rewrite the constitution and to establish a body with a full popular mandate to investigate and hold to account economic , political and social violations , including stolen public wealth , political naturalisation , arrests , torture and other oppressive security measures , [ and ] institutional and economic corruption . " One of the main demands was resignation of the king 's uncle , Prince Khalifa bin Salman Al Khalifa from his post as prime minister . He had been the unelected prime minister of Bahrain since 1971 , making him the world 's longest serving prime minister . The day had a symbolic value ; it was the tenth anniversary of a referendum in favor of the National Action Charter which had promised to introduce democratic reforms following the 1990s uprising . It was also the ninth anniversary of the Constitution of 2002 , which had made opposition feel " betrayed " by the king . The Constitution had brought some promised reforms , such as an elected parliament ; however opposition activists said it went back on reform plans , giving the king the power to appoint half the parliamentary seats and withholding power from parliament to elect the prime minister . Unregistered opposition parties such as Haq Movement and Bahrain Freedom Movement supported the plans . The National Democratic Action Society only announced a day before the protests that it supported " the principle of the right of the youth to demonstrate peacefully " . Other opposition groups including Al Wefaq , Bahrain 's main opposition party , did not explicitly call for or support protests ; however Al Wefaq leader Ali Salman did demand political reforms . = = Events leading to the protests = = A few weeks before the protests , the Cabinet of Bahrain made a number of concessions , including increasing social spending and offering to free some of the minors arrested in the Manama incident in August . On 4 February , several hundred Bahrainis gathered in front of the Egyptian embassy in Manama to express support for anti @-@ government protesters there . According to The Wall Street Journal , this was " one of the first such gatherings to be held in the oil @-@ rich Persian Gulf states . " At the gathering , Ibrahim Sharif , the secretary @-@ general of the National Democratic Action Society ( Wa 'ad ) , called for " local reform . " On 11 February , hundreds of Bahrainis and Egyptians took to the streets near the Egyptian embassy in Manama to celebrate the fall of Egypt 's president Hosni Mubarak following the successful Egyptian Revolution of 2011 . Security forces reacted swiftly to contain the crowd by setting a number of roadblocks . In the Khutbah preceding Friday prayer , Shiekh Isa Qassim , a leading Shia cleric , said " the winds of change in the Arab world [ are ] unstoppable " . He demanded an end to torture and discrimination , the release of political activists and a rewriting of the constitution . Appearing on the state media , king Hamad announced that each family would be given 1 @,@ 000 Bahraini Dinars ( $ 2 @,@ 650 ) to celebrate the tenth anniversary of the National Action Charter referendum . Agence France @-@ Presse linked payments to the 14 February demonstration plans . The next day , the Bahrain Centre for Human Rights sent an open letter to the king urging him to avoid a " worst @-@ case scenario " by introducing a wide range of reforms , including " releasing more than 450 detainees including [ Bahraini ] human rights defenders , religious figures and more than 110 children , dissolv [ ing ] the security apparatus and prosecut [ ing ] its official [ s ] responsible [ for ] violations " . At night , residents of Jidhafs held a public dinner banquet to celebrate the fall of Egypt 's president . On 13 February , authorities set up a number of checkpoints and increased the presence of security forces in key locations such as shopping malls . Al Jazeera interpreted the move as " a clear warning against holding Monday 's [ 14 February ] rally " . At night , police fired tear gas and rubber bullets on a small group of youth who organized a protest in Karzakan after a wedding ceremony . According to a photographer working for the Associated Press , several people were injured and others suffered from the effects of tear gas . Bahrain 's Ministry of Interior said that about 100 individuals who gathered in an unauthorized rally in the village attacked security forces injuring three policemen and in response police fired two rubber bullets , one of which rebounded from the ground , injuring a protester . Small protests and clashes occurred in other locations as well , such as Sabah Al Salem , Sitra , Bani Jamra and Tashan , leading to minor injuries among both protesters and security forces . = = 14 February = = Over 6 @,@ 000 people participated in 55 demonstrations and political rallies in 25 different locations throughout Bahrain . Helicopters hovered over areas where marches were due to take place and the presence of security forces was heavy in a number of key locations such as the Central Business District , shopping malls and Bab Al Bahrain . The traffic directorate closed a number of roads such as those leading to Pearl Roundabout , Dana mall , Al Daih and parts of Budaiya highway in order to anticipate any non @-@ permitted protests . Throughout the day and especially in the evening , Internet speed was much slower than usual . According to Bikya Masr blog , " many people " linked this to government attempts to contain the protests . The demonstrators demanded the release of detained protesters , socio @-@ economic and political reforms and constitutional monarchy . Protesters sought no permits , although it is required by Bahraini law . The Bahraini newspaper Al Wasat reported that protests were peaceful and that demonstrators did not throw stones at security forces or burn tires in streets as they used to in the previous protests . The earliest demonstration was recorded at 05 : 30 in the mainly Shia village of Nuwaidrat , where 300 people are said to have participated . The rally was led by Shia political activist Abdulwahhab Hussain . Police dispersed this rally , resulting in some injuries , and the hospitalization of one demonstrator . Police continued to disperse rallies throughout the day with tear gas , rubber bullets , and shotguns , causing additional injuries , and hospitalizing three more demonstrators . One major demonstration took place in the Shi 'a island of Sitra , where several thousand men , women , and children took to the streets . According to witnesses interviewed by Physicians for Human Rights , hundreds of fully armed riot police arrived on the scene and immediately began firing tear gas and sound grenades into the crowds . They then fired rubber bullets into the unarmed crowd , aiming at people in the front line who had sat down in the street in protest . In Sanabis , security forces fled the location after protesters approached them , leaving one of their vehicles behind . Protesters attached the flag of Bahrain to the vehicle instead of damaging or burning it . In Sehla , hundreds held maghrib prayer in the streets after staging a march . In Bilad Al Qadeem , protesters held a sit @-@ in at afternoon and started marching at evening , after which security forces intervened to disperse them . In Karzakan , protesters staged a march that was joined by another march starting in Dumistan and ended peacefully . In Duraz security forces fired tear gas on 100 protesters , breaking up their rally . On its Twitter account , the Ministry of Interior said that six masked individuals participating in a march in Jidhafs attacked security forces . They wrote that police responded , injuring the legs and back of one of the attackers . = = = Casualties = = = In the evening of 14 February , Ali Mushaima died from police shotgun wounds to his back at close range . The government says that Ali was part of a group of 800 protesters that attacked eight policemen with rocks and metal rods . The government asserts that the police exhausted their supply of tear gas and rubber bullets in a failed attempt to disperse the crowd , and resorted to the use of shotguns . Witnesses say that there were no demonstrations at the time Ali was shot . They say Ali was seen walking with a group of officers who were pointing their guns at him . As Ali walked away , he was shot in the back by one of the officers . The Ministry of Interior expressed its regret at the incident and announced that the death would be investigated . Later , several hundred demonstrators congregated in the car park of the hospital where Ali was taken . They staged a protest outside the hospital heading to the Pearl Roundabout ; meanwhile another march was heading to the same location from King Faisal Highway . Security forces intervened , injuring some protesters and arresting 24 . By the end of the day , more than 30 protesters had been injured , mostly by birdshot and rubber bullets . = = Aftermath = = The following day another man , Fadhel Al @-@ Matrook , was killed by police during the funeral of Mushaima . Protesters then marched and occupied the Pearl Roundabout without police interference . Thousands continued camping at the site for another day . On 17 February , in what became known as Bloody Thursday , authorities launched a pre @-@ dawn raid and cleared the site , killing four protesters and injuring hundreds . Protesters took refuge in Salmaniya Medical Complex where many of them demanded the fall of the regime . Defying the government ban on gatherings , on the evening of 18 February , hundreds of protesters marched toward the Pearl Roundabout , now under the control of the army . When protesters neared the site , the army opened fire , killing Abdulredha Buhmaid and injuring dozens of others . Troops withdrew from the Pearl Roundabout on 19 February , and protesters reestablished their camps there . The crown prince assured protesters that they would be allowed to camp at the roundabout and that he would lead a national dialogue . Protests involving up to one @-@ fifth of the population continued over the next month until the government called in Gulf Cooperation Council troops and police and declared a three @-@ month state of emergency . Despite the police crackdown that followed , smaller @-@ scale protests and clashes continued , mostly outside Manama 's business districts . By April 2012 , more than 80 people had died during the uprising . As of December 2012 , protests are ongoing . = = Local and international reactions = = In a rare national TV address on Tuesday , February 15 , King Hamad expressed regret , offered his " deep condolences " to the families of those killed and announced a ministerial probe into the events . He also promised reforms including a reduction in government restrictions of the Internet and other media . In reference to the Egyptian Revolution of 2011 , Hussain al @-@ Rumeihy , a member of Parliament , said on 15 February it was wrong for protesters to copy the events of other Arab countries , because the situation in Bahrain is different . The following day , Prime minister Khalifa ibn Salman Al Khalifa praised the king 's speech and shared his regret and condolences . On the other hand , Al Wefaq , the country 's largest opposition party suspended their participation in the Parliament on 15 February and threatened to resign , in protest of what it called " the brutal practices of security forces " . The same day , other opposition parties protested what they called the government 's " excessive " reaction to protests , and the Progressive Democratic Tribune called for formation of a national body to unite Shia and Sunna like the National Union Committee had done in the 1950s . The Bahrain Human Rights Society criticized the government response to protests of 14th and 15th , accusing it of censorship and non @-@ compliance with international covenants that it had signed . Internationally , Navi Pillay , the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights on 15 February , called the government of Bahrain to stop what she called " the excessive use of force " against protesters and to release protest @-@ related prisoners . United States State Department spokesman P.J. Crowley said that the US was " very concerned by recent violence surrounding protests " of the 14th and 15th . In a 15 February appeal , Amnesty International called the Bahraini authorities to stop using what it called " excessive force " against protesters , to put all security forces ' members who had used excessive force on trial and " to respect and protect the right of freedom expression , movement and assembly in Bahrain " . = Blue Ridge Road = Blue Ridge Road is a 19 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 30 @.@ 9 km ) long roadway in Essex County , New York , in the United States . The road is designated as County Route 84 ( CR 84 ) from NY 28N in Newcomb to Interstate 87 ( I @-@ 87 ) in North Hudson , and as New York State Route 910K ( NY 910K ) between I @-@ 87 and U.S. Route 9 ( US 9 ) in North Hudson . The CR 84 portion is an 18 @-@ mile ( 29 km ) , two @-@ lane stretch of rural highway maintained by the Essex County Department of Public Works ' Highway Division while NY 910K is a 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) highway maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) . All of Blue Ridge Road has been designated as the " Blue Ridge Road Scenic Byway " by NYSDOT . Blue Ridge Road was designated as part of NY 73 in the 1930 renumbering of state routes in New York . NY 73 was truncated to Schroon in the mid @-@ 1930s . = = Route description = = Blue Ridge Road consists of Essex County 's CR 84 , which composes the bulk of the route , and NY 910K , which is a short , state @-@ maintained roadway connecting I @-@ 87 to US 9 . The entirety of Blue Ridge Road is designated as the " Blue Ridge Road Scenic Byway " , a New York State Scenic Byway , by NYSDOT . = = = County Route 84 = = = Blue Ridge Road begins at an intersection with NY 28N and CR 75 ( Eaton Lane ) in the area south of Tahawus ( pronounced " ta @-@ hawz " ) . The road heads to the northeast , initially paralleling the Hudson River , then intersects with CR 25 ( Tahawus Road ) , which heads north to the hamlet of Tahawus . After that , the route diverges from the Hudson River , turning to the southeast and climbing slightly to the side of Pine Hill , before progressing downhill . At the base of the mountain , CR 84 crosses over Vanderwhacker Brook , which flows into nearby Vanderwhacker Pond . The road winds its way around several different mountain peaks , passing to the north of Cheney Pond . After passing through the hamlet of Boreas River , CR 84 briefly follows Wolf Pond Brook , which eventually turns north for nearby Wolf Pond . The road continues eastward past Sand Pond and begins to descend , roughly following Sand Pond Brook . It passes along the base of Ragged Mountain , a high peak in the Adirondacks , after which the road runs along the edge of the valley of the stream known as " The Branch . " At the base of Three Brothers Mountain , CR 84 curves northeast before making a turn to the southeast , soon entering the hamlet of Blue Ridge . With The Branch still paralleling to the south , CR 84 continues its eastward descent and eventually intersects with its first road in several miles , Lazy Street , which provides access to the creek . At the base of Nippletop Mountain , Blue Ridge Road passes along the north shore of Palmer Pond , a small pond visible from the Adirondack Northway ( I @-@ 87 ) . Soon after , Blue Ridge Road intersects with the ramps leading to and from the Northway and the county @-@ maintained portion of Blue Ridge Road ends . = = = NY 910K = = = The eastern end of Blue Ridge Road , beginning at the ramps to and from the Adirondack Northway , is maintained by NYSDOT as NY 910K . The route heads eastward from the Northway ramps to nearby US 9 . On this 0 @.@ 72 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 16 km ) stretch , there is one intermediate intersection , this being with an unnamed roadway . The route ends at US 9 in the hamlet of North Hudson . = = History = = The entirety of Blue Ridge Road was designated as the westernmost portion of NY 73 in the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York . NY 73 initially ran from NY 28N east to an intersection with US 9 in North Hudson , where NY 73 turned south to follow US 9 toward Schroon . The route was truncated c . 1936 to begin at US 9 in Schroon . NY 73 's former alignment along Blue Ridge Road was redesignated as CR 2B by 1969 . The section between the Northway and US 9 was later transferred to the state and assigned the NY 910K designation . On May 21 , 2009 , New York Governor David Paterson announced that stimulus money from the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act would be used to reconstruct the CR 84 segment of the Blue Ridge Road , seeing it as a major connector from NY 28N to I @-@ 87 . = = Major intersections = = The entire route is in Essex County . = Another Suitcase in Another Hall = " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " is a song recorded by Scottish singer Barbara Dickson , for the 1976 concept album , Evita , which contains songs from the musical of the same name . The musical was based on the life of Argentinian leader Eva Perón . Written by Tim Rice and Andrew Lloyd Webber , the song is presented during a sequence where Eva throws out her husband 's mistress on the streets . The latter sings the track , wondering about her future and coming to the conclusion that she would be fine . Dickson was enlisted by the songwriters to record the track after hearing her previous work . Rice and Webber asked her to record the song using a higher than usual pitch , so that she sounded younger like her character . Featuring instrumentation from guitar , marimba , harp and keyboard , " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " finds Dickson singing in a soprano voice . Critically appreciated , the song was released as a single on 7 February 1977 , and reached number 18 on the UK Singles Chart . Dickson has stated that she did not like her recorded version of the track and employed a different arrangement during her future live renditions . The song has been covered and performed many times by other artists , namely Elaine Paige , Marti Webb , Kimberley Walsh from British girl group Girls Aloud , as well as actress Samantha Barks . Another notable version was recorded by American singer Madonna who played the part of Eva for the 1996 film adaptation of the musical . It was released on 3 March 1997 , by Warner Bros. as the third and final single from the film 's soundtrack . Unlike the musical , in the film the track was sung by Madonna 's character instead of the mistress . Upon its release , the song garnered positive response from music critics and reached the top @-@ ten of the charts in Italy and the United Kingdom . = = Background and recording = = " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " was written by Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice while they were developing the Evita for broadway in 1976 . Both were extremely intrigued by the stories surrounding the life of Eva Perón while researching about her during the mid @-@ 1970s . They came to know about her husband Juan Perón , and his affinity for young women , and Rice and Webber decided to use it as one of the backstories behind Eva and Juan 's rise to power . In the original musical , the song is performed by the character of Juan 's teenage mistress ( played by Siobhán McCarthy ) after she is " kicked out " by his future wife , Eva . According to director Michael Grandage , the story took the " edge off " a supposed fairy tale like interpretation of Eva and Juan , unveiling their ambitions and cut @-@ throat personality . From a production point @-@ of @-@ view , it also allowed Grandage to show ruthlessness of Eva , when Juan allows her to throw his " mistress " away . The girl is ultimately left on the streets with nowhere to go , and there she sings the song . It is a particularly poignant melody that should play with an audience 's emotions . The mistress clearly knew what she was doing sleeping with an older man , and yet there is something expletive about it as well . Eva 's bitchiness should be enjoyed by an audience , but they should also be investing in the plight of a young girl 's eviction . The narrative of this section is so well structured that it is obvious the journey of the mistress is complete by her exit . This allows the audience to invest in a single moment while also learning more about Eva and Peron 's character as they move forward in the story . " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " was first recorded by singer Barbara Dickson in 1976 for the Evita concept album that eventually became the stage musical ; Dickson did not appear in the musical itself . Rice and Webber had already enlisted actress Julie Covington to sing the part of Eva , hence they were on the look @-@ out for other supporting vocal personnel . They found about Dickson who had recently starred in the Willy Russell musical , John , Paul , George , Ringo ... and Bert , and had charted on the UK Singles Chart with her cover version of the David Whitfield and Frankie Laine song , " Answer Me " ( 1976 ) . Dickson and her manager , Bernard Theobald , had a discussion with Rice and Webber about starring in the musical , but her voice was declared " too delicate " for singing the numbers on Evita . So they offered her one song which was not sung by Eva 's character , and that was " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " . = = Music composition = = Dickson recalled that during the recording sessions , Webber asked her to sing in a higher range than her usual , since the " mistress " character was a teenager , and should have sounded younger . Before the sequence of the eviction of the mistress occurs in Act I of the musical , Eva 's character sings the song " Hello and goodbye " and then " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " begins . A soft strummed guitar in broken chord patterns heralds the introductory music . Dickson sings the opening verse , and the chorus which is repeated twice as she asks , " So , what happens now ? " and wonders about her immediate future , ultimately concluding that she would survive . For the second verse , the lyrics reflect on this recurring pattern of being evicted out of men 's lives , and the final verses have a more positive outlook toward 's the subject 's life . The song finishes with the mistress asking the question , " Where am I going to ? " as a male voice pacifies by saying , " Don 't ask , anymore " . In 2004 , author Rikky Rooksby released the book , The Complete Guide to the Music of Madonna , where he wrote his thoughts about the popularity of the song : Eva is the center of attention [ in the song ] but the lyric does not allow a transfer of meaning outside of the context of her story . Part of the song 's popularity lies in the way it finds an image — the suitcase in the hall — to express the nomadic nature of modern civilization , the feeling of urban rootlessness that many people experience . The theme of constant moving strikes a resonant note . " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " features instrumentation from guitar , marimba , harp and keyboard , with Dickson singing in a soprano voice . Author Mark Ross Clark noted in his book , The Broadway Song : A Singer 's Guide , that her vocals portrayed different kind of emotions , with standard pitch correction in the lower middle C. Her vocals contrast the lyrics with an " underlying coolness " , while the light voice enabled Dickson to sing the lines " So , what happens now ? " in sixteenth note , E ♭ major . The song is high @-@ pitched to make its syllables appear as difficult to sing . = = Release and reception = = After the first single from the Evita album , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " , achieved commercial success , " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " was released as the second single on 7 February 1977 . A reviewer from Melody Maker complimented the song , saying that without the context of Evita , the song was more acceptable and was " poignant and lovely . How lucky Lloyd Webber and Rice are to have Julie Covington and now Dickson , to add the flesh and bones to songs which might otherwise be wrecks of soppy melodrama . A smash hit . " It was Dickson 's second single to chart on the UK Singles Chart , following " Answer Me " in 1976 , and entered the chart at number 44 in its first week and peaked at number 18 in its fifth week . It was present for a total of seven weeks on the chart . Due to the high @-@ pitch employed in the recording , Dickson reflected in later years that she " never liked the original [ track ] for that reason . The song has seasoned over the years with my singing of it . " Dickson believed that she did not sound like herself on the song . While performing it later point of time on her concerts , Dickson sang it in her actual tone , saying that although the track " might have been written for a teenage girl , but the experience of being abandoned by a man is one , women of all ages can relate to . I think you have to be honest with songs and with yourself . " The singer 's music director Ian Lynn arranged the track differently which she performs currently . = = Track listing = = 7 " Single , Company Sleeve " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " ( Album version ) – 3 : 00 " Requiem For Evita " ( Choir and London Philharmonic Orchestra ) – 3 : 05 = = Personnel = = Barbara Dickson – vocals Tim Rice – writer Andrew Lloyd Webber – writer , producer , orchestra Nigel Wright – producer , mixing Denis Blackham – mixing , mastering at Master Room Studios Credits adapted from the single 's liner notes . = = Charts = = = = Other versions = = English singer Elaine Paige recorded the song for her 1983 album Stages . Sarah Brightman , who was married to Webber from 1984 to 1990 , included the song on her album The Andrew Lloyd Webber Collection . Marti Webb 's version of the song was included in the 1995 album Music & Songs From Evita . English musician Hank Marvin included an instrumental version of the song on his 1997 tribute album Hank Marvin and the Shadows Play the Music of Andrew Lloyd Webber and Tim Rice . Kimberley Walsh , from British girl group Girls Aloud , covered the song for her debut studio album Centre Stage ( 2013 ) . Singer Hayley Westenra included the song on her 2000 album Walking in the Air . On the tribute show Andrew Lloyd Webber : 40 Musical Years , the song was performed by actress Samantha Barks . = = Madonna version = = = = = Background and development = = = In 1996 , Madonna starred in the film adaptation of the musical , titled Evita , playing the role of Eva ; she had desired to play the part for a long time and even wrote to director Alan Parker , explaining how she would be perfect for the part . After securing the role , she underwent vocal training with coach Joan Layder since Evita required the actors to sing their own parts . Layder noted that the singer " had to use her voice in a way she 's never used it before . Evita is real musical theater — its operatic , in a sense . Madonna developed an upper register that she didn 't know she had . " Unlike the musical , in the film the song is performed by Eva after ending her relationship with Agustín Magaldi , deciding she wants to improve her life . The song was not promoted and only a video was created using footage and scenes from the film . = = = Recording and composition = = = Recording sessions for the film 's songs and soundtrack began in September 1995 , and took place at the CTS Studios in London with Madonna accompanied by co @-@ actors Antonio Banderas and Jonathan Pryce . However , trouble arose as Madonna was not comfortable with laying down a " guide vocal " simultaneously with an 84 piece orchestra inside the studio . She was used to singing over a pre @-@ recorded track and not have musicians listen to her . Also , unlike her previous soundtrack releases , she had little to no control over the project . An emergency meeting was held between Parker , Webber and Madonna where it was decided that the singer would record her part in a more contemporary studio while the orchestration would take place somewhere else . She also had alternate days off from the recording . Madonna 's version of the song begins with the same soft strummed guitar in broken chords . Madonna sings in a breathy voice , giving her character more vulnerability . The first vocal entrance leads into an engaging melody with the opening phrase , " so what happens now ? " , being repeated twice . According to the sheet music published by Musicnotes.com , the song is set in common time , with a slow tempo of 50 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of C ♭ major , with Madonna 's vocals spanning from A3 to E ♭ 5 . The song has a sequence of C ♭ – F ♭ when Madonna sings the opening verse " I don 't expect my love affairs to last for long " . = = = Release and reception = = = The song was officially released as the soundtrack 's third single on 3 March 1997 . Originally , there were talks about releasing an Evita EP , containing remixed versions of " Buenos Aires " , " Don 't Cry for Me Argentina " and " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " . As it was not given a commercial release in the United States , it was ineligible to enter the Billboard Hot 100 . In the United Kingdom , the song peaked at number 7 on the UK Singles Chart , the week of 29 March 1997 , and was present on the top 100 for a total of 8 weeks . According to the Official Charts Company , the single had sold 75 @,@ 233 copies in the United Kingdom as of August 2008 . In Italy , it reached the fourth position of the FIMI Singles Chart . The song also reached a peak of number 23 on the Irish Singles Chart , where it remained for 3 weeks . Elsewhere , it had a relatively poor chart performance ; in Sweden it peaked at number 60 , while in the Netherlands it peaked at number 91 . " Another Suitcase in Another Hall " was Madonna 's first single released in Australia to miss the ARIA top 100 . AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis , wrote that " the song finds Madonna giving an understated and inspired performance [ ... ] One hopes that this overlooked gem might find its way onto future [ Madonna ] hits collections , because it is truly a wonderful song " . Author Thomas S. Hischak called it " plaintive " . Billboard 's Geoff Burpee called it " A sterling , intimate moment from the Evita soundtrack . Yes kids , she [ Madonna ] can sing " . Writing for Los Angeles Times , David Gritten opined Madonna 's voice sounded " pitch @-@ perfect and clear as a bell " . Greg Morago , from the Hartford Courant , felt that " By giving her ' Another Suitcase ' with its heartbreaking ' Where am I going to ? ' refrain , Madonna adds a necessary , fragile vulnerability to her ambitious , rags- to @-@ riches Eva Peron " . Neil Strauss from The Herald Journal , said that " Madonna radiates on ' Another Suitcase in Another Hall ' " . Peter Keough , from the Boston Phoenix , described the track as " a poignant , winsome exploration of pathos , defilement , and resolution sung by a young , struggling Eva forced into prostitution with a series of drab johns " . = = = Track listing and formats = = = = = = Credits and personnel = = = Madonna – vocals , mixing Tim Rice – writer Andrew Lloyd Webber – writer , producer Alan Parker – producer Nigel Wright – producer , mixing David Reitzas – mixing John Mauceri – conductor David Caddick and Mike Dixon – additional conductors Credits adapted from the album 's liner notes . = = = Charts = = = = Tao Li = Tao Li ( Chinese : 陶李 ; pinyin : Táo Lǐ ; born 10 January 1990 ) is a China @-@ born Singaporean competitive swimmer specializing in the backstroke and butterfly stroke . A Singapore Sports School student , Tao has represented Singapore at the Southeast Asian Games ( SEA Games ) and Asian Games and holds several national records . She won four gold medals and a bronze at the 2005 SEA Games in the Philippines , and reached the finals of the women 's 50 metres , 100 metres and 200 metres butterfly events at the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne though she did not gain any medals . In December 2006 , Tao took a gold medal at the 50 metres butterfly in Doha 's 2006 Asian Games , beating China 's multi @-@ gold medallist Xu Yanwei and breaking her own national record in the process . She became Singapore 's most medalled athlete at the 2007 SEA Games in Nakhon Ratchasima ( Korat ) , Thailand , winning four gold medals . Earlier in the year , she also became the first Singaporean female swimmer to reach a FINA World Aquatics Championships final , finishing seventh in the 50 metres butterfly . Tao made her Olympic début for Singapore at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . She qualified for the 100 metres finals , ranking fourth in the semifinals with a time of 57 @.@ 54 seconds and setting two Asian records in two days . She thus became the first Singaporean swimmer to enter an Olympic final . She emerged fifth at the women 's 100 metres butterfly finals with a time of 57 @.@ 99 seconds . = = Early life and education = = Tao Li was born on 10 January 1990 in Wuhan , Hubei , in the People 's Republic of China , the only child of Tao Ran and his wife Li Yan , who were both former provincial swimmers and are now swimming coaches . Her early years were spent in Wuhan , the capital of Hubei province . She started swimming at the age of five , and had started competitive swimming by the time she was ten . In her first contest she won two gold medals and broke two age records . On one occasion at a particular local meet that she was confident of winning , she had her parents attend . However , she lost and was so upset and worried about " losing face " that she asked her parents not to come for future competitions . While she has now overcome that fear , her parents still keep to the " tradition " of not attending her meets in order not to distract her . In 2002 , at the age of 13 years , Tao was brought to Singapore by her mother . It was difficult for her parents to decide to send her to Singapore , and her father was initially against the idea as at the time she was training with a provincial swimming team and earning a monthly salary of RMB500 , and there was a good chance she might do well enough to join the Chinese national team . However , they decided to do so after she was deemed too short for the national team . As her mother was not earning much , she found covering Tao 's swimming expenses difficult . In addition , because Tao 's English was not good , she had to join a Primary 5 class in Queenstown Primary School though she was three years older than her classmates and found things tough @-@ going . However , she worked hard and took extra language lessons , and now converses fluently in English . Tao became a Singapore citizen in August 2005 . She is a Secondary 3 student at the Singapore Sports School in 2008 , and is expected to continue her education there until she graduates with a diploma in sports science under an arrangement between the school and the Auckland University of Technology . She trains under the school 's swimming coach Peter Churchill . Previously at the Aquatic Performance Swim Club under former Olympian Ang Peng Siong from 2001 , following what was reported to be a contract dispute she started training in October 2006 with another former Olympian , David Lim , at Swimfast Aquatic Club . = = Career as national swimmer = = Tao has represented Singapore at the Southeast Asian Games ( SEA Games ) and Asian Games . Following her success at the 1st Hong Kong Open Invitational Championships in 2005 at which she won four gold medals and was named most outstanding female swimmer , at the 23rd SEA Games held in the Philippines later that year , she won golds for the 100 metres backstroke , 200 metres butterfly , and 4 x 100 metres medley relay with teammates Ho Shu Yong , Nicolette Teo and Joscelin Yeo . In March the following year , she won gold in the 50 metres butterfly at the Milo Asia Swimming Championships in Singapore , the Republic 's first top award at the competition . Between 16 and 21 March 2006 she took part in the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne , reaching the finals of the 50 metres , 100 metres and 200 metres butterfly , though she did not gain any medals . In December the same year , Tao won a gold medal at the 50 metres butterfly in Doha 's 2006 Asian Games , beating China 's multi @-@ gold medallist Xu Yanwei and breaking her own national record in the process . She also won a bronze medal at the 100 metres butterfly earlier in the tournament , recording a national and Asian mark of 58 @.@ 96 seconds . Tao became the first Singaporean female swimmer to reach a FINA World Aquatics Championships final . The 2007 World Aquatics Championships were held in Melbourne from 17 March to 1 April 2007 , and she finished seventh in the 50 metres butterfly . Later that year at the 2007 SEA Games in Nakhon Ratchasima ( Korat ) , Thailand , she was Singapore 's most medalled athlete at the Games , winning four gold medals in the 100 metres backstroke , 100 and 200 metres butterfly , and 4 x 100 metres medley relay . On 28 June 2008 , Tao was named Sportswoman of the Year in the Singapore Sports Awards given out by the Singapore National Olympic Council each year . She also won the award in 2007 . In January 2008 , Tao became embroiled in controversy after the Singapore Swimming Association ( SSA ) introduced a 15 % levy on the cash awards given to swimmers , with about 6 % set aside for youth development . As part of the government 's Multi @-@ Million Dollar Award Programme ( MAP ) , she received S $ 23 @,@ 750 for winning three individual titles and one team gold at the 2007 SEA Games . She was therefore " taxed " S $ 3 @,@ 562 @.@ 50 , with S $ 1 @,@ 425 going to youth development . Unhappy with this , Tao said : " If they [ the SSA ] want to cultivate youth , they should find their own money , not pay using our awards . It 's through our hard work that we got the money . So , I don 't see the point that we should give the money to the youths . " She also said it had been her school and not the SSA which had borne the expense of her overseas training . The SSA said it was " very disappointed " with her comments , and pointed out that the association had spent " easily in excess of $ 20 @,@ 000 " in sending her for competitions abroad such as the World Championships , Hong Kong Open and Japan International , and a stint at the Australian Institute of Sport . SSA Vice @-@ President Oon Jin Gee told the press , " Even with the Sports School funding it , it 's our taxpayers ' dollars going into her development . It doesn 't matter which avenue it comes from , it 's still Singapore 's support for her . " = = = 2008 Summer Olympics = = = Tao made her Olympic début for Singapore at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , arriving ranked 26th out of 49 butterfly swimmers . On 9 August , the second day of the swimming competition , she qualified fourth fastest for the semifinals of the 100 metres butterfly after winning her heat with a personal best time of 57 @.@ 77 seconds . The following day she made it to the finals , shaving off 0 @.@ 23 seconds for another personal best time and new Asian record of 57 @.@ 54 seconds . She came fourth behind her role model , Australian swimmer Lisbeth Trickett , and the USA 's Christine Magnuson and Australia 's Jessicah Schipper . She thus set two Asian records and the national record for the event , and became the eighth fastest butterfly swimmer in the world and first Singaporean swimmer to enter an Olympic final . On 11 August , she came fifth at the 100 metres butterfly finals with a time of 57 @.@ 99 seconds . The top three spots were taken by Trickett ( 56 @.@ 73 seconds ) , Magnuson ( 57 @.@ 10 seconds ) and Schipper ( 57 @.@ 25 seconds ) . Asked by The Straits Times about her performance , Tao said , " If I have given another personal best , it would not have gotten me a medal . The top three winners were just too good . I wanted to do my best and I pushed all the way and hoped for the best . " Given Tao 's age compared to those of the medallists , there are hopes that she will be able to improve her performance at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . On 12 August , Tao swam in the second heat of the 200 metres butterfly . She finished fifth ( 26th in a field of 34 ) and thus did not proceed to the semi @-@ finals , but her time of 2 minutes 12 @.@ 63 seconds was a new national record . Discussions have begun regarding plans for her future development . The Singapore Sports Council 's high performance chief Wayde Clews has said : " Money will not be a prohibitive factor in providing the support and necessary resources for Tao Li to reach her full potential ... with the 2012 Olympics as the target . " As Tao needs to gain more high @-@ level competing experience , there is also the issue of whether she should continue training in Singapore or head overseas , particularly to Australia or the US . = = = Events between 2008 and 2012 = = = On 1 November 2008 at the FINA / Arena Swimming World Cup in Singapore , Tao achieved gold in the 100 metres short @-@ course ( 25 metres ) butterfly , and the following evening a bronze in the 50 metres butterfly in a personal @-@ best time of 25 @.@ 93 seconds . She repeated her feat in the 100 metres butterfly at the Stockholm leg of the competition on 11 November , and in Berlin on 15 November when she set a competition record with a time of 56 @.@ 28 seconds . Tao was named the inaugural The Straits Times Athlete of the Year 2008 , and came second in Today newspaper 's 2008 list of athletes of the year . Tao participated in the 25th Southeast Asian Games in Vientiane , Laos . On 10 December 2009 , she took the gold in the 200 metres backstroke in a time of 2 minutes 17 @.@ 12 seconds . Three days later , she was part of the winning 4 x 100 metres medley relay team with Roanne Ho , Shana Lim and Quah Ting Wen , and on 14 December she broke her own 2005 Games record in the 200 metres butterfly in a time of 2 minutes 13 @.@ 49 seconds . As she chalked up five wins , including the 100 metres backstroke and butterfly events , these were her most successful Games to date . On 18 November 2010 , Tao won Singapore 's first gold medal at the 2010 Asian Games in Guangzhou , China , in the 50 metres butterfly . Her time of 26 @.@ 10 seconds was a personal best as well as a national record . She had achieved silver in the 100 metres butterfly on 13 November . = = = 2012 Summer Olympics = = = Tao competed for Singapore at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In the women 's 100 metres butterfly she reached the semifinals held on 28 July , but with a time of 58 @.@ 18 seconds did not do well enough to join the eight swimmers who advanced to the finals with times below 58 seconds . The next day , in the women 's 100 metres backstroke , she bettered her national record with a time of 1 minute 1 @.@ 6 seconds but did not advance beyond the heats , ranking only 26th out of 45 swimmers . = = Medals = = = = National records = = As of 30 July 2012 , Tao was the holder of the following Singapore records : = = = Open = = = Some of the above information was obtained from Singapore national records ( long @-@ course metres ) , Singapore Swimming Association , 8 June 2008 , archived from the original on 22 August 2008 , retrieved 11 August 2008 . = = = Under 17 years of age = = = The above information was obtained from Singapore national records ( long @-@ course metres ) , Singapore Swimming Association , 6 June 2008 , archived from the original on 2 August 2008 , retrieved 11 August 2008 . = Harvey Littleton = Harvey Littleton ( June 14 , 1922 – December 13 , 2013 ) was an American glass artist and educator . Born in Corning , New York , he grew up in the shadow of Corning Glassworks , where his father headed Research and Development during the 1930s . Expected by his father to enter the field of physics , Littleton instead chose a career in art , gaining recognition first as a ceramist and later as a glassblower and sculptor in glass . In the latter capacity he was very influential , organizing the first glassblowing seminar aimed at the studio artist in 1962 , on the grounds of the Toledo Museum of Art . His aim was to take the manufacture of glass out of its industrial setting and put it within the reach of the studio artist . In his role as an educator , Littleton was an " ... outspoken and eloquent advocate of university education in the arts . " He organized the first hot glass program at an American university ( the University of Wisconsin – Madison ) and promoted the idea of glass as a course of study in university art departments in the Midwest and northeastern United States . Several of Littleton 's students went on to disseminate the study of glass art throughout the U.S. , including Marvin Lipofsky , who started a glass program at the University of California at Berkeley and Dale Chihuly , who developed the glass program at the Rhode Island School of Design and later was a founder of Pilchuck Glass School in Stanwood , Washington . Littleton retired from teaching in 1976 to focus on his own art . Exploring the inherent qualities of the medium , he worked in series with simple forms to draw attention to the complex interplay of transparent glass with multiple overlays of thin color . = = Early life = = Harvey Kline Littleton was born in Corning , New York where his father , Dr. Jesse T. Littleton , Jr . , was Director of Research for Corning Glass Works . A physicist , Dr. Littleton is remembered today as the developer of Pyrex glassware . Harvey Littleton 's introduction to the world of glass began when he was six . On Saturdays his father would take Harvey off his mother 's hands for a few hours by bringing him to the laboratory . There he was turned over to the laboratory stockman who entertained him or , at least , kept the little boy out of trouble . At home , the properties of glass and its manufacture were frequent topics at the family dinner @-@ table . Dr. Littleton was fascinated by glass and believed that the material had almost unlimited uses . = = Education = = When he was eighteen , Harvey Littleton enrolled at the University of Michigan to study physics . His choice of major was influenced by his father , who wanted one of his children to follow him in his profession ( Littleton ’ s two elder brothers chose medicine and business as careers ; his sister was an industrial psychologist ) . According to Littleton , " I always thought I would be a physicist like my father " . Littleton 's interest in art began in high school , where he took life drawing and sculpture classes . He also took a sculpture class during his freshman year at the University of Michigan . His growing preference for art eventually proved stronger than his respect for his father 's wishes . After three semesters of physics he transferred to Cranbrook Academy of Art for its 1941 spring semester . There he studied under sculptor Marshall Fredericks and worked part @-@ time as a studio assistant to Carl Milles . Dr. Littleton was not pleased by his son 's decision . Littleton enlisted his elder sister Martha 's aid in pleading his case to their father , and a compromise was reached . Littleton would return to the University of Michigan that fall , but not to physics . The study of fine art was not part of the compromise ; instead , Littleton agreed to major in industrial design . During summer break in 1942 Littleton worked as a mold maker at Corning Glass Works in the Vycor multiform project laboratory . There he cast his first work in glass , an academic torso , in white Vycor . That fall Littleton was forced to delay his education for three years when he was drafted into the U.S. Army Signal Corps . He served in North Africa and Italy and , near the end of the war , received a commendation for his work in encoding . In early 1946 he was in England , waiting his turn to be shipped home . To fill the time he attended classes at the Brighton School of Art , where he modeled and fired a small clay torso that he carried home in his barracks bag . Once back in Corning , New York , Littleton cast the torso , again in Vycor , as a small edition . He finished his degree in industrial design in 1947 at the University of Michigan . With his father 's encouragement Littleton submitted a proposal to Corning to create a workshop within the factory to research the aesthetic properties of industrial glass . The proposal was rejected and instead Littleton and two friends , Bill Lewis and Aare Lahti , opened a design studio in Ann Arbor . = = As a ceramist = = In 1949 Littleton enrolled as a graduate student in ceramics at Cranbrook Academy of Art . That same year , he accepted a position teaching ceramics at the Toledo Museum of Art School of Design commuting between Toledo , Ohio and Bloomfield Hills weekly . For that portion of the week that Littleton was in Toledo , he stayed at the apartment of artist Hal Lotterman . There , at one of Lotterman 's Wednesday night poker games , Littleton met Dominick Labino , who would be important to the success of Littleton 's first glass workshop a dozen years later . Littleton 's production as a potter focused on functional stoneware that he sold in Chicago @-@ area art fairs and in galleries from Chicago to New York City . His work was included in group shows in the United States , including " Designer Craftsmen U.S.A. , " sponsored by the American Craft Council in 1953 and the Ceramic National exhibition at the Syracuse Museum of Art in 1954 . His pottery gained international exposure in 1956 at the First International Exposition of Ceramics in Cannes , France . While heading up the ceramics department at the University of Wisconsin , Madison , he designed a manually operated wheel called the " Littleton Kick Wheel " . These wheels were used by students in the ceramics lab at the UWM . = = Research = = After earning his master 's degree in ceramics , Littleton began teaching at the University of Wisconsin – Madison in 1951 . In 1957 a university research grant allowed him to visit Europe , where he studied the influence of Islamic culture on contemporary Spanish pottery . However , he first stopped in Paris to visit Jean Sala , who had been recommended to Littleton as an artist who worked alone in glass . After four and a half months of research in Spain , Littleton visited the site of his war @-@ time service in Naples . He was surprised to find seven small glass factories there . On a later visit to the island of Murano , he visited more than fifty glass factories . He was fascinated by the little demonstration furnaces that some of the factories placed outside their walls . The furnaces would be staffed by a couple of the factory 's glassblowers , who would perform their craft for tourists . Prior to this Littleton believed that glass could only be made in an industrial setting , by a team of workers . His Murano experience convinced him that a single artist could melt and work glass in a private studio . Upon his return to his Verona , Wisconsin studio Littleton began melting small batches of glass in his ceramics kiln , using hand @-@ thrown stoneware bowls as crucibles . As a result of these experiments , the American Craft Council asked him to chair a panel on glass at its Third National Conference in 1958 . The panelists were glass artists and designers Michael and Frances Higgins and Earl McCutchen , who worked in laminated glass at the University of Georgia . Paul Perrot , director of the Corning Museum of Glass , was the fifth panelist . By the time the American Craft Council convened its fourth conference in 1961 , Littleton not only presented a paper on his own work in glass but also exhibited a sculpture made of three faceted pieces of cullet that he had melted , formed and carved in the previous year . After the conference , Littleton began applying for grants to get his vision of a hot glass studio program off the ground . = = 1962 glass workshop = = In March 1962 , Otto Wittmann , director of the Toledo Museum of Art , offered Littleton the use of a storage shed on the grounds of the museum for a one @-@ week glassblowing workshop . According to former student and Littleton biographer Joan Falconer Byrd , " Littleton brought a small pot furnace he had built at his farm and hooked it up in the museum garage with the help of Norm Schulman , pottery instructor at the museum school . Dominick Labino , then director of research for Johns Manville Corporation ... volunteered a low @-@ melting glass formula . " Because of a misreading of Labino 's formula , the first batch of glass was ruined . Labino himself oversaw the conversion of the pot furnace into a day tank , supplying it with low @-@ melting @-@ point glass marbles he had developed for use in the production of fiberglass . This glass proved easy to work for glass blowing , and the workshop participants experimented with it in shifts for the remainder of the week . On the final day of the workshop , Harvey Leafgreen , a retired glassblower from the Libbey glass plant in Toledo , presented an unexpected two @-@ hour demonstration of the craft . The ten attendees at the March 1962 Toledo workshop included Littleton , Dominick Labino , Norm Schulman , Tom McGlauchlin from the University of Iowa , Karl Martz from Indiana University , John Stephenson from the University of Michigan , William Pitney from Wayne State University , Clayton Bailey , Littleton 's Graduate Assistant from the University of Wisconsin , artist Dora Reynolds and Edith Franklin , one of Schulman 's ceramics students at the Toledo Museum of Art . A second , better advertised Toledo workshop that attracted more participants was held that June . Littleton , Labino , Leafgreen and Schulman shared teaching duties at the second workshop . = = Glass at the University of Wisconsin = = In the summer of 1962 Littleton once again traveled to Europe , this time to research how glass was taught in universities there . He found nothing that he could bring back to the U.S. to help him educate art students at the University of Wisconsin . At that time , European glass programs were geared solely toward industrial production . Students were not taught hands @-@ on techniques with the material ; the craft of working with hot glass was still taught at the factories , under the apprenticeship system . What Littleton did find in Europe was a kindred spirit in glass art , the German Erwin Eisch , who is recognized today as a founder of European studio glass . Eisch had set up a small work area in his family ’ s glass factory in Frauenau for the production of his own glass art . Trained as a fine artist in the academies of Germany , he was largely self @-@ taught as a glass blower and at the time produced his work with the help of the factory ’ s craftsmen . Through the fall 1962 and spring 1963 semesters , Littleton taught glass in a garage at his Verona farm to six students under an independent study program . By the following year he had secured University of Wisconsin funding to rent and equip an off @-@ campus glass department in Madison . Through the University ’ s glass program , Littleton would train many prominent glass artists , including Bill Boysen , Dale Chihuly , Marvin Lipofsky , Fritz Dreisbach , Sam Herman , Tom McGlauchlin , Christopher Ries , Michael Taylor and Kent Ipsen . With the launching of the first college glass department Littleton said that he " ... became a kind of evangelist for the medium . " He gave lectures at university art departments throughout the midwest and northeast United States about the potential of glass as a medium for the studio artist . Littleton served as the chairman of the University of Wisconsin art department from 1964 – 1967 and from 1969 – 1971 . He retired from teaching in 1976 , and in 1977 was named professor emeritus . It was around this time that Littleton , in addition to his work in glass , began to develop the technique of vitreography — printmaking using glass plates . = = " Technique is cheap " = = In 1972 Littleton was at the Seventh National Sculpture Conference in Lawrence , Kansas when he uttered the words , " Technique is cheap . " The statement touched off a debate that still finds currency among glass artists : Should technique , or content , take precedence in glass art ? This was a question that Littleton had evidently been thinking about for some time . In his 1971 book , Glassblowing : A Search for Form , he wrote : " The method used by the contemporary artist is a constant probing and questioning of the standards of the past and the definitions of the present to find an opening for new form statements in the material and process . It is even said that this search is an end in itself . Although knowledge of chemistry or physics as they apply to glass will broaden the artist ’ s possibilities , it cannot create them . Tools can be made , furnaces and annealing ovens can be built cheaply . But it is through the insatiable , adventurous urge of the artist to discover the essence of glass that his own means of expression will emerge . " The offhand phrase " technique is cheap " soon took on a life of its own . For some it was a rallying cry to discover the inherent possibilities of a " new " medium for the artist ; for others the statement expressed nothing more than arrogant disdain for the timeless value of craftsmanship . In a 2001 interview for the Smithsonian ’ s Archives of American Art , Littleton commented on what he termed the " misinterpretation " of the phrase : " All I meant by that is that technique is available to everybody , that you can read technique , if you have any background . Technique in and of itself is nothing . But technique in the hands of a strong , creative person , like Voulkos or Dante Marioni , takes on another dimension . " Behind this point is another , as expressed by writer and curator William Warmus : " It might even be argued that Littleton sought long @-@ term to put the artist back in control of the factory , even as he sought to put the furnace into the artist ’ s studio . " For Littleton , the epitome of technique vs. content was to be found in factory @-@ made art glass , where the division of labor was inflexible . Traditionally the art glass designer was a draftsman who made a conceptual drawing for a glass object , and then passed it along to industry craftsmen for execution . According to Littleton , the factory designer “ ... is frustrated by the peculiar misplacement of his skill , and his inclusion in a process where little experimentation or interference is permitted . As for the factory craftsman , his training under the apprenticeship system " limited him to one phase in the production of glass . This training could not prepare anyone to function as an independent artist , but only to serve as a cog in the industrial machinery . " = = Work in glass = = In 1962 Littleton ’ s first pieces in blown glass were , like his earlier works in pottery , functional forms : vases , bowls and paperweights . His breakthrough to non @-@ functional form came in 1963 when , with no purpose in mind , he remelted and finished a glass piece that he had earlier smashed in a fit of pique . The object lay in his studio for several weeks before he decided to grind the bottom . As Littleton recounts in his book Glassblowing : A Search for Form , he brought the object into the house where " it aroused such antipathy in my wife that I looked at it much more closely , finally deciding to send it to an exhibition . Its refusal there made me even more obstinate , and I took it to New York ... I later showed it to the curators of design at the Museum of Modern Art . They , perhaps relating it to some other neo @-@ Dada work in the museum , purchased it for the Design Collection . " This led to Littleton ’ s mid @-@ 1960s series of broken @-@ open forms , and " Prunted , " " Imploded " and " Exploded " forms . These sculptures , especially the " Prunted , " or " Anthropomorpic , " forms were influenced by Littleton ’ s colleague Erwin Eisch , who visited and worked with Littleton in his Wisconsin studio for a month in late 1967 . Several weeks after Eisch ’ s departure , Littleton realized that he had unconsciously adopted his friend 's strongly personal figural style in his own work . Littleton reacted to this discovery by turning to simple , clean shapes in 1968 , forming tubes , rods and columns of glass that he cut and grouped together on bases of plate glass or steel . Allowing the pull of gravity to stretch and bend hot glass while on the blowpipe or punty led Littleton to his " Folded Forms " and " Loops " series , which continued until 1979 . His " Eye " forms , also from the 1970s , take the form of concentric cups of various colors in diminishing sizes that nestle one inside the next . Littleton explored cutting and slumping industrial glass , including plate and optic glass , beginning in 1970 . In sculptures such as Do Not Spindle and Distortion Box , slumped squares of glass are transfixed by a brass rod . In Rock Around the Clock , a bent piece of optic glass bar from Corning Glass Works in Danville , Virginia , can be set rocking on its bronze plate glass base with a touch of the hand . Littleton incorporated optical lens blanks manufactured by Corning with his own hot @-@ worked glass . In each case he sandblasted and cut the optical disc draping , and in one case piercing , the disc with fluid , cased glass forms . These were followed , in 1978 , by Littleton ’ s Solid Geometry series , in which heavy cased glass forms were cut into trapezoidal , spheroid and ovoid shapes and highly polished . Perhaps Littleton ’ s best known body of work is his " Topological Geometry " group of series , made between 1983 and 1989 . Included under this heading are his signature " Arc " forms and " Crowns , " as well as his late " Lyrical Movement " and " Implied Movement " sculptural groups . In 1989 chronic back problems forced Littleton to retire from working in hot glass . = = Public collections = = Littleton 's artwork is in the collections of museums worldwide , including the Metropolitan Museum of Art and the Museum of Modern Art in New York City ; Corning Museum of Glass , Detroit Institute of Arts , Indianapolis Museum of Art , Los Angeles County Museum of Art , Milwaukee Art Museum , Museum of Arts & Design , Museum of Fine Arts , Houston , Smithsonian Institution and the Toledo Museum of Art , among numerous others . Overseas his work is in Glasmuseet Ebeltoft in Denmark ; Museum Bellrive in Zürich , Switzerland ; Museum Boijmans van Beuningen in Rotterdam , Holland ; National Museum of Modern Art , Kyoto in Japan ; Hokkaido Museum of Modern Art in Sapporo , Japan ; the Victoria and Albert Museum in London ; Glasmuseum Frauenau ( Sammlung Wolfgang Kermer ) and the Decorative Arts Museums in Frankfurt , Hamburg , Prague and Vienna . = = Personal = = Littleton was married to Bess Tamura Littleton in 1947 . She predeceased him on October 8 , 2009 . The couple had four children : Carol L. Shay , Thomas Littleton , Maurine Littleton and John Littleton . All work in the field of glass art . Carol L. Shay is the curator at Littleton Studios ; Tom Littleton owns and manages Spruce Pine Batch Company , which supplies batch ( the dry ingredients of which glass is made ) to artists and art departments around the U.S. ; Maurine Littleton is the owner and director of Maurine Littleton Gallery which specializes in glass art , in Washington , DC . With his wife and collaborative partner , Kate Vogel , John Littleton is a glass artist in Bakersville , North Carolina . Harvey Littleton died on December 13 , 2013 , aged 91 at his home in Spruce Pine , North Carolina . = Little owl = The little owl ( Athene noctua ) is a bird that inhabits much of the temperate and warmer parts of Europe , Asia east to Korea , and north Africa . It was introduced into Britain at the end of the nineteenth century and into the South Island of New Zealand in the early twentieth century . This owl is a member of the typical or true owl family , Strigidae , which contains most species of owl , the other grouping being the barn owls , Tytonidae . It is a small , cryptically coloured , mainly nocturnal species and is found in a range of habitats including farmland , woodland fringes , steppes and semi @-@ deserts . It feeds on insects , earthworms , other invertebrates and small vertebrates . Males hold territories which they defend against intruders . This owl is a cavity nester and a clutch of about four eggs is laid in spring . The female does the incubation and the male brings food to the nest , first for the female and later for the newly hatched young . As the chicks grow , both parents hunt and bring them food , and the chicks leave the nest at about seven weeks of age . Being a common species with a wide range and large total population , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed its conservation status as " least concern " . = = Description = = The little owl is a small owl with a flat @-@ topped head , a plump , compact body and a short tail . The facial disc is flattened above the eyes giving the bird a frowning expression . The plumage is greyish @-@ brown , spotted , streaked and barred with white . The underparts are pale and streaked with darker colour . It is usually 22 centimetres ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) in length with a wingspan of 56 centimetres ( 22 in ) for both sexes , and weighs about 180 grams ( 6 @.@ 3 oz ) . The adult little owl of the most widespread form , the nominate A. n. noctua , is white @-@ speckled brown above , and brown @-@ streaked white below . It has a large head , long legs , and yellow eyes , and its white “ eyebrows ” give it a stern expression . Juveniles are duller , and lack the adult 's white crown spots . This species has a bounding flight like a woodpecker but the rounded wingtips and general appearance of the birds are quite different . The call is a querulous kiew , kiew . Less frequently , various whistling or trilling calls are uttered . In the breeding season , other more modulated calls are made , and a pair may call in duet . Various yelping , chattering or barking sounds are made in the vicinity of the nest . = = Distribution and habitat = = The distribution is widespread across Europe , Asia and North Africa . Its range in Eurasia extends from the Iberian Peninsula and Denmark eastwards to China and southwards to the Himalayas . In Africa it is present from Mauritania to Egypt , the Red Sea and Arabia . The bird has been introduced to New Zealand , and to the United Kingdom , where it has spread across much of England and the whole of Wales . This is a sedentary species which is found in open countryside in a great range of habitats . These include agricultural land with hedgerows and trees , orchards , woodland verges , parks and gardens , as well as steppes and stony semi @-@ deserts . It is also present in treeless areas such as dunes , and in the vicinity of ruins , quarries and rocky outcrops . It sometimes ventures into villages and suburbs . In the United Kingdom it is chiefly a bird of the lowlands , and usually occurs below 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) . In continental Europe and Asia it may be found at much higher elevations ; one individual was recorded from 3 @,@ 600 m ( 12 @,@ 000 ft ) in Tibet . = = Behaviour and ecology = = The owl usually perches in an elevated position ready to swoop down on any small creature it notices . It feeds on prey such as insects and earthworms , as well as small vertebrates including amphibians , reptiles , birds and mammals . It may pursue prey on the ground and it caches surplus food in holes or other hiding places . A study of the pellets of indigestible material that the birds regurgitate found mammals formed 20 to 50 % of the diet and insects 24 to 49 % . Mammals taken included mice , rats , voles , shrews , moles and rabbits . The birds were mostly taken during the breeding season and were often fledglings , and including the chicks of game birds . The insects included Diptera , Dermaptera , Coleoptera , Lepidoptera and Hymenoptera . Some vegetable matter ( up to 5 % ) was included in the diet and may have been ingested accidentally . The little owl is territorial , the male normally remaining in one territory for life . However the boundaries may expand and contract , being largest in the courtship season in spring . The home range , in which the bird actually hunts for food , varies with the type of habitat and time of year . If a male intrudes into the territory of another , the occupier approaches and emits its territorial calls . If the intruder persists , the occupier flies at him aggressively . If this is unsuccessful , the occupier repeats the attack , this time trying to make contact with his claws . In retreat , an owl often drops to the ground and makes a low @-@ level escape . The territory is more actively defended against a strange male as compared to a known male from a neighbouring territory ; it has been shown that the little owl can recognise familiar birds by voice . This owl becomes more vocal at night as the breeding season approaches in late spring . The nesting location varies with habitat , nests being found in holes in trees , in cliffs , quarries , walls , old buildings , river banks and rabbit burrows . A clutch of three to five eggs is laid ( occasionally two to eight ) . The eggs are broadly elliptical , white and without gloss ; they measure about 35 @.@ 5 by 29 @.@ 5 mm ( 1 @.@ 40 by 1 @.@ 16 in ) . They are incubated by the female who sometimes starts sitting after the first egg is laid . While she is incubating the eggs , the male brings food for her . The eggs hatch after twenty @-@ eight or twenty @-@ nine days . At first the chicks are brooded by the female and the male brings in food which she distributes to them . Later , both parents are involved in hunting and feeding them . The young leave the nest at about seven weeks , and can fly a week or two later . Usually there is a single brood but when food is abundant , there may be two . When the young disperse , they seldom travel more than about 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . Pairs of birds often remain together all year round and the bond may last until one partner dies . The little owl is partly diurnal and often perches boldly and prominently during the day . If living in an area with a large amount of human activity , little owls may grow used to humans and will remain on their perch , often in full view , while people are around . The little owl has a life expectancy of about sixteen years . However , many birds do not reach maturity ; severe winters can take their toll and some birds are killed by road vehicles at night , so the average lifespan may be in the order of three years . = = Status = = A. noctua has an extremely large range . It has been estimated that there are between 560 thousand and 1 @.@ 3 million breeding pairs in Europe , and as Europe equates to 25 to 49 % of the global range , the world population may be between five million and fifteen million birds . The population is believed to be stable , and for these reasons , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has assessed the bird 's conservation status as being of " least concern " . = = In human culture = = Owls have often been depicted from the Upper Palaeolithic onwards , in forms from statuettes and drawings to pottery and wooden posts , but in the main they are generic rather than identifiable to species . The little owl is , however , closely associated with the Greek goddess Athena and the Roman goddess Minerva , and hence represents wisdom and knowledge . A little owl with an olive branch appears on a Greek tetradrachm coin from 500 B.C. and in a 5th @-@ century B.C. bronze statue of Athena holding the bird in her hand . The call of a little owl was thought to have heralded the murder of Julius Caesar . The genus name , Athene commemorates the goddess , whose original role as a goddess of the night might explain the link to an owl . The species name noctua has , in effect , the same meaning , being the Latin name of an owl sacred to Minerva , Athena 's Roman counterpart . In 1992 , the little owl appeared as a watermark on Jaap Drupsteen ’ s 100 guilder banknote for the Netherlands . = Henry I of England = Henry I ( c . 1068 – 1 December 1135 ) , also known as Henry Beauclerc , was King of England from 1100 to his death . Henry was the fourth son of William the Conqueror and was educated in Latin and the liberal arts . On William 's death in 1087 , Henry 's elder brothers Robert Curthose and William Rufus inherited Normandy and England , respectively , but Henry was left landless . Henry purchased the County of Cotentin in western Normandy from Robert , but William and Robert deposed him in 1091 . Henry gradually rebuilt his power base in the Cotentin and allied himself with William against Robert . Henry was present when William died in a hunting accident in 1100 , and he seized the English throne , promising at his coronation to correct many of William 's less popular policies . Henry married Matilda of Scotland but continued to have a large number of mistresses , by whom he had many illegitimate children . Robert , who invaded in 1101 , disputed Henry 's control of England ; this military campaign ended in a negotiated settlement that confirmed Henry as king . The peace was short @-@ lived , and Henry invaded the Duchy of Normandy in 1105 and 1106 , finally defeating Robert at the Battle of Tinchebray . Henry kept Robert imprisoned for the rest of his life . Henry 's control of Normandy was challenged by Louis VI of France , Baldwin of Flanders and Fulk of Anjou , who promoted the rival claims of Robert 's son , William Clito , and supported a major rebellion in the Duchy between 1116 and 1119 . Following Henry 's victory at the Battle of Brémule , a favourable peace settlement was agreed with Louis in 1120 . Considered by contemporaries to be a harsh but effective ruler , Henry skilfully manipulated the barons in England and Normandy . In England , he drew on the existing Anglo @-@ Saxon system of justice , local government and taxation , but also strengthened it with additional institutions , including the royal exchequer and itinerant justices . Normandy was also governed through a growing system of justices and an exchequer . Many of the officials who ran Henry 's system were " new men " of obscure backgrounds rather than from families of high status , who rose through the ranks as administrators . Henry encouraged ecclesiastical reform , but became embroiled in a serious dispute in 1101 with Archbishop Anselm of Canterbury , which was resolved through a compromise solution in 1105 . He supported the Cluniac order and played a major role in the selection of the senior clergy in England and Normandy . Henry 's only legitimate son and heir , William Adelin , drowned in the White Ship disaster of 1120 , throwing the royal succession into doubt . Henry took a second wife , Adeliza , in the hope of having another son , but their marriage was childless . In response to this , Henry declared his daughter , Matilda , his heir and married her to Geoffrey of Anjou . The relationship between Henry and the couple became strained , and fighting broke out along the border with Anjou . Henry died on 1 December 1135 after a week of illness . Despite his plans for Matilda , the King was succeeded by his nephew , Stephen of Blois , resulting in a period of civil war known as the Anarchy . = = Early life , 1068 – 1099 = = = = = Childhood and appearance , 1068 – 86 = = = Henry was probably born in England in 1068 , in either the summer or the last weeks of the year , possibly in the town of Selby in Yorkshire . His father was William , who had originally been the Duke of Normandy and then , following the invasion of 1066 , became the King of England , with lands stretching into Wales . The invasion had created an Anglo @-@ Norman elite , many with estates spread across both sides of the English Channel . These Anglo @-@ Norman barons typically had close links to the kingdom of France , which was then a loose collection of counties and smaller polities , under only the minimal control of the king . Henry 's mother , Matilda of Flanders , was the granddaughter of Robert II of France , and she probably named Henry after her uncle , King Henry I of France . Henry was the youngest of William and Matilda 's four sons . Physically he resembled his older brothers Robert Curthose , Richard and William Rufus , being , as historian David Carpenter describes , " short , stocky and barrel @-@ chested , " with black hair . As a result of their age differences and Richard 's early death , Henry would have probably seen relatively little of his older brothers . He probably knew his sister , Adela , well , as the two were close in age . There is little documentary evidence for his early years ; historians Warren Hollister and Kathleen Thompson suggest he was brought up predominantly in England , while Judith Green argues he was initially brought up in the Duchy . He was probably educated by the Church , possibly by Bishop Osmund , the King 's chancellor , at Salisbury Cathedral ; it is uncertain if this indicated an intent by his parents for Henry to become a member of the clergy . It is also uncertain how far Henry 's education extended , but he was probably able to read Latin and had some background in the liberal arts . He was given military training by an instructor called Robert Achard , and Henry was knighted by his father on 24 May 1086 . = = = Inheritance , 1087 – 88 = = = In 1087 , William was fatally injured during a campaign in the Vexin . Henry joined his dying father near Rouen in September , where the King partitioned his possessions among his sons . The rules of succession in western Europe at the time were uncertain ; in some parts of France , primogeniture , in which the eldest son would inherit a title , was growing in popularity . In other parts of Europe , including Normandy and England , the tradition was for lands to be divided up , with the eldest son taking patrimonial lands – usually considered to be the most valuable – and younger sons given smaller , or more recently acquired , partitions or estates . In dividing his lands , William appears to have followed the Norman tradition , distinguishing between Normandy , which he had inherited , and England , which he had acquired through war . William 's second son , Richard , had died in a hunting accident , leaving Henry and his two brothers to inherit William 's estate . Robert , the eldest , despite being in armed rebellion against his father at the time of his death , received Normandy . England was given to William Rufus , who was in favour with the dying king . Henry was given a large sum of money , usually reported as £ 5 @,@ 000 , with the expectation that he would also be given his mother 's modest set of lands in Buckinghamshire and Gloucestershire . William 's funeral at Caen was marred by angry complaints from a local man , and Henry may have been responsible for resolving the dispute by buying off the protester with silver . Robert returned to Normandy , expecting to have been given both the Duchy and England , to find that William Rufus had crossed the Channel and been crowned king , as William II . The two brothers disagreed fundamentally over the inheritance , and Robert soon began to plan an invasion of England to seize the kingdom , helped by a rebellion by some of the leading nobles against William Rufus . Henry remained in Normandy and took up a role within Robert 's court , possibly either because he was unwilling to openly side with William Rufus , or because Robert might have taken the opportunity to confiscate Henry 's inherited money if he had tried to leave . William Rufus sequestered Henry 's new estates in England , leaving Henry landless . In 1088 , Robert 's plans for the invasion of England began to falter , and he turned to Henry , proposing that his brother lend him some of his inheritance , which Henry refused . Henry and Robert then came to an alternative arrangement , in which Robert would make Henry the count of western Normandy , in exchange for £ 3 @,@ 000 . Henry 's lands were a new countship based around a delegation of the ducal authority in the Cotentin , but it extended across the Avranchin , with control over the bishoprics of both . This also gave Henry influence over two major Norman leaders , Hugh d 'Avranches and Richard de Redvers , and the abbey of Mont Saint @-@ Michel , whose lands spread out further across the Duchy . Robert 's invasion force failed to leave Normandy , leaving William Rufus secure in England . = = = Count of the Cotentin , 1088 – 90 = = = Henry quickly established himself as count , building up a network of followers from western Normandy and eastern Brittany , whom historian John Le Patourel has characterised as " Henry 's gang " . His early supporters included Roger of Mandeville , Richard of Redvers , Richard d 'Avranches and Robert Fitzhamon , along with the churchman Roger of Salisbury . Robert attempted to go back on his deal with Henry and re @-@ appropriate the county , but Henry 's grip was already sufficiently firm to prevent this . Robert 's rule of the Duchy was chaotic , and parts of Henry 's lands became almost independent of central control from Rouen . During this period , neither William nor Robert seems to have trusted Henry . Waiting until the rebellion against William Rufus was safely over , Henry returned to England in July 1088 . He met with the King but was unable to persuade him to grant him his mother 's estates , and travelled back to Normandy in the autumn . While he had been away , however , Odo , the Bishop of Bayeux , who regarded Henry as a potential competitor , had convinced Robert that Henry was conspiring against the duke with William Rufus . On landing , Odo seized Henry and imprisoned him in Neuilly @-@ la @-@ Forêt , and Robert took back the county of the Cotentin . Henry was held there over the winter , but in the spring of 1089 the senior elements of the Normandy nobility prevailed upon Robert to release him . Although no longer formally the Count of Cotentin , Henry continued to control the west of Normandy . The struggle between Henry 's brothers continued . William Rufus continued to put down resistance to his rule in England , but began to build a number of alliances against Robert with barons in Normandy and neighbouring Ponthieu . Robert allied himself with Philip I of France . In late 1090 William Rufus encouraged Conan Pilatus , a powerful burgher in Rouen , to rebel against Robert ; Conan was supported by most of Rouen and made appeals to the neighbouring ducal garrisons to switch allegiance as well . Robert issued an appeal for help to his barons , and Henry was the first to arrive in Rouen in November . Violence broke out , leading to savage , confused street fighting as both sides attempted to take control of the city . Robert and Henry left the castle to join the battle , but Robert then retreated , leaving Henry to continue the fighting . The battle turned in favour of the ducal forces and Henry took Conan prisoner . Henry was angry that Conan had turned against his feudal lord . He had him taken to the top of Rouen Castle and then , despite Conan 's offers to pay a huge ransom , threw him off the top of the castle to his death . Contemporaries considered Henry to have acted appropriately in making an example of Conan , and Henry became famous for his exploits in the battle . = = = Fall and rise , 1091 – 99 = = = In the aftermath , Robert forced Henry to leave Rouen , probably because Henry 's role in the fighting had been more prominent than his own , and possibly because Henry had asked to be formally reinstated as the count of the Cotentin . In early 1091 , William Rufus invaded Normandy with a sufficiently large army to bring Robert to the negotiating table . The two brothers signed a treaty at Rouen , granting William Rufus a range of lands and castles in Normandy . In return , William Rufus promised to support Robert 's attempts to regain control of the neighbouring county of Maine , once under Norman control , and help in regaining control over the Duchy , including Henry 's lands . They nominated each other as heirs to England and Normandy , excluding Henry from any succession while either one of them lived . War now broke out between Henry and his brothers . Henry mobilised a mercenary army in the west of Normandy , but as William Rufus and Robert 's forces advanced , his network of baronial support melted away . Henry focused his remaining forces at Mont Saint @-@ Michel , where he was besieged , probably in March 1091 . The site was easy to defend , but lacked fresh water . The chronicler William of Malmesbury suggested that when Henry 's water ran short , Robert allowed his brother fresh supplies , leading to remonstrations between Robert and William Rufus . The events of the final days of the siege are unclear : the besiegers had begun to argue about the future strategy for the campaign , but Henry then abandoned Mont Saint @-@ Michel , probably as part of a negotiated surrender . He left for Brittany and crossed over into France . Henry 's next steps are not well documented ; one chronicler , Orderic Vitalis , suggests that he travelled in the French Vexin , along the Normandy border , for over a year with a small band of followers . By the end of the year , Robert and William Rufus had fallen out once again , and the Treaty of Rouen had been abandoned . In 1092 , Henry and his followers seized the Normandy town of Domfront . Domfront had previously been controlled by Robert of Bellême , but the inhabitants disliked his rule and invited Henry to take over the town , which he did in a bloodless coup . Over the next two years , Henry re @-@ established his network of supporters across western Normandy , forming what Judith Green terms a " court in waiting " . By 1094 , he was allocating lands and castles to his followers as if he were the Duke of Normandy . William Rufus began to support Henry with money , encouraging his campaign against Robert , and Henry used some of this to construct a substantial castle at Domfront . William Rufus crossed into Normandy to take the war to Robert in 1094 , and when progress stalled , called upon Henry for assistance . Henry responded , but travelled to London instead of joining the main campaign further east in Normandy , possibly at the request of the King , who in any event abandoned the campaign and returned to England . Over the next few years , Henry appears to have strengthened his power base in western Normandy , visiting England occasionally to attend at William Rufus 's court . In 1095 Pope Urban II called the First Crusade , encouraging knights from across Europe to join . Robert joined the Crusade , borrowing money from William Rufus to do so , and granting the King temporary custody of his part of the Duchy in exchange . The King appeared confident of regaining the remainder of Normandy from Robert , and Henry appeared ever closer to William Rufus , the pair campaigning together in the Norman Vexin between 1097 and 1098 . = = Early reign , 1100 – 06 = = = = = Taking the throne , 1100 = = = Henry became King of England following the death of William Rufus , who had been shot while hunting . On the afternoon of 2 August 1100 , the King had gone hunting in the New Forest , accompanied by a team of huntsmen and a number of the Norman nobility , including Henry . An arrow was fired , possibly by the baron Walter Tirel , which hit and killed William Rufus . Numerous conspiracy theories have been put forward suggesting that the King was killed deliberately ; most modern historians reject these , as hunting was a risky activity , and such accidents were common . Chaos broke out , and Tirel fled the scene for France , either because he had fired the fatal shot , or because he had been incorrectly accused and feared that he would be made a scapegoat for the King 's death . Henry rode to Winchester , where an argument ensued as to who now had the best claim to the throne . William of Breteuil championed the rights of Robert , who was still abroad , returning from the Crusade , and to whom Henry and the barons had given homage in previous years . Henry argued that , unlike Robert , he had been born to a reigning king and queen , thereby giving him a claim under the right of porphyrogeniture . Tempers flared , but Henry , supported by Henry de Beaumont and Robert of Meulan , held sway and persuaded the barons to follow him . He occupied Winchester Castle and seized the royal treasury . Henry was hastily crowned king in Westminster Abbey on 5 August by Maurice , the Bishop of London , as Anselm , the Archbishop of Canterbury , had been exiled by William Rufus , and Thomas , the Archbishop of York , was in the north of England at Ripon . In accordance with English tradition and in a bid to legitimise his rule , Henry issued a coronation charter laying out various commitments . The new king presented himself as having restored order to a trouble @-@ torn country . He announced that he would abandon William Rufus 's policies towards the Church , which had been seen as oppressive by the clergy ; he promised to prevent royal abuses of the barons ' property rights , and assured a return to the gentler customs of Edward the Confessor ; he asserted that he would " establish a firm peace " across England and ordered " that this peace shall henceforth be kept " . In addition to his existing circle of supporters , many of whom were richly rewarded with new lands , Henry quickly co @-@ opted many of the existing administration into his new royal household . William Giffard , William Rufus 's chancellor , was made the Bishop of Winchester , and the prominent sheriffs Urse d 'Abetot , Haimo Dapifer and Robert Fitzhamon continued to play a senior role in government . By contrast , the unpopular Ranulf Flambard , the Bishop of Durham and a key member of the previous regime , was imprisoned in the Tower of London and charged with corruption . The late king had left many church positions unfilled , and Henry set about nominating candidates to these , in an effort to build further support for his new government . The appointments needed to be consecrated , and Henry wrote to Anselm , apologising for having been crowned while the Archbishop was still in France and asking him to return at once . = = = Marriage to Matilda , 1100 = = = On 11 November 1100 Henry married Matilda , the daughter of Malcolm III of Scotland . Henry was now around 31 years old , but late marriages for noblemen were not unusual in the 11th century . The pair had probably first met earlier the previous decade , possibly being introduced through Bishop Osmund of Salisbury . Historian Warren Hollister argues that Henry and Matilda were emotionally close , but their union was also certainly politically motivated . Matilda had originally been named Edith , an Anglo @-@ Saxon name , and was a member of the West Saxon royal family , being the niece of Edgar the Ætheling , the great @-@ granddaughter of Edmund Ironside and a descendent of Alfred the Great . For Henry , marrying Matilda gave his reign increased legitimacy , and for Matilda , an ambitious woman , it was an opportunity for high status and power in England . Matilda had been educated in a sequence of convents , however , and may well have taken the vows to formally become a nun , which formed an obstacle to the marriage progressing . She did not wish to be a nun and appealed to Anselm for permission to marry Henry , and the Archbishop established a council at Lambeth Palace to judge the issue . Despite some dissenting voices , the council concluded that although Matilda had lived in a convent , she had not actually become a nun and was therefore free to marry , a judgement that Anselm then affirmed , allowing the marriage to proceed . Matilda proved an effective queen for Henry , acting as a regent in England on occasion , addressing and presiding over councils , and extensively supporting the arts . The couple soon had two children , Matilda , born in 1102 , and William Adelin , born in 1103 ; it is possible that they also had a second son , Richard , who died young . Following the birth of these children , Matilda preferred to remain based in Westminster while Henry travelled across England and Normandy , either for religious reasons or because she enjoyed being involved in the machinery of royal governance . Henry had a considerable sexual appetite and enjoyed a substantial number of sexual partners , resulting in a large number of illegitimate children , at least nine sons and 13 daughters , many of whom he appears to have recognised and supported . It was normal for unmarried Anglo @-@ Norman noblemen to have sexual relations with prostitutes and local women , and kings were also expected to have mistresses . Some of these relationships occurred before Henry was married , but many others took place after his marriage to Matilda . Henry had a wide range of mistresses from a range of backgrounds , and the relationships appear to have been conducted relatively openly . He may have chosen some of his noble mistresses for political purposes , but the evidence to support this theory is limited . = = = Treaty of Alton , 1101 – 02 = = = By early 1101 , Henry 's new regime was established and functioning , but many of the Anglo @-@ Norman elite still supported Robert , or would be prepared to switch sides if Henry 's elder brother appeared likely to gain power in England . In February , Flambard escaped from the Tower of London and crossed the Channel to Normandy , where he injected fresh direction and energy to Robert 's attempts to mobilise an invasion force . By July , Robert had formed an army and a fleet , ready to move against Henry in England . Raising the stakes in the conflict , Henry seized Flambard 's lands and , with the support of Anselm , Flambard was removed from his position as bishop . Henry held court in April and June , where the nobility renewed their oaths of allegiance to him , but their support still appeared partial and shaky . With the invasion imminent , Henry mobilised his forces and fleet outside Pevensey , close to Robert 's anticipated landing site , training some of them personally in how to counter cavalry charges . Despite English levies and knights owing military service to the Church arriving in considerable numbers , many of his barons did not appear . Anselm intervened with some of the doubters , emphasising the religious importance of their loyalty to Henry . Robert unexpectedly landed further up the coast at Portsmouth on 20 July with a modest force of a few hundred men , but these were quickly joined by many of the barons in England . However , instead of marching into nearby Winchester and seizing Henry 's treasury , Robert paused , giving Henry time to march west and intercept the invasion force . The two armies met at Alton where peace negotiations began , possibly initiated by either Henry or Robert , and probably supported by Flambard . The brothers then agreed to the Treaty of Alton , under which Robert released Henry from his oath of homage and recognised him as king ; Henry renounced his claims on western Normandy , except for Domfront , and agreed to pay Robert £ 2 @,@ 000 a year for life ; if either brother died without a male heir , the other would inherit his lands ; the barons whose lands had been seized by either the King or the Duke for supporting his rival would have them returned , and Flambard would be reinstated as bishop ; the two brothers would campaign together to defend their territories in Normandy . Robert remained in England for a few months more with Henry before returning to Normandy . Despite the treaty , Henry set about inflicting severe penalties on the barons who had stood against him during the invasion . William de Warenne , the Earl of Surrey , was accused of fresh crimes , which were not covered by the Alton amnesty , and was banished from England . In 1102 Henry then turned against Robert of Bellême and his brothers , the most powerful of the barons , accusing him of 45 different offences . Robert escaped and took up arms against Henry . Henry besieged Robert 's castles at Arundel , Tickhill and Shrewsbury , pushing down into the south @-@ west to attack Bridgnorth . His power base in England broken , Robert accepted Henry 's offer of banishment and left the country for Normandy . = = = Conquest of Normandy , 1103 – 06 = = = Henry 's network of allies in Normandy became stronger during 1103 . Henry married Juliana , one of his illegitimate daughters , to Eustace of Breteuil , and another illegitimate daughter , Matilda , to Rotrou , the Count of Perche , on the Normandy border . Henry attempted to win over other members of the Normandy nobility and gave other English estates and lucrative offers to key Norman lords . Duke Robert continued to fight Robert of Bellême , but the Duke 's position worsened , until by 1104 , he had to ally himself formally with Bellême to survive . Arguing that Duke Robert had broken the terms of their treaty , Henry crossed over the Channel to Domfront , where he met with senior barons from across Normandy , eager to ally themselves with the King . Henry confronted his brother and accused him of siding with his enemies , before returning to England . Normandy continued to disintegrate into chaos . In 1105 , Henry sent his friend Robert Fitzhamon and a force of knights into the Duchy , apparently to provoke a confrontation with Duke Robert . Fitzhamon was captured , and Henry used this as an excuse to invade , promising to restore peace and order . Henry had the support of most of the neighbouring counts around Normandy 's borders , and King Philip of France was persuaded to remain neutral . Henry occupied western Normandy , and advanced east on Bayeux , where Fitzhamon was held . The city refused to surrender , and Henry besieged it , burning it to the ground . Terrified of meeting the same fate , the town of Caen switched sides and surrendered , allowing Henry to advance on Falaise , which he took with some casualties . Henry 's campaign stalled , and the King instead began peace discussions with Robert . The negotiations were inconclusive and the fighting dragged on until Christmas , when Henry returned to England . Henry invaded again in July 1106 , hoping to provoke a decisive battle . After some initial tactical successes , he turned south @-@ west towards the castle of Tinchebray . He besieged the castle and Duke Robert , supported by Robert of Bellême , advanced from Falaise to relieve it . After attempts at negotiation failed , the Battle of Tinchebray took place , probably on 28 September . The battle lasted around an hour , and began with a charge by Duke Robert 's cavalry ; the infantry and dismounted knights of both sides then joined the battle . Henry 's reserves , led by Elias , the Count of Maine and Alan , the Duke of Brittany , attacked the enemy 's flanks , routing first Bellême 's troops and then the bulk of the ducal forces . Duke Robert was taken prisoner , but Bellême escaped . Henry mopped up the remaining resistance in Normandy , and Robert ordered his last garrisons to surrender . Reaching Rouen , Henry reaffirmed the laws and customs of Normandy and took homage from the leading barons and citizens . The lesser prisoners taken at Tinchebray were released , but Robert and several other leading nobles were imprisoned indefinitely . Henry 's nephew , Robert 's son William Clito , was only three years old and was released to the care of Helias of Saint @-@ Saens , a Norman baron . Henry reconciled himself with Robert of Bellême , who gave up the ducal lands he had seized and rejoined the royal court . Henry had no way of legally removing the Duchy from his brother Robert , and initially Henry avoided using the title " duke " at all , emphasising that , as the King of England , he was only acting as the guardian of the troubled Duchy . = = Government , family and household = = = = = Government , law and court = = = Henry inherited the kingdom of England from William Rufus , giving him a claim of suzerainty over Wales and Scotland , and acquired the Duchy of Normandy , a complex entity with troubled borders . The borders between England and Scotland were still uncertain during Henry 's reign , with Anglo @-@ Norman influence pushing northwards through Cumbria , but Henry 's relationship with King David I of Scotland was generally good , partially due to Henry 's marriage to his sister . In Wales , Henry used his power to coerce and charm the indigenous Welsh princes , while Norman Marcher Lords pushed across the valleys of South Wales . Normandy was controlled via various interlocking networks of ducal , ecclesiastical and family contacts , backed by a growing string of important ducal castles along the borders . Alliances and relationships with neighbouring counties along the Norman border were particularly important to maintaining the stability of the Duchy . Henry ruled through the various barons and lords in England and Normandy , whom he manipulated skilfully for political effect . Political friendships , termed amicitia in Latin , were important during the 12th century , and Henry maintained a wide range of these , mediating between his friends in various factions across his realm when necessary , and rewarding those who were loyal to him . Henry also had a reputation for punishing those barons who stood against him , and he maintained an effective network of informers and spies who reported to him on events . Henry was a harsh , firm ruler , but not excessively so by the standards of the day . Over time , he increased the degree of his control over the barons , removing his enemies and bolstering his friends until the " reconstructed baronage " , as historian Warren Hollister describes it , was predominantly loyal and dependent on the King . Henry 's itinerant royal court comprised various parts . At the heart was Henry 's domestic household , called the domus ; a wider grouping was termed the familia regis , and formal gatherings of the court were termed curia . The domus was divided into several parts . The chapel , headed by the chancellor , looked after the royal documents , the chamber dealt with financial affairs and the master @-@ marshal was responsible for travel and accommodation . The familia regis included Henry 's mounted household troops , up to several hundred strong , who came from a wider range of social backgrounds , and could be deployed across England and Normandy as required . Initially Henry continued his father 's practice of regular crown @-@ wearing ceremonies at his curia , but they became less frequent as the years passed . Henry 's court was grand and ostentatious , financing the construction of large new buildings and castles with a range of precious gifts on display , including the King 's private menagerie of exotic animals , which he kept at Woodstock Palace . Despite being a lively community , Henry 's court was more tightly controlled than those of previous kings . Strict rules controlled personal behaviour and prohibited members of the court from pillaging neighbouring villages , as had been the norm under William Rufus . Henry was responsible for a substantial expansion of the royal justice system . In England , Henry drew on the existing Anglo @-@ Saxon system of justice , local government and taxes , but strengthened it with additional central governmental institutions . Roger of Salisbury began to develop the royal exchequer after 1110 , using it to collect and audit revenues from the King 's sheriffs in the shires . Itinerant justices began to emerge under Henry , travelling around the country managing eyre courts , and many more laws were formally recorded . Henry gathered increasing revenue from the expansion of royal justice , both from fines and from fees . The first Pipe Roll that is known to have survived dates from 1130 , recording royal expenditures . Henry reformed the coinage in 1107 , 1108 and in 1125 , inflicting harsh corporal punishments to English coiners who had been found guilty of debasing the currency . In Normandy , Henry restored law and order after 1106 , operating through a body of Norman justices and an exchequer system similar to that in England . Norman institutions grew in scale and scope under Henry , although less quickly than in England . Many of the officials that ran Henry 's system were termed " new men " , relatively low @-@ born individuals who rose through the ranks as administrators , managing justice or the royal revenues . = = = Relations with the church = = = = = = = Church and the King = = = = Henry 's ability to govern was intimately bound up with the Church , which formed the key to the administration of both England and Normandy , and this relationship changed considerably over the course of his reign . William the Conqueror had reformed the English Church with the support of his Archbishop of Canterbury , Lanfranc , who became a close colleague and advisor to the King . Under William Rufus this arrangement had collapsed , the King and Archbishop Anselm had become estranged and Anselm had gone into exile . Henry also believed in Church reform , but on taking power in England he became embroiled in the investiture controversy . The argument concerned who should invest a new bishop with his staff and ring : traditionally , this had been carried out by the king in a symbolic demonstration of royal power , but Pope Urban II had condemned this practice in 1099 , arguing that only the papacy could carry out this task , and declaring that the clergy should not give homage to their local temporal rulers . Anselm returned to England from exile in 1100 having heard Urban 's pronouncement , and informed Henry that he would be complying with the Pope 's wishes . Henry was in a difficult position . On one hand , the symbolism and homage was important to him ; on the other hand , he needed Anselm 's support in his struggle with his brother Duke Robert . Anselm stuck firmly to the letter of the papal decree , despite Henry 's attempts to persuade him to give way in return for a vague assurance of a future royal compromise . Matters escalated , with Anselm going back into exile and Henry confiscating the revenues of his estates . Anselm threatened excommunication , and in July 1105 the two men finally negotiated a solution . A distinction was drawn between the secular and ecclesiastical powers of the prelates , under which Henry gave up his right to invest his clergy , but retained the custom of requiring them to come and do homage for the temporalities , the landed properties they held in England . Despite this argument , the pair worked closely together , combining to deal with Duke Robert 's invasion of 1101 , for example , and holding major reforming councils in 1102 and 1108 . A long @-@ running dispute between the Archbishops of Canterbury and York flared up under Anselm 's successor , Ralph d 'Escures . Canterbury , traditionally the senior of the two establishments , had long argued that the Archbishop of York should formally promise to obey their Archbishop , but York argued that the two episcopates were independent within the English Church and that no such promise was necessary . Henry supported the primacy of Canterbury , to ensure that England remained under a single ecclesiastical administration , but the Pope preferred the case of York . The matter was complicated by Henry 's personal friendship with Thurstan , the Archbishop of York , and the King 's desire that the case should not end up in a papal court , beyond royal control . Henry badly needed the support of the Papacy in his struggle with Louis of France , however , and therefore allowed Thurstan to attend the Council of Rheims in 1119 , where Thurstan was then consecrated by the Pope with no mention of any duty towards Canterbury . Henry believed that this went against assurances Thurstan had previously made and exiled him from England until the King and Archbishop came to a negotiated solution the following year . Even after the investiture dispute , the King continued to play a major role in the selection of new English and Norman bishops and archbishops . Henry appointed many of his officials to bishoprics and , as historian Martin Brett suggests , " some of his officers could look forward to a mitre with all but absolute confidence " . Henry 's chancellors , and those of his queens , became bishops of Durham , Hereford , London , Lincoln , Winchester and Salisbury . Henry increasingly drew on a wider range of these bishops as advisors – particularly Roger of Salisbury – breaking with the earlier tradition of relying primarily on the Archbishop of Canterbury . The result was a cohesive body of administrators through which Henry could exercise careful influence , holding general councils to discuss key matters of policy . This stability shifted slightly after 1125 , when Henry began to inject a wider range of candidates into the senior positions of the Church , often with more reformist views , and the impact of this generation would be felt in the years after Henry 's death . = = = = Personal beliefs and piety = = = = Like other rulers of the period , Henry donated to the Church and patronised various religious communities , but contemporary chroniclers did not consider him an unusually pious king . His personal beliefs and piety may , however , have developed during the course of his life . Henry had always taken an interest in religion , but in his later years he may have become much more concerned about spiritual affairs . If so , the major shifts in his thinking would appear to have occurred after 1120 , when his son William Adelin died , and 1129 , when his daughter 's marriage teetered on the verge of collapse . As a proponent of religious reform , Henry gave extensively to reformist groups within the Church . He was a keen supporter of the Cluniac order , probably for intellectual reasons . He donated money to the abbey at Cluny itself , and after 1120 gave generously to Reading Abbey , a Cluniac establishment . Construction on Reading began in 1121 , and Henry endowed it with rich lands and extensive privileges , making it a symbol of his dynastic lines . He also focused effort on promoting the conversion of communities of clerks into Augustinian canons , the foundation of leper hospitals , expanding the provision of nunneries , and the charismatic orders of the Savigniacs and Tironensians . He was an avid collector of relics , sending an embassy to Constantinople in 1118 to collect Byzantine items , some of which were donated to Reading Abbey . = = Later reign , 1107 – 35 = = = = = Continental and Welsh politics , 1108 – 14 = = = Normandy faced an increased threat from France , Anjou and Flanders after 1108 . Louis VI succeeded to the French throne in 1108 and began to reassert central royal power . Louis demanded Henry give homage to him and that two disputed castles along the Normandy border be placed into the control of neutral castellans . Henry refused , and Louis responded by mobilising an army . After some arguments , the two kings negotiated a truce and retreated without fighting , leaving the underlying issues unresolved . Fulk V assumed power in Anjou in 1109 and began to rebuild Angevin authority . Fulk also inherited the county of Maine , but refused to recognise Henry as his feudal lord and instead allied himself with Louis . Robert II of Flanders also briefly joined the alliance , before his death in 1111 . In 1108 , Henry betrothed his eight @-@ year @-@ old daughter , Matilda , to Henry V , the future Holy Roman Emperor . For King Henry , this was a prestigious match ; for Henry V , it was an opportunity to restore his financial situation and fund an expedition to Italy , as he received a dowry of £ 6 @,@ 666 from England and Normandy . Raising this money proved challenging , and required the implementation of a special " aid " , or tax , in England . Matilda was crowned Henry V 's queen in 1110 . Henry responded to the French and Angevin threat by expanding his own network of supporters beyond the Norman borders . Some Norman barons deemed unreliable were arrested or dispossessed , and Henry used their forfeited estates to bribe his potential allies in the neighbouring territories , in particular Maine . Around 1110 , Henry attempted to arrest the young William Clito , but William 's mentors moved him to the safety of Flanders before he could be taken . At about this time , Henry probably began to style himself as the Duke of Normandy . Robert of Bellême turned against Henry once again , and when he appeared at Henry 's court in 1112 in a new role as a French ambassador , he was arrested and imprisoned . Rebellions broke out in France and Anjou between 1111 and 1113 , and Henry crossed into Normandy to support his nephew , Count Theobald of Blois , who had sided against Louis in the uprising . In a bid to diplomatically isolate the French King , Henry betrothed his young son , William Adelin , to Fulk 's daughter Matilda , and married his illegitimate daughter Matilda to Conan III , the Duke of Brittany , creating alliances with Anjou and Brittany respectively . Louis backed down and in March 1113 met with Henry near Gisors to agree a peace settlement , giving Henry the disputed fortresses and confirming Henry 's overlordship of Maine , Bellême and Brittany . Meanwhile , the situation in Wales was deteriorating . Henry had conducted a campaign in South Wales in 1108 , pushing out royal power in the region and colonising the area around Pembroke with Flemings . By 1114 , some of the resident Norman lords were under attack , while in Mid @-@ Wales , Owain ap Cadwgan blinded one of the political hostages he was holding , and in North Wales Gruffudd ap Cynan threatened the power of the Earl of Chester . Henry sent three armies into Wales that year , with Gilbert Fitz Richard leading a force from the south , Alexander , King of Scotland , pressing from the north and Henry himself advancing into Mid @-@ Wales . Owain and Gruffudd sued for peace , and Henry accepted a political compromise . Henry reinforced the Welsh Marches with his own appointees , strengthening the border territories . = = = Rebellion , 1115 – 20 = = = Concerned about the succession , Henry sought to persuade Louis VI to accept his son , William Adelin , as the legitimate future Duke of Normandy , in exchange for his son 's homage . Henry crossed into Normandy in 1115 and assembled the Norman barons to swear loyalty ; he also almost successfully negotiated a settlement with King Louis , affirming William 's right to the Duchy in exchange for a large sum of money , but the deal fell through and Louis , backed by his ally Baldwin of Flanders , instead declared that he considered William Clito the legitimate heir to the Duchy . War broke out after Henry returned to Normandy with an army to support Theobald of Blois , who was under attack from Louis . Henry and Louis raided each other 's towns along the border , and a wider conflict then broke out , probably in 1116 . Henry was pushed onto the defensive as French , Flemish and Angevin forces began to pillage the Normandy countryside . Amaury III of Montfort and many other barons rose up against Henry , and there was an assassination plot from within his own household . Henry 's wife , Matilda , died in early 1118 , but the situation in Normandy was sufficiently pressing that Henry was unable to return to England for her funeral . Henry responded by mounting campaigns against the rebel barons and deepening his alliance with Theobald . Baldwin of Flanders was wounded in battle and died in September 1118 , easing the pressure on Normandy from the north @-@ east . Henry attempted to crush a revolt in the city of Alençon , but was defeated by Fulk and the Angevin army . Forced to retreat from Alençon , Henry 's position deteriorated alarmingly , as his resources became overstretched and more barons abandoned his cause . Early in 1119 , Eustace of Breteuil and Henry 's daughter , Juliana , threatened to join the baronial revolt . Hostages were exchanged in a bid to avoid conflict , but relations broke down and both sides mutilated their captives . Henry attacked and took the town of Breteuil , despite Juliana 's attempt to kill her father with a crossbow . In the aftermath , Henry dispossessed the couple of almost all of their lands in Normandy . Henry 's situation improved in May 1119 when he enticed Fulk to switch sides by finally agreeing to marry William Adelin to Fulk 's daughter , Matilda , and paying Fulk a large sum of money . Fulk left for the Levant , leaving the County of Maine in Henry 's care , and the King was free to focus on crushing his remaining enemies . During the summer Henry advanced into the Norman Vexin , where he encountered Louis 's army , resulting in the Battle of Brémule . Henry appears to have deployed scouts and then organised his troops into several carefully formed lines of dismounted knights . Unlike Henry 's forces , the French knights remained mounted ; they hastily charged the Anglo @-@ Norman positions , breaking through the first rank of the defences but then becoming entangled in Henry 's second line of knights . Surrounded , the French army began to collapse . In the melee , Henry was hit by a sword blow , but his armour protected him . Louis and William Clito escaped from the battle , leaving Henry to return to Rouen in triumph . The war slowly petered out after this battle , and Louis took the dispute over Normandy to Pope Callixtus II 's council in Reims that October . Henry faced a number of French complaints concerning his acquisition and subsequent management of Normandy , and despite being defended by Geoffrey , the Archbishop of Rouen , Henry 's case was shouted down by the pro @-@ French elements of the council . Callixtus declined to support Louis , however , and merely advised the two rulers to seek peace . Amaury de Montfort came to terms with Henry , but Henry and William Clito failed to find a mutually satisfactory compromise . In June 1120 , Henry and Louis formally made peace on terms advantageous to the English King : William Adelin gave homage to Louis , and in return Louis confirmed William 's rights to the Duchy . = = = Succession crisis , 1120 – 23 = = = Henry 's succession plans were thrown into chaos by the sinking of the White Ship on 25 November 1120 . Henry had left the port of Barfleur for England in the early evening , leaving William Adelin and many of the younger members of the court to follow on that night in a separate vessel , the White Ship . Both the crew and passengers were drunk and , just outside the harbour , the ship hit a submerged rock . The ship sank , killing as many as 300 people , with only one survivor , a butcher from Rouen . Henry 's court was initially too scared to report William 's death to the King . When he was finally told , he collapsed with grief . The disaster left Henry with no legitimate son , his various nephews now the closest male heirs . Henry announced he would take a new wife , Adeliza of Louvain , opening up the prospect of a new royal son , and the two were married at Windsor Castle in January 1121 . Henry appears to have chosen her because she was attractive and came from a prestigious noble line . Adela seems to have been fond of Henry and joined him in his travels , probably to maximise the chances of her conceiving a child . The White Ship disaster initiated fresh conflict in Wales , where the drowning of Richard , Earl of Chester , encouraged a rebellion led by Maredudd ap Bleddyn . Henry intervened in North Wales that summer with an army and , although the King was hit by a Welsh arrow , the campaign reaffirmed royal power across the region . With William dead , Henry 's alliance with Anjou – which had been based on his son marrying Fulk 's daughter – began to disintegrate . Fulk returned from the Levant and demanded that Henry return Matilda and her dowry , a range of estates and fortifications in Maine . Matilda left for Anjou , but Henry argued that the dowry had in fact originally belonged to him before it came into the possession of Fulk , and so declined to hand the estates back to Anjou . Fulk married his daughter Sibylla to William Clito , and granted them Maine . Once again , conflict broke out , as Amaury de Montfort allied himself with Fulk and led a revolt along the Norman @-@ Anjou border in 1123 . Amaury was joined by several other Norman barons , headed by Waleran de Beaumont , one of the sons of Henry 's old ally , Robert of Meulan . Henry dispatched Robert of Gloucester and Ranulf le Meschin to Normandy and then intervened himself in late 1123 . Henry began the process of besieging the rebel castles , before wintering in the Duchy . In the spring , campaigning began again . Ranulf received intelligence that the rebels were returning to one of their bases at Vatteville , allowing him to ambush them en route at Rougemontiers ; Waleran charged the royal forces , but his knights were cut down by Ranulf 's archers and the rebels were quickly overwhelmed . Waleran was captured , but Amaury escaped . Henry mopped up the remainder of the rebellion , blinding some of the rebel leaders – considered , at the time , a more merciful punishment than execution – and recovering the last rebel castles . Henry paid Pope Callixtus a large amount of money , in exchange for the Papacy annulling the marriage of William Clito and Sibylla on the grounds of consanguinity . = = = Planning the succession , 1124 – 34 = = = Henry and his new wife did not conceive any children , generating prurient speculation as to the possible explanation , and the future of the dynasty appeared at risk . Henry may have begun to look among his nephews for a possible heir . He may have considered Stephen of Blois as a possible option and , perhaps in preparation for this , he arranged a beneficial marriage for Stephen to a wealthy heiress , Matilda . Theobald of Blois , his close ally , may have also felt that he was in favour with Henry . William Clito , who was King Louis 's preferred choice , remained opposed to Henry and was therefore unsuitable . Henry may have also considered his own illegitimate son , Robert of Gloucester , as a possible candidate , but English tradition and custom would have looked unfavourably on this . Henry 's plans shifted when the Empress Matilda 's husband , the Emperor Henry , died in 1125 . King Henry recalled his daughter to England the next year and declared that , should he die without a male heir , she was to be his rightful successor . The Anglo @-@ Norman barons were gathered together at Westminster on Christmas 1126 , where they swore to recognise Matilda and any future legitimate heir she might have . Putting forward a woman as a potential heir in this way was unusual : opposition to Matilda continued to exist within the English court , and Louis was vehemently opposed to her candidacy . Fresh conflict broke out in 1127 , when Charles , the childless Count of Flanders , was murdered , creating a local succession crisis . Backed by King Louis , William Clito was chosen by the Flemings to become their new ruler . This development potentially threatened Normandy , and Henry began to finance a proxy war in Flanders , promoting the claims of William 's Flemish rivals . In an effort to disrupt the French alliance with William , Henry mounted an attack into France in 1128 , forcing Louis to cut his aid to William . William died unexpectedly in July , removing the last major challenger to Henry 's rule and bringing the war in Flanders to a halt . Without William , the baronial opposition in Normandy lacked a leader . A fresh peace was made with France , and the King was finally able to release the remaining prisoners from the revolt of 1123 , including Waleran of Meulan , who was rehabilitated into the royal court . Meanwhile , Henry rebuilt his alliance with Fulk of Anjou , this time by marrying Matilda to Fulk 's eldest son , Geoffrey . The pair were betrothed in 1127 and married the following year . It is unknown whether Henry intended Geoffrey to have any future claim on England or Normandy , and he was probably keeping his son @-@ in @-@ law 's status deliberately uncertain . Similarly , although Matilda was granted a number of Normandy castles as part of her dowry , it was not specified when the couple would actually take possession of them . Fulk left Anjou for Jerusalem in 1129 , declaring Geoffrey the Count of Anjou and Maine . The marriage proved difficult , as the couple did not particularly like each other and the disputed castles proved a point of contention , resulting in Matilda returning to Normandy later that year . Henry appears to have blamed Geoffrey for the separation , but in 1131 the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
next play quarterback Stephen Garcia completed a touchdown pass to Kenny McKinley . In the same game , Munnerlyn returned a blocked field goal for an 81 yard touchdown . He declared for the NFL Draft following the 2008 season . = = Professional career = = = = = Pre @-@ draft = = = = = = Carolina Panthers = = = Munnerlyn was drafted by the Carolina Panthers in the seventh round ( 216th overall ) of the 2009 NFL Draft . He called being drafted by the Panthers , " exciting , because I played college ball at South Carolina , and that 's only like an hour away . It was exciting to hear my name get called . I 'm ready for it , ready to take my game to the next level . " In the 2009 preseason , he was competing with wide receiver Ryne Robinson for the punt returner job . In the Panthers second preseason game against the Miami Dolphins , Munnerlyn returned a punt 58 yards and also fumbled one but recovered it , while Robinson fumbled a punt which the Dolphins recovered . He eventually won the punt return job as well as the third cornerback job beating out C. J. Wilson and Sherrod Martin for the job by the end of September . On November 30 , Munnerlyn suffered a concussion against the New York Jets but said days later that he planned on playing in the next game despite the NFL 's changing of the concussion policy . Munnerlyn did not play the following week 's game but returned the next week against the New England Patriots . He completed the 2009 season playing in 15 games total as the Panthers finished 3rd in the NFC South with 8 wins and 8 losses . For his second season , Munnerlyn moved up to starting right cornerback after Richard Marshall was not re @-@ signed . = = = Minnesota Vikings = = = March 13 , 2014 , Munnerlyn signed a three @-@ year , $ 14 @.@ 25 million contract with the Minnesota Vikings . Munnerlyn ended his first year with the Minnesota Vikings with 60 combined tackles , one fumble recovery , 2 interceptions and 4 pass deflections . Munnerlyn got his first pick of 2015 when he intercepted Matt Ryan in week 12 during a 20 @-@ 10 win . = = Personal = = When asked why his name is Captain , Munnerlyn said , " My momma promised my grandmomma that she could name the last child . I was the boy of the family , and she named me Captain . Her great grandfather was named Captain , so I got named after my great @-@ great grandfather . My sisters and brothers have normal names . I got the odd name . In the beginning it was kind of rough . Kids used to tease me a little , but it fits my personality , because I feel like I 'm a leader . " Munnerlyn majored in criminal justice while at South Carolina . Married June 25th 2016 = = Stats = = = Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson = " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " is the tenth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . In the episode , Bart uploads a video on YouTube in which Homer rants about airlines ' horrible treatment of passengers . It quickly becomes popular and Homer is eventually given his own political cable news show . Homer wins support among average Americans and is chosen by the Republicans to pick their candidate for the next presidential election . He chooses Ted Nugent , but in the end , he realizes that he made the wrong decision and that everything he has said on his show is nonsense , so he admits on television that he is " full of crap " . American musician and conservative political activist Ted Nugent made his second guest appearance on The Simpsons in this episode , which makes fun of his views on hunting and gun ownership . The episode has received generally positive reception from television critics and has been particularly praised for its satire of politics and cable news commentators . During its original broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on January 8 , 2012 , " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " was watched by about 5 @.@ 07 million people and received a 2 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating . = = Plot = = After a series of demeaning check @-@ in procedures , the Simpsons board an Air Springfield plane for their trip to the wedding of a relative in Montana . The pilot announces that owing to an unforeseen jailbreak the trip will be delayed . He tells the travelers that because the plane is still on the ground , he will turn off the ventilation system . However , all of the ethnic passengers on @-@ board are still allowed to eat their odd @-@ smelling food , and after several hours the rest of the passengers feel sick . The pilot makes another announcement that the plane is going to taxi back to the gate and remain there for an unknown amount of time , and that the passengers cannot get off . When Homer is banned from using the bathroom , his anger boils over and he rants about the airline 's horrible treatment of its passengers . Bart records a video of Homer running amok and then escapes from the plane via the wing . He uploads it on YouTube and it quickly becomes popular . Homer is invited to speak his mind on a popular cable news show called Head Butt , on which host Nash Castor and commentator Adriatica Vel Johnson argue that he will soon be forgotten . However , Homer makes a convincing rant in which he tells the viewers that unlike television blowhards such as Nash and Adriatica , he speaks for the common man . When the show is over , the cable network executives give Homer his own television show called Gut Check with Homer Simpson , where he provides a mix of populist and conservative ideas . During one episode , he pours " gravy of freedom " over a steak shaped like America , using the gravy as a metaphor for the things that make the country great . He then encourages his viewers to " get on the boat " to protest about the bad things in society , and proceeds to place a gravy boat on his head . This wins Homer a huge base of support among average Americans , and soon the " gravy boat movement " becomes popular throughout the country . When Homer is chosen by the Republicans to pick their candidate for the next presidential election , his lack of interest in the current candidates leads him to choose Ted Nugent . He invites Nugent for a visit to the Simpsons ' home , where Lisa complains that Homer has made the wrong pick since Nugent is " out of his mind " . Later that day , Homer has a dream in which James Madison shows him how ashamed past American presidents are of Homer . When he wakes up , he tells Lisa he will not be supporting Nugent for president anymore . He then sees a brochure on her dresser with a man posing as a president and offering help with fake dreams . Homer realizes the family faked his dream to convince him not to endorse Nugent . As a result , he angrily decides to go on television and express his support for Nugent . However , when he tries to bring out his ability to cry every time he discusses anything on television , he finds he cannot bring up those emotions because he does not truly believe in what he is saying . Homer announces on television that he " is full of crap " and reconciles with Lisa . As a result , Nugent is stripped of his position as the Republican presidential candidate . The episode ends as he sings a song about what his presidency would have been like . = = Production and themes = = The episode , titled " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " , was written by John Frink and directed by Mark Kirkland . American musician and conservative political activist Ted Nugent guest starred in the episode as himself , providing his voice for both speaking and singing parts . His song at the end of the episode is similar to his single " Cat Scratch Fever " . According to Noisecreep 's Kenneth Partridge , the episode makes fun of Nugent 's " blatantly pro @-@ gun , pro @-@ hunting , anti @-@ everything @-@ liberals @-@ hold @-@ dear persona " . The episode features , among other things , Nugent throwing a dead elk onto the dinner table at the Simpsons ' home , as well as using some of Bart 's school friends as arrows for his bow . Nugent had previously made a minor cameo in the season nineteen episode " I Don 't Wanna Know Why the Caged Bird Sings " ( 2007 ) . In that episode , his voice is heard in a phone call urging people to vote no on a proposition that would make crossbows illegal in public schools . He comments , " If we outlaw crossbows , who 's gonna protect our children from charging elk ? " " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " satirizes the television industry . It parodies political television shows from cable news channels such as MSNBC , CNN , and Fox News Channel that are similar to Gut Check with Homer Simpson . In an article , Mediaite 's James Crugnale commented that Homer 's personality as he hosts his show is a reference to conservative political commentator Glenn Beck 's " over @-@ the @-@ top persona " , and wrote that " In a spot @-@ on , cheeky parody of Beck , Homer ostentatiously sobs crocodile tears as he laments a high school in Nebraska replacing football with soccer as a team sport . " Adriatica Vel Johnson , the commentator on the political show that Homer first appears on , is a parody of commentator Arianna Huffington . In addition , the episode satirizes American politics and includes several references to the 2012 Republican Party presidential primaries . For example , when Homer appears on Head Butt , the news ticker features headlines such as " Gingrich looks forward to winning ... his fourth wife " , " Rick Perry mistakenly signs order to execute himself " , and " Satan tweets support for Santorum " . At one point in the episode , the character Ned Flanders comments that he supports Nugent " as long as he isn ’ t a Mormon " , which is a reference to Mitt Romney . Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club wrote in a review that Homer 's political movement " is clearly a parody of the Tea Party " , noting that " as with the teabags of the teabagger movement , people everywhere are moved to wear gravy boats on their heads [ in the episode ] . " Childs further mentioned that a follower of Homer holds a sign that references the Occupy movement , which he thought was " a token of the show ’ s desire to be an equal opportunity offender . " = = Release = = The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on January 8 , 2012 . It was watched by approximately 5 @.@ 07 million people during this broadcast , and in the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , it received a 2 @.@ 3 Nielsen rating and a five percent share . The rating was a twenty @-@ three percent decrease from the previous episode , " Holidays of Future Passed " ; however , much of " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " faced strong competition from the end of a highly rated National Football League playoffs game on CBS . The episode became the second highest @-@ rated broadcast in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup for the night in terms of both total viewers and adults aged 18 – 49 , finishing higher than new episodes of American Dad ! and The Cleveland Show but lower than a new Family Guy episode . Since airing , " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " has received generally positive reception from critics . Steve Newton of The Georgia Straight called it " one of the funniest Simpsons I 've seen in a while " , and David Crawford of Radio Times wrote that the satire " may not be subtle , but it is sharp and the jokes come tumbling one after another . " In an article about the episode , Mediaite 's James Crugnale commented that " The Simpsons ' writers have outdone themselves tonight , with this no @-@ holds @-@ barred parody of the over @-@ the @-@ top bloviating shenanigans of some cable news personalities . " Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club thought it was a " solid episode " that peaked in the middle with the satire of politics . He had mixed feelings about the first part of the episode revolving around airline travel , criticizing the fluctuating quality of the jokes . He wrote that " writer John Frink is able to draw out some moderately amusing gags among a few stinkers . " Childs further criticized Nugent 's guest appearance in the third act , noting that it " falls flat when the show cannot decide how to mock [ Nugent ] without really offending him , " and the fake dream sequence , which he described as " unfunny and sitcommy " . He concluded that " The Simpsons has done plenty of political satire over the years and still may never improve over season six ’ s ' Sideshow Bob Roberts ' . The middle section of this episode had moments that were in the same league , though " . In February 2012 , " Politically Inept , with Homer Simpson " was listed by Matt Zoller Seitz of New York magazine as one of " Nine Latter @-@ Day Simpsons Episodes That Match Up to the Early Classics " . = Silent Hill : Homecoming = Silent Hill : Homecoming ( サイレントヒルホームカミング , Sairento Hiru Hōmukamingu ) is a survival horror video game , the sixth installment in the Silent Hill series , developed by Double Helix Games . Homecoming follows the journey of Alex Shepherd , a soldier returning from war , to his hometown of Shepherd 's Glen , where he finds the town in disarray , and his younger brother missing . As he continues on his search to find his younger brother , he discovers more about the Order , a cult , as well as the town 's history , and his own past . The game was released on September 30 , 2008 , in North America for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , and the Microsoft Windows version was released for North , Central and South America on November 6 , 2008 , exclusively through Valve Corporation 's Steam digital content delivery service . All versions were simultaneously released in Europe , including a retail Microsoft Windows version , on February 27 , 2009 . The Japanese version was cancelled . = = Gameplay = = The player assumes the role of Alex Shepherd , a Special Forces soldier who returns home from an overseas tour of duty to find that his father and younger brother are missing , and that his mother has gone into catatonia . Alex begins to search for his brother , leading him to Silent Hill after searching his hometown of Shepherd 's Glen . Overall gameplay is similar to past entries in the series . The player , as Alex , explores the various environments and locales , searching for clues to advance the plot , such as photographs , drawings and other items which are placed inside Alex 's journal , which the player may read at any time . To assist the player , Alex will turn his head towards items and clues to inform the player that the object may be picked up ; other recurring items include weapons and ammunition , which give off a glow as a visual cue to the player , and health drinks . Puzzle elements also play a part in the game , and Alex 's journal may be used to refer to photographs and other items that can help the player decipher such puzzles as keypad entries . For the first time in the series , the player may select responses when engaging in dialogue with other characters encountered in the game , which in turn may affect how the player sees the plot unfold . In addition to exploration , combat is another major element to the gameplay , and the player must fight the various monsters that appear . In contrast to the more naïve everyman protagonists of previous games , combat in Homecoming takes into account Alex 's experience as a soldier . The player is able to perform light and heavy attacks , or mix them to perform combinations , and may also perform a variety of finishing moves to ensure that the monsters are dead , a gameplay mechanic first featured in a rudimentary form in Silent Hill : Origins . Attacking enemies also leaves wounds in them that match the motion carried out by Alex in inflicting the attack . In terms of controlling Alex , the player may also perform new maneuvers such as targeting the enemy before attacking them , dodging enemy attacks , and performing counter @-@ attacks . As well as melee weapons , pistols , rifles and shotguns are available as firearms , which can be upgraded to stronger versions later in the game : firearm handling is also rendered in a more realistic manner , with Alex having to shoulder long guns and suffering aim effects like recoil . In addition to the changes in combat , and unlike previous entries in the series , the player is also able to fully control and rotate the camera as they choose ; one analog stick controls player movement , and the other controls the camera . = = Plot = = At the start of the game , the player controls Alex through a nightmare concerning his younger brother , Josh , before Alex wakes up in the cab of a truck driven by Travis Grady , the protagonist from Silent Hill : Origins , who gives him a ride to his hometown of Shepherd 's Glen . The town , named for a distant ancestor who helped found it , is covered in fog and deserted . At home , he finds his mother in a catatonic state , murmuring about his father leaving to find Josh ; promising to find Josh , Alex leaves . Alex soon discovers that many more people have gone missing in Shepherd 's Glen since he left when he finds his childhood friend Elle Holloway pinning " missing " signs to a board outside the police department . As Alex explores the town , he witnesses the separate deaths of Mayor Bartlett and Dr. Fitch by monsters in the Otherworld , both of whom have a child who is missing . Back in Shepherd 's Glen , Alex allies himself with Deputy Wheeler in the police department . Alex eventually learns that his father was involved in the secrets of the town and had left to attempt to resolve the town 's problems , but before he is able to get answers from his mother at home , he is knocked unconscious when The Order — a religious cult from Silent Hill which has been taking people from the town — kidnaps his mother . Alex , Elle , and Wheeler take a boat across Toluca Lake to find Alex 's father in Silent Hill but are intercepted by the Order . Elle and Wheeler are taken to Silent Hill 's penitentiary , where Alex attempts to rescue them . He finds his mother bound ; the player must make a decision regarding whether to kill her out of mercy or not , which will affect the outcome of the game . After rescuing Elle 's mother , Judge Holloway , and separating from Wheeler once more , Alex finds the Order 's church , where he listens to his father in the confessional ; the player may choose to forgive him , again affecting the outcome of the game . Alex later runs into his father , who reveals that Alex was never a soldier and has been in a mental hospital since " the accident " occurred . He begs forgiveness before he is killed by a monster called the Bogeyman ( Pyramid Head from Silent Hill 2 ) . Continuing to the Order 's underground facility , Alex is captured by Judge Holloway , who reveals that everything that has happened is due to a broken pact . One hundred and fifty years ago , the four founding families broke away from Silent Hill 's Order to move to Shepherd 's Glen . They were allowed to do so on the condition that once every 50 years they would sacrifice one of their children in a preordained fashion . On this occasion , while Joey Bartlett , Scarlett Fitch and Nora Holloway were successfully sacrificed by their parents , the Shepherd sacrifice failed , and as a result , the Order had been reformed to try to appease their god . Judge Holloway tries to kill Alex , who kills her in self @-@ defense . Alex rescues Elle from the facility and , after finding Wheeler injured and allowing the player to choose whether to save him — once more affecting the game 's ending — continues on alone to find Josh . Realizing he was the intended sacrifice , Alex experiences a flashback showing Josh 's true fate . When Alex was younger , he had taken Josh rowing out on the lake , where Josh showed Alex a ring , which his father had chosen to give to him instead of Alex . Out of jealousy , Alex struggled with Josh to try to take the ring , and as they fought Josh accidentally fell into the lake and drowned . His father retrieved the body and explained that Alex had " ruined it for all of us " , since he had chosen Alex , and not Josh ; unable to accept Josh 's death , Alex was then sent to the mental hospital , and with Josh instead of Alex sacrificed , the Order 's pact was broken . After fighting the final boss , the manifestation of Josh 's spirit , Alex finally has the chance to apologize and states that he never wanted Josh 's death . Alex leaves the family ring and their father 's angle @-@ head army flashlight on Josh 's body and exits the chamber . There are five endings available , which depend on the player 's actions during the game , including whether the player kills Alex 's mother , forgives Alex 's father , and saves Deputy Wheeler . These range from the single positive ending to the game — where Alex comes to terms with his past actions and reunites with Elle to leave Shepherd 's Glen — to three other endings : Alex getting drowned by his father , waking up in the hospital and receiving a shock treatment , or being turned into a Bogeyman . There is also a joke ending , where both Alex and Elle are abducted by a UFO while Wheeler witnesses . In addition to these endings , if the player collects all of Josh 's pictures or clears the game on the " hard " difficulty , a first @-@ person post @-@ credits scene is played where Alex finds Josh sitting on the bottom bunk of his bed and Josh takes a picture of Alex with a camera . = = Development = = Chief designer of Silent Hill : Homecoming , Masashi Tsuboyama , announced the game 's development in a 2004 interview with Eurogamer , in which he also debunked previous internet rumors that it was to be called Shadows of the Past . No information was initially imparted about the platform the game would appear on , other than it would be appearing on the next generation of consoles , which had yet to be released . Around two years later , an interview with composer Akira Yamaoka revealed more information ; he hinted that they had hoped to carry on " plans of the earlier Silent Hill platforms " , and that the team were creating a title with the idea of " fear in daylight " , with similar psychological roots to Silent Hill 2 . The suggestion that the story and gameplay would be more like that of the second entry in the series in the way the player is directed , and in the character 's behavior , was reaffirmed in a later interview , along with the idea of creating the game for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 platforms . However , most of the ideas previously hinted at were not found in subsequent information releases . At E3 2007 , a new teaser trailer was displayed by Konami that revealed the title of the game to be Silent Hill V , and that the game would be released for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . Further to this trailer , Konami executives also revealed that the developer would not in fact be Team Silent as in previous iterations , but that , like Silent Hill : Origins , it would be developed by a Western developer , The Collective . The Collective had merged with Backbone Entertainment in 2005 to form Foundation 9 Entertainment , and Foundation 9 then merged The Collective with Shiny Entertainment to create Double Helix Games . The team had been working on the production of Harker , another survival horror title , but this was placed on indefinite hiatus during Homecoming 's production . Double Helix drew inspiration not only from past installments in the game series but also from the first Silent Hill movie adaptation ; this is most evident in the transition from the normal world to the Otherworld , whose " ripping " effect almost matches that found in the movie . Other similarities from the same source includes the reaction of nurses to light , the bug @-@ like creatures seen in the movie , and the Pyramid Head rendition , known as the " Bogeyman " in this game . Homages to previous games in the series include a reference to the long @-@ running joke of the lead character placing their hand in a toilet bowl to retrieve items . Lead designer Jason Allen described the intentions of the development team to be to maintain the depth of storytelling and atmosphere of the series whilst making combat more intuitive and less frustrating . The script , in @-@ game journal entries , and instruction manual were written by Patrick J. Doody and Chris Valenziano , based on the story and the summary of events provided by lead designer Jason Allen , lead artist Brian Horton , and lead level designer Daniel Jacobs . Despite the change in development team , Akira Yamaoka returned from past installments in the series to create both music and sound effects for the game . It was the first game in the series to use surround sound . Yamaoka wrote 70 minutes of music for the game , and insisted on working with Mary Elizabeth McGlynn to provide vocals , as fan reaction to her voice on previous Silent Hill titles has been favorable . Homecoming 's soundtrack was released on November 24 , 2008 . McGlynn provided vocals for four tracks . = = = Censorship = = = Homecoming had difficulties in passing censors in some countries before it could go on sale . The Australian classification board , the Office of Film and Literature Classification ( OFLC ) , refused to classify the game , due to " impact violence and excessive blood effects " . The objectionable scenes included various body parts being drilled into , as well as the bisection of a character by an enemy . This had the effect of banning the game for sale in the country , and representatives for publisher Atari mentioned that they would be asking Konami to tone down the violence to allow the game to receive the needed MA15 + rating for its sale to be permitted in early 2009 . The German version of the game was also postponed to 2009 for cuts to be made to pass the German censors after the uncensored version was rejected by the Unterhaltungssoftware Selbstkontrolle . The game was re @-@ submitted after being altered in the same way as the Australian version and received the highest rating possible as a result ( Freigegeben ab 18 Jahren gemäß § 14 JuSchG , meaning 18 + ) . On November 19 , 2010 , the Amtsgericht Frankfurt am Main confiscated all Xbox 360 versions imported from the UK ( thus being uncensored ) for violation of § 131 StGB ( representation of violence ) , effectively banning it from sale within Germany . = = Release = = Homecoming was released in North America on September 30 , 2008 , for both PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 consoles . The PC version , which in North America , Central America and South America is only available via the Steam content delivery network , because it was intended to launch on the same date as the console versions , but was delayed , finally becoming available on Steam on November 6 , 2008 . A European release on all platforms was intended for the same month , but the title was delayed in the region to February 2009 . In contrast to the American regions , a PC retail release on DVD was made available in Europe . = = Reception = = Homecoming 's average at Metacritic is 71 out of 100 for the PS3 version , and 70 out of 100 for the Xbox 360 version . Aggregate site Game Rankings gave a 71 @.@ 96 % aggregate score for the Xbox 360 version , and a 71 @.@ 28 % for the PS3 version . As the second external developer working on a Silent Hill entry , and the first for a home console iteration , Double Helix were under scrutiny from reviewers and Silent Hill fans to see how a Western developer would handle the franchise ; many reviewers found the change in developer to be a positive move overall , while some , acknowledging faults in the final product , expressed interest in seeing further Silent Hill games from the same developer . In contrast , Zero Punctuation commented that the game was as an example of Japanese franchises being downgraded by Westernization , particularly in the different approaches taken to induce fear in the player . Praise was given to the graphics and environments , described as " fantastic " , with Shepherd 's Glen in particular being " rendered brilliantly " , and " the upgraded visuals bestow a filmic quality to everything and the world 's eerie transformations look better than ever . " Surprise was expressed at the darkness of the game , with the flashlight seemingly having less effect than in previous games , and making some markers , such as doors , hard to spot . The music , written by series regular Akira Yamaoka , and the ambient audio , were received well , being " atmospheric , moody and beautifully presented " ; combined with " an amazing score " , the audio goes " a long way toward establishing the expected Silent Hill mood " , though some concern was expressed that the music was " somewhat misplaced " and did not fit in so well . Voice acting , which has traditionally been seen as one of the series ' weaker points , was evaluated as better than the series ' usual attempts , but occasionally " flat " when more emotion was needed . The game 's plot received a largely mixed reception . While some reviewers graded it positively , describing it as " intriguing and disturbing " , it was also noted that it " isn 't particularly original , and there are no great surprises " , even though it " still makes for a very involving journey into the macabre . " Several reviewers likened the story to a subplot of the main Silent Hill mythos which , while able to " stand on its own " , " barely mentions certain characters which fairly dominate the backstory of previous SH games . " Some critics expressed disappointment at the predictability of the main twist in the story regarding Alex 's predicament , while others found it " genuinely shocking " . Croshaw 's Zero Punctuation review was generally negative , stating that while the level design , story and combat were all competent , the game had little to do with what he liked about the Silent Hill series and would have been better served as a completely different franchise . = Laevistrombus canarium = Laevistrombus canarium ( commonly known as the dog conch or by its better @-@ known synonym , Strombus canarium ) is a species of edible sea snail , a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Strombidae ( true conches ) . Known from illustrations in books dating from the late 17th century , L. canarium is an Indo @-@ Pacific species occurring from India and Sri Lanka to Melanesia , Australia and southern Japan . The shell of adult individuals is coloured from light yellowish @-@ brown to golden to grey . It has a characteristic inflated body whorl , a flared , thick outer lip and a shallow stromboid notch . The shell is valued as an ornament , and because it is heavy and compact it is also often used as a sinker for fishing nets . The external anatomy of the soft parts of this species is similar to that of other strombid snails . The animal has an elongate snout , thin eyestalks with well @-@ developed eyes and sensory tentacles , and a narrow , strong foot with a sickle @-@ shaped operculum . A molecular analysis conducted in 2006 based on DNA sequences of histone and mitochondrial genes demonstrated that Laevistrombus canarium , Doxander vittatus and Labiostrombus epidromis are closely related species . The dog conch exhibits behaviours common among Strombidae , including burrowing and a characteristic leaping form of locomotion . The former behaviour , however , involves movement sequences unique to this species . Laevistrombus canarium lives on muddy and sandy bottoms , grazing on algae and detritus . It is gonochoristic and sexually dimorphic , depending on internal fertilization for spawning . Larvae of this species spend several days as plankton , undergoing a series of transformations until they reach complete metamorphosis . The maximum life span is 2 to 2 @.@ 5 years . Predators of this snail include carnivorous gastropods such as cone snails and volutes . It is also a prey species for vertebrates including macaques , and also humans , who consume the soft parts in a wide variety of dishes . The dog conch is an economically important species in the Indo @-@ West Pacific , and several studies indicate that it may be suffering population declines due to overfishing and overexploitation . Malacologists and ecologists have recommended a reduction in its exploitation rate ; initiatives in Thailand are attempting to ensure the possibility of reproduction in young @-@ adult individuals and manage the natural populations in general . L. canarium demonstrates the imposex phenomenon , but is resistant to sterility caused by it ; therefore , it has been suggested that this species might be useful as a bioindicator for organotin pollution monitoring near Malaysian ports . = = Taxonomy = = The first published depictions of the shell of this species appeared in 1681 in the earliest book solely about sea shells , Recreatio mentis et oculi in observatione animalium testaceorum ( Refreshment of the mind and the eye in the observation of shell @-@ bearing animals ) by Italian scholar Filippo Buonanni . The species was shown in the 1742 Index Testarum Conchyliorum , quae adservantur in Museo Nicolai Gualtieri ( List of the shells of shellfish which are preserved in the museum of Niccolò Gualtieri ) by Italian physician and malacologist Niccolò Gualtieri . In both books , the morphology of an adult shell was shown from different perspectives . In 1758 , the dog conch was formally described and named Strombus canarium by Swedish naturalist and taxonomist Carl Linnaeus , who originated the system of binomial nomenclature . The specific name of this taxon , canarium , is derived from the Latin canis ( dog ) . The original description given by Linnaeus in his book , Systema Naturae , is in Latin : " S. testae labro rotundato brevi retuso , spiraque laevi . " This can be translated as " Strombus with a shell having a retuse , short , rounded lip , and a smooth spire " . Linnaeus did not mention a specific locality in his original description , giving only Eastern Asia as the area in which the species is found . The taxon Laevistrombus was introduced in the literature as a subgenus of Strombus by Tetsuaki Kira ( 1955 ) in the third printing of the 1st edition of Coloured Illustrations of the Shells of Japan . It comprised two species , Strombus ( Laevistrombus ) canarium and Strombus ( L. ) isabella Lamarck , 1822 . No type specimen was designated , and Kira gave no formal description or statement of differentiation , as required by the ICZN code to validate the name . In a later version of the book , Laevistrombus was elevated to genus level , but a description was still lacking . Rüdiger Bieler and Richard Petit ( 1996 ) considered it a nomen nudum , and the authorship was transferred to Robert Tucker Abbott ( 1960 ) , who had provided a proper description and illustrations of Laevistrombus and specified a type species , Strombus canarium L. , in the first volume of his monograph Indo @-@ Pacific Mollusca . The currently accepted combination , Laevistrombus canarium , was proposed by Jack John Sepkoski Jr . ( 2002 ) , who elevated Laevistrombus to genus level based on palaeontological data . The synonyms are other binomial names that were given over time to this taxon by authors who were unaware that the specimens they were describing belonged to a species already described by Linnaeus ; in some cases , local variations in colour and form may have misled these authors into thinking they had a different species . Strombus vanicorensis is a subsequent , changed spelling of Strombus vanikorensis by one of the original authors . There is some disagreement in the literature as to whether or not this taxon and the similar @-@ looking Laevistrombus turturella are actually separate species . Leo Man In ' T Veld and Koenraad de Turck ( 1998 ) considered that L. canarium and L. turturella are distinct ( yet sympatric ) species , based mainly on the shell morphology and a radula comparison . However , when Zaidi Che Cob reviewed a number of Strombus species in 2009 , examining both shell characters and anatomical data including details of the genitalia , operculum and radula , he concluded that L. turturella was simply a morphotype , and therefore a synonym of L. canarium . Laevistrombus canarium comprises at least two known subspecies ; one is the nominate subspecies Laevistrombus canarium canarium , and the other is Laevistrombus canarium guidoi . L. canarium guidoi distinguishes itself from the other subspecies by its solid white colour , the outline of the posterior canal and a more prominent posteriorly protruding outer lip . The presence of a freely protruding lip at the posterior portion of the columella is also a distinctive character . = = Anatomy = = = = = Shell description = = = Laevistrombus canarium has a heavy shell with a rounded outline . The shell length of adult specimens is from 29 mm ( 1 @.@ 1 in ) to 71 mm ( 2 @.@ 8 in ) . The outer surface of the shell is almost completely smooth , except for barely visible spiral lines and occasional varices on the spire . Unlike species in the genus Strombus , the stromboid notch on the outer lip is inconspicuous . When a normal adult dextral shell of this species is viewed ventrally ( with the anterior end pointing downwards ) , the stromboid notch can be observed to the right of the siphonal canal as a shallow , secondary anterior indentation in the lip . The siphonal canal itself is straight , short and ample ; the columella is smooth , without any folds . Adult specimens have a moderately flared , posteriorly protruding outer lip , which is considerably thickened and completely devoid of marginal spikes or plicae . The body whorl is roundly swollen at the shoulder , with a few anterior spiral grooves . The shell has a medium @-@ to @-@ high cone @-@ shaped spire , with at least five delicately furrowed whorls . Shell colour is variable , from golden yellow to light yellowish @-@ brown to grey . The underside of the shell is rarely dark ; more frequently it is paler than the top , or totally white . In all cases , the shell aperture is white . Mature specimens sometimes have a metallic @-@ grey or golden @-@ brown gloss on the margin of the outer lip and the callus . A zigzag network of darker lines is sometimes present on the outside of the shell . The periostracum , a layer of protein ( conchiolin ) that is the outermost part of the shell surface , is yellowish @-@ brown . It is usually thick , reticulated ( net @-@ like ) and fimbriated ( fringed ) over the suture . The corneous operculum is dark brown , and its shape is fairly typical of the family Strombidae : a slightly bent sickle , with seven to eight weak lateral serrations . = = = Soft parts = = = Female individuals of Laevistrombus canarium are generally larger ( both shell and soft parts ) than male individuals , which is also the case in other strombid gastropods such as the spider conch ( Harpago chiragra ) and queen conch ( Lobatus gigas ) . The external anatomy of the soft parts of this species is similar to that of the other members of the family : the animal has a long extensible snout and thin eyestalks ( also known as ommatophores ) , with well @-@ developed lens eyes at the tips . Each eyestalk has a small sensory tentacle branching off near the end . The large foot of the animal is narrow and strong , able to perform the leaping form of locomotion that is also found in other species of Strombidae ( such as the queen conch ) . = = Phylogeny = = In 2006 , Latiolais and colleagues proposed a cladogram ( tree of descent ) that attempts to show the phylogenetic relationships of 34 species within the family Strombidae . The authors analysed 31 species in the genus Strombus ( including Strombus canarium ) and three species in the allied genus Lambis . The cladogram was based on DNA sequences of both nuclear histone H3 and mitochondrial cytochrome @-@ c oxidase I protein @-@ coding gene regions . In this proposed phylogeny Strombus canarium , Strombus vittatus ( a synonym for Doxander vittatus ) and Strombus epidromis ( Labiostrombus epidromis ) are closely related , and appear to share a common ancestor . = = Distribution = = Laevistrombus canarium is native to the coastal waters of the Indo @-@ Pacific region . Its westernmost distribution is India , including Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu ( Gulf of Mannar , Tuticorin , Rameswaram ) and the Andamans . It occurs in Sri Lanka ( Eastern province , Trincomalee ) , Thailand , Borneo ( Brunei , Sabah ) , Indonesia ( Moluccas , Saparua ) and the Philippines ( Cebu Island , Polillo Islands , Palawan ) . It is also found further east in Melanesia , including Yos Sudarso Bay in New Guinea , Papua New Guinea , Malaita and Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands , New Caledonia , Kioa Island in Fiji , and New Hebrides . The species is known to occur in Queensland , Australia and north to Vietnam , Taiwan and southern Japan . Detailed information is available about its distribution in the Straits of Johor area and some other parts of Malaysia , where it has been reported from the Tanjung Adang Shoal , Merambong Shoal , Tanjung Bin , Tanjung Surat and Pasir Gogok in the Johor Straits ; in Pulau Tinggi , Pulau Besar and Pulau Sibu , Port Dickson and Teluk Kemang in eastern Johor , and Negeri Sembilan , Pulau Pangkor , Pulau Langkawi , Cape Rachado and Kilat in the western Johor Straits . = = Behaviour = = Compared to other gastropods , Laevistrombus canarium has an unusual means of locomotion that is common only among the Strombidae . This curious series of maneuvers was originally described by American zoologist George Howard Parker in 1922 . The animal initially fixes the posterior end of the foot by thrusting the point of its sickle @-@ shaped operculum into the substrate . Then it extends its foot forward , lifting the shell and throws it ahead in a motion that has been described as " leaping " . Burrowing behaviour , in which an individual sinks itself entirely ( or partially ) into the substrate , is frequent among strombid gastropods . The burrowing behaviour of L. canarium consists of a series of movements characteristic of the species . There are three consecutive movements : first is probing , where the animal pushes the anterior portion of the foot into the substrate to gain a hold ; next is shovelling , where it pushes the substrate with its long , extensible proboscis . Retraction is the final movement , where it moves the shell along an anterior @-@ posterior axis to settle the substrate around it . Once burrowed , part of the dorsal shell is usually still visible ( although the ventral surface and the animal 's soft parts are buried ) . The escape response in gastropods — the perception of stimuli ( for example , the presence of a predator nearby ) and a subsequent escape motion — is a frequent target of behavioural studies . In gastropods the perception of environmental chemical stimuli originating , for example , from food or other organisms is possibly mediated by sensory organs such as the osphradium . In the case of L. canarium , the perception of a predator can occur through chemoreception or vision ( a well @-@ developed sense in strombid gastropods ) . The presence of a predator can significantly alter the movement pattern of L. canarium , inducing an increase in the frequency of leaps . = = Ecology = = The dog conch lives on muddy sand bottoms among algae and seagrass beds on insular and continental shores . It usually prefers major islands and continental coasts rather than the shores of small islands , although this is not an absolute rule . L. canarium prefers areas of mixed seagrasses ( with a predominance of Halophila ) , and also prefers sediment with high levels of organic matter . This conch avoids environments with a high density of Enhalus acoroides , a large seagrass native to coastal waters of the Indo @-@ Pacific . The dog conch can be found in littoral and sublittoral zones , from shallow water to a depth of 55 m ( 180 ft ) . It is normally found in large colonies , and is usually abundant wherever it occurs . During the 19th century , strombid gastropods were believed to be carnivores . This erroneous conception was based on the writings of French naturalist Jean Baptiste Lamarck , whose classification scheme grouped strombids with carnivorous sea snails . Subsequent studies have refuted the concept , proving beyond doubt that strombid gastropods are herbivorous animals . In common with other Strombidae , Laevistrombus canarium is known to be a herbivore , feeding on algae and occasionally detritus . Many carnivorous marine gastropods are known predators of L. canarium , including the volutes Cymbiola nobilis and Melo melo and the cone snail ( Conus textile ) . The dog conch is also preyed upon by vertebrates . These include the crab @-@ eating macaque , Macaca fascicularis , an opportunistic predator that scours intertidal environments . Humans are one of the dog conch 's main predators , subjecting the species to intensive fishing and exploitation . = = = Life cycle = = = Laevistrombus canarium is gonochoristic , which means that each individual animal is distinctly male or female . The breeding season starts in late November and continues until early March . After internal fertilization the female produces and spawns a long , gelatinous tubular structure containing multiple eggs . This structure then coils itself and compacts , forming a creamy @-@ white egg mass . Each egg mass may contain 50 @,@ 000 – 70 @,@ 000 eggs ; the females usually lay them on seagrass , where they remain attached . In about 110 – 130 hours the embryo of L. canarium grows from a single cell to a veliger ( a larval form common to marine and fresh @-@ water gastropod and bivalve mollusks ) and then hatches . The hatching process takes 12 – 15 hours . After hatching , the larvae can be assigned to four distinct developmental stages throughout their short planktonic life ( based on morphological features and other characteristics ) . Usually , larvae up to 3 days old are Stage I veligers ; 4 – 8 @-@ day @-@ old larvae are Stage II ; 9 – 16 @-@ day @-@ old larvae are Stage III , and larvae from 17 days to metamorphosis are Stage IV . L. canarium larvae develop faster compared to other species in the same family , including the West Indian fighting conch ( Strombus pugilis ) and the milk conch ( Lobatus costatus ) . Larval development may be highly influenced by environmental conditions , such as temperature and the quality and availability of food . Metamorphosis in L. canarium can be recognised by loss of the larval velar lobes and the development of the typical leaping motion of juvenile true conches . A study from 2008 indicates that sexual dimorphism occurs early during this species ' ontogeny . L. canarium males reach sexual maturity at a shorter shell length when compared to females . Individuals are considered to be adult by the time the outer lip of their shell is noticeably thickened and flared ; growth to adult size takes about a year . The maximum life span of the dog conch differs between sexes ; it is estimated at 2 and 2 @.@ 5 years for females and males , respectively . = = Human uses and conservation measures = = The English common name of L. canarium is " dog conch " ; in the Malay Peninsula , the species is known by the Malay common names siput gonggong and gong @-@ gong ; siput means " snail " , and gonggong is an onomatopoetic word for a dog 's bark or howl . The flesh of the dog conch is edible . It is a staple food for locals living along the seashore , and is fished in many parts of southeast Asia . In India it has been reported that the meat of this species works well in a variety of common Indian seafood dishes : dog conch soups , cutlets , noodles , curry and chili . Despite their ornamental value , L. canarium shells are traditionally used by local fishermen as sinkers for fishing nets . Studies from 2008 to 2009 indicate that L. canarium has been overexploited and overfished in many areas ; malacologists and ecologists have recommended reducing exploitation rates to maintain its availability as a natural resource . Finding large dog @-@ conch individuals has become an increasingly difficult task in several regions where this species occurs . Initiatives in the Southern Thailand province of Phuket intend to increase depleted natural stocks of L. canarium by reintroducing cultured animals in local seagrass beds . Fishermen are encouraged not to collect younger , smaller individuals that have not yet reproduced . Imposex has recently been detected in Laevistrombus canarium . Imposex is the development of male sex organs in female animals exposed to man @-@ made organic tin compounds , such as tributyltin ( TBT ) . It has negative consequences for several species of sea snails , ranging from sterility in some individuals to the extinction of entire populations . Tin compounds are biocidal anti @-@ fouling agents mixed into paints to prevent marine encrustations on boats and ships . High concentrations of these compounds are commonly present in seawater near shipyards and docking areas , exposing nearby marine life to harmful effects . In a 2011 paper , Cob and colleagues found that imposex rates are high in dog conch populations near Malaysian ports ; however , the researchers could not detect any cases of sterility in affected females . The authors concluded that females of L. canarium often develop a penis when seawater contains organotin compounds , but the phenomenon does not cause sterility in this species . The ability of the dog conch to survive despite imposex makes this species a suitable local bioindicator for organotin pollution . = Glacier National Park ( Canada ) = Glacier National Park is one of seven national parks in British Columbia , and is part of a system of 43 parks and park reserves across Canada . Established in 1886 , the park encompasses 1 @,@ 349 km2 ( 521 sq mi ) , and includes a portion of the Columbia Mountains . It also contains the Rogers Pass National Historic Site . The park 's history is closely tied to two primary Canadian transportation routes , the Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) , completed in 1885 , and the Trans Canada Highway , completed in 1963 . The pass in the centre of the park eluded explorers until 1881 . The railway brought with it tourism , the establishment of Glacier National Park and the construction of a popular alpine hotel . The heavy winter snows and steep , avalanche @-@ prone valleys of the park have been a major obstacle to transportation , necessitating much railway engineering and avalanche control measures . The park contains high peaks , large , active glaciers , and one of Canada 's largest cave systems . Its dense forests support populations of large mammals , birds , and alpine species . The region is noted for its heavy snowfall . The park has an extensive network of trails , three campgrounds , and four backcountry huts and cabins . Due to the major transportation routes that bisect it , Glacier National Park sees large numbers of visitors . = = History = = The Selkirk Mountains were first noted by Europeans when explorer David Thompson of the North West Company skirted around them on the Columbia River in 1811 . He named them Nelson 's Mountains , after Lord Horatio Nelson , but they were later renamed after an executive for the rival Hudson 's Bay Company , Lord Thomas Douglas Selkirk . Finding a pass through the Selkirks became a priority after construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway began . Completion of the railway was a condition of the Colony of British Columbia upon entering Canadian Confederation in 1867 . In 1865 , CPR surveyor Walter Moberly led an expedition up the Illecillewaet River ( which he named , using the Okanangan word for " swift water " ) . Despite recently discovering Eagle Pass through the nearby Monashees , Moberly failed to find a pass through the Selkirks after getting sidetracked in the Tangier Creek drainage . His party refused to explore further due to the lateness of the season , and Moberly was forced to retreat . = = = Rogers Pass = = = An expedition led by Major Albert Bowman Rogers up the Illecillewaet discovered a viable pass in 1881 . Rogers was awarded a five thousand dollar prize for locating a route through the mountains . By 1885 , the CPR had constructed a line through Rogers Pass and trains were traveling west to the Pacific for the first time in Canada . The federal government and the CPR quickly realized the tourism potential of the mountainous , heavily glaciated area . Following a trip by Prime Minister John A. Macdonald and his wife Agnes through the Rockies on the newly @-@ completed Trancontinental Railroad , he returned to Ottawa inspired , and led the creation of Glacier and Yoho National Parks , both established on October 10 , 1886 . They were the second and third national parks in the country , after Banff , a year earlier . = = = Glacier House = = = The grade of the railway approaching Rogers Pass was too steep to allow for dining cars on the trains , so the CPR built a hotel west of the pass in 1886 . This added to a collection of CPR @-@ owned hotels across Canada , including Mount Stephen House in Yoho National Park , built in the same year and with the same floor plan . Glacier House , located near the terminus of the Illecillewaet Glacier ( called the Great Glacier at the time ) , became a center for tourism , mountaineering , glaciology , and photography in the Selkirks . The hotel was expanded in 1905 and 1911 . It was considered one of western Canada 's premier tourist destinations at the turn of the twentieth century . The hotel attracted alpinists from around the world . Due to its elevation , climbers could be in the high alpine within hours of leaving their room . In 1899 , the CPR contracted the services of several Swiss guides to assist the less mountain @-@ savvy tourists through the high country . Throughout the Glacier House period , many first ascents were made on peaks within the park . The hotel also attracted naturalists and scientists keen to study the mountain environment . Mary Vaux Walcott and her brothers , George and William Vaux , visited the area many times , and began the first scientific studies of the Illecillewaet Glacier . = = = Mountaineering = = = Glacier House is considered " the first center of alpinism " in North America by American Alpine Club historian William Lowell Putnam . It saw an influx of European and American professional climbers in its first two decades of operation . William Spotswood Green was the first European climber to make note of the excellent climbing possibilities of peaks near the CPR line . Green and Henry Swanzy made the first recorded ascents of major peaks in the summer of 1888 , climbing Mount Bonney and Green 's Peak . Harold Topham , a British climber , made many first ascents in 1890 including Mount Fox ; he later joined with Henry Forster , and two Swiss climbers , Emil Huber and Carl Sulzer to explore the southern peaks of the park . Huber and Sulzer also claimed the prized first ascent of the dramatic Mount Sir Donald . Arthur Oliver Wheeler , a cartographer , climber , and founding member of the Alpine Club of Canada ( ACC ) , came to Glacier House in 1901 . This started a thirty @-@ year relationship with the northern Selkirks , which saw Wheeler map the region , publish large reference works on its geography , and explore much of the park 's terrain . An ACC hut near the Illecillewaet campground bears his name , as well as a peak and a pass . Professor Charles Ernest Fay , first president of the American Alpine Club , after visiting the park in the 1890s , publicized it in the club 's magazine . By the 1900s , almost all of the park 's prominent peaks had seen human tracks . = = = Connaught Tunnel and the Trans Canada = = = After its first winter in operation in 1886 , it became clear to the CPR that the heavy snows of Rogers Pass were going to be a serious challenge . Extensive snow sheds were built to shelter the rails from frequent avalanches . These wood sheds became a fire hazard in the summer months , so a separate summer track was built . In 1910 , while clearing one slide , another avalanche came down Avalanche Mountain , killing 62 men . More than half the workers killed in the slide were of Japanese descent . In all , two hundred railway employees were killed between 1886 and 1916 . In 1912 , the CPR admitted defeat and started the construction of an eight @-@ kilometer tunnel under the pass and Mount Macdonald . The Connaught Tunnel opened in 1916 . The new tunnel bypassed Glacier House 's siding , and the resulting lack of rail passengers spelled the end for the once @-@ popular hotel . It was closed in 1925 , and torn down four years later . The park saw few visitors besides campers from the Alpine Club of Canada 's summer camps for the next thirty years . Until this point , automobile travelers crossing the Columbia Mountains had to use the circuitous " Big Bend Highway " , which followed the upper reaches of the Columbia River north in a large loop . With the planned inundation of much of that valley by hydro projects outlined in the Columbia River Treaty , a new highway route was needed . In 1963 , the Trans Canada Highway was built through Rogers Pass , bringing tourists back to the park in large numbers . Parks Canada built several new campgrounds and expanded the trail system . = = Geography = = The park covers the northern part of the Selkirk Mountains , a sub @-@ range of the Columbia Mountains . It contains numerous glaciers and large , swift waterways . The park is bisected by two major transportation routes , the Trans Canada Highway and the Canadian Pacific Railway . The nearest towns are Revelstoke to the west , and Golden to the east . The only settlement in the park is the complex at the Rogers Pass summit . = = = Mountains = = = The Columbia Mountains rise from the plateaus of the Central Interior and extend eastward to the Rocky Mountain Trench . Geologically distinct from the nearby Rockies , the range is divided into four sub @-@ ranges : the Cariboos , Monashees , Selkirks , and the Purcells . Glacier encompasses a portion of the northern Selkirks and a narrow strip of the northern Purcells . The topography of the park varies between rounded mountains and ridges in the east , north , and west , and sharp , steep @-@ sided peaks in the central and southern regions . A.O. Wheeler measured many of the park 's mountains in 1901 and 1902 using a complex system of fixed points and photographs . In the early 20th century , the area was referred to as the " Canadian Alps " . Most names are from historical figures , including explorers , surveyors , mountaineers , and railway and Hudson 's Bay Company executives . = = = = Major peaks and ranges = = = = The highest point in the park is Mount Dawson , at 3 @,@ 377 metres ( 11 @,@ 079 ft ) . Peaks of the Hermit Range , the Bonney and Bostock Groups , the Van Horne Range , Purity Range , Dawson Range , and the precipitous Sir Donald Range all lie wholly or in part within the park . = = = Glaciers = = = The park has 131 glaciers over 0 @.@ 05 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 019 sq mi ) in size , covering 133 square kilometres ( 51 sq mi ) of the park . Throughout its history , North America has seen cycles of glaciation , where ice sheets advanced and retreated across the terrain . The last glacial period ended about 12 @,@ 000 years ago , before which all but the highest peaks of the park were covered in ice . The movements of these rivers of ice formed the steep @-@ sided , U @-@ shaped valleys of the park . They also rounded the lesser peaks ; ranges in the west of the park show this effect . The glaciers in the park are on whole shrinking and retreating ; they are also some of the most studied glaciers in North America . The glaciers of the park have been dramatically reduced in size in the late 20th and early 21st centuries . Precise measurements of glacial areas started with the Vaux family and A.O. Wheeler in the 1900s . Modern measurements using satellite imagery began with Simon Ommaney 's work in the 1980s . Regular inventories of the parks glaciers have been performed since , with the latest collating data up to 2011 . The most recent inventory noted a reduction of 19 @.@ 4 square kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 sq mi ) of glacial surface area from 2000 to 2011 . Due to its location near the highway and railway , the Illecillewaet Glacier is the most visited and photographed . Formerly known as the Great Glacier , it was a major tourist attraction during the Glacier House period from 1886 to 1925 . The glacier 's terminus , formerly a short walk from the Glacier House site , has retreated far up the mountainside . The névé of the glacier spreads far to the south , also spawning the Geikie Glacier . Most of the large glacial features are south of the Trans @-@ Canada corridor . Other large features include the Deville , Dawson , Asulkan , Bishops , Black , Duncan , Grand , and Avalanche . The park 's glaciers have a variety of appearances , with high altitude features smooth and uniform , cracked and riddled with crevasses on the slopes , and black with debris on the valley bottoms . In summer , many of the glaciers take on a red tint ; this is the result of a variety of snow algae known as watermelon snow . = = = Rivers = = = All watercourses in the park are part of the Columbia River drainage basin . Park rivers are swift @-@ running and glacially @-@ fed , and have helped carve out the steep valleys and canyons . They carry much silt and rocky debris with them , and often have a milky white appearance . In the summer months , these rivers have noticeable diurnal cycles ; they run high in the afternoons as the snow and ice melt is at its peak , then drop considerably with lower nighttime temperatures . The major rivers are the Illecillewaet , the Beaver , and the headwaters of the Incomappleux and Duncan Rivers . Large creeks and brooks include Mountain , Cougar ( which runs underground through the Nakimu Caves ) , and Battle . The Beaver and Illecillewaet flood occasionally ; 1983 and 2012 saw flooding damage to the highway and railway . = = Geology = = The geology of the northern Selkirks reveals the tremendous tectonic changes that have shaped the terrain of western North America . Like much of British Columbia , the region was first studied by the prolific surveyor and geologist Dr. George Mercer Dawson in 1890 . Topographical maps were first produced by A.O. Wheeler in the early 1900s , and in the 1970s , Wheeler 's grandson , Dr. John Wheeler , conducted an extensive geological survey from land and air . From Rogers Pass , layers of quartzite and slate are visible , revealing the fact that the range was part of a large , silty continental shelf 600 million years ago . 185 million years ago , successive plate movements from the west began to crumple and compress this material , driving some of it deep underground , and some into the heights of the Selkirks . Lime from coral and other organic life was compressed into limestone , which is seen in the Cougar Brook area . Veins of marble are present in the metamorphic rock of the high peaks . Although erosion and the effects of the glaciers are constantly grinding down the mountain peaks , the pressure of the underlying rock continues to drive them upward . Geologists have classed the rocks of the Columbia Mountains into groups , several of which appear in the northern Selkirks . The slates are in the Horsethief Creek and Lardeau groups , quartzite is in the Hamill group , limestone is part of the Badshot Formation , while the metamorphic rocks are classed in the Shuswap Metamorphic Complex . = = = Caves = = = The limestone strata in the park is subject to water erosion by Cougar Brook , a process that has formed the Nakimu Caves . First discovered in 1907 , and originally named the Caves of Cheops , then Deutchmann Caves , this 6 @-@ kilometer ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) long cave system is one of the largest in Canada . The limestone is broken down and softened by carbonic acid in the brook 's water . The water also contains pulverised rock from glacial processes , which serve to further etch and cut new passages in the rock . The caves contain a large concentration of a rare substance known as moonmilk - this is a suspension of calcium carbonate kept intact by bacteria . Due to its sensitive nature , and damage done to cave environments by early tourists , Parks Canada has closed the caves to the general public . Access by organized groups and experienced speleologists is allowed with a permit . = = Ecology = = Glacier National Park covers a range of habitats , from lush temperate rainforest in the western valleys , to inhospitable ice- and rock @-@ covered alpine areas , to drier fir and pine forests on the eastern boundary . Four of British Columbia 's biogeoclimatic zones are found within the park : Interior cedar / hemlock , Engelmann spruce / subalpine fir , Interior Douglas @-@ fir in the eastern extremities , and alpine tundra at high elevations . Parks Canada characterizes these zones as " rainforest , snow forest , and no forest " . Animal life in the park ranges from large mammals like caribou and grizzly bear to bird species such as Steller 's jay and the golden eagle . = = = Flora = = = The valleys on the western side of the park support dense wet forests , with a thick understory . The widest valleys , such as the Illecillewaet , contain a rare wetlands environment , featuring skunk cabbage and water hemlock . Outside of the wetlands , the lower valleys are covered by Western Red cedar , western white pine , western hemlock , Interior douglas fir , and white birch . Ground species include devil 's club , blueberries , liverwort , and fern species . At middle elevations , the subalpine zone appears . This forest has Engelmann spruce , mountain hemlock , and subalpine fir . The understory is thick here with rhododendron and berry species , as well as deep beds of moss and lichens . At higher elevations , this forest opens up to meadows and slide chutes , which are covered in a lush growth of grasses , herbaceous shrubs , and alpine wildflowers . Parks botanists and others have identified 546 species of flowering plants in the park . Late July to mid @-@ September see an impressive display of alpine blooms . The alpine meadows continue into the harsh alpine tundra zone , where poor soil , heavy snowfall , cold temperatures , and a very short growing season discourage all but the hardiest sedge grasses , heathers , and lichens . = = = Fauna = = = Glacier 's rich forests support a large wildlife population , which Parks staff monitor regularly . There are fifty @-@ three mammal species found within the park . Bears dominate the snow zone ; the berry @-@ rich avalanche slides provide an important food source for both black and grizzly species . They spend the winters in deep dens hibernating . Other predators include the wolverine , cougar , and lynx . Mountain goats are the most common ungulates in Glacier National Park ; a 1985 study counted 300 in the high peaks and valleys of the park . Caribou migrate through certain park valleys , while elk , mule and white @-@ tail deer can be found throughout . The deep snows of winter drive most ungulates out of the park into the lower elevations of the nearby Rocky Mountain Trench and Columbia valleys . Moose are seen in the park on rare occasions . Several species of squirrels are found in the lower forests , and alpine mammals include pika , hoary marmots , and martens . Glacier has 235 observed bird species , but the majority are migratory and only seen in the summer months . The 30 species who are year @-@ round residents include woodpeckers , golden eagles , owls , ravens , Steller 's jays , and golden @-@ crowned kinglets . Unpredictable explosions of pine siskins , sometimes reaching hundreds of thousands in number , will appear and stay year round , but be gone the next year . American dippers feed in the many waterfalls and cascades of the park . = = Climate = = Located within the Interior Wetbelt , precipitation is a major environmental factor in the area . The park straddles two prevalent weather systems , with warmer , wetter air from the Pacific meeting the colder , drier air of continental weather systems . The moist air is driven to higher elevations by the mass of the Columbia Mountains . The result is frequent rain and snowstorms , especially during winter months . The mean annual precipitation in subalpine areas is 1 @.@ 995 metres ( 6 ft 6 @.@ 5 in ) This contributes to the large icefields and glaciers that cover much of the park 's high elevations . Rogers Pass can receive up to 17 metres ( 56 ft ) of snow over the course of a winter . The eastern edge of the park , along the Purcells , is in the rain shadow and is relatively drier . The area can see wide variations in temperature and weather due to the extreme topography . Winter temperatures in the Selkirks are moderate compared to similar elevations in the Rockies to the east , with summer average highs reaching the high teens Celsius . = = = Avalanche control = = = Maintaining the Trans Canada Highway through the snowy Rogers Pass is a constant battle . Parks Canada works with provincial highways crews and the Canadian Armed Forces to keep the highway open as much as possible . Parks staff play both a research and prevention role by monitoring snowpack levels and predicting avalanche probability , as well as working with the Canadian Forces to trigger controlled avalanches . The Royal Canadian Horse Artillery operate 105mm Howitzer cannons , based at circular gun positions along the highway . The highway is closed to traffic , shells are fired at trigger points identified by Parks forecasters , and smaller , more controlled avalanches are started . = = Facilities = = Although the park sees over four million visitors each year , the majority are only passing through on the Trans @-@ Canada Highway . About 15 % stop to use park facilities . Of the visitors who experience the park from outside their vehicles , two @-@ thirds are from outside of Canada . There are 140 kilometers ( 87 mi ) of established hiking trails in the park . The Parks Canada administration and Rogers Pass Discovery Centre are located at Rogers Pass . The interpretive program for Glacier and Mount Revelstoke National Parks is based at the centre . It includes a theatre , an exhibit hall with railway models , natural history displays and wildlife specimens , and a bookstore . There are three campgrounds in the park . Illecillewaet is the largest , with two smaller campgrounds located at Loop Brook and Sir Donald . There are also five designated backcountry camping areas . Parks and the Alpine Club of Canada maintain four alpine huts and cabins for backcountry users . The Wheeler Hut is the oldest and largest , and is located near the Illecillewaet camping area . The Asulkan hut sits at 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 6 @,@ 900 ft ) on the Asulkan Pass , the Sapphire Col hut is a basic shelter near The Dome , and the Glacier Circle cabin in the Beaver River valley is a base for travelling in the southern areas of the park . None of the camping facilities in the park are maintained during winter months . = Marcia Mitzman Gaven = Marcia Mitzman Gaven ( born February 28 , 1959 ) is an award @-@ winning American actress from New York . Since studying at the High School of Performing Arts and the State University of New York at Purchase , she has appeared in many musicals during her career singing in both mezzo @-@ soprano and soprano roles . Her Broadway debut came in 1979 when she played Betty Rizzo in Grease , serving as the replacement for the original actress of the role . In the 1980s she appeared in the musicals The Rocky Horror Show , Oliver ! , Zorba , Nine , Anything Goes , Chess , and Welcome to the Club , and in the operas Brigadoon , South Pacific , and Sweeney Todd . In 1992 , Gaven played the character Mrs. Walker in a new production called The Who 's Tommy at La Jolla Playhouse . The musical was a success , resulting in its move to Broadway in 1993 . Gaven was praised by critics for her performance and received a Tony Award nomination in the " Best Featured Actress in a Musical " category . She eventually had to leave The Who 's Tommy before its Broadway run ended because of an allergic reaction to a smoke effect used in the show . In 1995 , she won an Ovation Award and a Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award for her portrayal of Florence Vassy in Chess at Hudson Theatre . She was also awarded an Ovation Award for the role of Mother in the staging of the musical Ragtime at Shubert Theatre in 1997 . Gaven 's latest role in a musical was in a 2001 production of 1776 by UCLA 's Freud Playhouse . Since then she has appeared in concerts and fundraisers . Gaven has also made guest star appearances in numerous television shows and films , playing both live @-@ action and animated roles . She voiced several characters in the animated series The Simpsons from 1999 until 2002 , including Maude Flanders , Helen Lovejoy , Miss Hoover , and others . She was hired after Maggie Roswell departed from the show , due to a pay dispute . She has not been heard on the show since Roswell 's return in 2002 . Gaven has also lent her voice to television and radio advertisements . She is currently married to Seth Gaven owner of AV Squad , a film marketing company . = = Early life = = Gaven was born as Marcia Mitzman on February 28 , 1959 in New York City , New York . She was raised with her two siblings in the village of Hastings @-@ on @-@ Hudson , New York by their mother Patricia Mitzman , who had previously had a career in art . Newt Mitzman , their father , directed television specials and commercials for a living . Gaven went to Hackley Elementary School in Tarrytown , New York when she was young . At that time she was certain that she wanted to work in show business . As the result of a lie , she was able to study at the High School of Performing Arts even though the school was only open to inhabitants of New York City . She then became a drama major at the State University of New York at Purchase , though she did not get a degree . She said in a 1987 interview with The New York Times that " they kicked me out because I missed a major rehearsal " , and she never applied for readmission since she had already made her first appearance on Broadway in Grease by then . While at Purchase , Gaven performed in student productions such as The Taming of the Shrew and Trumpets and Drums . = = Career in theatre = = Gaven has had a prominent career in musical theatre and has appeared in many rock musicals . She told TheaterWeek in 1993 that she thinks those kinds of musicals are harder to sing in compared to standard musicals , and that " the nature of rock and roll is that it 's on the edge . It 's written to be done dangerously . You can 't be careful and do it at the same time . If you don 't do it dangerously , you run the risk of losing the impact . " During her career , Gaven has sung in both mezzo @-@ soprano and soprano roles , and has been cited for her belting . According to Alvin Klein , theatre critic for The New York Times , she " is categorically a mezzo soprano . " Gaven has also been noted for her strong voice , and was once told by a sound technician at An Evening Dinner Theater in Elmsford , New York that " We always turn off the mikes when you sing " because she did not need amplification . = = = 1979 – 1989 = = = In March 1979 , when Gaven was twenty years old , she served as the replacement actress for the character Betty Rizzo in the original Broadway production of Grease . This was her Broadway debut . In late 1980 , she was cast in the lead role of Janet in the musical The Rocky Horror Show that ran for six nights at Warner Theatre . It tells the story of a couple , Brad and Janet , who find themselves lost one night and end up in the laboratory of an alien doctor . The cast , including Gaven , was praised by critics . In 1984 , she played a Londoner in the revival of Oliver ! at Broadway and was the understudy for the major role of Nancy . That same year , in the Broadway revival of Zorba , Gaven played the role of The Widow who is eventually stoned to death by the townspeople after being held responsible for the suicide of a young boy who fell in love with her . She then portrayed the character Luisa , the wife of an Italian film director , in a production of Nine at An Evening Dinner Theater in 1985 . Gaven starred in the New York City Opera 's Broadway revival of Brigadoon , in which she played Meg Brockie , at New York State Theater in 1986 . The story is about a mysterious Scottish village that appears for only one day every hundred years , and Meg is one of the villagers . According to Sy Syna of the magazine The World & I , Gaven was " a huge crowd pleaser " in the role . She was also cast in the New York City Opera 's spring 1987 revival of South Pacific as the female lead character Nellie Forbush , a U.S. Navy nurse who works on a South Pacific island during World War II . This nine @-@ week run of South Pacific had an alternating cast and Nellie was also portrayed by Susan Bigelow . Later that year in July during the New York City Opera 's regular season , she appeared in the opera company 's Sweeney Todd as Mrs. Lovett , who makes and sells meat pies made from the victims of serial killer Sweeney Todd . In Pioneer Theatre Company 's fall 1988 production of Anything Goes , Gaven played the lead role of nightclub singer Reno Sweeney . It is set on an ocean liner on which Reno helps the character Billy Crocker win the heart of the engaged Hope Harcourt who he has fallen in love with . While reviewing the musical for the Deseret News , Joseph Walker commented that Gaven " is sensational as Reno Sweeney , the saucy , sassy hoofer @-@ with @-@ a @-@ heart @-@ of @-@ gold . She has an arresting presence and a golden voice ; the whole show always seems better when she 's on stage . " At the end of 1988 , Gaven returned to the musical Oliver ! in a Theatre Under The Stars production in Houston , starring as Nancy . A critic for the Houston Chronicle commended her performance , writing that she " acts the compassionate Nancy with warmth and spirit , and sings in a strong voice full of character . " Also in 1988 , Gaven played the part of the Russian chess player 's wife Svetlana in the short @-@ lived Broadway production of the musical Chess , for which she was praised by critics . The following year she appeared as Carol Bates in the Broadway musical Welcome to the Club . It revolves around four men who have been put in jail for not paying alimony . The musical shows why they ended up divorcing their wives , one of which is played by Gaven . Both Chess and Welcome to the Club were unsuccessful . John Simon criticized the latter musical in a New York Magazine review but praised Gaven 's performance , writing : " The cast ranges from the charmless to the hopeless [ ... ] in this mess . Only Marcia Mitzman manages to stand out from the crowd , and when she gets the right part in the right show , she 'll do just fine . " Associated Press drama critic Michael Kuchwara also wrote negatively about Welcome to the Club while giving praise to Gaven for projecting " a sympathy [ to her character ] that isn 't apparent in the book . " = = = 1990 – 1995 = = = In December 1990 , Gaven once again appeared as Nancy in a revival of Oliver ! — this time in a production at 5th Avenue Theatre in Seattle , Washington . A theatre critic for the Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer noted that she " has the voice to anchor anything you 'd care to name , even the 5th Avenue Theatre . 5th Avenue performers often sound as if they were speaking and singing through a football stadium public address system . But Mitzman overpowers malevolent acoustics . " After Oliver ! , she appeared as Countess Charlotte Malcolm in Ahmanson Theatre 's production of A Little Night Music that was performed from April 18 to June 30 , 1991 at James A. Doolittle Theatre in Los Angeles , California . Gaven worked at 5th Avenue Theatre again in December 1991 in the musical Here 's Love . She portrayed the divorced Doris Walker , a single @-@ working mother of a girl who doubts the existence of Santa Claus . During spring 1992 , she played the love interest of a male songwriter and his best friend in the musical The Tin Pan Man ( set in 1905 ) at La Mirada Theatre for the Performing Arts . Starting at the beginning of July 1992 , Gaven appeared in a new musical called The Who 's Tommy at La Jolla Playhouse in San Diego . It was based on the rock opera album Tommy by The Who . Gaven starred as Mrs. Walker , the mother of the boy Tommy who is traumatized when he sees his father murder Mrs. Walker 's new boyfriend . Tommy ultimately becomes non @-@ responsive , leading people to believe that he is deaf , mute , and blind , and his parents try to find a cure for his condition . Gaven later told TheaterWeek that she initially did not want to do the musical , since she " had no idea how this could be staged as a theatrical piece . I hoped my agents wouldn 't call me and ask me to audition . " However , they did , and she was cast as Mrs. Walker after an audition in which she sang the song " Heaven Help My Heart " that she performed in Chess , also a rock musical . The Who 's Tommy was La Jolla Playhouse 's biggest success yet and as a result its run was lengthened by several weeks . Later that year , Gaven once again played Doris in Here 's Love — this time in a Theatre Under The Stars production . In late 1992 it was announced that because of the success of The Who 's Tommy , it would be produced for Broadway and open in April 1993 . The production cost eight million dollars and it broke the box office record for the biggest non @-@ opening day with US $ 494 @,@ 897 earned on April 23 , 1993 at St. James Theatre ( where the musical opened on April 22 ) , beating Guys and Dolls ' 1992 record . Des McAnuff , who directed the musical at both La Jolla Playhouse and on Broadway , decided to bring many actors from the original cast with him despite weeks of auditions with thousands of actors trying out for the roles in front of him . The Broadway production featured some changes to the musical , such as a new song devoted to Tommy 's parents that Gaven thought " helps show their side of the story . " However , as she told The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune , the biggest difference was the increased amount of money she earned . Gaven was praised by critics for her portrayal of Mrs. Walker in the Broadway production , with one critic from The Miami Herald writing that her " alluring alto voice makes you wish Tommy 's mother had even more to sing . " It was announced on May 10 , 1993 that The Who 's Tommy had received eleven Tony Award nominations , tying with Kiss of the Spider Woman for the most nominations that year . Gaven received a nomination in the " Best Featured Actress in a Musical " category . However , as the result of an allergic reaction , she could not perform in the musical some nights . When Daryl Miller interviewed Gaven in the Los Angeles Times in 1997 , he noted that " this was one of the biggest disappointments of her life , and clouds cross her face for the first time in the conversation . She glances across the room at the Tony citation — recognizing her nomination for best featured actress in a musical — as she describes how her throat became infected due to a reaction to the oil in a haze @-@ making compound that designers pump onstage to enhance lighting effects . She missed a lot of performances , and an untold number of Tony voters missed her performance . She can 't help but wonder how that affected the outcome . " At one point , Gaven 's understudy Alice Ripley took her place for eight consecutive weeks while Gaven recovered . Gaven eventually had to leave The Who 's Tommy some months after it opened because of her allergy . She also disliked the idea of performing in one musical for more than a year . In late 1993 , she was cast in Pasadena Playhouse 's musical Sweet , Smart , Rodgers & Hart that featured music and lyrics previously written by Richard Rodgers and Lorenz Hart . It originally played from the middle of November to December 17 , 1993 , but was then extended for another run between January 6 and January 23 , 1994 . In July 1994 , Gaven played the role of the partly African @-@ American showboat actress Julie Dozier in Music Circus ' adaptation of Show Boat in California . In the spring of the following year , she reprised her part as the Countess in a production of A Little Night Music , also by Music Circus . Gaven returned to Chess in the summer of 1995 in small @-@ scale production at Hudson Theatre , this time as the lead character Florence Vassy . The story involves a romantic triangle between the two top players , an American and a Russian , in a world chess championship , and the woman Florence who manages one and falls in love with the other . Gaven received an Ovation Award ( Best Lead Actress in a Musical ) and a Los Angeles Drama Critics Circle Award ( Best Lead Performance ) for her work in the musical . = = = 1996 – present = = = On May 21 , 1996 , Gaven and seventeen other well @-@ known musical theatre artists appeared in the show Say It With Music at Carpenter Performing Arts Center . It was staged to raise proceeds for the Musical Theatre Group , which was described by John Woolard of the Press @-@ Telegram as " a new organization formed to help rejuvenate musical theater in Southern California . " The show was made up of singing and dancing numbers that had previously appeared in different Broadway musicals . From June to September 1997 , Gaven played the role of Mother in the Los Angeles production ( pre @-@ Broadway ) of the musical Ragtime at Shubert Theatre . She received her second Ovation Award ( Best Lead Actress in a Musical ) for this performance . The musical tells the story of three ethnic groups in the United States : White Anglo @-@ Saxon Protestants , African @-@ Americans in Harlem , and European immigrants . Gaven played the mother and matriarch of the Protestant family . Ragtime director Frank Galati praised her in the Los Angeles Times for her " grace and beauty and magnificent voice " and her " extraordinarily keen intelligence — she 's a very deep reader of text , " and commented that " she seizes the stage with energy . " Many critics praised Gaven as well , though Laurie Winer of the Los Angeles Times wrote that she played Mother " valiantly but with a shade too much effort . " David Littlejohn of The Wall Street Journal cited her as " the best single performance in this production . " In May of the following year , she appeared in California Musical Theatre 's production of Triumph of Love , a musical that had previously been staged on Broadway and is set in Sparta . It ran for six days at the Community Center Theater in Sacramento , California and featured Gaven in the role of the philosopher Hesione . In 2001 , Gaven reappeared as Julie Dozier in another adaptation of Show Boat by Music Circus . Davis Enterprise critic Bev Sykes wrote positively about her voice but criticized her performance for not being credible , writing : " Marcia Mitzman Gaven gives an uneven performance as Julie , a singer of mixed race who passes for white until she 's betrayed by a spurned suitor . She is re @-@ discovered in Act 2 , having fallen into decline . Though obviously under the influence of the liquor in the bottle she carries around before and after her delivery of the song ' He 's Just My Bill , ' the song itself is performed straight , with no hint of the ravages that alcohol have taken on her body and voice . " Later that same year she played the role of Abigail Adams in a production of 1776 by UCLA 's Freud Playhouse . Gaven performed in a cabaret , called The Girly Show , at a fundraising gala for the Blank Theatre Company on August 15 , 2005 . It consisted of an all @-@ female cast singing songs by Michael John LaChiusa , with LaChiusa playing the piano . On December 15 , 2008 , celebrating the fifteenth anniversary of The Who 's Tommy , Gaven and the rest of the original Broadway cast reunited for a concert at August Wilson Theatre in New York City . This performance was a benefit for Broadway Cares / Equity Fights AIDS , the Broadway Dreams Foundation , and the Bachmann @-@ Strauss Dystonia & Parkinson Foundation . = = Career in television and film = = Gaven has done much voice acting in her career , lending her voice to television and radio advertisements and playing animated characters in The Pink Panther ( 1993 ) , Red Planet ( 1994 ) , and Small Soldiers ( 1998 ) . Working with advertisements earned Gaven more money than playing theatre . " I can make in an hour what I make in a week doing theater , " she said in 1997 . Gaven has also made guest star appearances in live @-@ action television series such as The George Carlin Show ( 1994 ) , Ellen ( 1995 ) , Get Smart ( 1995 ) , The Drew Carey Show ( 1996 ) , Hangin ' with Mr. Cooper ( 1997 ) , Frasier ( 1998 ) , and Beverly Hills , 90210 ( 1998 ) . In addition , she had a minor role in the 2002 film Moonlight Mile . When Maggie Roswell left the animated series The Simpsons in spring 1999 after a pay dispute with Fox Broadcasting Company , Gaven was hired to fill in for Roswell 's characters . These characters included Maude Flanders , Helen Lovejoy , Miss Hoover , and others . However , Maude Flanders was killed off in the 2000 episode " Alone Again , Natura @-@ Diddily " to open up new storylines for the show . Maggie Roswell returned to The Simpsons in 2002 after reaching a deal with Fox to record her lines from her home , and Gaven has not worked for the show since that year . = = Personal life = = Gaven resided in Los Angeles from 1991 to 1993 , when she had to move to New York City to act in The Who 's Tommy . However , her stay in the city was short because of the allergic reaction and she moved back to Los Angeles . While performing in musicals , Gaven had to be protective of her vocal cords and this affected her personal life . She told Miller in 1997 that " you have to give up so much of your life " , and gave the example that when " somebody coughs behind me [ at the cinema ] I immediately say to my husband , ' We may have to move . ' " She also had to avoid shouting . Gaven is currently married to Seth Gaven who owns AV Squad , a film marketing company . = = Acting credits = = = = = Theatre = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Film = = = = George Mason = George Mason ( sometimes referred to as George Mason IV ) ( December 11 , 1725 – October 7 , 1792 ) was a Virginia planter , politician , and a delegate to the U.S. Constitutional Convention of 1787 , one of three men who refused to sign . His writings , including substantial portions of the Fairfax Resolves of 1774 , the Virginia Declaration of Rights of 1776 , and his Objections to this Constitution of Government ( 1787 ) in opposition to ratification of the constitution , have been a significant influence on political thought and events . The Virginia Declaration of Rights served as a basis for the United States Bill of Rights , of which he has been deemed the father . Mason was born in 1725 , most likely in present @-@ day Fairfax County , Virginia . Mason 's father died when he was young , and his mother managed the family estates until he came of age . He married in 1750 , built Gunston Hall , and lived the life of a country squire , supervising his lands , family and slaves . Mason briefly served in the House of Burgesses and involved himself in community affairs , sometimes serving with his neighbor , George Washington . As tensions between Britain and the American colonies grew , Mason came to support the colonial side , and used his knowledge and experience to help the revolutionary cause , finding ways to work around the Stamp Act of 1765 and serving in the rebel Virginia Conventions of 1775 and 1776 . Mason prepared the first draft of the Declaration of Rights in 1776 , and his words formed much of the text adopted by the final Virginia Convention . He also wrote a constitution for the state ; others who sought to have the convention adopt their ideas , like Thomas Jefferson , found Mason 's version could not be stopped . During the war , he was a member of the powerful lower house of the Virginia General Assembly , the House of Delegates , but to the irritation of Washington and others , refused to serve in the Continental Congress in Philadelphia , citing health and family commitments . Named one of his state 's delegates to the Constitutional Convention , Mason traveled to Philadelphia , his only lengthy trip outside Virginia . Many clauses in the document bear his stamp , as he was active in the convention for months before deciding he could not sign it . He cited the lack of a bill of rights most prominently in his Objections , but also wanted an immediate end to the slave trade , which he opposed , and a supermajority for navigation acts , which might force exporters of tobacco to use more expensive American ships . Although he lost there , and again at the Virginia Ratifying Convention of 1788 , his prominent fight for a bill of rights led his fellow Virginian , James Madison , to introduce one during the First Congress in 1789 , and it was ratified in 1791 , a year before Mason died . Long obscure , Mason is today recognized for his contributions to the United States , and to Virginia . = = Ancestry and early life = = George Mason 's great @-@ grandfather , George Mason I , had been a Cavalier : militarily defeated in the English Civil War , some of them came to America in the 1640s and 1650s . He had been born in 1629 at Pershore , in the English county of Worcestershire . The immigrant George Mason settled in what is now Stafford County , Virginia , having obtained land as a reward for bringing his party to the colony . His son , George Mason II ( 1660 – 1726 ) , was the first to move to what in 1742 became Fairfax County , then at the frontier between English and Native American areas . George Mason III ( 1690 – 1735 ) , served in the House of Burgesses , and like his father was county lieutenant . George Mason IV 's mother , Ann Thomson Mason , was the daughter of a former Attorney General of Virginia who had immigrated from London , and was of a Yorkshire family . The Masons lived in a colonial Virginia that had few roads , as most commerce was carried on Chesapeake Bay or through the waters of the Potomac , Rappahannock or other rivers . Most settlement took place near the rivers , through which planters could trade with the world . Thus , colonial Virginia initially developed few towns , since estates were largely self @-@ sufficient , and could get what they needed without the need to purchase locally . Even the capital , Williamsburg saw little activity when the legislature was not in session . Local politics was dominated by large landowners like the Masons . The Virginia economy rose and fell with tobacco , the main crop , which was mostly for export to Britain . Into this world was born George Mason , fourth of that name , on December 11 , 1725 . He may have been born at his father 's plantation on Dogue 's Neck ( later Mason Neck ) , but this is uncertain as his parents also lived on their lands across the Potomac in Maryland . On March 5 , 1735 , George Mason III died when his boat capsized while crossing the Potomac . His widow Ann would raise their son George ( then 9 ) and two younger siblings as co @-@ guardian with lawyer John Mercer . She selected property at Chopawamsic Creek ( today in Prince William County , Virginia ) as her dower house and there lived with her children and administered the lands that her elder son would control upon reaching his 21st birthday . In 1736 , George began his education with a Mr. Williams , hired to teach him for the price of 1 @,@ 000 pounds ( 450 kg ) of tobacco per annum . George 's studies began at his mother 's house , but the following year , he was boarded out to a Mrs. Simpson in Maryland , with Williams continuing as teacher through 1739 . By 1740 , George Mason was again at Chopawamsic , under the tutelage of a Dr. Bridges . Mason 's biographers have speculated that this was Charles Bridges , who helped develop the schools run in Britain by the Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowledge , and who came to America in 1731 . In addition , Mason and his brother Thomson doubtlessly had the run of Mercer 's library , one of the largest in Virginia , and the conversations of Mercer and the book @-@ lovers who gathered around him were likely an education in themselves . Mercer was a brilliant man of strong opinions , who expressed his views in ways that sometimes gave offense ; Mason proved similar in brilliance of mind and ability to anger . George Mason attained his majority in 1746 , and continued to reside at Chopawamsic with his siblings and mother . = = Virginia landed gentleman = = = = = Public figure = = = The obligations and offices that came with being one of the largest local landowners descended on Mason as they had on his father and grandfather . In 1747 , he was named to the Fairfax County Court . He was elected as a vestryman for Truro Parish , and took a position among the officers of the county militia , eventually rising to the rank of colonel . In 1748 , he sought a seat in the House of Burgesses ; the process was controlled by more senior members of the court and he was not then successful ; he would win in 1758 . The county court not only heard civil and criminal cases , but decided matters such as local taxes . Membership fell to most major landowners . Mason was a justice for much of the rest of his life , though he was excluded because of nonattendance at court from 1752 to 1764 , and resigned in 1789 when continued service meant swearing to uphold a constitution he could not support . Even while a member , he often did not attend . Joseph Horrell , in a journal article on Mason 's court service , noted that he was often in poor health , and lived the furthest of any of the major estateholders from the Fairfax County courthouse , whether at its original site near today 's Tyson 's Corner or later in newly founded Alexandria . Robert Rutland , editor of Mason 's papers , considered court service a major influence on Mason 's later thinking and writing , but Horrell denied it , " if the Fairfax court provided a course for Mason 's early training , he chiefly distinguished himself by skipping classes . " Alexandria was one of the towns founded or given corporate status in the mid @-@ 18th century that Mason had interests in ; he purchased three of the original lots along King and Royal Streets and became a municipal trustee in 1754 . He also served as a trustee of Dumfries , in Prince William County , and had business interests there and in Georgetown , on the Maryland side of the Potomac ( today in the District of Columbia ) . = = = Squire of Gunston Hall = = = On April 4 , 1750 , Mason married Ann Eibeck , only child of William and Sarah Eibeck of Charles County , Maryland . The Masons and Eibecks had adjacent lands in Maryland , and had joined together in real estate transactions ; by his death in 1764 , William Eilbeck was one of the wealthiest men in Charles County . At the time of his marriage , Mason was living at Dogue 's Neck , though in which residence is uncertain . George and Ann Mason would have nine children who survived to adulthood . Ann Mason died in 1773 ; their marriage , judging by surviving accounts , was a happy one . George Mason began to build his home , Gunston Hall , likely beginning in 1755 . The exterior , typical of local buildings of that time , was probably based on architectural books sent from Britain to America for the use of local builders ; one of these craftsmen , perhaps William Waite or James Wren , constructed Gunston Hall . Mason was proud of the gardens which still surround the house . There were outbuildings , including slave quarters , a schoolhouse , and kitchens , and beyond them four large plantations , forests , and the shops and other facilities that made Gunston Hall mostly self @-@ sufficient . Mason avoided overdependence on tobacco as a source of income by leasing much of his land holdings to tenant farmers , and diversified his crops to grow wheat for export to the British West Indies as Virginia 's economy sank because of tobacco overproduction in the 1760s and 1770s . Mason was a pioneer in the Virginia wine industry , subscribing along with other Virginians such as Thomas Jefferson to Philip Mazzei 's scheme for growing wine grapes in America . Mason sought to expand his land and wealth . He greatly expanded the boundaries of Gunston Hall estate , so that it occupied all of Dogue 's Neck , which became known as Mason 's Neck . One project that Mason was involved in for most of his adult life was the Ohio Company , in which he invested in 1749 and became treasurer in 1752 — an office he held forty years until his death in 1792 . The Ohio Company had secured a royal grant for 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 81 @,@ 000 ha ) to be surveyed near the forks of the Ohio River ( today the site of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania ) . War , revolution , and competing claims from Pennsylvania eventually defeated the Ohio Company 's plans . Although the company failed , Mason acquired considerable Western lands independently . His defense against the Pennsylvania claims , Selections from the Virginia Charters ( 1772 ) , originally intended to promote the Ohio Company 's claims , was widely applauded as a defense of the rights of Americans against royal decrees . Involvement with the Ohio Company also brought Mason into contact with many prominent Virginians , including his Fairfax County neighbor , George Washington . Mason and Washington were friends for many years until they finally broke over their differences regarding the federal constitution . Peter R. Henriques , in his journal article on their relationship , suggested that Mason cultivated the friendship more than Washington did , as Mason sent many more letters and gifts , and stayed more often at Washington 's plantation , though the last can be explained in part as Mount Vernon lay on the road from Gunston Hall to Alexandria . Henriques suggested that as Mason was older , intellectually superior , and the owner of a flourishing plantation as Washington struggled to establish Mount Vernon , it would not have been in the future president 's character to be close to Mason . Washington had a deep respect for Mason 's intellectual abilities , several times asking for his advice , and writing in 1777 when learning that Mason had taken charge of an issue before the General Assembly , " I know of no person better qualified ... than Colonel Mason , and shall be very happy to hear he has taken it in hand " . Despite his involvement in western real estate schemes , Mason saw that land was being cleared and planted with tobacco faster than the market for it could expand , meaning that its price would drop even as more and more capital was tied up in land and slaves . Thus , although a major slaveholder , he opposed the slave system in Virginia . He believed that slave importation , together with the natural population increase , would result in a huge future slave population in Virginia ; a system of leased lands , though not as profitable as slave labor , would have " little Trouble & Risque [ risk ] " . = = Political thinker ( 1758 – 1775 ) = = = = = From burgess to rebel = = = Little is known of Mason 's political views prior to the 1760s , when he came to oppose British colonial policies . In 1758 , Mason successfully ran for the House of Burgesses when George William Fairfax , holder of one of Fairfax County 's two seats , chose not to seek re @-@ election . Also elected were Mason 's brother Thomson ( for Stafford County ) , George Washington ( for Frederick County where he was stationed as commander of Virginia 's militia as the French and Indian War continued ) and Richard Henry Lee , who would work closely with Mason through their careers . When the house assembled , George Mason was initially appointed to a committee concerned with raising additional militia during that time of war . In 1759 , he was appointed to the powerful Committee on Privileges and Elections . He was also placed during the latter year on the Committee on Propositions and Grievances , which mostly considered local matters . Mason dealt with several local concerns , presenting a petition of Fairfax County planters against being assessed for a tobacco wharf at Alexandria , funds they felt should be raised through wharfage fees . He also played a major role as the Burgesses deliberated how to divide Prince William County as settlement expanded ; in March 1759 , Fauquier County was created by legislative act . In this , Mason opposed the interest of the family of Thomas , Lord Fairfax , who wanted existing counties expanded instead , including Fairfax . This difference may have contributed to Mason 's decision not to seek re @-@ election in 1761 . Mason biographer Jeff Broadwater noted that Mason 's committee assignments reflected the esteem his colleagues held him in , or at least the potential they saw . Broadwater did not find it surprising that Mason did not seek re @-@ election , as he did not attend the sessions between 1759 and 1761 . Although the British were victorious over the French in the war , King George III 's government felt that the North American colonies were not paying their way , since little direct tax revenue from the colonies was received . The Sugar Act of 1764 had its greatest effect in New England and did not cause widespread objection . The Stamp Act the following year affected all 13 colonies , as it required revenue stamps to be used on papers required in trade and in the law . When word of passage of the Stamp Act reached Williamsburg , the House of Burgesses passed the Virginia Resolves , asserting that Virginians had the same rights as if they resided in Britain , and that they could only be taxed by themselves or their elected representatives . The Resolves were mostly written by a fiery @-@ spoken new member for Louisa County , Patrick Henry . Mason slowly moved from being a peripheral figure towards the center of Virginia politics , but his published response to the Stamp Act , which he opposed , is most notable for the inclusion of his anti @-@ slavery views . George Washington or George William Fairfax , the burgesses for Fairfax County , may have asked Mason 's advice as to what steps to take in the crisis . Mason drafted an act to allow for one of the most common court action , replevin , to take place without the use of stamped paper , and sent it to George Washington , by then one of Fairfax County 's burgesses , to gain passage . This action contributed to a boycott of the stamps . With the courts and trade paralyzed , the British Parliament repealed the Stamp Act in 1766 , but continued to assert the right to tax the colonies . Following the repeal , a committee of London merchants issued a public letter to Americans , warning them not to declare victory . Mason published a response in June 1766 , satirizing the British position , " We have , with infinite Difficulty & Fatigue got you excused this one Time ; do what your Papa and Mamma bid , & hasten to return your most grateful Acknowledgements for condescending to let you keep what is your own . " The Townshend Acts of 1767 were Britain 's next attempt to tax the colonies , placing duties on substances including lead and glass , and provoking calls from the northern colonies for a boycott of British goods . Virginia , more dependent on goods imported from Britain , was less enthusiastic , and , as local planters tended to receive goods at their river landings , a boycott would be difficult to enforce . In April 1769 , Washington sent a copy of a Philadelphia resolution to Mason , asking his advice on what action Virginia should take . It is unknown who adapted that text for use in Virginia ( Broadwater concluded it was Mason ) but Mason sent Washington a corrected draft on April 23 , 1769 . Washington took it to Williamsburg , but the governor , Lord Botetourt , dissolved the legislature because of the radical resolutions it were passing . The Burgesses adjourned to a nearby tavern , and there passed a non @-@ importation agreement based on Mason 's . Although the resolution was not as strong as Mason had liked — he wanted Virginia to threaten to cut off tobacco — Mason worked in the following years for non @-@ importation . The repeal of most of the Townshend duties ( excepting that on tea ) made his task more difficult . In March 1773 , his wife Ann died of illness contracted after another pregnancy . Mason was the sole parent to nine children , and his commitments made him even more reluctant to accept political office that would take him from Gunston Hall . In May 1774 , Mason was in Williamsburg on real estate business . Word had just arrived of the passage of the Intolerable Acts , as Americans dubbed the legislative response to the Boston Tea Party , and a group of lawmakers including Lee , Henry , and Jefferson asked Mason to join them in formulating a course of action . The Burgesses passed a resolution for a day of fasting and prayer to obtain divine intervention against " destruction of our Civil Rights " , but the governor , Lord Dunmore , dissolved the legislature rather than accept it . Mason may have helped write the resolution , and likely joined the members after the dissolution when they met at the Raleigh Tavern . New elections had to be held for burgess and for delegate to the convention which had been called by the rump of the dissolved House of Burgesses , and Fairfax County 's were set for July 5 , 1774 . Washington planned to run for one seat , and tried to get Mason or Bryan Fairfax to seek the other , but both men declined . Although the poll was postponed to the 14th due to poor weather , Washington met that day with other local leaders ( including , likely , Mason ) in Alexandria and selected a committee to draft a set of resolutions , which Washington hoped would " define our Constitutional Rights " . The resulting Fairfax Resolves were largely drafted by Mason . He met with the newly elected Washington on July 17 at Mount Vernon , and stayed the night ; the two men rode together to Alexandria the following day . The 24 propositions that made up the Resolves protested loyalty to the British Crown , but denied the right of Parliament to legislate for colonies that had been settled at private expense and which had received charters from the monarch . The Resolves called for a continental congress . If Americans did not receive redress by November 1 , exports , including that of tobacco , would be cut off . The freeholders of Fairfax County approved the Resolves , appointing Mason and Washington to a special committee in the emergency . According to early Virginia historian Hugh Grigsby , at Alexandria , Mason " made his first great movement on the theatre of the Revolution " . Washington took the Resolves to the Virginia Convention in Williamsburg , and although delegates made some changes , the adopted resolution closely tracks both the Fairfax Resolves , and the scheme for non @-@ exportation of tobacco Mason had proposed some years earlier . The convention elected delegates to the First Continental Congress in Philadelphia , including Lee , Washington , and Henry , and in October 1774 , Congress adopted a similar embargo . Much of Mason 's efforts in 1774 and 1775 was in organizing a militia independent of the royal government . Washington by January 1775 was drilling a small force , and he and Mason purchased gunpowder for the company . Mason wrote in favor of annual election of militia officers in words that would later echo in the Virginia Declaration of Rights , " We came equal into this world , and equals shall we go out of it . All men are by nature born equally free and independent . " Washington 's election as a delegate to the Second Continental Congress created a vacancy in Fairfax County 's delegation to the third Virginia Convention , and he wrote from Philadelphia in May 1775 , urging that it be filled . By this time , blood had been shed between colonial and Briton at the Battles of Lexington and Concord . Mason attempted to avoid election on the grounds of poor health and that he was needed to parent his motherless children . Nevertheless , he was elected and journeyed to Richmond , which , being further inland than Williamsburg , was deemed better protected from possible British attack . When the Richmond convention began in July 1775 , Mason was assigned to crucial committees , including one attempting to raise an army to protect the colony . According to Robert A. Rutland , " Sick or healthy , Mason was needed for his ability . " Mason sponsored a non @-@ exportation measure ; it was passed by a large majority , though it had to be repealed later in the session to coordinate with one passed by Maryland . Despite pressure from many delegates , Mason refused to consider election as a delegate to the Continental Congress in place of Washington when the latter became commanding general of the Continental Army , but could not avoid election to the Committee of Safety , a powerful group that took over many functions in the governmental vacuum . When Mason proffered his resignation from this committee , it was refused . = = = Declaration of Rights = = = Illness forced Mason to absent himself from the Committee of Safety for several weeks in 1775 , and he did not attend the fourth convention , held in December 1775 and January 1776 . With independence from Britain widely accepted as necessary among prominent Virginians , the fifth convention , to meet in May 1776 at Williamsburg , would need to decide how Virginia would be administered henceforth , as the royal government was dead in all but name . Accordingly , the convention was seen as so important that Richard Henry Lee arranged for his temporary recall from Congress to be a part of the convention , and Jefferson tried but failed to arrange to leave Congress as well . Other notables elected to the convention were Henry , George Wythe , and a young delegate from Orange County , James Madison . Mason was elected for Fairfax County , though with great difficulty . That convention , in May 1776 , unanimously instructed Jefferson and other Virginia delegates to Congress to seek " a clear and full Declaration of Independency " . At the same time , the convention resolved to pass a declaration of rights . Due to ill @-@ health , Mason did not arrive until May 18 , 1776 , after the vote , but was appointed to a committee led by Archibald Cary , which was to compose a declaration of rights and constitution . Mason was skeptical that the thirty @-@ person Cary Committee could collectively compose anything worthwhile , but was surprised at how quickly it moved — though his membership had a role in that speed . On May 24 , convention president Edmund Pendleton wrote to Jefferson about the committee 's deliberations , " as Colo . [ nel ] Mason seems to have the ascendancy in the great work , I have Sanguine hopes it will be framed so as to Answer it 's [ sic ] end , Prosperity to the Community and Security to Individuals " . Mason , working in a room at the Raleigh Tavern , drafted a declaration of rights and plan of government , likely to prevent frivolous plans with no chance of adoption from being put forward . Edmund Randolph later recalled that Mason 's draft " swallowed up all the rest " . The Virginia Declaration of Rights and the 1776 Constitution of Virginia were joint works , but Mason was the main author . Mason likely worked closely with Thomas Ludwell Lee ; the earliest surviving draft shows the first ten articles in Mason 's handwriting , with the other two written by Lee . The draft for the Declaration of Rights drew on Magna Carta , the English Petition of Right of 1628 , and that nation 's 1689 Bill of Rights . Mason 's first article would be paraphrased by Jefferson soon after in drafting the American Declaration of Independence . From the first article , cataloguing the rights of man , Mason derived the following articles , which make clear that the role of government is to secure and protect those rights , and if it fails to do so , the people have a right to amend or abolish it . Property could not be taken for public use without the owner 's consent , and a citizen could only be bound by a law accepted by that person or by elected representatives . If accused , a person had the right to a speedy and local trial , based on an accusation made known to him , with the right to call for evidence and witnesses in his favor . When the convention began to debate the declaration , it quickly bogged down on the first sentence of Article 1 , which conservatives feared would imply that slaves were their masters ' equals . This was resolved by the convention adding the words " when they enter into a state of society " , thus excluding slaves . Mason spoke repeatedly in the five days of debate , using oratory one hearer described as " neither flowing nor smooth , but his language was strong , his manner most impressive , and strengthened by a bit of biting cynicism when provocation made it seasonable " . The Declaration of Rights was passed by the convention on June 12 , 1776 . In later years , there was a flurry of contradictory statements from convention members ( including Mason ) about who composed which articles . Randolph credited Henry with Articles 15 and 16 , but the latter ( dealing with religious freedom ) , was written by Madison . Mason had imitated English law in drafting language requiring toleration of those of minority religions , but Madison insisted on full religious liberty , and Mason supported Madison 's amendment once made . The committee draft , likely for the most part written by Mason , received wide publicity ( the final version much less so ) and Mason 's words " all men are born equally free and independent " were later reproduced in state constitutions from Pennsylvania to Montana ; Jefferson tweaked the prose and included the sentiments in the Declaration of Independence . In 1778 , Mason wrote that the Declaration of Rights " was closely imitated by the other United States " . This was true , as seven of the original states , and Vermont , joined Virginia in promulgating a bill of rights . Four in addition specified rights that were protected , within the body of their constitutions . Feelings were so strong in Massachusetts that voters there in 1778 rejected a constitution drafted by a convention , insisting that a bill of rights had to come first . = = = Virginia constitution = = = Even before the convention approved the Declaration of Rights , Mason was busy at work on a constitution for Virginia . He was not the only one occupying himself so ; Jefferson sent several versions from Philadelphia , one of which supplied the eventual constitution 's preamble . Essex County 's Meriwether Smith may have prepared a draft , but the text is unknown . As an original writing in Mason 's hand is not known , the extent to which the final draft was written by him is uncertain . Nevertheless , William Fleming on June 22 , 1776 , sent Jefferson a copy of the draft before the Cary Committee , telling him " the inclosed [ sic ] printed plan was drawn by Colo . G. Mason and by him laid before the committee " . Mason had submitted his plan sometime between June 8 and 10 , 1776 . It named the new state the " Commonwealth of Virginia " , a name chosen pointedly by Mason to indicate that power stemmed from the people . The constitution provided for a popularly @-@ elected House of Delegates , chosen annually by men who owned or leased property , or who had fathered three or more Virginians . Most governmental power resided in the House of Delegates — the governor could not even veto a bill , and could only act as head of the state militia on the advice of his Council of State , whose members were elected by the legislature . The draft was considered by the committee , and it issued a report on June 24 , at which time Jefferson 's preamble and several amendments authored by him were included — George Wythe , who advocated for Jefferson 's draft before the committee , found discussion far enough advanced that members were only willing to yield to Jefferson on a few points . The entire convention considered the document between June 26 and 28 , and it was signed on the 29th . Richard Henry Lee wrote the day prior to the constitution 's passage by unanimous vote , " I have had the pleasure to see our new plan of Government go on well . This day will put a finishing hand to it . ' Tis very much of the democratic kind . " When the convention chose Patrick Henry as Virginia 's first post @-@ independence governor , Mason led the committee of notables sent to inform Henry of his election . There was criticism of the constitution — Edmund Randolph later wrote that the document 's faults indicated that even such a great mind as Mason 's was not immune from " oversights and negligences " : it did not have an amending process , and granted two delegates to each county regardless of population . The 1776 constitution remained in force until 1830 , when another convention replaced it . According to Henry C. Riely in his journal article on Mason , " The Virginia Constitution of 1776 , whatever may have been the question raised long afterwards as to the contribution of other great leaders , stands , on the authority of Jefferson , Madison , and Randolph — to mention only the highest authority — as his creation . " = = Wartime legislator = = Mason devoted much effort , during the American Revolutionary War , to safeguarding Fairfax County and the rivers of Virginia , since the British several times raided areas along the Potomac . Control of the rivers and of Chesapeake Bay was urgent as Virginians tried to obtain hard currency by trading tobacco to the French and other European nations . The export of tobacco , generally via the West Indies , allowed Mason and others to obtain , via France and Holland , British @-@ made items such as cloth , clothing patterns , medicines , and hardware . Mason served as a member of the House of Delegates from 1776 to 1781 , his longest continuous political service outside Fairfax County , which he represented in Richmond . The other Fairfax County seat turned over several times — Washington 's stepson Jackie Custis was elected late in the war — but Mason remained the county 's choice throughout . Nevertheless , Mason 's health often caused him to miss meetings of the legislature , or to arrive days or weeks late . Mason in 1777 was assigned to a committee to revise Virginia 's laws , with the expectation that he would take on the criminal code and land law . Mason served a few months on the committee before resigning on the ground he was not a lawyer ; most of the work fell to Jefferson ( returned from Philadelphia ) , Pendleton , and Wythe . Due to illness caused by a botched smallpox inoculation , Mason was forced to miss part of the legislature 's spring 1777 session ; in his absence delegates on May 22 elected him to the Continental Congress . Mason , who may have been angry that Lee had not been chosen , refused on the ground that he was needed at home , and did not feel he could resign from the General Assembly without permission from his constituents . Lee was elected in his place . This did not end the desire of Virginians to send Mason to the Continental Congress . In 1779 , Lee resigned from Congress , expressing the hope that Mason , Wythe , or Jefferson would replace him in Philadelphia . General Washington was frustrated at the reluctance of many talented men to serve in Congress , writing to Benjamin Harrison that the states " should compel their ablest men to attend Congress ... Where is Mason , Wythe , Jefferson , Nicholas , Pendleton , Nelson ? " The general wrote to Mason directly , Where are our men of abilities ? Why do they not come forth to serve their Country ? Let this voice my dear Sir call upon you — Jefferson & others — do not from a mistaken opinion that we are about to set down under our own Vine and our own fig tree let our heretofore noble struggle end in ignomy . In spite of Washington 's pleas , Mason remained in Virginia , plagued by illness and heavily occupied , both on the Committee of Safety and elsewhere in defending the Fairfax County area . Most of the legislation Mason introduced in the House of Delegates was war related , often aimed at raising the men or money needed by Congress for Washington 's Continental Army . The new federal and state governments , short on cash , issued paper money . By 1777 , the value of Virginia 's paper money had dropped precipitously , and Mason developed a plan to redeem the notes with a tax on real estate . Due to illness , Mason was three weeks late in arriving at Richmond , to the frustration of Washington , who had faith in Mason 's knowledge of financial affairs . The general wrote to Custis , " It is	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
much to be wished that a remedy could be applied to the depreciation of our Currency ... I know of no person better qualified to do this than Colonel Mason " . Mason retained his interest in western affairs , hoping in vain to salvage the Ohio Company 's land grant . He , with Jefferson , were among the few delegates to be told of George Rogers Clark 's expedition to secure control of the lands north of the Ohio River . Mason and Jefferson secured legislation authorizing Governor Henry to defend against unspecified western enemies . The expedition was generally successful , and Mason received a report directly from Clark . Mason sought to remove differences between Virginia and other states , and although he felt the settlement of the boundary dispute with Pennsylvania , the Mason @-@ Dixon line ( not named for George Mason ) was unfavorable to Virginia , in 1780 he voted for it enthusiastically . Also in 1780 , Mason remarried , to Sarah Brent , from a nearby plantation , who had never been married and was 52 years old . It was a marriage of convenience , with the new bride able to take some of the burden of parenting Mason 's many children off his hands . = = Peace ( 1781 – 1786 ) = = By the signing of the 1783 Treaty of Paris , life along the Potomac had returned to normal . Among the visits between the elite that returned with peace was one by Madison to Gunston Hall in December 1783 , while returning from Congress in Philadelphia . The 1781 Articles of Confederation had tied the states in a loose bond , and Madison sought a sounder federal structure , seeking the proper balance between federal and state rights . He found Mason willing to consider a federal tax ; Madison had feared the subject might offend his host , and wrote to Jefferson of the evening 's conversation . The same month , Mason spent Christmas at Mount Vernon ( the only larger estate than his in Fairfax County ) . A fellow houseguest described Mason as " slight in figure , but not tall , and has a grand head and clear gray eyes " . Mason retained his political influence in Virginia , writing Patrick Henry , who had been elected to the House of Delegates , a letter filled with advice as that body 's 1783 session opened . Mason scuttled efforts to elect him to the House of Delegates in 1784 , writing that sending him to Richmond would be " an oppressive and unjust invasion of my personal liberty " . His refusal disappointed Jefferson , who had hoped that the likelihood that the legislature would consider land legislation would attract Mason to Richmond . The legislature nevertheless appointed Mason a commissioner to negotiate with Maryland over navigation of the Potomac . Mason spent much time on this issue , and reached agreement with Maryland delegates at the meeting in March 1785 known as the Mount Vernon Conference . Although the meeting at Washington 's home came later to be seen as a first step towards the 1787 Constitutional Convention , Mason saw it simply as efforts by two states to resolve differences between them . Mason was appointed to the Annapolis Convention of 1786 , at which representatives of all the states were welcome , but like most delegates did not attend . The sparsely @-@ attended Annapolis meeting called for a conference to consider amendments to the Articles of Confederation . To deter smuggling , Madison proposed a bill to make Norfolk the state 's only legal port of entry . Five other ports , including Alexandria , were eventually added , but the Port Act proved unpopular despite the support of Washington . Mason , an opponent of the act , accepted election to the House of Delegates in 1786 , and many believed his influence would prove decisive for the repeal effort . Due to illness , Mason did not come to Richmond during the initial session , though he sent a petition , as a private citizen , to the legislature . The Port Act survived , though additional harbors were added as legal entry points . = = Constitutional convention ( 1787 ) = = = = = Building a constitution = = = Although the Annapolis Convention saw only about a dozen delegates attend , representing only five states , it called for a meeting to be held in Philadelphia in May 1787 , to devise amendments to the Articles of Confederation which would result in a more durable constitutional arrangement . Accordingly , in December 1786 , the Virginia General Assembly elected seven men as the commonwealth 's delegation : Washington , Mason , Henry , Randolph , Madison , Wythe , and John Blair . Henry declined appointment , and his place was given to Dr. James McClurg . Randolph , who had just been elected governor , sent three notifications of election to Mason , who accepted without any quibbles . The roads were difficult because of spring flooding , and Mason was the last Virginia delegate to arrive , on May 17 , three days after the convention 's scheduled opening . But it was not until May 25 that the convention formally opened , with the arrival of at least one delegate from ten of the twelve states which sent representatives ( Rhode Island sent no one ) . The journey to Philadelphia was Mason 's first beyond Virginia and Maryland . According to Josephine T. Pacheco in her article about Mason 's role at Philadelphia , " since Virginia 's leaders regarded [ Mason ] as a wise , trustworthy man , it is not surprising that they chose him as a member of the Virginia delegation , though they must have been surprised when he accepted the appointment " . Broadwater suggested that Mason went to Philadelphia because he knew the federal congress needed additional power , and because he felt that body could act as a check on the powers of state legislatures . As the Virginians waited for the other delegates to arrive , they met each day and formulated what became known as the Virginia Plan . They also did some sightseeing , and were presented to Pennsylvania 's president , Benjamin Franklin . Within a week of arrival , Mason was bored with the social events to which the delegates were invited , " I begin to grow tired of the etiquette and nonsense so fashionable in this city " . Going into the convention , Mason wanted to see a more powerful central government than under the Articles , but not one that would threaten local interests . He feared the more numerous Northern states would dominate the union , and would impose restrictions on trade that would harm Virginia , so he sought a supermajority requirement for navigation acts As was his constant objective , he sought to preserve the liberty he and other free white males enjoyed in Virginia , guarding against the tyranny he and others had decried under British rule . He also sought a balance of powers , seeking thereby to make a durable government ; according to historian Brent Tarter , " Mason designed his home [ Gunston Hall ] so that no misplaced window or missing support might spoil the effect or threaten to bring down the roof ; he tried to design institutions of government in the same way , so that wicked or unprincipled men could not knock loose any safeguards of liberty " . Mason had hope , coming into the convention , that it would yield a result that he felt would strengthen the United States . Impressed by the quality of the delegates , Mason expected sound thinking from them , something he did not think he had often encountered in his political career . Still , he felt that the " hopes of all the Union centre [ sic ] in this Convention " , and wrote to his son George , " the revolt from Great Britain & the Formations of our new Government at that time , were nothing compared with the great Business now before us . " Mason knew few of the delegates who were not from Virginia or Maryland , but his reputation preceded him . Once delegates representing sufficient states had arrived in Philadelphia by late May , the convention held closed sessions at the Pennsylvania State House ( today , Independence Hall ) . Washington was elected the convention 's president by unanimous vote , and his tremendous personal prestige as the victorious war general helped legitimize the convention , but also caused him to abstain from debate . Mason had no such need to remain silent , and only four or five delegates spoke as frequently as he did . Though he ended up not signing the constitution , according to Broadwater , Mason won as many convention debates as he lost . In the early days of the convention , Mason supported much of the Virginia Plan , which was introduced by Randolph on May 29 . This plan would have a popularly @-@ elected lower house which would choose the members of the upper house from lists provided by the states . Most of the delegates had found the weak government under the Articles insufficient , and Randolph proposed that the new federal government should be supreme over the states . Mason agreed that the federal government should be more powerful than the states . The Virginia Plan , if implemented , would base representation in both houses of the federal legislature on population . This was unsatisfactory to the smaller states . Delaware 's delegates had been instructed to seek an equal vote for each state , and this became the New Jersey Plan , introduced by that state 's governor , William Paterson . The divisions in the convention became apparent in late June , when by a narrow vote , the convention voted that representation in the lower house be based on population , but the motion of Connecticut 's Oliver Ellsworth for each state to have an equal vote in the upper house failed on a tie . With the convention deadlocked , on July 2 , 1787 , a Grand Committee was formed , with one member from each state , to seek a way out . Mason had not taken as strong a position on the legislature as had Madison , and he was appointed to the committee ; Mason and Benjamin Franklin were the most prominent members . The committee met over the convention 's July 4 recess , and proposed what became known as the Great Compromise : a House of Representatives based on population , in which money bills must originate , and a Senate with equal representation for each state . Records do not survive of Mason 's participation in that committee , but the clause requiring money bills to start in the House most likely came from him or was the price of his support , as he had inserted such a clause in the Virginia Constitution , and he defended that clause once convention debate resumed . According to Madison 's notes , Mason urged the convention to adopt the compromise : However liable the Report [ of the Grand Committee ] might be to objections , he thought it preferable to an appeal to the world by the different sides , as had been talked of by some Gentlemen . It could not be more inconvenient to any gentleman to remain absent from his private affairs , than it was for him : but he would bury his bones in this city rather than expose his Country to the Consequences of a dissolution of the Convention without any thing being done . = = = Road to dissent = = = By mid @-@ July , as delegates began to move past the stalemate to a framework built upon the Great Compromise , Mason had considerable influence in the convention . North Carolina 's William Blount was unhappy that those from his state " were in Sentiment with Virginia who seemed to take the lead . Madison at their Head tho Randolph and Mason also great " . Mason had failed to carry his proposals that senators must own property and not be in debt to the United States , but successfully argued that the minimum age for service in Congress should be 25 , telling the convention that men younger than that were too immature . Mason was the first to propose that the national seat of government not be in a state capital lest the local legislature be too influential , voted against proposals to base representation on a state 's wealth or taxes paid , and supported regular reapportionment of the House of Representatives . On August 6 , 1787 , the convention received a tentative draft written by a Committee of Detail chaired by South Carolina 's John Rutledge ; Randolph had represented Virginia . The draft was acceptable to Mason as a basis for discussion , containing such points important to him as the requirement that money bills originate in the House and not be amendable in the Senate . Nevertheless , Mason felt the upper house was too powerful , as it had the powers to make treaties , appoint Supreme Court justices , and adjudicate territorial disputes between the states . The draft lacked provision for a council of revision , something Mason and others considered a serious lack . The convention spent several weeks in August in debating the powers of Congress . Although Mason was successful in some of his proposals , such as placing the state militias under federal regulation , and a ban on Congress passing an export tax , he lost on some that he deemed crucial . These losses included the convention deciding to allow importation of slaves to continue to at least 1800 ( later amended to 1808 ) and to allow a simple majority to pass navigation acts that might require Virginians to export their tobacco in American @-@ flagged ships , when it might be cheaper to use foreign @-@ flagged vessels . The convention also weakened the requirement that money bills begin in the House and not be subject to amendment in the Senate , eventually striking the latter clause after debate that stretched fitfully over weeks . Despite these defeats , Mason continued to work constructively to build a constitution , serving on another grand committee that considered customs duties and ports . On August 31 , 1787 , Massachusetts ' Elbridge Gerry spoke against the document as a whole , as did Luther Martin of Maryland . When Gerry moved to postpone consideration of the final document , Mason seconded him , stating , according to Madison , that " he would sooner chop off his right hand than put it to the Constitution as it now stands " Still , Mason did not rule out signing it , saying that he wanted to see how certain matters still before the convention were settled before deciding a final position , whether to sign or ask for a second convention . As the final touches were made to the constitution , Mason and Gerry held meetings in the evening to discuss strategy , bringing in delegates representing states from Connecticut to Georgia . Mason 's misgivings about the constitution were increased on September 12 , when Gerry proposed and Mason seconded that there be a committee appointed to write a bill of rights , to be part of the text of the constitution . Connecticut 's Roger Sherman noted that the state bills of rights would remain in force , to which Mason responded , " the Laws of the United States are to be paramount [ supreme ] to State Bills of Rights . " Although Massachusetts abstained in deference to Gerry , the Virginians showed no desire to conciliate Mason in their votes , as the motion failed with no states in favor and ten opposed . Also on September 12 , the Committee on Style , charged with making a polished final draft of the document , reported , and Mason began to list objections on his copy . On the 15th , as the convention continued a clause @-@ by @-@ clause consideration of the draft , Mason , Randolph and Gerry stated they would not sign the constitution . On the 17th , members of the twelve delegations then present in Philadelphia signed the constitution , except for the three men who had stated they would not . As the document was sent to the Articles of Confederation 's Congress in New York , Mason sent a copy of his objections to Richard Henry Lee , a member of the Congress . = = Ratification battle = = Broadwater noted , " given the difficulty of the task he had set for himself , his stubborn independence , and his lack , by 1787 , of any concern for his own political future , it is not surprising that he left Philadelphia at odds with the great majority of his fellow delegates " . Madison recorded that Mason , believing that the convention had given his proposals short shrift in a hurry to complete its work , began his journey back to Virginia " in an exceeding ill humor " . Mason biographer Helen Hill Miller noted that before Mason returned to Gunston Hall , he was injured in body as well as spirit , due to an accident on the road . Word of Mason 's opposition stance had reached Fairfax County even before the convention ended ; most local sentiment was in favor of the document . Washington made a statement urging ratification , but otherwise remained silent , knowing he would almost certainly be the first president . Mason sent Washington a copy of his objections , but the general believed that the only choice was ratification or disaster . The constitution was to be ratified by state conventions , with nine approvals necessary for it to come into force . In practice , opposition by large states such as New York or Virginia would make it hard for the new government to function . Mason remained a member of the House of Delegates , and in late October 1787 , the legislature called a convention for June 1788 ; in language crafted by John Marshall , it decreed that the Virginia Ratifying Convention would be allowed " free and ample discussion " . Mason was less influential in his final session in the House of Delegates because of his strong opposition to ratification , and his age ( 61 ) may also have caused him to be less effective . As smaller states ratified the constitution in late 1787 and early 1788 , there was an immense quantity of pamphlets and other written matter for and against approval . Most prominent in support were the pamphlets later collected as The Federalist , written by Madison and two New Yorkers , Alexander Hamilton and John Jay ; Mason 's objections were widely cited by opponents . Mason had begun his Objections to this Constitution of Government in Philadelphia ; in October 1787 , it was published , though without his permission . Madison complained that Mason had gone beyond the reasons for opposing he had stated in convention , but Broadwater suggested the major difference was one of tone , since the written work dismissed as useless the constitution and the proposed federal government . Nevertheless , both Lee and Mason believed that if proper amendments were made , the constitution would be a fine instrument of governance . The Objections were widely cited in opposition to ratification , and Mason was criticized for placing his own name on it , at a time when political tracts were signed , if at all , with pen names such as Junius , so that the author 's reputation would not influence the debate . Despite this , Mason 's Objections were among the most influential Anti @-@ Federalist works , and its opening line , " There is no Declaration of Rights " , likely their most effective slogan . Virginians were reluctant to believe that greatly respected figures such as Washington and Franklin would be complicit in setting up a tyrannical system . There were broad attacks on Mason ; the New Haven Gazette suggested that he had not done much for his country during the war , in marked contrast to Washington . Oliver Ellsworth blamed the Virginia opposition on the Lee family , who had long had tensions with the Washington family , and on " the madness of Mason " . Tarter , in his American National Biography article on Mason , wrote that " the rigidity of [ Mason 's ] views and his increasingly belligerent personality produced an intolerance and intemperance in his behavior that surprised and angered Madison , with whom he had worked closely at the beginning of the convention , and Washington , who privately condemned Mason 's actions during the ratification struggle . " Mason faced difficulties in being elected to the ratifying convention from Fairfax County , since most freeholders there were Federalist , and he was at odds with many in Alexandria over local politics . The statute governing elections to the convention in Richmond allowed him to seek election elsewhere , and he campaigned for a seat from Stafford County , assuring electors that he did not seek disunion , but rather reform . He spoke against the unamended constitution in strong terms ; George Nicholas , a Federalist friend of Mason , believed that Mason felt he could lead Virginia to gain concessions from the other states , and that he was embittered by the continuing attacks on him . On March 10 , 1788 , Mason finished first in the polls in Stafford County , winning one of its two seats ; he apparently was the only person elected for a constituency in which he did not live . Voter turnout was low , as many in remote areas without newspapers knew little about the constitution . The Federalists were believed to have a slight advantage in elected delegates ; Mason thought that the convention would be unlikely to ratify the document without demanding amendments . By the time the Richmond convention opened , Randolph had abandoned the Anti @-@ Federalist cause , which damaged efforts by Mason and Henry to co @-@ ordinate with their counterparts in New York . Mason moved that the convention consider the document clause by clause , which may have played into the hands of the Federalists , who feared what the outcome of an immediate vote might be , and who had more able leadership in Richmond , including Marshall and Madison . Nevertheless , Broadwater suggested that as most delegates had declared their views before the election , Mason 's motion made little difference . Henry , far more a foe of a strong federal government than was Mason , took the lead for his side in the debate . Mason spoke several times in the discussion , on topics ranging from the pardon power ( which he predicted the president would use corruptly ) to the federal judiciary , which he warned would lead to suits in the federal courts by citizens against states where they did not live . John Marshall , a future Chief Justice of the United States , downplayed the concern regarding the judiciary , but Mason would later be proved correct in the case of Chisholm v. Georgia ( 1793 ) , which led to the passage of the Eleventh Amendment . The federalists initially did not have a majority , with the balance held by undeclared delegates , mainly from western Virginia ( today 's Kentucky ) . The Anti @-@ Federalists suffered repeated blows during the convention due to the defection of Randolph and as news came other states had ratified . Mason led a group of Anti @-@ Federalists which drafted amendments : even the Federalists were open to supporting them , though the constitution 's supporters wanted the document drafted in Philadelphia ratified first . After some of the Kentuckians had declared for ratification , the convention considered a resolution to withhold ratification pending the approval of a declaration of rights . Supported by Mason but opposed by Madison , Light @-@ Horse Harry Lee , Marshall , Nicholas , Randolph and Bushrod Washington , the resolution failed , 88 — 80 . Mason then voted in the minority as Virginia ratified the constitution on June 25 , 1788 by a vote of 89 – 79 . Following the ratification vote , Mason served on a committee chaired by George Wythe , charged with compiling a final list of recommended amendments , and Mason 's draft was adopted , but for a few editorial changes . Unreconciled to the result , Mason prepared a fiery written argument , but some felt the tone too harsh and Mason agreed not to publish it . = = Final years = = Defeated at Richmond , Mason returned to Gunston Hall , where he devoted himself to family and local affairs , though still keeping up a vigorous correspondence with political leaders . He resigned from the Fairfax County Court after an act passed by the new Congress required officeholders to take an oath to support the constitution , and in 1790 declined a seat in the Senate which had been left vacant by William Grayson 's death , stating that his health would not permit him to serve , even if he had no other objection . The seat went to James Monroe , who had supported Mason 's Anti @-@ Federalist stance , and who had , in 1789 , lost to Madison for a seat in the House of Representatives . Judging by his correspondence , Mason softened his stance towards the new federal government , telling Monroe that the constitution " wisely & Properly directs " that ambassadors be confirmed by the Senate . Although Mason predicted that the amendments to be proposed to the states by the First Congress would be " Milk & Water Propositions " , he displayed " much Satisfaction " at what became the Bill of Rights ( ratified in 1791 ) and wrote that if his concerns about the federal courts and other matters were addressed , " I could cheerfully put my Hand & Heart to the new Government " . Washington , who was in 1789 elected the first president , resented Mason 's strong stances against the ratification of the constitution , and these differences destroyed their friendship . Although some sources accept that Mason dined at Mount Vernon on November 2 , 1788 , Peter R. Henriques noted that Washington 's diary states that Mr. George Mason was the guest , and as Washington , elsewhere in his diary , always referred to his former colleague at Philadelphia as Colonel Mason , the visitor was likely George Mason V , the son . Mason always wrote positively of Washington , and the president said nothing publicly , but in a letter referred to Mason as a " quondam friend " who would not recant his position on the constitution because " pride on the one hand , and want of manly candour on the other , will not I am certain let him acknowledge error in his opinions respecting it [ the federal government ] though conviction should flash on his mind as strongly as a ray of light " . Rutland suggested that the two men were alike in their intolerance of opponents and suspicion of their motives . Mason had long battled against Alexandria merchants who he felt unfairly dominated the county court , if only because they could more easily get to the courthouse . In 1789 , he drafted legislation to move the courthouse to the center of the county , though it did not pass in his lifetime . In 1798 , the legislature passed an authorizing act , and the courthouse opened in 1801 . Most of those at Gunston Hall , both family and slaves , fell ill during the summer of 1792 , experiencing chills and fever ; when those subsided , Mason caught a chest cold . When Jefferson visited Gunston Hall on October 1 , 1792 , he found Mason , long a martyr to gout , needing a crutch to walk , though still sound in mind and memory . Additional ailments , possibly pneumonia , set in . Less than a week after Jefferson 's visit , on October 7 , George Mason died at Gunston Hall , and was subsequently buried on the estate , within sight of the house he had built and of the Potomac River . Although Mason 's death attracted little notice , aside from a few mentions in local newspapers , Jefferson mourned " a great loss " . Another future president , Monroe , stated that Mason 's " patriotic virtues thro [ ugh ] the revolution will ever be remembered by the citizens of this country " . = = Views on slavery = = Mason owned many slaves . In Fairfax County , only George Washington owned more , and Mason is not known to have freed any even in his will , in which his slaves were divided among his children . The childless Washington , in his will , ordered his slaves be freed after his wife 's death , and Jefferson manumitted a few slaves , mostly of the Hemings family . According to Broadwater , " In all likelihood , Mason believed , or convinced himself , that he had no options . Mason would have done nothing that might have compromised the financial futures of his nine children . " Peter Wallenstein , in his article about how writers have interpreted Mason , argued that he could have freed some slaves without harming his children 's future , if he had wanted to . Mason 's biographers and interpreters have long differed about how to present his views on slavery @-@ related issues . A two @-@ volume biography ( 1892 ) by Kate Mason Rowland , who Broadwater noted was " a sympathetic white southerner writing during the heyday of Jim Crow " denied that Mason ( her ancestor ) was " an abolitionist in the modern sense of the term " . She noted that Mason " regretted " that there was slavery and was against the slave trade , but wanted slavery protected in the constitution . In 1919 , Robert C. Mason published a biography of his prominent ancestor and asserted that George Mason " agreed to free his own slaves and was the first known abolitionist " , refusing to sign the constitution , among other reasons because " as it stood then it did not abolish slavery or make preparation for its gradual extinction " . Rutland , writing in 1961 , asserted that in Mason 's final days , " only the coalition [ between New England and the Deep South at the Constitutional Convention ] in Philadelphia that had bargained away any hope of eliminating slavery left a residue of disgust . " Catherine Drinker Bowen , in her widely read 1966 account of the Constitutional Convention , Miracle at Philadelphia , contended that Mason believed slaves to be citizens and was " a fervent abolitionist before the word was coined " . Others took a more nuanced view . Copland and MacMaster deemed Mason 's views similar to other Virginians of his class : " Mason 's experience with slave labor made him hate slavery but his heavy investment in slave property made it difficult for him to divest himself of a system that he despised " . According to Wallenstein , " whatever his occasional rhetoric , George Mason was — if one must choose — proslavery , not antislavery . He acted in behalf of Virginia slaveholders , not Virginia slaves " . Broadwater noted , " Mason consistently voiced his disapproval of slavery . His 1787 attack on slavery echoes a similar speech to the Virginia Convention of 1776 . His conduct was another matter . " According to Wallenstein , historians and other writers " have had great difficulty coming to grips with Mason in his historical context , and they have jumbled the story in related ways , misleading each other and following each other 's errors " . Some of this is due to conflation of Mason 's views on slavery with that of his desire to ban the African slave trade , which he unquestionably opposed and fought against . His record otherwise is mixed : Virginia banned the importation of slaves from abroad in 1778 , while Mason was in the House of Delegates . In 1782 , after he had returned to Gunston Hall , it enacted legislation that allowed manumission of adult slaves young enough to support themselves ( not older than 45 ) , but a proposal , supported by Mason , to require freed slaves to leave Virginia within a year or be sold at auction , was defeated . Broadwater asserted , " Mason must have shared the fears of Jefferson and countless other whites that whites and free blacks could not live together " . The contradiction between wanting protection for slave property , while opposing the slave trade , was pointed out by delegates to the Richmond convention such as George Nicholas , a supporter of ratification . Mason stated of slavery , " it is far from being a desirable property . But it will involve us in great difficulties and infelicity to be now deprived of them . " = = Sites and remembrance = = There are sites remembering George Mason in Fairfax County . Gunston Hall , donated to the Commonwealth of Virginia by its last private owner , is now " dedicated to the study of George Mason , his home and garden , and life in 18th @-@ century Virginia " . George Mason University , with its main campus adjacent to the city of Fairfax , was formerly George Mason College of the University of Virginia from 1959 until it received its present name in 1972 . A major landmark on the Fairfax campus is a statue of George Mason by Wendy M. Ross , depicted as he presents his first draft of the Virginia Declaration of Rights . The George Mason Memorial Bridge , part of the 14th Street Bridge , connects Northern Virginia to Washington , D.C. The George Mason Memorial in West Potomac Park in Washington , also with a statue by Ross , was dedicated on April 9 , 2002 . Mason was honored in 1981 by the United States Postal Service with an 18 @-@ cent Great Americans series postage stamp . A bas @-@ relief of Mason appears in the Chamber of the U.S. House of Representatives as one of 23 honoring great lawmakers . Mason 's image is located above and to the right of the Speaker 's chair ; he and Jefferson are the only Americans recognized . = = Legacy and historical view = = According to Miller , " The succession of New World constitutions of which Virginia 's , with Mason as its chief architect , was the first , declared the source of political authority to be the people ... in addition to making clear what a government was entitled to do , most of them were prefaced by a list of individual rights of the citizens ... rights whose maintenance was government 's primary reason for being . Mason wrote the first of these lists . " Diane D. Pikcunas , in her article prepared for the bicentennial of the U.S. Bill of Rights , wrote that Mason " made the declaration of rights as his personal crusade " . Tarter deemed Mason " celebrated as a champion of constitutional order and one of the fathers of the Bill of Rights " . Justice Sandra Day O 'Connor agreed , " George Mason 's greatest contribution to present day Constitutional law was his influence on our Bill of Rights " . Mason 's legacy extended overseas , doing so even in his lifetime , and though he never visited Europe , his ideals did . Lafayette 's " Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen " was written in the early days of the French Revolution under the influence of Jefferson , the U.S. Minister to France . According to historian R.R. Palmer , " there was in fact a remarkable parallel between the French Declaration and the Virginia Declaration of 1776 " . Another scholar , Richard Morris , concurred , deeming the resemblance between the two texts " too close to be coincidental " : " the Virginia statesman George Mason might well have instituted an action of plagiarism " . Donald J. Senese , in the conclusion to the collection of essays on Mason published in 1989 , noted that several factors contributed to Mason 's obscurity in the century after his death . Older than many who served at Philadelphia and came into prominence with the new federal government , Mason died soon after the constitution came into force and displayed no ambition for federal office , declining a seat in the Senate . Mason left no extensive paper trail , no autobiography like Franklin , no diary like Washington or John Adams . Washington left papers collected into 100 volumes ; for Mason , with many documents lost to fire , there are only three . Mason fought on the side that failed , both at Philadelphia and Richmond , leaving him a loser in a history written by winners — even his speeches to the Constitutional Convention descend through the pen of Madison , a supporter of ratification . After the Richmond convention , he was , according to Senese , " a prophet without honor in his own country " . The increased scrutiny of Mason which has accompanied his rise from obscurity has meant , according to Tarter , that " his role in the creation of some of the most important texts of American liberty is not as clear as it seems " . Rutland suggested that Mason showed only " belated concern over the personal rights of citizens " . Focusing on Mason 's dissent from the constitution , Miller pointed to the intersectional bargain struck over navigation acts and the slave trade , " Mason lost on both counts , and the double defeat was reflected in his attitude thereafter . " Wallenstein concluded , " the personal and economic interests of Mason 's home state took precedence over a bill of rights " . Whatever his motivations , Mason proved a forceful advocate for a bill of rights whose Objections helped accomplish his aims . Rutland noted that " from the opening phrase of his Objections to the Bill of Rights that James Madison offered in Congress two years later , the line is so direct that we can say that Mason forced Madison 's hand . Federalist supporters of the Constitution could not overcome the protest caused by Mason 's phrase ' There is no declaration of rights ' . " O 'Connor wrote that though " Mason lost his battle against ratification ... [ but ] his ideals and political activities have significantly influenced our constitutional jurisprudence . " Wallenstein felt that there is much to be learned from Mason : A provincial slaveholding tobacco planter took his turn as a revolutionary . In tune with some of the leading intellectual currents of the Western world , he played a central role in drafting a declaration of rights and the 1776 Virginia state constitution . For his own reasons , he fought against ratifying the handiwork of the 1787 Philadelphia convention ... Two centuries later , perhaps we can come to terms with his legacy — with how far we have come , how much we have gained , whether because of him or despite him , and , too , with how much we may have lost . Surely there is much of Mason that we cherish , wish to keep , and can readily celebrate . = Wilson 's disease = Wilson 's disease , also called Wilson disease or hepatolenticular degeneration , is an autosomal recessive genetic disorder in which copper accumulates in tissues ; this manifests as neurological or psychiatric symptoms and liver disease . It is treated with medication that reduces copper absorption or removes the excess copper from the body , but occasionally a liver transplant is required . The condition is due to mutations in the Wilson disease protein ( ATP7B ) gene . A single abnormal copy of the gene is present in 1 in 100 people , who do not develop any symptoms ( they are carriers ) . If a child inherits the gene from both parents , the child may develop Wilson 's disease . Symptoms usually appear between the ages of 6 and 20 years , but cases in much older people have been described . Wilson 's disease occurs in 1 to 4 per 100 @,@ 000 people . It is named after Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson ( 1878 – 1937 ) , the British neurologist who first described the condition in 1912 . = = Signs and symptoms = = The main sites of copper accumulation are the liver and the brain , and consequently liver disease and neuropsychiatric symptoms are the main features that lead to diagnosis . People with liver problems tend to come to medical attention earlier , generally as children or teenagers , than those with neurological and psychiatric symptoms , who tend to be in their twenties or older . Some are identified only because relatives have been diagnosed with Wilson 's disease ; many of these , when tested , turn out to have been experiencing symptoms of the condition but have not received a diagnosis . = = = Liver disease = = = Liver disease may present itself as tiredness , increased bleeding tendency or confusion ( due to hepatic encephalopathy ) and portal hypertension . The latter , a condition in which the pressure in the portal vein is markedly increased , leads to esophageal varices , blood vessels in the esophagus that may bleed in a life @-@ threatening fashion , as well as enlargement of the spleen ( splenomegaly ) and accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity ( ascites ) . On examination , signs of chronic liver disease such as spider angiomata ( small distended blood vessels , usually on the chest ) may be observed . Chronic active hepatitis has caused cirrhosis of the liver in most by the time they develop symptoms . While most people with cirrhosis have an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma ( liver cancer ) , this risk is relatively very low in Wilson 's disease . About 5 % of all people are diagnosed only when they develop fulminant acute liver failure , often in the context of a hemolytic anemia ( anemia due to the destruction of red blood cells ) . This leads to abnormalities in protein production ( identified by deranged coagulation ) and metabolism by the liver . The deranged protein metabolism leads to the accumulation of waste products such as ammonia in the bloodstream . When these irritate the brain , the person develops hepatic encephalopathy ( confusion , coma , seizures and finally life @-@ threatening swelling of the brain ) . = = = Neuropsychiatric symptoms = = = About half the people with Wilson 's disease have neurological or psychiatric symptoms . Most initially have mild cognitive deterioration and clumsiness , as well as changes in behavior . Specific neurological symptoms usually then follow , often in the form of parkinsonism ( cogwheel rigidity , bradykinesia or slowed movements and a lack of balance are the most common parkinsonian features ) with or without a typical hand tremor , masked facial expressions , slurred speech , ataxia ( lack of coordination ) or dystonia ( twisting and repetitive movements of part of the body ) . Seizures and migraine appear to be more common in Wilson 's disease . A characteristic tremor described as " wing @-@ beating tremor " is encountered in many people with Wilson 's ; this is absent at rest but can be provoked by extending the arms . Cognition can also be affected in Wilson 's disease . This comes in two , not mutually exclusive , categories : frontal lobe disorder ( may present as impulsivity , impaired judgement , promiscuity , apathy and executive dysfunction with poor planning and decision making ) and subcortical dementia ( may present as slow thinking , memory loss and executive dysfunction , without signs of aphasia , apraxia or agnosia ) . It is suggested that these cognitive involvements are related and closely linked to psychiatric manifestations of the disease . Psychiatric problems due to Wilson 's disease may include behavioral changes , depression , anxiety and psychosis . Psychiatric symptoms are commonly seen in conjunction with neurological symptoms and are rarely manifested on their own . These symptoms are often poorly defined and can sometimes be attributed to other causes . Because of this , diagnosis of Wilson 's disease is rarely made when only psychiatric symptoms are present . = = = Other organ systems = = = Medical conditions have been linked with copper accumulation in Wilson 's disease : Eyes : Kayser – Fleischer rings ( KF rings ) , a pathognomonic sign , may be visible in the cornea of the eyes , either directly or on slit lamp examination as deposits of copper in a ring around the cornea . They are due to copper deposition in Descemet 's membrane . They do not occur in all people with Wilson 's disease . Wilson 's disease is also associated with sunflower cataracts exhibited by brown or green pigmentation of the anterior and posterior lens capsule . Neither cause significant visual loss . KF rings occur in approximately 66 % of diagnosed cases ( more often in those with neurological symptoms rather than with liver problems ) . Kidneys : renal tubular acidosis ( Type 2 ) , a disorder of bicarbonate handling by the proximal tubules leads to nephrocalcinosis ( calcium accumulation in the kidneys ) , a weakening of bones ( due to calcium and phosphate loss ) , and occasionally aminoaciduria ( loss of essential amino acids needed for protein synthesis ) . Heart : cardiomyopathy ( weakness of the heart muscle ) is a rare but recognized problem in Wilson 's disease ; it may lead to heart failure ( fluid accumulation due to decreased pump function ) and cardiac arrhythmias ( episodes of irregular and / or abnormally fast or slow heart beat ) . Hormones : hypoparathyroidism ( failure of the parathyroid glands leading to low calcium levels ) , infertility , and habitual abortion . = = Genetics = = The Wilson 's disease gene ( ATP7B ) has been mapped to chromosome 13 ( 13q14.3 ) and is expressed primarily in the liver , kidney , and placenta . The gene codes for a P @-@ type ( cation transport enzyme ) ATPase that transports copper into bile and incorporates it into ceruloplasmin . Mutations can be detected in 90 % . Most ( 60 % ) are homozygous for ATP7B mutations ( two abnormal copies ) , and 30 % have only one abnormal copy . Ten percent have no detectable mutation . Although 300 mutations of ATP7B have been described , in most populations the cases of Wilson 's disease are due to a small number of mutations specific for that population . For instance , in Western populations the H1069Q mutation ( replacement of a histidine by a glutamine at position 1069 in the protein ) is present in 37 – 63 % of cases , while in China this mutation is very uncommon and R778L ( arginine to leucine at 778 ) is found more often . Relatively little is known about the relative impact of various mutations , although the H1069Q mutation seems to predict later onset and predominantly neurological problems , according to some studies . A normal variation in the PRNP gene can modify the course of the disease by delaying the age of onset and affecting the type of symptoms that develop . This gene produces prion protein , which is active in the brain and other tissues and also appears to be involved in transporting copper . A role for the ApoE gene was initially suspected but could not be confirmed . The condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern . In order to inherit it , both of the parents of an individual must carry an affected gene . Most have no family history of the condition . People with only one abnormal gene are called carriers ( heterozygotes ) and may have mild , but medically insignificant , abnormalities of copper metabolism . Wilson 's disease is the most common of a group of hereditary diseases that cause copper overload in the liver . All can cause cirrhosis at a young age . The other members of the group are Indian childhood cirrhosis ( ICC ) , endemic Tyrolean infantile cirrhosis and idiopathic copper toxicosis . These are not related to ATP7B mutations : for example , ICC has been linked to mutations in the KRT8 and the KRT18 gene . = = Pathophysiology = = Copper is needed by the body for a number of functions , predominantly as a cofactor for a number of enzymes such as ceruloplasmin , cytochrome c oxidase , dopamine β @-@ hydroxylase , superoxide dismutase and tyrosinase . Copper enters the body through the digestive tract . A transporter protein on the cells of the small bowel , copper membrane transporter 1 ( CMT1 ; SLC31A1 ) , carries copper inside the cells , where some is bound to metallothionein and part is carried by ATOX1 to an organelle known as the trans @-@ Golgi network . Here , in response to rising concentrations of copper , an enzyme called ATP7A releases copper into the portal vein to the liver . Liver cells also carry the CMT1 protein , and metallothionein and ATOX1 bind it inside the cell , but here it is ATP7B that links copper to ceruloplasmin and releases it into the bloodstream , as well as removing excess copper by secreting it into bile . Both functions of ATP7B are impaired in Wilson 's disease . Copper accumulates in the liver tissue ; ceruloplasmin is still secreted , but in a form that lacks copper ( termed apoceruloplasmin ) and is rapidly degraded in the bloodstream . When the amount of copper in the liver overwhelms the proteins that normally bind it , it causes oxidative damage through a process known as Fenton chemistry ; this damage eventually leads to chronic active hepatitis , fibrosis ( deposition of connective tissue ) and cirrhosis . The liver also releases copper into the bloodstream that is not bound to ceruloplasmin . This free copper precipitates throughout the body but particularly in the kidneys , eyes and brain . In the brain , most copper is deposited in the basal ganglia , particularly in the putamen and globus pallidus ( together called the lenticular nucleus ) ; these areas normally participate in the coordination of movement as well as playing a significant role in neurocognitive processes such as the processing of stimuli and mood regulation . Damage to these areas , again by Fenton chemistry , produces the neuropsychiatric symptoms seen in Wilson 's disease . It is not clear why Wilson 's disease causes hemolysis , but various lines of evidence suggest that a high level of free ( non @-@ ceruloplasmin bound ) copper has a direct effect on either oxidation of hemoglobin , inhibition of energy @-@ supplying enzymes in the red blood cell , or direct damage to the cell membrane . = = Diagnosis = = Wilson 's disease may be suspected on the basis of any of the symptoms mentioned above , or when a close relative has been found to have Wilson 's . Most have slightly abnormal liver function tests such as a raised aspartate transaminase , alanine transaminase and bilirubin level . If the liver damage is significant , albumin may be decreased due to an inability of damaged liver cells to produce this protein ; likewise , the prothrombin time ( a test of coagulation ) may be prolonged as the liver is unable to produce proteins known as clotting factors . Alkaline phosphatase levels are relatively low in those with Wilson 's @-@ related acute liver failure . If there are neurological symptoms , magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) of the brain is usually performed ; this shows hyperintensities in the part of the brain called the basal ganglia in the T2 setting . MRI may also demonstrate the characteristic " face of the giant panda " pattern . There is no totally reliable test for Wilson 's disease , but levels of ceruloplasmin and copper in the blood , as well of the amount of copper excreted in urine during a 24 @-@ hour period , are together used to form an impression of the amount of copper in the body . The gold standard — or most ideal test — is a liver biopsy . = = = Ceruloplasmin = = = Levels of ceruloplasmin are abnormally low ( < 0 @.@ 2 g / L ) in 80 – 95 % of cases . It can , however , be present at normal levels in people with ongoing inflammation as it is an acute phase protein . Low ceruloplasmin is also found in Menkes disease and aceruloplasminemia , which are related to , but much rarer than Wilson 's disease . The combination of neurological symptoms , Kayser – Fleischer rings and a low ceruloplasmin level is considered sufficient for the diagnosis of Wilson 's disease . In many cases , however , further tests are needed . = = = Serum and urine copper = = = Serum copper is low , which may seem paradoxical given that Wilson 's disease is a disease of copper excess . However , 95 % of plasma copper is carried by cerulopasmin which is often low in Wilson 's disease . Urine copper is elevated in Wilson 's disease and is collected for 24 hours in a bottle with a copper @-@ free liner . Levels above 100 μg / 24h ( 1 @.@ 6 μmol / 24h ) confirm Wilson 's disease , and levels above 40 μg / 24h ( 0 @.@ 6 μmol / 24h ) are strongly indicative . High urine copper levels are not unique to Wilson 's disease ; they are sometimes observed in autoimmune hepatitis and in cholestasis ( any disease obstructing the flow of bile from the liver to the small bowel ) . In children , the penicillamine test may be used . A 500 mg oral dose of penicillamine is administered , and urine collected for 24 hours . If this contains more than 1600 μg ( 25 μmol ) , it is a reliable indicator of Wilson 's disease . This test has not been validated in adults . = = = Liver biopsy = = = Once other investigations have indicated Wilson 's disease , the ideal test is the removal of a small amount of liver tissue through a liver biopsy . This is assessed microscopically for the degree of steatosis and cirrhosis , and histochemistry and quantification of copper are used to measure the severity of the copper accumulation . A level of 250 μg of copper per gram of dried liver tissue confirms Wilson 's disease . Occasionally , lower levels of copper are found ; in that case , the combination of the biopsy findings with all other tests could still lead to a formal diagnosis of Wilson 's . In the earlier stages of the disease , the biopsy typically shows steatosis ( deposition of fatty material ) , increased glycogen in the nucleus , and areas of necrosis ( cell death ) . In more advanced disease , the changes observed are quite similar to those seen in autoimmune hepatitis , such as infiltration by inflammatory cells , piecemeal necrosis and fibrosis ( scar tissue ) . In advanced disease , finally , cirrhosis is the main finding . In acute liver failure , degeneration of the liver cells and collapse of the liver tissue architecture is seen , typically on a background of cirrhotic changes . Histochemical methods for detecting copper are inconsistent and unreliable , and taken alone are regarded as insufficient to establish a diagnosis . = = = Genetic testing = = = Mutation analysis of the ATP7B gene , as well as other genes linked to copper accumulation in the liver , may be performed . Once a mutation is confirmed , it is possible to screen family members for the disease as part of clinical genetics family counseling . Regional distributions of genes associated with Wilson 's disease are important to follow , as this can help clinicians design appropriate screening strategies . Since mutations of the WD gene vary between populations , research and genetic testing done in countries like the USA or United Kingdom can pose problems as they tend to have more mixed populations . = = Treatment = = = = = Dietary = = = In general , a diet low in copper @-@ containing foods is recommended with the avoidance of mushrooms , nuts , chocolate , dried fruit , liver , and shellfish . = = = Medication = = = Medical treatments are available for Wilson 's disease . Some increase the removal of copper from the body , while others prevent the absorption of copper from the diet . Generally , penicillamine is the first treatment used . This binds copper ( chelation ) and leads to excretion of copper in the urine . Hence , monitoring of the amount of copper in the urine can be done to ensure a sufficiently high dose is taken . Penicillamine is not without problems : about 20 % experience a side effect or complication of penicillamine treatment , such as drug @-@ induced lupus ( causing joint pains and a skin rash ) or myasthenia ( a nerve condition leading to muscle weakness ) . In those who presented with neurological symptoms , almost half experience a paradoxical worsening in their symptoms . While this phenomenon is observed in other treatments for Wilson 's , it is usually taken as an indication for discontinuing penicillamine and commencing second @-@ line treatment . Those intolerant to penicillamine may instead be commenced on trientine hydrochloride , which also has chelating properties . Some recommend trientine as first @-@ line treatment , but experience with penicillamine is more extensive . A further agent , under clinical investigation by Wilson Therapeutics , with known activity in Wilson 's disease is tetrathiomolybdate . This is regarded as experimental , though some studies have shown a beneficial effect . Once all results have returned to normal , zinc ( usually in the form of a zinc acetate prescription called Galzin ) may be used instead of chelators to maintain stable copper levels in the body . Zinc stimulates metallothionein , a protein in gut cells that binds copper and prevents their absorption and transport to the liver . Zinc therapy is continued unless symptoms recur or if the urinary excretion of copper increases . In rare cases where none of the oral treatments are effective , especially in severe neurological disease , dimercaprol ( British anti @-@ Lewisite ) is occasionally necessary . This treatment is injected intramuscularly ( into a muscle ) every few weeks and has unpleasant side effects such as pain . People who are asymptomatic ( for instance , those diagnosed through family screening or only as a result of abnormal test results ) are generally treated , as the copper accumulation may cause long @-@ term damage in the future . It is unclear whether these people are best treated with penicillamine or zinc acetate . = = = Physical and occupational therapies = = = Physiotherapy and occupational therapy are beneficial for patients with the neurologic form of the disease . The copper chelating treatment may take up to six months to start working , and these therapies can assist in coping with ataxia , dystonia , and tremors , as well as preventing the development of contractures that can result from dystonia . = = = Transplantation = = = Liver transplantation is an effective cure for Wilson 's disease but is used only in particular scenarios because of the risks and complications associated with the procedure . It is used mainly in people with fulminant liver failure who fail to respond to medical treatment or in those with advanced chronic liver disease . Liver transplantation is avoided in severe neuropsychiatric illness , in which its benefit has not been demonstrated . = = Prognosis = = Left untreated , Wilson 's disease tends to become progressively worse and is eventually fatal . With early detection and treatment , most of those affected can live relatively normal lives . Liver and neurologic damage that occurs prior to treatment may improve , but it is often permanent . = = History = = The disease bears the name of the British physician Samuel Alexander Kinnier Wilson ( 1878 – 1937 ) , a neurologist who described the condition , including the pathological changes in the brain and liver , in 1912 . Wilson 's work had been predated by , and drew on , reports from German neurologist Carl Westphal ( in 1883 ) , who termed it " pseudosclerosis " ; by the British neurologist William Gowers ( in 1888 ) ; and by Adolph Strümpell ( in 1898 ) , who noted hepatic cirrhosis . Neuropathologist John Nathaniel Cumings made the link with copper accumulation in both the liver and the brain in 1948 . The occurrence of hemolysis was noted in 1967 . Cumings , and simultaneously the New Zealand neurologist Derek Denny @-@ Brown , working in the United States , first reported effective treatment with metal chelator British anti @-@ Lewisite in 1951 . This treatment had to be injected but was one of the first therapies available in the field of neurology , a field that classically was able to observe and diagnose but had few treatments to offer . The first effective oral chelation agent , penicillamine , was discovered in 1956 by British neurologist John Walshe . In 1982 , Walshe also introduced trientine , and was the first to develop tetrathiomolybdate for clinical use . Zinc acetate therapy initially made its appearance in the Netherlands , where physicians Schouwink and Hoogenraad used it in 1961 and in the 1970s , respectively , but it was further developed later by Brewer and colleagues at the University of Michigan . The genetic basis of Wilson 's disease and linkage to ATP7B mutations was elucidated in the 1980s and 1990s by several research groups . = = Other animals = = Hereditary copper accumulation has been described in Bedlington Terriers , where it generally only affects the liver . It is due to mutations in the COMMD1 ( or MURR1 ) gene . In non @-@ Wilsonian copper accumulation states ( such as Indian childhood cirrhosis ) , no COMMD1 mutations could be detected to explain their genetic origin . = Pather Panchali = Pather Panchali ( [ pɔt ̪ ʰer pãtʃali ] , English : Song of the Little Road ) is a 1955 Indian Bengali @-@ language drama film directed by Satyajit Ray and produced by the Government of West Bengal . It is based on Bibhutibhushan Bandyopadhyay 's 1929 Bengali novel of the same name and is Ray 's directorial debut . It features Subir Banerjee , Kanu Banerjee , Karuna Banerjee , Uma Dasgupta and Chunibala Devi . The first film in the Apu trilogy , Pather Panchali depicts the childhood of the protagonist Apu ( Subir Banerjee ) and his elder sister Durga ( Uma Dasgupta ) and the harsh village life of their poor family . Production was interrupted because of funding problems and it took nearly three years for the film to be completed . The film was shot mainly on location , had a limited budget , featured mostly amateur actors , and was made by an inexperienced crew . The sitar player Ravi Shankar composed the film 's soundtrack and score using classical Indian ragas . Subrata Mitra was in charge of the cinematography while editing was handled by Dulal Dutta . Following its premiere on 3 May 1955 during an exhibition at New York 's Museum of Modern Art , Pather Panchali was released in Calcutta later the same year to an enthusiastic reception . A special screening was attended by the Chief Minister of West Bengal and the Prime Minister of India . Critics have praised its realism , humanity , and soul @-@ stirring quality while others have called its slow pace a drawback , and some have condemned it for romanticising poverty . Scholars have commented on the film 's lyrical quality and realism ( influenced by Italian neorealism ) , its portrayal of the poverty and small delights of daily life , and the use of what the author Darius Cooper has termed the " epiphany of wonder " , among other themes . The tale of Apu 's life is continued in the two subsequent installments of Ray 's Apu trilogy : Aparajito ( The Unvanquished , 1956 ) and Apur Sansar ( The World of Apu , 1959 ) . Pather Panchali is described as a turning point in Indian cinema , as it was among the films that pioneered the Parallel Cinema movement , which espoused authenticity and social realism . The first film from independent India to attract major international critical attention , it won India 's National Film Award for Best Feature Film in 1955 , the Best Human Document award at the 1956 Cannes Film Festival , and several other awards , establishing Ray as one of the country 's most distinguished filmmakers . It is often featured in lists of the greatest films ever made . = = Plot = = Harihar Roy ( Kanu Banerjee ) earns a meagre living as a pujari ( priest ) in Nischindipur , rural Bengal , and dreams of a better career as a poet and playwright . His wife Sarbajaya ( Karuna Banerjee ) takes care of their children , Durga ( Uma Dasgupta ) and Apu ( Subir Banerjee ) , and Harihar 's elderly cousin , Indir Thakrun ( Chunibala Devi ) . Because of their limited resources , Sarbajaya resents having to share her home with the old and helpless cripple Indir . At times , Sarbajaya 's taunts become offensive , forcing Indir to take temporary refuge in the home of another relative . Durga is fond of Indir and often gives her fruit she has stolen from a wealthy neighbour 's orchard . One day , the neighbour 's wife accuses Durga of stealing a bead necklace ( which Durga denies ) and blames Sarbajaya for encouraging her tendency to steal . As the elder sibling , Durga cares for Apu with motherly affection , but spares no opportunity to tease him . Together , they share the simple joys of life : sitting quietly under a tree , viewing pictures in a travelling vendor 's bioscope , running after the candy man who passes through the village , and watching a jatra ( folk theatre ) performed by a troupe of actors . Every evening they are delighted by the sound of a distant train 's whistle . One day , they run away from home to catch a glimpse of the train , only to discover Indir lying dead on their return . Unable to earn a good living in the village , Harihar travels to the city to seek a better job . He promises Sarbajaya that he will return with money to repair their dilapidated house . During his absence , the family sinks deeper into poverty . Sarbajaya grows increasingly lonely and bitter . One day during the monsoon season , Durga plays in the downpour for too long , catches a cold and develops a high fever . Adequate medical care being unavailable , the fever becomes worse , and on a night of incessant rain and gusty winds , she dies . Harihar returns home and starts to show Sarbajaya the merchandise he has brought from the city . Sarbajaya , who remains silent , breaks down at the feet of her husband , and Harihar cries out in grief as he discovers that he has lost his daughter . The family decide to leave their ancestral home . As they start packing , Apu finds the necklace that Durga had earlier denied having stolen ; he throws it into a pond . Apu and his parents leave the village on an ox @-@ cart . = = Cast = = Kanu Banerjee as Harihar Roy Karuna Banerjee as Sarbajaya Roy Subir Banerjee as Apurba Roy ( Apu ) Runki Banerjee as Durga Roy ( child ) Uma Dasgupta as Durga Roy ( teenager ) Chunibala Devi as Indir Thakrun , the old aunt Tulsi Chakraborty as Prasanna , school teacher = = Production = = = = = Novel and title = = = Bibhutibhushan Bandopadhyay 's novel Pather Panchali is a classic bildungsroman ( a type of coming @-@ of @-@ age story ) in the canon of Bengali literature . It first appeared as a serial in a Calcutta periodical in 1928 , and was published as a book the next year . The novel depicts a poor family 's struggle to survive in their rural ancestral home and the growing up of Apu , the son of the family . The later part of the novel , where Apu and his parents leave their village and settle in Benaras , formed the basis of Aparajito ( The Unvanquished , 1956 ) , the second film of the Apu trilogy . Satyajit Ray , working as a graphic designer for Signet Press , created the illustrations for a new abridged edition of the book in 1944 . At that time , Ray read the unabridged novel ; Signet 's owner D. K. Gupta told Ray that the abridged version would make a great film . The idea appealed to Ray , and around 1946 – 47 , when he considered making a film , he turned to Pather Panchali because of certain qualities that " made it a great book : its humanism , its lyricism , and its ring of truth " . The author 's widow permitted Ray to make a film based on the novel ; the agreement was in principle only , and no financial arrangement was made . The Bengali word path literally means path , and pather means " of the path " . The word panchali refers to a type of narrative folk song that used to be performed in Bengal and was the forerunner of another type of folk performance , the jatra . English translations of the Bengali title include Song of the Little Road , The Lament of the Path , Song of the Road , and Song of the Open Road . = = = Script = = = Pather Panchali did not have a script ; it was made from Ray 's drawings and notes . Ray completed the first draft of the notes during his sea voyage to and from London in 1950 . Before principal photography began , he created a storyboard dealing with details and continuity . Years later , he donated those drawings and notes to Cinémathèque Française . In Apur Panchali ( the Bengali translation of My Years with Apu : A Memoir , 1994 ) , Ray wrote that he had omitted many of the novel 's characters and that he had rearranged some of its sequences to make the narrative better as cinema . Changes include Indir 's death , which occurs early in the novel at a village shrine in the presence of adults , while in the film Apu and Durga find her corpse in the open . The scene of Apu and Durga running to catch a glimpse of the train is not in the novel , in which neither child sees the train , although they try . Durga 's fatal fever is attributed to a monsoon downpour in the film , but is unexplained in the novel . The ending of the film — the family 's departure from the village — is not the end of the novel . Ray tried to extract a simple theme from the random sequences of significant and trivial episodes of the Pather Panchali novel , while preserving what W. Andrew Robinson describes as the " loitering impression " it creates . According to Ray , " the script had to retain some of the rambling quality of the novel because that in itself contained a clue to the feel of authenticity : life in a poor Bengali village does ramble . " For Robinson , Ray 's adaptation focuses mainly on Apu and his family , while Bandopadhyay 's original featured greater detail about village life in general . = = = Casting = = = Kanu Banerjee ( who plays Harihar ) was an established Bengali film actor . Karuna Banerjee ( Sarbajaya ) was an amateur actress from the Indian People 's Theatre Association , and the wife of Ray 's friend . Uma Dasgupta , who successfully auditioned for the part of Durga , also had prior theatre experience . For the role of Apu , Ray advertised in newspapers for boys of ages five to seven . None of the candidates who auditioned fulfilled Ray 's expectations , but his wife spotted a boy in their neighbourhood , and this boy , Subir Banerjee , was cast as Apu . ( The surname of three of the main actors happened to be Banerjee , but they were not related to each other ) . The hardest role to fill was the wizened old Indir . Ray eventually found Chunibala Devi , a retired stage actress living in one of Calcutta 's red @-@ light districts , as the ideal candidate . Several minor roles were played by the villagers of Boral , where Pather Panchali was filmed . = = = Filming = = = Shooting started on 27 October 1952 . Boral , a village near Calcutta , was selected in early 1953 as the main location for principal photography , and night scenes were shot in @-@ studio . The technical team included several first @-@ timers , including Ray himself and cinematographer Subrata Mitra , who had never operated a film camera . Art director Bansi Chandragupta had professional experience , having worked with Jean Renoir on The River . Both Mitra and Chandragupta went on to establish themselves as respected professionals . Mitra had met Ray on the set of The River , where Mitra was allowed to observe the production , take photographs and make notes about lighting for personal reference . Having become friends , Mitra kept Ray informed about the production and showed his photographs . Ray was impressed enough by them to promise him an assistant 's position on Pather Panchali , and when production neared , invited him to shoot the film . As the 21 @-@ year @-@ old Mitra had no prior filmmaking experience , the choice was met with scepticism by those who knew of the production . Mitra himself later speculated that Ray was nervous about working with an established crew . Funding was a problem from the outset . No producer was willing to finance the film , as it lacked stars , songs and action scenes . On learning of Ray 's plan , one producer , Mr Bhattacharya of Kalpana Movies , contacted Bandopadhyay 's widow to request the filming rights and get the film made by Debaki Bose , a well @-@ established director . The widow declined as she had already permitted Ray to make the film . The estimated budget for the production was ₹ 70 @,@ 000 ( about US $ 14 @,@ 613 in 1955 ) . One producer , Rana Dutta , gave money to continue shooting , but had to stop after some of his films flopped . Ray thus had to borrow money to shoot enough footage to persuade prospective producers to finance the whole film . To raise funds , he continued to work as a graphic designer , pawned his life insurance policy and sold his collection of gramophone records . Production manager Anil Chowdhury convinced Ray 's wife , Bijoya , to pawn her jewels . Ray still ran out of money partway through filming , which had to be suspended for nearly a year . Thereafter shooting was done only in intermittent bursts . Ray later admitted that the delays had made him tense and that three miracles saved the film : " One , Apu 's voice did not break . Two , Durga did not grow up . Three , Indir Thakrun did not die . " Bidhan Chandra Roy , the Chief Minister of West Bengal , was requested by an influential friend of Ray 's mother to help the production . The Chief Minister obliged , and government officials saw the footage . The Home Publicity Department of the West Bengal government assessed the cost of backing the film and sanctioned a loan , given in installments , allowing Ray to finish production . The government misunderstood the nature of the film , believing it to be a documentary for rural uplift , and recorded the loan as being for " roads improvement " , a reference to the film 's title . Monroe Wheeler , head of the department of exhibitions and publications at New York 's Museum of Modern Art ( MoMA ) , who was in Calcutta in 1954 , heard about the project and met Ray . He considered the incomplete footage to be of very high quality and encouraged Ray to finish the film so that it could be shown at a MoMA exhibition the following year . Six months later , American director John Huston visited India for some early location scouting for The Man Who Would Be King ( eventually made in 1975 ) . Wheeler had asked Huston to check the progress of Ray 's project . Huston saw excerpts of the unfinished film and recognised " the work of a great film @-@ maker " . Because of Huston 's positive feedback , MoMA helped Ray with additional money . Including the delays and hiatuses in production , it took three years to complete the shooting of Pather Panchali . = = Influences = = The realist narrative style of Pather Panchali was influenced by Italian neorealism and the works of French director Jean Renoir . In 1949 Renoir came to Calcutta to shoot his film The River ( 1951 ) . Ray , a founding member of the Calcutta Film Society ( established in 1947 ) , helped him scout for locations in the countryside . When Ray told him about his longstanding wish to film Pather Panchali , Renoir encouraged him to proceed . In 1950 Ray was sent to London by his employer , the advertising agency D.J. Keymer , to work at their headquarters . During his six months in London , he watched about 100 films . Among these , Vittorio De Sica 's neorealist film Bicycle Thieves ( 1948 ) had a profound impact on him . In a 1982 lecture , Ray said that he had come out of the theatre determined to become a filmmaker . The film made him believe that it was possible to make realistic cinema that was shot on location with an amateur cast . The international success of Akira Kurosawa 's Rashomon ( 1950 ) and Bimal Roy 's 1953 film Do Bigha Zamin ( which was shot partly on location and was about a peasant family ) led Ray to believe that Pather Panchali would find an international audience . Ray also had more indigenous influences , such as Bengali literature and the native Indian theatrical tradition , particularly the rasa theory of classical Sanskrit drama . Darius Cooper describes the complicated doctrine of rasa as " center [ ed ] predominantly on feelings experienced not only by the characters but also conveyed in a certain artistic way to the spectator " . = = Soundtrack = = The soundtrack of the film was composed by the sitar player Ravi Shankar , who was at an early stage of his career , having debuted in 1939 . The background scores feature pieces based on several ragas of Indian classical music , played mostly on the sitar . The soundtrack , described in a 1995 issue of The Village Voice as " at once plaintive and exhilarating " , is featured in The Guardian 's 2007 list of 50 greatest film soundtracks . It has also been cited as an influence on The Beatles , specifically George Harrison . Shankar saw about half the film in a roughly edited version before composing the background score , but he was already familiar with the story . According to Robinson , when Ray met Shankar the latter hummed a tune that was folk @-@ based but had " a certain sophistication " . This tune , usually played on a bamboo flute , became the main theme for the film . The majority of the score was composed within the duration of a single night , in a session that lasted for about eleven hours . Shankar also composed two solo sitar pieces — one based on the raga Desh ( traditionally associated with rain ) , and one sombre piece based on the raga Todi . He created a piece based on the raga Patdeep , played on the tar shehnai , to accompany the scene in which Harihar learns of Durga 's death . The film 's cinematographer , Subrata Mitra , performed on the sitar for parts of the soundtrack . = = Release and reception = = Ray and his crew worked long hours on post @-@ production , managing to submit it just in time for Museum of Modern Art 's Textiles and Ornamental Arts of India exhibition of May 1955 . The film , billed as The Story of Apu and Durga , lacked subtitles . It was one of a series of six evening performances at MoMA , including the US debut of sarod player Ali Akbar Khan and the classical dancer Shanta Rao . Pather Panchali 's MoMA opening on 3 May was well received . Subsequently , the film had its domestic premiere at the annual meeting of the Advertising Club of Calcutta ; the response there was not positive , and Ray felt " extremely discouraged " . Before its theatrical release in Calcutta , Ray designed large posters , including a neon sign showing Apu and Durga running , which was strategically placed in a busy location in the city . Pather Panchali was released in a Calcutta cinema on 26 August 1955 and received a poor initial response . But because of word of mouth , the screenings started filling up within a week or two . It opened again at another cinema , where it ran for seven weeks . A delay in subtitling led to the postponement of the UK release until December 1957 . It went on to achieve great success in the US in 1958 , running for eight months at the Fifth Avenue Playhouse in New York . In India the film 's reception was enthusiastic . The Times of India wrote , " It is absurd to compare it with any other Indian cinema ... Pather Panchali is pure cinema " . Chief Minister Roy arranged a special screening in Calcutta for Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru , who came out of the theatre impressed . Despite opposition from some within the governments of West Bengal and India because of its depiction of poverty , Pather Panchali was sent to the 1956 Cannes Film Festival with Nehru 's personal approval . It was screened towards the end of the festival , coinciding with a party given by the Japanese delegation , and only a small number of critics attended . Although some were initially unenthusiastic at the prospect of yet another Indian melodrama , the film critic Arturo Lanocita found " the magic horse of poetry ... invading the screen " . Pather Panchali was subsequently named Best Human Document at the festival . Lindsay Anderson commented after the Cannes screening that Pather Panchali had " the quality of ultimate unforgettable experience " . In subsequent years , critics have given positive reviews . A 1958 review in Time described Pather Panchali as " perhaps the finest piece of filmed folklore since Robert Flaherty 's Nanook of the North " . In her 1982 book 5001 Nights at the Movies , Pauline Kael wrote , " Beautiful , sometimes funny , and full of love , it brought a new vision of India to the screen " . Basil Wright considered it " a new and incontrovertible work of art " . James Berardinelli wrote in 1996 that the film " touches the souls and minds of viewers , transcending cultural and linguistic barriers " . In 2006 Philip French of The Observer called it " one of the greatest pictures ever made " . Twenty years after the release of Pather Panchali , Akira Kurosawa summarised the effect of the film as overwhelming and lauded its ability " to stir up deep passions " . The reaction was not uniformly positive . On seeing the film , François Truffaut is reported to have said , " I don 't want to see a movie of peasants eating with their hands . " Bosley Crowther , the most influential critic of The New York Times , wrote in 1958 , " Any picture as loose in structure or as listless in tempo as this one is would barely pass as a ' rough cut ' with the editors in Hollywood " , even though he praised its gradually emerging poignancy and poetic quality . The Harvard Crimson argued in 1959 that its fragmentary nature " contributes to the film 's great weakness : its general diffuseness , its inability to command sustained attention . For Pather Panchali , remarkable as it may be , is something of a chore to sit through . " Early in 1980s , Ray was criticised by Nargis Dutt , parliamentarian and former actress , for " exporting poverty " . Darius Cooper writes that while many critics celebrated the Apu trilogy " as a eulogy of third @-@ world culture , others criticized it for what they took to be its romanticization of such a culture " . = = = 1990s restoration = = = In the 1990s , Merchant Ivory Productions , with assistance from the Academy Film Archive and Sony Pictures Classics , undertook a project to restore the prints . The restored prints , along with several other Ray films , were released in select US theatres . As of May 2016 , the film has a 97 % fresh rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on an aggregate of 39 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " A film that requires and rewards patience in equal measure , Pather Panchali finds director Satyajit Ray delivering a classic with his debut . " Pather Panchali is available in DVD in Region 2 ( DVD region code ) PAL and Region 1 NTSC formats . Artificial Eye Entertainment is the distributor of Region 2 while Columbia Tri @-@ Star is the distributor of Region 1 format . = = = 2015 restoration = = = In 2013 , the video distribution company The Criterion Collection , in collaboration with the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences ’ Film Archive , began the restoration of the original negatives of the Apu trilogy , including Pather Panchali . These negatives had been severely damaged by a fire in London in 1993 , and all film cans and fragments belonging to the Ray films were sent to the Motion Picture Academy for storage , where they lay unseen for two decades . It was discovered upon reexamination that , although many parts of the films were indeed destroyed by fire or the effects of age , other parts were salvageable . The materials were shipped to a restoration laboratory in Bologna , Italy : L ’ Immagine Ritrovata . Over a thousand hours of labor by hand were expended in restoring and scanning the negatives and , in the end , about 40 percent of the Pather Panchali negative was restored . ( For those parts of the negative that were missing or unusable , duplicate negatives and fine @-@ grain masters from various commercial or archival sources were used . ) The Criterion Collection ’ s own lab then spent six months creating the digital version of all three films , at times choosing to preserve the distinctive look of the films even at the cost of retaining some imperfections . On 4 May 2015 , the restored Pather Panchali premiered at the Museum of Modern Art , a little more than 60 years to the day after the film ’ s world premiere at the same venue . Several days later , all three films opened at New York ’ s Film Forum , where they were originally scheduled to run for three weeks . Because of overwhelming public demand – with one writer commenting that " audiences can ’ t seem to get enough " – the films were held over at that theater until June 30 . The trilogy was then sent to be exhibited in many other cities throughout the U.S. and Canada . The restoration work was widely acclaimed , with commentators calling the look of the restored films " gorgeous " , " pristine " and “ incredible ” . = = Themes = = In his 1958 New York Times review , Crowther writes that Pather Panchali delicately illustrates how " poverty does not always nullify love " and how even very poor people can enjoy the little pleasures of their world . Marie Seton describes how the film intersperses the depiction of poverty and the delights and pleasures of youth . She represents the bond between Durga and Indir , and their fate , as signifying a philosophical core : that both the young and the old die . Seton writes of the film 's " lyrical " qualities , noting especially the imagery immediately before the onset of monsoon . Robinson writes about a peculiar quality of " lyrical happiness " in the film , and states that Pather Panchali is " about unsophisticated people shot through with great sophistication , and without a trace of condescension or inflated sentiment " . Darius Cooper discusses the use of different rasa in the film , observing Apu 's repeated " epiphany of wonder " , brought about not only by what the boy sees around him , but also when he uses his imagination to create another world . For Cooper , the immersive experience of the film corresponds to this epiphany of wonder . Stephen Teo uses the scene in which Apu and Durga discover railway tracks as an example of the gradual build @-@ up of epiphany and the resulting immersive experience . Sharmishtha Gooptu discusses the idea that the idyllic village life portrayed in Pather Panchali represents authentic Bengali village life , which disappeared during the upheavals of Partition in 1947 . She suggests that the film seeks to connect an idealised , pre @-@ partition past with the actual present of partitioned Bengal , and that it uses prototypes of rural Bengal to construct an image of the ideal village . In contrast to this idealism , Mitali Pati and Suranjan Ganguly point out how Ray used eye @-@ level shots , natural lighting , long takes and other techniques to achieve realism . Mainak Biswas has written that Pather Panchali comes very close to the concept of Italian neorealism , as it has several passages with no dramatic development , even though the usual realities of life , such as the changing of seasons or the passing of a day , are concretely filmed . = = Accolades = = Pather Panchali has won many national and international awards . At India 's 3rd National Film Awards in 1955 , it was named Best Feature Film and Best Bengali Feature Film . The next year , it competed for the Palme d 'Or at Cannes , where it won Best Human Document and an OCIC Award – Special Mention . More awards from film festivals across the world followed : the Vatican Award ( Rome ) , the Golden Carbao ( Manila ) , and the Diploma of Merit ( Edinburgh ) in 1956 ; the Selznick Golden Laurel for Best Film ( Berlin ) , the Golden Gate for Best Director and Best Picture ( San Francisco ) in 1957 ; Best Film ( Vancouver ) , and the Critics ' Award for Best Film ( Stratford ) in 1958 . It also won several awards for best foreign @-@ language film : at the National Board of Review Awards 1958 ; at the Afro Arts Theater , New York , 1959 ; the Kinema Jumpo Award in Japan , 1966 ; and the Bodil Award in Denmark , 1969 . In 1958 it had been nominated for Best Film at the 11th British Academy Film Awards . Sight & Sound , the British Film Institute 's ( BFI ) magazine , has included Pather Panchali several times in its Critics ' Polls of the greatest @-@ ever films . In 1962 , it ranked 11th ; in 1992 , 6th ; and in 2002 , 22nd . The magazine ranked the film 42nd in its 2012 list of " Top 50 Greatest Films of All Time " . In 1998 , in a similar critics ' poll from Asian film magazine Cinemaya , Pather Panchali was ranked the second @-@ greatest film of all time . The Village Voice ranked the film at number 12 ( tied with The Godfather ) in its Top 250 " Best Films of the Century " list in 1999 , based on a poll of critics . Pather Panchali was included in various other all @-@ time lists , including Time Out 's " Centenary Top One Hundred Films " in 1995 , the San Francisco Chronicle " Hot 100 Films From the Past " in 1997 , the Rolling Stone " 100 Maverick Movies of the Last 100 Years " in 1999 , " The New York Times Guide to the Best 1 @,@ 000 Movies Ever Made " in 2002 , the BFI Top Fifty " Must See " Children 's Films in 2005 , and BFI 's " Top 10 Indian Films " of all time . It was included in NDTV 's list of " India 's 20 greatest films " , and in 2013 in CNN @-@ IBN 's list of " 100 greatest Indian films of all time " . The Apu trilogy as a whole was included in film critic Roger Ebert 's list of " 100 Great Movies " in 2001 and in Time 's All @-@ Time 100 best movies list in 2005 . = = Legacy = = Pather Panchali was followed by two films that continued the tale of Apu 's life — Aparajito ( The Unvanquished ) in 1956 and Apur Sansar ( The World of Apu ) in 1959 . Together , the three films constitute the Apu trilogy . Aparajito portrays the adolescent Apu , his education in a rural school and a Calcutta college . Its central theme is the poignant relationship between a doting mother and her ambitious young son . Apur Sansar depicts Apu 's adult life , his reaction to his wife 's premature death , and his final bonding with his son whom he abandoned as an infant . The sequels also won many national and international awards . Ray did not initially plan to make a trilogy : he decided to make the third film only after being asked about the possibility of a trilogy at the 1957 Venice Film Festival , where Aparajito won the Golden Lion . Apur Panchali ( 2014 ) is a Bengali film directed by Kaushik Ganguly , which depicts the real @-@ life story of Subir Bannerjee , the actor who portrayed Apu in Pather Panchali . Pather Panchali was the first film made in independent India to receive major critical attention internationally , placing India on the world cinema map . It was one of the first examples of Parallel Cinema , a new tradition of Indian film @-@ making in which authenticity and social realism were key themes , breaking the rule of the Indian film establishment . Although Pather Panchali was described as a turning point in Indian cinema , some commentators preferred the view that it refined a " realist textual principle " that was already there . In 1963 Time noted that thanks to Pather Panchali , Satyajit Ray was one of the " hardy little band of inspired pioneers " of a new cinematic movement that was enjoying a good number of imitators worldwide . The film has since been considered as a " global landmark " and " among the essential moviegoing experiences " . On 2 May 2013 , commemorating Ray 's birthday , the Indian version of the search engine Google displayed a doodle featuring the train sequence . After Pather Panchali , Ray went on to make 36 more films , including feature films , documentaries and shorts . He worked on scripting , casting , scoring , cinematography , art direction and editing , as well as designing his own credit titles and publicity material . He developed a distinctive style of film @-@ making based , as was the case with Pather Panchali , on visual lyricism and strongly humanistic themes . Thus , Ray established himself as an internationally recognized auteur of cinema . = = Explanatory notes = = = Iron Man 3 = Iron Man 3 ( stylized onscreen as Iron Man Three ) is a 2013 American superhero film featuring the Marvel Comics character Iron Man , produced by Marvel Studios and distributed by Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures.1 It is the sequel to 2008 's Iron Man and 2010 's Iron Man 2 , and the seventh film in the Marvel Cinematic Universe . Shane Black directed a screenplay he co @-@ wrote with Drew Pearce , which uses concepts from the " Extremis " story arc by Warren Ellis . The film stars Robert Downey Jr . , Gwyneth Paltrow , Don Cheadle , Guy Pearce , Rebecca Hall , Stephanie Szostak , James Badge Dale , Jon Favreau , and Ben Kingsley . In Iron Man 3 , Tony Stark deals with posttraumatic stress disorder caused by the events of The Avengers , while investigating the reemergence of the Ten Rings , led by the mysterious Mandarin and comes into a conflict with old enemy ; Aldrich Killian . After the release of Iron Man 2 in May 2010 , Favreau , who served as director , decided not to return , and in February 2011 Black was hired to write and direct the film . Black and Pearce opted to make the script more character @-@ centric and focused on thriller elements . Throughout April and May 2012 , the film 's supporting cast was filled out , with Kingsley , Pearce , and Hall brought in to portray key roles . Filming began on May 23 , and lasted through December 17 , 2012 , primarily at EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina . Additional shooting took place at various locations around North Carolina , as well as Florida , China , and Los Angeles . The visual effects were handled by 17 companies , including Scanline VFX , Digital Domain , and Weta Digital . The film was converted to 3D in post @-@ production . Iron Man 3 premiered at Le Grand Rex in Paris on April 14 , 2013 . It began its release on April 25 , 2013 , internationally , and debuted in the United States one week later on May 3 . The film received generally positive reviews and was commercially successful , grossing over $ 1 @.@ 2 billion worldwide , the second highest @-@ grossing film of 2013 overall , and the second @-@ highest @-@ grossing film at the domestic box office released in 2013 . It became the sixteenth film to gross over $ 1 billion and currently ranks as the 10th @-@ highest @-@ grossing film of all time , with its opening weekend ranked as the 12th @-@ highest @-@ grossing opening of all time . The film also received a nomination for Academy Award at the category of Best Visual Effects , and received another nomination for BAFTA Award at the same category . = = Plot = = Tony Stark recalls a New Years Eve party in 1999 where he meets scientist Maya Hansen , the inventor of Extremis , an experimental regenerative treatment intended to allow recovery from crippling injuries . Disabled scientist Aldrich Killian offers them a place in his company Advanced Idea Mechanics , but Stark rejects the offer , humiliating Killian . Years later , six months after the Battle of New York , Stark 's experiences during the alien invasion are giving him panic attacks . Restless , he has built several dozen Iron Man suits , creating friction with his girlfriend Pepper Potts . Meanwhile , a string of bombings by a terrorist known only as the Mandarin has left intelligence agencies bewildered by a lack of forensic evidence . Stark 's security chief Happy Hogan is badly injured in a Mandarin attack , causing Stark to issue a televised threat to the Mandarin , who responds by destroying Stark 's home with helicopter gunships . Hansen , who came to warn Stark , survives the attack along with Potts . Stark escapes in an Iron Man suit , which his artificial intelligence J.A.R.V.I.S. pilots to rural Tennessee , following a flight plan from Stark 's investigation into the Mandarin . Stark 's experimental armor lacks sufficient power to return to California , and the world believes him dead . Teaming with Harley , a precocious 10 @-@ year @-@ old boy , Stark investigates the remains of a local explosion bearing the hallmarks of a Mandarin attack . He discovers the " bombings " were triggered by soldiers subjected to Extremis , which at this stage of development caused certain subjects to explosively reject the treatment . After veterans started exploding , these explosions were falsely attributed to a terrorist plot in order to cover up Extremis 's flaws . Stark witnesses Extremis firsthand when Mandarin agents Brandt and Savin attack him . With Harley 's help , Stark traces the Mandarin to Miami and infiltrates his headquarters using improvised weapons . Inside he discovers the Mandarin is actually an English actor named Trevor Slattery , who says he is oblivious to the actions carried out in his image . Killian , who appropriated Hansen 's Extremis research as a cure for his own disability and expanded the program to include injured war veterans , reveals he is the real Mandarin , using Slattery as a cover . After capturing Stark , Killian shows him Potts ( whom he had kidnapped ) being subjected to Extremis , in order to gain Stark 's aid to fix Extremis 's flaws and thus save Potts . Killian kills Hansen when she has a change of heart and tries to stop him . Killian has manipulated American intelligence agencies regarding the Mandarin 's location , luring James Rhodes – the former War Machine , now re @-@ branded as the Iron Patriot – into a trap to steal the armor . Stark escapes and reunites with Rhodes , discovering that Killian intends to attack President Ellis aboard Air Force One . Stark saves some surviving passengers and crew but cannot stop Killian from abducting Ellis and destroying Air Force One . They trace Killian to an impounded damaged oil tanker where Killian intends to kill Ellis on live television . The vice president will become a puppet leader , following Killian 's orders in exchange for Extremis to cure his young daughter 's disability . On the platform , Stark goes to save Potts , as Rhodes saves the president . Stark summons his Iron Man suits , controlled remotely by J.A.R.V.I.S. , to provide air support . Rhodes secures the president and takes him to safety , while Stark discovers Potts has survived the Extremis procedure . However , before he can save her , a rig collapses around them and she falls to her apparent death . Stark confronts Killian and traps him in an Iron Man suit that self @-@ destructs , but fails to kill him . Potts , whose Extremis powers allowed her to survive her fall , intervenes and kills Killian . After the battle , Stark orders J.A.R.V.I.S. to remotely destroy each Iron Man suit as a sign of his devotion to Potts , while the vice president and Slattery are arrested . With Stark 's help , Potts ' Extremis effects are stabilized , and Stark undergoes surgery to remove the shrapnel embedded near his heart . He pitches his obsolete chest arc reactor into the sea , musing he will always be Iron Man . In a present day post @-@ credits scene , Stark wakes up Dr. Bruce Banner , who fell asleep listening to his story . = = Cast = = Robert Downey Jr. as Tony Stark / Iron Man : A self @-@ described genius , billionaire , playboy , and philanthropist with mechanical suits of armor of his own invention . Stark now struggles to come to terms with his near @-@ death experience in The Avengers , suffering from anxiety attacks . On making a third Iron Man film , Downey said , " My sense of it is that we need to leave it all on the field — whatever that means in the end . You can pick several different points of departure for that . " On following up The Avengers , Downey said they " tried to be practical , in a post @-@ Avengers world . What are his challenges now ? What are some limitations that might be placed on him ? And what sort of threat would have him , as usual , ignore those limitations ? " Screenwriter Drew Pearce compared Tony to an American James Bond for both being " heroes with a sense of danger to them , and unpredictability " even if Stark was a " free agent " instead of an authority figure like Bond . He also likened Tony to the protagonists of 1970s films such as The French Connection , where " the idiosyncrasies of the heroes is what made them exciting . " Gwyneth Paltrow as Virginia " Pepper " Potts : Stark 's girlfriend , longtime associate , and the current CEO of Stark Industries . Paltrow says of her character 's relationship to Tony , " [ She still ] adores Tony , but she absolutely gets fed up with him . He gets caught in a feedback loop . " Kevin Feige comments on Pepper 's role in the film : " The love triangle in this movie is really between Tony , Pepper and the suits . Tony , Pepper and his obsession with those suits , and the obsession with technology . " Feige also states that the film uses the character to play with the damsel in distress trope , and posits the question , " Is Pepper in danger or is Pepper the savior ? " Don Cheadle as Col. James " Rhodey " Rhodes / Iron Patriot : Stark 's best friend , the liaison between Stark Industries and the U.S. Air Force in the department of acquisitions . Rhodes operates the redesigned / upgraded War Machine armor , taking on an American flag @-@ inspired color scheme similar to the Iron Patriot armor from the comics . Feige said of Rhodes and the armor , " The notion in the movie is that a red , white and blue suit is a bold statement , and it 's meant to be . With Rhodey , he 's very much the foil to Tony 's eccentricities , and in this one you get to see this and be reminded of the trust and friendship between them in that great Shane Black buddy @-@ cop fashion . " In the film , the president asks Rhodey to take up the moniker " Iron Patriot , " and don the red , white , and blue suit , in order to be the government 's " American hero " in response to the events in The Avengers . Guy Pearce as Aldrich Killian : The creator of the Extremis virus and the founder and owner of the science and development organisation Advanced Idea Mechanics , who adopts the mantle of the Mandarin as his own . Killian develops Extremis to cure his own debilitating disability ; in addition to his regenerative healing qualities , he has superhuman strength and the ability to generate extreme heat . Prolonged exposure to Extremis also grants him the ability to breathe fire . On taking the role , Pearce said , " I feel a little more experimental in what I 'll take on these days , but I still don 't know that I would want to play the superhero myself , since I 'm playing a different kind of character in this film ... The main difference was that , when I did The Time Machine , I was pretty much in all of it , so it was a really grueling experience . Prometheus and Iron Man are really kind of cameo stuff , so the experience of shooting them ... I mean , on some level , it 's tricky because you feel like a bit of an outsider . You don 't really live the experience that you do when you 're there all day every day with everybody . But at the same time , it can be more fun sometimes because you 're just working in concentrated spurts . " Pearce described his character as a man " who came into this world with a number of physical disabilities . He 's never been able to accept those limitations though and has spent most of his life trying to overcome them in any way he can . His tenacity and blind determination in fighting for a better life are seen by some as irritating , as he often comes across as obnoxious . He just won 't accept the cards he was dealt , and being as intelligent as he is , has real drive to change and become a different person . " Shane Black specified , " Ultimately we do give you the Mandarin , the real guy , but it 's Guy Pearce in the end with the big dragon tattooed on his chest . " He elaborated , " Do they hand me a blank check and say , ' Go break something ! ' Or , ' Go violate some long @-@ standing comic book treaty that fans have supported for years ? ' No , but they 'll say : ' Let 's break something together . ' So it 's okay to come up with these crazy things , these far out ideas … and they 'll fly . It 's just that the Marvel guys have to be in the room . " Rebecca Hall as Maya Hansen : A geneticist whose work helped Killian to create Extremis . Hall said Hansen would be a " strong female character , " and described her decision to take the role , saying , " I decided to do Iron Man 3 because I 've never done the ' hurry up and wait ' movie before . Even the studio movies I 've done have been small studio movies , or indie films that we made on a wing and a prayer . I love those , but Iron Man is refreshing in a way because it 's something out of my realm of experiences . " Stéphanie Szostak as Brandt : A war veteran who becomes an assassin after her exposure to Extremis . Describing Brandt , Szostak says , " ... [ Extremis ] was a second chance at life . We talked about what you feel like and I think it almost makes you a fuller version of who you are , all your weakness and your qualities – just everything gets enhanced . I saw it as very freeing , almost you become your true @-@ self and your fantasy @-@ self all at once . " The writers originally envisioned Brandt as Killian 's main henchman , which would return throughout the movie to fight Tony , but eventually that role was reassigned to Eric Savin . James Badge Dale as Savin : Killian 's Extremis @-@ powered henchman . Dale stated that his character in the film was " loosely based on " the comic version of the character . According to Dale , " Ben Kingsley is the mouthpiece . Guy Pearce is the brain . I 'm the muscle . " Jon Favreau as Happy Hogan : Tony Stark 's former bodyguard and chauffeur , and now serves as Stark Industries head of security department . Favreau , who served as both actor and director on the previous two Iron Man films , said participating in the new film was " like [ being ] a proud grandfather who doesn 't have to change the diapers but gets to play with the baby . " Ben Kingsley as Trevor Slattery : A British actor with substance @-@ abuse problems whom Killian hired to portray the Mandarin , a terrorist persona in jammed television broadcasts , in which he is depicted as the leader of the international terrorist organization the Ten Rings . Kingsley was filming Ender 's Game when he was cast , and said that , " Quite soon I 'll be with everybody and we 'll be discussing the look and the feel and the direction of the character . It 's very early days yet , but I 'm so thrilled to be on board . " On his performance , Kingsley stated : " I wanted a voice that would disconcert a Western audience . I wanted a voice that would sound far more homegrown and familiar — a familiarity like a teacher 's voice or a preacher 's voice . The rhythms and tones of an earnest , almost benign , teacher — trying to educate people for their own good . " The Mandarin was initially set to appear in the first Iron Man film , but he was put off for a sequel as the filmmakers felt that he was " too ambitious for a first [ film ] . " On the character , Feige stated , " The Mandarin is [ Iron Man 's ] most famous foe in the comics mainly because he 's been around the longest . If you look , there 's not necessarily a definitive Mandarin storyline in the comics . So it was really about having an idea . " Shane Black explains that Ben Kingsley 's Mandarin is not Chinese in the film as he is in the comics in order to avoid the Fu Manchu stereotype : " We 're not saying he 's Chinese , we 're saying he , in fact , draws a cloak around him of Chinese symbols and dragons because it represents his obsessions with Sun Tzu in various ancient arts of warfare that he studied . " The filmmakers also cited Colonel Kurtz from Apocalypse Now as an influence for the character . The videos where the Mandarin give historical background to the attacks expressed how it emerged as the product of " a think tank of people trying to create a modern terrorist . " Thus the Mandarin " represents every terrorist in a way , " from South American insurgency tactics to the videos of Osama bin Laden . Paul Bettany reprises his role from previous films as J.A.R.V.I.S. , Stark 's AI system . Ty Simpkins portrays Harley Keener , a boy who becomes Stark 's sidekick , as part of a three @-@ picture deal with Marvel Studios . Ashley Hamilton portrays Taggart , one of the Extremis soldiers . William Sadler plays President Ellis , ( named after Warren Ellis , who wrote the " Extremis " comics arc that primary influenced the film 's story ) and Miguel Ferrer plays Vice President Rodriguez . Adam Pally plays Gary , a cameraman who helps Stark . Shaun Toub reprises his role as Yinsen from the first Iron Man film in a brief cameo , and Stan Lee makes a cameo appearance as a beauty pageant judge . Dale Dickey plays Mrs. Davis , mother of an Extremis subject that is framed as a terrorist . Wang Xueqi briefly plays Dr. Wu in the general release version of the film . A cut of the film produced for release exclusively in China includes additional scenes featuring Wang and an appearance by Fan Bingbing as one of his assistants . Mark Ruffalo makes an uncredited cameo appearance , reprising his role as Dr. Bruce Banner from The Avengers , in a post @-@ credits scene . Comedians Bill Maher and Joan Rivers and Fashion Police co @-@ host George Kotsiopoulos have cameo appearances as themselves on their respective real @-@ world television programs , as do newscasters Josh Elliott , Megan Henderson , Pat Kiernan , and Thomas Roberts . = = Production = = = = = Development = = = Following the release of Iron Man 2 , a conflict between Paramount Pictures , which had distribution rights to certain Marvel properties , and The Walt Disney Company , Marvel Entertainment 's new corporate parent , clouded the timing and the distribution arrangement of a possible third film . On October 18 , 2010 , The Walt Disney Studios agreed to pay Paramount at least $ 115 million for the worldwide distribution rights to Iron Man 3 , with Disney , Marvel , and Paramount announcing a May 3 , 2013 release date for the film . Iron Man and Iron Man 2 director Jon Favreau said in December 2010 that he would not direct Iron Man 3 , opting to direct Magic Kingdom instead . He remained an executive producer of director Joss Whedon 's crossover film The Avengers and also served as an executive producer of Iron Man 3 . In February 2011 Shane Black entered final negotiations to direct and write the screenplay . In March it was announced that Black would have co @-@ writer Drew Pearce , who Marvel had originally hired for a Runaways script , work with him . Downey , who had previously starred in Black 's film Kiss Kiss Bang Bang , said , " Bringing in Shane Black to write and direct Iron Man 3 to me is basically the only transition from Favreau to a ' next thing ' that Favreau and the audience and Marvel and I could ever actually sign off on . " = = = = Writing = = = = Shane Black described his take on the film as not being " two men in iron suits fighting each other , " and more like a " Tom Clancy thriller , " with Iron Man fighting real @-@ world type villains . Drew Pearce added that they would avert magic and space , with Iron Man 3 being " a techno @-@ thriller set in a more real world than even The Avengers . " The duo spent some time discussing themes and images and ideas before starting the script . While writing , the focus was to avoid scenes of pure exposition , making every moment propel other narrative points forwards . Some elements from the comics were used even if in different connotations , such as making Rhodes wear Norman Osborn 's Iron Patriot armor , and naming some characters with names from unrelated people in the Marvel Universe , such as Eric Savin and Jack Taggart . The film 's plot is influenced primarily from " Extremis , " the 2005 @-@ 2006 Iron Man comics storyline written by Warren Ellis . The first two acts would remain character @-@ centric , albeit in Shane Black 's words " more hectic , frenetic , and large scale " to fulfill its sequel obligations , with the third act going for more over @-@ the @-@ top action to what Drew Pearce described as " giving a sense of opera . " The middle act was compared to Sullivan 's Travels in having Tony meeting various people on his journey , and the writers made sure to not make the characters too similar . The initial draft had Maya Hansen herself leading the villainous operation , with the Mandarin and Killian emerging as antagonists in later versions of the script . During one of the writing sessions , Pearce suggested that the Mandarin was a fake , and Black agreed by going with making him an actor , which in turn Pearce detailed as an overacting British stage performer . Black explained : " Who would be fool enough to declare that is an international terrorist ? If you 're smart , whatever regime you 're part of , you 'd put a puppet committee and remain your house . " In turn Killian would hide Slattery in " his own frat house , in kind of a drug @-@ related house arrest " to keep the secret alive . According to Black , the reveal of the actual villain being Hansen was " like Remington Steele , you think it ’ s the man but at the end , the woman has been running the whole show . " The role was eventually shifted to Killian because of objections by Marvel Entertainment executives , who were concerned with apparent merchandising losses that could come with having a female villain . The roles of several other major female characters were also made smaller in the final film compared to earlier drafts . Both the opening and the ending of the film were reworked in various ways . First it would begin with a flashback to Tony 's childhood . Then like Iron Man it would begin in medias res , with Tony crashing in Tennessee before a voiceover that would lead to how he got there , until it got changed to the final version . For the climactic tanker battle , it was originally considered that Brandt would show up in the James Bond tradition of the henchman coming back for the heroes . Instead they chose to use Killian himself , and have Pepper , whom he abused earlier , cause his downfall as a way of poetic justice . The final dialogue was originally written as " I am Tony Stark " to be a response to the first film 's ending , but eventually it changed to " I am Iron Man " to enhance the mythical qualities . = = = Pre @-@ production = = = In September 2011 , Marvel Studios reached an agreement to shoot the film primarily out of EUE / Screen Gems Studios in Wilmington , North Carolina . Michigan was also in contention to land the production , but the Michigan Film Office could not match North Carolina 's tax incentives . In April 2012 , Ben Kingsley entered into negotiations to play a villain in Iron Man 3 . The film 's fake working title was revealed to be Caged Heat , and Marvel Studios worked with the Tona B. Dahlquist Casting company to hire extras in the North Carolina area . The following week , producer Kevin Feige revealed that Iron Man 3 would begin shooting in North Carolina " in five weeks , " and said that it " is a full @-@ on Tony Stark @-@ centric movie ... very much inspired by the first half of Iron Man ... [ H ] e 's stripped of everything , he 's backed up against a wall , and he 's gotta use his intelligence to get out of it . He can 't call Thor , he can 't call Cap , he can 't call Nick Fury , and he can 't look for the Helicarrier in the sky . " A few days later , The Walt Disney Company China , Marvel Studios and DMG Entertainment announced an agreement to co @-@ produce Iron Man 3 in China . DMG partly financed , produced in China with Marvel , and handled co @-@ production matters . DMG also distributed the film in China in tandem with Disney . The next week , Guy Pearce entered into final talks to play Aldrich Killian , a character who is featured in the " Extremis " comic book story arc . Chinese star Andy Lau became involved in negotiations to join the film , as a Chinese scientist and old friend of Stark 's who comes to his aid . Lau would later turn down the role , and Wang Xueqi was cast instead . Jessica Chastain entered into discussions for a role in the film , but bowed out due to scheduling conflicts . In May , Rebecca Hall was cast in her place , and her role was described as " a scientist who plays a pivotal role in the creation of a nanotechnology , known as Extremis . " Over the next few weeks , James Badge Dale was cast as Eric Savin , Ashley Hamilton was cast as Firepower , and Favreau returned to reprise his role as Happy Hogan from the first two films . Stephanie Szostak and William Sadler were also cast in the film , with Sadler playing the President of the United States . Despite erroneous early reports that Cobie Smulders would reprise her role as Maria Hill from The Avengers in the film , Smulders wrote on her verified Twitter page that this was not so . = = = Filming = = = Filming began in Wilmington , North Carolina on May 23 , 2012 at EUE / Screen Gems Studios . Cinematographer John Toll opted to for the first time in his career work with digital cameras , as he found them more convenient for a visual effects @-@ heavy production . Toll shot the film primarily on the Arri Alexa camera . From June 4 through June 6 , 2012 , filming took place in Cary , North Carolina at the Epic Games headquarters and SAS Institute , with a large Christmas tree set up on the front lawn . A scene was also shot at the Wilmington International Airport . The Port of Wilmington served as a location for the oil tanker in the climactic battle , along with a soundstage recreation of the dock . The crumbling house itself was filmed in a hydraulic @-@ powered giubo platform that could bend and split into two pieces . All the interior footage had practical effects , including debris and explosions , with computer graphics used only to add exteriors and Iron Man 's armor . From July 19 to August 1 , 2012 , filming took place on Oak Island , North Carolina , to " film aerial drops over the Atlantic Ocean . " They were done for the scene where Iron Man rescues the people falling from the Air Force One over Miami , which were originally envisioned done with green screen effects , but were changed to using actual skydivers as second unit director Brian Smrz knew the Red Bull skydiving team . Computer graphics were only employed to add clouds , the destroyed plane and matte paintings of the Florida coastline in the background , replace a stand @-@ in with the Iron Man armor , and some digital compositing to combine different takes of the skydivers together . Filming took place in Rose Hill , North Carolina in early August 2012 , and the town 's name was incorporated into the script as the Tennessee city Stark visits . On August 14 , actress Dale Dickey said she had been cast in the film , and was currently shooting her scenes . The following day , production was halted when Downey suffered an ankle injury . During the break , Black and Pearce made more script revisions before shooting resumed by August 24 . Cast and crew began arriving in Florida on October 1 , to shoot scenes on Dania Beach and around South Florida . That same day , Downey returned to the set after his ankle injury . In early October , scenes were shot at a replica of the Malibu restaurant Neptune 's Net , and filming took place on location at the Vizcaya Museum and Gardens . Scenes were shot during the daytime inside the Miami Beach Resort at Miami Beach on October 10 and 11 . The production returned to Wilmington in mid @-@ October for additional filming . On November 1 , scenes were shot at the Vizcaya Museum and Gardens . Filming in the United States wrapped on November 7 in Wilmington . Filming began in Beijing , China on December 10 . Filming was scheduled to wrap a week later on December 17 , 2012 . The China filming did not include the main cast and crew . In January 2013 , it was reported that a film crew led by Shane Black would begin location scouting in Hyderabad , India and Bengaluru , India between January 20 and 24 . Also in January , Cheadle confirmed that reshooting was taking place in Manhattan Beach . Shooting also took place on the week of January 23 , 2013 at TCL Chinese Theatre in Hollywood . A major part of the content filmed in the reshoots regarded the Mandarin , with Drew Pearce saying that in early cuts , the character " didn 't feel real enough — there wasn 't a sense of him being [ part of ] the real world , mostly because he was just looking down a lens and threatening the world . " = = = Post @-@ production = = = Chris Townsend served as visual effects supervisor for the film , which featured over 2 @,@ 000 visual effects shots and was worked on by 17 studios , including Weta Digital , Digital Domain , Scanline VFX , Trixter , Framestore , Luma Pictures , Fuel VFX , Cantina Creative , Cinesite , The Embassy Visual Effects , Lola , Capital T , Prologue and Rise FX . Townsend said that from January 2013 through the end of filming in April , the collective crew had one day of downtime , otherwise working seven days a week and 14 to 18 hours a day . Digital Domain , Scanline VFX and Trixter each worked on separate shots featuring the Mark 42 armor , working with different digital models . The studios shared some of their files to ensure consistency between the shots . For the Mark 42 and Iron Patriot armors , Legacy Effects	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
the road . MD 213 intersects MD 297 ( Worton Road ) and heads past more farm fields . The road turns northeast and intersects MD 561 ( Hassenger ’ s Corner Road ) . It continues through more rural areas , consisting mostly of farms with some wooded areas before reaching Kennedyville , where MD 213 passes residences . In Kennedyville , the road crosses over the Chestertown Branch of the Northern Line of the Maryland & Delaware Railroad . Upon leaving Kennedyville , MD 213 continues back into agricultural areas . The route makes a turn to the east , with an old bypassed segment remaining as unsigned MD 855 . MD 213 intersects MD 298 ( Browntown Road ) and resumes northeast and east again . It intersects unsigned MD 449 ( Shallcross Wharf Road ) , which connects to MD 444 ( Kentmore Park Road ) , which MD 213 intersects a short distance later . From here , the route continues east and northeast through more farmland before heading into a mix of farms and woods . The route enters Galena , where it becomes Cross Street . In the center of town , MD 213 meets MD 290 and MD 313 at the intersection with Main Street . Here , MD 290 and MD 313 continue south on Main Street , MD 290 continues east on Cross Street , and MD 213 makes a left turn to head north on Main Street . Main Street passes residences before leaving Galena , where the road becomes Augustine Herman Highway again . The road continues through a mix of farms and woods before reaching Georgetown , where the route passes some homes before crossing the Sassafras River on a drawbridge near a marina . = = = Cecil County = = = MD 213 enters Cecil County upon crossing the Sassafras River , where it continues north through wooded and agricultural areas with some residences . The route enters Cecilton , where it becomes Bohemia Avenue . In Cecilton , MD 213 passes residences and intersects MD 282 ( Main Street ) in the center of town . Upon leaving Cecilton , the name of the road becomes Augustine Herman Highway again . MD 213 passes through farmland , with intermittent woods and rural residences , before crossing over the Bohemia River . Past the Bohemia River , the road turns northeast through more rural areas before intersecting the western terminus of MD 310 ( Cayots Corner Road ) . Past MD 310 , the route continues through farms and woods with some residences and businesses before heading into the Chesapeake City area , where residences increase along the road . Upon reaching Chesapeake City , MD 213 features an interchange with MD 537 , which provides access to the southern portion of Chesapeake City as well as to MD 286 and MD 342 . In Chesapeake City , the Chesapeake Country Scenic Byway ends and MD 213 continues north as a part of the Atlantic to Appalachians Scenic Byway which crosses the state of Maryland . Past this interchange , MD 213 passes over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal on the Chesapeake City Bridge . Upon crossing the canal , the road intersects MD 285 ( Lock Street ) , which provides access to the northern portion of Chesapeake City . Past MD 285 , the route resumes through a mix of woodland and farmland , with residential areas increasing along the road . It approaches the Elkton area and heads through residential areas . MD 213 enters Elkton at the intersection with US 40 ( Pulaski Highway ) . Past this intersection , the route heads northwest on Bridge Street , passing through commercial areas . The route intersects Main Street , which continues east of MD 213 as a one @-@ way street eastbound . Past Main Street , the road continues north and passes over Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor before intersecting MD 545 ( Elkton Boulevard ) . MD 213 continues past commercial areas to the west and residential areas to the east before its intersection with MD 279 ( Elkton Road / Newark Avenue ) . Past the MD 279 intersection , the route leaves Elkton and becomes Singerly Road , which continues past residences . MD 213 enters a mix of woods and farms and passes over Interstate 95 ( John F. Kennedy Memorial Highway ) and CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision within a short distance of each other . It continues through a mix of farms and residences before the road reaches the Leeds roundabout with Leeds Road . Past the roundabout , the route resumes north , intersecting MD 273 ( Telegraph Road ) in Fair Hill west of the Fair Hill Training Center , where the Atlantic to Appalachians Scenic Byway leaves MD 213 and heads west along MD 273 . From here , MD 213 continues northwest and west as Lewisville Road through a mix of rural areas and residences before ending at the Pennsylvania border . Here , the road continues north as PA 841 into Lewisville , intersecting the southern terminus of PA 472 just north of the state line . = = History = = In 1911 , what would become US 213 was completed as a state highway between Hebron and Riverton via Mardela Springs , Easton and Longwoods , Centerville and Church Hill , and in the Chestertown area , while the present road between Elkton and Singerly was also built as a state highway . The portion of roads between Riverton and Sharptown , Brookview and Hurlock , Church Hill and southeast of Chestertown , northeast of Chestertown and northeast of Kennedyville , and Chesapeake City and Elkton were under contract to be built as state roads . At this time , a state highway was proposed along the segments between Ocean City and Berlin , Salisbury and Hebron , Sharptown and Brookview , Hurlock and Easton , Longwoods and Centreville , northeast of Kennedyville and Chesapeake City , and Elkton and Fair Hill . By 1915 , the entire length of road between Ocean City and Elkton was completed as a state highway . The state highway between Singerly and south of Fair Hill was finished by 1923 . The state highway was finished to Fair Hill by 1927 . With the creation of the U.S. Highway System on November 11 , 1926 , US 213 was designated to run from the Atlantic Ocean in Ocean City west and north to US 40 in Elkton . The route headed west from Ocean City through Berlin and Salisbury ( where it intersected its parent route US 13 ) , before it turned northwest to Mardela Springs . Here , US 213 turned to the north and ran to Eldorado , where it continued northwest through Hurlock and Preston to Easton . From Easton , the route continued north to Wye Mills and followed the present alignment of MD 213 to Elkton . A new Dover Bridge over the Choptank River east of Easton , replacing a bridge built in the 19th century , was completed in 1932 . By 1933 , US 213 was rerouted to cross the Nanticoke River at Vienna instead of at Sharptown . The route headed west from Mardela Springs to Vienna , where it turned north to Rhodesdale . The former alignment of US 213 became a southern extension of MD 313 between Mardela Springs and Eldorado and an eastern extension of MD 14 between Rhodesdale and Eldorado . In 1939 , US 213 was realigned to cross the Choptank River at Cambridge on the Emerson C. Harrington Bridge that opened in 1935 . The route replaced MD 344 between Vienna and Mount Holly , ran concurrent with MD 16 between Mount Holly and Cambridge , and turned north across the river to continue to Easton . The former routing of US 213 between Vienna and Easton became MD 331 . Also , US 213 was relocated to a new alignment to the north between West Ocean City and Ocean City . In 1939 , the road between US 40 and the northern terminus of US 213 in Elkton and the Pennsylvania border north of Fair Hill was designated MD 280 . The portion of MD 280 between Fair Hill and the Pennsylvania border was built as a state highway by 1933 . On July 28 , 1942 , the vertical lift bridge carrying US 213 over the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal , built in 1927 , was destroyed when the tanker Franz Klasen struck it . The destroyed bridge was replaced by the current Chesapeake City Bridge , which opened in 1949 . The approaches to the original bridge are now designated as MD 537 and a western extension of MD 285 . A portion of US 213 south of Easton was moved to a straight alignment by 1946 ; the former routing became MD 565 . By 1946 , work was underway for a bypass to the east of Easton along with a straight alignment between Easton and Wye Mills . US 213 was moved to this new alignment in 1948 , with the former alignment on Washington Street in Easton becoming an extended MD 333 in the southern part of the city and an extended MD 33 in the northern part the city , while MD 662 was designated on the original alignment between Easton and Wye Mills . In 1949 , the southern terminus of US 213 was cut back to US 50 in Wye Mills , with the former route between Wye Mills and Ocean City becoming an extension of US 50 from Annapolis over the newly completed Chesapeake Bay Bridge . The former routing of US 213 between Wye Mills and Ocean City is now US 50 between Wye Mills and Vienna , Old Route 50 through Vienna , US 50 between Vienna and Salisbury , US 50 Bus. through Salisbury , MD 346 between Salisbury and east of Berlin , and US 50 between east of Berlin and Ocean City . On December 3 , 1971 , the American Association of State Highway Officials approved the elimination of the US 213 designation . US 213 along with MD 280 were replaced by MD 213 , which ran from MD 662 in Wye Mills north to the Pennsylvania border north of Fair Hill . In 1994 , the at @-@ grade intersection with US 301 was replaced with an interchange . = = Junction list = = = = Auxiliary route = = MD 213A runs along the ramp from MD 537D to southbound MD 213 in Chesapeake City , Cecil County . The route is 0 @.@ 05 mi ( 0 @.@ 080 km ) long . = Smilodon = Smilodon / ˈsmaɪlədɒn / , is an extinct genus of machairodont felid . It is perhaps one of the most famous prehistoric mammals , and the best known saber @-@ toothed cat . Although commonly known as the saber @-@ toothed tiger , it was not closely related to the tiger or other modern cats . Smilodon lived in the Americas during the Pleistocene epoch ( 2 @.@ 5 mya – 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) . The genus was named in 1842 , based on fossils from Brazil . Three species are recognized today : S. gracilis , S. fatalis and S. populator . The two latter species were probably descended from S. gracilis , which itself probably evolved from Megantereon . The largest collection of Smilodon fossils has been obtained from the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles , California . Overall , Smilodon was more robustly built than any extant cat , with particularly well @-@ developed forelimbs and exceptionally long upper canines . Its jaw had a bigger gape than that of modern cats and its upper canines were slender and fragile , being adapted for precision killing . S. gracilis was the smallest species at 55 to 100 kg ( 120 to 220 lb ) in weight . S. fatalis had a weight of 160 to 280 kg ( 350 to 620 lb ) and height of 100 cm ( 39 in ) . Both of these species are mainly known from North America , but remains from South America have also been attributed to them . S. populator from South America is perhaps the largest known felid at 220 to 400 kg ( 490 to 880 lb ) in weight and 120 cm ( 47 in ) in height . The coat pattern of Smilodon is unknown , but it has been artistically restored with plain or spotted patterns . In North America , Smilodon hunted large herbivores such as bison and camels and it remained successful even when encountering new prey species in South America . Smilodon is thought to have killed its prey by holding it still with its forelimbs and biting it , but it is unclear in what manner the bite itself was delivered . Scientists debate whether Smilodon had a social or a solitary lifestyle ; analysis of modern predator behavior as well as of Smilodon 's fossil remains could be construed to lend support to either view . Smilodon probably lived in closed habitats such as forests and bush , which would have provided cover for ambushing prey . Smilodon died out at the same time that most North and South American megafauna disappeared , about 10 @,@ 000 years ago . Its reliance on large animals has been proposed as the cause of its extinction , along with climate change and competition with other species , but the exact cause is unknown . = = Taxonomy = = During the 1830s , Danish naturalist Peter Wilhelm Lund and his assistants collected fossils in the calcareous caves near the small town of Lagoa Santa , Minas Gerais , Brazil . Among the thousands of fossils found , he recognized a few isolated cheek teeth as belonging to a hyena , which he named Hyaena neogaea in 1839 . After more material was found ( including canine teeth and foot bones ) , Lund concluded the fossils instead belonged to a distinct genus of felid , though transitional to the hyenas . He stated it would have matched the largest modern predators in size , and was more robust than any modern cat . Lund originally wanted to name the new genus Hyænodon , but realizing this had recently become preoccupied by another prehistoric predator , he instead named it Smilodon populator in 1842 . He explained the Ancient Greek meaning of Smilodon as σμίλη ( smilē ) , a scalpel or two @-@ edged knife , and ὀδoύς ( odoús ) , tooth . This has also been translated as " tooth shaped like double @-@ edged knife " . He explained the species name populator as " the destroyer " , which has also been translated as " he who brings devastation " . By 1846 , Lund had acquired nearly every part of the skeleton ( from different individuals ) , and more specimens were found in neighboring countries by other collectors in the following years . Though some later authors used Lund 's original species name neogaea instead of populator , it is now considered an invalid nomen nudum ( " naked name " ) , as it was not accompanied with a proper description and no type specimens were designated . Some South American specimens have been referred to other genera , subgenera , species , and subspecies , such as Smilodontidion riggii , Smilodon ( Prosmilodon ) ensenadensis , and S. bonaeriensis , but these are now thought to be junior synonyms of S. populator . Fossils of Smilodon were discovered in North America from the second half of the 19th century onwards . In 1869 , American paleontologist Joseph Leidy described a maxilla fragment with a molar , which had been discovered in a petroleum bed in Hardin County , Texas . He referred the specimen to the genus Felis ( which was then used for most cats , extant as well as extinct ) but found it distinct enough to be part of its own subgenus , as F. ( Trucifelis ) fatalis . The species name means " fate " or " destiny " , but it is thought Leidy intended it to mean " fatal " . In an 1880 article about extinct American cats , American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope pointed out that the F. fatalis molar was identical to that of Smilodon , and he proposed the new combination S. fatalis . Most North American finds were scanty until excavations began in the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles , where hundreds of individuals of S. fatalis have been found since 1875 . S. fatalis has junior synonyms such as S. mercerii , S. floridanus , and S. californicus . American paleontologist Annalisa Berta considered the holotype of S. fatalis too incomplete to be an adequate type specimen , and the species has at times been proposed to be a junior synonym of S. populator . Swedish paleontologists Björn Kurtén and Lars Werdelin supported the distinctness of the two species in 1990 . In his 1880 article about extinct cats , Cope also named a third species of Smilodon , S. gracilis . The species was based on a partial canine , which had been obtained in a cave near the Schuylkill River in Pennsylvania . Cope found the canine to be distinct from that of the other Smilodon species due to its smaller size and more compressed base . Its specific name refers to the species ' lighter build . This species is known from fewer and less complete remains than the other members of the genus . S. gracilis has at times been considered part of genera such as Megantereon and Ischyrosmilus . S. populator , S. fatalis and S. gracilis are currently considered the only valid species of Smilodon , and features used to define most of their junior synonyms have been dismissed as variation between individuals of the same species ( intraspecific variation ) . One of the most famous of prehistoric mammals , Smilodon has often been featured in popular media and is the state fossil of California . = = = Evolution = = = Long the most completely known saber @-@ toothed cat , Smilodon is still one of the best @-@ known members of the group , to the point where the two concepts have been confused . The term " saber @-@ tooth " refers to an ecomorph consisting of various groups of extinct predatory synapsids ( mammals and close relatives ) , which convergently evolved extremely long maxillary canines , as well as adaptations to the skull and skeleton related to their use . This includes members of Gorgonopsia , Thylacosmilidae , Machaeroidinae ( e.g. Machaeroides ) , Nimravidae , Barbourofelidae , and Machairodontinae . Within the family Felidae ( true cats ) , members of the subfamily Machairodontinae are referred to as saber @-@ toothed cats , and this group is itself divided into three tribes : Metailurini ( false saber @-@ tooths ) , Homotherini ( scimitar @-@ toothed cats ) , and Smilodontini ( dirk @-@ toothed cats ) , to which Smilodon belongs . Members of Smilodontini are defined by their long slender canines with fine to no serrations , whereas Homotherini are typified by shorter , broad , and more flattened canines , with coarser serrations . Members of Metailurini were less specialized and had shorter , less flattened canines , and are not recognized as members of Machairodontinae by some researchers . The earliest felids are known from the Oligocene of Europe , such as Proailurus , and the earliest one with saber @-@ tooth features is the Miocene genus Pseudaelurus . The skull and mandible morphology of the earliest saber @-@ toothed cats was similar to that of the modern clouded leopards ( Neofelis ) . The lineage further adapted to the precision killing of large animals by developing elongated canine teeth and wider gapes , in the process sacrificing high bite force . As their canines became longer , the bodies of the cats became more robust for immobilizing prey . In derived smilodontins and homotherins , the lumbar region of the spine and the tail became shortened , as did the hind limbs . The earliest species of Smilodon is S. gracilis , which existed from 2 @.@ 5 million to 500 @,@ 000 years ago ( early Blancan to Irvingtonian ages ) and was the successor in North America of Megantereon , from which it probably evolved . Megantereon itself had entered North America from Eurasia during the Pliocene , along with Homotherium . S. gracilis reached the northern regions of South America in the Early Pleistocene as part of the Great American Interchange . The younger Smilodon species are probably derived from S. gracilis . S. fatalis existed 1 @.@ 6 million – 10 @,@ 000 years ago ( late Irvingtonian to Rancholabrean ages ) , and replaced S. gracilis in North America . S. populator existed 1 million – 10 @,@ 000 years ago ( Ensenadan to Lujanian ages ) ; it occurred in the eastern parts of South America . Despite the colloquial name " saber @-@ toothed tiger " , Smilodon is not closely related to the modern tiger ( which belongs in the subfamily Pantherinae ) , or any other extant felid . An 1992 ancient DNA analysis suggested that Smilodon should be grouped with modern cats ( subfamilies Felinae and Pantherinae ) . However , a 2005 study found that Smilodon belonged to a separate lineage . A study published in 2006 confirmed this , showing that the Machairodontinae diverged early from the ancestors of modern cats and were not closely related to any living species . The following cladogram based on fossils and DNA analysis shows the placement of Smilodon among extinct and extant felids , after Rincón and colleagues , 2011 : = = Description = = Smilodon was around the size of modern big cats , but was more robustly built . It had a reduced lumbar region , high scapula , short tail , and broad limbs with relatively short feet . Smilodon is most famous for its relatively long canine teeth , which are the longest found in the saber @-@ toothed cats , at about 28 cm ( 11 in ) long in the largest species , S. populator . The canines were slender and had fine serrations on the front and back side . The skull was robustly proportioned and the muzzle was short and broad . The cheek bones ( zygomata ) were deep and widely arched , the sagittal crest was prominent , and the frontal region was slightly convex . The mandible had a flange on each side of the front . The upper incisors were large , sharp , and slanted forwards . There was a diastema ( gap ) between the incisors and molars of the mandible . The lower incisors were broad , recurved , and placed in a straight line across . The p3 premolar tooth of the mandible was present in most early specimens , but lost in later specimens ; it was only present in 6 % of the La Brea sample . There is some dispute over whether Smilodon was sexually dimorphic . Some studies of S. fatalis fossils have found little difference between the sexes . Conversely , a 2012 study found that , while fossils of S. fatalis show less variation in size among individuals than modern Panthera , they do appear to show the same difference between the sexes in some traits . S. gracilis was the smallest species , estimated at 55 to 100 kg ( 120 to 220 lb ) in weight , about the size of a jaguar . It was similar to its predecessor Megantereon of the same size , but its dentition and skull were more advanced , approaching S. fatalis . S. fatalis was intermediate in size between S. gracilis and S. populator . It ranged from 160 to 280 kg ( 350 to 620 lb ) . and reached a shoulder height of 100 cm ( 39 in ) and body length of 175 cm ( 69 in ) . It was similar to a lion in dimensions , but was more robust and muscular , and therefore had a larger body mass . Its skull was also similar to that of Megantereon , though more massive and with larger canines . S. populator was perhaps the largest known felid , with a body mass range of 220 to 400 kg ( 490 to 880 lb ) , and one estimate suggesting up to 470 kg ( 1 @,@ 040 lb ) . It stood at a shoulder height of 120 cm ( 47 in ) . Compared to S. fatalis , S. populator was more robust and had a more elongated and narrow skull with a straighter upper profile , higher positioned nasal bones , a more vertical occiput , more massive metapodials and slightly longer forelimbs relative to hindlimbs . Large tracks from Argentina ( for which the ichnotaxon name Smilodonichium has been proposed ) have been attributed to S. populator , and measure 17 @.@ 6 cm ( 6 @.@ 9 in ) cm by 19 @.@ 2 cm ( 7 @.@ 6 in ) cm . This is larger than tracks of the Bengal tiger , to which the footprints have been compared . Traditionally , saber @-@ toothed cats have been artistically restored with external features similar to those of extant felids , by artists such as Charles R. Knight in collaboration with various paleontologists in the early 20th century . In 1969 , paleontologist G. J. Miller instead proposed that Smilodon would have looked very different from a typical cat and similar to a bulldog , with a lower lip line ( to allow its mouth to open wide without tearing the facial tissues ) , a more retracted nose and lower @-@ placed ears . Paleoartist Mauricio Antón and coauthors disputed this in 1998 and maintained that the facial features of Smilodon were overall not very different from those of other cats . Antón noted that modern animals like the hippopotamus are able to achieve a wide gap without tearing tissue by the moderate folding of the orbicularis oris muscle , and such a muscle configuration exists in modern large felids . Antón stated that extant phylogenetic bracketing ( where the features of the closest extant relatives of a fossil taxon are used as reference ) is the most reliable way of restoring the life @-@ appearance of prehistoric animals , and the cat @-@ like Smilodon restorations by Knight are therefore still accurate . Smilodon and other saber @-@ toothed cats have been reconstructed with both plain @-@ colored coats and with spotted patterns ( which appears to be the ancestral condition for feliforms ) , both of which are considered possible . Studies of modern cat species have found that species that live in the open tend to have uniform coats while those that live in more vegetated habitats have more markings . However , exceptions to both cases exist . Some coat features , such as the manes of male lions or the stripes of the tiger , are too unusual to predict from fossils . = = Paleobiology = = = = = Predatory behavior = = = An apex predator , Smilodon primarily hunted large mammals . Isotopes preserved in the bones of S. fatalis in the La Brea Tar Pits reveal that ruminants like bison ( Bison antiquus , which was much larger than the modern American bison ) and camels ( Camelops ) were most commonly taken by the cats there . In addition , isotopes preserved in the tooth enamel of S. gracilis specimens from Florida show that this species fed on the peccary Platygonus and the llama @-@ like Hemiauchenia . Isotopic studies of dire wolf ( Canis dirus ) and American lion ( Panthera leo atrox ) bones show an overlap with S. fatalis in prey , which suggests that they were competitors . The availability of prey in the Rancho La Brea area was likely comparable to modern East Africa . As Smilodon migrated to South America , its diet changed ; bison were absent , the horses and proboscideans were different , and native ungulates such as toxodonts and litopterns were completely unfamiliar , yet S. populator thrived as well there as its relatives in North America . The differences between the North and South American species may be due to the difference in prey between the two continents . Smilodon probably avoided eating bone and would have left enough food for scavengers . Smilodon itself may have scavenged dire wolf kills . It has been suggested that Smilodon was a scavenger that mainly used its canines for display to assert dominance over carcasses , but this theory is not supported today and no modern terrestrial mammals are pure scavengers . The brain of Smilodon had sulcal patterns similar to modern cats , which suggests an increased complexity of the regions that control the sense of hearing , sight , and coordination of the limbs . Felid saber @-@ tooths in general had relatively small eyes that were not as forward @-@ facing as those of modern cats , which have good binocular vision to help them move in trees . Smilodon was likely an ambush predator that concealed itself in dense vegetation . The heel bone of Smilodon was fairly long , which suggests it was a good jumper . Its well @-@ developed flexor and extensor muscles in its forearms probably enabled it to pull down , and securely hold down , large prey . Analysis of the cross @-@ sections of S. fatalis humeri indicated that they were strengthened by cortical thickening to such an extent that they would have been able to sustain greater loading than those of extant big cats , or of the extinct American lion . However , the thickening of S. fatalis femurs was within the range of extant felids . Its canines were fragile and could not have bitten into bone ; due to the risk of breaking , these cats had to subdue and restrain their prey with their powerful forelimbs before they could use their canine teeth , and likely used quick slashing or stabbing bites rather than the slow , suffocating bites typically used by modern cats . Debate continues as to how Smilodon killed its prey . Traditionally , the most popular theory is that the cat delivered a deep stabbing bite or open @-@ jawed stabbing thrust to the throat , generally cutting through the jugular vein and / or the trachea and thus killing the prey very quickly . Another hypothesis suggests that Smilodon targeted the belly of its prey . This is disputed , however , as the curvature of their prey 's belly would likely have prevented the cat from getting a good bite or stab . In regard to how Smilodon delivered its bite , the " canine shear @-@ bite " hypothesis has been favored , where flexion of the neck and rotation of the skull assisted in biting the prey , but this may be mechanically impossible . The mandibular flanges may have helped resist bending forces when the mandible was pulled against the hide of a prey . The protruding incisors were arranged in an arch , and were used to hold the prey still and stabilize it while the canine bite was delivered . The contact surface between the canine crown and the gum was enlarged , which helped stabilize the tooth and helped the cat sense when the tooth had penetrated to its maximum extent . Since saber @-@ toothed cats generally had a relatively large infraorbital foramen ( opening ) in the skull , which housed nerves associated with the whiskers , it has been suggested the improved senses would have helped the cats ' precision when biting outside their field of vision , and thereby prevent breakage of the canines . The blade @-@ like carnassial teeth were used to cut skin to access the meat , and the reduced molars suggest that they were less adapted for crushing bones than modern cats . As the food of modern cats enters the mouth through the side while cutting with the carnassials , not the front between the canines , the animals do not need to gape widely , so the canines of Smilodon would likewise not have been a hindrance when feeding . Despite being more powerfully built than other large cats , Smilodon had a weaker bite . Modern big cats have more pronounced zygomatic arches , while these were smaller in Smilodon , which restricted the thickness and therefore power of the temporalis muscles and thus reduced Smilodon 's bite force . Analysis of its narrow jaws indicates that it could produce a bite only a third as strong as that of a lion . There seems to be a general rule that the saber @-@ toothed cats with the largest canines had proportionally weaker bites . However , analyses of canine bending strength ( the ability of the canine teeth to resist bending forces without breaking ) and bite forces indicate that the saber @-@ toothed cats ' teeth were stronger relative to the bite force than those of modern big cats . In addition , Smilodon 's gape could have reached almost 120 degrees , while that of the modern lion reaches 65 degrees . This made the gape wide enough to allow Smilodon to grasp large prey despite the long canines . = = = Natural traps = = = Many Smilodon specimens have been excavated from asphalt seeps that acted as natural carnivore traps . Animals were accidentally trapped in the seeps and became bait for predators that came to scavenge , but these were then trapped themselves . The best @-@ known of such traps are at La Brea in Los Angeles , which have produced the largest sample of saber @-@ toothed cat fossils in the world . The sediments of the pits there were accumulated 40 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 years ago , in the Late Pleistocene . Though the trapped animals were buried quickly , predators often managed to remove limb bones from them , but they were themselves often trapped and then scavenged by other predators ; 90 % of the excavated bones belonged to predators . The Talara Tar Seeps in Peru represent a similar scenario , and have also produced fossils of Smilodon . Unlike in La Brea , many of the bones were broken or show signs of weathering . This may have been because the layers were shallower , so the thrashing of trapped animals damaged the bones of previously trapped animals . Many of the carnivores at Talara were juveniles , possibly indicating that inexperienced and less fit animals had a greater chance of being trapped . Though Lund thought accumulations of Smilodon and herbivore fossils in the Lagoa Santa Caves were due to the cats using the caves as dens , these are probably the result of animals dying on the surface , and water currents subsequently dragging their bones to the floor of the cave , but some individuals may also have died after becoming lost in the caves . = = = Social life = = = Scientists debate whether Smilodon was social . One study of African predators found that social predators like lions and spotted hyenas respond more to the distress calls of prey than solitary species . Since S. fatalis fossils are common at the La Brea Tar Pits , and were likely attracted by the distress calls of stuck prey , this could mean that this species was social as well . One critical study claims that the study neglects other factors , such as body mass ( heavier animals are more likely to get stuck than lighter ones ) , intelligence ( some social animals , like the American lion , may have avoided the tar because they were better able to recognize the hazard ) , lack of visual and olfactory lures , the type of audio lure , and the length of the distress calls ( the actual distress calls of the trapped prey animals would have lasted longer than the calls used in the study ) . The author of that study ponders what predators would have responded if the recordings were played in India , where the otherwise solitary tigers are known to aggregate around a single carcass . The authors of the original study responded that though effects of the calls in the tar pits and the playback experiments would not be identical , this would not be enough to overturn their conclusions . In addition , they stated that weight and intelligence would not likely affect the results as lighter carnivores are far more numerous than heavy herbivores and the social ( and seemingly intelligent ) dire wolf is also found in the pits . Another argument for sociality is based on the healed injuries in several Smilodon fossils , which would suggest that the animals needed others to provide it food . This argument has been questioned , as cats can recover quickly from even severe bone damage and an injured Smilodon could survive if it had access to water . The brain of Smilodon was relatively small compared to other cat species . Some researchers have argued that Smilodon 's brain would have been too small for it to have been a social animal . However , an analysis of brain size in living big cats found no correlation between brain size and sociality . Another argument against Smilodon being social is that being an ambush hunter in closed habitat would likely have made group @-@ living unnecessary , as in most modern cats . Yet it has also been proposed that being the largest predator in an environment comparable to the savanna of Africa , Smilodon may have had a social structure similar to modern lions , which possibly live in groups primarily to defend optimal territory from other lions ( lions are the only social big cats today ) . Whether Smilodon was sexually dimorphic has implications for its reproductive behavior . Based on their conclusions that Smilodon fatalis had no sexual dimorphism , Van Valenburgh and Sacco ( 2002 ) suggested that , if the cats were social , they would likely have lived in monogamous pairs ( along with offspring ) with no intense competition among males for females . Likewise , Meachen @-@ Samuels and Binder ( 2010 ) concluded that aggression between males was less pronounced in S. fatalis than in the American lion . However , Christiansen and Harris ( 2012 ) found that , as S. fatalis did exhibit some sexual dimorphism , there would have been evolutionary selection for competition between males . The structure of the hyoid bones suggest that Smilodon communicated by roaring , like modern big cats . = = = Development = = = Smilodon started developing its adult saber @-@ teeth when the animal turned one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of age , shortly after the completion of the eruption of the cat 's baby teeth . Both baby and adult canines would be present side by side in the mouth for an 11 @-@ month period , and the muscles used in making the powerful bite were developed at about one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years old as well , eight months earlier than in a modern lion . After Smilodon turned 20 months of age , the infant teeth were shed while the adult canines grew in , a process that continued until the cats reached 3 years of age , later than for modern species of big cat . Juvenile and adolescent Smilodon specimens are extremely rare at Rancho La Brea , where the study was performed , indicating that they remained hidden or at denning sites during hunts , and depended on parental care while their canines were developing . The teeth of S. fatalis reached their full size in 18 months at a growth rate of 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 3 in ) per month . = = = Paleopathology = = = Several Smilodon fossils show signs of ankylosing spondylitis , hyperostosis and trauma ; some also had arthritis , which gave them fused vertebrae . One study of 1 @,@ 000 Smilodon skulls found that 30 % of them had eroded parietal bones , which is where the largest jaw muscles attach . They also showed signs of microfractures , and the weakening and thinning of bones possibly caused by mechanical stress from the constant need to make stabbing motions with the canines . Bony growths where the deltoid muscle inserted in the humerus is a common pathology for a La Brea specimen , which was probably due to repeated strain when Smilodon attempted to pull down prey with its forelimbs . Sternum injuries are also common , probably due to collision with prey . Some bones also show evidence of having been bitten by other Smilodon , with one skull showing an unhealed wound from a canine , seemingly fatal , and a scapula from the same site that had been pierced by a canine . = = Distribution and habitat = = Smilodon lived during the Pleistocene epoch ( 2 @.@ 5 mya – 10 @,@ 000 years ago ) , and was perhaps the most recent of the saber @-@ toothed cats . Smilodon probably lived in a closed habitat such as forest or bush . Fossils of the genus have been found throughout the Americas . In North America , the varied habitat supported other saber @-@ toothed cats in addition to Smilodon , such as Homotherium and Xenosmilus ; the habitat here varied from subtropical forests and savannah in the south , to treeless mammoth steppes in the north . Smilodon inhabited the temperate latitudes of North America , where the mosaic vegetation of woods , shrubs , and grasses in the southwest supported large herbivores such as horses , bison , antelope , deer , camels , mammoths , mastodons , and ground sloths . Other large carnivores include dire wolves and the American lion . Smilodon gracilis entered South America during the early to middle Pleistocene , where it probably gave rise to S. populator , which lived in the eastern part of the continent . S. fatalis also entered western South America in the late Pleistocene . The American interchange resulted in a mix of native and invasive species sharing the prairies and woodlands in South America ; North American herbivores included proboscideans , horses , camelids and deer , South American herbivores included toxodonts , litopterns , ground sloths , and glyptodonts . Native metatherian predators ( including the saber @-@ toothed thylacosmilids ) had gone extinct by the Pliocene , and were replaced by North American carnivores such as canids , bears , and large cats . S. populator was very successful here , while Homotherium never became widespread . The extinction of the thylacosmilids has been attributed to competition with Smilodon , but this is probably incorrect , as they seem to have disappeared before the arrival of the large cats . The phorusrhacid " terror birds " may have dominated the large predator niche in South America until Smilodon arrived . In South America , S. populator preferred large prey from open habitats such as grassland and plains , based on evidence gathered from isotope ratios that determined the animal 's diet . In this way , the South American Smilodon species was probably similar to the modern lion . S. populator probably competed with the canid Protocyon there , but not with the jaguar , which fed primarily on smaller prey . = = Extinction = = Along with most of the Pleistocene megafauna , Smilodon became extinct 10 @,@ 000 years ago in the Quaternary extinction event . Its extinction has been linked to the decline and extinction of large herbivores , which were replaced by smaller and more agile ones like deer . Hence , Smilodon could have been too specialized at hunting large prey and may have been unable to adapt . However , a 2012 study of Smilodon tooth wear found no evidence that they were limited by food resources . Other explanations include climate change and competition with humans ( which entered the Americas around the time Smilodon disappeared ) , or a combination of several factors , all of which apply to the general Pleistocene extinction event , rather than specifically to the extinction of the saber @-@ toothed cats . Some early writers theorized that the last saber @-@ toothed cats , Smilodon and Homotherium , became extinct through competition with the faster and more generalized felids that replaced them . It was even proposed that the saber @-@ toothed predators were inferior to modern cats , as the ever @-@ growing canines were thought to inhibit their owners from feeding properly . Yet fast felids such as the American lion and the American cheetah also became extinct during the Late Pleistocene . The fact that saber @-@ teeth evolved many times in unrelated lineages also attests to the success of this feature . = Andy Hessenthaler = Andrew " Andy " Hessenthaler ( born 17 August 1965 in Dartford , Kent ) is an English football manager and former player . He began his career in non @-@ league football and did not turn professional until he joined Watford at the age of 26 . In 1996 , Hessenthaler joined Gillingham and spent the next ten years at the club as player and later player @-@ manager , managing the club to its highest ever finish in the English football league system and becoming regarded as a legend of the Kent club . After leaving Gillingham , he had a short spell at Barnet before joining Dover Athletic in 2007 . In his two seasons in charge he led the club to successive championships , of Isthmian League Division One South and the Isthmian League Premier Division . After three years at Dover , he became manager at Gillingham for the second time , but his contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 – 12 season . He returned to the club as assistant manager in 2014 , before taking on a similar role at Leyton Orient the following year . In 2016 , he was appointed manager of the club . = = Career = = = = = Non @-@ league career = = = As a teenager , Hessenthaler played for the youth team of his local club Dartford . He later joined Fawkham @-@ based amateur team Corinthian , but Charlton Athletic took him on in 1983 on a non @-@ contract trial basis . He failed to secure a contract with the club , however , and returned to playing on a part @-@ time basis while working as a builder . In 1986 , he was spotted by Dartford manager Peter Taylor while playing in a Kent Senior Cup match . Hessenthaler signed for his hometown club on a wage of £ 40 per week , the first regular income he had ever received for playing . Hessenthaler spent four years at the club , during which time Dartford reached the semi @-@ finals of the FA Trophy on two occasions and finished twice as runners @-@ up in the Southern League . In 1990 , he was called up to the England National Game XI , the national team for semi @-@ professional players . Later that year , he moved on to Redbridge Forest , where he spent one season and helped the team win the Isthmian League championship . = = = Watford = = = On the recommendation of Peter Taylor , who was by now assistant manager of Watford , Hessenthaler was signed by the Hertfordshire club for a transfer fee of £ 65 @,@ 000 at the beginning of the 1991 – 92 season . He opted to make the move even though becoming a full @-@ time professional player would mean taking a drop in earnings compared to what he was making combining semi @-@ professional football with building work . His professional debut was against Blackburn Rovers at Ewood Park on 17 September 1991 , and , despite having made a move of four divisions up the English football league system , he immediately established himself as a regular at Vicarage Road , making 35 Football League appearances in his first season . In five seasons with the Hornets , he made 217 appearances in total , scoring 14 goals , and also served as the team 's captain . Watford fans voted Hessenthaler as runner @-@ up for the club 's Player of the Season award in four consecutive seasons between 1991 and 1995 , and fondly remember him for his workrate and all @-@ round ability . He was one of the club veterans selected to represent Watford in the 2006 London Masters football event , where he was named " Player of the Tournament " . = = = Gillingham = = = At the end of the 1995 – 96 season , shortly after Watford 's relegation from the First Division , Hessenthaler signed for Gillingham for £ 235 @,@ 000 , a record fee at the time for the club . He quickly became a key player at Priestfield Stadium . In the 1998 – 99 season , he returned to his best form , and he played in the Gills ' first ever match at Wembley Stadium . This match was the final of the play @-@ offs against Manchester City , which Gillingham lost after a penalty shoot @-@ out . Shortly afterwards , Gillingham manager Tony Pulis , who had signed Hessenthaler , was dismissed from his post . He was replaced by Peter Taylor , who appointed Hessenthaler as player @-@ coach . In his first season in this new role , he was once again a regular in the Gillingham team , making a total of 47 appearances as the club recorded its highest position to date in the English football league system and best ever run in the FA Cup . Although the cup run came to an end with a 5 – 0 defeat at the hands of Chelsea of the Premier League , Hessenthaler 's high @-@ energy performance prompted Chelsea chairman Ken Bates to joke that he had been keen to sign the player until he discovered to his surprise that he was 35 years old ( although Hessenthaler was in fact only 34 at the time ) . Gillingham once again qualified for the play @-@ off final , with Hessenthaler making his second appearance at Wembley as the Gills beat Wigan Athletic 3 – 2 after extra time to secure promotion to the Football League First Division for the first time in the club 's history . = = = Player @-@ management = = = Immediately after guiding Gillingham to promotion , Peter Taylor left to manage Leicester City , and Hessenthaler was appointed player @-@ manager . In his first season in charge , he guided the club to a thirteenth @-@ place finish while continuing to play regularly . A serious leg injury sustained in an FA Cup match against A.F.C. Bournemouth in January 2001 kept him out for the remainder of the season but did not prevent him being selected for the Football League 's Team of the Season . Despite many of the club 's rivals having greater budgets available with which to sign and pay players , the team finished the 2001 – 02 season in twelfth place and the following season in eleventh place in the First Division , Gillingham 's best ever finish in over seventy seasons in the Football League . During the 2003 – 04 season , however , the Gills ' fortunes declined , and the team only avoided relegation on goal difference after holding Stoke City to a draw in the last match of the season . As the team continued to struggle at the start of the following season , club owner Paul Scally reiterated his confidence in Hessenthaler but brought in former Swindon Town and Wycombe Wanderers manager John Gorman to assist him . The following month , with no significant improvement in the team 's fortunes , Hessenthaler tendered his resignation . He remained at the club as a player but was rarely selected for the team , and in January 2005 , he went on loan to Hull City , where he was reunited once again with Peter Taylor . He made ten appearances for Hull , who gained promotion to the Football League Championship ( the new name for what had been previously been called the First Division ) , while Gillingham were relegated from the same division . He returned to the Gillingham team at the start of the 2005 – 06 season and made a further 17 appearances , the final one in a 3 – 0 home win against Port Vale on 10 December 2005 . At forty years and four months of age , he was the oldest player ever to represent the club . He rounded out his Gillingham career by returning to Priestfield Stadium for a testimonial match in July 2006 . He is widely regarded as a club legend by Gillingham fans , who in 2005 voted him the team 's best ever player in a local radio poll , and he was also named Gillingham 's greatest ever player by the Professional Footballers ' Association in November 2007 . = = = Subsequent career = = = On 19 January 2006 , Hessenthaler signed for League Two strugglers Barnet on a short @-@ term contract until the end of the season . Although he considered retiring at the end of the season , he was persuaded by manager Paul Fairclough to sign a new contract for a further year . In October 2006 , he was named in the League Two team of the week , but at the end of the 2006 – 07 season , Barnet announced that his contract would not be renewed . Shortly after his departure from Barnet , Hessenthaler was appointed manager of Dover Athletic of the Isthmian League First Division South . In his first season in charge , he played regularly , making over 30 appearances as he led the team to the championship of the division and promotion to the Isthmian League Premier Division . The following season he led the team to a second consecutive championship as Dover won the Isthmian League Premier Division title to gain promotion to Conference South . In the 2009 – 10 season , Dover reached the play @-@ offs for promotion to the Conference National , but lost at the semi @-@ final stage to Woking . Hessenthaler , at the age of 44 , announced his retirement as a player after the match . On 20 May 2010 , Hessenthaler resigned as Dover manager , and the following day , he became the manager of Gillingham , who had just been relegated to Football League Two , for the second time . His contract was terminated at the end of the 2011 – 12 season after the Gills narrowly missed out on the play @-@ offs for promotion to League One , although he was offered a seat on the board of directors and a " football development role " . He left the position of director of football at Gillingham in 2013 with a view to returning to management . In July 2014 he returned to Gillingham as assistant manager under manager Peter Taylor , and was appointed joint caretaker manager , along with Darren Hare , Steve Lovell and Mark Patterson , following the sacking of Taylor on 31 December 2014 . At the end of the 2014 – 15 season , Hessenthaler left the club to become assistant manager at Leyton Orient . In April 2016 , he was promoted to the position of manager when player @-@ manager Kevin Nolan was stripped of his managerial responsibilities . = = Managerial statistics = = As of 7 May 2016 ‡ : As part of a temporary management team along with Darren Hare , Steve Lovell and Mark Patterson . = = Personal life = = Hessenthaler 's mother died in 1991 , shortly before his first professional match . His father was an aspiring footballer and was at one time on the books of Arsenal , but never played professionally . He is married to Nikki and has a daughter , Jasmine , and a son , Jake , who is a professional footballer and made his debut for Gillingham in December 2013 . His brother @-@ in @-@ law , Darren Hare , is the youth team manager at Gillingham . He is the director of a sports and social club in Gillingham . In February 2012 , former player Mark McCammon began action against Gillingham at an employment tribunal alleging racial discrimination . During the tribunal McCammon claimed that Hessenthaler lost his temper with him after McCammon had accused him of being " racially intolerant " . The tribunal found that the club had indeed racially discriminated against McCammon . = Yeardley Smith = Yeardley Smith ( / ˈjɑːrdliː / ; born Martha Maria Yeardley Smith ; July 3 , 1964 ) is an American actress , voice actress , writer , author , comedian , and painter . She is best known for her long @-@ running role as Lisa Simpson on the animated television series The Simpsons . She was born in Paris and moved with her family to Washington , DC , in 1966 . As a child , Smith was often teased because of her voice . She became a professional actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school and moved to New York City in 1984 , where she appeared in the Broadway production of Tom Stoppard 's The Real Thing . She made her film debut in 1985 's Heaven Help Us , followed by roles in The Legend of Billie Jean and Maximum Overdrive . She moved to Los Angeles in 1986 and received a recurring role in the television series Brothers . In 1987 , she auditioned for a role in a series of animated shorts about the Simpson family on The Tracey Ullman Show . Smith intended to audition for the role of Bart Simpson , but the casting director felt her voice was too high , so she was assigned the role of Lisa , instead . She voiced Lisa for three seasons on The Tracey Ullman Show , and in 1989 , the shorts were spun off into their own half @-@ hour show , The Simpsons . For her work as the character , Smith received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 . Alongside The Simpsons , Smith appeared in the sitcom Herman 's Head as Louise , and had recurring appearances as Marlene on Dharma & Greg and Penny in two episodes of Dead Like Me . She has appeared in several films , including City Slickers , Just Write , Toys and As Good as It Gets . In 2004 , Smith performed her own off @-@ Broadway one @-@ woman show entitled More at the Union Square Theatre in New York City . Aside from The Simpsons , Smith has recorded few voice @-@ over parts , only commercials and the film We 're Back ! A Dinosaur 's Story . Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedy Waiting For Ophelia , which had its world premiere at the Phoenix Film Festival in April 2009 . Smith was married to actor Christopher Grove from 1990 to 1992 and Daniel Erickson from 2002 to 2008 . She enjoys writing and painting . During the first season of Herman 's Head , Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists . She released a children 's book titled I , Lorelei in 2009 and her story " The Race " was included in the book Just Humor Me . = = Early life = = Smith was born Martha Maria Yeardley Smith on July 3 , 1964 , in Paris . Her father , Joseph Smith , worked for United Press International in Paris and moved to Washington , DC , in 1966 , where he became The Washington Post 's first official obituary editor . Her mother , Martha Mayor , was a paper conservator for the Freer and Sackler Galleries at the Smithsonian Institution . Smith 's parents later divorced . Smith labeled her family " upper crust and reserved " . As a child , Smith was often teased because of her unusual voice . Smith has stated : " I 've sounded pretty much the same way since I was six . Maybe [ my voice is ] a little deeper now . " She made her acting debut in a sixth @-@ grade play . = = Career = = = = = Early career = = = Smith became a professional actress in 1982 after graduating from drama school . After appearances in a number of school plays , she joined the local Arena Stage theater group on an apprenticeship , featuring in their production of Peter Pan . She went on to star in several other plays in Washington . She moved to New York City in 1984 and appeared in the Broadway production of Tom Stoppard 's play The Real Thing alongside Jeremy Irons and Glenn Close . Smith 's first film role came in Heaven Help Us ( 1985 ) . She then played Putter in The Legend of Billie Jean ( also 1985 ) . The film was a box office bomb and critically panned , although Smith " thought it would be the movie that launched my career . And then it was out at the box office about 10 days before it died . " When filming was over , she rejoined The Real Thing before being out of work for six months . Smith worried her career was over . However , the following year , she played Connie in Stephen King 's Maximum Overdrive ( 1986 ) , noting it was " truly a dreadful film , but I had a great part in it . " Smith moved to Los Angeles in 1986 on the " semi @-@ promise " of a part in a TV film . After the audition , the role was given to another actress . Smith realized " that people don 't mean what they say . It 's not malicious . They just don 't realize how much impact they have on an impressionable actor – and all actors are impressionable . " From then on , she decided to " just sort of build a wall around myself , " to cope with the disappointment of not getting a part . In Los Angeles , Smith appeared in theatrical productions of Living on Salvation Street , for which she was paid $ 14 for each performance , Boys and Girls / Men and Women , and How the Other Half Loves , and played the recurring role of Louella Waters on the Showtime series Brothers . She appeared in the films The Legend of Billie Jean and Ginger Ale Afternoon ( 1989 ) as " trailer @-@ park girls " . She later spoke of her regrets of appearing in the latter in her one @-@ woman show More . = = = The Simpsons = = = Smith 's longest @-@ running role is voicing Lisa Simpson on The Simpsons . She has voiced Lisa since 1987 , beginning with The Simpsons shorts on The Tracey Ullman Show . Smith had initially been asked to audition for the role of Lisa 's brother Bart , but casting director Bonita Pietila thought her voice was too high . Smith later recalled " I always sounded too much like a girl , I read two lines as Bart and they said , ' Thanks for coming ! ' " Smith was given the role of Lisa , instead . She denies rumors that she almost turned down the role , though admits she had never planned a career in voice @-@ over work . Pietila stated that , having seen her in Living on Salvation Street , Smith was always her preferred choice . Smith lifts her voice up slightly to perform the role . Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith , although in some earlier episodes , she provided some of Maggie 's squeaks and occasional speaking parts . Smith has only voiced characters other than Lisa on very rare occasions , with those characters usually being some derivative of Lisa , such as Lisa Bella in " Last Tap Dance in Springfield " and Lisa , Jr. in " Missionary : Impossible " ( both from season 11 in 2000 ) . Smith spends two days a week recording the show . Until 1998 , Smith was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . During a pay dispute in 1998 , Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing to cast new voices . However , the dispute was soon resolved and she received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 , when the voice actors demanded that they be paid $ 360 @,@ 000 an episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Smith earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . After salary renegotiations in 2008 , the voice actors received about $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Smith and the other cast members accepted a 25 % pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode . Despite her world @-@ famous role , Smith is rarely recognized in public , which she does not mind , saying , " it 's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the show , and people enjoying the show so much , and to be totally a fly on the wall ; people never recognise me solely from my voice . " In a 2009 interview with The Guardian , she commented : " It 's the best job ever . I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedom The Simpsons has bought me in my life . " Smith received a Primetime Emmy Award in 1992 , but felt it was not worth anything , saying " there 's part of me that feels it wasn 't even a real Emmy . " The Emmy for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance is a Creative Arts and not handed out during the primetime telecast and , prior to 2009 , was a juried award without nominations . However , Smith says " if I had to be associated with one character in fiction , I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson . " The show 's creator Matt Groening has called Smith very similar to Lisa : " Yeardley has strong moral views about her character . There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says , ' No , I wouldn 't say that . ' " Writer Jay Kogen praised her performance on the show , particularly in the episode " Lisa 's Substitute " , as able " to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic . " = = = Further career = = = From 1991 to 1994 , alongside The Simpsons , Smith was one of the lead cast members in the sitcom Herman 's Head as Louise . Her other television roles include recurring appearances as Marlene on Dharma & Greg , and Penny in two episodes of Dead Like Me . Smith has also appeared in Phil of the Future and Teen Angel . Her one @-@ scene role as pregnant checkout girl Nancy in 1991 's City Slickers earned her " more attention than all [ her ] previous roles combined , " and taught her " that it 's far better to have small parts in big movies that everyone sees . " In 1997 , she appeared as Lulu the palm reader in the independent film Just Write . Her other roles include parts in Barry Levinson 's Toys and James L. Brooks ' As Good as It Gets . Brooks , who is also executive producer of The Simpsons , had cast Smith in his 1994 film I 'll Do Anything ( in one of the film 's musical numbers ) , but her part was cut . Aside from The Simpsons , Smith has recorded few voice @-@ over parts , only commercials and the film We 're Back ! A Dinosaur 's Story . She " had a voice @-@ over agent for about two years , and I used to go out [ on auditions ] all the time , but it never really came to anything . Everybody said , ' Oh Yeardley , you 'll clean up , ' and that was definitely not the case . " In 2004 , Smith performed her own off @-@ Broadway one @-@ woman show entitled More at the Union Square Theatre in New York City . Directed by Judith Ivey , the play is about her mixed feelings over the success of The Simpsons , her parents , her relationships , and her struggles with bulimia . The New York Times critic Margo Jefferson called it an " appealing if overlong show " , adding that " The career narrative needed shortening . This would involve some editing and revising but wouldn 't taint the best parts of More . It is refreshing to hear a celebrity talk cleanly about being fame @-@ driven and about not getting the degree or the kind of fame you craved . It 's fun to watch a skilled actress use her craft to the full . " She would later perform the play for three weeks in Los Angeles the following year . Smith starred in and served as executive producer for the independent romantic comedy Waiting for Ophelia , which was released in 2009 . She funded the film , which was written by Adam Carl and based on a stage play he wrote in 2003 . She said : " I loved it . I never get to play parts like that . I always play the friend of a friend , never the lead . And the script surprised me . " Carl stated it was very unlikely she would recoup her money , but Smith decided she " believe [ d ] in this project , and my expectations have already been fulfilled by making the movie " , and added : " You can support art even if it 's not going to make a zillion dollars . " It premiered on April 4 , 2009 at the Phoenix Film Festival . In 2011 , Smith starred as Ms. Miller in the movie The Chaperone alongside Triple H and Ariel Winter . In June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of the 2016 Orlando gay nightclub shooting ; in the video , Smith and others told the stories of the people killed there . = = Personal life = = Smith married English @-@ Canadian actor Christopher Grove in 1990 . They were divorced in 1992 , citing irreconcilable differences . She married Daniel Erickson in 2002 ; the marriage lasted for six years and Smith filed for divorce on May 21 , 2008 , citing once again irreconcilable differences . In a 1997 interview with The Daily Targum , Smith stated " I am shy , but I have an extroverted persona which I can draw on when I need to , " and that she is a " private " actress . In 2009 , she commented , " People have said to me that I 'm unassuming . It 's true , I 'm the worst celebrity ever . But I 'm trying to become better . " Smith had bulimia since she was a teenager . She noted " It would make me high , I would feel endorphins and this great sense of victory . " Smith enjoys writing and painting . During the first season of Herman 's Head , Smith taught herself to paint by copying other artists . The book Just Humor Me includes a story , " The Race " , written by Smith . She has written a children 's book , I , Lorelei , which was published by HarperCollins in February 2009 . In 2011 , Smith launched a women 's shoe line called Marchez Vous . = = Filmography = = = = = Film = = = = = = Television = = = = = = Video games = = = = = = Music videos = = = = = = Theme park = = = = Jason Dozzell = Jason Irvin Winans Dozzell ( born 9 December 1967 ) is an English former professional footballer who made more than 500 Football League appearances for Ipswich Town , Tottenham Hotspur , Northampton Town and Colchester United . Dozzell holds the record for being the youngest goalscorer in the England 's top division after scoring for Ipswich Town against Coventry City in a First Division match on 4 February 1984 at the age of 16 years and 57 days ( the youngest goalscorer since the formation of the Premier League is Everton 's James Vaughan , aged 16 years 270 days ) . His son Andre also scored on his Ipswich debut aged 16 . Dozzell has also managed two non @-@ League football clubs , both in the Eastern Counties Football League — Ipswich Wanderers and Leiston . As of October 2008 , he is not managing a club . = = Personal life = = Born in Ipswich , Suffolk , in 1967 , Dozzell attended the local Chantry High School . He has supported local charities , including acting as a patron for " Operation Santa Claus " , run in conjunction with radio station SGR @-@ FM . He played for a " Town Legends " side against a Soccer AM team in 2005 to raise money for the Academy , where his son , Andre , was in the under @-@ 10s team . In 2007 , he was found guilty of driving with excess alcohol and was banned for three years . = = Career = = = = = Playing career = = = Playing football for the Langham Lions in the Colchester Youth League , Dozzell was noted as a " prolific schoolboy scorer " , and was signed on schoolboy terms for Ipswich Town by Bobby Robson despite interest from West Ham United and Nottingham Forest . Selected for the senior squad by manager Bobby Ferguson , Dozzell made his debut for Ipswich Town in February 1984 , coming on as a substitute against Coventry City . Ipswich won the match 2 – 0 ; Dozzell scored late in the second half , becoming the youngest player , at 16 years and 57 days , to score in the old English Football League First Division . He went on to make four further appearances in the 1983 – 84 season . The following season Dozzell made twenty appearances , five of them from the bench , and scored four goals . In the 1985 – 86 season he became a regular starter for Ipswich , scoring five goals in 51 games , although the club were relegated to the Football League Second Division . His 1986 – 87 season saw him play in every game , making 42 league and 11 cup appearances and scoring a single goal . He was also selected for the England under @-@ 21 team , for whom he played nine times without scoring . In the 1988 – 89 season , Dozzell finished as the club 's joint top @-@ scorer ( with John Wark and Dalian Atkinson ) , scoring 13 goals from 37 appearances . The following two seasons saw Dozzell as a regular starter for the team , with 18 goals from 88 appearances . His 16 goals in the 1991 – 92 season helped John Lyall 's Ipswich win the league title and secure promotion to the newly formed Premier League . He featured regularly the following season , scoring nine goals in 52 games and helping the club stave off relegation in their first season back in the top tier of English football . In August 1993 , Dozzell was sold to Tottenham Hotspur for £ 1 @.@ 9 million ; in his first season , he made 32 appearances and scored eight goals . Dozzell suffered numerous injuries during his time at White Hart Lane , restricting the number of games in which he played . In the 1994 – 95 season , he managed just seven appearances and failed to score . He made a total of 99 league and cup appearances and scored 14 goals over his four seasons at the club . Dozzell made a brief return to Portman Road in 1997 , on loan for a month , and made ten appearances before signing for Northampton Town in 1997 . A season with The Cobblers saw him score four goals from 26 appearances and help the club to the play @-@ off final at Wembley Stadium . This was followed by a move to newly promoted Colchester United , initially on a monthly contract , where Dozzell made more than 100 appearances and scored 11 goals in three seasons . Dozzell retired from professional football in 2001 as a result of persistent injuries , in particular an ongoing toe problem . However , he continued playing with non @-@ league clubs ; a brief spell with Canvey Island reunited him with former Colchester and Ipswich player Neil Gregory . Canvey Island released him and he moved on to an even shorter stay with Grays Athletic , who signed him alongside Carl Leaburn . This was followed by a move back to Ipswich and into management . = = = Managerial career = = = Dozzell took his first step into management with Eastern Counties Football League club Ipswich Wanderers in 2003 . In his role as player @-@ manager , he moved to play in defence and secured an eighth @-@ place finish in the league during his first season with the club . The following season , he led them to the league title and promotion to the Eastern Counties League Premier Division . The 2005 – 06 season saw Dozzell lead the newly promoted club to seventh in the league , but despite ending the season with a record tally of points , he left the Wanderers , citing off @-@ pitch issues at the club . Dozzell went on to manage Leiston , but he left in November 2007 . = = Honours = = = = = Club = = = Ipswich Town Football League Second Division Winner ( 1 ) : 1991 – 92 = HMS Queen Mary = HMS Queen Mary was the last battlecruiser built by the Royal Navy before World War I. The sole member of her class , Queen Mary shared many features with the Lion @-@ class battlecruisers , including her eight 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 343 mm ) guns . She was completed in 1913 and participated in the Battle of Heligoland Bight as part of the Grand Fleet in 1914 . Like most of the modern British battlecruisers , she never left the North Sea during the war . As part of the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron , she attempted to intercept a German force that bombarded the North Sea coast of England in December 1914 , but was unsuccessful . She was refitting in early 1915 and missed the Battle of Dogger Bank in January , but participated in the largest fleet action of the war , the Battle of Jutland in mid @-@ 1916 . She was hit twice by the German battlecruiser Derfflinger during the early part of the battle and her magazines exploded shortly afterwards , sinking the ship . Her wreck was discovered in 1991 and rests in pieces , some of which are upside down , on the floor of the North Sea . Queen Mary is designated as a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 as it is the grave of 1 @,@ 266 officers and men . = = Design = = Queen Mary was ordered , together with the four battleships of the King George V class , under the 1910 – 11 Naval Programme . As was the usual pattern of the time , only one battlecruiser was ordered per naval programme . She differed from her predecessors of the Lion class in the distribution of her secondary armament and armour and in the location of the officers ' quarters . Every capital ship since the design of the battleship HMS Dreadnought in 1905 had placed the officers ' quarters closer to their action stations amidships ; after complaints from the Fleet , Queen Mary was the first battlecruiser to restore the quarters to their traditional place in the stern . In addition , she was the first battlecruiser to mount a sternwalk . Queen Mary , the only ship of her name ever to serve in the Royal Navy , was named for Mary of Teck , the wife of King George V. The Queen 's representative at the ship 's christening on 20 March 1912 was the wife of Viscount Allendale . = = = General characteristics = = = Slightly larger than the preceding Lion @-@ class ships , Queen Mary had an overall length of 703 feet 6 inches ( 214 @.@ 4 m ) including her sternwalk , a beam of 89 feet 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 27 @.@ 1 m ) , and a draught of 32 feet 4 inches ( 9 @.@ 9 m ) at deep load . The ship normally displaced 26 @,@ 770 long tons ( 27 @,@ 200 t ) and 31 @,@ 650 long tons ( 32 @,@ 160 t ) at deep load , over 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 016 t ) more than the earlier ships . She had a metacentric height of 5 @.@ 92 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) at deep load . In peacetime the crew numbered 997 officers and enlisted men , but this increased to 1 @,@ 275 during wartime . = = = Propulsion = = = The ship had two paired sets of Parsons direct @-@ drive steam turbines housed in separate engine rooms . Each set consisted of a high @-@ pressure turbine driving an outboard propeller shaft and a low @-@ pressure turbine driving an inner shaft . A cruising stage was built into the casing of each high @-@ pressure turbine for economical steaming at low speeds . The turbines had a designed output of 75 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 56 @,@ 000 kW ) , 5 @,@ 000 shp ( 3 @,@ 700 kW ) more than her predecessors . On sea trials in May and June 1913 , Queen Mary achieved more than 83 @,@ 000 shp ( 62 @,@ 000 kW ) , although she barely exceeded her designed speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The steam plant consisted of 42 Yarrow large @-@ tube boilers arranged in seven boiler rooms . Maximum bunkerage was 3 @,@ 600 long tons ( 3 @,@ 660 t ) of coal and 1 @,@ 170 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) of fuel oil to be sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate . Her range was 5 @,@ 610 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 390 km ; 6 @,@ 460 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . = = = Armament = = = Queen Mary mounted eight BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk V guns in four twin hydraulically powered turrets , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' Q ' and ' X ' from bow to stern . The guns could be depressed to − 3 ° and elevated to 20 ° , although the director controlling the turrets was limited to 15 ° 21 ' until prisms were installed before the Battle of Jutland in May 1916 to allow full elevation . They fired 1 @,@ 250 @-@ pound ( 567 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 550 ft / s ( 780 m / s ) ; at 20 ° elevation , this provided a maximum range of 23 @,@ 820 yd ( 21 @,@ 781 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . The rate of fire of these guns was 1 @.@ 5 – 2 rounds per minute . Queen Mary carried a total of 880 rounds during wartime for 110 shells per gun . Her secondary armament consisted of sixteen BL 4 @-@ inch Mk VII guns , most of which were mounted in casemates on the forecastle deck , unlike the arrangement in the Lion class . The guns could depress to − 7 ° and had a maximum elevation of 15 ° . They fired 31 @-@ pound ( 14 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 821 ft / s ( 860 m / s ) at a maximum range of 11 @,@ 400 yd ( 10 @,@ 400 m ) ; the ship carried 150 rounds per gun . The ship was built without any anti @-@ aircraft guns , but two guns were fitted in October 1914 . One was a QF 6 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss gun and the other was a QF 3 @-@ inch 20 cwt , both on high @-@ angle mountings . The Hotchkiss fired a 6 @-@ pound ( 2 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 773 ft / s ( 540 m / s ) . The three @-@ inch gun fired a 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 7 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 604 ft / s ( 794 m / s ) with a maximum effective ceiling of 23 @,@ 000 ft ( 7 @,@ 010 m ) . Two 21 @-@ inch ( 530 mm ) submerged torpedo tubes were fitted , one on each broadside . Fourteen Mk II * * * torpedoes were carried , each of which had a warhead of 400 pounds ( 181 kg ) of TNT . Their range was 4 @,@ 500 yards ( 4 @,@ 115 m ) at 45 knots ( 83 km / h ; 52 mph ) or 10 @,@ 000 yards ( 9 @,@ 144 m ) at 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) . = = = Fire @-@ control = = = In February 1913 , the Admiralty bought five sets of fire @-@ control equipment from Arthur Pollen for comparative trials with the equipment designed by Commander Frederic Dreyer . One set was mounted in Queen Mary and consisted of a 9 @-@ foot ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) Argo rangefinder located on top of the conning tower that fed range data into an Argo Clock Mk IV ( a mechanical fire @-@ control computer ) located in the transmitting station below the conning tower . The clock converted the information into range and deflection data for use by the guns . The target 's data was also graphically recorded on a plotting table to assist the gunnery officer in predicting the movement of the target . The aft torpedo director tower was the backup gunnery control position . All four turrets were provided with 9 @-@ foot rangefinders and ' B ' and ' X ' turrets were further outfitted to serve as auxiliary control positions . Fire @-@ control technology advanced quickly during the years immediately preceding World War I , and the development of the director firing system was a major advance . This consisted of a fire @-@ control director mounted high in the ship which electrically provided elevation and training angles to the turrets via pointers , which the turret crewmen only had to follow . The guns were fired simultaneously , which aided in spotting the shell splashes and minimized the effects of the roll on the dispersion of the shells . Queen Mary received her director before the Battle of Jutland . = = = Armour = = = The armour protection given to Queen Mary was similar to that of the Lions ; her waterline belt of Krupp cemented armour was also 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick between ' B ' and ' X ' turrets . It thinned to 4 inches ( 102 mm ) inches towards the ships ' ends , but did not reach either the bow or the stern . In addition the ship was given an upper armour belt with a maximum thickness of six inches over the same length as the thickest part of the waterline armour , thinning to 5 inches ( 127 mm ) abreast the end turrets . Four @-@ inch transverse bulkheads closed off the ends of the armoured citadel . High @-@ tensile steel plating , cheaper than nickel @-@ steel , but equally as effective , was used for the protective decks . The lower armoured deck was generally only 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick except outside the citadel where it was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) . The upper armoured deck was situated at the top of the upper armour belt and was also only one inch thick . The forecastle deck ranged from 1 to 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 25 @.@ 4 to 38 @.@ 1 mm ) . The gun turrets had nine @-@ inch fronts and sides , while their roofs were 2 @.@ 5 to 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 64 to 83 mm ) thick . The barbettes were protected by nine inches of armour above the deck , but it thinned to 8 inches ( 203 mm ) above the upper armour deck and 3 inches ( 76 mm ) below it . The forward 4 @-@ inch guns were protected by three @-@ inch sides and a two @-@ inch high @-@ tensile steel deck overhead . The conning tower sides were 10 inches ( 254 mm ) thick , with three @-@ inch roofs and communication tubes . Her aft torpedo director tower was protected by six @-@ inch walls and a three @-@ inch cast steel roof . High @-@ tensile steel torpedo bulkheads 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick were fitted abreast the magazines and shell rooms . Her funnel uptakes were protected by high @-@ tensile steel splinter armour 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) thick on the sides and one inch thick on the ends between the upper and forecastle decks . = = Service = = = = = Pre @-@ war career = = = Queen Mary was laid down at Palmers Shipbuilding and Iron Company , Jarrow , on 6 March 1911 . She was launched on 20 March 1912 and was completed in August 1913 at a total cost of £ 2 @,@ 078 @,@ 491 ( including guns ) . The ship came under the command of Captain Reginald Hall on 1 July and was the last battlecruiser commissioned before the start of World War I , being commissioned on 4 September 1913 . Assigned to the 1st Battlecruiser Squadron ( BCS ) under the command of Rear Admiral David Beatty , Queen Mary and the rest of the 1st BCS made a port visit to Brest in February 1914 and the squadron visited Russia in June . = = = World War I = = = = = = = Battle of Heligoland Bight = = = = Queen Mary 's first action was as part of the battlecruiser force under the command of Beatty during the Battle of Heligoland Bight on 28 August 1914 . Beatty 's ships had originally been intended as distant support of the British cruisers and destroyers closer to the German coast in case the large ships of the High Seas Fleet sortied in response to the British attacks . They turned south at full speed at 11 : 35 when the British light forces failed to disengage on schedule , and the rising tide meant that German capital ships would be able to clear the bar at the mouth of the Jade Estuary . The brand @-@ new light cruiser HMS Arethusa had been crippled earlier in the battle and was under fire from the German light cruisers SMS Strassburg and SMS Cöln when Beatty 's battlecruisers loomed out of the mist at 12 : 37 . Strassburg was able to duck into the mists and evade fire , but Cöln remained visible and was quickly crippled by fire from the squadron . Beatty , however , was distracted from the task of finishing her off by the sudden appearance of the elderly light cruiser SMS Ariadne directly ahead of him . He turned in pursuit and reduced her to a flaming hulk in only three salvos at close range ( under 6000 yards or 5 @.@ 5 km ) . At 13 : 10 Beatty turned north and made a general signal to retire . Beatty 's main body encountered the crippled Cöln shortly after turning north , and she was sunk by two salvos from HMS Lion . = = = = Raid on Scarborough = = = = The Imperial German Navy had decided on a strategy of bombarding British towns on the North Sea coast in an attempt to draw out the Royal Navy and destroy elements of it in detail . An earlier Raid on Yarmouth on 3 November had been partially successful , but a larger @-@ scale operation was devised by Admiral Franz von Hipper afterwards . The fast battle @-@ cruisers were to conduct the bombardment , while the entire High Seas Fleet was to station itself east of Dogger Bank to provide cover for their return and to destroy any elements of the Royal Navy that responded to the raid . But what the Germans did not know was that the British were reading the German naval codes and were planning to catch the raiding force on its return journey , although they were not aware that the High Seas Fleet would be at sea as well . Beatty 's 1st BCS , now reduced to four ships , including Lion , together with the 2nd Battle Squadron with six dreadnoughts , was detached from the Grand Fleet in an attempt to intercept the Germans near Dogger Bank . By this time , Queen Mary was commanded by Captain C. I. Prowse . Hipper set sail on 15 December 1914 for another such raid and successfully bombarded several English towns , but British destroyers escorting the 1st BCS had already encountered German destroyers of the High Seas Fleet at 05 : 15 and fought an inconclusive action with them . Vice Admiral Sir George Warrender , commanding the 2nd Battle Squadron , had received a signal at 5 : 40 that the destroyer HMS Lynx was engaging enemy destroyers although Beatty had not . The destroyer HMS Shark spotted the armoured cruiser SMS Roon and her escorts at about 07 : 00 , but could not transmit the message until 07 : 25 . Warrender received the signal , as did the battlecruiser HMS New Zealand , but Beatty did not , despite the fact that New Zealand had been specifically tasked to relay messages between the destroyers and Beatty . Warrender attempted to pass on Shark 's message to Beatty at 7 : 36 , but did not manage to make contact until 07 : 55 . Beatty reversed course when he got the message and dispatched New Zealand to search for Roon . She was being overhauled by New Zealand when Beatty received messages that Scarborough was being shelled at 09 : 00 . Beatty ordered New Zealand to rejoin the squadron and turned west for Scarborough . The British forces split going around the shallow Southwest Patch of the Dogger Bank ; Beatty 's ships passed to the north , while Warrender passed to the south as they headed west to block the main route through the minefields defending the English coast . This left a 15 @-@ nautical @-@ mile ( 28 km ; 17 mi ) gap between them through which the German light forces began to move . At 12 : 25 , the light cruisers of the II Scouting Group began to pass the British forces searching for Hipper . The light cruiser HMS Southampton spotted the light cruiser SMS Stralsund and signalled a report to Beatty . At 12 : 30 Beatty turned his battlecruisers towards the German ships . Beatty presumed that the German cruisers were the advance screen for Hipper 's ships , however , those were some 50 km ( 31 mi ) behind . The 2nd Light Cruiser Squadron , which had been screening for Beatty 's ships , detached to pursue the German cruisers , but a misinterpreted signal from the British battlecruisers sent them back to their screening positions . This confusion allowed the German light cruisers to escape , and alerted Hipper to the location of the British battlecruisers . The German battlecruisers wheeled to the northeast of the British forces and made good their escape . Queen Mary was refitting in January and February 1915 and did not participate in the Battle of Dogger Bank ; she received her main battery director in December 1915 . = = = = Battle of Jutland = = = = On 31 May 1916 Queen Mary put to sea with the rest of the Battlecruiser Fleet to intercept a sortie by the High Seas Fleet into the North Sea . The British were able to decode the German radio messages and left their bases before the Germans put to sea . Hipper 's battlecruisers spotted the Battlecruiser Fleet to their west at 15 : 20 , but Beatty 's ships did not spot the Germans to their east until 15 : 30 . Two minutes later , he ordered a course change to east south @-@ east to position himself astride the German 's line of retreat and called his ships ' crews to action stations . Hipper ordered his ships to turn to starboard , away from the British , almost 180 degrees , to assume a south @-@ easterly course , and reduced speed to 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) to allow three light cruisers of the 2nd Scouting Group to catch up . With this turn Hipper was falling back on the High Seas Fleet , then about 60 miles ( 97 km ) behind him . Around this time Beatty altered course to the east , as it was quickly apparent that he was still too far north to cut off Hipper . This began what was to be called the " Run to the South " as Beatty changed course to steer east @-@ southeast at 15 : 45 , paralleling Hipper 's course , now that the range closed to under 18 @,@ 000 yards ( 16 @,@ 000 m ) . The Germans opened fire first at 15 : 48 , followed by the British . The British ships were still in the process of making their turn , as only the two leading ships , Lion and HMS Princess Royal , had steadied on their course when the Germans opened fire . The German fire was accurate from the beginning , but the British overestimated the range , as the German ships blended into the haze . Queen Mary opened fire about 15 : 50 on SMS Seydlitz , using only her forward turrets . By 15 : 54 the range was down to 12 @,@ 900 yards ( 11 @,@ 800 m ) , and Beatty ordered a course change two points to starboard to open up the range at 15 : 57 . During this period , Queen Mary made two hits on Seydlitz , at 15 : 55 and 15 : 57 , one of which caused a propellant fire that burnt out her aft superfiring turret . The range had grown too far for accurate shooting , so Beatty altered course four points to port to close the range again between 16 : 12 and 16 : 15 . This manoeuvre exposed Lion to the fire of the German battlecruisers , and she was hit several times . The smoke and fumes from these hits caused SMS Derfflinger to lose sight of Lion , which had sheered out of line to starboard , and to switch her fire to Queen Mary , now visible to Derfflinger 's gunnery officer as the second ship in the British line and therefore assumed to be Princess Royal , at 16 : 16 . Queen Mary hit Seydlitz again at 16 : 17 and knocked out one gun of her secondary armament . In return , Queen Mary had been hit twice by Seydlitz before 16 : 21 with unknown effects , but the German battlecruiser hit the turret face of ' Q ' turret at that time and knocked out the right @-@ hand gun in the turret . By 16 : 25 the range was down to 14 @,@ 400 yards ( 13 @,@ 200 m ) , and Beatty turned two points to starboard to open the range again . This move came too late , however , for Queen Mary , as Derfflinger 's fire began to take effect , hitting her twice before 16 : 26 . One shell hit forward and detonated one or both of the forward magazines , which broke the ship in two near the foremast . Stationed inside ' Q ' turret , Midshipman Jocelyn Latham Storey survived and reported that there had been a large explosion forward which rocked the turret , breaking the left gun in half , the gun breech falling into the working chamber and the right gun coming off its trunnions . Cordite in the working chamber caught fire and produced poisonous fumes that asphyxiated some of the turret 's crew . It is doubtful that an explosion forward could have done this , so ' Q ' turret may have been struck by the second shell . A further explosion , possibly from shells breaking loose , shook the aft end of the ship as it began to roll over and sink . The battlecruiser behind her , HMS Tiger , was showered with debris from the explosion and forced to steer to port to avoid her remains . 1 @,@ 266 crewmen were lost ; eighteen survivors were picked up by the destroyers HMS Laurel , HMS Petard , and HMS Tipperary , and two by the Germans . = = Aftermath = = Queen Mary , along with the other Jutland wrecks , has been declared a protected place under the Protection of Military Remains Act 1986 to discourage further damage to the resting place of 1 @,@ 266 officers and men . Surveys of this site conducted by nautical archaeologist Innes McCartney in 2001 – 03 have shown the wreck is in three sections , with the two forward sections being heavily damaged and in pieces . Her aft end is upside down and relatively complete except for her propellers , which have been salvaged . Examination of the damage to the ship has suggested that the initial explosion was not in the magazine of ' A ' or ' B ' forward main turrets , but instead in the magazine of the forward 4 @-@ inch battery . An explosion of the quantity of cordite in the main magazine would have been sufficient to also ignite ' Q ' magazine , destroying much more of the ship . The explosion in the smaller magazine would have been sufficient to break the ship in two , the blast then spreading to the forward magazine and ripping apart the forward section . = SM U @-@ 1 ( Austria @-@ Hungary ) = SM U @-@ 1 or U @-@ I was the lead boat of her class of submarine or U @-@ boat built for and operated by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ( German : Kaiserliche und Königliche Kriegsmarine or K.u.K. Kriegsmarine ) . U @-@ 1 was designed by American Simon Lake 's Lake Torpedo Boat Company and built at the navy yard in Pola . She was one of two Lake @-@ designed submarines purchased as part of a competitive evaluation of foreign submarine designs . U @-@ 1 was launched in February 1909 and was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long and displaced between 230 and 249 tonnes ( 254 and 274 short tons ) depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She was originally powered by gasoline engines for surface running , but during her trials , they were found to be incapable of reaching the contracted speed . U @-@ 1 was commissioned in April 1911 and served as a training boat through 1914 . At the beginning of World War I , U @-@ 1 was in drydock awaiting new batteries and replacement diesel engines . U @-@ 1 returned to service as a training boat until October 1915 . From November she conducted reconnaissance cruises out of Trieste and Pola until she was declared obsolete in early 1918 . She continued to serve in a training role at the submarine base on Brioni , but was at Pola at the end of the war . She was awarded to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 and scrapped at Pola . U @-@ 1 did not sink any ships during the war . = = Design and construction = = U @-@ 1 was built as part of a plan by the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy to competitively evaluate foreign submarine designs from Simon Lake , Germaniawerft , and John Philip Holland . The Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy ordered plans for U @-@ 1 ( and sister ship U @-@ 2 ) in 1906 from the Lake Torpedo Boat Company of Bridgeport , Connecticut . U @-@ 1 was built at the Pola Navy Yard and was launched on 10 February 1909 . U @-@ 1 had several features typical of Lake 's designs , including a diving chamber under the bow and two variable pitch propellers . Lake 's design also called for two retractable wheels that allowed travel over the seabed . The design also placed the diving tanks above the waterline of the single , cylindrical hull , which necessitated a heavy ballast keel for vertical stability . This arrangement required mechanical pumping , a procedure that took 8 minutes . U @-@ 1 's propulsion system consisted of two gasoline engines for surface running and two electric motors for running while submerged . The boat was 100 feet ( 30 m ) long by 15 feet 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 80 m ) abeam and had a draft of 12 feet 8 inches ( 3 @.@ 86 m ) . As designed , her displacement was 229 @.@ 7 long tons ( 233 @.@ 4 t ) surfaced and 248 @.@ 9 long tons ( 252 @.@ 9 t ) submerged . She was outfitted with three 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes — two in the bow , one in the stern — and could carry up to five torpedoes , but typically carried three . U @-@ 1 was also armed with a 3	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
@.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) deck gun . = = Service career = = Upon U @-@ 1 's completion , the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy conducted trials of the submarine throughout most of 1910 . On 5 April both of U @-@ 1 's electric motors were damaged in a flooding incident during her trials . U @-@ 1 's gasoline engines were never able to meet the speed called for in the contract during the Navy evaluations , and were considered not suitable for wartime use . As a result , the Navy only paid for U @-@ 1 's hull and armament , and arranged a lease of the gasoline engines while replacement diesel engines were ordered from the Austrian firm Maschinenfabrik Leobersdorf . Despite the engine problems , U @-@ 1 and her sister ship had the best performance in diving and steering amongst the U @-@ boats under evaluation by the Navy . U @-@ 1 was commissioned into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Navy on 15 April 1911 and served as a training boat — conducting up to ten training cruises per month — through 1914 . On 13 January 1914 , the submarine was accidentally rammed by the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser Sankt Georg in the Fasana Channel , which damaged the her periscope . At the outbreak of World War I , U @-@ 1 was in drydock awaiting the installation of new batteries and her new diesel engines . To accommodate the new engines , she was lengthened by about 11 inches ( 28 cm ) . The modifications and new engines lowered her surface displacement to 223 @.@ 0 tonnes ( 245 @.@ 8 short tons ) but increased her submerged displacement to 277 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 305 @.@ 9 short tons ) . Upon completion in early 1915 , U @-@ 1 returned to training duties through 4 October . She was stationed at Trieste in early November and conducted reconnaissance cruises from that port through December 1917 , when she was assigned to the naval base at Pola . On 11 January 1918 , she was declared obsolete , but was retained as a training boat at the submarine base on Brioni . U @-@ 1 was at Pola at the war 's end , and was scrapped after her cession to Italy as a war reparation in 1920 . U @-@ 1 did not sink any ships during the war . = James Whale = James Whale ( 22 July 1889 – 29 May 1957 ) was an English film director , theatre director and actor . He is best remembered for his four classic horror films : Frankenstein ( 1931 ) , The Old Dark House ( 1932 ) , The Invisible Man ( 1933 ) and Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) . Whale also directed films in other genres , including what is considered the definitive film version of the musical Show Boat ( 1936 ) . He became increasingly disenchanted with his association with horror , but many of his non @-@ horror films have fallen into obscurity . Whale was born into a large family in Dudley , in the Black Country area of the English West Midlands . He discovered his artistic talent early on and studied art . With the outbreak of World War I , he enlisted in the British Army and became an officer . He was captured by the Germans and during his time as a prisoner of war he realized he was interested in drama . Following his release at the end of the war he became an actor , set designer and director . His success directing the 1928 play Journey 's End led to his move to the United States , first to direct the play on Broadway and then to Hollywood to direct motion pictures . He lived in Hollywood for the rest of his life , most of that time with his longtime companion , producer David Lewis . Apart from Journey 's End ( 1930 ) , which was released by Tiffany Films , and Hell 's Angels ( 1930 ) , released by United Artists , he directed a dozen films for Universal Studios between 1931 and 1937 , developing a style characterized by the influence of German Expressionism and a highly mobile camera . At the height of his career as a director , Whale directed The Road Back ( 1937 ) , a sequel to All Quiet on the Western Front . Studio interference , possibly spurred by political pressure from Nazi Germany , led to the film 's being altered from Whale 's vision and The Road Back was a critical and commercial failure . A run of similar box @-@ office disappointments followed and , while he would make one final short film in 1950 , by 1941 his film directing career was over . He continued to direct for the stage and also rediscovered his love for painting and travel . His investments made him wealthy and he lived a comfortable retirement until suffering strokes in 1956 that robbed him of his vigor and left him in pain . He committed suicide on 29 May 1957 by drowning himself in his swimming pool . Whale was openly gay throughout his career , something that was very unusual in the 1920s and 1930s . As knowledge of his sexual orientation has become more common , some of his films , Bride of Frankenstein in particular , have been interpreted as having a gay subtext and it has been claimed that his refusal to remain in the closet led to the end of his career . However , his associates dismissed the notions that his sexuality informed his work or that it cost him his career . = = Early years = = Whale was born in Dudley , England , the sixth of the seven children of William , a blast furnaceman , and Sarah , a nurse . He attended Kates Hill Board School , followed by Bayliss Charity School and finally Dudley Blue Coat School . His attendance stopped in his teenage years because the cost would have been prohibitive and his labor was needed to help support the family . Thought not physically strong enough to follow his brothers into the local heavy industries , Whale started work as a cobbler , reclaiming the nails he recovered from replaced soles and selling them for scrap for extra money . He discovered he had some artistic ability and earned additional money lettering signs and price tags for his neighbors . Whale used his additional income to pay for evening classes at the Dudley School of Arts and Crafts . World War I broke out in 1914 . Although Whale had little interest in the politics behind the war , he realized that conscription was inevitable so he enlisted in the Army . Considered because of his age a good candidate for officer training , Whale joined the Inns of Court Officer Training Corps in October 1915 and was stationed in Bristol . He was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Worcestershire Regiment in July 1916 . He was taken a prisoner of war on the Western Front in Flanders in August 1917 and was held at Holzminden prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp , where he remained until December 1918 . While imprisoned , he became actively involved , as an actor , writer , producer , and set @-@ designer , in the amateur theatrical productions which took place in the camp , finding them " a source of great pleasure and amusement " . He also developed a talent for poker , and after the war he cashed in the chits and IOUs from his fellow prisoners to serve as a nest egg . = = Career = = = = = Theatre = = = After the armistice he returned to Birmingham and tried to find work as a cartoonist . He sold two cartoons to the Bystander in 1919 but was unable to secure a permanent position . Later in 1919 Whale embarked on a professional stage career . Under the tutelage of actor @-@ manager Nigel Playfair , he worked as an actor , set designer and builder , " stage director " ( akin to a stage manager ) and director . In 1922 , while with Playfair , he met Doris Zinkeisen . The two were considered a couple for some two years , despite Whale 's living as an openly gay man . The couple was reportedly engaged in 1924 but by 1925 the engagement was off . In 1928 Whale was offered the opportunity to direct two private performances of R. C. Sherriff 's then @-@ unknown play Journey 's End for the Incorporated Stage Society , a theatre society that mounted private Sunday performances of plays . Set over a four @-@ day period in March 1918 in the trenches at Saint @-@ Quentin , France , Journey 's End gives a glimpse into the experiences of the officers of a British Army infantry company in World War I. The key conflict is between Captain Stanhope , the company commander , and Lieutenant Raleigh , the brother of Stanhope 's fiancée . Whale offered the part of Stanhope to the then @-@ barely known Laurence Olivier . Olivier initially declined the role , but after meeting the playwright agreed to take it on . Maurice Evans was cast as Raleigh . The play was well received and transferred to the Savoy Theatre in London 's West End , opening on 21 January 1929 . A young Colin Clive was now in the lead role , Olivier having accepted an offer to take the lead in a production of Beau Geste . The play was a tremendous success , with critics uniform and effusive in their praise and with audiences sometimes sitting in stunned silence following its conclusion only to burst into thunderous ovations . As Whale biographer James Curtis wrote , the play " managed to coalesce , at the right time and in the right manner , the impressions of a whole generation of men who were in the war and who had found it impossible , through words or deeds , to adequately express to their friends and families what the trenches had been like " . After three weeks at the Savoy , Journey 's End transferred to the Prince of Wales Theatre , where it ran for the next two years . With the success of Journey 's End at home , Broadway producer Gilbert Miller acquired the rights to mount a New York production with an all @-@ British cast headed by Colin Keith @-@ Johnston as Stanhope and Derek Williams as Raleigh . Whale also directed this version , which premiered at Henry Miller 's Theatre on 22 March 1929 . The play ran for over a year and cemented its reputation as the greatest play about World War I. = = = Early work in Hollywood = = = The success of the various productions of Journey 's End brought Whale to the attention of film producers . Coming at a time when motion pictures were making the transition from silent to talking , producers were interested in hiring actors and directors with experience with dialogue . Whale traveled to Hollywood in 1929 and signed a contract with Paramount Pictures . He was assigned as " dialogue director " for a film called The Love Doctor ( 1929 ) . Whale completed work on the film in 15 days and his contract was allowed to expire . It was at around this time that he met David Lewis . Whale was hired by independent film producer and aviation pioneer Howard Hughes , who planned to turn the previously silent Hughes production Hell 's Angels ( 1930 ) into a talkie . He directed the dialogue sequences . When his work for Hughes was completed , Whale headed to Chicago to direct another production of Journey 's End . Having purchased the film rights to Journey 's End , British producers Michael Balcon and Thomas Welsh agreed that Whale 's experience directing the London and Broadway productions of the play made him the best choice to direct the film . The two partnered with a small American studio , Tiffany @-@ Stahl , to shoot the film in New York . Colin Clive reprised his role as Stanhope , and David Manners was cast as Raleigh . Filming got underway on 6 December 1929 and wrapped on 22 January 1930 . Journey 's End was released in Great Britain on 14 April and in the United States on 15 April . On both sides of the Atlantic the film was a tremendous critical and commercial success . = = = With the Laemmles at Universal = = = Universal Studios signed Whale to a five @-@ year contract in 1931 and his first project was Waterloo Bridge . Based on the Broadway play by Robert E. Sherwood , the film stars Mae Clarke as Myra , a chorus girl in World War I London who becomes a prostitute . It too was a critical and popular success . At around this time , Whale and Lewis began living together . In 1931 , Universal chief Carl Laemmle , Jr. offered Whale his choice of any property the studio owned . Whale chose Frankenstein , mostly because none of Universal 's other properties particularly interested him and he wanted to make something other than a war picture . While the novel itself was in the public domain , Universal owned the filming rights to a stage adaptation by Peggy Webling . Whale cast Colin Clive as Henry Frankenstein and Mae Clarke as his fiancée Elizabeth . For the Monster , he turned to an unknown actor named Boris Karloff . Shooting began on 24 August 1931 and wrapped on 3 October . Previews were held 29 October , with wide release on 21 November . Frankenstein was an instant hit with critics and the public . The film received glowing reviews and shattered box office records across the United States , earning Universal $ 12 million on first release . Next from Whale were The Impatient Maiden and The Old Dark House ( both 1932 ) . The Impatient Maiden made little impression but The Old Dark House is credited with reinventing the " dark house " subgenre of horror films . Thought lost for some years , a print was found by filmmaker Curtis Harrington in the Universal vaults in 1968 and restored by George Eastman House . Whale 's next film was The Kiss Before the Mirror ( 1933 ) , a critical success but a box @-@ office failure . He returned to horror with The Invisible Man ( 1933 ) . Shot from a script approved by H. G. Wells , the film was a blended horror with humor and confounding visual effects . It was critically acclaimed , with The New York Times listing it as one of the ten best films of the year , and broke box @-@ office records in cities across America . So highly regarded was the film that France , which restricted the number of theatres in which undubbed American films could play , granted it a special waiver because of its " extraordinary artistic merit " . Also in 1933 Whale directed the romantic comedy By Candlelight which gained good reviews and was a modest box office hit . In 1934 he directed One More River , an adaptation of the novel of the same name by John Galsworthy . The film tells the story of a woman desperate to escape her abusive marriage to a member of the British aristocracy . This was the first of Whale 's films for which Production Code Administration approval was required and Universal had a difficult time securing that approval because of the elements of sexual sadism implicit in the husband 's abusive behavior . Bride of Frankenstein ( 1935 ) was Whale 's next project . He had resisted making a sequel to Frankenstein as he feared being pigeonholed as a horror director . Bride hearkened back to an episode from Mary Shelley 's original novel in which the Monster promises to leave Frankenstein and humanity alone if Frankenstein makes him a mate . He does , but the mate is repelled by the monster who then , setting Frankenstein and his wife free to live , chooses to destroy himself and his " bride . " The film was a critical and box office success , having earned some $ 2 million for Universal by 1943 . Lauded as " the finest of all gothic horror movies " , Bride is frequently hailed as Whale 's masterpiece . With the success of Bride Laemmle was eager to put Whale to work on Dracula 's Daughter ( 1936 ) , the sequel to Universal 's first big horror hit of the sound era . Whale , wary of doing two horror films in a row and concerned that directing Dracula 's Daughter could interfere with his plans for the first all @-@ sound version of Show Boat , ( previously filmed as a part @-@ talkie by Harry A. Pollard ) , instead convinced Laemmle to buy the rights to a novel called The Hangover Murders . The novel is a comedy @-@ mystery in the style of The Thin Man , about a group of friends who were so drunk the night one of them was murdered that none can remember anything . Retitled Remember Last Night ? , the film was one of Whale 's personal favorites , but met with sharply divided reviews and commercial disinterest . With the completion of Remember Last Night ? Whale immediately went to work on Show Boat ( 1936 ) . Whale gathered as many of those as he could who had been involved in one production or another of the musical , including Helen Morgan , Paul Robeson , Charles Winninger , Sammy White , conductor Victor Baravalle , orchestrator Robert Russell Bennett , and , as Magnolia , Irene Dunne , who believed that Whale was the wrong director for the piece . The 1936 version of Show Boat , faithfully adapted from the original stage production , is believed to be the definitive film version of the musical by many critics. but became unavailable following the 1951 remake . Warner 's has remastered this version and is presently offering stamped DVDs for a limited time ; thereafter , this version will be available on a DVD @-@ on @-@ demand basis using DVD @-@ Rs . This was the last of Whale 's films to be produced under the Laemmle family . The studio was now bankrupt , and the Laemmles lost control to J. Cheever Cowdin , head of the Standard Capital Corporation , and Charles R. Rogers , who was installed in Junior Laemmle 's old job . = = = Career in decline = = = Whale 's career went into sharp decline following the release of his next film , The Road Back ( 1937 ) . The sequel to Erich Maria Remarque 's All Quiet on the Western Front , which Universal had filmed in 1930 , the novel and film follow the lives of several young German men who have returned from the trenches of World War I and their struggles to re @-@ integrate into society . The Los Angeles consul for Nazi Germany , George Gyssling , learned that the film was in production . He protested to PCA enforcer Joseph Breen , arguing that the film gave an " untrue and distorted picture of the German people " . Gyssling eventually met Whale , but nothing came of it . Gyssling then sent letters to members of the cast , threatening that their participation in the film might lead to difficulties in obtaining German filming permits for them and for anyone associated in a film with them . While the low volume of business conducted by Universal in Germany made such threats largely hollow , the State Department , under pressure from the Hollywood Anti @-@ Nazi League and the Screen Actors Guild , stepped in and the German government backed down . Whale 's original cut of the film was given generally positive reviews , but sometime between preview screenings and the film 's general release , Rogers capitulated to the Germans , ordering that cuts be made and additional scenes be shot and inserted . Whale was furious , and the altered film was banned in Germany anyway . The Germans were successful in persuading China , Greece , Italy and Switzerland to ban the film as well . Following the debacle of The Road Back , Charles Rogers tried to get out of his contract with Whale ; Whale refused . Rogers then assigned him to a string of B movies to run out his contractual obligation . Whale only made one additional successful feature film , The Man in the Iron Mask ( 1939 ) , before retiring from the film industry in 1941 . = = Post @-@ film life = = With his film career behind him , Whale found himself at a loose end . He was offered the occasional job , including the opportunity to direct Since You Went Away for David O. Selznick , but turned them down . Lewis , meanwhile , was busier than ever with his production duties and often worked late hours , leaving Whale lonely and bored . Lewis bought him a supply of paint and canvasses and Whale re @-@ discovered his love of painting . Eventually he built a large studio for himself . With the outbreak of World War II , Whale volunteered his services to make a training film for the United States Army . He shot the film , called Personnel Placement in the Army , in February 1942 . Later that year , in association with actress Claire DuBrey , he created the Brentwood Service Players . The Players took over a 100 – seat theatre . Sixty seats were provided free of charge to service personnel ; the remaining were sold to the public , with the box office proceeds donated to wartime charities . The group expanded to the Playtime Theatre during the summer , where a series of shows ran through October . Whale returned to Broadway in 1944 to direct the psychological thriller Hand in Glove . It was his first return to Broadway since his failed One , Two , Three ! in 1930 . Hand in Glove would fare no better than his earlier play , running the same number of performances , 40 . Whale directed his final film in 1950 , a short subject based on the William Saroyan one @-@ act play Hello Out There . The film , financed by supermarket heir Huntington Hartford , was the story of a man in a Texas jail falsely accused of rape and the woman who cleans the jail . Hartford intended for the short to be part of an anthology film along the lines of Quartet . However , attempts to find appropriate short fiction companion pieces to adapt were unsuccessful and Hello Out There was never commercially released . Whale 's last professional engagement was directing Pagan in the Parlour , a farce about two New England spinster sisters who are visited by a Polynesian whom their father , when shipwrecked years earlier , had married . The production was mounted in Pasadena for two weeks in 1951 . Plans were made to take it to New York , but Whale suggested taking the play to London first . Before opening the play in England , Whale decided to tour the art museums of Europe . In France he renewed his acquaintanceship with Curtis Harrington , whom he had met in 1947 . While visiting Harrington in Paris , he went to some gay bars . At one he met a 25 @-@ year @-@ old bartender named Pierre Foegel , whom Harrington believed was nothing but " a hustler out for what he could get " . The 62 @-@ year @-@ old Whale was smitten with the younger man and hired him as his chauffeur . A provincial tour of Pagan in the Parlour began in September 1952 and it appeared that the play would be a hit . However , Hermione Baddeley , starring in the play as the cannibal " Noo @-@ ga " , was drinking heavily and began engaging in bizarre antics and disrupting performances . Because she had a run of the play contract she could not be replaced and so producers were forced to close the show . Whale returned to California in November 1952 and advised David Lewis that he planned to bring Foegel over early the following year . Appalled , Lewis moved out of their home . While this ended their 23 @-@ year romantic relationship , the two men remained friends . Lewis bought a small house and dug a swimming pool , prompting Whale to have his own pool dug , although he did not himself swim in it . He began throwing all @-@ male swim parties and would watch the young men cavort in and around the pool . Foegel moved in with Whale in early 1953 and remained there for several months before returning to France . He returned in 1954 permanently , and Whale installed him as manager of a gas station that he owned . Whale and Foegel settled into a quiet routine until the spring of 1956 , when Whale suffered a small stroke . A few months later he suffered a larger stroke and was hospitalized . While in the hospital he was treated for depression with shock treatments . Upon his release , Whale hired one of the male nurses from the hospital to be his personal live @-@ in nurse . A jealous Foegel maneuvered the nurse out of the house and hired a female nurse as a non live @-@ in replacement . Whale suffered from mood swings and grew increasingly and frustratingly more dependent on others as his mental faculties were diminishing . = = Death = = Whale committed suicide by drowning himself in his swimming pool on 29 May 1957 at the age of 67 . He left a suicide note , which Lewis withheld until shortly before his own death decades later . Because the note was suppressed , the death was initially ruled accidental . The note read in part : To ALL I LOVE , Do not grieve for me . My nerves are all shot and for the last year I have been in agony day and night — except when I sleep with sleeping pills — and any peace I have by day is when I am drugged by pills . I have had a wonderful life but it is over and my nerves get worse and I am afraid they will have to take me away . So please forgive me , all those I love and may God forgive me too , but I cannot bear the agony and it [ is ] best for everyone this way . The future is just old age and illness and pain . Goodbye and thank you for all your love . I must have peace and this is the only way . Whale was cremated per his request and his ashes were interred in the Columbarium of Memory at Forest Lawn Memorial Park , Glendale . Because of his habit of periodically revising his date of birth , his niche lists the incorrect date of 1893 . When his longtime companion David Lewis died in 1987 , his executor and Whale biographer James Curtis had his ashes interred in a niche across from Whale 's . = = Sexual orientation = = James Whale lived as an openly homosexual man throughout his career in the British theatre and in Hollywood , something that was virtually unheard of in the 1920s and 1930s . He and David Lewis lived together as a couple from around 1930 to 1952 . While he did not go out of his way to publicize his homosexuality , he did not do anything to conceal it either . As filmmaker Curtis Harrington , a friend and confidant of Whale 's , put it , " Not in the sense of screaming it from the rooftops or coming out . But yes , he was openly homosexual . Any sophisticated person who knew him knew he was gay . " While there have been suggestions that Whale 's career was terminated because of homophobia , and Whale was supposedly dubbed " The Queen of Hollywood " , Harrington states that " nobody made a thing out of it as far as I could perceive " . With knowledge of his sexuality becoming more common beginning in the 1970s , some film historians and gay studies scholars have detected homosexual themes in Whale 's work , particularly in Bride of Frankenstein in which a number of the creative people associated with the cast , including Ernest Thesiger and Colin Clive , were alleged to be gay or bisexual . Scholars have identified a gay sensibility suffused through the film , especially a camp sensibility , particularly embodied in the character of Pretorius ( Thesiger ) and his relationship with Henry Frankenstein ( Clive ) . Gay film historian Vito Russo , in considering Pretorius , stops short of identifying the character as gay , instead referring to him as " sissified " ( " sissy " itself being Hollywood code for " homosexual " ) . Pretorius serves as a " gay Mephistopheles " , a figure of seduction and temptation , going so far as to pull Frankenstein away from his bride on their wedding night to engage in the unnatural act of non @-@ procreative life . A novelisation of the film published in England made the implication clear , having Pretorius say to Frankenstein " ' Be fruitful and multiply . ' Let us obey the Biblical injunction : you of course , have the choice of natural means ; but as for me , I am afraid that there is no course open to me but the scientific way . " Russo goes so far as to suggest that Whale 's homosexuality is expressed in both Frankenstein and Bride as " a vision both films had of the monster as an antisocial figure in the same way that gay people were ' things ' that should not have happened " . The Monster , whose affections for the male hermit and the female Bride he discusses with identical language ( " friend " ) , has been read as sexually " unsettled " and bisexual . Writes gender studies author Elizabeth Young : " He has no innate understanding that the male @-@ female bond he is to forge with the bride is assumed to be the primary one or that it carries a different sexual valence from his relationships with [ Pretorius and the hermit ] : all affective relationships are as easily ' friendships ' as ' marriages ' . " Indeed , his relationship with the hermit has been interpreted as a same @-@ sex marriage that heterosexual society will not tolerate : " No mistake — this is a marriage , and a viable one " , writes cultural critic Gary Morris for Bright Lights Film Journal . " But Whale reminds us quickly that society does not approve . The monster — the outsider — is driven from his scene of domestic pleasure by two gun @-@ toting rubes who happen upon this startling alliance and quickly , instinctively , proceed to destroy it . " The creation of the Bride scene has been called " Whale 's reminder to the audience — his Hollywood bosses , peers , and everyone watching — of the majesty and power of the homosexual creator " . However , Harrington dismisses this as " a younger critic 's evaluation . All artists do work that comes out of the unconscious mind and later on you can analyze it and say the symbolism may mean something , but artists don 't think that way and I would bet my life that James Whale would never have had such concepts in mind . " Specifically in response to the " majesty and power " reading , Harrington states " My opinion is that 's just pure bullshit . That 's a critical interpretation that has nothing to do with the original inspiration . " He concludes , " I think the closest you can come to a homosexual metaphor in his films is to identify that certain sort of camp humor . " Whale 's companion David Lewis stated flatly that Whale 's sexual orientation was " not germane " to his filmmaking . " Jimmy was first and foremost an artist , and his films represent the work of an artist — not a gay artist , but an artist . " Whale 's biographer Curtis rejects the notion that Whale would have identified with the Monster from a homosexual perspective , stating that if the highly class @-@ conscious Whale felt himself to be an antisocial figure , it would have been based not in his sexuality but in his origin in the lower classes . = = Film style = = Whale was heavily influenced by German Expressionism . He was a particular admirer of the films of Paul Leni , combining as they did elements of gothic horror and comedy . This influence was most evident in Bride of Frankenstein . Expressionist influence is also in evidence in Frankenstein , drawn in part from the work of Paul Wegener and his films The Golem ( 1915 ) and The Golem : How He Came into the World ( 1920 ) along with The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari ( 1920 ) from Robert Wiene , which Whale reportedly screened repeatedly while preparing to shoot Frankenstein . Frankenstein roughly alternates between distorted expressionistic shots and more conventional styles , with the character of Dr. Waldman serving as " a bridge between everyday and expressionist spaces " . Expressionist influence is also evident in the acting , costuming and the design of the Monster . Whale and makeup artist Jack Pierce may also have been influenced by the Bauhaus school of design . The expressionist influence lasted throughout Whale 's career , with Whale 's final film , Hello Out There , praised by Sight & Sound as " a virtuoso pattern of light and shade , a piece of fully blown expressionist filmmaking plonked down unceremoniously in the midst of neo @-@ realism 's heyday " . Whale was known for his use of camera movement . He is credited with being the first director to use a 360 @-@ degree panning shot in a feature film , included in Frankenstein . Whale used a similar technique during the Ol ' Man River sequence in Show Boat , in which the camera tracked around Paul Robeson as he sang the song . ( The sequence also uses expressionist montages illustrating some of the lyrics . ) Often singled out for praise in Frankenstein is the series of shots used to introduce the Monster : " Nothing can ever quite efface the thrill of watching the successive views Whale 's mobile camera allows us of the lumbering figure " . These shots , starting with a medium shot and culminating in two close @-@ ups of the Monster 's face , were repeated by Whale to introduce Griffin in The Invisible Man and the abusive husband in One More River . Modified to a single cut rather than two , Whale uses the same technique in The Road Back to signal the instability of a returning World War I veteran . = = Legacy = = Influential film critic Andrew Sarris , in his 1968 ranking of directors , lists Whale as " lightly likable " . Noting that Whale 's reputation has been subsumed by the " Karloff cult " , Sarris cites Bride of Frankenstein as the " true gem " of the Frankenstein series and concludes that Whale 's career " reflects the stylistic ambitions and dramatic disappointments of an expressionist in the studio @-@ controlled Hollywood of the thirties " . Whale 's final months are the subject of the novel Father of Frankenstein ( 1995 ) by Christopher Bram . The novel focuses on the relationship between Whale and a fictional gardener named Clayton Boone . Father of Frankenstein served as the basis of the 1998 film Gods and Monsters with Ian McKellen as Whale and Brendan Fraser as Boone . McKellen was nominated for an Academy Award for his portrayal of Whale . Bram 's novel has also been adapted as a play which premiered in London at the Southwark Playhouse in February 2015 . Only two of Whale 's films received any sort of Oscar recognition : The Man in the Iron Mask ( for its musical score ) , and Bride of Frankenstein ( for its sound recording ) . Neither film actually won ; in fact , no Whale film ever won an Oscar . A memorial statue was erected for Whale in 2002 on the grounds of a new multiplex cinema in his home town of Dudley . The statue , by Charles Hadcock , depicts a roll of film with the face of Frankenstein 's monster engraved into the frames , and the names of his most famous films etched into a cast concrete base in the shape of film canisters . Horror in Hollywood : The James Whale Story , a retrospective of Whale 's artwork , opened at the Dudley Museum and Art Gallery in October 2012 and is scheduled to run through January 2013 . = = Filmography = = = Bringing Up Baby = Bringing Up Baby is a 1938 American screwball comedy film directed by Howard Hawks , starring Katharine Hepburn and Cary Grant , and released by RKO Radio Pictures . The film tells the story of a paleontologist in a number of predicaments involving a scatterbrained woman and a leopard named Baby . The screenplay was adapted by Dudley Nichols and Hagar Wilde from a short story by Wilde which originally appeared in Collier 's Weekly magazine on April 10 , 1937 . The script was written specifically for Hepburn , and was tailored to her personality . Filming began in September 1937 and wrapped in January 1938 ; it was over schedule and over budget . Production was frequently delayed due to uncontrollable laughing fits between Hepburn and Grant . Hepburn struggled with her comedic performance and was coached by her co @-@ star , vaudeville veteran Walter Catlett . A tame leopard was used during the shooting ; its trainer was off @-@ screen with a whip for all its scenes . Although it has a reputation as a flop upon its release , Bringing up Baby was moderately successful in many cities and eventually made a small profit after its re @-@ release in the early 1940s . Shortly after the film 's premiere , Hepburn was infamously labeled box @-@ office poison by the Independent Theatre Owners of America and would not regain her success until The Philadelphia Story two years later . The film 's reputation began to grow during the 1950s , when it was shown on television . Since then , the film has received acclaim from both critics and audience for its zany antics and pratfalls , absurd situations and misunderstandings , perfect sense of comic timing , completely screwball cast , series of lunatic and hare @-@ brained misadventures , disasters , light @-@ hearted surprises and romantic comedy . Nowadays , it is considered one of the greatest films ever made . In 1972 director Peter Bogdanovich filmed a loose remake of the film entitled What 's Up , Doc ? In 1990 Bringing Up Baby was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " , and it has appeared on a number of greatest @-@ films lists , ranking at 88th on the American Film Institute 's 100 greatest American films of all time list . = = Plot = = David Huxley ( Cary Grant ) is a mild @-@ mannered paleontologist . For the past four years , he has been trying to assemble the skeleton of a Brontosaurus but is missing one bone : the " intercostal clavicle " . Adding to his stress is his impending marriage to the dour Alice Swallow ( Virginia Walker ) and the need to impress Elizabeth Random ( May Robson ) , who is considering a million @-@ dollar donation to his museum . The day before his wedding , David meets Susan Vance ( Katharine Hepburn ) by chance on a golf course . She is a free @-@ spirited young lady , and ( unknown to him at first ) Mrs. Random 's niece . Susan 's brother , Mark , has sent her a tame leopard from Brazil named Baby ( Nissa ) to give to their aunt . ( The leopard is native to Africa and Asia but not to South America . ) Susan thinks David is a zoologist ( rather than a paleontologist ) , and persuades David to go to her country home in Connecticut to help bring up Baby ( which includes singing " I Can 't Give You Anything But Love " to soothe the leopard ) . Complications arise as Susan falls in love with David and tries to keep him at her house as long as possible to prevent his marriage . David finally receives the intercostal clavicle , but Susan 's dog George ( Asta ) steals and buries it . Susan 's aunt , Elizabeth Random , arrives . The dowager is unaware of David 's identity , since Susan has introduced him as " Mr. Bone " . Baby and George run off , and Susan and David mistake a dangerous leopard who has escaped from a nearby circus ( also portrayed by Nissa ) for Baby . They are jailed by a befuddled town policeman , Constable Slocum ( Walter Catlett ) , for breaking into the house of Dr. Fritz Lehman ( Fritz Feld ) ( where they had cornered the circus leopard ) . When Slocum does not believe their story , Susan tells him they are members of the " Leopard Gang " ; she calls herself " Swingin ' Door Susie " , and David " Jerry the Nipper " . David fails to convince the constable that Susan makes things up " from motion pictures she 's seen " . Eventually , Alexander Peabody ( George Irving ) shows up to verify everyone 's identity . Susan ( who has sneaked out a window ) unwittingly drags the irritated circus leopard into the jail ; David saves her , using a chair to shoo the big cat into a cell . Several weeks later , Susan finds David ( who has been jilted by Alice because of her ) working on his brontosaurus reconstruction at the museum . After giving him the missing bone ( which she found by trailing George ) , she tells him she has persuaded her aunt to make the large donation . Against his advice , Susan climbs a tall ladder next to the dinosaur to be closer to him . When the ladder starts swaying from side to side dangerously , she climbs onto the skeleton . Before it collapses , David grabs her hand . Surveying the wreckage of his work , David gives up and admits that he cannot live without her . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Development and writing = = = In March 1937 Howard Hawks signed a contract at RKO for an adaptation of Rudyard Kipling 's " Gunga Din " , which had been in pre @-@ production since the previous fall . When RKO was unable to borrow Clark Gable , Spencer Tracy and Franchot Tone from Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer for the film and the adaptation of " Gunga Din " was delayed , Hawks began looking for a new project . In April 1937 he read a short story by Hagar Wilde in Collier 's magazine called " Bringing Up Baby " and immediately wanted to make a film from it , remembering that it made him laugh out loud . RKO bought the screen rights in June for $ 1 @,@ 004 , and Hawks worked briefly with Wilde on the film 's treatment . Wilde 's short story differed significantly from the film : David and Susan are engaged , he is not a scientist and there is no dinosaur , intercostal clavicle or museum . However , Susan gets a pet panther from her brother Mark to give to their Aunt Elizabeth ; David and Susan must capture the panther in the Connecticut wilderness with the help of Baby 's favorite song , " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love , Baby " . Hawks then hired screenwriter Dudley Nichols , best known for his work with director John Ford , for the script ; Wilde would develop the characters and comedic elements of the script , while Nichols would take care of the story and structure . Hawks worked with the two writers during summer 1937 , and they came up with a 202 @-@ page script . Wilde and Nichols wrote several drafts together , beginning a romantic relationship and co @-@ authoring the Fred Astaire and Ginger Rogers film Carefree a few months later . The Bringing Up Baby script underwent several changes , and at one point there was an elaborate pie fight , inspired by Mack Sennett films . Major Applegate had an assistant and food taster named Ali ( which was intended to be played by Mischa Auer ) , but this character was replaced with Aloysius Gogarty . The script 's final draft had several scenes in the middle of the film in which David and Susan declare their love for each other which Hawks cut during production . Nichols was instructed to write the film for Hepburn , with whom he had worked on John Ford 's Mary of Scotland in 1936 . Barbara Leaming alleged that Ford had an affair with Hepburn , and claims that many of the characteristics of Susan and David were based on Hepburn and Ford . Nichols was in touch with Ford during the screenwriting , and the film included such members of the John Ford Stock Company as Ward Bond , Barry Fitzgerald , D 'Arcy Corrigan and associate producer Cliff Reid . John Ford was a friend of Hawks , and visited the set . The round glasses Grant wears in the film are reminiscent of Harold Lloyd and of Ford . Filming was initially scheduled to begin on September 1 , 1937 and wrap on October 31 , but was delayed for several reasons . Production had to wait until mid @-@ September to clear the rights for " I Can 't Give You Anything but Love , Baby " for $ 1 @,@ 000 . In August Hawks hired gag writers Robert McGowan and Gertrude Purcell for uncredited script rewrites , and McGowan added a scene inspired by the comic strip Professor Dinglehoofer and his Dog in which a dog buries a rare dinosaur bone . RKO paid King Features $ 1 @,@ 000 to use the idea for the film on September 21 . = = = = Unscripted ad @-@ lib by Grant = = = = It is debated by some whether Bringing Up Baby is the first fictional work ( apart from pornography ) to use the word " gay " in a homosexual context . In one scene , Cary Grant 's character is wearing a woman 's marabou @-@ trimmed négligée ; when asked why , he replies exasperatedly " Because I just went gay all of a sudden ! " ( leaping into the air at the word " gay " ) . As the term " gay " did not become familiar to the general public until the Stonewall riots in 1969 , it is debated whether the word was used here in its original sense ( meaning " happy " ) or is an intentional , joking reference to homosexuality . In the film , the line was an ad @-@ lib by Grant and not in any version of the original script . According to Vito Russo in The Celluloid Closet ( 1981 , revised 1987 ) , the script originally had Grant 's character say " I ... I suppose you think it 's odd , my wearing this . I realize it looks odd ... I don 't usually ... I mean , I don 't own one of these " . Russo suggests that this indicates that people in Hollywood ( at least in Grant 's circles ) were familiar with the slang connotations of the word ; however , neither Grant nor anyone involved in the film suggested this . = = = Casting = = = After briefly considering Hawks ' cousin Carole Lombard for the role of Susan Vance , Katharine Hepburn was chosen to play the wealthy New Englander because of her background and similarities to the character . RKO agreed to the casting , but had reservations because of Hepburn 's salary and lack of box @-@ office success for several years . Producer Lou Lusty said , " You couldn 't even break even if a Hepburn show cost eight hundred grand . " At first , Hawks and producer Pandro S. Berman could not agree on who to cast in the role of David Huxley . Hawks initially wanted silent @-@ film comedian Harold Lloyd ; Berman rejected Lloyd and Ronald Colman , offering the role to Robert Montgomery , Fredric March and Ray Milland ( all of whom turned it down ) . Hawks ' friend Howard Hughes finally suggested Cary Grant for the role . Grant had just finished shooting his breakthrough romantic comedy The Awful Truth , and Hawks may have seen a rough cut of the unreleased film . Grant then had a non @-@ exclusive , four @-@ picture deal with RKO for $ 50 @,@ 000 per film , and Grant 's manager used his casting in the film to renegotiate his contract , earning him $ 75 @,@ 000 plus the bonuses Hepburn was receiving . Grant was initially concerned about being able to play an intellectual character and took two weeks to accept the role , despite the new contract . Hawks built Grant 's confidence by promising to coach him throughout the film , instructing him to watch Harold Lloyd films for inspiration . Grant met with Howard Hughes throughout the film to discuss his character , which he said helped his performance . Hawks obtained character actors Charlie Ruggles on loan from Paramount Pictures for Major Horace Applegate and Barry Fitzgerald on loan from The Mary Pickford Corporation to play gardener Aloysius Gogarty . Hawks cast Virginia Walker as Alice Swallow , David 's fiancée ; Walker was under contract to him and later married his brother William Hawks . As Hawks could not find a panther that would work for the film , Baby was changed to a leopard so they could cast the trained leopard Nissa , who had worked in films for eight years , making several B @-@ movies . = = = Filming = = = Shooting began September 23 , 1937 and was scheduled to end November 20 , 1937 on a budget of $ 767 @,@ 676 . Filming began in @-@ studio with the scenes in Susan 's apartment , moving to the Bel Air Country Club in early October for the golf @-@ course scenes . The production had a difficult start due to Hepburn 's struggles with her character and her comedic abilities . She frequently overacted , trying too hard to be funny , and Hawks asked vaudeville veteran Walter Catlett to help coach her . Catlett acted out scenes with Grant for Hepburn , showing her that he was funnier when he was serious . Hepburn understood , acted naturally and played herself for the rest of the shoot ; she was so impressed by Catlett 's talent and coaching ability that she insisted he play Constable Slocum in the film . Most shooting was done at the Arthur Ranch in the San Francisco Valley , which was used as Aunt Elizabeth 's estate for interior and exterior scenes . Beginning at the Arthur Ranch shoot , Grant and Hepburn often ad @-@ libbed their dialogue and frequently delayed production by making each other laugh . The scene where Grant frantically asks Hepburn where his bone is was shot from 10 am until well after 4 pm because of the stars ' laughing fits . After one month of shooting Hawks was seven days behind schedule . During the filming , Hawks would refer to four different versions of the film 's script and make frequent changes to scenes and dialogue . His leisurely attitude on set and shutting down production to see a horse race contributed to the time it took to film , and he took twelve days to shoot the Westlake jail scene instead of the scheduled five . Hawks later facetiously blamed the setbacks on his two stars ' laughing fits and having to work with two animal actors . The terrier George was played by Skippy , known as Asta in The Thin Man film series and co @-@ starring with Grant ( as Mr. Smith ) in The Awful Truth . The tame leopard Baby and the escaped circus leopard were both played by a trained leopard , Nissa . The big cat was supervised by its trainer , Olga Celeste , who stood by with a whip during shooting . At one point , when Hepburn spun around ( causing her skirt to twirl ) Nissa lunged at her and was subdued when Celeste cracked her whip . Hepburn wore heavy perfume to keep Nissa calm and was unafraid of the leopard , but Grant was terrified ; most scenes of the two interacting are done in close @-@ up with a stand @-@ in . Hepburn played upon this fear by throwing a toy leopard through the roof of Grant 's dressing room during production There were also several news reports about Hawks ' difficulty filming a live leopard , and some scenes required rear @-@ screen projection . Hawks and Hepburn had a confrontation one day during shooting . While Hepburn was chatting with a crew member , Hawks yelled " Quiet ! " until the only person still talking was Hepburn . When Hepburn paused and realized that everyone was looking at her , she asked what was the matter ; Hawks asked her if she was finished imitating a parrot . Hepburn took Hawks aside , telling him never to talk to her like that again since she was old friends with most of the crew . When Hawks ( an older friend of the crew ) asked a lighting tech who he would rather drop a light on , Hepburn agreed to behave on set . A variation of this scene , with Grant yelling " Quiet ! " , was incorporated into the film . The Westlake Street set was shot at 20th Century Fox Studios . Filming was eventually completed on January 6 , 1938 with the scenes outside Mr. Peabody 's house . RKO producers expressed concerns about the film 's delays and expense , coming 40 days over schedule and $ 330 @,@ 000 over budget , and also disliked Grant 's glasses and Hepburn 's hair . The film 's final cost was $ 1 @,@ 096 @,@ 796 @.@ 23 , primarily due to overtime clauses in Hawks ' , Grant 's and Hepburn 's contracts . The film 's cost for sets and props was only $ 5 @,@ 000 over budget , but all actors ( including Nissa and Skippy ) were paid approximately double their initial salaries . Hepburn 's salary rose from $ 72 @,@ 500 to $ 121 @,@ 680 @.@ 50 , Grant 's salary from $ 75 @,@ 000 to $ 123 @,@ 437 @.@ 50 and Hawks ' salary from $ 88 @,@ 046 @.@ 25 to $ 202 @,@ 500 . The director received an additional $ 40 @,@ 000 to terminate his RKO contract on March 21 , 1938 . = = = Post @-@ production and previews = = = Hawks ' editor , George Hively , cut the film during production and the final prints were made a few days after shooting ended . The first cut of the film ( 10 @,@ 150 feet long ) was sent to the Hayes Office in mid @-@ January . Despite several double entendres and sexual references it passed the film , overlooking Grant saying he " went gay " or Hepburn 's reference to George urinating . The censor 's only objections were to the scene where Hepburn 's dress is torn , and references to politicians ( such as Al Smith and Jim Farley ) . Like all Hawks ' comedies , the film is known for its fast pace ( despite being filmed primarily in long medium shots , with little cross @-@ cutting ) . Hawks told Peter Bogdanovich , " You get more pace if you pace the actors quickly within the frame rather than cross cutting fast " . By February 18 , the film had been cut to 9 @,@ 204 feet . It had two advance previews in January 1938 , where it received either As or A @-@ pluses on audience @-@ feedback cards . Producer Pandro S. Berman wanted to cut five more minutes , but relented when Hawks , Grant and Cliff Reid objected . At the film 's second preview , the film received rave reviews and RKO expected a hit . The film 's musical score is minimal , primarily Grant and Hepburn singing " I Can 't Give You Anything But Love , Baby " . There is incidental music in the Ritz scene , and an arrangement of " I Can 't Give You Anything But Love , Baby " during the opening and closing credits by musical director Roy Webb . = = Reception and box office = = The film received good advance reviews ; Otis Ferguson of The New Republic thought the film very funny , praising Hawks ' direction . Variety praised the film , singling out Hawks ' pacing and direction , calling Hepburn 's performance " one of her most invigorating screen characterizations " and saying Grant " performs his role to the hilt " ; their only criticism was the length of the jail scene . Film Daily called it " literally a riot from beginning to end , with the laugh total heavy and the action fast . " Harrison 's Reports called the film " An excellent farce " with " many situations that provoke hearty laughter , " and John Mosher of The New Yorker wrote that both stars " manage to be funny " and that Hepburn had never " seemed so good @-@ natured . " However , Frank S. Nugent of the New York Times disliked the film , considering it derivative and cliché @-@ ridden , a rehash of dozens of other screwball comedies of the period . He labeled Hepburn 's performance " breathless , senseless , and terribly , terribly fatiguing " , and added , " If you 've never been to the movies , Bringing Up Baby will be new to you – a zany @-@ ridden product of the goofy @-@ farce school . But who hasn 't been to the movies ? " Despite Bringing Up Baby 's reputation as a flop , it was successful in some parts of the U.S. The film premiered on February 16 , 1938 at the Golden Gate Theatre in San Francisco ( where it was a hit ) , and was also successful in Los Angeles , Portland , Denver , Cincinnati and Washington , D.C .. However , it was a financial disappointment in the Midwest , as well as most other cities in the country , including NYC ; to RKO 's chagrin , the film 's premiere in New York on March 3 , 1938 at Radio City Music Hall made only $ 70 @,@ 000 and it was pulled after one week in favor of Jezebel with Bette Davis . During its first run , Bringing Up Baby made $ 715 @,@ 000 in the U.S. and $ 394 @,@ 000 in foreign markets for a total of $ 1 @,@ 109 @,@ 000 ; its reissue in 1940 and 1941 made an additional $ 95 @,@ 000 in the US and $ 55 @,@ 000 in foreign markets . Following its second run , the film made a profit of $ 163 @,@ 000 . Due to its perceived failure , Hawks was released early from his two @-@ film contract with RKO and Gunga Din was eventually directed by George Stevens . Hawks later said the film " had a great fault and I learned an awful lot from that . There were no normal people in it . Everyone you met was a screwball and since that time I learned my lesson and don 't intend ever again to make everybody crazy " . The director went on to work with RKO on three films over the next decade . Long before Bringing Up Baby 's release , Hepburn had been branded " box @-@ office poison " by Harry Brandt ( president of the Independent Theatre Owners of America ) and thus was allowed to buy out her RKO contract for $ 22 @,@ 000 . However , many critics marveled at her new skill at low comedy ; Life magazine called her " the surprise of the picture " . Hepburn 's former boyfriend Howard Hughes bought RKO in 1941 , and sold it in 1959 ; when he sold the company , Hughes retained the copyright to six films ( including Bringing Up Baby ) . = = Legacy = = Bringing Up Baby was the second of four films starring Grant and Hepburn ; the others were Sylvia Scarlett ( 1935 ) , Holiday ( 1938 ) and The Philadelphia Story ( 1940 ) . The film 's concept was described by philosopher Stanley Cavell as a " definitive achievement in the history of the art of film . " Cavell noted that Bringing Up Baby was made in a tradition of romantic comedy with inspiration from ancient Rome and Shakespeare . Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing and As You Like It have been cited in particular as an influence on the film and the screwball comedy in general , with their " haughty , self @-@ sufficient men , strong women and fierce combat of words and wit . " Hepburn 's character has been cited as an early example of the Manic Pixie Dream Girl film archetype . The popularity of Bringing Up Baby has increased since it was shown on television during the 1950s , and by the 1960s film analysts ( including the writers at Cahiers du Cinema in France ) affirmed the film 's quality . In a rebuttal of fellow New York Times critic Nugent 's scathing review of the film at the time of release , A. O. Scott has said that you 'll " find yourself amazed at its freshness , its vigor , and its brilliance @-@ qualities undiminished after sixty @-@ five years , and likely to withstand repeated viewings . " Leonard Maltin stated that it is now " considered the definitive screwball comedy , and one of the fastest , funniest films ever made ; grand performances by all . " Bringing Up Baby has been adapted several times . Hawks recycled the nightclub scene in which Hepburn 's dress is torn and Grant walks behind her in the 1964 comedy , Man 's Favorite Sport . Peter Bogdanovich 's 1972 film What 's Up , Doc ? , starring Barbra Streisand , was intended as an homage to the film , and has contributed to its reputation . In the commentary track for Bringing Up Baby , Bogdanovich discusses how the coat @-@ ripping scene in What 's Up , Doc ? was based on the scene in which Grant 's coat and Hepburn 's dress are torn in Bringing Up Baby . The 1987 film Who 's That Girl ? , starring Madonna , is also loosely based on Bringing Up Baby . In 1990 ( the registry 's second year ) , Bringing Up Baby was selected for preservation in the National Film Registry of the Library of Congress as " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . Entertainment Weekly voted the film 24th on its list of greatest films . In 2000 , readers of Total Film magazine voted it the 47th @-@ greatest comedy film of all time . Premiere ranked Cary Grant 's performance as Dr. David Huxley 68th on its list of 100 all @-@ time greatest performances , and ranked Susan Vance 21st on its list of 100 all @-@ time greatest movie characters . The National Society of Film Critics also included Bringing Up Baby in their " 100 Essential Films " , considering it to be arguably the director 's best film . = = = American Film Institute recognition = = = 1998 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies – # 97 2000 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Laughs – # 14 2002 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Passions – # 51 2005 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movie Quotes : Dr. David Huxley : " It isn 't that I don 't like you , Susan , because after all , in moments of quiet , I 'm strangely drawn toward you ; but , well , there haven 't been any quiet moments ! " – Nominated 2007 : AFI 's 100 Years ... 100 Movies ( 10th Anniversary Edition ) – # 88 2008 : AFI 's 10 Top 10 : Nominated Romantic Comedy Film = L. Ron Hubbard = Lafayette Ronald Hubbard ( March 13 , 1911 – January 24 , 1986 ) , better known as L. Ron Hubbard ( / ɛl rɒn ˈhʌˌbərd / , ELL @-@ ron @-@ HUB @-@ ərd ) and often referred to by his initials , LRH , was an American author and the founder of the Church of Scientology . In 2014 , Hubbard was cited by the Smithsonian magazine as one of the 100 most significant Americans of all time , as one of the eleven religious figures on that list . After establishing a career as a writer , becoming best known for his science fiction and fantasy stories , he developed a system called Dianetics which was first expounded in book form in May 1950 . He subsequently developed his ideas into a wide @-@ ranging set of doctrines and practices as part of a new religious movement that he called Scientology . His writings became the guiding texts for the Church of Scientology and a number of affiliated organizations that address such diverse topics as business administration , literacy and drug rehabilitation . The Church 's dissemination of these materials led to Hubbard being listed by the Guinness Book of World Records as the most translated and published author in the world . Although many aspects of Hubbard 's life story are disputed , there is general agreement about its basic outline . Born in Tilden , Nebraska , he spent much of his childhood in Helena , Montana . He traveled in Asia and the South Pacific in the late 1920s after his father , an officer in the United States Navy , was posted to the U.S. naval base on Guam . He attended George Washington University in Washington , D.C. at the start of the 1930s , before dropping out and beginning his career as a prolific writer of pulp fiction stories . He served briefly in the United States Marine Corps Reserve and was an officer in the United States Navy during World War II , briefly commanding two ships , the USS YP @-@ 422 and USS PC @-@ 815 . He was removed both times when his superiors found him incapable of command . The last few months of his active service were spent in a hospital , being treated for a duodenal ulcer . After the war , Hubbard developed Dianetics , which he called " the modern science of mental health " . He founded Scientology in 1952 and oversaw the growth of the Church of Scientology into a worldwide organization . During the late 1960s and early 1970s , he spent much of his time at sea on his personal fleet of ships as " Commodore " of the Sea Organization , an elite inner group of Scientologists . His expedition came to an end when Britain , Greece , Spain , Portugal , and Venezuela all closed their ports to his fleet . At one point , a court in Australia revoked the Church 's status as a religion , though it was later reinstated . Hubbard returned to the United States in 1975 and went into seclusion in the California desert . In 1978 , a trial court in France convicted Hubbard of fraud in absentia . Others convictions from the same trial were reversed on appeal , but Hubbard died before the court considered his case . In 1983 L. Ron Hubbard was named as an unindicted co @-@ conspirator in an international information infiltration and theft project called " Operation Snow White " . He spent the remaining years of his life on his ranch , the " Whispering Wind , " near Creston , California , where he died in 1986 . A small group of Scientology officials and physician Dr. Eugene Denk attended to him before his death , for a number of ailments including chronic pancreatitis . In 1986 , he died in a 1982 Blue Bird motor home , which was situated on his property , at age 74 . The Church of Scientology describes Hubbard in hagiographic terms , and he portrayed himself as a pioneering explorer , world traveler , and nuclear physicist with expertise in a wide range of disciplines , including photography , art , poetry , and philosophy . His critics , including his own son Ronald DeWolf , have characterized him as a liar , a charlatan , and mentally unstable , though DeWolf later repudiated those statements . Though many of Hubbard 's autobiographical statements have been found to be fictitious , the Church rejects any suggestion that its account of Hubbard 's life is not historical fact . = = Early life = = Lafayette Ronald Hubbard was born in 1911 , in Tilden , Nebraska . He was the only child of Ledora May ( née Waterbury ) , who had trained as a teacher , and Harry Ross Hubbard , a former United States Navy officer . After moving to Kalispell , Montana , they settled in Helena in 1913 . Hubbard 's father rejoined in the Navy in April 1917 , during World War I , while his mother May worked as a clerk for the state government . Biographical accounts published by the Church of Scientology describe Hubbard as " a child prodigy of sorts " who rode a horse before he could walk and was able to read and write by the age of four . A Scientology profile says that he was brought up on his grandfather 's " large cattle ranch in Montana " where he spent his days " riding , breaking broncos , hunting coyote and taking his first steps as an explorer " . His grandfather is described as a " wealthy Western cattleman " from whom Hubbard " inherited his fortune and family interests in America , Southern Africa , etc . " Scientology claims that Hubbard became a " blood brother " of the Native American Blackfeet tribe at the age of six through his friendship with a Blackfeet medicine man . However , contemporary records show that his grandfather , Lafayette Waterbury , was a veterinarian , not a rancher , and was not wealthy . Hubbard was actually raised in a townhouse in the center of Helena . According to his aunt , his family did not own a ranch but did own one cow and four or five horses on a few acres of land outside the city . Hubbard lived over a hundred miles from the Blackfeet reservation . While some sources support Scientology 's claim of Hubbard 's blood brotherhood , other sources say that the tribe did not practice blood brotherhood and no evidence has been found that he had ever been a Blackfeet blood brother . During the 1920s the Hubbards repeatedly relocated around the United States and overseas . After Hubbard 's father Harry rejoined the Navy , his posting aboard the USS Oklahoma in 1921 required the family to relocate to the ship 's home ports , first San Diego , then Seattle . During a journey to Washington , D.C. in 1923 Hubbard learned of Freudian psychology from Commander Joseph " Snake " Thompson , a U.S. Navy psychoanalyst and medic . Scientology biographies describe this encounter as giving Hubbard training in a particular scientific approach to the mind , which he found unsatisfying . Hubbard was active in the Boy Scouts in Washington , D.C. and earned the rank of Eagle Scout in 1924 , two weeks after his 13th birthday . In his diary , Hubbard claimed he was the youngest Eagle Scout in the U.S. The following year , Harry Ross Hubbard was posted to Puget Sound Naval Shipyard at Bremerton , Washington . His son was enrolled at Union High School , Bremerton , and later studied at Queen Anne High School in Seattle . In 1927 Hubbard 's father was sent to the U.S. Naval Station on Guam in the Mariana Islands of the South Pacific . Although Hubbard 's mother also went to Guam , Hubbard himself did not accompany them but was placed in his grandparents ' care in Helena , Montana to complete his schooling . Between 1927 and 1929 Hubbard traveled to Japan , China , the Philippines and Guam . Scientology texts present this period in his life as a time when he was intensely curious for answers to human suffering and explored ancient Eastern philosophies for answers , but found them lacking . He is described as traveling to China " at a time when few Westerners could enter " and according to Scientology , spent his time questioning Buddhist lamas and meeting old Chinese magicians . According to church materials , his travels were funded by his " wealthy grandfather " . In the summer of 1927 , Hubbard took up teaching to the native Chamorros in Guam for several weeks . He returned to Asia in 1928 to stay longer . For fourteen months , he traveled around China and served as a helmsman and supercargo aboard a twin @-@ masted coastal schooner , returning to finish high school at Swavely Prep School in Virginia and Woodward school for Boys in Washington , D.C. Hubbard 's unofficial biographers present a very different account of his travels in Asia . Hubbard 's diaries recorded two trips to the east coast of China . The first was made in the company of his mother while traveling from the United States to Guam in 1927 . It consisted of a brief stop @-@ over in a couple of Chinese ports before traveling on to Guam , where he stayed for six weeks before returning home . He recorded his impressions of the places he visited and disdained the poverty of the inhabitants of Japan and China , whom he described as " gooks " and " lazy [ and ] ignorant " . His second visit was a family holiday which took Hubbard and his parents to China via the Philippines in 1928 . After his return to the United States in September 1927 , Hubbard enrolled at Helena High School , where he contributed to the school paper , but earned only poor grades . He abandoned school the following May and went back west to stay with his aunt and uncle in Seattle . He joined his parents in Guam in June 1928 . His mother took over his education in the hope of putting him forward for the entrance examination to the United States Naval Academy at Annapolis , Maryland . Between October and December 1928 a number of naval families , including Hubbard 's , traveled from Guam to China aboard the cargo ship USS Gold Star . The ship stopped at Manila in the Philippines before traveling on to Qingdao ( Tsingtao ) in China . Hubbard and his parents made a side trip to Beijing before sailing on to Shanghai and Hong Kong , from where they returned to Guam . Scientology accounts say that Hubbard " made his way deep into Manchuria 's Western Hills and beyond — to break bread with Mongolian bandits , share campfires with Siberian shamans and befriend the last in the line of magicians from the court of Kublai Khan " . However , Hubbard did not record these events in his diary . He remained unimpressed with China and the Chinese , writing : " A Chinaman can not live up to a thing , he always drags it down . " He characterized the sights of Beijing as " rubberneck stations " for tourists and described the palaces of the Forbidden City as " very trashy @-@ looking " and " not worth mentioning " . He was impressed by the Great Wall of China near Beijing , but concluded of the Chinese : " They smell of all the baths they didn 't take . The trouble with China is , there are too many chinks here . " Back on Guam , Hubbard spent much of his time writing dozens of short stories and essays and failed the Naval Academy entrance examination . In September 1929 Hubbard was enrolled at the Swavely Preparatory School in Manassas , Virginia , to prepare him for a second attempt at the examination . However , he was ruled out of consideration due to his near @-@ sightedness . He was instead sent to Woodward School for Boys in Washington , D.C. to qualify for admission to George Washington University . He successfully graduated from the school in June 1930 and entered the university the following September . = = University and explorations = = Hubbard studied civil engineering during his two years at George Washington University at the behest of his father , who " decreed that I should study engineering and mathematics " . While he did not graduate from George Washington , his time there subsequently became important because , as George Malko puts it , " many of his researches and published conclusions have been supported by his claims to be not only a graduate engineer , but ' a member of the first United States course in formal education in what is called today nuclear physics . ' " However , a Church of Scientology biography describes him as " never noted for being in class " and says that he " thoroughly detest [ ed ] his subjects " . He earned poor grades , was placed on probation in September 1931 and dropped out altogether in the fall of 1932 . Scientology accounts say that he " studied nuclear physics at George Washington University in Washington , D.C. , before he started his studies about the mind , spirit and life " and Hubbard himself stated that he " set out to find out from nuclear physics a knowledge of the physical universe , something entirely lacking in Asian philosophy " . His university records indicate that his exposure to " nuclear physics " consisted of one class in " atomic and molecular phenomena " for which he earned an " F " grade . Scientologists claim he was more interested in extracurricular activities , particularly writing and flying . According to church materials , " he earned his wings as a pioneering barnstormer at the dawn of American aviation " and was " recognized as one of the country 's most outstanding pilots . With virtually no training time , he takes up powered flight and barnstorms throughout the Midwest . " His airman certificate , however , records that he qualified to fly only gliders rather than powered aircraft and gave up his certificate when he could not afford the renewal fee . During Hubbard 's final semester he organized an expedition to the Caribbean for " fifty young gentleman rovers " aboard the schooner Doris Hamlin commencing in June 1932 . The aims of the " Caribbean Motion Picture Expedition " were stated as being to explore and film the pirate " strongholds and bivouacs of the Spanish Main " and to " collect whatever one collects for exhibits in museums " . It ran into trouble even before it left the port of Baltimore : Ten participants quit and storms blew the ship far off course to Bermuda . Eleven more members of the expedition quit there and more left when the ship arrived at Martinique . With the expedition running critically short of money , the ship 's owners ordered it to return to Baltimore . Hubbard blamed the expedition 's problems on the captain : " the ship 's dour Captain Garfield proved himself far less than a Captain Courageous , requiring Ron Hubbard 's hand at both the helm and the charts . " Specimens and photographs collected by the expedition are said by Scientology accounts to have been acquired by the University of Michigan , the U.S. Hydrographic Office , an unspecified national museum and the New York Times , though none of those institutions have any record of this . Hubbard later wrote that the expedition " was a crazy idea at best , and I knew it , but I went ahead anyway , chartered a four @-@ masted schooner and embarked with some fifty luckless souls who haven 't stopped their cursings yet . " He called it " a two @-@ bit expedition and financial bust " , which resulted in some of its participants making legal claims against him for refunds . After leaving university Hubbard traveled to Puerto Rico on what the Church of Scientology calls the " Puerto Rican Mineralogical Expedition " . Scientologists claim he " made the first complete mineralogical survey of Puerto Rico " as a means of " augmenting his [ father 's ] pay with a mining venture " , during which he " sluiced inland rivers and crisscrossed the island in search of elusive gold " as well as carrying out " much ethnological work amongst the interior villages and native hillsmen " . Hubbard 's unofficial biographer Russell Miller writes that neither the United States Geological Survey nor the Puerto Rican Department of Natural Resources have any record of any such expedition . According to Miller , Hubbard traveled to Puerto Rico in November 1932 after his father volunteered him for the Red Cross relief effort following the devastating 1932 San Ciprian hurricane . In a 1957 lecture Hubbard said that he had been " a field executive with the American Red Cross in the Puerto Rico hurricane disaster " . According to his own account , Hubbard spent much of his time prospecting unsuccessfully for gold . Towards the end of his stay on Puerto Rico he appears to have done some work for a Washington , D.C. firm called West Indies Minerals Incorporated , accompanying a surveyor in an investigation of a small property near the town of Luquillo , Puerto Rico . The survey was unsuccessful . A few years later , Hubbard wrote : Harboring the thought that the Conquistadores might have left some gold behind , I determined to find it ... Gold prospecting in the wake of the Conquistadores , on the hunting grounds of the pirates in the islands which still reek of Columbus is romantic , and I do not begrudge the sweat which splashed in muddy rivers , and the bits of khaki which have probably blown away from the thorn bushes long ago ... After a half year or more of intensive search , after wearing my palms thin wielding a sample pack , after assaying a few hundred sacks of ore , I came back , a failure . = = Early literary career and Alaskan expedition = = Hubbard became a well @-@ known and prolific writer for pulp fiction magazines during the 1930s . Scientology texts describe him as becoming " well established as an essayist " even before he had concluded college . Scientology claims he " solved his finances , and his desire to travel by writing anything that came to hand " and to have earned an " astronomical " rate of pay for the times . His literary career began with contributions to the George Washington University student newspaper , The University Hatchet , as a reporter for a few months in 1931 . Six of his pieces were published commercially during 1932 to 1933 . The going rate for freelance writers at the time was only a cent a word , so Hubbard 's total earnings from these articles would have been less than $ 100 . The pulp magazine Thrilling Adventure became the first to publish one of his short stories , in February 1934 . Over the next six years , pulp magazines published around 140 of his short stories under a variety of pen names , including Winchester Remington Colt , Kurt von Rachen , René Lafayette , Joe Blitz and Legionnaire 148 . Although he was best known for his fantasy and science fiction stories , Hubbard wrote in a wide variety of genres , including adventure fiction , aviation , travel , mysteries , westerns and even romance . Hubbard knew and associated with writers such as Isaac Asimov , Robert A. Heinlein , L. Sprague de Camp and A. E. van Vogt . His first full @-@ length novel , Buckskin Brigades , was published in 1937 . He became a " highly idiosyncratic " writer of science fiction after being taken under the wing of editor John W. Campbell , who published many of Hubbard 's short stories and also serialized a number of well @-@ received novelettes that Hubbard wrote for Campbell 's magazines Unknown and Astounding . These included Fear , Final Blackout and Typewriter in the Sky . Science fiction newsletter Xignals reported that Hubbard wrote “ over 100 @,@ 000 words a month ” during his peak . Martin Gardner asserted that his writing “ [ wa ] s done at lightning speed . ” According to the Church of Scientology , Hubbard was " called to Hollywood " to work on film scripts in the mid @-@ 1930s , although Scientology accounts differ as to exactly when this was ( whether 1935 , 1936 or 1937 ) . He wrote the script for The Secret of Treasure Island , a 1938 Columbia Pictures movie serial . The Church of Scientology claims he also worked on the Columbia serials The Mysterious Pilot ( 1937 ) , The Great Adventures of Wild Bill Hickok ( 1938 ) and The Spider Returns ( 1941 ) , though his name does not appear on the credits . Hubbard also claimed to have written Dive Bomber ( 1941 ) , Cecil B. DeMille 's The Plainsman ( 1936 ) and John Ford 's Stagecoach ( 1939 ) . Hubbard 's literary earnings helped him to support his new wife , Margaret " Polly " Grubb . She was already pregnant when they married on April 13 , 1933 , but had a miscarriage shortly afterwards ; a few months later , she became pregnant again . On May 7 , 1934 , she gave birth prematurely to a son who was named Lafayette Ronald Hubbard , Jr. and the nickname " His Nibs " , invariably shortened to " Nibs " . Their second child , Katherine May , was born on January 15 , 1936 . The Hubbards lived for a while in Laytonsville , Maryland , but were chronically short of money . In the spring of 1936 they moved to Bremerton , Washington . They lived there for a time with Hubbard 's aunts and grandmother before finding a place of their own at nearby South Colby . According to one of his friends at the time , Robert MacDonald Ford , the Hubbards were " in fairly dire straits for money " but sustained themselves on the income from Hubbard 's writing . Hubbard spent an increasing amount of time in New York City , working out of a hotel room where his wife suspected him of carrying on affairs with other women . Hubbard 's authorship in mid @-@ 1938 of a still @-@ unpublished manuscript called Excalibur is highlighted by the Church of Scientology as a key step in developing the principles of Scientology and Dianetics . The manuscript is said by Scientologists to have outlined " the basic principles of human existence " and to have been the culmination of twenty years of research into " twenty @-@ one races and cultures including Pacific Northwest Indian tribes , Philippine Tagalogs and , as he was wont to joke , the people of the Bronx " . According to Arthur J. Cox , a contributor to John W. Campbell 's Astounding magazine , Hubbard told a 1948 convention of science fiction fans that Excalibur 's inspiration came during an operation in which he " died " for eight minutes . ( Gerry Armstrong , Hubbard 's archivist , explains this as a dental extraction performed under nitrous oxide , a chemical known for its hallucinogenic effects ) : Hubbard realized that , while he was dead , he had received a tremendous inspiration , a great Message which he must impart to others . He sat at his typewriter for six days and nights and nothing came out . Then , Excalibur emerged . Arthur J. Burks , the President of the American Fiction Guild , wrote that an excited Hubbard called him and said : " I want to see you right away . I have written THE book . " Hubbard believed that Excalibur would " revolutionize everything " and that " it was somewhat more important , and would have a greater impact upon people , than the Bible . " It proposed that all human behavior could be explained in terms of survival and that to understand survival was to understand life . As Hubbard biographer Jon Atack notes , " the notion that everything that exists is trying to survive became the basis of Dianetics and Scientology . " According to Burks , Hubbard " was so sure he had something ' away out and beyond ' anything else that he had sent telegrams to several book publishers , telling them that he had written ' THE book ' and that they were to meet him at Penn Station , and he would discuss it with them and go with whomever gave him the best offer . " However , nobody bought the manuscript . Forrest J Ackerman , later Hubbard 's literary agent , recalled that Hubbard told him " whoever read it either went insane or committed suicide . And he said that the last time he had shown it to a publisher in New York , he walked into the office to find out what the reaction was , the publisher called for the reader , the reader came in with the manuscript , threw it on the table and threw himself out of the skyscraper window . " Hubbard 's failure to sell Excalibur depressed him ; he told his wife in an October 1938 letter : " Writing action pulp doesn 't have much agreement with what I want to do because it retards my progress by demanding incessant attention and , further , actually weakens my name . So you see I 've got to do something about it and at the same time strengthen the old financial position . " He went on : Sooner or later Excalibur will be published and I may have a chance to get some name recognition out of it so as to pave the way to articles and comments which are my ideas of writing heaven ... Foolishly perhaps , but determined none the less , I have high hopes of smashing my name into history so violently that it will take a legendary form even if all books are destroyed . That goal is the real goal as far as I am concerned . The manuscript later became part of Scientology mythology . An early 1950s Scientology publication offered signed " gold @-@ bound and locked " copies for the sum of $ 1 @,@ 500 apiece ( equivalent to about $ 29 @,@ 000 now ) . It warned that " four of the first fifteen people who read it went insane " and that it would be " [ r ] eleased only on sworn statement not to permit other readers to read it . Contains data not to be released during Mr. Hubbard 's stay on earth . " Hubbard joined The Explorers Club in February 1940 on the strength of his claimed explorations in the Caribbean and survey flights in the United States . He persuaded the club to let him carry its flag on an " Alaskan Radio @-@ Experimental Expedition " to update the U.S. Coast Pilot guide to the coastlines of Alaska and British Columbia and investigate new methods of radio position @-@ finding . The expedition consisted of Hubbard and his wife — the children were left at South Colby — aboard his ketch Magician . Scientology accounts of the expedition describe " Hubbard 's recharting of an especially treacherous Inside Passage , and his ethnological study of indigenous Aleuts and Haidas " and tell of how " along the way , he not only roped a Kodiak Bear , but braved seventy @-@ mile @-@ an @-@ hour winds and commensurate seas off the Aleutian Islands . " They are divided about how far Hubbard 's expedition actually traveled , whether 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) or 2 @,@ 000 miles ( 3 @,@ 200 km ) . Hubbard told The Seattle Star in a November 1940 letter that the expedition was plagued by problems and did not get any further than Ketchikan near the southern end of the Alaska Panhandle , far from the Aleutian Islands . Magician 's engine broke down only two days after setting off in July 1940 . The Hubbards reached Ketchikan on August 30 , 1940 , after many delays following repeated engine breakdowns . The Ketchikan Chronicle reported — making no mention of the expedition — that Hubbard 's purpose in coming to Alaska " was two @-@ fold , one to win a bet and another to gather material for a novel of Alaskan salmon fishing " . Having underestimated the cost of the trip , he did not have enough money to repair the broken engine . He raised money by writing stories and contributing to the local radio station and eventually earned enough to fix the engine , making it back to Puget Sound on December 27 , 1940 . = = Military career = = After returning from Alaska , Hubbard applied to join the United States Navy . His Congressman , Warren G. Magnuson , wrote to President Roosevelt to recommend Hubbard as " a gentleman of reputation " who was " a respected explorer " and had " marine masters papers for more types of vessels than any other man in the United States " . Hubbard was described as " a key figure " in writing organizations , " making him politically potent nationally " . The Congressman concluded : " Anything you can do for Mr Hubbard will be appreciated . " His friend Robert MacDonald Ford , by now a State Representative for Washington , sent a letter of recommendation describing Hubbard as " one of the most brilliant men I have ever known " . It called Hubbard " a powerful influence " in the Northwest and said that he was " well known in many parts of the world and has considerable influence in the Caribbean and Alaska " . The letter declared that " for courage and ability I cannot too strongly recommend him . " Ford later said that Hubbard had written the letter himself : " I don 't know why Ron wanted a letter . I just gave him a letter @-@ head and said , ' Hell , you 're the writer , you write it ! ' " Hubbard was commissioned as a Lieutenant ( junior grade ) in the U.S. Naval Reserve on July 19 , 1941 . His military service forms a major element of his public persona as portrayed by Scientologists . The Church of Scientology presents him as a " much @-@ decorated war hero who commanded a corvette and during hostilities was crippled and wounded " . Scientology publications say he served as a " Commodore of Corvette squadrons " in " all five theaters of World War II " and was awarded " twenty @-@ one medals and palms " for his service . He was " severely wounded and was taken crippled and blinded " to a military hospital , where he " worked his way back to fitness , strength and full perception in less than two years , using only what he knew and could determine about Man and his relationship to the universe " . He said that he had seen combat repeatedly , telling A. E. van Vogt that he had once sailed his ship " right into the harbor of a Japanese occupied island in the Dutch East Indies . His attitude was that if you took your flag down the Japanese would not know one boat from another , so he tied up at the dock , went ashore and wandered around by himself for three days . " According to The Los Angeles Times , Hubbard 's official Navy service records indicate that " his military performance was , at times , substandard " and he received only four campaign medals rather than twenty @-@ one . He was never recorded as being injured or wounded in combat and so never received a Purple Heart . Most of his military service was spent ashore in the continental United States on administrative or training duties . He served for a short time in Australia but was sent home after quarreling with his superiors . He briefly commanded two anti @-@ submarine vessels , the USS YP @-@ 422 and USS PC @-@ 815 , in coastal waters off Massachusetts , Oregon and California in 1942 and 1943 respectively . After Hubbard reported that the PC @-@ 815 had attacked and crippled or sunk two Japanese submarines off Oregon in May 1943 , his claim was rejected by the commander of the Northwest Sea Frontier . Hubbard and Thomas Moulton , his second in command on the PC @-@ 815 , later said the Navy wanted to avoid panic on the mainland . A month later Hubbard unwittingly sailed the PC @-@ 815 into Mexican territorial waters and conducted gunnery practice off the Coronado Islands , in the belief that they were uninhabited and belonged to the United States . The Mexican government complained and Hubbard was relieved of command . A fitness report written after the incident rated Hubbard as unsuitable for independent duties and " lacking in the essential qualities of judgment , leadership and cooperation " . He served for a while as the Navigation and Training Officer for the USS Algol while it was based at Portland . A fitness report from this period recommended promotion , describing him as " a capable and energetic officer , [ but ] very temperamental " , and an " above average navigator " . However , he never held another such position and did not serve aboard another ship after the Algol . Hubbard 's war service has great significance in the history and mythology of the Church of Scientology , as he is said to have cured himself through techniques that would later underpin Scientology and Dianetics . According to Moulton , Hubbard told him that he had been machine @-@ gunned in the back near the Dutch East Indies . Hubbard asserted that his eyes had been damaged as well , either " by the flash of a large @-@ caliber gun " or when he had " a bomb go off in my face " . Scientology texts say that he returned from the war " [ b ] linded with injured optic nerves , and lame with physical injuries to hip and back " and was twice pronounced dead . His medical records state that he was hospitalized with an acute duodenal ulcer rather than a war injury . He told his doctors that he was suffering from lameness caused by a hip infection and he told Look magazine in December 1950 that he had suffered from " ulcers , conjunctivitis , deteriorating eyesight , bursitis and something wrong with my feet " . He was still complaining in 1951 of eye problems and stomach pains , which had given him " continuous trouble " for eight years , especially when " under nervous stress " . This	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
been bulldozed on such a gigantic scale that it is visible from space . Hubbard is the Guinness World Record holder for the most published author , with 1 @,@ 084 works , most translated book ( 70 languages for The Way to Happiness ) and most audiobooks ( 185 as of April 2009 ) . According to Galaxy Press , Hubbard 's Battlefield Earth has sold over 6 million copies and Mission Earth a further 7 million , with each of its ten volumes becoming New York Times bestsellers on their release ; however , the Los Angeles Times reported in 1990 that Hubbard 's followers had been buying large numbers of the books and re @-@ issuing them to stores , so as to boost sales figures . Opinions are divided about his literary legacy . Scientologists have written of their desire to " make Ron the most acclaimed and widely known author of all time " . The sociologist William Sims Bainbridge writes that even at his peak in the late 1930s Hubbard was regarded by readers of Astounding Science Fiction as merely " a passable , familiar author but not one of the best " , while by the late 1970s " the [ science fiction ] subculture wishes it could forget him " and fans gave him a worse rating than any other of the " Golden Age " writers . Posthumously , the Los Angeles City Council named a part of the street close to the headquarters of Scientology in 1996 , as recognition of Hubbard . In 2011 , the West Valley City Council declared March 13 as L. Ron Hubbard Centennial Day.On April 2016 , the New Jersey State Board of Education approved Hubbard ’ s birthday as one of its religious holidays . In 2004 , eighteen years after Hubbard 's death , the Church claimed eight million followers worldwide . According to religious scholar J. Gordon Melton , this is an overestimate , counting as Scientologists people who had merely bought a book . The City University of New York 's American Religious Identification Survey found that by 2009 only 25 @,@ 000 Americans identified as Scientologists . Hubbard 's presence still pervades Scientology . Every Church of Scientology maintains an office reserved for Hubbard , with a desk , chair and writing equipment , ready to be used . Lonnie D. Kliever notes that Hubbard was " the only source of the religion , and he has no successor " . Hubbard is referred to simply as " Source " within Scientology and the theological acceptability of any Scientology @-@ related activity is determined by how closely it adheres to Hubbard 's doctrines . Hubbard 's name and signature are official trademarks of the Religious Technology Center , established in 1982 to control and oversee the use of Hubbard 's works and Scientology 's trademarks and copyrights . The RTC is the central organization within Scientology 's complex corporate hierarchy and has put much effort into re @-@ checking the accuracy of all Scientology publications to " ensur [ e ] the availability of the pure unadulterated writings of Mr. Hubbard to the coming generations " . The Danish historian of religions Mikael Rothstein describes Scientology as " a movement focused on the figure of Hubbard " . He comments : " The fact that [ Hubbard 's ] life is mythologized is as obvious as in the cases of Jesus , Muhammad or Siddartha Gotama . This is how religion works . Scientology , however , rejects this analysis altogether , and goes to great lengths to defend every detail of Hubbard 's amazing and fantastic life as plain historical fact . " Hubbard is presented as " the master of a multitude of disciplines " who performed extraordinary feats as a photographer , composer , scientist , therapist , explorer , navigator , philosopher , poet , artist , humanitarian , adventurer , soldier , scout , musician and many other fields of endeavor . The Church of Scientology portrays Hubbard 's life and work as having proceeded seamlessly , " as if they were a continuous set of predetermined events and discoveries that unfolded through his lifelong research " even up to and beyond his death . According to Rothstein 's assessment of Hubbard 's legacy , Scientology consciously aims to transfer the charismatic authority of Hubbard to institutionalize his authority over the organization , even after his death . Hubbard is presented as a virtually superhuman religious ideal just as Scientology itself is presented as the most important development in human history . As Rothstein puts it , " reverence for Scientology 's scripture is reverence for Hubbard , the man who in the Scientological perspective single @-@ handedly brought salvation to all human beings . " David G. Bromley of the University of Virginia comments that the real Hubbard has been transformed into a " prophetic persona " , " LRH " , which acts as the basis for his prophetic authority within Scientology and transcends his biographical history . According to Dorthe Refslund Christensen , Hubbard 's hagiography directly compares him with Buddha . Hubbard is viewed as having made eastern traditions more accessible by approaching them with a scientific attitude . " Hubbard is seen as the ultimate @-@ cross @-@ cultural savior ; he is thought to be able to release man from his miserable condition because he had the necessary background , and especially the right attitude . " = = Biographies = = Following Hubbard 's death , Bridge Publications has published several stand @-@ alone biographical accounts of his life . Marco Frenschkowski notes that " non @-@ Scientologist readers immediately recognize some parts of Hubbard 's life are here systematically left out : no information whatsoever is given about his private life ( his marriages , divorces , children ) , his legal affairs and so on . " The Church maintains an extensive website presenting the official version of Hubbard 's life . It also owns a number of properties dedicated to Hubbard including the Los Angeles @-@ based L. Ron Hubbard Life Exhibition ( a presentation of Hubbard 's life ) , the Author Services Center ( a presentation of Hubbard 's writings ) , and the L. Ron Hubbard House in Washington , D.C. In late 2012 , Bridge published a comprehensive official biography of Hubbard , titled The L. Ron Hubbard Series : A Biographical Encyclopedia , written primarily by Dan Sherman , the official Hubbard biographer at the time . This most recent official Church of Scientology biography of Hubbard is a 17 volume series , with each volume focusing on a different aspect of Hubbard 's life , including his music , photography , geographic exploration , humanitarian work , and nautical career . It is advertised as a " Biographic Encyclopedia " and is primarily authored by the official biographer , Dan Sherman . To date , there has not been a single volume comprehensive official biography published During his lifetime , a number of brief biographical sketches were also published in his Scientology books . The Church of Scientology issued " the only authorized LRH Biography " in October 1977 ( it has since been followed by the Sherman " Biographic Encyclopedia " ) . His life was illustrated in print in What Is Scientology ? , a glossy publication published in 1978 with paintings of Hubbard 's life contributed by his son Arthur . In the late 1970s two men began to assemble a very different picture of Hubbard 's life . Michael Linn Shannon , a resident of Portland , Oregon , became interested in Hubbard 's life story after an encounter with a Scientology recruiter . Over the next four years he collected previously undisclosed records and documents . He intended to write an exposé of Hubbard and sent a copy of his findings and key records to a number of contacts but was unable to find a publisher . Shannon 's findings were acquired by Gerry Armstrong , a Scientologist who had been appointed Hubbard 's official archivist . He had been given the job of assembling documents relating to Hubbard 's life for the purpose of helping Omar V. Garrison , a non @-@ Scientologist who had written two books sympathetic to Scientology , to write an official biography . However , the documents that he uncovered convinced both Armstrong and Garrison that Hubbard had systematically misrepresented his life . Garrison refused to write a " puff piece " and declared that he would not " repeat all the falsehoods they [ the Church of Scientology ] had perpetuated over the years " . He wrote a " warts and all " biography while Armstrong quit Scientology , taking five boxes of papers with him . The Church of Scientology and Mary Sue Hubbard sued for the return of the documents while settling out of court with Garrison , requiring him to turn over the nearly completed manuscript of the biography . In October 1984 Judge Paul G. Breckenridge ruled in Armstrong 's favor , saying : The evidence portrays a man who has been virtually a pathological liar when it comes to his history , background and achievements . The writings and documents in evidence additionally reflect his egoism , greed , avarice , lust for power , and vindictiveness and aggressiveness against persons perceived by him to be disloyal or hostile . At the same time it appears that he is charismatic and highly capable of motivating , organizing , controlling , manipulating and inspiring his adherents . He has been referred to during the trial as a " genius , " a " revered person , " a man who was " viewed by his followers in awe . " Obviously , he is and has been a very complex person and that complexity is further reflected in his alter ego , the Church of Scientology . In November 1987 , the British journalist and writer Russell Miller published Bare @-@ faced Messiah , the first full @-@ length biography of L. Ron Hubbard . He drew on Armstrong 's papers , official records and interviews with those who had known Hubbard including ex @-@ Scientologists and family members . The book was well @-@ received by reviewers but the Church of Scientology sought unsuccessfully to prohibit its publication on the grounds of copyright infringement . Other critical biographical accounts are found in Bent Corydon 's L. Ron Hubbard , Messiah or Madman ? ( 1987 ) and Jon Atack 's A Piece of Blue Sky ( 1990 ) . = = In popular culture = = Hubbard appears as a major character in Paul Malmont 's historical novel The Astounding , the Amazing , and the Unknown ( 2011 ) . The title character in the 2012 film The Master drew comparisons with Hubbard . = Cyclone Rosita = Severe Tropical Cyclone Rosita was a tropical cyclone that affected northern Australia from 15 April through 21 April 2000 . Rosita was one of the most intense tropical cyclones to hit the west Kimberley coast in the last century . Crossing the coast as a Category 5 about 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Broome on 20 April , Rosita caused severe damage in the Eco Beach resort and the vegetation around Broome . Its region of very destructive winds ( gusts exceeding 170 km / h ) passed south of Broome by only 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) . Cyclone Rosita was the first cyclone to directly hit Broome since Cyclone Lindsay in March 1985 . = = Meteorological history = = A weak low in the Timor Sea formed on 14 April , initially moving west south @-@ west and turned southward during 16 April and 17 April . The low slowly strengthened and was named Rosita on 17 April , while located approximately 670 kilometres ( 420 mi ) to the north of Port Hedland at about 6 p.m. WST ( 1000 UTC ) . On the morning of 18 April , a ship reported a relatively high pressure of 997 hPa while passing very close to the centre of Cyclone Rosita , however , near @-@ storm @-@ force winds were reported . Rosita then entered a very favourable environment which allowed rapid development to occur . On 19 April , Rosita turned to the east @-@ southeast and intensified rapidly to a Category 5 severe cyclone , with an estimated central pressure of 930 hPa . Wind gusts near the centre were estimated at about 290 km / h ( 180 mph ) . Rosita turned slightly to the southeast , crossing the coast at peak intensity , 40 kilometres ( 25 mi ) south of Broome at around 1 a.m. WST on 20 April ( 1700 UTC 19 April ) . Cyclone Rosita was a small cyclone , but nevertheless was very intense and powerful . Its radius of gale @-@ force winds was just half the average for cyclones in Australia , and its core of very destructive winds extended just 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) from its centre . This meant that Rosita ’ s region of very destructive winds missed Broome by only 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) to the south . Once over land , Rosita accelerated to speeds of up to 30 km / h ( 19 mph ) into the Great Sandy Desert , only weakening gradually . Rosita passed close to the community of Balgo at around 10 p.m. WST ( 1400 UTC ) on 20 April , about 700 kilometres ( 430 mi ) from the coast . Rosita was still estimated to be at Category 1 intensity when it passed near the community . Rosita ’ s remnants continued to bring flooding rains to central Australia . = = Preparations = = The Bureau of Meteorology predicted Rosita to hit near Broome at around midnight WST on 20 April ( 1600 UTC 19 April ) . Towns around the area were warned to prepare for one of the most powerful cyclones ever to threaten Australia . Very destructive winds with gusts to 260 km / h near the cyclone 's centre were expected . Residents of coastal towns were warned to expect dangerous storm tides – local emergency officials said an 8 metre ( 26 ft ) high tide was expected at that night . Tourists in the area were warned not to try to reach Broome . Chevron Australia said a tanker due to arrive on 18 April was asked to delay its arrival till 22 April because of the cyclone . Iron ore miners in Port Hedland and Dampier monitored Rosita 's approach . Blue Alert warnings , which indicate that a cyclone may affect the warning area within 48 hours , were issued for Cyclone Rosita on the morning on 19 April . They were upgraded to a Yellow Alert – an indication that a cyclone appears inevitable to affect the warning area in 12 hours – at 1 pm , then to a Red Alert – meaning the cyclone is imminent – at 8 pm . In general , residents were well informed of the warnings through the radio . Residents from the low @-@ lying downtown areas evacuated to homes in more elevated locations . Two of the three available evacuation shelters were opened and co @-@ ordinated by the Department of Family and Children 's Services . 280 people took shelter in schools , while 78 residents from Bidyadanga were evacuated to Port Hedland or Broome . The people that stayed in the settlement sheltered in the church and family homes . Staff and guests at the Eco Beach tourist resort received warnings from Rosita early on 19 April and made a timely return to Broome before the cyclone hit . = = Impact = = The largest impact occurred near the core of very destructive winds about 40 km ( 25 mi ) south of Broome . The main homestead on the Thangoo station , 28 km ( 17 mi ) to the south @-@ southeast of Broome , received only minor structural damage , however the station was in the region of the dangerous storm surge . Reports from the Thangoo station , situated 2 @.@ 5 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) inland from coastal mangroves , showed that the station ’ s front gate had debris laid up to the second shoreline , about a metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) above mean ground level . Another station homestead , 7 km ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) west , was covered by coastal dunes but escaped major damage to its structure . The most severe structural damage occurred near Cape Villaret , 40 km ( 25 mi ) south @-@ southwest of Broome . The Eco @-@ beach tourist resort and the Yardoogarra station were devastated . The area around the homestead was totally devastated . A caravan parked nearby was blown away and crumbled , and a semi trailer was blown to its side . The vegetation , which used to be very lush , was stripped of all leaves by the destructive winds which carried airborne salt and sand . The damage to the vegetation seemed to be worse than the tree damage seen in Exmouth caused by Cyclone Vance in March 1999 . About 60 km ( 37 mi ) of fencing was pushed over , all windmills were destroyed , and about 200 head of cattle were lost , mostly due to drowning from the storm surge . However , the path of destruction to the vegetation was estimated to be just 15 to 20 km wide , reflecting Rosita 's small size . The Eco Beach tourist resort was only built to resist wind gusts of Category 3 strength . Only about 10 of the 40 accommodation huts were left standing . Some of the huts were removed from their concrete foundations , and were carried by the winds and smashed into other buildings . Showing how strong Rosita 's winds were , a sea container weighing 2 @.@ 5 tonnes ( 5500 lb ) and filled with 2 to 3 tonnes ( 4400 to 6600 lb ) of equipment was blown 700 m ( 0 @.@ 4 mile ) across sand dunes . The magnitude of the devastation to the vegetation in this area resembled a place being destroyed by bushfires . In the town of Broome , the maximum wind gust recorded was 153 km / h ( 95 mph ) , recorded at the Broome aerodrome , as well as recording 163 @.@ 8 mm ( 6 @.@ 45 in ) of rain for the 24 hours up to 9 a.m. WST ( 0100 UTC ) on 20 April . Vegetation in this area were badly damaged , particularly the African Mahogany trees which were either snapped off or uprooted . Parts of Cable Beach were severely eroded . An area which used to be covered with sand was completely covered by rocks . The eastern side of Roebuck Bay had evidence of severe erosion of the coastal terrain . At Broome 's only banana plantation , almost all crops were completely lost , with 10 out of 18 @,@ 000 plants left surviving . Fortunately , most buildings in the town of Broome remained unharmed , although power supplies were cut to many parts of Broome for several days . The Broome power station was initially shut down at approximately midnight on 20 April amid fears of damage to the power reticulation infrastructure . Some damages to trees and property were reported in the community of Balgo Hills , located in the Great Sandy Desert approximately 700 km ( 430 mi ) inland from the coast . = = Aftermath = = The extended period of power outage was a major problem for the residents in Broome . Residents had to wait for days for the power supply to be restored . As all of the distribution lines were above ground , Broome was particularly vulnerable to power outages during cyclones . Linesmen from Western Power were called in from afar to inspect all high voltage distribution lines before these could be re @-@ energised . Western Power inspectors were also flown in from around the state to commence disconnections of properties suspected to have suffered water intrusion . These properties had to be tested before having supply reconnected . The majority of residential properties had power restored back on 30 April , 11 days after Rosita struck . Television and radio were limited to transmissions from Perth , and this proved difficult to access information about any available supplies in the town . People had difficulties purchasing food and supplies because supermarkets were closed or had no power and there was no fresh produce arriving . However , power was restored a few days after the cyclone hit . There were only minor interruptions to the water and sewerage infrastructure . The Western Australia State Emergency Service ( SES ) was responsible for responses relating to the damage from Rosita . SES workers worked to help the community recover , tarping damaged roofs and clearing debris from roads and around houses where it limited access from residents . Most work involved clearing vegetation from power lines to enable Western Power to begin repairs . Volunteers from other Western Australian cities and towns such as Perth , Bunbury , Karratha , Derby and Tom Price had arrived to assist with requests for help . During the recovery period , the SES earned huge public respect , and residents were pleased with the quick response of the SES . The damage from Rosita made a large impact on the tourist industry . The time of impact happened just before the Easter and ANZAC Day Holiday period . Easter is considered to be the beginning of the tourist season , so it is usually expected that there will be an increase of visitors into Broome at this time . Many visitors delayed or cancelled their trips , and some cut short their holiday . Car hire companies that had been booked out for the holiday period had people returning vehicles early . The impact of Rosita has alerted residents to prepare for any cyclones that may threaten the town in the future . Many people were surprised that Cyclone Rosita was going to hit , as cyclones are rare in Broome , and many thought the cyclone season was already over . However , many residents also thought that the cyclone 's impact strengthened the community as a whole and " brought people closer together " . = = = Retirement = = = The name Rosita was removed from the official list of tropical cyclone names set out by the Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre in Perth . It was replaced with the name Robyn . = Family Goy = " Family Goy " is the second episode of the eighth season of the animated comedy series Family Guy . It originally aired on Fox in the United States on October 4 , 2009 . The episode features Irish Catholic Peter after his wife , Lois , discovers that her mother is Jewish , and begins her struggle to adapt to her newfound heritage . Meanwhile , Peter begins to embrace his wife 's new religion , but after a spiritual visit from his deceased Irish Catholic stepfather , Francis , he becomes increasingly anti @-@ semitic towards Lois and the family 's religion . First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International , the episode was written by Mark Hentemann and directed by James Purdum . It received mixed reviews from critics for its storyline and cultural references , in addition to receiving criticism from the Parents Television Council . According to Nielsen ratings , it was viewed in 9 @.@ 66 million homes in its original airing . The episode featured guest performances by Jeff Bergman , Max Burkholder , Charles Durning , Ben Stein and Bill Woodson , along with several recurring guest voice actors for the series . " Family Goy " was released on DVD along with seven other episodes from the season on June 15 , 2010 . = = Plot = = While at the Drunken Clam , Peter falls in love with a cardboard cutout of Kathy Ireland . He takes her home and has an ' affair ' with her . Soon he is caught by Lois who calls him an idiot . Peter introduces Kathy to the kids as their new mom , but after finding that Chris took her into his room , he angrily confronts her and ends up ripping her in half . He tearfully buries her in the yard and begs Lois for forgiveness . Lois forgives him and they have sex and Lois is shocked when Peter discovers a lump on her breast , causing her to go to the hospital the next day to have it tested for breast cancer . The test comes back negative , but while looking through her medical records , Dr Hartman discovers that Lois ' mother is a Jewish Holocaust survivor , making Lois and her children Jewish by heritage . Barbara confirms her heritage , and Carter admits he kept it a family secret so that they could join the country club . Despite not being Jewish himself , Peter takes to it eagerly , much to Lois ' frustration . That night , Peter is visited by the ghost of his adoptive father , Francis , who warns him that he will go to Hell for not being Catholic . The next day , Peter decides to re @-@ convert the family to Catholicism and becomes prejudiced against Lois ' heritage , becoming anti @-@ Semitic . Taking advice from her mother not to let Peter suppress her identity , like her own husband did to her , Lois decides to hold a Passover Seder , which Peter tries to ruin so he can celebrate Easter . He shows up in an Easter bunny costume while drunk . Jesus appears and points out that Catholicism and Judaism are very similar . He then tells Peter that he should treat people of different faiths as fairly as he wants to be treated . Peter and Lois apologize to each other , but are at a loss for what religion they should follow . After being asked this by Peter , Jesus answers " Six of one , they 're all complete crap . " and then Brian ( offscreen ) chimes in from the other side of the room , responding " Thank you ! " = = Production and development = = First announced at the 2009 San Diego Comic @-@ Con International in San Diego , California on July 25 , 2009 , by future showrunner Mark Hentemann , the episode was directed by supervising director James Purdum , written by Hentemann , shortly after the conclusion of the seventh production season . " Family Goy " , along with the seven other episodes from Family Guy 's eighth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on June 15 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Seth MacFarlane and various crew and cast members for several episodes , a collection of deleted scenes , a special mini @-@ feature which discussed the process behind animating " Road to the Multiverse " , and mini @-@ feature entitled Family Guy Karaoke . This episode uses a story element from " Death is a Bitch " , an episode written by Ricky Blitt , in which Lois discovers a lump on Peter 's breast , thinking it would be cancer , whereas the opposite occurred in this episode . Actors Ben Stein and Charles Durning guest starred in the episode as Rabbi Goldberg and Francis Griffin , respectively . Rabbi Goldberg and Max Weinstein , two Jewish characters whom Lois and Peter seek advice from after discovering Lois 's heritage , made their second appearance in the series , having previously appeared in the third season episode " When You Wish Upon a Weinstein " , which was originally banned from airing on network television . However , Peter Riegert did not reprise his role of Max Weinstein . Instead , voice actor Jeff Bergman , notable for playing Fred Flintstone in the show , voices him . In addition to Stein , Durning , Bergman , and the regular cast , child actor Max Burkholder and voice actor William Woodson guest starred in the episode . Recurring guest voice actors Johnny Brennan , actor Ralph Garman , writer Mark Hentemann , writer Danny Smith , writer Alec Sulkin , and writer John Viener also made minor appearances . = = Cultural references = = " Family Goy " contained various cultural references . The episode opens with a parody of the opening sequence of The All @-@ New Super Friends Hour , with the central characters of Family Guy replacing The All @-@ New Super Friends Hour 's main characters , except for Meg . When Peter first sees the Kathy Ireland cutout , he starts to sing the Billy Ocean song , " Suddenly " . As Lois collects the mail Peter attempts to shoot her , topless and armed with a sniper rifle , but instead hits the mailbox which is reminiscent of a scene in Schindler 's List of Amon Göth shooting down Jews in the Kraków @-@ Płaszów concentration camp in occupied Poland . Stewie 's prayer over the candles is a real prayer that women recite before a non @-@ Sabbath festival 's start , however , the prayer turns into a reference to the 1984 adventure film Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom where Indian priest Mola Ram takes out the heart of a man during a ritual . Peter references William Shakespeare 's play Macbeth , but the cutaway gag shows a battle in a spaceship , to which Peter admits that he is not very familiar with Shakespeare 's works . = = Reception = = " Family Goy " was first broadcast in the United States and Canada on Fox on October 4 , 2009 . The episode was viewed by 9 @.@ 66 million people and received a 5 @.@ 4 / 8 Nielsen Rating , making " Family Goy " the ninth most @-@ watched show of the night it was broadcast . The episode was met with mixed critical responses . Ahsan Haque of IGN praised the second half of the episode but felt that the Kathy Ireland plot was too long . In his review , he commented " It 's definitely meant for people who are open @-@ minded to this kind of humor , and can make sure they treat the subject matter purely as comedy and not any manner of social commentary or prejudice . Take away the slow start , and this episode managed to really deliver some memorable shocking comedy . " TV Guide critic Alex Rocha praised the show 's League of Justice opening sequence and the Kathy Ireland plot but reacted negatively to the second half of the episode , stating that he " dozed off " during the last fifteen minutes . TV Guide also listed the episode on the " TV hot list " of October 4 . The Toronto Star noted the episode was " worth watching " . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode a negative review , giving it a C — grade and concluding that , " Overall , the episode was just an excuse to drag out a bunch of tired Jewish jokes and also have Peter briefly descend into anti @-@ Semitism " . Though he mostly disliked the episode , VanDerWerff praised Stewie 's part in the episode , as well as the Shakespeare cutaway gag and a cutaway that featured Peter getting into fight with a cat . Jewish Journal critic Adam Willis commented " My hope is that the series will roast the familiar Jewish themes introduced in “ Family Goy , ” rather than continuing on the Jews @-@ as @-@ targets route . The show has regularly featured some inspiring Jewish gags – both in good taste and bad . And while Hebrew community in @-@ jokes would be better received by Jewish viewers , the likely reality is the Holocaust humor will continue to dominate . " Media watchdog group the Parents Television Council , a frequent critic of the show , named " Family Goy " its " Worst TV Show of the Week " for the week ending October 9 , 2009 , criticizing what it saw as an anti @-@ Semitic plot . = Attack of Mark 's Clone = " Attack of Mark 's Clone " is the sixth episode of the second season of the American animated television series Ugly Americans , which aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 4 , 2011 . In the episode , Callie creates a clone of Mark that will guarantee the Department of Integration 's win in a bowling tournament , but the plan backfires when the clone frames her for murdering Twayne 's new assistant , Tad . The episode was written by Adam Stein and series developer David M. Stern , and directed by Richard Ferguson @-@ Hull and series creator Devin Clark . The episode features guest performances by comedians Kate McKinnon and Jay Oakerson . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Attack of Mark 's Clone " was watched by a season low of 730 @,@ 000 viewers in its original airing . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who deemed it solid . = = Plot = = Callie Maggotbone creates a clone of Mark Lilly to replace him in the Department of Integration 's ( D.O.I. ) bowling tournament , as the real Mark is a " terrible bowler " . The clone , who has blonde hair instead of brown , has a sadistic worldview and hides the real Mark in his closet . The following day , Twayne Boneraper hires a new assistant named Tad to do his dirty work . Tad 's first action is to reassign Callie , whom he thinks is a saboteur , to a useless department in sub @-@ basement 37 . Tad also cuts Mark 's department 's budget by 80 % , but is rather impressed by the Clone Mark 's attitude . The next day at his group therapy session with Mark 's students , Clone Mark turns it into a fight club to train them for the bowling tournament . Later , Clone Mark finds Callie 's diary at her apartment and finds out that she plans to murder him after the tournament and then get the real Mark back . Infuriated , he decides to murder Tad and frames Callie for the crime by using a trident from her apartment as the weapon and leaving it at the scene . Callie gets hauled in by Frank Grimes and his crew , but Grimes finds Mark 's behavior strange and decides to investigate further . Grimes visits Callie at the prison , but she cannot reveal the truth because Clone Mark will kill the real Mark if she tells anyone that he framed her . Grimes goes to Mark 's apartment and discovers the real Mark tied up in his own closet . However , Clone Mark appears behind him and shoots him in both his legs . Grimes , as he tries to fire back , ends up blinding himself . Clone Mark has grown tired of bowling and decides to leave the city . The next day , the real Mark tries to free Callie from prison , but he must find evidence to prove her innocence . Mark finds his clone at a tropical island , where he confesses that he killed Tad . The clone is then gassed to death and his body is scrapped for parts , which gives Grimes new legs and eyes . At the bowling tournament , Mark wonders where his clone came from , and Callie says that he " will never know " . = = Production = = Initially titled " The Clone Wars " , the episode 's title was later changed to " Attack of Mark 's Clone " . Series developer David M. Stern wrote the episode with Adam Stein , and Richard Ferguson @-@ Hull and series creator Devin Clark directed it . Stein and Mick Kelly served as staff writers . In an interview with Kevin Fitzpatrick of UGO , Clark spoke of the episode and proclaimed that it was a " really fun opportunity " to see what Mark 's clone would be like , calling him an " Agro @-@ Mark " . He said that Matt Oberg , the voice of Mark , voiced the clone as a " much more gruff individual " . Clark elaborated , " It 's really funny . It 's like seeing Mark , since we kind of play him so neutered most of the time , it 's like seeing him as like this jerk , it 's hilarious , it 's a very funny story . " Executive producer Daniel Powell said that Clone Mark " glove slaps everyone [ and smokes ] a cigarette instead of putting it out before the office " . " Attack of Mark 's Clone " was the eighth episode to be produced for the second season . In addition to the regular cast , the episode features appearances by recurring guest voice actors Pete Holmes and Mike O 'Gorman . Comedians Kate McKinnon and Jay Oakerson guest starred in the episode . = = Reception = = The episode originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on August 4 , 2011 . The episode was viewed by an estimated 730 @,@ 000 viewers and received a 0 @.@ 3 rating among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 , according to Nielsen Media Research . This means that it was seen by 0 @.@ 3 % of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds . The episode marked a decrease in ratings from the previous episode , " The Ring of Powers " , which scored a 0 @.@ 4 rating and was watched by 870 @,@ 000 viewers . The total viewership for " Attack of Mark 's Clone " made it the season 's least watched episode . Critical reception of the episode was positive . Charles Webb of MTV Geek favored it over season one episodes , which emphasized " generating a gag a minute within a paper @-@ thin plot " . Webb wrote , " The Ugly Americans team has been on a roll much of this season , going three for three with this episode , last week 's ' The Ring of Powers , ' and the previous week 's ' G.I. Twayne ' . " Ology writer Josh Harrison was also positive of the episode , rating it 7 @.@ 7 out of 10 and writing : " ' Attack of Mark 's Clone ' takes a pretty archetypal plotline — the evil duplicate — and translates it into the zany twisting storytelling we 've come to know and love . " Harrison praised the episode for giving viewers insight on the character Mark , and concluded : " This was a solid , if one @-@ note , episode of Ugly Americans . The ongoing jokes ... helped shore up the limited scope of the situation . " = San Antonio Bay = San Antonio Bay is a bay on the Texas Gulf coast situated between Matagorda and Aransas Bay . It consists mainly of the combined waters of the San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers , and is located at the mouth of the Guadalupe River , about 55 miles ( 89 km ) northeast of Corpus Christi and 130 miles ( 209 km ) southeast of San Antonio . It is protected from the Gulf of Mexico by Matagorda Island , leaving only relatively small and distant outlets to the Gulf for little mixing of bay and Gulf waters . The remoteness of the bay has prevented the establishment of major ports as seen on Aransas and Corpus Christi Bay , to the south . The Aransas National Wildlife Refuge is found on the southwest portion of the bay . The diverse wildlife on these shores make up for the lack of a sizable human settlement . = = History = = The Karankawa Indians used the land near the Guadalupe River delta and San Antonio Bay for camping purposes . They also populated Matagorda Island on the opposite side of the bay . Captain Luis Cazorla of Presidio La Bahía crossed San Antonio Bay to visit the island in 1776 , and discovered that the Indians had killed the mates of a shipwrecked British trading vessel . For a short time , he convinced the Indian leaders not to kill shipwreck survivors on the island . An effort was made to convert the Indians with the establishment of Mission Refugio on San Antonio Bay in 1793 , after Fray José Francisco Garza found a shallow crossing that the Indians used to travel to the mainland . To prevent the Indians from using Matagorda Island as a hiding place to stage attacks , La Bahía commandant Juan Cortés burned and cut brush around the point of crossing . No permanent colony was ever established on the island . After the arrival of white settlers to the baytown of Hynesville in the 19th century , the Karankawa began to commit offenses against the settlers , including the unsanctioned slaughter of their livestock . As a result , the settlers engaged the Indians at the 1852 Battle of Hynes Bay , near the San Antonio Bay extension of Hynes Bay . The Karankawa were swiftly defeated , and the survivors agreed to never return ; finding refuge across the Rio Grande in Tamaulipas . A few years later , the Hynes extension began to fill with mud , leaving it shallow and hard to navigate . Reports from Hynesville suggest that alligators infested the bay , killing a few residents . At the beginning of the 20th century , Preston R. Austin set out to build a new port on the western shore . He established the town of Austwell in 1911 , and quickly began dredging in 1914 to build a channel . In the early stages of development , the channel filled with mud and was abandoned . Meanwhile , on the eastern shore , the city of Seadrift , which had been established following the American Civil War , began to develop into a place of interest for fishing and shipping . The town , which was most likely named for floating debris swept ashore by the Guadalupe River , was incorporated in 1912 , and by 1914 had a population of 1 @,@ 250 . The growth subsided in 1919 , after a hurricane ravaged the area . In 1926 , only 321 lived in the town . The population slowly recovered , and had surpassed its original peak in 1990 , following a wave of Vietnamese refugees , who emigrated to the city after the Vietnam War . In 2000 , the city had 1 @,@ 352 residents . = = Features = = The land near the bay lies on the Texas Coastal Plain . It consists of grassy prairies , which support conifers and water @-@ tolerant hardwoods . Most of the surrounding land is used for agricultural purposes with the exception of Aransas National Wildlife Refuge , which is preserved for wildlife . On average , the San Antonio Bay system is 2 meters ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) deep , and covers approximately 531 square kilometers ( 205 sq mi ) . The system is made up of the bay itself and its extensions . The main extensions include : Espiritu Santo Bay , to the bay 's east ; Hynes Bay , to the northwest , and Guadalupe Bay due north . Every second , approximately 116 cubic meters ( 31 @,@ 000 U.S. gal ) of water flows into the bay . The exchange with the Gulf of Mexico occurs at Cedar Bayou and Pass Cavallo . As a result of the seawater exchange , the bay 's salinity is 13 parts per thousand ( ppt ) , compared to the seawater average of 35 ppt . There is very little seawater exchange , with most of the bay 's waters coming from the freshwater flows of the converged San Antonio and Guadalupe rivers . = = Ecosystem = = A wide variety of wildlife can be found in and around San Antonio Bay . According to Texas Parks and Wildlife , the following fish have been caught in the bay : palmetto bass , striped bass , hardhead catfish , black drum , red drum , crevalle jack , southern kingfish , ladyfish , lefteye flounder , pinfish , spotted seatrout , and the sheepshead . The shores along the bay , specifically the Aransas National Wildlife Refuge , are home to countless birds including the endangered whooping crane , pelicans , herons , egrets , roseate spoonbills , shorebirds , ducks , and geese . American alligators , collared peccaries , feral hogs , coyotes , bobcats , raccoon and white @-@ tailed deer as well as clams and crabs are included among the bay 's diverse wildlife . Several pelicans that had been rescued and cleaned after the Deepwater Horizon oil spill , were brought to the shore of San Antonio Bay in June 2010 . = = Industry = = Nearly detached from the Gulf of Mexico by barrier islands , San Antonio Bay does not support a large shipping industry . The only port of merit on the bay is Seadrift , where a shipping channel has been dredged to the Gulf Intracoastal Waterway . Most inhabitants near the bay work at chemical , crab @-@ picking , and aluminum plants . For centuries , oyster farming has been a mainstay of the surrounding economy . However , in December 2009 , commercial harvesting was suspended after the norovirus was discovered in several exported crops , resulting in a recall . = The Sun Also Rises = The Sun Also Rises is a 1926 novel written by American author Ernest Hemingway about a group of American and British expatriates who travel from Paris to the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona to watch the running of the bulls and the bullfights . An early and enduring modernist novel , it received mixed reviews upon publication . Hemingway biographer Jeffrey Meyers writes that it is " recognized as Hemingway 's greatest work " , and Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner @-@ Martin calls it his most important novel . The novel was published in the United States in October 1926 by the publishing house Scribner 's . A year later , the London publishing house Jonathan Cape published the novel with the title of Fiesta . Since then it has been continuously in print . Hemingway began writing the novel on his birthday ( 21 July ) in 1925 , finishing the draft manuscript barely two months later in September . After setting aside the manuscript for a short period , he worked on revisions during the winter of 1926 . The basis for the novel was Hemingway 's 1925 trip to Spain . The setting was unique and memorable , showing seedy café life in Paris , and the excitement of the Pamplona festival , with a middle section devoted to descriptions of a fishing trip in the Pyrenees . Hemingway 's sparse writing style , combined with his restrained use of description to convey characterizations and action , became known as demonstrating the Iceberg Theory . The novel is a roman à clef ; the characters are based on real people of Hemingway 's circle , and the action is based on real events . In the novel , Hemingway presents his notion that the " Lost Generation " , considered to have been decadent , dissolute and irretrievably damaged by World War I , was resilient and strong . Additionally , Hemingway investigates the themes of love , death , renewal in nature , and the nature of masculinity . = = Background = = In the 1920s Hemingway lived in Paris , was foreign correspondent for the Toronto Star , and traveled to places such as Smyrna to report about the Greco – Turkish War . He wanted to use his journalism experience to write fiction , believing that a story could be based on real events when a writer distilled his own experiences in such a way that , according to biographer Jeffrey Meyers , " what he made up was truer than what he remembered " . With his wife Hadley Richardson , Hemingway first visited the Festival of San Fermín in Pamplona , Spain , in 1923 , where he became fascinated by bullfighting . The couple returned to Pamplona in 1924 — enjoying the trip immensely — this time accompanied by Chink Dorman @-@ Smith , John Dos Passos , and Donald Ogden Stewart and his wife . The two returned a third time in June 1925 . That year , they brought with them a different group of American and British expatriates : Hemingway 's Michigan boyhood friend Bill Smith , Stewart , recently divorced Duff , Lady Twysden , her lover Pat Guthrie , and Harold Loeb . In Pamplona , the group quickly disintegrated . Hemingway , attracted to Duff , was jealous of Loeb , who had recently been on a romantic getaway with her ; by the end of the week the two men had a public fistfight . Against this background was the influence of the young matador from Ronda , Cayetano Ordóñez , whose brilliance in the bullring affected the spectators . Ordóñez honored Hemingway 's wife by presenting her , from the bullring , with the ear of a bull he killed . Outside of Pamplona , the fishing trip to the Irati River ( near Burguete in Navarre ) was marred by polluted water . Hemingway had intended to write a nonfiction book about bullfighting , but then decided that the week 's experiences had presented him with enough material for a novel . A few days after the fiesta ended , on his birthday ( 21 July ) , he began writing what would eventually become The Sun Also Rises . By 17 August , with 14 chapters written and a working title of Fiesta chosen , Hemingway returned to Paris . He finished the draft on 21 September 1925 , writing a foreword the following weekend and changing the title to The Lost Generation . A few months later , in December 1925 , Hemingway and his wife spent the winter in Schruns , Austria , where he began revising the manuscript extensively . Pauline Pfeiffer joined them in January , and — against Richardson 's advice — urged him to sign a contract with Scribner 's . Hemingway left Austria for a quick trip to New York to meet with the publishers , and on his return , during a stop in Paris , began an affair with Pauline . He returned to Schruns to finish the revisions in March . In June , he was in Pamplona with both Richardson and Pfeiffer . On their return to Paris , Richardson asked for a separation , and left for the south of France . In August , alone in Paris , Hemingway completed the proofs , dedicating the novel to his wife and son . After the publication of the book in October , Richardson asked for a divorce ; Hemingway subsequently gave her the book 's royalties . = = Publication history = = Hemingway apparently maneuvered Boni & Liveright into terminating their contract so he could have The Sun Also Rises published by Scribner 's instead . In December 1925 he quickly wrote The Torrents of Spring — a satirical novella attacking Sherwood Anderson — and sent it to his publishers Boni & Liveright . His three @-@ book contract with them included a termination clause should they reject a single submission . Unamused by the satire against one of their most saleable authors , Boni & Liveright immediately rejected it and terminated the contract . Within weeks Hemingway signed a contract with Scribner 's , who agreed to publish The Torrents of Spring and all of his subsequent work . Scribner 's published the novel on 22 October 1926 . Its first edition consisted of 5090 copies , selling at $ 2 @.@ 00 per copy . Cleonike Damianakes illustrated the dust jacket with a Hellenistic design of a seated , robed woman , her head bent to her shoulder , eyes closed , one hand holding an apple , her shoulders and a thigh exposed . Editor Maxwell Perkins intended " Cleon 's respectably sexy " design to attract " the feminine readers who control the destinies of so many novels " . Two months later the book was in a second printing with 7000 copies sold . Subsequent printings were ordered ; by 1928 , after the publication of Hemingway 's short story collection Men Without Women , the novel was in its eighth printing . In 1927 the novel was published in the UK by Jonathan Cape , titled Fiesta , without the two epigraphs . Two decades later , in 1947 , Scribner 's released three of Hemingway 's works as a boxed set , including The Sun Also Rises , A Farewell to Arms , and For Whom the Bell Tolls . By 1983 , The Sun Also Rises had been in print continuously since its publication in 1926 , and was likely one of the most translated titles in the world . At that time Scribner 's began to print cheaper mass @-@ market paperbacks of the book , in addition to the more expensive trade paperbacks already in print . In the 1990s , British editions were titled Fiesta : The Sun Also Rises . In 2006 Simon & Schuster began to produce audiobook versions of Hemingway 's novels , including The Sun Also Rises . = = Plot summary = = On the surface , the novel is a love story between the protagonist Jake Barnes — a man whose war wound has made him impotent — and the promiscuous divorcée usually identified as Lady Brett Ashley . ( Since the title belonged to her husband , she should actually have been addressed as Brett , Lady Ashley . ) Barnes is an expatriate American journalist living in Paris , while Brett is a twice @-@ divorced Englishwoman with bobbed hair and numerous love affairs , and embodies the new sexual freedom of the 1920s . Brett 's affair with Robert Cohn causes Jake to be upset and break off his friendship with Cohn ; her seduction of the 19 @-@ year @-@ old matador Romero causes Jake to lose his good reputation among the Spaniards in Pamplona . Book One is set in the café society of young American expatriates in Paris . In the opening scenes , Jake plays tennis with his college friend Robert Cohn , picks up a prostitute ( Georgette ) , and runs into Brett and Count Mippipopolous in a nightclub . Later , Brett tells Jake she loves him , but they both know that they have no chance at a stable relationship . In Book Two , Jake is joined by Bill Gorton , recently arrived from New York , and Brett 's fiancé Mike Campbell , who arrives from Scotland . Jake and Bill travel south and meet Robert Cohn at Bayonne for a fishing trip in the hills northeast of Pamplona . Instead of fishing , Cohn stays in Pamplona to wait for the overdue Brett and Mike . Cohn had an affair with Brett a few weeks earlier and still feels possessive of her despite her engagement to Mike . After Jake and Bill enjoy five days of fishing the streams near Burguete , they rejoin the group in Pamplona . All begin to drink heavily . Cohn is resented by the others , who taunt him with anti @-@ semitic remarks . During the fiesta the characters drink , eat , watch the running of the bulls , attend bullfights , and bicker with each other . Jake introduces Brett to the 19 @-@ year @-@ old matador Romero at the Hotel Montoya ; she is smitten with him and seduces him . The jealous tension among the men builds — Jake , Campbell , Cohn , and Romero each want Brett . Cohn , who had been a champion boxer in college , has a fistfight with Jake and Mike , and another with Romero , whom he beats up . Despite his injuries , Romero continues to perform brilliantly in the bullring . Book Three shows the characters in the aftermath of the fiesta . Sober again , they leave Pamplona ; Bill returns to Paris , Mike stays in Bayonne , and Jake goes to San Sebastián on the northern coast of Spain . As Jake is about to return to Paris , he receives a telegram from Brett asking for help ; she had gone to Madrid with Romero . He finds her there in a cheap hotel , without money , and without Romero . She announces she has decided to go back to Mike . The novel ends with Jake and Brett in a taxi speaking of the things that might have been . = = Major themes = = = = = Paris and the Lost Generation = = = The first book of The Sun Also Rises is set in mid @-@ 1920s Paris . Americans were drawn to Paris in the Roaring Twenties by the favorable exchange rate , with as many as 200 @,@ 000 English @-@ speaking expatriates living there . The Paris Tribune reported in 1925 that Paris had an American Hospital , an American Library , and an American Chamber of Commerce . Many American writers were disenchanted with the US , where they found less artistic freedom than in Europe . Hemingway had more artistic freedom in Paris than in the US at a period when Ulysses , written by his friend James Joyce , was banned and burned in New York . The themes of The Sun Also Rises appear in its two epigraphs . The first is an allusion to the " Lost Generation , " a term coined by Gertrude Stein referring to the post @-@ war generation ; the other epigraph is a long quotation from Ecclesiastes : " What profit hath a man of all his labour which he taketh under the sun ? One generation passeth away , and another generation cometh : but the earth abideth for ever . The sun also ariseth , and the sun goeth down , and hasteth to his place where he arose . " Hemingway told his editor Max Perkins that the book was not so much about a generation being lost , but that " the earth abideth forever . " He thought the characters in The Sun Also Rises may have been " battered " but were not lost . Hemingway scholar Wagner @-@ Martin writes that Hemingway wanted the book to be about morality , which he emphasized by changing the working title from Fiesta to The Sun Also Rises . Wagner @-@ Martin claims that the book can be read either as a novel about bored expatriates or as a morality tale about a protagonist who searches for integrity in an immoral world . Months before Hemingway left for Pamplona , the press was depicting the Parisian Latin Quarter , where he lived , as decadent and depraved . He began writing the story of a matador corrupted by the influence of the Latin Quarter crowd ; he expanded it into a novel about Jake Barnes at risk of being corrupted by wealthy and inauthentic expatriates . The characters form a group , sharing similar norms , and each greatly affected by the war . Hemingway captures the angst of the age and transcends the love story of Brett and Jake , although they are representative of the period : Brett is starved for reassurance and love and Jake is sexually maimed . His wound symbolizes the disability of the age , the disillusion , and the frustrations felt by an entire generation . Hemingway thought he lost touch with American values while living in Paris , but his biographer Michael Reynolds claims the opposite , seeing evidence of the author 's midwestern American values in the novel . Hemingway admired hard work . He portrayed the matadors and the prostitutes , who work for a living , in a positive manner , but Brett , who prostitutes herself , is emblematic of " the rotten crowd " living on inherited money . It is Jake , the working journalist , who pays the bills again and again when those who can pay do not . Hemingway shows , through Jake 's actions , his disapproval of the people who did not pay up . Reynolds says that Hemingway shows the tragedy , not so much of the decadence of the Montparnasse crowd , but of the decline in American values of the period . As such , the author created an American hero who is impotent and powerless . Jake becomes the moral center of the story . He never considers himself part of the expatriate crowd because he is a working man ; to Jake a working man is genuine and authentic , and those who do not work for a living spend their lives posing . = = = Women and love = = = The twice @-@ divorced Brett Ashley represented the liberated New Woman ( in the 1920s , divorces were common and easy to be had in Paris ) . James Nagel writes that , in Brett , Hemingway created one of the more fascinating women in 20th @-@ century American literature . Sexually promiscuous , she is a denizen of Parisian nightlife and cafés . In Pamplona she sparks chaos : in her presence , the men drink too much and fight . She also seduces the young bullfighter Romero and becomes a Circe in the festival . Critics describe her variously as complicated , elusive , and enigmatic ; Donald Daiker writes that Hemingway " treats her with a delicate balance of sympathy and antipathy . " She is vulnerable , forgiving , independent — qualities that Hemingway juxtaposes with the other women in the book , who are either prostitutes or overbearing nags . Nagel considers the novel a tragedy . Jake and Brett have a relationship that becomes destructive because their love cannot be consummated . Conflict over Brett destroys Jake 's friendship with Robert Cohn , and her behavior in Pamplona affects Jake 's hard @-@ won reputation among the Spaniards . Meyers sees Brett as a woman who wants sex without love while Jake can only give her love without sex . Although Brett sleeps with many men , it is Jake she loves . Dana Fore writes that Brett is willing to be with Jake in spite of his disability , in a " non @-@ traditional erotic relationship . " Other critics such as Leslie Fiedler and Nina Baym see her as a supreme bitch ; Fiedler sees Brett as one of the " outstanding examples of Hemingway 's ' bitch women . ' " Jake becomes bitter about their relationship , as when he says , " Send a girl off with a man .... Now go and bring her back . And sign the wire with love . " Critics interpret the Jake – Brett relationship in various ways . Daiker suggests that Brett 's behavior in Madrid — after Romero leaves and when Jake arrives at her summons — reflects her immorality . Scott Donaldson thinks Hemingway presents the Jake – Brett relationship in such a manner that Jake knew " that in having Brett for a friend ' he had been getting something for nothing ' and that sooner or later he would have to pay the bill . " Daiker notes that Brett relies on Jake to pay for her train fare from Madrid to San Sebastián , where she rejoins her fiancé Mike . In a piece Hemingway cut , he has Jake thinking , " you learned a lot about a woman by not sleeping with her . " By the end of the novel , although Jake loves Brett , he appears to undergo a transformation in Madrid when he begins to distance himself from her . Reynolds believes that Jake represents the " everyman , " and that in the course of the narrative he loses his honor , faith , and hope . He sees the novel as a morality play with Jake as the person who loses the most . = = = The corrida , the fiesta , and nature = = = In The Sun Also Rises , Hemingway contrasts Paris with Pamplona , and the frenzy of the fiesta with the tranquillity of the Spanish countryside . Spain was Hemingway 's favorite European country ; he considered it a healthy place , and the only country " that hasn 't been shot to pieces . " He was profoundly affected by the spectacle of bullfighting , writing , It isn 't just brutal like they always told us . It 's a great tragedy — and the most beautiful thing I 've ever seen and takes more guts and skill and guts again than anything possibly could . It 's just like having a ringside seat at the war with nothing going to happen to you . He demonstrated what he considered the purity in the culture of bullfighting — called afición — and presented it as an authentic way of life , contrasted against the inauthenticity of the Parisian bohemians . To be accepted as an aficionado was rare for a non @-@ Spaniard ; Jake goes through a difficult process to gain acceptance by the " fellowship of afición . " The Hemingway scholar Allen Josephs thinks the novel is centered on the corrida ( the bullfighting ) , and how each character reacts to it . Brett seduces the young matador ; Cohn fails to understand and expects to be bored ; Jake understands fully because only he moves between the world of the inauthentic expatriates and the authentic Spaniards ; the hotel keeper Montoya is the keeper of the faith ; and Romero is the artist in the ring — he is both innocent and perfect , and the one who bravely faces death . The corrida is presented as an idealized drama in which the matador faces death , creating a moment of existentialism or nada ( nothingness ) , broken when he vanquishes death by killing the bull . Hemingway presents matadors as heroic characters dancing in a bullring . He considered the bullring as war with precise rules , in contrast to the messiness of the real war that he , and by extension Jake , experienced . Critic Keneth Kinnamon notes that young Romero is the novel 's only honorable character . Hemingway named Romero after Pedro Romero , an 18th @-@ century bullfighter who killed thousands of bulls in the most difficult manner : having the bull impale itself on his sword as he stood perfectly still . Reynolds says Romero , who symbolizes the classically pure matador , is the " one idealized figure in the novel . " Josephs says that when Hemingway changed Romero 's name from Guerrita and imbued him with the characteristics of the historical Romero , he also changed the scene in which Romero kills a bull to one of recibiendo ( receiving the bull ) in homage to the historical namesake . Before the group arrives in Pamplona , Jake and Bill take a fishing trip to the Irati River . As Harold Bloom points out , the scene serves as an interlude between the Paris and Pamplona sections , " an oasis that exists outside linear time . " More importantly , on another level it reflects " the mainstream of American fiction beginning with the Pilgrims seeking refuge from English oppression " — the prominent theme in American literature of escaping into the wilderness , as seen in Cooper , Hawthorne , Melville , Twain , and Thoreau . Fiedler calls the theme " The Sacred Land " ; he thinks the American West is evoked in The Sun Also Rises by the Pyrenees and given a symbolic nod with the name of the " Hotel Montana . " In Hemingway 's writing , nature is a place of refuge and rebirth , according to Stoltzfus , where the hunter or fisherman gains a moment of transcendence at the moment the prey is killed . Nature is the place where men act without women : men fish , men hunt , men find redemption . In nature Jake and Bill do not need to discuss the war because their war experience , paradoxically , is ever @-@ present . The nature scenes serve as counterpoint to the fiesta scenes . All of the characters drink heavily during the fiesta and generally throughout the novel . In his essay " Alcoholism in Hemingway 's The Sun Also Rises , " Matts Djos says the main characters exhibit alcoholic tendencies such as depression , anxiety and sexual inadequacy . He writes that Jake 's self @-@ pity is symptomatic of an alcoholic , as is Brett 's out @-@ of @-@ control behavior . William Balassi thinks that Jake gets drunk to avoid his feelings for Brett , notably in the Madrid scenes at the end where he has three martinis before lunch and drinks three bottles of wine with lunch . Reynolds , however , believes the drinking is relevant as set against the historical context of Prohibition in the United States . The atmosphere of the fiesta lends itself to drunkenness , but the degree of revelry among the Americans also reflects a reaction against Prohibition . Bill , visiting from the US , drinks in Paris and in Spain . Jake is rarely drunk in Paris where he works but on vacation in Pamplona , he drinks constantly . Reynolds says that Prohibition split attitudes about morality , and in the novel Hemingway made clear his dislike of Prohibition . = = = Masculinity and gender = = = Critics have seen Jake as an ambiguous representative of Hemingway manliness . For example , in the bar scene in Paris , Jake is angry at some homosexual men . The critic Ira Elliot suggests that Hemingway viewed homosexuality as an inauthentic way of life , and that he aligns Jake with homosexual men because , like them , Jake does not have sex with women . Jake 's anger shows his self @-@ hatred at his inauthenticity and lack of masculinity . His sense of masculine identity is lost — he is less than a man . Elliot wonders if Jake 's wound perhaps signifies latent homosexuality , rather than only a loss of masculinity ; the emphasis in the novel , however , is on Jake 's interest in women . Hemingway 's writing has been called homophobic because of the language his characters use . For example , in the fishing scenes , Bill confesses his fondness for Jake but then goes on to say , " I couldn 't tell you that in New York . It 'd mean I was a faggot . " In contrast to Jake 's troubled masculinity , Romero represents an ideal masculine identity grounded in self @-@ assurance , bravery , competence , and uprightness . The Davidsons note that Brett is attracted to Romero for these reasons , and they speculate that Jake might be trying to undermine Romero 's masculinity by bringing Brett to him and thus diminishing his ideal stature . Critics have examined issues of gender misidentification that are prevalent in much of Hemingway 's work . He was interested in cross @-@ gender themes , as shown by his depictions of effeminate men and boyish women . In his fiction , a woman 's hair is often symbolically important and used to denote gender . Brett , with her short hair , is androgynous and compared to a boy — yet the ambiguity lies in the fact that she is described as a " damned fine @-@ looking woman . " While Jake is attracted to this ambiguity , Romero is repulsed by it . In keeping with his strict moral code he wants a feminine partner and rejects Brett , among other things , because she will not grow her hair . = = = Anti @-@ semitism = = = Hemingway has been called anti @-@ Semitic , most notably because of the characterization of Robert Cohn in the book . The other characters often refer to Cohn as a Jew , and once as a ' kike ' . Shunned by the other members of the group , Cohn is characterized as " different , " unable or unwilling to understand and participate in the fiesta . Cohn is never really part of the group — separated by his difference or his Jewish faith . Critic Susan Beegel goes so far as to claim , " Hemingway never lets the reader forget that Cohn is a Jew , not an unattractive character who happens to be a Jew but a character who is unattractive because he is a Jew . " Hemingway critic Josephine Knopf speculates that Hemingway might have wanted to depict Cohn as a " shlemiel " ( or fool ) , but she points out that Cohn lacks the characteristics of a traditional shlemiel . Cohn is based on Harold Loeb , a fellow writer who rivaled Hemingway for the affections of Duff , Lady Twysden ( the real @-@ life inspiration for Brett ) . Biographer Michael Reynolds writes that in 1925 , Loeb should have declined Hemingway 's invitation to join them in Pamplona . Before the trip he was Duff 's lover and Hemingway 's friend ; during the fiasco of the fiesta , he lost Duff and Hemingway 's friendship . Hemingway used Loeb as the basis of a character remembered chiefly as a " rich Jew . " = = Writing style = = The novel is well known for its style , which is variously described as modern , hard @-@ boiled , or understated . As a novice writer and journalist in Paris , Hemingway turned to Ezra Pound — who had a reputation as " an unofficial minister of culture who acted as mid @-@ wife for new literary talent " — to mark and blue @-@ ink his short stories . From Pound , Hemingway learned to write in the modernist style : he used understatement , pared away sentimentalism , and presented images and scenes without explanations of meaning , most notably at the book 's conclusion , in which multiple future possibilities are left for Brett and Jake . The scholar Anders Hallengren writes that because Hemingway learned from Pound to " distrust adjectives , " he created a style " in accordance with the esthetics and ethics of raising the emotional temperature towards the level of universal truth by shutting the door on sentiment , on the subjective . " F. Scott Fitzgerald told Hemingway to " let the book 's action play itself out among its characters . " Hemingway scholar Linda Wagner @-@ Martin writes that , in taking Fitzgerald 's advice , Hemingway produced a novel without a central narrator : " Hemingway 's book was a step ahead ; it was the modernist novel . " When Fitzgerald advised Hemingway to trim at least 2500 words from the opening sequence , which was 30 pages long , Hemingway wired the publishers telling them to cut the opening 30 pages altogether . The result was a novel without a focused starting point , which was seen as a modern perspective and critically well received . Wagner @-@ Martin speculates that Hemingway may have wanted to have a weak or negative hero as defined by Edith Wharton , but he had no experience creating a hero or protagonist . At that point his fiction consisted of extremely short stories , not one of which featured a hero . The hero changed during the writing of The Sun Also Rises : first the matador was the hero , then Cohn was the hero , then Brett , and finally Hemingway realized " maybe there is not any hero at all . Maybe a story is better without any hero . " Balassi believes that in eliminating other characters as the protagonist , Hemingway brought Jake indirectly into the role of the novel 's hero . As a roman à clef , the novel bases its characters on living people , causing scandal in the expatriate community . Hemingway biographer Carlos Baker writes that " word @-@ of @-@ mouth of the book " helped sales . Parisian expatriates gleefully tried to match the fictional characters to real identities . Moreover , he writes that Hemingway used prototypes easily found in the Latin Quarter on which to base his characters . The early draft identified the characters by their living counterparts ; Jake 's character was called Hem , and Brett 's was called Duff . Although the novel is written in a journalistic style , Frederic Svoboda writes that the striking thing about the work is " how quickly it moves away from a simple recounting of events . " Jackson Benson believes that Hemingway used autobiographical details as framing devices for life in general . For example , Benson says that Hemingway drew out his experiences with " what @-@ if " scenarios : " what if I were wounded in such a way that I could not sleep at night ? What if I were wounded and made crazy , what would happen if I were sent back to the front ? " Hemingway believed that the writer could describe one thing while an entirely different thing occurs below the surface — an approach he called the iceberg theory , or the theory of omission . Balassi says Hemingway applied the iceberg theory better in The Sun Also Rises than in any of his other works , by editing extraneous material or purposely leaving gaps in the story . He made editorial remarks in the manuscript that show he wanted to break from the stricture of Gertrude Stein 's advice to use " clear restrained writing . " In the earliest draft , the novel begins in Pamplona , but Hemingway moved the opening setting to Paris because he thought the Montparnasse life was necessary as a counterpoint to the later action in Spain . He wrote of Paris extensively , intending " not to be limited by the literary theories of others , [ but ] to write in his own way , and possibly , to fail . " He added metaphors for each character : Mike 's money problems , Brett 's association with the Circe myth , Robert 's association with the segregated steer . It wasn 't until the revision process that he pared down the story , taking out unnecessary explanations , minimizing descriptive passages , and stripping the dialogue , all of which created a " complex but tightly compressed story . " Hemingway said that he learned what he needed as a foundation for his writing from the style sheet for The Kansas City Star , where he worked as cub reporter . The critic John Aldridge says that the minimalist style resulted from Hemingway 's belief that to write authentically , each word had to be carefully chosen for its simplicity and authenticity and carry a great deal of weight . Aldridge writes that Hemingway 's style " of a minimum of simple words that seemed to be squeezed onto the page against a great compulsion to be silent , creates the impression that those words — if only because there are so few of them — are sacramental . " In Paris Hemingway had been experimenting with the prosody of the King James Bible , reading aloud with his friend John Dos Passos . From the style of the biblical text , he learned to build his prose incrementally ; the action in the novel builds sentence by sentence , scene by scene and chapter by chapter . The simplicity of his style is deceptive . Bloom writes that it is the effective use of parataxis that elevates Hemingway 's prose . Drawing on the Bible , Walt Whitman and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn , Hemingway wrote in deliberate understatement and he heavily incorporated parataxis , which in some cases almost becomes cinematic . His skeletal sentences were crafted in response to Henry James 's observation that World War I had " used up words , " explains Hemingway scholar Zoe Trodd , who writes that his style is similar to a " multi @-@ focal " photographic reality . The syntax , which lacks subordinating conjunctions , creates static sentences . The photographic " snapshot " style creates a collage of images . Hemingway omits internal punctuation ( colons , semicolons , dashes , parentheses ) in favor of short declarative sentences , which are meant to build , as events build , to create a sense of the whole . He also uses techniques analogous to cinema , such as cutting quickly from one scene to the next , or splicing one scene into another . Intentional omissions allow the reader to fill the gap as though responding to instructions from the author and create three @-@ dimensional prose . Biographer James Mellow writes that the bullfighting scenes are presented with a crispness and clarity that evoke the sense of a newsreel . Hemingway also uses color and visual art techniques to convey emotional range in his descriptions of the Irati River . In Translating Modernism : Fitzgerald and Hemingway , Ronald Berman compares Hemingway 's treatment of landscape with that of the post @-@ Impressionist painter Paul Cézanne . During a 1949 interview , Hemingway told Lillian Ross that he learned from Cézanne how to " make a landscape . " In comparing writing to painting he told her , " This is what we try to do in writing , this and this , and woods , and the rocks we have to climb over . " The landscape is seen subjectively — the viewpoint of the observer is paramount . To Jake , landscape " meant a search for a solid form .... not existentially present in [ his ] life in Paris . " = = Reception = = Hemingway 's first novel was arguably his best and most important and came to be seen as an iconic modernist novel , although Reynolds emphasizes that Hemingway was not philosophically a modernist . In the book , his characters epitomized the post @-@ war expatriate generation for future generations . He had received good reviews for his volume of short stories , In Our Time , of which Edmund Wilson wrote , " Hemingway 's prose was of the first distinction . " Wilson 's comments were enough to bring attention to the young writer . Good reviews came in from many major publications . Conrad Aiken wrote in the New York Herald Tribune , " If there is a better dialogue to be written today I do not know where to find it " ; and Bruce Barton wrote in The Atlantic that Hemingway " writes as if he had never read anybody 's writing , as if he had fashioned the art of writing himself , " and that the characters " are amazingly real and alive . " Many reviewers , among them H.L. Mencken , praised Hemingway 's style , use of understatement , and tight writing . Other critics , however , disliked the novel . The Nation 's critic believed Hemingway 's hard @-@ boiled style was better suited to the short stories published in In Our Time than his novel . Writing in the New Masses , Hemingway 's friend John Dos Passos asked : " What 's the matter with American writing these days ? .... The few unsad young men of this lost generation will have to look for another way of finding themselves than the one indicated here . " Privately he wrote Hemingway an apology for the review . The reviewer for the Chicago Daily Tribune wrote of the novel , " The Sun Also Rises is the kind of book that makes this reviewer at least almost plain angry . " Some reviewers disliked the characters , among them the reviewer for The Dial , who thought the characters were shallow and vapid ; and The Nation and Atheneum deemed the characters boring and the novel unimportant . The reviewer for The Cincinnati Enquirer wrote of the book that it " begins nowhere and ends in nothing . " Hemingway 's family hated it . His mother , Grace Hemingway , distressed that she could not face the criticism at her local book study class — where it was said that her son was " prostituting a great ability .... to the lowest uses " — expressed her displeasure in a letter to him : The critics seem to be full of praise for your style and ability to draw word pictures but the decent ones always regret that you should use such great gifts in perpetuating the lives and habits of so degraded a strata of humanity .... It is a doubtful honor to produce one of the filthiest books of the year .... What is the matter ? Have you ceased to be interested in nobility , honor and fineness in life ? .... Surely you have other words in your vocabulary than " damn " and " bitch " — Every page fills me with a sick loathing . Still , the book sold well , and young women began to emulate Brett while male students at Ivy League universities wanted to become " Hemingway heroes . " Scribner 's encouraged the publicity and allowed Hemingway to " become a minor American phenomenon " — a celebrity to the point that his divorce from Richardson and marriage to Pfieffer attracted media attention . Reynolds believes The Sun Also Rises could only have been written in 1925 : it perfectly captured the period between World War I and the Great Depression , and immortalized a group of characters . In the years since its publication , the novel has been criticized for its anti @-@ Semitism , as expressed in the characterization of Robert Cohn . Reynolds explains that although the publishers complained to Hemingway about his description of bulls , they allowed his use of Jewish epithets , which showed the degree to which anti @-@ Semitism was accepted in the US after World War I. Cohn represented the Jewish establishment and contemporary readers would have understood this from his description . Hemingway clearly makes Cohn unlikeable not only as a character but as a character who is Jewish . Critics of the 1970s and 1980s considered Hemingway to be misogynistic and homophobic ; by the 1990s his work , including The Sun Also Rises , began to receive critical reconsideration by female scholars . = = Legacy and adaptations = = Hemingway 's work continued to be popular in the latter half of the century and after his suicide in 1961 . During the 1970s , The Sun Also Rises appealed to what Beegel calls the lost generation of the Vietnam era . Aldridge writes that The Sun Also Rises has kept its appeal because the novel is about being young . The characters live in the most beautiful city in the world , spend their days traveling , fishing , drinking , making love , and generally reveling in their youth . He believes the expatriate writers of the 1920s appeal for this reason , but that Hemingway was the most successful in capturing the time and the place in The Sun Also Rises . Bloom says that some of the characters have not stood the test of time , writing that modern readers are uncomfortable with the anti @-@ semitic treatment of Cohn 's character and the romanticization of a bullfighter . Moreover , Brett and Mike belong uniquely to the Jazz Age and do not translate to the modern era . Bloom believes the novel is in the canon of American literature for its formal qualities : its prose and style . The novel made Hemingway famous , inspired young women across America to wear short hair and sweater sets like the heroine 's — and to act like her too — and changed writing style in ways that could be seen in any American magazine published in the next twenty years . In many ways , the novel 's stripped @-@ down prose became a model for 20th @-@ century American writing . Nagel writes that " The Sun Also Rises was a dramatic literary event and its effects have not diminished over the years . " The success of The Sun Also Rises guaranteed interest from Broadway and Hollywood . In 1927 two Broadway producers wanted to adapt the story for the stage but made no immediate offers . Hemingway considered marketing the story directly to Hollywood , telling his editor Max Perkins that he would not sell it for less than $ 30 @,@ 000 — money he wanted his estranged wife Hadley Richardson to have . Conrad Aiken thought the book was perfect for a film adaptation solely on the strength of dialogue . Hemingway would not see a stage or film adaption anytime soon : he sold the film rights to RKO Pictures in 1932 , but only in 1956 was the novel adapted to a film of the same name . Peter Viertel wrote the screenplay . Tyrone Power as Jake played the lead role opposite Ava Gardner as Brett and Errol Flynn as Mike . The royalties went to Richardson . It was again adapted into a film in 1984 . It was adapted into a one @-@ act opera in 2000 . Hemingway wrote more books about bullfighting : Death in the Afternoon was published in 1932 and The Dangerous Summer was published posthumously in 1985 . His depictions of Pamplona , beginning with The Sun Also Rises , helped to popularize the annual running of the bulls at the Festival of St. Fermin . = Fuck Them All = " Fuck Them All " is a 2005 song recorded by French singer @-@ songwriter Mylène Farmer . Released on 14 March 2005 , it was the lead single from her sixth studio album , Avant que l 'ombre .... Like all tracks from the album , the lyrics were written by the singer with music composed by Laurent Boutonnat . " Fuck Them All " combines pop music elements with acoustic guitar , electronic beats and synths , with a musical bridge sung as a rap in English . As a result it is often compared to Madonna 's early 2000s songs . Using both crude and colorful lyrics , including sex and vulgarity , the song deals with the war between the sexes and was often considered a feminist plea in which women are presented as warriors . The accompanying music video for the song , filmed by Agustí Villaronga in Romania over two days , shows Farmer portraying two women in a warehouse and many scarecrows made by Swiss artist Martial Leiter . Displaying many symbolic elements , it was the subject of many analyses on the Internet and in the press which generally praised its aesthetic qualities , but criticized for its lack of innovation . Farmer sang " Fuck Them All " during her 2006 series of concert at Bercy and the performance was released on the Avant que l 'ombre ... à Bercy DVD . The song received a mixed critical reception from fans and the general public , reviews ranging from " unconvincing " and " vulgar " to " bold " and " catchy " . Despite this , the song was downloaded over 5 @,@ 000 times from official download platforms during its first week of release , and over one million times illegally . It met some success on the French and Belgian ( Wallonia ) charts , where it reached number two and eventually became the album 's best @-@ selling single . In France , it earned a silver disc for over 100 @,@ 000 units sold . = = Background and release = = On 16 December 2004 , Farmer gave a press conference to talk about her planned thirteen concerts at Paris @-@ Bercy in January 2006 and the release of her new album in March 2005 , but said nothing about the lead single of her next album . When this new single was announced in the media , persistent rumors claimed that the title would be " Aime " . In January 2005 , the exact title , " Fuck Them All " , was eventually presented as a strong possibility by the French magazine Voici , which also provided the theme of the song – the war of the sexes . As noted by author and expert of French charts Élia Habib , the song title was in " the language of Shakespeare , which the singer had not used since her 1992 single " Beyond My Control " " . At the time , many fans , however , believed that this title was a joke or a rumor as it sounded too much like a direct provocation , even a scathing insult , which was rather unusual in Farmer 's career . As with other singles from Avant que l 'ombre ... , the lyrics were written by Mylène Farmer with the music composed by Laurent Boutonnat . The single was played for the first time on 8 February 2005 on many radio stations , including NRJ which broadcast it every 30 minutes , preceded by a medley of Farmer 's previous hits . The song was announced with the comment : " This is the new sound of Mylène Farmer " . It was also the singer 's first song to be available as a digital download in February 2005 , and was also released as a single other two times : first , the CD single on 14 March 2005 , then the CD maxi and the vinyl , which contain the remixes , on 18 April 2005 . There were three official remix versions : ' mother f ... vocal mix ' and ' mother f ... dub mix ' , by Joachim Garraud , as well as ' the martyr 's remix ' , by Y @-@ Front , who had already remixed " Libertine " on the album RemixeS . The photo for the cover was taken by Robin and shows Farmer sitting on the roof of a building near the Gare du Nord in Paris . An international CD maxi version was also released but under the title " F * * k Them All " to avoid censorship , with a sticker " Parental advisory – Explicit content " attached . = = Music and lyrics = = This song is characterized by its music produced from synthetic keyboards , and has been criticized for its lack of innovation , its musical bridge containing vulgar lyrics ( with rap ) reminiscent of the Madonna 's song " American Life " , and choirs of children on guitar riffs which are actually the singer 's voice remixed . According to journalist Alice Novak , the song begins with " trippy and mysterious " notes played on keyboards , then continues with " fast and nervous " sounds on the drum machine ; the tone is " rather dark , hypnotic " , with an " swaying and repetitive " end which uses " the machinery of the lyrics of some rap groups " . Author Erwan Chuberre deemed the lyrics " easy , but deep " and contain an allusion to Farmer 's friend Marie Trintignant , who died in 2003 . The song deals with a feminist theme of the war of the sexes . It is a " feminist plea about women 's place in history " with the title referring to the " cowardice of men " . In the song , Farmer " reverses the roles " , and " presents women as warriors " . In the first couplet , she evokes " the role of women in History " , recalling that " all the great men had on their side a woman to support , assist and advise them " . However , the singer said that " all this was done to the detriment of women and cites as example , Mary , Jesus Christ 's mother , a symbol of martyrdom and self @-@ sacrifice " . She denounces " the hypocrisy and the chatter of men who think only about power and sex " . In the refrain , she advises women to rebel by taking up arms . In the lyrics , Farmer " is angry with men and the song is a form of feminist anthem " . According to Ouest @-@ France , the combination of an acoustic guitar , electronic beats and synths in the second part of the song , evoke very strongly what Madonna had produced in previous years , and the ethereal song is typical of Farmer . A rap interlude sung in English launches a few insults sometimes thrown at women , before the final refrain . To Marc Bitton of Public who wrote his article before the single release , " lyrics are both crude and colorful " , including " sex and vulgarity " , and said that the song was likely to be censored , which was , at his point of view , the real purpose of the singer . According to the psychologist Hugues Royer , the song is " an artistic utopia " and a call to feminists , including the novelist Catherine Breillat , but is not a " political project " . Novak said that lyrics surprised many fans , as although Farmer has always been a feminist , she had never expressed so direct a message on the subject . = = Music video = = Shot in Romania over two days , the video cost approximately 150 @,@ 000 euros . The scenario was written by Farmer and directed by Agustí Villaronga , then broadcast on television from 9 March 2005 . The video for " Peut @-@ être toi " was originally intended to illustrate this song . The scarecrows which feature in the video were made by Swiss artist Martial Leiter . Farmer contacted him after seeing a documentary on France 3 about an open @-@ air exhibition of scarecrows which were an allegory of the human figure . Leiter explained that he was very surprised when he was contacted by the singer 's producers and that he was first hesitating , but finally agreed after a discussion with Farmer . He also stated that he was satisfied with the work and was happy to see that Farmer mentioned his name at the end of the video . Initially , Farmer wanted to use the scarecrows seen in the documentary , but Leiter refused to give her those from his exhibition , instead preferring to create some new scarecrows that were easier to break . In the music video , the scarecrows have a black bird skull and wear torn black veils that float in the wind . Several components often used in Farmer 's previous music videos appear in this one : snow , a horse , and some crows . The video and its making @-@ of were released as a DVD bonus available free with the second edition of the studio album . In the making @-@ of , Villaronga provides explanations about the video , while Farmer appears " distant and very professional " , according to Télé 2 Semaines . The video starts showing a woman galloping through a snowy forest on horseback . She enters a warehouse where a cage surrounded by crows is suspended by chains . Nearby there is a trapped short @-@ haired woman with a flayed face and crow @-@ like eyes . The first woman stops under the cage and looks up at it . She casts a stone against a wall that reflects her like a mirror and the building collapses . In the snow , she finds a body — the second woman , inanimate and frozen — hidden under a blanket . She closes her eyes , plunges her hands into the body and pulls out a sword . Entering the forest , she sees numerous flying crows and ends up on a snowy plain on which there are erected many scarecrows . During the refrains , she uses her sword to destroy scarecrows , rip their sails and break the wooden crosses . Scarecrows ' eyes weep black blood that turns to crows . Then , it is shown how the other woman was killed : the big peaks which covered the ceiling of her cage had gradually collapsed on her . Finally , the living woman plants her sword in the snow , then disappears into the air . Farmer plays the role of both women . The video received a mixed reception among the singer 's fans . Deemed as " gothic " by Jean @-@ Rémy Gaudin @-@ Bridet of Télé Star , the video has " undeniable aesthetic qualities " and allows " great freedom of interpretation " , according to author Erwan Chuberre . The French magazine Télé 7 Jours published several analyses proposed on the Internet , which gave mixed reviews , and provided results from a survey revealing that 54 % of respondents deemed the video as " pleasant " , while 36 % expressed total satisfaction . Reviewing the video in Elle magazine , the sociologist Divina Frau @-@ Meigs wrote : " This is a coherent video , with an echo of her previous provocations " , adding that Farmer 's sword is the symbol of the phallus , and desolate landscapes represent the impossible reconciliation of the sexes . According to Royer , the video shows a personal dimension in which Farmer " finally crushes her interior demons " and " wants to get rid of her trappings as a scapegoat " . Despite this , French daily newspaper France Soir deemed the video disappointing because of its lack of innovation . In contrast , the video was the number one choice of voters viewing the TV music program Les 100 Meilleurs clips du XXIè siècle ( The best videos of the twenty @-@ first century ) , aired on MCM on 25 February 2007 . = = Promotion and live performances = = The song has yet to be performed on television . Notwithstanding , Farmer performed it in 2006 on a series of concerts at Bercy . According to a description by author Julien Rigal on his website and in his book , Farmer performed the song with the seven dancers of Los Vivancos and her female dancers dressed as Japanese . She asked the audience to shout the ' fuck them all ' of the refrain . The bridge of the stage was then lowered and Farmer finished the song on the central cross . She then presented the dancers and said goodnight to the audience . Farmer also sang " Fuck Them All " at the Stade de France in September 2009 , in a performance available on the corresponding DVD . = = Critical reception = = " Fuck Them All " ' s music and lyrics received a mixed reception from fans and the general public . According to Société des auteurs , compositeurs et éditeurs de musique , the French musicians ' society , the song was downloaded	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
AG in Washington . He offers to arrange a Purple Heart for Staros , to avoid the unit 's name being stained by the having an officer removed from command . Witt comes across the locals and notices that they have grown distant and distrustful of him and quarrel regularly with one another . The company is sent on patrol up a river but with the inexperienced 1st Lieutenant George Band at its head . As Japanese artillery fire falls close to their positions ; Band orders some men to scout upriver , with Witt volunteering to go along . They encounter an advancing Japanese column and are attacked . To buy time for Corporal Fife to go back and inform the rest of the unit , Witt draws away the Japanese but is then encircled by one of their squads , who demand that he surrender . He raises his rifle and is gunned down . The company is able to retreat safely , and Witt is later buried by Welsh and his squadmates . C Company receives a new commander , Captain Bosche and boards a waiting LCT , departing from the island . = = Cast = = = = Production = = = = = Screenplay = = = New York @-@ based producer Bobby Geisler first approached Malick in 1978 and asked him to direct a film adaptation of David Rabe 's play In the Boom Boom Room . Malick declined the offer , but instead discussed the idea of a film about the life of Joseph Merrick . Once word got out about David Lynch 's film of The Elephant Man , he shelved the idea . In 1988 , Geisler and John Roberdeau met with Malick in Paris about writing and directing a movie based on D. M. Thomas ' 1981 novel The White Hotel . Malick declined , but told them that he would be willing instead to write either an adaptation of Molière 's Tartuffe , or of James Jones ' The Thin Red Line . The producers chose the latter and paid Malick $ 250 @,@ 000 to write a screenplay . Malick began adapting The Thin Red Line on January 1 , 1989 . Five months later , the producers received his first draft , which was 300 pages long . According to an article in Entertainment Weekly , they gained the director 's confidence by " catering to his every whim , " providing him with obscure research material , including a book titled Reptiles and Amphibians of Australia , an audiotape of Kodo : Heartbeat Drummers of Japan , information on the Navajo code talkers recruited by the United States Marine Corps to communicate in their native Navajo language to evade understanding by Japanese troops intercepting radio transmissions , making his travel plans , and helping the director and his wife Michele get a mortgage for their Paris apartment . The producers spent a lot of time talking with Malick about his vision of the film . Geisler said , " Malick 's Guadalcanal would be a Paradise Lost , an Eden , raped by the green poison , as Terry used to call it , of war . Much of the violence was to be portrayed indirectly . A soldier is shot , but rather than showing a Spielbergian bloody face we see a tree explode , the shredded vegetation , and a gorgeous bird with a broken wing flying out of a tree " . Malick spent years working on other projects , including a stage production of Sansho the Bailiff and a script known as The English @-@ Speaker , spending $ 2 million of the producers ' money , half of which for writing . In 1990 , he met with James Jones ' widow Gloria and his daughter Kaylie about adapting The Thin Red Line into a film . By January 1995 , Geisler and Roberdeau were broke and pressured Malick to decide which one he would complete . They approached Malick 's former agent , Mike Medavoy , who was setting up his own production company , Phoenix Pictures , and he agreed to give them $ 100 @,@ 000 to start work on The Thin Red Line . Medavoy had a deal with Sony Pictures and Malick began scouting locations in Panama and Costa Rica before settling on the rain forests of northern Australia . In April 1997 , three months before filming , Sony pulled the plug while crews were building the sets in Queensland , because new studio chairman John Calley did not think Malick could make his movie with the proposed $ 52 million budget . Malick traveled to Los Angeles with Medavoy to pitch the project to various studios . 20th Century Fox agreed to put up $ 39 million of the budget with the stipulation that Malick cast five movie stars from a list of 10 who were interested . Pioneer Films , a Japanese company , contributed $ 8 million to the budget , and Phoenix added $ 3 million . = = = Casting = = = Casting for the film became a hot topic . When Sean Penn met Malick , he told him , " Give me a dollar and tell me where to show up " . Scripts were also sent to Robert De Niro , Robert Duvall and Tom Cruise . In 1995 , once word went out that Malick was making another movie after many years , numerous actors approached him , flooding the casting directors until they had to announce they wouldn 't be accepting more requests . Some A class actors for example , Brad Pitt , Al Pacino , Gary Oldman and George Clooney offered to work for a fraction and some even offered to work for free . Bruce Willis even went as far as offering to pay for first @-@ class tickets for the casting crew , to get a few lines for the movie . At Medavoy 's home in 1995 , Malick staged a reading with Martin Sheen delivering the screen directions , and Kevin Costner , Will Patton , Peter Berg , Lukas Haas and Dermot Mulroney playing the main roles . In June of that year , a five @-@ day workshop was scheduled at Medavoy 's with Brad Pitt dropping by , and culminating with Malick putting on the soundtrack of Where Eagles Dare and playing Japanese taiko drums . Malick met with an interested Johnny Depp about the project at the Book Soup Bistro on the Sunset Strip . Edward Norton flew out to Austin and met Malick , who had been impressed by the actor 's screen test for Primal Fear . Matthew McConaughey reportedly took a day off filming A Time to Kill to see Malick . Others followed , including William Baldwin , Edward Burns , Josh Hartnett , Philip Seymour Hoffman , Stephen Dorff and Leonardo DiCaprio ; the latter flew up from the Mexico set of Romeo + Juliet to meet Malick at the American Airlines lounge in the Austin airport . Before the casting was finalized , Nicolas Cage had lunch with Malick in Hollywood in February 1996 . Malick went off to scout locations and tried calling Cage that summer only to find out that his phone number had been disconnected . Sizemore , however , was offered a more substantial role in Saving Private Ryan and , when he could not contact Malick for several days , decided to do Steven Spielberg 's film instead . Actors William Baldwin , Edward Burns , Josh Hartnett , Philip Seymour Hoffman , Stephen Dorff , Robert Redford , Leonardo DiCaprio , Bill Pullman , Gary Oldman , Mickey Rourke , Lukas Haas , and Viggo Mortensen filmed scenes for the movie , but were cut from the final film due to time contraints . James Caviezel , who was cast as Private Witt , credits Malick 's casting of him as the turning point in his career . Cinematographer John Toll began talking to Malick in August 1996 several times over the phone about the film . Toll met Malick in September of the same year and was asked to do the film in the beginning of 1997 . Malick and Toll began location scouting in February 1997 and started principal photography in June of that year . = = = Principal photography = = = Pre @-@ production went slowly . Weeks before filming began , Malick told Geisler and Roberdeau not to show up in Australia where the film was being made , ostensibly because George Stevens Jr. would be the on @-@ location producer supporting line producer Grant Hill . Malick told them that they had upset the studio for refusing to give up above @-@ the @-@ title production credit to Stevens . He did not tell them , however , that in 1996 he had a clause inserted in his contract barring the producers from the set . Geisler and Roberdeau were mystified about this behavior ; Geisler told Entertainment Weekly , " I didn 't think he was capable of betrayal of this magnitude " . Malick and Toll shot for 100 days in Australia using Panavision cameras and lenses , 24 days in the Solomon Islands and three days in the United States . They scouted the historic battlefields on Guadalcanal and shot footage , but health concerns over malaria limited filming to daylight hours only . Logistics were also difficult to shoot the entire film there : As director of photography John Toll put it , " It 's still a bit difficult to get on and off the island , and we had some scenes that involved 200 or 300 extras . We would have had to bring everybody to Guadalcanal , and financially it just didn 't make sense " . The Thin Red Line was filmed predominantly in the Daintree Rainforest and on Bramston Beach , both in north Queensland , Australia . Filming also took place on Dancer Mountain , which had such rough terrain that trailers and production trucks could not make it up the hill . A base camp was set up at its base and roads carved out of the mountain . Transporting 250 actors and 200 crew members up the hill took two hours . Filming took place in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Southern California near Santa Catalina Island . Malick 's unconventional filming techniques included shooting part of a scene during a bright , sunny morning only to finish it weeks later at sunset . He made a habit of pointing the camera away during an action sequence and focus on a parrot , a tree branch or other fauna . Malick 's reputation and working methods commanded great respect among the actors , with both Woody Harrelson and John Savage staying on for an extra month after they finished all of their scenes just to watch him at work . = = = Post @-@ production = = = In addition to the cast seen in the final cut of the film , Billy Bob Thornton , Jason Patric , Martin Sheen , Gary Oldman , Bill Pullman , Lukas Haas , Viggo Mortensen , and Mickey Rourke also performed , but their scenes were eventually cut . Editor Leslie Jones was on location for five months and rarely saw Malick , who left her to her own devices . After principal photography wrapped , she came back with a five @-@ hour first cut and spent seven months editing , with Thornton contributing three hours of narrative voice @-@ over material . It was at this point that editor Billy Weber came on board , and they spent 13 months in post @-@ production and the last four months mixing the film , using four Avid machines with a fifth added at one point . Malick edited the footage one reel at a time with the sound off while listening to a Green Day CD . There were no preview screenings but several in @-@ house ones , the largest of which was attended by 15 people for marketing executives . The editors faced the challenge of blending footage of veteran actors with less @-@ experienced ones , integrating the many cameos , and the voice @-@ overs . According to Jones , " Malick removed scenes with dialogue whenever possible , with the final film varying greatly from the original concept " . Four months after principal photography , Malick invited Toll to a rough @-@ cut screening of the film . In December 1998 , Toll did the first color correction at the lab prior to the film 's release in North America . The editing also resulted in many of the well @-@ known cast members being on screen for only a brief period : for example , John Travolta and George Clooney 's appearances are little more than cameos , yet Clooney 's name appears prominently in the marketing of the movie . The unfinished film was screened for the New York press on December 1998 and Adrien Brody attended a screening to find that his originally significant role , " to carry the movie " , as he put it , had been reduced to two lines and approximately five minutes of screen time . On April 15 , 2001 , an interview with Brody revealed that he was still upset over the removal of his work . He expressed his opinions in an interview with the London newspaper The Independent : I was so focused and professional , I gave everything to it , and then to not receive everything ... in terms of witnessing my own work . It was extremely unpleasant because I 'd already begun the press for a film that I wasn 't really in . Terry obviously changed the entire concept of the film . I had never experienced anything like that ... You know the expression ' Don 't believe the hype ' ? Well , you shouldn 't . Malick was upset that the studio screened his unfinished version for critics and Penn ended up helping him in the editing room , shaping the final version . Malick spent three more months and cut 45 additional minutes from the film . The director refused to subject his film to test screenings before delivering his final cut . After Geisler and Roberdeau told their story to Vanity Fair magazine , Medavoy 's attorneys declared them in breach of contract and threatened to remove their names from the film unless they agreed to do no future interviews until after the Academy Awards . = = Music = = The film score was composed by Hans Zimmer , with additional music from John Powell . The album was nominated for Best Dramatic Score at the 71st Academy Awards . It was Hans Zimmer 's fifth Oscar nomination as a composer , but he lost out to Roberto Benigni 's Life is Beautiful ( music by Nicola Piovani ) . The album was released by RCA Victor and conducted by Gavin Greenaway . Among the music not written by Zimmer which appears in the film is In Paradisum from Requiem by Gabriel Fauré and the opening minutes of The Unanswered Question by Charles Ives . Zimmer wrote several hours of music , and an abundance of different themes , before Malick started to shoot the film . The director played the music on the set , while filming , to get himself , and the rest of the crew and actors in the right frame of mind . The official soundtrack features tracks that were not used on the film and some tracks from the film are not found on the CD . The film features several pieces of Melanesian choral music sung by the Choir of All Saints in Honiara , only one of which is featured on the soundtrack . However , another soundtrack was released containing several tracks from the Choir , which has since gone out of circulation . = = Release and reception = = = = = Box office = = = The Thin Red Line was given a limited release on December 25 , 1998 , in five theaters where it grossed $ 282 @,@ 534 on its opening weekend . The film was given a wide release on January 15 , 1999 , in 1 @,@ 528 theaters where it grossed $ 9 @.@ 7 million during its opening weekend . The film earned $ 98 @,@ 126 @,@ 565 at the worldwide box office . = = = Critical reception = = = The film has a rating of 78 % among all critics on Rotten Tomatoes and 78 metascore on Metacritic , indicating " generally favourable reviews " . Gene Siskel described it as the " finest contemporary war film I 've seen , supplanting Steven Spielberg 's Saving Private Ryan from earlier this year , or even Oliver Stone 's Platoon from 1986 . " Roger Ebert was more subdued in his praise , giving it three stars , saying that it felt confused and unfinished . He wrote , " The movie 's schizophrenia keeps it from greatness ( this film has no firm idea of what it is about ) , but doesn 't make it bad . It is , in fact , sort of fascinating ... The battle scenes themselves are masterful , in creating a sense of the geography of a particular hill , the way it is defended by Japanese bunkers , the ways in which the American soldiers attempt to take it ... Actors like Sean Penn , John Cusack , Jim Caviezel and Ben Chaplin find the perfect tone for scenes of a few seconds or a minute , and then are dropped before a rhythm can be established " . In his review for Time , Richard Corliss wrote , " Some films deal in plot truth ; this one expresses emotional truth , the heart 's search for saving wisdom , in some of the most luscious imagery since Malick 's last film , the 1978 Days of Heaven " . Mike Clark of USA Today gave the film four out of four stars . Writing in the Washington Post , Michael O 'Sullivan wrote , " The Thin Red Line is a movie about creation growing out of destruction , about love where you 'd least expect to find it and about angels – especially the fallen kind – who just happen to be men " . Andrew Johnston of Time Out New York wrote : " Like Malick 's previous efforts - Badlands ( 1973 ) and Days of Heaven ( 1978 ) - Line is a film of incredible beauty . However , the atmosphere created by John Toll 's breathtaking cinematography and Hans Zimmer 's powerful score is occasionally compromised . The parade of cameos ( John Travolta , George Clooney , Woody Harrelson and John Cusack briefly appear ) is somewhat distracting , and the fact that Bell and Witt both have Appalachian accents sometimes makes the characters hard to differentiate . Yet , even though it 's confusing at times ( and perhaps a little long ) , Line is still a film of rare substance and power . " Owen Gleiberman gave the film a " B- " in his review for Entertainment Weekly and wrote , " The Thin Red Line could , I think , turn out to be this season 's Beloved , a movie too paralyzingly high @-@ minded to connect with audiences " . In her review for The New York Times , Janet Maslin wrote , " The heart @-@ piercing moments that punctuate its rambling are glimpses of what a tighter film might have been " . = = = Awards = = = The Thin Red Line was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Cinematography , Best Director , Best Film Editing , Best Original Score , Best Picture , Best Sound and Best Adapted Screenplay . It failed to win any of these awards . However , the film was awarded the Golden Bear for Best Film at the 49th Berlin International Film Festival in 1999 . The Thin Red Line was named Best Cinematography for 1998 by the National Society of Film Critics in 1998 . Time magazine ranked Malick 's film # 6 on their Best of 1998 Cinema list . Jonathan Rosenbaum , film critic for the Chicago Reader , ranked Malick 's film as his second favorite film of 1999 . Martin Scorsese ranked it as his second favorite film of the 1990s on Roger Ebert 's television show . = = Home video = = On September 28 , 2010 , The Criterion Collection released a special edition of The Thin Red Line on DVD and Blu @-@ ray with a new , restored 4K digital transfer , supervised and approved by Terrence Malick and cinematographer John Toll . The release was met with positive reviews . = Augusto Roa Bastos = Augusto Roa Bastos ( June 13 , 1917 – April 26 , 2005 ) was a Paraguayan novelist and short story writer . As a teenager he fought in the Chaco War between Paraguay and Bolivia , and he later worked as a journalist , screenwriter and professor . He is best known for his complex novel Yo el Supremo ( I , the Supreme ) and for winning the Premio Miguel de Cervantes in 1989 , Spanish literature 's most prestigious prize . Yo el Supremo explores the dictations and inner thoughts of Dr. José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , who ruled Paraguay with an iron fist and no little eccentricity from 1814 until his death in 1840 . Roa Bastos ' life and writing were marked by experience with dictatorial military regimes . In 1947 he was forced into exile in Argentina , and in 1976 he fled Buenos Aires for France in similar political circumstances . Most of Roa Bastos ' work was written in exile , but this did not deter him from fiercely tackling Paraguayan social and historical issues in his work . Writing in a Spanish that was at times heavily augmented by Guaraní words ( the major Paraguayan indigenous language ) , Roa Bastos incorporated Paraguayan myths and symbols into a Baroque style known as magical realism . He is considered a late @-@ comer to the Latin American Boom literary movement . Roa Bastos ' canon includes the novels Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) and El fiscal ( 1993 ; The Prosecutor ) , as well as numerous other novels , short stories , poems , and screenplays . = = Biography = = = = = Early life ( 1917 – 1932 ) = = = Roa Bastos was born in Asunción on June 13 , 1917 . He spent his childhood in Iturbe , a provincial town in the Guaira region where his father was an administrator on a sugar plantation . It was here , some 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) to the south of the Paraguayan capital of Asunción , that Roa Bastos learned to speak both Spanish and Guaraní , the language of Paraguay 's indigenous people . At the age of ten he was sent to school in Asunción where he stayed with his uncle , Hermenegildo Roa , the liberal bishop of Asunción . His uncle 's extensive personal library provided the young Roa Bastos with his first exposure to the classical Spanish literature of the Baroque and Renaissance traditions that he would imitate in his early poetry throughout the 1930s and 1940s . In addition , his uncle 's emphasis on the mystical aspects of classic literature would have a profound Roa Bastos ' later writings . His experience of Guaraní social customs and language combined with the traditional Spanish education that he received in Asunción , created a cultural and linguistic duality that would manifest itself in much of Roa Bastos ' writing . His rural upbringing also exposed Roa Bastos to the exploitation and oppression of the indigenous and peasant peoples of Paraguay , which would become a prominent theme in his writing . = = = War and writing ( 1932 – 1947 ) = = = In 1932 the territorial Chaco War began between Paraguay and Bolivia and continued until 1935 . At some point , perhaps as late as 1934 , Roa Bastos joined the Paraguayan army as a medical auxiliary . The war would have a profound effect on the future writer who said : " when I left for that war I dreamed of purification in the fire of battles . " Instead of glory he found " maimed bodies " and " destruction " which left him to question " why two brother countries like Bolivia and Paraguay were massacring each other " , and as a consequence Roa Bastos became a pacifist . Directly after the war he worked as a bank clerk and later as a journalist . During this time he began writing plays and poetry . In 1941 Roa Bastos won the Ateneo Paraguayo prize for Fulgencia Miranda , although the book was never published . In the early 1940s he spent significant time on the yerba mate plantations in northern Paraguay , an experience he would later draw upon in his first published novel , Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) . In 1942 he was appointed editorial secretary for the Asunción daily El País . In 1944 the British Council awarded Roa Bastos a nine @-@ month fellowship for journalism in London . During this time he traveled extensively in Britain , France and Africa and witnessed the devastation of WWII first hand . He served as the El País war correspondent , notably conducting an interview with General Charles de Gaulle after the latter 's return to Paris in 1945 . Roa Bastos also broadcast Latin American programs at the invitation of the BBC and France 's Ministry of Information . Throughout this eventful period in his life Roa Bastos continued to write and he was considered a poet of the Paraguayan vanguard . In 1942 he published a book of poems in the classic Spanish style , which he titled El Ruiseñor De La Aurora ( The Dawn Nightingale ) , a work he later renounced . He also had plays successfully performed during the 1940s , though they were never published . Of his prolific poetry of the late 1940s only " El naranjal ardiente " ( 1960 ; " The Burning Orange Grove " ) was published . = = = Exile in Argentina ( 1947 – 1976 ) = = = During the 1947 Paraguayan Civil War , Roa Bastos was forced to flee to Buenos Aires , Argentina , because he had spoken out against President Higinio Moríñigo . About 500 @,@ 000 of his fellow Paraguayans left for Argentina at the same time . Roa Bastos remained in Argentina until just before the establishment of the military dictatorship there in 1976 , and he did not return permanently to Paraguay until 1989 . He found exile difficult , but his time in Buenos Aires was a prolific period . Roa Bastos said this in reference to his exile : I can 't complain ... Exile brought out in me , in addition to a revulsion against violence and against depreciation of the human condition , a feeling for the universality of man . Exile lent me perspectives from which to know my own country from other people 's point of view , and from which to live for the enormity of its misfortune . In 1953 the collection of 17 short stories El trueno entre las hojas ( 1953 ; Thunder Among the Leaves ) was published and circulated internationally , but it was not until the 1960 publication of the novel Hijo de hombre ( Son of Man ) that Roa Bastos won major critical and popular success . The novel draws on the oppressive history of Paraguay from the rule of Dr. Jose Gaspar de Francia in the early 19th century until the Chaco War in the 1930s . Its multiple narrative perspectives and historical and political themes anticipate his most famous work , Yo , el Supremo , written more than a decade later . Roa Bastos adapted Hijo de hombre into an award winning film in the same year as its publication . Roa Bastos further established himself as a screenwriter with the screenplay of Shunko ( 1960 ) , directed by Lautaro Murúa and based on the memoirs of a country school teacher . In 1961 he once again collaborated with Murúa for Alias Gardelito ( 1961 ) , which depicted the lives of urban petty criminals and became a major independent film of the nuevo cine movement . In 1974 Roa Bastos published his influential masterpiece Yo , el Supremo , the result of seven years ' work . When Jorge Rafael Videla 's military dictatorship came to power in 1976 , however , the book was banned in Argentina , and Roa Bastos was exiled once again , this time to Toulouse , France . = = = France ( 1976 – 1989 ) = = = In Toulouse Roa Bastos taught Guaraní and Spanish literature at the University of Toulouse . Although he had been allowed to visit Paraguay to work with a new generation of Paraguayan writers , starting in 1970 , he was again barred from entry in 1982 , for purportedly engaging in subversive activities . There is however , little evidence that he participated in sectarian politics of any kind . In France , Roa Bastos faced the second forced relocation of his life , but he also won a new readership for his work during this time . Helen Lane 's English translation of Yo , el Supremo , I , The Supreme , published in 1986 , was greeted with widespread acclaim in the English @-@ speaking world . However , in France , Roa Bastos ' writing focus was primarily academic , and his literary output did not match that of his time in Argentina . In 1985 Roa Bastos left his post at the University of Toulouse . Following the downfall of the oppressive Alfredo Stroessner regime in 1989 , Roa Bastos returned to Paraguay at the request of its new leader Andrés Rodríguez . = = = Return to Paraguay and Cervantes Prize ( 1989 – 2005 ) = = = Following the toppling of the Stroessner regime , Roa Bastos won the Premio Cervantes ( Cervantes Prize ) , awarded by the Spanish Royal Academy in partnership with the Spanish government , in recognition of his outstanding contributions to Spanish @-@ language literature . It was at this time that Roa Bastos began to travel frequently between Paraguay and France . In 1991 , representing Paraguay , Roa Bastos signed The Morelia Declaration " demanding the reversal of the ecological destruction of the planet . " It was at this time that Roa Bastos again became an active novelist and screenwriter . In 1991 Roa Bastos adapted Yo , el Supremo for the screen . His first novel since Yo , el Supremo , Vigilia del admirante ( 1992 ; Vigil of the Admiral ) was published in 1992 , and El fiscal ( 1993 ; The Prosecutor ) the following year . Although neither of his later novels had the impact of his earlier work , El fiscal is considered an important work . Roa Bastos died on April 26 , 2005 in Asunción from a heart attack . He was survived by his three children , his third wife , Iris Giménez , and a reputation as one of Latin American 's finest writers . = = Major works = = = = = Hijo de hombre = = = Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) , Roa Bastos ' first published and award winning novel , represents his definitive break with poetry . It is seen as a refined " outgrowth " of his earlier works of short fiction such as El trueno entre las hojas ( 1953 ) , which also dealt with themes of political oppression and social struggle in Paraguay . This novel portrays the conflict between the governing élite and the oppressed masses in Paraguay from 1912 until just after the end of the Chaco War with Bolivia in 1936 . Like his later Yo , el Supremo , Hijo de hombre draws upon a series of Paraguayan legends and stories dating back to start of Dr. Francia 's dictatorship in 1814 . Hijo de hombre builds upon a system of Christian metaphors as part of the Neobaroque concept of Magic Realism , in order to examine the pain of being Paraguayan . This novel contrasts two figures : Miguel Vera and Cristóbal Jara . Vera narrates the odd chapters , although he might also be the narrator of all nine chapters ( this is unclear ) . He is a well @-@ to @-@ do and educated romantic supporter of revolution , who is unable to take real action to support his ideals and in the end betrays them ( not unlike Judas ) . Jara , on the other hand , is an uneducated " son of man " who becomes a Christ @-@ like leader for Paraguayan people through action and strength of character . Although it was a massive critical success , Roa Bastos remained dissatisfied with the work for a number reasons . It was fourteen years before he published another novel . = = = Yo , el Supremo = = = Yo , el Supremo ( I , the Supreme ) is a fictionalized account of the 19th @-@ century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , who was also known as " Dr. Francia " . The book 's title derives from the fact that Francia referred to himself as " El Supremo " or " The Supreme . " The first in a long line of dictators , The Supreme was a severe , calculating despot . He ruled absolutely from 1814 until his death in 1840 , and is a unique figure in Latin American history . The goal of his rule mirrored that of the Jesuits who had ruled Paraguay for much of its history before him : to keep the Paraguayan people and their customs pure by protecting them from the corrupting influence of European and other outside forces . In Yo , el supremo , Roa Bastos is also fundamentally concerned with the power ( and the weakness ) of writing itself : its plot revolves around the dictator 's efforts to uncover who has been forging his signature on a series of pasquinades discovered around the capital , and his relationship with his secretary , Patiño , to whom he dictates his thoughts and orders , but whom he never fully trusts . The novel itself is " an exceptional cultural phenomenon . " It has been suggested that it " [ is ] more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since One Hundred Years of Solitude , [ and the ] strictly historical importance [ may ] be even greater than that of García Márquez 's fabulously successful creation . " Yo , el supremo has contributed widely to a number of different genres and styles . It belongs to the genre of novelas de dictadores or dictator novels , and also to the Latin American Boom , a literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s . Yo , el supremo is also an important milestone in the evolution of the historical novel genre . " Yo , el supremo weaves a plethora of formats into a single work : history , novel , sociological essay , moral philosophy , biographical novel , revolutionary pamphlet , testimonial documentary , poetic prose , autobiographic confession , ideological debate over literary limits , and linguistic treatise on the limits of verbal expression . " = = Precursors and influences = = Ruy Díaz de Guzmán 's Anales del descubrimiento , población y conquista del Río de la Plata , is considered one of the most important antecedents to Roa Bastos ' writings . Guzmán , a Paraguayan explorer of Guaraní and Spanish heritage , wrote extensively about the geography of Paraguay using mythical descriptions of the landscape and the Guaraní language . The most important precursor to Roa Bastos , however , is Rafael Barrett ( 1876 – 1910 ) , whose writings incorporated many of the important themes and writings styles that Roa Bastos would later master including : Spanish @-@ Guaraní bilingualism , magic realism , the revision of Paraguayan history , social literature , exploration of collective memory and the universe of poetic symbols . Barrett 's essay " Lo que son los yerbales " is a severe critique of the exploitation of workers on yerba mate tea plantations . Roa Bastos spent part of the early 1940s documenting this same issue and there is much speculation about the role of " Lo que son los yerbales " in the creation of his first major novel Hijo de hombre . The Uruguayan writer Horacio Quiroga is another important predecessor . = = Style = = Roa Bastos was an exponent of the Neobaroque style that brought Latin American literature to the fore internationally in the mid @-@ 20th century . Among others , the Chilean poet Pablo Neruda is also associated with this school of writing . The style uses a complex system of metaphors that are often very closely tied to the land , flora and culture of the particular writer , especially in the case of Roa Bastos . Magic realism is a Neobaroque concept that applies such systems of metaphor to otherwise realistic settings ( Yo , el Supremo being a notable example of the form ) . The Neobaroque style was used by many Paraguayan writers in exile after 1947 and until the 1980s . At the core of much of the work from this group are ideas of political freedom and the emancipation of their homeland . Roa Bastos started out writing poetry in the Spanish Renaissance and Baroque traditions . Later he took on " a new sensibility " in response to the poetry of Valle @-@ Inclán , Juan Ramón Jiménez , and García Lorca . However , it is as a prose @-@ fiction writer Roa Bastos has built his considerable reputation , through his novels and numerous short stories . Roa Bastos ' novels blend the present and past by creating scenes with myths from pre @-@ colonial times and Christian legends , developing a special kind of Magic Realism , although there are significant stylistic variations between his major novels . = = Themes = = = = = Paraguay : collective memory = = = The majority of Roa Bastos ' work was written in exile owing to the oppressive political condition of his country , at a time when Paraguay was one of the least culturally , economically , and politically developed countries in Latin America . Thus , much of Roa Bastos ' important writing is an attempt to " capture the tragic essence , the ' inner weakness ' as well as the inner strength of his country 's people . " His work reveals an intense preoccupation not only with contemporary Paraguay but with its history , looking back to the beginning of the 19th century and the rule of Dr. Gaspar de Francia ( whose life is the focus of Yo , el Supremo ) . While key historical figures and events interest Roa Bastos , it is the impact of these " socio @-@ historical roots " on " the nature of the masses " that forms the central theme of his literary work . His writing deploys symbols and multiple narratives that build on the collective memory of the Paraguayan people . Hijo de hombre , for example , constructs an " alternative history of popular movements " out of the people 's recollections and symbols . The intertextual novel Yo , el Supremo is particularly representative of this technique , both in its construction and narrative . In El Fiscal ( 1993 ) , a third novel about the abuses of political power — this time focusing on Stroessner 's régime — Roa Bastos again offers an alternative to the accepted versions of events in Paraguay and challenges " the intelligibility of history " . To this end he weaves elements of fantasy and metafiction into his narratives . = = = Humanism and the engaged writer = = = Roa Bastos believed that it was the role of the writer to directly engage in the interpretation of both contemporary and historical events . Rather than be the objective " chronicler " , he thought the writer should engage morally with the social problems depicted in the writing . According to Roa Bastos , ” literary activity has come to signify the necessity for facing up to a destiny , the will to enlist in the vital reality of a collectivity , in its true moral context and social structure , in the complex relationships of a contemporary reality – that is to say , by projecting themselves toward a universal world of man . ” Thus , one of the major themes in the writing of Roa Bastos is a deep and universal humanism , with a particular focus on suffering Undoubtedly , Roa Bastos ' own experiences played a significant role in his emphasis on human suffering . As a young man he fought in the Chaco war between Bolivia and Paraguay , an event he portrayed in Hijo de hombre . Later he saw the devastation of WWII at first hand in Europe , the violent strife of 1947 in Paraguay , and the rise of the Argentinian military dictatorship in 1976 . His collection of short stories published in 1953 , El trueno ebtre las hojas , set the stage for Hijo de hombre and Yo , el Supremo with its dark portrayal of devastating political struggle and oppression . Two decades later , Yo , el Supremo was published , providing a prime example of Roa Bastos ' idea of the engaged writer . It offered an unflattering , fictionalized account of the final thoughts and ramblings of Paraguay 's first dictator , at a time when Paraguay was under the stranglehold of a regime that adopted many of the same policies of oppression and isolationism . Roa Bastos was not alone in using literature to engage in contemporary events during the Latin American Boom period . In the 1960s and 1970s , Gabriel Garcia Marquez and others adopted the same approach . Together , these writers created the Dictator novel genre . = = = Bilingualism = = = As is customary for most Paraguayans of peasant or working class origins , Roa Bastos learned to speak Spanish and Guaraní from birth . Both Spanish and Guaraní are the official languages of Paraguay ( the latter is primarily an oral language ) . Although Guaraní remains the " popular " language spoken at home and on the " street " , Spanish is the language of official business and of power . The preservation and widespread use of an indigenous language after centuries of European immigration is unique in Latin America , and Guarani remains a symbol of Paraguayan nationalism and an " important vehicle for interpreting the country 's reality " . This is the legacy of the Jesuits who ruled Paraguay in the 18th century and used Guarani ( instead of Spanish or Latin ) to spread Christianity throughout Paraguay . While Roa Bastos wrote primarily in Spanish , the interplay between these two languages is an essential part of his style . His bilingualism gives Roa Bastos a much greater range of language to work with , but also creates tension between an internationally recognized language and one that is obscure and fiercely Paraguayan . Roa Bastos has described the relationship between the two languages as " an almost schizophrenic split not only on communicational levels of the spoken language , but also and quite particularly in the literary language . " = = Honors and Distinctions = = Over the course of his career , Roa Bastos received a diversity of honors and distinctions . In 1941 he won the Ateneo Paraguayo Prize for his ( unpublished ) novel Fulgencio Miranda . This first award was followed by a British Council fellowship for journalism that enabled him to travel to Europe during World War II . In 1959 Roa Bastos won the Losada prize for his first published novel Hijo de hombre . The adaptation of this novel , for which he wrote the screenplay , won best film in the Spanish language and first prize of the Argentine Instituto de Cinematografia the following year . His most prestigious awards were a 1971 John Guggenheim Foundation Fellowship for creative writers , and in 1989 , the Cervantes Prize , an award given by the Spanish government for lifetime achievement , and Spanish language literature 's most prestigious prize . Roa Bastos donated most of his prize money to provide easier access to books in Paraguay . = = Legacy = = The writing of Roa Bastos spans four countries , six decades , and countless genres . In his lifetime he made important contributions to Latin American Boom writing , to the related Dictator Novel , and to the Nuevo Cine film movement through screenplays like Alias Gardelito ( 1961 ) . Roa Bastos ' influence can be found in the works of many foreign post @-@ boom writers , including Mempo Giardinelli , Isabel Allende , Eraclio Zepeda , Antonio Skármeta , Saul Ibargoyen , and Luisa Valenzuela . The most important author to come out of Paraguay , he also remains highly influential for a new generation of Paraguayan authors . Roa Bastos ' relationship with his country , unbroken by over 40 years of exile , was considered so important that in 1989 he was invited back by Paraguay 's new president , Andrés Rodríguez , following the collapse of the Stroessner regime . Even before Yo , el Supremo , Roa Bastos was considered part of " the pantheon of great writers " by some critics , due to Hijo de hombre . However , it was the former work that cemented his place as a significant literary figure . According to Juan Manuel Marcos , Yo , el Supremo " anticipates many of the post @-@ boom writing techniques " such as " the carnivalization of historical discourse , transtextualization , and parody " . Mexican literary great , Carlos Fuentes has called Yo , el Supremo one of the milestones in Latin American literature . While his reputation rests on his novels , Roa Bastos ' achievements in film , creative writing , and journalism add further substance to his legacy . = = Published works = = = = = Novels = = = Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ; Son of Man ) Yo , el Supremo ( 1974 ; I , the Supreme ) Vigilia del Almirante ( 1992 ; Vigil of the Admiral ) El fiscal ( 1993 ; The Prosecutor ) Contravida ( 1994 ; Counterlife ) = = = Short fiction = = = El trueno entre las hojas ( 1953 ; Thunder Among the Leaves ) El baldío ( 1966 ; Vacant Ground ) Madera quemada ( 1967 ; Burnt Wood ) Los pies sobre el agua ( 1967 ; The Feet on the Water ) Moriencia ( 1969 ; Slaughter ) Cuerpo presente y otros cuentos ( 1971 ; Present Body and other stories ) El pollito de fuego ( The Fire Chick ) ( 1974 ) Los Congresos ( The Congresses ) ( 1974 ) El sonámbulo ( The Sleepwalker ) ( 1976 ) Lucha hasta el alba ( Struggle until Dawn ) ( 1979 ) Los Juegos ( 1979 ; The Games ) Contar un cuento , y otros relatos ( 1984 ; To Tell a Tale and Other Stories ) Madama Sui ( Madame Sui ) ( 1996 ) Metaforismos ( Metaphorisms ) ( 1996 ) La tierra sin mal ( 1998 ; Land Without Evil ) = = = Screenplays = = = Thunder Among the Leaves ( 1958 ) Hijo de hombre ( 1960 ) Shunko ( 1960 ) Alias gardelito ( 1961 ) El señor presidente ( 1966 ) Don segundo sombra ( 1968 ) Yo el Supremo ( 1991 ) = = = Poetry = = = El ruiseñor de la aurora , y otros poemas ( 1942 ; The Dawn Nightingale , and other poems ) * Written in 1936 " El naranjal ardiente " ( 1960 ; " The Burning Orange Grove " ) * Written between 1947 and 1949 = = = Other writings = = = Cándido Lopez ( 1976 ) Imagen y perspectivas de la narrativa latinoamericana actual ( 1979 ) Lucha hasta el alba ( 1979 ) Rafael Barrett y la realidad paraguaya a comienzos del siglo ( 1981 ) El tiranosaurio del Paraguay da sus ultimas boqueadas ( 1986 ) Carta abierta a mi pueblo ( 1986 ) El texto cautivo : el escritor y su obra ( 1990 ) Mis reflexiones sobre el guión y el guión de " Hijo de hombre " ( 1993 ) = = = Compilations and anthologies = = = Antología personal ( 1980 ; Personal Anthology ) = = = Translations = = = Hijo de hombre as Son of Man ( 1965 ) Rachel Caffyn Yo , el Supremo as I , The Supreme ( 1986 ) Helen Lane = Who Made Huckabee ? = Who Made Huckabee ? , also known as the Colbert / O 'Brien / Stewart feud , refers to a mock rivalry that occurred among late night talk show hosts Stephen Colbert , Conan O 'Brien and Jon Stewart in early 2008 , reportedly over who was responsible for then @-@ presidential candidate Mike Huckabee 's success in the presidential primaries . In reality , however , the feud was concocted by the three comedians as a result of the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Without writers to fuel their banter , the three comedians staged a crossover / rivalry in order to fill airtime and garner more viewers during the ratings slump . Colbert made the claim that because of " the Colbert bump " in popularity which results from guest appearances on his show , he was responsible for recurring guest Huckabee 's success in the 2008 Iowa caucus . O 'Brien claimed he was responsible for cable personality Colbert 's success because he mentioned Colbert on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , a broadcast network show , and by extension was behind the success of Huckabee . In response , Stewart claimed he was responsible for O 'Brien 's original success , since Stewart featured him on The Jon Stewart Show in the early 1990s . As the feud escalated , O 'Brien , Colbert and Stewart each put forward increasingly farcical reasons he was responsible for Huckabee 's success , insulting their rivals in the process . This resulted in a three @-@ part comedic battle between the three faux @-@ pundits , with all three appearing on each other 's shows on the same night . The feud ended on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien with a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek " all @-@ out brawl " between the three talk @-@ show hosts . Reaction to the " feud " by both the public and the media was mostly positive . TV Squad 's Annie Wu wrote : " With the three hosts appearing on each other 's shows all on one night , it was special appearances galore . It became a clash of the Titans , a battle of epic proportions , a heaping helping of Monday fanservice . " Even so , the three comedians " shared a certain comedic sensibility " , and admitted that they had a good time while helping each other out . O 'Brien said : " It certainly helped that all three of us [ were ] in a period of our careers where we 're looking for content . " = = The feud = = = = = Beginning = = = The 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) strike , which began in November 2007 , all but crippled the United States ' entertainment industry . Virtually all scripted Hollywood shows were expected to shut down by the week of December 19 , 2007 . Hollywood journalist Nikki Finke reported , " CEOs are determined to write off not just the rest of this TV season ( including the Back 9 of scripted series ) , but also pilot season and the 2008 / 2009 schedule as well . Indeed , network orders for reality TV shows are pouring into the agencies right now . " Of the " Big Four " networks — CBS , ABC , NBC and Fox — NBC had the most severe ad shortfall as its prime time ratings declined sharply ; none of its new shows achieved breakout success . Moreover , during 2007 , NBC saw its prime time 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 @-@ year @-@ old viewership drop by 11 % , CBS dropped the same demographic by 10 % , and ABC lost 5 % . Although he is a WGA member who pledged support for the writers , O 'Brien announced that following the collapse of negotiations , Late Night with Conan O 'Brien would return to air on January 2 , 2008 , without writers , citing his non @-@ writing staff facing layoffs as the main reason . Later , Stewart and Colbert announced that their shows , The Daily Show and The Colbert Report , would also return without writers on January 7 , 2008 . To show respect to the picketing writers , The Daily Show was renamed , for the duration of the strike , A Daily Show with Jon Stewart . Similarly , The Colbert Report was rebranded as The Colbert Report ( with hard T 's ) for its first new episode since the strike began . On January 2 , 2008 , Late Night featured a small musical segment at the beginning of the show detailing O 'Brien 's newly grown beard in a similar show of support for the striking writers . Huckabee generated a considerable following of young voters during his campaign , primarily because of his support of the Fair Tax as well as his concerns about global warming , education , and several other issues typically not referred to by Republicans . Most notable is the following Huckabee gathered among the younger crowd via the internet . Huck 's Army , an online grassroots coalition and volunteer think tank , is largely composed of younger , more technologically savvy adherents . So productive was this group that it received national media attention and was credited by Huckabee as " the secret weapon of our campaign " . On January 4 , 2008 , O 'Brien attempted to take responsibility for Huckabee 's popularity among young voters by claiming that his show was the sole cause of Huckabee 's status in the votes , due to his use of " The Walker , Texas Ranger Lever " , which increased the popularity of actor and public Huckabee supporter Chuck Norris . O 'Brien reasoned that the popularity of Norris , fueled by the Late Night sketch , translated into support for Huckabee . Colbert later lashed out at O 'Brien on his own show on January 16 , 2008 , claiming that he himself was responsible for Huckabee 's success in the Iowa caucus thanks to his giving Huckabee " the Colbert bump , " a rise in popularity following an appearance on The Colbert Report . The exasperated Colbert ended his rant with this " threat " against O 'Brien : " So back off of Mike Huckabee , or I will kick your ' translucent white ass ! You got that , Irish ? " During the January 17 , 2008 , episode of Late Night , O 'Brien , in what he later described as " a heated moment " , called Colbert the " temporary host of The Colbert Report . " O 'Brien also refused to recant his statement concerning Huckabee , claiming that , just by mentioning Colbert on his network show , he was , in turn , " breathing life " into Colbert 's " basic cable " career . Therefore , according to his logic , " if Colbert made Huckabee , and Conan made Colbert , then Conan made Huckabee ! " In response , during the January 29 , 2008 , episode of The Colbert Report , Colbert , persuaded by " the soundness of [ O 'Brien 's ] logic " , was prepared to concede . Before he could , however , Jon Stewart , Colbert 's former Daily Show colleague , appeared on the set and cautioned Colbert against doing so . Stewart exhibited a vintage VHS tape , which contained footage of him introducing O 'Brien on Stewart 's earlier MTV program , The Jon Stewart Show , in 1994 . Therefore , by his own logic : " Colbert made Huckabee ... Conan made Colbert ... Jon Stewart made Conan ... Jon Stewart made Huckabee ! " Colbert accepted this , as it kept Huckabee 's ' creation ' " in the family . " Stewart then jokingly said it was up to O 'Brien to respond , so that the three of them could " figure out a way to settle the matter that wastes time on all three of [ their ] shows " — an obvious allusion to the writers ' strike and the need to generate new material without said writers . Colbert ended the segment with the crack , " Ball 's in your court , Conan ! " = = = Escalation = = = Upon learning of Stewart 's involvement in the feud , O 'Brien used his February 1 , 2008 , episode to show a modified photo of himself as a doctor delivering both Colbert and Stewart as babies , after which he proceeded to make fun of their genitalia . O 'Brien continued the earlier chain of reasoning by arguing that by delivering Stewart and Colbert to the world , he deserved credit for any of their potential accomplishments , including Huckabee . O 'Brien then made the following statement : " I think this ends the feud . But this is my warning — and this is not a threat , this is a promise ! If either Stewart or Colbert mentions this again in any way , I am going over to their tiny little studio , and I am kicking some Comedy Central ass ! " This resulted in a three @-@ part comedic battle between the three faux @-@ pundits , with all three appearing on each other 's shows on February 4 , 2008 . It all began on the set of The Daily Show , when Colbert , to thunderous applause , interrupted the middle of a seemingly normal show to thank Stewart for settling the feud . Stewart at first responded happily to this , but then grew visibly frightened once Colbert informed him of O 'Brien 's response from a few days before . Colbert then began taunting O 'Brien , calling him " cheap " , " stupid " and " lazy " — much to Stewart 's chagrin , who begged Colbert to stop . It was too late , however , as O 'Brien , accompanied by thunderous applause , quickly walked in and furiously scolded the two for keeping the feud going . A seething Colbert , nonetheless , refused to back down , and even snarled at O 'Brien : " You want to tangle , Red ? " O 'Brien agreed , but as the two prepared to take the fight outside , Stewart reminded them that he had to finish his show . O 'Brien and Colbert agreed to wait outside , where they engaged in idle chit chat . When Stewart finished , he went into the hall to find Colbert was gone to tape his show . On the set of The Colbert Report , Colbert was discussing John McCain 's rise in the polls , and joked that since the media had said that " a vote for Mike Huckabee is a vote for McCain " , and Colbert was Huckabee 's " running mate , " then Colbert , " by the transitive property of Huckabee " , was really McCain . He was soon interrupted by Stewart and O 'Brien , who had just left the set of The Daily Show to continue their fight . Stewart jokingly claimed that , since he had " made " both Colbert and O 'Brien , Stewart himself was McCain — clearly provoking O 'Brien . After some playful attacks , Colbert persuaded the two to wait outside until he finished taping his show . But of course , by the time Colbert had finished , O 'Brien had gone off to tape his show . Too impatient , Colbert and Stewart then decided to walk across the hall and finally end the fight on O 'Brien 's set . However , the door supposedly leading to O 'Brien 's set was locked , leaving Colbert and Stewart no other choice but to use forced entry — via a bobby pin . A later interview with O 'Brien revealed further information of how Stewart and Colbert were able to slip through security : " [ I ] t 's not that hard getting in the building , even though I probably shouldn 't say that . They made crude NBC passes out of clay and just walked right through . . .They said they were from the network affiliate in Ohio . " = = = Ending = = = On February 4 , 2008 , after O 'Brien 's monologue concerning his " feud " with Colbert and Stewart , the two strutted West Side Story @-@ Kick the Moon styles onto the set , accompanied by thunderous applause , and pulled O 'Brien backstage . Colbert , O 'Brien and Stewart then proceeded to fight it out to the tune of " Brianstorm " , a song by the English alternative rock band Arctic Monkeys . It was one fight scene cliche after the other , from slow motion punching to falling into cardboard boxes to rolling down a flight of stairs . What followed was " four punishing , uninterrupted minutes of Louisville Slugger bludgeonings , the gruesome torching of pasty comedian flesh , and a near @-@ beheading by the razor @-@ sharp blades of a pair of hockey skates " . The battle finally ended with a simultaneous freeze frame punch that turned into a parody of the end of Rocky III when the scene dissolved into a watercolor painting . Huckabee himself appeared , and declared : After that , the bell sounded and the image of Huckabee morphed into yet another Rocky III @-@ style painting , marking the end of the feud . = = Aftermath = = That same day , Colbert and Stewart issued the following joint statement : " Conan 's claims on Mike Huckabee could not go unanswered . We just hope the kids out there learned that sometimes the best way to resolve a conflict is with violence . " Meanwhile , as O 'Brien was recovering , he conducted an interview with the Associated Press , and explained that one of the reasons he took part in the feud was because , " [ Colbert ] had been leaving me threatening messages . He got to me . I have a temper . A famous temper . " Later that same day , on The Daily Show , Stewart poked fun at the fight by calling it " the stupidest fucking thing anyone 's ever seen . " He then apologized to Colbert , in a conversation via satellite , for inadvertently smashing him over the head with a beer bottle during the brawl , amid the confusion . While Colbert accepted his apology , Stewart continued and asked why Colbert had initially responded by shoving a recycling bin over Stewart 's head and hitting him with a baseball bat . To which Colbert replied , " No , no , Jon — I shoved a recycling bin over your head and encouraged Conan to hit you with a baseball bat , " and , as usual , left Stewart confused . At the end of the segment , Stewart asked Colbert : " Did we win that [ fight ] , by the way ? " Colbert 's answer was , " I think America won , Jon . " In the meantime , Huckabee won the first contest of " Super Tuesday " with 52 % of the West Virginia GOP state convention electorate to rival Mitt Romney 's 47 % . Backers of rival John McCain threw him their support to prevent Mitt Romney from capturing the winner @-@ take @-@ all GOP state convention vote . He also secured victories in Alabama , Arkansas , Georgia and Tennessee on Super Tuesday , bringing his delegate count up to 156 , a distant third compared to 689 for Republican Party front @-@ runner McCain and Romney 's 286 , according to the 2008 Republican presidential primaries and caucuses . On February 7 , 2008 , Huckabee made a trip to New York to make yet another appearance on The Colbert Report , declaring he was still a viable candidate in the race . By the end of the segment , he was playing a game of air hockey with the host . However , despite winning the Kansas Republican Caucuses and the Louisiana Republican Primary , Huckabee decided to end his bid for the GOP nomination , upon losing the Texas Republican Primary on March 4 , 2008 . = = = Reception = = = Reaction to the " feud " by both the public and the media was , and still is , nearly uniformly positive . Clips from the feud quickly became popular on the Internet , turning into viral videos that spread across numerous blogs in various forms , with the sites that offered the videos seeing vast increases in their traffic . The Huckabee brawl became " so popular that polls [ began ] popping up in pursuit of the public 's opinion to the question , ' Who made Huckabee ? ' . " TV Squad 's Annie Wu beamed : " With the three hosts appearing on each other 's shows all on one night , it was special appearances galore . It became a clash of the Titans , a battle of epic proportions , a heaping helping of Monday fanservice . " Interestingly , upon returning to air on January 7 , 2008 , The Daily Show and The Colbert Report had increased ratings . As of the end of January 2008 , The Daily Show was up 17 percent for viewers between 18 @-@ 34 from January 2007 and up nine percent for 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds in the same period . The Colbert Report was up 21 percent for 18- to 34 @-@ year @-@ olds and 15 percent for 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds over the same time period . Late Night with Conan O 'Brien , however , remained at a normal level , with 2 @.@ 5 million viewers . One reason given for the increase in Daily Show and Colbert Report ratings was the current presidential election , allowing them a large amount of political humor to use . However , one journalist commented that the raise of ratings in these two shows without the writers " has to be a big PR setback for the WGA . " In fact , not long after the " Who Made Huckabee ? " feud culminated , the writers ' strike officially ended on February 13 , 2008 , with the writers returning to work the following day , at which point the titles of The Daily Show and The Colbert Report were restored . = = = Ironic subtext = = = In contrast to the strained relationship depicted on @-@ camera among Colbert , O 'Brien and Stewart , the three are actually good friends and admire each other 's shows . O 'Brien admitted that , " the three of us have come along in the same comedic environment , " and that , while " our shows all probably have their distinct flavor , [ ... ] this happened because the three of us knew we would like doing this with each other . " The Associated Press noted : " For anyone watching , it was clear the three hosts share a certain comedic sensibility . Such playfulness would seem impossible with other late @-@ night talk @-@ show hosts ; CBS ' David Letterman and NBC 's Jay Leno , for instance , have long had icy relations . " This from TV Squad 's Annie Wu : " I would also like to note that even those that haven 't found this fake feud particularly amusing must find a bit of sweetness in it . After all , these are hosts that have constantly expressed how lost they feel without their writers . There 's something wonderful in seeing three comedians doing each other a favor by creating some silly material and taking it this far , just to help fill time . This one dumb fight alone has taken up so many episodes . Bless their little late night hearts for helping each other out . " In a similar fashion John Gillespie , of A Sensitivity to Things , found the brawl " inspiring , ' and stated : " What is really great about this clip , the in @-@ joke that informs , underlines everything you see , is that these are three very famous people , working in exactly the same field , competing directly for television ratings and advertising dollars , who should supposedly have very large egos , making fun of all of that , and revealing — wait ... is that irony , on American TV ? — that they are probably very good friends , having a very good time . " " My favorite comedy is comedy where nothing is achieved and there is no point , " O 'Brien said . " That this whole Huckabee fight turned into an insane Marx Brothers dance was fitting somehow [ ... ] The fight itself is three people with a box full of props playing for about an hour . " = Santosh Subramaniam = Santosh Subramaniam is a 2008 Indian Tamil @-@ language romantic comedy film directed by Mohan Raja and produced by Kalpathi S. Agoram . The film stars Jayam Ravi and Genelia D 'Souza in the lead roles , while Prakash Raj , Geetha and Sayaji Shinde play supporting roles . It is a remake of the Telugu film , Bommarillu ( 2006 ) . The film revolves around a father and son relationship ; the father dotes on his son , who resents the same . The son 's choices and his ambitions to achieve something in life are subdued by his father . The film entered production in July 2007 and in addition to being shot in India , was also shot at the South Island of New Zealand . The film 's soundtrack was composed by Devi Sri Prasad , who retained the tunes he composed for Bommarillu . Santosh Subramaniam was released on 11 April 2008 during the Tamil New Year festival . The film was positively received and commercially successful ; critics praised the performances of Ravi , D 'Souza and Prakash Raj . The film won the third prize for the Best Film at the Tamil Nadu State Film Awards of 2008 . It was nominated for four awards at the 56th Filmfare Awards South , including Best Film , Best Director , Best Actor and Best Actress , but did not win in any category . = = Plot = = Subramaniam is a rich business man managing his own construction company . He lives with his wife Shanthi and sons Sanjay and Santosh . Subramaniam cares for his family a lot and excessively dotes upon his children . Santosh , the younger son , does not like this as he wants to be independent free from his father ’ s guidance and control . But Santosh acts normal to avoid hurting his father . Santosh has in mind that both his career and wife should be of his choice only and not of his father . Subramaniam wants Santosh to assist him in managing the company but Santosh dreams of starting a new company on his own and does not prefer to work in his father ’ s company . Meanwhile , Subramaniam arranges Santosh ’ s wedding with Rajeshwari , daughter of his friend Ramamoorthy . Santosh is shocked as he has no other option rather than agreeing for this wedding . One day , Santosh meets Hasini , a college student and is immediately attracted seeing her childish attitude and jovial nature . Santosh slowly befriends Hasini and both fall in love , but he does not have the courage to inform about his love to his father . Santhosh gets spotted along with Hasini by Subramaniam and now he reveals his love affair . Subramaniam is furious upon hearing this as Santosh is already engaged to Rajeshwari . Subramaniam asks Santosh to bring Hasini to his home and make her stay with them for a week so that he will make Santosh understand that Rajeshwari is the better bride for him . Santosh agrees , believing that Hasini will impress Subramaniam . Hasini lies to her father Govindan that she is going for a college trip and leaves for Santosh ’ s home . Everyone at Subramaniam ’ s home view Hasini indifferently seeing her talkative nature compared to Subramaniam ’ s family members who are more mature and not so talkative , especially Subramaniam . Santosh asks Hasini to try impressing his family members , fearing Subramaniam might not accept for the wedding . Slowly , Hasini starts befriending Santhosh ’ s mother and sisters and gets close with them . Hasini informs them about Santosh ’ s behaviours such as alcohol consumption , going out at night to meet her , and also his plans of getting a bank loan to start his own company which were not known to Santhosh ’ s family before . Santosh is shocked knowing that Hasini has revealed all his mischievous activities and berates her often for being childish . Hasini worries and decides to leave Santosh ’ s home even before the one week time given to her . She apologises to everyone in Santosh ’ s home and says that she is not the one fit for him and his family . Santosh is worried seeing this but has no option rather than staying calm as even Subramaniam did not like Hasini . The next day , an argument erupts between Santosh and Subramaniam during which the former becomes emotional and shouts that he has lost so many small things in life because of Subramaniam . But he preferred to stay calm as he does not want to hurt his father . Subramaniam realises his mistake and apologises to everyone saying that he always wanted to take care of his family members so well but had never thought that they are sacrificing a lot to make him happy . Santosh meets Rajeshwari and apologises to her . He also makes her understand his situation . Rajeshwari convinces Ramamoorthy that she will get even a better groom than Santosh . Meanwhile , Subramaniam goes to meet Hasini and apologises to her . Hasini says that her father is angry on her for lying and she will have to obey her father now . But Govindan does not like Santosh as he has seen him before drinking with his friends in road . Subramaniam says that he will send Santosh to Govindan ’ s home for a week so that he will better understand his character . After numerous incidents between Govindan and Santosh , the former finally agrees for Santosh and Hasini 's wedding . = = Cast = = Jayam Ravi as Santosh Subramaniam Genelia D 'Souza as Hasini Govindan Prakash Raj as Subramaniam , Santosh 's father Sayaji Shinde as Govindan , Hasini 's father Geetha as Lakshmi , Santosh 's mother Sadagoppan Ramesh as Sanjay , Santosh 's elder brother Kirat Bhattal as Rajeswari , Santosh 's fiancé Vijayakumar as Ramamoorthy , Rajeswari 's father Santhanam as Srinivasan , Santosh 's friend Premgi Amaren as Shekar , Santosh 's friend M. S. Bhaskar as Kootha Perumal , Santosh 's college lecturer Kausalya as Santosh 's sister Satya Krishnan as Sanjay 's wife Neelima Rani as Santhanam 's wife Srinath as Guna , Santosh 's friend Manobala as Bank Manager Anu Hasan ( special appearance ) = = Production = = Despite early indications that the same team that worked on the 2006 Telugu film Bommarillu — including director K. Vijaya Bhaskar and producer Dil Raju — would remake the film in Tamil , the pair said they were not interested . Raju was willing to sell the remake rights and held twenty previews in Chennai for potential buyers . Editor Mohan , under his home company Jayam Combines , outbid Prakash Raj , who wanted to remake the film with Vishal in the lead role . Others outbid included Vijay , Bhagyaraj for his daughter , Saranya , and A. M. Rathnam for his son Ravi Krishna . Mohan handed the director 's role to his first son Raja , and the lead role to his second son Jayam Ravi . The film would become Raja 's fourth consecutive remake of a Telugu film . Bhaskar stated that he chose not to work on Santosh Subramaniam because he had " invested too much time and energy in its original " . Genelia D 'Souza was chosen to play the female lead Hasini , reprising her role from the original film . Prakash Raj , who also acted in the original film , was chosen to reprise his role as the protagonist 's father and Geetha was signed to play the character 's mother . Former cricketer Sadagoppan Ramesh made his acting debut in this film , playing Santosh 's elder brother , and Sayaji Shinde was signed to play Hasini 's father . Kirat Bhattal was selected to play Santosh 's fiancée . Actors Kausalya , Santhanam , Premgi Amaren , Srinath and Sathyan , were also added to the cast . Anu Hasan makes a special appearance as a woman who Santosh converses with at the beginning , and end of the film . Raja stated that the film would feature a " huge house " that was constructed at a cost of ₹ 5 million ( US $ 74 @,@ 000 ) and a bus with " state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art " facilities , which was bought for ₹ 1 million ( US $ 15 @,@ 000 ) , and that they would be memorable highlights of the film . Two songs were shot at the South Island of New Zealand . An advantage of shooting in New Zealand for the film 's crew was that they had 16 hours of sunlight on any given day . Some sequences were even shot around 9 : 30 pm under " blazing sunlight " . One song depicting the marriage of Premji Amaran 's character was shot in several temples " in and around Kumbakonam " in Tamil Nadu . According to Raja , the film was inspired by his own life : " My friend took the essence of my story and made the Telugu blockbuster , which I then remade in Tamil " . The film had its launch on 16 July 2007 with the attendance of all the lead actors . For the inauguration function , 300 invitations by word of mouth were made . The invitation for the launch featured many successful father @-@ son duos from various fields , such as Sivaji Ganesan and Prabhu , Sivakumar and Suriya , and Sathyaraj and Sibiraj . = = Soundtrack = = For the film 's music and soundtrack , Raja renewed his association with Devi Sri Prasad , who predominantly used his tracks from the original film . Siddharth , the lead actor in the original , sang one of the tracks from the film . The audio of the film was released on 23 March 2008 , three weeks before the film 's release . The soundtrack received positive response . Behindwoods rated the album 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 , calling it " Overall , a lively album all set to become a chart buster . " Rediff rated the album 3 out of 5 , and stated that " listening to Santosh Subramaniyam music really gives ' santhosham ' " . = = Release and reception = = The satellite rights of the film were sold to Sun TV . Santosh Subramaniam was released on 11 April 2008 during the Tamil New Year festival . Despite being released during the season of the Indian Premier League , it took a big opening and enjoyed a theatrical run of 25 days due to positive critical reviews and favourable word of mouth . The reception in the United Kingdom , comparatively for a Tamil film , was equally successful , entering the UK box office at number 40 . The film collected GB £ 10 @,@ 067 in its first week of opening and earned a cumulative gross of £ 24 @,@ 962 in its three @-@ week box office run . Pavithra Srinivasan of Rediff gave the film a rating of two and a half out of five ; she called the film a " classy remake of the Telugu blockbuster Bommarillu ( Toy @-@ house ) , the movie is a love @-@ story but it strives to be something even more " . She stated that Ravi " performs with his usual flair " , D 'Souza 's character " appears a little too good to be true , at first . But her character grows on you " , and praised Prakash Raj 's performance , saying that the role " was a cakewalk " for him . Malathi Rangarajan of The Hindu praised the music , locations and the main cast 's performances , and wrote that in the film , " dull moments are rare , enjoyable ones aplenty " . IndiaGlitz said , " Hats off director Raja and Jeyam Ravi for hitting the bull 's eye for the fourth time in a row . The duo continues from where they left in Unakum Enakum to provide a feel @-@ good light @-@ hearted family entertainer sure to be enjoyed with the family . " and concluded , " Santosh Subramaniam is no doubt a film that is sure to spread santhosam ( happiness ) to one and all . " Sify said D 'Souza 's portrayal is " the soul of the film " and its " biggest strength " ; the reviewer called Ravi 's performance " mature " and Prakash Raj 's " outstanding " . Behindwoods gave the film three stars out of five and called it a " well made family entertainer " . The reviewer wrote , " watch Santosh Subramaniam for that ' feel good ' feeling , overlook minor glitches " , and said that Prakash Raj is " the real master " who " proves his class yet again " . Settu Shankar of Oneindia said , " there are few minuses in the script but those are very minor and not affect the flow of the story " and concluded , " overall , Santosh Subramaniam is a promising entertainer that brings the first word of the title in every viewers mind for long time even after come out from the theatre " . = = = Accolades = = = = L.A. Noire = L.A. Noire ( pronounced / ˈnwɑːr / ) is a neo @-@ noir detective video game developed by Team Bondi and published by Rockstar Games . It was initially released for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 platforms on 17 May 2011 ; a Microsoft Windows port was later released on 8 November 2011 . L.A. Noire is set in Los Angeles in 1947 and challenges the player , controlling a Los Angeles Police Department ( LAPD ) officer , to solve a range of cases across five divisions . Players must investigate crime scenes for clues , follow up leads , and interrogate suspects , and the player 's success at these activities will impact how much of each case 's story is revealed . The game draws heavily from both the plot and aesthetic elements of film noir - stylistic films made popular in the 1940s and 1950s that share similar visual styles and themes , including crime and moral ambiguity - along with drawing inspiration from real @-@ life crimes for its in @-@ game cases , based upon what was reported by the Los Angeles media in 1947 . The game uses a distinctive colour palette , but in homage to film noir it includes the option to play the game in black and white . Various plot elements reference the major themes of detective and mobster stories such as The Naked City , Chinatown , The Untouchables , The Black Dahlia , and L.A. Confidential . L.A. Noire is notable for using Depth Analysis 's newly developed technology MotionScan , whereby the actors portraying the game 's characters were recorded by 32 surrounding cameras to capture facial expressions from every angle . The technology is central to the game 's interrogation mechanic , as players must use the suspects ' reactions to questioning to judge whether or not they are lying . L.A. Noire was the first video game to be shown at the Tribeca Film Festival . Upon release , the game received wide acclaim for its advances in storytelling and facial animation technology . As of February 2012 , both PC and console versions had shipped nearly 5 million copies combined . = = Gameplay = = L.A. Noire is an action @-@ adventure neo @-@ noir crime game played from a third @-@ person perspective . Players complete cases — linear scenarios with set objectives — to progress through the story . The game also features a mode which allows players to freely roam the open world . In this mode , players can also engage in optional activities . The world features multiple landmarks , which are all based on real monuments from 1940s Los Angeles . The game takes place in the city of Los Angeles , in the year 1947 , with players assuming the role of Los Angeles Police Department officer , and later detective , Cole Phelps . The game starts with Phelps as a uniformed patrolman , and follows his career as he advances through the police department bureaus ( desks ) of Traffic , Homicide , Vice and Arson . Each desk gives players a new partner who will help Phelps in his investigation of a number of cases based on a specific type of crime . The game assigns players with cases that they must solve . After each case , players receive a rating of 1 – 5 stars depending on their performance in both interrogations and searching for clues . In some cases , when searching an area for clues to the crime , players can also find newspapers . Besides reading the story , the newspapers give access to a short cinematic that either covers a part of the game 's overarching plot or a flashback to Phelps ' war memories . Near the end of the final desk , players assume control of private investigator Jack Kelso , who becomes the player character for most of the rest of the game ; although different in appearance and personality , he controls identically to Phelps . The game blends investigative elements with fast @-@ paced action sequences , including chases , combat , interrogations and gunfights . Players use melee attacks and firearms to fight enemies , and may run , jump or use vehicles to navigate the world . In combat , auto @-@ aim and a cover system can be used as assistance against enemies . Should player characters take damage , the character 's health will gradually regenerate . Weapons can only be used in appropriate circumstances , such as during firefights . When driving vehicles , players have the option to skip directly to the destination by nominating their partner as the driver . Players can also ask the partner for directions . In addition to storyline cases , players may engage in an optional 40 side @-@ investigations , known as Street Crimes , that are not related to the case that they are working on . Suspects and witnesses in a case can be interrogated for information , when the interviewee responds , players are given the option to either believe them , doubt them , or accuse them of lying . If players accuse them of lying , they must submit evidence to prove it . When interrogating two suspects at the police station , players may decide who to charge with the crime ; charging the wrong suspect affects players ' end rating . Players have the option to skip past an action sequence and continue through the narrative if they fail it three times . There is also a free roam mode called " The Streets of L.A. " , which is unlocked after each crime desk is completed , except for the Patrol desk . In this mode , the player and his partner are allowed to free roam the city of Los Angeles . The player can replay Street Crimes , find Golden Film Reels , discover Landmarks , collect Hidden Vehicles , find Badges or just cruise around and listen to the radio . = = Plot = = Following the end of World War II , Cole Phelps ( Aaron Staton ) , a decorated USMC veteran of the Pacific Campaign , returns to Los Angeles , California to live with his family while taking on work as a Patrol Officer of the LAPD . In 1947 , working with his partner , Officer Ralph Dunn ( Rodney Scott ) , Phelps successfully solves a major murder case and impresses his superiors , who make him into a police detective . Working alongside Stefan Bekowsky ( Sean McGowan ) in Traffic , and then Finbarr " Rusty " Galloway ( Michael McGrady ) in Homicide , Phelps earns a reputation for solving difficult cases that eventually land him a promotion into Vice . During this time , he begins falling for German lounge singer Elsa Lichtmann ( Erika Heynatz ) and soon has an affair with her . Unknown to him , Roy Earle ( Adam J. Harrington ) , his partner in Vice and a corrupt cop , uses this information to help several prominent figures in the city , including the Chief of Police , cover up a major scandal by making him a media scapegoat , in exchange for a place in a syndicate known as " The Suburban Redevelopment Fund " ( SRF ) - a development program that supplies homes for homecoming WWII veterans . When his adultery is exposed , Phelps becomes disgraced in the LAPD , while his wife ends their marriage . Prior to his demotion to Arson , Phelps had found that several Marines of his former unit had been selling morphine syrettes stolen from the ship that had taken them home , the SS Coolridge , which had later led to most being assassinated by mobsters working for Mickey Cohen ( Patrick Fischler ) , who controlled the drug trade and had resented the competition ; most of the stolen drugs remains unaccounted for by the time he is demoted . While investigating a pair of suspicious house fires with his partner in Arson , Herschel Biggs ( Keith Szarabajka ) , Phelps notes a connection between them and a recent housing development , known as " Elysian Fields " , but is warned by Earle to back off from tycoon developer , Leland Monroe ( John Noble ) . Seeking help to investigate the development , Phelps advises Elsa to refuse a life insurance payout in order to prompt his old comrade , Jack Kelso ( Gil McKinney ) , now an investigator for the California Fire & Life insurance company , to look into the matter . Kelso quickly discovers that the development is using unsuitable building materials , and after nearly being killed , becomes an investigator for the Assistant D.A. whereupon he soon learn that Monroe and his former employer , the owner of Fire & Life , are involved in the SRF syndicate . Kelso and Phelps eventually learn from their investigations that the Fund is merely a front to conceal its true purpose - to defraud the US Federal Government . Run by several local businessmen , dignitaries , as well as Monroe and even the Chief of Police , the syndicate had learnt about the proposed route for the Whitnall Parkway through the Wilshire district of the city , and thus bought the land it would run through . Monroe then built communities of " matchstick " houses , while Fire & Life falsely claimed the land was a higher value , knowing that the government would pay whatever the land was worth in order to gain eminent domain over it . Further investigations reveals that Courtney Sheldon ( Chad Todhunter ) , a headstrong corpsman of Phelps and Kelso 's former unit , had been involved in the theft of the morphine , of which the remainder of it had been given to his mentor and pop @-@ psychiatrist , Harlan Fontaine ( Peter Blomquist ) , who sold it on to finance the Fund , while murdering Sheldon after he began questioning the syndicate 's plans . Following a shoot @-@ out at Monroe 's mansion , Kelso quickly learns that the SRF had used a former flamethrower operator from Phelps ' and Kelso 's unit , named Ira Hogeboom , to help them with their plans . Hogeboom , who was suffering from PTSD and schizophrenia after inadvertently killing a large number of civilians on Phelps ' orders during the Battle of Okinawa , had been unknowingly manipulated by Fontaine to torch the houses of holdouts who refused to sell out to the SRF , until eventually going insane after he inadvertently incinerates a house with an entire family inside . After learning that Hogeboom had murdered Fontaine and kidnapped Elsa , Phelps and Kelso pursue him into the Los Angeles River Tunnels as a heavy rain begins , fighting their way through corrupt policemen and thugs trying to stop them from exposing the SRF scam . To help them , the Assistant D.A. brokers a deal with the Chief of Police to keep his corruption silent , in exchange for his testimony against the other Fund conspirators and a promise that no more police officers will pursue Phelps . Eventually the pair rescue Elsa , with Kelso killing Hogeboom to put him out of his mental anguish . With the water level rising , the group struggle to find a way out of the tunnels before soon using an open manhole to escape . Phelps quickly volunteers to lift Kelso up through the manhole , but upon realising he cannot escape the rising water , bids his comrade a final goodbye before the current sweeps him away . Whilst the SRF scam is exposed , several members escape justice to attend Phelps 's funeral , each delivering eulogies to his memory , much to the disgust of Elsa , who walks out in a huff as Earle gives his eulogy . As Biggs prepares to go after her , he remarks to Kelso that Phelps was never his friend , to which Kelso agrees but responds that he was never Phelps ' enemy . An epilogue flashback scene soon reveals that Kelso had known about the stolen morphine and Sheldon 's involvement , after they and their other fellow Marines found the surplus supply on their ship home . However , Kelso refused to be involved in Sheldon 's scheme to sell the drugs along with the other Marines , telling them all that they will lose his respect for them as Marines if they go through with the drug profiting , setting in motion the events of the game . = = Development = = Team Bondi began to develop L.A. Noire following their founding in 2004 . Initially due to be published by Sony Computer Entertainment , the publishing rights were later handed over to Rockstar Games in September 2006 . Though Team Bondi oversaw development , the work was shared between Team Bondi and multiple Rockstar studios around the world . Unlike other games by Rockstar , which run on their proprietary Rockstar Advanced Game Engine , L.A. Noire uses a custom engine , which includes a combination of facial motion capture and animation software . The game is notable for being the first to use MotionScan , developed by Depth Analysis . MotionScan functions by recording actors with 32 surrounding cameras to capture facial expressions from every angle , resulting in a highly realistic recreation of a human face . The technology is central to the game 's interrogation mechanic , as players are required to use the suspects ' reactions to questioning to judge whether or not they are lying . Analyst estimations place the game 's combined development and marketing budget at more than US $ 50 million , which would make it one of the most expensive video games ever made . The game is set in 1947 Los Angeles , and the open world was modelled accordingly . To model the city , the developers used aerial photographs taken by photographer Robert Spence . The team also used the photographs to create traffic patterns and public transport routes , as well as the location and condition of buildings . While striving to recreate an accurate model of 1947 Los Angeles , the team also took some artistic license , such as including the appearance of the film set for D. W. Griffith 's Intolerance ; the set had actually been dismantled in 1919 . In addition to recreating the city as it was in 1947 , all of the in @-@ game cases that the developers worked upon were each inspired in some part by the actual real @-@ life crimes that the city 's media reported on during that year . Each of the game 's cases features at least a few of the real @-@ life elements that were reported in newspaper articles of that time , with one example of a case that developers found inspiration for being the " Red Lipstick Murder " . The case , part of the game 's Homicide Desk , is based upon the facts and elements that were mentioned in articles about the real @-@ life , unsolved murder of Jeanne French , a woman who was found dead in exactly the same conditions as the victim of the in @-@ game case is found in , including the M.O. used on the victim , the state the body was left in , the lipstick message found on the body , and the initial suspect being the victim 's husband , yet the in @-@ game case differs from this in that it is closed by the main protagonist and not becoming a cold case towards the end of its investigation . After a secretive audition process , Aaron Staton and Gil McKinney were selected to portray protagonists Cole Phelps and Jack Kelso , respectively . Their performances were mostly recorded using motion capture technology . In October 2003 , Team Bondi announced their first project , for " a next @-@ generation Sony platform " . In 2004 , McNamara said that the project was wholly funded by Sony Computer Entertainment America . The title of the game was not revealed until 2005 , when they announced that L.A. Noire was to be released exclusively to the PlayStation 3 . In September 2006 , it was announced that Rockstar Games would be handling the publishing of the game . The debut trailer was released in November 2010 , followed by a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes development video the next month . The game missed its original projected " fiscal 2008 " release date , pushed back to September 2010 to allow for further polishing . This was later pushed to the first half of 2011 , and then narrowed down to March 2011 . Later , the final release date of 17 May 2011 was confirmed . To spur pre @-@ order game sales , Rockstar collaborated with several retail outlets to provide pre @-@ order bonuses . = = = Music production = = = L.A. Noire features an original score . The game 's score accompanies the gameplay , alerting players at specific times . Like other games published by Rockstar , L.A. Noire also contains licensed music tracks provided by an in @-@ game radio . Over thirty songs , from artists such as Billie Holiday , Louis Armstrong and Ella Fitzgerald , feature in the game . To work on the score , the team engaged Andrew Hale and Simon Hale , as well as Woody Jackson , who had previously collaborated with the team on Red Dead Redemption ( 2010 ) . Recorded at Abbey Road Studios , the score was inspired by orchestral scores from 1940s films . In addition to the original score and licensed tracks , the game also features original vocal recordings in order to create an authentic sound to suit the musical identity of the period . When The Real Tuesday Weld were commissioned to compose the original compositions , they sought vocals that could " evoke the period " , ultimately falling upon Claudia Brücken . Three vocal tracks were produced : " ( I Always Kill ) The Things I Love " , " Guilty " , and " Torched Song " . The game 's score won the award for Best Original Score at the 2012 Bafta Video Games Awards . = = = Additional content = = = Several standalone cases , collectibles and challenges for the game were released as downloadable content in the months following its release . " The Naked City " , released on 31 May 2011 , is a standalone Administrative Vice case that follows the murder of a model . It is based on Jules Dassin 's 1948 film of the same name . " A Slip of the Tongue " , released on 31 May 2011 , is a Traffic case that focuses on a grand theft auto . " Nicholson Electroplating " , released on 21 June 2011 , is an Arson case based on the 1947 explosion of the O 'Connor Electro @-@ Plating company . " Reefer Madness " , released on 12 July 2011 , is a Vice case that leads the detectives to further conspiracies about illegal reefer operations . " The Consul 's Car " , released on 26 July 2011 , is a Traffic case that follows a grand theft auto ; initially released exclusively for North American PlayStation 3 versions , " The Consul 's Car " was later made purchasable in Europe , and eventually included in The Complete Edition . All in @-@ game items initially available as pre @-@ order content were also made available as downloadable content on 31 May 2011 : two suits , the Broderick and the Sharpshooter ; two guns , the Nickel Plated Pistol and the Chicago Piano Gun ; and the Badge Pursuit Challenge , challenging players to collect badges placed around the game world . On 28 September 2011 , Rockstar announced the PC version of the game , subtitled The Complete Edition , which was released on 8 November 2011 . It contained all downloadable content from the original versions . Enhancements include keyboard remapping and gamepad functionality , increased fidelity , graphical enhancements , and stereoscopic 3D support . The Complete Edition was made available for consoles shortly afterwards . = = Reception = = L.A. Noire received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . L.A. Noire has been widely praised for its advances in storytelling and facial animation technology . The first review was published by UK newspaper The Guardian , which awarded the game a perfect score , and stated " Ever since it first worked out how to assemble pixels so that they resembled something more recognisable than aliens , the games industry has dreamed of creating one thing above all else – a game that is indistinguishable from a film , except that you can control the lead character . With L.A. Noire , it just might , finally , have found the embodiment of that particular holy grail . " IGN gave the game 8 @.@ 5 out of 10 , stating " L.A. Noire may not reach the emotional heights of a game like Heavy Rain , but it 's something everyone must try out . It reaches high and almost succeeds as a brilliant new type of video game narrative . " GameTrailers gave the game a 9 @.@ 1 out of 10 , concluding that " L.A. Noire floors you out of the gate , loses some steam due to repetition , but eventually wins the day thanks to its subtlety , attention to detail , and stunning character interaction . " Gamespot 's Carolyn Petit awarded the game a 9 out of 10 , concluding that " L.A. Noire 's absorbing investigations and intoxicating sense of style make it an unforgettable journey through the seamy side of the City of Angels . " GameZone gave the game an 8 @.@ 5 / 10 , stating " The story is intriguing , albeit a little slow at first . L.A. Noire takes an old school approach toward its storytelling . It ’ s a much slower approach , similar to older movies , with a heavy emphasis on detail . It is that attention to detail that sets L.A. Noire apart from other games and makes it enjoyable to play . " Edge praised the facial technology , and pointed out that while there are no other major aspects of the game that had not been done better elsewhere , the fact that Team Bondi had brought together such a wide range of game genres in such a stylish , atmospheric , and cohesive manner was an achievement that few developers had managed . Joystiq gave the game a score of 9 , and stated that " L.A. Noire may not always be ' fun ' in the traditional sense , but it 's also unsatisfied with being ' merely fun , ' and the result of that aspiration is something that no one who cares about video games should miss . " Official PlayStation Magazine gave it 9 out of 10 , and stated that " In many ways , L.A. Noire is similar to an AMC series ... It 's a slow build , but once hooked , we couldn 't get enough of this provocative adventure , with its compelling characters and innovative gameplay . It 's not perfect , but it 's also unlike anything else on the PS3 right now . " Official Xbox Magazine gave it 8 out of 10 , and concluded with " Yes , it 's flawed , but L.A. Noire is an honest @-@ to @-@ goodness detective crime thriller – a genuine breath of fresh air that values narrative and story above all else in an age where scripted action sequences and online deathmatch rule the day . It 's the closest thing Xbox has to PlayStation 's unique adventurer Heavy Rain . " GamesMaster gave the game 92 % , and concluded that L.A. Noire is " Rockstar 's most mature take on open @-@ world fun to date , brought to life with incredible tech . " Despite the overall positive reception , some reviewers thought that the game had too many redundancies in the cases and left too little control to the player , leading to the game being boring at times . Although 1UP gave it a perfect score , they also warned that the extended cut @-@ scenes in the game could make some players feel they lost control of the action . Responding to criticism that accused the character 's bodies of being lifeless , despite the game 's use of motion capture , Brendan McNamara , the game 's director and writer , stated in an interview with Eurogamer , " People were saying people were dead from the neck down . That 's because we had all this animation in the neck and all this animation in the face , but the clothes don 't move . Once you get to the level that people can actually see that level of realism , then people expect to see clothes moving and the rest of the body moving in a way we can 't replicate in video games . " In the same interview McNamara also responded to queries about why Phelps sometimes responds with particularly aggressive lines of dialogue during interrogation scenes . " It 's funny . A lot of people say Aaron turns into a psycho . When we originally wrote the game the questions you asked were coax , force and lie . It was actually force because it was a more aggressive answer . That 's the way we recorded it . But when the game came out it was truth , doubt or lie . Everyone always says Aaron on the second question is a psycho . So that 's not his fault . " At the BAFTA Video Game Awards 2012 , L.A. Noire won the award for Best Original Score , the game was also nominated in seven other categories . = = = Sales = = = On the day of the game 's U.S. release , shares in Take @-@ Two Interactive , Rockstar Games ' parent company , closed up 7 @.@ 75 % on the day ; a three @-@ year high for the company . The rise was attributed to the positive reviews that L.A. Noire had been receiving . In the last available figures from February 2012 , the game had shipped almost 5 million copies . According to NPD Group , L.A. Noire was the best @-@ selling game in the United States in May 2011 , at 899 @,@ 000 copies across the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . L.A. Noire went straight to top of the UK games chart and became the fastest selling new intellectual property in the UK ( a record it held until the 2014 release of Watch Dogs ) . It stayed top of the UK game chart for three weeks . In Australia , video game stores in major cities reported that the game was going out of stock after a week . L.A. Noire debuted in Japan for the week of 4 – 10 July and sold a combined 71 @,@ 057 units on PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 . The PlayStation 3 version topped the chart , with 58 @,@ 436 units sold , and the Xbox 360 version moved 12 @,@ 621 units . = = Possible sequel = = On 22 May 2011 , McNamara said that a sequel to L.A. Noire would take less than the five years it took to develop the first as the technology already exists . He also stated that they are considering using the MotionScan technology for full body performances rather than only faces . The same week , in an investor conference call , Take @-@ Two Interactive CEO Strauss Zelnick said that L.A. Noire was " a very successful release " and that they " have every reason to believe that L.A. Noire is another strong franchise for this company " . He reiterated that they " do see L.A. Noire as a powerful new franchise " . During an investor call in November 2011 , Zelnick re @-@ iterated the importance of the game to Take @-@ Two , stating that the game " has become an important franchise for the company . " He announced that the game was Take @-@ Two 's " most successful new release " in the past fiscal year and has become a key property in its portfolio . Also in November 2011 , it was announced that McNamara 's next game would be titled Whore of the Orient , described as " one of the great untold stories of the 20th century " . It was to be published by KMM Studios , but was confirmed to be cancelled in June 2016 . On 13 February 2012 , Rockstar Games answered numerous fan questions about their games , including a question regarding the future of the L.A. Noire franchise . Rockstar said that they are " considering what the future may hold for L.A. Noire as a series " , adding that they " don 't always rush to make sequels " . They also announced that no further DLC or additional content would be developed for the current edition . In March 2013 , Karl Slatoff , chief operating officer of Take @-@ Two Interactive , revealed that the company has an " extensive pipeline of unannounced titles in development " and mentioned that the L.A. Noire franchise was important to the company . = Episode 14 ( Twin Peaks ) = " Episode 14 " , also known as " Lonely Souls " , is the seventh episode of the second season of the American mystery television series Twin Peaks . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Mark Frost and directed by series co @-@ creator David Lynch . It features series regulars Kyle MacLachlan , Michael Ontkean , Ray Wise and Richard Beymer ; and guest stars Frank Silva as Killer Bob , Hank Worden as The Waiter , Julee Cruise as Singer , and David Lynch as Gordon Cole . Twin Peaks centers on the investigation into the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) in the small rural town in Washington state after which the series is named . In this episode , during the ongoing investigation into Laura 's death , FBI special agent Dale Cooper ( MacLachlan ) and Sheriff Truman ( Ontkean ) continue to search for her killer , the demon Bob , who has possessed a human host . Aided by Mike ( Al Strobel ) , Cooper and Truman arrest Benjamin Horne ( Beymer ) , believing him to be inhabited by Bob . Later that night , Cooper is warned by The Giant ( Carel Struycken ) that " it is happening again " , while Bob 's real host , Leland Palmer ( Wise ) , murders Madeline Ferguson ( Lee ) . " Episode 14 " was first broadcast on November 10 , 1990 , on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) and was watched by an audience of 17 @.@ 2 million households in the United States , about 20 percent of the available audience . The episode was well received , garnering positive reviews after its initial broadcast and in subsequent years , but it has been criticized for unduly prolonging the revelation of Laura 's killer . Academic readings of the entry have highlighted the theme of duality and use of cinematography in the revelation scene . = = Plot = = = = = Background = = = The small fictional town of Twin Peaks , Washington , has been shocked by the murder of schoolgirl Laura Palmer ( Sheryl Lee ) and the attempted murder of her friend Ronette Pulaski ( Phoebe Augustine ) . FBI special agent Dale Cooper ( Kyle MacLachlan ) has been sent to the town to investigate , and has come to the realization that the killer was possessed by a demonic entity — Killer Bob ( Frank Silva ) . Mike ( Al Strobel ) , a similar spirit , has spoken to Cooper and his FBI superior , Regional Bureau Chief Gordon Cole ( David Lynch ) , explaining the nature of their existence . Meanwhile , Madeline " Maddy " Ferguson ( Lee ) , Laura 's cousin , has arrived in Twin Peaks from Missoula , Montana , and helps Laura 's friends Donna Hayward ( Lara Flynn Boyle ) and James Hurley ( James Marshall ) investigate the killing . Donna finds Harold Smith ( Lenny Von Dohlen ) , one of Laura 's friends to whom she had given a secret diary , and Donna and Maddy attempt to steal it from him . = = = Events = = = It is morning . Agent Cooper , Chief Gordon Cole , Sheriff Harry S. Truman ( Michael Ontkean ) , Deputy Andy Brennan ( Harry Goaz ) , Deputy Hawk ( Michael Horse ) , and Philip Gerard , who is possessed by Mike , are drinking coffee in the lobby of the Sheriff 's Station . Truman informs that preparations have been made for them at The Great Northern . Mike repeats his description of Bob 's current location . Truman tells Hawk to search Harold Smith 's apartment . Cooper tells Hawk to look for Laura Palmer 's secret diary . Cole bids all farewell and leaves for Bend , Oregon . Cooper , Doctor Hayward ( Warren Frost ) , Brennan , and Gerard / Mike are in the lobby of The Great Northern hotel attempting to find Bob 's human host . The hotel is hosting a contingent of sailors who are bouncing rubber balls in the hotel lobby . Mike is seated while hotel guests are brought to him one by one for " inspection . " One after another , Mike turns each away . An angry Benjamin Horne ( Richard Beymer ) enters the lobby demanding to know what is going on . Just then , Gerard enters a fit and collapses while grasping at his missing arm . Meanwhile , Deputy Hawk visits the residence of Harold Smith and finds him hanging dead amongst his orchids . Maddy announces to Laura 's parents Leland ( Ray Wise ) and Sarah Palmer ( Grace Zabriskie ) that she is leaving Twin Peaks to return to her home in Missoula , Montana . Cooper , Truman , and a police team arrive at Smith 's residence . They discover the torn @-@ up remains of Laura Palmer 's secret diary and a suicide note that reads , " J 'ai une âme solitaire . " Cooper translates , " I am a lonely soul . " Elsewhere , Bobby Briggs ( Dana Ashbrook ) and Shelly Johnson ( Mädchen Amick ) discuss their financial concerns regarding Shelly 's catatonic husband Leo ( Eric Da Re ) . Audrey Horne ( Sherilyn Fenn ) confronts her father Ben over his ownership of the casino and brothel One Eyed Jacks . When Audrey asks him whether he killed Laura Palmer , he denies it but confesses that he and Laura had a sexual relationship and that he loved her . Later , Shelly arrives for work at the Double R Diner and informs Norma Jennings ( Peggy Lipton ) that she has to quit to care for Leo full @-@ time . Ed Hurley ( Everett McGill ) and his wife Nadine , who is experiencing amnesia and adrenaline @-@ induced strength , enter the diner . Nadine , believing she is eighteen years old and still in high school , speaks to Norma as though a stranger . Norma and Ed play along with Nadine 's psychosis . At the Johnson residence , Bobby Briggs and Mike Nelson ( Gary Hershberger ) break open the heel of Leo Johnson 's boot , discovering a microcassette hidden within . Cooper examines the remains of Laura 's secret diary at the police station , finding repeated references to Bob , and mention of ongoing sexual abuse . Laura wrote that Bob was a friend of her father , and in another entry wrote , " Someday I 'm going to tell the world about Ben Horne . " Audrey then enters and tells Cooper about Ben and Laura 's affair . After she leaves , Cooper reminds Sheriff Truman of The Giant 's message , " Without chemicals , he points " . Cooper states that Mike manifests when his human host , Philip Gerard , is not medicated , and that Mike fainted that morning just as a certain person approached him . Cooper tells Sheriff Truman they need a warrant for the arrest of Benjamin Horne . Later that evening , Benjamin Horne is meeting with Mr. Tojamura at The Great Northern . Mr. Tojamura gives Horne a check for $ 5 million to purchase the lands of the Packard Sawmill . Immediately after accepting this check , Sheriff Truman , Deputy Hawk , and Agent Cooper enter and arrest Horne for murder . Horne attempts to flee but is caught and handcuffed . At the Palmer home , Sarah Palmer crawls down the stairs , crying to Leland for help . A phonograph is spinning in the background , its needle skipping in the groove at the end of the record . After jailing Horne at the Sheriff 's Station , Cooper and Truman encounter the Log Lady ( Catherine E. Coulson ) , who tells Cooper , " ... there are owls in The Roadhouse . " Cooper replies , " Something is happening , isn 't it , Margaret ? " The moon is full , partially obscured by a dark and cloudy sky . At the Packard residence , Pete Martell ( Jack Nance ) is fixing himself a midnight snack . He encounters Mr. Tojamura in the dark , who roughly embraces and kisses him , causing Pete to drop and shatter his plate . In a high dudgeon , Pete orders Tojamura to leave . Tojamura reveals that he is in fact Catherine Martell ( Piper Laurie ) in disguise . The two embrace as Pete emotionally dissolves . Sarah Palmer crawls into her living room . She sees a vision of a pale white horse then passes out . Leland Palmer is fixing his tie in the mirror , ignoring his wife . Cooper , Truman , and The Log Lady visit The Roadhouse , which is filled with sailors . Donna and James are seated together discussing Harold 's death and Maddy 's departure from Twin Peaks . Bobby Briggs is seated at the bar next to the old waiter ( Hank Worden ) from The Great Northern . While a singer and band perform , Cooper has a vision of The Giant standing alone on stage . The Giant tells Cooper , " It is happening again . " He repeats this ominous warning . At the Palmer home , Leland smiles at himself in the mirror . Bob stares back at him from the reflection and cackles madly . Maddy comes downstairs complaining of a burning smell and sees Sarah passed out on the floor . She sees Leland who is smiling at her , wearing latex gloves . Maddy then sees Bob appear in Leland 's place . She screams and attempts to flee . Leland chases Maddy up the stairs , drags her to the living room , strangles , punches , taunts , and chases her . He corners her and punches her until she is catatonic . He dances with and cries over her limp body , calling her " Laura . " He then screams , " Leland says you 're going back to Missoula , Montana ! " as he rams her head into a glass picture frame , the words " Missoula , Montana " written in the lower corner of the scenic picture . Maddy collapses , bloodied and dead . Leland places a cutout of the letter " O " under the nail of her left ring finger . Cooper 's vision of The Giant ends , replaced by the singer and band . The old waiter walks over to Cooper and says , " I 'm so sorry . " Donna begins to cry . James comforts her as the band repeats a melancholy refrain . = = Production = = " Episode 14 " was written by series co @-@ creator Mark Frost , who had written six previous episodes and directed the first season finale , " Episode 7 " . Frost co @-@ wrote three further installments — " Episode 16 " , " Episode 26 " and " Episode 29 " . This episode was directed by Lynch , the fifth such episode of Twin Peaks ; he later directed " Episode 29 " , the series ' finale . It was rated TV @-@ 14 in the United States during initial rebroadcasts ; it was later re @-@ rated to TV @-@ PG . Lynch has later stated that he feels he was able to show more on screen in the episode than he expected the network 's standards and practicies office to allow . He credits this to the unusual imagery used , adding " if it 's not quite standard it sneaks through , but it could be that the ' not quite standard ' things make it even more terrifying and disturbing " . The cast of Twin Peaks did not know who would be revealed as Palmer 's killer for some time . Wise had hoped his character Leland would not be the eventual murderer ; as the parent of a young girl he was disturbed by the idea of portraying a man who had murdered his daughter . Wise was called to a meeting with Lynch , Frost , Sheryl Lee and Richard Beymer , during which Lynch told those assembled that Leland Palmer was the killer : while addressing Wise , Lynch said " Ray , it was you , it was always you " . However , Wise felt that the end result was " beautiful " , and that it left him and his character " satisfied and redeemed " . Before this meeting , the only people to know the killer 's identity were Frost , Lynch , and Lynch 's daughter Jennifer , who had been given the information so she could author the 1990 tie @-@ in novel The Secret Diary of Laura Palmer . Lynch has mentioned that he tried to avoid thinking about the morality of the narrative , or how it would be received by censors or critics , feeling that if he allowed that worry to affect him it would ultimately drive him to create something that made him uncomfortable , preferring instead to simply produce the episode he wanted to and be prepared to defend it if necessary . He has also compared the search for Laura 's killer to the central narrative of the 1960s television series The Fugitive , which featured an ongoing search for a one @-@ armed man . Contrasting the two , Lynch stated " each week , you know , they [ the writers for The Fugitive ] hardly ever dealt with that . And that 's the beautiful thing . You keep wondering , ' When will he find this guy and set everything straight ? ' But then you knew it would be the end " . = = = Cinematography = = = The climactic murder of Madeline Ferguson in the episode features extensive use of jump cuts to portray Leland Palmer 's spirit possession , switching rapidly between actors Ray Wise and Frank Silva . The scene is unusually long for a murder on television , lasting over four minutes . Some of its elements , including the insertion of a paper letter under Ferguson 's fingernail and the use of jump cuts to events in the Roadhouse bar , are intended to echo similar aspects of " Pilot " . Erica Sheen and Annette Davison , in their book The Cinema of David Lynch : American Dreams , Nightmare Visions , have drawn attention to the use of mise en scène early in the episode . A scene featuring Ferguson , Leland and Sarah Palmer sitting in the Palmers ' living room pans across the family 's " bric @-@ à @-@ brac " . This technique draws attention to the painting with which Ferguson will be assaulted , and it highlights the similarity between Ferguson and Palmer by focusing on " the famous homecoming queen shot " of Palmer while Ferguson 's face is visible . Sheen and Davison argued that the scene highlights the " emotional claustrophobia " felt by Ferguson , and that the set surrounding her was deliberately assembled to create this feeling . = = Themes = = The revelation scene , in which Bob is shown to have inhabited Leland Palmer , has been noted for its sense of duality , a common theme throughout Twin Peaks . In Full of Secrets : Critical Approaches to Twin Peaks , David Lavery wrote that upon The Giant 's appearance to Dale Cooper , " The Giant has transmuted the public place into something private " . Lavery added that the murder scene is " in the living room , the public within the private " . He summarised that the ambiguity between the public perception and the private perception — " the outer and the inner " — " reverberates " throughout the scene . In his view , Maddy Ferguson was Laura Palmer 's " double " and Leland is " doubled " by Bob . However , Lavery referred to the duality of Leland and Bob as a " subjective formation " and added that the use of jump cuts " could be Maddy 's view of Leland just as much as Leland 's view of himself " . This scene has also been noted by critic Sue Lafky from the Journal of Film and Video as one of several in the series that suggest incest and necrophilia . She speculated that " Leland / Bob may have raped the dead or dying Maddie " , comparing this to the " necrophilic fantasies " that Laura Palmer 's corpse evokes , and Ben Horne 's unwitting brush with incest when he encounters his daughter Audrey at a brothel . Earlier in the episode it is revealed that Laura had been subject to sexual abuse by BOB , and implicitly Leland , which was further explored in the 1992 prequel movie , Twin Peaks : Fire Walk with Me . = = Broadcast and reception = = " Episode 14 " first aired on the ABC network on November 10 , 1990 . The initial broadcast was viewed by 17 @.@ 2 million households in the United States , making it the fifty @-@ first most @-@ viewed broadcast episode for the week . These viewing figures represented 20 percent of the available audience and 10 @.@ 4 percent of all households in the country . This represented a significant rise in viewing figures compared to the preceding episode , " Episode 13 " , which was seen by 11 @.@ 3 million households . However , the following episode , " Episode 15 " , suffered a drop in viewing figures , attracting 13 @.@ 3 million households . The episode was well received critically . Writing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Richard Roeper noted that fans and critics had begun to lose interest in the series by this point , but felt that " even at its most strained and obtuse , [ Twin Peaks ] displays more imagination and effort than almost everything else in TV land " . He added that viewers may have been put off by the series ' frame of time , explaining that only two weeks of narrative time had elapsed since " Pilot " , a slow pace contrasted with the " fast @-@ forward , instant payoff philosophy of most television " . AllRovi 's Andrea LeVasseur described the installment as " pivotal " , noting that it " answers some of the series ' long @-@ running questions " . Writing for The A.V. Club , Keith Phipps rated the episode an " A " , adding " it 's not like there 's any shortage of action " . He felt that the effects used in the episode were effective and frightening while still seeming low @-@ key . In his view , the episode 's blending of surrealism and horror was similar to scenes from Lynch 's 2001 film Mulholland Drive . Phipps described the climactic murder as " one of the most disturbing moments in the Lynch filmography " , adding that it was a recurring Lynchian theme to represent the end of innocence as an actual death . IGN 's Matt Fowler included the murder at number 16 in a list of the " Top 20 Creepiest Moments on TV " , describing it as " nightmare fuel " . Fowler felt the depiction of the killing was " savage " and unusually long for a television scene ; however , he added that the rampant speculation as to the identity of the killer meant that whoever it was revealed to have been , it would be " somewhat expected " . Keith Uhlich , writing for Slant Magazine , described the episode as " quintessential Lynch , perhaps his finest work " , noting that the climactic murder scene was more powerful because of its necessary use of implication and suggestion . However , Uhlich felt that the installment was " a tough act to follow " , arguing that the only subsequent installments that competed with it were the series ' finale and the 1992 psychological thriller film Twin Peaks : Fire Walk with Me , which is based on Twin Peaks . DVD Talk 's Jamie S. Rich described the installment as " a violent , disturbing revelation " . Rich felt that the entry 's supernatural elements assured the audience that there was " a grander scheme to the Laura Palmer story " , elevating the series ' long @-@ running murder plot beyond " just a random night partying with drug dealers gone wrong " . = Tuition fees in the United Kingdom = Tuition fees were first introduced across the entire United Kingdom in September 1998 under the Labour Government as a means of funding tuition to undergraduate and postgraduate certificate students at universities , with students being required to pay up to £ 1 @,@ 000 a year for tuition . However , as a result of the establishment of devolved national administrations for Scotland , Wales and Northern Ireland , different arrangements now exist with regard to the charging of tuition fees in each of the countries of the United Kingdom . = = History of Tuition Fees in the UK = = In May 1996 , Conservative Prime Minister John Major commissioned an inquiry , led by Sir Ron Dearing , into the funding of British higher education over the next 20 years . It estimated additional funding of almost £ 2 billion would be needed for the period , including £ 350 million in 1998 @-@ 9 and £ 565 million in 1999 @-@ 2000 , in order to expand student enrolment , provide more support for part @-@ time students and ensure an adequate infrastructure . In response , the Teaching and Higher Education Act 1998 was enacted on 16 July 1998 , part of which introduced tuition fees in all the countries of the United Kingdom . The act introduced a means @-@ tested method of payment for students based on the amount of money their families earned . Starting with 1999 @-@ 2000 , maintenance grants for living expenses would also be replaced with loans and paid back at a rate of 9 percent of a graduate 's income above £ 10 @,@ 000 . Following devolution in 1999 , the newly devolved governments in Scotland and Wales brought in their own acts on tuition fees . The Scottish Parliament established , and later abolished a graduate endowment to replace the fees . Wales introduced maintenance grants of up to £ 1 @,@ 500 in 2002 , a value which has since risen to over £ 5000 . In England , tuition fee caps rose with the Higher Education Act 2004 . Under the Act , universities in England could begin to charge variable fees of up to £ 3000 a year for students enrolling on courses as from the academic year of 2006 @-@ 07 or later . This was also introduced in Northern Ireland in 2006 @-@ 07 and introduced in Wales in 2007 @-@ 08 . In 2009 @-@ 10 the cap rose to £ 3225 a year to take account of inflation . Following the Browne Review in 2010 , the cap was controversially raised to £ 9 @,@ 000 a year , sparking large student protests in London . A judicidal review against the raised fees failed in 2012 , and so the new fee system came into use that September . Further adjustments were put forth in the 2015 budget , with a proposed fee increase in line with inflation from the 2017 @-@ 18 academic year onwards , and the planned scrapping of maintenance grants from September 2016 . The changes were debated by the Third Delegated Legislation Committee in January 2016 , rather than in the Commons . The lack of a vote on the matter has drawn criticism , as by circumventing the Commons the measures " automatically become law " . = = Current Systems = = = = = England = = = In England , tuition fees are capped at £ 9 @,@ 000 a year , with around 76 % of all institutions charging the full amount in 2015 @-@ 16 . The average fee for a three year course is currently £ 26 @,@ 000 in total . A loan of the same size is available for most universities , although students of private institutions are only eligible for £ 6 @,@ 000 a year loans . From 2017 @-@ 18 onwards , the £ 9 @,@ 000 fee cap will rise with inflation . Maintenance grants are also available to current students in England , although these are scheduled to cease with the 2016 @-@ 17 academic year . Maintenance loans are available for living costs , and these are means tested . These loans are scheduled to increase in size for 2016 @-@ 17 , when the maintenance grant system is phased out . There will be a vote in the autumn to consider a further increase effective with the 2017 @-@ 18 year . Several universities have already advertised fees of £ 9 @,@ 250 for the year in anticipation of such a vote passing . In the 2015 spending review , the government also proposed a freeze in the repayment threshold for tuition fee loans at £ 21 @,@ 000 ; a figure which was previously set to rise with average earnings . The changes , if passed , will affect all Plan 2 tuition fee loans , backdated to cover loans taken out from 2012 . Many commentators suggested that the 2012 rise in tuition fees in England would put poorer students off applying to university . However , the gap between rich and poor students has slightly narrowed ( from 30 @.@ 5 % in 2010 to 29 @.@ 8 % in 2013 ) since the introduction of the higher fees . This may be because universities have used tuition fees to invest in bursaries and outreach schemes . In 2016 , The Guardian noted that the number of disadvantaged students applying to university had increased by 72 % from 2006 to 2015 , a bigger rise than in Scotland , Wales or Northern Ireland . It wrote that most of the gap between richer and poorer students tends to open up between Key Stage 1 and Key Stage 4 ( i.e. at secondary school ) , rather than when applying for university , and so the money raised	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
from tuition fees should be spent there instead . = = = Northern Ireland = = = Tuition fees are currently capped at £ 3 @,@ 805 in Northern Ireland , with loans of the same size available from Student Finance NI . Loan repayments are made when income rises above £ 17 @,@ 335 a year , with graduates paying back a percentage of their earnings above this threshold . = = = Scotland = = = Tuition is handled by the Student Awards Agency Scotland ( SAAS ) , which does not charge fees to what it defines as " Young Students " . Young Students are defined as those under 25 , without children , marriage , civil partnership or cohabiting partner , who have not been outside of full time education for more than three years . Fees exist for those outside the young student definition , typically from £ 1 @,@ 200 to £ 1 @,@ 800 for undergraduate courses , dependent on year of application and type of qualification . Postgraduate fees can be up to £ 3 @,@ 400 . The system , in place since 2007 when graduate endowments were abolished , has been met with praise . Labour 's education spokesperson Rhona Brankin however has criticised the Scottish system for failing to address student poverty . = = = Wales = = = Like their English counterparts , Welsh universities are able to charge up to £ 9 @,@ 000 a year in tuition fees . However , Welsh students can apply for fee grants of up to £ 5 @,@ 190 , in addition to a £ 3 @,@ 810 loan to cover these costs . This system also applies to Welsh students who study elsewhere in the United Kingdom . = = Possible alternatives = = There have been two main proposed alternative ways of funding university studies : from general taxation or by a graduate tax . = = = Funding from general taxation = = = Tuition is paid for by general taxation in Germany , although only 27 % of young people gain higher education qualification there , whereas in the UK the comparable figure is 48 % . Fully or partly funding universities from general taxation has been criticised as a ' tax cut for the rich and a tax rise for the poor ' because people would be taxed to pay for something that many would not derive a benefit from , while graduates generally earn more due to their qualifications and only have to pay them back . Jeremy Corbyn , current Labour leader , has stated that he would remove tuition fees and instead fund higher education by increasing National Insurance and Corporation Tax . = = = Graduate tax = = = During the 2015 Labour leadership election , Andy Burnham said that he would introduce a graduate tax to replace fees . He was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for leadership . A graduate tax has been criticised because there would be no way to recover the money from students who move to a different country , or foreign students who return home . = Federal Reserve Bank Building ( Seattle ) = The Federal Reserve Bank Building , also known as the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco , Seattle Branch , served as the offices of the Seattle branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco for over 50 years , from 1951 to 2008 . The building site has been the subject of several recent redevelopment proposals , including a 2008 plan to demolish the building that was halted after a U.S. District Court ruling . After ownership of the Federal Reserve Bank Building was transferred to the General Services Administration in 2013 , it was auctioned to Martin Selig Real Estate in 2015 for $ 16 million ; the firm later announced plans to build a 48 @-@ story mixed @-@ use skyscraper atop the existing building , but scaled back the project to only 8 floors . The building has been listed on the National Register of Historic Places since 2013 . = = Architecture and design = = The Federal Reserve Bank Building is located on a half @-@ block on the west side of 2nd Avenue between Madison Street and Spring Street . The Modernist building consists of six stories , four above street level and two below , and is composed of structural steel and reinforced concrete . The main facade , facing 2nd Avenue , is clad partially in light gray Indiana limestone ; the basement 's exterior walls are clad in reddish @-@ brown granite . A small plaza on 2nd Avenue in front of the building 's main entrance , setback from the street by 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) , features terraced planters finished with polished granite and serve as a plinth . The two basement floors of the building , located below street level , housed a vault measuring 56 by 56 feet ( 17 m × 17 m ) , behind 30 @-@ inch @-@ thick ( 76 cm ) reinforced concrete walls and stainless steel doors in the southeast corner ; the 5 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 460 m2 ) vault used 335 tonnes ( 330 long tons ; 369 short tons ) of material during its construction and once included a circular staircase that was removed in 2005 . The basement floors also contained a small parking garage and secure truck lobby accessible via an alleyway , workspaces , and a shooting range for use by security personnel . The first floor features the only public spaces in the building , mainly the lobby and former teller stands , as well as the main entrance to 2nd Avenue ; a small rentable space on the first floor was formerly occupied by the Federal Bureau of Investigation in the 1950s and has remained unoccupied since 1990 . The upper floors of the building contained open offices and check processing areas , along with employee amenities such as a cafeteria and lounges . The Federal Reserve Bank Building is one of the earliest surviving works of Seattle @-@ based architecture firm NBBJ , founded in 1943 ; the lead architect of the project was William J. Bain , one of the firm 's founding partners . The building was built to withstand the impact of an atomic bomb and was later retrofitted to be resistant to strong earthquakes . Designed in the Modernist style by Bain , the building recalls the pre @-@ war Moderne style with its solid features and simple facade . The Federal Reserve Bank Building shares some features with the William Kenzo Nakamura United States Courthouse , another federal building in Seattle that was built a decade earlier . The bank building 's design has been described as one of " permanence and security " , with its " austerity and visual weight [ standing out ] among the many Modern skyscrapers in the surrounding financial district . " = = History = = The Seattle branch of the Federal Reserve Bank of San Francisco was opened in 1917 and spent its first three decades in leased space at the Baillargeon Building in downtown Seattle . Plans for a permanent building for the Federal Reserve were drawn up in 1948 and approved for construction by the San Francisco board on February 28 , 1949 . The site at 2nd and Madison was chosen because of its proximity to the city 's financial district and would replace the bank @-@ owned Rialto Building , built in 1894 and formerly home to the Seattle Public Library as well one of the first Frederick and Nelson department stores . Designed by local architecture firm NBBJ in the post @-@ war Modernist style , the six @-@ story , steel @-@ frame building would cost $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( equivalent to $ 24 @.@ 59 million in 2015 ) to construct . The cornerstone of the building was laid on April 20 , 1950 , marking the beginning of nine months of construction by the Kuney Johnson Company . The Federal Reserve Bank Building opened on January 2 , 1951 , with the Federal Reserve sharing the new building with the Federal Bureau of Investigation . The building underwent some minor alterations during its 50 years of use by the Federal Reserve , consisting mostly of routine maintenance and upgrades . In 1958 , the exterior was cleaned and waterproofed at the recommendation of architect William J. Bain , resulting in the discoloring of the limestone cladding . In the 1980s , the building 's roof and windows were replaced under the direction of HNTB . Portions of the building were renovated in the 1990s to add new employee amenities , including a cafeteria and conference room . The 2001 Nisqually earthquake on February 28 , 2001 , caused minor damage to the structure that was lessened by a seismic retrofit completed in 1996 . After the September 11 , 2001 attacks , the building was closed to public access and several security features were added to the surrounding perimeter . The Federal Reserve announced plans in 2004 to move its Seattle branch offices to the Longacres area of Renton on 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) formerly owned by Boeing . The Seattle building was closed on February 20 , 2008 , with Federal Reserve vice chairman Donald Kohn noting at the Renton facility 's dedication that the old building was " no longer adequate for efficient operations " and did not meet post @-@ 2001 security standards . Ownership of the building was transferred to the General Services Administration in April 2012 to prepare for a possible sale . = = Proposed redevelopment = = During development of the Seattle Monorail Project in the early 2000s , an elevated monorail station at Madison Street on 2nd Avenue was proposed in the plaza of the Federal Reserve Bank Building but was ultimately not built . = = = Initial plan and lawsuit over preservation = = = After the building was vacated in 2008 , the Tukwila @-@ based developer Sabey Corporation negotiated a deal with the Federal Reserve Bank to purchase the property for $ 19 @.@ 75 million . The sale was opposed by local preservationists , who formed the " Committee for the Preservation of the Seattle Federal Reserve Bank Building " and filed a suit against the Federal Reserve Bank in U.S. District Court on November 21 , 2008 to halt the proposed sale . Federal judge Robert S. Lasnik ruled in favor of the preservationists group on March 19 , 2010 , finding that the Federal Reserve Bank had not followed proper federal disposal procedures for surplus property . On February 4 , 2013 , the Federal Reserve Bank Building was placed on the National Register of Historic Places . In 2008 , the Federal Reserve Bank sought to designate the building as a Seattle city landmark , but were unable to gain approval from the City of Seattle Landmarks Preservation Board . A second attempt at the city landmark nomination , led by Martin Selig Real Estate , began in 2016 . = = = Auction and skyscraper proposal = = = The General Services Administration ( GSA ) attempted to dispose of the Federal Reserve Bank Building through its surplus federal property procedures , but by November 2014 received no compelling applications from government agencies and organizations with a public function . A public auction began on December 5 , 2014 , with a starting bid set at $ 5 million , and was initially set to end on January 28 , 2015 ; in late January , bids rose to near $ 10 million between the eight bidders and forced the auction 's deadline to be extended into the following month . Bidding closed on February 7 , 2015 , with a high bid of $ 16 million submitted by an undisclosed bidder . In April 2015 , it was announced that the winning bidder of the auction was Martin Selig Real Estate . The firm announced plans to build a 31 @-@ story office tower , designed by Perkins and Will , and incorporating the existing building as the skyscraper 's podium with a 3 @-@ story winter garden separating the historic building from the addition . One of the unsuccessful bids came from Seattle Public Schools , who had proposed renovating the building into an elementary school in 2014 , the first downtown school in 65 years . Initially , the district applied to the GSA in July 2014 through the United States Department of Education to acquire the property , but were rejected by the latter over the tentative nature of the application ; the school board later voted in November 2014 against submitting a second application over the $ 50 million cost and 3 @-@ year deadline for renovations . The district was , however , allowed to participate in the January 2015 auction and submitted an opening bid of $ 1 million ; Seattle Public Schools was the first bidder to drop out of the auction when the price passed the district 's final bid of $ 5 @.@ 8 million . The Compass Housing Authority , a homeless advocacy group , also proposed renovating the building into a downtown homeless shelter and services center in 2014 , but were rejected by the United States Department of Health and Human Services over a lack of funding . In December 2015 , Selig announced updated plans to include 12 additional stories of housing , bringing the total height of the skyscraper to 664 feet ( 202 m ) and 48 stories , which would make it the fifth @-@ tallest building in the city . The skyscraper is scheduled to begin construction in 2018 and open in 2020 . After the April 2015 purchase , Selig paid for the cleaning of the building 's exterior and plaza and some interior demolition of the first and fourth floors . After the acquisition of Fernando Botero 's " Adam and Eve " , a pair of Rubenesque statues , by Martin Selig in early 2016 , it was announced that the 12 @.@ 5 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) " Adam " would be displayed on a pedestal in front of the Federal Reserve Bank Building . In June 2016 , Selig announced that he would scale back plans after facing opposition from historic preservation groups over the alterations to the historic structure . The new proposed 8 @-@ story addition would have 125 @,@ 000 square feet ( 11 @,@ 600 m2 ) of office space and include a 2 @-@ story penthouse ; parts of the new structure would be illuminated at night . The addition is being designed by a team with William Bain Jr. and John Bain , the son and grandson , respectively , of original architect William Bain . = Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn , BWV 132 = Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn ( Prepare the paths , prepare the road ) , BWV 132 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . He composed it in Weimar in 1715 for the fourth Sunday in Advent and led the first performance on 22 December 1715 . Bach had taken up regular cantata composition a year before when he was promoted to concertmaster at the Weimar court , writing one cantata per month to be performed in the Schlosskirche , the court chapel in the ducal Schloss . Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn was his first cantata for the fourth Sunday in Advent . The libretto by the court poet Salomo Franck is related to the day 's prescribed gospel reading , the testimony of John the Baptist . Franck derives from it thoughts about baptism as a preparation of the individual Christian who is addressed as a limb of Christ . Bach structured the music in six movements of alternating arias and recitatives , and scored it for a small ensemble of four vocal parts , oboe , strings and continuo . The voices are combined only in the closing chorale , the fifth stanza of Elisabeth Cruciger 's hymn " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " . The music of the chorale , which was possibly on a different sheet , is lost but can be replaced by a setting of the same stanza in a different cantata . In his composition , Bach follows Franck 's Baroque imagery closely , illustrating for example the baptismal water . = = History and words = = On 2 March 1714 Bach was appointed concertmaster of the Weimar court capelle of the co @-@ reigning dukes Wilhelm Ernst and Ernst August of Saxe @-@ Weimar . As concertmaster , he assumed the principal responsibility for composing new works , specifically cantatas for the Schlosskirche ( palace church ) , on a monthly schedule . He wrote this cantata for the fourth Sunday in Advent , dating it himself . The prescribed readings for the Sunday were from the Epistle to the Philippians , " Rejoice in the Lord alway " ( Philippians 4 : 4 – 7 ) , and from the Gospel of John , the testimony of John the Baptist ( John 1 : 19 – 28 ) . The cantata text was written by the court poet Salomon Franck , published in the collection Evangelisches Andachts @-@ Opffer in 1715 . He included the fifth stanza of Elisabeth Cruciger hymn " Herr Christ , der einig Gotts Sohn " ( 1524 ) . Franck paraphrases in the first aria the passage from the Book of Isaiah which is quoted in the prescribed gospel , " Bereitet dem Herrn den Weg " ( Prepare the path for the Lord , Isaiah 40 : 3 – 4 ) . The same passage from Isaiah appears in the beginning of Handel 's Messiah . Franck also refers to the baptism as a way of preparation . The individual Christian is addressed as a limb of Christ . Bach led the first performance of the cantata on 22 December 1715 in the ducal chapel . He could not revive the work in Leipzig because tempus clausum was observed there during Advent . The cantata was first published in 1881 in the Bach Gesellschaft edition , edited by Wilhelm Rust . = = Structure and scoring = = Bach structured the cantata in six movements , alternating arias and recitatives , concluded by a chorale . As in several other cantatas on words by Franck , it is scored for a small ensemble of four vocal soloists ( soprano ( S ) , alto ( A ) , tenor ( T ) and bass ( B ) ) , oboe ( Ob ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , cello ( Vc ) and basso continuo ( Bc ) including bassoon . A choir is only needed for the chorale , if at all . The title of the autograph score reads : " Dominicâ 4 Adventus Xsti Concerto . / Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn . / â 9 . / 1 Hautbois . / 2 Violini / 1 Viola / Violoncello . / S : A : T : B : / col Bassp per l 'Organo / di / GSBach " . The duration is given as 22 minutes . The music of the chorale is lost ; it may have been noted in a simple setting on a separate sheet , as in the similar case of Nur jedem das Seine , BWV 163 , composed four weeks earlier . For practical purposes the same verse , closing Ihr , die ihr euch von Christo nennet , BWV 164 , in 1725 , may be used . In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe , and the abbreviations for voices and instruments the list of Bach cantatas . The keys and time signatures are taken from the Bach scholar Alfred Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for winds and strings , while the continuo , playing throughout , is not shown . = = Music = = = = = 1 = = = The first aria , " Bereitet die Wege , bereitet die Bahn ! " ( Prepare the paths , prepare the road ! ) , is in da capo form in a 6 / 8 time signature , accompanied by the full ensemble . The soprano renders her calls to prepare the ways in melismas of several measures of semiquavers . John Eliot Gardiner , who conducted the Bach Cantata Pilgrimage in 2000 , describes the character of the movement of " insouciant grace and fleet @-@ footed buoyancy befitting a slowish gigue or a French loure . " The oboe adds virtuoso figuration and trills , reminiscent of Bach 's secular music . The aria is concluded by rejoicing calls : " Messias kömmt an " ( The Messiah arrives ) . = = = 2 = = = The tenor recitative , " Wer bist du ? Frage dein Gewissen " ( Who are you ? Ask your conscience ) , contains extended arioso passages , to stress " der Christen Kron und Ehre " ( the Christians ' crown and glory ) and " Wälz ab die schweren Sündensteine " ( back the heavy stones of sin ) . The voice and the continuo are at times set in imitation , an image for the Nachfolge ( following ) , as they go together to express the unity achieved , on the words " daß er mit dir im Glauben sich vereine " ( so that He may unite Himself to you in faith ) . = = = 3 = = = In the bass aria , " Wer bist du ? Frage dein Gewissen " ( Who are you ? Ask your conscience ) , the question " Wer bist du ? " ( Who are you ? ) , posed by the priests to St. John in the gospel , is given to the bass as the vox Christi , as if Jesus asked the listener this question . The cello often plays a " concertante role " . Its first motif expresses the question and is repeated throughout the movement , and the vocal line is derived from it . = = = 4 = = = The expressive declamation of the alto recitative , " Ich will , mein Gott , dir frei heraus bekennen " ( I would freely confess to You , my God ) , is highlighted by chords in the strings . = = = 5 = = = A solo violin accents the alto aria , " Christi Glieder , ach bedenket " ( Christ 's members , ah , consider ) , possibly inspired by the words " Christus gab zum neuen Kleide roten Purpur , weiße Seide " ( Christ gave as new garments crimson robes , white silk ) . Gardiner interprets it as " the cleansing effect of baptismal water " . The musicologist Julian Mincham supports that , stating : " Bach seldom neglects opportunities of creating musical images of cleansing water when mention is made of the act of baptism . This is the starting point of his invention of the violin obbligato melody " . = = = 6 = = = The four @-@ part setting of the closing chorale , " Ertöt uns durch deine Güte " ( Mortify us through Your goodness ) , is lost , but can be taken from Ihr , die ihr euch von Christo nennet , BWV 164 , transposed to A major . = = Selected recordings = = The listing is taken from the selection on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website . Choirs are roughly marked as large ( by red background ) or one voice per part ( OVPP ) ( by green background ) ; a large orchestra is highlighted red , while instrumental groups playing period instruments in historically informed performances are highlighted green under the header Instr .. = Bois Protat = The woodblock fragment Bois Protat ( [ bwɑ pʁɔta ] ( " Protat wood [ block ] " ) ; also Protat block or Protat woodblock , c . 1370 – 1380 ) is a fragmentary woodblock for printing , and the images on it are the oldest surviving woodcut images from the Western world . It is cut on both sides , with a scene from Christ 's crucifixion on the recto , and a kneeling angel from a presumed Annunciation scene on the verso . The crucifixion scene likely consisted of three or more blocks ; the surviving block fragment features Longinus the Roman centurion at the Crucifixion , shown speaking with a banderole , a mediaeval precursor to the modern speech balloon containing his words . The Bois Protat 's name comes from the Mâconnais printer Jules Protat who acquired the block after its discovery in 1898 near La Ferté Abbey in Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire , France , where it was wedged under a stone floor . Because of such poor preservation , only a quarter of the block has survived , and only one side was able to withstand making prints at the time of discovery . It is kept in the Department of Prints and Photographs at the Bibliothèque nationale de France , the National Library of France in Paris . = = Description = = A 600 × 230 × 25 @-@ millimetre ( 24 × 9 × 1 in ) fragment remains of the Bois Protat , a walnut woodblock engraved on both sides for printing on cloth or paper . One side is a fragment of a Crucifixion scene . Part of the cross with the left arm of Christ is visible ; to the right two Roman soldiers and a centurion stand speaking . A phylactery , or speech scroll , emanates from the centurion 's mouth and contains the Latin text , " Vere filius Dei erat iste " ( " This was really the son of God " ) , as written in the Vulgate translation of Matthew 27 : 54 . On the reverse side remains a kneeling angel , probably part of an Annunciation scene . Judging from the Crucifixion fragment , coming from a very commonly depicted scene , it is thought that only a quarter to a third of the original block remains . The surface of the complete scene is believed to have been about 100 by 60 centimetres ( 39 in × 24 in ) , which is larger than contemporary paper sizes , indicating it may have been intended for printing on cloth , as was already common with patterns for clothing textiles . It is usually thought that it was intended for printing cloth altar frontals or hangings . It is rare for such a block to be carved with images on both sides , and was likely not intended to be printed using a press , as that would have defaced one side . = = Background = = Relief printing , in the form of woodblocks , originated in China . The earliest examples were printed on cloth ; paper prints followed the invention of paper c . 105 CE . Most printed images were religious Buddhist scenes , and the method was also the method used for texts of all sorts . The Bois Protat is the earliest surviving example of the 14th @-@ century arrival of woodblock printing in Europe . The technology did not become widespread until the 15th century , when paper became readily available . Prints tended to be religious ; they were more affordable to most people than devotional paintings , and often illustrated religious books . Playing cards and other secular prints were also popular . From the mid @-@ 15th century woodcuts were combined with Gutenberg 's moveable type ; particularly in Germany , woodcuts appeared by master artists such as Albrecht Dürer , and the form enjoyed a high level of artistry . = = History = = The Bois Protat was discovered in 1898 in France in a corner of masonry in a house in Laives in the department of Saône @-@ et @-@ Loire , which had been a dependency of the Abbey of La Ferté until the abbey was destroyed in 1793 during the French Revolution . The board suffered from pressure and humidity , as it was wedged under pavement . After its discovery the block was purchased by Mâconnais printer and collector Jules Protat ( 1852 – 1906 ) , and came to be called le bois Protat ( " the Protat block " ) . Jules Protat made some test prints on China paper , one of which he exhibited at the 1900 World 's Fair in Paris . The block is not in a state to withstand repeated printings , as three @-@ quarters of the original has been lost to damage from humidity and insects ; the reverse especially has not held up well , and is not in a condition suitable for making impressions . The curator of prints at the National Library of France Henri Bouchot published a study on the block in 1902 called Un ancêtre de la gravure sur bois ( " An Ancestor of Wood Engraving " ) . Though some contested his conclusions , Bouchot dated the work to the 14th century based on technical details such as the style of art , the Uncial script of the centurion 's speech , and the costumes and weapons of the centurion and soldiers . No historical impressions ( prints ) made from the block are known , but other early woodcuts have been attributed to the same artist . For some time the Bois Protat remained in Protat 's family before it was entrusted to Bouchot . In 2001 it was donated to the National Library of France . = Richard Montgomery = Richard Montgomery ( December 2 , 1738 – December 31 , 1775 ) was an Irish @-@ born soldier who first served in the British Army . He later became a major general in the Continental Army during the American Revolutionary War , and he is most famous for leading the failed 1775 invasion of Canada . Montgomery was born and raised in Ireland . In 1754 , he enrolled at Trinity College , Dublin , and two years later joined the British Army to fight in the French and Indian War . He steadily rose through the ranks , serving in North America and then the Caribbean . After the war he was stationed at Fort Detroit during Pontiac 's War , following which he returned to Britain for health reasons . In 1773 , Montgomery returned to the Thirteen Colonies , married Janet Livingston , and began farming . When the American Revolutionary War broke out , Montgomery took up the Patriot cause , and was elected to the New York Provincial Congress in May 1775 . In June 1775 , he was commissioned as a brigadier general in the Continental Army . After Phillip Schuyler became too ill to lead the invasion of Canada , Montgomery took over . He captured Fort St. Johns and then Montreal in November 1775 , and then advanced to Quebec City , where he joined another force under the command of Benedict Arnold . On December 31 , he led an attack on the city , but was killed during the battle . The British found his body and gave it an honorable burial . It was moved to New York City in 1818 . = = Early life = = Montgomery was born near Swords in the north of County Dublin in Ireland . He was born into an Ulster Scots gentry family from County Donegal . His father , Thomas Montgomery , was a former British Army officer and a Member of Parliament for the ' rotten borough ' of Lifford in East Donegal , which nonetheless returned two members to the Irish Parliament at College Green . He was a brother of Colonel Alexander Montgomery ( 1720 – 1800 ) and a cousin of Colonel Alexander Montgomery ( 1686 – 1729 ) , both Members of Parliament for County Donegal . Another first cousin was an M.P. for County Monaghan , also named Alexander Montgomery ( died 1785 ) . The Montgomerys were the East Donegal branch of the Clan Montgomery . Richard Montgomery spent most of his childhood at Abbeville House in Kinsealy , near Swords , in County Dublin , where he learned to hunt , ride , shoot , and fence . Thomas Montgomery made sure that his sons received a good education ; Richard attended the school of the Rev. Saumarez Dubourdieu in Leixlip , and learned French , Latin , and rhetoric . Richard Montgomery entered Trinity College in 1754 . Despite his great love of knowledge , Montgomery did not receive a degree . He was urged by his father and his oldest brother Alexander to join the military , which he did on September 21 , 1756 . His father purchased an ensign 's commission for Montgomery , who joined the 17th Regiment of Foot . = = Seven Years War = = = = = North America = = = On February 3 , 1757 , the 17th Foot was ordered to march from its garrison at Galway and prepare to be deployed overseas . On May 5 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot sailed from Cork for Halifax , Nova Scotia , arriving in July . The British had planned an attempt on Louisbourg but the operation was called off , and they sailed instead for winter quarters in New York . In 1758 , the 17th Foot was sent back to Halifax , once again with the goal of taking Louisbourg . The British commanders , Jeffery Amherst and James Abercromby drew up a plan to assault the French at Louisbourg , which is located on the Atlantic coast of Cape Breton Island , north of Halifax . The French garrison consisted of only 800 men , while the British force had 13 @,@ 142 troops supported by 23 ships of the line and 13 frigates . On June 8 , 1758 , the attack on the fort began . Montgomery landed on the beach under heavy fire and ordered his troops to advance with fixed bayonets . The outer French defenses withdrew back toward the city . Montgomery 's unit and the rest of the British force chased the French back to a point just outside the Fort 's guns . At this point , the British prepared to besiege the city . Due to bad weather , artillery and other materials needed for the siege took several weeks to arrive onshore . Montgomery had his men dig entrenchments and build breastworks , also ordering his men stay alert to the possibility of a French attack . On July 9 , the French attempted a breakout , but it failed . On July 26 , following a series of actions resulting in the destruction of most their fleet , the French surrendered . General Amherst was impressed by Montgomery 's action during the siege , and promoted him to lieutenant . On July 8 , 1758 , James Abercromby attacked Fort Carillon on Lake Champlain , but was repelled with heavy losses . In August , Montgomery and the 17th foot sailed to Boston , marched to join with Abercromby 's forces in Albany and then moved to Lake George . On November 9 , Abercromby was recalled ; Amherst replaced him as commander @-@ in @-@ chief . The British high command , for the 1759 campaign , developed a plan for a three @-@ pronged attack into Canada , in which forces including the 17th foot would assault Fort Carillon and also capture Fort St. Frédéric , near Crown Point , New York . Under Amherst 's command , Montgomery and the 17th Foot participated in the capture of Fort Carillon . While the army was gathering prior to the battle , Montgomery 's company was on guard duty ; he ordered his men to remain vigilant for French and Indian ambush parties . On May 9 his suspicions proved correct when 12 men from the 17th were attacked . Montgomery and the 17th met stiff resistance at first . Montgomery ordered that his men were not to fire at night , fearing they would shoot their comrades . On July 21 , the army began its movement toward Fort Carillon ; by the 26th they were in position outside the fort 's walls , from which the French had already withdrawn most of their forces to Fort St. Frédéric . That night , after some exchange of cannon fire during the day , the French blew up Carillon 's powder magazine , and Fort St. Frédéric the next day , and withdrew to the far end of Lake Champlain . The 17th , which was placed under the command of Major General Robert Monckton late in 1759 , spent the winter on garrison duty in the Mohawk River valley . On May 15 , 1760 , Monckton named Montgomery as regimental adjutant , a position awarded by the commanding officer to the most promising lieutenant in the regiment . In August , the 17th Foot joined with the Lake Champlain Division , and set out from Crown Point to participate in a three @-@ pronged attack on Montreal . The 17th Foot captured the Île aux Noix and Fort Chambly before meeting with the two other divisions outside Montreal . The Marquis de Vaudreuil , Canada 's French governor , seeing that the city could not be defended , surrendered the city without a fight . With the fall of Montreal , all of Canada fell into British hands . In the summer of 1761 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot marched from Montreal to Staten Island . = = = Caribbean = = = After conquering Canada , the British government put together a plan to defeat the French in the West Indies . In November 1761 , Montgomery and the 17th set sail for Barbados , where they joined other units from North America . On January 5 , 1762 , the force left Barbados and headed towards the French island of Martinique , arriving there in mid @-@ January . The French , having received word of an impending attack , had built up their defenses . A beachhead was quickly established , and the main offensive began on January 24 . The French outer defenses were overrun and the survivors fled to the capital , Fort Royal . The British prepared to launch an assault on the fort , but the French , seeing the situation was hopeless , surrendered . On February 12 , the entire island surrendered . After the fall of Martinique , the rest of the French West Indies , Grenada , Saint Lucia , and Saint Vincent , fell to the British without a fight . On May 6 , 1762 , in reward for his actions in Martinique , Lieutenant Colonel John Campbell promoted Montgomery to captain and gave him command of one of the ten companies of the 17th Foot . Spain entered the war in 1761 as an ally of France . The British high command believed that capturing Havana would destroy the lines of communication from Spain to its colonial empire . On June 6 , the assaulting British forces arrived seven miles off the shore of Havana . The 17th Foot , including Montgomery 's company , was to capture Moro Fort , the key to the Spanish defense of the city . British battleships bombarded the fort , silencing all but two Spanish guns . On July 30 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot stormed and captured the fort . In late August 1762 , Montgomery and the 17th Foot were sent to New York , where they remained for the rest of the war . The conflict was ended by the signing of the Treaty of Paris on February 10 , 1763 . = = Pontiac 's War = = Angered by the French surrender , and unhappy with British policies that affected them , an Ottawa chief named Pontiac organized 18 Native American tribes that attacked British military and civilian settlements beginning in April 1763 . The tribes captured eight British forts and forced the evacuation of two more . General Amherst ordered the 17th to Albany in June 1763 to assist in combating the outbreak of hostilities . En route to Albany , the ship carrying Montgomery up the Hudson River ran aground near Clermont Manor , seat of the politically powerful Livingston family . While the ship was refloated , the Livingstons played host to the officers who were aboard the vessel . Montgomery was at this time introduced to Robert Livingston 's 20 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Janet . While it has never transpired exactly what happened between them at this time , Janet noticed that the young Montgomery was not with the regiment ( having been given leave to return to England early ) when it returned to New York . The 17th was first assigned to garrison duty at Fort Stanwix , where Montgomery remained until 1764 . In 1764 , Montgomery applied to Colonel Campbell and General Thomas Gage for leave to return to England , as his service in the Caribbean had taken a toll on his health . Gage granted the leave , directing Colonel Campbell to give it as soon as possible . Campbell , whose officer ranks had been depleted in the Caribbean campaign , would only grant the leave after the upcoming expedition . The British in 1764 organized two expeditions to combat the Native uprising . Montgomery and the 17th were on one of these expeditions , commanded by John Bradstreet , that went to Fort Niagara in July , where they were stationed for one month , while Sir William Johnson organized and held a major conference with Natives from around the Great Lakes . The conference drew more than 2 @,@ 000 Natives ; Bradstreet 's forces stayed there as a deterrent to rumored Native attacks . They then marched to Fort Detroit , which had been subject to a surprise attack earlier , arriving in August . For several weeks , Montgomery stayed at the fort , helping to improve its defenses , and also gaining an understanding of how to interact with the Natives . In September , Bradstreet left Fort Detroit for Sandusky , to meet with the Shawnee and the Delaware ; while the 17th remained on garrison duty at Fort Detroit and Fort Michilimackinac , Montgomery , whose leave had been granted , accompanied him . On October 3 , Montgomery and several other officers met with Thomas King , an Oneida chief . King had accompanied a detachment of Bradstreet 's men on operations in Illinois ; he reported that the Natives were quite hostile there , and had recommended against military action against them . Two days later , at a larger conference with Bradstreet and Iroquois leaders , Bradstreet explained to them that the British would not be attacking the Shawnee and Delaware . Bradstreet then released Montgomery , who traveled first to Johnson Hall and then New York , where he delivered dispatches from Bradstreet to Gage before departing for England . = = Recovery = = In Britain , Montgomery recovered his health . He associated with Whig Members of Parliament , who generally supported the colonists in their demands for more political freedom . Montgomery became friends with several prominent Whigs , among them Isaac Barre , Edmund Burke , and Charles James Fox . While stationed in Britain , Montgomery spent much of his time discussing politics with these three men . He began to question the British Government 's policies . In 1768 , with the 17th Foot back in England , he began a recruitment drive ; before it began , his company was only 17 men . He also became engaged ; however , his fiancee proved to be untrue , and the engagement was broken . After being passed over for promotion in 1771 , likely because of his political affiliations , he sold his commission for about £ 1 @,@ 500 and left the military in 1772 . He then bought scientific instruments ( microscopes , a barometer and hygrometer ) , surveying tools , and draftsmen 's tools , and sailed for America in July of that year . He had decided to never marry or take up arms again , and to become a gentleman farmer . = = Settling in New York = = He bought a farm at King 's Bridge , 13 miles north of New York City . While adjusting to his surroundings , Montgomery renewed his acquaintance with Janet Livingston , who later recounted that " politeness led him to make me a visit . " After receiving permission from her father , he and Janet were married on July 24 , 1773 . After their marriage , Montgomery leased his farm to a tenant . His wife 's grandfather , Judge Beekman , gave them a cottage on the Post Road north of the Beekman Arms in Rhinebeck in which to reside . Montgomery bought some surrounding land and set to work fencing , ploughing fields , building a grain mill , and laying the foundation for a larger home called " Grasmere " , though it was yet to be completed at the time of his death and the tiny cottage was his only residence in Rhinebeck . He said that he was " Never so happy in all my life " , but followed that up by saying " This cannot last ; it cannot last . " Three months after their marriage , Janet told him of a dream she had in which Montgomery was killed in a duel by his brother . Montgomery replied by saying " I have always told you that my happiness is not lasting ... Let us enjoy it as long as we may and leave the rest to God . " Because Montgomery was now tied to the Livingston family , who supported the Patriot cause , he began to turn against the British government , seeing himself as an American instead of an Englishman . He came to believe that the British government was being oppressive and was acting like a tyrannical parent @-@ state . = = = New York Provincial Congress = = = On May 16 , 1775 , Montgomery was elected as one of the ten deputies to represent Dutchess County in the New York Provincial Congress . Although Montgomery had only lived in New York for two years and had not sought political involvement , he was well known and respected in the area and he felt obliged to attend . He was reluctant to go , but nonetheless went to New York City , 80 miles south of Rhinebeck . The first session began on May 22 . On May 26 , 97 delegates , including Montgomery , signed a resolution legitimizing its authority . Montgomery 's views were those of a moderate Patriot . He believed that the British Government was wrong , but hoped for an honorable reconciliation . Gradually , the faction of the Congress that remained loyal to the King lost its influence , with some not participating on a regular basis . Montgomery was selected to serve in a site selection committee to decide the placement of military defensive positions in New York , and was also involved in organizing the provincial militia and securing its supplies . = = American Revolution = = = = = Appointment = = = After the appointment of George Washington as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the newly formed Continental Army on June 15 , 1775 , the Second Continental Congress asked the New York Provincial Government to select two men for service in the army . One would be a major general , the other a brigadier general . The assembly favored Philip Schuyler as the major general . Montgomery expressed concern over this , as he did not believe that Schuyler had enough combat experience for such an appointment . Montgomery wrote that " Phil Schuyler was mentioned to me ... His consequence in the province makes him a fit subject for an important trust – but has he strong nerves ? I could wish to have that point well ascertained with respect to any man so employed . " Although Montgomery knew he was under consideration for brigadier general , he did not publicly show any desire for the appointment . Nonetheless , Schuyler was appointed major general , and Montgomery brigadier general , on June 22 . Montgomery was ranked second in command of all the brigadier generals . In view of this appointment , he said , " The Congress having done me the honor of electing me brigadier @-@ general in their service , is an event which must put an end , for awhile , perhaps for ever , to the quiet scheme of life I had prescribed for myself ; for , though entirely unexpected and undesired by me , the will of an oppressed people , compelled to choose between liberty and slavery , must be obeyed . " = = = Plan = = = On June 25 , George Washington passed through New York City on his way to Boston . Washington assigned Montgomery as deputy commander under Schuyler . A few days later , Schuyler received orders from the Continental Congress to invade Canada . The idea was that the army was to invade Quebec , where the Hudson River and the northern lakes could supply the army . A force was quickly assembled at Fort Ticonderoga , and Schuyler left to take command of the army on July 4 . Montgomery stayed in Albany for several more weeks making the final arrangements for the invasion . His wife followed him as far north as Saratoga , where he told her " You shall never have cause to blush for your Montgomery . " Through July and early August , Montgomery and Schuyler continued to organize their force , raising the men and materials needed for an invasion . While they organized , Washington decided to expand the invasion , ordering Benedict Arnold to lead another invasion force that would invade Quebec from Maine . It was to join with Schuyler 's army outside Quebec City , where they would launch a joint attack on to the city . = = = Invasion of Canada = = = In August , Schuyler left to meet with representatives of the Iroquois Confederacy in order to keep them neutral during the invasion , leaving Montgomery in command of the forces at Fort Ticonderoga . While Schuyler was away , Montgomery received intelligence that the British were building two gunboats on Lake Champlain , which , when complete , would give the British military access to the lake . Without asking permission from Schuyler , he moved 1 @,@ 200 men north on the schooner Liberty and the sloop Enterprise . Montgomery wrote a letter to Schuyler , explaining the situation . Schuyler returned to Fort Ticonderoga on August 30 , ordered an additional 800 men to reinforce Montgomery , and then , despite being ill , set out to join Montgomery . He caught up with Montgomery on September 4 on Isle La Motte , where he assumed command and ordered the advance to continue to Île aux Noix , a small island in the Richelieu River . Schuyler , whose health was poor , drafted a proclamation in which he called the Canadians " Friends and Countrymen " , asking them to help expel the British from Canada . On September 6 , Montgomery led a probing force to Fort St. Johns , the key to the British defense of Montreal . Montgomery led the main body of troops toward the fort through a marshy and heavily wooded area . A flanking party led by Captain Matthew Mead was ambushed by 100 Native Americans allied to the British . The party held its ground , forcing the ambushing Natives to fall back to the fort . Montgomery , fearing that the British force was larger than he had anticipated , called off operations for the rest of the day and withdrew his force to a spot beyond the range of the British guns . Believing that the fort could not be captured quickly , Schuyler recalled Montgomery 's force and fortified Île aux Noix . Schuyler 's health declined , so Montgomery assumed command of the daily functions of the army . On September 10 , a larger force of 1 @,@ 700 men led by Montgomery moved toward the fort . In the swampy area around the fort , it was so dark that two parties of Americans ran into each other ; each feared the other to be the British , and both fled . Montgomery ran to intercept them and ended the flight . As they advanced toward the fort , the force came under British grapeshot fire . One party of Americans attacked the British breastworks , inflicting 2 casualties , after which they fell back . The next morning , Montgomery called a council of war , in which it was agreed to make another attack on the fort . However , word spread that a British warship was advancing up the river , and half the New England troops fled out of fright . Montgomery , believing his force could no longer take the fort , retreated back to Île aux Noix . Montgomery , furious at the flight of the New England troops , asked Schuyler to appoint a court @-@ martial board . Meanwhile , Schuyler 's health had not improved . He left for Ticonderoga on the 16th to recover , giving full control of the operation to Montgomery . = = = Siege of St. Johns = = = Outside of Fort Saint @-@ Jean ( Quebec ) , Montgomery continued to receive reinforcements . He granted leaves to commanders who he felt were not fit for their position . He said " I hope we shall have none left but fighting men on whom I can rely . " On September 16 , Montgomery organized another expedition against the British fort . In total , he had 1 @,@ 400 men . He sent a naval component , with 1 schooner , 1 sloop , and 10 bateaux with 350 troops to counter any move by the British warship , Royal Savage . Montgomery took the rest of his force and sailed up the river , landing near St. Johns on September 17 . The British garrison was 725 men commanded by Major Charles Preston , who just 3 years earlier had been Montgomery 's superior officer in the British Army . Montgomery and his troops spent the first night near the landing area , under light fire from the British guns . The next morning , he ordered Major Timothy Bedel to occupy a position north of the fort , but when Montgomery saw that his men were apprehensive , he chose to lead the mission himself . As Montgomery led his troops , they came upon a fight between British troops and another American party . Montgomery took command of the skirmish and forced the British party back into the fort . Montgomery sent Bedel with a force to entrench themselves about a mile north of the fort . Montgomery then put other troops around the fort and began a siege . Preston and the British forces had many more guns and much more ammunition than the Americans and thus achieved a 10 @-@ to @-@ 1 firepower advantage for the first few weeks . Montgomery concentrated his forces on improving the siege works . Within several days they had erected 2 batteries under consistent fire from the fort . On September 22 , Montgomery was nearly killed while inspecting the breastworks when a cannonball from the fort shot past him , ripping his skirt and knocking him off the breastwork , although he landed on his feet . The troops observed that this " did not seem to hurt or frighten him . " The Americans continued to receive armaments from Ticonderoga , with guns arriving on September 21 and also on October 5 . However , the artillery were positioned too far away to do much damage to the fort . With the arrival of the new guns , Montgomery planned to move the emphasis of the bombardment from the east side of the fort to the north side , where they would be closer . However , his officers unanimously rejected this plan , fearing that many men would desert due to the increased danger . Montgomery ordered that a new battery be built where the Royal Savage could be threatened . On October 14 , the battery was completed and then used to sink the British ship . In mid @-@ October , James Livingston , an American expatriate living near Chambly ( and a relative of Montgomery 's wife Janet ) , suggested to Montgomery that he might have better success attacking Fort Chambly , which , about 10 miles downstream , was weaker than St. Jean . Montgomery approved of the idea and ordered 350 men to take Chambly . On the night of October 16 , two American guns were slipped past Fort St. Jean and moved towards Chambly . The next morning , these guns opened fire on Chambly . After two days of bombardment , holes were driven into the fort 's walls and the chimmney had been knocked down . The British commander surrendered the fort , along with 6 tons of gunpowder and 83 men . Montgomery sent the colors of the 7th Royal Fusiliers , who had been defending the fort , to Schuyler , the first standards of a British regiment captured in the war . Washington sent a letter of congratulations to Montgomery and commented that he hoped " that his next letter be dated from Montreal . " The capture of Chambly improved morale in the ranks of Montgomery 's army , so much so that he went through with his plan to establish a battery north of Fort St. Jean , this time without opposition . While the Americans were constructing the batteries , the British heavily bombarded the American workers , but this resulted in few casualties . General Guy Carleton , commanding the British forces at Montreal , realized that the situation at Fort St. Jean was becoming desperate . He personally led a relief force at the end of October , but American forces successfully prevented it from crossing the Saint Lawrence River south of Montreal . On November 1 , the new batteries erected north of the fort were complete . The Americans began to fire at the fort and continued to do so throughout the rest of the day . The British guns fired back , but were less effective . The American guns caused few casualties , but inflicted heavy structural damage inside of the fort . Morale in the besieged garrison fell as the bombardment ( and declining rations ) took their toll . At sundown , Montgomery ordered the firing to stop and sent a prisoner captured at Chambly inside with a letter asking for the garrison 's surrender . A messenger sent from Carleton to Preston was captured during the night , in which Carleton ordered that Preston continue to hold out . On November 2 , the British agreed to surrender with full military honors . They marched out of the fort on November 3 , and were sent into the colonies , where they were interned . The British had suffered 20 killed and 23 wounded , while the Americans had only five killed and six wounded throughout the siege . = = = Montreal to Quebec = = = Montgomery then turned the army toward Montreal . The march was difficult as there was snow , water , and ice on the ground and a winter storm struck several days after their departure . In an attempt to stop an escape of British troops from Montreal to Quebec , Montgomery sent a detachment to Sorel where the force briefly clashed with British troops . The British troops quickly withdrew to their vessels in the St. Lawrence River . When Montgomery and the main army reached the outskirts of the city , Montgomery sent a messenger in demanding the surrender of the city or they would suffer bombardment . While negotiations for the city 's surrender took place , Carleton fled down the St. Lawrence River in a small flotilla of ships . The city surrendered on November 13 , and Montgomery and his army marched into the city without a shot being fired . On November 19 , the British flotilla was captured , but Carleton narrowly escaped and made his way to Quebec City . Montgomery 's kind treatment toward the captured British prisoners caused several officers to express their concern . Montgomery saw this as a challenge to his authority and this , along with the lack of discipline in the army , caused Montgomery to threaten resignation . Letters from Washington in which Washington also expressed his troubles with the discipline of troops convinced Montgomery to continue his command . On November 28 , Montgomery and 300 men went aboard some of the captured ships and began to sail to Quebec City . On December 2 , Montgomery joined Benedict Arnold 's force at Pointe aux Trembles , 18 miles upriver from Quebec . On his arrival , Arnold turned over command of his forces to Montgomery . On December 3 , Montgomery gave Arnold 's men , who had marched through the Maine wilderness to Quebec City and suffered much hardship along the way , much @-@ needed supplies , including clothing and other winter supplies taken from the captured British ships . The next day , the army moved toward the city ; when they arrived , Montgomery ordered the city to be surrounded . On December 7 , Montgomery sent an ultimatum to Carleton , demanding the surrender of the city . Carleton burned the letter . Several days later , Montgomery sent a letter into the city appealing the merchants telling them that they had come to liberate the civilians of Quebec . However , Carleton discovered the plan and quickly had the messenger arrested . Montgomery , wanting his message to reach the inhabitants of the city , then sent the proclamation over the wall with bows and arrows . = = = Attack and death = = = Unknown to Montgomery , he was promoted to major general on December 9 for his victories at St. Johns and Montreal . After Montgomery was unable to convince Carleton to surrender , he placed several mortars a few hundred yards outside the walls of the city . The shelling of the city began on December 9 , but after several days it had failed to make a serious impact on the walls , the garrison , or the civilian population . With the shelling having little effect , Montgomery ordered the emplacement of another battery closer towards the city walls , on the Plains of Abraham , despite the fact it offered little natural cover from returning fire . On December 15 , the new batteries were ready and Montgomery sent a party of men under the flag of truce to ask for the city 's surrender . However , they were turned away . Montgomery then resumed firing on the city , but the effect was little better . When the new batteries were hit by more effective fire from the British , Montgomery ordered their evacuation . As the bombardment of the city proved to be unsuccessful , Montgomery then began to plan for an assault . Montgomery was to assault the Lower Town district , the part of the city near the river shore , while Arnold was to attack and take the Cape Diamond Bastion , a strong part of the city walls on the highest point of the rocky promontory . Montgomery believed that they should attack during a stormy night , therefore the British would not be able to see them . On December 27 , the weather became stormy , and Montgomery ordered that the men prepare to attack . However , the storm soon subsided and Montgomery called off the attack . As Montgomery waited for a storm , he was forced to revise his plans , because a deserter communicated the original plan to the defenders . In the new plan , Montgomery would attack the Lower Town from the south and Arnold would attack the Lower Town from the north . After breaking through the walls , Montgomery and Arnold would meet up in the city and then attack and take the Upper Town , causing resistance to collapse . To increase their chance of surprise , Montgomery planned two feints . One detachment of troops ( the 1st Canadian Regiment under James Livingston ) would set fire to one of the gates while another ( under the command of Jacob Brown ) would engage the guard at Cape Diamond Bastion and fire rockets to signal the start of the attack . While the feints were conducted , artillery would fire into the city . Although Montgomery was reluctant to attack , enlistments for Arnold 's men were expiring on January 1 , and he was concerned about losing their services . On the night of December 30 , a snowstorm struck . Montgomery issued the order to attack and the Americans began to move towards their designated positions . At 4 : 00 a.m. , Montgomery saw the rocket flares and began to move his men around the city towards the lower town . Although the rockets were to signal the attack , they also alerted the British of the impending attack , and the city 's defenders rushed to their posts . Montgomery personally led the march to the Lower Town , as they descended the steep slippery cliffs outside the city walls . At 6 : 00 a.m. , Montgomery 's force reached a palisade at the edge of the Lower Town , which they had to saw through . After they sawed through a second palisade , Montgomery led the advance party through the opening . Seeing a two @-@ story blockhouse down the street , Montgomery led the troops toward it , encouraging the men by drawing his sword and shouting , " Come on , my good soldiers , your General calls upon you to come on . " When the Americans were about 50 yards ( 46 m ) away , the British forces in the blockhouse ( 30 Canadian militia and some seamen ) , opened fire with cannon , musket , and grapeshot . Montgomery was killed with grapeshot through the head and both thighs . Also killed in the burst of gunfire were Captains John Macpherson and Jacob Cheesman . With the death of Montgomery , his attack fell apart . Colonel Donald Campbell , the surviving officer , ordered a somewhat panicked retreat . Without Montgomery 's assistance , Arnold 's attack , after initial success , fell apart . Arnold was wounded in the leg , and a large number of his troops were captured , including Daniel Morgan . = = = Funeral = = = On 1 January 1776 , the British started collecting bodies of the deceased and soon found the body of a high @-@ ranking officer of the American colonial army . After being brought to General Carleton , an American prisoner confirmed that the body was that of Richard Montgomery . Once Montgomery 's death was announced , Benedict Arnold assumed command of the American colonial forces . As Montgomery was a well @-@ respected man on both sides of the battlefield , Carleton ordered that he be buried with dignity , but not with too much fanfare . At sunset on 4 January 1776 , Montgomery 's remains were put to rest . During his burial , American prisoners acknowledged Montgomery as a " beloved general " with " heroic bravery " and " suavity of manners " who held the " confidence of the whole army . " = = Mourning = = Both Schuyler and Washington were devastated upon hearing of Montgomery 's death . Schuyler believed that without Montgomery , victory in Canada was not possible . He wrote to Congress and Washington that " My amiable friend , the gallant Montgomery , is no more ; the brave Arnold is wounded ; and we have met a severe check , in an unsuccessful attempt on Quebec , May Heaven be graciously pleased that the misfortune may terminate here . " Washington wrote to Schuyler , " In the death of this gentleman , America has sustained a heavy loss , as he had approved himself a steady friend to her rights and of ability to render her the most essential services . " Congress reacted to Montgomery 's death by trying to keep the loss as quiet as possible . They feared the news would lower the morale of the troops and civilians . On January 25 , 1776 , Congress approved the establishment of a monument in memory of Montgomery . A state memorial service was also scheduled and carried out on February 19 , 1776 . Throughout the colonies , Montgomery was viewed as a hero , and Patriots tried to use his death to promote their cause in the war . Montgomery 's name was used very often in literature ; among the authors who used his name was Thomas Paine . Montgomery was also mourned in Britain . Whigs attempted to use his death to show the failure of the British policies on the American Colonies . Prime Minister Lord Frederick North acknowledged Montgomery 's military ability but said " I cannot join in lamenting the death of Montgomery as a public loss . Curse on his virtues ! They 've undone his country . He was brave , he was able , he was humane , he was generous , but still , he was only a brave , able , humane , and generous rebel . " Newspapers in London paid tribute to Montgomery , with the Evening Post bordering its March 12 edition in black as a sign of mourning . = = Aftermath = = Janet would outlive Montgomery by 53 years . Janet always referred to him as " my general " or " my soldier " and guarded his reputation . After his death , Janet moved to the house near Rhinebeck on which Montgomery had begun work before the war . Janet remained interested in politics for the rest of the war and was always a harsh critic of Loyalists . After the war , former Continental Army general Horatio Gates proposed marriage to her , but she declined . In 1789 , Janet stopped in New York City on her way to visit some of Montgomery 's relatives in Ireland . She attended Washington 's inaugural ball , as he had just been sworn in as president , and also visited Washington and his family several times more . She sailed for Ireland soon after , and returned to America in 1790 after she had a falling out with her sister @-@ in @-@ law over British @-@ American politics . In 1818 , Stephen van Rensselaer , Governor of New York , obtained permission for Montgomery 's remains to be moved from Quebec to New York . In June 1818 , Montgomery 's remains set off for New York City . On July 4 they arrived in Albany and took a boat down the Hudson to New York City . Janet stood out on her porch and watched the boat bring Montgomery 's remains down the river , fainting at the sight . When his remains arrived in New York City , 5 @,@ 000 people attended the procession . His remains were interred on July 8 , next to his monument at St. Paul 's Chapel in Manhattan , which had been completed in 1776 . Janet was pleased with the ceremony and wrote , " What more could I wish than the high honor that has been conferred on the ashes of my poor soldier . " Years later , when Andrew Jackson was corresponding with Edward Livingston he wrote " Present me in the most respectful terms to your aged sister [ Janet ] . Says to her , if I ever should be within one hundred miles of her dwelling I will visit and have the high honor of shaking by the hand the revered relict of the patriotic Genrl . Montgomery , who will ever live in the hearts of his countrymen . " Three months after this letter , Janet died , on November 6 , 1824 . = = Memorials = = Montgomery 's home in Rhinebeck , New York , is now the General Montgomery House , a historic house museum moved from Montgomery Street to 77 Livingston Street . The oldest structure in the Village of Rhinebeck , the building is also used for monthly meetings of the Chancellor Livingston Chapter of the Daughters of the American Revolution . The United States Navy has named a number of ships USS Montgomery over the years , including a frigate that was begun in 1776 , and burned before completion to prevent its capture by the British . The liberty ship SS Richard Montgomery , built in 1943 , was sunk in 1944 in the Thames Estuary . Its cargo of 3 @,@ 173 tons of munitions continues to pose a threat to the local area . In Philadelphia , there is a statue of Montgomery in Fairmount Park , near the Philadelphia Museum of Art . = = = Places = = = Fort Montgomery , a massive masonry fortification mounting 125 guns on Lake Champlain was named for the General . Its construction begun in 1844 , it was designed to guard the strategically important frontier between Canada and the United States ; only ruins remain today . Montgomery has several places named after him . Counties named for him are to be found in North Carolina , Missouri , Arkansas , Illinois , Indiana , Kansas , Maryland , Ohio , Pennsylvania , New York , Georgia , Virginia , and Kentucky . Cities and towns named for him most notably include Montgomery , Alabama , that state 's capital and second largest city , as well as Montgomery , Minnesota and Montgomery , Vermont . There is a township in New Jersey , a village in New York , and a town in Massachusetts as well . Richard Montgomery High School in Rockville , Maryland bears his name , itself located in the county named after him Montgomery County . Montgomery Place , a mansion in Barrytown , New York , was constructed in 1803 and named in his honor by his widow . General Montgomery had planned it before his departure from Grassmere in 1775 , and construction was originally planned to start in 1776 . = = Legacy = = Montgomery is mentioned in a Fort Saint @-@ Jean plaque erected in 1926 by Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada at the Royal Military College Saint @-@ Jean . " Constructed in 1743 by M. de Léry under orders from Governor la Galissonnière . This post was for all the military expeditions towards Lake Champlain . In August 31 , 1760 , Commandant de Roquemaure had it blown up in accordance with orders from the Governor de Vaudreuil in order to prevent its falling into the hands of the English . Rebuilt by Governor Carleton , in 1773 . During the same year , under the command of Major Charles Preston of the 26th Regiment , it withstood a 45 day siege by the American troops commanded by General Montgomery . " = Surface weather analysis = Surface weather analysis is a special type of weather map that provides a view of weather elements over a geographical area at a specified time based on information from ground @-@ based weather stations . Weather maps are created by plotting or tracing the values of relevant quantities such as sea level pressure , temperature , and cloud cover onto a geographical map to help find synoptic scale features such as weather fronts . The first weather maps in the 19th century were drawn well after the fact to help devise a theory on storm systems . After the advent of the telegraph , simultaneous surface weather observations became possible for the first time , and beginning in the late 1840s , the Smithsonian Institution became the first organization to draw real @-@ time surface analyses . Use of surface analyses began first in the United States , spreading worldwide during the 1870s . Use of the Norwegian cyclone model for frontal analysis began in the late 1910s across Europe , with its use finally spreading to the United States during World War II . Surface weather analyses have special symbols that show frontal systems , cloud cover , precipitation , or other important information . For example , an H may represent high pressure , implying good and fair weather . An L , on the other hand , may represent low pressure , which frequently accompanies precipitation . Various symbols are used not just for frontal zones and other surface boundaries on weather maps , but also to depict the present weather at various locations on the weather map . Areas of precipitation help determine the frontal type and location . = = History of surface analysis = = The use of weather charts in a modern sense began in the middle portion of the 19th century in order to devise a theory on storm systems . The development of a telegraph network by 1845 made it possible to gather weather information from multiple distant locations quickly enough to preserve its value for real @-@ time applications . The Smithsonian Institution developed its network of observers over much of the central and eastern United States between the 1840s and 1860s once Joseph Henry took the helm . The U.S. Army Signal Corps inherited this network between 1870 and 1874 by an act of Congress , and expanded it to the west coast soon afterwards . At first , all the data on the map was not taken from these analyses because of a lack of time standardization . The first attempts at time standardization took hold in Great Britain by 1855 . The entire United States did not finally come under the influence of time zones until 1905 , when Detroit finally established standard time . Other countries followed the lead of the United States in taking simultaneous weather observations , starting in 1873 . Other countries then began preparing surface analyses . The use of frontal zones on weather maps did not appear until the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model in the late 1910s , despite Loomis ' earlier attempt at a similar notion in 1841 . Since the leading edge of air mass changes bore resemblance to the military fronts of World War I , the term " front " came into use to represent these lines . Despite the introduction of the Norwegian cyclone model just after World War I , the United States did not formally analyze fronts on surface analyses until late 1942 , when the WBAN Analysis Center opened in downtown Washington , D.C .. The effort to automate map plotting began in the United States in 1969 , with the process complete in the 1970s . Hong Kong completed their process of automated surface plotting by 1987 . By 1999 , computer systems and software had finally become sophisticated enough to allow for the ability to underlay on the same workstation satellite imagery , radar imagery , and model @-@ derived fields such as atmospheric thickness and frontogenesis in combination with surface observations to make for the best possible surface analysis . In the United States , this development was achieved when Intergraph workstations were replaced by n @-@ AWIPS workstations . By 2001 , the various surface analyses done within the National Weather Service were combined into the Unified Surface Analysis , which is issued every six hours and combines the analyses of four different centers . Recent advances in both the fields of meteorology and geographic information systems have made it possible to devise finely tailored products that take us from the traditional weather map into an entirely new realm . Weather information can quickly be matched to relevant geographical detail . For instance , icing conditions can be mapped onto the road network . This will likely continue to lead to changes in the way surface analyses are created and displayed over the next several years . The pressureNET project is an ongoing attempt to gather surface pressure data using smartphones . = = Station model used on weather maps = = When analyzing a weather map , a station model is plotted at each point of observation . Within the station model , the temperature , dewpoint , wind speed and direction , atmospheric pressure , pressure tendency , and ongoing weather are plotted . The circle in the middle represents cloud cover . If completely filled in , it is overcast . If conditions are completely clear , the circle is empty . If conditions are partly cloudy , the circle is partially filled in . Outside the United States , temperature and dewpoint are plotted in degrees Celsius . Each full flag on the Wind Barb represents 10 knots ( 19 km / h ) of wind , each half flag represents 5 knots ( 9 km / h ) . When winds reach 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) , a filled in triangle is used for each 50 knots ( 93 km / h ) of wind . In the United States , rainfall plotted in the corner of the station model are in English units , inches . The international standard rainfall measurement unit is the millimeter . Once a map has a field of station models plotted , the analyzing isobars ( lines of equal pressure ) , isallobars ( lines of equal pressure change ) , isotherms ( lines of equal temperature ) , and isotachs ( lines of equal wind speed ) can be easily accomplished . The abstract present weather symbols used on surface weather analyses for obstructions to visibility , precipitation , and thunderstorms were devised to take up the least room possible on weather maps . = = Synoptic scale features = = A synoptic scale feature is one whose dimensions are large in scale , more than several hundred kilometers in length . Migratory pressure systems and frontal zones exist on this scale . = = = Pressure centers = = = Centers of surface high- and low @-@ pressure areas are found within closed isobars on a surface weather analysis where they are the absolute maxima and minima in the pressure field , and can tell a user in a glance what the general weather is in their vicinity . Weather maps in English @-@ speaking countries will depict their highs as Hs and lows as Ls , while Spanish @-@ speaking countries will depict their highs as As and lows as Bs . = = = = Low pressure = = = = Low @-@ pressure systems , also known as cyclones , are located in minima in the pressure field . Rotation is inward and counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere as opposed to inward and clockwise in the southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis force . Weather is normally unsettled in the vicinity of a cyclone , with increased cloudiness , increased winds , increased temperatures , and upward motion in the atmosphere , which leads to an increased chance of precipitation . Polar lows can form over relatively mild ocean waters when cold air sweeps in from the ice cap , leading to upward motion and convection , usually in the form of snow . Tropical cyclones and winter storms are intense varieties of low pressure . Over land , thermal lows are indicative of hot weather during the summer . = = = = High pressure = = = = High @-@ pressure systems , also known as anticyclones , rotate outward and clockwise in the northern hemisphere as opposed to outward and counterclockwise in the southern hemisphere . Under surface highs , sinking motion leads to skies that are clearer , winds that are lighter , and there is a reduced chance of precipitation . There is normally a greater range between high and low temperature due to the drier air mass present . If high pressure persists , air pollution will build up due to pollutants trapped near the surface caused by the subsiding motion associated with the high . = = = Fronts = = = Fronts in meteorology are the leading edges of air masses with different density ( e.g. , air temperature and / or humidity ) . When a front passes over an area , it is marked by changes in temperature , moisture , wind speed and direction , atmospheric pressure , and often a change in the precipitation pattern . Cold fronts are closely associated with low pressure systems , normally lying at the leading edge of high @-@ pressure systems and , in the case of the polar front , at approximately the equatorward edge of the high @-@ level polar jet . Fronts are guided by winds aloft , but they normally move at lesser speeds . In the northern hemisphere , they usually travel from west to east ( though they can move in a north @-@ south direction as well ) . Movement is due to the pressure gradient force ( horizontal differences in atmospheric pressure ) and the Coriolis effect , caused by the Earth spinning about its axis . Frontal zones can be contorted by geographic features like mountains and large bodies of water . = = = = Cold front = = = = A cold front 's location is at the leading edge of the temperature drop @-@ off , which in an isotherm analysis shows up as the leading edge of the isotherm gradient , and it normally lies within a sharp surface trough . Cold fronts can move up to twice as fast as warm fronts and produce sharper changes in weather , since cold air is denser than warm air and rapidly replaces the warm air preceding the boundary . Cold fronts are typically accompanied by a narrow band of showers and thunderstorms . On weather maps , the surface position of the cold front is marked with the symbol of a blue line of triangles / spikes ( pips ) pointing in the direction of travel , and it is placed at the leading edge of the cooler air mass . = = = = Warm front = = = = Warm fronts are at the trailing edge of the temperature increase , which is located on the equatorward edge of the gradient in isotherms , and lie within broader troughs of low pressure than cold fronts . Warm fronts move more slowly than the cold front that usually follows because cold air is denser , and harder to displace from the Earth 's surface . This also forces temperature differences across warm fronts to be broader in scale . Clouds ahead of the warm front are mostly stratiform and rainfall gradually increases as the front approaches . Fog can also occur preceding a warm frontal passage . Clearing and warming is usually rapid after frontal passage . If the warm air mass is unstable , thunderstorms may be embedded among the stratiform clouds ahead of the front , and after frontal passage , thundershowers may continue . On weather maps , the surface location of a warm front is marked with a red line of half circles pointing in the direction of travel . = = = = Occluded front = = = = An occluded front is formed during the process of cyclogenesis when a cold front overtakes a warm front . The cold and warm fronts curve naturally poleward into the point of occlusion , which is also known as the triple point in meteorology . It lies within a sharp trough , but the air mass behind the boundary can be either warm or cold . In a cold occlusion , the air mass overtaking the warm front is cooler than the cool air ahead of the warm front , and plows under both air masses . In a warm occlusion , the air mass overtaking the warm front is not as cool as the cold air ahead of the warm front , and rides over the colder air mass while lifting the warm air . A wide variety of weather can be found along an occluded front , with thunderstorms possible , but usually their passage is associated with a drying of the air mass . Occluded fronts are indicated on a weather map by a purple line with alternating half @-@ circles and triangles pointing in direction of travel . Occluded fronts usually form around mature low pressure areas . The trowal is the projection on the Earth 's surface of a tongue of warm air aloft , such as may be formed during the occlusion process of a depression . = = = = Stationary fronts and shearlines = = = = A stationary front is a non @-@ moving boundary between two different air masses , neither of which is strong enough to replace the other . They tend to remain in the same area for long periods of time , usually moving in waves . There is normally a broad temperature gradient behind the boundary with more widely spaced isotherm packing . A wide variety of weather can be found along a stationary front , but usually clouds and prolonged precipitation are found there . Stationary fronts will either dissipate after several days or devolve into shear lines , but can change into a cold or warm front if conditions aloft change . Stationary fronts are marked on weather maps with alternating red half @-@ circles and blue spikes pointing in opposite directions , indicating no significant movement . When stationary fronts become smaller in scale , degenerating to a narrow zone where wind direction changes over a short distance , they become known as shear lines . If the shear line becomes active with thunderstorms , it may support formation of a tropical storm or a regeneration of the feature back into a stationary front . A shear line is depicted as a line of red dots and dashes . = = Mesoscale features = = Mesoscale features are smaller than synoptic scale systems like fronts , but larger than storm @-@ scale systems like thunderstorms . Horizontal dimensions generally range from over ten kilometres to several hundred kilometres . = = = Dry line = = = The dry line is the boundary between dry and moist air masses east of mountain ranges with similar orientation to the Rockies , depicted at the leading edge of the dew point , or moisture , gradient . Near the surface , warm moist air that is denser than dry air of greater temperature wedges under the drier air like a cold front . When the warm moist air wedged under the drier mass heats up it becomes less dense than the drier air above and it begins to rise and sometimes forms thunderstorms . At higher altitudes , the warm moist air is less dense than the cooler , drier air and the boundary slope reverses . In the vicinity of the reversal aloft , severe weather is possible , especially when a triple point is formed with a cold front . During daylight hours , drier air from aloft drifts down to the surface , causing an apparent movement of the dryline eastward . At night , the boundary reverts to the west as there is no longer any sunshine to help mix the lower atmosphere . If enough moisture converges upon the dryline , it can be the focus of afternoon and evening thunderstorms . A dry line is depicted on United States surface analyses as a brown line with scallops , or bumps , facing into the moist sector . Dry lines are one of the few surface fronts where the special shapes along the drawn boundary do not necessarily reflect the boundary 's direction of motion . = = = Outflow boundaries and squall lines = = = Organized areas of thunderstorm activity not only reinforce pre @-@ existing frontal zones , but they can outrun cold fronts . This outrunning occurs in a pattern where the upper level jet splits into two streams . The resultant mesoscale convective system ( MCS ) forms at the point of the upper level split in the wind pattern in the area of best low @-@ level inflow . The convection then moves east and equatorward into the warm sector , parallel to low @-@ level thickness lines . When the convection is strong and linear or curved , the MCS is called a squall line , with the feature placed at the leading edge of the significant wind shift and pressure rise . Even weaker and less organized areas of thunderstorms will lead to locally cooler air and higher pressures , and outflow boundaries exist ahead of this type of activity , " SQLN " or " SQUALL LINE " , while outflow boundaries are depicted as troughs with a label of " OUTFLOW BOUNDARY " or " OUTFLOW BNDRY " . = = = Sea and land breeze fronts = = = Sea breeze fronts occur mainly on sunny days when the landmass warms up above the water temperature . Similar boundaries from downwind on lakes and rivers during the day , as well as offshore landmasses at night . Since the specific heat of water is so high , there is little diurnal change in bodies of water , even on the sunniest days . The water temperature varies less than 1 ° C ( 1 to 2 ° F ) . By contrast , the land , with a lower specific heat , can vary several degrees in a matter of hours . During the afternoon , air pressure decreases over the land as temperature rises . The relatively cooler air over the sea rushes in to fill the gap . The result is a relatively cool onshore wind . This process usually reverses at night where the water temperature is higher relative to the landmass , leading to an offshore land breeze . However , if water temperatures are colder than the land at night , the sea breeze may continue , only somewhat abated . This is typically the case along the California coast , for example . If enough moisture exists , thunderstorms can form along sea breeze fronts that then can send out outflow boundaries . This causes chaotic wind / pressure regimes if the steering flow is light . Like all other surface features , sea breeze fronts lie inside troughs of low pressure . = Palmyra = Palmyra ( / ˌpælˈmaɪrə / ; Aramaic : ܬܕܡܘܪܬܐ Tedmurtā ; Arabic : تدمر Tadmor ) is an ancient Semitic city in present @-@ day Homs Governorate , Syria . Archaeological finds date back to the Neolithic period , and the city was first documented in the early second millennium BC . Palmyra changed hands on a number of occasions between different empires before becoming a subject of the Roman Empire in the first century AD . The city grew wealthy from trade caravans ; the Palmyrenes were renowned merchants who established colonies along the Silk Road and operated throughout the Roman Empire . Palmyra 's wealth enabled the construction of monumental projects , such as the Great Colonnade , the Temple of Bel , and the distinctive tower tombs . The Palmyrenes were a mix of Amorites , Arameans , and Arabs . The city 's social structure was tribal , and its inhabitants spoke Palmyrene ( a dialect of Aramaic ) ; Greek was used for commercial and diplomatic purposes . The culture of Palmyra was influenced by Greco @-@ Roman culture and produced distinctive art and architecture that combined eastern and western traditions . The city 's inhabitants worshiped local deities and Mesopotamian and Arab gods . By the third century AD , Palmyra was a prosperous regional center reaching the apex of its power in the 260s , when Palmyrene King Odaenathus defeated Persian Emperor Shapur I. The king was succeeded by regent Queen Zenobia , who rebelled against Rome and established the Palmyrene Empire . In 273 , Roman emperor Aurelian destroyed the city , which was later restored by Diocletian at a reduced size . The Palmyrenes converted to Christianity during the fourth century and to Islam in the second half of the first millennium , after which the Palmyrene and Greek languages were replaced by Arabic . Before 273 AD , Palmyra enjoyed autonomy and was attached to the Roman province of Syria , having its political organization influenced by the Greek city @-@ state model during the first two centuries AD . The city became a Roman colonia during the third century , leading to the incorporation of Roman governing institutions , before becoming a monarchy in 260 . Following its destruction in 273 , Palmyra became a minor center under the Byzantines and later empires . Its destruction by the Timurids in 1400 reduced it to a small village . Under French Mandatory rule in 1932 , the inhabitants were moved into the new village of Tadmur , and the ancient site became available for excavations . In 2015 , Palmyra came under the control of the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant ( ISIL ) , which later destroyed a number of the site 's buildings . The city was retaken by the Syrian Army on 27 March 2016 . = = Etymology = = The earliest @-@ attested native name of the city was the Semitic language term " Tadmor " , which first appeared in the early second millennium BC . The word 's etymology is vague ; the philologist Albert Schultens argued that it derived from the Semitic word for " dates " ( tamar ) , thus referring to the palm trees that surrounded the city . The name " Palmyra " appeared during the early first century AD in the works of Pliny the Elder , and was used throughout the Greco @-@ Roman world . It is generally believed that " Palmyra " derives from " Tadmor " and two possibilities have been presented by linguists ; one view holds that Palmyra was an alteration of Tadmor . According to Schultens , the Romans altered the name from " Tadmor " to " Talmura " , and afterward to " Palmura " ( from the Latin word " palma " , meaning palm ) , in reference to the city 's palm trees . Then the name reached its final form " Palmyra " . Other philologists , such as Jean Starcky , consider Palmyra to be a translation of " Tadmor " ( assuming that it meant palm ) , which had derived from the Greek word for palm , " Palame " . The linguist Michael Patrick O 'Connor suggested that the names " Palmyra " and " Tadmor " originated in the Hurrian language . As evidence , he cited the inexplicability of alterations to the theorized roots of both names ( represented in the addition of -d- to tamar and -ra- to palame ) . According to this theory , " Tadmor " derives from the Hurrian word tad ( " to love " ) with the addition of the typical Hurrian mid vowel rising ( mVr ) formant mar . Similarly , according to this theory , " Palmyra " derives from the Hurrian word pal ( " to know " ) using the same mVr formant ( mar ) . = = Location and city layout = = Palmyra is 215 km ( 134 mi ) northeast of the Syrian capital , Damascus , in an oasis surrounded by palms ( of which twenty varieties have been reported ) . Two mountain ranges overlook the city ; the northern Palmyrene mountain belt from the north and the southern Palmyrene mountains from the southwest . In the south and the east Palmyra is exposed to the Syrian Desert . A small wadi ( al @-@ Qubur ) crosses the area , flowing from the western hills past the city before disappearing in the eastern gardens of the oasis . South of the wadi is a spring , Efqa . Pliny the Elder described the town in the 70s AD as famous for its desert location , the richness of its soil , and the springs surrounding it , which made agriculture and herding possible . = = = Layout = = = Palmyra began as a small settlement near the Efqa spring on the southern bank of Wadi al @-@ Qubur . The settlement , known as the Hellenistic settlement , had residences expanding to the wadi 's northern bank during the first century . Although the city 's walls originally enclosed an extensive area on both banks of the wadi , the walls rebuilt during Diocletian 's reign surrounded only the northern @-@ bank section . Most of the city 's monumental projects were built on the wadi 's northern bank . Among them is the Temple of Bel , on a tell which was the site of an earlier temple ( known as the Hellenistic temple ) . However , excavation supports the theory that the tell was originally located on the southern bank , and the wadi was diverted south of the tell to incorporate the temple into Palmyra 's late first and early second century urban organization on the north bank . Also north of the wadi was the Great Colonnade , Palmyra 's 1 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 68 mi ) main street , which extended from the Temple of Bel in the east , to the Funerary Temple no.86 in the city 's western part . It had a monumental arch in its eastern section , and a tetrapylon stands in the center . The Baths of Diocletian , built on the ruins of an earlier building which might have been the royal palace , were on the left side of the colonnade . Nearby were the Temple of Baalshamin , residences , and the Byzantine churches , which include a 1 @,@ 500 @-@ year @-@ old church ( Palmyra 's fourth , and believed to be the largest ever discovered in Syria ) . The church columns were estimated to be 6 metres ( 20 ft ) tall , and its base measured 12 by 24 metres ( 39 by 79 ft ) . A small amphitheatre was found in the church 's courtyard . The Temple of Nabu and the Roman theater were built on the colonnade 's southern side . Behind the theater were a small senate building and the large Agora , with the remains of a triclinium ( banquet room ) and the Tariff Court . A cross street at the western end of the colonnade leads to the Camp of Diocletian , built by Sosianus Hierocles ( the Roman governor of Syria ) . Nearby are the Temple of Al @-@ lāt and the Damascus Gate . = = People , language and society = = At its height during the reign of Zenobia , Palmyra had more than 200 @,@ 000 residents . Its earliest known inhabitants were the Amorites in the early second millennium BC , and by the end of the millennium Arameans were mentioned as inhabiting the area . Arabs arrived in the city in the late first millennium BC ; the soldiers of the Palmyrene sheikh Zabdibel , who aided the Seleucids in the battle of Raphia ( 217 BC ) , were described as Arabs . The Arab newcomers were assimilated by the earlier inhabitants , used Palmyrene as a mother tongue , and formed a significant segment of the aristocracy . The city also had a Jewish community ; inscriptions in Palmyrene from the necropolis of Beit She 'arim in Lower Galilee confirm the burial of Palmyrene Jews . Until the late third century AD , Palmyrenes spoke a dialect of Aramaic and used the Palmyrene alphabet . The use of Latin was minimal , but Greek was used by wealthier members of society for commercial and diplomatic purposes , and it became the dominant language during the Byzantine era . After the Arab conquest , Greek was replaced by Arabic , from which a Palmyrene dialect evolved . Palmyra 's society was a mixture of the different peoples inhabiting the city , which is seen in Aramaic , Arabic and Amorite clan names . Palmyra was a tribal community but due to the lack of sources , an understanding of the nature of Palmyrene tribal structure is not possible . Thirty clans have been documented ; five of which were identified as tribes ( Phyle ( φυλή ) ) comprising several sub @-@ clans . By the time of Nero Palmyra had four tribes , each residing in an area of the city bearing its name . Three of the tribes were the Komare , Mattabol and Ma 'zin ; the fourth tribe is uncertain , but was probably the Mita . In time , the four tribes became highly civic and tribal lines blurred ; by the second century clan identity lost its importance , and it disappeared during the third century . During the Umayyad period Palmyra was mainly inhabited by the Kalb tribe . Benjamin of Tudela recorded the existence of 2 @,@ 000 Jews in the city during the twelfth century , Palmyra declined after its destruction by Timur in 1400 , and was a village of 6 @,@ 000 inhabitants at the beginning of the 20th century ; although surrounded by Bedouin , the villagers preserved their dialect . Palmyra maintained the life of a small settlement until its relocation in 1932 . = = Culture = = Palmyra had a distinctive culture , based on a local Semitic tradition , and influenced by Greece and Rome . To appear better integrated into the Roman Empire , some Palmyrenes adopted Greco @-@ Roman names , either alone or in addition to a second native name . The extent of Greek influence on Palmyra 's culture is debated . Scholars interpreted the Palmyrenes ' Greek practices differently ; many see those characters as a superficial layer over a local essence . Palmyra 's senate was an example ; although Palmyrene texts written in Greek described it as a " boule " ( a Greek institution ) , the senate was a gathering of non @-@ elected tribal elders ( a Near @-@ Eastern assembly tradition ) . Others view Palmyra 's culture as a fusion of local and Greco @-@ Roman traditions . The culture of Persia influenced Palmyrene military tactics , dress and court ceremonies . Palmyra had no large libraries or publishing facilities , and it lacked an intellectual movement characteristic of other Eastern cities such as Edessa or Antioch . Although Zenobia opened her court to academics , the only notable scholar documented was Cassius Longinus . Palmyra had a large agora . However , unlike the Greek Agoras ( public gathering places shared with public buildings ) , Palmyra 's agora resembled an Eastern caravanserai more than a hub of public life . The Palmyrenes buried their dead in elaborate family mausoleums , most with interior walls forming rows of burial chambers ( loculi ) in which the dead , laying at full length , were placed . A relief of the person interred formed part of the wall 's decoration , acting as a headstone . Sarcophagi appeared in the late second century and were used in some of the tombs . Many burial monuments contained fully dressed , bejeweled mummies , embalmed in a method similar to that used in Ancient Egypt . = = = Art and architecture = = = Although Palmyrene art was related to that of Greece , it had a distinctive style unique to the middle @-@ Euphrates region . Palmyrene art is well represented by the bust reliefs which seal the openings of its burial chambers . The reliefs emphasized clothing , jewelry and a frontal representation of the person depicted , characteristics which can be seen as a forerunner of Byzantine art . According to Michael Rostovtzeff , Palmyra 's art was influenced by Parthian art . However , the origin of frontality that characterized Palmyrene and Parthian arts is a controversial issue ; while Parthian origin has been suggested ( by Daniel Schlumberger ) , Michael Avi @-@ Yonah contends that it was a local Syrian tradition that influenced Parthian art . Little painting , and none of the bronze statues of prominent citizens ( which stood on brackets on the main columns of the Great Colonnade ) , have survived . A damaged frieze and other sculptures from the Temple of Bel , many removed to museums in Syria and abroad , suggest the city 's public monumental sculpture . Many surviving funerary busts reached Western museums during the 19th century . Palmyra provided the most convenient Eastern examples bolstering an art @-@ history controversy at the turn of the 20th century : to what extent Eastern influence on Roman art replaced idealized classicism with frontal , hieratic and simplified figures ( as believed by Josef Strzygowski and others ) . This transition is seen as a response to cultural changes in the Western Roman Empire , rather than artistic influence from the East . Palmyrene bust reliefs , unlike Roman sculptures , are rudimentary portraits ; although many reflect high quality individuality , the majority vary little across figures of similar age and gender . Like its art , Palmyra 's architecture was influenced by the Greco @-@ Roman style , while preserving local elements ( best seen in the Temple of Bel ) . Enclosed by a massive wall flanked with traditional Roman columns , Bel 's sanctuary plan was primarily Semitic . Similar to the Second Temple , the sanctuary consisted of a large courtyard with the deity 's main shrine off @-@ center against its entrance ( a plan preserving elements of the temples of Ebla and Ugarit ) . = = Site = = = = = Cemeteries = = = West of the ancient walls , the Palmyrenes built a number of large @-@ scale funerary monuments which now form the Valley of Tombs , a 1 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) necropolis . The more than 50 monuments were primarily tower @-@ shaped and up to four stories high . Towers were replaced by funerary temples in the first half of the second century AD , as the most recent tower is dated to 128 AD . The city had other cemeteries in the north , southwest and southeast , where the tombs are primarily hypogea ( underground ) . = = = Notable structures = = = = = = = Public buildings = = = = The senate building is largely ruined . It is a small building that consists of a peristyle courtyard and a chamber that has an apse at one end and rows of seats around it . Much of the Baths of Diocletian are ruined and do not survive above the level of the foundations . The complex 's entrance is marked by four massive Egyptian granite columns each 1 @.@ 3 metres ( 4 ft 3 in ) in diameter , 12 @.@ 5 metres ( 41 ft ) high and weigh 20 tonnes . Inside , the outline of a bathing pool surrounded by a colonnade of Corinthian columns is still visible in addition to an octagonal room that served as a dressing room containing a drain in its center . The Agora of Palmyra is part of a complex that also includes the tariff court and the triclinium , built in the second half of the first century AD . The agora is a massive 71 by 84 metres ( 233 by 276 ft ) structure with 11 entrances . Inside the agora , 200 columnar bases that used to hold statues of prominent citizens were found . The inscriptions on the bases allowed an understanding of the order by which the statues were grouped ; the eastern side was reserved for senators , the northern side for Palmyrene officials , the western side for soldiers and the southern side for caravan chiefs . The Tariff Court is a large rectangular enclosure south of the agora and sharing its northern wall with it . Originally , the entrance of the court was a massive vestibule in its southwestern wall . However , the entrance was blocked by the construction of a defensive wall and the court was entered through three doors from the Agora . The court gained its name by containing a 5 meters long stone slab that had the Palmyrene tax law inscribed on it . The Triclinium of the Agora is located to the northwestern corner of the Agora and can host up to 40 person . It is a small 12 by 15 metres ( 39 by 49 ft ) hall decorated with Greek key motifs that run in a continuous line halfway up the wall . The building was probably used by the rulers of the city ; Henri Arnold Seyrig proposed that it was a small temple before being turned into a triclinium or banqueting hall . = = = = Temples = = = = The Temple of Bel was dedicated in 32 AD ; it consist of a large precinct lined by porticos ; it had a rectangular shape and was oriented north @-@ south . The exterior wall was 205 @-@ metre ( 673 ft ) long with a propylaea , and the cella stood on a podium in the middle of the enclosure . The Temple of Baalshamin dates to the late 2nd century BC in its earliest phases ; its altar was built in 115 AD , and it was substantially rebuilt in 131 AD . It consisted of a central cella and two colonnaded courtyards north and south of the central structure . A vestibule consisting of six columns preceded the cella which had its side walls decorated with pilasters in Corinthian order . The Temple of Nabu is largely ruined . The temple was Eastern in its plan ; the outer enclosure 's propylaea led to a 20 by 9 metres ( 66 by 30 ft ) podium through a portico of which the bases of the columns survives . The peristyle cella opened onto an outdoor altar . The Temple of Al @-@ lāt is largely ruined with only a podium , a few columns and the door frame remaining . Inside the compound , a giant lion relief ( Lion of Al @-@ lāt ) was excavated and in its original form , was a relief protruding from the temple compound 's wall . The ruined Temple of Baal @-@ hamon was located on the top of Jabal al @-@ Muntar hill which oversees the spring of Efqa . Constructed in 89 AD , it consisted of a cella and a vestibule with two columns . The temple had a defensive tower attached to it ; a mosaic depicting the sanctuary was excavated and it revealed that both the cella and the vestibule were decorated with merlons . = = = = Other buildings = = = = The Great Colonnade was Palmyra 's 1 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 68	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
mi ) main street ; most of the columns date to the second century AD and each is 9 @.@ 50 metres ( 31 @.@ 2 ft ) high . The Funerary Temple no.86 ( also known as the House Tomb ) is located at the western end of the Great Colonnade . It was built in the third century AD and has a portico of six columns and vine patterns carvings . Inside the chamber , steps leads down to a vault crypt . The shrine might have been connected to the royal family as it is the only tomb inside the city 's walls . The Tetrapylon was erected during the renovations of Diocletian at the end of the third century . It is a square platform and each corner contains a grouping of four columns . Each column group supports a 150 tons cornice and contains a pedestal in its center that originally carried a statue . Out of sixteen columns , only one is original while the rest are from reconstruction work by the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities in 1963 , using concrete . The original columns were brought from Egypt and carved out of pink granite . The city 's current walls were erected during the reign of Diocletian whose fortification of the city enclosed a much smaller area than the original pre @-@ 273 city . The Diocletianic walls had protective towers and fortified gateways . The pre @-@ 273 walls were narrow and while encircling the whole city , they do not seem to have provided real protection against an invasion . No signs of towers or fortified gates exist and it cannot be proven that the walls enclosed the city as many gaps appears to have never been defended . The earlier walls seem to have been designed to protect the city against Bedouins and to provide a costume barrier . = = History = = The site at Palmyra provided evidence for a Neolithic settlement near Efqa , with stone tools dated to 7500 BC . Archaeoacoustics in the tell beneath the Temple of Bel indicated traces of cultic activity dated to 2300 BC . = = = Early period = = = Palmyra entered the historical record during the Bronze Age around 2000 BC , when Puzur @-@ Ishtar the Tadmorean ( Palmyrene ) agreed to a contract at an Assyrian trading colony in Kultepe . It was mentioned next in the Mari tablets as a stop for trade caravans and nomadic tribes , such as the Suteans . King Shamshi @-@ Adad I of Assyria passed through the area on his way to the Mediterranean at the beginning of the 18th century BC ; by then , Palmyra was the easternmost point of the kingdom of Qatna . Palmyra was part of the kingdom of Amurru in the 14th century BC , and was mentioned in a 13th @-@ century BC tablet discovered at Emar , which recorded the names of two " Tadmorean " witnesses . At the beginning of the 11th century BC , King Tiglath @-@ Pileser I of Assyria recorded his defeat of the " Arameans " of " Tadmar " . The Hebrew Bible ( Second Book of Chronicles 8 : 4 ) records a city by the name " Tadmor " as a desert city built ( or fortified ) by King Solomon of Israel ; Flavius Josephus mentions the Greek name " Palmyra " , attributing its founding to Solomon in Book VIII of his Antiquities of the Jews . Later Islamic traditions attribute the city 's founding to Solomon 's Jinn . The association of Palmyra with Solomon is a conflation of " Tadmor " and a city built by Solomon in Judea and known as " Tamar " in the Books of Kings ( 1 Kings 9 : 18 ) . The biblical description of " Tadmor " and its buildings does not fit archaeological findings in Palmyra , which was a small settlement during Solomon 's reign in the 10th century BC . = = = Hellenistic and Roman periods = = = During the Hellenistic period under the Seleucids ( between 312 and 64 BC ) , Palmyra became a prosperous settlement owing allegiance to the Seleucid king . In 217 BC , a Palmyrene force led by Zabdibel joined the army of King Antiochus III in the Battle of Raphia which ended in a Seleucid defeat by Ptolemaic Egypt . In the middle of the Hellenistic era , Palmyra , formerly south of the al @-@ Qubur wadi , began to expand beyond its northern bank . By the late second century BC , the tower tombs in the Palmyrene Valley of Tombs and the city temples ( most notably , the temples of Baalshamin , Al @-@ lāt and the Hellenistic temple ) began to be built . In 64 BC the Roman Republic annexed the Seleucid kingdom , and the Roman general Pompey established the province of Syria . Palmyra was left independent , trading with Rome and Parthia but belonging to neither . The earliest known Palmyrene inscription is dated to around 44 BC ; Palmyra was still a minor sheikhdom , offering water to caravans which occasionally took the desert route on which it was located . However , according to Appian Palmyra was wealthy enough for Mark Antony to send a force to conquer it in 41 BC . The Palmyrenes evacuated to Parthian lands beyond the eastern bank of the Euphrates , which they prepared to defend . = = = = Autonomous Palmyrene region = = = = Palmyra became part of the Roman Empire when it was annexed and paid tribute early in the reign of Tiberius , around 14 AD . The Romans included Palmyra in the province of Syria , and defined the region 's boundaries ; a boundary marker laid by Roman governor Silanus was found 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) northwest of the city at Khirbet el @-@ Bilaas . A marker at the city 's southwestern border was found at Qasr al @-@ Hayr al @-@ Gharbi , and its eastern border extended to the Euphrates valley . This region included numerous villages subordinate to the center such as al @-@ Qaryatayn ( 35 other settlements have been identified by 2012 ) . The Roman imperial period brought great prosperity to the city , which enjoyed a privileged status under the empire — retaining much of its internal autonomy , being ruled by a council , and incorporating many Greek city @-@ state ( polis ) institutions into its government . The earliest Palmyrene text attesting a Roman presence in the city dates to 18 AD , when the Roman general Germanicus tried to develop a friendly relationship with Parthia ; he sent the Palmyrene Alexandros to Mesene , a Parthian vassal kingdom . This was followed by the arrival of the Roman legion Legio X Fretensis the following year . Roman authority was minimal during the first century AD , although tax collectors were resident , and a road connecting Palmyra and Sura was built in 75 AD . The Romans used Palmyrene soldiers , but ( unlike typical Roman cities ) no local magistrates or prefects are recorded in the city . Palmyra saw intensive construction during the first century , including the city 's first walled fortifications and the Temple of Bel ( completed and dedicated in 32 AD ) . During the first century Palmyra developed from a minor desert caravan station into a leading trading center , with Palmyrene merchants establishing colonies in surrounding trade centers . Palmyrene trade reached its apex during the second century , aided by two factors ; the first was a trade route built by Palmyrenes , and protected by garrisons at major locations , including a garrison in Dura @-@ Europos manned in 117 AD . The second was the Roman annexation of the Nabataean capital Petra in 106 , shifting control over southern trade routes of the Arabian Peninsula from the Nabataeans to Palmyra . In 129 Palmyra was visited by Hadrian , who named it " Hadriane Palmyra " and made it a free city . Hadrian promoted Hellenism throughout the empire , and Palmyra 's urban expansion was modeled on that of Greece . This led to new projects , including the theatre , the colonnade and the Temple of Nabu . Roman authority in Palmyra was reinforced in 167 , when the cavalry Ala I Thracum Herculiana garrison was moved to the city . By the end of the second century , urban development diminished after the city 's building projects peaked . In the 190s , Palmyra was assigned to the province of Phoenice , newly created by the Severan dynasty . Toward the end of the second century , Palmyra began a steady transition from a traditional Greek city @-@ state to a monarchy due to the increasing militarization of the city and the deteriorating economic situation ; the Severan ascension to the imperial throne in Rome played a major role in Palmyra 's transition : The Severan @-@ led Roman – Parthian War , from 194 to 217 , influenced regional security and affected the city 's trade . Bandits began attacking caravans by 199 , leading Palmyra to strengthen its military presence . The city devoted more energy to protecting the Roman east than to commerce , and its importance increased . The new dynasty favored the city , stationing the Cohors I Flavia Chalcidenorum garrison there by 206 . Caracalla made Palmyra a colonia between 213 and 216 , replacing many Greek institutions with Roman constitutional ones . Severus Alexander , emperor from 222 to 235 , visited Palmyra in 229 . = = = = Palmyrene kingdom = = = = The rise of the Sasanian Empire in Persia considerably damaged Palmyrene trade . The Sasanians disbanded Palmyrene colonies in their lands , and began a war against the Roman empire . In an inscription dated to 252 Odaenathus appears bearing the title of exarchos ( lord ) of Palmyra . The weakness of the Roman empire and the constant Persian danger were probably the reasons behind the Palmyrene council 's decision to elect a lord for the city in order for him to lead a strengthened army . Odaenathus approached Shapur I of Persia to request him to guarantee Palmyrene interests in Persia , but was rebuffed . In 260 the Emperor Valerian fought Shapur at the Battle of Edessa , but was defeated and captured . One of Valerian 's officers , Macrianus Major , his sons Quietus and Macrianus , and the prefect Balista rebelled against Valerian 's son Gallienus , usurping imperial power in Syria . = = = = = Persian wars = = = = = Odaenathus formed an army of Palmyrenes and Syrian peasants against Shapur . According to the Augustan History , Odaenathus declared himself king prior to the battle . The Palmyrene leader won a decisive victory near the banks of the Euphrates later in 260 forcing the Persians to retreat . In 261 Odaenathus marched against the remaining usurpers in Syria , defeating and killing Quietus and Balista . As a reward , he received the title Imperator Totius Orientis ( " Governor of the East " ) from Gallienus , and ruled Syria , Mesopotamia , Arabia and Anatolia 's eastern regions as the imperial representative . Palmyra itself remained officially part of the empire but Palmyrene inscriptions started to describe it as a " metrocolonia " , indicating that the city 's status was higher than normal Roman colonias . In practice , Palmyra shifted from a provincial city to a de facto allied kingdom . In 262 Odaenathus launched a new campaign against Shapur , reclaiming the rest of Roman Mesopotamia ( most importantly , the cities of Nisibis and Carrhae ) , sacking the Jewish city of Nehardea , and besieging the Persian capital Ctesiphon . Following his victory , the Palmyrene monarch assumed the title King of Kings . Later , Odaenathus crowned his son Hairan I as co @-@ King of Kings near Antioch in 263 . Although he did not take the Persian capital , Odaenathus drove the Persians out of all Roman lands conquered since the beginning of Shapur 's wars in 252 . In a second campaign , the Palmyrene king defeated the Persians in 266 near Ctesiphon . In 267 , Odaenathus , accompanied by Hairan I , moved north to repel Gothic attacks on Asia Minor . The king and his son were assassinated during their return ; according to the Augustan History and Joannes Zonaras , Odaenathus was killed by a cousin ( Zonaras says nephew ) named in the History as Maeonius . The Augustan History also says that Maeonius was proclaimed emperor for a brief period before being killed by the soldiers . However , no inscriptions or other evidence exist for Maeonius ' reign and he was probably killed immediately after assassinating Odaenathus . Odaenathus was succeeded by his son ; the ten @-@ year @-@ old Vaballathus . Zenobia , the mother of the new king , was the de facto ruler and Vaballathus remained in her shadow while she consolidated her power . Gallienus dispatched his prefect Heraclian to command military operations against the Persians , but he was marginalized by Zenobia and returned to the West . The queen was careful not to provoke Rome , claiming for herself and her son the titles held by her husband while guaranteeing the safety of the borders with Persia and pacifying the Tanukhids in Hauran . To protect the borders with Persia , Zenobia fortified different settlements on the Euphrates including the citadels of Halabiye and Zalabiye . Circumstantial evidence exist for confrontations with the Sasanians ; probably in 269 Vaballathus took the title Persicus Maximus ( " The great victor in Persia " ) and the title might be linked with an unrecorded battle against a Persian army trying to regain control of Northern Mesopotamia . = = = = = Palmyrene empire = = = = = Zenobia began her military career in the spring of 270 , during the reign of Claudius Gothicus . Under the pretext of attacking the Tanukhids , she annexed Roman Arabia . This was followed in October by an invasion of Egypt , ending with a Palmyrene victory and Zenobia 's proclamation as queen of Egypt . Palmyra invaded Anatolia the following year , reaching Ankara and the pinnacle of its expansion . The conquests were made behind a mask of subordination to Rome . Zenobia issued coins in the name of Claudius ' successor Aurelian , with Vaballathus depicted as king ; since Aurelian was occupied with repelling insurgencies in Europe , he permitted the Palmyrene coinage and conferred the royal titles . In late 271 , Vaballathus and his mother assumed the titles of Augustus ( emperor ) and Augusta . The following year , Aurelian crossed the Bosphorus and advanced quickly through Anatolia . According to one account , Roman general Marcus Aurelius Probus regained Egypt from Palmyra ; Aurelian entered Issus and headed to Antioch , where he defeated Zenobia in the Battle of Immae . Zenobia was defeated again at the Battle of Emesa , taking refuge in Homs before quickly returning to her capital . When the Romans besieged Palmyra , Zenobia refused their order to surrender in person to the emperor . She escaped east to ask the Persians for help , but was captured by the Romans ; the city capitulated soon afterwards . = = = = Later Roman and Byzantine periods = = = = Aurelian spared the city and stationed a garrison of 600 archers , led by Sandarion , as a peacekeeping force . In 273 Palmyra rebelled under the leadership of Septimius Apsaios , declaring Antiochus ( a relative of Zenobia ) as Augustus . Aurelian marched against Palmyra , razing it to the ground and seizing the most valuable monuments to decorate his Temple of Sol . Palmyrene buildings were smashed , residents massacred and the Temple of Bel pillaged . Palmyra was reduced to a village without territory . Aurelian repaired the Temple of Bel , and the Legio I Illyricorum was stationed in the city . Shortly before 303 the Camp of Diocletian , a castra in the western part of the city , was built . The 4 @-@ hectare ( 9 @.@ 9 @-@ acre ) camp was a base for the Legio I Illyricorum , which guarded the trade routes around the city . Palmyra became a Christian city in the decades following its destruction by Aurelian . In late 527 , Justinian I ordered its fortification and the restoration of its churches and public buildings to protect the empire against raids by Lakhmid king Al @-@ Mundhir III ibn al @-@ Nu 'man . = = = Arab caliphate = = = Palmyra was annexed by the Rashidun Caliphate after its 634 capture by the Muslim general Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , who took the city after an 18 @-@ day march by his army through the Syrian Desert from Mesopotamia . By then Palmyra was limited to the Diocletian camp . After the conquest , the city became part of Homs Province . = = = = Umayyad and early Abbasid periods = = = = Palmyra prospered as part of the Umayyad Caliphate , and its population grew . It was a key stop on the East @-@ West trade route , with a large souq ( market ) , built by the Umayyads , who also commissioned part of the Temple of Bel as a mosque . During this period , Palmyra was a stronghold of the Banu Kalb tribe . After being defeated by Marwan II during a civil war in the caliphate , Umayyad contender Sulayman ibn Hisham fled to the Banu Kalb in Palmyra , but eventually pledged allegiance to Marwan in 744 ; Palmyra continued to oppose Marwan until the surrender of the Banu Kalb leader al @-@ Abrash al @-@ Kalbi in 745 . That year , Marwan ordered the city 's walls demolished . In 750 a revolt , led by Majza 'a ibn al @-@ Kawthar and Umayyad pretender Abu Muhammad al @-@ Sufyani , against the new Abbasid Caliphate swept across Syria ; the tribes in Palmyra supported the rebels . After his defeat Abu Muhammad took refuge in the city , which withstood an Abbasid assault long enough to allow him to escape . = = = = Decentralization = = = = Abbasid power dwindled during the 10th century , when the empire disintegrated and was divided among a number of vassals . Most of the new rulers acknowledged the caliph as their nominal sovereign , a situation which continued until the Mongol destruction of the Abbasid Caliphate in 1258 . In 955 Sayf al @-@ Dawla , the Hamdanid prince of Aleppo , defeated the nomads near the city , and built a kasbah ( fortress ) in response to campaigns by the Byzantine emperors Nikephoros II Phokas and John I Tzimiskes . After the early @-@ 11th @-@ century Hamdanid collapse , Palmyra was controlled by the successor Mirdasid dynasty . Earthquakes devastated the city in 1068 and 1089 . The Mirdasids were followed in the second half of the 11th century by Khalaf of the Mala 'ib tribe , centered in Homs . In the 1070s Syria was conquered by the Seljuk Empire , whose sultan Malik @-@ Shah I expelled the Mala 'ib and imprisoned Khalaf in 1090 . Khalaf 's lands were given to Malik @-@ Shah 's brother , Tutush I , who gained his independence after his brother 's 1092 death and established a cadet branch of the Seljuk dynasty in Syria . During the early 12th century Palmyra was ruled by Toghtekin , the Burid atabeg of Damascus , who appointed his nephew governor . Toghtekin 's nephew was killed by rebels , and the atabeg retook the city in 1126 . Palmyra was given to Toghtekin 's grandson , Shihab @-@ ud @-@ din Mahmud , who was replaced by governor Yusuf ibn Firuz when Shihab @-@ ud @-@ din Mahmud returned to Damascus after his father Taj al @-@ Muluk Buri succeeded Toghtekin . The Burids transformed the Temple of Bel into a citadel in 1132 , fortifying the city , and transferring it to the Bin Qaraja family three years later in exchange for Homs . During the mid @-@ 12th century , Palmyra was ruled by the Zengid king Nur ad @-@ Din Mahmud . It became part of the district of Homs , which was given as a fiefdom to the Ayyubid general Shirkuh in 1167 and confiscated after his death in 1169 . Homs was annexed by the Ayyubid sultanate in 1174 ; the following year , Saladin gave Homs ( including Palmyra ) to his cousin Nasir al @-@ Din Muhammad as a fiefdom . After Saladin 's death , the Ayyubid realm was divided and Palmyra was given to Nasir al @-@ Din Muhammad 's son Al @-@ Mujahid Shirkuh II ( who built the castle of Palmyra known as Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din al @-@ Maani Castle around 1230 ) . Five years before , Syrian geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi described Palmyra 's residents as living in " a castle surrounded by a stone wall " . = = = Mamluk period = = = Palmyra was used as a refuge by Shirkuh II 's grandson , al @-@ Ashraf Musa , who allied himself with the Mongol king Hulagu Khan and fled after the Mongol defeat in the 1260 Battle of Ain Jalut against the Mamluks . Al @-@ Ashraf Musa asked the Mamluk sultan Qutuz for pardon and was accepted as a vassal . Al @-@ Ashraf Musa died in 1263 without an heir , bringing the Homs district under direct Mamluk rule . = = = = Al Fadl principality = = = = The Al Fadl clan ( a branch of the Tayy tribe ) declared its loyalty to the Mamluks , and in 1281 , Prince Issa bin Muhanna of the Al Fadl was appointed lord of Palmyra by sultan Qalawun . Issa was succeeded in 1284 by his son Muhanna bin Issa who was imprisoned by sultan al @-@ Ashraf Khalil in 1293 , and restored two years later by sultan al @-@ Adil Kitbugha . Muhanna declared his loyalty to Öljaitü of the Ilkhanate in 1312 and was dismissed and replaced with his brother Fadl by sultan an @-@ Nasir Muhammad . Although Muhanna was forgiven by an @-@ Nasir and restored in 1317 , he and his tribe were expelled in 1320 for his continued relations with the Ilkhanate and he was replaced by tribal chief Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr . Muhanna was forgiven and restored by an @-@ Nasir in 1330 ; he remained loyal to the sultan until his death in 1335 , when he was succeeded by his son . Contemporary historian Ibn Fadlallah al @-@ Omari described the city as having " vast gardens , flourishing trades and bizarre monuments " . The Al Fadl clan protected the trade routes and villages from Bedouin raids , raiding other cities and fighting among themselves . The Mamluks intervened militarily several times , dismissing , imprisoning or expelling its leaders . In 1400 Palmyra was attacked by Timur , who took 200 @,@ 000 sheep and destroyed the city . The Fadl prince Nu 'air escaped the battle against Timur and later fought Jakam , the sultan of Aleppo . Nu 'air was captured , taken to Aleppo and executed in 1406 ; this , according to Ibn Hajar al @-@ Asqalani , ended the Al Fadl clan 's power . = = = Ottoman and later periods = = = Syria became part of the Ottoman Empire in 1516 , and Palmyra was incorporated into Damascus Eyalet as the center of an administrative district ( sanjak ) . During the Ottoman era , Palmyra was a small village in the courtyard of the Temple of Bel . After 1568 the Ottomans appointed the Lebanese prince Ali bin Musa Harfush as governor of Palmyra 's sanjak , dismissing him in 1584 for treason . In 1630 Palmyra came under the authority of another Lebanese prince , Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din II , who renovated Shirkuh II 's castle ( which became known as Fakhr @-@ al @-@ Din al @-@ Maani Castle ) . The prince fell from grace with the Ottomans in 1633 and lost control of the village , which remained a separate sanjak until it was absorbed by Zor Sanjak in 1857 . The village became home to an Ottoman garrison to control the Bedouin in 1867 . Palmyra regained some of its importance at the beginning of the 20th century as a station for caravans , and its revival was aided by the advent of motorized transport . In 1918 , as World War I was ending , the Royal Air Force built an airfield for two planes , and in November the Ottomans retreated from Zor Sanjak without a fight . The Syrian Emirate 's army entered Deir ez @-@ Zor on 4 December , and Zor Sanjak became part of Syria . In 1919 , as the British and French argued over the borders of the planned mandates , the British permanent military representative to the Supreme War Council Henry Wilson suggested adding Palmyra to the British mandate . However , the British general Edmund Allenby persuaded his government to abandon this plan . Syria ( including Palmyra ) became part of the French Mandate after Syria 's defeat in the Battle of Maysalun on 24 July 1920 . As Palmyra gained importance to French efforts to pacify the Syrian Desert , a base was constructed in the village near the Temple of Bel in 1921 . In 1929 the general director of antiquities in Syria , Henri Arnold Seyrig , began excavating the ruins and convinced the villagers to move to a new , French @-@ built village next to the site . The relocation was completed in 1932 ; ancient Palmyra was ready for excavation as its villagers settled into the new village of Tadmur . = = = = Syrian Civil War = = = = As a result of the Syrian Civil War , Palmyra experienced widespread looting and damage by combatants . During the summer of 2012 , concerns about looting in the museum and the site increased when an amateur video of Syrian soldiers carrying funerary stones was posted . However , according to France 24 's report , " From the information gathered , it is impossible to determine whether pillaging was taking place . " The following year the façade of the Temple of Bel sustained a large hole from mortar fire , and colonnade columns have been damaged by shrapnel . According to Maamoun Abdulkarim , director of antiquities and museums at the Syrian Ministry of Culture , the Syrian Army positioned its troops in some archaeological @-@ site areas , while Syrian opposition fighters positioned themselves in gardens around the city . On 13 May 2015 , ISIL launched an attack on the modern town of Tadmur , sparking fears that the iconoclastic group would destroy the adjacent ancient site of Palmyra . On 21 May , some artifacts were transported from the Palmyra museum to Damascus for safekeeping . A number of Greco @-@ Roman busts , jewelry , and other objects looted from the museum have been found on the international market . ISIL forces entered Palmyra on the same day . Local residents reported that the Syrian air force bombed the site on 13 June , damaging the northern wall close to the Temple of Baalshamin . Since at least 27 May , Palmyra 's theatre was used as a place of public executions of ISIL opponents . A video released by ISIL shows the killing of 20 prisoners by teenage male executioners in front of hundreds of men and boys . On 18 August , Palmyra 's retired antiquities chief Khaled al @-@ Asaad was beheaded by ISIL after being tortured for a month to extract information about the city and its treasures ; al @-@ Asaad refused to give any information to his captors . Syrian government forces backed by Russian airstrikes recaptured Palmyra on 27 March 2016 after intense fighting against ISIL fighters . According to initial reports , the damage to the archaeological site was less extensive than anticipated , with numerous structures still standing . Following the recapture of the city , Russian de @-@ mining teams began clearing mines planted by ISIL prior to their retreat . = = Government = = From the beginning of its history to the first century AD Palmyra was a petty sheikhdom , and by the first century BC a Palmyrene identity began to develop . During the first half of the first century AD , Palmyra incorporated some of the institutions of a Greek city ( polis ) ; the concept of citizenship ( demos ) appears in an inscription , dated to 10 AD , describing the Palmyrenes as a community . In 74 AD , an inscription mentions the city 's boule ( senate ) . The tribal role in Palmyra is debated ; during the first century , four treasurers representing the four tribes seems to have partially controlled the administration but their role became ceremonial by the second century and power rested in the hands of the council . The Palmyrene council consisted of about six hundred members of the local elite ( such as the elders or heads of wealthy families or clans ) , representing the city 's four @-@ quarters . The council , headed by a president , managed civic responsibilities ; it supervised public works ( including the construction of public buildings ) , approved expenditures , collected taxes , and appointed two archons ( lords ) each year . Palmyra 's military was led by strategoi ( generals ) appointed by the council . Roman provincial authority set and approved Palmyra 's tariff structure , but the provincial interference in local government was kept minimal as the empire sought to ensure the continuous success of Palmyrene trade most beneficial to Rome . An imposition of direct provincial administration would have jeopardized Palmyra 's ability to conduct its trading activities in the East , especially in Parthia . With the elevation of Palmyra to a colonia around 213 – 216 , the city ceased being subject to Roman provincial governors and taxes . Palmyra incorporated Roman institutions into its system while keeping many of its former ones . The council remained , and the strategos designated one of two annually @-@ elected magistrates . This duumviri implemented the new colonial constitution , replacing the archons . Palmyra 's political scene changed with the rise of Odaenathus and his family ; an inscription dated to 251 describes Odaenathus ' son Hairan I as " Ras " ( lord ) of Palmyra ( exarch in the Greek section of the inscription ) and another inscription dated to 252 describes Odaenathus with the same title . Odaenathus was probably elected by the council as exarch , which was an unusual title in the Roman empire and was not part of the traditional Palmyrene governance institutions . Whether Odaenathus ' title indicated a military or a priestly position is unknown , but the military role is more likely . By 257 Odaenathus was known as a consularis , possibly the legatus of the province of Phoenice . In 258 Odaenathus began extending his political influence , taking advantage of regional instability caused by Sasanian aggression ; this culminated in the Battle of Edessa , Odaenathus ' royal elevation and mobilization of troops , which made Palmyra a kingdom . The monarchy continued the council and most civic institutions , permitting the election of magistrates until 264 . In the absence of the monarch , the city was administered by a viceroy . Although governors of the eastern Roman provinces under Odaenathus ' control were still appointed by Rome , the king had overall authority . During Zenobia 's rebellion , governors were appointed by the queen . Not all Palmyrenes accepted the dominion of the royal family ; a senator , Septimius Haddudan , appears in a later Palmyrene inscription as aiding Aurelian 's armies during the 273 rebellion . After the Roman destruction of the city , Palmyra was ruled directly by Rome , and then by a succession of other rulers , including the Burids and Ayyubids , and subordinate Bedouin chiefs — primarily the Fadl family , who governed for the Mamluks . = = = Military = = = Due to its military character and efficiency in battle , Palmyra was described by Irfan Shahîd as the " Sparta among the cities of the Orient , Arab and other , and even its gods were represented dressed in military uniforms . " Palmyra 's army protected the city and its economy , helping extend Palmyrene authority beyond the city walls and protecting the countryside 's desert trade routes . The city had a substantial military ; Zabdibel commanded a force of 10 @,@ 000 in the third century BC , and Zenobia led an army of 70 @,@ 000 in the Battle of Emesa . Soldiers were recruited from the city and its territories , spanning several thousand square kilometers from the outskirts of Homs to the Euphrates valley . Non @-@ Palmyrene soldiers were also recruited ; a Nabatean cavalryman is recorded in 132 as serving in a Palmyrene unit stationed at Anah . Palmyra 's recruiting system is unknown ; the city might have selected and equipped the troops and the strategoi led , trained and disciplined them . The strategoi were appointed by the council with the approval of Rome . The royal army in the mid 3rd century AD was under the leadership of the monarch aided by generals , and was modeled on the Sasanians in arms and tactics . The Palmyrenes were noted archers . They used infantry while a heavily armored cavalry ( clibanarii ) constituted the main attacking force . Palmyra 's infantry was armed with swords , lances and small round shields ; the clibanarii were fully armored ( including their horses ) , and used heavy spears ( kontos ) 3 @.@ 65 metres ( 12 @.@ 0 ft ) long without shields . = = = = Relations with Rome = = = = Citing the Palmyrenes ' combat skills in large , sparsely populated areas , the Romans formed a Palmyrene auxilia to serve in the Imperial Roman army . Vespasian reportedly had 8 @,@ 000 Palmyrene archers in Judea , and Trajan established the first Palmyrene Auxilia in 116 ( a camel cavalry unit , Ala I Ulpia dromedariorum Palmyrenorum ) . Palmyrene units were deployed throughout the Roman Empire , serving in Dacia late in Hadrian 's reign , and at El Kantara in Numidia and Moesia under Antoninus Pius . During the late second century Rome formed the Cohors XX Palmyrenorum , which was stationed in Dura @-@ Europos . = = Religion = = Palmyra 's gods were primarily part of the northwestern Semitic pantheon , with the addition of gods from the Mesopotamian and Arab pantheons . The city 's chief pre @-@ Hellenistic deity was called Bol , an abbreviation of Baal ( a northwestern Semitic honorific ) . The Babylonian cult of Bel @-@ Marduk influenced the Palmyrene religion and by 217 BC the chief deity 's name was changed to Bel . This did not indicate the replacing of the northwestern Semitic Bol with a Mesopotamian deity , but was a mere change in the name . Second in importance after the supreme deity , were over sixty ancestral gods of the Palmyrene clans . Palmyra had unique deities , such as the god of justice and Efqa 's guardian Yarhibol , the sun god Malakbel , and the moon god Aglibol . Palmyrenes worshiped regional deities , including the greater Levantine gods Astarte , Baal @-@ hamon , Baalshamin and Atargatis ; the Babylonian gods Nabu and Nergal , and the Arab Azizos , Arsu , Šams and Al @-@ lāt . The deities worshiped in the countryside were depicted as camel or horse riders and bore Arab names . The nature of those deities is uncertain as only names are known , most importantly Abgal . The Palmyrene pantheon included ginnaye ( some were given the designation " Gad " ) , a group of lesser deities popular in the countryside , who were similar to the Arab jinn and the Roman genius . Ginnaye were believed to have the appearance and behavior of humans , similar to Arab jinn . Unlike jinn , however , the ginnaye could not possess or injure humans . Their role was similar to the Roman genius : tutelary deities who guarded individuals and their caravans , cattle and villages . Although the Palmyrenes worshiped their deities as individuals , some were associated with other gods . Bel had Astarte @-@ Belti as his consort , and formed a triple deity with Aglibol and Yarhibol ( who became a sun god in his association with Bel ) . Malakbel was part of many associations , pairing with Gad Taimi and Aglibol , and forming a triple deity with Baalshamin and Aglibol . Palmyra hosted an Akitu ( spring festival ) each Nisan . Each of the city 's four @-@ quarters had a sanctuary for a deity considered ancestral to the resident tribe ; Malakbel and Aglibol 's sanctuary was in the Komare quarter . The Baalshamin sanctuary was in the Ma 'zin quarter , the Arsu sanctuary in the Mattabol quarter , and the Atargatis sanctuary in the fourth tribe 's quarter . Palmyra 's paganism was replaced with Christianity as the religion spread across the Roman Empire , and a bishop was reported in the city by 325 . Although most temples became churches , the Temple of Al @-@ lāt was destroyed in 385 at the order of Maternus Cynegius ( the eastern praetorian prefect ) . After the Muslim conquest in 634 Islam gradually replaced Christianity , and the last known bishop of Palmyra was consecrated in 818 . = = Economy = = Palmyra 's economy before and at the beginning of the Roman period was based on agriculture , pastoralism , trade , and serving as a rest station for the caravans which sporadically crossed the desert . By the end of the first century BC , the city had a mixed economy based on agriculture , pastoralism , taxation , and , most importantly , the caravan trade . Taxation was an important source of revenue for the Palmyrene government . Caravaneers paid taxes in the building known as the Tariff Court , where a tax law dating to 137 AD was exhibited . The law regulated the tariffs paid by the merchants for goods sold at the internal market or exported from the city . Classlcist Andrew M. Smith II suggests most land in Palmyra was owned by the city , which collected grazing taxes . The oasis had about 1 @,@ 000 hectares ( 2 @,@ 500 acres ) of irrigable land , which surrounded the city . The Palmyrenes constructed an extensive irrigation system in the northern mountains that consisted of reservoirs and channels to capture and store the occasional rainfall . The countryside was intensively planted with olive , fig , pistachio and barley . However , agriculture could not support the population and food was imported . After Palmyra 's destruction in 273 , it became a market for villagers and nomads from the surrounding area . The city regained some of its prosperity during the Umayyad era , indicated by the discovery of a large Umayyad souq in the colonnaded street . Palmyra was a minor trading center until the Timurid destruction in 1400 , which reduced it to a settlement on the desert border whose inhabitants herded and cultivated small plots for vegetables and corn . = = = Commerce = = = During the first centuries AD , Palmyra 's main trade route ran east to the Euphrates , where it connected to the Silk Road . The route then ran south along the river toward the port of Charax Spasinu on the Persian Gulf , where Palmyrene ships traveled back and forth to India . Goods were imported from India , China and Transoxiana , and exported west to Emesa ( or Antioch ) then the Mediterranean ports , from which they were distributed throughout the Roman Empire . In addition to the usual route some Palmyrene merchants used the Red Sea , probably as a result of the Roman – Parthian Wars . Goods were carried overland from the seaports to a Nile port , and then taken to the Egyptian Mediterranean ports for export . Inscriptions attesting a Palmyrene presence in Egypt date to the reign of Hadrian . Since Palmyra was not on the Silk Road ( which followed the Euphrates ) , the Palmyrenes secured the desert route passing their city . They connected it to the Euphrates valley , providing water and shelter . The Palmyrene route was used almost exclusively by the city 's merchants , who maintained a presence in many cities , including Dura @-@ Europos in 33 BC , Babylon by 19 AD , Seleucia by 24 AD , Dendera , Coptos , Bahrain , the Indus River Delta , Merv and Rome . The caravan trade depended on patrons and merchants . Patrons owned the land on which the caravan animals were raised , providing animals and guards for the merchants . The lands were located in the numerous villages of the Palmyrene countryside . Although merchants used the patrons to conduct business , their roles often overlapped and a patron would sometimes lead a caravan . Commerce made Palmyra and its merchants among the wealthiest in the region . Some caravans were financed by a single merchant , such as Male ' Agrippa ( who financed Hadrian 's visit in 129 and the 139 rebuilding of the Temple of Bel ) . The primary income @-@ generating trade good was silk , which was exported from the East to the West . Other exported goods included jade , muslin , spices , ebony , ivory and precious stones . For its domestic market Palmyra imported variety of goods including slaves , prostitutes , olive oil , dyed goods , myrrh and perfume . = = Excavations = = During the Middle Ages Palmyra was largely forgotten by the West , although it was visited by travelers such as Pietro Della Valle ( between 1616 and 1625 ) , Jean @-@ Baptiste Tavernier ( in 1638 ) and many Swedish and German explorers . In 1678 a group of English merchants visited the city , and its first scholarly description appeared in a 1705 book by Abednego Seller . In 1751 , an expedition led by Robert Wood and James Dawkins studied Palmyra 's architecture ; visits by travelers and antiquarians continued , including one made by Lady Hester Stanhope in 1813 . In 1881 , the " Palmyrene Tariff " , an inscribed stone slab from 137 AD in Greek and Palmyrene detailing import and export taxation , was discovered by prince Abamelek @-@ Lazarev in the Tariff Court . It has been described as " one of the most important single items of evidence for the economic life of any part of the Roman Empire " . In 1901 , the slab was gifted by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Hamid II to the Russian Tsar and is now in the Hermitage Museum in Saint Petersburg . Palmyra 's first excavations were conducted in 1902 by Otto Puchstein and in 1917 by Theodor Wiegand . In 1929 , French general director of antiquities of Syria and Lebanon Henri Arnold Seyrig began large @-@ scale excavation of the site ; interrupted by World War II , it resumed soon after the war 's end . Seyrig started with the Temple of Bel in 1929 and between 1939 and 1940 he excavated the Agora . Daniel Schlumberger conducted excavations in the Palmyrene northwest countryside in 1934 and 1935 where he studied different local sanctuaries in the Palmyrene villages . From 1954 to 1956 , a Swiss expedition organized by UNESCO excavated the Temple of Baalshamin . Since 1958 , the site has been excavated by the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities , and Polish expeditions led by many archaeologists including Kazimierz Michałowski ( until 1980 ) and Michael Gawlikowski ( until 2011 ) . The Polish expedition concentrated its work in the Camp of Diocletian while the Syrian Directorate @-@ General of Antiquities excavated the Temple of Nabu . Most of the hypogea were excavated jointly by the Polish expedition and the Syrian Directorate , while the area of Efqa was excavated by Jean Starcky and Jafar al @-@ Hassani . The Temple of Baal @-@ hamon was discovered by Robert du Mesnil du Buisson in the 1970s . The Palmyrene irrigation system was discovered in 2008 by Jørgen Christian Meyer who researched the Palmyrene countryside through ground inspections and satellite images . Most of Palmyra still remains unexplored especially the residential quarters in the north and south while the necropolis has been thoroughly excavated by the Directorate and the Polish expedition . Excavation expeditions left Palmyra in 2011 due to the Syrian Civil War . In 1980 , the historic site including the necropolis outside the walls was declared a World Heritage Site by the UNESCO . In November 2010 the Austrian media manager Helmut Thoma admitted looting a Palmyrene grave in 1980 , stealing architectural pieces for his home ; German and Austrian archaeologists protested against the theft . = = Destruction by ISIL = = According to eyewitnesses , on 23 May 2015 the militants destroyed the Lion of Al @-@ lāt and other statues . The militant group destroyed the Temple of Baalshamin on 23 August 2015 according to Abdulkarim and activists , while the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights claimed that the destruction took place one month earlier . The Syrian Observatory announced that on 30 August 2015 , ISIL destroyed the Temple of Bel ; according to eyewitnesses , only the exterior walls remain . On 31 August 2015 , the United Nations confirmed the temple was destroyed . It became known on 4 September 2015 that ISIL had destroyed three of the best preserved tower tombs including the Tower of Elahbel . On 5 October 2015 , news media reported ISIL is destroying buildings with no religious meaning , including the Arch of Triumph . In response to the destruction , on 21 October 2015 , Creative Commons started an online repository of three @-@ dimensional images published into the public domain to digitally reconstruct Palmyra . = Nobody Sees = " Nobody Sees " is a song by Powderfinger from their sixth album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . It is the third single from the album and was released in Australia on 1 December 2007 . The announcement that it would be released as a single came at the same time as releasing the music video to the internet on the official Universal Records website . Despite positive critical response , the song charted poorly , peaking at 51 on the ARIA Singles Chart . = = Background = = " Nobody Sees " was recorded by Powderfinger for their 2007 album Dream Days at the Hotel Existence at Sunset Sound Studio , Los Angeles , California , in early 2007 with producer Rob Schnapf . In an interview with Jay and the Doctor on Triple J in November 2007 , Fanning noted that the song is a " bookend " to Powderfinger 's early breakout single " Pick You Up " from Double Allergic . He goes on to note that " It 's ' who 's going to pick you up now ? ' . Cause I 'm not doing it any more . " Fanning also noted that he considers the song a " spacey ballad " . Though the band had previously released songs featuring piano , they had decided for this album to record with session pianist Benmont Tench , who previously had played for Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers , who were one of the inspirations of the album . This was in contrast to previous efforts where piano parts had been performed by Fanning or local Australian pianists . Despite Tench 's performance on the song , Fanning appears in the music video as playing piano . = = Release = = The single for " Nobody Sees " was officially released on 1 December 2007 in Australia . This was announced on 16 November 2007 , only two weeks prior to its release . The single was released only to the iTunes Store as a three @-@ song EP including the studio version of the song , a live version of the song and another song from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . = = = Music video = = = The music video for " Nobody Sees " features the entire line @-@ up of Powderfinger in shot in the dark at nighttime with the Melbourne cityscape in the background . The group 's lead vocalist , Bernard Fanning , who in all previous recordings would play keyboards and piano parts , did not record any of these parts for Dream Days at the Hotel Existence , as these duties were fulfilled by Benmont Tench . Though Tench performed the keyboard in the recording of the song , Fanning appears at the keyboard in the music video . The scenes of the band playing are intercut with video shots of a do @-@ it @-@ yourself carwash , and five shots of people by themselves . These people are all initially shown being still then as the video progresses , the people are shown performing highly energetic actions in slow motion . The actions shown include running , falling and jumping . There are instances through Ian Haug 's guitar solo where John Collins ' bass guitar and Darren Middleton 's electric guitar are also shown in close @-@ up and slow motion . = = = Critical response = = = PerthNow reporter Jay Hanna called " Nobody Sees " " Powderfinger at their devastating best " in his Dream Days at the Hotel Existence review , commending its overall impact on the album . Clayton Bolger of Allmusic agreed , calling the song " wondrous " and praising Tench 's piano work on it . The song was labeled an " AMG Track Pick " . Herald Sun HiT reviewer Cameron Adams agreed , also commenting that the song was an excellent reminder " of Fanning ’ s prowess as a rock vocalist " . Mess + Noise reviewer Andrew Ramadge notes that " Nobody Sees " is validated by Dream Days at the Hotel Existence 's controversial track " Black Tears " , stating that it " would otherwise seem like the usual lovelorn crap [ but ] can ’ t help but take on a different meaning in the shadow of " Black Tears " . " Shah Xerxes from Fasterlouder comments that the song is a " heartbreak @-@ inspired and sugary love ballad " , noting the songs sadness by referring to it as " an intensely moody number reserved for sadder moments where a little reflection and perspective is required . " UK reviewer Mike Rea from Contact Music noted " Nobody Sees " as a " standout song " from the album , which on the whole he rated 8 / 10 . Sputnikmusic contributor James Bishop was less enthusiastic about the song , noting that it wasn 't dissimilar to past Powderfinger works , although noting that it utilized " the variety and flexibility the band is capable of . " = = = Charts = = = " Nobody Sees " peaked at number 51 on the ARIA Singles Chart and spent 17 weeks in the top 100 . = = Track listing = = The track listing for the " Nobody Sees " single is listed with iTunes Store as being an EP , though includes only three songs , beginning with the studio version of the song . The second track is the live performance of the song taken from their Across the Great Divide tour performance at the Brisbane Powerhouse in October 2007 , and the final track , " Wishing on the Same Moon " , is also from the Powerhouse performance , and also originally from Dream Days at the Hotel Existence . " Nobody Sees " – 4 : 12 " Nobody Sees " ( live ) – 4 : 38 " Wishing on the Same Moon " ( live ) – 5 : 53 = = Personnel = = = Themes in Avatar = The 2009 American science fiction film Avatar has earned widespread success , becoming the highest @-@ grossing film in history . The blockbuster has provoked vigorous discussion of a wide variety of cultural , social , political , and religious themes identified by critics and commentators , and the film 's writer and director James Cameron has responded that he hoped to create an emotional reaction and to provoke public conversation about these topics . The broad range of Avatar 's intentional or perceived themes has prompted reviewers to call it " an all @-@ purpose allegory " and " the season 's ideological Rorschach blot " . One reporter even suggested that the politically charged punditry has been " misplaced " : reviewers should have seized on the opportunity to take " a break from their usual fodder of public policy and foreign relations " rather than making an ideological battlefield of this " popcorn epic " . Discussion has centered on such themes as the conflict between modern human and nature , and the film 's treatment of imperialism , racism , militarism and patriotism , corporate greed , property rights , spirituality and religion . Commentators have debated whether the film 's treatment of the human aggression against the native Na 'vi is a message of support for indigenous peoples today , or is , instead , a tired retelling of the racist myth of the noble savage . Right @-@ wing critics accused Cameron of pushing an " anti @-@ American " message in the film 's depiction of a private military contractor that used ex @-@ Marines to attack the natives , while Cameron and others argued that it is pro @-@ American to question the propriety of the current wars in Iraq and Afghanistan . The visual similarity between the destruction of the World Trade Center and the felling of Home Tree in the film caused some filmgoers to further identify with the Na 'vi and to identify the human military contractors as terrorists . Critics asked whether this comparison was intended to encourage audiences to empathize with the position of Muslims under military occupation today . Much discussion has concerned the film 's treatment of environmental protection and the parallels to , for example , the destruction of rainforests , mountaintop removal for mining and evictions from homes for development . The title of the film and various visual and story elements provoked discussion of the film 's use of the iconography of Hinduism , which Cameron confirmed had inspired him . Christians , including the Vatican , worried that the film promotes pantheism over Christian beliefs , while others instead thought that it sympathetically explores biblical concepts . Other critics either praised the film 's spiritual elements or found them hackneyed . = = Political themes = = = = = Imperialism = = = Avatar describes the battle by an indigenous people , the Na 'vi of Pandora , against the oppression of alien humans . Director James Cameron acknowledged that the film is " certainly about imperialism in the sense that the way human history has always worked is that people with more military or technological might tend to supplant or destroy people who are weaker , usually for their resources . " Critics agreed that the film is " a clear message about dominant , aggressive cultures subjugating a native population in a quest for resources or riches . " George Monbiot , writing in The Guardian , asserted that conservative criticism of Avatar is a reaction to what he called the film 's " chilling metaphor " for the European " genocides in the Americas " , which " massively enriched " Europe . Cameron told National Public Radio that references to the colonial period are in the film " by design " . Adam Cohen of The New York Times compared the struggle of the Na 'vi with " a 22nd @-@ century version of the American colonists vs. the British , India vs. the British Raj , or Latin America vs. United Fruit . " Saritha Prabhu , an Indian @-@ born columnist for The Tennessean , wrote about the parallels between the plot and how " Western power colonizes and invades the indigenous people ( native Americans , Eastern countries , you substitute the names ) , sees the natives as primitives / savages / uncivilized , is unable or unwilling to see the merits in a civilization that has been around longer , loots the weaker power , all while thinking it is doing a favor to the poor natives . " David Brooks , in The New York Times , criticized what he saw as the " White Messiah complex " in the film , whereby the Na 'vi " can either have their history shaped by cruel imperialists or benevolent ones , but either way , they are going to be supporting actors in our journey to self @-@ admiration . " Others disagree : " First off , [ Jake is ] handicapped . Second off , he ultimately becomes one of [ the Na 'vi ] and wins their way . " Many commentators saw the film as a message of support for the struggles of native peoples today . Evo Morales , the first indigenous president of Bolivia , praised Avatar for its " profound show of resistance to capitalism and the struggle for the defense of nature " . Others compared the human invaders with " NATO in Iraq or Israel in Palestine " , and considered it reassuring that " when the Na 'vi clans are united , and a sincere prayer is offered , the ... ' primitive savages ' win the war . " Palestinian activists painted themselves blue and dressed like the Na 'vi during their weekly protest in the village of Bilin against Israel 's separation barrier . Other Arab writers , however , noted that " for Palestinians , Avatar is rather a reaffirmation and confirmation of the claims about their incapability to lead themselves and build their own future . " On the other hand , Forbes columnist Reihan Salam criticized the vilification of capitalism in the film , asserting that it represents a more noble and heroic way of life than that led by the Na 'vi , because it " give [ s ] everyone an opportunity to learn , discover , and explore , and to change the world around us . " = = = Militarism = = = Cameron stated that Avatar is " very much a political film " and added : " This movie reflects that we are living through war . There are boots on the ground , troops who I personally believe were sent there under false pretenses , so I hope this will be part of opening our eyes . " He confirmed that " the Iraq stuff and the Vietnam stuff is there by design " , adding that he did not think that the film was anti @-@ military . Critic Charles Marowitz in Swans magazine remarked , however , that the realism of the suggested parallel with wars in Iraq , Iran , and Afghanistan " doesn 't quite jell " because the natives are " peace @-@ loving and empathetic " . Cameron said that Americans have a " moral responsibility " to understand the impact of their country 's recent military campaigns . Commenting on the term " shock and awe " in the film , Cameron said : " We know what it feels like to launch the missiles . We don 't know what it feels like for them to land on our home soil , not in America . " Christian Hamaker of Crosswalk.com noted that , " in describing the military assault on Pandora , Cameron cribs terminology from the ongoing war on terrorism and puts it in the mouths of the film 's villains ... as they ' fight terror with terror ' . Cameron 's sympathies , and the movie 's , clearly are with the Na 'vi — and against the military and corporate men . " A columnist in the Russian newspaper Vedomosti traced Avatar 's popularity to its giving the audience a chance to make a moral choice between good and evil and , by emotionally siding with Jake 's treason , to relieve " us the scoundrels " of our collective guilt for the cruel and unjust world that we have created . Armond White of New York Press dismissed the film as " essentially a sentimental cartoon with a pacifist , naturalist message " that uses villainous Americans to misrepresent the facts of the military , capitalism , and imperialism . Answering critiques of the film as insulting to the U.S. military , a piece in the Los Angeles Times asserted that " if any U.S. forces that ever existed were being insulted , it was the ones who fought under George Armstrong Custer , not David Petraeus or Stanley McChrystal . " Other reviews saw Avatar as " the bubbling up of our military subconscious ... the wish to be free of all the paperwork and risk aversion of the modern Army — much more fun to fly , unarmored , on a winged beast . " A critic writing in Le Monde opined that , contrary to the perceived pacifism of Avatar , the film justifies war in the response to attack by the film 's positive characters , particularly the American hero who encourages the Na 'vi to " follow him into battle . ... Every war , even those that seem the most insane [ are justified as being ] for the ' right reasons ' . " Ann Marlowe of Forbes saw the film as both pro- and anti @-@ military , " a metaphor for the networked military " . = = = Anti @-@ Americanism = = = Many reviewers perceived an anti @-@ American message in the film , equating RDA 's private security force to American soldiers . Commentator Glenn Beck on his radio show said that Avatar was " an anti ‑ U.S. human thing " . Russell D. Moore in The Christian Post stated that , " If you can get a theater full of people in Kentucky to stand and applaud the defeat of their country in war , then you 've got some amazing special effects " and criticized Cameron for what he saw as an unnuanced depiction of the American military as " pure evil " . John Podhoretz of The Weekly Standard argued that Avatar revealed " hatred of the military and American institutions and the notion that to be human is just way uncool . " One review called Avatar the " liberal tell " of " a thinly disguised , heavy @-@ handed and simplistic sci @-@ fi fantasy / allegory critical of America from our founding straight through to the Iraq War . " Charles Mudede of The Stranger commented that with the release of the film " the American culture industry exports an anti @-@ American spectacle to an anti @-@ American world . " Debbie Schlussel likewise dismissed Avatar as " cinema for the hate America crowd " . Cameron argued that " the film is definitely not anti @-@ American " and that " part of being an American is having the freedom to have dissenting ideas . " A critic for MTV concurred that " it 'd take a great leap of logic to tag ' Avatar ' as anti @-@ American or anti @-@ capitalist . " Ann Marlowe called the film " the most neo @-@ con movie ever made " for its " deeply conservative , pro @-@ American message " . But Cameron admitted to some ambiguity on the issue , agreeing that " the bad guys could be America in this movie , or the good guys could be America in this movie , depending on your perspective " , and stated that Avatar 's defeat at the Academy Awards might have been due to the perceived anti @-@ U.S. theme in it . The destruction of the Na 'vi habitat Hometree reminded commentators of the September 11 attack on the World Trade Center , one calling it a " tacky metaphor " and others criticizing Cameron for his " audacious willingness to question the sacred trauma of 9 / 11 " . Cameron said that he was " surprised at how much it did look like September 11 " , but added that he did not think that it was necessarily a bad thing . A French critic wrote : " How can one not see the analogy with the collapse of the towers of the World Trade Center ? Then , after that spectacular scene , all is justified [ for the unified ] indigenous peoples ( the allied forces ) ... to kill those who [ are ] just like terrorists . " Another writer noted that " the U.S. ' stand @-@ ins are the perpetrators , and not the victims " and described this reversal as " the movie ’ s most seditious act " . = = Social and cultural themes = = = = = Civilization and race = = = Commentators around the world sought to interpret the relationship between the Na 'vi and humans in the film , mostly agreeing with Maxim Osipov , who wrote in the Hindustan Times and The Sydney Morning Herald : " The ' civilised humans ' turn out as primitive , jaded and increasingly greedy , cynical , and brutal — traits only amplified by their machinery — while the ' monkey aliens ' emerge as noble , kind , wise , sensitive and humane . We , along with the Avatar hero , are now faced with an uncomfortable yet irresistible choice between the two races and the two worldviews . " Osipov wrote that it was inevitable that the audience , like the film 's hero , Jake , would find that the Na 'vi 's culture was really the more civilized of the two , exemplifying " the qualities of kindness , gratitude , regard for the elder , self @-@ sacrifice , respect for all life and ultimately humble dependence on a higher intelligence behind nature . " Echoing this analysis , psychologist Jeffery Fine in The Miami Herald urged " every man , woman and child " to see the film and wake up to its message by making the right choice between commercial materialism , which is " steamrolling our soul and consciousness " , and reconnection with all life as " the only ... promise of survival " for humanity . Similarly , an Angolan critic saw the film as a message of hope , writing , " With this union of humans and aliens comes a feeling that something better exists in the universe : the respect for life . " Cameron confirmed that " the Na 'vi represent the better aspects of human nature , and the human characters in the film demonstrate the more venal aspects of human nature . " Conversely , David Brooks of The New York Times opined that Avatar creates " a sort of two @-@ edged cultural imperialism " , an offensive cultural stereotype that white people are rationalist and technocratic while colonial victims are spiritual and athletic and that illiteracy is the path to grace . A review in the Irish Independent found the film to contrast a " mix of New Age environmentalism and the myth of the Noble Savage " with the corruption of the " civilized " white man . Reihan Salam , writing in Forbes , viewed it as ironic that " Cameron has made a dazzling , gorgeous indictment of the kind of society that produces James Camerons . " Many critics saw racist undertones in the film 's treatment of the indigenous Na 'vi , seeing it as " a fantasy about race told from the point of view of white people " , which reinforces " the White Messiah fable " , in which the white hero saves helpless primitive natives , who are thus reduced to servicing his ambitions and proving his heroism . Other reviews called Avatar an offensive assumption that nonwhites need the White Messiah to lead their crusades , and " a self @-@ loathing racist screed " due to the fact that all the " human " roles in the film are played by white actors and all the Na 'vi characters by African @-@ American or Native American actors . Māori academic Rawiri Taonui agreed that the film portrays indigenous people as being simplistic and unable to defend themselves without the help from " the white guys and the neo @-@ liberals . " Another author remarked that while the white man will fix the destruction , he will never feel guilty , even though he is directly responsible for the destruction . " Likewise , Josef Joffe , publisher @-@ editor of Die Zeit in Germany , said the film perpetuates the myth of the " noble savage " and has " a condescending , yes , even racist message . Cameron bows to the noble savages . However , he reduces them to dependents . " Slavoj Žižek argued that " the film enables us to practise a typical ideological division : sympathising with the idealised aborigines while rejecting their actual struggle . " The Irish Times carried the comment that " despite all the thematic elements from Hinduism , one thing truly original is the good old American ego . Given its Hollywood origins , the script has remained faithful to the inherent superiority complex , and has predictably bestowed the honor of the ' avatar ' not on the movie ’ s native Na ’ vis , but on a white American marine . " Similarly , positing that " the only good humans [ in the film ] are dead — or rather , resurrected as ' good Navi ' " , a writer in The Jerusalem Post thought that the film was inadvertently promoting supremacy of one race over another . On the Charlie Rose talk show , Cameron acknowledged parallels with idea of the " noble savage " , but argued : " When indigenous populations who are at a bow and arrow level are met with technological superior forces , [ if ] somebody doesn 't help them , they lose . So we are not talking about a racial group within an existing population fighting for their rights . " Cameron rejected claims that the film is racist , asserting that Avatar is about respecting others ' differences . Adam Cohen of The New York Times felt similarly , writing that the Na 'vi greeting " I see you " contrasts with the oppression of , and even genocide against , those who we fail to accept for what they are , citing Jewish ghettos and the Soviet gulags as examples . = = = Environment and property = = = Avatar has been called " without a doubt the most epic piece of environmental advocacy ever captured on celluloid .... The film hits all the important environmental talking @-@ points — virgin rain forests threatened by wanton exploitation , indigenous peoples who have much to teach the developed world , a planet which functions as a collective , interconnected Gaia @-@ istic organism , and evil corporate interests that are trying to destroy it all . " Cameron has spoken extensively with the media about the film 's environmental message , saying that he envisioned Avatar as a broader metaphor of how we treat the natural world . He said that he created Pandora as " a fictionalised fantasy version of what our world was like , before we started to pave it and build malls , and shopping centers . So it 's really an evocation of the world we used to have . " He told Charlie Rose that " we are going to go through a lot of pain and heartache if we don 't acknowledge our stewardship responsibilities to nature . " Interviewed by Terry Gross of National Public Radio , he called Avatar a satire on the sense of human entitlement : " [ Avatar ] is saying our attitude about indigenous people and our entitlement about what is rightfully theirs is the same sense of entitlement that lets us bulldoze a forest and not blink an eye . It 's just human nature that if we can take it , we will . And sometimes we do it in a very naked and imperialistic way , and other times we do it in a very sophisticated way with lots of rationalization — but it 's basically the same thing . A sense of entitlement . And we can 't just go on in this unsustainable way , just taking what we want and not giving back . " An article in the Belgium paper De Standaard agreed : " It 's about the brutality of man , who shamelessly takes what isn 't his . " Commentators connected the film 's story to the endangerment of biodiversity in the Amazon rainforests of Brazil by dam construction , logging , mining , and clearing for agriculture . A Newsweek piece commented on the destruction of Home Tree as resembling the rampant tree @-@ felling in Tibet , while another article compared the film 's depiction of destructive corporate mining for unobtanium in the Na 'vi lands with the mining and milling of uranium near the Navajo reservation in New Mexico . Other critics , however , dismissed Avatar 's pro @-@ environmental stance as inconsistent . Armond White remarked that , " Cameron ’ s really into the powie @-@ zowie factor : destructive combat and the deployment of technological force . ... Cameron fashionably denounces the same economic and military system that make his technological extravaganza possible . It ’ s like condemning NASA — yet joyriding on the Mars Exploration Rover . " Another author called the film " socialism @-@ disguised @-@ as @-@ nonsense enviro stuff " and argued that the very process of creation and promotion of Avatar emitted enough carbon to undermine the film 's ecological message . Similarly , an article in National Review concluded that by resorting to technology for educating viewers of the technology endangered world of Pandora , the film " showcases the contradictions of organic liberalism . " Stating that such a conservative criticism of his film 's " strong environmental anti @-@ war themes " was not unexpected , Cameron stressed that he was " interested in saving the world that my children are going to inhabit " , encouraged everyone to be a " tree hugger " , and urged that we " make a fairly rapid transition to alternate energy . " The film and Cameron 's environmental activism caught the attention of the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Dongria Kondh tribe from Orissa , eastern India . They appealed to him to help them stop a mining company from opening a bauxite open @-@ cast mine , on their sacred Niyamgiri mountain , in an advertisement in Variety that read : " Avatar is fantasy ... and real . The Dongria Kondh ... are struggling to defend their land against a mining company hell @-@ bent on destroying their sacred mountain . Please help .... " Similarly , a coalition of over fifty environmental and aboriginal organizations of Canada ran a full @-@ page ad in the special Oscar edition of Variety likening their fight against Canada 's Alberta oilsands to the Na 'vi insurgence , — a comparison the mining and oil companies objected to . Cameron was awarded the inaugural Temecula Environment Award for Outstanding Social Responsibility in Media by three environmentalist groups for portrayal of environmental struggles that they compared with their own . The destruction of the Na 'vi habitat to make way for mining operations has also evoked parallels with the oppressive policies of some states often involving forcible evictions related to development . David Boaz of the libertarian Cato Institute wrote in Los Angeles Times that the film 's essential conflict is a battle over property rights , " the foundation of the free market and indeed of civilization . " Melinda Liu found this storyline reminiscent of the policies of the authorities in China , where 30 million citizens have been evicted in the course of a three @-@ decade long development boom . An article in the Global Times , published by the Chinese Communist Party 's official newspaper People 's Daily , called the film 's plot " the spitting image of the violent demolition in our everyday life . ... [ F ] acing the violent demolition conducted by chengguan but instigated by real estate developers , some ordinary people have wept or burned themselves desperately , while most continue to bear unfairness in silence . " Others saw similar links to the displacement of tribes in the Amazon basin and the forcible demolition of private houses in a Moscow suburb . = = Religion and spirituality = = David Quinn of the Irish Independent wrote that the spirituality depicted " goes some way towards explaining the film 's gigantic popularity , and that is the fact that Avatar is essentially a religious film , even if Cameron might not have intended it as such . " At the same time , Jonah Goldberg of National Review Online objected to what he saw in the film reviews as " the norm to speak glowingly of spirituality but derisively of traditional religion . " James Cameron has said that he " tried to make a film that would touch people 's spirituality across the broad spectrum . " He also stated that one of the film 's philosophical underpinnings is that " the Na 'vi represent that sort of aspirational part of ourselves that wants to be better , that wants to respect nature , while the humans in the film represent the more venal versions of ourselves , the banality of evil that comes with corporate decisions that are made out of remove of the consequences . " Film director John Boorman saw a similar dichotomy as a key factor contributing to its success : " Perhaps the key is the marine in the wheelchair . He is disabled , but Mr Cameron and technology can transport him into the body of a beautiful , athletic , sexual , being . After all , we are all disabled in one way or another ; inadequate , old , broken , earthbound . Pandora is a kind of heaven where we can be resurrected and connected instead of disconnected and alone . " = = = Religions and mythology = = = Reviewers suggested that the film draws upon many existing religious and mythological motifs . Vern Barnet of the Charlotte Observer opined that Avatar poses a great question of faith — should the creation be seen and governed hierarchically , from above , or ecologically , through mutual interdependence ? He also noted that the film borrows concepts from other religions and compared its Tree of Souls with the Norse story of the tree Yggdrasil , also called axis mundi or the center of the world , whose destruction signals the collapse of the universe . Malinda Liu in Newsweek likened the Na 'vi respect for life and belief in reincarnation with Tibetan religious beliefs and practices , but Reihan Salam of Forbes called the species " perhaps the most sanctimonious humanoids ever portrayed on film . " A Bolivian writer defined " avatar " as " something born without human intervention , without intercourse , without sin " , comparing it to the birth of Jesus Christ , Krishna , Manco Capac , and Mama Ocllo and drew parallels between the deity Eywa of Pandora and the goddess Pachamama worshiped by the indigenous people of the Andes . Another suggested that the world of Pandora mirrored the Garden of Eden . A writer for Religion Dispatches countered that Avatar " begs , borrows , and steals from a variety of longstanding human stories , puts them through the grinder , and comes up with something new . " Another commentator called Avatar " a new version of the Garden of Eden syndrome " pointing to what she viewed as phonetic and conceptual similarities of the film 's terminology with that of the Book of Genesis . = = = Parallels with Hinduism = = = The Times of India suggested Avatar was a treatise on Indianism " for Indophiles and Indian philosophy enthusiasts " , starting from the very word Avatar itself . A Houston Chronicle piece critiqued the film in terms of the ancient Hindu epics Ramayana and Mahabharata , commenting on the Na 'vi visual similarity with Rama and Krishna — avatars central to the respective epics and traditionally depicted with blue skin , black hair , and a tilak mark on the forehead . Another critic found that elements of the film 's plot resembled such teachings and concepts of Hinduism as reincarnation of the soul , ecological consciousness , and incarnations of deities on Earth , commending Avatar and its director for " raising the global stature of Hinduism ... in months " , while criticizing them for substantiating the western reluctance to accept anything oriental in its pristine form . Cameron calls the connection a " subconscious " reference : " I have just loved ... the mythology , the entire Hindu pantheon , seems so rich and vivid . " He continued , " I didn 't want to reference the Hindu religion so closely , but the subconscious association was interesting , and I hope I haven 't offended anyone in doing so . " He has stated that he was familiar with a lot of beliefs of the Hindu religion and found it " quite fascinating " . Answering a question from Time magazine in 2007 , " What is an Avatar anyway ? " James Cameron replied , " It 's an incarnation of one of the Hindu gods taking a flesh form . In this film what that means is that the human technology in the future is capable of injecting a human 's intelligence into a remotely located body , a biological body . " In 2010 , Cameron confirmed the meaning of the title to the Times of India : " Of course , that was the significance in the film , although the characters are not divine beings . But the idea was that they take flesh in another body . " Following the film 's release , reviewers focused on Cameron 's choice of the religious Sanskrit term for the film 's title . A reviewer in the Irish Times traced the term to the ten incarnations of Vishnu . Another writer for The Hindu concluded that by using the " loaded Sanskrit word " Cameron indicated the possibility that an encounter with an emotionally superior — but technologically inferior — form of alien may in the future become a next step in human evolution — provided we will learn to integrate and change , rather than conquer and destroy . Maxim Osipov of ISKCON argued in The Sydney Morning Herald that " Avatar " is a " downright misnomer " for the film because " the movie reverses the very concept [ that ] the term ' avatar ' — literally , in Sanskrit , ' descent ' — is based on . So much for a descending ' avatar ' , Jake becomes a refugee among the aborigines . " Vern Barnet in Charlotte Observer likewise thought that the title insults traditional Hindu usage of the term since it is a human , not	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
a god , who descends in the film . However , Rishi Bhutada , Houston coordinator of the Hindu American Foundation , stated that while there are certain sacred terms that would offend Hindus if used improperly , ' avatar ' is not one of them . Texas @-@ based filmmaker Ashok Rao added that ' avatar ' does not always mean a representative of God on Earth , but simply one being in another form — especially in literature , moviemaking , poetry and other forms of art . Explaining the choice of the color blue for the Na 'vi , Cameron said " I just like blue . It 's a good color ... plus , there 's a connection to the Hindu deities , which I like conceptually . " Commentators agreed that the blue skin of the Na 'vi , described in a New Yorker article as " Vishnu @-@ blue " , " instantly and metaphorically " relates the film 's protagonist to such avatars of Vishnu as Rama and Krishna . An article in the San Francisco Examiner described an 18th @-@ century Indian painting of Vishnu and his consort Laksmi riding the great mythical bird Garuda as " Avatar prequel " due to its resemblance with the film 's scene in which the hero 's blue @-@ skinned avatar flies a gigantic raptor . Asra Q. Nomani of The Daily Beast likened the hero and his Na 'vi mate Neytiri to images of Shiva and Durga . Discussing explicit or implicit similarities between the film and the philosophy of Hinduism , reviewers suggested that , just as Hindu gods , particularly Vishnu , become avatars to save the order of the universe , the film ’ s avatar must descend to avert impending ultimate doom , effected by a rapacious greed that leads to destroying the world of nature and other civilizations . Maxim Osipov observed that the film 's philosophical message was consistent overall with the Bhagavad Gita , a key scripture of Hinduism , in defining what constitutes real culture and civilization . Critics saw an " undeniably " Hindu connection between the film 's story and the Vedic teaching of reverence for the whole universe , as well as the yogic practice of inhabiting a distant body by one ’ s consciousness and compared the film 's love scene to tantric practices . Another linked the Na 'vi earth goddess Eywa to the concept of Brahman as the ground of being described in Vedanta and Upanishads and likened the Na 'vi ability to connect to Eywa with the realization of Atman . One commentator noted the parallel between the Na 'vi greeting " I see you " and the ancient Hindu greeting " Namaste " , which signifies perceiving and adoring the divinity within others . Others commented on Avatar 's adaptation of the Hindu teaching of reincarnation , — a concept , which another author felt was more accurately applicable to ordinary human beings that are " a step or two away from exotic animals " than to deities . Writing for the Ukrainian Day newspaper , Maxim Chaikovsky drew detailed analogies between Avatar 's plot and elements of the ancient Bhagavata Purana narrative of Krishna , including the heroine Radha , the Vraja tribe and their habitat the Vrindavana forest , the hovering Govardhan mountain , and the mystical rock chintamani . He also opined that this resemblance may account for " Avatar blues " — a sense of loss experienced by members of the audience at the conclusion of the film . = = = Pantheism vs. Christianity = = = Some Christian writers worried that Avatar promotes pantheism and nature worship . A critic for L ’ Osservatore Romano of the Holy See wrote that the film " shows a spiritualism linked to the worship of nature , a fashionable pantheism in which creator and creation are mixed up . " Likewise , Vatican Radio argued that the film " cleverly winks at all those pseudo @-@ doctrines that turn ecology into the religion of the millennium . Nature is no longer a creation to defend , but a divinity to worship . " According to Vatican spokesman Federico Lombardi , these reviews reflect the Pope 's views on neopaganism , or confusing nature and spirituality . On the other hand , disagreeing with the Vatican 's characterization of Avatar as pagan , a writer in the National Catholic Reporter urged Christian critics to see the film in the historical context of " Christianity 's complicity in the conquest of the Americas " instead . Ross Douthat , a conservative columnist of The New York Times , called Avatar " the Gospel According to James " and " Cameron 's long apologia for pantheism [ which ] has been Hollywood 's religion of choice for a generation now . " In The Weekly Standard , John Podhoretz criticized the film 's " mindless worship of a nature @-@ loving tribe and the tribe 's adorable pagan rituals . " Christian critic David Outten disputed that " the danger to moviegoers is that Avatar presents the Na 'vi culture on Pandora as morally superior to life on Earth . If you love the philosophy and culture of the Na 'vi too much , you will be led into evil rather than away from it . " Outten further added : " Cameron has done a masterful job in manipulating the emotions of his audience in Avatar . He created a world where it looks good and noble to live in a tree and hunt for your food daily with a bow and arrow . ... Cameron said , ' Avatar asks us to see that everything is connected , all human beings to each other , and us to the Earth . ' This is a clear statement of religious belief . This is pantheism . It is not Christianity . " Other Christian critics wrote that Avatar has " an abhorrent New Age , pagan , anti @-@ capitalist worldview that promotes goddess worship and the destruction of the human race " and suggested that Christian viewers interpret the film as a reminder of Jesus Christ as " the True Avatar " . Some of them also suspected Avatar of subversive retelling of the biblical Exodus , by which Cameron " invites us to look at the Bible from the side of Canaanites . " Conversely , other commentators concluded that the film promotes theism or panentheism rather than pantheism , arguing that the hero " does not pray to a tree , but through a tree to the deity whom he addresses personally " and , unlike in pantheism , " the film 's deity does indeed — contrary to the native wisdom of the Na 'vi — interfere in human affairs . " Ann Marlowe of Forbes agreed , saying that " though Avatar has been charged with " pantheism " , its mythos is just as deeply Christian . " Another author suggested that the film 's message " leads to a renewed reverence for the natural world — a very Christian teaching . " Saritha Prabhu , an Indian @-@ born columnist for The Tennessean , saw the film as a misportrayal of pantheism : " What pantheism is , at least , to me : a silent , spiritual awe when looking ( as Einstein said ) at the ' beauty and sublimity of the universe ' , and seeing the divine manifested in different aspects of nature . What pantheism isn 't : a touchy @-@ feely , kumbaya vibe as is often depicted . No wonder many Americans are turned off . " Prabhu also criticized Hollywood and Western media for what she saw as their generally poor job of portraying Eastern spirituality . = Avenged ( 1910 film ) = Avenged is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is a melodrama focusing on John Warren , a young clerk , who is struck by a taxi cab while crossing the street . The chauffeur who struck him , Allen , decides to flee as a crowd gathers around John . Allen ditches his taxi on a country road and takes a train , successfully escaping . Six years later , the poor , ill and crippled John has become a timekeeper in a mining town . John 's wife , who has taken care of him , sickens and dies . Allen , unaware of John 's identity , attempts to comfort him and listens to John 's story . After learning Allen wrecked his life , John attempts to shoot him , but the specter of his wife stays his hand . John goes to her grave , forgives Allen , and dies . No cast or production credits are known for this film . Released on October 7 , 1910 , the film was a distinct departure from other Thanhouser releases and was sharply criticized by reviewers . The film is presumed lost . = = Plot = = Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from October 8 , 1910 . It states : " John Warren , a prosperous young clerk , is run down by a taxi cab while crossing a city street . The chauffeur , Allen , afraid of the consequences of his carelessness , makes his escape when he sees a crowd gathering around his victim . He abandons his machine on a lonely country road , and catching a westbound train , succeeds in making good his escape . Six years later finds John , now a cripple , living in a mining town with his devoted wife . Here John , incapacitated from other work , lives out a miserable existence as the timekeeper at the mine . Here , also , Allen comes , applying for work as a miner . They do not recognize each other . John , poor and ill , is visited by another misfortune . His beloved wife , who has clung to him through all the years of his adversity , sickens and dies . His one joy in life is taken from him . John refuses to be comforted by Allen , who feels deep sympathy for the poor cripple . While reciting his sad history to Allen , John learns for the first time that Allen is the man who , by crippling him , wrecked his life . At last the vengeance he has sought all these years is within his reach . He raises his gun to end Allen 's existence , when a vision of his wife appears , breathing the message , ' Vengeance is Mine , sayeth the Lord . ' John rushes from the house to the grave of his loved one , and there , after forgiving Allen , dies at peace with mankind . " = = Production = = The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . In late 1910 , the Thanhouser company released a list of the important personalities in their films . The list includes G.W. Abbe , Justus D. Barnes , Frank H. Crane , Irene Crane , Marie Eline , Violet Heming , Martin J. Faust , Thomas Fortune , George Middleton , Grace Moore , John W. Noble , Anna Rosemond , Mrs. George Walters . In one scene , the appearance of the wife was described as being facilitated by " trick printing " , and was possibly created by a double exposure . Bowers notes that the sister was listed as the wife in the official synopsis , but it is unlikely that such a distinction in cast roles was ever made in the inter @-@ titles due to the confusion . Bowers stated that names were used in to keep track of who was who , but patrons were unaware of the characters ' names . = = Release and reception = = The single reel drama , approximately 1 @,@ 000 feet long , was released on October 7 , 1910 . The film likely had a wide national release , with advertising theaters known in Kansas , Maryland , Illinois , Oklahoma , and Minnesota . The film received negative reviews in trade publications and it was deemed a distinct departure from the nature of other Thanhouser releases . The film 's plot was criticized by reviewers for being concerned main character 's misery . In response to the illogical plot , the The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer stated , " Why the cripple should go West as soon as he is able to hobble isn 't clear ; perhaps the West is such a delightfully vague term that it induces haziness of reasoning . " The reviewer also noted the inexplicable reason why Allen , who originally fled , would suddenly consent to be willingly murdered by John . The reviewer opined that the story was almost maudlin in places and the acting was not sincere because the actors knew the plot was absurd . The Moving Picture World also reviewed the film quite negatively , " Possibly the dramatic qualities of this picture are sufficient reason for its existence ; but it has no other reason . It is not entertaining . It is not instructive . It cannot amuse . The shadow of death pervades it and the horror tragedy is the principal factor . It is such a departure from the usual Thanhouser that it seems as though the regular producer was absent when it flipped past the company 's censor . " Advertisers for the film listed it in a variety of ways from a strong drama to having real mining activities . The film is presumed lost . = Luke Schenn = Luke Schenn ( born November 2 , 1989 ) is a Canadian professional ice hockey defenceman who is currently playing for the Arizona Coyotes . Schenn played junior hockey with the Kelowna Rockets of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) . In his final WHL season , Schenn was named to the League 's Second All @-@ Star Team . He was a highly @-@ touted prospect heading into the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , where he was selected in the first round , fifth overall , by the Toronto Maple Leafs . Schenn began his professional career in the NHL during the 2008 – 09 season and played with the Maple Leafs until being traded to Philadelphia following the 2011 – 12 season . After his rookie season , Schenn 's play was recognized when he was named to the NHL 's All @-@ Rookie Team . He has represented Canada internationally , winning a gold medal at the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships and a silver medal at the 2009 World Ice Hockey Championships with the nation 's junior team . Schenn is a stay @-@ at @-@ home defenceman whose main focus is preventing goals rather than scoring . With a physical style of play , he is usually among NHL leaders in hits . His charity " Luke 's Troops " helps military families attend Maple Leafs home games . His younger brother Brayden was drafted by the Los Angeles Kings at the 2009 NHL Entry Draft but was traded and currently plays for Philadelphia . = = Hockey career = = = = = Minor = = = Schenn 's first minor hockey team was the Saskatoon Red Wings , where he was coached by his father , Jeff . In 2004 – 05 , Schenn played AAA midget hockey for the Saskatoon Contacts , who won the Telus Cup as Canada 's national midget hockey champions . While playing with the Contacts , Schenn was selected in the first round , 20th overall , of the 2004 Western Hockey League ( WHL ) Bantam Draft by the Kelowna Rockets . = = = Junior = = = The Kelowna Rockets arranged for Schenn to join the team during their Memorial Cup run at the end of the 2004 – 05 season . He roomed with defenceman Shea Weber as the team wanted him to learn about his future role . Schenn debuted with the Rockets during the 2005 – 06 season , and was named the team 's Rookie of the Year . He served as an alternate captain for the team during the 2007 – 08 season . Later in that same season , Schenn was named to the WHL 's roster for the ADT Canada @-@ Russia Challenge and participated in the annual Canadian Hockey League Top Prospects Game , where he served as a team captain and scored a goal . While playing in Kelowna , he was often paired with current Winnipeg Jets defenceman Tyler Myers , former winner of the NHL 's Calder Memorial Trophy . Schenn was named to the WHL 's Second All @-@ Star Team after the 2007 – 08 season . Leading up to the 2008 NHL Entry Draft , Schenn was a highly @-@ regarded prospect , ranked fifth among draft @-@ eligible North American skaters by the NHL Central Scouting Bureau . Some scouts saw him as a mix between Calder Trophy and Norris Trophy nominee Dion Phaneuf and two @-@ time Stanley Cup champion Adam Foote . E. J. McGuire , then @-@ director of the Central Scouting Bureau , compared him to former first overall selection Ed Jovanovski . At the Draft , the Toronto Maple Leafs traded with the New York Islanders for a higher draft pick , which they ultimately used to select Schenn . = = = Toronto Maple Leafs = = = Early reports from the Maple Leafs training camp in September 2008 indicated Schenn was likely to be returned to his junior club for the 2008 – 09 season . On October 7 , 2008 , he signed a contract with the Maple Leafs with a base salary of $ 850 @,@ 000 per season and performance bonuses that could raise the value as high as $ 1 @.@ 25 million per season . After training camp , Schenn was chosen for the team roster at the start of the 2008 – 09 season , making his NHL debut on October 9 against the Detroit Red Wings . On October 29 , Schenn recorded an assist for his first career NHL point against the New Jersey Devils . Later in the season , he scored his first goal against Montreal Canadiens goaltender Carey Price . In January 2009 , Schenn missed 12 games with a lower @-@ body injury , the only games he missed during his rookie season . Schenn played for the Rookie YoungStars team in the 2008 – 09 NHL YoungStars Game . On March 14 , 2009 , he recorded his first multi @-@ point ( two assists ) game in an 8 – 6 win against the Calgary Flames . The NHL named Schenn to the 2008 – 09 All @-@ Rookie Team on June 18 , 2009 , along with fellow 2008 draftee Drew Doughty . The award acknowledged Schenn 's defensive prowess and physical play , as he led all NHL rookies in blocked shots and all rookie defencemen in hits . Schenn finished his first season in the NHL with two goals and 12 assists in 70 games played . Expectations for Schenn were high heading into the 2009 – 10 season . During training camp , Toronto Head Coach Ron Wilson named him as one of the team 's top four defencemen . As the season progressed , however , Schenn 's play was disappointing , and Wilson kept him out of the lineup for a game in October and again for a three @-@ game stretch in December . Towards the end of the season , Schenn and some of his younger teammates improved their play . In a game against the Ottawa Senators , Schenn posted his first career two @-@ goal game , helping him finish the season with new career @-@ highs in goals ( 5 ) and points ( 17 ) in 79 games played . Schenn had a strong start to the 2010 – 11 season , playing with veteran Tomáš Kaberle . Prior to a game against the Philadelphia Flyers , Wilson assessed Schenn 's play as " great . " When Kaberle was traded to the Boston Bruins in February 2011 , Schenn was briefly named an alternate captain in his place , until Colby Armstrong returned to the lineup after an injury . Wilson felt that Schenn had made significant strides in his third NHL season : " He 's learned a lot ... He 's not on the ice for as many goals against any more . " At the end of the season , Schenn had tied his career @-@ high for goals with five and set new personal records for assists ( 17 ) and total points ( 22 ) while playing in all 82 games for the Maple Leafs . = = = Philadelphia , L.A. and Arizona = = = On June 23 , 2012 , Schenn was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers in exchange for James van Riemsdyk . With the Flyers , Schenn was given the opportunity to play alongside his younger brother Brayden , saying , " It ’ s going to be exciting to play with my brother , that ’ s for sure . I can ’ t describe how cool this is . " On June 28 , 2012 , it was announced that Schenn was going to wear number 22 for the Flyers , as his usual number 2 was retired from the team in honour of defenceman Mark Howe . During the 2015 – 16 season , Schenn appeared in 29 games for 5 points before he was traded by the Flyers alongside Vincent Lecavalier to the team that drafted his brother Brayden 5th overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft , the Los Angeles Kings , in exchange for a third round pick in 2016 and prospect Jordan Weal on January 6 , 2016 . On July 23 , 2016 , he signed a two @-@ year , $ 2.5M deal with the Arizona Coyotes . = = International play = = Schenn 's first experience with Hockey Canada was as a member of Team West at the 2006 World Under @-@ 17 Hockey Challenge in Regina , Saskatchewan , where his team finished seventh . He played for Canada twice at the under @-@ 18 level : the 2006 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament , where his team won gold , and the 2007 IIHF World U18 Championships , where Canada finished fourth . Schenn scored three goals during this tournament . In 2007 , Hockey Canada assembled a junior team to represent Canada in an eight @-@ game series ( the 2007 Super Series ) against a Russian junior team to commemorate the 35th anniversary of the 1972 Summit Series . Canada went undefeated in the eight games , with seven wins and one tie , while Schenn recorded 24 penalty minutes and no points . During the 2007 – 08 season , Schenn was named to Canada 's selection camp roster for the 2008 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships . The final roster was named December 13 , 2007 , and Schenn was selected for the team , being paired with Thomas Hickey as the top defensive tandem . Canada won the gold medal and Schenn finished the tournament with a plus @-@ minus rating of + 5 to lead the team . Hockey analyst Pierre McGuire dubbed him " the human eraser " for his play internationally . After his rookie season in the NHL , Schenn was named to the senior Canadian roster for the 2009 IIHF World Championship . He played all nine games for Canada , but did not significant ice time , averaging just under seven minutes per game . In the tournament he recorded just one assist . Canada took home the silver medal after a 2 – 1 loss to Russia in the gold medal game . Schenn , along with then @-@ Toronto teammates Dion Phaneuf and James Reimer , played for Canada at the 2011 IIHF World Championship . Canada placed fifth in the tournament , with their only loss coming in the quarter @-@ finals against Russia . In seven games , Schenn recorded a single assist . After the 2012 – 13 season , Schenn was again selected by Hockey Canada to participate in the 2013 IIHF World Championship alongside Flyers teammates Matt Read , Wayne Simmonds and Flyers captain Claude Giroux . Canada was eliminated by Sweden in the quarter @-@ finals , leaving them without a medal for the second @-@ straight year . = = Playing style = = Schenn is a defensive @-@ defenceman who plays a physical game while attempting to prevent opponents from scoring . Since his rookie season , he has been among the NHL leaders in hits . He believes he is at his best when he is playing a tough game , while staying responsible : " You just want to be physical and play with a bit of an edge , but you don 't want to put your team down short @-@ handed . " Growing up , Schenn patterned his play after fellow defencemen Chris Pronger and Rob Blake . = = Personal = = Schenn was born on November 2 , 1989 , in Saskatoon , Saskatchewan . His parents are Jeff and Rita Schenn . His younger brother Brayden was picked fifth overall in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft by the Los Angeles Kings , and was later traded to the Philadelphia Flyers . Schenn also has two younger sisters , Madison and Macy . Luke Schenn graduated from St. Joseph High School in Saskatoon . His brother Brayden , along with fellow NHLers Colby Armstrong , Riley Armstrong and Jarret Stoll , also attended St. Joseph when they lived in Saskatoon . Schenn married his longtime girlfriend Jessica Peczek on July 18 , 2015 in Kelowna . Schenn was a key contributor to the Maple Leafs ' efforts to honour Canada 's military . During his rookie season , he donated $ 10 @,@ 000 to start Luke 's Troops , a charity which allows Canadian servicemen and women to attend the team 's home games as Schenn 's guest . Fans at the games often recognized the soldiers with applause . " They have served overseas so it 's good that the fans show their appreciation , " Schenn said . In February 2011 , Schenn 's contributions to the military were acknowledged when he was recognized during the team 's annual Armed Forces night . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = Statistics source = = = International = = = Statistics source = = Awards = = = = = WHL = = = = = = NHL = = = = Metroid ( video game ) = Metroid is an action @-@ adventure video game , and the first entry in the Metroid series . It was co @-@ developed by Nintendo 's Research and Development 1 division and Intelligent Systems , and was released for the Famicom Disk System in Japan on August 6 , 1986 , and for the Nintendo Entertainment System in North America in August 1987 , and in Europe in January 1988 . The game was re @-@ released for the Game Boy Advance in October 2004 , and for the Wii Virtual Console in Europe in July 2007 , in North America in August 2007 , and in Japan in March 2008 . Metroid was produced by Gunpei Yokoi , directed by Satoru Okada and Yoshio Sakamoto , and had music composed by Hirokazu Tanaka . Set on the planet Zebes , the story follows Samus Aran as she attempts to retrieve the parasitic Metroid organisms that were stolen by Space Pirates , who plan to replicate the Metroids by exposing them to beta rays and then use them as biological weapons to destroy Samus and all who oppose them . The game 's style , focusing on exploration and the search for power @-@ ups that are used to reach previously inaccessible areas , influenced other video games . Its varied endings for fast completion times made it a popular game for speedrunning . Metroid was lauded for being one of the first video games to feature a female protagonist , though the player must complete the game in under five hours for this to be revealed , with the game 's English @-@ language instruction manual even using " he " to refer to the protagonist . Nintendo Power ranked Metroid 11th on their list of the best video games made on a Nintendo video game console . On Top 100 Games lists , Metroid was ranked 7th by Game Informer and 69th by Electronic Gaming Monthly . = = Gameplay = = Metroid is an action @-@ adventure game in which the player controls Samus Aran in sprite @-@ rendered two @-@ dimensional landscapes . The game takes place on the planet Zebes , a large , open @-@ ended world with areas connected by doors and elevators . The player controls Samus Aran as she travels through the planet 's caverns and hunts Space Pirates . She begins with a weak power beam as her only weapon , and with only the ability to jump . The player explores more areas and collects power @-@ ups that grant Samus special abilities and enhance her armor and weaponry , allowing her to enter areas that were previously inaccessible . Among the power @-@ ups that are included in the game are the Morph Ball , which allows Samus to curl into a ball to roll into tunnels ; the Bomb , which can only be used while in ball form and can open hidden floor / wall paths ; and the Screw Attack , a somersaulting move that destroys enemies in its path . In addition to common enemies , Samus encounters two bosses , Kraid and Ridley , whom she must defeat in order to progress . Ordinary enemies typically yield additional energy or ammunition when destroyed , and the player can increase Samus 's carrying capacities by finding storage tanks and defeating bosses . Once Kraid and Ridley have both been defeated , the player can open the path to the final area and confront the Mother Brain . = = Plot = = Chronologically , Metroid takes place first in the fictional Metroid universe . Space Pirates attack a Galactic Federation @-@ owned space research vessel and seize samples of Metroid creatures . Dangerous floating organisms , Metroids can latch on to any organism and drain its life energy to kill it . The Space Pirates plan to replicate Metroids by exposing them to beta rays and then using them as biological weapons to destroy all living beings that oppose them . While searching for the stolen Metroids , the Galactic Federation locates the Space Pirates ' base of operations on the planet Zebes . The Federation assaults the planet , but the Pirates resist , forcing the Federation to retreat . As a last resort , the Federation decides to send a lone bounty hunter to penetrate the Pirates ' base and destroy Mother Brain , the biomechanical life @-@ form that controls the Space Pirates ' fortress and its defenses . Considered the greatest of all bounty hunters , Samus Aran is chosen for the mission . Samus lands on the surface of Zebes and explores the planet , travelling through the planet 's caverns . She eventually comes across Kraid , an ally of the Space Pirates , and Ridley , the Space Pirates ' commander , and defeats them both . Eventually , Samus finds and destroys Mother Brain . She then places a time bomb set for 99 @.@ 9 seconds , and escapes the collapsing lair . = = Development = = After Nintendo 's release of commercially successful platforming games in the 1980s , including Donkey Kong ( 1981 ) , Ice Climber ( 1985 ) , and Super Mario Bros. ( 1985 ) , as well as the critically acclaimed adventure game The Legend of Zelda ( 1986 ) , the company began work on an action game . The game was dubbed Metroid , which is a portmanteau of the words " metro " and " android " . It was co @-@ developed by Nintendo 's Research and Development 1 division and Intelligent Systems , and produced by Gunpei Yokoi . Metroid was directed by Satoru Okada and Yoshio Sakamoto ( credited as ' Yamamoto ' ) , and featured music written by Hirokazu Tanaka ( credited as ' Hip Tanaka ' ) . Makoto Kano ( credited under his last name ) was tasked to create the scenario , and Hiroji Kiyotake ( credited under his last name ) , Hirofumi Matsuoka ( credited as ' New Matsuoka ' ) and Yoshio Sakamoto ( credited as ' Shikamoto ' ) designed the game 's characters . The character design for Samus Aran was created by Kiyotake . Officially defined as a scrolling shooter video game , Nintendo released Metroid for the Family Computer Disk System on August 6 , 1986 , and on the Nintendo Entertainment System in August 1987 . The production was described as a " very free working environment " by Tanaka , who stated that , despite being the composer , he also gave input for the game 's graphics and helped name the game 's areas . Part way through development , one of the developers asked the others , " Hey , wouldn 't that be kind of cool if it turned out that this person inside the suit was a woman ? " . This idea was incorporated into the game , though the English @-@ language instruction manual for the game uses the pronoun " he " many times in reference to Samus . Ridley Scott 's 1979 horror film Alien was described by Sakamoto as a " huge influence " on Metroid after the game 's world had been created . The development staff was affected by the work of the film 's creature designer H. R. Giger , and found his creations to be fitting for the Metroid universe . Nintendo attempted to set Metroid apart from other games by making it a nonlinear adventure @-@ based game , in which exploration was a crucial part of the experience . The game often requires that players retrace their steps to progress , forcing the player to scroll the screen left in addition to moving it right , as was the case in most contemporary games . Metroid was also considered one of the first video games to impress a feeling of desperation and solitude on the player . Following The Legend of Zelda , Metroid helped pioneer the idea of acquiring tools to strengthen characters and help progress through the game . Up until that point , most ability @-@ enhancing power @-@ ups like the Power Shot in Gauntlet ( 1985 ) and the Starman in Super Mario Bros. offered only temporary boosts to characters , and they were not required to complete the game . In Metroid , however , items were permanent fixtures that lasted until the end . In particular , missiles and the ice beam were required to finish the game . After defeating Mother Brain , the player is given an end screen based on the time it took them to get there . Metroid is one of the first games to contain multiple endings , with five in total . In the third , fourth , and fifth endings , Samus Aran appears without her suit , and for the first time , reveals herself to be a woman . In Japan , the Disk Card media used by the Disk System allowed players to save up to three different games in Metroid , similar to the three save slots in The Legend of Zelda in the West . Use of an internal battery to manage files was not fully realized in time for Metroid 's international release . The Western versions of Metroid use a password system that was new to the industry at the time , in which players write down a 24 @-@ letter code and re @-@ enter it into the game when they wish to continue a previous session . Codes also allow for changes in gameplay ; the " NARPAS SWORD " grants Samus infinite ammunition , health , all power @-@ ups , and a modified Ice Beam . The " JUSTIN BAILEY " code lets the player play as Samus without her Power Suit , which was thought by some to be the only way to use the feature , however it is available simply by beating the game quickly enough to reveal Samus wearing a leotard at the ending sequence . However , the game on the Nintendo 3DS becomes inoperable if the player enters a code that the game does not recognize . = = Music = = Tanaka said he wanted to make a score that made players feel like they were encountering a " living organism " and had no distinction between music and sound effects . The only time a melodic theme is heard is when Mother Brain is defeated in order to give the victorious player catharsis . During the rest of the game , the melodies are more minimalistic , because Tanaka wanted the soundtrack to be the opposite of the " hummable , " pop tunes found in other games at that time . In his book Maestro Mario : How Nintendo Transformed Videogame Music into an Art , videogame scholar Andrew Schartmann notes the possible influence of Jerry Goldsmith 's Alien score on Tanaka 's music — a hypothesis supported by Sakamoto 's acknowledgement of Alien 's influence on the game 's development . As Schartmann notes , " Much like Metroid , the movie owes some of its tensest moments to silence . " Schartmann further argues that Tanaka 's emphasis on silence was revolutionary to videogame composition : Tanaka ’ s greatest contribution to game music comes , paradoxically , in the form of silence . He was arguably the first videogame composer to emphasize the absence of sound in his music . Tanaka ’ s score is an embodiment of isolation and atmospheric effect — one that penetrates deeply into the emotions . This view is echoed by Gamespot 's History of Metroid , which notes how the " [ game 's music ] superbly evoked the proper feelings of solitude and loneliness one would expect while infiltrating a hostile alien planet alone . " = = Reception = = Metroid has shipped 2 @.@ 73 million units worldwide . In 2006 , Nintendo Power ranked Metroid as the 11th @-@ best game on its list of the Top 200 Games on a Nintendo video game console . Two years later , the magazine also named Metroid the fifth @-@ best game for the Nintendo Entertainment System in its Best of the Best feature , describing it as a combination of Super Mario Bros. ' s platforming and The Legend of Zelda 's exploration and character upgrades . On Top 100 Games lists , the game was ranked 69th by Electronic Gaming Monthly , and 6th by Game Informer then 7th in 2009 by Game Informer . Game Informer also put Metroid 7th on their list of " The Top 200 Games of All Time " , saying that it " started the concept of open exploration in games " . GamesRadar ranked it the fifth best NES game ever made . The staff felt that it had aged after the release of Super Metroid but was " fantastic for its time " . Metroid 's multiple endings enticed players to race through the game as fast as possible , a method of play commonly known as speedrunning . The game was re @-@ released or made available several times after its original launch . Linking the Game Boy Advance game Metroid Fusion ( 2002 ) with the Nintendo GameCube 's Metroid Prime ( 2002 ) using a special cable unlocks the full version of Metroid . An emulated version of Metroid was available as a bonus upon completion of Metroid : Zero Mission ( 2004 ) . A Game Boy Advance port of Metroid , part of the Classic NES Series collection , was released in Japan on August 10 , 2004 , in North America on October 25 , 2004 , and in Europe on January 7 , 2005 . The game arrived on the Wii Virtual Console in Europe on July 20 , 2007 , in North America on August 13 , 2007 , and in Japan on March 4 , 2008 . Metroid was released for the Nintendo 3DS Virtual Console in March 1 , 2012 . This release was featured amongst other games from the NES and Super NES to be released for the 3DS on a tech demo called Classic Games at E3 2010 . Nintendo of America president Reggie Fils @-@ Aimé said " not to think of them as remakes " . Miyamoto said that these classics might be using " new features in the games that would take advantage of the 3DS ' capabilities " . In a retrospective focusing on the entire Metroid series , GameTrailers remarked on the original game 's legacy and its effect on the video game industry . They noted that starting with Metroid , search and discovery is what continues to make the franchise popular . The website felt that the combination of detailed sprites , original map designs , and an intimidating musical score " generated an unparalleled ambience and atmosphere that trapped the viewer in an almost claustrophobic state " . They also noted that the Morph Ball , first introduced in Metroid , " slammed an undeniable stamp of coolness on the whole experience and the franchise " , and they enjoyed the end segment after defeating Mother Brain , claiming that the race to escape the planet Zebes was a " twist few saw coming " . The game brought " explosive action " to the Nintendo Entertainment System and a newfound respect for female protagonists . Noting that Metroid was not the first game to offer an open world , nor was it the first side @-@ view platformer exploration game , and neither was it the first game to allow players to reach new areas using newly acquired items , Gamasutra praised Metroid for being perhaps the first video game to " take these different elements and rigorously mold them into a game @-@ ruling structure " . Reviewing the original NES game , Allgame awarded Metroid with a five stars , their highest rating . The review praised the game over Metroid II : Return of Samus and Super Metroid , stating that " Metroid 's not just a classic because of its astounding graphics , cinematic sound effects , accurate control and fresh gameplay , but also because of its staying power . " Reviewing the Classic NES Series version of the game , GameSpot noted that 18 years after its initial release , Metroid " just doesn 't measure up to today 's action adventure standards " , giving the game a rating of 5 @.@ 2 out of 10 , for " mediocre " . For the Wii Virtual Console version , IGN commented that the game 's presentation , graphics , and sound were basic . However , they were still pleased with Metroid 's " impressive " gameplay , rating the game 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , for " great , " and giving it an Editor 's Choice award . The review stated that the game was " still impressive in scope " and that the price was " a deal for this adventure " while criticising the number of times it has been re @-@ released and noting that it takes " patience " to get past the high initial difficulty curve . In GameSpot 's review of the Virtual Console version , they criticized its " frustrating room layouts " and " constantly flickering graphics " . In particular , the website was disappointed that Nintendo did not make any changes to the game , specifically criticizing the lack of a save feature . Metroid 's gameplay style , focusing on exploration and searching for power @-@ ups to reach previously inaccessible areas , influenced other series , most notably the post @-@ Symphony of the Night titles of the Castlevania series . The revelation of Samus being a woman was also lauded as innovative , with GameTrailers remarking that this " blew the norm of women in pieces , at a time when female video game characters were forced into the role of dutiful queen or kidnapped princess , missile @-@ blasting the way for other characters like Chun @-@ Li [ from the Street Fighter series ] and Lara Croft [ from the Tomb Raider series ] " . = = Enhanced remake = = The game was reimagined as Metroid : Zero Mission with a more developed backstory , enhanced graphics , and the same general game layout . = Session of Christ = The Christian doctrine of the Session of Christ or heavenly session says that Jesus Christ is seated at the right hand of God the Father in Heaven — the word " session " is an archaic noun meaning " sitting . " Although the word formerly meant " the act of sitting down , " its meaning is somewhat broader in current English usage , and is used to refer to a sitting for various reasons , such as a teaching session , or a court or council being in session . The New Testament also depicts Jesus as standing and walking in Heaven , but the Session of Christ has special theological significance because of its connection to the role of Christ as King . The Session of Christ is one of the doctrines specifically mentioned in the Apostles ' Creed , where " sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty " immediately follows the statement of the Ascension . = = Biblical references = = According to the Book of Acts , Acts 2 : 33 , after Jesus ' resurrection and ascension , he was " exalted to the right hand of God . " Preaching on the Day of Pentecost , Peter saw Jesus ' exaltation as a fulfilment of Psalm 110 : 1 , The LORD says to my Lord : " Sit at my right hand until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet . " In the Bible , the " right hand " is the special place of honour . The idea of Christ 's heavenly session appears a second time in the account of Peter 's preaching in the Book of Acts . In Acts 5 : 31 , Peter says that God exalted Jesus , " to his own right hand " ( NIV ) , though Louis Berkhof notes that the dative τῇ δεξιᾷ may have to be taken in the instrumental sense ( " by his own right hand " ) rather than a local sense ( " at his own right hand " ) . The heavenly session was important to other writers of the New Testament . In the Epistle to the Hebrews , Hebrews 10 : 12 , it says that Jesus " sat down at the right hand of God , " after he had " offered for all time one sacrifice for sins . " As in Acts 2 , the language of Psalm 110 is used , the next verse saying that Jesus is waiting " for his enemies to be made his footstool . " Other New Testament passages that speak of Christ as being at God 's right hand are Ephesians 1 : 20 ( God seated Christ " at his right hand in the heavenly realms " ) and 1Peter 3 : 22 ( Jesus has " gone into heaven and is at God 's right hand " ) . In Matthew Matthew 26 : 64 and Mark 14 : 62 , Jesus says to Caiaphas , " you will see the Son of Man seated at the right hand of Power " . This is a reference to Daniel 7 : 13 , in which Daniel sees a vision of " one like a son of man " coming to the Ancient of Days . = = Posture = = The word " session " is an archaic noun meaning sitting . Wayne Grudem notes that the word formerly meant " the act of sitting down , " but that it no longer has that sole meaning in ordinary English usage today . This language is used in Psalm 110 : 1 and Hebrews 10 : 12 . In Acts 7 : 55 , however , Stephen sees Jesus standing at the right hand of God . This may represent Jesus " rising momentarily from the throne of glory to greet his proto @-@ martyr , " standing as a witness to vindicate Stephen 's testimony , or preparing to return . In the Book of Revelation , Revelation 2 : 1 , on the other hand , Jesus is referred to as walking among the seven golden lampstands . Robert Mounce suggests that since these lampstands represent seven churches , Jesus ' motion indicates that he is " present in their midst and aware of their activities . " = = In the creeds = = The Apostles ' Creed says of Jesus that " He ascended into heaven , and sitteth on the right hand of God the Father Almighty " ( 1662 Book of Common Prayer ) . The words " and sitteth on the right hand of the Father , " do not appear in the Nicene Creed of 325 , but are present in the Niceno @-@ Constantinopolitan Creed of 381 , and are retained in all English versions of the Nicene Creed . = = Theological significance = = In the Bible , to be at the right side " is to be identified as being in the special place of honor , " and thus " the full participation of the risen Christ in God 's honor and glory is emphasized by his being at God 's right hand . " The heavenly session is often connected to the enthronement of Christ as King . The Catechism of the Catholic Church says that " being seated at the Father 's right hand signifies the inauguration of the Messiah 's kingdom . " Louis Berkhof notes that , in his session , Christ is " publicly inaugurated as God @-@ man , and as such receives the government of the Church and of heaven and earth , and enters solemnly upon the actual administration of the power committed to Him . " In Hebrews 10 : 12 , however , it is Jesus ' priestly office that is in view . The session refers to the completed nature of the work , in the same way that " a human being will sit down at the completion of a large work to enjoy the satisfaction of having accomplished it . " F. F. Bruce argues that The presence of Messiah at God 's right hand means that for His people there was now a way of access to God more immediate and heart @-@ satisfying than the obsolete temple ritual had ever been able to provide . Karl Barth says that the session of Christ is " the first and the last thing that matters for our existence in time , " and that Whatever prosperity or defeat may occur in our space , whatever may become and pass away , there is one constant , one thing that remains and continues , this sitting of His at the right hand of God the Father . = = Use in hymnody = = The heavenly session is referred to in many hymns , such as Charles Wesley 's hymn Rejoice , the Lord is King : The Christmas carol Once in Royal David 's City contrasts Christ 's humble birth with his heavenly session ; the last verse begins : = Lactarius subflammeus = Lactarius subflammeus , commonly known as the orange milk cap , is a species of fungus in the Russulaceae family . It is found in western North America in the late summer and fall and is especially common in the Pacific Northwest , where it grows on the ground near conifers like pine and spruce . The brightly colored fruit bodies , which are slimy or sticky , have scarlet caps when young that soon fade to brilliant orange . The stem — typically longer than the width of the cap — is also bright orange but the gills are whitish . The mushroom secretes a whitish latex when it is cut or injured . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described by Lexemuel Ray Hesler and Alexander H. Smith in their 1979 monograph of North American species of the genus Lactarius , based on specimens collected from Pacific City , Oregon . Prior to this description , the species had frequently been confused in the literature with L. aurantiacus . The specific epithet subflammeus means " almost flame color " . It is classified in the section Russularia of the subgenus Russularia of Lactarius . Species in this subgenus have small to medium @-@ sized and fragile fruit bodies . Lactarius subflammeus is commonly known as the " orange milk cap " . = = Description = = The cap is 3 – 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) wide , convex , eventually becoming shallowly depressed in the center . The margin of the cap is curved inward then arched , with short translucent striations ( grooves ) at maturity . The cap surface is slimy to sticky , smooth , not zonate . It is scarlet when young , but becomes orange to yellowish @-@ orange and duller when older . The attachment of the gills to the stem is adnate ( squarely attached ) to decurrent ( running down the length of the stem ) ; the gills are moderately broad , with spacing close to subdistant ( with visible spaces between the gills ) . They are whitish or colored similar to the cap but paler . The stem is 4 – 9 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 – 3 @.@ 5 in ) long , 5 – 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 2 – 0 @.@ 6 in ) thick , and thicker near the base . The smooth stem surface can be either moist or dry depending on the moisture in the environment . It is hollow , fragile , and colored like the cap . The flesh is thin , fragile , pale pinkish @-@ buff to dull orangish @-@ buff . The mushroom 's odor is not distinctive , and the taste slowly becomes acrid . The latex is white , and does not change color with continued exposure to air . It does not stain the tissues , and tastes acrid . The spore print is white . The edibility of the fruit bodies is unknown , and consumption is not recommended . = = = Microscopic characteristics = = = The spores are 7 @.@ 5 – 9 by 6 @.@ 5 – 7 @.@ 5 µm , with an ellipsoid shape . Their surfaces are ornamented with warts and short ridges that do not form a reticulum ( a network of raised net @-@ like ridges on the surface ) , with ridges up to 1 @.@ 0 µm high . The spores are hyaline ( translucent ) , and amyloid — they absorb iodine when stained with Melzer 's reagent . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four @-@ spored , and measure 42 by 9 µm . The cap cuticle is a modified ixotrichoderm , meaning that the hyphae are embedded in a slimy or gelatinous layer . = = = Similar species = = = Lactarius luculentus var. luculentus is similar in appearance , but it has an ochraceous @-@ tawny to ochraceous @-@ buff cap and stem , flesh that tastes slightly bitter before slowly turning acrid , white latex that tastes mild to somewhat astringent , and a buff @-@ colored spore print . Lactarius luculentus var. laetus is another lookalike , but may be distinguished by a brownish @-@ orange to grayish @-@ orange stem , and mild @-@ tasting latex . Lactarus substriatus has white latex that slowly changes color to yellow , and Lactarius subviscidus has similar overall coloring but white latex that changes to yellow . The Californian species L. cocosiolens has a sticky orange @-@ brown to caramel @-@ colored cap . It has a mild taste , abundant latex , and as its specific epithet suggests , smells like coconut when it is dry . = = Ecology , habitat and distribution = = Like all species in the genus Lactarius , L. subflammeus is mycorrhizal , forming mutualistic associations with trees . The fungus and the plant forms structures called ectomycorrhizae , a specialized sheath of hyphae on the surface of the root from which hyphae extend into the soil and into the outer cortical cells of the root . The fruit bodies of L. subflammeus grow scattered to grouped under conifers or in mixed conifer @-@ hardwood forests near pine and spruce , from August to December . The fungus is widely distributed in the Pacific Northwest , where it is very common in conifer forests . The habitat of the type location was coastal sand dunes under pine . States from which the fungus has been collected include Washington , Idaho , Oregon , California , and Colorado . The mushroom 's range extends north into Canada , where it has been found near Victoria , British Columbia in coastal forests dominated by Douglas @-@ fir ( Pseudotsuga menziesii ) . = French destroyer Chacal = The French destroyer Chacal was the name ship of her class of destroyers ( contre @-@ torpilleur ) built for the French Navy during the 1920s . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Squadron , she spent most of the following decade as a training ship . The ship was assigned convoy escort duties in the Atlantic after the start of World War II in September 1939 until she was committed to the English Channel after the Battle of France began in May 1940 . Chacal was crippled by German bombers and artillery on 23 / 24 May and had to beach herself near Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer . = = Design and description = = The Chacal @-@ class ships were designed to counter the large Italian Leone @-@ class destroyers . They had an overall length of 126 @.@ 8 meters ( 416 ft 0 in ) , a beam of 11 @.@ 1 meters ( 36 ft 5 in ) , and a draft of 4 @.@ 1 meters ( 13 ft 5 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 126 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 092 long tons ) at standard and 2 @,@ 980 – 3 @,@ 075 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 933 – 3 @,@ 026 long tons ) at deep load . They were powered by two geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by five du Temple boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ; 49 @,@ 000 shp ) , which would propel the ship at 35 @.@ 5 knots ( 65 @.@ 7 km / h ; 40 @.@ 9 mph ) . During her sea trials on 18 May 1926 , Chacal 's turbines provided 54 @,@ 911 metric horsepower ( 40 @,@ 387 kW ; 54 @,@ 160 shp ) and she reached 35 @.@ 3 knots ( 65 @.@ 4 km / h ; 40 @.@ 6 mph ) for a single hour . The ships carried 530 metric tons ( 522 long tons ) of fuel oil which gave them a range of 3 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 5 @,@ 600 km ; 3 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . Their crew consisted of 10 officers and 187 crewmen in peacetime and 12 officers and 209 enlisted men in wartime . The main armament of the Chacal @-@ class ships consisted of five Canon de 130 mm modèle 1919 guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair fore and aft of the superstructure and the fifth gun abaft the aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges . = = Construction and career = = Chacal , named after the jackal , was ordered on 26 February 1923 from the Ateliers et Chantiers de Saint @-@ Nazaire Penhoët . She was laid down on 18 September 1923 at their shipyard in Saint @-@ Nazaire , launched on 27 September 1924 , commissioned on 1 May 1926 , completed on 28 July and entered service on 23 December . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . Even before she was formally completed , she participated in two Baltic cruises in mid @-@ 1926 and made another cruise in the Eastern Atlantic in November – December . Chacal was assigned to the 1st Large Destroyer Division ( 1ère division de contre @-@ torpeilleurs ) ( DCT ) of the Mediterranean Squadron ( renamed 5th Light Division ( Division légère ) ( DL ) of the First Squadron ( 1ère Escadre ) on 1 February 1927 ) based at Toulon upon completion , together with her sister ships Panthère and Tigre . On 27 April 1927 , the ship participated in a naval review by Gaston Doumergue , President of France , off Marseilles . The following month , she was one of the ships that escorted Doumergue across the English Channel during his state visit to Britain in May – June 1927 . The ship was present when he next reviewed the fleet on 3 July 1928 off Le Havre . Chacal and Tigre escorted the light cruiser Primauguet to French West Africa between 13 January and 10 April 1931 . The four depth charge throwers were removed from Chacal in 1932 and the ship was briefly assigned to the 9th DL of the Torpedo Training School ( Ecole d 'application du lancement à la mer ) at Toulon on 1 October until she was relieved of that assignment the following year . About a year later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns . On 15 July 1935 , Chacal and her sister Léopard of the 8th DL were assigned to the Naval School ( Ecole Navale ) at Brest . On 12 April 1937 , the 8th DL was redesignated as the 2nd DCT ; their sister Jaguar joined them in September . By 7 September 1939 , Chacal was no longer a part of the 2nd DCT and was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to May 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . In November , the ship had a British Type 123 ASDIC installed ; in addition two depth @-@ charge throwers were reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability . By 22 May Chacal was reassigned to the 2nd DCT when the unit was tasked to carry demolition teams to the northernmost French ports ; the ship arrived at Calais that evening . Together with Léopard and eight smaller destroyers , Chacal bombarded advancing German troops as they approached the defenses of Boulogne @-@ sur @-@ Mer throughout the 23rd . During the night of 23 – 24 May , the ship was badly damaged by bombs from Heinkel He 111 bombers and shells from German artillery and had to be beached between Ambleteuse and Wimereux lest she sink . = CMLL World Heavyweight Championship = The CMLL World Heavyweight Championship ( Spanish : Campeonato Mundial de Peso Completo del CMLL ) is a professional wrestling world heavyweight championship established in 1991 and promoted by Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre . CMLL introduced the championship as they moved away from the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to signal their independence . As part of the move away from the NWA they established a number of championships designated as " CMLL World Championships " for a variety of divisions . The heavyweight championship was the first CMLL title to be created , and the inaugural champion was Konnan el Bárbaro , who won the title by defeating his storyline rival Cien Caras in the finals of a tournament on June 9 , 1991 . The current champion is Máximo Sexy , the 15th overall person to hold the championship and the 18th overall champion . In most professional wrestling promotions around the world the " heavyweight " designation is normally one used to indicate the highest ranking championship instead of an actual weight division . Traditionally , however , Mexican wrestling has used multiple weight divisions , often with the lower weight classes receiving more attention from the promoters . CMLL carries on this tradition . As it is a professional wrestling championship , it is not won legitimately ; it is instead won via a scripted ending to a match . = = History = = The Mexican professional wrestling promotion Empresa Mexicana de Lucha Libre ( EMLL ) was founded in 1933 and initially recognized a series of " Mexican National " wrestling championships , endorsed by the Comisión de Box y Lucha Libre Mexico D.F. ( Mexico City Boxing and Wrestling Commission ) . The Mexican National Heavyweight Championship was created in 1926 and over time EMLL began promoting matches for that championship with the approval and oversight of the wrestling commission . In the 1950s EMLL became a member of the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) and thus recognized the NWA World Heavyweight Championship and would on occasion promote title matches for the NWA in Mexico . In the late 1980s EMLL left the National Wrestling Alliance ( NWA ) to avoid the politics of the NWA and would later rebrand themselves as " Consejo Mundal de Lucha Libre " ( CMLL ) . By the start of the 1990s CMLL began to downplay the Mexican National Heavyweight Championship , which featured less frequently on CMLL shows until they stopped promoting it altogether . In 1991 CMLL decided to create a series of CMLL branded world championships , the first of which was for the Heavyweight division . The first champion was crowned in the finals of a 16 man tournament that saw Konnan el Bárbaro defeat Cien Caras . Konnan lost the title to Cien Caras in his first title defense on August 18 , 1991 , making him one of only two champions to not have a single successful title defense . Cien Caras left CMLL in the summer of 1992 as he decided to join former CMLL promoter Antonio Peña in Peña 's newly formed Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) wrestling promotion , leaving CMLL without a heavyweight champion . CMLL held a 16 @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament from October 30 , 1992 to November 20 , 1992 , which ended with Black Magic winning the title . With the victory he became the first the first non @-@ Hispanic , and so far only British wrestler to win the Championship . On June 27 , 1993 CMLL decided to move the title onto Mexican native Brazo de Plata as he defeated Black Magic on a show in Arena México , CMLL 's main venue . On April 18 , 1997 Steel became the first Canadian to win the championship as he defeated then champion Rayo de Jalisco Jr. to become the 8th overall champion . In September 1997 Steel signed a contract with the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , later WWE ) , which forced CMLL to vacate the championship for the second time . Instead of holding a traditional tournament to crown another champion CMLL took the top three heavyweight contenders , Universo 2000 , Rayo de Jalisco Jr. and Cien Caras and had the new champion decided in a match between the three . On October 19 , 1997 Universo 2000 won the title , starting the first of his three reigns , which remains a record . Universo 2000 lost the title to and regained the title from Rayo de Jalisco Jr . Universo 2000 's second reign as champion lasted a total of 1 @,@ 225 days , the longest of any championship reign . The record breaking run ended on April 18 , 2003 when Mr. Niebla won the title . Mr. Niebla was champion for 543 days before Universo 2000 regained the championship . On July 8 , 2007 Dos Caras Jr. became the 14th overall champion . His reign lasted 533 days but only saw him defend the title three times overall , defeating Lizmark Jr . , Universo 2000 and Último Guerrero . On December 22 , 2008 , Último Guerrero won the championship from Dos Caras Jr. and shortly afterwards Dos Caras Jr. left CMLL to work for WWE . On April 2 , 2009 Último Guerrero successfully defended the World title against Rey Mendoza Jr. on an independent wrestling promotion show in Gomez Palacio , marking the first time the CMLL World title was defended on a non @-@ CMLL promoted show . After a 963 day reign and 17 successful defenses , Guerrero lost the title to Héctor Garza on August 12 , 2011 . The championship was vacated on November 11 , 2011 , after Garza left CMLL for Perros del Mal Producciones , a group of former CMLL wrestlers who broke away from the promotion in late 2011 . On January 1 , 2012 , El Terrible became the new champion , when he defeated CMLL World Light Heavyweight Champion Rush in a decision match . The two had won a torneo cibernetico match a week earlier to earn spots in the match . = = Reigns = = Máximo Sexy is the current CMLL World Heavyweight champion . He won the title on January 30 , 2015 by defeating El Terrible . He is the 18th overall champion and the 15th person to hold the title . Universo 2000 has held the title the most times , three reigns in total . Universo 2000 also holds the record for the longest combined reign with 2 @,@ 555 days and longest single reign , 1 @,@ 225 days . The first champion , Konnan , was also the person who held the title the shortest amount of time , 70 days . Último Guerrero is officially credited with 20 successful title defenses by CMLL , the highest number of defenses of any CMLL World Heavyweight Champion . On three separate occasions CMLL was forced to declare the championship vacant , which meant that there was no champion for a period of time . In all three instances this was necessitated by the then reigning champion leaving CMLL without working a match where he would lose the title to whichever successor CMLL picked . Under normal circumstances CMLL would know that a wrestler was leaving the promotion , either due to their contract not being renewed or the wrestler giving notice , which allows them time to transition the championship to a different wrestler . In the case of Cien Caras , Steel and Héctor Garza their departures from the company were so sudden and unannounced that no plans were in place and CMLL had to organize a tournament to determine the next champion . = = Rules = = The championship is designated as a heavyweight title , which means that the championship can officially only be competed for by wrestlers weighing at least 105 kg ( 231 lb ) . In the 20th century Mexican wrestling enforced the weight divisions more strictly , but in the 21st century the rules were occasionally ignored for the various weight divisions . The heavyweight championship was no exception as several champions were under the weight limit , for example Héctor Garza . While the Heavyweight title is traditionally considered the most prestigious weight division in professional wrestling , CMLL places more emphasis on the lower weight divisions . As such , the CMLL World Heavyweight Title is not considered the top CMLL championship . With a total of twelve CMLL promoted championships being labelled as " World " titles the promotional focus shifts from championship to championship over time with no single championship being promoted as the " main " championship of the promotion . Championship matches usually take place under best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls rules . On occasion single fall title matches have taken place , especially when promoting CMLL title matches in Japan , conforming to the traditions of the local promotion . = = Tournaments = = = = = 1991 = = = The tournament to crown the inaugural CMLL World Heavyweight champion ran from May 24 to June 9 , 1991 and featured 16 competitors . The first round of the tournament saw two eight @-@ man battle royals used to cut the field in half with the last four remaining wrestlers from each match advancing to the next round . Konnan , Rayo de Jalisco Jr . , Black Magic and Mascara Ano 2000 eliminated Brazo de Plata , Vampiro Canadiense , Universo 2000 and El Egipcio in the first battle royal . In the second battle royal Nitron , Pierroth Jr . , Pirata Morgan and Cien Caras eliminated Fabulous Blondie , Gran Markus Jr . , Máscara Sagrada and El Egipcio . The second round saw another pair of battle royals , this time four men in each to find the final four wrestlers who faced off in traditional semi @-@ finals and finals . Tournament results = = = 1992 = = = After Cien Caras left CMLL for AAA in 1992 CMLL decided to hold a traditional 16 @-@ man single @-@ elimination tournament to crown a new World Heavyweight Champion . The tournament ran from October 30 to November 20 , 1992 . Tournament results = = = 2011 – 2012 = = = On December 18 , 2011 CMLL announced that then CMLL World Heavyweight Champion Héctor Garza had decided to leave CMLL to work for Perros del Mal Producciones and they thus had vacated the championship . They also announced that the following week , on December 25 , there would be a tournament to determine a new champion . The main event of the December 25 , Domigos Arena México show was a 10 @-@ man torneo cibernetico elimination match designed to reduce the field of championship contenders from 10 to 2 . The match ended when El Terrible pinned Marco Corleone to eliminate him , leaving El Terrible and Rush to face off the following week . On January 1 , 2012 El Terrible defeated Rush in a best two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls match , two falls to one to become the 17th overall champion . Torneo cibernetico - December 25 , 2011 = International emergency medicine = International emergency medicine is a subspecialty of emergency medicine that focuses not only on the global practice of emergency medicine but also on efforts to promote the growth of emergency care as a branch of medicine throughout the world . The term international emergency medicine generally refers to the transfer of skills and knowledge — including knowledge of ambulance operations and other aspects of prehospital care — from developed emergency medical systems ( EMSs ) to those systems which are less developed . However , this definition has been criticized as oxymoronic , given the international nature of medicine and the number of physicians working internationally . From this point of view , international emergency medicine is better described as the training required for and the reality of practicing the specialty outside of one 's native country . Emergency medicine has been a recognized medical specialty in the United States and other developed countries for nearly forty years , although these countries ' EMSs did not become fully mature until the early 1990s . At that point , some of its practitioners turned their attention from developing the specialty at home to developing it abroad , leading to the birth of international emergency medicine . They began to support the growth of emergency medicine worldwide , doing so through conferences , national and regional emergency medicine organizations , relief and development organizations , international emergency medicine fellowships , physician exchanges , information transfer , and curriculum development . Most developing countries are taking steps to develop emergency medicine as a specialty , to develop accreditation mechanisms , and to promote the development of emergency medicine training programs . Their interest is a result of improved healthcare , increasing urbanization , aging populations , the rising number of traffic fatalities , and heightened awareness of emergency medicine among their citizens . In addition , emergency medicine is useful in dealing with time @-@ sensitive illnesses , as well as improving public health through vaccinations , interventions , training , and data collection . Countries that lack mature EMSs are developing emergency medicine as a specialty so that they will be able to set up training programs and encourage medical students to pursue residencies in emergency medicine . Some challenges faced in international emergency medicine include immature or non @-@ existent training programs , a lack of adequate emergency transport , a shortage of resources to fund emergency medicine development , and an absence of research that could inform developing countries how to best spend the resources they devote to emergency medicine . Additionally , the standards and methods used in countries with mature EMSs are not always suited for use in developing countries due to a lack of infrastructure , shortage of funds , or local demographics . Ambulances , the developed country standard , are costly and not practical for the road conditions present in many countries ; instead , a variety of modes of transportation are used . Furthermore , in place of expensive medication and equipment , developing countries often opt for cheaper if slightly less effective alternatives . Although it may seem that increasing availability to emergency medicine must improve health , there is little empirical evidence to directly support that claim or to point out which methods are most effective in improving patient health . Evidence @-@ based medicine seeks to address this issue by rigorously studying the effects of different interventions instead of relying on logic or tradition . = = Background = = = = = Definition = = = The most commonly accepted definition of international emergency medicine is that it is " the area of emergency medicine concerned with the development of emergency medicine in other countries . " In that definition , " other countries " refers to nations that do not have a mature emergency care system ( exemplified by board @-@ certified emergency physicians and academic emergency medicine , among other things ) . Included in those nations are some that are otherwise quite developed but lack a complete emergency medical system , such as Armenia , China , Israel , Nicaragua , and the Philippines . Work in international emergency medicine can be broken down into two main categories : 1 ) the promotion of emergency medicine as a recognized and established specialty in other countries , and 2 ) the provision of humanitarian assistance . William Burdick , Mark Hauswald , and Kenneth Iserson have criticized the above definition as oxymoronic , given the international nature of medicine and the number of physicians working internationally . From that point of view , international emergency medicine is not solely about development of emergency medical systems but is instead better described as the training required for and the reality of practicing the specialty outside of one 's native country . = = = History = = = = = = = Emergency medicine = = = = Emergency medicine is a specialty that was first developed in the United States in the 1960s . For the United States , the high number of traffic and other accident fatalities in the 1960s spurred a white paper from the National Academy of Sciences ; it exposed the inadequacy of the current emergency medical system and led to the establishment of modern emergency medical services . The United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , and Singapore followed shortly thereafter , developing their respective emergency medicine systems in the 1970s and 1980s . = = = = Beginning of the subspecialty = = = = By the early 1990s , the emergency medicine systems ( EMSs ) in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , and Singapore were largely mature , leading some practitioners to focus on developing the specialty in other countries . Thus , international emergency medicine as a subspecialty began in the 1990s , although some isolated efforts to achieve some of its goals had taken place in the late 1980s . There were several reasons for the heightened interest these practitioners had in developing emergency medicine abroad . One was the contrast between the EMSs of their countries and the EMSs of other countries . Another was the revolutions of 1989 , overthrowing authoritarian regimes , which facilitated spread of new ideas , such as emergency medicine . Two international emergency medicine conferences were launched in the 1980s , the International Conference on Emergency Medicine ( ICEM ) and the World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine Conference ( WADEM ) . ICEM was founded by the International Federation of Emergency Medicine , while WADEM was started by an organization of the same name . Additionally , in the 1990s various national and regional emergency medicine organizations began supporting the development of the specialty in other countries , including the American College of Emergency Physicians , the European Society for Emergency Medicine , and the Asian Society of Emergency Medicine . Furthermore , countries without mature EMSs began taking more interest in developing them . One reason for this interest was the overall improvement in healthcare in these countries . Another was the increasing urbanization taking place worldwide and the corresponding shift of focus from infectious diseases to trauma and cardiorespiratory diseases , which are better managed by emergency medicine than prevention . In addition to these developments , the aging population in many countries has led to an increased need for emergency medical services . Also , American popular culture , particularly television shows , and " the demonstrated success of emergency medicine " in countries with mature EMSs both led the public in many countries to expect better emergency medical care . International emergency medicine organizations , whether focused on relief or development , have also contributed to the growth of the subspecialty . Relief organizations , such as Doctors Without Borders or AmeriCares , serve countries that do not have mature EMSs when health catastrophes occur . These organizations also serve to " enhance [ the specialty 's ] image in the international public eye " . Some development organizations , such as Emergency International or the International Federation for Emergency Medicine , help establish and develop emergency care systems in other countries by providing " ongoing educational and organizational assistance . " = = = Emergency medicine in the developing world = = = Motor vehicle crashes were a major factor that led to the development of emergency medicine in the United States , the United Kingdom , Australia , Canada , Hong Kong , and Singapore , and they are a major factor leading countries to develop their own emergency medical systems today . Such crashes represent a leading cause of death for adolescents and young adults , with the majority of deaths occurring in the developing world . In recent decades , while traffic fatalities have declined in industrialized nations , they have been on the rise in developing ones . Furthermore , developing nations tend to have a higher proportion of fatalities per number of vehicles for various reasons , including lower safety standards for vehicles . The lack of available emergency care in many developing countries only serves to exacerbate this problem . This higher rate of accident mortality per vehicle exists despite the fact that there are fewer cars in Asia and Africa than in the West . Odero et al. argue that this shows a need to improve emergency medical care . Emergency medical care applies to other acute health problems as well . Many illnesses with time @-@ sensitive elements are common in developing countries , including severe infections , hypoxia caused by respiratory infections , dehydration caused by diarrhoea , intentional and unintentional injuries , postpartum bleeding , and acute myocardial infarction . These are potentially life @-@ threatening conditions , yet effective treatment is often unavailable for much of the world 's population . For instance , a 2008 study of medical systems in Zambia published by the International Anesthesia Research Society found that only 50 percent of hospitals had an emergency medical system that transported patients . Just 24 percent of ambulances carried oxygen , with only 40 percent carrying drugs of any kind . Furthermore , only 29 intensive care beds were available in all of the hospitals surveyed , and these were only found in major hospitals . This implies that the majority of critically ill patients are receiving care in general hospital wards . Anderson et al. argue that , aside from acute care , emergency medicine can also play a significant role in public health . Vaccinations for many diseases such as diphtheria , tetanus and pertussis can be administered by emergency departments , patients can be targeted for specific interventions such as counseling for substance abuse , and conditions like hypertension can be detected and treated . Emergency departments are excellent locations to train health care providers and to collect data , because of the high number of patients . Emergency medicine also improves public health by preventing secondary disease developing from an initial presentation ( initial symptoms ) , and it serves as the first line of defense in disaster scenarios . = = = Models of emergency care = = = There are two primary models of emergency medicine : the Anglo @-@ American model , which relies on " bringing the patient to the hospital " , and the Franco @-@ German model , which operates through " bringing the hospital to the patient " . Thus , in the Anglo @-@ American model , the patient is rapidly transported by non @-@ physician providers to definitive care such as an emergency department in a hospital . Conversely , the Franco @-@ German approach has a physician , often an anesthesiologist , come to the patient and provide stabilizing care in the field . The patient is then triaged directly to the appropriate department of a hospital . The Anglo @-@ American model is seen in nations such as Australia , Canada , Ireland , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and the United States , while the Franco @-@ German model is found in European countries such as Austria , France , Germany , Poland , Portugal , and Russia . Most developing emergency medical systems , including those of China , Japan , the Philippines , South Korea , and Taiwan , have been established along Anglo @-@ American lines , but little work exists to establish the advantage of either system . Jeffrey Arnold and James Holliman have criticized the use of these descriptors for emergency medical systems as an oversimplification and a needless source of controversy . Instead , Arnold and Holliman have proposed that other groupings be used , such as classifying emergency medical systems as following a specialty or multidisciplinary model . Specialty systems would include those with physicians dedicated to emergency medicine , whereas multidisciplinary systems would encompass those that rely on physicians from other disciplines to provide emergency care . Such an approach would seek to categorize pre @-@ hospital care separately from in @-@ hospital systems . Within Arnold and Holliman 's understanding of emergency care models , there is also an acknowledgement that current Western models may be inadequate in the context of developing nations . For instance , a cost @-@ benefit analysis found that creating an EMS system in Kuala Lumpur that met U.S. standards for cardiac arrest response ( 85 percent of patients receive defibrillation within 6 minutes ) would cost US $ 2 @.@ 5 million and only save four neurologically intact lives per year . The primary variable responsible for that result is the relatively young demography of Kuala Lumpur , meaning that comparatively few cardiac @-@ related deaths occur . An example of a developing nation establishing its own model of emergency medicine may be seen in southern Brazil . Elements of both of the major conventional models have been incorporated , with the EMS system following French influences and the ambulances being staffed by physicians , while an American approach to emergency medical residency training is also present . = = Role in overall health system = = = = = Developed countries = = = In developed counties , training programs specifically relating to the international practice of emergency medicine are now available within many emergency medicine residencies . The curriculum that should be covered by such programs has been the subject of much discussion . Patient care , medical knowledge , practice @-@ based learning , communication skills , professionalism , and system @-@ based practice are the basic six competencies required of programs approved by the Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education , but the application of these goals can take many forms . The breadth of skills needed in international emergency medicine make it unlikely that one standardized program could fulfill the training needs for every scenario . One Australian study found that the primary topics covered by U.S. fellowship programs were emergency medicine systems development , humanitarian relief , disaster management , public health , travel and field medicine , program administration , and academic skills . Its authors argue that attempting to cover all of those areas may be unrealistic and that a more targeted focus on acquiring necessary skills might be more productive . After such training is completed , or even without any EMS training , working in or visiting other nations is one way physicians can participate in international emergency medicine . Some physicians choose to pursue their careers overseas , while others opt for shorter trips . For example , a team of U.S. physicians spent seven months helping establish a new emergency department and emergency residency program in Hangzhou , China . Such exchanges can be mutually beneficial . For instance , 23 to 28 percent of all physicians in Australia , the United States , the United Kingdom and Canada received their training at medical schools outside of the country in which they currently practice . = = = Developing countries = = = The experience of international emergency medicine in developing countries is in some ways the opposite of that of developed ones . As of the 2000s , developing countries are attempting to establish effective systems of care and recognized specialty programs with assistance from health care providers from the developed world . In 2005 , there were only a few countries with advanced emergency medical systems , and a far greater number ( 50 + ) that were in the process of developing those systems . The process of development usually begins in academia and patient care , followed by administrative and economic concerns , and finally health policy and agendas . Given the limited resources of many developing nations , funding vitally effects how emergency medicine fits into the health system . Preventive care is a crucial part of healthcare in developing countries , and it may be difficult to budget for emergency medicine without cutting into those resources . This is a particular problem for poorer nations such as Zambia , which had a per capita health expenditure of 23 US dollars in 2003 . Regardless of the amount of preventive care available , health problems requiring immediate attention will still occur , and emergency medical programs could increase access to care . Kobusingye et al. argue that expanding emergency medicine does not need to be unreasonably expensive , particularly if developing countries focus on low @-@ cost but effective treatments administered by first responders . = = Initiatives to expand emergency medicine = = = = = Curriculum development = = = Hobgood et al. argue that one key component in equipping nations to develop emergency medical systems is to identify the aspects of training that are essential for health care providers . In their view , a standard curriculum is useful for identifying core issues , even if countries have very different needs and resources . To address this goal , the International Federation for Emergency Medicine developed a model curriculum in 2009 . This initiative seeks to provide a minimum basic standard that can be tailored to the specific needs of the various nations implementing training in emergency medicine . It is targeted towards all medical students in order to produce a minimum competency in emergency care for all physicians , regardless of their specialty . = = = Transferring knowledge = = = Countries with decades of experience in comprehensive emergency medical systems have expertise that nations that are just beginning emergency medical programs lack . Thus , there exists considerable opportunity for the transfer of knowledge to assist newly founded programs . Such transfers may be made either from a distance or in person . For instance , the International Emergency Medicine Fellowship at the University of Toronto sent a three @-@ person team to Cluj @-@ Napoca , Romania , to promote the local development of emergency medicine . An assessment of the present status was performed that identified targets for improvement in physical plant organization and patient flow ; staffing , staff education , equipment , medication and supplies ; and infection control practices . Following these designations , plans regarding these areas were collaboratively drawn up and then implemented , partially through international exchange trips . Another conduit for the transfer of knowledge is the International Conference on Emergency Medicine , a conference held every two years for worldwide emergency physicians by the International Federation for Emergency Medicine ( IFEM ) . In 2012 , the conference took place in Dublin , Ireland . The organization was founded in 1991 by four national emergency physician organizations : the American College of Emergency Physicians , the British Association for Emergency Medicine , the Canadian Association of Emergency Physicians , and the Australasian College for Emergency Medicine . The conference rotated between the founding members until 2010 , when it was held in Singapore . Many new members have been accepted since the mid @-@ 1990s , when the IFEM decided to open up membership to other nations ' emergency medicine organizations ; the conference will rotate to them as well . For instance , in 2014 the conference will be hosted in Hong Kong and in 2016 it will be held in Cape Town , South Africa . There are other conferences on international emergency medicine as well , including the one that the World Association for Disaster and Emergency Medicine ( WADEM ) has held every two years since 1987 . However , WADEM focuses more on disaster medicine than emergency medicine system development , and many of its member physicians are not specialists in emergency medicine . Additionally , the European Society for Emergency Medicine ( EuSEM ) has hosted an annual conference since 1998 . EuSEM also publishes The European Journal of Emergency Medicine , develops recommendations for emergency medicine standards for European countries , and supports a disaster medicine training center and degree program in San Marino . The Asian Society for Emergency Medicine ( Asian Society ) , which was founded in 1998 , holds its own biennial conference . In addition to that , the Asian Society , like the EuSEM , develops curriculum recommendations for Asian countries . = = = Developing emergency medicine as a specialty = = = One way to advance emergency medical care is to obtain the recognition of emergency medicine as a specialty in countries that currently lack it . Without such recognition , it is difficult to set up training programs or recruit potential students , as they face the uncertainly of training to obtain a credential that may end up being useless to them . Recognition increases the visibility and prestige of the profession and promotes other efforts to advance its development . Botswana may serve as a case study . Its recent recognition of emergency medicine as a specialty has been closely accompanied by the creation of the Botswana Society for Emergency Care , the establishment of a Resuscitation Training Centre and a Trauma Research Centre at the University of Botswana , and the formation of a committee to design a national policy for pre @-@ hospital care . An alternate route for developing emergency medicine is to provide additional training for other specialists to equip them to practice in emergency medicine . This has the benefit of being more rapid to implement , as physicians already trained in other areas can add the necessary emergency skills to their repertoire . However , after the initial expansion it is difficult for emergency medicine to progress further in nations that adopt this strategy , as the retrained practitioners identify more with their original specialty and have less incentive to continue to press for further innovations in emergency medicine . = = Challenges = = = = = Training = = = Educational opportunities in emergency medicine are not available in many countries , and even when present , they are often in their infancy . Botswana opened its first medical school in 2009 , with a program in emergency medicine following in 2011 . The program aims to train four to six physicians in emergency medicine each year . Limitations on in @-@ country training mean that the program includes six months of training at an international site . The organization of the program is modeled on South Africa 's program due to the similarities in resource constraints and disease burdens and the eagerness of College of Emergency Medicine of South Africa and Emergency Medicine Society of South Africa to support the expansion of emergency medicine . Two years of clinical practice are required before entering the residency program , as in the South African and Australian approaches . To deal with this shortage of educational opportunities , Scott Weiner et al. suggest that countries with developed emergency medical systems should focus on training the trainers . This , he believes , is a sustainable approach to promote the development of emergency medicine worldwide . It works by sending developed country health care workers to equip a small group of trainees with the necessary skills to then go on and teach the concepts to others . As such , it may be able to leverage the insights of developed emergency medical systems while remaining sustainable , as the newly trained trainers continue to spread the knowledge . The Tuscan Emergency Medicine Initiative is an example , with physicians from other specialties currently working in emergency departments being taught how to teach a new group of emergency medical specialists . = = = Emergency transport = = = The limitations on resources available in developing countries are particularly evident in the area of emergency transport . Ambulances , the developed country standard , are costly and not practical for the road conditions present in many countries . Indeed , there may be no roads at all . One study found that modes of transport as diverse as motorboats , canoes , bicycles with trailers , tricycles with platforms , tractors with trailers , reconditioned vehicles , and ox carts were used for emergency transport . In more advanced developing countries , establishing ambulance transport systems is more feasible , but still requires considerable expertise and planning . Prior to 2004 , Pakistan did not have an organized emergency medical system . In that year , Rescue 1122 was launched as a professional pre @-@ hospital emergency service , and it has managed to achieve an average response time of 7 minutes , comparable to that of developed nations . Some of the critical factors in its success included local manufacture of vehicles , training instructors to certify emergency medical technicians , adopting training materials to the local context , and branching out to include fire and rescue service response under a united command structure . = = = Resources = = = The vital nature of coping with the lack of resources available in international emergency medicine may be seen in the proportion of scientific articles that grapple with the topic . Of the top 27 articles identified by a review of the international emergency medicine literature from 2010 , 14 were classified as dealing with the practice of emergency medicine in resource @-@ constrained environments . A new dimension of thought is that of the isolated subject of technology for trauma care as published in the World Journal of Surgery by Mihir Shah et al . Topics covered included the use of the Broselow tape as the best estimate for children 's weight , green bananas as an effective treatment for diarrhea , and misoprostol as a potential alternative for postpartum hemorrhage when oxytocin is not available . = = = Lack of research = = = Despite the thought that increasing availability to emergency medicine will improve patient outcomes , little empirical evidence exists to directly support that claim , even in developed countries . Between 1985 and 1998 only 54 randomized controlled trials related to emergency medical services were published , implying that much of the current standard of care rests upon meager support . A similar lack of direct proof exists for the effectiveness of international assistance in promoting emergency medicine in other countries . Although it may seem that such efforts must improve health , the failure to quantify international emergency medicine 's impact renders it more difficult to identify the best practices and target areas in which the most benefit may be achieved . A development in recent years that seeks to address these issues has been termed evidence @-@ based medicine . As its name suggests , this approach strives to rigorously study the effects of different interventions instead of relying on logic or tradition . Jeffrey Arnold argues that its application worldwide could lead to the boon of sharing best practices between emergency medicine practitioners in various countries , thus advancing the current standard of emergency care . = Operation Corridor 92 = Operation Corridor 92 ( Serbian : Операција Коридор 92 , Operacija Koridor 92 ) was an operation conducted during the Bosnian War by the Army of Republika Srpska ( VRS ) against the forces of the Croatian Defence Council ( HVO ) and the Croatian Army ( HV ) in northern Bosnia and Herzegovina between 24 June and 6 October 1992 . The objective of the offensive was to re @-@ establish a road link between the city of Banja Luka in the west of the country and the eastern parts of the territory controlled by the Bosnian Serbs . The offensive was prompted by the capture of Derventa by the HV and the HVO – a move that blocked the single overland road between the VRS @-@ controlled territories . The VRS successfully recaptured Derventa and pushed the HVO and the HV north , capturing several towns in the process . In the second phase of the offensive , the VRS reached the Sava River , the border with Croatia , and destroyed a bridgehead held by the HV and the HVO at Bosanski Brod . The offensive involved more than 60 @,@ 000 troops and resulted in heavy casualties for all sides , especially the HVO . The outcome later caused speculation that it was the result of a political arrangement between Serb and Croatian leaders to secure a land trade . = = Background = = As the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska narodna armija – JNA ) withdrew from Croatia following the acceptance and start of implementation of the Vance plan , its 55 @,@ 000 officers and soldiers born in Bosnia and Herzegovina were transferred to a new Bosnian Serb army , which was later renamed the Army of Republika Srpska ( Vojska Republike Srpske – VRS ) . This reorganisation followed the declaration of the Serbian Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina on 9 January 1992 , ahead of the 29 February – 1 March 1992 referendum on the independence of Bosnia and Herzegovina . This declaration would later be cited by the Bosnian Serbs as a pretext for the Bosnian War . Bosnian Serbs began fortifying the capital , Sarajevo , and other areas on 1 March . On the following day , the first fatalities of the war were recorded in Sarajevo and Doboj . In the final days of March , Bosnian Serb forces bombarded Bosanski Brod with artillery , drawing a border crossing by the HV 108th Brigade in response . On 4 April , JNA artillery began shelling Sarajevo . The JNA and the VRS in Bosnia and Herzegovina faced the Army of the Republic of Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Armija Republike Bosne i Hercegovine – ARBiH ) and the Croatian Defence Council ( Hrvatsko vijeće obrane – HVO ) , reporting to the Bosniak @-@ dominated central government and the Bosnian Croat leadership respectively , as well as the HV , which occasionally supported HVO operations . A UN arms embargo introduced in September 1991 , had hampered the preparation of the various forces , but in late April , the VRS was able to deploy 200 @,@ 000 troops , along with hundreds of tanks , armoured personnel carriers ( APCs ) and artillery pieces , while the HVO and the Croatian Defence Forces ( Hrvatske obrambene snage – HOS ) could field approximately 25 @,@ 000 soldiers and a handful of heavy weapons . The ARBiH was largely unprepared , however , lacking heavy weapons and possessing small arms for less than half of its force of approximately 100 @,@ 000 troops . By mid @-@ May 1992 , when those JNA units which had not been transferred to the VRS withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina to the newly declared Federal Republic of Yugoslavia , the VRS controlled approximately 60 percent of Bosnia and Herzegovina . = = Prelude = = Following its successful defence of Bosanski Brod	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Denys ; the Victorian clergyman and local historian Edward Trollope stated that this is a medieval form of St Dionysius , but does not elaborate on which of the several saints called Dionysius this refers to . According to a pamphlet published by the parochial church council , St Denys is a medieval composite of Dionysius of Paris , Dionysius the Areopagite and Pseudo @-@ Dionysius the Areopagite . As of 2015 , regular church services are scheduled for Sundays and Wednesdays . Holy Communion is conducted weekly at 8 : 00am on Sundays , followed by Sunday School and an all @-@ age family worship at 10 : 00am . A parent and toddler group is scheduled for Wednesdays at 9 : 30am . = = History = = = = = Background and origins = = = The Sleaford area has been inhabited since the late Iron Age ; people settled around the ford where a prehistoric track running northwards from Bourne crossed the River Slea . A large hoard of coin moulds belonging to the Corieltauvi tribe have been uncovered in this area and dated to the late Iron Age . It was occupied by the Romans , and then by the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The place @-@ name Slioford first appears in 852 , meaning " crossing over a muddy stream " , in reference to the Slea . The settlement around the crossing came to be known as " Old " Sleaford in 13th @-@ century sources to distinguish it from developments further west , around the present @-@ day market place , which came to be known as " New " Sleaford . The origins of New Sleaford are not clear , leading to a theory that it was planted by the Bishop of Lincoln in the 12th century as a means of increasing his income , hence the epithet " New " . The town 's compass @-@ point layout , the 12th @-@ century date of St Denys ' stonework and other topographical features offer evidence for this theory . A speculative reassessment of Domesday Book ( 1086 ) material suggests that St Denys ' origins may be earlier . Two manors called Eslaforde ( Sleaford ) were recorded in the Domesday Book , one held by Remigius , Bishop of Lincoln , the other by Ramsey Abbey . The Bishop succeeded a Saxon thegn , Bardi , and held 11 carucates with 29 villeins , 11 bordars , 6 sokemen , a church and priest , as well as 8 mills , 1 acre of woodland , 320 acres ( 130 ha ) of meadow and 330 acres ( 130 ha ) of marsh . Ramsey Abbey had been granted land in Sleaford and surrounding villages before the Norman Conquest of England ; in Domesday its fee consisted of 1 carucate , 1 sokeman , 2 villeins and 27 acres of meadow . It was sokeland of the abbot of Ramsey 's manor of Quarrington , where he held two churches . There is no evidence for a second church at Quarrington , which suggests that the record is alluding to one in another of the abbot 's manors for which Quarrington was an estate centre . The local historians David Roffe and Christine Mahany ruled out the possibility that this referred to Cranwell , another of the abbey 's fees , and concluded that it is probably a reference to the church at Old Sleaford , which was granted by a knight of Ramsey to Haverholme Priory in c . 1165 . Hence , the church possessed by the bishop in the other manor must have been a second church in Sleaford , and therefore could only have been St Denys ' in what would become New Sleaford . = = = Expansion = = = Sleaford and its church were altered considerably in the 12th century , especially under Bishop Alexander of Lincoln ; a castle was constructed to the west of the town during his episcopate and work on the earliest surviving parts of the church may date to this period . Facing onto the market place , the tower is the oldest part of the present church building and dates to the late 12th century , probably c . 1180 . Its broach spire has been dated to the early 13th century , possibly c . 1220 . A prebendary of Sleaford is recorded in the late 13th century whose office was probably founded by one of the post @-@ Conquest Bishops , who were its patrons . The vicarage of Sleaford was founded and endowed in 1274 ; the record has survived and shows Henry de Sinderby being presented to the vicarage by the Treasurer of Lincoln and Prebendary of Sleaford , Richard de Belleau ; the Bishop instituted him that March . The vicar could profit from tithes and oblations , and was given a house formerly occupied by one Roger the chaplain , but he had to pay £ 15 to the prebendary at the feasts of the Nativity and St John the Baptist . The prebendary otherwise retained his jurisdiction over the parish . A period of rebuilding and remodelling occurred in the late Middle Ages . A chantry chapel , dedicated to the Virgin Mary , was founded in 1271 by the merchants Thomas Blount and John de Bucham , who endowed it with lands around Old and New Sleaford , and several surrounding villages . The chapel is located on the north aisle , and the chaplain was instructed to pray there for the founders at his daily mass . The chantry priest 's house is recorded in the 1440s as one of the oldest buildings in Sleaford ; located in the churchyard , it became the Vicarage . The tower was probably accompanied by a nave of a similar date , which was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style in the mid to late 14th century ; the transept followed twenty or thirty years later , according to Trollope . A clerestory was added in around 1430 and the chancel was remodelled at this time . = = = Early modern and later = = = A diocesan return of 1563 recorded 145 households in the parish of New Sleaford , while the Compton Census ( 1676 ) reveals that New Sleaford had a Conformist population of 576 people , no " Papists " , and 6 Non @-@ conformists . There is a widely held local tradition that St Denys ' was used during the English Civil War ( 1642 – 51 ) as a barracks for parliamentary troops who destroyed the interior furnishings . The local historian Trollope stated that the soldiers looted the brass eagle lectern ( last recorded in 1622 ) , broke the stained glass windows and the organ , and stole valuables . Whether this damage occurred or not , repairs to the windows and roof were carried out in 1657 , paid for by public subscription . Galleries were also added to the church in the 18th century : the south in 1758 , west in 1772 , and north in 1783 – 84 . In 1772 , Edward Evans , a ship 's surgeon on HMS Egmont , donated £ 300 to replace the organ with one built by Samuel Green of London . For most of the 19th century , the Anglican community dominated Sleaford 's civic bodies , including the Board of Guardians , who oversaw the workhouse , and the Local Board of Health . Dr Richard Yerburgh and his son , Richard , were vicars in 1809 – 51 and 1851 – 82 respectively and had family connections with the local builders Kirk and Parry ; Yerburgh and Thomas Parry ( one half of the firm ) were on the Board of Guardians and were labelled members of a " family party " by opponents during the Board 's 1870 elections ( they were nonetheless re @-@ elected ) . They and other local clergymen were key players in the establishment of National schools in Sleaford and Quarrington , which Kirk and Parry built . The Anglican congregation , at an estimated 700 to 800 people in 1851 ( St Denys ' had enough space for 743 people ) , was less than half of the size of the nonconformist community , which was probably larger than 2 @,@ 000 and tended to flourish in poorer parts of the town . The 19th century also witnessed two major restorations to St Denys ' . As the congregation expanded , the need for greater space was met with the addition of a new north aisle in 1853 . This coincided with a wider restoration project carried out at the cost of £ 3 @,@ 500 by Kirk and Parry , which included the demolition of the galleries , the addition of a strainer arch and the relocation of the organ . The church was damaged by an electrical storm in 1884 and parts , including the stone broach spire — one of the oldest in England — were rebuilt by Kirk and Parry in 1885 – 86 . The old organ was sold in 1891 and St Hugh 's Chapel and the choir vestry were dedicated to the memory of a local solicitor , Henry Snow , in 1906 . Electric lighting was introduced in 1951 – 53 and extensive restoration work was carried out in 1966 , when the organ was rebuilt , and in 1988 . Fifty @-@ four solar panels were added in 2008 , at the cost of £ 70 @,@ 000 , and by 2011 were able to cover the church 's electricity bill . = = Architecture , fittings and grounds = = St Denys ' is constructed in Ancaster stone across four periods : the earliest sections in a transitional style between Early English Gothic and Decorated Gothic ; the late medieval nave , aisles and chancel in Decorated Gothic ; the later Perpendicular Gothic clerestory and chancel ; and the Victorian neo @-@ Gothic restorations . The earliest parts consist of the late 12th or early 13th @-@ century tower and spire on the west side of the church , which have a combined height of 144 feet ( 44 m ) . Its arched entrance exhibits features of both the Early English and Decorated Gothic styles . During the restoration , a 15th @-@ century window was removed , placed in the churchyard and replaced by arcading and three circlets , deemed " somewhat absurd " by the architectural historian Sir Nikolaus Pevsner . With the exception of the tower and spire , much of the church was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style during the late 14th century . The nave and aisles extend eastwards from the tower . Outside , parts of the aisles are highly decorated ; the north doorway includes shafts , mouldings and finials , while the simpler south doorway has niches and monster carvings . The northern doorway has a gable which encroaches up into a five @-@ light window . Pevsner remarks that St Denys ' is particularly notable for its tracery , and the building 's entry on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest notes " particularly good mid [ 14th @-@ century ] tracery and ornament " . The window above the north doorway is a good example ; it contains elements shared by others of the Decorated style around the church , including reticulated ogee arches of varying complexity . A Perpendicular clerestory adorns the aisles with three @-@ light windows ; it dates to the early 15th century , possibly c . 1430 . The north aisle was extended in 1853 , but the architects , Kirk and Parry , reused the windows . The north transept includes a six @-@ light window — " one of the great flowing designs of the country " , according to Pevsner . Simon Jenkins , in his 2012 England 's Thousand Best Churches , awards St Denys three stars and says of the window tracery : " This is Lincolnshire at its most curvaceous , best displayed in the north transept north window . Words can barely do justice to this work ... This is a work of infinite complexity , with variations repeated throughout the church . " The tower ceiling has a tierceron vault and is connected to the nave and aisles by arches . The nave 's arcading spans four bays , the last of which on the north side acts as an entrance to the transept . The north aisle was extended in 1853 by Kirk and Parry , who added a strainer arch to support the tower and join it with the north aisle . The reredos and altar were built in 1922 by L.T. Moore ; the rood screen was restored by Ninian Comper in 1918 and the Communion rail was taken from Lincoln Cathedral during a restoration ; it has been attributed to Sir Christopher Wren , but Pevsner makes no mention of this . The rood loft is also by Comper , who is described by Simon Jenkins as " inventive as ever . His wood is unusually dark and unpainted , as are the rood figures and angels . The loft blooms out over the crossing . " The screen and altar rails in St Hugh 's Chapel are the work of C.H. Fowler ; E. Stanley Watkins completed the reredos in 1906 . In the 1640s , the stained glass included the armorial bearings of Sir William Hussey impaling his wife 's Barkley arms , and the arms of Markham and John Russell , Bishop of Lincoln . These have not survived , but the current stained glass includes a " very Gothic " window by Hardman dating to c . 1853 , three by Holland of Warwick from the late 1880s , one of Ward and Hughes ( 1885 ) and one by Morris & Co. from 1900 . In 2006 Glenn Carter completed a stained glass window dedicated to Yvonne Double which had been commissioned by her widower , Eddy Double . The earliest peal recorded at St Denys ' had six bells : three dating from 1600 , one from 1707 and two undated . In 1796 a new peal of eight bells were cast by Thomas Osborn of Downham , Norfolk ; the tenor is in the E key and weighs 19 long cwt 3 qr 6 lb ( 2 @,@ 218 lb or 1 @,@ 006 kg ) . Samuel Green 's organ of 1772 was rebuilt by Holdich in 1852 and replaced by the present organ in 1891 , which was built by Forster and Andrews of Hull ; rebuilt by Harrison & Harrison in 1966 , it was restored by A. Carter in 1999 and has three manuals and a pedalboard . St Hugh 's Chapel has its own organ , with one manual , installed by Cousans and Sons in 1912 . The church also houses a collection of fifteen antique , chained books in an oak reading desk ; the oldest items date to the early 17th century and include tracts on divinity . Other items of furniture include two old chests and a dole cupboard , while a 16th @-@ century tapestry is in the church 's possession . The octagonal font is in a Decorated Gothic style , but has been altered considerably . The churchyard around St Denys ' has been expanded several times : first in 1391 , when the Bishop of Lincoln , John Bokingham , was granted a piece of land 150 by 8 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m × 2 @.@ 4 m ) to one side of the church . Land to the north was also added in 1796 . The grounds were enclosed by a dwarf wall , which was replaced by a more substantial stone wall and iron fence in 1837 ; the railings were removed during the First World War . In a report on the town 's health in 1850 , William Ranger criticised the overcrowding of the churchyard ; in 1855 , burials in the grounds ceased and the vestry elected a burial board to produce a solution . They purchased 2 acres , 3 roods and 31 poles ( 0 @.@ 92 ha ) of land to the north of Eastgate at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 500 ; this was converted into a cemetery and a further 2 roods and 17 poles ( 0 @.@ 063 ha ) were bought for an access road . These grounds were extended in 1862 by an acquisition of 3 acres and 39 poles ( 1 @.@ 51 ha ) of land to the west of the cemetery ; they are now managed by Sleaford Town Council . = = Memorials = = According to Edward Trollope , the oldest tombstone in the church was from the 13th century ; it was faded and illegible when he recorded it in or before 1872 . A 14th @-@ century slab , originally for a now @-@ lost effigy , is in the church , and brass plate from the same period was discovered during the 1853 restoration . Richard Dokke , along with his wife Joanna and son John , are commemorated in a plaque dating to the 1430s , and a plaque to William Harebeter and his wife Elizabeth also dates to the 15th century . Although Gervase Holles recorded many 16th @-@ century monuments when he visited Sleaford , most have disappeared . Amongst those which remain are the tombs and plaques commemorating the first members of the Carre family to settle in Sleaford . The Carres hailed from Northumberland , but George Carre ( d . 1521 ) , a wool merchant , established himself in the town and is commemorated in St Denys ' by a brass . On the northern side of the chancel is an alabaster monument dedicated to George 's eldest surviving son Robert Carre ( d . 1590 ) , his three wives and some of their children ; he became lord of the manors of Old and New Sleaford . Opposite , on the southern side , is an alabaster altar tomb by Maximilian Colt dedicated to Robert 's fourth son and eventual heir , Sir Edward Carre , 1st Baronet ( d . 1618 ) , which carries the effigies of Edward and one of his two wives , probably his second , Anne Dyer ; according to Trollope , it was " said to have been mutilated during the Civil War " . Further plaques commemorate Sir Edward Carre 's grandson , Sir Robert Carre , 3rd Baronet ( d . 1682 ) , and his son , Sir Edward ( d . 1683 ) , who is also commemorated by a bust in the church . There are numerous other memorials to prominent Sleafordians . Early examples are plaques to John Walpoole ( d . 1591 , monument dated 1631 ) , the draper Richard Warsope ( d . 1609 , erected by Robert Camock ) , and Rev. Theophilus Brittaine ( d . 1696 ) . Later monuments include those of Richard Moore ( d . 1771 ) and Elizabeth Cooper ( d . 1792 ) , as well as a slab for Eleanor ( d . 1725 ) , wife of John Peart . The novelist Frances Brooke ( d . 1789 ) is buried in the church . Clergymen include William Seller , Joseph Francis ( d . 1749 ) and Anthony Skepper ( d . 1773 ) . A window is dedicated to a local solicitor , Henry Snow ( d . 1905 ) , and memorials on the north wall include George Jeudwine ( d . 1952 ) , another solicitor , and the local historian William Hosford ( d . 1987 ) . The monument to Ann Bankes ( d . 1834 ) incorporates a statue of a woman sinking into the ground , which Pevsner called " remarkably tender " , while the tablet to Ann Moore ( d . 1830 ) in the transept is noted as " good Grecian " . = Inspirations for James Bond = A number of real @-@ life inspirations have been suggested for James Bond , the fictional character created in 1953 by British author , journalist and Naval Intelligence Officer Ian Fleming ; Bond appeared in twelve novels and nine short stories by Fleming , as well as a number of continuation novels and twenty @-@ six films , with seven actors playing the role of Bond . Although the stories and characters were fictional , a number of elements had a real life background , taken from people whom Fleming knew or events he was aware of . These included the spy 's name , which Fleming took from the American ornithologist James Bond , and the code number — 007 — which referred to the breaking of a World War I German diplomatic code . Some aspects of Bond 's character and tastes replicate those of Fleming himself . = = Origins of the name = = On the morning of 17 February 1952 Ian Fleming started writing what would become his first book , Casino Royale , at his Goldeneye estate in Jamaica . He typed out 2 @,@ 000 words in the morning , directly from his own experiences and imagination and finished work on the manuscript in just over a month , completing it on 18 March 1952 . Fleming took the name for his character from that of the American ornithologist James Bond , a Caribbean bird expert and author of the definitive field guide Birds of the West Indies ; Fleming , a keen birdwatcher himself , had a copy of Bond 's guide and he later explained to the ornithologist 's wife that " It struck me that this brief , unromantic , Anglo @-@ Saxon and yet very masculine name was just what I needed , and so a second James Bond was born " . On another occasion Fleming said : " I wanted the simplest , dullest , plainest @-@ sounding name I could find , ' James Bond ' was much better than something more interesting , like ' Peregrine Carruthers ' . Exotic things would happen to and around him , but he would be a neutral figure — an anonymous , blunt instrument wielded by a government department . " After Fleming met the ornithologist and his wife , he described them as " a charming couple who are amused by the whole joke " . The ornithologist was obliquely referred to in the film Die Another Day with Pierce Brosnan 's Bond picking up a copy of Birds of the West Indies and posing as an ornithologist . = = Character inspirations = = During the Second World War Fleming was the personal assistant to the Director of the Naval Intelligence Division , Admiral John Godfrey . He reached the rank of commander — a rank he subsequently gave to his fictional creation — and was the planner for special operations unit 30th Assault Unit . Many of Bond 's tastes and traits were Fleming 's own , including sharing the same golf handicap , the taste for scrambled eggs and using the same brand of toiletries . Bond 's tastes are also often taken from Fleming 's , as was his behaviour , with Bond 's love of golf and gambling mirroring his creator 's . Fleming used the experiences of his espionage career and other aspects of his life as inspiration when writing , including using names of school friends , acquaintances , relatives and lovers throughout his books . Bond 's cigarettes were also the same as Fleming 's , who had been buying his custom @-@ made by Morland since the 1930s ; Fleming added the three gold bands on the filter during the war to mirror his naval Commander 's rank . On average , Bond smokes sixty cigarettes a day , although he cut back to around twenty five a day after his visit to a health farm in Thunderball . Fleming himself smoked up to eighty cigarettes a day . Apart from imbuing Bond with his own tastes , Fleming based his fictional creation on a number of individuals he came across during his time in Intelligence , admitting that Bond " was a compound of all the secret agents and commando types I met during the war " . = = Literary inspirations = = Besides real life individuals , James Bond was also inspired by one of Dennis Wheatley 's characters ; the secret agent Gregory Sallust , based on Wheatley 's late friend Gordon Eric Gordon @-@ Tombe . = = Inspiration for " 007 " = = The 007 number assigned to James Bond may have been influenced by any number of sources . In the films and novels , the 00 prefix indicates Bond 's discretionary ' licence to kill ' , in executing his duties . Bond 's number — 007 — was assigned by Fleming in reference to one of British naval intelligence 's key achievements of World War I : the breaking of the German diplomatic code . One of the German documents cracked and read by the British was the Zimmermann Telegram , which was coded 0075 , and which was one of the factors that led to the US entering the war . Subsequently if material was graded 00 it meant it was highly classified and , as journalist Ben Macintyre has pointed out , " to anyone versed in intelligence history , 007 signified the highest achievement of British military intelligence . " = Wait Your Turn = " Wait Your Turn " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her fourth studio album , Rated R ( 2009 ) . It was written by Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Saul Milton , Will Kennard , James Fauntleroy II , Takura Tendayi , and Rihanna herself . Stargate ( Eriksen and Hermansen ) and Chase & Status ( Milton and Kennard ) produced the song . " Wait Your Turn " was released on November 13 , 2009 as the second international and third overall single from Rated R. Upon the release of Rated R , some critics noted the diverse musical variety on the album , whilst others commented on the heavy influence of dubstep on the song . " Wait Your Turn " peaked inside the top twenty on the UK R & B Chart . The song failed to enter the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , making this Rihanna 's second single that failed to reach that chart ( " We Ride " ) . The song was performed live as part of a medley with " Hard " at the 2009 American Music Awards and on Good Morning America , along with " Russian Roulette " and " Umbrella " . The song was also included on the set list of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) . As part of promotion for the release of Rated R , a music video was directed by Rihanna 's longtime collaborator Anthony Mandler . A remix of the song features American rapper , and a member of Slaughterhouse , Joell Ortiz . = = Background and release = = " Wait Your Turn " was written by Tor Erik Hermansen , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Saul Milton , Will Kennard , James Fauntleroy II , Takura Tendayi and Rihanna , with production of the song helmed by the former four , under their stage names StarGate and Chase & Status , respectively . It comes from the recording sessions for the Rated R album , which took place during March to November 2009 at several recording studios throughout United States and Europe . After the song leaked online toward the end of October 2009 , it was used in a promotional video for her first televised interviews since the alleged assault on her by then @-@ boyfriend Chris Brown , singing the line , " The wait is ova " , which is part of the lyrics . Eriksen of StarGate , who co @-@ produced the song , had confirmed " Wait Your Turn " as the second single from Rated R ; it was later released as the second international and third overall single . The song was made available for digital download via iTunes on November 13 , 2009 , in Australia , Austria , Brazil , Finland , Italy , Norway , Spain , Sweden and Switzerland . = = Composition = = " Wait Your Turn " was one of many songs featured on Rated R that incorporates musical genres different from any of Rihanna 's previous work , drawing heavily on dubstep and hip hop genres . In her review of Rated R , Ailbhe Malone of NME briefly commented on the song , calling it " an electric backstreet stiletto stab , where , eyebrow cocked , Rihanna sings ' I ’ m such a fucking lady / You don ’ t have to be afraid . ' " Leah Greenblatt of Entertainment Weekly observed that Rihanna was drawing a lot of inspiration for several of the songs on the album from her Bajan background and heritage , most noticeably in her style of singing , saying " Throughout , Rihanna dons hip @-@ hop swagger like borrowed armor , leaning heavily on her Caribbean accent and unleashing a string of baddest @-@ bitch boasts via dancehall @-@ riddim 'd bangers like ' Hard ' , ' G4L ' and ' Wait Your Turn . ' " Alexis Petridis of The Guardian referred to " Wait Your Turn " as a response to Rihanna trying to move on from her innocent " Umbrella " pop star image , commenting " At the other , however , the desire to escape the single 's vast shadow has clearly led some of her collaborators to indulge in feats of impressively risky invention : the hypnotic , dirgey electronic grind of Wait Your Turn , Gangsta 4 Life 's druggy , intoxicating mix of backwards drums , minor @-@ key verses and spectral backing vocals . " = = Reception = = = = = Critical response = = = Greg Kot of The Chicago Tribune noted that Rihanna assumes the role of playing the victim in the song , and not the offender , saying " She 's wary of men even when she ’ s flirting with them in ' Wait Your Turn ' . " Prior to Greenblatt 's album review of Rated R , where she briefly commented on " Wait Your Turn " , she also reviewed the song when it leaked onto the Internet in early November , saying " Now that the wait is nearly ova , are you feeling it , Music Mixers ? I cannot tell a lie ; I ’ m a little underwhelmed by this new walk @-@ the @-@ plank Pirate incarnation . " William Goodman of Spin magazine was more critical and dismissive of the song , saying " ' Wait Your Turn ' ... leaked online over the weekend , and like the album 's lead track , ' Russian Roulette , ' it 's a total let down : clunky , Auto @-@ Tuned vocals repeat ' The wait is ova / The wait is ova ' ad nauseam , over dark atmospherics and a spare dub beat that fails to connect ... it 's certainly not worth the wait . " = = = Chart performance = = = " Wait Your Turn " made its first chart appearance on November 26 , 2009 , on the Irish Singles Chart , where it debuted at number 32 and remained for one week before falling out of the Top 50 . The song debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 45 on December 5 , before dropping to number 75 the following week , which was its last appearance on the chart . However , the song was more successful on the UK R & B Chart , where it debuted at number 17 on December 5 , where it stayed in the Top 40 for three consecutive weeks . The song has since sold 20 @,@ 000 digital copies in the UK . On the week commencing December 7 , " Wait Your Turn " debuted on the Australian Singles Chart at number 82 , before dropping out of the chart the following week . = = Music video = = The music video for " Wait Your Turn " was filmed on October 16 , 2009 in New York City and was directed by Anthony Mandler , who had previously directed the majority of Rihanna 's music videos , including " Take a Bow " and " Rehab " . Music video was edited by Nabil Mechi from Murex , who previously edit videos for " S.O.S. " and " Umbrella " . The music video made its premiere on November 9 , 2009 . In an interview with MTV News , Mandler spoke of the conceptualization of the video as well as the inspiration behind it : We shot the clip in mid @-@ October on a cold day in New York City . The vibe and feeling was great ... It was the first video for the album , so obviously everyone was excited and focused on setting the tone for what 's to come . Rihanna and I spoke in depth about creating a piece that was gritty , raw and more of a street video then a classic beauty piece ... We loved the energy and bravado of early hip @-@ hop videos that were made without a lot of resources , working more with the textures and shapes of the surroundings , then trying to build and manipulate environments as we have done in the past ... I wanted to try and take everything we have done in the past and put it to the side . It starts with a series of shots displaying Rihanna wearing a black eye @-@ patch , a high @-@ necked jacket and suspenders , and was filmed in a black and white grainy fashion , whilst Rihanna recites the lyrics " The wait is ova " . Scenes are then intercut with shots of Rihanna wearing a black hooded top , in what appears to be a Church , which is followed by Rihanna changing outfits , again wearing a black bra top and a fur coat sitting on a pair of Angel 's wings for the chorus . For the bridge of the song , Rihanna is featured in yet another change of outfit , this time wearing a white vest top and black fur coat , standing on the roof top of a New York skyscraper , with other tall buildings in the background . As Rihanna sings the final chorus , scenes from throughout the video are intercut with each other , with the new addition of Rihanna shown to be wearing what she wore at the start of the video in an underpass . = = Live performances = = As part of promotion of Rated R in the United Kingdom , Rihanna performed the song for the first time at the launch of the Nokia X6 smartphone at Brixton Academy in London . She performed the song as part of a set list which included songs from the album , including " Russian Roulette " and " Hard " , for the latter of which Rihanna was joined on stage by Young Jeezy , who is featured on the song . The set also saw Rihanna perform other songs from her repertoire , including " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Take a Bow " , " Disturbia " and " Umbrella " ; for the last of these , Rihanna was joined on stage by Jay @-@ Z to perform the song . Rihanna performed the song live for the first time at the 2009 American Music Awards , which was televised on November 22 , 2009 at the Nokia Theatre in Los Angeles , California , as part of a medley with the second single released from the album , " Hard " . In his review of the performance , Gil Kaufman of MTV commented on the main aspects of the spectacle , commenting that she was wearing a " skintight white catsuit bisected by cut @-@ out lines that revealed horizontal lines of skin across her body , spiked shoulder pads , white studded cuffs and a barbed @-@ wire bracelet snaking up her right forearm . " The performance started with a sci @-@ fi themed video clip , which featured Rihanna being operated on by robots . After finishing " Wait Your Turn , " Rihanna transitioned into " Hard " , whilst red lasers shone throughout the stage and audience , as well as from her spiked shoulder pads . On November 24 , 2009 , Rihanna appeared on Good Morning America , where she performed " Wait Your Turn " and " Russian Roulette " from Rated R as well as " Umbrella " from Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . The set featured Rihanna wearing " a white sequined blazer with a little black shirt underneath and stilettos " , and was joined on stage by a group of dancers , who were all dressed in black . Rihanna also gave a short interview about the album and the level of energy which was put into it , saying " It came very natural only because it was my place of peace , being the studio just venting . It was the one place I didn 't feel judged or criticized . Every emotion went into that album . " The song was also included on the set list of the Last Girl on Earth Tour ( 2010 – 11 ) in the encore section , as part of a medley with " Live Your Life " and " Run This Town " , before performing " Umbrella " as the final song . On June 24 , 2012 , Rihanna performed at the BBC Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend . She performed " Wait Your Turn " as part of a set list which also included songs from her fifth and sixth sequel studio albums . The performance featured giant sphinx on the stage . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from the liner notes of Rated R. James Fauntleroy II , Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen , Will Kennard , Saul Milton , Takura Tendayi and Robyn " Rihanna " Fenty – Songwriting StarGate and Chase & Status – Production Mikkel S. Eriksen – Vocal production Kevin " KD " Davis at Chalice Recording Studios , Hollywood , California – Mixing Mikkel S. Eriksen , Tor Erik Hermansen and Chase & Status – Instrumentation Metropolis Studios , London – Recording = = Charts = = = = Release history = = = Kevin Youkilis = Kevin Edmund Youkilis ( / ˈjuːkəlɪs / ; born March 15 , 1979 ) , also known as " Youk " / ˈjuːk / , is an American former professional baseball first baseman and third baseman . A native of Cincinnati , Ohio , he was drafted by the Boston Red Sox in 2001 , after playing college baseball at the University of Cincinnati . He played in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) for the Red Sox , the Chicago White Sox , and the New York Yankees . He is currently a special assistant to the Chicago Cubs and former Red Sox GM Theo Epstein . Known for his ability to get on base , while he was still a minor leaguer , Youkilis was nicknamed Euclis : The Greek God of Walks in the best @-@ selling book , Moneyball : The Art of Winning an Unfair Game . A Gold Glove Award @-@ winning first baseman , he once held baseball 's record for most consecutive errorless games at first base ( later broken by Casey Kotchman ) . He is also a three @-@ time MLB All @-@ Star , two @-@ time World Series Champion , and winner of the 2008 Hank Aaron Award . An intense performer on the playing field , Youkilis was known for his scrappiness , grittiness , dirt @-@ stained jerseys , home @-@ plate collisions , and his strange batting stance . He excelled despite a physique that led many observers to underestimate his athletic ability . He was called " roly @-@ poly " by his high school coach , " pudgy " by his college coach , a " fat kid " by general manager Billy Beane , and a " thicker @-@ bodied guy " by the Red Sox scout who recruited him . As Jackie MacMullan wrote for the Boston Globe : " He does not look like an MVP candidate ; more a refrigerator repairman , a butcher , the man selling hammers behind the counter at the True Value hardware store . " Youkilis was named to the Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball , ranking No. 36 on the list in 2009 , No. 38 in 2010 , and No. 35 in 2011 . = = Background and early life = = Youkilis ' Jewish great @-@ great @-@ great @-@ grandfather , a native of 19th @-@ century Romania , moved to Greece at the age of 16 to avoid conscription at the hands of the notoriously anti @-@ Semitic Cossacks . He became homesick , however , and returned to Romania after a couple of years , although he changed his surname from " Weiner " to " Youkilis " to avoid army and jail . Youkilis was born in Cincinnati , the son of Carolyn ( née Weekley ) and Mike Youkilis , a wholesale jeweler . His father was born to a Jewish family , while his mother , a native of West Virginia , converted to Judaism after her marriage . Youkilis has described his father as a " well @-@ known third baseman in the Jewish Community Center fast @-@ pitch softball league . " Youkilis is Jewish and had a Bar Mitzvah at a Conservative synagogue . At the age of 14 , he had an uncredited one @-@ line speaking role in the romantic comedy film Milk Money . He attended Sycamore High School in the northeastern suburbs of Cincinnati , where he played third base , shortstop , first base , and the outfield for the school team which won the Amateur Athletic Union National Championship in 1994 , and he was the only player to homer off his future Red Sox teammate Aaron Cook in high school . = = College = = When he graduated from high school in 1997 , Youkilis weighed about 227 pounds and was 6 ' 1 " . He was recruited by two Division I schools : Butler University and his ultimate choice , the University of Cincinnati ( UC ) — an institution that was the alma mater of both his father and Youkilis ' longtime idol , Sandy Koufax , and had just finished a 12 – 46 season . UC coach Brian Cleary spotted Youkilis at a winter camp . " I looked at him and said , Well , we need somebody " , said Cleary . " I 'd love to tell you I saw something no one else did , but he was just better than what we had . " While majoring in finance , Youkilis excelled as a player for the Cincinnati Bearcats from 1998 to 2001 . " I take no credit " , said Cleary . " He coaches himself . He knows his swing . Any time we said anything to him , he was already a step ahead . He made the adjustments he had to make . I just think he 's a really smart guy who had a great feel for what he had to do . " In his junior year in 2000 , he was a second @-@ team All @-@ American and first @-@ team All @-@ Conference USA , as he set school records by hitting three home runs in one game and 19 for the season ; still , he went undrafted . " He was kind of a square @-@ shaped body , a guy [ who ] in a uniform didn 't look all that athletic " , Cleary said . " He wasn 't a tall , prospect @-@ y looking guy . He looked chubby in a uniform . ... It wasn 't fat . He was strong . [ But ] I think the body did scare some people away . " During the period between his junior and senior years , he played in the Cape Cod League , finishing sixth in the league in batting average . In his senior year in 2001 he repeated as second @-@ team All @-@ American . He set UC career records for home runs ( 56 ) , walks ( 206 ) , slugging percentage ( .627 ) , and on @-@ base percentage ( .499 ) with a batting average of .366 . " He had a great eye ... he hardly ever struck out looking " , said Brad Meador , UC 's associate head coach . " When he did , you knew the ump missed the call . " Cleary , noting how driven Youkilis was to succeed , told his father : " Your son 's going to be a millionaire some day . I don 't know if it 's in baseball , but he 's going to make some money one of these days . " Youkilis was later inducted into UC 's James Kelly Athletics Hall of Fame . Yet , when asked what he liked about Youkilis , former Boston scout Matt Haas said : " At first glance , not a lot . He was unorthodox . He had an extreme crouch — his thighs were almost parallel to the ground . And he was heavier than he is now . But the more I watched him , the more I just thought , ' Throw the tools out the window . This guy can play baseball . ' " In 2001 , at Haas ' urging , the Boston Red Sox drafted Youkilis in the eighth round ( 243rd overall ) , to the chagrin of Billy Beane , who had hoped that he would be able to draft him in a later round . ESPN reported that : " questions about his defense and power with wood kept him out of the top part of the draft . " He signed for a mere $ 12 @,@ 000 signing bonus . " Kevin would have played for a six @-@ pack of beer " , his father said . " Teams didn ’ t appreciate performance as much then as they do now " , observed Red Sox VP of Player Personnel Ben Cherington eight years later . " His college performance was off the charts . If he [ were ] in the draft this year , he 'd be at least a sandwich pick , if not a first rounder . His performance was that good , in college and on the Cape . Now , teams appreciate what that means . There 's no way he ’ d last that long now . " = = Minor leagues ( 2001 – 04 ) = = In 2001 , Youkilis made his professional debut as a third baseman with the Lowell Spinners , a Short @-@ Season A Class franchise in the New York – Penn League . He went on to lead the league with a .512 OBP , 52 runs , and 70 walks ( against just 28 strikeouts ) , while hitting for a .317 batting average ( third in the league ) in 59 games . He also reached base safely by hit or walk in 46 consecutive games ( the third @-@ longest such streak in the minor leagues ) . Peter Gammons wrote that August : " Remember this name : Kevin Youkilis , who resembles Steve Balboni . " Honored by the Spinners with a " Youkilis bobblehead night " , Youkilis said : " It 's an honor — you know you 've made it when you get a bobblehead of yourself . " Promoted from Lowell towards the end of the season , he played five games with the Augusta GreenJackets of the South Atlantic League , a Low @-@ A Class league . He was named Red Sox Minor League Player of the Year . In 2002 , Youkilis appeared in 15 games for Augusta , in 76 games for the Sarasota Sox ( 40 of them at first base ) , and in 44 games for the Trenton Thunder . He hit .310 , with eight home runs and 80 RBIs for the year , and he was voted Trenton 's " Player of the Year . " His .436 on @-@ base percentage was the fifth @-@ highest in the minors in 2002 , and his 80 walks were seventh @-@ most . In recognition of his performance , the Boston Red Sox named Youkilis their 2002 Minor League Player of the Year . After the 2002 season , Boston 's then @-@ assistant general manager , Theo Epstein , sent Youkilis to the Athletes ' Performance Institute in Tempe , Arizona , where he engaged in an intensive six @-@ week training regimen . Youkilis then moved his off @-@ season home to Arizona , and attended the Institute in the 2004 – 08 off seasons as well . In 2003 , Youkilis started the season with the Portland Sea Dogs . In 94 games , he led the Eastern League with a .487 on @-@ base percentage ( best all @-@ time for the team through 2007 ) , and was third in the league with a .327 batting average ( second @-@ best all @-@ time for the team through 2007 ) . Later , he earned a spot on the Eastern League All @-@ Star team , the Baseball America AA All @-@ Star team , and on the U.S. roster for the 2003 All @-@ Star Futures Game . After Portland , Youkilis moved up to play for the Pawtucket Red Sox , the Boston Red Sox Class @-@ AAA franchise . During his time with Pawtucket , Youkilis managed to complete a streak he started while in Portland : he reached base in 71 consecutive games , tying future teammate Kevin Millar 's minor @-@ league record for consecutive games reaching base . His 104 walks were the third @-@ highest number recorded in the minors in 2003 . Asked , however , about the focus in position @-@ playing baseball on five @-@ tool players , Youkilis quipped , " I don 't even know if I have a tool . " Writing for ESPN , John Sickels evaluated him as follows in mid @-@ 2003 : Youkilis is an on @-@ base machine . He never swings at a bad pitch , and is adept at working counts and out @-@ thinking the pitcher . Unlike some guys who draw lots of walks , Youkilis seldom strikes out . He makes solid contact against both fastballs and breaking pitches . Youkilis ' swing is tailored for the line drive , and he may never hit for much home run power . But he hits balls to the gaps effectively , and could develop 10 – 14 home run power down the road . Youkilis does not have very good speed , though he is a decent baserunner . His defense at third base draws mixed reviews . His arm , range , and hands all rate as adequate / average . He doesn 't kill the defense at third base , but he doesn 't help it much , either , and is likely to end up at first base down the road . Youkilis spent the 2003 – 04 winter in Mexico , playing for Navojoa of the Mexican Pacific League . In 2004 , he appeared in 32 games for Pawtucket , hitting .258 with three home runs , and a .347 on @-@ base percentage , before being called up to the Red Sox on May 15 . In his minor league career through 2005 , he batted .299 with a .442 OBP while playing 340 games at third base , 59 at first base , and 2 at second base . = = Major leagues ( 2004 – 14 ) = = = = = Boston Red Sox = = = = = = = 2004 = = = = On May 15 , 2004 , when Red Sox regular starting third baseman Bill Mueller was placed on the disabled list , Youkilis was called up for the first time . " I didn 't sleep much " , Youkilis said . " I got about four hours of sleep . ... They told me the night before I was playing .... I got in there , and man , I was just amped up and excited . " During his first major @-@ league game in Toronto , with his parents watching from the second row behind the dugout , Youkilis ( in his second at bat ) homered against 1996 Cy Young Award winner Pat Hentgen , becoming just the seventh player in team history to hit a home run in his first game . As a prank , the team initially gave Youkilis the silent treatment when he returned to the dugout after his homer . " This one will go down probably as the greatest day of my life " , he said . Later , Youkilis was swept up in the team 's ritual annual hazing , in which he and other rookies were made to wear skimpy Hooters waitress outfits , orange satin shorts and tight , clingy white tank tops , for the team trip from Canada through US Customs in Florida . " I walked into the locker room , and all my clothes were gone " , Youkilis said . " There was just a Hooters outfit and shoes . " Youkilis was named the American League ( AL ) Rookie of the Month for May , after leading AL rookies with nine walks and a .446 OBP as he batting .318 with 7 RBIs , and 15 runs in 13 games . Noting ways that his life had suddenly changed , he said : " I 'm staying in the best hotel I 've ever stayed in , and my paycheck has quadrupled . " In mid @-@ July he was sent back down to AAA , however , to make room for Ramiro Mendoza , though he was brought up again towards the end of the season . On September 24 of that year , which was Yom Kippur , Youkilis appeared in the dugout in uniform , but declined to participate in the game out of deference to the religious holiday . Youkilis was named the club 's Rookie of the Year by the Boston chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America . For the season , in 44 games , he saw an average of 4 @.@ 67 pitches per plate appearance , first among major leaguers with at least 90 plate appearances . As Youkilis observed , " Fighting off pitches , fouling off pitches , laying off pitches , making it so the opposing pitcher can 't breathe ; that 's my job . " He was on the roster for the Red Sox for the 2004 American League Division Series ( ALDS ) , making his sole appearance in Game 2 against the Anaheim Angels . " It 's been an unbelievable ride " , Youkilis said . " It 's a great first year , a year you probably can 't top . Hopefully , it ends like a Cinderella story . " He was removed from the roster for the next round , the American League Championship Series ( ALCS ) , and was on the roster but did not play in the World Series . = = = = 2005 = = = = While virtually nobody else knew it , Youkilis broke his toe during spring training in 2005 , and was back playing again in a matter of days . It was " in Vero Beach " , Youkilis said . " I was trying to make the team . " On the Red Sox Opening Day roster for the first time in his career in 2005 , Youkilis found himself on the way back down to Pawtucket on April 13 as the team needed to activate Curt Schilling , and Youkilis happened to still have minor league options ; but told that he would be back , Youkilis decided to keep his Boston apartment and commute to Pawtucket . Up and down all season as the Red Sox made use of his options , he got a call @-@ up — prompted by Bill Mueller having back spasms in batting practice — one August day as he was in Pawtucket 's clubhouse before a game . Without changing out of the same white pants that he wore for both Boston and Pawtucket home games , he packed his car , drove the 40 miles to Boston , walked into the Red Sox clubhouse , changed his jersey and cleats , and was ready to play . He ultimately played 43 more games for Pawtucket in 2005 before being called up permanently . On September 18 , he fractured the tip of the ring finger of his right hand fielding a ground ball , and did not play again until October 2 , the final day of the regular season . In 2005 with Boston , Youkilis hit .278 with a .400 on @-@ base percentage in 79 at @-@ bats in 44 games during five stints with the team . He saw an average of 4 @.@ 68 pitches per plate appearance , the most of any Red Sox player with at least 50 at @-@ bats . He made 23 appearances at third base , 9 at first base , and 2 at second , and batted at least once from all nine spots in the batting order . = = = = 2006 = = = = In 2006 , his first full season in the majors , Youkilis became a regular first baseman ( with 127 games at first ) . Until that time , he was primarily a third baseman , though he did play nine games at first base with the Red Sox in 2005 , and 56 games at first base in his minor league career . Also in 2006 he played in the outfield for the first time in his professional career , 18 games in left field . Despite his inexperience in the outfield , Youkilis did not commit an error while in the outfield ; he did , however , commit eight errors while playing the infield . Youkilis tied for the major league lead in sacrifice flies ( 11 ) and led the AL with 4 @.@ 43 pitches per plate appearance and by hitting line drives 24 % of time that he put balls in play . Also that year , Youkilis finished second in the AL in pitches seen ( 3 @,@ 009 ) and percent of pitches taken ( 63 @.@ 8 ) , 4th in OBP with runners in scoring position with two outs ( .524 ) , 7th in bases on balls ( 91 ; the six players ahead of him averaged 41 home runs and 14 intentional walks , while Youkilis hit only 13 homers and was not intentionally walked once ) , tied for 7th in " bases taken " ( 22 ; advanced on fly balls , passed balls , wild pitches , balks , etc . ) , 8th in doubles ( 42 ) and batting average with runners in scoring position with two out ( .375 ) , 9th in walk percentage ( 13 @.@ 8 % ) , and 10th in times on base ( 259 ) . He scored 100 runs , hit for a .325 batting average with runners in scoring position , and hit four first inning leadoff home runs . He did this despite struggling in the second half of the season with plantar fasciitis and a problematic abdominal muscle . = = = = 2007 = = = = Youkilis had a career @-@ high 23 @-@ game hitting streak starting on May 5 , 2007 , and ending on June 2 , 2007 , in which he hit .426 ( 43 – 101 ) with 13 doubles , 6 HRs , 21 RBIs , and a .468 OBP . At one point during the hitting streak , he had 9 straight games with at least two hits ( tying a Red Sox record set by Jim Rice in 1978 ) , and became the first Red Sox hitter since Trot Nixon to hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run . During the hitting streak , on May 20 , he hit what would be the shortest homer by a Sox player during the season — a 321 @-@ foot homer around the Pesky Pole . The home run would not have cleared the fence at any of the other 29 ballparks in baseball . Although the hit streak ended on June 2 , he did walk three times in an 11 – 6 win over the Yankees . His manager Terry Francona said , " He 's taking more of what the pitchers give him , using the whole field . He 's going to work the count about as good as any hitter in baseball . Last year if he got a two @-@ strike breaking ball , he might swing and miss . This year he 's fouling it off , or taking it to right field . " On June 1 , Yankees pitcher Scott Proctor hit Youkilis in the head with a pitch ; Proctor was ejected from the game . On August 30 , Yankees pitcher Joba Chamberlain threw a pair of 98 mph pitches over Youkilis 's head ; Chamberlain was ejected , and later also suspended two games for " inappropriate actions . " " That 's the second time " , Youkilis observed . " Scott Proctor hit me in the head . Coincidence ? I don 't know . It doesn 't look good . " On June 25 , 2007 , Youkilis played in his 120th consecutive game at first base without an error , breaking the prior Red Sox record set in 1921 by Stuffy McInnis . On September 7 , he played in his 179th consecutive game at first base without an error , which broke the prior AL record set in 1973 by Mike Hegan . On September 15 , Yankees pitcher Chien @-@ Ming Wang struck Youkilis on his right wrist with a pitch , resulting in a deep tendon bruise that kept him out until September 25 , when he returned with the aid of a cortisone shot . In 2007 , Youkilis was 6th in the AL with 15 hit by pitch ( HBP ) . Youkilis 's error @-@ less streak at the end of the regular season was 190 games ; while he was charged with an error in the sixth inning of an October 16 , 2007 , playoff game against the Cleveland Indians , postseason games are not included in the record . Youkilis said , " I 'm not worried about making the error . I 'm worried about trying to help the team win and trying to get an out any way we can . " Leading the league with a perfect 1 @.@ 000 fielding percentage , and an AL @-@ record 1 @,@ 079 error @-@ less chances at first , Youkilis won the 2007 AL Gold Glove award for first basemen . While he batted .288 for the season , with men on base , he hit .340 with a .435 OBP . He was 6th in the league in pitches per plate appearance ( 4 @.@ 27 ) . In the first inning of Game 1 of the ALDS against the Angels he hit his first post @-@ season home run . It was his first homer since returning from being hit by Wang , and Youkilis said his wrist " felt a lot better as the days have progressed . I think the best thing about it is that it 's playoff time , and adrenaline helps the most . " In the 7 @-@ game ALCS against the Indians he hit three more home runs , had 14 hits ( tying the LCS record jointly held by Hideki Matsui and Albert Pujols since 2004 ) , and scored 10 runs ( bettering Matsui 's 2004 ALCS record ) while batting .500 ( another new ALCS record , bettering Bob Boone 's .455 in 1986 ) with a .576 OBP and a .929 slugging percentage . Still , in the World Series against Colorado , he did not start the team 's away games . Francona faced a dilemma when playing without a DH in the NL park of having to bench either Youkilis , 120 @-@ RBI man Mike Lowell , or 117 @-@ RBI man David Ortiz , as he had to choose from among them which two would play first base and third base . Bob Ryan of The Boston Globe called it " the most difficult decision any American League manager has had to make in the 34 @-@ year history of the DH " . Youkilis said , " It doesn 't bother me . I want to play , but I totally understand the situation . Look , I 'm doing everything I 've always wanted to do . I 'm playing in a World Series . I 'm playing every day . I 'm happy . I just want to win .... If I have to take a seat , that 's just the way it has to be . " Youkilis hit two doubles ( both in Game 1 ) and had three walks in only 12 plate appearances in the 4 @-@ game win over Colorado , as he was not in the starting lineup for the away games . Dismissing questions as to whether he was upset about being benched for the last two games of the World Series , Youkilis said , " Move on and go to another team if you ’ re worried about your playing time , and think you deserve to play over somebody else . " Youkilis was selected the 2007 recipient of the Jackie Jensen Award for spirit and determination by the Boston BBWAA chapter . = = = = 2008 = = = = In 2007 , Youkilis had earned $ 424 @,@ 500 , the fourth @-@ lowest salary on the club . In February 2008 , he signed a one @-@ year contract for $ 3 million , avoiding salary arbitration . In March 2008 , his role as the designated player representative of the Red Sox became known during the resolution of a player @-@ management dispute regarding non @-@ payment of coaches and staff for the Red Sox trip to Japan . On April 2 , 2008 , on an unassisted game @-@ ending play against the Oakland A 's , Youkilis broke the Major League record for most consecutive error @-@ less games by a first baseman , previously held by Steve Garvey , at 194 games . In his 205th game without an error on April 27 , Youkilis also established a new major league record for first basemen , when he fielded his 1,701st consecutive chance without an error , passing the old mark of 1 @,@ 700 set by Stuffy McInnis from 1921 to 1922 . His streak , which started on July 4 , 2006 , was snapped at 238 games ( 2 @,@ 002 fielding attempts ) on June 7 , 2008 against the Seattle Mariners . He was named AL Player of the Week for May 5 – 11 , after batting .375 while leading the AL with five home runs , and tying for the American League lead with 10 RBIs . In an early June game at Fenway Park , one camera reportedly showed Manny Ramirez taking a swing at Youkilis , and the two had to be separated by teammates in the Red Sox dugout . " I think they were just exchanging some views on things " , manager Terry Francona said . " We had a lot of testosterone going tonight . " Asked about the incident the following year , Youkilis said : " We have two different approaches to the game . Winning and losing isn ’ t life and death to Manny . " He was the AL 's starter at first base on the 2008 AL All @-@ Star team that played the 79th Major League Baseball All @-@ Star Game at Yankee Stadium , voted in by the fans with 2 @,@ 858 @,@ 130 votes in his first year on the ballot . Youkilis became the sixth Red Sox first baseman to start an All @-@ Star Game at first base , following Jimmie Foxx ( 1938 ; 40 ) , Walt Dropo ( 1950 ) , Mickey Vernon ( 1956 ) , George Scott ( 1966 ) , and Mo Vaughn ( 1996 ) . In late July , Manny Ramirez was traded away by the Red Sox . Youkilis took over the cleanup spot of the lineup . In 2008 , Youkilis led the AL in at bats per RBI ( 4 @.@ 7 ) , was 3rd in slugging percentage ( .569 ) and sacrifice flies ( 9 ) , 4th in RBIs ( 115 ) , extra base hits ( 76 ) , and OPS ( .958 ) ; 5th in hit by pitch ( 12 ) ; 6th in batting average ( .312 ) and on @-@ base percentage ( .390 ) ; 7th in doubles ( 43 ) and in times advanced from first to third on a single ( 14 ) ; 8th in total bases ( 306 ) , 10th in at @-@ bats per home run ( 18 @.@ 6 ) , and 12th in home runs ( 29 ) . He was also 2nd in extra base hit percentage ( 12 @.@ 2 % of all plate appearances ) and tied for 7th in times advanced from first to third on a single ( 14 ) . Youkilis also batted .356 against relief pitchers , .358 with men on base , and .374 with runners in scoring position . He drew seven intentional walks during the 2008 season , the first season he had garnered any , and also led the AL with a .353 batting average after the sixth inning . Youkilis became just the third modern major leaguer ( since 1901 ) ever to bat over .300 with more than 100 RBIs during a season in which he spent at least 30 games at both first and third base ; St. Louis ' Albert Pujols ( 2001 ) and Cleveland 's Al Rosen ( 1954 ) are the only other players to accomplish the feat . Youkilis finished third in the balloting for the 2008 AL MVP Award , receiving two first @-@ place votes ( one from Evan Grant of The Dallas Morning News ) , while his teammate Dustin Pedroia won and Justin Morneau came in second . Only Youkilis and Morneau were named on all ballots . In the ALCS Game 5 vs. the Tampa Bay Rays , the Red Sox were down by seven runs in the bottom of the seventh inning . Youkilis scored the winning run for the Red Sox to complete the second @-@ largest comeback in MLB postseason history . Before Game 4 of the 2008 World Series , he was named the winner of the AL Hank Aaron Award for the best offensive performance of the 2008 season . = = = = 2009 = = = = Youkilis signed a four @-@ year , $ 41 @.@ 25 million contract with the Red Sox on January 15 , 2009 . The deal also included a team option ( at $ 14 million , with a $ 1 @.@ 25 million buyout ) for 2013 . Later that year , he was voted # 36 on the Sporting News list of the 50 greatest active baseball players , voted on by a panel that included members of the Baseball Hall of Fame . Youkilis batted cleanup for Team USA in the 2009 World Baseball Classic , tying for the lead among all WBC players in home runs ( 3 ) and runs ( 9 ) , and tying for second on the team in RBIs ( 6 ) and walks ( 6 ) , through the first two rounds . He had to leave the team with a left ankle sprain , however , before the WBC semifinals . Youkilis hit a walk off home run against the Yankees on April 24 , 2009 . " He has skills , man " , said David Ortiz . " I don 't know how he do it . He just do it . " He was subsequently placed on the disabled list a few days later , but returned to play on May 20 . " It 's frustrating not being able to play " , he said . " Watching baseball is not something I like to do . " Youkilis was picked to be a reserve on the AL 2009 All @-@ Star team by Tampa Bay and AL manager Joe Maddon , after coming in second in the fan vote to Mark Teixeira , 3 @,@ 309 @,@ 050 to 3 @,@ 069 @,@ 906 . On August 6 , 2009 , with the Red Sox suffering numerous injuries , Youkilis played left field for the first time since he played 18 games there in 2006 . On August 8 , he again played left field , and made a couple of twists and turns on a fly ball hit by Johnny Damon before committing an error . On August 11 , 2009 , after 6 ' 5 " pitcher Rick Porcello of the Detroit Tigers hit him in the back with an 89 mph pitch , Youkilis immediately charged Porcello on the mound . Youkilis threw his helmet at the fast back @-@ pedaling Porcello , and Porcello tackled Youkilis , both went down , and both benches cleared . Both players were tossed from the game , and each received a five @-@ game suspension . Hearing that his friend and former minor league teammate Greg Montalbano had died of testicular cancer at the age of 31 late on August 21 , Youkilis dedicated his next game to his friend 's memory . After inscribing " GM " in marker on his cap , he hit two home runs in the game against the Yankees , while driving in six runs . Both times as he crossed home plate , he looked up and pointed to the sky . " That was for him " , Youkilis said . " There are some crazy things that have happened in my life . You ... feel like there 's somebody out there somewhere pushing balls out for you , and doing great things . " In 2009 , Youkilis was 2nd in the AL in OBP ( .413 ) and OPS ( .961 ) , 4th in hit by pitch ( 16 ) , 5th in slugging percentage ( .548 ) , and batted .305 overall and .362 with runners in scoring position . He also led the AL in pitches per plate appearance ( 4 @.@ 42 ) , was 6th in batting average on balls in play ( .363 ) , and 10th in walk percentage ( 13 @.@ 6 % ) . " Statistically , if you consider 2008 and 2009 , you could make the case there has been no better player in the league [ in that time ] " , said Red Sox EVP Epstein . Of the players with 1 @,@ 000 plate appearances in the AL over the 2008 – 09 seasons , none had a higher OPS than Youkilis ( .960 ) . In the field , while Youkilis split his time primarily between first base and third base and therefore did not qualify for the fielding percentage title at either , his .998 fielding percentage in 78 games at first matched that of the league leader Lyle Overbay , and his .974 fielding percentage in 63 games at third base was better than league @-@ leader Melvin Mora 's .971 . Youkilis finished sixth in balloting for the 2009 AL MVP Award , receiving two second @-@ place votes . He was selected as the Red Sox most valuable player ( winner of the 2009 Thomas A. Yawkey Memorial Award ) in voting by the Boston Chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America . = = = = 2010 = = = = In 2010 , Youkilis was again named to Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball , ranking No. 38 on the list . A panel of 21 MLB executives was polled to arrive at the list . On May 18 , 2010 , Youkilis hit his 100th career home run off C.C. Sabathia . On August 2 , Youkilis ' season was cut short by a right thumb abductor muscle tear , which he had played through for two weeks . At the time of his injury , he was tied for 3rd in the major leagues in runs scored ( 77 ) , and led all major leaguers with a .798 slugging percentage against left @-@ handed pitchers . He was 3rd in the AL in on @-@ base percentage ( .411 ) , tied for 5th in walks ( 58 ) , tied for 7th in extra @-@ base hits ( 50 ) , 8th in slugging percentage ( .564 ) , and 9th in total bases ( 204 ) . He had surgery to repair the tear on August 6 . The injury limited him to only 102 games for the season , his fewest since his 2005 sophomore year . Slowed by his injury , he had only 362 at @-@ bats , but batted .307 / .411 / .564 with 19 home runs and 62 RBIs . For the years 2008 – 10 , his .964 OPS ranked second in the major leagues , behind Albert Pujols ( 1 @.@ 074 ) . = = = = 2011 = = = = During the offseason the Red Sox acquired All @-@ Star first baseman Adrian Gonzalez , and with the imminent departure of Adrián Beltré , Youkilis agreed to the make the switch back to third base . In 2011 , Youkilis was again named to Sporting News ' list of the 50 greatest current players in baseball , ranking No. 35 on the list . A panel of 21 MLB executives was polled to arrive at the list . Youkilis was named a reserve for the 82nd All @-@ Star Game . At the All @-@ Star break , he was 3rd in the league in doubles ( 26 ) , 4th in on @-@ base percentage ( .399 ) , 6th in RBIs ( 63 ) , 7th in OPS ( .911 ) , and 9th in walks ( 49 ) . For the season , he led all AL third basemen in fielding percentage , at .967 . However , he batted only .258 , his lowest MLB season average of his career . The Red Sox suffered a collapse late in the 2011 season , losing their playoff positioning . A source among the Red Sox claimed that Josh Beckett , Jon Lester , and John Lackey spent games they did not pitch in the clubhouse eating fried chicken and drinking beer ; some Red Sox teammates speculated that Youkilis was the source of this information , alienating him from his teammates . = = = = 2012 = = = = On April 15 , 2012 , Red Sox manager Bobby Valentine publicly questioned Youkilis ' motivation and physical ability to succeed . Viewing rookie Will Middlebrooks as the superior third baseman , Valentine began to play Middlebrooks over Youkilis . The Red Sox traded Youkilis to the Chicago White Sox on June 24 for pitcher Zach Stewart and utility man Brent Lillibridge . The Red Sox agreed to pay $ 5 @.@ 5 million of Youkilis ' salary to help close the deal . In the seventh inning of that day 's game , Ben Cherington , the Red Sox General Manager , informed Valentine that a transaction was pending . Youkilis hit a triple in his last at bat , and received a long standing ovation while tipping his helmet to the crowd after being taken out for pinch runner Nick Punto . = = = Chicago White Sox = = = = = = = Rest of 2012 = = = = The next day , Youkilis started for the White Sox , playing against the Minnesota Twins . He went 1 – 4 with a single in a loss . He hit his first home run as a member of the White Sox on July 3 , against the Texas Rangers off of Roy Oswalt . He also went 3 – 6 with 4 RBIs in that game . On July 9 , 2012 Youkilis was named the American League Player of the Week , after batting .478 with three home runs and ten RBIs in a 5 – 1 span for the White Sox . White Sox manager Robin Ventura reported that Youkilis was a competitor with a " grinder mentality " , who fit in well with his White Sox teammates . He became a free agent after the 2012 season . = = = New York Yankees = = = = = = = 2013 = = = = On December 11 , Youkilis accepted a one @-@ year contract worth $ 12 million to play third base for the New York Yankees . Though Youkilis had not been popular with members of the Yankees and their fans , Robinson Canó and Alex Rodriguez publicly supported the signing , and Joba Chamberlain reached out to Youkilis in an attempt to smooth over their past differences . The deal became official on December 14 . Youkilis was diagnosed with a back strain when the 2013 season began and was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on April 30 , 2013 . He was activated and returned on May 30 , 2013 . He was placed back on the disabled list on June 14 , 2013 after restraining his back . He then underwent season @-@ ending surgery to repair a herniated disk in his back on June 20 , 2013 . = = = Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles ( 2014 ) = = = Youkilis agreed to a one @-@ year , $ 4 million contract with the Tohoku Rakuten Golden Eagles of Nippon Professional Baseball for the 2014 season . He missed part of the season due to plantar fasciitis . In 21 games , Youkilis batted .215 with one home run with 11 RBIs . = = Life after baseball = = On October 30 , 2014 Youkilis announced his retirement from baseball . In January 2015 , Youkilis was said to be opening a brewpub in California with his brother . In February 2015 , Youkilis was hired by his former GM Theo Epstein to scout and development consultant . = = Moneyball = = Michael Lewis 's 2003 best @-@ seller Moneyball : The Art of Winning an Unfair Game focuses on Oakland Athletics ' General Manager Billy Beane 's use of Sabermetrics as a tool in the evaluation of potential prospects . In the book , Lewis discusses then @-@ prospect Youkilis in detail , and refers to him as " Euclis , the Greek God of Walks " , a moniker that has stuck . Beane put more stock in empirical evidence than in scouts ' hunches , and did not care that Youkilis was pudgy ( or , as Lewis put it in the book , " a fat third baseman who couldn 't run , throw , or field " ) , but just loved his ability to get on base ( helped in no small part by his 20 / 11 vision ) . The book brought minor leaguer Youkilis his first national recognition . Lewis also revealed that Beane repeatedly tried to trade for Youkilis before Youkilis reached the major leagues , but his attempts were blocked by then @-@ Red Sox GM Theo Epstein . Asked by a reporter what he thought of the nickname , Youkilis quipped , " It 's better than being ' the Greek God of Illegitimate Children . ' " But according to his dad , " Kevin disliked that Greek God of Walks stuff . " Fans actually rooted for Youkilis to take pitches . " It was frustrating to hear fans say , ' Get a walk ! ' " Youkilis said . " I 'll take a walk — a walk 's as good as a hit — but don 't you want me to hit a home run or something ? " = = Religion and community service = = = = = Career highlights as a Jewish baseball player = = = On August 8 , 2005 , while playing for the Red Sox , Youkilis took the field in the 9th inning along with Adam Stern and Gabe Kapler , setting a record for the most Jewish players on the field at one time in AL history , and the most in Major League Baseball history since four Jewish players took the field for the New York Giants in a game in 1941 . Youkilis was featured in the 2008 Hank Greenberg 75th Anniversary edition of Jewish Major Leaguers Baseball Cards , published in affiliation with Fleer Trading Cards and the American Jewish Historical Society , commemorating the Jewish Major Leaguers from 1871 through 2008 . He joined , among other Jewish major leaguers , Ryan Braun , Brad Ausmus , Ian Kinsler , Brian Horwitz , Gabe Kapler , Jason Marquis , Jason Hirsh , John Grabow , Craig Breslow , and Scott Schoeneweis . He was one of three Jewish players in the 2008 All @-@ Star Game , joining Braun and Kinsler , and one of three Jewish players on the Team USA 2009 World Baseball Classic team , joining Braun and Grabow . Kinsler says that " Youkilis always says something to me on the bases . ' Happy Passover , ' he 'll throw something at me . " Youkilis was named the Jewish MVP for 2008 , beating out fellow All @-@ Stars Braun and Kinsler . He was voted the top Jewish baseball player of the decade 2000 – 09 in online balloting , beating out Shawn Green and Braun . Through the 2010 season , his .294 batting average placed him 6th on the career all @-@ time list ( directly behind Phil Weintraub ) for batting average by Jewish major leaguers , his 112 home runs placed him 8th ( behind Braun ) , and his 470 RBIs placed him 9th ( behind Ausmus ) . In Jews and Baseball : An American Love Story , a 2010 documentary film narrated by Dustin Hoffman , Youkilis noted : It 's something that I probably won ’ t realize until my career is over , how many people are really rooting for me and cheering for me . And it 's not just because I went 3 @-@ for @-@ 4 , or had a great game . It 's just the fact that I represent a lot of Jewish people and a lot of the Jewish heritage , and the struggles that a lot of our people have had . He expressed interest in 2013 in playing for Israel at the World Baseball Classic if healthy . Since the 2013 qualifier was during the regular season , he was unable to complete , however he announced that he would play for the team if they made it past the qualifying round of the 2013 World Baseball Classic . Youkilis will be a coach for Israel during the 2017 World Baseball Classic In an embarrassing formatting oddity , it was noticed in 2007 that multiple baseball websites such as Baseball @-@ Reference.com and Baseball Prospectus had been using " youkike " as part of their urls for webpages featuring Youkilis . This unintended quirk affected those sites that used an automatic url @-@ creating algorithm which combined the first five letters of a player 's surname with the first two letters of his first name . Following the discovery , the sites manually adjusted the urls to remove the inadvertent slur . = = = Philanthropy = = = Kevin Youkilis Hits For Kids is a charitable organization established by Youkilis in 2007 . Youkilis 's foundation focuses on raising support and awareness for the health , advocacy , safety , and medical healing of children across Massachusetts , in his hometown of Cincinnati , and beyond . Rallying the support of volunteers , local business , and the heart of Red Sox Nation , Kevin Youkilis Hits for Kids teams with existing , community @-@ based children 's charities and medical research efforts that lack sufficient funding and awareness . One organization that Hits for Kids works with is the Joslin Diabetes Center 's Pediatric Health Services . He has a special sensitivity about youth suicide , since his college roommate , a close and supportive friend of his since high school , committed suicide on Thanksgiving during his sophomore year . To this day , he said , " I sit back at night and wonder what I could 've done . " " In my religion , the Jewish religion , that 's one of the biggest things that 's taught , is giving a mitzvah , forming a mitzvah " , said Youkilis . " I was always taught as a kid giving to charity . You 're supposed to give a good amount of charity each and every year . ... It 's just a great thing when you can make a kid smile that 's going through some hard times in life ... I wish more people , not just athletes , would give people just a little bit of their time . It doesn 't take much ... It can make a huge difference . " After the first game of the ALDS , Youkilis re @-@ shaved his head for good luck in a sign of solidarity with cancer patient Mitt Campbell . Following the team 's 2007 World Series victory , Youkilis shaved his goatee for a $ 5 @,@ 000 donation by Gillette to his foundation . All profits from his charity wine " SauvignYoouuk Blanc " , released in 2008 , support Hits for Kids . = = Family = = In November 2008 , Youkilis and Enza Sambataro held a wedding ceremony in Cabo San Lucas , Mexico , although the couple never formalized their wedding . The ceremony was attended by Red Sox teammates Mike Lowell , David Ortiz , and Dustin Pedroia . Sambataro , a Newton , Massachusetts native , was CEO of Youkilis 's charity , Hits for Kids , until the couple split up in 2010 . In February 2012 , the Boston Herald reported that Youkilis was engaged to Julie Brady , the sister of New England Patriots quarterback Tom Brady . Two months later , the couple were quietly married in New York City , and a pregnancy was rumored at that time . Twelve months after the Boston Herald article , the wedded Youkilises , along with their infant son , were featured in a 30 @-@ minute program on the YES Network . = = In popular culture = = During his tenure with the Red Sox and especially throughout the New England area , the phrase " Yoouuuk ! " became a commonplace term ; being seen on T @-@ shirts , bumper stickers , and advertising . The phrase represents Youkilis ' nickname but also replicates the phonetic spelling of the low , drawn out , guttural cheer that Red Sox fans in attendance would greet Youkilis with as he walked toward the batter 's box prior to hitting or after a successful play in the field . Youkilis made an appearance in season 1 episode 8 of the Travel Channel show Man v. Food . The episode was recorded at Boston 's Eagle 's Deli and featured Youkilis rooting against host ( and New York Yankees fan ) Adam Richman in an eating challenge . In 2011 he appeared in the music video for the Dropkick Murphys song " Going Out in Style " . = = Awards and distinctions = = = Fair dealing in United Kingdom law = Fair dealing in United Kingdom law is a doctrine which provides an exception to United Kingdom copyright law , in cases where the copyright infringement is for the purposes of non @-@ commercial research or study , criticism or review , or for the reporting of current events . More limited than the United States doctrine of fair use , fair dealing originates in Sections 29 and 30 of the Copyright , Designs and Patents Act 1988 , and requires the infringer to show not only that their copying falls into one of the three fair dealing categories , but also that it is " fair " and , in some cases , that it contains sufficient acknowledgement for the original author . Factors when deciding the " fairness " of the copying can include the quantity of the work taken , whether or not it was previously published , the motives of the infringer and what the consequences of the infringement on the original author 's returns for the copyrighted work will be . Research and study does not apply to commercial research , and does not include infringements of broadcasts , sound recordings or film ; it also has only a limited application to software . These exclusions have been criticised as failing " to reflect the increasing importance of non @-@ textual media for both study and research " . Research cannot be private , and in a non @-@ academic setting must also not have a future potential commercial purpose . This exception also excludes , under Section 29 ( 3 ) ( b ) of the 1988 Act , copying which will result in " copies of substantially the same material being provided to more than one person at substantially the same time and for substantially the same purpose " . Criticism or review is interpreted liberally , and may include criticism or review of a work 's social or moral implications or its impact , but this exception is only available when the work in question has been previously made available to the public . Reporting of current events is only an exception where the event is " current " , and may exclude trivial or ephemeral news ; such news can , however , become an " event " through media coverage . = = Definition = = Fair dealing is an exception to United Kingdom copyright law which allows for the use of copyrighted works without licensing in certain circumstances . It is governed by Sections 29 and 30 of the Copyright , Designs and Patents Act 1988 , which provide three types of situation in which fair dealing is a valid defence : where the use is for the purposes of research or private study , where it is to allow for criticism or review , and where it is for the purpose of reporting current events . This can be contrasted with the United States doctrine of fair use , which provides a general defence rather than rigid and specific categories of acceptable behaviour . Under United Kingdom law , an infringer relying on fair dealing as a defence must show that their actions fall into a specific category of acceptable use , as opposed to the " illustrative open list of purposes " in US law . The fair dealing exceptions had previously been formalised in case law as " fair use " forms , but this was eliminated by the Copyright Act 1911 . = = Fair dealing = = Fair dealing is a defence after the fact . If sued for copyright infringement , one can rely on fair dealing as a defence in court , but the defence " only comes into play once a claimant has established that copyright has been infringed . Where this occurs , the onus of proof [ then ] falls on the defendant to prove that one of the exceptions applies " . This is done first by proving that the infringement falls within one of the three categories , which are liberally interpreted by the courts . The courts will not , however , give any consideration to what the infringer thought his work was for , or rely on a subjective test in any way ; as in Hyde Park Residence v Yelland , it is not seen as necessary " for the court to put itself in the shoes of the infringer of the copyright " . Instead , a more objective test is used , to avoid providing " any encouragement to the notion that all that is required is for the user to have a sincere belief , however misguided , that he or she is criticising a work or reporting current affairs " . If the copyright infringer can show that their use falls within one of the three categories , they must then show that the dealing was " fair " . This takes into account a number of things , and due to the freedom of speech provisions under the Human Rights Act 1998 is deliberately intended not to be based on rigid and inflexible tests . Instead , as in Ashdown v Telegraph Group Ltd , the courts " bear in mind that considerations of public interest are paramount " . Because of this , there are many different things which enhance or detract from the " fair " nature of the dealing . If the copyrighted work had not been " made available to the public " at the time , this will count against the use being fair , and makes the defence on the grounds of criticism and review " unavailable " . The courts will give different weight to different kinds of documents ; a series of private letters which have not been published will detract more from the fairness of the infringement than unpublished official reports which discuss matters of public interest . How the work was obtained and for what purpose is also a factor . If the work was obtained illegally or unethically , the dealing is less likely to be " fair " than if it was legitimately acquired . Similarly , if the motives of the dealing are negative , the fairness will be impugned . As in Hyde Park , the court must " judge the fairness by the objective standard of whether a fair minded and honest person would have dealt with the copyright work in the manner " in question . Consequences are also a factor ; if , as in Hubbard v Vosper , the parties to the case are competitors and infringing on the work acts as an alternative to purchasing the original , this will limit the fairness of the dealing . Occasionally the courts will also consider whether the purpose of the infringement could have been achieved in a less intrusive way , as in Hyde Park . The quantity of the work taken is also taken into account . If the infringer uses the majority of a copyrighted work , or all of it , they reduce the expected returns of the copyright owner and compromise " the role that copyright plays in encouraging creativity " . As such , the fair dealing defence usually only applies when part of a work has been taken , although some judicial comments , such as those of Megaw LJ in Hubbard , state that there are a few cases in which the work is so short that reproducing it in its entirety may be acceptable . The use made of the work is another factor ; if the infringer takes a copyrighted work and reorganises or reinterprets it , the courts are more likely to find that the dealing qualifies as fair than if the work is simply reproduced without modification or analysis . In some situations , the fair dealing defence must be accompanied by " sufficient acknowledgement " , where the author and the original work must be identified either by the title or some other description . = = = Research and study = = = Under Section 29 ( 1 ) of the 1988 Act , fair dealing is a valid defence when dealing with copyright infringement for the purpose of non @-@ commercial research or private study . This applies to " literary , dramatical , musical and artistic works , as well as with the typographical formats of published works " ; it does not apply to infringement of broadcasts , sound recordings or film . The rationale for this exception to copyright law is that research and study is necessary to create new works and inspire innovation , while the non @-@ commercial nature of the research does not interfere with the rewards that copyright provides to the original copyright holder . The limited nature of the exception is criticised by Burrell and Coleman , who argue that it " fails to reflect the increasing importance of non @-@ textual media for both study and research " . The exception also has only a limited application to things such as software . For this defence to apply , the infringer must show that the dealing is for non @-@ commercial research or private study , private study being defined by Section 178 as excluding any study directly or indirectly for commercial purpose ; it therefore covers most academic purposes , but not things such as the use of a database in market @-@ testing of new drugs . Research , when not academic , is covered by The Controller of Her Majesty 's Stationery Office , Ordnance Survey v Green Amps Ltd , which sets the test as whether or not it is thought that the research would be used for a commercial purpose in the future . Although the precise distinction between research and private study has not historically been important , modern case law states that there is a difference . Unlike study , research cannot be private , as the exception to copyright law is justified because research provides a benefit to society as a whole . As with all fair dealing exceptions , copying for research or study purposes must also be " fair " , taking into account the various factors mentioned above . There are special cases , particularly when dealing with copying by third parties . If the person doing the copying is not the one doing the research , different rules apply ; a publisher cannot use it to justify printing parts of other publishers works , as in Sillitoe v McGraw Hill , but in order to uphold the exception 's justification , the courts do recognise that it can cover a research assistant making photocopies on behalf of a student or researcher . However , as a limitation , Section 29 ( 3 ) ( b ) provides that the copying cannot be fair dealing if the person doing it knows that it will result in " copies of substantially the same material being provided to more than one person at substantially the same time and for substantially the same purpose " . In other words , an academic cannot print off multiple copies of a work for students and then rely on the fair dealings exception . = = = Criticism or review = = = Section 30 ( 1 ) of the 1988 Act provides that the fair dealing exception is valid if the material is being copied for criticism or review . For it to apply , the infringer must be able to show that the dealing was for criticism or review , that the infringed work was previously made available to the public , that the dealing was fair , and that the dealing was accompanied by an acknowledgement . The first step requires the defendant to show that the copying was done to criticise or review the work in question , the performance of the work , or , as in Beloff v Pressdram , another work . The courts will interpret " criticism or review " liberally , as in Newspaper Licensing Agency v Marks & Spencers plc , and as such the criticism or review can include the thought or philosophy of the work , as in Time Warner v Channel 4 , or the social and moral implications of the work , as in Pro Sieben Media v Carlton Television . The exception is only applicable where the work has previously been made available to the public " by any means " including the issuing of copies , lending copies , performing or exhibiting a copyrighted piece , or communicating it to the public . If the work has not been clearly made available not just to others but to the public in general , the exception does not apply , as in HRH the Prince of Wales v Associated Newspapers . Although Prince Charles had distributed copies of his diary to 75 people , this clearly did not make the journals available to the public , as each recipient was under strict instructions to keep the work confidential . The dealing must also be shown to have been fair , taking into account the many factors considered by the courts . Bently and Sherman suggest that in relation to fair dealings for criticism or review , the most relevant aspects considered by the court are likely to be the quantity taken , the method of acquisition and the consequences . = = = Reporting of current events = = = Under Section 30 ( 2 ) , fair dealing using any work for the purpose of reporting current events , with sufficient acknowledgement , is a valid exception to copyright . Photographs are excluded , however ; Cornish , Llewelyn and Aplin write that this is " in order to preserve the full value of holding a unique visual record of some person or event " . A crucial element of the " current events " exception is whether or not the reporting covers " current " events . " The older the issue , the less likely it is that it will be treated as having any currency " . Hyde Park confirmed that , where an event that took place some time ago is still being discussed , that can be treated as " current " . The nature of " events " must also be confirmed ; while some things will be inherently considered events , such as matters of national importance , major sporting contests or important political occasions , others may not be . Matters that are " trivial , ephemeral or immaterial " may not be treated as events , although it has been confirmed that media attention can transform a trivial matter into an " event " , as in Pro Sieben . The copyrighted works must also directly deal with the current events ; Associated Newspapers v News Group Newspapers , for example , concerned the republication of correspondence between Wallis Simpson and her husband on the occasion of Simpson 's death . It was held that the correspondence did not relate closely enough to the death for the fair dealing exception to apply . The dealing must also be " fair " , with the most important factors being the quantity of the work used , whether or not use of the copyrighted work is necessary , and whether or not the work has been previously published . The Court of Appeal has confirmed in Ashdown that the defence should always be available " where the public interest in learning of the very words written by the owner of the copyright is such that the publication should not be inhibited by the chilling factor of having to pay damages or account of profits " . Sufficient acknowledgement to the original author is also necessary for all works where the fair dealing exception is applied . Under Section 30 ( 3 ) , however , this is not required for reporting via a sound recording , film or broadcast where it would be " impossible for reasons of practicality or otherwise " . = = = Parody , caricature and pastiche = = = As of 1 October 2014 , Section 30A provides for fair dealing as a defence in cases where the infringement was for the purpose of caricature , parody or pastiche . The Intellectual Property Office suggests that a " parody " is something that imitates a work for humorous or satirical effect , a " pastiche " is a composition that is made up of selections from various sources or one that imitates the style of another artist or period , and that a " caricature " is something that portrays its subject in a simplified or exaggerated way , whether insulting or complimentary and whether for a political purpose or solely for entertainment . The same amendment also broadened the scope of the fair dealing defence for " quotation . " = Survival horror = Survival horror is a subgenre of action @-@ adventure or adventure video games inspired by horror fiction that focuses on survival of the character as the game tries to frighten players with either horror graphics or scary ambience . Although combat can be part of the gameplay , the player is made to feel less in control than in typical action games through limited ammunition , health , speed and vision , or through various obstructions of the player 's interaction with the game mechanics . The player is also challenged to find items that unlock the path to new areas and solve puzzles to proceed in the game . Games make use of strong horror themes , like dark maze @-@ like environments and unexpected attacks from enemies . The term " survival horror " was first used for the original Japanese release of Resident Evil in 1996 which was influenced by earlier games with a horror theme such as 1989 's Sweet Home . The name has been used since then for games with similar gameplay , and has been retroactively applied to earlier titles . Starting with the release of Resident Evil 4 in 2005 , the genre began to incorporate more features from action games and more traditional first person and third @-@ person shooter games . This has led game journalists to question whether long @-@ standing survival horror franchises and more recent franchises have abandoned the genre and moved into a different distinct genre often referred to as " action horror " . Still , the survival horror genre has persisted in one form or another . = = Definition = = Survival horror refers to a subgenre of horror video games . The player character is vulnerable and under @-@ armed , which puts emphasis on puzzle @-@ solving and evasion , rather than violence . Games commonly challenge the player to manage their inventory and ration scarce resources such as ammunition . Another major theme throughout the genre is that of isolation . Typically , these games contain relatively few non @-@ player characters and , as a result , frequently tell much of their story second @-@ hand through the usage of journals , texts , or audio logs . While many action games feature lone protagonists versus swarms of enemies in a suspenseful environment , survival horror games are distinct from otherwise horror @-@ themed action games . They tend to de @-@ emphasize combat in favor of challenges such as hiding or running from enemies and solving puzzles . Still , it is not unusual for survival horror games to draw upon elements from first @-@ person shooters , action @-@ adventure games , or even role @-@ playing games . " Survival horror is different from typical game genres in that it is not defined strictly by specific mechanics , but subject matter , tone , pacing , and design philosophy . " = = Game design = = = = = De @-@ emphasized combat = = = Survival horror games are a subgenre of horror games , where the player is unable to fully prepare or arm their avatar . The player usually encounters several factors to make combat unattractive as a primary option , such as a limited number of weapons or invulnerable enemies , if weapons are	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
available , their ammunition is sparser than in other games , and powerful weapons such as rocket launchers are rare , if even available at all . Thus , players are more vulnerable than in action games , and the hostility of the environment sets up a narrative where the odds are weighed decisively against the avatar . This gameplay shifts away from direct combat , and players must learn to evade enemies or turn the environment against them . Games try to enhance the experience of vulnerability by making the game single player rather than multiplayer , and by giving the player an avatar who is more frail than the typical action game hero . The survival horror genre is also known for other non @-@ combat challenges , such as solving puzzles at certain locations in the game world , and collecting and managing an inventory of items . Areas of the game world will be off limits until the player gains certain items . Occasionally , levels are designed with alternative routes . Levels also challenge players with maze @-@ like environments , which test the player 's navigational skills . Levels are often designed as dark and claustrophobic ( often making use of dim or shadowy light conditions and camera angles and sightlines which restrict visibility ) to challenge the player and provide suspense , although games in the genre also make use of enormous spatial environments . = = = Enemy design = = = A survival horror storyline usually involves the investigation and confrontation of horrific forces , and thus many games transform common elements from horror fiction into gameplay challenges . Early releases utilized camera angles seen in horror films , which allowed enemies to lurk in areas that are concealed from the player 's view . Also , many survival horror games make use of off @-@ screen sound or other warning cues to notify the player of impending danger . This feedback assists the player , but also creates feelings of anxiety and uncertainty . Games typically feature a variety of monsters with unique behavior patterns . Enemies can appear unexpectedly or suddenly , and levels are often designed with scripted sequences where enemies drop from the ceiling or crash through windows . Survival horror games , like many action @-@ adventure games , are structured around the boss encounter where the player must confront a formidable opponent in order to advance to the next area . These boss encounters draw elements from antagonists seen in classic horror stories , and defeating the boss will advance the story of the game . = = History = = = = = Origins ( 1980s – 1996 ) = = = The origins of the survival horror game can be traced back to earlier horror fiction . Archetypes have been linked to the books of H. P. Lovecraft , which include investigative narratives , or journeys through the depths . Comparisons have been made between Lovecraft 's Cthulhoid Old Ones and the boss encounters seen in many survival horror games . Themes of survival have also been traced to the slasher film subgenre , where the protagonist endures a confrontation with the ultimate antagonist . Another major influence on the genre is Japanese horror , including classical Noh theatre , the books of Edogawa Rampo , and Japanese cinema . The survival horror genre largely draws from both Western ( mainly American ) and Asian ( mainly Japanese ) traditions , with the Western approach to horror generally favouring action @-@ oriented visceral horror while the Japanese approach tends to favour psychological horror . Several games have been retroactively described as survival horror . Nostromo was a sci @-@ fi survival horror game developed by Akira Takiguchi , a Tokyo University student and Taito contractor , for the PET 2001 . It was ported to the PC @-@ 6001 by Masakuni Mitsuhashi ( also known as Hiromi Ohba , later joined Game Arts ) , and published by ASCII in 1981 , exclusively for Japan . Inspired by the 1980 stealth game Manibiki Shoujo and the 1979 sci @-@ fi horror film Alien , the gameplay of Nostromo involved a player attempting to escape a spaceship while avoiding the sight of an invisible alien , which only becomes visible when appearing in front of the player . The gameplay also involved limited resources , where the player needs to collect certain items in order to escape the ship , and if certain required items are not available in the warehouse , the player is unable to escape and eventually has no choice but be killed getting caught by the alien . Malcolm Evans ' 3D Monster Maze , released for the Sinclair ZX81 in 1982 , is a first @-@ person game without a weapon ; the player cannot fight the enemy , a Tyrannosaurus Rex , so must escape by finding the exit before the monster finds him . The game states its distance and awareness of the player , further raising tension . Edge stated it was about " fear , panic , terror and facing an implacable , relentless foe who ’ s going to get you in the end " and considers it " the original survival horror game " . Retro Gamer stated , " Survival horror may have been a phrase first coined by Resident Evil , but it could ’ ve easily applied to Malcolm Evans ’ massive hit . " Another early example is 1982 Atari 2600 game Haunted House . Gameplay is typical of future survival horror titles , as it emphasizes puzzle @-@ solving and evasive action , rather than violence . The game uses monsters commonly featured in horror fiction , such as bats and ghosts , each of which has unique behaviors . Gameplay also incorporates item collection and inventory management , along with areas that are inaccessible until the appropriate item is found . Because it has several features that have been seen in later survival horror games , some reviewers have retroactively classified this game as the first in the genre . 1982 saw the release of another early horror game , Bandai 's Terror House , based on traditional Japanese horror , released as a Bandai LCD Solarpower handheld game . It was a solar @-@ powered game with two LCD panels on top of each other to enable impressive scene changes and early pseudo @-@ 3D effects . The amount of ambient light the game received also had an effect on the gaming experience . Another early example of a horror game released that year was Sega 's arcade game Monster Bash , which introduced classic horror @-@ movie monsters , including the likes of Dracula , the Frankenstein monster , and werewolves , helping to lay the foundations for future survival horror games . Its 1986 remake Ghost House had gameplay specifically designed around the horror theme , featuring haunted house stages full of traps and secrets , and enemies that were fast , powerful , and intimidating , forcing players to learn the intricacies of the house and rely on their wits . Another game that has been cited as one of the first horror @-@ themed games is Quicksilva 's 1983 maze game Ant Attack . In 1985 , Magical Zoo 's The Screamer was a bio @-@ horror RPG released for the NEC PC @-@ 88 that was set in a post @-@ apocalyptic research facility , while the gameplay featured shooter @-@ based combat and permanent death . The latter half of the 1980s saw the release of several other horror @-@ themed games , including Konami 's Castlevania in 1986 , and Sega 's Kenseiden and Namco 's Splatterhouse in 1988 , though despite the macabre imagery of these games , their gameplay did not diverge much from other action games at the time . Splatterhouse in particular is notable for its large amount of bloodshed and terror , despite being an arcade beat ' em up with very little emphasis on survival . Shiryou Sensen : War of the Dead , a 1987 title developed by Fun Factory and published by Victor Music Industries for the MSX2 , PC @-@ 88 and PC Engine platforms , is considered the first true survival horror game by Kevin Gifford ( of GamePro and 1UP ) and John Szczepaniak ( of Retro Gamer and The Escapist ) . Designed by Katsuya Iwamoto , the game was a horror action RPG revolving around a female SWAT member Lila rescuing survivors in an isolated monster @-@ infested town and bringing them to safety in a church . It has open environments like Dragon Quest and real @-@ time side @-@ view battles like Zelda II , though War of the Dead departed from other RPGs with its dark and creepy atmosphere expressed through the storytelling , graphics , and music . The player character has limited ammunition , though the player character can punch or use a knife if out of ammunition . The game also has a limited item inventory and crates to store items , and introduced a day @-@ night cycle ; the player can sleep to recover health , and a record is kept of how many days the player has survived . That same year saw the release of Laplace no Ma , another hybrid of survival horror and RPG , though with more traditional RPG elements such as turn @-@ based combat . It is mostly set in a mansion infested with undead creatures , and the player controls a party of characters with different professions , including a scientist who constructs tools and a journalist who takes pictures . In 1988 , War of the Dead Part 2 for the MSX2 and PC @-@ 88 abandoned the RPG elements of its predecessor , such as random encounters , and instead adopted action @-@ adventure elements from Metal Gear while retaining the horror atmosphere of its predecessor . However , the game often considered the first true survival horror , due to having the most influence on Resident Evil , was the 1989 release Sweet Home , for the Nintendo Entertainment System . The gameplay focused on solving a variety of puzzles using items stored in a limited inventory , while battling or escaping from horrifying creatures , which could lead to permanent death for any of the characters , thus creating tension and an emphasis on survival . It was also the first attempt at creating a scary and frightening storyline within a game , mainly told through scattered diary entries left behind fifty years before the events of the game . Developed by Capcom , the game would become the main inspiration behind their later release Resident Evil , which also borrowed various other elements from the game , such as its mansion setting , " opening door " load screen , death animations , multiple endings depending on which characters survive , dual character paths , individual character skills , limited item management , story told through diary entries and frescos , emphasis on atmosphere , and horrific imagery . The latter prevented its release in the Western world , though its influence was felt through Resident Evil , which was originally intended to be a remake of the game . Some consider Sweet Home to be the first true survival horror game . Travis Fahs of IGN claims Sweet Home is more an RPG despite its influence , and that Project Firestart ( released in the same year as Sweet Home ) more closely embodied genre conventions despite its lack of influence . In 1989 , Electronic Arts published Project Firestart , developed by Dynamix . Unlike most other early games in the genre , it featured a science fiction setting inspired by the film Alien , but had gameplay that closely resembled later survival horror games in many ways . Fahs considers it the first to achieve " the kind of fully formed vision of survival horror as we know it today , " citing its balance of action and adventure , limited ammunition , weak weaponry , vulnerable main character , feeling of isolation , storytelling through journals , graphic violence , and use of dynamically triggered music - all of which are characteristic elements of later games in the survival horror genre . Despite this , it is not likely a direct influence on later games in the genre and the similarities are largely an example of parallel thinking . In 1992 , Infogrames released Alone in the Dark , which has been considered a forefather of the genre . The game featured a lone protagonist against hordes of monsters , and made use of traditional adventure game challenges such as puzzle @-@ solving and finding hidden keys to new areas . Graphically , Alone in the Dark utilized static prerendered camera views that were cinematic in nature . Although players had the ability to fight monsters as in action games , players also had the option to evade or block them . Many monsters could not be killed , and thus could only be dealt with using problem @-@ solving abilities . The game also used the mechanism of notes and books as expository devices . Many of these elements were used in later survival horror games , and thus the game is credited with making the survival horror genre possible . In 1994 , Riverhillsoft released the first fully 3D survival horror game , Doctor Hauzer , for the 3DO . Both the player character and the environment are rendered entirely in polygons , while allowing the player to switch the view between three different perspectives : third @-@ person , first @-@ person , and overhead view . In a departure from most other survival horror games before and after it , Doctor Hauzer lacks any enemies ; the main threat is instead the sentient house that the game takes place in , with the player having to survive the house 's traps and solve puzzles . It also uses background music that heightens tension and changes depending on the situation , and the sound of the player character 's echoing footsteps can change depending on the surface ; these would later be used in Resident Evil . The game is today considered a formative step in the creation of the survival horror genre , improving on Alone in the Dark . In 1995 , WARP 's horror adventure game D featured a first @-@ person perspective , CGI full @-@ motion video , gameplay that consisted entirely of puzzle @-@ solving , and taboo content such as cannibalism . The same year , Human Entertainment 's Clock Tower was a survival horror game that employed point @-@ and @-@ click graphic adventure gameplay and a deadly stalker known as Scissorman that chases players throughout the game . The game introduced stealth game elements , and was unique for its lack of combat , with the player only able to run away or outsmart Scissorman in order to survive . It features up to nine different possible endings . The term " survival horror " was first used by Capcom to market their 1996 release , Resident Evil . Resident Evil adopted several features seen in Alone in the Dark , including its cinematic fixed camera angles and some of its puzzle @-@ solving challenges . The control scheme in Resident Evil also became a staple of the genre , and future titles imitated its challenge of rationing very limited resources and items . The game 's commercial success is credited with helping the PlayStation become the dominant game console , and also led to a series of Resident Evil films . Many games have tried to replicate the successful formula seen in Resident Evil , and every subsequent survival horror game has arguably taken a stance in relation to it . = = = Golden age ( 1996 – 2004 ) = = = The success of Resident Evil in 1996 was responsible for its template being used as the basis for a wave of successful survival horror games , many of which were referred to as " Resident Evil clones . " The golden age of survival horror started by Resident Evil reached its peak around the turn of the millennium with Silent Hill , followed by a general decline a few years later . Among the Resident Evil clones at the time , there were several survival horror titles that stood out , such as Clock Tower 2 ( 1996 ) and Clock Tower Ghost Head ( 1998 ) for the PlayStation . These Clock Tower games proved to be hits , capitalizing on the success of Resident Evil while staying true to the graphic @-@ adventure gameplay of the original Clock Tower rather than following the Resident Evil formula . Another survival horror title that differentiated itself was Corpse Party ( 1996 ) , an indie , psychological horror adventure game created using the RPG Maker engine . Much like Clock Tower and later Haunting Ground ( 2005 ) , the player characters in Corpse Party lack any means of defending themselves ; the game also featured up to 20 possible endings . However , the game would not be released in Western markets until 2011 . Another game similar to Clock Tower Series of games and Haunting Ground , which was also inspired by Resident Evil 's Success is the Korean game known as White Day : A Labyrinth named School ( 2001 ) , this game was reportedly so scary that the developers had to release several patches adding multiple difficulty options , the game was slated for localization in 2004 but was cancelled , building on its previous success in Korea and interest , a remake has been developed in 2015 . Riverhillsoft 's Overblood , released in 1996 , is considered one of the first survival horror games to make use of a fully three @-@ dimensional virtual environment , second only to Riverhillsoft 's own Doctor Hauzer in 1994 . The Note in 1997 and Hellnight in 1998 experimented with using a real @-@ time 3D first @-@ person perspective rather than pre @-@ rendered backgrounds like Resident Evil . In 1998 , Capcom released the successful sequel Resident Evil 2 , which series creator Shinji Mikami intended to tap into the classic notion of horror as " the ordinary made strange , " thus rather than setting the game in a creepy mansion no one would visit , he wanted to use familiar urban settings transformed by the chaos of a viral outbreak . The game sold over five million copies , proving the popularity of survival horror . That year saw the release of Square 's Parasite Eve , which combined elements from Resident Evil with the RPG gameplay of Final Fantasy . It was followed by a more action @-@ based sequel , Parasite Eve II , in 1999 . In 1998 , Galerians discarded the use of guns in favour of psychic powers that make it difficult to fight more than one enemy at a time . Also in 1998 , Blue Stinger was a fully 3D survival horror for the Dreamcast incorporating action elements from beat ' em up and shooter games . Konami 's Silent Hill , released in 1999 , drew heavily from Resident Evil while using realtime 3D environments in contrast to Resident Evil 's pre @-@ rendered graphics . Silent Hill in particular was praised for moving away from B movie horror elements to the psychological style seen in art house or Japanese horror films , due to the game 's emphasis on a disturbing atmosphere rather than visceral horror . The game also featured stealth elements , making use of the fog to dodge enemies or turning off the flashlight to avoid detection . The original Silent Hill is considered one of the scariest games of all time , and the strong narrative from Silent Hill 2 in 2001 has made the Silent Hill series one of the most influential in the genre . According to IGN , the " golden age of survival horror came to a crescendo " with the release of Silent Hill . Also in 1999 , Capcom released the original Dino Crisis , which was noted for incorporating certain elements from survival horror games . It was followed by a more action @-@ based sequel , Dino Crisis 2 , in 2000 . Fatal Frame from 2001 was a unique entry into the genre , as the player explores a mansion and takes photographs of ghosts in order to defeat them . The Fatal Frame series has since gained a reputation as one of the most distinctive in the genre , with the first game in the series credited as one of the best @-@ written survival horror games ever made , by UGO Networks . Meanwhile , Capcom incorporated shooter elements into several survival horror titles , such as 2000 's Resident Evil Survivor which used both light gun shooter and first @-@ person shooter elements , and 2003 's Resident Evil : Dead Aim which used light gun and third @-@ person shooter elements . Western developers began to return to the survival horror formula . The Thing from 2002 has been called a survival horror game , although it is distinct from other titles in the genre due to its emphasis on action , and the challenge of holding a team together . The 2004 title Doom 3 is sometimes categorized as survival horror , although it is considered an Americanized take on the genre due to the player 's ability to directly confront monsters with weaponry . Thus , it is usually considered a first @-@ person shooter with survival horror elements . Regardless , the genre 's increased popularity led Western developers to incorporate horror elements into action games , rather than follow the Japanese survival style . Overall , the traditional survival horror genre continued to be dominated by Japanese designers and aesthetics . 2002 's Clock Tower 3 eschewed the graphic adventure game formula seen in the original Clock Tower , and embraced full 3D survival horror gameplay . In 2003 , Resident Evil Outbreak introduced a new gameplay element to the genre : online multiplayer and cooperative gameplay . Sony employed Silent Hill director Keiichiro Toyama to develop Siren . The game was released in 2004 , and added unprecedented challenge to the genre by making the player mostly defenseless , thus making it vital to learn the enemy 's patrol routes and hide from them . However , reviewers eventually criticized the traditional Japanese survival horror formula for becoming stagnant . As the console market drifted towards Western @-@ style action games , players became impatient with the limited resources and cumbersome controls seen in Japanese titles such as Resident Evil Code : Veronica and Silent Hill 4 : The Room . = = = Transformation ( 2005 – present ) = = = In 2005 , Resident Evil 4 attempted to redefine the genre by emphasizing reflexes and precision aiming , broadening the gameplay with elements from the wider action genre . Its ambitions paid off , earning the title several Game of the Year awards for 2005 , and the top rank on IGN 's Readers ' Picks Top 99 Games list . However , this also led some reviewers to suggest that the Resident Evil series had abandoned the survival horror genre , by demolishing the genre conventions that it had established . Other major survival horror series followed suit by developing their combat systems to feature more action , such as Silent Hill Homecoming , and the 2008 version of Alone in the Dark . These changes were part of an overall trend among console games to shift towards visceral action gameplay . These changes in gameplay have led some purists to suggest that the genre has deteriorated into the conventions of other action games . Jim Sterling suggests that the genre lost its core gameplay when it improved the combat interface , thus shifting the gameplay away from hiding and running towards direct combat . Leigh Alexander argues that this represents a shift towards more Western horror aesthetics , which emphasize action and gore rather than the psychological experience of Japanese horror . The original genre has persisted in one form or another . The 2005 release of F.E.A.R. was praised for both its atmospheric tension and fast action , successfully combining Japanese horror with cinematic action , while Dead Space from 2008 brought survival horror to a science fiction setting . However , critics argue that these titles represent the continuing trend away from pure survival horror and towards general action . The release of Left 4 Dead in 2008 helped popularize cooperative multiplayer among survival horror games , although it is mostly a first person shooter at its core . Meanwhile , the Fatal Frame series has remained true to the roots of the genre , even as Fatal Frame IV transitioned from the use of fixed cameras to an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder viewpoint . Also in 2009 , Silent Hill made a transition to an over @-@ the @-@ shoulder viewpoint in Silent Hill : Shattered Memories . This Wii effort was , however , considered by most reviewers as a return to form for the series due to several developmental decisions taken by Climax Studios . This included the decision to openly break the fourth wall by psychologically profiling the player , and the decision to remove any weapons from the game , forcing the player to run whenever they see an enemy . Examples of independent survival horror games are the Penumbra series and Amnesia : The Dark Descent by Frictional Games , Cry of Fear by Team Psykskallar and Slender : The Eight Pages , all of which were praised for creating a horrific setting and atmosphere without the overuse of violence or gore . In 2010 , the cult game Deadly Premonition by Access Games was notable for introducing open world nonlinear gameplay and a comedy horror theme to the genre . Overall , game developers have continued to make and release survival horror games , and the genre continues to grow among independent video game developers . Shinji Mikami , the creator of the Resident Evil franchise , released his new survival horror game The Evil Within , in 2014 . Mikami stated that his goal was to bring survival horror back to its roots ( even though this is his last directorial work ) , as he was disappointed by recent survival horror games for having too much action . = Adolf Hitler = Adolf Hitler ( German : [ ˈadɔlf ˈhɪtlɐ ] ; 20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945 ) was a German politician who was the leader of the Nazi Party ( Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ; NSDAP ) , Chancellor of Germany from 1933 to 1945 , and Führer ( " leader " ) of Nazi Germany from 1934 to 1945 . As dictator of Nazi Germany , he initiated World War II in Europe with the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and was a central figure of the Holocaust . Hitler was born in Austria , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , and raised near Linz . He moved to Germany in 1913 and was decorated during his service in the German Army in World War I. He joined the German Workers ' Party , the precursor of the NSDAP , in 1919 and became leader of the NSDAP in 1921 . In 1923 , he attempted a coup in Munich to seize power . The failed coup resulted in Hitler 's imprisonment , during which time he dictated the first volume of his autobiography and political manifesto Mein Kampf ( " My Struggle " ) . After his release in 1924 , Hitler gained popular support by attacking the Treaty of Versailles and promoting Pan @-@ Germanism , anti @-@ Semitism , and anti @-@ communism with charismatic oratory and Nazi propaganda . Hitler frequently denounced international capitalism and communism as being part of a Jewish conspiracy . By 1933 , the Nazi Party was the largest elected party in the German Reichstag , which led to Hitler 's appointment as Chancellor on 30 January 1933 . Following fresh elections won by his coalition , the Reichstag passed the Enabling Act , which began the process of transforming the Weimar Republic into Nazi Germany , a one @-@ party dictatorship based on the totalitarian and autocratic ideology of National Socialism . Hitler aimed to eliminate Jews from Germany and establish a New Order to counter what he saw as the injustice of the post @-@ World War I international order dominated by Britain and France . His first six years in power resulted in rapid economic recovery from the Great Depression , the effective abandonment of restrictions imposed on Germany after World War I , and the annexation of territories that were home to millions of ethnic Germans — actions which gave him significant popular support . Hitler sought Lebensraum ( " living space " ) for the German people . His aggressive foreign policy is considered to be the primary cause of the outbreak of World War II in Europe . He directed large @-@ scale rearmament and on 1 September 1939 invaded Poland , resulting in British and French declarations of war on Germany . In June 1941 , Hitler ordered an invasion of the Soviet Union . By the end of 1941 German forces and the European Axis powers occupied most of Europe and North Africa . Failure to defeat the Soviets and the entry of the United States into the war forced Germany onto the defensive and it suffered a series of escalating defeats . In the final days of the war , during the Battle of Berlin in 1945 , Hitler married his long @-@ time lover , Eva Braun . On 30 April 1945 , less than two days later , the two killed themselves to avoid capture by the Red Army , and their corpses were burned . Under Hitler 's leadership and racially motivated ideology , the Nazi regime was responsible for the genocide of at least 5 @.@ 5 million Jews and millions of other victims whom he and his followers deemed Untermenschen ( " sub @-@ humans " ) and socially undesirable . Hitler and the Nazi regime were also responsible for the killing of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war . In addition , 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II . The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in warfare , and constitutes the deadliest conflict in human history . = = Early years = = = = = Ancestry = = = Hitler 's father Alois Hitler , Sr. ( 1837 – 1903 ) was the illegitimate child of Maria Anna Schicklgruber . The baptismal register did not show the name of his father , and Alois initially bore his mother 's surname Schicklgruber . In 1842 , Johann Georg Hiedler married Alois 's mother Maria Anna . Alois was brought up in the family of Hiedler 's brother , Johann Nepomuk Hiedler . In 1876 , Alois was legitimated and the baptismal register changed by a priest to register Johann Georg Hiedler as Alois 's father ( recorded as " Georg Hitler " ) . Alois then assumed the surname " Hitler " , also spelled as Hiedler , Hüttler , or Huettler . The Hitler surname is probably based on " one who lives in a hut " ( German Hütte for " hut " ) . Nazi official Hans Frank suggested that Alois 's mother had been employed as a housekeeper for a Jewish family in Graz , and that the family 's 19 @-@ year @-@ old son Leopold Frankenberger had fathered Alois . No Frankenberger was registered in Graz during that period , and no record has been produced of Leopold Frankenberger 's existence , so historians dismiss the claim that Alois 's father was Jewish . = = = Childhood and education = = = Adolf Hitler was born on 20 April 1889 in Braunau am Inn , a town in Austria @-@ Hungary ( in present @-@ day Austria ) , close to the border with the German Empire . He was one of six children born to Alois Hitler and Klara Pölzl ( 1860 – 1907 ) . Three of Hitler 's siblings — Gustav , Ida , and Otto — died in infancy . When Hitler was three , the family moved to Passau , Germany . There he acquired the distinctive lower Bavarian dialect , rather than Austrian German , which marked his speech throughout his life . The family returned to Austria and settled in Leonding in 1894 , and in June 1895 Alois retired to Hafeld , near Lambach , where he farmed and kept bees . Hitler attended Volksschule ( a state @-@ owned school ) in nearby Fischlham . The move to Hafeld coincided with the onset of intense father @-@ son conflicts caused by Hitler 's refusal to conform to the strict discipline of his school . Alois Hitler 's farming efforts at Hafeld ended in failure , and in 1897 the family moved to Lambach . The eight @-@ year @-@ old Hitler took singing lessons , sang in the church choir , and even considered becoming a priest . In 1898 the family returned permanently to Leonding . The death of his younger brother Edmund , who died from measles in 1900 , deeply affected Hitler . He changed from a confident , outgoing , conscientious student to a morose , detached boy who constantly fought with his father and teachers . Alois had made a successful career in the customs bureau and wanted his son to follow in his footsteps . Hitler later dramatised an episode from this period when his father took him to visit a customs office , depicting it as an event that gave rise to an unforgiving antagonism between father and son , who were both strong @-@ willed . Ignoring his son 's desire to attend a classical high school and become an artist , Alois sent Hitler to the Realschule in Linz in September 1900 . Hitler rebelled against this decision , and in Mein Kampf stated that he intentionally did poorly in school , hoping that once his father saw " what little progress I was making at the technical school he would let me devote myself to my dream " . Like many Austrian Germans , Hitler began to develop German nationalist ideas from a young age . He expressed loyalty only to Germany , despising the declining Habsburg Monarchy and its rule over an ethnically variegated empire . Hitler and his friends used the greeting " Heil " , and sang the " Deutschlandlied " instead of the Austrian Imperial anthem . After Alois 's sudden death on 3 January 1903 , Hitler 's performance at school deteriorated and his mother allowed him to leave . He enrolled at the Realschule in Steyr in September 1904 , where his behaviour and performance improved . In 1905 , after passing a repeat of the final exam , Hitler left the school without any ambitions for further education or clear plans for a career . = = = Early adulthood in Vienna and Munich = = = From 1905 , Hitler lived a bohemian life in Vienna , financed by orphan 's benefits and support from his mother . He worked as a casual labourer and eventually as a painter , selling watercolours of Vienna 's sights . The Academy of Fine Arts Vienna rejected him in 1907 and again in 1908 , citing " unfitness for painting " . The director recommended that Hitler study architecture , which was also an interest , but he lacked academic credentials as he had not finished secondary school . On 21 December 1907 , his mother died of breast cancer at the age of 47 . Hitler ran out of money and was forced to live in homeless shelters and men 's hostels . At the time Hitler lived there , Vienna was a hotbed of religious prejudice and racism . Fears of being overrun by immigrants from the East were widespread , and the populist mayor Karl Lueger exploited the rhetoric of virulent anti @-@ Semitism for political effect . German nationalism had a widespread following in the Mariahilf district , where Hitler lived . German nationalist Georg Ritter von Schönerer , who advocated Pan @-@ Germanism , anti @-@ Semitism , anti @-@ Slavism , and anti @-@ Catholicism , was one influence on Hitler . Hitler read local newspapers such as the Deutsches Volksblatt that fanned prejudice and played on Christian fears of being swamped by an influx of eastern Jews . Hitler also read newspapers that published the main thoughts of philosophers and theoreticians such as Darwin , Nietzsche , Le Bon and Schopenhauer . Hostile to what he saw as " Catholic Germanophobia " , he developed an admiration for Martin Luther . The origin and first expression of Hitler 's anti @-@ Semitism remain a matter of debate . Hitler states in Mein Kampf that he first became an anti @-@ Semite in Vienna . His close friend , August Kubizek , claimed that Hitler was a " confirmed anti @-@ Semite " before he left Linz . Several sources provide strong evidence that Hitler had Jewish friends in his hostel and in other places in Vienna . Historian Richard J. Evans states that " historians now generally agree that his notorious , murderous anti @-@ Semitism emerged well after Germany 's defeat [ in World War I ] , as a product of the paranoid " stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back " explanation for the catastrophe " . Hitler received the final part of his father 's estate in May 1913 and moved to Munich . Historians believe he left Vienna to evade conscription into the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army . Hitler later claimed that he did not wish to serve Austria @-@ Hungary because of the mixture of races in its armed forces . After he was deemed unfit for service — he failed his physical exam in Salzburg on 5 February 1914 — he returned to Munich . = = = World War I = = = At the outbreak of World War I , Hitler was living in Munich and as an Austrian citizen volunteered to serve in the Bavarian Army . According to a subsequent report by the Bavarian authorities in 1924 , Hitler almost certainly served in the Bavarian Army by error . Posted to the Bavarian Reserve Infantry Regiment 16 ( 1st Company of the List Regiment ) , he served as a dispatch runner on the Western Front in France and Belgium , spending nearly half his time at the regimental headquarters in Fournes @-@ en @-@ Weppes , well behind the front lines . He was present at the First Battle of Ypres , the Battle of the Somme , the Battle of Arras , and the Battle of Passchendaele , and was wounded at the Somme . He was decorated for bravery , receiving the Iron Cross , Second Class , in 1914 . On a recommendation by Lieutenant Hugo Gutmann , Hitler 's Jewish superior , he received the Iron Cross , First Class on 4 August 1918 , a decoration rarely awarded to one of Hitler 's Gefreiter rank . He received the Black Wound Badge on 18 May 1918 . During his service at headquarters , Hitler pursued his artwork , drawing cartoons and instructions for an army newspaper . During the Battle of the Somme in October 1916 , he was wounded in the left thigh when a shell exploded in the dispatch runners ' dugout . Hitler spent almost two months in hospital at Beelitz , returning to his regiment on 5 March 1917 . On 15 October 1918 , he was temporarily blinded in a mustard gas attack and was hospitalised in Pasewalk . While there , Hitler learnt of Germany 's defeat , and — by his own account — upon receiving this news , he suffered a second bout of blindness . Hitler described the war as " the greatest of all experiences " , and was praised by his commanding officers for his bravery . His wartime experience reinforced his German patriotism and he was shocked by Germany 's capitulation in November 1918 . His bitterness over the collapse of the war effort began to shape his ideology . Like other German nationalists , he believed the Dolchstoßlegende ( stab @-@ in @-@ the @-@ back myth ) , which claimed that the German army , " undefeated in the field " , had been " stabbed in the back " on the home front by civilian leaders and Marxists , later dubbed the " November criminals " . The Treaty of Versailles stipulated that Germany must relinquish several of its territories and demilitarise the Rhineland . The treaty imposed economic sanctions and levied heavy reparations on the country . Many Germans saw the treaty as an unjust humiliation — they especially objected to Article 231 , which they interpreted as declaring Germany responsible for the war . The Versailles Treaty and the economic , social , and political conditions in Germany after the war were later exploited by Hitler for political gain . = = Entry into politics = = After World War I , Hitler returned to Munich . With no formal education or career prospects , he remained in the army . In July 1919 he was appointed Verbindungsmann ( intelligence agent ) of an Aufklärungskommando ( reconnaissance commando ) of the Reichswehr , assigned to influence other soldiers and to infiltrate the German Workers ' Party ( DAP ) . While monitoring the activities of the DAP , Hitler was attracted to the founder Anton Drexler 's anti @-@ Semitic , nationalist , anti @-@ capitalist , and anti @-@ Marxist ideas . Drexler favoured a strong active government , a non @-@ Jewish version of socialism , and solidarity among all members of society . Impressed with Hitler 's oratorical skills , Drexler invited him to join the DAP . Hitler accepted on 12 September 1919 , becoming party member 555 ( the party began counting membership at 500 to give the impression they were a much larger party ) . At the DAP , Hitler met Dietrich Eckart , one of the party 's founders and a member of the occult Thule Society . Eckart became Hitler 's mentor , exchanging ideas with him and introducing him to a wide range of Munich society . To increase its appeal , the DAP changed its name to the Nationalsozialistische Deutsche Arbeiterpartei ( National Socialist German Workers Party ; NSDAP ) . Hitler designed the party 's banner of a swastika in a white circle on a red background . Hitler was discharged from the army on 31 March 1920 and began working full @-@ time for the NSDAP . The party headquarters was in Munich , a hotbed of anti @-@ government German nationalists determined to crush Marxism and undermine the Weimar Republic . In February 1921 — already highly effective at speaking to large audiences — he spoke to a crowd of over 6 @,@ 000 . To publicise the meeting , two truckloads of party supporters drove around Munich waving swastika flags and distributing leaflets . Hitler soon gained notoriety for his rowdy polemic speeches against the Treaty of Versailles , rival politicians , and especially against Marxists and Jews . In June 1921 , while Hitler and Eckart were on a fundraising trip to Berlin , a mutiny broke out within the NSDAP in Munich . Members of its executive committee wanted to merge with the rival German Socialist Party ( DSP ) . Hitler returned to Munich on 11 July and angrily tendered his resignation . The committee members realised that the resignation of their leading public figure and speaker would mean the end of the party . Hitler announced he would rejoin on the condition that he would replace Drexler as party chairman , and that the party headquarters would remain in Munich . The committee agreed , and he rejoined the party on 26 July as member 3 @,@ 680 . Hitler continued to face some opposition within the NSDAP : Opponents of Hitler in the leadership had Hermann Esser expelled from the party , and they printed 3 @,@ 000 copies of a pamphlet attacking Hitler as a traitor to the party . In the following days , Hitler spoke to several packed houses and defended himself and Esser , to thunderous applause . His strategy proved successful , and at a special party congress on 29 July , he was granted absolute powers as party chairman , replacing Drexler , by a vote of 533 to 1 . Hitler 's vitriolic beer hall speeches began attracting regular audiences . He became adept at using populist themes , including the use of scapegoats , who were blamed for his listeners ' economic hardships . Hitler used personal magnetism and an understanding of crowd psychology to his advantage while engaged in public speaking . Historians have noted the hypnotic effect of his rhetoric on large audiences , and of his eyes in small groups . Alfons Heck , a former member of the Hitler Youth , later recalled : We erupted into a frenzy of nationalistic pride that bordered on hysteria . For minutes on end , we shouted at the top of our lungs , with tears streaming down our faces : Sieg Heil , Sieg Heil , Sieg Heil ! From that moment on , I belonged to Adolf Hitler body and soul . Some visitors who met Hitler privately noted that his appearance and demeanour failed to make a lasting impression . Early followers included Rudolf Hess , former air force ace Hermann Göring , and army captain Ernst Röhm . Röhm became head of the Nazis ' paramilitary organisation , the Sturmabteilung ( SA , " Stormtroopers " ) , which protected meetings and attacked political opponents . A critical influence on Hitler 's thinking during this period was the Aufbau Vereinigung , a conspiratorial group of White Russian exiles and early National Socialists . The group , financed with funds channelled from wealthy industrialists , introduced Hitler to the idea of a Jewish conspiracy , linking international finance with Bolshevism . = = = Beer Hall Putsch = = = In 1923 Hitler enlisted the help of World War I General Erich Ludendorff for an attempted coup known as the " Beer Hall Putsch " . The NSDAP used Italian Fascism as a model for their appearance and policies . Hitler wanted to emulate Benito Mussolini 's " March on Rome " of 1922 by staging his own coup in Bavaria , to be followed by a challenge to the government in Berlin . Hitler and Ludendorff sought the support of Staatskommissar ( state commissioner ) Gustav Ritter von Kahr , Bavaria 's de facto ruler . However , Kahr , along with Police Chief Hans Ritter von Seisser and Reichswehr General Otto von Lossow , wanted to install a nationalist dictatorship without Hitler . On 8 November 1923 Hitler and the SA stormed a public meeting of 3 @,@ 000 people organised by Kahr in the Bürgerbräukeller , a beer hall in Munich . Interrupting Kahr 's speech , he announced that the national revolution had begun and declared the formation of a new government with Ludendorff . Retiring to a back room , Hitler , with handgun drawn , demanded and got the support of Kahr , Seisser , and Lossow . Hitler 's forces initially succeeded in occupying the local Reichswehr and police headquarters , but Kahr and his cohorts quickly withdrew their support . Neither the army nor the state police joined forces with Hitler . The next day , Hitler and his followers marched from the beer hall to the Bavarian War Ministry to overthrow the Bavarian government , but police dispersed them . Sixteen NSDAP members and four police officers were killed in the failed coup . Hitler fled to the home of Ernst Hanfstaengl and by some accounts contemplated suicide . He was depressed but calm when arrested on 11 November 1923 for high treason . His trial before the special People 's Court in Munich began in February 1924 , and Alfred Rosenberg became temporary leader of the NSDAP . On 1 April , Hitler was sentenced to five years ' imprisonment at Landsberg Prison . There , he received friendly treatment from the guards , and he was allowed mail from supporters and regular visits by party comrades . Pardoned by the Bavarian Supreme Court , he was released from jail on 20 December 1924 , against the state prosecutor 's objections . Including time on remand , Hitler served just over one year in prison . While at Landsberg , Hitler dictated most of the first volume of Mein Kampf ( My Struggle ; originally entitled Four and a Half Years of Struggle against Lies , Stupidity , and Cowardice ) to his deputy , Rudolf Hess . The book , dedicated to Thule Society member Dietrich Eckart , was an autobiography and exposition of his ideology . The book laid out Hitler 's plans for transforming German society into one based on race . Some passages implied genocide . Published in two volumes in 1925 and 1926 , it sold 228 @,@ 000 copies between 1925 and 1932 . One million copies were sold in 1933 , Hitler 's first year in office . Shortly before Hitler was eligible for parole , the Bavarian government attempted to have him deported back to Austria . The Austrian federal chancellor rejected the request on the specious grounds that his service in the German Army made his Austrian citizenship void . In response , Hitler formally renounced his Austrian citizenship on 7 April 1925 . = = = Rebuilding the NSDAP = = = At the time of Hitler 's release from prison , politics in Germany had become less combative and the economy had improved , limiting Hitler 's opportunities for political agitation . As a result of the failed Beer Hall Putsch , the NSDAP and its affiliated organisations were banned in Bavaria . In a meeting with Prime Minister of Bavaria Heinrich Held on 4 January 1925 , Hitler agreed to respect the authority of the state and promised that he would seek political power only through the democratic process . The meeting paved the way for the ban on the NSDAP to be lifted on 16 February . Hitler was barred from public speaking by the Bavarian authorities , a ban that remained in place until 1927 . To advance his political ambitions in spite of the ban , Hitler appointed Gregor Strasser , Otto Strasser , and Joseph Goebbels to organise and grow the NSDAP in northern Germany . A superb organiser , Gregor Strasser steered a more independent political course , emphasising the socialist elements of the party 's programme . The stock market in the United States crashed on 24 October 1929 . The impact in Germany was dire : millions were thrown out of work and several major banks collapsed . Hitler and the NSDAP prepared to take advantage of the emergency to gain support for their party . They promised to repudiate the Versailles Treaty , strengthen the economy , and provide jobs . = = Rise to power = = = = = Brüning administration = = = The Great Depression provided a political opportunity for Hitler . Germans were ambivalent about the parliamentary republic , which faced challenges from right- and left @-@ wing extremists . The moderate political parties were increasingly unable to stem the tide of extremism , and the German referendum of 1929 helped to elevate Nazi ideology . The elections of September 1930 resulted in the break @-@ up of a grand coalition and its replacement with a minority cabinet . Its leader , chancellor Heinrich Brüning of the Centre Party , governed through emergency decrees from President Paul von Hindenburg . Governance by decree became the new norm and paved the way for authoritarian forms of government . The NSDAP rose from obscurity to win 18 @.@ 3 per cent of the vote and 107 parliamentary seats in the 1930 election , becoming the second @-@ largest party in parliament . Hitler made a prominent appearance at the trial of two Reichswehr officers , Lieutenants Richard Scheringer and Hans Ludin , in late 1930 . Both were charged with membership in the NSDAP , at that time illegal for Reichswehr personnel . The prosecution argued that the NSDAP was an extremist party , prompting defence lawyer Hans Frank to call on Hitler to testify . On 25 September 1930 , Hitler testified that his party would pursue political power solely through democratic elections , which won him many supporters in the officer corps . Brüning 's austerity measures brought little economic improvement and were extremely unpopular . Hitler exploited this by targeting his political messages specifically at people who had been affected by the inflation of the 1920s and the Depression , such as farmers , war veterans , and the middle class . Although Hitler had terminated his Austrian citizenship in 1925 , he did not acquire German citizenship for almost seven years . This meant he was stateless , unable to run for public office , and still faced the risk of deportation . On 25 February 1932 , the interior minister of Brunswick , Dietrich Klagges , who was a member of the NSDAP , appointed Hitler as administrator for the state 's delegation to the Reichsrat in Berlin , making Hitler a citizen of Brunswick , and thus of Germany . In 1932 , Hitler ran against Hindenburg in the presidential elections . A 27 January 1932 speech to the Industry Club in Düsseldorf won him support from many of Germany 's most powerful industrialists . Hindenburg had support from various nationalist , monarchist , Catholic , and republican parties , and some Social Democrats . Hitler used the campaign slogan " Hitler über Deutschland " ( " Hitler over Germany " ) , a reference to his political ambitions and his campaigning by aircraft . He was one of the first politicians to use aircraft travel for political purposes , and utilised it effectively . Hitler came in second in both rounds of the election , garnering more than 35 per cent of the vote in the final election . Although he lost to Hindenburg , this election established Hitler as a strong force in German politics . = = = Appointment as chancellor = = = The absence of an effective government prompted two influential politicians , Franz von Papen and Alfred Hugenberg , along with several other industrialists and businessmen , to write a letter to Hindenburg . The signers urged Hindenburg to appoint Hitler as leader of a government " independent from parliamentary parties " , which could turn into a movement that would " enrapture millions of people " . Hindenburg reluctantly agreed to appoint Hitler as chancellor after two further parliamentary elections — in July and November 1932 — had not resulted in the formation of a majority government . Hitler headed a short @-@ lived coalition government formed by the NSDAP and Hugenberg 's party , the German National People 's Party ( DNVP ) . On 30 January 1933 , the new cabinet was sworn in during a brief ceremony in Hindenburg 's office . The NSDAP gained three posts : Hitler was named chancellor , Wilhelm Frick Minister of the Interior , and Hermann Göring Minister of the Interior for Prussia . Hitler had insisted on the ministerial positions as a way to gain control over the police in much of Germany . = = = Reichstag fire and March elections = = = As chancellor , Hitler worked against attempts by the NSDAP 's opponents to build a majority government . Because of the political stalemate , he asked Hindenburg to again dissolve the Reichstag , and elections were scheduled for early March . On 27 February 1933 , the Reichstag building was set on fire . Göring blamed a communist plot , because Dutch communist Marinus van der Lubbe was found in incriminating circumstances inside the burning building . According to the British historian Sir Ian Kershaw , the consensus of nearly all historians is that van der Lubbe actually set the fire . Others , including William L. Shirer and Alan Bullock , are of the opinion that the NSDAP itself was responsible . At Hitler 's urging , Hindenburg responded with the Reichstag Fire Decree of 28 February , which suspended basic rights and allowed detention without trial . The decree was permitted under Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution , which gave the president the power to take emergency measures to protect public safety and order . Activities of the German Communist Party ( KPD ) were suppressed , and some 4 @,@ 000 communist party members were arrested . In addition to political campaigning , the NSDAP engaged in paramilitary violence and the spread of anti @-@ communist propaganda in the days preceding the election . On election day , 6 March 1933 , the NSDAP 's share of the vote increased to 43 @.@ 9 per cent , and the party acquired the largest number of seats in parliament . Hitler 's party failed to secure an absolute majority , necessitating another coalition with the DNVP . = = = Day of Potsdam and the Enabling Act = = = On 21 March 1933 , the new Reichstag was constituted with an opening ceremony at the Garrison Church in Potsdam . This " Day of Potsdam " was held to demonstrate unity between the Nazi movement and the old Prussian elite and military . Hitler appeared in a morning coat and humbly greeted Hindenburg . To achieve full political control despite not having an absolute majority in parliament , Hitler 's government brought the Ermächtigungsgesetz ( Enabling Act ) to a vote in the newly elected Reichstag . The Act — officially titled the Gesetz zur Behebung der Not von Volk und Reich ( " Law to Remedy the Distress of People and Reich " ) — gave Hitler 's cabinet the power to enact laws without the consent of the Reichstag for four years . These laws could ( with certain exceptions ) deviate from the constitution . Since it would affect the constitution , the Enabling Act required a two @-@ thirds majority to pass . Leaving nothing to chance , the Nazis used the provisions of the Reichstag Fire Decree to arrest all 81 Communist deputies ( in spite of their virulent campaign against the party , the Nazis had allowed the KPD to contest the election ) and prevent several Social Democrats from attending . On 23 March 1933 , the Reichstag assembled at the Kroll Opera House under turbulent circumstances . Ranks of SA men served as guards inside the building , while large groups outside opposing the proposed legislation shouted slogans and threats towards the arriving members of parliament . The position of the Centre Party , the third largest party in the Reichstag , was decisive . After Hitler verbally promised party leader Ludwig Kaas that Hindenburg would retain his power of veto , Kaas announced the Centre Party would support the Enabling Act . The Act passed by a vote of 441 – 84 , with all parties except the Social Democrats voting in favour . The Enabling Act , along with the Reichstag Fire Decree , transformed Hitler 's government into a de facto legal dictatorship . = = = Removal of remaining limits = = = At the risk of appearing to talk nonsense I tell you that the National Socialist movement will go on for 1 @,@ 000 years ! ... Don 't forget how people laughed at me 15 years ago when I declared that one day I would govern Germany . They laugh now , just as foolishly , when I declare that I shall remain in power ! Having achieved full control over the legislative and executive branches of government , Hitler and his allies began to suppress the remaining opposition . The Social Democratic Party was banned and its assets seized . While many trade union delegates were in Berlin for May Day activities , SA stormtroopers demolished union offices around the country . On 2 May 1933 all trade unions were forced to dissolve and their leaders were arrested . Some were sent to concentration camps . The German Labour Front was formed as an umbrella organisation to represent all workers , administrators , and company owners , thus reflecting the concept of national socialism in the spirit of Hitler 's Volksgemeinschaft ( " people 's community " ) . By the end of June , the other parties had been intimidated into disbanding . This included the Nazis ' nominal coalition partner , the DNVP ; with the SA 's help , Hitler forced its leader , Hugenberg , to resign on 29 June . On 14 July 1933 , the NSDAP was declared the only legal political party in Germany . The demands of the SA for more political and military power caused anxiety among military , industrial , and political leaders . In response , Hitler purged the entire SA leadership in the Night of the Long Knives , which took place from 30 June to 2 July 1934 . Hitler targeted Ernst Röhm and other SA leaders who , along with a number of Hitler 's political adversaries ( such as Gregor Strasser and former chancellor Kurt von Schleicher ) , were rounded up , arrested , and shot . While the international community and some Germans were shocked by the murders , many in Germany believed Hitler was restoring order . On 2 August 1934 , Hindenburg died . The previous day , the cabinet had enacted the " Law Concerning the Highest State Office of the Reich " . This law stated that upon Hindenburg 's death , the office of president would be abolished and its powers merged with those of the chancellor . Hitler thus became head of state as well as head of government , and was formally named as Führer und Reichskanzler ( leader and chancellor ) . With this action , Hitler eliminated the last legal remedy by which he could be removed from office . As head of state , Hitler became supreme commander of the armed forces . The traditional loyalty oath of servicemen was altered to affirm loyalty to Hitler personally , by name , rather than to the office of supreme commander or the state . On 19 August , the merger of the presidency with the chancellorship was approved by 90 per cent of the electorate voting in a plebiscite . In early 1938 , Hitler used blackmail to consolidate his hold over the military by instigating the Blomberg – Fritsch Affair . Hitler forced his War Minister , Field Marshal Werner von Blomberg , to resign by using a police dossier that showed that Blomberg 's new wife had a record for prostitution . Army commander Colonel @-@ General Werner von Fritsch was removed after the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) produced allegations that he had engaged in a homosexual relationship . Both men had fallen into disfavour because they objected to Hitler 's demand to make the Wehrmacht ready for war as early as 1938 . Hitler assumed Blomberg 's title of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , thus taking personal command of the armed forces . He replaced the Ministry of War with the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht ( Armed Forces High Command : OKW ) , headed by General Wilhelm Keitel . On the same day , sixteen generals were stripped of their commands and 44 more were transferred ; all were suspected of not being sufficiently pro @-@ Nazi . By early February 1938 , twelve more generals had been removed . Hitler took care to give his dictatorship the appearance of legality . Many of his decrees were explicitly based on the Reichstag Fire Decree and hence on Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution . The Reichstag renewed the Enabling Act twice , each time for a four @-@ year period . While elections to the Reichstag were still held ( in 1933 , 1936 , and 1938 ) , voters were presented with a single list of Nazis and pro @-@ Nazi " guests " which carried with well over 90 percent of the vote . These elections were held in far @-@ from @-@ secret conditions ; the Nazis threatened severe reprisals against anyone who didn 't vote or dared to vote no . = = Nazi Germany = = = = = Economy and culture = = = In August 1934 , Hitler appointed Reichsbank President Hjalmar Schacht as Minister of Economics , and in the following year , as Plenipotentiary for War Economy in charge of preparing the economy for war . Reconstruction and rearmament were financed through Mefo bills , printing money , and seizing the assets of people arrested as enemies of the State , including Jews . Unemployment fell from six million in 1932 to one million in 1936 . Hitler oversaw one of the largest infrastructure improvement campaigns in German history , leading to the construction of dams , autobahns , railroads , and other civil works . Wages were slightly lower in the mid to late 1930s compared with wages during the Weimar Republic , while the cost of living increased by 25 per cent . The average work week increased during the shift to a war economy ; by 1939 , the average German was working between 47 and 50 hours a week . Hitler 's government sponsored architecture on an immense scale . Albert Speer , instrumental in implementing Hitler 's classicist reinterpretation of German culture , was placed in charge of the proposed architectural renovations of Berlin . In 1936 , Hitler opened the summer Olympic games in Berlin . = = = Rearmament and new alliances = = = In a meeting with German military leaders on 3 February 1933 , Hitler spoke of " conquest for Lebensraum in the East and its ruthless Germanisation " as his ultimate foreign policy objectives . In March , Prince Bernhard Wilhelm von Bülow , secretary at the Auswärtiges Amt ( Foreign Office ) , issued a statement of major foreign policy aims : Anschluss with Austria , the restoration of Germany 's national borders of 1914 , rejection of military restrictions under the Treaty of Versailles , the return of the former German colonies in Africa , and a German zone of influence in Eastern Europe . Hitler found Bülow 's goals to be too modest . In speeches during this period , he stressed the peaceful goals of his policies and a willingness to work within international agreements . At the first meeting of his cabinet in 1933 , Hitler prioritised military spending over unemployment relief . Germany withdrew from the League of Nations and the World Disarmament Conference in October 1933 . In January 1935 , over 90 per cent of the people of the Saarland , then under League of Nations administration , voted to unite with Germany . That March , Hitler announced an expansion of the Wehrmacht to 600 @,@ 000 members — six times the number permitted by the Versailles Treaty — including development of an air force ( Luftwaffe ) and an increase in the size of the navy ( Kriegsmarine ) . Britain , France , Italy , and the League of Nations condemned these violations of the Treaty , but did nothing to stop it . The Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement ( AGNA ) of 18 June allowed German tonnage to increase to 35 per cent of that of the British navy . Hitler called the signing of the AGNA " the happiest day of his life " , believing that the agreement marked the beginning of the Anglo @-@ German alliance he had predicted in Mein Kampf . France and Italy were not consulted before the signing , directly undermining the League of Nations and setting the Treaty of Versailles on the path towards irrelevance . Germany reoccupied the demilitarised zone in the Rhineland in March 1936 , in violation of the Versailles Treaty . Hitler also sent troops to Spain to support General Franco during the Spanish Civil War after receiving an appeal for help in July 1936 . At the same time , Hitler continued his efforts to create an Anglo @-@ German alliance . In August 1936 , in response to a growing economic crisis caused by his rearmament efforts , Hitler ordered Göring to implement a Four Year Plan to prepare Germany for war within the next four years . The plan envisaged an all @-@ out struggle between " Judeo @-@ Bolshevism " and German national socialism , which in Hitler 's view required a committed effort of rearmament regardless of the economic costs . Count Galeazzo Ciano , foreign minister of Mussolini 's government , declared an axis between Germany and Italy , and on 25 November , Germany signed the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact with Japan . Britain , China , Italy , and Poland were also invited to join the Anti @-@ Comintern Pact , but only Italy signed in 1937 . Hitler abandoned his plan of an Anglo @-@ German alliance , blaming " inadequate " British leadership . At a meeting in the Reich Chancellery with his foreign ministers and military chiefs that November , Hitler restated his intention of acquiring Lebensraum for the German people . He ordered preparations for war in the East , to begin as early as 1938 and no later than 1943 . In the event of his death , the conference minutes , recorded as the Hossbach Memorandum , were to be regarded as his " political testament " . He felt that a severe decline in living standards in Germany as a result of the economic crisis could only be stopped by military aggression aimed at seizing Austria and Czechoslovakia . Hitler urged quick action before Britain and France gained a permanent lead in the arms race . In early 1938 , in the wake of the Blomberg – Fritsch Affair , Hitler asserted control of the military @-@ foreign policy apparatus , dismissing Neurath as foreign minister and appointing himself Oberster Befehlshaber der Wehrmacht ( supreme commander of the armed forces ) . From early 1938 onwards , Hitler was carrying out a foreign policy ultimately aimed at war . = = World War II = = = = = Early diplomatic successes = = = = = = = Alliance with Japan = = = = In February 1938 , on the advice of his newly appointed foreign minister , the strongly pro @-@ Japanese Joachim von Ribbentrop , Hitler ended the Sino @-@ German alliance with the Republic of China to instead enter into an alliance with the more modern and powerful Japan . Hitler announced German recognition of Manchukuo , the Japanese @-@ occupied state in Manchuria , and renounced German claims to their former colonies in the Pacific held by Japan . Hitler ordered an end to arms shipments to China and recalled all German officers working with the Chinese Army . In retaliation , Chinese General Chiang Kai @-@ shek cancelled all Sino @-@ German economic agreements , depriving the Germans of many Chinese raw materials . = = = = Austria and Czechoslovakia = = = = On 12 March 1938 , Hitler announced the unification of Austria with Nazi Germany in the Anschluss . Hitler then turned his attention to the ethnic German population of the Sudetenland region of Czechoslovakia . On 28 – 29 March 1938 , Hitler held a series of secret meetings in Berlin with Konrad Henlein of the Sudeten Heimfront ( Home Front ) , the largest of the ethnic German parties of the Sudetenland . The men agreed that Henlein would demand increased autonomy for Sudeten Germans from the Czechoslovakian government , thus providing a pretext for German military action against Czechoslovakia . In April 1938 Henlein told the foreign minister of Hungary that " whatever the Czech government might offer , he would always raise still higher demands ... he wanted to sabotage an understanding by any means because this was the only method to blow up Czechoslovakia quickly " . In private , Hitler considered the Sudeten issue unimportant ; his real intention was a war of conquest against Czechoslovakia . In April Hitler ordered the OKW to prepare for Fall Grün ( Case Green ) , the code name for an invasion of Czechoslovakia . As a result of intense French and British diplomatic pressure , on 5 September Czechoslovakian President Edvard Beneš unveiled the " Fourth Plan " for constitutional reorganisation of his country , which agreed to most of Henlein 's demands for Sudeten autonomy . Henlein 's Heimfront responded to Beneš ' offer by instigating a series of violent clashes with the Czechoslovakian police that led to the declaration of martial law in certain Sudeten districts . Germany was dependent on imported oil ; a confrontation with Britain over the Czechoslovakian dispute could curtail Germany 's oil supplies . This forced Hitler to call off Fall Grün , originally planned for 1 October 1938 . On 29 September Hitler , Neville Chamberlain , Édouard Daladier , and Mussolini attended a one @-@ day conference in Munich that led to the Munich Agreement , which handed over the Sudetenland districts to Germany . Chamberlain was satisfied with the Munich conference , calling the outcome " peace for our time " , while Hitler was angered about the missed opportunity for war in 1938 ; he expressed his disappointment in a speech on 9 October in Saarbrücken . In Hitler 's view , the British @-@ brokered peace , although favourable to the ostensible German demands , was a diplomatic defeat which spurred his intent of limiting British power to pave the way for the eastern expansion of Germany . As a result of the summit , Hitler was selected Time magazine 's Man of the Year for 1938 . In late 1938 and early 1939 , the continuing economic crisis caused by rearmament forced Hitler to make major defence cuts . In his " Export or die " speech of 30 January 1939 , he called for an economic offensive to increase German foreign exchange holdings to pay for raw materials such as high @-@ grade iron needed for military weapons . On 15 March 1939 , in violation of the Munich accord and possibly as a result of the deepening economic crisis requiring additional assets , Hitler ordered the Wehrmacht to invade Prague , and from Prague Castle he proclaimed Bohemia and Moravia a German protectorate . = = = Start of World War II = = = In private discussions in 1939 , Hitler declared Britain the main enemy to be defeated and that Poland 's obliteration was a necessary prelude for that goal . The eastern flank would be secured and land would be added to Germany 's Lebensraum . Offended by the British " guarantee " on 31 March 1939 of Polish independence , he said , " I shall brew them a devil 's drink " . In a speech in Wilhelmshaven for the launch of the battleship Tirpitz on 1 April , he threatened to denounce the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement if the British continued to guarantee Polish independence , which he perceived as an " encirclement " policy . Poland was to either become a German satellite state or be neutralised to secure the Reich 's eastern flank and to prevent a possible British blockade . Hitler initially favoured the idea of a satellite state , but upon its rejection by the Polish government , he decided to invade and made this the main foreign policy goal of 1939 . On 3 April , Hitler ordered the military to prepare for Fall Weiss ( " Case White " ) , the plan for invading Poland on 25 August . In a Reichstag speech on 28 April , he renounced both the Anglo @-@ German Naval Agreement and the German – Polish Non @-@ Aggression Pact . Historians such as William Carr , Gerhard Weinberg , and Kershaw have argued that one reason for Hitler 's rush to war was his fear of an early death . Hitler was concerned that a military attack against Poland could result in a premature war with Britain . Hitler 's foreign minister and former Ambassador to London , Joachim von Ribbentrop , assured him that neither Britain nor France would honour their commitments to Poland . Accordingly , on 22 August 1939 Hitler ordered a military mobilisation against Poland . This plan required tacit Soviet support , and the non @-@ aggression pact ( the Molotov – Ribbentrop Pact ) between Germany and the Soviet Union , led by Joseph Stalin , included a secret agreement to partition Poland between the two countries . Contrary to Ribbentrop 's prediction that Britain would sever Anglo @-@ Polish ties , Britain and Poland signed the Anglo @-@ Polish alliance on 25 August 1939 . This , along with news from Italy that Mussolini would not honour the Pact of Steel , prompted Hitler to postpone the attack on Poland from 25 August to 1 September . Hitler unsuccessfully tried to manoeuvre the British into neutrality by offering them a non @-@ aggression guarantee on 25 August ; he then instructed Ribbentrop to present a last @-@ minute peace plan with an impossibly short time limit in an effort to blame the imminent war on British and Polish inaction . On 1 September 1939 , Germany invaded western Poland under the pretext of having been denied claims to the Free City of Danzig and the right to extraterritorial roads across the Polish Corridor , which Germany had ceded under the Versailles Treaty . In response , Britain and France declared war on Germany on 3 September , surprising Hitler and prompting him to angrily ask Ribbentrop , " Now what ? " France and Britain did not act on their declarations immediately , and on 17 September , Soviet forces invaded eastern Poland . The fall of Poland was followed by what contemporary journalists dubbed the " Phoney War " or Sitzkrieg ( " sitting war " ) . Hitler instructed the two newly appointed Gauleiters of north @-@ western Poland , Albert Forster of Reichsgau Danzig @-@ West Prussia and Arthur Greiser of Reichsgau Wartheland , to Germanise their areas , with " no questions asked " about how this was accomplished . Whereas Polish citizens in Forster 's area merely had to sign forms stating that they had German blood , Greiser carried out a brutal ethnic cleansing campaign on the Polish population in his purview . Greiser complained that Forster was allowing thousands of Poles to be accepted as " racial " Germans and thus endangered German " racial purity " . Hitler refrained from getting involved . This inaction has been advanced as an example of the theory of " working towards the Führer " : Hitler issued vague instructions and expected his subordinates to work out policies on their own . Another dispute pitched one side represented by Himmler and Greiser , who championed ethnic cleansing in Poland , against another represented by Göring and Hans Frank , governor @-@ general of the General Government territory of occupied Poland , who called for turning Poland into the " granary " of the Reich . On 12 February 1940 , the dispute was initially settled in favour of the Göring – Frank view , which ended the economically disruptive mass expulsions . On 15 May 1940 , Himmler issued a memo entitled " Some Thoughts on the Treatment of Alien Population in the East " , calling for the expulsion of the entire Jewish population of Europe into Africa and reducing the Polish population to a " leaderless class of labourers " . Hitler called Himmler 's memo " good and correct " , and , ignoring Göring and Frank , implemented the Himmler – Greiser policy in Poland . Hitler began a military build @-@ up on Germany 's western border , and in April 1940 , German forces invaded Denmark and Norway . On 9 April , Hitler proclaimed the birth of the Greater Germanic Reich , his vision of a united empire of the Germanic nations of Europe , where the Dutch , Flemish , and Scandinavians were joined into a " racially pure " polity under German leadership . In May 1940 , Germany attacked France , and conquered Luxembourg , the Netherlands , and Belgium . These victories prompted Mussolini to have Italy join forces with Hitler on 10 June . France and Germany signed an armistice on 22 June . Kershaw notes that Hitler 's popularity within Germany – and German support for the war – reached its peak when he returned to Berlin on 6 July from his tour of Paris . Following the unexpected swift victory , Hitler promoted twelve generals to the rank of field marshal during the 1940 Field Marshal Ceremony . Britain , whose troops were forced to evacuate France by sea from Dunkirk , continued to fight alongside other British dominions in the Battle of the Atlantic . Hitler made peace overtures to the new British leader , Winston Churchill , and upon their rejection he ordered a series of aerial attacks on Royal Air Force airbases and radar stations in south @-@ east England . The German Luftwaffe failed to defeat the Royal Air Force in what became known as the Battle of Britain . By the end of October , Hitler realised that air superiority for the invasion of Britain ( in Operation Sea Lion ) could not be achieved , and he ordered nightly air raids on British cities , including London , Plymouth , and Coventry . On 27 September 1940 , the Tripartite Pact was signed in Berlin by Saburō Kurusu of Imperial Japan , Hitler , and Italian foreign minister Ciano , and later expanded to include Hungary , Romania , and Bulgaria , thus yielding the Axis powers . Hitler 's attempt to integrate the Soviet Union into the anti @-@ British bloc failed after inconclusive talks between Hitler and Molotov in Berlin in November , and he ordered preparations for the invasion of the Soviet Union . In the Spring of 1941 , German forces were deployed to North Africa , the Balkans , and the Middle East . In February , German forces arrived in Libya to bolster the Italian presence . In April , Hitler launched the invasion of Yugoslavia , quickly followed by the invasion of Greece . In May , German forces were sent to support Iraqi rebel forces fighting against the British and to invade Crete . = = = Path to defeat = = = On 22 June 1941 , contravening the Hitler – Stalin Non @-@ Aggression Pact of 1939 , 4 – 5 million Axis troops attacked the Soviet Union . This offensive ( codenamed Operation Barbarossa ) was intended to destroy the Soviet Union and seize its natural resources for subsequent aggression against the Western powers . The invasion conquered a huge area , including the Baltic republics , Belarus , and West Ukraine . By early August , Axis troops had advanced 500 km ( 310 mi ) and won the Battle of Smolensk . Hitler ordered Army Group Centre to temporarily halt its advance to Moscow and divert its Panzer groups to aid in the encirclement of Leningrad and Kiev . His generals disagreed with this change , having advanced within 400 km ( 250 mi ) of Moscow , and his decision caused a crisis among the military leadership . The pause provided the Red Army with an opportunity to mobilise fresh reserves ; historian Russel Stolfi considers it to be one of the major factors that caused the failure of the Moscow offensive , which was resumed in October 1941 and ended disastrously in December . On 7 December 1941 , Japan attacked the American fleet based at Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . Four days later , Hitler declared war against the United States . On 18 December 1941 , Himmler asked Hitler , " What to do with the Jews of Russia ? " , to which Hitler replied , " als Partisanen auszurotten " ( " exterminate them as partisans " ) . Israeli historian Yehuda Bauer has commented that the remark is probably as close as historians will ever get to a definitive order from Hitler for the genocide carried out during the Holocaust . In late 1942 , German forces were defeated in the second battle of El Alamein , thwarting Hitler 's plans to seize the Suez Canal and the Middle East . Overconfident in his own military expertise following the earlier victories in 1940 , Hitler became distrustful of his Army High Command and began to interfere in military and tactical planning , with damaging consequences . In December 1942 and January 1943 , Hitler 's repeated refusal to allow their withdrawal at the Battle of Stalingrad led to the almost total destruction of the 6th Army . Over 200 @,@ 000 Axis soldiers were killed and 235 @,@ 000 were taken prisoner . Thereafter came a decisive strategic defeat at the Battle of Kursk . Hitler 's military judgement became increasingly erratic , and Germany 's military and economic position deteriorated , as did Hitler 's health . Following the allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 , Mussolini was removed from power by Victor Emmanuel III after a vote of no confidence of the Grand Council . Marshal Pietro Badoglio , placed in charge of the government , soon surrendered to the Allies . Throughout 1943 and 1944 , the Soviet Union steadily forced Hitler 's armies into retreat along the Eastern Front . On 6 June 1944 , the Western Allied armies landed in northern France in one of the largest amphibious operations in history , Operation Overlord . Many German officers concluded that defeat was inevitable and that continuing under Hitler 's leadership would result in the complete destruction of the country . Between 1939 and 1945 , there were many plans to assassinate Hitler , some of which proceeded to significant degrees . The most well known came from within Germany and was at least partly driven by the increasing prospect of a German defeat in the war . In July 1944 , in the 20 July plot , part of Operation Valkyrie , Claus von Stauffenberg planted a bomb in one of Hitler 's headquarters , the Wolf 's Lair at Rastenburg . Hitler narrowly survived because staff officer Heinz Brandt moved the briefcase containing the bomb behind a leg of the heavy conference table , which deflected much of the blast . Later , Hitler ordered savage reprisals resulting in the execution of more than 4 @,@ 900 people . = = = Defeat and death = = = By late 1944 , both the Red Army and the Western Allies were advancing into Germany . Recognising the strength and determination of the Red Army , Hitler decided to use his remaining mobile reserves against the American and British troops , which he perceived as far weaker . On 16 December , he launched the Ardennes Offensive to incite disunity among the Western Allies and perhaps convince them to join his fight against the Soviets . The offensive failed after some temporary successes . With much of Germany in ruins in January 1945 , Hitler spoke on the radio : " However grave as the crisis may be at this moment , it will , despite everything , be mastered by our unalterable will . " Hitler 's hope to negotiate peace with the United States and Britain was encouraged by the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt on 12 April 1945 , but contrary to his expectations , this caused no rift among the Allies . Acting on his view that Germany 's military failures meant it had forfeited its right to survive as a nation , Hitler ordered the destruction of all German industrial infrastructure before it could fall into Allied hands . Minister for Armaments Albert Speer was entrusted with executing this scorched earth policy , but he secretly disobeyed the order . On 20 April , his 56th birthday , Hitler made his last trip from the Führerbunker ( Führer 's shelter ) to the surface . In the ruined garden of the Reich Chancellery , he awarded Iron Crosses to boy soldiers of the Hitler Youth , who were now fighting the Red Army at the front near Berlin . By 21 April , Georgy Zhukov 's 1st Belorussian Front had broken through the defences of General Gotthard Heinrici 's Army Group Vistula during the Battle of the Seelow Heights and advanced to the outskirts of Berlin . In denial about the dire situation , Hitler placed his hopes on the undermanned and under @-@ equipped Armeeabteilung Steiner ( Army Detachment Steiner ) , commanded by Waffen SS General Felix Steiner . Hitler ordered Steiner to attack the northern flank of the salient , while the German Ninth Army was ordered to attack northward in a pincer attack . During a military conference on 22 April , Hitler asked about Steiner 's offensive . He was told that the attack had not been launched and that the Soviets had entered Berlin . Hitler asked everyone except Wilhelm Keitel , Alfred Jodl , Hans Krebs , and Wilhelm Burgdorf to leave the room , then launched into a tirade against the treachery and incompetence of his commanders , culminating in his declaration — for the first time — that " everything was lost " . He announced that he would stay in Berlin until the end and then shoot himself . By 23 April the Red Army had surrounded Berlin , and Goebbels made a proclamation urging its citizens to defend the city . That same day , Göring sent a telegram from Berchtesgaden , arguing that since Hitler was isolated in Berlin , Göring should assume leadership of Germany . Göring set a deadline , after which he would consider Hitler incapacitated . Hitler responded by having Göring arrested , and in his last will and testament , written on 29 April , he removed Göring from all government positions . On 28 April Hitler discovered that Himmler , who had left Berlin on 20 April , was trying to negotiate a surrender to the Western Allies . He ordered Himmler 's arrest and had Hermann Fegelein ( Himmler 's SS representative at Hitler 's HQ in Berlin ) shot . After midnight on 29 April , Hitler married Eva Braun in a small civil ceremony in the Führerbunker . After a wedding breakfast with his new wife , Hitler dictated his will to his secretary Traudl Junge . The event was witnessed and documents signed by Krebs , Burgdorf , Goebbels , and Bormann . Later that afternoon , Hitler was informed of the execution of Mussolini , which presumably increased his determination to avoid capture . On 30 April 1945 , when Soviet troops were within a block or two of the Reich Chancellery , Hitler shot himself and Braun bit into a cyanide capsule . Their bodies were carried outside to the bombed @-@ out garden behind the Reich Chancellery , where they were placed in a bomb crater and doused with petrol . The corpses were set on fire as the Red Army shelling continued . Grand Admiral Karl Dönitz and Joseph Goebbels assumed Hitler 's roles as head of state and chancellor respectively . Berlin surrendered on 2 May . Records in the Soviet archives obtained after the fall of the Soviet Union state that the remains of Hitler , Braun , Joseph and Magda Goebbels , the six Goebbels children , General Hans Krebs , and Hitler 's dogs were repeatedly buried and exhumed . On 4 April 1970 , a Soviet KGB team used detailed burial charts to exhume five wooden boxes at the SMERSH facility in Magdeburg . The remains from the boxes were burned , crushed , and scattered into the Biederitz river , a tributary of the Elbe . According to Kershaw , the corpses of Braun and Hitler were fully burned when the Red Army found them , and only a lower jaw with dental work could be identified as Hitler 's remains . = = = The Holocaust = = = If the international Jewish financiers in and outside Europe should succeed in plunging the nations once more into a world war , then the result will not be the Bolshevisation of the earth , and thus the victory of Jewry , but the annihilation of the Jewish race in Europe ! The Holocaust and Germany 's war in the East was based on Hitler 's long @-@ standing view that the Jews were the enemy of the German people and that Lebensraum was needed for Germany 's expansion . He focused on Eastern Europe for this expansion , aiming to defeat Poland and the Soviet Union and then removing or killing the Jews and Slavs . The Generalplan Ost ( General Plan East ) called for deporting the population of occupied Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union to West Siberia , for use as slave labour or to be murdered ; the conquered territories were to be colonised by German or " Germanised " settlers . The goal was to implement this plan after the conquest of the Soviet Union , but when this failed , Hitler moved the plans forward . By January 1942 , he had decided that the Jews , Slavs , and other deportees considered undesirable should be killed . The genocide was ordered by Hitler and organised and executed by Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich . The records of the Wannsee Conference , held on 20 January 1942 and led by Heydrich , with fifteen senior Nazi officials participating , provide the clearest evidence of systematic planning for the Holocaust . On 22 February , Hitler was recorded saying , " we shall regain our health only by eliminating the Jews " . Although no direct order from Hitler authorising the mass killings has surfaced , his public speeches , orders to his generals , and the diaries of Nazi officials demonstrate that he conceived and authorised the extermination of European Jewry . He approved the Einsatzgruppen — killing squads that followed the German army through Poland , the Baltic , and the Soviet Union — and was well informed about their activities . By summer 1942 , Auschwitz concentration camp was expanded to accommodate large numbers of deportees for killing or enslavement . Scores of other concentration camps and satellite camps were set up throughout Europe , with several camps devoted exclusively to extermination . Between 1939 and 1945 , the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) , assisted by collaborationist governments and recruits from occupied countries , was responsible for the deaths of at least eleven million people , including 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million Jews ( representing two @-@ thirds of the Jewish population of Europe ) , and between 200 @,@ 000 and 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 Romani people . Deaths took place in concentration and extermination camps , ghettos , and through mass executions . Many victims of the Holocaust were gassed to death , whereas others died of starvation or disease or while working as slave labourers . In addition to eliminating Jews , the Nazis planned to reduce the population of the conquered territories by 30 million people through starvation in an action called the Hunger Plan . Food supplies would be diverted to the German army and German civilians . Cities would be razed and the land allowed to return to forest or resettled by German colonists . Together , the Hunger Plan and Generalplan Ost would have led to the starvation of 80 million people in the Soviet Union . These partially fulfilled plans resulted in the democidal deaths of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war . Hitler 's policies resulted in the killing of nearly two million Poles , over three million Soviet prisoners of war , communists and other political opponents , homosexuals , the physically and mentally disabled , Jehovah 's Witnesses , Adventists , and trade unionists .	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Hitler did not speak publicly about the killings , and seems never to have visited the concentration camps . The Nazis embraced the concept of racial hygiene . On 15 September 1935 , Hitler presented two laws — known as the Nuremberg Laws — to the Reichstag . The laws banned sexual relations and marriages between Aryans and Jews and were later extended to include " Gypsies , Negroes or their bastard offspring " . The laws stripped all non @-@ Aryans of their German citizenship and forbade the employment of non @-@ Jewish women under the age of 45 in Jewish households . Hitler 's early eugenic policies targeted children with physical and developmental disabilities in a programme dubbed Action Brandt , and he later authorised a euthanasia programme for adults with serious mental and physical disabilities , now referred to as Action T4 . = = Leadership style = = Hitler ruled the NSDAP autocratically by asserting the Führerprinzip ( leader principle ) . The principle relied on absolute obedience of all subordinates to their superiors ; thus he viewed the government structure as a pyramid , with himself — the infallible leader — at the apex . Rank in the party was not determined by elections — positions were filled through appointment by those of higher rank , who demanded unquestioning obedience to the will of the leader . Hitler 's leadership style was to give contradictory orders to his subordinates and to place them into positions where their duties and responsibilities overlapped with those of others , to have " the stronger one [ do ] the job " . In this way , Hitler fostered distrust , competition , and infighting among his subordinates to consolidate and maximise his own power . His cabinet never met after 1938 , and he discouraged his ministers from meeting independently . Hitler typically did not give written orders ; instead he communicated verbally , or had them conveyed through his close associate , Martin Bormann . He entrusted Bormann with his paperwork , appointments , and personal finances ; Bormann used his position to control the flow of information and access to Hitler . Hitler dominated his country 's war effort during World War II to a greater extent than any other national leader . He assumed the role of supreme commander of the armed forces during 1938 , and subsequently made all major decisions regarding Germany 's military strategy . His decision to mount a risky series of offensives against Norway , France , and the Low Countries in 1940 against the advice of the military proved successful , though the diplomatic and military strategies he employed in attempts to force the United Kingdom out of the war ended in failure . Hitler deepened his involvement in the war effort by appointing himself commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the Army in December 1941 ; from this point forward he personally directed the war against the Soviet Union , while his military commanders facing the Western Allies retained a degree of autonomy . Hitler 's leadership became increasingly disconnected from reality as the war turned against Germany , with the military 's defensive strategies often hindered by his slow decision making and frequent directives to hold untenable positions . Nevertheless , he continued to believe that only his leadership could deliver victory . In the final months of the war Hitler refused to consider peace negotiations , regarding the complete destruction of Germany as preferable to surrender . The military did not challenge Hitler 's dominance of the war effort , and senior officers generally supported and enacted his decisions . = = Legacy = = Hitler 's suicide was likened by contemporaries to a " spell " being broken . Public support for Hitler had collapsed by the time of his death and few Germans mourned his passing ; Kershaw argues that most civilians and military personnel were too busy adjusting to the collapse of the country or fleeing from the fighting to take any interest . According to historian John Toland , National Socialism " burst like a bubble " without its leader . Hitler 's actions and Nazi ideology are almost universally regarded as gravely immoral ; according to Kershaw , " Never in history has such ruination — physical and moral — been associated with the name of one man " . Hitler 's political programme brought about a world war , leaving behind a devastated and impoverished Eastern and Central Europe . Germany itself suffered wholesale destruction , characterised as Stunde Null ( Zero Hour ) . Hitler 's policies inflicted human suffering on an unprecedented scale ; according to R.J. Rummel , the Nazi regime was responsible for the democidal killing of an estimated 19 @.@ 3 million civilians and prisoners of war . In addition , 29 million soldiers and civilians died as a result of military action in the European Theatre of World War II . The number of civilians killed during the Second World War was unprecedented in the history of warfare . Historians , philosophers , and politicians often use the word " evil " to describe the Nazi regime . Many European countries have criminalised both the promotion of Nazism and Holocaust denial . Historian Friedrich Meinecke described Hitler as " one of the great examples of the singular and incalculable power of personality in historical life " . English historian Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper saw him as " among the ' terrible simplifiers ' of history , the most systematic , the most historical , the most philosophical , and yet the coarsest , cruelest , least magnanimous conqueror the world has ever known " . For the historian John M. Roberts , Hitler 's defeat marked the end of a phase of European history dominated by Germany . In its place emerged the Cold War , a global confrontation between the Western Bloc , dominated by the United States and other NATO nations , and the Eastern Bloc , dominated by the Soviet Union . Historian Sebastian Haffner avers that without Hitler and the displacement of the Jews , the modern nation state of Israel would not exist . He contends that without Hitler , the de @-@ colonisation of former European spheres of influence would have been postponed . Further , Haffner claims that other than Alexander the Great , Hitler had a more significant impact than any other comparable historical figure , in that he too caused a wide range of worldwide changes in a relatively short time span . = = Views on religion = = Hitler was born to a practising Catholic mother and an anticlerical father ; after leaving home Hitler never again attended Mass or received the sacraments . Speer states that Hitler made harsh pronouncements against the church to his political associates and though he never officially left it , he had no attachment to it . He adds that Hitler felt that in the absence of the church the faithful would turn to mysticism , which he considered a step backwards . According to Speer , Hitler believed that either Japanese religious beliefs or Islam would have been a more suitable religion for the Germans than Christianity , with its " meekness and flabbiness " . Historian John S. Conway states that Hitler was fundamentally opposed to the Christian churches . According to Bullock , Hitler did not believe in God , was anticlerical , and held Christian ethics in contempt because they contravened his preferred view of " survival of the fittest " . He favoured aspects of Protestantism that suited his own views , and adopted some elements of the Catholic Church 's hierarchical organisation , liturgy , and phraseology in his politics . Hitler viewed the church as an important politically conservative influence on society , and he adopted a strategic relationship with it that " suited his immediate political purposes " . In public , Hitler often praised Christian heritage and German Christian culture , though professing a belief in an " Aryan Jesus " , one who fought against the Jews . Any pro @-@ Christian public rhetoric was at variance with his private statements , which described Christianity as " absurdity " and nonsense founded on lies . According to a U.S. Office of Strategic Services report , " The Nazi Master Plan " , Hitler planned to destroy the influence of Christian churches within the Reich . His eventual goal was the total elimination of Christianity . This goal informed Hitler 's movement early on , but he saw it as inexpedient to express this extreme position publicly . According to Bullock , Hitler wanted to wait until after the war before executing this plan . Speer wrote that Hitler had a negative view of Himmler 's and Alfred Rosenberg 's mystical notions and Himmler 's attempt to mythologise the SS . Hitler was more pragmatic , and his ambitions centred on more practical concerns . = = Health = = Researchers have variously suggested that Hitler suffered from irritable bowel syndrome , skin lesions , irregular heartbeat , coronary sclerosis , Parkinson 's disease , syphilis , giant cell arteritis with temporal arteritis , and tinnitus . In a report prepared for the Office of Strategic Services in 1943 , Walter C. Langer of Harvard University described Hitler as a " neurotic psychopath " . In his 1977 book The Psychopathic God : Adolf Hitler , historian Robert G. L. Waite proposes that Hitler suffered from borderline personality disorder . Historians Henrik Eberle and Hans @-@ Joachim Neumann consider that while Hitler suffered from a number of illnesses including Parkinson 's disease , he did not experience pathological delusions and was always fully aware of , and therefore responsible for , the decisions he was making . Theories about Hitler 's medical condition are difficult to prove , and placing too much weight on them may have the effect of attributing many of the events and consequences of Nazi Germany to the possibly impaired physical health of one individual . Kershaw feels that it is better to take a broader view of German history by examining what social forces led to the Nazi dictatorship and its policies rather than to pursue narrow explanations for the Holocaust and World War II based on only one person . Hitler followed a vegetarian diet . At social events he sometimes gave graphic accounts of the slaughter of animals in an effort to make his dinner guests shun meat . Bormann had a greenhouse constructed near the Berghof ( near Berchtesgaden ) to ensure a steady supply of fresh fruit and vegetables for Hitler throughout the war . Hitler publicly avoided alcohol . He occasionally drank beer and wine in private , but gave up drinking because of weight gain in 1943 . He was a non @-@ smoker for most of his life , but smoked heavily in his youth ( 25 to 40 cigarettes a day ) . He eventually quit , calling the habit " a waste of money " . He encouraged his close associates to quit by offering a gold watch to any who were able to break the habit . Hitler began using amphetamine occasionally after 1937 and became addicted to it in late 1942 . Speer linked this use of amphetamine to Hitler 's increasingly inflexible decision making ( for example , rarely allowing military retreats ) . Prescribed 90 medications during the war years , Hitler took many pills each day for chronic stomach problems and other ailments . He regularly consumed methamphetamine , barbiturates , opiates , and cocaine . He suffered ruptured eardrums as a result of the 20 July plot bomb blast in 1944 , and 200 wood splinters had to be removed from his legs . Newsreel footage of Hitler shows tremors of his hand and a shuffling walk , which began before the war and worsened towards the end of his life . Ernst @-@ Günther Schenck and several other doctors who met Hitler in the last weeks of his life also formed a diagnosis of Parkinson 's disease . = = Family = = Hitler created a public image as a celibate man without a domestic life , dedicated entirely to his political mission and the nation . He met his lover , Eva Braun , in 1929 , and married her in April 1945 . In September 1931 , his half @-@ niece , Geli Raubal , committed suicide with Hitler 's gun in his Munich apartment . It was rumoured among contemporaries that Geli was in a romantic relationship with him , and her death was a source of deep , lasting pain . Paula Hitler , the last living member of his immediate family , died in 1960 . = = In propaganda films = = Hitler exploited documentary films and newsreels to inspire a cult of personality . He was involved and appeared in a series of propaganda films throughout his political career — such as Der Sieg des Glaubens and Triumph des Willens — made by Leni Riefenstahl , regarded as a pioneer of modern filmmaking . = = = List of propaganda and film appearances = = = Der Sieg des Glaubens ( Victory of Faith , 1933 ) Triumph des Willens ( Triumph of the Will , 1935 ) Tag der Freiheit : Unsere Wehrmacht ( Day of Freedom : Our Armed Forces , 1935 ) Olympia ( 1938 ) = = = Online = = = = Horn shark = The horn shark ( Heterodontus francisci ) is a species of bullhead shark , in the family Heterodontidae . It is endemic to the coastal waters off the western coast of North America , from California to the Gulf of California . Young sharks are segregated spatially from the adults , with the former preferring deeper sandy flats and the latter preferring shallower rocky reefs or algal beds . A small species typically measuring 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length , the horn shark can be recognized by a short , blunt head with ridges over its eyes , two high dorsal fins with large spines , and a brown or gray coloration with many small dark spots . Slow @-@ moving , generally solitary predators , horn sharks hunt at night inside small home ranges and retreat to a favored shelter during the day . Their daily activity cycles are controlled by environmental light levels . Adult sharks prey mainly on hard @-@ shelled molluscs , echinoderms , and crustaceans , which they crush between powerful jaws and molar @-@ like teeth , while also feeding opportunistically on a wide variety of other invertebrates and small bony fishes . Juveniles prefer softer @-@ bodied prey such as polychaete worms and sea anemones . The shark extracts its prey from the substrate using suction and , if necessary , levering motions with its body . Reproduction is oviparous , with females laying up to 24 eggs from February to April . After laying , the female picks up the auger @-@ shaped egg cases and wedges them into crevices to protect them from predators . Horn sharks are harmless unless harassed , and are readily maintained in captivity . They are not targeted by either commercial or recreational fisheries , though small numbers are caught as bycatch . In Mexico this species is used for food and fishmeal , and in California its spines are made into jewelry . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) does not yet have enough information to determine the horn shark 's conservation status . It faces few threats off the coast of the United States . = = Taxonomy = = The French biologist Charles Frédéric Girard published the first scientific description of the horn shark under the name Cestracion francisci in 1855 , in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia . This species was later placed in the genus Gyropleurodus , which was eventually synonymized with the genus Heterodontus . The specific epithet francisci is a reference to San Francisco , although the range of the horn shark does not extend that far north . The type specimen from Monterey Bay has since been lost . The scientific name for this species has been given erroneously as Heterodontus californicus . = = Description = = Like other bullhead sharks , the horn shark has a short , wide head with a blunt snout and prominent supraorbital ridges over the eyes . The horn shark 's supraorbital ridges are low and terminate abruptly ; the space between them on top of the head is deeply concave . Each eye lacks a nictating membrane and is followed by a tiny spiracle . The nostrils are split into inflow and outflow openings by a long flap that reaches the mouth . The inflow openings are encircled by a groove , while another groove connects the outflow openings to the mouth . The mouth is small and curved , with prominent furrows at the corners . There are 19 – 26 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 18 – 29 tooth rows in the lower jaw . The teeth at the front of the jaws are small and pointed , with a central cusp flanked by a pair of lateral cusplets ; those at the sides of the jaws are much larger , elongated lengthwise , and molar @-@ like . The body is cylindrical , with two high , somewhat falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) dorsal fins bearing stout spines at the front . The fin spines of reef @-@ dwelling horn sharks are shorter than those living in algal habitats , as their spines become worn down on rocks from the sharks ' movements . The first dorsal fin originates over the bases of the large pectoral fins , while the second dorsal fin originates slightly anterior to the free rear tips of the pelvic fins . The caudal fin has a short lower lobe and a long , broad upper lobe with a strong notch near the tip . The horn shark 's dermal denticles are small and smooth , numbering some 200 / cm2 on the back in adults . The dorsal coloration consists of various shades of gray or brown with many small dark spots , though these may be absent in older sharks ; the underside is yellowish . There is a dark patch of small spots below the eye . This species may reach a length of 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) , though most individuals do not exceed 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) . = = Distribution and habitat = = The horn shark inhabits the continental shelf of the eastern Pacific Ocean , occurring off the coasts of California and Baja California from Monterey Bay southward , and in the Gulf of California . Uncommon influxes of warm water northward may bring it as far as San Francisco Bay . There are unconfirmed reports of this species off Ecuador and Peru , which may be misidentifications of other species . For most of the year , horn sharks are most common at a depth of 2 – 11 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 36 @.@ 1 ft ) . At the onset of winter , they migrate to water deeper than 30 m ( 98 ft ) . This species has been found in caves as deep as 200 m ( 660 ft ) . Juvenile horn sharks between 35 – 48 cm ( 1 @.@ 15 – 1 @.@ 57 ft ) long prefer sandy flats with low vertical relief , in water 40 – 150 m ( 130 – 490 ft ) deep . They often take advantage of large feeding pits excavated by the bat ray ( Myliobatis californica ) for shelter and food . As they mature , horn sharks shift into shallower water and their preferred habitat becomes structurally complex rocky reefs or algae beds . This strongly benthic species seldom ventures more than 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) above the substrate . The relative abundances of the horn shark and the swellshark ( Centroscyllim ventriosum ) , which shares the same habitat , are negatively correlated because horn sharks prefer temperatures warmer than 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) while swellsharks are more cold @-@ tolerant . At Santa Catalina Island , a 20 @-@ year warming trend has resulted in an increase in the horn shark population and a decrease in the swellshark population . Horn sharks are less common than swellsharks in the northern Channel Islands , where the water is cooler . = = Biology and ecology = = The horn shark is a clumsy , sporadic swimmer that prefers to use its flexible , muscular pectoral fins to push itself along the bottom . It is usually solitary , though small groups have been recorded . During the day , horn sharks rest motionless , hidden inside caves or crevices , or within thick mats of algae , though they remain relatively alert and will swim away quickly if disturbed . After dusk , they roam actively above the reef in search of food . Horn sharks maintain small home ranges of around 1 @,@ 000 m2 ( 11 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , which they may remain faithful to for over a decade , returning to the same shelter every day . The shelter is usually located at the edge of the resident shark 's foraging area . The longest documented movement for an individual horn shark is 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . Unlike most fishes , the daily activity pattern of the horn shark is under exogenous control , meaning that it is regulated by environmental factors rather than by an internal physiological cycle . Observations of captive horn sharks show that the relevant cue is light intensity : the sharks become active immediately after the lights are turned off , and stop as soon as they are turned back on . In one experiment where the sharks were kept in darkness , they remained continuously active for 11 days before slowing , possibly from fatigue . In nature , horn sharks exposed to a bright light at night may stop swimming and sink to the bottom . The horn shark is preyed upon by larger fishes and the northern elephant seal ( Mirounga angustirostris ) , which consumes adults , juveniles , and egg cases . In addition , they are captured and eaten by bald eagles ( Haliaeetus leucocephalus ) at Catalina Island , and large marine snails are able to drill into their egg cases to extract the yolk . The tough skin and spines of this species confer some protection ; a Pacific angelshark ( Squatina californica ) has been filmed engulfing a juvenile horn shark , only to spit it out due to its spines . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium bajaensis and Acanthobothrium puertecitense , the copepod Trebius heterodonti , and the nematode Echinocephalus pseudouncinatus , which spends its larval stage inside potential prey such as scallops and sea urchins . = = = Feeding = = = Some 95 % of the adult horn shark 's diet consists of hard @-@ shelled mollusks ( e.g. bivalves and gastropods ) , echinoderms ( e.g. sea urchins ) and crustaceans ( e.g. crabs , shrimp , and isopods ) . To crack their shells , the horn shark generates the highest known bite force relative to its size of any shark , well in excess of other measured species such as the spiny dogfish ( Squalus acanthias ) and the blacktip shark ( Carcharhinus limbatus ) . One study found the average bite force for this species in the wild to be 95 N with a maximum of 135 N , while under experimental conditions sharks could be induced to bite with over 200 N of force . Large horn sharks that feed mainly on sea urchins ( particularly the short @-@ spined purple urchin , Strongylocentrotus purpuratus ) have their teeth and fin spines stained purple . Other prey items of adults include peanut worms , sea stars , cephalopods , and small bony fishes . Juveniles feed primarily on polychaete worms , sea anemones , and small clams , and have been known to " pounce " on anemones to bite off tentacles before they can be retracted . Off southern California , horn sharks are known to take advantage of seasonal opportunities . In the summer , diurnally active fishes , in particular the blacksmith ( Chromis punctipinnis ) , are especially abundant and are easily captured at night when they lie dormant . In the winter , the sharks scavenge on market squid ( Loligo opalescens ) , which die by the tens of thousands after their mass spawning event . Horn sharks hunt mainly using their sense of smell . Although electroreception certainly plays a role in locating prey , this species has only 148 ampullae of Lorenzini . This is much fewer than in most other sharks , which may have over 2 @,@ 000 . Like other sharks , the horn shark 's teeth are regularly replaced ; it takes 4 weeks for a dropped tooth to be replaced . The horn shark captures prey via suction , created by expanding its buccal cavity . Its labial cartilages are modified so that the mouth can form a tube , facilitating the suction force . Once the prey is drawn into the mouth , it is secured with the sharp front teeth and then ground into pieces by the flat lateral teeth . To extract buried or affixed prey , the horn shark grips it and adopts a vertical posture with the head and pectoral fins against the substrate and the tail arched above . The shark then acts as a lever with its pectoral fins as the fulcrum : with a downward stroke of the tail , it forces its head upwards and pulls the prey loose ; this mode of feeding has not been observed in any other shark . The horn shark is also capable of protruding its upper jaw up to 15 % the length of its head ; this motion takes only 20 milliseconds to accomplish and allows the shark to use its upper jaw like a chisel to dislodge firmly attached prey . = = = Life history = = = Mating in the horn shark occurs in December or January , on a possibly annual reproductive cycle . The male chases the female to indicate interest ; once she is ready both sharks settle on the bottom , where the male grips the female 's pectoral fin in his teeth and inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca . After 30 – 40 minutes of copulation , the pair disengages and the female spins with her snout in the sand for another 30 minutes . From February to April , the females lay a maximum of 24 eggs two at a time once every 11 – 14 days , in water 2 – 13 m ( 6 @.@ 6 – 42 @.@ 7 ft ) deep . The egg case has two flanges spiraling around it , and thus may take the female several hours to deposit . At first the case is soft and light brown , and over a few days it hardens and darkens in color . Not including the flanges , the case measures 10 – 12 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 – 4 @.@ 7 in ) long and 3 – 4 cm ( 1 @.@ 2 – 1 @.@ 6 in ) wide ; sharks from the Channel Islands produce longer egg cases than those from mainland California , suggesting that they are separate populations . One of the few sharks to exhibit parental care , female horn sharks in the wild pick up their eggs in their mouths and wedge them into crevices . However , in captivity the eggs are simply dropped on the bottom and may later be cannibalized . The eggs hatch in 6 – 10 months ; at emergence the young measure 15 – 17 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) long . Newly hatched sharks are provisioned with an internal yolk sac and do not have to feed until they are a month old , though they are capable of feeding and will accept food during this period . Horn sharks grow slowly and at a highly variable rate that does not correspond to their size ; this has frustrated attempts to determine their aging process . Males mature at a length of 56 – 61 cm ( 22 – 24 in ) and females at a length of at least 58 cm ( 23 in ) . Individual sharks have lived to over 12 years old in captivity , and there exists an unconfirmed report of a shark reaching 25 years of age . = = Human interactions = = Under normal circumstances , horn sharks are harmless to humans and can readily be approached underwater . However , they can be provoked into biting , and some pugnacious individuals have been known to chase and bite divers after being harassed . These sharks should be handled with care as their fin spines can inflict a painful wound . The horn shark adapts well to captivity and has been maintained and bred in many public aquariums across the United States . The horn shark has no commercial value in California , where it is captured unintentionally in traps and trawls and by recreational anglers . The shark 's hardiness ensures that it can often be returned to the water alive . This species benefits from general restrictions placed on coastal fishing gear by the State of California . The average annual bycatch off California is 1 @,@ 800 kg ( 4 @,@ 000 lb ) , though historically it has varied from 2 @.@ 5 kg ( 5 @.@ 5 lb ) in 1976 to 9 @,@ 500 kg ( 20 @,@ 900 lb ) in 1979 . Divers sometimes kill them for sport or to make jewelry out of their fin spines , which may be the cause of a decline in the numbers of horn sharks in the most intensely dived areas of southern California . Off Mexico , this species is caught incidentally in shrimp trawls and demersal gillnets , and used for human consumption and fishmeal . The expansion of Mexican gillnet fisheries may pose a conservation concern in the future . At present , the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) does not have sufficient information to assess the overall conservation status of this species ; its status in United States waters is likely Least Concern . = Jack Coggins = Jack Banham Coggins ( July 10 , 1911 – January 30 , 2006 ) was an artist , author , and illustrator . He is known in the United States for his oil paintings , which focused predominantly on marine subjects . He is also known for his books on space travel , which were both authored and illustrated by Coggins . Besides his own works , Coggins also provided illustrations for advertisements and magazine covers and articles . During World War II , he served as an artist and correspondent for YANK magazine , capturing and conveying wartime scenes from the front lines . Over the course of his career , Coggins produced more than 1 @,@ 000 paintings and taught art classes for 45 years . He retired in May 2001 and died at his home in Pennsylvania in January 2006 . = = Biography = = = = = Early life = = = Coggins was born in London , England on July 10 , 1911 , the only child of Ethel May ( née Dobby ) and Sydney George Coggins . Sydney Coggins was Regimental Corporal Major of the First Regiment of Life Guards , the part of the Household Cavalry responsible for guarding the British Monarch ; Jack Coggins was born in his father 's barracks . During World War I , Sydney Coggins served with , and was commissioned by the regiment . After the war , he was appointed regimental Riding Master , but he was retired when the 1st and 2nd Life Guards were amalgamated into a single regiment under the Geddes Axe . A fellow officer , married to an American steel heiress , offered Sydney work as a secretary to his wife , and the Coggins family emigrated to Long Island , New York in 1923 . = = = Education = = = While his father served with the Life Guards Regiment in France during World War I , Coggins and his mother lived with family in Folkestone , Kent . He attended the Imperial Service College , a public school preferred by army families . After moving to New York , Coggins enrolled at Roslyn High School in Roslyn Heights where he found difficulty in adjusting to the difference between military school in England and New York city public school . After graduation from Roslyn in 1928 at age 17 , he enrolled in the New York City Grand Central School of Art and studied under Edmund Greacen , George Pearse Ennis , and Wayman Adams . In the early years , he painted advertising signs to support himself . With a grounding in fine art techniques , Coggins graduated to the Art Students League of New York , where he studied from 1933 to 1934 under noted artist Frank DuMond . = = = Marriage and later life = = = While a member of the faculty of Hunter College in New York , Coggins met Alma Wood , a fashion and photographic model . They married in 1948 and moved to Pike Township , Berks County , Pennsylvania , where Coggins had bought an old farm . Alma named their home " Crestfield , " which , according to Jack , meant absolutely nothing . Coggins taught his wife to paint , and she had success as an artist in her own right under the name Alma Woods . The couple would hold annual joint exhibitions for many years . Alma Coggins assisted her husband in the planning , research and typing of many of his books , and he acknowledged her efforts with book dedications to her . Coggins taught art classes at the Wyomissing Institute of the Arts from 1957 until 2001 , despite being handicapped by the loss of his left eye due to infection after an operation . Coggins was a signature member and Master Pastelist of the Pastel Society of America , a Fellow of the American Society of Marine Artists , a member of the American Ordnance Association , the U.S. Naval Institute , and an adviser to the boards of the Philadelphia Maritime Museum and the Reading Public Museum . He died at his home in Berks County , Pennsylvania at the age of 94 and willed his body to medical science . Alma Wood @-@ Coggins died March 4 , 2007 . Jack and Alma Coggins had no children and were survived by several nieces and nephews . = = Illustrator , author and artist = = = = = Military illustrations of World War II = = = Coggins 's interest in sailing and maritime subjects began in London when he would sail model yachts on Round Pond in Kensington Gardens . This interest developed into a lifelong passion during his teens when he sailed small craft on Hempstead Harbor , near his new home on Long Island . During the early years of World War II , Coggins took a sampling of his war illustrations to Worthen Paxton , the art director of LIFE Magazine , who commissioned Coggins to produce a drawing of an imaginary coastal invasion of England . Coggins was paid $ 250 for that work , a large sum at the time , which paid his rent for five months . Appearing on July 15 , 1940 , this was the first of many war time illustrations for LIFE . Some of Coggins 's works are in the Anne S. K. Brown Military Collection . During the early 1940s , Coggins obtained more work producing war pictures for other magazines , including a series of double @-@ page spreads for the controversial newspaper PM , and illustrations for The Saturday Evening Post . Throughout the war years , most of the output of many large corporations was reserved for materiel production ; however , management were keen to promote their connection to the war effort and keep their name before the buying public until they could resume peacetime sales . Coggins received advertising commissions from such corporations including Elco , Koppers , US Steel , and Westinghouse . He also received commissions from the U.S. War Department for aircraft recognition charts , and he was intrigued to later find these charts used during his army basic training . Because of the quality of his maritime illustrations , Coggins was invited by publisher Doubleday to provide artwork for a children 's book about the U.S. Navy ; the author being Fletcher Pratt , the well known military historian . Coggins was invited to participate in Pratt 's Naval Game , based on a wargame developed by Fred T. Jane involving dozens of tiny wooden ships , built on a scale of one inch to fifty feet . These were spread over the floor of Pratt 's apartment and their maneuvers were calculated via a complex mathematical formula . The result of Pratt and Coggins 's first collaboration , published in 1941 , was Fighting Ships of the U.S. Navy , a volume that described in text and illustrated in full color every class of ship in the Navy . Coggins was called up for Army service , and enlisted on April 8 , 1943 . He was pulled from basic training at Fort Eustis , Virginia before he could complete it to work as an illustrator for YANK magazine . He was originally introduced to the Commanding Officer and Editor of YANK , Colonel Franklin Forsberg , by Fletcher Pratt . On May 20 , 1943 , Coggins commenced work at the head office of YANK in New York , where he worked until his departure for Britain . Jack Coggins became a naturalized citizen of the United States on August 19 , 1943 . Coggins served as an artist for British YANK in London until August 2 , 1945 and was discharged from the U.S. Army on November 3 , 1945 . While in Britain , Coggins spent time on a Royal Navy convoy in the North Sea , witnessed the bombing of Saint @-@ Lô , and flew over Berlin in a Lancaster bomber . He also spent time on a U.S. PT boat patrolling the beaches and made a trip into Brittany with an armored column . Events from all of these sorties were illustrated in YANK magazine in double page spreads . During his time in Britain , Coggins wrote articles on war rockets and the German Navy which were also published in YANK . = = = Science and science @-@ fiction illustrations = = = During the late 1940s and early 1950s Coggins 's marine art was featured on covers of Yachting Magazine and other publications , as well as on advertising material , and his science @-@ fiction art illustrated covers for pulp science fiction magazines . These included Galaxy Science Fiction , The Magazine of Fantasy & Science Fiction and Thrilling Wonder Stories . Due to reduced interest in his pre @-@ war work , Coggins applied for a position teaching watercolor at Hunter College . He taught watercolor painting there from 1948 to 1952 . In New York , as a result of his friendship with Fletcher Pratt , Coggins was introduced to the members of the Hydra Club , where he met Judith Merril and L. Ron Hubbard . Coggins was also invited to join Pratt 's Trap Door Spiders club , where he became closely associated with L. Sprague de Camp and Isaac Asimov . The contact with such visionary thinkers complimented his exposure to the German V @-@ 2 rockets in Europe and served to strengthen his growing interest in space travel , rockets , and science fiction . In 1951 and 1952 , Coggins collaborated again with Fletcher Pratt on two classic books : Rockets , Jets , Guided Missiles & Space Ships , and By Space Ship to the Moon . The books were released amidst the great wave of interest in space travel sweeping the United States and the rest of the world in the 1950s , and they were published in several countries and translated into other languages . These books made the prospect of space exploration seem a practical possibility . National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) scientists used the books to demonstrate their ideas to Congressmen when seeking funding for the space program , and there are many NASA scientists today who retain fond memories of the influence the books had on their careers . = = = Books = = = Between 1941 and 1983 , Coggins wrote or illustrated 44 books on a wide range of marine , military , historical and educational themes . Among his more famous works is the 1962 authoring and illustration of Arms and Equipment of the Civil War . Dale E. Biever , registrar at the Civil War Library and Museum in Philadelphia , described the work as " not about generals or battles but about the things one should know before delving into those areas ... a welcome addition to any Civil War library . " It was republished several times , most recently in 2004 . In 1966 , Coggins wrote and illustrated The Horseman 's Bible , which sold over 500 @,@ 000 copies with a revised edition published in 1984 . In this book Coggins acknowledges his father " whose twenty five years in the cavalry and lifetime interest in horses made his advice invaluable . " Coggins 's last book was Marine Painter 's Guide , which was first published in 1983 . After the book was published , he decided to stop writing to concentrate more on painting . A new edition of Marine Painter 's Guide was published in 2005 by Dover Publications , the publisher of new editions for several of his books . = = = Other paintings and illustrations = = = Coggins relies on a realistic style that is executed in oils , for which he had a preference . However , he also painted works in water colors and other media . The majority of his paintings have a maritime theme , about which he wrote " It seems strange that with so much of the globe covered by water , so few artists know how to paint it . " His stated preference in art styles was " a direct splashy type of realistic painting " and he admired the New Hope school of Redfield and Garber , with " no liking for ' modern art ' " . A catalog listing over 1000 works has been posthumously compiled by his relatives . A retrospective exhibition and sale of artworks found in Coggins 's home after his death was held at the Wyomissing Institute of the Arts in late 2006 . This consisted of about 300 previously unseen oils , watercolors , and other printed materials . An annual " Jack Coggins award " to be given to a deserving local artist was financed from part of the proceeds from the sale of these works . As of 2001 his paintings are owned by the Philadelphia Maritime Museum , the National Air and Space Museum of the Smithsonian Institution , the U.S. Navy , and the United States Coast Guard , among many other institutions , corporations , and private collectors . His original manuscripts and illustrations are part of The University of Southern Mississippi 's Permanent Collection of outstanding authors and artists . = = = Recognition = = = Coggins 's work has been accepted for show by the American Watercolor Society , the Salmagundi Club , the American Artist Professional League , and the Pastel Society of America . Coggins received a number of awards and accolades during his career , including the American Revolution Round Table Award in 1969 , the Daniel Boone National Foundation 's Americanism Award in 1985 , the Mystic Maritime Gallery 's Purchase Award in 1989 , the International Maritime Exhibition 's Rudolph Shaeffer Award from 1987 to 1990 , and Berks Art Council 's Pagoda Award in 1995 . In 2000 , he was inducted to the International Association of Astronomical Artists Hall of Fame as a Living Legend and celebrated master of the genre of Space Art . = 2011 Minnesota state government shutdown = The 2011 Minnesota state government shutdown was a government shutdown affecting the U.S. state of Minnesota . The shutdown was the result of a fiscal dispute between the Democratic – Farmer – Labor Party ( DFL ) Governor Mark Dayton and the Republican @-@ majority Minnesota Legislature , that was not resolved by the constitutional deadline on June 30 . The Republican caucuses and their leaders demanded bigger spending cuts , and for the budget shortfall to be met without tax increases , while Dayton demanded some tax increases . The shutdown started at midnight on July 1 , and ended after a budget bill was passed and signed on July 20 . During the shutdown all less important parts of the state government , that were not identified as critical services before the shutdown or in several court cases , suspended their operations . Most state government services were identified as critical or otherwise allowed to continue , so as much as 80 percent of state government spending continued . The eventual budget agreement started to form after Governor Dayton announced on July 14 that he would " reluctantly " pass the last proposal of the Republican legislative leadership before the shutdown , but with conditions . The shutdown was disruptive to the government and some Minnesotans , but its ultimate economic impact was minimal . Politically , it could have influenced the Republican electoral defeat in the 2012 state elections , although there were other factors that may have been more important . = = Background = = Going into the 2010 state elections , the Minnesota government faced an approximately $ 5 billion budget shortfall in the coming 2011 – 2013 biennium , left over from the outgoing administration of Republican Governor Tim Pawlenty . The Republican Party claimed that the shortfall was a result of unsustainable increases in spending , and pledged to balance the budget without raising taxes . In the gubernatorial election , former U.S. Senator Mark Dayton campaigned pledging to close the budget deficit by increasing income taxes on the state 's highest earners . The Republicans won control of both houses of the legislature for the first time in decades , while Dayton narrowly defeated Republican candidate Tom Emmer with 44 % of the vote . Many of the newly elected Republican legislators were affiliated with the Tea Party movement and had more anti @-@ government positions than the Republican establishment . Both Dayton and Republican legislators claimed a popular mandate for their positions . Minnesota 's state government cannot operate without appropriations under law , as mandated by the Minnesota Constitution . However , state courts have determined that Priority One and Two Critical Services must continue in the event of a shutdown . Services that must remain uninterrupted to avoid a potential immediate threat to public health or safety are considered Priority One , and some additional services are designated Priority Two . Before the shutdown , a list of priority services was compiled and prepared by Minnesota Management and Budget , based on recommendations from state agencies . Since Minnesota had divided governments for decades before 2010 , a number of past budgets had brought the state close to a shutdown , and there had been one shutdown before in state history . After Governor Pawlenty and the Republican @-@ majority House could not agree on a budget with the DFL @-@ majority Senate in 2005 , the state government went through a nine @-@ day shutdown . = = Preceding budget negotiations = = Governor Dayton formally proposed a state budget on February 15 , calling for $ 37 billion in state spending , necessitating cuts of about 10 percent to most state agencies . Because the state was projected to take in only about $ 32 billion in taxes , the rest of the budget shortfall was covered by increases to income and property taxes for wealthier Minnesotans , as he had promised during his campaign . Meanwhile , Republican legislators , led by House Speaker Kurt Zellers and Senate Majority Leader Amy Koch , demanded the budget be kept below $ 32 billion . As negotiations went on during the legislative session , Dayton suggested compromise budget frameworks ultimately reducing his proposed budget to $ 35 @.@ 8 billion , but insisted that he would go no further and that Republicans were not amenable enough to compromise . The legislature passed budget bills that balanced the budget with significant cuts to social and infrastructure services , rather than raising any taxes . They described their budget as a compromise with the DFL after the state 's revenue forecast was revised upward , as it called for $ 34 billion in state spending increased from $ 32 billion . Dayton claimed that the impasse was the doing of " extreme right @-@ wing " freshman Republican legislators whom he did not talk to , and that he had cordial relationships with Republican leaders . In a statement at the end of the session on May 23 , Dayton said " Here I am in the middle — and they haven 't moved " . Republicans , including Koch and other legislative leaders , consistently insisted they would not accept a budget of over $ 34 billion , citing polls suggesting public opinion was on their side . During the session , the Republican Party held a rally calling for tax cuts at the State Capitol on May 7 . Protesters supporting Dayton 's tax increases and opposed to the Republicans , many from public employee unions , gathered at the capitol multiple times , including at the end of the session . By the day after the regular session ended , Dayton had vetoed all of the budget bills passed by the legislature , and said in a statement that he anticipated a shutdown would occur . Dayton did not call a special session of the legislature to further address the budget during May or June , claiming that the lack of agreement between him and Zellers and Koch would make it unproductive to do so . He remained in contact with legislative leaders , sticking by the $ 35 @.@ 8 billion budget he proposed late in the session , with minor changes . As the end of June approached , Koch urged the governor to call a session to pass a temporary ' lights @-@ on ' bill while a final deal was reached , but he refused to answer this proposal on the grounds that extending the budget 's deadline would not serve the goal of reaching a final agreement . Since the budget impasse had not ended by the end of June 30 , the shutdown began at midnight of June 30 – July 1 , 2011 . = = Shutdown = = At that time the shutdown began , all state government spending and operations not considered to be critical stopped . Suspended state services included driving tests , childcare assistance , senior and disability linkage lines , criminal background checks , and road construction . State government offices , state parks , highway rest areas , and sites run by the Minnesota Historical Society , among others , closed . The commissioner of the Department of Human Services , Lucinda Jesson , said that letters had to be sent to over 580 @,@ 000 households that relied on the department for social services to notify them about the possible shutdown . More critical parts of the state government , including public safety , health care , benefit payments , and care for residents of state facilities continued . Services that were continued during the shutdown could have amounted to as much as 80 percent of state spending . During the first days of the shutdown , many programs requested that their funding continue , especially social service organizations that relied on state funding . To hear their pleas , the courts appointed retired State Supreme Court judge Kathleen Blatz as a special master . Dayton and State Attorney General Lori Swanson also both submitted petitions to the Ramsey County District Court when the shutdown began , asking for the court to clarify whether some programs could continue . Judges Kathleen Gearin and Bruce W. Christopherson issued their rulings on July 7 , finding that some programs could start again , including criminal background checks , public schools , and local government aid . Gearin complained that the governor and legislature should have been responsible for making decisions about which services could stay open . Gearin had previously heard a case from the Minnesota Zoo , which asked to remain open despite the shutdown , and another from the Canterbury Park horse racing track in Shakopee . While both pay for themselves at least during the summer , Gearin determined that only the Zoo was allowed to operate without legislative appropriations , so she allowed the Zoo to open on July 2 but ordered Canterbury Park to remain closed the same day . = = Effects = = During the shutdown , some 19 @,@ 000 state employees were laid off . State and federal government employees in Minnesota lost approximately $ 65 million in wages over the course of the shutdown . Because of court rulings , some of the 36 @,@ 000 state employees who received layoff notices leading up to the shutdown continued or returned to work during the shutdown . Laid @-@ off employees were immediately eligible for unemployment benefits , and continued to receive health insurance , costing the state millions a week . In addition to the costs associated with staff , Minnesota lost some revenue during the shutdown . The Minnesota State Lottery did not sell tickets during the shutdown , which meant the state could have lost about $ 1 @.@ 25 million in revenue daily . Minnesota stopped selling tax stamps for cigarettes , which must be affixed to each pack before sale . The Star Tribune reported that cigarette sales would come to a halt by mid @-@ August if no more tax stamps were issued . The state also stopped issuing liquor purchasing cards , which businesses need in order to purchase liquor from wholesalers . Many stores , bars , and restaurants renewed their liquor purchasing cards before the shutdown . However , the purchasing cards for approximately three hundred establishments expired on the first day of the shutdown , July 1 . Liquor purchasing cards would have continued to expire on the first day of each month . Alcohol brand licenses expired , so MillerCoors lost their license to sell 39 brands of beer in Minnesota , and had to have them removed from shelves . While public schools remained open during the shutdown , and teachers continued to be paid following Gearin 's ruling , the shutdown interfered with their operations , and would have caused serious problems if it had continued . Teachers could not renew or receive new licenses during the shutdown , creating a backlog , and property tax levy approvals could have been delayed . No fishing , hunting , and boating licenses or new drivers ' licenses were issued during the shutdown . Taxes continued to be due , but tax refunds stopped . Services for state parks stopped , including roads , making them mostly accessible only by foot , and causing a number of problems . An official for the Department of Natural Resources told the Pioneer Press that visitors were relieving themselves on trails in Gooseberry Falls State Park , as the restrooms were closed , and that uncollected garbage attracted bears in Crow Wing State Park . Vandalism occurred at Afton State Park , where the main office was " ransacked " and a group of twelve " ripped off shingles and pieces of deck for firewood , burned additional furniture and wrote messages bragging about breaking in for free " . While many state @-@ run attractions were closed during the shutdown , institutions not part of the state government stayed open . Museums such as the Science Museum of Minnesota reported an increase in visits , as did county parks and attractions in neighboring states . In an arson case at the former home of Governor Dayton near Lake Harriet in Minneapolis , police were " investigating the possibility that someone [ was ] upset over last week 's shutdown " . In total , about $ 48 million in revenue was lost , and over $ 10 million was spent on expenses related to preparing for and recovering from the shutdown . Overall , the shutdown disrupted the state government 's activities , the lives of some Minnesotans ( especially the most vulnerable ) , and private sector work such as road construction , but had minimal impact on the larger economy of the state . = = Budget agreement = = For the first two weeks of the shutdown , there was little progress and neither the governor nor the Republican leaders made proposals accepted by the other side . On July 4 , Republican lawmakers affirmed their commitment to not agree to a budget of over $ 34 billion . Documents leaked after June 30 stated that the Republican leadership included anti @-@ abortion provisions , a voter ID requirement , and a ban on stem cell research during the budget negotiations . Both the Republican legislative leaders and Dayton ( along with DFL legislative leaders ) toured Minnesota to make their case to Minnesotans . The government shutdown ended after Governor Dayton announced on July 14 that he would accept the last Republican offer before the shutdown , albeit with certain conditions . The Republican offer called for an approximately $ 35 billion budget and no tax increases , and relied on delaying the payment of some K @-@ 12 school aid and issuing bonds against future tobacco revenue to cover the remaining gap . It differed from the previous Republican proposals in several provisions , particularly increasing the K @-@ 12 per @-@ student formula by $ 50 per year to cover additional borrowing costs , adding $ 10 million to the University of Minnesota budget to equalize Minnesota State Colleges and Universities cuts , and restoring funding to the Department of Human Rights and the Trade Office . Dayton 's conditions were that measures on social issues such as abortion be dropped from the budget , 15 percent reductions to state employees in all agencies be dropped , and a $ 500 million infrastructure construction bonding bill . When a final agreement was reached with the Republican legislative leadership , Dayton called a special session of the legislature on July 19 . The legislature met on July 20 and passed the budget bills , which were signed the same day by the governor . Most state employees returned to work on July 21 , facing a backlog of unfinished work and new problems in many agencies . After the budget was passed , Dayton said he approached Republicans again after meeting with ordinary citizens — who said they wanted government services to resume and did not care how the shutdown was ended — and because he feared a worse budget deal and unease in the DFL legislative minorities . Zellers said when the deal was finalized that in his view it was " a deal that we can all be disappointed in , but a deal that is done , a budget that was balanced . " His sentiments that a ' balanced ' budget needed to be passed , and that both sides had something to be unhappy about , were echoed by Koch . = = Political influence = = According to a MinnPost poll , Minnesotans blamed the Republican legislature more for the shutdown . Overall , 42 % said Republicans in the legislature were more responsible , 21 % said the DFL governor was more responsible , and 22 % volunteered an answer that they were equally to blame . As expected , partisans blamed the other party more ; only 10 % of Republicans blamed the legislature more , and only 2 % of DFLers blamed Dayton more . Following the shutdown , DFL Representative Phyllis Kahn authored a continuing appropriations bill that would prevent government shutdowns in the event of disagreements between the governor and legislature , as she had done in several past sessions . The House commissioned a policy brief from its research department , published in December 2011 , that looked into what such a bill would require . The brief noted that such ideas had been considered before , including after the 2005 shutdown , and had been abandoned . In the state elections of 2012 , during which all members of the legislature ( but not the governor ) were up for election , the shutdown was a major campaign issue . The Republicans lost their majorities in both houses of the legislature , giving the DFL full control of the state government . Kurt Zellers and other Republican legislators said the shutdown probably was one reason for their electoral defeat . However , other national and state issues may have had more of an influence on the result . The presidential race was also on the ballot , as were the proposed Minnesota Marriage Amendment and Voter ID Amendment , which had been put on the ballot by the legislature in 2011 . All of these ballot items increased the turnout of DFL @-@ leaning voters . After winning control of the state legislature , the DFL passed a $ 38 billion budget containing the tax hikes on the wealthy that Dayton had wanted in 2011 . The shutdown still was a political issue in the 2014 elections , when gubernatorial candidates Zellers and Marty Seifert were among the candidates for statewide office who had been Republican legislators during the shutdown . Zellers claimed having " balanced the budget without a tax increase " during the shutdown was his signature accomplishment as speaker , but he was criticised by Republican rivals and DFL leaders alike for the shutdown and for the means by which the budget was balanced . = Hurricane Bret ( 1999 ) = Hurricane Bret was the first of five Category 4 hurricanes that developed during the 1999 Atlantic hurricane season and the first tropical cyclone since Hurricane Jerry in 1989 to make landfall in Texas at hurricane intensity . Forming from a tropical wave on August 18 , Bret slowly organized within weak steering currents in the Bay of Campeche . By August 20 , the storm began to track northward and underwent rapid intensification on August 21 . After this period of strengthening , Bret attained its peak intensity with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 944 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 88 inHg ) . Later that day , the storm weakened to a Category 3 hurricane and made landfall on Padre Island , Texas . Shortly thereafter , the storm weakened further , becoming a tropical depression 24 hours after moving inland . The remnants of the storm eventually dissipated early on August 26 over northern Mexico . Along the Texas coastline , Bret threatened several cities , prompting 180 @,@ 000 residents to evacuate . Numerous shelters were opened throughout the region and prisons were evacuated . Several days prior to the storm 's arrival , the NHC issued hurricane watches , and later warnings for areas near the Texas – Mexico border . Several major roads leading to barrier island towns were shut down to prevent residents from crossing bridges during the hurricane . In nearby Mexico , roughly 7 @,@ 000 people left coastal areas in advance of the storm . Officials also set up hundreds of shelters in northern regions of the country in case of major flooding . Bret made landfall in a sparsely populated region , resulting in relatively little damage in comparison to its intensity . Nevertheless , seven people were killed in relation to storm , four in Texas and three in Mexico . Most of the deaths were due to car accidents caused by slippery roads . Upon making landfall , the hurricane produced a maximum storm surge of 8 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) at Matagorda Island , Texas . Heavy rains produced by Bret peaked at 13 @.@ 18 in ( 335 mm ) in Texas and were estimated over 14 in ( 360 mm ) in Mexico . Numerous homes in the affected regions were damaged or destroyed , leaving roughly 150 people homeless . In all , the storm caused $ 15 million ( 1999 USD ; $ 19 @.@ 7 million 2009 USD ) in damage . = = Meteorological history = = Hurricane Bret originated from a tropical wave that moved off the west coast of Africa on August 5 . The wave tracked generally westward , interacting with an upper @-@ level low on August 15 in the western Caribbean Sea , and spawned a low pressure area . Convective activity developed around the low , and by August 18 the system was over the Yucatán Peninsula . Later that day , the disturbance emerged into the Bay of Campeche and a Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance mission into the system revealed that it had matured into a tropical depression around 1 : 00 pm CDT ( 1800 UTC ) , the third of the 1999 season . Initially , moderate wind shear prevented the depression from strengthening as it moved slowly and erratically in response to weak steering currents over the system . By August 19 , the wind shear relented , allowing deep convection to develop over the center ; later that day , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) upgraded the system to a tropical storm , assigning it the name Bret . A small tropical cyclone , Bret gradually strengthened for several days as it tracked towards the north . By the morning of August 20 , rainbands began to form . By the evening of August 20 , Bret was designated a hurricane following reports of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) winds during a Hurricane Hunter mission . At around the same time , Bret established a north @-@ northwest track under the influences of a mid @-@ level ridge . The following day , Bret began to undergo rapid intensification , as a well @-@ defined eye developed . On the morning of August 22 , the storm attained its peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane with winds of 145 mph ( 230 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 944 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 88 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , an upper @-@ level trough to the west of the storm began to erode its cloud pattern . Late on August 22 , Bret turned northwestward in response to a mid @-@ tropospheric ridge over the Gulf of Mexico and a mid @-@ tropospheric circulation over the Rio Grande Valley . Several hours before landfall , the hurricane weakened to Category 3 intensity and its forward motion slowed . At around 7 : 00 pm CDT ( 0000 UTC ; August 23 ) , Hurricane Bret passed over Padre Island , Texas , with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 951 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 08 inHg ) , which marked its landfall . The hurricane rapidly weakened upon moving inland , and roughly 12 hours after landfall , Bret weakened to a tropical storm . It further degenerated into a tropical depression by the evening of August 23 . The remnants of Bret persisted until August 26 , at which time they dissipated over the mountains of northern Mexico . = = Preparations = = = = = Texas = = = On August 21 , when Bret was first expected to approach the Texas coastline , the NHC issued a hurricane watch for coastal areas between the border of Mexico and Baffin Bay , Texas . Hours later , the watch was upgraded to a warning as the storm intensified and posed a more direct threat to the area . A tropical storm warning and hurricane watch were subsequently posted from Baffin Bay northward to Port Aransas . The following day , the hurricane warning was extended to include locations through Port O 'Connor and the advisories were extended to Freeport . As Bret neared landfall , the hurricane watch between Port O 'Connor and Freeport was discontinued . The hurricane warning for Port Aransas to Port O 'Connor was discontinued hours after Bret made landfall and began to weaken . By late August 23 , all watches and warnings in relation to the hurricane were discontinued . By August 22 , city officials in Corpus Christi , Texas declared a state of emergency as Bret was considered a significant threat to the region . Tens of thousands of residents were urged to evacuate coastal areas and seek refuge in local shelters or with relatives further inland . An estimated 180 @,@ 000 people in the state left their residences ahead of the storm . The Corpus Christi International Airport closed midday on August 22 . Later that day , Texas State Highway 361 and docks in Port Aransas were shut down . Highways throughout the area were congested due to the large @-@ scale evacuations and long lines for gas and emergency items developed . Three schools , two universities and a college were closed on August 23 and remained closed for several days . Eleven shelters were opened in the San Antonio area , collectively able to accommodate 3 @,@ 525 people . About 325 prisoners were evacuated from a Nueces County jail as the building they were in was deemed unsafe during hurricane conditions . About 1 @,@ 000 sailors working in the area were evacuated to the USS Inchon prior to the storm . Originally , the ship was meant to ride out the storm at sea ; however , inadequate repair work inhibited the ship from leaving port . The ship reportedly had enough supplies to maintain the sailors for roughly 45 days . By 12 : 00 pm CDT on August 22 , Mustang Island and Padre Island were completely evacuated and officials shut down roads leading in and out of the islands to prevent anyone from re @-@ entering them before the area was deemed safe to enter . A strict order against price gouging was put in place by city officials in Corpus Christi . = = = Mexico = = = In Mexico , officials closed 18 ports on the Gulf of Mexico to small- and medium @-@ sized craft in preparation for the storm . In northern Mexico , more than 500 shelters were opened as thousands of residents were advised to evacuate from low @-@ lying areas . The Mexican Army , Red Cross , and firefighters were put on standby to deal with emergency calls during the storm . On August 22 , a state of emergency was declared for Tamaulipas . The following day , at least 120 firefighters were dispatched to Monterrey , Nuevo Leon to swiftly respond to emergencies . The Mexican government emphasized the safety of residents in the city , which was anticipated to bear the brunt of the hurricane . Around 7 @,@ 000 fishermen evacuated coastal regions near the Texas border . In Matamoros an additional 31 shelters were opened . Schools throughout northern Mexico were closed for several days . = = Impact = = = = = Mexico = = = Prior to developing into a tropical depression , the disturbance produced scattered rainfall across the Yucatán Peninsula , locally exceeding 7 in ( 180 mm ) . As the system stalled in the Bay of Campeche , coastal areas received minor rainfall from the outer bands of the system . Although Bret made landfall near the Texas @-@ Mexico border , the small size of the system resulted in limited impacts in Mexico . In Nuevo Leon , an estimated 14 in ( 360 mm ) of rain fell within a 24 @-@ hour span and similar amounts likely fell in nearby Tamaulipas . In Tamaulipas , Nuevo Leon and Coahuila , ten villages were isolated by floodwaters that washed out roads . Ten people , all members of one family , were injured during a head @-@ on collision . In Nogales , heavy rains caused water to accumulate on streets , leading to traffic jams ; high winds also downed power lines . During the evacuation prior to Bret , one person was trampled to death . Following landfall , a man was electrocuted by downed power lines and another drowned in floodwaters . At least 150 families were left homeless following a flash flood in Cadereyta that inundated most of the town . = = = Texas = = = Upon making landfall , Bret produced a storm surge up to 8 @.@ 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) on Matagorda Island , Texas . Around Galveston , minor beach erosion was recorded due to large swells produced by the hurricane . Twelve new inlets were created on Padre Island , one of which was large enough to be mistaken as Mansfield Pass . Heavy precipitation , reaching 13 @.@ 18 in ( 335 mm ) in central Kenedy County , was confined to a small area . The lowest barometric pressure recorded overland was at the Brooks County Airport at 976 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 84 inHg ) . The Aransas River rapidly reached flood stage due to heavy rains and the Rio Grande produced minor flooding close to the Gulf of Mexico . In beaches near Corpus Christi , upwards of 40 ft3 ( 1 @.@ 1 m3 ) of sand was lost . About 24 @.@ 7 acres ( 10 @.@ 0 ha ) of cropland were destroyed by the storm . A damaged electric tower in Kenedy County resulted in power outages for thousands of people . At the height of the storm , an estimated 64 @,@ 000 people were without power in south Texas . Portions of Texas State Highway Loop 281 were submerged in floodwaters , leaving $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) in damage . Damage in Corpus Christi were estimated at $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) . In Duval County , 200 homes were damaged by flooding and large areas of agricultural land were flooded . Damage in the county amounted to roughly $ 2 million ( 1999 USD ) . Five other F0 tornadoes touched down in the state . Damage to homes and businesses in Corpus Christi was estimated up to $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) ; agricultural damage reached $ 1 million and another $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) was reported in losses . Slick roads from Bret 's heavy rains caused the collision of a truck and a tractor , killing four people . Damage amounted to $ 15 million ( 1999 USD ) throughout southern Texas . = = Aftermath = = On August 23 , the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) deployed 717 personnel , mainly from the disaster response team , to the affected regions in the United States . The following day , 564 National Guard troops were deployed in the state . In the days following the storm , many mosquitoes and other insects laid eggs in areas of standing water , causing a large increase in their numbers . Authorities sprayed insecticide to minimize the potential for disease outbreaks . By August 25 , all shelters opened prior to Bret were closed as residents were allowed to return home . On August 26 , President Bill Clinton added the counties of Brooks , Duval , Jim Wells and Webb to the major disaster declaration area . This allowed residents in those counties to receive federal funding . Reconstruction of public facilities , roads , and water pipes received increased funding on September 3 to speed up the program . The following day , twelve disaster recovery centers were opened in the affected counties for residents to apply for federal funding . On September 9 , two more disaster recovery centers were opened for residents in south Texas . Later that day , $ 831 @,@ 593 @.@ 28 ( 1999 USD ) in disaster housing grants was distributed to affected residents . On September 15 , roughly 10 @,@ 200 people applied for disaster loans , amounting to $ 3 @.@ 1 million ( 1999 USD ) . A total of 167 also received crisis intervention from FEMA . In Corpus Christi , winds and rain covered the city in debris and brush , costing $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1999 USD ) for clean @-@ up . = Brain Age 2 : More Training in Minutes a Day ! = Brain Age 2 : More Training in Minutes a Day ! ( stylized as Brain Age2 ) , JPN also known as More Brain Training from Dr. Kawashima : How Old Is Your Brain ? in PAL regions , is an edutainment puzzle game and the sequel to Brain Age : Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day ! ( 2005 ) . It was published and developed by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . Before the game begins , the player must perform a Brain Age Check to determine their brain age , which ranges from 20 to 80 , to determine approximately their brain 's responsiveness . A brain age of 20 , the lowest age that the player can achieve , indicates that the player 's brain is as responsive as that of an average 20 @-@ year @-@ old . After the player is told their initial brain age , they can complete a series of minigames to help improve their brain 's responsiveness , after which they can run Brain Age Check again to determine their updated brain age . Critics were generally favorable towards Brain Age 2 , which received aggregated scores of 77 % from Metacritic and 79 @.@ 04 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on improvements made on Brain Age , while criticism targeted the game 's inability to consistently understand written and spoken answers . The game was voted IGN 's Reader 's Game of the Month for August 2007 . In the United States , it was the 13th best @-@ selling game in its debut month , and climbed to 9th place in September 2007 , selling 141 @,@ 000 copies in that month . In Japan , Brain Age 2 was the best @-@ selling game in its debut month , selling 1 @,@ 084 @,@ 857 units . As of July 2007 , 5 @.@ 33 million copies of Brain Age 2 have been sold in Japan . As of March 31 , 2013 , the game 's worldwide sales have reached 14 @.@ 88 million and it is seventh on the Nintendo DS best @-@ sellers list . = = Gameplay = = Similar to its predecessor , Brain Age 2 is an edutainment video game that offers the player several minigames to play . Before the game begins , the player must create a profile , after which Brain Age Check runs three random tests to determine the player 's brain age , which ranges from 20 to 80 and depends on the player 's test performance . The brain age determines approximately the responsiveness of the player 's brain ; a brain age of 20 , the lowest age that the player can achieve , indicates that the player 's brain is as responsive as that of an average 20 @-@ year @-@ old . Once the player is told their initial brain age , three modes are unlocked : Quick Play , Daily Training , and Sudoku . In Quick Play , the player can practice with any of the available minigames without receiving a score . In Daily Training , the player can perform Brain Age Check to determine their updated brain age . They can also complete one of the available minigames , after which they are given a rating based on their performance . In Daily Training , the player can also play Virus Buster , a simplified version of Dr. Mario ( 1990 ) modified for mobile play . To let the player track their progress , the game saves daily statistics of the player 's performance , which are shown in a graph . In the third mode , Sudoku , the player can solve one of a hundred Sudoku puzzles . All of the minigames in Brain Age 2 are different from those of the original Brain Age . Brain Age 2 contains six minigames : Rock , Paper , Scissors , Serial Subtraction , Symbol Match , Math Recall , Number Memory , and High Number . The game 's Training mode includes the following activities : Sign Finder , Piano Player , Word Blend , Word Scramble , Change Maker , Calendar Count , Memory Sprint , Math Recall , Clock Spin , and Block Count . During their training , the player can collect stamps by completing minigames , and only one stamp can be collected per day . When a certain numbers of stamps are collected , new minigames and features are unlocked . = = Development = = At a Nintendo press conference in Tokyo , Japan on October 5 , 2005 , the company announced several games that it would be releasing in 2006 in Japan . The list included Brain Age 2 , with a release date set for December 29 , 2005 . Nintendo later announced that the game would be released in Europe on June 29 , 2007 for € 30 , and in Australia on July 5 , 2007 for A $ 49 @.@ 95 . The American version of Brain Age 2 was first revealed in May 2007 . The game is targeted to casual gamers , similar to its predecessor ; its basic concepts stay the same as in Brain Age , along with the graphics , menu , and presentation . Brain Age 2 also uses the same Sudoku engine , an addition in the original Brain Age that has been applauded for being one of the best handheld Sudoku games available ; Brain Age 2 's rendition of Sudoku introduces 100 new puzzles . All of the minigames in the game are new to the series ; however , some of them are derived from exercises in Brain Age . One of the challenges in the first game , Head Count , requires that the player count how many people are shown on the screen ; after a few seconds , a house falls on top of them , and then several people leave and enter the house . Afterward , the player must write down how many people they think are still in the house . A variation of this game is available in Brain Age 2 , called Memory Sprint , which asks the player to observe a specific sprinter in a race as they pass other sprinters and are passed themselves , and then determine which place they finished in after they cross the finish line . The game 's voice recognition technology has improved since the last game . The only challenge that uses the feature , Rock , Paper , Scissors , requires that the player speak the correct answer into the microphone as soon as possible . Nintendo 's advertising campaign for Brain Age 2 featured several celebrities . The company announced on June 25 , 2007 that Australian actress Nicole Kidman would appear in European television and newspaper advertisements to promote the game . Nintendo chose to feature her because of " her universal appeal to mainstream audiences of all ages and backgrounds , as well as her reputation for being intelligent , entertaining and genuine " . Kidman praised Nintendo 's desire to reach out to new audiences with self @-@ improvement products , and found that playing the game made her feel young . Nintendo also chose professional swimmer Kieren Perkins to promote Brain Age 2 in his native Australia , who commented , " Having used the original Dr Kawashima 's Brain Training game for a while now , I was genuinely looking forward to all of the new ways I could exercise my mind . More Brain Training is the perfect way for me to continue my Brain Training workout , while keeping the activities fresh and interesting . " In the United States , print advertisements and television commercials for the game featured American actress Liv Tyler . = = Reception = = Brain Age 2 was released by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS in Japan on December 29 , 2005 , in Europe on June 29 , 2007 , in Australia on July 5 , 2007 , and in North America on August 20 , 2007 . A Brain Age 2 Nintendo DS bundle was released in North America on August 21 , 2007 , which included a copy of Brain Age 2 and a Nintendo DS colored crimson on the top and matte black on the bottom . At a Nintendo Conference on October 2 , 2008 , Nintendo 's president Satoru Iwata announced during his keynote address that both games in the Brain Age series were redeveloped as two DSiWare games called Small Brain DSi Training Everyday for Adults Literature Edition and Science Edition . The DSiWare iterations include training modes from the previous two Nintendo DS games , including new ones that take advantage of the Nintendo DSi 's camera . Brain Age 2 was given generally favorable reviews , receiving aggregated scores of 77 % from Metacritic and 79 @.@ 04 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on improvements made on Brain Age , while criticism targeted the game 's inability to consistently understand written and spoken answers . The game was voted IGN 's Reader 's Game of the Month for August 2007 . Remarking that Brain Age 2 uses the same formula as Brain Age " with some different variables thrown in " , Game Informer noted that players ' opinions of the original Brain Age will most likely be similar to how much they appreciate Brain Age 2 . GameZone was excited about the Sudoku portion of the game , which they complimented was " worth the entire game itself and will provide many hours of fun " . They found the daily training and quick play modes " simply addictive " , and appreciated the game 's " simple and easy to use interface " . The video game website IGN felt differently , however , noting that the challenges felt fresh , with the exception of Sudoku . IGN agreed with GameZone on a particular point , however , writing that both the original Brain Age , and Brain Age 2 , have " calm , clean interface [ s ] " . The television series X @-@ Play was intrigued by Brain Age 2 's promise to improve a person 's intelligence . GameSpy called the game " the ideal video game gateway drug " because of its accessibility to a wide variety of people , lack of requirements for special physical dexterity or experience , and regular reward system to motivate the player . They also considered Brain Age 2 a " noble effort towards the betterment of our mental health through a painless training regimen " . Game Revolution complimented the game 's intelligent use of Nintendo DS features , " fun " sound effects , and " competent " handwriting recognition . Singapore 's The Straits Times considered Brain Age 2 a good investment , despite noting that hardcore gamers might find the minigames " gimmicky " . Recognizing that Nintendo intends to use the game to target baby boomers , The Globe and Mail writes that they were tempted to play the game at work and justify it as a self @-@ improvement program . Even though 1UP.com noticed slight improvements in Brain Age 2 , they found that it also introduced new issues . They considered it difficult for the game to understand their writing , and were also displeased with what they perceived as an arrogant tone with Dr. Kawashima , the game 's avatar . Disappointed with the lack of new additions to Brain Age 2 , GamePro asked readers " [ not to ] expect too much more content than new tests and more Sudoku grids " . Nintendo World Report was also unhappy with the game , telling players who were " hoping for an overhaul [ ... ] to wait for the inevitable Brain Age 3 " . The Toronto Star reminded its readers that although Brain Age 2 bills itself as a game that is able to make players smarter , it actually means that " the word smart has been temporarily re @-@ defined to mean ' good at playing Brain Age 2 . ' " Brain Age 2 was the 13th best @-@ selling game in its debut month of August 2007 in the United States , and climbed up to 9th place in September 2007 , selling 141 @,@ 000 copies . It was the 10th best @-@ selling game for October 2007 , selling 116 @,@ 900 copies . The game reached 7th place in December 2007 , then went down to 9th place in January 2008 , and dropped further to 16th the following month . In August 2008 , the game was the 13th best @-@ selling game in the United States , and the 11th best @-@ selling game in Canada . In Japan , the game was the best @-@ selling game during its debut month of January 2005 , selling 1 @,@ 084 @,@ 857 units . By March 2006 , the game sold 1 @.@ 7 million copies . For the week of May 15 – 21 , 2006 , the game was the 2nd best @-@ selling game , with 62 @,@ 000 units sold that week and 2 @,@ 281 @,@ 000 copies since its release . As of July 2006 , Brain Age had sold 2 @,@ 539 @,@ 922 copies while Brain Age 2 had sold 2 @,@ 752 @,@ 211 copies in Japan , outselling its predecessor by more than 200 @,@ 000 units . As of July 2007 , 5 @.@ 33 million copies of Brain Age 2 had been sold in Japan . More than two @-@ thirds of the people who purchased Brain Age 2 are over the age of 25 . As of March 31 , 2013 , the game 's worldwide sales have reached 14 @.@ 88 million . = = = Effectiveness = = = A survey conducted by Alain Lieury , a professor of cognitive psychology at the University of Rennes 2 – Upper Brittany , indicates that working on exercises with a pencil and paper is just as good as Brain Age 2 at stimulating the memory . After evaluating ten @-@ year @-@ old children , the survey found " no evidence to support claims in Nintendo 's advertising campaign , featuring Nicole Kidman , that users can test and rejuvenate their grey cells " . Lieury finds Brain Age 2 acceptable as a game , but considers it charlatanism for Nintendo to claim it as a scientific test , countering the company 's assertions that its edutainment products such as Big Brain Academy and Brain Age 2 can improve blood flow to the brain and supposedly improving " practical intelligence " . Regarding whether or not brain training games are effective , Graham Lawton of New Scientist wrote , " All things considered , it 's hard not to conclude that brain training has been proven to work — under certain circumstances . [ ... ] It 's also worth pointing out that no study has shown that brain training makes cognitive abilities any worse . " Lawton notes that Nintendo avoids providing evidence that its Brain Age series actually leads to noticeable improvements in brain functions , and that it instead " is careful not to claim that Brain Age is scientifically validated , merely stating that it is an entertainment product ' inspired ' by [ Dr. Ryuta Kawashima 's ] work . " = Robyn Regehr = Robyn Regehr ( born April 19 , 1980 ) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman . He was a first round draft pick of the Colorado Avalanche , selected 19th overall at the 1998 NHL Entry Draft , but was traded to the Calgary Flames prior to the start of his professional career , and has also played for the Buffalo Sabres in an NHL career that has spanned 1 @,@ 089 games . Regehr won his first Stanley Cup in 2014 with the Kings , on what was his 15th year in the NHL . He was a member of the Canadian team at the 2006 Winter Olympics , and has won silver medals at the World Junior and Senior championships , as well as the championship at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . Regehr was born in Brazil , and spent his early childhood in Indonesia before his parents settled back in Canada . At 19 , he was the youngest nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy in NHL history after he made his NHL debut less than four months after suffering two broken legs in a serious automobile accident . He is best known for his strong defence and physical ability . His younger brother Richie briefly played with him on the Flames . Regher announced his retirement from the NHL on April 11th , 2015 . In early 2016 Regehr announced that he would return to the Calgary Flames and retire in their colours . = = Early life = = Regehr was born on April 19 , 1980 in Recife , Brazil , the second son of Canadian Mennonite missionaries Ron and Edith Regehr . Regehr only lived in Brazil for the first nine months of his life . From three to seven years old he lived in Indonesia , where his younger brother , Richie was born . He also has an older brother and a sister . The family finally settled back in Canada , at Rosthern , Saskatchewan around the time he turned seven . Regehr quickly picked up the game of hockey , but was held back in his first year of minor hockey as he was starting the game three years behind other kids his age . He helped his father operate the natural surface ice rink in Rosthern , often spending hours manually preparing the ice . = = Playing career = = = = = Junior = = = The Kamloops Blazers of the Western Hockey League ( WHL ) selected Regehr with their first pick , 17th overall , in the 1995 WHL Bantam Draft . He played as a 15 @-@ year @-@ old with the Prince Albert Mintos of the Saskatchewan Midget AAA Hockey League where he was named the team 's top defenceman . He then joined the Blazers for the 1996 – 97 WHL season . Two years later , the Colorado Avalanche drafted him in the first round , 19th overall , at the 1998 NHL Entry Draft . Regehr broke out following the draft , scoring 12 goals and 32 points in 1998 – 99 , and helped the Blazers reach the WHL championship where they lost to the Calgary Hitmen . He was named a Western Conference All @-@ Star by the WHL and a third @-@ team All @-@ Star by the Canadian Hockey League , and represented Canada at the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , winning a silver medal . Late in that season , the Calgary Flames dealt all @-@ star forward Theoren Fleury , along with Chris Dingman , to the Avalanche for Rene Corbet , Wade Belak , a draft pick and their choice of a prospect from a list provided by Colorado . Impressed with his defensive potential , the Flames later chose Regehr to complete that trade . His professional career nearly ended before it started , as he was seriously injured in an automobile accident near Saskatoon , Saskatchewan on July 4 , 1999 . Regehr , who was driving home from a summer trip with his elder brother Dinho ( Ronald ) and two female friends , was struck head @-@ on by another vehicle that crossed into his path . He suffered two broken legs in the crash that killed two people in the other vehicle . Doctors initially feared that he would never play hockey again . = = = National Hockey League = = = = = = = Calgary Flames = = = = Following operations to repair the damage to Regehr 's legs , doctors gained optimism , but expected he would be unable to skate before the end of the year . He far exceeded doctors ' expectations ; he was skating by the beginning of September and was back playing hockey less than four months following the accident . He played a five game conditioning stint with the Saint John Flames of the American Hockey League in late October before being recalled by the Flames on October 28 , 1999 . That night , he made his NHL debut against the Ottawa Senators and was praised by his coach , Brian Sutter , for playing a mistake free game . He scored his first NHL goal on November 10 against the San Jose Sharks . Regehr played 57 games for the Flames in 1999 – 2000 , scoring five goals and 12 points . He was the Flames nominee for the Bill Masterton Memorial Trophy , which recognizes perseverance , sportsmanship and dedication to hockey . At the age of 19 , he was the youngest nominee in NHL history . The Flames also presented him with the Ralph T. Scurfield Humanitarian Award in honour of his perseverance . Regehr struggled in 2001 – 02 , finishing with a team worst − 24 plus / minus while occasionally being left out of the lineup as a healthy scratch . Unhappy with his season , he focused on improving his game . He overcame rib , abdominal and wrist injuries in 2002 – 03 to establish himself as a top defender with the team and earned a second Masterton Trophy nomination for his dedication . The Flames rewarded him with a five @-@ year contract extension prior to the 2003 – 04 season . They also named him an alternate captain , a position he continuously held for the remainder of his stay in Calgary . Not known for his offensive ability , Regehr ended a 100 @-@ game goal scoring drought early in the season , finishing with four for the season . He set a career high with 18 points , and was a key player in the Flames improbable run to the 2004 Stanley Cup Finals facing top opposition players . He played the final two games of the Stanley Cup Final despite tearing ligaments in his foot in game five . His performance in the post season earned him the praise of his opponents . While the 2004 – 05 season was cancelled due to a labour dispute , Regehr played in a European charity tour that saw NHL players form a " Worldstars " team that played ten games in seven countries in December 2004 . While he enjoyed the tour , Regehr stated that he was not interested in joining the many other NHL players who signed on with European teams during the lockout . He was also critical of the position of the league in the lockout , and took on a greater role within the National Hockey League Players Association ( NHLPA ) when he succeeded Jarome Iginla as the Flames player representative following the lockout . While the NHL returned to action in 2005 – 06 , he missed the first month of the season after suffering a knee injury in a pre @-@ season game . Doctors considered Regehr fortunate , believing that a knee brace he had been wearing prevented a more severe injury that would have seen him miss up to six months . Despite missing 14 games , he set career highs in goals ( 6 ) , assists ( 20 ) and points ( 26 ) . He continued to quietly lead the Flames defence and earned a spot on the Canadian Olympic team in 2006 . Regehr briefly played with his brother , Richie , who made his NHL debut with the Flames on December 29 , 2005 . He played the full season in 2006 – 07 , including his 500th career game on March 15 , 2007 , against the Dallas Stars and scored his 100th career point on March 31 against the Vancouver Canucks . However , he was again forced out of the lineup due to a knee injury after only one game in the 2007 Stanley Cup Playoffs . Following the season , the Flames signed Regehr to another five @-@ year contract extension worth a total of US $ 20 @-@ million . The deal was considered to be worth less than he could have gotten as an unrestricted free agent the following year , but he chose to take less to stay in a city his family enjoyed and on a team he felt was competitive . Regehr played all 82 games for the Flames in 2007 – 08 despite being hit in the face by the puck in a game , and suffering a deep bruise on his foot while blocking a shot that was initially feared to be a broken bone . Off the ice , Regehr was named to an NHLPA committee formed in 2007 to find a replacement for ousted Executive Director Ted Saskin . The union hired Paul Kelly in October 2007 , however he was controversially dismissed less than two years later . Regehr defended the firing , though he and all player representatives were criticized for how they handled Kelly 's dismissal . Another knee injury ended his 2008 – 09 season after 75 games and left him unavailable for the playoffs . He expressed his frustrations with coach Mike Keenan , who was fired by the team after failing to advance past the first round of the playoffs , criticizing Keenan 's lack of structure and expressing optimism for the team 's chances under a new coach . After failing to score a goal in 2008 – 09 and the first half of the 2009 – 10 season , Regehr scored his first goal in 141 games on January 18 , 2010 , against the San Jose Sharks . He finished with 2 goals and 17 points that season and matched those totals in 2010 – 11 . Upon playing his 804th game late in the season , Regehr surpassed Al MacInnis as the team 's all @-@ time leader in games played by a defenceman . = = = = Buffalo and Los Angeles = = = = After missing the playoffs in the two previous seasons and needing to clear salary cap space to sign Alex Tanguay , the Flames dealt Regehr to the Buffalo Sabres on June 25 , 2011 . He was sent to Buffalo , along with Aleš Kotalík and a second round selection at the 2012 NHL Entry Draft in exchange for Paul Byron and Chris Butler . According to Flames ' general manager Jay Feaster , the deal " surprised " Regehr , who initially was unsure he would waive his no @-@ trade clause and agree to the deal . Regehr accepted the deal after speaking with Sabres ' management . In his first season with Buffalo , 2011 – 12 , Regehr led the Sabres with 172 hits and finished second with 112 blocked shots . His one goal on the season ended another lengthy scoring drought that lasted nearly 11 months . His tenure with the Sabres ended 21 games into the 2012 – 13 season . In the final year of his contract and with Buffalo out of playoff contention , he was dealt to the Los Angeles Kings on April 1 , 2013 , in exchange for two second round draft picks . The Kings acquired Regehr to add a veteran presence and aid the team 's penalty kill . He appeared in 41 games during the season , split between the two teams , and recorded four assists . Shortly after the Kings reached the third round of the 2013 Stanley Cup Playoffs , Regehr and the team agreed to a two @-@ year , $ 6 million contract extension . After the Kings were eliminated from the post @-@ season by the Chicago Blackhawks , Kings ' coach Darryl Sutter revealed he had played the entire playoffs with an elbow injury that required off @-@ season surgery to repair . In the 2013 @-@ 14 NHL season , Regehr begun his 15th year in the NHL , and played his 1,000th game on February 1 , 2014 , against the Philadelphia Flyers . At the 2014 Stanley Cup Playoffs , Regher only played the first round against the San Jose Sharks before being sidelined with a knee injury . Once the Kings won the 2014 Stanley Cup Finals , captain Dustin Brown finished his victory lap by handing the Stanley Cup to Regehr , thanking the veteran for his off @-@ ice presence . Following the last regular season game for the Kings and the last day of the 2014 – 2015 NHL regular season , Regehr announced that he would retire from professional hockey . = = International play = = Regehr joined the Canadian junior team for the 1999 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships , playing all seven games for the silver medal winning Canadians . He made his first appearance with the senior team following his rookie season in the NHL , playing six games in the 2000 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships . His emergence in the 2004 Stanley Cup playoffs earned him consideration for Canada 's entry at the 2004 World Cup of Hockey . He was named to the team by executive director Wayne Gretzky as he looked to bring a younger team to this tournament than played at the 2002 Winter Olympics . The decision worked , as Regehr and the Canadians won the championship . He played in his second world championship in 2005 , where he won a silver medal after Canada lost the final to the Czech Republic 3 – 0 . The following year , he was named to the Canadian Olympic team for the 2006 Winter Olympics . He recorded one assist in six games , though Canada was unable to defend its 2002 gold medal , failing to medal entirely . Regehr participated in team Canada 's orientation camp for the 2010 Games in the hopes of earning a second opportunity to win an Olympic medal . = = Off the ice = = Regehr married his wife Kristina in late 2007 , and the couple have two sons , Wyatt and Shane . While in Calgary , they were active in the community , serving as honorary co @-@ chairs of the Impact Foundation , an organization that aims to help kids deal with the challenges of growing up . Regehr donated $ 75 to the organization for every bodycheck he was credited with during the NHL season . He is also active with Right to Play , an athlete driven organization that aims to improve the lives of the worlds most impoverished children through sport . He made a trip to Mozambique in the summer of 2008 as an ambassador to the organization , and has participated in charity events for the organization . The Flames named him the inaugural recipient of the J. R. " Bud " McCaig Award in 2006 in honour of his contributions to society . He is an avid outdoorsman ; his favourite winter activity is snowmobiling . He favours wakeboarding in the summer , and has spent time teaching kids outdoor safety . = = Career statistics = = = = = Regular season and playoffs = = = = = = International = = = = = Awards and honours = = = Reality Killed the Video Star = Reality Killed the Video Star is the eighth solo studio album by English singer @-@ songwriter Robbie Williams , released in November 2009 . The album was produced by Trevor Horn and recorded between September 2008 and August 2009 in London and Los Angeles . It debuted in the top ten of 22 national album charts worldwide , and has received varying reviews from music critics . It incorporates elements of pop rock , dance @-@ rock , alternative rock and adult contemporary music . Reality Killed the Video Star was viewed by critics and fans as being Williams ' " comeback album " after the relative failure of his 2006 release , Rudebox . The album was preceded by lead single " Bodies " released in October 2009 . Other single releases include " You Know Me " and " Morning Sun " . The album has been certified platinum in Europe for sales of over one million copies , including 900 @,@ 000 copies sold in the UK alone . Despite this , it was Williams ' first studio album not to reach number one on the UK Albums Chart , beaten to the top spot by a margin of less than 1 % by JLS 's self @-@ titled debut album . = = Background = = Reality Killed the Video Star was Williams ' first studio album in three years . In that period , he worked with many producers , including Guy Chambers , Soul Mekanik , Mark Ronson , and Trevor Horn . However , the British singer confirmed in August 2009 on his official website that the entire album was produced by Trevor Horn , and added that it was recorded in London . Rumours of a new studio album co @-@ written with Chambers had surfaced in early 2007 , along with known commitments required by Williams to complete his EMI contract . British singer @-@ songwriter Laura Critchley commented that she had sung vocals for three songs , and said that the LP would not be released until 2009 . At first it was believed that Williams had reunited with Chambers , but it was later confirmed that the song " Blasphemy " was co @-@ written by the pair during the recording sessions of Williams ' 2002 album Escapology . In February 2009 , it was confirmed that Williams had written material with Soul Mekanik , Chambers and Ronson . The singer 's spokesman , Tim Clark , said that the artist was planning to begin recording sessions in March and that the new album would be released in late 2009 . The album was mostly written in Williams ' home studio and was recorded in London . Amongst those who collaborated in the songwriting were Danny Spencer and Kelvin Andrews , Brandon Christy , Craig Russo , Richard Scott and Scott Ralph , Chas Jankel and Fil Eisler . On his official website , Williams wrote that he was working with producer Trevor Horn on his new album ; he described himself as " buzzing " and went on to call the album 's sound " Very , very big " . Williams revealed that the new album would be titled Reality Killed the Video Star , a reference to the song " Video Killed the Radio Star " by Horn 's former band The Buggles . The album was originally planned to be named Il Protagonista ( Italian for The Protagonist ) until Williams ' management told him to change the title as it was " too pretentious " . In July 2009 Williams wrote on his official blog about the album : " My album 's a killer : old Robbie , new Robbie and a Robbie that neither of us have met ... " . The A.V. Club has also reported that during 2007 , Williams had recorded an unreleased experimental album that , he later said , would have amounted to " career suicide " . Before the album 's release , Williams spoke about his hopes for the album : " I want people to feel elated , I want them to dance , I want them to forget about who they are and where they are for 50 minutes – and , within those 50 minutes of forgetting who they are , I also hope people relate to the songs . This is a record that I ’ m very proud of – I think it ’ s fucking brilliant . I want it to be the record that , if people think of Robbie Williams , they go , Yeah , Reality Killed the Video Star . " He also talked about his collaboration with producer Trevor Horn : " He ’ s added something to the record that I haven ’ t had on previous records – his genius " . In the wake of Michael Jackson 's death on 25 June 2009 , Williams was reported to have written and recorded a last minute tribute song to Jackson that would be included on the album . The track , " Morning Sun " , was co @-@ written by James Bond lyricist Don Black . During his BBC Electric Proms concert at The Roundhouse in London on 20 October 2009 Williams said about the song : " I thought it was about Michael Jackson [ ... ] but it 's actually about me again . " = = Musical style = = The British singer @-@ songwriter unveiled the album at an industry playback in London , where EMI UK and Ireland president Andria Vidler hosted the event . Mark Sutherland from Billboard said that the album " marks a return to Williams ' trademark pop sound after 2006 's more experimental – and commercially under @-@ performing – Rudebox " . Sutherland felt that even though the lead single ' Bodies ' , " features a refinement of the more electronic sound debuted on Rudebox , much of the album returns to the fertile , adult pop ground of Williams ' previous smash hit albums Escapology and Intensive Care " . He felt that the album highlights are the " lush ballads ' Morning Sun ' and ' You Know Me ' , the intricate wordplay of ' Blasphemy ' and the 1980s sound of ' Last Days of Disco ' " , while also noting that " a confident @-@ sounding Williams also experiments with some light psychedelia on ' Deceptacon ' and electronic dance music on the anthemic ' Starstruck ' and ' Difficult for Weirdos ' . " Jude Rogers from The Quietus said that the song " Do You Mind ? " " puts Status Quo , Slade and a gallon of glam @-@ rock in a bottle , shakes it up , and make an interesting , if rather peculiar , froth . " Rogers said that on the track " Starstruck " " Goldfrapp 's Felt Mountain , The Ipcress File soundtrack and the shadow of Broadcast fall over the first ten seconds of this song about our obsession with celebrity " . " Deceptacon " contains a " peculiar set of lyrics , floating on waves of reverb , sad strings and icy keyboards " Rogers said that " It 's an unshowy meditation the shallowness of fame , with a fantastic , mournful outro . " Mike Diver from BBC Music said that " Bodies " is " A strange brew of string flourishes , rumbling low end , oriental undertones and even an Enigma @-@ style break into Gregorian territory " , Diver also said that " Last Days of Disco " is " reminiscent of Eurythmics " . = = Release and promotion = = A special CD called Songbook was given away free with 11 October 2009 issue of British newspaper The Mail on Sunday . The CD featured twelve classic Robbie Williams tracks , including live recordings from Slane Castle , Cologne , London 's The Forum and Knebworth , and also contained six 30 @-@ second clips of tracks from Reality Killed the Video Star . The singer appeared on The X Factor on 11 October 2009 to perform " Bodies " live . He was featured on the November 2009 cover of GQ magazine UK , where he also gave an interview about the album . Williams performed some material from Reality Killed the Video Star on the BBC Electric Proms at The Roundhouse in London on 20 October 2009 . It was Williams ' first live performance in over three years and was broadcast live in nearly 200 cinemas across Europe on 20 October and a few weeks later in Australia , South Africa and Mexico . The show featured a full band conducted by Trevor Horn . The concert received many positive reviews , and Williams also set a new Guinness World Record for " the most simultaneous cinematic screenings of a live concert " . Initially , Williams was set to perform on 5 November 2009 at the MTV Europe Music Awards 2009 in Berlin at the O2 World , however , due to a scheduling conflict , he did not perform . On 6 November 2009 , Williams gave an interview and also performed on Friday Night with Jonathan Ross . On the release day of the album in the UK , 9 November 2009 , Williams appeared on Loose Women for a special edition of the show as the only guest . A special intimate live show at The Metro Theatre took place in Sydney on 25 November 2009 where Williams performed material from the new album and some of his classic hits . He performed his single " Bodies " in Australia at the ARIA Music Awards on 26 November 2009 which was held at the Acer Arena . On Tuesday , 8 December 2009 , Williams performed an intimate show in London to less than 200 people at the Radio Theatre in Broadcasting House . An exclusive show was performed by Williams for a limited number of fans at the Melkweg in Amsterdam on 9 December 2009 . Williams performed his hit " Angels " on 12 December 2009 as a duet with Olly Murs on the live final of The X Factor , also performing the second single from the album , " You Know Me " . Williams performed " Morning Sun " , the third single from Reality Killed the Video Star , on 23 January 2010 at the NRJ Music Awards where he also received two awards for " International Male Artist of the Year " and the " NRJ Award of Honour " . " Morning Sun " was also performed on 13 February 2010 ( Williams ' 36th birthday ) on the UK TV show So You Think You Can Dance . He performed a medley of his greatest hits , including the three singles from Reality Killed the Video Star , on 16 February at the 2010 BRIT Awards where Williams won the " Outstanding Contribution to Music Award " . He won the award for " Best International Male Artist " at the 2010 ECHO Awards in Berlin on 4 March , making it his seventh Echo Award for this category since 2002 . Williams also performed " Morning Sun " at the show . = = Singles = = The song " Bodies " was released as the album 's first official single . It premiered on BBC Radio 1 on 4 September 2009 . It was released on 12 October 2009 , reaching number two in the UK Singles Chart , and has since been certified Silver for sales in excess of 200 @,@ 000 copies . It has since reached the top 5 and top 10 in several charts across Europe as well as in Australia . The song was also named one of the best singles of 2009 by the music website Popjustice . Jennifer Cooke from PopMatters said that " Bodies " is " vintage Williams , and his strongest single since ' Feel ' ( 2002 ) . Featuring his two favorite subjects , God and sex ( not necessarily in that order ) " . " You Know Me " was the second single to be taken from the album . It was released on 7 December 2009 in the UK , where it peaked at number six on the singles chart and was also certified Silver for sales of over 200 @,@ 000 copies . The song managed to peak inside the top 20 and top 30 on many European charts and in Australia . PopMatters ' Jennifer Cooke felt that " You Know Me " had " a Motown flavor reminiscent of Escapology 's ' Something Beautiful ' . " Jude Rogers from The Quietus said that the song is " Nonsensical and brilliant " . " Morning Sun " was issued as the third single from the record . In the UK , it was released as the official Sport Relief Single on 8 March 2010 . The music video for the single was directed by Vaughan Arnell and filmed at Universal Studios Hollywood . " Morning Sun " peaked at number 45 on the UK Singles Chart , making it Williams ' first single not to enter the top 40 . Jude Rogers from The Quietus said that the song features a vocal " that shows what his voice really can do " and that " Even a middle @-@ eight that nods towards the trippy oompah of ' I Am the Walrus ' can 't change a mood that is both grand but melancholy , epic but reflective . " " Last Days of Disco " was released as a promotional single in the United States on 5 October 2010 . The single featured several remixes by the artists including Roger Sanchez , Still Going , Black Van and Mighty Mouse . As of January 2011 , the song has peaked at number seven on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . = = Critical reception = = Reality Killed the Video Star received a varied response from music critics . One review aggregater , Metacritic , gave it an average score of 64 / 100 based on its sample of 17 reviews . John Bush from AllMusic gave the album two stars out of five . He praised songs like " Bodies " and " Morning Sun " but felt that many songs " sound rushed and the performances lackluster " . He concluded that the album is " not decidedly worse than 2002 's Escapology , it 's just bad in a different way . Whereas Escapology found Robbie disappearing into his own neuroses , this one is a hopeless mélange of satire and sincerity where , from song to song , neither can immediately be distinguished . " Chris Mincher from The A.V. Club gave the album a C rating stating that : " Neurotically examining his personality quirks through decidedly unoriginal , un @-@ quirky pop songs , Williams apparently wants to express his individuality with classic @-@ rock reference points and frustratingly nonsensical novelty tracks . " Mark Sutherland from Billboard gave the album a favourable review . He said that it offers " string @-@ drenched ballads , slick George Michael @-@ style electronic dance @-@ pop , Elvis Costello @-@ esque clever wordplay and the slightly cheesy , supremely catchy MOR pop he made his name with . " Sutherland said that " The end result may not be enough to convince America it 's missing out , but expect this album to bring the already @-@ converted back onboard in droves . " Dave Karger from Entertainment Weekly gave it a B + rating . Karger felt that , although the album " contains fewer knockout potential hits than past efforts " , it does feature " the two strongest soul @-@ flecked tracks of Williams ' career " , in " You Know Me " and " Won 't Do That " , and that the singer " simply sounds fantastic with a horn section " . Ben Hogwood from MusicOMH gave the album a mixed review , awarding it with three stars ( out of five ) . He said that the " new songs reflect [ a ] safer maturity " . Hogwood said that the album is " more like a big band version of George Michael 's ' Older ' than a funked @-@ up ' Faith ' " and that , although it has " a killer tune or two " , the album is not exhibit the " same vitality of years ago . " Talking about the production , he felt that " the orchestrations are layered on thickly in an attempt to bring some brightness to the grey . " Hogwood concluded that Williams ' " new found maturity suits his voice on one hand , but given his musical past it makes him a far safer proposition than he used to be . " Los Angeles Times music critic Ann Powers gave the album three stars ( out of four ) stating that the album is " bullishly diverse " . She said that the album is " a full @-@ body flex matching buttery ballads with laser @-@ flecked dance tracks and arch updates from the music hall ; " . Powers felt that the songs " showcase the nasally soulful Williams as an irresistibly smart , cosmopolitan manchild of the overly wired world . " Regarding the lyrics , Powers said that Williams " focuses hard on the out @-@ of @-@ body experience of the everyday . " She said that the production on the album is " gorgeous " and that " Williams benefits greatly from the gifts of the producer 's longtime team , including the arranger Anne Dudley . " Mikael Wood from Spin gave the album a 7 / 10 rating . He said that the album includes " cowbell @-@ enhanced rave @-@ up , a bit of Lady Gaga – ish electro @-@ pop , and one track named after Transformers " and went on to call the record " a charm offensive with stars and stripes " . Slant Magazine music critic Jonathan Keefe gave the album a mixed review , rating it with two and a half stars ( out of five ) and talked about Williams ' lack of success in the United States , calling him " one of the U.S. pop market 's biggest missed opportunities " . Keefe felt that the album featured the sort of " heavy balladry and slick adult @-@ pop " that made Williams ' earlier records unappealing to American audiences and suggested that by " downplaying [ his ] formerly irrepressible charm " , Reality Killed the Video Star doesn 't do enough to reintroduce the singer to the US pop market . Andy Gill of The Independent gave the album three stars out of five , commenting that " Williams ' albums have increasingly come to focus upon the singer himself , which has consequently made them less and less appealing to those not entirely smitten with his charms . " This sentiment was echoed by Rosie Swash from The Observer who also gave the album three stars out of five . She said that " Reality Killed the Video Star is littered with references to his fall from grace , most of which hinge on the premise that someone or something else is truly responsible for his diminishing popularity . " Swash said that " If there 's a theme here it 's not obvious , but it turns out Williams can be quite interesting when he moves off the topic of himself . " Swash concluded that the album swings between " mawkish strings and piano overproduction " and " flashes of genuine pop frivolity " . = = Commercial performance = = In the United Kingdom , the album sold over 85 @,@ 000 copies in its first day on sale and 238 @,@ 125 copies in its first week , around 1 @,@ 500 less than the self @-@ titled debut album from JLS , which debuted at number one . The album had the third highest first week sales of 2009 in the UK , behind JLS and Susan Boyle 's debut album I Dreamed a Dream , the latter of which debuted with 410 @,@ 000 copies sold . In 2010 it was certified triple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry for sales of over 900 @,@ 000 copies . Reality Killed the Video Star 's sales last week were the highest for a number @-@ two album since James Blunt 's Back to Bedlam sold 273 @,@ 183 copies to claim the runners @-@ up spot behind Eminem 's Curtain Call : The Hits in December 2005 . Though it missed the top spot in the UK , the album debuted at number one on the European Top 100 Albums chart and spent two weeks at this position . It was certified platinum for sales of more than 1 million copies throughout Europe ( which includes UK sales ) by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry . In continental Europe , the album was certified double platinum in Germany for sales of over 400 @,@ 000 copies . In France , the album has sold over 100 @,@ 000 copies , earning a platinum certification from the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique . In Italy , the album sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies and was awarded a platinum certification by the Federation of the Italian Music Industry . The album has also reached the top ten in Portugal , Spain , Denmark , Norway , Finland , Sweden , and Austria . Outside of Europe , the album reached number one in Australia and was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association for sales of 70 @,@ 000 units . It also reached the top ten in New Zealand , where it was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand for selling more than 7 @,@ 500 copies . In Latin America , the album reached the top ten in Mexico and was certified gold for shipments of 30 @,@ 000 units . The album also earned a gold disc in Argentina for shipments of over 20 @,@ 000 units . = = Track listing = = All physical copies of the album contain an enhanced section with links to download " Bodies – Cahill Remix " ( audio ) and " Cover Photoshoot " ( video ) . = = Personnel = = Performers on the album include : = = Charts = = = = = Weekly charts = = = = = = Chart procession and succession = = = = = Certifications = = = = Release history = = Reality Killed the Video Star was released in three different formats : a standard 13 @-@ track CD , deluxe edition and digital download . In addition to the standard version , the deluxe edition features premium packaging and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes DVD . = Jon Coghill = Jon Coghill ( born 26 August 1971 ) is an Australian drummer best known for his work with Australian rock band , Powderfinger , although he has also toured with Regurgitator . Coghill replaced Powderfinger 's original drummer Steven Bishop in 1991 when Bishop wanted to pursue further studies . At this time , Powderfinger had not made any recordings , and as such , Coghill has been the group 's drummer for all of their releases . = = Biography = = Coghill attended Nambour State High School in Nambour , Queensland where his father was a Physics teacher , graduating in 1988 . While in high school , Coghill 's ambitions were not directed towards music , as he expressed an interest in football or surfing . Upon graduating , he moved to Queensland 's state capital Brisbane and began studying Botany at the University of Queensland , however was interested in the Brisbane local music scene . Before long , Coghill had begun playing drums for local bands including side project Shock Fungus . Coghill met Powderfinger when he attended one of their practice sessions and joked with the band , introducing himself as a drummer . Two years later , when Steven Bishop left the band , guitarist Ian Haug recognised Coghill at an audition , and signed him at that point . Previously , Coghill had been rejected in an audition for Custard . Jon spent about six months playing alongside Scott Coleman and Marc Zande in the Brisbane grunge band , Gland , before committing full @-@ time to Powderfinger in early 1992 . In December 1997 , Coghill took a brief break from Powderfinger and toured with Regurgitator . Drummer Ross McLennan of Far Out Corporation and later from The Predators , took Coghill 's place for a Powderfinger performance on 19 December . Through his time in the band , Coghill has endeavoured to improve his drumming . In 1999 following the release of the band 's third album Internationalist , he took up lessons with Brisbane @-@ based drum tutor Col Gillies . Coghill has stated that he took the lessons due to being " really sore " " three quarters the way through a show " . In 2004 , Coghill was named Best Drummer by Jack Daniels for their inaugural Jack Awards . To commemorate this , he joined with several other Australian musicians to form the one @-@ shot band Superfinger Sleepychair . Composed of members of The Superjesus , Silverchair and Sleepy Jackson , along with Coghill from Powderfinger , the group 's name is a portmanteau of all of the members ' band 's names . Coghill has been described by Powderfinger lead singer Bernard Fanning as " psycho " , stating " There 's a constant battle between Cogsy and I as to who 's the biggest psycho in the band " on numerous occasions . Fanning has also said of Coghill " He likes to antagonise people , and I don 't mean that in a mean way " , and continued to say jokingly that " It makes me want to smash him sometimes . " Guitarist Darren Middleton says of Coghill " Jon likes movies with explosions in them " , and has also described him as stubborn . Fellow guitarist Ian Haug says Coghill is an excellent arranger , explaining " he can listen to it all , just sort of sit back and go , ' Okay , that 's a really good bit . ' " Coghill himself has described himself as a " superhero " . He has also stated that he shares the band 's hatred of band photos . Coghill says he shares the stereotype of drummers being the most " out there " member of the band . He says this is true because " We have so much energy ... We ’ re stuck up the back and we ’ re more likely to do stupid shit to get rid of it . " In 2008 , Coghill studied a mixture of politics and law at Griffith University . He is currently a journalist for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation . = = Style , technique , and influences = = Coghill took up drumming in high school , because " one of the coolest guy [ s ] " also played the drums . He says he never enjoyed reading about drumming , but preferred to talk to drummers . He has also stated that he doesn 't listen to " drummer music " , but prefers listening to music as a whole . Coghill cites drummers Keith Moon and Mitch Mitchell as major influences on his playing , while boxer Mohammad Ali as a non @-@ musical inspiration . He notes that multi @-@ instrumentalist Stevie Wonder is his favourite . During his university years , Coghill began listening to technical drummers such as Dennis Chambers . Others have noted that Coghill is influenced by The Dead Kennedys and The Fugees . In 1997 , Coghill stated " I ’ m really interested in groove " , and explained that he enjoyed the lyrical elements of Hip Hop and bands such as Spearhead . Coghill has also stated that as a child growing up in Nambour , he had aspired to be " a star like Michael Jackson " . He says this ambition was sparked by a breakdancing teacher in his home town , and by his sister 's love of Jackson 's Thriller . = = Equipment = = Coghill received his first drum at the age of 14 , which was a Pearl drum kit given to him by his parents . In 1999 , Coghill noted that he began using a 1970 Slingerland drum kit , citing that it had a better sound than a new kit , and was cheaper . Coghill uses Avedis Zildjian cymbals . He says that he has been offered sponsorship , but opted for older drums as a matter of preference . Despite this assertion , as of 2007 Coghill 's name is mentioned in the Brady Drums artist roster . = = Awards and nominations = = = = = APRA Awards = = = The APRA Awards are presented annually from 1982 by the Australasian Performing Right Association ( APRA ) . = = Discography = = Parables for Wooden Ears ( 1994 ) Double Allergic ( 1996 ) Internationalist ( 1998 ) Odyssey Number Five ( 2000 ) Vulture Street ( 2003 ) Dream Days at the Hotel Existence ( 2007 ) Golden Rule ( 2009 ) = Archie Jackson = Archibald " Archie " Jackson ( 5 September 1909 – 16 February 1933 ) , occasionally known as Archibald Alexander Jackson , was an Australian cricketer who played eight Test matches as a specialist batsman between 1929 and 1931 . A teenage prodigy , he played first grade cricket at only 15 years of age and was selected for New South Wales at 17 . In 1929 , aged 19 , Jackson made his Test debut against England , scoring 164 runs in the first innings to become the youngest player to score a Test century . Renowned for his elegant batting style , he played in a manner similar to the great Australian batsmen Victor Trumper , and Alan Kippax , Jackson 's friend and mentor . His Test and first @-@ class career coincided with the early playing years of Don Bradman , with whom he was often compared . Before the two departed for England as part of the 1930 Australian team , some observers considered Jackson the better batsman , capable of opening the batting or coming in down the order . Jackson 's career was dogged by poor health ; illness and his unfamiliarity with local conditions hampered his tour of England , only playing two of the five Test matches . Later in the year , in the series against the West Indies , Jackson was successful in the first Test in Adelaide , scoring 70 not out before a poor run of form led to his omission from the fifth Test . Early in the 1931 – 32 season , Jackson coughed blood and collapsed before the start of play in a Sheffield Shield match against Queensland . Subsequently admitted to a sanatorium in the Blue Mountains , west of Sydney , Jackson was diagnosed with tuberculosis . In an attempt to improve his health and to be closer to his girlfriend , Jackson moved to Brisbane . Ignoring medical advice , Jackson returned to cricket with a local team ; however , his health continued to deteriorate and he died at the age of just 23 . It is speculated that , had he lived , he may have rivalled Don Bradman as a batsman . = = Early life and career = = = = = Childhood = = = Jackson , the first son and third child of Alexander and Margaret Jackson , was born in 1909 at Rutherglen , a small town near Glasgow in Scotland . His father had spent part of his childhood in Australia and returned with his family to settle in Balmain , a suburb of Sydney , in 1913 . Raised as a Methodist , Jackson was a lifelong teetotaller and non @-@ smoker . He attended Birchgrove Public and Rozelle Junior Technical schools and represented New South Wales Schoolboys at football and cricket . Football talent ran in the family : his uncle Jimmy Jackson and cousin James Jackson , Jr. were both professional footballers in Scotland and England , the latter captaining Liverpool . Growing up near the home ground of Balmain District Cricket Club , Jackson joined the club in his mid @-@ teens where he quickly came to the attention of the captain , Test bowler Arthur Mailey . The Labor politician " Doc " Evatt , a noted benefactor of young cricketers , helped Jackson 's career by purchasing suitable cricket equipment for him . At the age of 15 years and one month , he made his first grade début for Balmain ; cricket historian David Frith believes that Jackson is the youngest cricketer to play at this level . Jackson left school at this time and worked for a warehouse firm called Jackson & McDonald ( unrelated ) until the demands of cricket compelled him to resign . The Test batsman Alan Kippax employed Jackson in his sporting goods store and became his mentor . In 1925 – 26 , his second season with Balmain , Jackson led the grade cricket competition 's batting averages and won selection for the New South Wales Second XI to play Victoria . = = = Selection for New South Wales = = = Jackson began the 1926 – 27 season with scores of 111 against St George , 198 against Western Suburbs and 106 against Mosman . As a result , he made his first @-@ class début for New South Wales ( NSW ) against Queensland at Brisbane and scored 86 in the second innings . He posted a century in the return match against the Queenslanders at the SCG . On NSW 's tour of the southern states , Jackson made a century in a non first @-@ class fixture against Northern Tasmania and then hit 104 not out against South Australia . These performances prompted the former Australian captain Clem Hill to describe Jackson as " ... the biggest find since Ponsford . " No Test matches were scheduled for 1927 – 28 , although the New Zealand team briefly toured Australia on their return journey from playing in England . Jackson scored 104 against the visiting side and shared a century partnership with Kippax , scored in just over 30 minutes . After a brief run of low scores , a boil on Jackson 's knee forced his withdrawal from the match against South Australia at Adelaide . His replacement was another rising teenage batsman , Donald Bradman , who made his first @-@ class début in the match . On his return to the team , Jackson was promoted to open the batting and scored a century in both innings in the return match against South Australia . At the end of the season , he toured New Zealand with an Australian second XI , while Bradman missed out . The side consisted of a few established Test players mixed with promising youngsters . Australia were unbeaten on the tour and Jackson scored 198 runs in four matches at an average of 49 @.@ 50 . = = Test cricket = = = = = Test selection = = = During the 1928 – 29 season , a strong England team captained by Percy Chapman toured Australia for a five @-@ Test Ashes series . Seeking selection in the Australian Test side , Jackson failed twice in a match designated as a Test trial in Melbourne . In the next match , against the English for New South Wales , he scored 4 and 40 while his team @-@ mates Bradman and Kippax both made centuries . Both Bradman and Kippax were selected for the First Test at the Brisbane Exhibition Ground , Jackson missed out . Keeping his name in front of the selectors , he scored 162 and 90 against South Australia . After Australia lost the first three Tests and the Ashes , the selectors gave Jackson his opportunity , selecting him for his Test début in the fourth Test at the Adelaide Oval . Arthur Mailey , his club captain and the only other Test player from Balmain CC to that time , ran from his office at the Sydney Sun to Kippax 's sports store in Martin Place to tell Jackson the good news . England batted first and made 334 . In reply , Jackson opened the batting with Bill Woodfull . Before the Test , the Australian skipper , Jack Ryder , approached Kippax for his opinion about such a young player as Jackson being given the responsibility of opening the batting . Kippax replied , " I am sure he expects to open . " After Australia lost three wickets for 19 runs , Ryder joined Jackson at the wicket . Playing in an unhurried manner , Jackson looked confident against the pace of Harold Larwood and punished Maurice Tate when his bowling strayed down the leg side . In 105 minutes , Jackson and Ryder added 100 runs . Jackson reached his half century , followed by Ryder and at stumps on the second day , Australia 's total was 3 / 131 . The exertion had left Jackson exhausted . His team @-@ mate " Stork " Hendry said that Jackson was limp when he returned to the dressing room . " We had to mop him with cold towels " , he said . Early the next day , Ryder was dismissed and Jackson was joined by Bradman . The two young batsmen shared a long partnership , with Jackson on 97 at the end of the session . As they returned to the wicket after the interval , Bradman advised his younger colleague to play carefully to secure his century . Jackson made no reply , but responded by hitting the first ball from Larwood to the point boundary for four runs , the ball rebounding back on to the field in front of a cheering crowd in the Members ' Stand . After this , he cut loose , with deft glances from the faster balls and cut shots reminiscent of Charlie Macartney . Jackson was eventually dismissed for 164 , making him the youngest Australian batsman to score a Test century , a record beaten by Neil Harvey in 1948 . It is still the second highest score on Test début by an Australian , only one run fewer than Charles Bannerman 's 165 not out in the first @-@ ever Test in 1877 . This innings saw Jackson hailed as a national hero and he was showered with tributes including a public meeting called in his honour by the Mayor of Balmain . In 1929 – 30 , ill @-@ health restricted Jackson to just five first @-@ class matches and five innings for Balmain . Despite his health , Jackson had a successful season , and scored 168 not out against Arthur Gilligan 's English team , which toured Australia briefly en route to New Zealand . He was seen as an automatic selection for the 1930 Ashes tour of England . He confirmed his selection with 182 in a Test trial , an innings regarded by many as the best he had ever played . Another scare with illness saw him hospitalised in Adelaide after the Christmas match against South Australia , missing the next two state matches . His health problems continued after an operation to remove his tonsils ; a procedure that was arranged by the Australian Board of Control despite Jackson never having previously suffered any problems with his tonsils . Bill Ponsford had suffered from tonsillitis during the previous tour and the Board were anxious to avoid similar occurrences . Complications resulting from the operation saw Jackson lose a stone ( 6 @.@ 4 kilograms ) in weight . = = = Ashes tour of England = = = Jackson was included in the Australian squad to tour England in 1930 . The bonus for Australia from England 's 1928 – 29 visit was the emergence of Jackson and Don Bradman and now much was expected of them in a rebuilt Australian squad that retained only four players from the 1926 tour of England . But Jackson was frequently ill and his unfamiliarity with English pitches resulted in patchy form . Even so , he was described at the time by former England player Cecil Parkin as , " a better bat than Bradman " . He was left out of the team for the First Test at Trent Bridge , the only defeat suffered by the Australians all tour . After the Second Test at Lord 's , Jackson recovered some	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
" The Rings of Akhaten " , and allowed for the exploration of several themes . While he was positive towards the way the story was tied back to a time traveller , he felt that the ending was " perhaps less interesting than what 's come before , simply because it feels more familiar " , though it was still " solid " . IGN 's Mark Snow gave the episode a score of 8 @.@ 4 out of 10 . He praised the smaller scope and focus on character , but wrote " the left @-@ field genre detour didn 't completely convince , and felt jarringly underwhelming considering the spooky set @-@ up , but at least it tried something unique " . Jordan Farley of SFX gave " Hide " four out of five stars . Farley felt that the science fiction element left too many answers , but said that it excelled as a love story . In Doctor Who Magazine , Graham Kibble @-@ White gave " Hide " a positive review , describing it as " simply terrific . " He said that it was the first " out @-@ and @-@ out ghost story " in the series , and claimed that fact " wonderful . " Also , he described the story as " fascinating in the way it portrays the ghosts of the living , " and said it " transcends Neil Cross ' other story , The Rings of Akhaten , and even rises above the unfortunate mispronunciation of Metebelis Three . " = John Dundas ( RAF officer ) = John Charles Dundas , DFC & Bar ( 19 August 1915 – 28 November 1940 ) was a British Second World War fighter pilot and flying ace ( a title awarded to a pilot credited with shooting down at least five enemy aircraft in aerial combat ) with 12 victories . Born in West Yorkshire in 1915 , the son of an aristocrat , Dundas was an able student and academic . After his graduation at the age of 21 , and the completion of his studies , he became a journalist and joined a newspaper in his home county . After two years , Dundas tired with life as a reporter , Dundas joined the Royal Auxiliary Air Force ( RAuxAF ) in July 1938 being commissioned as pilot officer in No. 609 ( West Riding ) Squadron and trained as a pilot at his own expense . His pilot training was complete in 1939 . In May 1940 his unit , No. 609 Squadron RAF , took part in the Battle of France during which Dundas claimed his first two victories . Dundas remained with his squadron throughout the Battle of Britain claiming nine German aircraft shot down . On 9 October he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for 10 victories . At the time of his last battle Dundas had been credited with 12 aircraft destroyed , two shared destroyed , four probably destroyed and five damaged . During a battle over the English Channel on 28 November 1940 , Dundas is believed to have engaged and shot down Helmut Wick , the highest scoring ace of the Luftwaffe at that time . Moments later Dundas was also shot down into the sea . Both pilots vanished and remain missing in action . = = Early life = = John Charles Dundas was born in West Yorkshire in 1915 . He was related to two aristocratic families in the region ; he was the grandson of the Scottish Liberal politician John Dundas and the great grandson of Lawrence Dundas , 1st Earl of Zetland . Dundas was also related to the House of Halifax . Dundas won a scholarship to Stowe School at the age of 12 . At the age of 17 he won a second scholarship to Christ Church , Oxford . Dundas graduated with a first class degree in Modern History before winning a further award that allowed him to study at both Sorbonne and the University of Heidelberg . Dundas subsequently became a journalist for the Yorkshire Post and its editorial staff . Another who worked on the paper at the time , Richard Pape , recalled him as a man indifferent to his personal appearance , who wore frayed trousers , frequently had ink @-@ stained hands and would spill beer over himself when drinking , yet who was also popular with the newspaper 's younger , female staff members . The newspaper sent him to Czechoslovakia during the Munich Crisis as apart of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain 's entourage in 1938 before travelling to Rome to report on a meeting between Benito Mussolini , Chamberlain and Lord Halifax , the Foreign Secretary , to whom Dundas was related . In July 1938 , at the age of 23 , Dundas was commissioned as a pilot officer in No. 609 Squadron RAF , a Royal Auxiliary Air Force squadron . Hugh and John 's godfather had set up the unit . At that time , the squadron was manned by part @-@ time civilians and was equipped with Hawker Hind bombers . It was converted from a bomber to a fighter aircraft squadron and later , in August 1939 , re @-@ equipped with the Supermarine Spitfire . John Dundas was well respected by his peers and he frequently flew his commanding officer 's Hind . Dundas ' younger brother Hugh Dundas was also a fighter pilot . Hugh was wounded in August 1940 but recovered and eventually rose to the rank of group captain . Hugh survived the war and died in 1995 . = = Second World War = = = = = Battle of France = = = Dundas was promoted to the rank of flying officer in January 1940 . 609 Squadron was positioned on the south coast of England in May 1940 , and was part of RAF Fighter Command operations to provide air cover for the Royal Navy and civilian vessels that were taking part in the Dunkirk evacuation . On 30 May , he flew his first patrol . The following day his squadron was put on 30 minutes readiness at RAF North Weald from 12 : 30 pm . At 14 : 00 His squadron took off , headed for Dunkirk at 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 100 m ) and engaged the enemy for the first time . In the next patrol , flying L1096 , Dundas engaged a German bomber formation and destroyed a Heinkel He 111 and a Dornier Do 17 . Dundas did not score again during the Battle of France . = = = Battle of Britain = = = Over the next few weeks 609 Squadron had moved from RAF Northolt to RAF Middle Wallop . It was from here Dundas gained his first victory of the Battle of Britain , in a phase known as the Kanalkampf . On 13 July , as section leader , Dundas led a patrol over a convoy . Failing to find the convoy the Spitfires engaged German aircraft at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) near Portland , England . Flying in R6634 Dundas led a diving attack out of the sun against Messerschmitt Bf 110s . Dundas claimed a Bf 110 destroyed though the damaged aircraft and its wounded pilot , Leutnant Krebitz , made it back to France , where the Bf 110 was severely damaged in a crash @-@ landing . In late July while night @-@ flying Dundas narrowly escaped with his life ; coming into land , his wing struck an artillery emplacement . He landed without injury . Over the next few days , Dundas fought continuous battles with German formations . He noted the growing intensity of the air battles and assumed responsibility for the unit 's war diary in August . In this diary he remarked ; So far as 609 was concerned , the Nazi blitz began on the 8th August ... Four pilots engaged and accounted for five huns . On 11 August 1940 Dundas flew R6769 . Taking off at 09 : 45 am he led yellow section out to sea near the Isle of Wight at 24 @,@ 000 feet ( 7 @,@ 300 m ) . Dundas and two other Spitfires ( including his wingman ) lost contact with his squadron . He saw nine Hawker Hurricanes below and in mid @-@ Channel but also noticed contrails above and climbed up to investigate . The aircraft were Bf 110s , with Messerschmitt Bf 109s providing top cover . Dundas led an attack , but lost the other Spitfires and attacked alone . He shot down a Bf 110 but received hits from German rear gunners . The Bf 110 was likely from I. / Zerstörergeschwader 2 ( " destroyer wing 2 " ) . On 12 August the battle was repeated against Bf 109s and Bf 110s over the same area . Dundas shot down another Bf 110 . Shaking off a Bf 109 , he damaged another but was forced to disengage as more German fighters closed in and fuel and ammunition had run low . His fifth victory now made him a flying ace . A major effort was made by the Luftwaffe on 13 August 1940 . Christened Adlertag ( " eagle day " ) , the Germans began a series of heavy air attacks . At 15 : 30 NO . 609 Squadron was scrambled , with Dundas flying in R6690 as number four in red section . At 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) he spotted German fighters . Red leader could not see the enemy and instructed Dundas to take the lead . Climbing into the sun at 18 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 m ) , Dundas saw Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers below him . Attacking he shot down one of the Ju 87s from Sturzkampfgeschwader 2 ( " dive bombing wing 2 " ) . Dundas damaged another before being hit . He made a " dead @-@ stick " landing at RAF Warmwell . The German unit that 609 attacked was badly hit . One Staffel ( " squadron " ) of II . / StG 2 lost six out of nine Ju 87s . The following day , 14 August 609 was patrolling Boscombe Down at 15 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) . Flying Spitfire R6961 , Dundas damaged a Bf 110 before it escaped into cloud . Directed onto a formation of Do 17s soon after he damaged one bomber before taking hits from defensive fire . Returning to base , Dundas spotted a He 111 with its wheels down and made a brief attack that caused it to crash 5 miles ( 8 km ) south @-@ west of his airfield . The machine belonged to the Stab Staffel from Kampfgeschwader 55 ( " bomber wing 55 " ) . Dundas did not make another claim until 15 September , a date known as Battle of Britain Day . In the morning , piloting R6922 , he damaged a Do 17 , knocking out one of its engines . Flying another Spitfire , X4107 , he shared a Do 17 with his wingmen , Pilot Officer Mike Appleby , and the American pilot Vernon Keogh . On 24 September , he damaged a Do 17 while destroying a Bf 110 in X4472 . In the same Spitfire Dundas claimed a Bf 109 shot down on 26 September and damaged another Do 17 . The following day he claimed a Bf 110 destroyed near Bristol . Eleven days later Dundas claimed a probable victory against a Bf 110 , after a battle with German aircraft six miles north of RAF Warmwell at 16 : 30 . Despite firing a 12 – 14 second burst at the enemy fighter , he did not see it crash . During the battle Dundas was hit in the leg when a cannon round exploded in his cockpit , but flew again the next day . The Spitfire Dundas flew that day , R6915 , still exists , having been preserved by the Imperial War Museum . By 9 October 1940 , his score stood at 10 and he was award the Distinguished Flying Cross . A week later on 15 October 1940 Dundas destroyed another Bf 110 in P9503 at 14 @,@ 000 feet ( 4 @,@ 300 m ) over Christchurch , Dorset . Evading a Bf 109 attack , Dundas ' radio failed and he was unable to re @-@ group his section . Noticing Bf 110s above at 18 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 feet ( 5 @,@ 500 – 6 @,@ 100 m ) he climbed to attack ; his victim crashed at Bournemouth . He was then chased by a pair of Bf 109s but evaded them . His victory was 609s 99th aerial victory . = = = Channel Front and last battle = = = By now Dundas was recognised as the highest scoring pilot of the unit , he was highly regarded by his comrades and was well @-@ liked . He passed on experience to younger pilots and was always willing to discuss tactics , particularly with Squadron Leader Michael Robinson . Dundas , even by this early stage in the war , was the only member of the original ' A ' ( Auxiliary ) pilots still with 609 . Dundas lamented the few who remained were the " sole champions of the Auxiliary attitude " . On 27 November , a Ju 88 was reported near Southampton . Dundas asked permission to intercept but was refused . Approaching his squadron leader , Dundas asked to take his section up for a practice flight ; Robinson did not expecting anything untoward and gave permission . At 22 @,@ 000 feet ( 6 @,@ 700 m ) Dundas ' section made contact , chasing the German over the Isle of Wight at full throttle – reaching 2 @,@ 600 revs . The Ju 88 had a healthy head start . But Dundas closed with it and got to within 400 yards ( 370 m ) , 15 miles ( 24 km ) off Cherbourg , France . Dundas fired X4586 's guns for five seconds while the German gunners put up a determined defence . The Ju 88 's port engine caught fire and it dived down steeply , out of control . Now in sight of an airfield filled with Bf 109s , Dundas decided to retreat . He was credited with a probable victory upon his return . The next day , 28 November , was busy for 609 Squadron . Several scrambles and alerts came through against Bf 109s . The last came at approximately 15 : 30 Greenwich Mean Time . Dundas was once again piloting X4586 . Two squadrons , 152 Squadron and 609 made contact with Bf 109s from Jagdgeschwader 2 ( " fighter wing 2 " ) , led by the most successful German ace of the war thus far — Helmut Wick . Minutes after contact had been made and the battle joined , Flight Lieutenant Fieldsend heard the familiar voice of Dundas shout " I 've finished a 109 — Whoopee ! " . Squadron Leader Robinson congratulated Dundas but nothing was heard from Dundas , or his wingman Pilot Officer Paul A. Baillon , flying R6631 . It is believed Wick had shot down Baillon in a diving attack for his 56th aerial victory . Baillon managed to bail out , but was never recovered . Momentarily distracted , Wick flew across Dundas ' path . Dundas fired a short burst , hitting Wick 's Bf 109 at around 17 : 00 German time , over the sea near the Isle of Wight . It has also been suggested that Wick fell victim to Pilot Officer Eric Marrs , who also made a claim in the battle . Wick was seen to bail out of his aircraft , but he was not rescued and his body was never found . Moments later Dundas was probably shot down by Wick 's wingman , Rudolf Pflanz who claimed a victory and saw the Spitfire crash into the sea with the pilot still inside . Like Wick , Dundas ' body was never found . On 24 December 1940 , Dundas was posthumously awarded a second DFC . It was announced on 7 January 1941 in the London Gazette. with the citation : " Flight Lieutenant Dundas has continued to engage the enemy with outstanding success and has now destroyed at least twelve of their aircraft and damaged many more . On one occasion he pursued an enemy aircraft from Winchester to Cherbourg , finally destroying it . He has shown a magnificent fighting spirit which has inspired the other members of his flight " . = = = Memorial and R6915 = = = As an airman who has no known grave , he is commemorated on the Air Forces Memorial at Runnymede ( Panel 4 ) . A small memorial to Dundas is on a cliff @-@ top path east of Freshwater Bay on the Isle of Wight. close to the point where his final battle took place . It was installed in November 2000 , on the 60th anniversary of his death . One of the aircraft Dundas flew in combat , Supermarine Spitfire number R6915 , still exists and is preserved in the Imperial War Museum in London . In this aircraft , he claimed a probable kill over a Bf 110 on 7 October 1940 . = = List of victories = = A list of Dundas ' claims from 31 May – 28 November 1940 . = Hung for the Holidays = Hung for the Holidays is a Christmas EP by William Hung , released on October 19 , 2004 . The EP was recorded during the summer of 2004 . Like his previous album , Inspiration , the EP contains a number of cover tracks , mostly Christmas songs , as well as holiday greetings from Hung . The EP was not as commercially successful as his previous album and was panned by music critics . = = Development and release = = During a performance at a May 2004 Blue Jays @-@ Rangers game in Toronto , Hung revealed that he would begin work on a second album . He said that it " will include original songs and cover songs ... There will be more bands this time . That 's all I can tell you . " Hung also announced that he was taking singing lessons before starting the recording sessions . When interviewed by MTV News in June 2004 , he said that recording was " gonna be a much slower process than the first time . Right now I 'm concentrating on just picking songs ... starting to practice them and things like that . " Producers submitted the songs to Koch Records , and Hung said in the interview that the label had " some ideas and stuff , and we 'll see . It 's still early — very , very early . " Although Hung for the Holidays was originally scheduled for release in September 2004 , the release was moved to October . The album includes a hidden bonus track , a cover of Queen 's " We Are the Champions " , which was released as a single on June 16 , 2004 . A music video for the track debuted on the Game Show Network on June 15 to promote the channel 's " Summer of Champions " campaign . Hung performed the song live at the Universal Studios CityWalk in Universal City , California that same night . He also signed copies at f.y.e. to promote the album . A limited number of copies for the album included a fold @-@ out Christmas ornament . = = Reception = = Hung for the Holidays sold only 35 @,@ 000 copies . It only reached number 22 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart , and did not make the Billboard 200 chart unlike the first album , Inspiration . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine gave the album one out of five stars , calling it " the cheapest @-@ sounding record in recent memory ; it sounds as if it was recorded in less time that it takes to play . " He did note Hung 's improvement as a vocalist , saying that " he sings with more confidence and at least vaguely sings something resembling the melody . " The New York Daily News called the album a cult classic . The EP 's cover art was ranked number 2 on FW.com 's " 50 Worst Album Covers " , saying that it looks " like a scene from ‘ South Park ’ . " It was also one of Gigwise 's " Worst Christmas Album Covers Ever " . In 2013 , The Huffington Post listed Hung 's cover of " Little Drummer Boy " from Inspiration number three on their " 17 Best Worst Christmas Songs Ever " . = = Track listing = = = = Personnel = = Credits are adapted from AllMusic . = = Chart positions = = = Allie Reynolds = Allie Pierce Reynolds ( February 10 , 1917 – December 26 , 1994 ) was an American Major League Baseball ( MLB ) pitcher . Reynolds pitched 13 @-@ years for the Cleveland Indians ( 1942 – 46 ) and New York Yankees ( 1947 – 54 ) . A member of the Creek nation , Reynolds was nicknamed " Superchief " . Reynolds attended Capitol Hill High School and the Oklahoma Agricultural & Mechanical College ( A & M ) , where he was a multi @-@ sport athlete . Henry Iba , baseball coach of the Oklahoma A & M baseball team , discovered Reynolds while he was practicing his javelin throws . After excelling at baseball and American football at Oklahoma A & M , Reynolds turned to professional baseball . During his MLB career , Reynolds had a 182 – 107 win – loss record , 3 @.@ 30 earned run average , and 1 @,@ 423 strikeouts . He was an All @-@ Star and World Series champion for six seasons . In 1951 , he won the Hickok Belt as the top American professional athlete of the year . He also has received consideration for induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame , though he has not been elected . = = Early years = = Reynolds was born on February 10 , 1917 , in Bethany , Oklahoma . His father was a preacher in the Church of the Nazarene . His mother was a member of the Muscogee ( Creek ) Nation . As a young child , he didn 't play baseball , as his father did not approve of playing sports on Sundays . Reynolds threatened to run away from home if his father wouldn 't let him play football ; his father relented . Reynolds attended Capitol Hill High School in Oklahoma City , where he starred in American football as a quarterback and running back , and at track and field , where he excelled at the javelin throw and 100 yard dash . He played fast @-@ pitch softball for his father 's church team , which did not play on Sundays . There , he also began dating Dale Earleane Jones , who was named Capitol Hill High School 's most outstanding female athlete ; she had previously dated Reynolds ' younger brother . The couple married on July 7 , 1935 . Oklahoma Agricultural & Mechanical College ( A & M ) provided Reynolds a scholarship to attend and participate in track . Reynolds also played on the football team . He majored in education and graduated with a lifetime certification to teach public school in Oklahoma . Henry Iba , coach of the baseball team , first noticed Reynolds when he was practicing his javelin throws . Iba asked Reynolds to throw batting practice while his pitchers recovered from sore arms . Without taking any warmup pitches , he struck out the first four batters without any making contact . Reynolds was the team 's captain playing as an outfielder – pitcher during his senior year in 1938 , and led the team to victory in the state conference baseball championship . Reynolds was drafted by the New York Giants of the National Football League as a halfback . Since Reynolds preferred baseball to football , and felt he could earn more money playing baseball , Reynolds opted not to sign . = = = Minor leagues ( 1939 – 1942 ) = = = Iba was friends with a scout , Hugh Alexander , who worked for the Cleveland Indians . After Iba recommended Reynolds , the Indians signed Reynolds as an amateur free agent for a $ 1 @,@ 000 signing bonus ( $ 17 @,@ 012 in current dollar terms ) . He was assigned to the Springfield Indians of the Class @-@ C Middle Atlantic League . In 1940 , he pitched for the Cedar Rapids Raiders of the Class @-@ B Illinois – Indiana – Iowa League . Reynolds played right field for the Raiders when he wasn 't pitching , as roster sizes were reduced to seventeen as a result of the Great Depression . The Indians wanted to convert Reynolds to catcher due to his athleticism , but Reynolds refused to change positions . Reynolds started the 1941 season with the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons of the Class @-@ A Eastern League , but was demoted to Cedar Rapids after three appearances . Becoming increasingly homesick and not wanting to spend his entire professional career in the minor leagues , Reynolds considered retiring after the 1942 season if he wasn 't promoted to Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . In 1942 , Reynolds went 18 – 7 with a 1 @.@ 56 earned run average ( ERA ) , eleven shutouts , twenty @-@ one complete games , and 193 strikeouts in 231 innings pitched , earning a promotion to the major leagues to finish the 1942 season . = = MLB career = = = = = Cleveland Indians ( 1942 – 1946 ) = = = Reynolds appeared in his first MLB game on September 17 , 1942 , making two relief appearances for the Indians that season . With ace Bob Feller serving in the military during World War II , the Indians hoped that Reynolds would star for the Indians . Reynolds took a pre @-@ enlistment physical , but due to his family and football injuries , he did not enlist in the military and wasn 't eligible to be drafted . He began the 1943 season in the Indians ' bullpen , making his first start on June 20 . Indians player @-@ manager Lou Boudreau used Reynolds as a reliever in between starts due to his resiliency . Reynolds led the American League ( AL ) in strikeouts in 1943 with 151 and hits allowed per nine innings pitched with 6 @.@ 34 ; however , he was third in walks allowed with 109 . Reynolds led the AL in walks with 130 in 1945 . During his five years with the Indians he was primarily used as a starting pitcher , although he did display the versatility that would become his hallmark . He pitched in 139 games for the Indians , starting 100 and finishing 27 . Early evidence of his versatility is demonstrated by his 41 complete games , 9 shutouts and 8 saves . = = = New York Yankees ( 1947 – 1954 ) = = = On October 11 , 1946 , Reynolds was traded to the New York Yankees for second baseman Joe Gordon . A possible trade was speculated throughout the 1946 season . The Yankees had a wealth of infield talent , but needed pitching help . The Indians were managed by player @-@ manager Lou Boudreau who played shortstop , but they needed help at second base . Cleveland wanted Gordon and offered the Yankees any pitcher on their staff , with the exception of Bob Feller . Yankee executive Larry MacPhail discussed the potential trade with Yankees star Joe DiMaggio . Though MacPhail initially wanted Red Embree , DiMaggio replied : " Take Reynolds . I 'm a fastball hitter , but he can buzz his hard one by me any time he has a mind to . " He promptly became the Yankees ' best pitcher , recording the highest winning percentage in the AL in his first season as a Yankee . In 1949 , joined by Vic Raschi and Eddie Lopat , he was a star of a Yankee team that won the first of five consecutive league championships , a feat that had never been achieved before . He played many important roles for those teams . In his first six years with the Yankees he averaged over 232 innings , 17 @.@ 5 wins , and 14 complete games . As a swingman , he averaged 26 games started and 9 games finished per season . In 1950 , Reynolds won 16 games , even though he pitched with bone chips in his elbow for the entire season . His remarkable 1951 season began under very difficult conditions . Floating chips in his elbow prevented him from throwing a single pitch in spring training . He was resigned to having surgery which would have cost him at least half of the season . Dr. George Bennett of Johns Hopkins University recommended against surgery . Reynolds appeared in his first game one week after the season started . On July 12 and September 28 , 1951 , Reynolds threw no @-@ hitters . He was the first American League pitcher to throw two no @-@ hitters in a season and only the second player to do so in baseball history , after Johnny Vander Meer threw consecutive no @-@ hitters in 1938 . This is still the MLB record for most no @-@ hitters in a single season , a record that Reynolds and Vander Meer share with Virgil Trucks ( 1952 ) , Nolan Ryan ( 1973 ) , Roy Halladay ( 2010 ) , and Max Scherzer ( 2015 ) . His first no @-@ hitter , on July 12 , 1951 , was a 1 – 0 defeat of his former team , the Indians . Gene Woodling 's solo home run was the only run scored during the game . Reynolds retired the last 17 Indians he faced . Only four Indians reached base ; he walked three and Bobby Ávila reached on an error by Phil Rizzuto . It was his third shutout of Cleveland that season . Bob Feller also threw a strong game and didn 't allow a hit until the sixth inning , when Mickey Mantle doubled . Feller threw a complete game and allowed only four hits . Feller had thrown a no @-@ hitter eleven days earlier . His second no @-@ hitter , on September 28 , 1951 , was an 8 – 0 defeat of the Boston Red Sox which allowed the Yankees to clinch at least a tie of the American League pennant . The Yankees clinched the pennant in the second half of the September 28 double @-@ header . Reynolds struck out nine hitters . He walked four , but " not one Boston batter seemed close to getting a hit . " With two outs in the ninth inning , Ted Williams hit a pop fly to Yankees catcher Yogi Berra . Berra dropped the ball and prolonged the at bat against the dangerous Williams . Reynolds remained calm , telling Berra , " Don 't worry Yogi , we 'll get him again . " Reynolds was correct and Williams once again popped up , but Berra caught this one . In the spring of 1953 , Stengel made Reynolds predominantly a reliever , although he notched 15 starts and 5 complete gamest , because of Reynolds ' ability to pitch without much rest and to use his blazing fastball late in the Yankees ' afternoon games when the shadows crept over the mound . However , Reynolds injured his back in July when the team bus was on the way to the train station after a game in Philadelphia — robbing Reynolds of his control . During the ' 53 World Series — his final one — Reynolds started the opener at home and struggled because of his back injury , but recovered to appear in two more as a reliever — winning the sixth and final game of the Series . Reynolds led the AL in shutouts in 1951 with seven . In 1952 , he had his greatest single season performance . He won twenty games for the only time in his career ( against eight losses ) . He led the American League in earned run average ( 2 @.@ 06 ) , strikeouts ( 160 ) , and shutouts ( 6 ) . He also saved six games . He also played in the MLB All @-@ Star Games of 1949 , 50 , 52 , 53 , and 54 ( no official ALL @-@ Star selection or game was held in 1945 ) . With the Yankees , Reynolds reached the World Series in 1947 , 49 , 50 , 51 , 52 , and 53 . Reynolds had a 7 – 2 record with a 2 @.@ 79 ERA over 77 innings in the World Series . He made six relief appearances in the World Series , recording a win or save in each of them , including the clinching games of the 1950 , 1952 and 1953 series . He also batted .308 in 26 at @-@ bats in his World Series appearances . Reynolds won the Hickok Belt as the top professional athlete of the year in 1951 . He also was voted the Player Of Year in 1951 by the New York chapter of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , and finished third in voting for the AL Most Valuable Player Award , behind Berra and Ned Garver of the St. Louis Browns . In 1952 , he was the MVP runner @-@ up to Bobby Shantz of the Philadelphia Athletics . Reynolds suffered a back injury when the Yankees ' charter bus crashed into an overpass in Philadelphia during the 1953 season . He retired after the following season as a result of the injury . = = Nickname = = David Dupree explained a common view of how he was given the nickname , Superchief , " he was part Creek Indian and always in command on the pitching mound . " At this time it was very common for baseball players with Native American heritage to be called ' Chief . ' Jeffrey Powers @-@ Beck explains that in the early half of the 20th century , " it appeared virtually impossible for a baseball player of admitted native origin to be known popularly as anything but " Chief . " Former teammate and American League President Bobby Brown noted his heritage and a popular railroad influenced the baseball media to use the nickname , " But for some of you too young to remember , the Santa Fe Railroad at that time had a crack train ( call the Superchief ) that ran from California to Chicago , and it was known for its elegance , its power and its speed . " We always felt the name applied to Allie for the same reasons . " Brown notes that Reynolds was not comfortable with the nickname because of the importance of the ' chief ' title . He also explained that his teammates called him Chief . " When we talked with him , we called him Allie ... But when he wasn 't in the room , he was referred to as the Chief , because we felt he was the one at the top , the real leader . " = = Honors = = The Yankees dedicated a plaque in Reynolds ' honor , to hang in Monument Park at Yankee Stadium on August 26 , 1989 . Reynolds was inducted into the Oklahoma Sports Hall of Fame in 1986 . Oklahoma State renamed their baseball stadium after Reynolds . In 1993 , Reynolds received the Jim Thorpe Lifetime Achievement Award from the Jim Thorpe Association . The association established the " Allie P. Reynolds Award " in 1998 . It is presented annually to the Oklahoma " high school senior who best reflects the spirit of Allie Reynolds by maintaining the highest standards in scholarship , leadership , civic contributions and character . " = = = Baseball Hall of Fame candidacy = = = When Reynolds was eligible for election to the National Baseball Hall of Fame by the Baseball Writers ' Association of America , his highest vote percentage was 33 @.@ 6 % in the 1968 balloting , short of the 75 percent required for election . That year , he finished ahead of future Hall of Famers Arky Vaughan , Pee Wee Reese , Phil Rizzuto , George Kell , Hal Newhouser , Bob Lemon , and Bobby Doerr . Reynolds was named as one of the ten former players that began their careers before 1943 to be considered by the Hall of Fame 's Veterans Committee for induction into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 2009 . He received eight votes , one shy of the nine votes required for election . Reynolds was on the new Golden Era Committee ballot in 2011 for 2012 , ( replaced the Veterans Committee ) receiving fewer than three votes ( 12 votes are required for election to the Hall of Fame ) . The Committee meets and votes every three years on ten candidates selected from the 1947 to 1972 era . He was not a candidate in 2014 ( none were elected by the committee ) . Rob Neyer , in evaluating Reynolds ' candidacy , believes Reynolds was " probably as good " as Jesse Haines , Lefty Gomez and Waite Hoyt , who have all been inducted into the Hall of Fame . However , he added that " they 're all marginals . " Adapting Bill James ' sabermetric statistic known as win shares , Dr. Michael Hoban , a professor emeritus of mathematics at City University of New York , found that Reynolds falls short of his threshold for induction , and scored lower than Haines and Gomez . = = Post @-@ playing career = = Reynolds became a successful oil businessman after his playing career . He began investing in oil wells during his playing career . Despite retiring , Reynolds was allowed to remain a member of the Major League Baseball Players Association ( MLBPA ) . He served as the AL player representative in the negotiations with owners to create the MLBPA pension plan . He later sued administrators of the pension plan in federal court for " whittling away " the rights of retired players . In 1969 , Reynolds was named the President of the American Association , a Class AAA baseball league . The Association had been dormant for the previous six years . Reynolds served as president until 1971 , when he resigned to spend more time with his family and due to competing business interests . He was also the President of the National Hall of Fame for Famous American Indians in Anadarko , Oklahoma , from 1978 until his death . Reynolds was inducted into the Oklahoma Hall of Fame in 1991 . Reynolds died in Oklahoma City due to complications of lymphoma and diabetes . He was survived by a son , a daughter , eight grandchildren and ten great @-@ grandchildren . = Peter Raw = Air Commodore Peter Frank Raw , DSO , DFC , AFC ( 5 June 1922 – 14 July 1988 ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot and officer . He joined the RAAF in 1941 , and served as a flight instructor , bomber pilot and the commander of a communications unit during World War II . After the war he became a specialist navigator . Raw was appointed the commander of No. 2 Squadron in January 1953 , but temporarily left this position for part of the year to participate in the 1953 London to Christchurch air race , in which he placed second . He returned to lead No. 2 Squadron at the end of 1953 and held this position until 1955 . Raw subsequently served in staff and diplomatic roles until 1965 , when he took command of No. 82 Wing . Between May 1966 and April 1967 , he served as the air support coordinator for the Australian forces in South Vietnam ; his initial refusal to commit RAAF helicopters to assist the Australian Army force that was heavily engaged during the Battle of Long Tan in August 1966 generated lasting controversy . Raw served in various staff and training positions until 1972 , when he was appointed the commander of RAAF Base Butterworth . He returned to Australia in 1976 and retired from the RAAF two years later . = = Early career = = Raw was born in the Melbourne suburb of Glen Huntly on 5 June 1922 to Alfred and Eleanor Raw . He was educated at Tooronga Road State School and , later , Melbourne High School . Raw began an electrical apprenticeship at Carlton & United Breweries in 1939 , and studied part @-@ time at Melbourne Technical College . Raw attempted to join the Royal Australian Navy as an electrical artificer in 1941 , but was rejected and told to reapply in twelve months . Instead , he joined the RAAF on 15 August that year . He departed Sydney bound for Southern Rhodesia in November 1941 to be trained as a pilot under the Empire Air Training Scheme . Arriving in Southern Rhodesia in January 1942 , Raw completed his training and was commissioned as an officer in December that year . He subsequently served as a flying instructor in Southern Rhodesia . In May 1944 Raw became engaged to Dorothy Maggs , whose family lived in Southern Rhodesia and South Africa . In mid @-@ 1944 , Raw was transferred to Egypt and undertook an operational conversion course that prepared him to fly Consolidated B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers in combat . In July that year he was posted to No. 178 Squadron RAF , a British B @-@ 24 Liberator unit based near Foggia in southern Italy . While serving with this squadron , Raw took part in operations in the eastern Mediterranean region as well as Hungary , Romania and Yugoslavia . During August 1944 the long @-@ range bomber units controlled by No. 205 Group RAF , including No. 178 Squadron , undertook several risky operations as part of the Warsaw airlift to supply the Polish Home Army during the Warsaw Uprising . Raw participated in three of these flights . His bomber was the only aircraft to deliver its cargo to Warsaw during a mission on 16 August ; Raw subsequently received the Polish Cross of Valour in February 1945 for this achievement . One of his other flights to Warsaw was conducted on 1 September , but Raw was unable to see the city at the time he dropped the load of supplies due to bad weather . During a raid on the northern Italian city of Verona on 12 October 1944 , Raw 's aircraft was hit by two anti @-@ aircraft shells that destroyed its hydraulics system and an engine , wounded the radio operator and opened 166 holes in the fuselage . Despite this damage , Raw was able to return the B @-@ 24 safely to its base . He suffered frostbite to his feet , as damage to the plane 's nose caused icy winds to enter the cockpit . In December 1944 , Raw was promoted to flight lieutenant . He assumed command of No. 205 Group Communication Squadron in 1945 . In February that year he was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross . Following the end of the war , Raw returned to Australia in November 1945 and was demobilised on 17 January 1946 . He married Maggs at St Mary 's Church of England in Caulfield on the 19th of the month ; they had a daughter . Raw rejoined the RAAF in May 1946 , and retained his wartime rank of flight lieutenant . Between 1947 and October 1949 he was posted to Britain to undertake specialist training in navigation . On his return to Australia , Raw served as an instructor at the RAAF 's School of Air Navigation , and later held training positions at No. 78 Wing and No. 2 Operational Training Unit ( No. 2 OTU ) . During 1952 he served as the acting commanding officer of No. 2 OTU , which at the time was responsible for training pilots for combat in the Korean War with No. 77 Squadron . = = Commanding officer = = In January 1953 Raw , who was by now a squadron leader , was appointed the commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron . On 23 February he also became the initial commander of No. 1 Long Range Flight , which had been formed to participate in the 1953 London to Christchurch air race using two of the RAAF 's new English Electric Canberra bombers . He handed this position to Wing Commander Derek Cuming in May , but remained a member of the flight . In July Raw temporarily vacated his position at No. 2 Squadron so he could focus on preparing for the air race . The Canberras piloted by Raw and Cuming departed Australia for the United Kingdom on 10 September , and the race began on 9 October . Raw 's aircraft suffered damage to its nose wheel while landing to refuel at Woomera , but was able to be repaired . This accident cost Raw the lead in the race . He arrived at Christchurch at 04 : 32 on 10 October , finishing second behind a RAF Canberra piloted by Flight Lieutenant Roland ( Monty ) Burton . Raw returned to lead No. 2 Squadron on 18 December 1953 . During this month the unit became the RAAF 's first jet bomber @-@ equipped squadron when it replaced its Avro Lincoln aircraft with Canberras ; in doing so the squadron was built around a nucleus of personnel who had served with No. 1 Long Range Flight . Later in December a Canberra piloted by Raw established a new speed record for a flight between New Zealand and Australia , completing the crossing between Auckland and Sydney in two hours and 49 minutes . On 31 December 1953 Raw was awarded the Air Force Cross for his role in the London to Christchurch air race ; the decoration was presented to him by Queen Elizabeth II at Brisbane on 10 March 1954 . A September 1954 story in The Courier @-@ Mail described Raw as being a " shy young commander " . After completing his term as commanding officer of No. 2 Squadron on 11 July 1955 , Raw was posted to the UK to undertake training at the Royal Air Force Flying College . Upon his return to Australia in January 1956 , he was promoted to wing commander and posted to a planning role at RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne . From December that year he served as a liaison officer to the RAAF force supporting the British nuclear weapons tests in the Montebello Islands off the coast of Western Australia . In 1957 Raw was posted to the Joint Planning staff . During 1958 he and Dorothy divorced ; Raw subsequently married Helen Dorothy Hammond on 21 June that year at St Margaret 's Presbyterian Church in Balaclava . This marriage produced another daughter and a son . In December 1960 Raw joined the directing staff of the RAAF Staff College in Canberra . In 1963 he became the first president of the amateur Canberra Astronomical Society . Later in 1963 he undertook further training at the United States Armed Forces Staff College , after which he assumed the position of assistant air attaché in the Australian Embassy in Washington , D.C. In February 1965 Raw assumed command of No. 82 Wing , which controlled all of the RAAF 's bomber squadrons . He was raised to acting group captain at this time , and was confirmed in this rank during January the next year . = = Vietnam War and subsequent career = = In May 1966 , Raw was posted to South Vietnam as the air support commander for the 1st Australian Task Force ( 1 ATF ) . This force was composed primarily of Australian Army units , and had recently arrived in the country as part of an expansion of Australia 's commitment to the Vietnam War . Although he did not have any background in air / land warfare , Raw 's main responsibility in this position was to coordinate helicopter support for the task force 's two infantry battalions . He was given only two weeks to prepare for the role between handing over command of No. 82 Wing and departing for South Vietnam ; during this period he received briefings on the situation in the country and began to familiarise himself with the operations of the RAAF 's tactical transport units . Historian Alan Stephens has written that " Group Captain Raw 's background as one of the RAAF 's most respected bomber leaders was inappropriate for the job of task force air commander : too often he struggled to make the timely decisions demanded by tactical air / land operations " . Stephens has also stated that the RAAF 's Air Board should have selected an officer with more relevant experience for the role . In addition to his responsibilities as air support commander , Raw was also the commander of the RAAF units stationed at Vũng Tàu and the overall deputy commander of the RAAF force in South Vietnam . He regularly flew operational missions with the UH @-@ 1 Iroquois helicopter @-@ equipped No. 9 Squadron as well as No. 35 Squadron , which operated DHC @-@ 4 Caribou tactical transports . At the time Raw arrived in South Vietnam there were tensions between the Army and RAAF over the employment of No. 9 Squadron , with the Army perceiving that the unit was not providing enough support to 1 ATF . Raw believed that the Task Force headquarters had unrealistic expectations as the Army officers did not understand the difficulty of maintaining and operating helicopters . Raw 's role in the Battle of Long Tan on 18 August 1966 was controversial . During the engagement , he initially refused to allow No. 9 Squadron to fly ammunition to D Company of the 6th Battalion , Royal Australian Regiment after it was heavily engaged and nearly surrounded , as he believed that the heavy rain at the time made flying too dangerous . The commander of the 1st Australian Task Force , Brigadier David Jackson , was angered by this decision and argued that the risk of losing a few helicopters was unimportant compared to the possibility of having 200 infantrymen killed if the unit was overrun due to a lack of ammunition and other supplies . Raw eventually allowed the resupply flight to proceed after the most experienced of the helicopter pilots present stated that the mission needed to be flown regardless of its risk . As a result of his actions during the Battle of Long Tan , the relationship between Raw and senior Army commanders in 1 ATF was " most difficult " throughout the remainder of his time in South Vietnam . Nevertheless , he eventually managed to educate the senior Army officers within the 1st Australian Task Force about the constraints which affected helicopter operations , leading to a better working relationship between the services . In November 1965 Raw took part in Operation Hayman , which was conducted against Viet Cong forces on Long Son Island . During this operation he flew in with the assault troops and remained on the island to direct air missions , including while under sniper fire . Raw completed his tour of duty in South Vietnam in April 1967 and returned to Australia . In November that year he was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his role in the war . The disagreement between Jackson and Raw during the Battle of Long Tan had long @-@ term effects on the structure of the Australian Defence Force . Raw 's initial refusal to commit helicopters contributed to the development of a long @-@ lasting perception among some Army officers that the RAAF was reluctant to support their service in battle . Some members of the Army also wrongly believed that RAAF pilots had refused to conduct the supply mission , and only did so after the squadron was threatened with being withdrawn from South Vietnam and they were spoken to forcefully by Raw . Influenced by this perception , the Army subsequently advocated for the RAAF 's battlefield helicopters to be transferred to its control , and this finally occurred in the late 1980s . Upon his return to Australia , Raw was appointed Director of Operational Requirements at the Department of Air . In 1969 he headed an evaluation team tasked with selecting a heavy lift helicopter for the RAAF . The team was faced with a choice between the Boeing CH @-@ 47 Chinook and Sikorsky CH @-@ 53 Sea Stallion , and Raw 's final report recommended acquiring CH @-@ 53s . The RAAF 's governing Air Board and senior Army officers rejected this recommendation , and CH @-@ 47s were purchased instead after Air Vice Marshal Charles Read also reviewed the performance of the two helicopters and concluded that the Chinook better met Australia 's needs . Raw remained the Director of Operational Requirements until 1970 when he became the commandant of the RAAF Staff College . In 1972 he was promoted to air commodore and assumed command of RAAF Base Butterworth in Malaysia . Raw held this position until 1976 when he returned to Australia and became the senior training and staff officer in the headquarters of RAAF Support Command . This was his final military posting ; he retired from the Air Force on 28 February 1978 . In a newspaper interview shortly before his retirement , Raw identified the 1953 London @-@ to @-@ Christchurch air race as being a highlight of his career . He also observed that RAAF personnel needed higher levels of professional qualifications than had been the case when he joined the Air Force , and there was a greater specialisation in particular fields . Raw further stated that there was a need to improve the defences of northern Australia on the grounds that " political situations can change overnight " . On 15 July 1988 Raw died of lymphoma at Richmond in Melbourne . He was subsequently cremated . Raw 's Australian Dictionary of Biography entry summarises his career by noting that he was " considered to be genial , exuberant , popular and efficient " and " proved to be the type of officer who worked best under pressure " . = Cillian Murphy = Cillian Murphy ( / ˈkɪliən / ; born 25 May 1976 ) is an Irish actor of stage and screen . Since making his debut in his home country in the late 1990s , Murphy has also become a presence in British and American cinema — noted by critics for his performances in a wide range of roles . A native of Cork , Murphy began his performing career as a rock musician . After turning down a record deal , he made his professional acting debut in the play Disco Pigs in 1996 . While continuing with stage work he also began appearing in independent films , first coming to international attention in 2002 as the hero of Danny Boyle 's post @-@ apocalyptic film 28 Days Later . Murphy 's profile continued to grow in 2005 when he appeared in a series of successful films : firstly as the Scarecrow in Christopher Nolan 's 2005 blockbuster Batman Begins — a role he reprised in The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) and The Dark Knight Rises ( 2012 ) — and secondly in the action @-@ thriller Red Eye ( 2005 ) . For his performance as a transgender woman in Breakfast on Pluto ( 2005 ) , Murphy received a Golden Globe award nomination for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy . In 2006 , Murphy played the lead role in Ken Loach 's Palme d 'Or @-@ winning film The Wind That Shakes the Barley . He teamed up again with Boyle for the science @-@ fiction film Sunshine ( 2007 ) , and with Nolan for the highly successful thriller Inception ( 2010 ) . Since 2013 , Murphy has played the lead in the BBC gangster series Peaky Blinders . He has continued to work on stage , and won the Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Solo Performance for Misterman in 2011 . Murphy lives with his wife and two children in Monkstown , Dublin . = = Early life , education , and music = = Murphy was born in Douglas and raised in Ballintemple , two suburbs of Cork . His father , Brendan , works for the Irish Department of Education , and his mother is a French teacher . Not only are his parents educators , but his aunts and uncles are also teachers , as was his grandfather . Musicianship also runs in the family , and Murphy started playing music and writing songs at the age of 10 . Murphy was raised Roman Catholic and attended the Catholic school Presentation Brothers College , where he did well academically but got into trouble often , sometimes being suspended , until he decided in his fourth year that misbehaving was not worth the hassle . Not keen on sport , a major part of life at PBC , Murphy found that creative pursuits were not fully nurtured at the school . Still , it was there that he got his first taste of performing , when he participated in a drama module presented by Pat Kiernan , the director of the Corcadorca Theatre Company . Murphy later described the experience as a " huge high " and a " fully alive " feeling that he set out to chase . His English teacher , the poet and novelist William Wall , encouraged him to pursue acting ; but , at this stage , to Murphy , performing meant dreams of becoming a rock star . In his late teens and early twenties , Murphy worked towards a career as a rock musician , playing guitar in several bands alongside his brother Páidi . The Beatles @-@ obsessed pair named their most successful band " The Sons of Mr. Greengenes " , after a 1969 song by another idol , Frank Zappa . Murphy sang and played guitar in the band , which he has said " specialised in wacky lyrics and endless guitar solos " . In 1996 , The Sons of Mr. Greengenes were offered a five @-@ album record deal by Acid Jazz Records , but they did not sign the contract due to Murphy 's brother still being in secondary school and the little money involved in ceding the rights to Murphy 's compositions to the record label . Murphy confessed that " I 'm very glad in retrospect that we didn 't sign because you kind of sign away your life to a label and the whole of your music " . Also in 1996 , Murphy began studying law at University College Cork ( UCC ) , but he failed his first year exams because , as he put it , he had " no ambitions to do it " . Not only was he busy with his band , but he has said that he knew within days after starting at UCC that law was not what he wanted to do . After seeing Corcadorca 's stage production of A Clockwork Orange , directed by Kiernan , acting had begun to pique his interest . His first major role was in the UCC Drama Society 's amateur production of Observe the Sons of Ulster Marching Towards the Somme , also starring Irish American comedian , Des Bishop . Murphy also played the lead in a UCC Drama production of Little Shop of Horrors , which was performed in the Cork Opera House . According to Murphy , his primary motivation then was to party and meet women , not to begin an acting career . Nonetheless , he began to move away from working as a rock musician , about which he later remarked , " I think there 's such a thing as a performance gene . If it 's in your DNA it needs to come out . For me it originally came out through music , then segued into acting and came out through there . I always needed to get up and perform . " = = Acting career = = = = = Early work = = = Murphy hounded Pat Kiernan until he got an audition at Corcadorca , and in September 1996 , he made his professional acting debut on the stage , playing the part of a volatile Cork teenager in Enda Walsh 's Disco Pigs . Walsh recalled meeting and discovering Murphy : " There was something about him – he was incredibly enigmatic and he would walk into a room with real presence and you 'd go , " My God " . It had nothing to do with those bloody eyes that everyone 's going on about all the time . " Murphy observed , " I was unbelievably cocky and had nothing to lose , and it suited the part , I suppose . " Originally intended to run for three weeks in Cork , Disco Pigs ended up touring throughout Europe , Canada and Australia for two years , and Murphy left both university and his band . Though he had intended to go back to playing music , he secured representation after his first agent caught a performance of Disco Pigs , and his acting career began to take off . Murphy began appearing in independent films , such as John Carney 's On the Edge , and in short films , including the Irish / English language short Filleann an Feall , He also appeared in the BBC television mini @-@ series adaptation of The Way We Live Now . In addition to Disco Pigs , he starred in many other plays , including Shakespeare 's Much Ado About Nothing , Neil LaBute 's The Shape of Things , and Chekhov 's The Seagull ; Murphy considers this stage work to have been his " training ground . " Murphy also reprised his Disco Pigs role for the 2001 indie film version by Kirsten Sheridan , in which he was able to showcase his singing . During this period , he moved from Cork , relocating first to Dublin for a few years , then to London in 2001 . In 1999 he had a role as a soldier in William Boyd 's The Trench , a film about a group of young British soldiers on the eve of the Battle of the Somme . In 2002 , Murphy achieved mainstream success when he was cast in the leading role in Danny Boyle 's horror film 28 Days Later . He portrayed pandemic survivor Jim who is " perplexed to find himself alone in the desolate , post @-@ apocalyptic world " after waking from a coma in a London hospital , 28 days later . Casting director of the film Gail Stevens suggested that Boyle audition Murphy for the role , having been impressed with his performance in Disco Pigs . Stevens stated that it was only after seeing his slender physique during filming that they decided to feature him fully nude at the beginning of the film . She recalled that Murphy was shy on set with the tendency to look slightly away from the camera , but enthused that he had a " dreamy , slightly de @-@ energised , floating quality that is fantastic for the film " . His performance , which Richard Cosgrove considers to be " extremely convincing " , earned him nominations for Best Newcomer at the 8th Empire Awards and Breakthrough Male Performance at the 2004 MTV Movie Awards . Released in the UK in late 2002 , by the following July 28 Days Later had become a sleeper hit in America and a major success worldwide , putting Murphy before a mass audience for the first time . Murphy professed that he considered the film to be much deeper than a zombie or horror film , expressing surprise at the film 's success and that American audiences responded well to its content and violence . In late 2003 , Murphy starred as a lovelorn , hapless supermarket stocker who plots a bank heist with Colin Farrell in Intermission , which became the highest @-@ grossing Irish independent film in Irish box office history ( until The Wind That Shakes the Barley broke the record in 2006 ) . Reflecting on his roles in 28 Days Later and the " sad @-@ sack Dublin shelf @-@ stacker " in Intermission , Sarah Lyall of the International Herald Tribune stated that Murphy brought " fluent ease to the roles he takes on , a graceful and wholly believable intensity . His delicate good looks have , as much as his acting prowess , caused people to mark him as Ireland 's next Colin Farrell , albeit one who seems less likely to be caught tomcatting around or brawling drunkenly at premieres " . Murphy had a minor supporting role in the successful Hollywood period drama Cold Mountain . He portrayed a deserting soldier who shares a grim scene with Jude Law 's character , and was only on location in Romania for a week . Murphy stated that it was a " massive production " , remarking that director Anthony Minghella was the calmest director he 'd ever met . Murphy also had a role as a butcher in Girl with a Pearl Earring with Scarlett Johansson and Colin Firth . In 2004 , Murphy toured Ireland as the " androgynous , naive Christy " in the titular role of The Playboy of the Western World , a Druid Theatre Company production under the direction of Garry Hynes , who had previously directed Murphy in Seán O 'Casey 's Juno and the Paycock and John Murphy 's The Country Boy , also for Druid . = = = Critical success = = = Wider recognition came to Murphy in 2005 when he starred as Dr. Jonathan Crane in Christopher Nolan 's Batman Begins . Originally asked to audition for the role of Bruce Wayne / Batman in Batman Begins , Murphy never saw himself as having the right physique for the superhero , but leapt at the chance to connect with director Christopher Nolan . Though the lead went to Christian Bale , Nolan was so impressed with Murphy that he gave him the supporting role of Dr. Jonathan Crane , whose alter ego is supervillain Scarecrow . Nolan told Spin , " He has the most extraordinary eyes , and I kept trying to invent excuses for him to take his glasses off in close @-@ ups . " Murphy achieved further mainstream success that year by portraying operative Jackson Rippner who terrorises Rachel McAdams on an overnight flight in Wes Craven 's thriller , Red Eye . New York Times film critic Manohla Dargis asserted that Murphy made " a picture @-@ perfect villain " and that his " baby blues look cold enough to freeze water and his wolfish leer suggests its own terrors . " The film was favourably reviewed and earned almost $ 100 million worldwide . Murphy received several awards nominations for his 2005 bad guy turns , among them a nomination as Best Villain at the 2006 MTV Movie Awards for Batman Begins . Entertainment Weekly ranked him among its 2005 " Summer MVPs " , a cover story list of 10 entertainers with outstanding breakthrough performances . The New Yorker 's David Denby wrote , " Cillian Murphy , who has angelic looks that can turn sinister , is one of the most elegantly seductive monsters in recent movies . " In late 2005 , Murphy starred as Patrick / " Kitten " Braden , a transgender Irish foundling in search of her mother , in Neil Jordan 's dramedy Breakfast on Pluto , based on the novel of the same title by Patrick McCabe . Set against the Breakfast on Pluto ’ s kaleidoscopic backdrop of 1970s glitter rock fashion , magic shows , red light districts and I.R.A. violence , Murphy transforms from androgynous teen to high drag blond bombshell . He had auditioned for the role in 2001 , and though Jordan liked him for the part , The Crying Game director was hesitant to revisit transgender and I.R.A. issues . For several years , Murphy lobbied Jordan to make the film before the actor became too old to play the part . In 2004 , Murphy prepared for the role by meeting a transvestite who dressed him and took him clubbing with other transvestites . The role required " serious primping " with eyebrow plucking and chest and leg hair removal , and Roger Ebert noted the way that Murphy played the character with a " bemused and hopeful voice " . The San Francisco Chronicle 's Ruthe Stein said of his performance , " Murphy projects enormous energy onscreen , as he 's already shown in 28 Days Later ... and Red Eye . He 's supremely well cast as the androgynous Kitten ... [ and ] smoothly makes the transition from broad comedy to drama . He delivers Kitten 's favourite line , ' Oh serious , serious , serious ! ' with the full implications of its dual meaning . " While even lukewarm reviews of Breakfast on Pluto still tended to praise Murphy 's performance highly , a few critics dissented : The Village Voice , which panned the film , found him " unconvincing " and overly cute . Murphy was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy for Breakfast on Pluto and won the 4th Irish Film and Television Academy Best Actor Award . Premiere cited his performance as Kitten in their " The 24 Finest Performances of 2005 " feature . In 2006 ( 2007 in North America ) , Murphy starred in Ken Loach 's film about the Irish War of Independence and Civil War , The Wind That Shakes the Barley , which won the Palme d 'Or at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival and became the most successful Irish independent film at the Irish box office . Murphy was especially keen on appearing in the film due to his intimate connections to Cork , where it was shot . Murphy had to audition six times for the role of Damien O 'Donovan , a young doctor turned revolutionary , before winning the part . Murphy considered it a very special privilege to have been given the role and stated that he was " tremendously proud " of the film , remarking that the " memories run very , very deep – the politics , the divisions and everybody has stories of family members who were caught up in the struggle . " Critic Denby noted Murphy 's moments of deep stillness and idiosyncrasies in portraying the character . Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times wrote , " Murphy is especially good at playing the zealotry as well as the soul @-@ searching and the regret , at showing us a man who is eaten up alive because he 's forced to act in ways that are contrary to his background and his training . " GQ UK presented Murphy with their 2006 Actor of the Year award for his work in The Wind That Shakes the Barley . = = = 2006 – 2010 = = = Murphy returned to the stage opposite Neve Campbell at the New Ambassadors Theatre in London 's West End from November 2006 to February 2007 , playing the lead role of John Kolvenbach 's play Love Song . Theatre Record described his character of Beane as a " winsomely cranky " mentally unstable " sentimentalised lonely hero " , noting how he magnetically , with " all blue eyes and twitching hands " , moves " comically from painfully shy " wallpaper " to garrulous , amorous male " . Variety considered his performance to be " as magnetic onstage as onscreen " , remarking that his " unhurried puzzlement pulls the slight preciousness in the character ’ s idiot @-@ savant naivete back from the brink " . In April 2007 ( July in North America ) , he starred onscreen as a physicist @-@ astronaut charged with re @-@ igniting the sun in the science fiction movie Sunshine , which teamed him up again with director Danny Boyle . Murphy appeared opposite Lucy Liu in Paul Soter 's romantic comedy Watching the Detectives ; the indie film premiered at the 2007 Tribeca Film Festival and was then released straight to DVD . Murphy had starred as Richard Neville , editor of the psychedelic radical underground magazine Oz in the film , Hippie Hippie Shake , which was shot in 2007 , but the project , due to much delay , was eventually shelved in 2011 . Murphy made a brief re @-@ appearance as the Scarecrow in Nolan 's The Dark Knight ( 2008 ) , the sequel to Batman Begins , before starring in The Edge of Love — about a love quadrangle involving the poet Dylan Thomas — with Keira Knightley , Sienna Miller and Matthew Rhys . Murphy also made a debut appearance in another medium — on a postage stamp : in July 2008 , the Irish Post Office , An Post , released a series of four stamps paying homage to the creativity of films recently produced in Ireland , including one featuring Murphy in a still from The Wind That Shakes the Barley . In 2009 , Murphy starred opposite rock singer Feist and actor David Fox in The Water , directed by Kevin Drew of Broken Social Scene . The 15 @-@ minute Canadian short film , released online in April 2009 , is nearly silent until the Feist song of the same title plays close to the end . Murphy was attracted to the role as a fan of Broken Social Scene and the prospect of making a silent movie , which he considered to be the " hardest test for any actor " . Murphy also starred in Perrier 's Bounty , a crime dramedy from the makers of Intermission , in which he portrayed a petty criminal on the run from a gangster played by Brendan Gleeson . The direct @-@ to @-@ video psychological thriller Peacock ( 2010 ) , co @-@ starring Ellen Page , Susan Sarandon and Bill Pullman , starred Murphy as a man with a split personality who fools people into believing he is also his own wife . Christian Toto of The Washington Times referred to the film as " a handsomely mounted psychological drama with an arresting lead turn by Cillian Murphy " , and noted that although Murphy wasn 't a stranger to playing in drag , his work in the film set a " new standard for gender @-@ bending performances " . Murphy next starred alongside Leonardo DiCaprio , Ellen Page and Joseph Gordon @-@ Levitt in Christopher Nolan 's acclaimed blockbuster Inception ( 2010 ) , playing entrepreneur Robert Fischer , Jr . , whose mind is infiltrated by DiCaprio 's character Cobb to convince him to dissolve his business . David Kyle Johnson noted that it was the " third Nolan film in five years where Cillian Murphy 's character spends on @-@ screen time with a cloth bag over his head " . Murphy also had uncredited cameo appearance as programmer Edward Dillinger Jr , son of original Tron antagonist Ed Dillinger ( David Warner ) in Tron : Legacy , released in December 2010 , and the same year he also made a return to theatre in From Galway to Broadway and back again , which was a stage show that celebrated the Druid Theatre Company 's 35th birthday . = = = 2011 – present = = = In 2011 , Murphy performed in the stage monodrama , Misterman , written and directed by Enda Walsh , whom Murphy previously worked with on Disco Pigs . The production was initially put on in Galway and was then taken to St. Ann 's Warehouse in Brooklyn , New York City . Murphy commented of the role , " The live nature of it makes it so dangerous . You 're only there because of the good will of the audience , and that 's compounded by its being a one @-@ man show " . His performance earned critical acclaim , garnering Irish Times Theatre Award and a Drama Desk Award . Sarak Lyall of the International Herald Tribune described Murphy 's character Thomas Magill to be a " complicated mixture of sympathetic and not nice at all – deeply wounded , but with a dangerous , skewed moral code " , praising his ability to mimic wickedly . Lyall noted Murphy 's " unusual ability to create and inhabit creepy yet fascinating characters from the big screen to the small stage in the intense one @-@ man show Misterman " , and documented that on one evening the " theater was flooded , not with applause but with silence " , eventually culminating in a standing ovation at his powerful performance . Also in 2011 , Murphy played the lead in the British horror Retreat , which had a limited release , and appeared in the science fiction film In Time , starring Justin Timberlake and Amanda Seyfried , which was poorly reviewed . The following year , Murphy starred in Red Lights with Robert De Niro and Sigourney Weaver . He played Tom Buckley , the assistant to Weaver 's character who is a paranormal investigator . Murphy considered working with De Niro to have been one of the most intimidating moments in his career . He remarked : " My first scene when I come to visit him my character is supposed to be terrified and intimidated . There was no acting involved . The man has presence . You can 't act presence . I 'll never have that . Watching him use it ... when you put a camera on it , it just becomes something else . " The film was panned by critics and did not make its budget back at the box office . Murphy then went on to reprise his role as the Scarecrow for the third time in The Dark Knight Rises , and had a supporting role as Mike , the favourite teacher of the main character Skunk , in the British independent film Broken . His performance earned him a British Independent Film Award for Best Supporting Actor nomination . Since 2013 , Murphy has played the lead role in the BBC television series Peaky Blinders , a series about a criminal gang in post @-@ WW1 Birmingham . He explained his enthusiasm for the show in an interview with The Independent : " [ the scripts ] were so compelling and confident , and the character was so rich and complex , layered and contradictory . I was like , ' I have to do this . ' " Peaky Blinders was critically praised and a ratings success . A second series began broadcasting on the BBC in October 2014 . Also in 2013 , Murphy made his directorial debut with a music video for the band Money 's single Hold Me Forever . The video features dancers from the English National Ballet and was filmed at The Old Vic Theatre in London . In 2014 , he co @-@ starred in the film Aloft , with Jennifer Connelly , and Wally Pfister 's Transcendence , which also starred Johnny Depp and Rebecca Hall . Murphy also reunited with Enda Walsh for the play Ballyturk in 2014 . He starred in Ron Howard 's 2015 film , In the Heart of the Sea , which also features Benjamin Walker and Chris Hemsworth . Cillian contributes spoken vocals to the tracks " 8 : 58 " and " The Clock " from Paul Hartnoll 's 8 : 58 . The two previously met whilst Paul was scoring the second season of Peaky Blinders . = = Personal life = = In mid @-@ 2004 , Murphy married his long @-@ time girlfriend , Yvonne McGuinness , an artist whom he had met in 1996 at one of his rock band 's shows . The couple live in South County Dublin with their two sons , Malachy ( born in 2005 ) and Aran Murphy ( born in 2007 ) . Murphy often works in or near the city and has expressed no desire to move to Hollywood . He prefers not to speak about his personal life and did not appear on any live TV chat shows until 2010 , when he was a guest on The Late Late Show on Ireland 's RTÉ to promote Perrier 's Bounty yet still remained reserved . He does not have a stylist or a personal publicist , travels without an entourage , and often attends premieres alone . Reserved and private , Murphy professes a lack of interest in the celebrity scene , finding the red carpet experience " a challenge ... and not one I want to overcome " . He intentionally practices a lifestyle that will not interest the tabloids : " I haven 't created any controversy , I don 't sleep around , I don 't go and fall down drunk " . Murphy is friends with fellow Irish actors Colin Farrell and Liam Neeson , looking up to the latter like a " surrogate movie dad " . But primarily , Murphy 's close friendships are those he made before becoming a star . Music is still an important part of Murphy 's life . In 2004 , he said , " The only extravagant thing about my lifestyle is my stereo system , buying music and going to gigs " . He no longer plays in a rock band , but regularly plays music with friends and on his own , and still writes songs . Murphy does not plan to start another band : " Even if I was good , the very notion of being an actor with a rock band on the side would mean I 'd never be taken seriously " . Murphy is also a dedicated runner . In 2015 , he was named one of GQ 's 50 best dressed British men . Regarding religion , Murphy had previously been verging on agnostic , but confirmed his atheism after researching his role as a nuclear physicist / astronaut in the science fiction film Sunshine . He is a longtime vegetarian , not due to any moral objection to the killing of animals , but because of qualms about unhealthy agribusiness practices . His political activity includes participating in the 2007 Rock the Vote Ireland campaign , targeting young voters for the general election , and campaigning for the rights of the homeless with the organization Focus Ireland . In February 2012 , he wrote a message of support to the former Vita Cortex workers involved in a sit @-@ in at their plant , congratulating them for " highlighting [ what ] is hugely important to us all as a nation " . = = Filmography = = = = Awards and nominations = = = Match Point = Match Point is a 2005 film written and directed by Woody Allen , starring Jonathan Rhys Meyers , Scarlett Johansson , Emily Mortimer , Matthew Goode , Brian Cox , and Penelope Wilton . Rhys Meyers 's character marries into a wealthy family , but his social position is threatened by his affair with his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's girlfriend , played by Johansson . The film treats themes of morality , greed , and the roles of lust , money , and luck in life , leading many to compare it to Allen 's earlier film Crimes and Misdemeanors ( 1989 ) . It was produced and filmed in London after Allen had difficulty finding financial support for the film in New York . The agreement obliged him to make it there using a cast and crew mostly from the United Kingdom . Allen quickly re @-@ wrote the script , which was originally set in New York , for a British setting . Critics in the United States praised the film and its British setting , and welcomed it as a return to form for Allen . In contrast , reviewers from the United Kingdom treated Match Point less favourably , finding fault with the locations and , especially , the idiom of the dialogue . Allen was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay . = = Plot = = Chris Wilton , a recently retired tennis professional , is taken on as an instructor at an upmarket club in London . He strikes up a friendship with a wealthy pupil , Tom Hewett , after discovering their common affinity for opera . Tom 's older sister , Chloe , is smitten with Chris and the two begin dating . During a family gathering , Chris meets Tom 's American fiancée , Nola Rice , and they are instantly attracted to each other . Tom 's mother , Eleanor , does not approve of her son 's relationship with Nola , a struggling actress , which is a source of tension in the family . Chloe encourages her father , Alec , to give Chris a job as an executive in one of his companies ; he begins to be accepted into the family and marriage is discussed . During a storm , after having her choice of profession attacked by Eleanor , Nola leaves the house to be alone . Chris follows Nola outside and confesses his feelings for her , and they passionately have sex in a wheat @-@ field . Feeling guilty , Nola treats this as an accident ; Chris , however , wants an ongoing clandestine relationship . Chris and Chloe marry , but Tom ends his relationship with Nola . Chloe , to her distress , does not become pregnant immediately . Chris vainly tries to track down Nola , but meets her by chance some time later at the Tate Modern . He discreetly asks for her number and they begin an affair . While Chris is spending time with his wife 's family , Nola calls to inform him that she is pregnant . Panicked , Chris asks her to get an abortion , but she refuses , saying that she wants to raise the child with him . Chris becomes distant from Chloe , who suspects he is having an affair , which he denies . Nola urges Chris to divorce his wife , and he feels trapped and finds himself lying to Chloe as well as to Nola . Nola confronts him at his work and he just barely escapes public detection . Soon after , Chris takes a shotgun from his father @-@ in @-@ law 's home and carries it to his office in a tennis bag . On leaving , he calls Nola on her mobile to tell her he has good news for her . He goes to Nola 's building and gains entry into the apartment of her neighbor , Mrs. Eastby . He shoots and kills her , then stages a burglary by ransacking the room and stealing some jewelry and drugs . As Nola returns he shoots her in the stairwell . He then takes a taxi to the theater to watch a musical with Chloe . Scotland Yard investigates the crime and concludes it was committed by a drug addict stealing money . The following day , the murder is in the news . Chris returns the shotgun and he and Chloe announce that she is pregnant with Chris 's child . Detective Mike Banner invites Chris for an interview in relation to the murder . Beforehand , Chris throws Mrs. Eastby 's jewelry and drugs into the river , but by chance her ring bounces on the railing and falls to the pavement . At the police station , Chris lies about his relationship with Nola , but Banner surprises him with her diary , in which he is featured extensively . He confesses his affair to Banner but denies any link to the murder , and appeals to the detectives not to involve him any more in their investigation , as news of the affair may well end his marriage just as he and his wife are expecting a baby . Later one night , Chris sees apparitions of Nola and Mrs. Eastby , who tell him to be ready for the consequences of his actions . He replies that his crimes , though wrong , had been " necessary " , and that he is able to suppress his guilt . At the same time , Banner dreams that Chris committed the murders . His theory is discredited by his partner , Dowd , who informs him that a drug peddler found murdered on the streets had Mrs. Eastby 's ring in his pocket . Banner and Dowd consider the case closed and abandon any further investigation . The film ends with Chloe giving birth to a baby boy named Terrence , and his uncle blessing him not with greatness , but luck , which his father ( Chris ) has in spades , since he was able to avoid being punished for his crimes . = = Cast = = Jonathan Rhys Meyers as Chris Wilton Scarlett Johansson as Nola Rice Emily Mortimer as Chloe Hewett Wilton Matthew Goode as Tom Hewett Brian Cox as Alec Hewett Penelope Wilton as Eleanor Hewett Ewen Bremner as Inspector Dowd James Nesbitt as Detective Mike Banner Rupert Penry @-@ Jones as Henry Margaret Tyzack as Mrs. Eastby Alexander Armstrong as Mr. Townsend Geoffrey Streatfeild as Alan Sinclair Miranda Raison as Heather Rose Keegan as Carol Colin Salmon as Ian Toby Kebbell as Policeman = = Production = = The script was originally set in The Hamptons , a wealthy enclave in New York , but was transferred to London when Allen found financing for the film there . The film was partly funded by BBC Films , which required that he make the film in the UK with largely local cast and crew . In an interview with The Guardian , Allen explained that he was allowed " the same kind of creative liberal attitude that I 'm used to " , in London . He complained that the American studio system was not interested in making small films — " They only want these $ 100 million pictures that make $ 500m . " A further change was required when Kate Winslet , who was supposed to play the part of Nola Rice , resigned a week before filming was scheduled to begin . Scarlett Johansson was offered the part , and accepted , but the character had to be re @-@ written as an American . According to Allen , " It was not a problem ... It took about an hour . " Filming took place in London in the summer of 2004 over a seven @-@ week schedule . Some of the city 's landmarks , such as Tate Modern , Norman Foster 's " Gherkin " building at 30 St Mary Axe , Richard Rogers ' Lloyd 's building , the Royal Opera House , the Palace of Westminster , Blackfriars Bridge , and Cambridge Circus form a backdrop to the film . The tennis club scenes were filmed at the Queen 's Club . One of the University of Westminster 's Marylebone campus lecture theatres was also used . UK @-@ based graffiti artist Banksy 's Girl With Balloon appears briefly in the film . One of the Parliament View apartments at Lambeth Bridge was used for interiors of Chris and Chloe 's apartment . The restaurant scene was shot at the Covent Garden Hotel . = = Themes = = The film 's opening voiceover from Wilton introduces its themes of chance and fate , which he characterises as simple luck , to him all @-@ important . The sequence establishes the protagonist as an introvert , a man who mediates his experience of the world through deliberation , and positions the film 's subjective perspective through his narrative eyes . Charalampos Goyios argued that this hero , as an opera lover , maintains a sense of distance from the outer world and that ramifications therein pale in comparison to the purity of interior experience . The film is a debate with Fyodor Dostoyevsky 's Crime and Punishment , which Wilton is seen reading early on , identifying him with the anti @-@ hero Raskolnikov . That character is a brooding loner who kills two women to prove that he is a superior being , but is racked by guilt and eventually admits all to a dogged sleuth , and he is finally redeemed by punishment , the love of a poor girl , and the discovery of God . Wilton is a brooding loner who kills a poor girl who loves him because he considers his interests superior to those around him , knows little guilt , and avoids detection through luck . Allen signals his intentions with more superficial similarities : both killers attempt to cover their crime by faking a robbery , both are almost caught by a painter 's unexpected appearance in the stairwell , and both sleuths play cat and mouse with the suspect . Allen argues , unlike Dostoyevsky , that there is neither God , nor punishment , nor love to provide redemption . The theme of parody and reversal of Dostoyevsky 's motifs and subject matter has been visited by Allen before , in his film Love and Death . In Love and Death , the dialogue and scenarios parody Russian novels , particularly those by Dostoyevsky and Tolstoy , such as The Brothers Karamazov , Crime and Punishment , The Gambler , The Idiot , and War and Peace . In Match Point , Allen moves the theme from parody to the more direct engagement of Dostoyevsky 's motifs and narratives . Allen revisits some of the themes he had explored in Crimes and Misdemeanors ( 1989 ) , such as the existence of justice in the universe . Both films feature a murder of an unwanted mistress , and " offer a depressing view on fate , fidelity , and the nature of man " . That film 's protagonist , Judah Rosenthal , is an affluent member of the upper @-@ middle class having an extramarital affair . After he tries to break the affair off , his mistress blackmails him and threatens to go to his wife . Soon , Rosenthal decides to murder his mistress , but is racked with guilt over violating his moral code . Eventually , he learns to ignore his guilt and go on as though nothing has happened . Philip French compared the two films ' plots and themes in The Observer , and characterised Match Point 's as a " clever twist on the themes of chance and fate " . Money is an important motivator for the characters : both Wilton and Nola come from modest backgrounds and wish to enter the Hewett family using their sex appeal . That family 's secure position is demonstrated by their large country estate , and , early on in their relationships , both prospective spouses are supported by Mr. Hewett , Wilton with a position on " one of his companies " and Nola reports being " swept off her feet " by Hewett 's attention and presents . Roger Ebert posed the film 's underlying question as " To what degree are we prepared to set aside our moral qualms in order to indulge in greed and selfishness ? Wilton is facing a choice between greed and lust , but his sweet wife , Chloe , herself has no qualms about having her father essentially " buy " her husband for her . " Jean @-@ Baptiste Morain , writing in Les Inrockuptibles , noticed how the strong do not accept their own weakness and have no qualms about perpetuating an injustice to defend their interests . This wider political sense is , he argued , accentuated by its English setting where class differences are more marked than in the USA . The film pits passion and the dream of happiness against ambition and arrivisme , resolving the dispute with a pitiless blow that disallows all chance of justice . = = Musical accompaniment = = The film 's soundtrack consists almost entirely of pre @-@ World War I 78 rpm recordings of opera arias sung by the Italian tenor Enrico Caruso . This bold use , despite Caruso 's variety of musical styles , constitutes a first for Allen . Opera has been used before in his work as an indicator of social class , such as in Husbands and Wives ( 1992 ) . In Match Point , the arias and opera extracts make an ironic commentary on the actions of the characters and sometimes foreshadow developments in the movie 's narrative . Furthermore , given Wilton 's status as an introvert and opera enthusiast himself , the accompaniment emphasises his detachment from his crime . The 10 @-@ minute murder scene which forms the film 's climax is scored with almost the whole of the Act II duet between Otello and Iago from Giuseppe Verdi 's Otello . This in an atypical scoring for a film , since Verdi 's piece is not an aria , but a dramatic dialogue in which the words are as important as the music . Thus the astute spectator will be presented with two dramatic narratives to follow ; Allen is not respecting traditional conventions of cinematic accompaniment , since the score 's events do not match the story unfolding onscreen . Arias and extracts include work by Verdi ( in particular Macbeth , La traviata , Il trovatore and Rigoletto ) , Gaetano Donizetti 's L 'elisir d 'amore , Georges Bizet 's Les pêcheurs de perles , and Antônio Carlos Gomes 's Salvator Rosa sung by Caruso . The romanza " Una furtiva lagrima " from L 'elisir d 'amore is featured repeatedly , including during the opening credits . The Caruso arias are supplemented by diegetic music from contemporary performances that the characters attend over the course of the film . There are scenes at the Royal Opera House and elsewhere performed by opera singers ( scenes from La traviata performed by Janis Kelly and Alan Oke , from Rigoletto performed by Mary Hegarty ) , accompanied by a piano ( performed by Tim Lole ) . = = Reception = = Allen has said that Match Point is one of his few " A @-@ films " , and even " arguably may be the best film that I 've made . This is strictly accidental , it just happened to come out right . You know , I try to make them all good , but some come out and some don 't . With this one everything seemed to come out right . The actors fell in , the photography fell in and the story clicked . I caught a lot of breaks ! " The film was screened out of competition at the 2005 Cannes Film Festival . Match Point broke a streak of box office flops for Allen : it earned $ 85 @,@ 306 @,@ 374 worldwide , of which $ 23 @,@ 151 @,@ 529 was in its North American run . Allen was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay . The film received generally strong reviews from critics , particularly in the United States . Rotten Tomatoes reported that the film received 77 % positive reviews , based on 209 reviews from American critics . The critical consensus states : " Woody Allen 's sharpest film in years , Match Point is a taut , philosophical thriller about class and infidelity . " Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 72 out of 100 , and thus " generally favourable reviews " , based on 40 professional critics . Match Point has also been the object of scholarship . Joseph Henry Vogel argued the film is exemplary of ecocriticism as an economic school of thought . Several critics and commentators have compared elements of the film to the central plot of George Stevens ' film A Place in the Sun ( 1951 ) , but with some characters in reverse positions . Roger Ebert gave the film a full four stars , and considered it among the four best Allen films . He described it as having a " terrible fascination that lasts all the way through " , and ranked it with Allen 's best work . Empire magazine gave the film four stars out of five , calling it Allen 's best of his last half a dozen films , and recommended it even to those who are not fans of the director . Reviewers in the United Kingdom were generally less favourable . Philip French , writing in The Observer , criticised Allen 's grasp of British idiom and the film 's lack of humour , especially considering that two comic actors from the UK were cast in minor roles . Also , he called the dialogue " rather lumbering " and said that " the lexicons of neither the City financier nor the London constable are used convincingly . " Tim Robey , writing in The Daily Telegraph , disdained the claim that the film was Allen 's return to form . Although he acknowledged that the consensus was stronger this time , he called it " as flat @-@ footed a movie as Allen has ever made , a decent idea scuppered by a setting – London – which he treats with the peculiarly tin @-@ eared reverence of a visitor who only thinks he knows his way around . " He called Johansson 's character " the chain @-@ smoking mistress from hell " , but said the tennis net analogy has an " unexpectedly crisp payoff " and that the last act was well handled . Reviewing for the BBC 's website , Andy Jacobs awarded the film four stars out of five , and called it Allen 's best film since Deconstructing Harry ( 1997 ) . He also criticised some other British reviewers whose dislike , Jacobs stated , was due to the fact that Allen presented an agreeable portrait of middle class life in London . He also praised the performances by Rhys Meyers and Johansson . Like many of Allen 's films , Match Point was popular in France : AlloCiné , a cinema information website , gave it a score of 4 @.@ 4 / 5 , based on a sample of 30 reviews . In Les Inrockuptibles , a left @-@ wing French cultural magazine , Jean @-@ Baptiste Morain gave the film a strong review , calling it " one of his most accomplished films " . He characterised Allen 's move to London as re @-@ invigorating for him , while recognising the caricatured portrayal of Britain which made the film less appreciated there than in Allen 's homeland , the United States . Morain called Rhys @-@ Meyers ' and Johansson 's performances " impeccable " . = Battle of Katia = The Battle of Katia , also known as the Affair of Qatia by the British , was an engagement fought east of the Suez Canal and north of El Ferdan Station , in the vicinity of Katia and Oghratina , on 23 April 1916 during the Defence of the Suez Canal Campaign of World War I. An Ottoman force led by the German General Friedrich Freiherr Kress von Kressenstein made a surprise attack on three and a half squadrons of the British 5th Mounted Brigade , which was widely scattered to the east of Romani . The mounted brigade had been ordered to the area to protect the new railway and water pipeline being built from Kantara on the Suez Canal , as this infrastructure extended out past the Canal 's zone of defences into the Sinai Peninsula towards Romani . Kress Von Kressenstein 's attack was completely successful , decimating the equivalent of little more than a regiment . On the same day , an associated Ottoman attack on Duidar , very close to the Suez Canal , failed when it met with strong British opposition . Kress von Kressenstein 's force had been active in the area since the First Suez Offensive of early 1915 , when three columns attacked the Canal along the northern , central , and southern routes across the Sinai Peninsula . The growing Imperial strength made attacks on the Suez Canal difficult , and ended the dominance of the Ottoman force in the area . The Ottoman Empire 's attacks on 23 April demonstrated their intention to continue opposing the British Empire in the region . However , the Imperial reaction to these attacks was to double the strength of their forces . The 2nd Light Horse Brigade , and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade , were sent to Katia and Romani and established a strong Imperial presence over the contested ground . Soon after , the Australian 1st Light Horse Brigade was also sent forward , and the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division arrived at Romani not long after . At the beginning of August , the Battle of Romani was fought over much of the same ground as that at Katia . = = Background = = In 1915 , Sir Archibald Murray , the Imperial Commander in Chief of Egypt , partially addressed the threat of von Kressenstein 's forces to the Suez Canal by organising the defences into three sectors . No. 1 ( Southern ) sector , with its headquarters at Suez , covered the area from Suez to Kabrit , No. 2 ( Central ) sector , with its headquarters at Ismailia , covered the area from Kabrit to Ferdan , and No. 3 ( Northern ) sector , with its headquarters at Port Said , covered the area from Ferdan to Port Said . The No. 3 sector also had an advanced headquarters at Kantara . To support these forward defences , the British Empire improved their lines of communication by doubling the single railway line that ran from Cairo to the Suez Canal , and also pumped water from the River Nile along the Sweet Water Canal to supply the troops and the towns on the Suez Canal . After the conclusion of the Gallipoli Campaign , both sides had large numbers of troops available for redeployment , and the British decided to move their Suez Canal defences from positions on the canal eastwards into the Sinai desert . Murray aimed to extend the railway and water pipeline to Katia , so that a permanent forward Imperial base of 50 @,@ 000 men could be established . In February 1916 , he requested permission from the War Office in London to extend this infrastructure further across the Sinai to El Arish . He considered that such an advance along the northern route , combined with the destruction of the central route 's water sources and regular patrols from a base at El Arish , would permanently secure the Suez Canal . An advance to Katia was agreed by the War Office , but no decision was made regarding an advance to El Arish . The first shipload of rails and sleepers arrived at Kantara on 10 March and , four weeks later , 16 miles ( 26 km ) of track stretching towards Katia had been laid by the Egyptian Labour Corps and Royal Engineers . There were also two new appointments : Brigadier General Edgar Askin Wiggin took command of the Katia district on 6 April and , three days later , Major General H. A. Lawrence became responsible for No. 3 Sector of the canal defences , which covered the northern section . Meanwhile , several raids were undertaken by the Australian Light Horse and the Bikaner Camel Corps , accompanied by the Egyptian Camel Transport Corps carrying supplies , rations and ammunition . The purpose of these raids was to destroy water sources on the central inland route , which had been used by the Ottomans during the First Suez Offensive in late January and early February 1915 . To provide forward protection for the railway construction workers and the infrastructure , the 5th Mounted Brigade was ordered to move to Katia . By early April , however , signs of renewed Ottoman activity in the area were detected and , as a result , the 5th Light Horse Regiment was ordered to reinforce the 5th Mounted Brigade ; it was due to arrive at Katia on 24 April . = = Prelude = = = = = Ottoman forces = = = Kress von Kressenstein moved to challenge the growing Imperial presence with a force of ninety @-@ five officers 3 @,@ 560 other ranks comprising 1st and 2nd Battalions and one company of the 3rd Battalion , 32nd Regiment , a regiment of Arab irregulars on camels , and six mountain guns , a 75 @-@ mm battery of the 8th F. A. Regiment and two guns of the 9th F. A. Regiment ( one and a half batteries ) , two field ambulances and an ammunition column . The Ottoman and Arab force travelled across the Sinai Peninsula on the northern route , which runs not far from the coast of the Mediterranean Sea and nearly parallel with it . A series of oases with date palms and reliable water stretch for 15 miles ( 24 km ) from Bir el Abd in the east to Oghratina , Katia and Romani near the Suez Canal . These oases make the northern route from the Ottoman @-@ Egyptian Frontier at Rafa to El Arish and Romani viable , and British strategists thought it possible that 250 @,@ 000 Ottoman troops could cross the Sinai , and 80 @,@ 000 be based permanently in this fertile area . Whoever could hold the contested ground in the area of Katia and Romani would be in a position to protect the Canal , or within striking distance . The area was patrolled almost daily by Ottoman aircraft , which bombed the recently established Katia camp on 20 April , and both Katia and Romani the next day . = = = Imperial deployments = = = The 23 April 1916 , was St George 's Day and also Easter Sunday , and dawn found the 5th Mounted Brigade , dispersed over a wide area . The brigade was made up of the Warwickshire Yeomanry , the Royal Gloucestershire Hussars , and the Queen 's Own Worcestershire Hussars ( Worcestershire Yeomanry ) . These regiments were deployed as follows : At Oghrantina was two squadrons of Worcestershire Hussars ( less one troop ) , with four officers and 60 other ranks of the 2 / 2nd Lowland Field Company Royal Engineers . At Katia was one squadron and a machine gun subsection of the Gloucestershire Hussars , along with 40 dismounted men of the Worcestershire Hussars , and a detail from the Royal Army Medical Corps , Army Veterinary Corps and camel transport . At Bir el Hamisah were the Warwickshire Yeomanry ( less one squadron ) , and one squadron and one troop from the Worcestershire Hussars . At Romani , near Pelusium , were the Gloucestershire Hussars ( less one squadron ) , and a machine gun subsection in reserve . At the small oasis of Dueidar 13 miles ( 21 km ) south south west of Katia were 156 men ; 120 from the 5th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers and thirty @-@ six from the Bikanir Camel Corps , including a few Yeomanry . The 4th Battalion , Royal Scots Fusiliers of the 52nd ( Lowland ) Division , were holding Hill 70 , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) behind Dueidar . On 22 April Wiggin and his brigade headquarters , with one squadron and one troop of Worcestershire Hussars , had arrived at Bir el Hamisah from Katia . Wiggin moved there in response to an intelligence report that an Ottoman force was at Bir el Mageibra some distance to the south and , with the agreement of his commander H. A. Lawrence , he prepared to launch a surprise attack . At dawn on 23 April , Wiggin found and destroyed a large but almost empty camp at Bir el Mageibra , capturing six prisoners . He was back at Bir el Hamisah by 09 : 00 , having covered a distance of 16 miles ( 26 km ) , when he heard news of Ottoman attacks . = = Battle = = = = = Oghratina = = = The oasis at Oghratina had been occupied by a squadron from the Worcestershire Hussars and a dismounted detachment of Royal Engineers thirty @-@ six hours before the Ottoman attack ; a second squadron arrived just twelve hours before the attack , so defensive works had not been extensive . These squadrons stood to at 04 : 00 in dense sea @-@ fog , which was common at that time of year . They heard the sound of pumps operating at wells 500 yards ( 460 m ) to their south west , and an officer who investigated found about sixty Ottoman soldiers . The yeomanry completely surprised this small Ottoman force , opening fire and causing heavy casualties , but in following up their retreat , the yeomanry were met with very heavy rifle fire from a much larger force . Soon afterwards , British squadrons on the right were attacked , and by 05 : 15 the whole camp was being assaulted from north , east and south east in overwhelming strength at a range of 50 yards ( 46 m ) or less . The Ottoman attack began with heavy fire from light guns , machine guns and rifles . Although the commander of the yeomanry detachment had orders to retire if attacked in force , he could not leave the dismounted engineers . The Ottoman attack was resisted for two hours , but by 07 : 45 eleven yeomanry officers and 135 other ranks were casualties . The survivors , four officers and forty @-@ two other ranks , surrendered . = = = Katia = = = At 03 : 30 " A " Squadron Gloucestershire Hussars , under Captain Lloyd Baker , stood to arms and saddled up ; a patrol was sent out and returned to report all clear . Soon afterwards a small Ottoman patrol fired on the yeomanry and retired . About 05 : 30 heavy fire was heard from Oghratina , and a message was received half an hour later that an attack had been repulsed . At 06 : 30 another message reported that the attack had been renewed , and a message from Romani reported that Dueidar had also been attacked . At 07 : 45 another Ottoman attack at Katia was driven off . At 08 : 45 a patrol sent out towards Oghratina saw 600 Ottoman soldiers marching towards Katia in open order in two long lines about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) away , followed by more troops in a formed body , and cavalry advancing to the south west to surround Katia . At 09 : 45 a battery of mountain guns near Er Rabah opened fire on Katia from the north east , which killed or maimed some of the horses within a few minutes . Rather than retiring to Romani or to Bir el Hamisah , Captain Lloyd Baker decided to stay at Katia and protect his party of Royal Engineers , hoping for support from Romani . The Gloucestershire squadron maintained rapid fire against the increasing numbers of Ottoman attackers , and just before 10 : 00 British reinforcements from Romani ( Gloucestershire Hussars ) and Bir el Hamisah ( Worcestershire Hussars ) converged on Katia and fought their way through to the garrison . Lieutenant Colonel Charles Coventry of the Worcestershire Hussars now took command of the garrison . Heavy fire from Ottoman rifles and machine guns continued for several hours at Katia , and the Ottomans gradually pressed in on the yeomanry 's front and flanks . Eventually working their way to within 50 yards ( 46 m ) , the Ottomans rushed the garrison shortly before 15 : 00 . The flank held by the Gloucestershire Hussars collapsed and Coventry then ordered a general surrender . At about 13 : 30 Coventry had asked Captain W.H. Wiggin ( brother of Brigadier General Wiggin ) to bring up the horses to allow as many men as possible the chance of escape , but the captain fainted from the effects of a wound before he reached them . When he came to , he saw the camp had been captured , and galloped with the surviving horses and horse holders to meet escaping yeomanry . A total of eighty men escaped , with Wiggin being the only officer to get away from Oghratina or Katia . The Gloucestershire Hussars lost 4 officers and 16 other ranks killed , 15 other ranks were wounded and 64 were taken prisoner . The casualties of the Worcestershire Hussars at Oghratina and Katia were even worse with a loss of 9 officers and 101 other ranks killed and 235 men taken prisoner . The regiment was almost wiped out – they mustered after the battle with just 54 NCOs and men . = = = Dueidar = = = At Dueidar the garrison of 156 men defended an area of just 450 by 150 yards ( 410 by 140 m ) containing six small redoubts . At 04 : 00 a linesman was sent out to investigate a loss of communication with Katia ; the commander of the garrison visited the posts under his command and sent out a patrol to the south east , ordering his troops to stand to arms . The patrol saw nothing in the mist , but at 05 : 17 a sentry saw a large group of Ottoman soldiers and opened fire on them . This alerted the nearest redoubt garrison armed with fifty men and a Lewis gun which swept the Ottoman ranks . So effective was the fire that the attackers soon fell back leaving twenty dead and wounded , while an Ottoman mountain gun battery was unable to find the British positions . At 07 : 00 Ottoman forces attempted to outflank the British position to the south , but were stopped by fire from a small defensive works on that flank containing one non @-@ commissioned officer ( NCO ) and six men . Shortly afterwards Ottoman soldiers repeated their attack on the south eastern redoubt . Some of them got to within 20 yards ( 18 m ) of the defensive barbed wire , but were again routed by steady fire . = = = British and Australian reinforcements = = = Brigadier General Wiggin ordered the Worcestershire Yeomanry to water at Bir el Hamisah and then advance on Katia , but before watering was complete they saw shells bursting at Katia , and moved off at 09 : 50 to reinforce the line of the Gloucester squadron on the left . The remaining squadrons of Warwickshire Yeomanry , after watering at Bir el Hamisah , moved at 10 : 30 to attack the Hod um Ugba , which was north east of Katia and halfway between Bir el Hamisah and Katia . Wiggin moved off an hour later to attack the same place , and this force became engaged with Ottoman flanking troops . By 13 : 45 Wiggin had advanced about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) against very strong opposition , but soon afterwards he saw a commotion among the camels at Katia ; the tents in the camp were burning and he decided that the best option was to fall back to Bir el Hamisah . Reinforcements from Romani , commanded by Lieutenant Colonel R. M. Yorke , attacked the Ottoman force to the north of Katia , but were driven off . These five troops and a machine gun section of Gloucestershire Hussars moved out from Romani at 10 : 15 to intercept a column of 500 Ottoman soldiers retiring south @-@ east from Dueidar . Shortly after leaving Romani , firing was heard from Katia , and from some high ground they could see the Ottoman artillery north of Er Rabah shelling the camp . When the Gloucestershire Hussars advanced towards the Ottoman artillery , it ceased fire , and fifteen minutes later was seen to withdraw some distance . The Gloucestershire Hussars pushed some Ottoman soldiers back to the high ground south of the Hod um Ugba , where Ottoman reinforcements stopped their advance . The strength of the Ottoman attacks made a gradual withdrawal necessary , but long halts were made to enable the wounded at Romani to retire also . Unfortunately the Gloucestershire Hussars from Romani were not aware of Wiggin and his reinforcements on the other flank until it was too late , finally coming in sight of them at about 15 : 00 . Wiggin had seen Yorke 's force an hour earlier , but had not been able to communicate with it . Dueidar was reinforced by two companies of 4th Battalion Royal Scots Fusiliers from Hill 70 on the railway 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) to the rear . On approaching Dueidar , a small detachment of reinforcements was sent to the south eastern redoubt . The Ottoman firing line was found to be south of the Dueidar to Katia track and 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the principal redoubt . Shortly after the mist cleared , a British aircraft dropped a message that the main Ottoman force was in retreat and that there were only about 150 rifles still attacking . A squadron of the Australian 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at midday from Kantara , and moved off south east in pursuit of the main Ottoman force , while the garrison at Dueidar attacked the Ottoman rearguard which broke and fled , leaving behind seventeen unwounded troops who were taken prisoner . The remainder of 5th Light Horse Regiment arrived at Duidar at 13 : 30 and took up the pursuit . They captured one officer and thirty @-@ one other ranks , and killed seventy @-@ five men ; there were fifty @-@ five British casualties . = = Aftermath = = The commander of 5th Mounted Brigade decided to retire towards the Suez Canal , and the two squadrons from Romani joined him , abandoning much equipment to ride overnight to Bir el Nuss . Wiggin arrived at Dueidar at 09 : 00 on 24 April with two squadrons . The 5th Mounted Brigade had been completely surprised ; its commander and his important reserve force had been out of position at a critical time following false intelligence , and could not support his regiments . The three and a half squadrons at Oghratina and Katia were decimated — almost all were killed , wounded or captured . The overwhelming success of the Ottoman Army 's operations during the Battle of Katia demonstrated the attacking strength and determination of Kress von Kressenstein 's force in 1916 , and their efficient implementation of appropriate tactics , particularly timing and false intelligence . This success was underpinned by the Ottoman infantry 's ability to make the gruelling march across the Sinai Peninsula and be fit enough to then launch attacks with force and determination . On 24 April Romani was reoccupied and the commander of the Australian and New Zealand Mounted Division ( Anzac Mounted Division ) , Major General Harry Chauvel , took command of the advance positions . The 2nd Light Horse Brigade and the New Zealand Mounted Rifles Brigade of the mounted division were ordered to Romani and reoccupied the area unopposed by any Ottoman force . The 52nd ( Lowland ) Division reinforced the garrison at Dueidar and also came under Chauvel 's command . After the battle the area was held by British forces with their main bases at Romani and Kantara . Regular patrols and reconnaissances were carried out over the oases area , until the issue was resolved at the Battle of Romani in August 1916 when British Empire forces won a decisive victory . = Bahá 'u'lláh = Bahá 'u'lláh ( / bəˈhɑːʊˌlɑː / ; Arabic : بهاء الله , " Glory of God " ; 12 November 1817 – 29 May 1892 ) , born Mírzá Ḥusayn-`Alí Núrí ( Persian : میرزا حسینعلی نوری ) , was the founder of the Bahá 'í Faith . He claimed to be the prophetic fulfilment of Bábism , a 19th @-@ century outgrowth of Shí ‘ ism , and , in a broader sense claimed to be a messenger from God referring to the fulfilment of the eschatological expectations of Islam , Christianity , and other major religions . Bahá 'u'lláh taught that humanity is one single race and that the age has come for its unification in a global society . He taught that " there is only one God , that all of the world ’ s religions are from God , and that now is the time for humanity to recognize its oneness and unite . " His claim to divine revelation resulted in persecution and imprisonment by the Persian and Ottoman authorities , and his eventual 24 @-@ year confinement in the prison city of `Akka , Palestine ( present @-@ day Israel ) , where he died . He wrote many religious works , most notably the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Aqdas , the Kitáb @-@ i @-@ Íqán and Hidden Words . There are two known photographs of Bahá 'u'lláh . Outside of pilgrimage , Bahá 'ís prefer not to view his photo in public , or even to display it in their private homes . = = Early and family life = = Bahá 'u'lláh was born on 12 November 1817 , in Tehran , the capital of Persia , present @-@ day Iran . Bahá 'í authors state that his ancestry can be traced back to Abraham through Abraham 's wife Keturah , to Zoroaster and to Yazdgerd III , the last king of the Sassanid Empire , and also to Jesse . According to the Bahá 'í author John Able , Bahá 'ís also consider Bahá 'u'lláh to have been " descended doubly , from both Abraham and Sarah , and separately from Abraham and Keturah . " His mother was Khadíjih Khánum and his father was Mírzá Buzurg . Bahá 'u'lláh 's father , Mírzá Buzurg , served as vizier to Imám @-@ Virdi Mírzá , the twelfth son of Fat ′ h Ali Shah Qajar . Mírzá Buzurg was later appointed governor of Burujird and Lorestan , a position that he was stripped of during a government purge when Muhammad Shah came to power . After the death of his father , Bahá 'u'lláh was asked to take a government post by the new vizier Hajji Mirza Aqasi , but declined . Bahá 'u'lláh was married three times . He married his first wife Ásíyih Khánum , the daughter of a nobleman , in Tehran in 1835 , when he was 18 and she was 15 . She was given the title of The Most Exalted Leaf and Navváb . His second marriage was to his widowed cousin Fátimih Khánum , in Tehran in 1849 when she was 21 and he was 32 . She was known as Mahd @-@ i-`Ulyá . His third marriage to Gawhar Khánum occurred in Baghdad sometime before 1863 . Bahá 'u'lláh declared Ásíyih Khánum his " perpetual consort in all the worlds of God " , and her son `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá as his vicar . He had 14 children , four daughters and ten sons , five of whom he outlived . Bahá 'ís regard Ásíyih Khánum and her children Mírzá Mihdí , Bahíyyih Khánum and `Abdu 'l @-@ Bahá ' to be the Bahá 'í holy family . = = Bábí movement = = In 1844 , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old man from Shiraz , Siyyid Mírzá `Alí @-@ Muḥammad claimed to be the promised redeemer ( or Mahdi ) of Islam , taking the title of the Báb , or the " Gate " . The resulting Bábí movement quickly spread across the Persian Empire and received widespread opposition from the Islamic clergy . The Báb himself was executed in 1850 by a firing squad in the public square of Tabriz at the age of 30 and the community was almost entirely exterminated in 1852 – 3 . While the Báb claimed a station of revelation , he also claimed no finality for his revelation . In most of his prominent writings , the Báb alluded to a Promised One , most commonly referred to as " Him whom God shall make manifest " . According to the Báb , this personage , promised in the sacred writings of previous religions , would establish the kingdom of God on the Earth ; several of the Báb 's writings state the coming of Him whom God shall make manifest would be imminent . In the books written by the Báb he constantly entreats his believers to follow Him whom God shall make manifest when he arrives . The Báb also eliminated the institution of successorship or vicegerency to his movement , and stated that no other person 's writings would be binding after his death until Him whom God shall make manifest would appear . = = = Acceptance of the Báb = = = Bahá 'u'lláh first heard of the Báb when he was 27 , and received a visitor sent by the Báb , Mullá Husayn , telling him of the Báb and his claims . Bahá 'u'lláh accepted the Báb 's claims , becoming a Bábí and helping to spread the new movement , especially in his native province of Núr , where he became recognized as one of its most influential believers . His notability as a local gave him many openings , and his trips to teach the religion were met with success , even among some of the religious class . He also helped to protect fellow believers , such as Táhirih , for which he was temporarily imprisoned in Tehran and punished with bastinado or foot whipping . Bahá 'u'lláh , in the summer of 1848 , also attended the conference of Badasht in the province of Khorasan , where 81 prominent Bábís met for 22 days ; at that conference where there was a discussion between those Bábís who wanted to maintain Islamic law and those who believed that the Báb 's message began a new dispensation , Bahá 'u'lláh took the pro @-@ change side , which eventually won out . It is at this conference that Bahá 'u'lláh took on the name Bahá . When violence started between the Bábís and the Qajar government in the later part of 1848 , Bahá 'u'lláh tried to reach the besieged Bábís at the Shaykh Tabarsi in Mazandaran , but was arrested and imprisoned before he could get there . The following years until 1850 saw the Bábís being massacred in various provinces after the Báb publicly made his claim of being the Manifestation of God . = = = Síyáh @-@ Chál = = = After the Báb was executed in 1850 , a group of Tehran Bábís , headed by a Bábí known as Azim , who was previously a Shaykhi cleric , plotted an assassination plan against the Shah Nasser @-@ al @-@ Din Shah , in retaliation for the Báb 's execution . The policy was opposed by Bahá 'u'lláh , who condemned the plan ; however , any moderating influence that he may have had was diminished in June 1851 when he went into exile to Baghdad at the chief minister 's request , returning only after Amir Kabir 's fall from power . On 15 August 1852 , the radical group of Bábís attempted to carry out the assassination of the Shah and failed . The group of Bábís linked with the plan , were rounded up and killed , and , notwithstanding the assassins ' claim that they were working alone , the entire Bábí community was blamed , precipitating violent riots against the Bábí community , that were encouraged and orchestrated by the government . During this time many Bábís were killed , and those Bábís who were not killed , including Bahá 'u'lláh , were imprisoned in the Síyáh @-@ Chál ( " black pit " ) , an underground dungeon of Tehran . According to Bahá 'u'lláh , it was during his imprisonment in the Síyáh @-@ Chál that he had several mystical experiences , and received a vision of a maiden from God , through whom he received his mission as a messenger of God and as the one whose coming the Báb had prophesied . After four months in the Síyáh @-@ Chál , owing to the insistent demands of the ambassador of Russia , and after the person who tried to kill the Shah confessed and exonerated the Bábí leaders , the authorities released him from prison , but exiled him from Iran . Instead of accepting the offer of refuge from Russia , Bahá 'u'lláh chose to go to Iraq in the Ottoman Empire ; in 1853 Bahá 'u'lláh and his family travelled from Persia arriving in Baghdad on 8 April 1853 . = = Baghdad = = The Báb had eliminated the institution of successorship or vicegerency to his movement , and had stated that no other person 's writings would be binding after his death until Him whom God shall make manifest would appear . He did , however , appoint Mírzá Yahyá ( later known as Subh @-@ i @-@ Azal ) as a nominal leader after himself . Mírzá Yahyá had gone into hiding after the assassination attempt on the Shah , and after Bahá 'u'lláh 's exile to Baghdad , he chose to join his brother there . At the same time , an increasing number of Bábís considered Baghdad the new center for leadership of the Bábí religion , and a flow of pilgrims started coming there from Persia . Mírzá Yahyá 's leadership was controversial . He generally absented himself from the Bábí community , spending his time in Baghdad in hiding and disguise ; on several occasions he went so far as to publicly disavow allegiance to the Báb . Mírzá Yahyá gradually alienated himself from a large number of the Bábís , who started giving their alliance to other claimants . During the time that Mírzá Yahyá remained in hiding , Bahá 'u'lláh performed much of the daily administration of Bábí affairs . In contrast to Mírzá Yahyá , Bahá 'u'lláh was outgoing and accessible and he was seen by an increasing number of Bábís as a religious leader , rather than just an organizer , and became their center of devotion . This was increasingly resented by Mírzá Yahyá , who began trying to discredit Bahá 'u'lláh , thus driving many people away from the religion . Tensions in the community mounted , and in 1854 Bahá 'u'lláh decided to leave the city to pursue a solitary life . = = = Kurdistan = = = On 10 April 1854 , Bahá 'u'lláh left his family to the care of his brother Mirza Musa and traveled with one companion to the mountains of Kurdistan , northeast of Baghdad , near the city of Sulaymaniyah . He later wrote that he left so as to avoid becoming a source of disagreement within the Bábí community , and that his " withdrawal contemplated no return " . For two years , Bahá 'u'lláh lived alone in the mountains of Kurdistan . He originally lived as a hermit , dressed like a dervish and used the name Darvish Muhammad @-@ i @-@ Irani . At one point someone noticed his penmanship , which brought the curiosity of the instructors of the local Sufi orders . As he began to take guests , he became noted for his learning and wisdom . Shaykh `Uthmán , Shaykh `Abdu 'r @-@ Rahmán , and Shaykh Ismá 'íl , leaders of the Naqshbandíyyih , Qádiríyyih , and Khálidíyyih Orders respectively , began to seek his advice . It was to the second of these that the Four Valleys was written . Bahá 'u'lláh wrote several other notable books during this time . In Baghdad , given the lack of firm and public leadership by Mirza Yahya , the Babi community had fallen into disarray . Some Babis , including Bahá 'u'lláh 's family , began searching for Bahá 'u'lláh , and when news of a man living in the mountains under the name of Darvish Muhammad spread to neighboring areas , Bahá 'u'lláh 's family begged him to come back to Baghdad . On 19 March 1856 , after two years in Kurdistan he returned to Baghdad . = = = Return to Baghdad = = = When Bahá 'u'lláh returned to Baghdad he saw that the Bábí community had become disheartened and divided . During Bahá 'u'lláh 's absence , it had become alienated from the religion because Mirza Yahya had continued	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
bout Me " ( Rube Bloom , Ted Koehler ) – 5 : 52 " Cry Me a River " ( Arthur Hamilton ) – 5 : 02 " Don 't Blame Me " ( Dorothy Fields , Jimmy McHugh ) – 5 : 01 " My Man " ( Channing Pollack , Yvain @-@ Albert , Maurice Yvain ) – 5 : 09 " Blue Gardenia " ( Lester Lee , Bob Russell ) – 5 : 07 Track listing adapted from AllMusic . = = Personnel = = Credits adapted from AllMusic . = = Charts = = Blue Gardenia reached number one on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart and held the position for at least four weeks . This was James ' first number one position on any Billboard chart ; previously , Mystery Lady : Songs of Billie Holiday ( 1994 ) and Matriarch of the Blues ( 2000 ) had reached number two on the Top Jazz Albums and Top Blues Albums charts , respectively . The June 8 , 2002 , issue of Billboard , which featured year @-@ to @-@ date rankings as part of the publication 's " Jazz Spotlight " , included Blue Gardenia at number six on the Top Jazz Albums chart . = 2012 Alabama Crimson Tide football team = The 2012 Alabama Crimson Tide football team ( variously " Alabama " , " UA " , " Bama " or " The Tide " ) represented the University of Alabama in the 2012 National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) Division I Football Bowl Subdivision ( FBS ) football season . It marked the Crimson Tide 's 118th overall season of playing college football , 79th as a member of the Southeastern Conference ( SEC ) and 21st within the SEC Western Division . The team was led by head coach Nick Saban , in his sixth year , and played its home games at Bryant – Denny Stadium in Tuscaloosa , Alabama . They finished the season with a record of 13 wins and 1 loss ( 13 – 1 overall , 7 – 1 in the SEC ) , as SEC champions and as consensus national champions after they defeated Notre Dame in the Bowl Championship Series ( BCS ) National Championship Game . After they captured the 2011 national championship , the Crimson Tide signed a highly rated recruiting class in February 2012 and completed spring practice the following April . With twelve returning starters from the previous season , Alabama entered the 2012 season as the defending national champions , ranked as the number two team in the nation and as a favorite to win the Western Division and compete for both the SEC and national championships . The Crimson Tide opened the season with nine consecutive victories that included one over Michigan at a neutral site and a come @-@ from @-@ behind victory on the road at Louisiana State University ( LSU ) . In their tenth game , Alabama was upset by Texas A & M , and dropped to the number four position in the rankings . However , after a series of upsets and victories in their final three games that included winning the SEC Championship over Georgia , Alabama qualified for the 2013 BCS National Championship Game against Notre Dame , where they won 42 – 14 and captured the 2012 national championship . At the conclusion of the season , the Alabama defense led the nation in total defense , scoring defense and rushing defense and ranked 7th in passing defense . Offensively , the Alabama offense ranked 12th in scoring offense , 16th in rushing offense , 31st in total offense and 75th in passing offense . Starting quarterback AJ McCarron was ranked first nationally in pass efficiency . Additionally , several players were recognized for their individual accomplishments on the field . Starting center Barrett Jones won both the Rimington Trophy and the William V. Campbell Trophy , and was named as the Academic All @-@ America of the Year ; defensive coordinator Kirby Smart was named the 2012 American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) FBS Assistant Coach of the Year . Also , five players were named to various All @-@ America Teams with Jones and C. J. Mosley being consensus selections and Dee Milliner and Chance Warmack being unanimous selections . = = Before the season = = = = = Previous season = = = In 2011 , Alabama came into the season ranked No. 2 in both preseason polls . The Crimson Tide won eight consecutive games to open the season before they lost to then No. 1 @-@ ranked LSU 9 – 6 in overtime . Alabama then won its remaining games and finished the regular season with eleven wins and one loss ( 11 – 1 ) and secured their fourth consecutive ten @-@ win season . The Crimson Tide then finished No. 2 in the final BCS rankings over both Oklahoma State and Stanford to set up a rematch against LSU in the 2012 BCS National Championship Game . In the game , Alabama defeated LSU 21 – 0 , allowed only 92 yards of total offense , and became the first team in BCS bowl history to shut out their opponent . The victory gave Alabama their 9th consensus national championship and Nick Saban became the only coach in college football to win three BCS Championships . = = = Spring practice = = = Spring practice began on March 9 and concluded with the annual A @-@ Day game on April 14 . The only players that did not compete during the spring practice period were Eddie Lacy , Blake Sims and Arie Kouandjio due to injuries ; and Duron Carter , Michael Bowman and Ronald Carswell due to team suspensions . In the annual A @-@ Day game at the conclusion of spring practice , the White team composed of defensive starters defeated the Crimson team of offensive starters 24 – 15 . The Crimson team opened on offense and on their first offensive play , AJ McCarron threw an interception to Robert Lester . Each team then traded punts and the first quarter ended tied at zero . On the first offensive play of the second quarter , T. J. Yeldon was tackled in the endzone for a safety to give the Crimson team a 2 – 0 lead . The White team responded on their next possession with a 48 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal and took a 3 – 2 lead before McCarron threw a 17 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones that gave the Crimson team a 9 – 3 halftime lead . In the third quarter , the White team scored a pair of touchdowns on successive possessions and took a 17 – 9 lead . Both were made on a pair of long Phillip Sims touchdown passes to Chris Black on a 44 @-@ yard reception and to Yeldon on a 50 @-@ yard reception . The Crimson team responded with a two @-@ play , 70 @-@ yard drive that saw a Demetrius Hart run of 23 yards and a 47 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Kenny Bell . After the unsuccessful two @-@ point conversion , the White team led 17 – 15 at the end of the third quarter . In the fourth , both defenses again held both offenses scoreless . The only points came late in the game when Vinnie Sunseri recovered a Michael Williams fumble and returned it 21 yards for a touchdown and a 24 – 15 White victory . For his performance , Adrian Hubbard earned the Dwight Stephenson Lineman of the A @-@ Day Game Award . In the game , Hubbard had seven tackles that included four tackles for a loss and three quarterback sacks . On offense , Yeldon earned the Dixie Howell Memorial Most Valuable Player of the A @-@ Day Game Award for his 179 all @-@ purpose yards on the day that included 88 rushing and 91 receiving , and a 50 @-@ yard touchdown reception . = = = Fall camp = = = By August , Alabama had a combined 31 players on 13 different preseason award watch lists . These players included Nico Johnson , Robert Lester , C. J. Mosley and Jesse Williams for the Chuck Bednarik Award ; Johnson and Mosley for the Butkus Award ; Barrett Jones and AJ McCarron for the Walter Camp Award ; Jeremy Shelley for the Lou Groza Award ; D. J. Fluker , Johnson , Jones , Mosley , Chance Warmack and Williams for the Lombardi Award ; Michael Williams for the John Mackey Award ; Eddie Lacy and McCarron for the Maxwell Award ; Johnson , Lester , Dee Milliner , Mosley and Williams for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy ; McCarron for the Davey O 'Brien Award ; Fluker , Jones , Warmack and Williams for the Outland Trophy ; Jones for the Rimington Trophy ; Lester for the Jim Thorpe Award ; and Lacy for the Doak Walker Award . On August 3 , the first official summer practice was held at the Thomas @-@ Drew Practice Facility , and on August 28 , Saban released the depth chart for the game one starters against Michigan . = = Personnel = = = = = Coaching staff = = = Alabama head coach Nick Saban was in his sixth year as the Crimson Tide 's head coach for the 2012 season . During his previous five years with Alabama , he led the Crimson Tide to an overall record of 50 wins and 12 losses ( 50 – 12 ) and both the 2009 and 2011 national championships . On January 18 , 2012 , Alabama officially hired Doug Nussmeier from the Washington Huskies as offensive coordinator and Lance Thompson from the Tennessee Volunteers as outside linebackers coach . Nussmeier took the place of Jim McElwain who left to become the head coach at Colorado State , and Thompson took the place of Sal Sunseri who left to become the defensive coordinator at Tennessee . = = = Departed starters = = = At the conclusion of the 2011 season , of all the draft @-@ eligible junior starters , Dont 'a Hightower , Dre Kirkpatrick and Trent Richardson declared their eligibility for the 2012 National Football League ( NFL ) Draft . In addition to those who declared early , several other starters graduated after the 2011 season . Graduating starters on Alabama 's offense included Darius Hanks and Marquis Maze at wide receiver , Brad Smelley at tight end and William Vlachos at center . Graduating starters on Alabama 's defense included Mark Barron at safety , Josh Chapman at nose guard , Jerrell Harris and Courtney Upshaw at linebacker and DeQuan Menzie at cornerback . The only graduating starter on Alabama 's special teams was Maze as the return specialist . = = = Returning starters = = = = = = Depth chart = = = Starters and backups : = = = Recruiting class = = = Prior to National Signing Day on February 1 , 2012 , six high school players that graduated early and two junior college transfers of the 2012 recruiting class enrolled for the spring semester in order to participate in spring practice . These early enrollments included : defensive lineman Ryan Anderson , wide receivers Chris Black and Amari Cooper , linebacker Dillon Lee , defensive tackle Alphonse Taylor and running back T. J. Yeldon from high school and defensive backs Deion Belue and Travell Dixon from junior college . On February 1 , seventeen additional players signed their National Letter of Intent to play at Alabama that completed the 2012 recruiting class . Alabama 's recruiting class was highlighted by thirteen players from the " ESPN 150 " : No. 6 Landon Collins ( safety ) ; No. 11 Eddie Williams ( athlete ) ; No. 20 Cyrus Jones ( athlete ) ; No. 22 Chris Black ( wide receiver ) ; No. 30 Brandon Greene ( offensive tackle ) ; No. 31 Geno Smith ( cornerback ) ; No. 49 Amari Cooper ( wide receiver ) ; No. 55 T. J. Yeldon ( running back ) ; No. 59 Dillon Lee ( outside linebacker ) ; No. 93 Ryan Anderson ( outside linebacker ) ; No. 100 Korren Kirven ( defensive tackle ) ; No. 109 Reggie Ragland ( inside linebacker ) ; and No. 121 Tyler Hayes ( outside linebacker ) . The Crimson Tide signed the No. 1 recruiting class according to Rivals.com and the No. 2 recruiting class according to Scout.com. In recognition for his accomplishments in helping Alabama land its highly rated 2012 class , Jeremy Pruitt was named Recruiter of the Year by 247Sports.com. = = Schedule = = The 2012 schedule was officially released on December 28 , 2011 . With the addition of both Missouri and Texas A & M to the conference , the SEC abandoned its previous scheduling format to accommodate its expansion . As such , Alabama faced all six Western Division opponents : Arkansas , Auburn , LSU , Mississippi State , Ole Miss and Texas A & M. They also faced two Eastern Division opponents : official SEC rival Tennessee and Missouri . Alabama did not play SEC Eastern Division opponents Georgia , Kentucky , South Carolina , Florida or Vanderbilt as part of the regular season . Alabama also played four non @-@ conference games : Michigan of the Big Ten Conference , Western Kentucky University ( WKU ) and Florida Atlantic of the Sun Belt Conference and Western Carolina of the Southern Conference . Alabama had their only bye week between their games against Ole Miss and Missouri . With their victory over Auburn , Alabama won the SEC Western Division championship and qualified to play in the SEC Championship Game against Georgia . In the SEC Championship Game , Alabama defeated the Bulldogs 32 – 28 and captured their 23rd SEC championship in football . On December 2 , the Crimson Tide qualified to play in the BCS National Championship Game against Notre Dame after they finished in the No. 2 position in the final BCS standings . In addition to weekly television coverage , radio coverage for all games was broadcast statewide on The Crimson Tide Sports Network ( CTSN ) . The radio announcers for the 2012 season were Eli Gold with play @-@ by @-@ play , Phil Savage with color commentary and Chris Stewart with sideline reports . Schedule source : = = Game notes = = = = = Michigan = = = On October 14 , 2010 , officials from both Alabama and the University of Michigan announced the Crimson Tide and Wolverines would meet to open the 2012 season in the Cowboys Classic at Arlington , Texas . In the game , Alabama took a 21 – 0 first quarter lead and defeated the Wolverines 41 – 14 to open the season . Michigan won the coin toss and elected to defer to the second half , and Alabama opened play with a three @-@ and @-@ out . Michigan was then held to only one first down before they punted on their first possession . On the drive that ensued , Alabama 's mix of play @-@ action passes and rushes ended with a two @-@ yard touchdown reception by Michael Williams from AJ McCarron for a 7 – 0 lead . After the Crimson Tide defense again forced a Wolverine punt , on Alabama 's next drive , McCarron connected with DeAndrew White for a 51 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 14 – 0 lead . Michigan stalled on their next drive after Denard Robinson threw an interception to Dee Milliner who returned it to Michigan 's 17 @-@ yard line . On third down , Eddie Lacy rushed nine yards into the end zone for a touchdown and a 21 – 0 lead at the end of the first quarter . On their first possession of the second quarter , Alabama drove 61 yards to the Michigan five @-@ yard line where Jeremy Shelly kicked a 22 @-@ yard field goal for a 24 – 0 lead . After each team traded punts on their next possessions , Robinson threw his second interception of the game . This time , C. J. Mosley returned the interception 16 yards for a touchdown and a 31 – 0 Crimson Tide lead . On the Wolverines ' next drive , Robinson found a wide open Jeremy Gallon for a 71 @-@ yard pass completion to the Alabama one @-@ yard line . Robinson then scored on a one @-@ yard run to cut the score to 31 – 7 . Alabama then ended the first half with a Lacy fumble that was recovered by Raymon Taylor as time expired with the Crimson Tide up 31 – 7 at halftime . Michigan received the ball to start the second half , and in their opening drive , Robinson rushed for six yards and threw a 20 @-@ yard pass to Drew Dileo before Alabama 's defense forced a punt . Alabama 's next drive started strong with a 28 @-@ yard reception by Kevin Norwood and a pair of 14 @-@ yard runs by T. J. Yeldon . However , McCarron was sacked for a 16 @-@ yard loss and as a result , Cade Foster later missed a 52 @-@ yard field goal wide left . On the Michigan drive that ensued , the Wolverines stalled at around midfield , but Michigan elected to go for the first down on fourth and three . Robinson then rushed for what was initially ruled a three @-@ yard first down , but later was overturned by video evidence that turned the ball over on downs . Alabama then drove to the Michigan 33 @-@ yard @-@ line where Foster connected on a 51 @-@ yard field goal that extended the Crimson Tide lead to 34 – 7 . The Wolverines responded on their next possession with their final points of the game after Robinson connected with Devin Gardner for a 44 @-@ yard touchdown reception to make the score 34 – 14 at the end of the third quarter . After each team again traded punts , on their second possession of the fourth quarter the Crimson Tide started at their own 43 @-@ yard @-@ line . On the drive , Jalston Fowler rushed for 25 yards , McCarron passed to Kelly Johnson for 16 yards and Michigan was called for a 15 @-@ yard pass interference penalty to set up a one @-@ yard touchdown run for Yeldon and a 41 – 14 Alabama lead . After this , Michigan and Alabama traded possessions without scoring , and on Michigan 's last possession of the game , backup Michigan quarterback Russell Bellomy threw an interception to Alabama 's Dillon Lee . In the game , Yeldon became the first non @-@ redshirted freshman to rush for 100 yards in his first game with the Crimson Tide . For their individual performances , Yeldon was named SEC Co @-@ Freshman of the Week and Milliner was named both SEC and Walter Camp Foundation Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Wolverines to 2 – 2 . = = = WKU = = = In the home opener for the 2012 season , Alabama shut out the Hilltoppers of Western Kentucky University ( WKU ) 35 – 0 . To open the game , Alabama scored on a 14 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Christion Jones that capped a four @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive . On the WKU drive that ensued , Nico Johnson forced a Marquis Sumler fumble that was recovered by Damion Square at the WKU 49 @-@ yard line . However , the Crimson Tide was unable to capitalize on the turnover after McCarron was sacked twice and were forced to punt . The defense responded on the next drive with their second recovered fumble of the game . This time , Adrian Hubbard caused the Antonio Andrews fumble that was recovered by Brandon Ivory at the WKU 33 @-@ yard line . On the next play , McCarron threw a 33 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood for a 14 – 0 Crimson Tide lead . Early in the second quarter , Xzavier Dickson sacked Kawaun Jakes and forced the third WKU fumble of the game ; this time it was recovered by Vinnie Sunseri and returned to the Alabama 32 @-@ yard line . Seven plays later , Alabama took a 21 – 0 lead when Christion Jones caught a 22 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass . Each team then traded punts until halftime . WKU opened the third quarter on offense , and three plays later Jakes threw an interception to Deion Belue that was returned to the Hilltoppers ' 25 @-@ yard line . Two plays after a face mask penalty brought the ball to the 12 @-@ yard line , McCarron connected with Norwood for a 12 @-@ yard touchdown reception and a 28 – 0 lead . The teams again traded punts late into the fourth quarter when Kenyan Drake scored on a 32 @-@ yard run to cap a 12 @-@ play , 81 @-@ yard drive that made the final score 35 – 0 . In the game , Jones and Norwood became the first pair of Alabama receivers to each score a pair of touchdowns in the same game since three were caught by Al Lary and two by Ed Lary in the 1950 season . Late in the game , backup running back Jalston Fowler suffered a knee injury that sidelined him for the remainder of the season . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Hilltoppers to 2 – 0 . = = = Arkansas = = = In their first road game of the season at their opponents ' home stadium , Alabama began conference play against the Arkansas Razorbacks at Fayetteville . During Alabama 's previous game against Louisiana – Monroe , the Razorbacks ' starting quarterback Tyler Wilson suffered a concussion and as a result was not cleared by team doctors to play against Alabama . With Wilson out , redshirt freshman Brandon Allen made his first start at quarterback and the Crimson Tide had their second consecutive shutout in their 52 – 0 victory over Arkansas . After each team traded punts on their first possessions , Arkansas long snapper Will Coleman snapped the ball over the head of punter Dylan Breeding that gave Alabama possession at the Razorbacks ' six @-@ yard line . On the next play , Eddie Lacy scored on a six @-@ yard run for a 7 – 0 Crimson Tide lead . The Razorbacks responded with an eight @-@ play , 51 @-@ yard drive , but failed to score any points after a 41 @-@ yard Zach Hocker field goal hit the left upright . Each team again traded punts before the Crimson Tide extended their lead to 10 – 0 early in the second quarter on a 51 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal . The Arkansas possession that ensued ended when Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Brandon Allen pass . Six plays later , AJ McCarron threw a 20 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Amari Cooper for a 17 – 0 lead . Later in the quarter , Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted another Allen pass and returned it to the three @-@ yard line . Three plays later Lacy had his second touchdown of the game on a one @-@ yard run and the Crimson Tide led at halftime 24 – 0 . Alabama opened the third quarter with a six @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that ended with a ten @-@ yard Lacy touchdown run . On the kickoff that ensued , Demetrius Hart forced a fumble by Arkansas ' Dennis Johnson that was recovered by Foster at the Razorbacks ' 27 @-@ yard line . Two plays later , Alabama led 38 – 0 after T. J. Yeldon scored on a one @-@ yard run . Arkansas responded with their longest drive of the game ; however , it ended when Deion Belue forced a Knile Davis fumble that was recovered by Nick Perry at the Alabama 20 @-@ yard line . With the majority of the offensive starters pulled from the game , the Crimson Tide reserves led Alabama on a 15 @-@ play , 80 @-@ yard drive that ended with a 12 @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run early in the fourth quarter . The final touchdown of the game was set up late in the game after Knile Davis lost his second fumble of the game on a Jeoffrey Pagan tackle that was recovered by Denzel Devall . Two plays later , backup quarterback Blake Sims made the final score 52 – 0 with his 27 @-@ yard quarterback sneak for a touchdown . The shutout was the first for Arkansas since their 28 – 0 loss to LSU in 1995 and was their first in Fayetteville since a 7 – 0 loss to Baylor in 1966 . It also marked the first time Alabama had shut out opponents in consecutive weeks since the 1980 season . For his performance , Chance Warmack was named the SEC Offensive Lineman of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Razorbacks to 13 – 8 ( 16 – 7 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) . = = = Florida Atlantic = = = In their fourth game of the 2012 season , Alabama defeated the Florida Atlantic Owls in their first all @-@ time meeting by a final score of 40 – 7 . The Crimson Tide scored on the third play of their first offensive possession when AJ McCarron connected with Kenny Bell for an 85 @-@ yard touchdown pass and an early 7 – 0 lead . After the Alabama defense held the Owls to a three @-@ and @-@ out on their first possession , the Crimson Tide took a 14 – 0 lead on their drive that ensued when McCarron threw a four @-@ yard touchdown pass to DeAndrew White . After the defense again held FAU to a three @-@ and @-@ out , Christion Jones fumbled the punt that was recovered by the Owls ' Tim Raber at the Alabama 25 @-@ yard line . After another defensive hold , Jesse Williams blocked the Vinny Zaccario field goal attempt to keep the score 14 – 0 . In the second quarter , the Crimson Tide scored on a 52 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal and on field goals of 26 and 30 yards by Jeremy Shelley before McCarron threw a four @-@ yard touchdown pass to Christion Jones to make the halftime score 30 – 0 . The defense also dominated the quarter and did not allow FAU a single third down conversion during the period . In the third , Foster connected on a 46 @-@ yard field goal and early in the fourth quarter Kenyan Drake scored on an eight @-@ yard touchdown run for a 40 – 0 lead . With the game in hand , Alabama played many of their backups in the second half . As such , late in the fourth quarter the Crimson Tide shutout streak that stretched back to the third quarter of their week one victory over Michigan ended when the Owls ' Graham Wilbert threw a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Alex Deleon that made the final score 40 – 7 . In the game , Eddie Lacy rushed for 106 yards on 15 carries for his first 100 @-@ yard rushing game of the season . The late FAU touchdown ended the Alabama shutout streak at 192 : 25 minutes that stretched back to the 0 : 14 mark of the third quarter in their game against Michigan . = = = Ole Miss = = = Alabama played their first home conference game in their annual rivalry game , against the Ole Miss Rebels at Tuscaloosa . In the game , 21 second quarter points after the Rebels ' briefly held a lead resulted in the 33 – 14 Crimson Tide victory . After each team traded punts on their first possessions , Jeremy Shelley connected on the first of four field goals from 38 yards out to give the Crimson Tide an early 3 – 0 lead . After Shelley made his second 38 @-@ yard field goal to extend the Alabama lead to 6 – 0 , Ole Miss responded with a 13 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that culminated with a one @-@ yard Jeff Scott touchdown run that gave the Rebels a 7 – 6 lead early in the second quarter . At the time the Rebels ' took the lead , it marked the first time Alabama trailed in regulation since their 2011 game against Tennessee . The Ole Miss lead only lasted for fifteen seconds , as Christion Jones scored a touchdown on the kickoff that ensued with his 99 @-@ yard return that gave the Crimson Tide a 13 – 7 lead . On the Rebels ' next possession , Bo Wallace threw an interception to Dee Milliner , and four plays later AJ McCarron threw a 16 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that extended the Alabama lead to 20 – 7 . On their next drive , Ole Miss was intercepted by the Crimson Tide on two separate occasions . First Robert Lester intercepted a Bo Wallace pass that he subsequently fumbled and was recovered by Scott , and then two plays later Randall Mackey threw an interception to Deion Belue at the Alabama 32 @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide then drove 68 yards and took a 27 – 7 halftime lead after McCarron threw a 12 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cooper . Ole Miss scored the only points of the third quarter on a 12 @-@ yard Randall Mackey touchdown run that capped a 70 @-@ yard drive that saw the Rebels convert a pair of fourth downs . The final margin of 33 – 14 was provided by a pair of Shelley field goals from 26 and 24 yards in the fourth quarter . In the game , McCarron eclipsed Brody Croyle 's team record of 190 consecutive pass attempts without throwing an interception . Starting wide receiver DeAndrew White and backup running back Demetrius Hart both suffered knee injuries during the course of the game that sidelined both of them for the remainder of the season . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Rebels to 46 – 9 – 2 ( 50 – 8 – 2 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) . = = = Missouri = = = In what was their first meeting since Alabama defeated the Tigers 38 – 28 during the 1978 season , and their first as conference foes , Alabama won 42 – 10 at Missouri on a stormy afternoon . The Crimson Tide opened the scoring on their second offensive play when Eddie Lacy had a 73 @-@ yard touchdown run for an early 7 – 0 Alabama lead . After each team traded punts , Vinnie Sunseri intercepted a Corbin Berkstresser pass that set up Alabama 's second scoring drive from the 50 @-@ yard line . AJ McCarron first had a 44 @-@ yard completion to Kenny Bell , and then Lacy scored his second touchdown of the afternoon on a three @-@ yard run two plays later for a 14 – 0 lead . The third Crimson Tide touchdown of the first quarter was set up after Landon Collins blocked a Trey Barrow punt that was recovered at the Missouri 17 @-@ yard line . Three T. J. Yeldon runs later , Alabama led 21 – 0 . After a pair of Tiger possessions that ended with punts and an Alabama possession that ended with a lost fumble by McCarron , the Crimson Tide started their fourth scoring drive of the afternoon . The drive began with a 22 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Christion Jones and finished with a 15 @-@ yard Yeldon touchdown run . Immediately after Yeldon scored , the referees stopped the game temporarily and cleared the field due to lightning strikes in the immediate vicinity of the stadium . After a 40 @-@ minute stoppage , the game resumed with a Jeremy Shelley extra point and a Crimson Tide lead of 28 – 0 . Missouri responded on the kickoff that ensued with their only touchdown of the afternoon on a 98 @-@ yard Marcus Murphy return that made the halftime score 28 – 7 . The Tigers opened the third quarter with a 41 @-@ yard Andrew Baggett field goal that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 28 – 10 . Each team then traded punts through the fourth quarter after Lacy scored his third touchdown of the afternoon on a one @-@ yard run that extended the Alabama lead to 35 – 10 . The Crimson Tide defense then got their third turnover of the game on the next Tigers possession when a Berkstresser pass was intercepted by Blake Sims and returned to the Alabama 46 @-@ yard line . With the second string in the game , the final points were scored by Kenyan Drake on a three @-@ yard run that made the final score 42 – 10 . In the game , Lacey ran for 177 yards and Yeldon ran for 144 yards with a combined five touchdowns . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 2 – 2 = = = Tennessee = = = In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the Tennessee Volunteers at Knoxville 44 – 13 for their sixth consecutive victory in the series . After the teams traded punts to open the game , Alabama scored their first touchdown on their second possession on a 23 @-@ yard AJ McCarron pass to Amari Cooper . The Volunteers responded on the drive that ensued with a 32 @-@ yard Michael Palardy field goal that cut the Crimson Tide lead to 7 – 3 . After the next Alabama drive ended with a missed Cade Foster field goal from 44 yards , the Crimson Tide defense responded with their first turnover of the game when C. J. Mosley intercepted a Tyler Bray pass at the Tennessee 32 @-@ yard line . Four T. J. Yeldon runs and 32 yards later , Alabama led 13 – 3 after he scored on a one @-@ yard touchdown run . The Crimson Tide extended their lead further to 20 – 3 on their next possession when Michael Williams scored on a one @-@ yard McCarron pass that completed a drive that included a 54 @-@ yard Cooper reception . Tennessee responded on their next possession with their only touchdown of the evening on a two @-@ yard AJ Johnson run . Alabama then closed the half with a 34 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal for a 23 – 10 halftime lead . The Crimson Tide opened the second half with a second missed Foster field goal , followed by each team again trading punts before the next Alabama points . The fourth Crimson Tide touchdown of the game came on a 42 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Cooper that extended the Alabama lead to 30 – 10 . Tennessee advanced the ball to the Crimson Tide 21 @-@ yard line on their next possession before Robert Lester intercepted the second Bray pass of the evening for a touchback . Early in the fourth , Alabama extended their lead to 37 – 10 on a 39 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Kenny Bell . The Alabama defense then held the Volunteers on a fourth down to give the Crimson Tide possession at their 42 @-@ yard line . Three plays later , Yeldon scored on a 43 @-@ yard run for the final Alabama points and a 44 – 10 lead . Tennessee then scored the final points of the game on a 21 @-@ yard Palardy field goal that was set up after a Blake Sims fumble gave the Volunteers possession at the Alabama 24 @-@ yard line that made the final score 44 – 13 . Several Alabama players had career days with the performance on the field in Knoxville . McCarron had both career highs in passing yards and touchdowns with 306 and 4 ; Cooper established an Alabama freshman record for receiving yards with his 163 in the game . Yeldon also had his third 100 @-@ yard rushing game of the season with his 129 yards on 15 carries and 2 touchdowns . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Volunteers to 49 – 38 – 7 ( 50 – 37 – 8 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) . = = = Mississippi State = = = In their annual rivalry game , Alabama defeated the Mississippi State Bulldogs at Tuscaloosa on homecoming 38 – 7 . The Crimson Tide led 21 – 0 early in the second quarter after they scored touchdowns on their first three offensive possessions . They opened the game with a 41 @-@ yard Cyrus Jones kickoff return that set up a 59 @-@ yard drive that ended with an 11 @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run . After Dee Milliner blocked a Devon Bell field goal attempt , the Crimson Tide took possession and six plays later led 14 – 0 on a 57 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to Kenny Bell . The Alabama defense then forced their first punt of the game , and for the third time in three possessions the Crimson Tide scored a touchdown on a nine @-@ yard McCarron pass to Michael Williams for a 21 – 0 lead . Each team then traded three @-@ and @-@ outs until nearly the end of the second quarter when Alabama was able to convert a 34 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal for a 24 – 0 halftime lead . After each team traded punts to open the third quarter , the Bulldogs sustained their longest drive of the game . They drove 97 yards in 16 plays , but Tyler Russell threw a pass that was intercepted by Robert Lester in the endzone for a touchback that halted the drive . On the Alabama drive that ensued , State managed to force a punt , however it was fumbled by Deontae Skinner that gave the Crimson Tide possession at the Bulldogs ' 28 @-@ yard line early in the fourth quarter . Three plays later , Phillip Ely threw his first career touchdown pass to Eddie Lacy from 27 yards for a 31 – 0 Alabama lead . On the kickoff that ensued , Christion Jones forced a Jameon Lewis fumble that was recovered by Landon Collins at the State 43 @-@ yard line , and eight plays later Alabama led 38 – 0 on a three @-@ yard Kenyan Drake touchdown run . With the Crimson Tide reserves in on defense , the Bulldogs did manage to break up the shutout bid late in the fourth quarter when State scored their lone points on a two @-@ yard Dak Prescott touchdown pass to Robert Johnson and made the final score 38 – 7 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 75 – 18 – 3 ( 77 – 17 – 3 without NCAA vacations and forfeits ) . = = = LSU = = = In their annual rivalry game , Alabama trailed the LSU Tigers 17 – 14 with only 1 : 34 remaining in the game . The Crimson Tide then went on a five @-@ play , 72 @-@ yard drive , capped by a 28 @-@ yard AJ McCarron touchdown pass to T. J. Yeldon with only 0 : 51 left , and defeated LSU 21 – 17 at Baton Rouge . After each team traded punts on their first possessions , LSU took a 3 – 0 first quarter lead when Drew Alleman connected on a 38 @-@ yard field goal . After each team again traded punts , Alabama scored the first touchdown of the game early in the second quarter . A seven @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run completed an 11 @-@ play , 92 @-@ yard drive and gave the Crimson Tide a 7 – 3 lead . On the LSU possession that ensued , the Alabama defense held the Tigers to a three @-@ and @-@ out . However , Cyrus Jones fumbled the Brad Wing punt that was recovered by LSU at the Crimson Tide 36 @-@ yard line . LSU then failed to capitalize on the turnover as Alleman was tackled for a two @-@ yard loss on a fake field goal attempt and gave Alabama possession at their 33 @-@ yard @-@ line . After another Alabama punt and a missed 54 @-@ yard Alleman field goal , the Crimson Tide took a 14 – 3 halftime lead on a nine @-@ yard McCarron touchdown run with only 0 : 11 left in the half . After a series of punts to open the third quarter , LSU scored their first touchdown on a one @-@ yard Jeremy Hill run that cut the Alabama lead to 14 – 10 . On the kickoff that ensued , a failed onside kick gave the Crimson Tide possession at the Tigers ' 44 @-@ yard line . The drive stalled at the 10 @-@ yard line when a Yeldon fumble was recovered by Sam Montgomery . LSU responded with a seven @-@ play , 90 @-@ yard drive and took a 17 – 14 lead when Jarvis Landry caught a 14 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Zach Mettenberger early in the fourth quarter . The next four possessions included a pair of three @-@ and @-@ outs for Alabama and LSU drives that stalled on a failed fourth @-@ down conversion and a missed 45 @-@ yard Alleman field goal , before the Tide went on their game @-@ winning drive . With only 1 : 34 left in the game , Alabama took possession at their own 28 @-@ yard line . McCarron then completed three consecutive passes to Kevin Norwood and moved the ball to the LSU 28 @-@ yard line . After an incompletion to Norwood , the game @-@ winning touchdown was scored when McCarron threw a short screen pass to Yeldon that he took 28 yards to score and create a 21 – 17 lead . After a pair of short passes , the game ended when Mettenberger was sacked by Damion Square as time expired . For his 12 @-@ tackle performance in the game , Adrian Hubbard was named the SEC Defensive Player of the Week . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 47 – 25 – 5 . = = = Texas A & M = = = In their first meeting as conference foes , Alabama was upset by the Texas A & M Aggies at Tuscaloosa 29 – 24 . After the Crimson Tide opened with a three @-@ and @-@ out , A & M scored on their first possession on a one @-@ yard Christine Michael touchdown run for a 7 – 0 lead . On their next possession , AJ McCarron threw his first interception of the season to Sean Porter , and four plays later the Aggies led 14 – 0 after Ryan Swope caught a 10 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Johnny Manziel . The A & M defense then held Alabama to their second three @-@ and @-@ out and forced a punt . The Aggies then took a 20 – 0 lead late in the first when Michael scored on his second one @-@ yard touchdown run that completed a 14 @-@ play , 73 @-@ yard drive . The Crimson Tide responded with a pair of second @-@ quarter touchdowns to make the halftime score 20 – 14 in favor of the visitors . T. J. Yeldon and Eddie Lacy each scored on two @-@ yard touchdown runs for the Crimson Tide in the quarter . The only points in the third quarter came on a 28 @-@ yard Jeremy Shelley field goal that made the score 20 – 17 as the teams entered the fourth quarter . In the fourth Taylor Bertolet connected on a 29 @-@ yard field goal , but then missed one from 37 yards out on their next possession . On the drive that ensued , Yeldon lost a fumble and A & M responded with a 24 @-@ yard Manziel touchdown pass to Malcome Kennedy for a 29 – 17 lead . Alabama responded on their next possession with a 54 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper to cut the Aggies lead to 29 – 24 . After the defense forced a punt , McCarron threw an interception on a fourth @-@ and @-@ goal play on the two @-@ yard line that gave A & M possession at the Aggies ' four @-@ yard line . On the possession that ensued , the Alabama defense forced an Aggies punt with 0 : 40 left in the game , but an offsides call on Alabama gave the Aggies a first down and sealed their 29 – 24 victory . The loss brought Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Aggies to 3 – 2 . = = = Western Carolina = = = In the final non @-@ conference game the 2012 season , Alabama shut out the Western Carolina Catamounts 49 – 0 in Tuscaloosa . The Crimson Tide scored three touchdowns in each of the first two quarters and took a 42 – 0 halftime lead . Alabama took the opening possession 62 yards in six plays and Eddie Lacy scored the first touchdown on a seven @-@ yard run for a 7 – 0 lead . After the defense held the Catamounts to a three @-@ and @-@ out , T. J. Yeldon scored the second Crimson Tide touchdown on a three @-@ yard run for a 14 – 0 lead . After a second three @-@ and @-@ out , Alabama scored its third touchdown in three possession on Lacy 's second seven @-@ yard touchdown run for a 21 – 0 lead at the end of the first quarter . To open the second quarter , the Crimson Tide went four @-@ for @-@ four on touchdowns when AJ McCarron connected on a 29 @-@ yard pass to Christion Jones for a 28 – 0 lead . Up by four touchdowns , backup quarterback Blake Sims took over for McCarron and led Alabama to their fifth touchdown in as many possessions and Lacy scored on a three @-@ yard run , his third touchdown of the afternoon . After the defense again held Carolina to another three @-@ and @-@ out , Christion Jones fumbled the Catamounts ' punt to give them possession at the Alabama 29 @-@ yard line . However , Western was unable to capitalize on the turnover as a Troy Mitchell fumble was recovered by Deion Belue and returned 57 yards for a touchdown and a 42 – 0 halftime lead . With reserves playing on both offense and defense for the Crimson Tide in the second half , the final touchdown came in the third quarter when Blake Sims scored on a five @-@ yard run to make the final score 49 – 0 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Catamounts to 2 – 0 ( 3 – 0 without NCAA vacations ) .This was the first time that Bryant @-@ Denny Stadium was not sold out for an Alabama game since 1986 . = = = Auburn = = = In the 2012 edition of the Iron Bowl , Alabama shut out the Auburn Tigers 49 – 0 at Tuscaloosa . The Crimson Tide opened the game with a 10 @-@ play , 75 @-@ yard drive that culminated in a two @-@ yard Eddie Lacy touchdown run and a 7 – 0 lead . After the Alabama defense held Auburn to a three @-@ and @-@ out on their first possession , their offense responded with their second touchdown of the afternoon on a two @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run for a 14 – 0 lead . The Crimson Tide then forced a Tigers ' punt on their second possession , and then scored their third touchdown in as many possessions when AJ McCarron threw a 37 @-@ yard pass to Amari Cooper for a 21 – 0 lead early in the second quarter . On the Auburn possession that ensued , the Alabama defense collected their first turnover of the game when Robert Lester intercepted a Jonathan Wallace pass at the Tigers ' 29 @-@ yard line . Five plays later the Crimson Tide led 28 – 0 after McCarron threw a seven @-@ yard touchdown pass to Kevin Norwood . The Alabama defense held Auburn to their second three @-@ and @-@ out of the game , and then the Crimson Tide scored their fifth touchdown of the game on a one @-@ yard Lacy run for a 35 – 0 lead . Auburn then committed their second turnover of the game when Nico Johnson forced a Tre Mason fumble that Dee Milliner recovered and returned to the Tigers ' 35 @-@ yard line . Alabama then took a 42 – 0 halftime lead when McCarron threw a 29 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Cooper . With the Alabama starters in the game for the first possession of the second half , the defense again held the Tigers to a three @-@ and @-@ out and forced a punt . The offense then made it seven @-@ for @-@ seven on offense when McCarron threw a 38 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Norwood for a 49 – 0 lead . The Alabama defense then did not allow Auburn to get past their own 41 @-@ yard line for the duration of the game and secured their fourth shutout of the season . The victory was the second largest in the history of the Iron Bowl after the 55 – 0 Alabama win in 1948 and improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Tigers to 42 – 34 – 1 . = = = Georgia = = = With their victory over Auburn in the Iron Bowl , Alabama clinched the SEC Western Division championship and qualified to play Georgia in the 2012 SEC Championship Game where they defeated the Bulldogs 32 – 28 . After each team traded punts on their opening possessions , Christian Robinson recovered an AJ McCarron fumble for the Bulldogs and gave Georgia possession at the Alabama 40 @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide defense then held the Bulldogs to a 50 @-@ yard field goal attempt that was missed by Marshall Morgan that kept the game scoreless . After the first quarter ended in a scoreless tie , Georgia scored their first touchdown early in the second quarter . The 19 @-@ yard touchdown pass from Aaron Murray to Jay Rome was set up by a fake punt earlier in the drive that gave the Bulldogs a 7 – 0 lead . After each team again traded punts , Alabama drove the ball to the Bulldogs ' one @-@ yard line . However , Eddie Lacy fumbled on second down and then McCarron threw an interception in the endzone to Sanders Commings to end the drive . The Crimson Tide forced another punt on the next Bulldogs possession and Alabama responded on the drive that ensued with their first touchdown of the game on a 41 @-@ yard Lacy run that tied the game 7 – 7 . On the next drive , Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted a Murray pass and returned it to the Georgia 47 @-@ yard line with just over 1 : 00 left in the half . Five plays later , Jeremy Shelley connected on a 22 @-@ yard field goal as time expired and gave the Crimson Tide a 10 – 7 halftime lead . Down by three to start the second half , Georgia responded with a pair of touchdowns and took a 21 – 10 lead early in the third quarter . The first was scored on a three @-@ yard Todd Gurley run that completed a 75 @-@ yard drive that opened the quarter . The second came on a special teams play on the drive that ensued , when Cornelius Washington blocked a 49 @-@ yard Cade Foster field goal attempt that was recovered by Alec Ogletree and returned 55 yards for a touchdown and a 21 – 10 lead . Alabama responded on their next possession with a four @-@ play , 77 @-@ yard drive that was capped by a 10 @-@ yard T. J. Yeldon touchdown run followed with Yeldon converting the two @-@ point conversion on a two @-@ yard run and made the score 21 – 18 . After a Georgia three @-@ and @-@ out , Alabama took a 25 – 21 lead on the first play of the fourth quarter on a one @-@ yard Lacy touchdown run behind the blocking of Jesse Williams . Georgia responded with a 10 @-@ yard Gurley touchdown run on the next drive and took a 28 – 25 lead . Each team then again traded punts before Alabama scored what proved to be the game @-@ winning touchdown on a 44 @-@ yard McCarron pass to Amari Cooper for a 32 – 28 lead . Each team then forced three @-@ and @-@ outs , and with just over one minute left in the game , Georgia drove to the Alabama eight @-@ yard line on a drive that saw several long Murray completions and an overturned interception by Dee Milliner . The final play of the game was a Murray pass tipped by C. J. Mosley and caught by Chris Conley at the Alabama five @-@ yard line , but Georgia did not have any time @-@ outs remaining and the clock ran out to give Alabama the 32 – 28 victory . In the game Lacy rushed for 181 yards and Yeldon rushed for 153 yards and Lacy was named the SEC Championship Game MVP for his performance . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Bulldogs to 37 – 25 – 4 . = = = Notre Dame = = = With their victory over Georgia in the SEC Championship Game , Alabama qualified for the 2013 BCS National Championship Game , and against Notre Dame the Crimson Tide captured their third BCS Championship in four years with a 42 – 14 victory over the Fighting Irish . After Notre Dame won the coin toss and elected to defer until the second half , Alabama took their opening possession 82 yards in five plays and Eddie Lacy gave the Crimson Tide an early 7 – 0 lead with his 20 @-@ yard touchdown run . On the first Irish possession that followed , the Crimson Tide held them to a three @-@ and @-@ out and forced a punt . The kick was subsequently fumbled by Christion Jones and recovered by Notre Dame ; however , a kick catching interference penalty was called against the Irish and gave back possession to Alabama . On the drive that ensued , the Crimson Tide took a 14 – 0 lead when AJ McCarron threw a three @-@ yard touchdown pass to Michael Williams that capped a 10 @-@ play , 61 @-@ yard drive . After the Alabama defense forced their second punt of the game , the Crimson Tide responded with their third touchdown of the game . T. J. Yeldon extended the Alabama lead to 21 – 0 with his one @-@ yard run on the first play of the second quarter . Notre Dame then responded with their longest play from scrimmage of the game on a 31 @-@ yard Everett Golson pass to DaVaris Daniels . However , the Irish then surrendered the ball on downs when they failed to convert on fourth @-@ and @-@ five four plays later . Each team then traded punts over the next four possessions before the Crimson Tide scored their final points of the first half . With just 0 : 31 left in the quarter , McCarron threw an 11 @-@ yard touchdown pass to Lacy that made the halftime score 28 – 0 . Notre Dame opened the third quarter on offense , but Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix intercepted a Golson pass that gave Alabama possession at the Irish three @-@ yard line . The Crimson Tide then drove 97 yards in ten plays that ended with a 34 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Amari Cooper that extended their lead to 35 – 0 . Notre Dame then responded with their first points of the game on the drive that ensued with a two @-@ yard Golson touchdown run that made the score 35 – 7 . Alabama then began their final scoring drive of the night . The final Crimson Tide touchdown came early in the fourth quarter on a 19 @-@ yard McCarron touchdown pass to Cooper that capped a 14 @-@ play , 86 @-@ yard drive that took 7 : 41 off the clock and made the score 42 – 7 . The Irish then made the final score 42 – 14 when Golson threw a six @-@ yard touchdown pass to Theo Riddick . The teams then traded punts with the final play of the game being a short Notre Dame run as time expired . For their performances on the field , Lacy was named the game 's offensive MVP and C. J. Mosley was named defensive MVP . In the game , Lacy rushed for 140 and Yeldon for 108 yards and each scored a touchdown in the win . McCarron became Alabama 's all @-@ time leader in touchdown passes when he surpassed the previous record of 47 set by John Parker Wilson . Cooper also set the single season record for touchdown receptions in a season after he caught a pair to give him 11 for the season and surpassed the previous record of 10 caught by Al Lary in 1955 . The victory improved Alabama 's all @-@ time record against the Fighting Irish to 2 – 5 . = = Rankings = = Entering the 2012 season , the Crimson Tide was ranked No. 2 in both the AP and Coaches ' Preseason Polls . After their 41 – 14 victory over Michigan to open the season , Alabama moved into the No. 1 position in both polls on September 4 . When the first BCS rankings were unveiled on October 14 , the Crimson Tide were in the No. 1 position . Alabama remained in first place in all the major polls through their loss to Texas A & M on November 10 when they dropped to No. 4 in the AP , Harris and BCS standings and to No. 5 in the Coaches ' poll . Prior to the loss , the ten weeks spent as the No. 1 team in the AP Poll set a school record for consecutive weeks ranked No. 1 . The week after the loss to A & M , the Crimson Tide moved up into the No. 2 position as a result of upset losses for both Kansas State and Oregon on November 17 . On December 2 , the final BCS rankings were released with the Crimson Tide in the No. 2 position to qualify for the BCS National Championship Game . After their victory over Notre Dame in the BCS National Championship Game , Alabama finished in the No. 1 position unanimously in both the AP and Coaches ' polls as consensus national champions . Source : ESPN.com : 2012 NCAA Football Rankings = = After the season = = After their victory over Notre Dame for the national championship , the team arrived at Tuscaloosa Regional Airport on the afternoon of January 8 , and several hundred fans were there to greet them upon their arrival . On January 19 , a championship parade was made through the streets of Tuscaloosa in recognition of the 2012 championship season . The parade concluded with Eli Gold as the master of ceremonies for an event on the Walk of Champions at Bryant – Denny Stadium that honored the 2012 team . On April 16 , the team made their trip to the White House , where President Barack Obama offered congratulatory remarks for their championship season . As part of the A @-@ Day celebrations on April 20 , the 2012 team captains Barret Jones , Damion Square and Chance Warmack were honored at the Walk of Fame ceremony at the base of Denny Chimes . = = = Final statistics = = = After their victory over Notre Dame in the BCS National Championship Game , Alabama 's final team statistics were released . On the defensive side of the ball , of the 120 FBS teams , the Crimson Tide was ranked near the top of all major defensive categories nationally and first in all categories in conference . They ranked first in total defense ( 250 @.@ 00 yards per game ) , scoring defense ( 10 @.@ 93 points per game ) and rushing defense ( 76 @.@ 36 yards per game ) and ranked seventh in passing defense ( 173 @.@ 64 yards per game ) . Individually , C. J. Mosley led the team with 107 total tackles , 41 of which were assisted , and 66 solo tackles . Adrian Hubbard was tied for 73rd nationally , 8th in conference and 1st on the team with 7 quarterback sacks . Hubbard was also 20th in conference and 1st on the team with 11 tackles for loss . Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix was tied for 30th nationally , 3rd in conference and 1st on the team with five of Alabama 's 18 total interceptions of the season . On offense , of the 120 FBS teams , Alabama ranked 12th in scoring offense ( 38 @.@ 71 points per game ) , 16th in rushing offense ( 227 @.@ 50 yards per game ) , 31st in total offense ( 445 @.@ 50 yards per game ) and 75th in passing offense ( 218 @.@ 00 yards per game ) . In conference , they ranked second in rushing and scoring offense , fourth in total offense and eighth in passing offense . Individually , AJ McCarron led the nation with a pass efficiency rating of 175 @.@ 28 . McCarron also led the team in passing offense and completed 211 of 314 passes for 2 @,@ 933 passing yards and 30 touchdowns . Amari Cooper led the team with 59 receptions for 1 @,@ 000 yards and 11 touchdown receptions . Eddie Lacy led the team with 204 rushing attempts for 1 @,@ 322 yards and 17 touchdown runs . T. J. Yeldon was second on the team with 175 rushing attempts for 1 @,@ 108 yards and 12 touchdown runs . Nationally , their total rushing yards placed Lacy 40th ( 3rd in conference ) and Yeldon 65th ( 9th in conference ) . = = = Awards = = = Following the SEC Championship Game , multiple Alabama players were recognized for their on @-@ field performances with a variety of awards and recognitions . At the team awards banquet on December 2 , Barrett Jones , Damian Square and Chance Warmack were each named the permanent captains of the 2012 squad . At that time C. J. Mosley was also named the 2012 most valuable player with Nico Johnson and Dee Milliner named defensive players of the year and AJ McCarron and Jones named offensive players of the year . = = = = Conference = = = = The SEC recognized several players for their individual performances with various awards . On December 5 , Barret Jones was named the SEC Scholar @-@ Athlete of the Year . On December 3 , Jones , Dee Milliner , C. J. Mosley and Chance Warmack were named to the AP All @-@ SEC First Team . D. J. Fluker , AJ McCarron , Eddie Lacy and Jesse Williams were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Second Team ; Robert Lester and Ha 'Sean Clinton @-@ Dix were named to the AP All @-@ SEC Honorable Mention Team . Fluker , Jones , Lacy , Milliner , Mosley and Warmack were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC First Team . Lester and McCarron were named to the Coaches ' All @-@ SEC Second Team . T. J. Yeldon , Amari Cooper , Ryan Kelly and D. J. Pettway were named to the SEC All @-@ Freshman Team . = = = = National = = = = After the season , a number of Alabama players were named as national award winners and finalists . Finalists for major awards from the Crimson Tide included : Dee Milliner for the Bronko Nagurski Trophy and the Jim Thorpe Award , C. J. Mosley for the Butkus Award , AJ McCarron for the Johnny Unitas Golden Arm Award and the Manning Award and Barrett Jones for the Lombardi Award and the Outland Trophy . On December 4 , Jones was awarded the William V. Campbell Trophy , often referred to as the " Academic Heisman , " and on December 6 he was awarded the Rimington Trophy as the top center in college football and named as the Academic All @-@ America of the Year . On the coaches ' side , defensive coordinator Kirby Smart was named the 2012 AFCA FBS Assistant Coach of the Year . For their individual performances during the regular season , several players were named to various national All @-@ American Teams . Dee Milliner , C. J. Mosley and Chance Warmack were named to the American Football Coaches Association ( AFCA ) All @-@ America Team . Barrett Jones , Milliner , Mosley and Warmack were named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America First Team ( WC ) . D. J. Fluker was named to the Walter Camp All @-@ America Second Team . Jones , Milliner , Mosley and Warmack were named to the Sporting News ( TSN ) All @-@ America Team . Amari Cooper , Denzel Devall and T. J. Yeldon were named to the TSN Freshman All @-@ America Team . Milliner , Mosley , Jones and Warmack were named to the Associated Press All @-@ American First Team ; Fluker was named to the Associated Press All @-@ American Second Team ; and AJ McCarron was named to the Associated Press All @-@ American Third Team . Jones , Milliner and Warmack were named to the Football Writers Association of America ( FWAA ) All @-@ America Team . The NCAA recognizes five All @-@ America lists in the determination of both consensus and unanimous All @-@ America selections : the AP , AFCA , the FWAA , TSN and the WC . In order for an honoree to earn a consensus selection , he must be selected as first team in three of the five lists recognized by the NCAA , and unanimous selections must be selected as first team in all five lists . As such , for the 2012 season both Milliner and Warmack were unanimous selections and Jones and Mosley were consensus selections . = = = = All @-@ star games = = = = Several Alabama players were selected by postseason all @-@ star games . Nico Johnson , Robert Lester , Carson Tinker and Michael Williams were selected to play in the Senior Bowl . Invitations were also extended to Barrett Jones , Chance Warmack and Jesse Williams to participate in the game . Additionally , D. J. Fluker and Justin Pugh of Syracuse were invited to compete in the Senior Bowl as fourth @-@ year juniors and became the first non @-@ seniors to participate in the history of the game . Seniors Quinton Dial , Kelly Johnson , Jeremy Shelley , Damion Square and Carson Tinker participated in the inaugural Raycom College Football All @-@ Star Classic . Alabama did not have players participate in the East – West Shrine Game , Casino del Sol College All @-@ Star Game or the National Football League Players Association Collegiate Bowl . = = = Coaching changes = = = In the weeks that followed the conclusion of the season , several changes were made to the Alabama coaching staff . On December 20 defensive backs coach Jeremy Pruitt was officially hired as defensive coordinator at Florida State as the replacement for Mark Stoops . Pruitt remained on staff through the 2013 BCS National Championship Game . On January 9 , 2013 , former Colorado defensive coordinator Greg Brown was hired as Pruitt 's replacement for secondary coach . On February 8 , 2013 , offensive line coach Jeff Stoutland resigned his position and took an assistant coaching position with the Philadelphia Eagles . On February 18 , former Florida International head coach Mario Cristobal was hired as Stoutland 's replacement for offensive line coach . On February 21 , Mike Groh resigned from his position as wide receivers coach and took the same position with the Chicago Bears . Florida State 's tight ends coach and recruiting coordinator Billy Napier was later hired as Groh 's replacement as wide receivers coach . = = = NFL Draft = = = Of all the draft @-@ eligible juniors , D. J. Fluker , Eddie Lacy and Dee Milliner declared their eligibility for the 2013 NFL Draft on January 11 . At the time of their announcement , Milliner was projected to be a first @-@ round pick and both Fluker and Lacy were projected to be no lower than second @-@ round picks . Adrian Hubbard , AJ McCarron , C. J. Mosley and Anthony Steen had each previously indicated they would not declare for the draft and would return for their senior seasons . In February 2013 , ten Alabama players , seven seniors and three juniors , were invited to the NFL Scouting Combine . The invited players were defensive linemen Quinton Dial , Damion Square and Jesse Williams , linebacker Nico Johnson , defensive backs Robert Lester and Dee Milliner , running back Eddie Lacy and offensive linemen D. J. Fluker , Barrett Jones and Chance Warmack . In the first round , three Crimson Tide players were selected consecutively : Milliner ( 9th New York Jets ) , Warmack ( 10th Tennessee Titans ) , and Fluker ( 11th San Diego Chargers ) . Lacy was selected in the second round ( 61st Green Bay Packers ) ; Johnson ( 99th Kansas City Chiefs ) and Jones ( 113th St. Louis Rams ) were selected in the fourth round ; Jesse Williams ( 137th Seattle Seahawks ) and Dial ( 157th San Francisco 49ers ) were selected in the fifth round ; and Michael Williams ( 211th Detroit Lions ) was selected in the seventh round . In the days after the draft , four players from the 2012 squad that were not drafted signed as undrafted free agents . These players included Lester ( Carolina Panthers ) , Carson Tinker ( Jacksonville Jaguars ) , Damion Square ( Philadelphia Eagles ) and Jeremy Shelley ( Atlanta Falcons ) . = LeBron James = LeBron Raymone James ( / ləˈbrɒn / ; born December 30 , 1984 ) is an American professional basketball player who is a free agent . James has won three NBA championships ( 2012 , 2013 , 2016 ) , four NBA Most Valuable Player Awards ( 2009 , 2010 , 2012 , 2013 ) , three NBA Finals MVP Awards ( 2012 , 2013 , 2016 ) , two Olympic gold medals ( 2008 , 2012 ) , an NBA scoring title ( 2008 ) , and the NBA Rookie of the Year Award ( 2004 ) . He has also been selected to 12 NBA All @-@ Star teams ( named the game 's MVP twice ) , 12 All @-@ NBA teams , and six All @-@ Defensive teams , and is the Cavaliers ' all @-@ time leading scorer . James played high school basketball at St. Vincent – St. Mary High School in his hometown of Akron , Ohio , where he was highly promoted in the national media as a future NBA superstar . After graduating , he was selected with the first overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers . James led Cleveland to the franchise 's first Finals appearance in 2007 , losing to the San Antonio Spurs . In 2010 , he left the Cavaliers for the Miami Heat in a highly publicized ESPN special titled The Decision . James played four seasons for the Heat , reaching the Finals all four years and winning back @-@ to @-@ back championships in 2012 and 2013 . In 2013 , he led Miami on a 27 @-@ game winning streak , the third longest in league history . Following his final season with the Heat , James opted out of his contract and re @-@ joined the Cavaliers . Behind his leadership , Cleveland advanced to two consecutive Finals against the Golden State Warriors , winning the championship in 2016 . Off the court , James has accumulated considerable wealth and fame from numerous endorsement deals . His public life has been the subject of much scrutiny , and he has been ranked as one of America 's most influential and popular athletes . He has been featured in books , documentaries , and television commercials . He also hosted the ESPY Awards , Saturday Night Live , and appeared in the 2015 film Trainwreck . = = Early life = = James was born on December 30 , 1984 in Akron , Ohio , to a 16 @-@ year @-@ old mother , Gloria Marie James , who raised him on her own . Growing up , life was often a struggle for the family , as they moved from apartment to apartment in the seedier neighborhoods of Akron while James ' mother struggled to find steady work . Realizing he would be better off with a more stable family environment , Gloria allowed James to move in with the family of Frank Walker , a local youth football coach , who introduced James to basketball when he was nine years old . As a youth , James played Amateur Athletic Union ( AAU ) basketball for the Northeast Ohio Shooting Stars . The team enjoyed success on a local and national level , led by James and his friends Sian Cotton , Dru Joyce III , and Willie McGee . Inseparable , they dubbed themselves the " Fab Four " and promised each other they would attend high school together . In a move that stirred local controversy , they chose to attend St. Vincent – St. Mary High School , a largely white private Catholic school . = = High school career = = = = = Basketball = = = As a freshman , James averaged 21 points and 6 rebounds per game for St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary 's varsity team . The Fighting Irish finished the year 27 – 0 , winning the Division III state title . As a sophomore , he averaged 25 @.@ 2 points and 7 @.@ 2 rebounds with 5 @.@ 8 assists and 3 @.@ 8 steals per game . For some home games during the season , St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary played at the University of Akron 's 5 @,@ 492 @-@ seat Rhodes Arena to satisfy ticket demand from alumni , fans , and college and NBA scouts who wanted to see James play . The Fighting Irish finished the season 26 – 1 and repeated as state champions . For his outstanding play , James was named Ohio 's Mr. Basketball and was selected to the USA Today All @-@ USA First Team , becoming the first sophomore to do either . Prior to the start of James ' junior year , he appeared in SLAM Magazine and was lauded as possibly " the best high school basketball player in America right now . " During the season , he appeared on the cover of Sports Illustrated , becoming the first underclass high school basketball player to do so . With averages of 29 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds , 5 @.@ 7 assists , and 3 @.@ 3 steals per game , he was again named Ohio 's Mr. Basketball and selected to the USA Today All @-@ USA First Team , and became the first junior to win the boys ' basketball Gatorade National Player of the Year Award . St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary finished the year with a 23 – 4 record , ending their season with a loss in the Division II championship game . Following the loss , James seriously considered declaring for the 2002 NBA draft , unsuccessfully petitioning for an adjustment to the NBA 's draft eligibility rules which required prospective players to have at least graduated from high school . During this time , James used marijuana to help cope with stress resulting from the constant media attention he was receiving . During his senior year , James and the Fighting Irish traveled around the country to play a number of nationally ranked teams , including a game against Oak Hill Academy that was nationally televised on ESPN2 . Time Warner Cable , looking to capitalize on James ' popularity , offered St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary 's games to subscribers on a pay @-@ per @-@ view basis throughout the season . For the year , James averaged 31 @.@ 6 points , 9 @.@ 6 rebounds , 4 @.@ 6 assists , and 3 @.@ 4 steals per game , was named Ohio 's Mr. Basketball and USA Today All @-@ USA First Team for an unprecedented third consecutive year , and was named Gatorade National Player of the Year for the second consecutive year . He participated in three year @-@ end high school basketball all @-@ star games — the EA Sports Roundball Classic , the Jordan Capital Classic , and the 2003 McDonald 's All @-@ American Game — losing his NCAA eligibility and making it official he would enter the 2003 NBA draft . According to writer Ryan Jones , James left high school as " the most hyped basketball player ever " . During his senior year , James was the centerpiece of several controversies . For his 18th birthday , he accepted a Hummer H2 from his mother , who secured a loan for the vehicle utilizing LeBron 's future earning power as a professional athlete . This prompted an investigation by the Ohio High School Athletic Association ( OHSAA ) as its guidelines state that no amateur may accept any gift valued over $ 100 as a reward for athletic performance . Later in the season , James accepted two throwback jerseys worth $ 845 from an urban clothing store in exchange for posing for pictures , officially violating OHSAA rules and resulting in his being stripped of his high school sports eligibility . James appealed the ruling and his penalty was eventually dropped to a two @-@ game suspension , allowing him to play the remainder of the year . The Irish were also forced to forfeit one of their wins , their only official loss that season . In his first game back after the suspension , James scored a career @-@ high 52 points . = = = Football = = = James played wide receiver for St. Vincent @-@ St. Mary 's football team in high school and was recruited by some Division I programs , including Notre Dame . As a sophomore , he was named first team all @-@ state , and as a junior , he led the Fighting Irish to the state semifinals . His football career came to an end before his senior year when he broke his wrist during an AAU basketball game . Many sports analysts , football critics , high school coaches , and former and current players have speculated on whether he could have played in the National Football League . = = Professional career = = = = = Cleveland Cavaliers ( 2003 – 2010 ) = = = = = = = Rookie season ( 2003 – 04 ) = = = = James was selected with the first overall pick in the 2003 NBA draft by the Cleveland Cavaliers . In his first professional game , he recorded 25 points against the Sacramento Kings , setting an NBA record for most points scored by a prep @-@ to @-@ pro player in his debut outing . He was eventually named the NBA Rookie of the Year , finishing with averages of 20 @.@ 9 points , 5 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 5 @.@ 9 assists per game . He became the first Cavalier to receive the honor and just the third player in NBA history to average at least 20 points , 5 rebounds , and 5 assists per game in his rookie year . The Cavaliers finished the season 35 – 47 , failing to make the playoffs despite an 18 @-@ game improvement over the previous year . = = = = Rise to superstardom ( 2004 – 2008 ) = = = = James earned his first NBA All @-@ Star Game selection in 2004 – 05 , contributing 13 points , 8 rebounds , and 6 assists in a winning effort for the Eastern Conference . On March 20 , he scored 56 points against the Toronto Raptors , setting Cleveland 's new single game points record . With averages of 27 @.@ 2 points , 7 @.@ 4 rebounds , 7 @.@ 2 assists , and 2 @.@ 2 steals per game to finish the season , he was named to his first All @-@ NBA Team . Despite a 30 – 20 record to start the year , the Cavaliers again failed to make the playoffs , finishing the season at 42 – 40 . At the 2006 All @-@ Star Game , James led the East to victory with 29 points and was named the NBA All @-@ Star Game Most Valuable Player . Behind final season averages of 31 @.@ 4 points , 7 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 6 assists per game , he finished second in NBA Most Valuable Player Award voting to Steve Nash . Under James ' leadership , the Cavaliers qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 1998 . In his postseason debut , he recorded a triple @-@ double in a winning effort versus the Washington Wizards . In Game 3 of the series , he made the first game @-@ winning shot of his career , making another in Game 5 . Cleveland would go on to defeat the Wizards before being ousted by the Detroit Pistons in the second round . In 2006 – 07 , James ' averages declined to 27 @.@ 3 points , 6 @.@ 7 rebounds , 6 assists , and 1 @.@ 6 steals per game . Some analysts attributed the fall to a regression in his passing skills and shot selection , stemming from a lack of effort and focus . The Cavaliers finished the season with 50 wins for the second consecutive year and entered the playoffs as the East 's second seed . In Game 5 of the Conference Finals , James notched 48 points with 9 rebounds and 7 assists , scoring 29 of Cleveland 's last 30 points , including the game @-@ winning lay @-@ up with two seconds left , against the Pistons . After the game , play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Marv Albert called the performance " one of the greatest moments in postseason history " and color commentator Steve Kerr called it " Jordan @-@ esque " . In 2012 , ESPN ranked the performance the fourth greatest in modern NBA playoff history . The Cavaliers went on to win Game 6 and claim their first ever Eastern Conference championship . They advanced to the NBA Finals where they were swept by the San Antonio Spurs . For the Finals , James averaged 22 points , 7 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 8 assists per game . In February of the 2007 – 08 season , James was named All @-@ Star Game MVP for the second time behind a 27 @-@ point , 8 @-@ rebound , and 9 @-@ assist performance . On March 21 , he moved past Brad Daugherty as the Cavaliers ' all @-@ time leading scorer in a game against the Raptors , doing so in over 100 less games than Daugherty . With seven triple @-@ doubles to finish the year , James set a new personal and team record for triple @-@ doubles in a season . His 30 points per game were also the highest in the league , representing his first scoring title . Despite his individual accomplishments , Cleveland 's record fell from the year before to 45 – 37 . Seeded fourth in the East entering the playoffs , the Cavaliers defeated the Wizards in the first round for the third consecutive season before being eliminated in seven games by the Boston Celtics in the next round . During the decisive seventh game in Boston , James scored 45 points and Paul Pierce scored 41 in a game the Associated Press described as a " shootout " . = = = = First MVP tenure ( 2008 – 2010 ) = = = = At the conclusion of the 2008 – 09 season , James finished second in NBA Defensive Player of the Year voting and made his first NBA All @-@ Defensive Team with 23 chase @-@ down blocks and a career @-@ high 93 total blocks . He also became only the fourth postmerger player to lead his team in points , rebounds , assists , steals , and blocks in a single season . Behind his play , Cleveland went a franchise record 66 – 16 and fell one game short of matching the best home record in league history . With averages of 28 @.@ 4 points , 7 @.@ 6 rebounds , 7 @.@ 2 assists , 1 @.@ 7 steals , and 1 @.@ 2 blocks per game , he became the first Cavalier to win the MVP Award . In the playoffs , Cleveland swept the Pistons and the Atlanta Hawks to earn a match @-@ up with the Orlando Magic in the Conference Finals . In Game 1 of the series , James scored 49 points on 66 percent shooting in a losing effort for the Cavaliers . In Game 2 , he hit a game @-@ winner to tie the series at 1 – 1 . Cleveland would lose the series in six games , and following the loss in Game 6 , James immediately left the floor without shaking hands with his opponents , an act many media members viewed as unsportsmanlike . For the series , he averaged 38 @.@ 5 points , 8 @.@ 3 rebounds , and 8 assists per game , finishing the postseason with a career playoff @-@ high 35 @.@ 3 points per game . Midway through the 2009 – 10 season , the Cavaliers ' guards experienced significant injuries , forcing James into a temporary point guard role . With increased minutes as the team 's primary ball handler , he averaged a career @-@ high 8 @.@ 6 assists with 29 @.@ 7 points , 7 @.@ 3 rebounds , 1 @.@ 6 steals , and 1 block per game on 50 percent shooting en route to a second consecutive MVP Award . Cleveland also finished the season with the league 's best record for the second straight year . In the playoffs , the Cavaliers beat the Bulls in the first round but fell to the Celtics in the second round . James was heavily criticized for not playing well in Game 5 of the series when he shot only 20 percent on 14 shots , scoring 15 points . At the conclusion of the game , he walked off the court to a smattering of boos from Cleveland 's home crowd , the team having just suffered their worst home playoff loss ever . The Cavaliers were eliminated from the playoffs by the Celtics with a Game 6 defeat despite James recording 27 points , 19 rebounds and 10 assists . = = = 2010 free agency = = = James became an unrestricted free agent at 12 : 01 am EDT on July 1 , 2010 . During his free agency , he was courted by several teams , including the Bulls , Los Angeles Clippers , Miami Heat , New York Knicks , New Jersey Nets , and Cavaliers . On July 8 , he announced on a live ESPN special titled The Decision that he would sign with the Heat . The telecast , broadcast from the Boys & Girls Club of Greenwich , Connecticut , raised $ 2 @.@ 5 million for the charity and an additional $ 3 @.@ 5 million from advertisement revenue that was donated to other charities . The day before the special , fellow free agents Chris Bosh and Dwyane Wade had also announced that they would sign with Miami ; reports later arose that the trio had discussed their 2010 free agencies together in 2006 . James decided to join with Bosh and Wade in part so that he could shoulder less of the load offensively , thinking that his improved teammates would give him a better chance of winning a championship than had he stayed in Cleveland . Heat president Pat Riley played a major role in selling James on the idea of playing with Bosh and Wade . Relieved of the burden of scoring , James thought he could be the first player to average a triple @-@ double in a season since Oscar Robertson . James drew immense criticism from sports analysts , executives , fans , and current and former players for leaving the Cavaliers . The Decision itself was also scrutinized and viewed as unnecessary . Many thought the prolonged wait for James ' choice was unprofessional as not even the teams courting him were aware of his decision until moments before the show . Upon learning that James would not be returning to Cleveland , Cavaliers owner Dan Gilbert published an open letter to fans in which he aggressively denounced James ' actions . Some angry fans of the team recorded videos of themselves burning his jersey . Former NBA players including Michael Jordan and Magic Johnson were also critical of James , condemning him for joining with Bosh and Wade in Miami and not trying to win a championship as " the guy " . James drew further criticism in a September interview with CNN when he claimed that race might have been a factor in the fallout from The Decision . As a result of his actions during the 2010 free agency period , he quickly gained a reputation as one of America 's most disliked athletes , a radical change from years prior . The phrase " taking my talents to South Beach " became a punch line for critics . Immediately following The Decision , James claimed that there was nothing he would change about the handling of his free agency despite all the criticism . Since then , he has expressed regret over his actions . During the 2010 – 11 season , he said he " probably would do it a little bit different ... But I 'm happy with my decision . " James relented about the special before the 2011 – 12 season : " ... if the shoe was on the other foot and I was a fan , and I was very passionate about one player , and he decided to leave , I would be upset too about the way he handled it . " = = = Miami Heat ( 2010 – 2014 ) = = = = = = = Debut season ( 2010 – 11 ) = = = = James officially became a member of the Heat on July 10 , completing a sign @-@ and @-@ trade six @-@ year contract with the team . With the move , he became only the third reigning MVP to change teams and the first since Moses Malone in 1982 . Although his contract would have allowed him to earn the maximum salary under the collective bargaining agreement , he took less money in order for Miami to be able to afford Bosh and Wade as well as further roster support . That evening , the Heat threw a welcome party for their new " big three " at the American Airlines Arena , an event that took on a rock concert atmosphere . During the gathering , James predicted a dynasty for the Heat and alluded to multiple championships . Outside of Miami , the spectacle was not well @-@ received , furthering the negative public perception of James . Throughout the 2010 – 11 season , James embraced the villain role bestowed upon him by the media ; he later admitted that he regretted this approach . On December 2 , he returned to Cleveland for the first time since departing as a free agent , scoring 38 points and leading Miami to a win while being booed every time he touched the ball . He finished the season with averages of 26 @.@ 7 points , 7 @.@ 5 rebounds , and 7 assists per game on 51 percent shooting . Entering the playoffs as the East 's second seed , Miami advanced to the Finals before stumbling against the Dallas Mavericks , losing in six games despite holding a 2 – 1 series lead going into Game 4 . James received the brunt of the criticism for the loss , averaging only three points in fourth quarters in the series . His Finals scoring average of 17 @.@ 8 points per game signified an 8 @.@ 9 @-@ point drop from the regular season , the largest point drop @-@ off in league history . = = = = Back @-@ to @-@ back championships ( 2011 – 13 ) = = = = Humbled by the Heat 's loss to the Mavericks , James spent the offseason working with Hakeem Olajuwon on his post game . His work with Olajuwon paid off , fueling what Grantland 's Kirk Goldsberry called " one of the greatest and most important transformations in recent sports history " . Behind James ' more post @-@ oriented play , Miami matched their best start to a season in franchise history , and at the conclusion of the lockout @-@ shortened 2011 – 12 campaign , he was named MVP for the third time , finishing with averages of 27 @.@ 1 points , 7 @.@ 9 rebounds , 6 @.@ 2 assists , and 1 @.@ 9 steals per game on 53 percent shooting . In Game 4 of the second round of the playoffs , James registered 40 points , 18 rebounds , and 9 assists to help even the series against the Indiana Pacers . Miami eventually defeated the Pacers in six games . Facing elimination in Game 6 of the Conference Finals against the Celtics , James scored 45 points to lead the Heat to victory in what the New York Times called a " career @-@ defining performance " . Miami won Game 7 to advance to the Finals , earning them a matchup with the Oklahoma City Thunder . Late in Game 4 of the series , James hit a three @-@ pointer to give the Heat a lead , helping them win the game despite missing time with leg cramps . In Game 5 , he registered a triple @-@ double as Miami defeated Oklahoma City for their second @-@ ever championship and James ' first championship . James was unanimously voted the Bill Russell NBA Finals Most Valuable Player with averages of 28 @.@ 6 points , 10 @.@ 2 rebounds , and 7 @.@ 4 assists per game . In February of the 2012 – 13 season , James had , as described by Sports Illustrated , a " month for the ages " , averaging 29 @.@ 7 points and 7 @.@ 8 assists per game while setting multiple shooting efficiency records . During this period , the Heat began a 27 @-@ game winning streak , the third longest in NBA history . Behind his play , Miami finished the year with a franchise and league best 66 – 16 record , and James was named MVP for the fourth time , falling just one vote shy of becoming the first player in NBA history to win the award unanimously . His final season averages were 26 @.@ 8 points , 8 rebounds , 7 @.@ 3 assists , and 1 @.@ 7 steals per game on 56 @.@ 5 percent shooting . In Game 1 of the Conference Finals , James scored a buzzer @-@ beating layup to give Miami a one @-@ point victory against the Pacers . Throughout the series , his supporting cast struggled significantly , and his added scoring load prompted him to compare his responsibilities to those of his " Cleveland days " . Despite these struggles , the Heat won the series and advanced to the Finals for a meeting with the Spurs , signifying a rematch for James from his first Finals six years earlier . At the beginning of the series , he was criticized for his lack of aggressiveness and poor shot selection as Miami fell behind 2 – 3 . In Game 6 , he recorded his second triple @-@ double of the series including 16 fourth quarter points to lead the Heat to a comeback victory . In Game 7 , he tied the Finals record for most points scored in a Game 7 victory , leading Miami over San Antonio with 37 points . He was named Finals MVP for the second straight season , averaging 25 @.@ 3 points , 10 @.@ 9 rebounds , 7 assists , and 2 @.@ 3 steals per game for the series . = = = = Fourth consecutive Finals ( 2013 – 14 ) = = = = On March 3 of the 2013 – 14 season , James scored a career @-@ high and franchise record 61 points in a game against the Charlotte Bobcats . Throughout the year , he was one of the few staples for a Heat roster that used 20 different starting line @-@ ups because of injuries , finishing with averages of 27 @.@ 1 points , 6 @.@ 9 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 4 assists per game on 56 @.@ 7 percent shooting . In the second round of the playoffs , he tied a career postseason @-@ high by scoring 49 points in Game 4 against the Brooklyn Nets . In the next round , Miami defeated the Pacers to earn their fourth consecutive Finals berth , becoming one of only four teams in NBA history to do so . In Game 1 of the Finals , James missed most of the fourth quarter because of leg cramps , helping the Spurs take an early series lead . In Game 2 , he led the Heat to a series @-@ tying victory with 35 points on a 64 percent shooting rate . San Antonio eventually eliminated the Heat in five games , ending Miami 's quest for a three @-@ peat . For the Finals , James averaged 28 @.@ 2 points , 7 @.@ 8 rebounds , and 2 steals per game . = = = Return to the Cavaliers ( 2014 – 2016 ) = = = On June 25 , James opted out of his contract with the Heat , officially becoming an unrestricted free agent on July 1 . On July 11 , he revealed via a first @-@ person essay in Sports Illustrated that he intended to rejoin the Cavaliers . In contrast to The Decision , his announcement to return to Cleveland was well received . On July 12 , he officially signed with the team . A month after James ' signing , the Cavaliers acquired Kevin Love from the Minnesota Timberwolves , forming a new star trio along with Kyrie Irving . In January of the 2014 – 15 season , James missed two weeks due to left knee and lower back strains , the longest stretch of missed games in his career . In total , he played a career @-@ low 69 games and his final averages were 25 @.@ 3 points , 6 rebounds , and 7 @.@ 4 assists per game . In the second round of the playoffs , he hit a baseline jumper at the buzzer to give Cleveland a 2 – 2 series tie with the Bulls . In the Conference Finals , the Cavaliers defeated the Hawks to advance to the Finals , making James the first player since the 1960s to play in five consecutive Finals . For most of the Finals against the Golden State Warriors , Irving and Love were sidelined due to injury , giving James more offensive responsibilities . Behind his leadership , the Cavaliers opened the series with a 2 – 1 lead before being eliminated in six games . Despite the loss , he received serious consideration for the Finals MVP Award , averaging 35 @.@ 8 points , 13 @.@ 3 rebounds , and 8 @.@ 8 assists per game for the series . During the 2015 – 16 season , James was criticized for his role in several off court controversies , including the midseason firing of Cavaliers ' head coach David Blatt . Despite these distractions , Cleveland finished the year with 57 wins and the best record in the East . James ' final averages were 25 @.@ 3 points , 7 @.@ 4 rebounds , and 6 @.@ 8 assists per game on 52 percent shooting . In the playoffs , the Cavaliers advanced comfortably to the Finals , losing only two games en route to a rematch with the Warriors , who were coming off a record @-@ setting 73 win campaign . To begin the series , Cleveland fell behind 3 – 1 , including two blowout losses . James responded by registering back @-@ to @-@ back 41 point games in Games 5 and 6 , leading the Cavaliers to two consecutive wins to stave off elimination . In Game 7 , he posted a triple @-@ double and made a number of key plays , including a memorable chase @-@ down block on Andre Iguodala in the final two minutes , as Cleveland emerged victorious , winning the city 's first professional sports title in 52 years and becoming the first team in NBA history to come back from a 3 – 1 series deficit in the Finals . James became just the third player to record a triple @-@ double in an NBA Finals Game 7 , and behind series averages of 29 @.@ 7 points , 11 @.@ 3 rebounds , 8 @.@ 9 assists , 2 @.@ 3 blocks , and 2 @.@ 6 steals per game , he also became the first player in league history to lead both teams in all five statistical categories for a playoff round , culminating in a unanimous Finals MVP selection . = = National team career = = James made his debut for the United States national team at the 2004 Olympics in Athens , Greece . He spent the Games mostly on the bench , averaging 14 @.@ 6 minutes per game with 5 @.@ 8 points and 2 @.@ 6 rebounds per game in eight games . Team USA finished the competition with a bronze medal , becoming the first U.S. basketball team to return home without a gold medal since adding professionals to their line @-@ up . James felt his limited playing time was a " lowlight " and believed he was not given " a fair opportunity to play " . His attitude during the Olympics was described as " disrespectful " and " distasteful " by columnists Adrian Wojnarowski and Peter Vecsey , respectively . At the 2006 FIBA World Championship in Japan , James took on a greater role for Team USA , averaging 13 @.@ 9 points , 4 @.@ 8 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 1 assists per game as co @-@ captain . The team finished the tournament with an 8 – 1 record , winning another bronze medal . James ' behavior was again questioned , this time by teammate Bruce Bowen , who confronted James during tryouts regarding his treatment of staff members . Before naming James to the 2008 Olympic team , Team USA managing director Jerry Colangelo and coach Mike Krzyzewski gave James an ultimatum to improve his attitude , and he heeded their advice . At the FIBA Americas Championship 2007 , he averaged 18 @.@ 1 points , 3 @.@ 6 rebounds , and 4 @.@ 7 assists per game , including a 31 @-@ point performance against Argentina in the championship game , the most ever by an American in an Olympic qualifier . Team USA went 10 – 0 , winning the gold medal and qualifying for the 2008 Olympics in Beijing , China . James credited the team 's attitude and experience for their improvement , saying : " I don 't think we understood what it meant to put on a USA uniform and all the people that we were representing in 2004 . We definitely know that now . " At the Olympics , Team USA went unbeaten , winning their first gold medal since 2000 . In the final game , James turned in 14 points , 6 rebounds , and 3 assists against Spain . James did not play at the 2010 FIBA World Championship but rejoined Team USA for the 2012 Olympics in London , England . He became the leader of the team with Kobe Bryant , who would soon be 34 , stepping back . James facilitated	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
heard in the federal circuit court for California by U.S. Supreme Court Associate Justice Stephen J. Field and two other federal judges . Lucy Salyer , a history professor at the University of New Hampshire , writes that Justice Field " issued an open invitation to all lawyers in the area to give their opinions on the constitutional questions involved " in the case . Field focused on the meaning of the subject to the jurisdiction thereof phrase of the Citizenship Clause , held that Look was indeed subject to U.S. jurisdiction at the time of his birth despite the alien status of his parents , and on this basis ordered U.S. officials to recognize Look as a citizen and allow him to enter the United States . The Look Tin Sing ruling was not appealed and was never reviewed by the Supreme Court . In an 1892 case , Gee Fook Sing v. U.S. , a federal appeals court in California for the same circuit ( by this time known as the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ) concluded that a Chinese man would have been recognized as a United States citizen if he could have presented satisfactory evidence that he had in fact been born in the U.S. This case was also never brought before the Supreme Court . The Supreme Court 's 1873 Slaughterhouse Cases decision contained the statement that " The phrase , ' subject to its jurisdiction , ' was intended to exclude from its operation children of ministers , consuls , and citizens or subjects of foreign states born within the United States . " However , since the Slaughterhouse Cases did not deal with claims of birthright citizenship , this comment was dismissed in Wong Kim Ark and later cases as a passing remark ( obiter dictum ) lacking any force as a controlling precedent . As to whether the Court in Slaughterhouse was correct on this point , or instead the Court in Wong Kim Ark was correct , modern scholars are divided . = = = Challenge to Wong Kim Ark 's claim of citizenship = = = Wong Kim Ark ( 黃金德 ) was born in San Francisco . Various sources state or imply his year of birth as being 1873 , 1871 , or 1868 . His father ( Wong Si Ping ) and mother ( Wee Lee ) were immigrants from China and were not United States citizens . Wong worked in San Francisco as a cook . Wong visited China in 1890 , and upon his return to the United States in July 1890 , he was readmitted without incident because of his U.S. citizenship . In November 1894 , Wong sailed to China for another temporary visit , but when he returned in August 1895 , he was detained at the Port of San Francisco by the Collector of Customs , who denied him permission to enter the country , arguing that Wong was not a U.S. citizen despite his having been born in the U.S. , but was instead a Chinese subject because his parents were Chinese . Wong was confined for five months on steamships off the coast of San Francisco while his case was being tried . According to Salyer , the San Francisco attorney George Collins had tried to persuade the federal Justice Department to bring a Chinese birthright citizenship case before the Supreme Court . An article by Collins was published in the May / June 1895 American Law Review , criticizing the Look Tin Sing ruling and the federal government 's unwillingness to challenge it , and advocating the international law view of jus sanguinis citizenship . Eventually , Collins was able to convince U.S. Attorney Henry Foote , who " searched for a viable test case and settled on Wong Kim Ark " . With the assistance of legal representation by the Chinese Consolidated Benevolent Association , Wong Kim Ark challenged the refusal to recognize his birth claim to U.S. citizenship , and a petition for a writ of habeas corpus was filed on his behalf in federal district court . The arguments presented before District Judge William W. Morrow centered on which of two competing interpretations of the phrase subject to the jurisdiction thereof in the Citizenship Clause should govern a situation involving a child born in the United States to alien parents . Wong 's attorneys argued that the phrase meant " ' subject to the laws of the United States , ' comprehending , in this expression , the allegiance that aliens owe in a foreign country to obey its laws " — an interpretation , based on the common law inherited by the United States from England , that would encompass essentially everyone born in the U.S. via the principle of jus soli ( citizenship based on place of birth ) . The U.S. government claimed that subject to the jurisdiction thereof meant " to be subject to the political jurisdiction of the United States " — an interpretation , based on international law , which would exclude parents and their children who owed allegiance to another country via the principle of jus sanguinis ( citizenship inherited from a parent ) . The question of the citizenship status of U.S.-born children of alien parents had , up to this time , never been decided by the Supreme Court . The U.S. government argued that Wong 's claim to U.S. citizenship was ruled out by the Supreme Court 's interpretation of jurisdiction in its 1873 Slaughterhouse Cases ruling , but the district judge concluded that the language in question was obiter dictum and not directly relevant to the case at hand . The government also cited a similar statement in Elk v. Wilkins , but the judge was not convinced by this argument either . Wong 's attorneys cited the Look Tin Sing case , and the district judge agreed that in the absence of clear direction from the Supreme Court , this case definitively settled the question of citizenship for Wong and others like him as far as federal courts in the Ninth Circuit were concerned . The judge saw the Look Tin Sing holding reaffirmed in the Gee Fook Sing case and noted further that another part of the Supreme Court 's Slaughterhouse Cases opinion said that " it is only necessary that [ a man ] should be born or naturalized in the United States to be a citizen of the Union . " Concluding that the Look Tin Sing decision constituted a controlling precedent in the Ninth Circuit , Judge Morrow ruled that subject to the jurisdiction thereof referred to being subject to U.S. law ( the first of the two proposed interpretations ) . On January 3 , 1896 , the judge declared Wong Kim Ark to be a citizen because he was born in the U.S. The U.S. government appealed the district court ruling directly to the United States Supreme Court . According to Salyer , government officials — realizing that the decision in this case " was of great importance , not just to Chinese Americans , but to all American citizens who had been born to alien parents " , and concerned about the possible effect of an early ruling by the Supreme Court on the 1896 presidential election — delayed the timing of their appeal so as to avoid the possibility of a decision based more on policy concerns than the merits of the case . Oral arguments before the Supreme Court were held on March 5 , 1897 . Solicitor General Holmes Conrad presented the government 's case ; Wong was represented before the Court by Maxwell Evarts , former U.S. Assistant Attorney General J. Hubley Ashton , and Thomas D. Riordan . The Supreme Court considered the " single question " in the case to be " whether a child born in the United States , of parent of Chinese descent , who , at the time of his birth , are subjects of the Emperor of China , but have a permanent domicil and residence in the United States , and are there carrying on business , and are not employed in any diplomatic or official capacity under the Emperor of China , becomes at the time of his birth a citizen of the United States . " It was conceded that if Wong was a U.S. citizen , " the acts of congress known as the ' Chinese Exclusion Acts , ' prohibiting persons of the Chinese race , and especially Chinese laborers , from coming into the United States , do not and cannot apply to him . " = = Opinion of the Court = = In a 6 – 2 decision issued on March 28 , 1898 , the Supreme Court held that Wong Kim Ark had acquired U.S. citizenship at birth and that " the American citizenship which Wong Kim Ark acquired by birth within the United States has not been lost or taken away by anything happening since his birth . " The opinion of the Court was written by Associate Justice Horace Gray and was joined by Associate Justices David J. Brewer , Henry B. Brown , George Shiras Jr . , Edward Douglass White , and Rufus W. Peckham . Upholding the concept of jus soli ( citizenship based on place of birth ) , the Court held that the Citizenship Clause needed to be interpreted in light of English common law , which had included as subjects virtually all native @-@ born children , excluding only those who were born to foreign rulers or diplomats , born on foreign public ships , or born to enemy forces engaged in hostile occupation of the country 's territory . The court 's majority held that the subject to the jurisdiction phrase in the Citizenship Clause excluded from U.S. citizenship only those persons covered by one of these three exceptions ( plus a fourth " single additional exception " — namely , that Indian tribes " not taxed " were not considered subject to U.S. jurisdiction ) . The majority concluded that none of these four exceptions to U.S. jurisdiction applied to Wong ; in particular , they observed that " during all the time of their said residence in the United States , as domiciled residents therein , the said mother and father of said Wong Kim Ark were engaged in the prosecution of business , and were never engaged in any diplomatic or official capacity under the emperor of China " . Quoting approvingly from an 1812 case , The Schooner Exchange v. M 'Faddon , in which Chief Justice John Marshall said , " The jurisdiction of the nation within its own territory is necessarily exclusive and absolute " — and agreeing with the district judge who had heard Wong 's original habeas corpus petition that comments in the Slaughterhouse Cases about the citizenship status of children born to non @-@ citizen parents did not constitute a binding precedent — the Court ruled that Wong was a U.S. citizen from birth , via the Fourteenth Amendment , and that the restrictions of the Chinese Exclusion Act did not apply to him . An act of Congress , they held , does not trump the Constitution ; such a law " cannot control [ the Constitution 's ] meaning , or impair its effect , but must be construed and executed in subordination to its provisions . " The majority opinion referred to Calvin 's Case ( 1608 ) as stating the fundamental common law principle that all people born within the King 's " allegiance " were subjects , including children of " aliens in amity " . = = = Dissent = = = Chief Justice Melville Fuller was joined by Associate Justice John Harlan in a dissent which , " for the most part , may be said to be predicated upon the recognition of the international law doctrine " . The dissenters argued that the history of U.S. citizenship law had broken with English common law tradition after independence — citing as an example the embracing in the U.S. of the right of expatriation ( giving up of one 's native citizenship ) and the rejection of the contrary British doctrine of perpetual allegiance . The dissenters argued that the principle of jus sanguinis ( that is , the concept of a child inheriting his or her father 's citizenship by descent regardless of birthplace ) had been more pervasive in U.S. legal history since independence . Based on an assessment of U.S. and Chinese treaty and naturalization law , the dissenters claimed that " the children of Chinese born in this country do not , ipso facto , become citizens of the United States unless the fourteenth amendment overrides both treaty and statute . " Pointing to the language of the Civil Rights Act of 1866 , an act of Congress which declared to be citizens " all persons born in the United States and not subject to any foreign power , excluding Indians not taxed " , and which was enacted into law only two months before the Fourteenth Amendment was proposed by Congress , the dissenters argued that " it is not open to reasonable doubt that the words ' subject to the jurisdiction thereof , ' in the amendment , were used as synonymous with the words ' and not subject to any foreign power ' " . In the dissenters ' view , excessive reliance on jus soli ( birthplace ) as the principal determiner of citizenship would lead to an untenable state of affairs in which " the children of foreigners , happening to be born to them while passing through the country , whether of royal parentage or not , or whether of the Mongolian , Malay or other race , were eligible to the presidency , while children of our citizens , born abroad , were not . " The dissenters acknowledged that other children of foreigners — including former slaves — had , over the years , acquired U.S. citizenship through birth on U.S. soil . But they still saw a difference between those people and U.S.-born individuals of Chinese ancestry , because of strong cultural traditions discouraging Chinese immigrants from assimilating into mainstream American society , Chinese laws of the time which made renouncing allegiance to the Chinese emperor a capital crime , and the provisions of the Chinese Exclusion Act making Chinese immigrants already in the United States ineligible for citizenship . The question for the dissenters was " not whether [ Wong Kim Ark ] was born in the U.S. or subject to the jurisdiction thereof ... but whether his or her parents have the ability , under U.S. or foreign law , statutory or treaty @-@ based , to become citizens of the U.S. themselves " . In a lecture to a group of law students shortly before the decision was released , Harlan commented that the Chinese had long been excluded from American society " upon the idea that this is a race utterly foreign to us and never will assimilate with us . " Without the exclusion legislation , Harlan stated his opinion that vast numbers of Chinese " would have rooted out the American population " in the western United States . Acknowledging the opposing view supporting citizenship for American @-@ born Chinese , he said that " Of course , the argument on the other side is that the very words of the constitution embrace such a case . " Commenting on the Wong Kim Ark case shortly after the issuance of the Court 's ruling in 1898 , San Francisco attorney Marshall B. Woodworth wrote that " the error the dissent apparently falls into is that it does not recognize that the United States , as a sovereign power , has the right to adopt any rule of citizenship it may see fit , and that the rule of international law does not furnish [ by its own force ] the sole and exclusive test of citizenship of the United States " . = = Subsequent developments = = = = = Contemporary reactions = = = In an analysis of the Wong Kim Ark case written shortly after the decision in 1898 , Marshall B. Woodworth laid out the two competing theories of jurisdiction in the Citizenship Clause and observed that " [ t ] he fact that the decision of the court was not unanimous indicates that the question is at least debatable . " Woodworth concluded , however , that the Supreme Court 's ruling laid the issue to rest , saying that " it is difficult to see what valid objection can be raised thereto " . Another analysis of the case , published by the Yale Law Journal ( 1898 ) , favored the dissenting view . An editorial published in the San Francisco Chronicle on March 30 , 1898 , expressed concern that the Wong Kim Ark ruling ( issued two days previously ) " may have a wider effect upon the question of citizenship than the public supposes " — specifically , that it might lead to citizenship and voting rights not only for Chinese , but also Japanese and American Indians . The editorial suggested that " it may become necessary ... to amend the Federal Constitution and definitely limit citizenship to whites and blacks . " = = = Impact on Wong Kim Ark 's family = = = As a result of Wong Kim Ark 's U.S. citizenship being confirmed by the Supreme Court , Wong 's eldest son came to the United States from China in 1910 , seeking recognition as a citizen via jus sanguinis , but U.S. immigration officials claimed to see discrepancies in the testimony at his immigration hearing and refused to accept Wong 's claim that the boy was his son . Wong 's other three sons came to the United States between 1924 and 1926 and were accepted as citizens . Because of his citizenship , Wong Kim Ark 's youngest son was drafted in World War II , and later made a career in the United States Merchant Marines . = = = Citizenship law since Wong Kim Ark = = = Current U.S. law on birthright citizenship ( citizenship acquired at birth ) acknowledges both citizenship through place of birth ( jus soli ) and citizenship inherited from parents ( jus sanguinis ) . Before Wong Kim Ark , the Supreme Court had held in Elk v. Wilkins ( 1884 ) that birthplace by itself was not sufficient to grant citizenship to a Native American ; however , Congress eventually granted full citizenship to American Indians via the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 . Restrictions on immigration and naturalization of Chinese were eventually lifted as a consequence of the Chinese Exclusion Repeal Act of 1943 ( also known as the Magnuson Act ) and the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 . = = = Wong Kim Ark and later cases = = = In the years since Wong Kim Ark , the concept of jus soli citizenship has " never been seriously questioned by the Supreme Court , and [ has ] been accepted as dogma by lower courts " . Citizenship cases since Wong Kim Ark have dealt mainly with situations falling outside the bounds of the Citizenship Clause — such as citizenship via jus sanguinis for foreign @-@ born children of U.S. citizens , or circumstances under which U.S. citizenship may be lost . The Wong Kim Ark court 's affirmation of jus soli as the primary rule determining United States citizenship has been cited in several Supreme Court decisions affirming the citizenship of U.S.-born individuals of Chinese or Japanese ancestry . The court 's holding that the language of the Constitution should be understood in light of the common law has been cited in numerous Supreme Court decisions dealing with the interpretation of the Constitution or acts of Congress . The Wong Kim Ark court 's understanding of Fourteenth Amendment jurisdiction was also cited in a 1982 case involving the rights of illegal immigrants . An unsuccessful effort was made in 1942 by the Native Sons of the Golden West to convince the Supreme Court to revisit and overrule the Wong Kim Ark ruling , in a case ( Regan v. King ) challenging the citizenship status of roughly 2 @,@ 600 U.S.-born persons of Japanese ancestry . The plaintiffs ' attorney termed Wong Kim Ark " one of the most injurious and unfortunate decisions " ever handed down by the Supreme Court and hoped the new case would give the court " an opportunity to correct itself " . A federal district court and the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals summarily rejected this contention , each citing Wong Kim Ark as a controlling precedent , and the Supreme Court declined to hear the case . Federal appellate courts have repeatedly rejected attempts to cite the Wong Kim Ark opinion 's use of the phrase citizenship by birth within the territory in support of claims that persons born in the Philippines during the period of its history when it was a United States possession were born in the U.S. ( and thus entitled to U.S. citizenship via the Citizenship Clause ) . One federal appellate decision has criticized the jus soli holding in Wong Kim Ark in connection with illegal immigration , but at the same time conceded that the courts were powerless to change this rule , urging Congress to do so instead . = = = Wong Kim Ark and children of illegal aliens = = = Since the 1990s , controversy has arisen in some circles over the practice of granting automatic citizenship via jus soli to U.S.-born children of illegal aliens — controversially dubbed the " anchor baby " situation by some media correspondents and advocacy groups . Public debate over the issue has resulted in renewed discussion of the Wong Kim Ark decision . Some legal scholars , opposed to the idea that jus soli should apply to the children of illegal aliens , have argued that the Wong Kim Ark precedent does not apply when alien parents are in the country illegally . John C. Eastman , a former dean of the Chapman University School of Law , has argued that Wong Kim Ark does not entitle U.S.-born children of illegal aliens to gain automatic citizenship because , in his opinion , being subject to the jurisdiction of the United States requires a status of " full and complete jurisdiction " that does not apply to aliens who are in the country illegally . Eastman further argues that the Wong Kim Ark decision was fundamentally flawed in the way it dealt with the concept of jurisdiction , and that the Indian Citizenship Act of 1924 — which followed Wong Kim Ark — would not have been necessary if Congress had believed " that the Citizenship Clause confers citizenship merely by accident of birth . " A similar analysis of the jurisdiction question has been proposed by Professor Peter H. Schuck of the Yale School of Law and Rogers M. Smith , political science professor at Yale . According to law professor Lino Graglia of the University of Texas , even if Wong Kim Ark settled the status of children of legal residents , it did not do so for children of illegal residents ; Graglia asserts that the case weighs against automatic birthright for illegal immigrants because the Court denied such citizenship for an analogous group , namely " children of alien enemies , born during and within their hostile occupation " . Richard Posner , a judge of the Seventh Circuit Court of Appeals , has also criticized the granting of citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants , suggesting that Congress can and should act to change this policy . Charles Wood , former counsel to the Senate Judiciary Committee 's subcommittee on immigration , has also opposed the practice , urging ( in 1999 ) that it be stopped as quickly as possible , either by an act of Congress or a constitutional amendment . Countering this view , Garrett Epps — a professor of law at the University of Baltimore — has stated that " In the case of United States v. Wong Kim Ark , the United States Supreme Court held that this guarantee [ of birthright citizenship ] applies to children of foreigners present on American soil , even if their parents are not American citizens and indeed are not eligible to become U.S. citizens . " Epps further notes that " as a practical matter , the American @-@ born children receive recognition of their citizenship regardless of the immigration status of their parents . " In Epps ' opinion , the sponsors of the Fourteenth Amendment " were unwavering in their insistence that the Citizenship Clause was to cover " the children of such undesirable immigrants as Chinese and Gypsies , and he views the Wong Kim Ark ruling as an " unexceptionable " matter of reading the drafters ' intent . Cristina Rodriguez , a professor at the New York University School of Law , has argued that Wong Kim Ark 's situation was " similar in all meaningful respects " to that of children of illegal immigrants , because " they both involve immigrant parents ineligible for full membership in the polity , or immigrant populations that were tolerated but disdained or considered legally erasable . " Rodriguez goes on to claim that the Wong Kim Ark ruling was " a powerful rejection of the idea that one 's status depends on his parent 's status . " Noting contrary arguments ( such as those put forth by Schuck and Smith ) , Rodriguez says that " For all practical purposes , this debate has been resolved . Though renewed interest over the last few years in immigration reform has prompted the introduction of legislation in Congress to deny the children of the unauthorized jus soli status , these measures have been political non @-@ starters , in large part because of the widespread view that the Supreme Court would strike down any such legislation as unconstitutional . " James Ho has expressed a similar view to that of Rodriguez , saying that " Birthright citizenship is guaranteed by the Fourteenth Amendment . That birthright is protected no less for children of undocumented persons than for descendants of Mayflower passengers . " Ho also argues that those who claim the Citizenship Clause was not in fact intended to confer citizenship on the children of aliens are disregarding the substance of the 1866 Senate debate over the proposal to add this language to the Fourteenth Amendment . The Supreme Court 's 1982 Plyler v. Doe decision — in a case involving illegal alien children ( i.e. , children born abroad who had come to the United States illegally along with their parents , and who had no basis for claiming U.S. citizenship ) — has also been cited in support of a broad application of Fourteenth Amendment jurisdiction to illegal aliens and their children . A Texas state law had sought to deny such children a public education , and the Texas government had argued that " persons who have entered the United States illegally are not ' within the jurisdiction ' of a State even if they are present within a State 's boundaries and subject to its laws . " A 5 – 4 majority of the Supreme Court , though , decided that according to Wong Kim Ark , the Fourteenth Amendment 's phrases subject to the jurisdiction thereof ( in the Citizenship Clause ) and within its jurisdiction ( in the Equal Protection Clause ) were essentially equivalent ; that both expressions referred primarily to physical presence and not to political allegiance ; and that the Wong Kim Ark decision benefited the children of illegal as well as legal aliens . As a result , the court rejected the claim that Fourteenth Amendment " jurisdiction " depended on whether someone had entered the U.S. legally or not . Although the four dissenting justices disagreed with the opinion of the Court regarding whether the children in question had a right to a public education , the dissenters agreed with the majority regarding the applicability of Fourteenth Amendment jurisdiction to illegal aliens . James Ho considers Plyer v. Doe to have " put to rest " any doubt over whether the sweeping language regarding jurisdiction in Wong Kim Ark applies to all aliens , even illegal aliens . The United States Department of State ( the federal government agency responsible for international relations ) considers U.S.-born children of illegal aliens to be subject to U.S. jurisdiction , and thus to have citizenship at birth . The State Department 's Foreign Affairs Manual takes the position that this issue was settled by the Wong Kim Ark ruling . In the words of Lucy Salyer , " the birthright citizenship doctrine of Wong Kim Ark has remained intact for over a century , still perceived by most to be a natural and well @-@ established rule in accordance with American principles and practice . It is unlikely to be uprooted easily . " = = = Legislative attempts to overturn Wong Kim Ark = = = In response to public reaction against immigration and fears that U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants could serve as links to permit legal residency and eventual citizenship for family members who would otherwise be ineligible to remain in the country , bills have been introduced from time to time in Congress which have challenged the conventional interpretation of the Citizenship Clause and have sought ( thus far unsuccessfully ) to actively and explicitly deny citizenship at birth to U.S.-born children of foreign visitors or illegal aliens . As one example among many , the " Birthright Citizenship Act of 2009 " — introduced in the House of Representatives of the 111th Congress as H.R. 1868 , by Representative Nathan Deal of Georgia — was an attempt to exclude U.S.-born children of illegal immigrants from being considered subject to the jurisdiction of the United States for purposes of the Citizenship Clause . A similar proposal — named the " Birthright Citizenship Act of 2011 " — was introduced in the House as H.R. 140 in the ( 112th ) Congress on January 5 , 2011 by Representative Steve King of Iowa , and in the Senate as S. 723 on April 5 , 2011 by Senator David Vitter of Louisiana . Neither bill was discussed in Congress prior to the end of the session . Since an act of Congress challenging the accepted interpretation of the Citizenship Clause might very possibly be ruled unconstitutional by courts choosing to rely on Wong Kim Ark as a precedent , proposals have also been made to amend the Constitution so as to override the Fourteenth Amendment 's language and deny citizenship to U.S.-born children of illegal aliens or foreign visitors . For example , Senator Vitter of Louisiana introduced Senate Joint Resolution ( S.J.Res. ) 6 in the 111th Congress , but like H.R. 1868 , it failed to reach the floor of either house of Congress before the 111th Congress adjourned on December 22 , 2010 . Vitter reintroduced this same proposed amendment as S.J.Res. 2 in the 112th Congress on January 25 , 2011 ; it was not brought up for discussion or voted upon in either house of Congress . In 2010 and 2011 , state legislators in Arizona introduced bills proposing to deny regular birth certificates to children born in Arizona whose parents cannot prove they are in the United States legally . Supporters of such legislation reportedly hope their efforts will cause the issue of birthright citizenship for U.S.-born children of illegal aliens to reach the Supreme Court , possibly resulting in a new decision narrowing or overruling Wong Kim Ark . = = Cases = = United States Supreme Court The Schooner Exchange v. M 'Faddon , 11 U.S. ( 7 Cranch ) 116 ( 1812 ) Dred Scott v. Sandford , 60 U.S. 393 ( 1857 ) Slaughterhouse Cases , 83 U.S. 36 ( 1873 ) Elk v. Wilkins , 112 U.S. 94 ( 1884 ) United States v. Wong Kim Ark , 169 U.S. 649 ( 1898 ) Hennessy v. Richardson Drug Co . , 189 U.S. 25 ( 1903 ) Schick v. United States , 195 U.S. 65 ( 1904 ) Kwock Jan Fat v. White , 253 U.S. 454 ( 1920 ) Weedin v. Chin Bow , 274 U.S. 657 ( 1927 ) Morrison v. California , 291 U.S. 82 ( 1934 ) Perkins v. Elg , 307 U.S. 325 ( 1939 ) Regan v. King , 319 U.S. 753 ( 1943 ) ( certiorari denied ) Reid v. Covert , 354 U.S. 1 ( 1957 ) Nishikawa v. Dulles , 356 U.S. 129 ( 1958 ) Kennedy v. Mendoza @-@ Martinez , 372 U.S. 144 ( 1963 ) Rogers v. Bellei , 401 U.S. 815 ( 1971 ) Plyler v. Doe , 457 U.S. 202 ( 1982 ) United States Circuit Courts In re Look Tin Sing , 21 F. 905 ( D.Cal. 1884 ) Gee Fook Sing v. U.S. , 49 F. 146 ( 9th Cir . 1892 ) Regan v. King , 134 F.2d 413 ( 9th Cir . 1943 ) Rabang v. INS , 35 F.3d 1449 ( 9th Cir . 1994 ) Valmonte v. INS , 136 F.3d 914 ( 2nd Cir . 1998 ) Oforji v. Ashcroft , 354 F.3d 609 ( 7th Cir . 2003 ) Nolos v. Holder , 611 F.3d 279 ( 5th Cir . 2010 ) United States District Courts In re Wong Kim Ark , 71 F. 382 ( N.D.Cal. 1896 ) Regan v. King , 49 F. Supp . 222 ( N.D.Cal. 1942 ) State courts Lynch v. Clarke , 3 N.Y.Leg.Obs. 236 ( N.Y. 1844 ) = Judy Garland = Judy Garland ( born Frances Ethel Gumm ; June 10 , 1922 – June 22 , 1969 ) was an American singer , actress , and vaudevillian . She was renowned for her contralto vocals and attained international stardom that continued throughout a career spanning more than 40 years as an actress in musical and dramatic roles , as a recording artist , and on concert stages . Garland began performing in vaudeville with her two older sisters and was signed to Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer as a teenager . There , she made more than two dozen films , including nine with Mickey Rooney and her most iconic role as Dorothy in The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) . Other notable credits at MGM included Meet Me in St. Louis ( 1944 ) , The Harvey Girls ( 1946 ) and Easter Parade ( 1948 ) . After 15 years , she was released from the studio and then gained new success through record @-@ breaking concert appearances , a successful recording career , and her own Emmy nominated television series . Film appearances became fewer in her later years , but included two Academy Award nominated performances in A Star Is Born ( 1954 ) and Judgment at Nuremberg ( 1961 ) . Respected for her versatility , she received a Golden Globe Award , a Juvenile Academy Award , a Special Tony Award , and at 39 she became the youngest recipient of the Cecil B. DeMille Award for lifetime achievement in the motion picture industry . She was the first woman to win a Grammy for Album of the Year for her live recording of Judy at Carnegie Hall . In 1997 , Garland was posthumously awarded a Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award . Several of her recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . In 1999 , the American Film Institute placed her among the ten greatest female stars of classic American cinema . Despite her professional triumphs , Garland struggled immensely in her personal life , starting when she was a child . Her self @-@ image was strongly influenced by film executives , who said she was unattractive and constantly manipulated her on @-@ screen physical appearance . She was plagued by financial instability , often owing hundreds of thousands of dollars in back taxes . She married five times , with her first four marriages ending in divorce . She also had a long battle with drugs and alcohol , which ultimately led to her death from a barbiturate overdose at the age of 47 . = = Early life = = Garland was born Frances Ethel Gumm in Grand Rapids , Minnesota on June 10 , 1922 , the youngest child of Ethel Marion ( née Milne , November 17 , 1893 – January 5 , 1953 ) and Francis Avent " Frank " Gumm ( March 20 , 1886 – November 17 , 1935 ) . Her parents were vaudevillians who settled in Grand Rapids to run a movie theater that featured vaudeville acts . She was of English , Scottish , and Irish ancestry , named after both her parents and baptized at a local Episcopal church . " Baby " ( as she was called by her parents and sisters ) shared her family 's flair for song and dance . Her first appearance came at the age of two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half when she joined her older sisters Mary Jane " Suzy / Suzanne " Gumm ( 1915 – 1964 ) and Dorothy Virginia " Jimmie " Gumm ( 1917 – 1977 ) on the stage of her father 's movie theater during a Christmas show and sang a chorus of " Jingle Bells " . The Gumm Sisters performed there for the next few years , accompanied by their mother on piano . The family relocated to Lancaster , California in June 1926 , following rumors that Frank Gumm had made sexual advances towards male ushers . Frank purchased and operated another theater in Lancaster , and Ethel began managing her daughters and working to get them into motion pictures . Garland attended Hollywood High School and later graduated from University High School . = = Early career = = = = = The Gumm Sisters = = = In 1928 , the Gumm Sisters enrolled in a dance school run by Ethel Meglin , proprietress of the Meglin Kiddies dance troupe . They appeared with the troupe at its annual Christmas show . Through the Meglin Kiddies , they made their film debut in a 1929 short subject called The Big Revue , where they performed a song @-@ and @-@ dance number called " That 's the good old sunny south " . This was followed by appearances in two Vitaphone shorts the following year : A Holiday in Storyland ( featuring Garland 's first on @-@ screen solo ) and The Wedding of Jack and Jill . They next appeared together in Bubbles . Their final on @-@ screen appearance came in 1935 , in another short entitled La Fiesta de Santa Barbara . The trio had been touring the vaudeville circuit as " The Gumm Sisters " for many years when they performed in Chicago at the Oriental Theater with George Jessel in 1934 . He encouraged the group to choose a more appealing name after " Gumm " was met with laughter from the audience . According to theater legend , their act was once erroneously billed at a Chicago theater as " The Glum Sisters " . Several stories persist regarding the origin of the name " Garland " . One is that it was originated by Jessel after Carole Lombard 's character Lily Garland in the film Twentieth Century , which was then playing at the Oriental ; another is that the girls chose the surname after drama critic Robert Garland . Garland 's daughter Lorna Luft stated that her mother selected the name when Jessel announced that the trio " looked prettier than a garland of flowers " . A TV special was filmed in Hollywood at the Pantages Theatre premiere of A Star Is Born on September 29 , 1954 , in which Jessel stated : " I think that I ought to tell the folks that it was I who named Judy Garland , Judy Garland . Not that it would have made any difference – you couldn 't have hid [ den ] that great talent if you 'd called her ' Tel Aviv Windsor Shell ' , you know , but her name when I first met her was Frances Gumm and it wasn 't the kind of a name that so sensitive a great actress like that should have ; ... and so we called her Judy Garland , and I think she 's a combination of Helen Hayes and Al Jolson , and maybe Jenny Lind and Sarah Bernhardt . " A later explanation surfaced when Jessel was a guest on Garland 's television show in 1963 . He claimed that he had sent actress Judith Anderson a telegram containing the word " garland " and it stuck in his mind . ( However , Garland asks Jessel just moments later if this story is true , and he blithely replies " No " . ) By late 1934 , the Gumm Sisters had changed their name to the Garland Sisters . Frances changed her name to " Judy " soon after , inspired by a popular Hoagy Carmichael song . The group broke up by August 1935 , when Suzanne Garland flew to Reno , Nevada and married musician Lee Kahn , a member of the Jimmy Davis orchestra playing at Cal @-@ Neva Lodge , Lake Tahoe . = = = Signed at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer = = = In September 1935 , songwriter Burton Lane was asked by Louis B. Mayer to go to the Orpheum Theater in downtown Los Angeles to watch the Garland Sisters ' vaudeville act and to report back to him . A few days later , Judy and her father were brought for an impromptu audition at Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer Studios in Culver City . Garland performed " Zing ! Went the Strings of My Heart " and " Eli , Eli " , a Yiddish song written in 1896 and very popular in vaudeville . Garland was immediately signed to a contract with MGM supposedly without a screen test , though she had made a test for the studio several months earlier . The studio did not know what to do with her as , at age 13 , she was older than the traditional child star but too young for adult roles . Her physical appearance created a dilemma for MGM . She was only 4 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 151 @.@ 1 cm ) , and her " cute " or " girl @-@ next @-@ door " looks did not exemplify the most glamorous persona required of leading ladies of the time . She was self @-@ conscious and anxious about her appearance . " Judy went to school at Metro with Ava Gardner , Lana Turner , Elizabeth Taylor , real beauties " , said Charles Walters , who directed her in a number of films . " Judy was the big money @-@ maker at the time , a big success , but she was the ugly duckling ... I think it had a very damaging effect on her emotionally for a long time . I think it lasted forever , really . " Her insecurity was exacerbated by the attitude of studio chief Louis B. Mayer , who referred to her as his " little hunchback " . During her early years at the studio , she was photographed and dressed in plain garments or frilly juvenile gowns and costumes to match the " girl @-@ next @-@ door " image created for her . She was made to wear removable caps on her teeth and rubberized disks to reshape her nose . Garland performed at various studio functions and was eventually cast opposite Deanna Durbin in the musical @-@ short Every Sunday . The film contrasted her vocal range and swing style with Durbin 's operatic soprano and served as an extended screen test for the pair , as studio executives were questioning the wisdom of having two girl singers on the roster . Mayer finally decided to keep both actresses but , by that time , Durbin 's option had lapsed and she was signed by Universal Studios . On November 16 , 1935 , Garland learned that her father had been hospitalized with meningitis and had taken a turn for the worse , while she was in the midst of preparing for a radio performance on the Shell Chateau Hour . Frank Gumm died the following morning , leaving her devastated . Her song for the Shell Chateau Hour was her first professional rendition of " Zing ! Went the Strings of My Heart " , a song which became a standard in many of her concerts . Garland next came to the attention of studio executives by singing a special arrangement of " You Made Me Love You ( I Didn 't Want to Do It ) " to Clark Gable at a birthday party held by the studio for the actor . Her rendition was so well regarded that she performed the song in the all @-@ star extravaganza Broadway Melody of 1938 ( 1937 ) , singing to a photograph of him . MGM hit on a winning formula when it paired Garland with Mickey Rooney in a string of what were known as " backyard musicals " . The duo first appeared together as supporting characters in the 1937 B movie Thoroughbreds Don 't Cry . Garland was then put in the cast of the fourth of the Hardy Family movies as a literal girl @-@ next @-@ door to Rooney 's character Andy Hardy , in Love Finds Andy Hardy , although Hardy 's love interest was played by Lana Turner . They teamed as lead characters for the first time in Babes in Arms , ultimately appearing in five additional films including Hardy films Andy Hardy Meets Debutante and Life Begins for Andy Hardy . Garland claimed that she , Rooney , and other young performers were constantly prescribed amphetamines to stay awake in order to keep up with the frantic pace of making one film after another , as well as barbiturates to take before going to bed so that they could sleep . This regular dose of drugs , she said , led to addiction and a lifelong struggle , and contributed to her eventual demise . She later resented the hectic schedule and felt that her youth had been stolen by MGM . Garland was of a healthy weight , but the studio demanded that she diet constantly . They even went so far as to serve her only a bowl of soup and a plate of lettuce when she ordered a regular meal . She was plagued with self @-@ doubt throughout her life , despite successful film and recording careers , awards , critical praise , and her ability to fill concert halls worldwide , and she required constant reassurance that she was talented and attractive . Rooney , however , denied that their childhood studio was responsible for her addiction : " Judy Garland was never given any drugs by Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer . Mr. Mayer didn 't sanction anything for Judy . No one on that lot was responsible for Judy Garland 's death . Unfortunately , Judy chose that path " . = = = The Wizard of Oz = = = In 1938 , she was cast in her most remembered role , the young Dorothy Gale in The Wizard of Oz ( 1939 ) , a film based on the children 's book by L. Frank Baum . In this film , she sang the song with which she would forever be identified , " Over the Rainbow " . Although producers Arthur Freed and Mervyn LeRoy had wanted her from the start , studio chief Mayer tried first to borrow Shirley Temple from 20th Century Fox , but they declined . Deanna Durbin was then asked , but was unavailable , resulting in Garland being cast . Garland was initially outfitted in a blonde wig for the part , but Freed and LeRoy decided against it shortly into filming . Her blue gingham dress was chosen for its blurring effect on her figure , which made her look younger . Shooting commenced on October 13 , 1938 , and was completed on March 16 , 1939 , with a final cost of more than US $ 2 million . With the conclusion of filming , MGM kept Garland busy with promotional tours and the shooting of Babes in Arms , directed by Busby Berkeley . Rooney and she were sent on a cross @-@ country promotional tour , culminating in the August 17 New York City premiere at the Capitol Theater , which included a five @-@ show @-@ a @-@ day appearance schedule for the two stars . The Wizard of Oz was a tremendous critical success , though its high budget and promotions costs of an estimated $ 4 million ( equivalent to $ 68 million in 2016 ) , coupled with the lower revenue generated by children 's tickets , meant that the film did not make a profit until it was rereleased in the 1940s and in subsequent rereleases . At the 1939 Academy Awards ceremony , Garland received her only Academy Award , a Juvenile Award for her performances in 1939 , including The Wizard of Oz and Babes in Arms . Following this recognition , she became one of MGM 's most bankable stars . = = Adult stardom = = In 1940 , she starred in three films : Andy Hardy Meets Debutante , Strike Up the Band , and Little Nellie Kelly . In the last , she played her first adult role , a dual role of both mother and daughter . Little Nellie Kelly was purchased from George M. Cohan as a vehicle for her to display both her audience appeal and her physical appearance . The role was a challenge for her , requiring the use of an accent , her first adult kiss , and the only death scene of her career . The kiss was regarded as embarrassing by her costar , George Murphy . He said it felt like " a hillbilly with a child bride . " Nevertheless , the success of these three films and a further three films in 1941 secured her position at MGM as a major property . During this time , Garland experienced her first serious adult romances . The first was with bandleader Artie Shaw . She was deeply devoted to him and was devastated in early 1940 when he eloped with Lana Turner . Garland began a relationship with musician David Rose , and on her 18th birthday , he gave her an engagement ring . The studio intervened because he was still married at the time to actress and singer Martha Raye . They agreed to wait a year to allow for his divorce to become final , and were wed on July 27 , 1941 . " A true rarity " is what media called it . Garland , who had aborted her pregnancy by him in 1942 , agreed to a trial separation in January 1943 and divorced in 1944 . She was noticeably thinner in her next film , For Me and My Gal , alongside Gene Kelly in his first screen appearance . She was top @-@ billed in the credits for the first time and effectively made the transition from teenaged star to adult actress . At age 21 , she was given the " glamor treatment " in Presenting Lily Mars , in which she was dressed in " grown @-@ up " gowns . Her lightened hair was also pulled up in a stylish fashion . However , no matter how glamorous or beautiful she appeared on screen or in photographs , she was never confident in her appearance and never escaped the " girl @-@ next @-@ door " image which had been created for her . One of Garland 's most successful films for MGM was Meet Me in St. Louis ( 1944 ) , in which she introduced three standards : " The Trolley Song " , " The Boy Next Door " , and " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " . Vincente Minnelli was assigned to direct , and he requested that makeup artist Dorothy Ponedel be assigned to Garland . Ponedel refined her appearance in several ways , including extending and reshaping her eyebrows , changing her hairline , modifying her lip line and removing her nose discs and dental caps . She appreciated the results so much that Ponedel was written into her contract for all her remaining pictures at MGM . At this time , Garland had a brief affair with film director Orson Welles , who was then married to Rita Hayworth . The affair ended in early 1945 , although they remained on good terms afterward . During the filming of Meet Me in St. Louis , after some initial conflict between them , Garland and Minnelli entered into a relationship . They were married June 15 , 1945 , and on March 12 , 1946 , daughter Liza was born . They were divorced by 1951 . The Clock ( 1945 ) was Garland 's first straight dramatic film , opposite Robert Walker . Though the film was critically praised and earned a profit , most movie fans expected her to sing . It would be many years before she acted again in a nonsinging dramatic role . Garland 's other films of the 1940s include The Harvey Girls ( 1946 ) , in which she introduced the Academy Award @-@ winning song " On the Atchison , Topeka , and the Santa Fe " , and Till the Clouds Roll By ( 1946 ) . = = Leaving MGM = = During filming for The Pirate in April 1947 , Garland suffered a nervous breakdown and was placed in a private sanitarium . She was able to complete filming , but in July she made her first suicide attempt , making minor cuts to her wrist with a broken glass . During this period , she spent two weeks in treatment at the Austen Riggs Center , a psychiatric hospital in Stockbridge , Massachusetts . The Pirate was released in 1948 and was the first film in which Garland had starred since The Wizard of Oz to not be profitable . The main reasons for its failure was not only its expense , but also the increasing cost of the shooting delays while Garland was ill , as well as the fact that the general public was not yet willing to accept her in a sophisticated vehicle . Following her work on The Pirate , she co @-@ starred for the first and only time with Fred Astaire ( who replaced Gene Kelly after Kelly had broken his ankle ) in Easter Parade , which became her top @-@ grossing film at MGM and quickly re @-@ established her as one of MGM 's primary assets . Thrilled by the huge box @-@ office receipts of Easter Parade , MGM immediately teamed Garland and Astaire in The Barkleys of Broadway . During the initial filming , Garland was taking prescription sleeping medication along with illicitly obtained pills containing morphine . Around this time , she also developed a serious problem with alcohol . These , in combination with migraine headaches , led her to miss several shooting days in a row . After being advised by her doctor that she would only be able to work in four- to five @-@ day increments with extended rest periods between , MGM executive Arthur Freed made the decision to suspend her on July 18 , 1948 . She was replaced by Ginger Rogers . When her suspension was over , she was summoned back to work and ultimately performed two songs as a guest in the Rodgers and Hart biopic Words and Music , which was her last appearance with Mickey Rooney . Despite the all @-@ star cast , Words and Music barely broke even at the box office . Having regained her strength , as well as some needed weight during her suspension , Garland felt much better and in the fall of 1948 , she returned to MGM to replace a pregnant June Allyson for the musical film In the Good Old Summertime co @-@ starring Van Johnson . Although she was sometimes late arriving at the studio during the making of this picture , she managed to complete it five days ahead of schedule . Her daughter Liza Minnelli made her film debut at the age of two and a half at the end of the film . In The Good Old Summertime was enormously successful at the box office . Garland was then cast in the film adaptation of Annie Get Your Gun in the title role of Annie Oakley . She was nervous at the prospect of taking on a role strongly identified with Ethel Merman , anxious about appearing in an unglamorous part after breaking from juvenile parts for several years , and disturbed by her treatment at the hands of director Busby Berkeley . Berkeley was staging all the musical numbers , and was severe with Garland 's lack of effort , attitude , and enthusiasm . She complained to Mayer , trying to have Berkeley fired from the feature . She began arriving late to the set and sometimes failed to appear . At this time , she was also undergoing electroshock therapy for depression . She was suspended from the picture on May 10 , 1949 , and was replaced by Betty Hutton , who stepped in performing all the musical routines as staged by Berkeley . Garland underwent an extensive hospital stay at Peter Bent Brigham Hospital in Boston , Massachusetts , in which she was weaned off her medication and , after a while , was able to eat and sleep normally . Garland returned to Los Angeles heavier , and in the fall of 1949 , was cast opposite Gene Kelly in Summer Stock . The film took six months to complete . To lose weight , Garland went back on the pills and the familiar pattern resurfaced . She began showing up late or not at all . When principal photography on Summer Stock was completed in spring 1950 , it was decided that Garland needed an additional musical number . She agreed to do it provided the song should be " Get Happy " . In addition , she insisted that director Charles Walters choreograph and stage the number . By that time , Garland had lost 15 pounds and looked more slender . " Get Happy " was the last segment of Summer Stock to be filmed . It was her last picture for MGM . When it was released in the fall of 1950 , Summer Stock drew big crowds and racked up very respectable box office receipts , but because of the costly shooting delays caused by Garland , the film posted a loss of $ 80 @,@ 000 to the studio . Garland was next cast in the film Royal Wedding with Fred Astaire after June Allyson became pregnant in 1950 . She failed to report to the set on multiple occasions , and the studio suspended her contract on June 17 , 1950 . She was replaced by Jane Powell . Reputable biographies following her death stated that after this latest dismissal , she slightly grazed her neck with a broken glass , requiring only a band @-@ aid , but at the time , the public was informed that a despondent Garland had slashed her throat . " All I could see ahead was more confusion " , Garland later said of this suicide attempt . " I wanted to black out the future as well as the past . I wanted to hurt myself and everyone who had hurt me . " In September 1950 , after 15 years with the studio , Garland and MGM parted company . = = Later career = = = = = Appearances on Bing Crosby 's radio show = = = Garland was a frequent guest on Kraft Music Hall , hosted by her friend Bing Crosby . Following Garland 's second suicide attempt , Crosby , knowing she was depressed and running out of money , invited her on to his radio show – the first of the new season , on October 11 , 1950 . She was standing in the wings of it trembling with fear . She was almost hysterical . She said " I cannot go out there because they 're all gonna be looking to see if there are scars and it 's gonna be terrible . " Bing said " What 's going on ? " and I told him what happened and he walked out on stage and he said : " We got a friend here , she 's had a little trouble recently . You probably heard about it – Everything is fine now , she needs our love . She needs our support . She 's here – let 's give it to her , OK ? Here 's Judy . " And she came out and that place went crazy . And she just blossomed . Eight appearances during the 1950 – 1951 season of The Bing Crosby – Chesterfield Show immediately reinvigorated her career . Soon after , she toured for four months to sellout crowds in Europe . = = = Renewed stardom on the stage = = = In 1951 , Garland began a four @-@ month concert tour of Britain and Ireland , where she played to sold @-@ out audiences throughout England , Scotland , and Ireland . The successful concert tour was the first of her many comebacks , with performances centered on songs by Al Jolson and revival of vaudevillian " tradition " . Garland performed complete shows as tributes to Jolson in her concerts at the London Palladium in April and at New York 's Palace Theater later that year . Garland said after the Palladium show : " I suddenly knew that this was the beginning of a new life ... Hollywood thought I was through ; then came the wonderful opportunity to appear at the London Palladium , where I can truthfully say Judy Garland was reborn . " Her appearances at the Palladium lasted for four weeks , where she received rave reviews and an ovation described by the Palladium manager as the loudest he had ever heard . In New York in October 1951 , Garland 's engagement at the Palace Theatre exceeded all previous records for the theater and for Garland , was called " one of the greatest personal triumphs in show business history " . Garland was honored for her contribution to the revival of vaudeville with a Special Tony Award . That same year , she divorced Minnelli , and in 1952 , she married Sid Luft , her tour manager and producer , on June 8 , 1952 , in Hollister , California . Garland gave birth to Lorna Luft , herself a future actress and singer , on November 21 , 1952 , and to Joey Luft on March 29 , 1955 . = = = Hollywood comeback = = = Garland filmed a musical remake of the film A Star is Born for Warner Bros. in 1954 . Garland and Sidney Luft , her then @-@ husband , produced the film through their production company , Transcona Enterprises , while Warner Bros. supplied the funds , production facilities , and crew . Directed by George Cukor and co @-@ starring James Mason , it was a large undertaking to which she initially fully dedicated herself . As shooting progressed , however , she began making the same pleas of illness which she had so often made during her final films at MGM . Production delays led to cost overruns and angry confrontations with Warner Bros. head Jack L. Warner . Principal photography wrapped on March 17 , 1954 . At Luft 's suggestion , the " Born in a Trunk " medley was filmed as a showcase for her and inserted over director Cukor 's objections , who feared the additional length would lead to cuts in other areas . It was completed on July 29 . Upon its world premiere on September 29 , 1954 , the film was met with tremendous critical and popular acclaim . Before its release , it was edited at the instruction of Jack Warner ; theater operators , concerned that they were losing money because they were only able to run the film for three or four shows per day instead of five or six , pressured the studio to make additional reductions . About 30 minutes of footage were cut , sparking outrage among critics and filmgoers . Although it was still popular , drawing huge crowds and grossing over $ 6 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in its first release , A Star is Born did not make back its cost and ended up losing money . As a result , the secure financial position Garland had expected from the profits did not materialize . Transcona made no more films with Warner . Garland was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Actress and in the run @-@ up to the 27th Academy Awards , was generally expected to win . She could not attend the ceremony because she had just given birth to her son , Joseph Luft , so a television crew was in her hospital room with cameras and wires to broadcast her anticipated acceptance speech . The Oscar was won , however , by Grace Kelly for The Country Girl ( 1954 ) . The camera crew was packing up before Kelly could even reach the stage . Groucho Marx sent her a telegram after the awards ceremony , declaring her loss " the biggest robbery since Brinks . " TIME labeled her performance as " just about the greatest one @-@ woman show in modern movie history " . Garland won the Golden Globe Award for Best Actress in a Musical for the role . Garland 's films after A Star Is Born included Judgment at Nuremberg ( 1961 ) ( for which she was Oscar- and Golden Globe @-@ nominated for Best Supporting Actress ) , the animated feature Gay Purr @-@ ee ( 1962 ) , and A Child Is Waiting ( 1963 ) with Burt Lancaster . Her final film was I Could Go on Singing ( 1963 ) , co @-@ starring Dirk Bogarde . = = = Television , concerts , and Carnegie Hall = = = Garland appeared in a number of television specials beginning in 1955 . The first was the 1955 debut episode of Ford Star Jubilee ; this was the first full @-@ scale color broadcast ever on CBS and was a ratings triumph , scoring a 34 @.@ 8 Nielsen rating . She signed a three @-@ year , $ 300 @,@ 000 contract with the network . Only one additional special was broadcast in 1956 , a live concert @-@ edition of General Electric Theater , before the relationship between the Lufts and CBS broke down in a dispute over the planned format of upcoming specials . In 1956 , Garland performed for four weeks at the New Frontier Hotel on the Las Vegas Strip for a salary of $ 55 @,@ 000 per week , making her the highest @-@ paid entertainer to work in Las Vegas . Despite a brief bout of laryngitis , her performances there were so successful that her run was extended an extra week . Later that year , she returned to the Palace Theatre , site of her two @-@ a @-@ day triumph . She opened in September , once again to rave reviews and popular acclaim . In November 1959 , Garland was diagnosed with acute hepatitis and hospitalized . Over the next few weeks , several quarts of fluid were drained from her body until she was released from the hospital in January 1960 , still in a weak condition . She was told by doctors that she likely had five years or less to live and that , even if she did survive , she would be a semi @-@ invalid and would never sing again . She initially felt " greatly relieved " at the diagnosis . " The pressure was off me for the first time in my life . " However , she recovered over the next several months and , in August of that year , returned to the stage of the Palladium . She felt so warmly embraced by the British that she announced her intention to move permanently to England . Her concert appearance at Carnegie Hall on April 23 , 1961 was a considerable highlight , called by many " the greatest night in show business history " . The two @-@ record album Judy at Carnegie Hall was certified gold , charting for 95 weeks on Billboard , including 13 weeks at number one . It won four Grammy Awards , including Album of the Year and Best Female Vocal of the Year , and has never been out of print . = = = The Judy Garland Show = = = In 1961 , Garland and CBS settled their contract disputes with the help of her new agent , Freddie Fields , and negotiated a new round of specials . The first , entitled The Judy Garland Show , aired in 1962 and featured guests Frank Sinatra and Dean Martin . Following this success , CBS made a $ 24 million offer to her for a weekly television series of her own , also to be called The Judy Garland Show , which was deemed at the time in the press to be " the biggest talent deal in TV history " . Although she had said as early as 1955 that she would never do a weekly television series , in the early 1960s , she was in a financially precarious situation . She was several hundred thousand dollars in debt to the Internal Revenue Service , having failed to pay taxes in 1951 and 1952 , and the failure of A Star is Born meant that she received nothing from that investment . A successful run on television was intended to secure her financial future . Following a third special , Judy Garland and Her Guests Phil Silvers and Robert Goulet , Garland 's weekly series debuted September 29 , 1963 . The Judy Garland Show was critically praised , but for a variety of reasons ( including being placed in the time slot opposite Bonanza on NBC ) the show lasted only one season and was canceled in 1964 after 26 episodes . Despite its short run , the series was nominated for four Emmy Awards , including Best Variety Series . The demise of the program was personally and financially devastating for Garland . = = Final years = = Garland sued Luft for divorce in 1963 , claiming " cruelty " as the grounds . She also asserted that he had repeatedly struck her while he was drinking and that he had attempted to take their children from her by force . She had filed for divorce from Luft more than once previously , even as early as 1956 , but they had reconciled each time . With the demise of her television series , Garland returned to the stage . Most notably , she performed at the London Palladium with her 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter Liza Minnelli in November 1964 . The concert was also shown on the British television network ITV , and was one of her final appearances at the venue . She made guest appearances on The Ed Sullivan Show and The Tonight Show . Garland guest @-@ hosted an episode of The Hollywood Palace with Vic Damone . She was invited back for a second episode in 1966 with Van Johnson as her guest . Issues with Garland 's behavior ended her Hollywood Palace guest appearances . A 1964 tour of Australia was largely disastrous . Garland 's first concert in Sydney was held in the Sydney Stadium because no concert hall could accommodate the crowds who wanted to see her . It went well and received positive reviews . Her second performance , in Melbourne , started an hour late . The crowd of 7 @,@ 000 was angered by her tardiness and believed her to be drunk ; they booed and heckled her , and she fled the stage after just 45 minutes . She later characterized the Melbourne crowd as " brutish " . A second concert in Sydney was uneventful , but the Melbourne appearance garnered her significant bad press . Some of that bad press was deflected by the announcement of a near fatal episode of pleurisy . Garland 's tour promoter Mark Herron announced that they had married aboard a freighter off the coast of Hong Kong ; however , she was not legally divorced from Luft at the time when the ceremony was performed . The divorce became final on May 19 , 1965 , and Herron and she did not legally marry until November 14 , 1965 ; they separated six months later . In February 1967 , Garland was cast as Helen Lawson in Valley of the Dolls for 20th Century Fox . During the filming , she missed rehearsals and was fired in April , replaced by Susan Hayward . Her prerecording of the song " I 'll Plant My Own Tree " survived , along with her wardrobe tests . Returning to the stage , Garland made her last appearances at New York 's Palace Theatre in July , a 16 @-@ show stand , performing with her children Lorna and Joey Luft . She wore a sequined pantsuit on stage for this tour , which was part of the original wardrobe for her character in Valley of the Dolls . By early 1969 , Garland 's health had deteriorated . She performed in London at the Talk of the Town nightclub for a five @-@ week run and made her last concert appearance in Copenhagen during March 1969 . She married her fifth and final husband , nightclub manager Mickey Deans , at Chelsea Register Office , London , on March 15 , 1969 , her divorce from Herron having been finalized on February 11 . = = Death = = On June 22 , 1969 , Deans found Garland dead in the bathroom of their rented mews house in Chelsea , London ; she was 47 years old . The coroner , Gavin Thurston , stated at the inquest that the cause of death was " an incautious self @-@ overdosage " of barbiturates ; her blood contained the equivalent of 10 1 @.@ 5 @-@ grain ( 97 mg ) Seconal capsules . Thursdon stressed that the overdose had been unintentional and that no evidence suggested she had committed suicide . Garland 's autopsy showed no inflammation of her stomach lining and no drug residue in her stomach , which indicated that the drug had been ingested over a long period of time , rather than in one dose . Her death certificate stated that her death had been " accidental " . Supporting the accidental cause , her doctor noted that a prescription of 25 barbiturate pills was found by her bedside half empty and another bottle of 100 was still unopened . A British specialist who had attended her autopsy said she had nevertheless been living on borrowed time owing to cirrhosis . She had turned 47 just 12 days before her death . Her Wizard of Oz co @-@ star Ray Bolger commented at her funeral , " She just plain wore out . " After her body had been embalmed by Desmond Henley , Deans took Garland 's remains to New York City on June 26 , where an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people lined up to pay their respects at the Frank E. Campbell Funeral Chapel in Manhattan , which remained open all night to accommodate the overflow crowd . On June 27 , James Mason gave a eulogy at the funeral , an Episcopal service led by the Rev. Peter A. Delaney of St Marylebone Parish Church , London , who had officiated at her marriage to Deans , three months prior . The public and press were barred . She was interred in a crypt in the community mausoleum at Ferncliff Cemetery in Hartsdale , New York , a small town 24 miles north of Midtown Manhattan . = = Legacy = = Often referred to as the greatest entertainer who ever lived , Garland 's legacy as a performer and a personality has endured long after her death . The American Film Institute named her eighth among the Greatest female stars of Golden Age Hollywood cinema . She has been the subject of over two dozen biographies since her death , including the well @-@ received Me and My Shadows : A Family Memoir by her daughter , Lorna Luft , whose memoir was later adapted into the television miniseries Life with Judy Garland : Me and My Shadows , which won Emmy Awards for the two actresses portraying her ( Tammy Blanchard and Judy Davis ) . Garland was posthumously awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award in 1997 . Several of her recordings have been inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame . These include " Over the Rainbow " , which was ranked as the number one movie song of all time in the American Film Institute 's " 100 Years ... 100 Songs " list . Four more Garland songs are featured on the list : " Have Yourself a Merry Little Christmas " ( # 76 ) , " Get Happy " ( # 61 ) , " The Trolley Song " ( # 26 ) , and " The Man That Got Away " ( # 11 ) . She has twice been honored on U.S. postage stamps , in 1989 ( as Dorothy ) and again in 2006 ( as Vicki Lester from A Star Is Born ) . = = In popular culture = = = = = Gay icon = = = Garland had a large fan base in the gay community and became a gay icon . Reasons given for her standing , especially among gay men , are the admiration of her ability as a performer , the way her personal struggles mirrored those of gay men in America during the height of her fame and her value as a camp figure . In the 1960s , a reporter asked how she felt about having a large gay following . She replied , " I couldn 't care less . I sing to people . " = = = Portrayals in fiction = = = Garland has been portrayed on television by Andrea McArdle in Rainbow ( 1978 ) , Tammy Blanchard ( young Judy ) and Judy Davis ( older Judy ) in Life with Judy Garland : Me and My Shadows ( 2001 ) , and Sigrid Thornton in Peter Allen : Not The Boy Next Door ( 2015 ) . On stage , Garland is a character in the musical The Boy from Oz ( 1998 ) , portrayed by Chrissy Amphlett in the original Australian production and by Isabel Keating on Broadway in 2003 . End of the Rainbow ( 2005 ) featured Caroline O 'Connor as Garland and Paul Goddard as Garland 's pianist . Adrienne Barbeau played Garland in The Property Known as Garland ( 2006 ) and The Judy Monologues ( 2010 ) initially featured male actors reciting Garland 's words before it was revamped as a one @-@ woman show . = I , the Supreme = I , the Supreme ( orig . Spanish Yo el supremo ) is a historical novel written by exiled Paraguayan author Augusto Roa Bastos . It is a fictionalized account of the nineteenth @-@ century Paraguayan dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , who was also known as " Dr. Francia . " The book 's title derives from the fact that Francia referred to himself as " El Supremo " or " the Supreme . " The first in a long line of dictators , the Supreme was a severe , calculating despot . The central themes of the novel are power and language and the relation between the two . The Supreme believes himself to be above all power and history : " I don 't write history . I make it . I can remake it as I please , adjusting , stressing , enriching its meaning and truth . " Yet this assertion is constantly challenged by the very fact that while he achieves power by means of writing and dictating , these very same methods can be used by others to dispute his authority . Not even his own identity , represented by the personal pronoun I , is safe and can easily be usurped as is demonstrated by the incident of the pasquinade . Language , as powerful as it is , can never be controlled and can just as easily be used as an instrument of coercion as an instrument of resistance . During the time the book was written , Paraguay was under the dictatorship of Alfredo Stroessner , who went on to rule the country even longer than Francia did . Many consider the book to be at least in part a thinly disguised attack on Stroessner who used methods similar to Francia ’ s to achieve and maintain the effective control of the country , including the swift elimination of opposition , the employment of torture and intolerance of dissent . In its portrayal of Francia and criticism of Stroessner , I , the Supreme belongs to the genre of novelas de dictadores or dictator novels , and also to the Latin American Boom , a literary movement of the 1960s and 1970s . The book was first published in Spanish in 1974 , and in English ( translation by Helen Lane ) in 1986 . Like many other works of the Latin American boom , the book never became an international best @-@ seller . It was , however , highly regarded by critics with Gerald Martin claiming that it was , " an exceptional cultural phenomenon . " Martin goes on to suggest that it was " more immediately and unanimously acclaimed than any novel since One Hundred Years of Solitude , [ and its ] strictly historical importance [ may ] be even greater than that of García Márquez 's fabulously successful creation . " The book 's handling of the themes of power and language was also praised . Still , the novel was not well received by Stroessner ’ s government and Roa Bastos became " one of the three citizens forbidden to return " to Paraguay as a result . = = Historical context = = After declaring independence from colonial Spain in May 1811 , land @-@ locked Paraguay established itself as the first Republic of South America . Dr. Francia was elected by the junta ( or congress ) to office and he established himself as dictator for life , until his death in 1840 . He ruled with a despotic populism in which the ideals he had drawn from the philosophers of the French Enlightenment were tempered by his aristocratic insistence on absolute rule . As John T. Deiner explains , he " created an army in which all citizens were required to serve . He confiscated property from the upper classes and used the state 's coercive power to direct the working of that land by the army . " He also isolated the country from the outside world , restricting foreign trade and mobility . Political opposition was not tolerated . Francia 's rule was the beginning of a long line of dictators , including Carlos Antonio López ( who was president of Paraguay with dictatorial powers from 1844 to 1862 ) and López 's son , Francisco Solano López ( who ruled between 1862 and 1870 ) . It was Solano López who unwisely initiated the Paraguayan War ( 1865 – 79 ) , which crippled Paraguay , reduced its population by half , and forced many others into exile , creating a Paraguay that Roa Bastos described as " the land without men of the men without land . " In the twentieth @-@ century , Paraguay was dominated by the dictatorial figure of Alfredo Stroessner , who ruled the country for thirty @-@ five years ( from 1954 to 1989 ) and was in power at the time at which Roa Bastos was writing I , the Supreme . Roa Bastos 's novel can be perceived as in part a thinly disguised attack on Stroessner , who ruled Paraguay even longer than Francia . He came to power after the 1947 Civil War , which had destroyed all parties of the centre and the left and drove more than a third of Paraguay 's population into exile . He assumed presidency after a series of coups in 1954 . He gained complete control of the military , eliminated potential rivals , and closely monitored and participated in allocations of national resources . As Deiner argues , " The novel ’ s El Supremo ( Francia ) and Stroessner in the twentieth century used similar methods for dominating national politics . Neither tolerated effective opposition . Both rulers were extremely suspicious of any potential opponents , quickly acting to imprison and torture anyone suspected . Both were ruthless in their intolerance of dissent . " As Rowe and Whitfield describe Stroessner 's rule , " he inherited all Francia 's despotism , but none of his populism [ . . . ] he rule [ d ] over a country where human and civil rights are honored only in their breach . " = = Influences = = Literary critic Todd Garth argues that I , the Supreme is influenced by twentieth @-@ century Argentine writer Macedonio Fernández , as well as other avant garde artists such as Jorge Luis Borges and Julio Cortázar . Garth suggests that Macedonio and Roa Bastos are similar in use of metaphysical language and techniques used to reconstruct reality , as Dr. Francia does in his dictated creation of the Supreme , the ruler of all reality . Macedonio 's writing utilized characters that did not fit the archetype of Western fiction , each only having meaning through their interaction with others in a collective and often never experiencing growth or development in order to construct atemporal spaces of mythmaking that challenge reality . Roa Bastos borrows from these ideas yet situates them in existing political and social history to challenge perceived conceptions of the past 's factuality . He dismantles national Paraguayan mythology which is so intimately intertwined with the life of Dr. Francia , elucidating the distinctions between mythic and mythological . The novel can only accomplish this task within the metaphysical space of mythmaking . Whereas Macedonio attacks the concept of the individual as subject while admitting the fact that to write makes oneself a subject , Roa Bastos recognizes this paradox and exploits it , utilizing it in concerns of political and social nature . Themes from Plato and his influence on Western political philosophy are also prevalent in the novel . Mainly , the debate over the nature of ' Good Society ' and how to achieve it are seen in the positions of the Supreme . He argues that it is the ruler 's role , as well as his duty and obligation , to bring about the good society , and this can only be done by the imposition of absolute order from above . The dictator ’ s job is to bring about the Good Society , to impose the needed order , and the people 's job is to obey the dictator , thereby enjoying the fruits of the good society . The result of such behavior by both the ruler and the ruled will be good for everyone . The novel is also clearly influenced by earlier writing on dictatorship , predominantly Domingo Sarmiento 's Facundo . The similarities can be seen in how both novels are written by exiles , in their thinly veiled attacks on their homeland 's current dictator , and in their authors ' shared use of ' pasquinade / hand @-@ written message ' devices to begin both novels . Francia 's " Perpetual Circular " also contains several allusions to the Argentine gaucho Juan Facundo Quiroga , as well as to the dictator Juan Manuel de Rosas , both of whom were the object of Sarmiento 's critique . = = Genre = = I , the Supreme is a good example of the dictator novel , a genre of Latin American literature that challenges the role of the dictator in Latin American society . The dictator novel draws upon the relationship between power , writing , and dictatorship , and so is an allegory of the role of the Latin American writer in society . The goal of the dictator novel is not to dissect and to analyze the rule of particular dictators with a focus on historical accuracy , but rather , to examine the more abstract nature of authority figures , and to question the idea of authority in general . To be considered a dictator novel , a book must have strong political themes that draw upon historical accounts , while critically examining the power held by an authoritarian figure , allowing the specific to explain the general . Although mostly associated with the Latin American Boom of the 1960s and 1970s , " all fictional depictions of the Latin American ' strong @-@ man ' , it must be noted have an important antecedent in Domingo Faustino Sarmiento 's Facundo , a work written as a sociological treatise " . Many dictator novels , including I , the Supreme belong to the Latin American Boom , a literary movement which began in the 1960s and 1970s , when the work of a group of relatively young Latin American novelists became widely circulated in Europe and throughout the world . The Boom novels were essentially modernist novels , which according to Pope , relied on superposition of different points of view , blurring time and linearity . He further notes , " linguistically self assured , it used the vernacular without apologies . " Other notable characteristics of the Boom include the treatment of both " rural and urban settings , " internationalism , an emphasis on both the historical and the political , as well as " questioning of regional as well as , or more than , national identity ; awareness of hemisphereic as well as worldwide economic and ideological issues ; polemicism ; and timeliness . " = = Synopsis = = As critic John King notes , " it is impossible to summarize this extraordinary novel in a few lines . It incorporates the latest developments in linguistic theory and practice , talks of the arbitrariness and unreliability of language that purports to describe reality , rereads and comments upon the various histories and travelers ’ accounts of Paraguay , ranges across the breadth of Latin American history , implicitly condemning Stroessner and debating with Fidel Castro , and exploring once again the gap between writer and reader . " The book does , however , start by promising a linear narrative . It opens with the title words , set in a font designed to look like handwriting , heralding what appears to be an official order : I the Supreme Dictator of the Republic Order that on the occasion of my death my corpse be beheaded ; my head placed on a pike for three days in the Plaza de la República , to which the people are to be summoned by the sounding of a full peal of bells ... This pronouncement , it turns out , is not an official declaration . It is an imitation or forgery , found " nailed to the door of the cathedral " in Paraguay 's capital , Asunción . Immediately following , then , is a discussion of this pasquinade : Dr Francia , the Supreme , and his secretary , Policarpo Patiño , discuss its meaning and possible provenance . Patiño is set the task of uncovering the perpetrator : " You are to start tracking down the handwriting of the pasquinade in all the files . " But this linear detection narrative soon starts to unravel . The Supreme casts doubt even on the presumption that the declaration is indeed a forgery , or rather suggests that the forgery could itself be forged : " Suppose that I myself am an author of pasquinades . " Moreover , the literary genre is undone by the introduction of footnotes ( which blur the line between fiction and fact ) , and the narrative transparency subverted by the fact that the novel asserts its own materiality with interpolations such as " ( the rest of the sentence burned , illegible ) " and " ( edge of the folio burned ) " . The effect of these notes is to remind readers that they are reading a book , and that this book is incomplete , damaged , and fallible . As the novel continues , it becomes more and more caught up in digressions , such that the original narrative line is apparently forgotten . The Supreme and his secretary discuss an often bizarre series of topics : a meteor that is apparently chained to Francia 's desk ; a prison camp in Tevego whose inhabitants have been turned to stone ; and increasingly the dictator also ruminates on the past , particularly the events of Paraguay 's foundation when he had to fend off the attention of Spaniards , Argentines , and Brazilians , all of whom threatened the nascent country 's independence . Chronology and logic are seemingly abandoned : at one point the dictator discusses the date of his own death ; elsewhere he mentions events that will only happen long afterwards , such as the Chaco War of the 1930s ( in which Roa Bastos himself fought ) . Moreover , readers are increasingly made aware of the marginal but insistent voice of the mysterious compiler . At the center of the book , it is revealed that the compiler is , in fact , in possession of the same pen used by the Supreme , a " memory @-@ pen " that reproduces images as well as words , but that is now " partially broken , so that today it writes only with very thick strokes that tear the paper , effacing words as it writes them " . The novel ends at the end of Francia 's life , with him condemning Patiño to death for supposedly plotting against him , followed by Francia 's death in a fire in 1840 . As the characters and plot disintegrate , so apparently does the novel . The final line is another interpolation : " ( the remainder stuck together , illegible , the rest unable to be found , the worm @-@ eaten letters of the Book hopelessly scattered ) . " And yet , this is not quite the last word , as it is followed by a " Final Compiler 's Note " that reflects on the compilation and the book as a whole . Here the novel seems to pass responsibility on to " the no less fictitious and autonomous reader . " = = Characters = = = = = Dr. Francia ( the Supreme ) = = = José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia , also known as " Dr. Francia " , Karaí @-@ Guasú ( " Great Lord " in Guaraní ) , or " the Supreme " , is the book 's titular character and also undoubtedly its main focus . Most of the book is dedicated to his dictates to his secretary , Patiño . The Supreme is a domineering man , frequently belittling his closest confidant . He is also an infirm man , as the book is set a short time before his death on September 20 , 1840 . Roa Bastos 's portrayal of him walks the line between praise and condemnation . While other authors of dictator novels clearly present their dictators as villains , Roa Bastos makes it unclear as to whether he is defending him or not . As Roberto Gonzalez Echevarria writes , the Supreme is " constant [ ly ] [ worried ] about writing . [ This ] stems from the fact that he has found and used the power implicit in language itself . The Supreme defines power as being able to do through others what we are unable to do ourselves : language , being separate from what it designates , is the very embodiment of power . " The Supreme is also revealed to be power @-@ crazed in other ways . Michiko Kakutani writes " Francia , it seems , wants to account for everything ( his own history , as well as the history of his nation , which he personifies as its leader ) as he pours out his story , it becomes clear that he possesses an insatiable desire for power and control — he has even chained a huge meteorite to his desk , as punishment for being a cosmic runaway — and that he also sees himself as two separate beings : as a conniving , paranoiac " I " , beset by the average ego 's fears and doubts , and as the " Supreme " , a monstrously powerful presence that even Francia himself must refer to in the third person . " The Supreme was personally involved in the affairs of the state to such extent , that it was reported by contemporary press that " [ He ] personally trained his cavalry in the use of the saber , ascertained the exact number of nails in Fort Orange , awarded 102 pesos to a Frenchman whose anchor had been melted down by the state ... lowered the price of salt in the capital , donated state yerba to the people of Saladillo , and denied permission for [ someone ] to marry in Villa Rica . " It was common for him to attend to such specific details in a single evening . = = = Policarpo Patiño = = = Policarpo Patiño is the Supreme 's secretary and amanuensis . An " efficient and loyal servant " , in historian Hoyt Williams 's words , he was " a jack of all trades , [ who ] arranged audiences , transcribed documents , visited the jails , and conferred with the Dictator on most routine matters . Toward the end of [ the Supreme 's ] life , and presumably with his knowledge , Patiño began signing some official documents that did not bear his master 's signature . " Much of the book consists of dialogue between the Supreme and his secretary , which Policarpo records as he writes what is dictated to him . In Roberto González Echevarría 's words , " Patiño is the quintessential writer . " There is , however , some debate about how powerful Patiño actually was . Initially possessing a more powerful role , the Supreme 's " personal control over virtually the entirety of [ the state ] " led to Patiño quickly being demoted from " Government Secretary and scribe " to simply a record keeper . There is evidence , however , that Patiño wielded considerable influence with the Supreme , as " in 1835 Patiño denounced a slave for attempting to induce an abortion in his daughter and to poison him . A close investigation ... turned up [ that ] the daughter had requested the abortion and Patiño had lied , [ yet ] he was not jailed , and retained his powerful position . ” Despite his influence , Patiño is frequently the victim of the Supreme 's abuse , even having his own death sentence dictated to him , although in the end he outlives his master . González Echevarría questions whether Patiño " [ had ] the last laugh ? Did he achieve some sort of posthumous power ? " This is suggested both because he outlived Dr. Francia , and also because the pen ostensibly used to write the book was given to the author by Patiño 's descendant . Therefore " the editor , who arranges the various texts and annotates them , who thereby exercises final authority over Dr. Francia 's versions of himself , is the heir of Policarpo Patiño . " The power relationship between the Supreme and his secretary is a microcosm of the book as a whole , with Dr. Francia dominating Patiño completely , even though the latter is intimately associated with the dictator having power at all , given the power he derives from writing . = = Style = = I , the Supreme is a dense , complicated novel that requires considerable reader involvement . Critic Helene Weldt @-@ Basson suggests that symbolism plays an important role in the novel , one that goes hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the complexity of the writing . She references Tzvetan Todorov 's theory of symbolism in literature which suggests that " [ there is an ] inseparability of symbolism and interpretation . They are , for me , simply two aspects of a single phenomenon . " This theory dovetails quite well with the multiple meanings associated	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
Text " as the bonus objective description in the Xbox 360 version 's final mission and other glitches , said it seems the developers one day " just stopped working on the game " . GameSpot cited the port 's lack of visual options and poor framerate as evidence the PC edition had been rushed . IGN described the Jedi Academy expansion as " pretty decent " . GameSpot said LucasArts seems to have acknowledged some of the game 's criticisms in developing the Tatooine expansion , but IGN called the level 's boss fights " a joke " in light of the player 's high Force powers . IGN found the level design in The Ultimate Sith Edition 's Hoth scenario uninteresting , and called the boss fight against Luke Skywalker tough but " not nearly as fun " as it could have been . The demo was the fourth most @-@ played Xbox Live game during the week of August 25 , trailing Grand Theft Auto IV , Halo 3 , and Call of Duty 4 : Modern Warfare ; it was the ninth most @-@ played Xbox Live title throughout all of 2008 . The week it was released , The Force Unleashed was the sixth most @-@ played game on Xbox Live , and it rose to fifth the following week . In its first week on sale in Australia , the PS3 and Xbox 360 versions of The Force Unleashed were the top and second @-@ best sellers , respectively . In the United States , the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 version sold 325 @,@ 000 and 610 @,@ 000 copies , respectively , in September 2008 ; that month , the Xbox 360 version was the best @-@ selling game and the PlayStation 3 version was the fifth best @-@ selling game for their respective consoles . = = = Other platforms = = = Nintendo Power praised the story and the number of lightsaber combos but criticized the game 's easiness and hack @-@ and @-@ slash gameplay . It also praised the Wii version for its story and Force powers , but criticized the game 's lightsaber controls and linear gameplay . GameSpot noticed visual glitches and problematic audio compression that detracted from the Wii version 's " mature and exciting " story , adding that the reduced number of Force @-@ manipulable objects helps mitigate the targeting problems experienced on other platforms . Referring to the Wii remote and nunchuck controls , GameSpot also speculated that The Force Unleashed is " possibly the most waggle @-@ heavy " Wii game . Zero Punctuation criticized the Wii version 's graphics and compared lightsaber combat to " trying to follow an aerobics routine with both your arms tied to different windmills " . The ability to upgrade Starkiller 's abilities in the PS2 version , according to IGN , is not as " robust " as it should be , and the game 's targeting system is sometimes frustrating . IGN said the PS2 's real @-@ time cutscene rendering made Starkiller seem emotionless , and that pre @-@ rendered cutscenes would have been better . GameSpot found the DS version 's plot interesting but the storytelling itself " lackluster " . While the DS version is easy , with Starkiller killing enemies " like a hot knife through butter " , GameSpot said the player 's sense of power is not matched by a sense of freedom . GameSpot called the PSP version 's camera " unwieldy " , but added that smaller and less cluttered environments make the targeting system less frustrating than on other platforms . The Wii version was a nominee for multiple Wii @-@ specific awards from IGN in its 2008 video game awards , including Best Story and Best Voice Acting . In the week of its release , the Wii version was the sixth bestselling game in Australia and was second to Wii Fit among games for that platform . The PS2 version was the eighth bestseller in Australia , and both the PS2 and PSP versions were the top sellers on their respective platforms . The DS version was eighth most sold among DS games in Australia . In the United States , the Wii version sold 223 @,@ 000 copies in September 2008 , making it the ninth best @-@ selling game that month . In the United States , the PlayStation 2 version was the 14th best @-@ selling game in September 2008 , selling over 100 @,@ 000 copies . = Creatures of Impulse = Creatures of Impulse is a stage play by the English dramatist W. S. Gilbert , with music by the composer @-@ conductor Alberto Randegger , which Gilbert adapted from his own short story . Both the play and the short story concern an unwanted and ill @-@ tempered old fairy who enchants people to behave in a manner opposite to their natures , with farcical results . The short story was written for The Graphic 's Christmas number of 1870 , and the play was first produced at the Court Theatre on 2 April 1871 . It originally included six songs , but three were eventually cut , and some productions dispensed with the music entirely . While the lyrics survive , the music was never published and is lost . Reviews of the play were mostly positive , though it was criticised for the lack of a significant plot or superstructure to support its comic premise . Nonetheless , reviewers found it enjoyable , and it was a modest success , running for 91 performances and enjoying revivals into the early part of the 20th century . Gilbert had already written a considerable body of stories , plays , poems , criticism and other works before writing Creatures of Impulse . He later wrote the libretti to the famous series of Savoy operas ( composed by Arthur Sullivan ) between 1871 and 1896 . = = Background = = = = = Writer and composer = = = From the mid @-@ 1860s to the early 1870s , W. S. Gilbert was extremely productive , writing a large quantity of comic verse , theatre reviews and other journalistic pieces , short stories , and dozens of plays and comic operas . His output in 1870 included dozens of his popular comic Bab Ballads ; two blank verse comedies , The Princess and The Palace of Truth ; two comic operas , Our Island Home and The Gentleman in Black ; and various other short stories , comic pieces , and reviews appearing in various periodicals and newspapers . In 1871 he was even busier , producing seven plays and operas . Gilbert 's dramatic writing during this time was evolving from his early musical burlesques to a more restrained style , as exemplified in his string of blank @-@ verse fairy comedies . The first of these was The Palace of Truth , which opened in 1870 to widespread acclaim . He was also developing his unique style of absurdist humour , described as " Topsy @-@ Turvy " , made up of " a combination of wit , irony , topsyturvydom , parody , observation , theatrical technique , and profound intelligence " . The story and play Creatures of Impulse date from the middle of this period , when Gilbert was trying different styles and working towards the mature style of his later work , including the famous series of Gilbert and Sullivan operas . Gilbert described the play as a " musical fairytale " . Italian @-@ born Alberto Randegger was better known as a conductor and professor of singing than as a composer , although he composed several full @-@ length works and numerous vocal pieces in England in the 1860s and 1870s . He is also remembered for his important 1879 textbook entitled Singing . His music for Creatures of Impulse was criticised as " extremely undramatic " , though others found it " pretty " . Much of it was cut from revivals of the piece . = = = Genesis of story and play = = = Gilbert first published Creatures of Impulse as a short story , under the title " A Strange Old Lady " , in the 1870 Christmas number of The Graphic , an illustrated weekly newspaper . He later selected it for inclusion in the only collection of his short stories published during his lifetime , Foggerty 's Fairy and Other Tales ( 1890 ) , at which point he renamed it to match the theatrical adaptation . Gilbert did not originally intend for the story to be turned into a play ; nonetheless , a few months later it was on stage . He adapted the story into a play for Marie Litton 's Royal Court Theatre . Litton took over the proprietorship of the New Chelsea Theatre in 1871 and renamed it the Royal Court . Its opening attraction was the première of Gilbert 's Randall 's Thumb , and when that play proved successful , it was no surprise , as the London Echo pointed out , that she followed it with another work by Gilbert . He often used his previous prose work as the basis of later plays , and " The Strange Old Lady " was no exception . Under the new title of Creatures of Impulse , it opened on 2 April 1871 as a companion piece for Randall 's Thumb . Successful , it lasted through 91 performances and acted as a companion piece to five different plays . Litton continued to commission works from Gilbert , including Gilbert 's adaptation of Charles Dickens ' Great Expectations in 1871 , Broken Hearts in 1875 , various translations of French works , and The Happy Land in 1873 , which portrayed members of the British Government on stage and caused such a scandal that it had an unusually long run . = = = Subsequent productions and publications = = = The play was revived in 1872 at the Court Theatre , in 1873 at the Queen 's Theatre , and in 1874 at the Vaudeville Theatre ( running for over 100 performances ) , all in London . It appears to have gone through several changes during these revivals , the first of which was described on its playbill as a " shortened version " , and the last as an " altered " one . Various versions continued to be produced into the 20th century by amateurs as well as occasional professional groups , such as Ben Greet 's Elizabethan Stage Society of England . An acting edition was published by T. H. Lacy around 1871 . T. H. Lacy was acquired by Samuel French , and the libretto continued to be printed until about 1970 . The piece , still occasionally produced , was part of the International Gilbert and Sullivan Festival in 2006 . Substantial cuts were made in the text by the time the play was collected for Original Plays , Fourth Series ( 1911 ) , the last volume of the only large @-@ scale collection of Gilbert 's stage work . Victorian plays had to be approved by the Lord Chamberlain for decency before they were performed , and the version submitted was then archived , providing a more @-@ or @-@ less complete collection of Victorian theatrical output , now part of the British Library . Comparison of the " licensing copy " of Creatures of Impulse from this archive with that printed in Original Plays reveals lyrics for three additional songs and a second verse to the opening chorus and finale . = = Synopsis = = Note : The short story takes place at an inn on the road from London to Norwich , but the play calls for Alsatian costumery . Otherwise , the plots of the short story and play are nearly identical . The summary below uses the names from the play and notes significant changes in plot between the play and short story . There are also various small changes to the order of events , not described . At " The Three Pigeons " inn , it is a good day for some : the miser Boomblehardt has been out collecting rents from his tenants , and Sergeant Klooque , hero of Johannesburg , has just arrived at the inn on leave and may now flirt with any lady he chooses , without the need to pretend they are his relatives to get around his tyrannical Colonel . However , it is not a good day for Martha , the landlady of the inn : staying there is a strange old lady , a mischievous fairy , who refuses to pay or to leave , and who needs neither food nor water . This is substantially cutting into Martha 's profits . She enlists Boomblehardt and Klooque , the cowardly farmer Peter , and her extremely shy niece , Pipette , to help solve this problem . Peter , not cowardly enough to fear an old woman , nor superstitious enough to believe in her power , threatens the old fairy , trying to chase her away . Unfortunately , she does indeed have fairy powers and casts a spell that forces Peter to threaten anyone he encounters or , if alone , to fight imaginary enemies . Peter flees before he can get himself into trouble by threatening anyone bigger than him , calling out challenges as he goes . Sergeant Klooque approaches the old woman next and tries to use his military charm to win her over . It turns out that she hates soldiers , and she strikes out with her stick , making him duck and dodge . She then casts a spell to make his cringing , dodging and ducking permanent , intending that he lose his reputation and be branded a coward . Pipette arrives and watches his behaviour in astonishment . " He 's showing you how he fought the enemy at Johannesburg , " exclaims the old lady , but he replies " No , my dear ! " I 'm showing you how the enemy fought us . This is the way they retreated " . He leaves , cringing and pleading for imaginary attackers to stop as he goes . Pipette then tries to coax the old lady into leaving , kissing and hugging her , and appealing to her ( hoped for ) good nature . The old lady sees through her attempt , and in punishment for her " telling stories " compels her to kiss and cuddle all she meets . She cries out in protest that she 's too shy for such behaviour , but the old lady assures her that she 'll " get over [ her ] shyness after a year or two of that sort of thing " . Boomblehardt approaches next , and Pipette flings herself on him , crying " Kiss me ! " . He obliges . She responds , " How dare you take such a liberty ! You insolent old man ! Kiss me " . And so he does . She boxes his ears , much to his confusion , and then retreats into the inn in tears . Boomblehardt then meets with the old woman . The miser has heard that the strange old lady does not need to eat and offers to help her stay at the inn if she will teach him her secret of how to avoid wasting money on food . He offers her a golden guinea . The fairy decides that someone that miserly must be punished and compels him to continue passing out guineas to all he meets . Soon complications arise from these curses . Boomblehardt finds Sergeant Klooque 's curse hilarious and decides that if he must give out money , the sergeant is as good as any other . The shy Pipette throws herself at Sergeant , who unwillingly ducks and dodges , trying to avoid her . When Peter arrives , he is forced to get into a fight with the sergeant over her , at which , to his surprise , the brave sergeant cowers , dodges , and ducks . Boomblehardt continues passing out guineas , his fortune dribbling away . Then Martha chases her customers out of the inn with a broom : She too has been cursed . Everyone has fallen under the fairy 's ironic curses , forced to behave in a manner contrary to his or her intrinsic nature . Now the old lady makes her crucial mistake : She heads downstairs to check on her mischief , and the cursed group all run up to her to beg her to relent . They all behave as compelled by their curses : Peter threatens her , Pipette tries to kiss her , the sergeant ducks away from her , the miser offers her money , and the landlady keeps trying to chase her out with a broom . The chaos is overwhelming : " In short , the Old Lady , who was much more than a match for each of them taken singly , was overpowered by numbers " . She is left with no choice but to relent , release the spells and leave , vanquished and embarrassed . The short story continues a bit further , making explicit some elements that are only hinted at in the play : The really curious part of this story is that , after everything had been explained , and all had been restored to their normal courses of action , none of the personages involved in it married each other . They were all so annoyed at having made such fools of themselves that they walked out of the inn in different directions , and were never seen or heard of again . Except Peter , who , seeing nothing to be ashamed of in showing such undaunted courage , remained and kept the " Three Pigeons , " and prospered remarkably to the end of his days . That no one marries at the end of the play was a daring innovation for Victorian theatre , and the reviewer from Era mentioned his surprise at this . Synopsis notes : a In the short story , Peter is instead her nephew . This has no effect on the plot.b In the story , Boomblehardt 's equivalent , Verditter , is instead courting the landlady , as her inn is profitable and she has some fine silver ; therefore , he tries to bribe the fairy to leave in order that he may make money elsewhere . = = Characters and original cast = = As was common in Victorian drama , a woman ( Maggie Brennan ) played a young man ( Peter ) . The play 's script assigns dialogue to three numbered villagers in the opening scene . The named character of Jacques has no more lines than any of these and disappears after the first page of the script . Righton , who first played Boomblehardt , portrayed him as a Jewish caricature . Gilbert 's script did not use a Jewish dialect , and historian Jane Stedman suggests that Righton 's increasingly broad portrayal and interpolations show that Gilbert had little control of Righton 's portrayal of the part . = = Songs = = The number of songs varied from production to production . The version submitted to the Lord Chamberlain had six songs , and an early review in The Times wrote that it was " overweighted with a quantity of extremely undramatic music " , though the London Echo thought the music was " pretty " . Nonetheless , the version printed in Gilbert 's Original Plays ( 1911 ) cut these six songs to three , and some productions omitted the songs entirely . The list of songs in the licence copy is : " Did you ever know a lady so particularly shady " – Jacques and villagers " Some people love Spring " – Boomblehardt " At home at last all danger past " – Sergeant Klooque " A soldier in the King 's Hussars " – Sergeant Klooque , Pipette , and Peter " With furious blow " – Peter , Pipette , Sergeant Klooque , and Martha " Finale : Go away , ma 'am , go away , ma 'am " – ensemble While the lyrics survive , none of the music was ever published , and it has been lost . The version in Original Plays omits the second verse of Nos. 1 and 6 and cuts Nos. 2 , 3 , and 5 . = = Critical reception = = Reviews for the play were generally favourable , but it was criticised for its loose structure and lack of a substantial plot . Bell 's Life in London and Sporting Chronicle opined : " Amusing , simple , and ingenious , ' Creatures of Impulse ' is another , though a slight , addition to the successes of its author " . The London Echo compared the piece to a " burletta of the stamp that was in vogue a hundred years ago , resembling Midas , perhaps , more nearly than that of any modern burlesque " , and wrote that it " contains pretty music , and smart if not witty dialogue , a semi @-@ moral and a semi @-@ plot " . The Graphic concluded that " Although it occupies only an hour in performance , the story is well told and the piece is exceedingly amusing " and praised the acting . Righton received special praise for his portrayal of Boomblehardt : " No character on stage perhaps ever made audiences laugh more in so short a time " . In an 1882 assessment of the piece for amateur theatre societies , M. E. James noted that " The singing is a great addition . It is altogether an amusing bit of nonsense , and very original " . The Times review was less positive than most , saying that although the play was good , more was expected of Gilbert : As noblesse oblige , so does great success become liable to a certain penalty . Had the little piece we have just described been the work of some unknown hand we might have accepted it as an agreeable trifle , displaying more than common ingenuity in its invention , and , with the aid of picturesque costumes , lively setting , and a pretty decoration , gracefully concluding the evening 's entertainment , although overweighted with a quantity of extremely undramatic music . But with the remembrance of The Palace of Truth fresh in our minds , we cannot help a feeling of disappointment when we find the author of that really poetical work coming forward as the writer of another " fairy tale , " so immeasurably inferior .... [ T ] he fairy only enchants her victims to disenchant them at pleasure , without arriving at any result , and we have a good foundation with scarcely any superstructure whatsoever . = Elmer Gedeon = Elmer John Gedeon ( April 15 , 1917 – April 20 , 1944 ) is one of only two Major League Baseball players killed in action during World War II . Gedeon was also a multi @-@ sport star in college at the University of Michigan . He flew several missions in the European Theater of Operations as an officer of the United States Army Air Forces before his final , fatal military operation . At Michigan , Gedeon became an All @-@ American in track and field , and earned varsity letters in both American football and baseball . He tied a world record in the high hurdles in 1938 . After graduating , Gedeon had a stint in Major League Baseball as an outfielder for the Washington Senators . Gedeon spent most of the 1939 and 1940 baseball seasons in the minor leagues , but he was called up to the Senators in September 1939 . Gedeon 's baseball career was cut short when he was drafted by the United States Army in early 1941 . He trained as a bomber pilot , and was decorated for bravery after his plane crashed on a training flight in 1942 . He later served in combat , and was shot down and killed while piloting a B @-@ 26 bomber on a mission over France in April 1944 . = = Growing up in Cleveland = = Born in Cleveland , Gedeon was a star athlete at Cleveland 's West High School , where he was a member of the class of 1935 . He was a 6 ft 4 in ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) athlete who excelled in American football , baseball , and track and field . While ice skating in Brookside Park in Cleveland as a youth , the ice gave way and Gedeon 's cousin plunged through up to his neck . The cousin later recalled : " Elmer slid across the ice on his belly and pulled me out . " Gedeon 's uncle , Joe Gedeon , was a Major League Baseball player who was implicated in the Chicago Black Sox scandal . Gedeon 's surname was common in Cleveland , because many people from Sudetenland , where it was common , settled in Cleveland . The phonebook listed numerous Gedeons for biographical research . One finding was that Gedeon 's widow , who was named Laura , later moved to Florida . Another was that his third cousin Charlotte Gedeon said Elmer carried her grandmother 's casket during a funeral . = = Collegiate athletics = = Gedeon enrolled at the University of Michigan in 1935 where he earned varsity letters in three sports : baseball , football , and track and field . Gedeon 's best sport was track and field , in which he was a two @-@ time Big Ten Conference champion in the outdoor 120 @-@ yard high hurdles and indoor 70 @-@ yard high hurdles . In March 1938 , Gedeon tied the American indoor record in the 70 @-@ yard ( 64 m ) high hurdles at the Big Ten meet in Chicago . He went on to tie a world record in the Illinois Relays , and then won the Big Ten title despite an injury . He also led Michigan to victory in the March 1939 Big Ten indoor track and field meet in Chicago . Michigan won both the Big Ten outdoor and indoor championships in 1938 – 1939 . At the 1938 outdoor National Collegiate Athletic Association championships , he placed third in the 120 @-@ yard ( 110 m ) hurdles and became an All @-@ American in track and field . Gedeon also wore # 51 for the Michigan Wolverines football program from 1936 to 1938 , earning three varsity letters in football . In 1937 , a feature article on the Michigan team noted that , in addition to his abilities as an end , " Gedeon can pass and punt , and can run faster than any one on the squad . " In 1938 , Gedeon played end in Coach Fritz Crisler 's first season as Michigan 's football coach . That was the year that Coach Crisler introduced the " winged football helmet " at Michigan . Team captain Fred Janke recalled Gedeon was " a tall , skinny guy " , at 6 feet 4 inches ( 1 @.@ 93 m ) and 196 pounds ( 89 kg ; 14 @.@ 0 st ) . " A rather serious kid . He could kick quite well . They used to pull him back in serious situations and let him punt the ball , because he could punt it a mile . " In baseball , Gedeon played both first base and the outfield for the Michigan Wolverines baseball team . He was a two @-@ time letterman in baseball and batted .320 . = = Professional baseball = = Gedeon signed with the Washington Senators after graduating in the summer of 1939 . He chose to sign with the Senators over a possible appearance as a member of the USA 's track team in the 1940 Summer Olympics . Gedeon was quite a prospect ; Clark Griffith , president of the Senators , mentioned Gedeon to The Sporting News on June 15 , when talking about exciting new players : " We 've got ... a youngster from the University of Michigan named Gedeon . " Gedeon was initially assigned to a minor league baseball team in Orlando , Florida where he played in 67 games in 1939 . In mid @-@ September , he was called up to the major leagues where he appeared in five games as an outfielder with three hits , one run and one RBI . His three hits came in a 10 – 9 win against the Cleveland Indians on September 19 as the starting centerfielder . In his five major league games , he played four games in center field and one in right field . In 1940 , Gedeon attended spring training with the Senators in Orlando , seeking a spot in the outfield or first base . In February 1940 , newspapers ran a wire service photograph of Gedeon hurdling over Senators first baseman Jimmy Wasdell , supposedly " by way of warming up " . returned to the minor leagues where he played for the Charlotte Hornets ( in the Piedmont League ) and hit .271 in 131 games . He was again recalled in September , but he made no appearances in any games . It appeared 1941 would see Gedeon moving to play more minor league baseball for either Greenville or Springfield . In the interim Gedeon served as an assistant football coach at Michigan . = = Military service and death in World War II = = Gedeon was drafted into the military in January 1941 , and reported to the Army instead of spring training . He was inducted at Fort Thomas , Kentucky and reported to the Cavalry Replacement Center at Fort Riley on March 18 . He immediately became an acting corporal of Troop B of the First Squadron for the thirteen @-@ week training program . The Bentley Historical Library at the University of Michigan owns a copy of an April 1941 fraternity newsletter with a note from Gedeon . " As you probably know by this time " , he wrote to his Phi Gamma Delta brothers , " Old Ged has been drafted . " On being assigned to the cavalry , Gedeon joked in the letter to his fraternity that " the only horse I ever saw in my life was the one the milkman used . " On October 22 , 1941 , Gedeon was accepted into pilot training despite his size and transferred to the United States Army Air Forces , earning his pilot 's wings and a commission as a second lieutenant at Williams Field , Arizona in May 1942 . He undertook twin @-@ engined bomber training with the 21st Bomb Group at MacDill Field in Tampa , Florida . Gedeon 's usual duties were to aid in European mission planning from a desk . On August 9 , 1942 , Gedeon was flying as the navigator in a B @-@ 25 that crashed in the middle of a swamp on take off from the municipal airport at Raleigh , North Carolina . Gedeon crawled from the burning bomber , and despite burns and three broken ribs , he went back into the wreckage , rescuing a crewmate , Corporal John R. Rarrat , who had suffered a broken back and two broken legs . Two crew members died in the crash , and Gedeon spent 12 weeks in the hospital recovering from his broken ribs and burns to his back , hands , face and legs , some requiring skin grafts . He lost 50 pounds ( 22 @.@ 7 kg ) in recovery . First Lt. Gedeon was awarded the Soldier 's Medal for heroism and bravery by Major General St. Clair Streett in what was described as " one of the most colorful ceremonies ever held at MacDill Field . " I 'll be back in baseball after the war " , he had said on his last leave before going overseas . Gedeon 's cousin recalled : " The last time I saw him , he told me , ' I had my accident . It 's going to be good flying from now on . ' He said he had used up his bad luck . " In February 1943 , the Associated Press ran a feature story about Gedeon 's war service under the headline : " Gedeon Will Return to Baseball If War Doesn ’ t Last Too Long . " Gedeon was quoted in the article as saying " he hopes to pick up after the war where he left off . " He added that " it 's a matter of time . " " If the war ends before I ’ m past the playing age I ’ ll return to the game . If I ’ m too old , I ’ ll do something else . " In July 1943 , Gedeon was among personnel from the 21st BG that became the cadre of the 586th Bomb Squadron , 394th Bombardment Group United States Army Air Forces , formed to train with Martin B @-@ 26 Marauders . At Ardmore Army Air Field , Oklahoma , he participated in group operational training in preparation for combat . In February 1944 , the group was sent to RAF Boreham , England , to become part of the Ninth Air Force . Gedeon was assigned as Squadron Operations Officer and began flying combat missions in Europe . His first mission was to attack an airfield at Beaumont @-@ le @-@ Roger , France , on March 23 , 1944 . On April 20 , 1944 , Gedeon piloted one of 36 B @-@ 26 's that left Boreham in the late afternoon to attack a V @-@ 1 " buzz bomb " site being constructed at Esquerdes , a village in the Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais near Saint @-@ Omer . Led by Capt. Darrell Lindsey , it was the group 's thirteenth mission . Attacking after dusk from 12 @,@ 000 feet , the group encountered intense and accurate anti @-@ aircraft fire , and Gedeon 's plane was hit by flak below the cockpit just after bombing . Gedeon 's co @-@ pilot , his clothes on fire , was able to parachute from the bomber as it plunged towards the ground , but Gedeon and five other crew members were killed . Gedeon was initially reported as missing in action and it was not until May 1945 that his family received word that his grave had been located in a small British army cemetery at Saint @-@ Pol , France . Gedeon 's body was later returned to the United States , and he was buried at Arlington National Cemetery . Of the 500 @-@ plus major league players who served in the military in WW II , Gedeon and Harry Mink O 'Neill of the Philadelphia Athletics , killed at Iwo Jima , were the only Major League Baseball players killed in World War II . , both at age 27 . The two have become symbols of " baseball 's sacrifice " in the war effort . As the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum proclaims : " Ballplayers , like every other American citizen , understand the importance of giving one 's self for their country . " After the war , a scholarship in Gedeon 's name was established at the University of Michigan . Gedeon was inducted into the University of Michigan Athletic Hall of Honor for track and baseball in 1983 . He was the sixth Michigan athlete inducted for his contributions in multiple sports . = Lemon Tree ( film ) = Lemon Tree ( Arabic : شجرة ليمون ; Hebrew : עץ לימון - Etz Limon ) is a 2008 Israeli drama film directed by Eran Riklis and co @-@ directed by his cousin Ira Riklis . It stars Hiam Abbass , Ali Suliman , Danny Leshman , Rona Lipaz @-@ Michael , Tarik Kopty , Amos Lavi , Lana Zreik and Amnon Wolf . The film describes the legal efforts of a Palestinian widow to stop the Israeli Defense Minister , her next door neighbor , from destroying the lemon trees in her family farm . At the same time , she develops a human bond with the minister 's wife . It was released in Israel on 27 March 2008 , and it received a tepid response from Israeli audiences . It was released internationally through IFC Films on 17 April 2009 . From there , the film has achieved critical success and it has received nominations for several awards such as ' Best Actress ' and ' Best Screenwriter ' at the European Film Awards . = = Plot = = The Israeli Defense Minister Israel Navon ( Doron Tavory ) moves to a house on the border between Israel and the West Bank , with the building sitting on the Israeli side just next to the dividing line . The Israeli Secret Service views the neighboring lemon grove of Salma Zidane ( Hiam Abbass ) , a Palestinian widow whose family has cared for the area for generations , as a threat to the Minister and his wife . The security forces soon set up a guard post and a barbed wire fence around the grove . They then obtain an order to uproot the lemon trees . Salma feels isolated given that her son has moved to Washington , D.C. and her daughters are now married . The local village elder Abu Kamal ( Makram Khoury ) advises her to give in , but Salma decides to work with the young lawyer Ziad Daud ( Ali Suliman ) . They take their case all the way to the Supreme Court . Mira Navon ( Rona Lipaz @-@ Michael ) , the minister 's wife , sympathizes with Salma . The court case receives notable media attention , and Mira gives a news interview that her husband regrets . Mira believes that the Israeli military overreacted , and she also shares Salma 's sense of personal loneliness . Although they never speak , a complex human bond develops between the two women . As the Palestinian cause is dismissed , Mira decides to leave her husband and a concrete wall is built between Salma 's land and the Defense Minister 's house . A final camera shot reveals the lemon trees have been cut down . = = Production = = = = = Production details = = = Director Eran Riklis covered personal relationships between Arabs and Middle Eastern Jews in his previous films The Syrian Bride and Cup Final . The former film , which also starred Hiam Abbass , achieved widespread success in Israel as well as with international audiences after its 2004 release . This boosted Riklis 's expectations for the future . The plot of Lemon Tree was based on a real life incident . Israeli Defense Minister Shaul Mofaz moved to the border within Israel and the occupied territories and security forces began cutting down the Lemon trees beside his house , arguing that it could be used by terrorists as a hiding place . The Palestinian family who owned the trees sued the minister and took the case all the way to the Israeli Supreme Court . They lost , and their trees had to be cut down . Riklis watched a news blurb about the case online . He then developed the story further in a fictional setting . Riklis explicitly designed the protagonist 's part for actress Hiam Abbass . The characters in the film speak Arabic and Hebrew . Riklis ' personal company , Eran Riklis Production , filmed the movie . It was shot in the cities of Kalkilya and Ramallah and the Jalazone refugee camp as well on location at and around the Supreme Court of Israel building in Sha 'arey Mishpat Street , Jerusalem . Salon.com film critic Andrew O 'Hehir has commented that " Riklis forges into areas other Israeli filmmakers won 't venture " . = = = Subject material = = = Riklis designed the film to be essentially apolitical , focusing on character development rather than exploring the issues of the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict . He has said that he created a ' fairy tale quality ' to the film in which the audience can sympathize with all of the people featured in it . He stated that " I wanted to populate this film with a lot of faces and give each character their own moment of grace , even when , on the surface , it 's one of the ' bad guys , ' so to speak ... This film does address the ugly side of occupation perhaps , yet no blood is spilled . " A fictional representation of the Israeli @-@ West bank barrier punctuates the film throughout . Critic Andrew O 'Hehir of Salon.com has argued that Riklis " depicts all versions of Middle Eastern authority with a cheerful , agnostic cynicism " , portraying the Palestinian government as " corrupt and obsessed with status and protocol " and the Israeli government as " hypocritical and mindlessly bureaucratic . " V.A. Musetto of The New York Post argued that the movie expresses Riklis ' opposition to Israeli policies of confiscation of Palestinian land . Critic Hugh Hart of San Francisco Chronicle thought that the movie displayed a natural sympathy towards its protagonist . Mark Jenkins of NPR commented that some of the ironic moments in the film depicted Palestinian resistance to Israelis as " more concerned with preserving machismo than with producing results " . The New York Times wrote that Although “ Lemon Tree ” doesn ’ t overtly take sides in the Israeli @-@ Palestinian conflict , it portrays the Israelis , who wield more military power , as abusive and arrogant in the way that any country with superior weapons and armies inevitably appears . The security guards on Navon ’ s property behave like strutting goons — only too eager to turn their guns on the first thing that moves — or clowns , like the watchtower guard nicknamed Quickie , who dozes off while on duty . Riklis tried not to make the film explicitly feminist , with the female characters portrayed more sympathetically than the male ones . However , he has said that it can be interpreted that way by viewers . NPR 's Mark Jenkins has stated that the film 's bittersweet ending depicted the difficult status of women in Palestine as well as Palestinian @-@ Israeli relations . Chris Cabin of the AMC Network criticized the film as being too " fem @-@ centric " and as having a uniformly negative treatment of its male characters . = = Reception = = The film was released within Israel on 27 March 2008 , and it was released internationally through IFC Films on 17 April 2009 . The film has been very well received internationally . Rotten Tomatoes calculated a critical score of 91 and describes the consensus as : " A positive and personal Israeli film that offers an understated and thought @-@ provoking vision of the West Bank troubles . " It also earned an average critical score of 73 , a generally favorable response , on Metacritic . The New York Times named it a ' Critics Pick ' of 2009 . Andrew O 'Hehir of Salon praised the film and called its production a sign " of hope in the impenetrable impasse of the contemporary Middle East " . Benjamin Secher of The Daily Telegraph labeled it " absorbing , sensitive , beautifully @-@ shot " and drew favorable comparisons with Erin Brockovich . Mark Jenkins of National Public Radio stated that it featured " subtle performances by its striking stars " and served as a parable about border issues . AMC 's Chris Cabin criticized the movie , arguing that its director " seems not to have the faintest idea of how to properly approach the subject " , because the film is , in Cabin 's view , " unabashedly pro @-@ Palestine " . = = = Box office = = = According to Box Office Mojo , the film has brought in a total of $ 6 @,@ 628 @,@ 437 worldwide . In the United States , it brought in $ 569 @,@ 672 in its seventeen week run . It premiered on April 17 , 2009 . The film performed poorly with Israeli audiences despite the positive reaction in other areas . Riklis has said that Israelis have the " false impression " that the film is pro @-@ Palestinian and polemical . The Palestinian reaction has been very positive , according to Riklis . He expected a far more positive reception in Israel given the success of his previous film , The Syrian Bride , in 2004 . The film did receive praise from Hannah Brown of The Jerusalem Post , who stated that " it 's hard to ask for more " and " you will leave the theater craving a glass of the lemonade Salma prepares so lovingly in several scenes " . Ha 'aretz also praised the movie before its release . = = = Awards = = = In the Berlin Film Festival , Riklis won a ' Panorama Audience Award ' . In the Asia Pacific Screen Awards , Abbass won for ' Best Performance by an Actress ' and Riklis won , along with collaborator Suha Arraf , for ' Best Screenplay ' . Arraf and Riklis were nominated for ' Best Screenwriter ' at the European Film Awards , and Abbass was nominated for ' Best Actress ' . In the Israeli Film Academy , Abbass won for ' Best Actress ' . The film 's Miguel Markin was nominated for ' Best Art Direction ' , Rona Doron for ' Best Costume Design ' , Tova Asher for ' Best Editing ' , Habib Shadah for ' Best Music ' , Gil Toren and As Milo for ' Best Sound ' , and Riklis for ' Best Director ' . = Caroline of Ansbach = Wilhelmina Charlotte Caroline of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach ( 1 March 1683 – 20 November 1737 ) , commonly known as Caroline of Ansbach , was Queen of Great Britain as the wife of King George II . Her father , Margrave John Frederick of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach , belonged to a branch of the House of Hohenzollern and was the ruler of a small German state , the Principality of Ansbach . Caroline was orphaned at a young age and moved to the enlightened court of her guardians , King Frederick I and Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia . At the Prussian court , her previously limited education was widened , and she adopted the liberal outlook possessed by Sophia Charlotte , who became her good friend and whose views influenced Caroline all her life . As a young woman , Caroline was much sought @-@ after as a bride . After rejecting the suit of the nominal King of Spain , Archduke Charles of Austria , she married George Augustus , the third @-@ in @-@ line to the British throne and heir apparent to the Electorate of Hanover . They had eight children , seven of whom grew to adulthood . Caroline moved permanently to Britain in 1714 when her husband became Prince of Wales . As Princess of Wales , she joined her husband in rallying political opposition to his father King George I. In 1717 , her husband was expelled from court after a family row . Caroline came to be associated with Robert Walpole , an opposition politician who was a former government minister . Walpole rejoined the government in 1720 , and Caroline 's husband and King George I reconciled publicly , on Walpole 's advice . Over the next few years , Walpole rose to become the leading minister . Caroline succeeded as queen and electress consort in 1727 , when her husband became King George II . Her eldest son , Frederick , became Prince of Wales . He was a focus for the opposition , like his father before him , and Caroline 's relationship with him was strained . As princess and as queen , Caroline was known for her political influence , which she exercised through and for Walpole . Her tenure included four regencies during her husband 's stays in Hanover , and she is credited with strengthening the Hanoverian dynasty 's place in Britain during a period of political instability . Caroline was widely mourned following her death in 1737 , not only by the public but also by the King , who refused to remarry . = = Early life = = Caroline was born on 1 March 1683 at Ansbach , the daughter of John Frederick , Margrave of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach , and his second wife , Princess Eleonore Erdmuthe of Saxe @-@ Eisenach . Her father was the ruler of one of the smallest German states ; he died of smallpox at the age of 32 , when Caroline was three years old . Caroline and her only full sibling , her younger brother Margrave William Frederick , left Ansbach with their mother , who returned to her native Eisenach . In 1692 , Caroline 's widowed mother was pushed into an unhappy marriage with the Elector of Saxony , and she and her two children moved to the Saxon court at Dresden . Eleonore Erdmuthe was widowed again two years later , after her unfaithful husband contracted smallpox from his mistress . Eleonore remained in Saxony for another two years , until her death in 1696 . The orphaned Caroline and William Frederick returned to Ansbach to stay with their elder half @-@ brother , Margrave George Frederick II . George Frederick was a youth with little interest in parenting a girl , and so Caroline soon moved to Lützenburg outside Berlin , where she entered into the care of her new guardians , Frederick , Elector of Brandenburg , and his wife , Sophia Charlotte , who had been a friend of Eleonore Erdmuthe . = = = Education = = = Frederick and Sophia Charlotte became king and queen of Prussia in 1701 . The queen was the daughter of Dowager Electress Sophia of Hanover , and the sister of George , Elector of Hanover . She was renowned for her intelligence and strong character , and her uncensored and liberal court attracted a great many scholars , including philosopher Gottfried Leibniz . Caroline was exposed to a lively intellectual environment quite different from anything she had experienced previously . Before she began her education under Sophia Charlotte 's care , Caroline had received little formal education ; her handwriting remained poor throughout her life . With her lively mind , Caroline developed into a scholar of considerable ability . She and Sophia Charlotte developed a strong relationship in which Caroline was treated as a surrogate daughter ; the queen once declared Berlin was " a desert " without Caroline whenever she left temporarily for Ansbach . = = Marriage = = An intelligent and attractive woman , Caroline was much sought @-@ after as a bride . Dowager Electress Sophia called her " the most agreeable Princess in Germany " . She was considered for the hand of Archduke Charles of Austria , who was a candidate for the throne of Spain and later became Holy Roman Emperor . Charles made official overtures to her in 1703 , and the match was encouraged by King Frederick of Prussia . After some consideration , Caroline refused in 1704 , as she would not convert from Lutheranism to Catholicism . Early in the following year , Queen Sophia Charlotte died on a visit to her native Hanover . Caroline was devastated , writing to Leibniz , " The calamity has overwhelmed me with grief and sickness , and it is only the hope that I may soon follow her that consoles me . " In June 1705 , Queen Sophia Charlotte 's nephew , George Augustus , the electoral prince of Hanover , visited the Ansbach court , supposedly incognito , to inspect Caroline , as his father the Elector did not want his son to enter into a loveless arranged marriage as he himself had . The nephew of three childless uncles , George Augustus was under pressure to marry and father an heir to prevent endangering the Hanoverian succession . He had heard reports of Caroline 's " incomparable beauty and mental attributes " . He immediately took a liking to her " good character " and the British envoy reported that George Augustus " would not think of anybody else after her " . For her part , Caroline was not fooled by the prince 's disguise , and found her suitor attractive . He was the heir apparent of his father 's Electorate of Hanover and third @-@ in @-@ line to the British throne of his distant cousin Queen Anne , after his grandmother Dowager Electress Sophia and his father the Elector . On 22 August 1705 , Caroline arrived in Hanover for her wedding to George Augustus ; they were married that evening in the palace chapel at Herrenhausen . By May of the following year , Caroline was pregnant , and her first child Prince Frederick was born on 20 January 1707 . A few months after the birth , in July , Caroline fell seriously ill with smallpox followed by pneumonia . Her baby was kept away from her , but George Augustus remained at her side devotedly , and caught and survived the infection himself . Over the next seven years , Caroline had three more children , Anne , Amelia , and Caroline , all of whom were born in Hanover . George Augustus and Caroline had a successful and loving marriage , though he continued to keep mistresses , as was customary for the time . Caroline was well aware of his infidelities , as they were well known and he told her about them . His two best @-@ known mistresses were Henrietta Howard , later Countess of Suffolk , and , from 1735 , Amalie von Wallmoden , Countess of Yarmouth . Howard was one of Caroline 's Women of the Bedchamber and became Mistress of the Robes when her husband inherited a peerage in 1731 ; she retired in 1734 . In contrast with her mother @-@ in @-@ law and husband , Caroline was known for her marital fidelity ; she never made any embarrassing scenes nor did she take lovers . She preferred her husband 's mistresses to be ladies @-@ in @-@ waiting , as that way she believed she could keep a closer eye on them . The succession of her husband 's family to the British throne was still insecure , as Queen Anne 's half @-@ brother James Stuart contested the Hanoverian claim , and Queen Anne and Caroline 's grandmother @-@ in @-@ law Dowager Electress Sophia had fallen out . Anne refused permission for any of the Hanoverians to visit Britain in her lifetime . Caroline wrote to Leibniz , " I accept the comparison which you draw , though all too flattering , between me and Queen Elizabeth as a good omen . Like Elizabeth , the Electress 's rights are denied her by a jealous sister [ Queen Anne ] , and she will never be sure of the English crown until her accession to the throne . " In June 1714 , Dowager Electress Sophia died in Caroline 's arms at the age of 84 , and Caroline 's father @-@ in @-@ law became heir presumptive to Queen Anne . Just weeks later , Anne died and the Elector of Hanover was proclaimed as her successor , becoming George I of Great Britain . = = Princess of Wales = = George Augustus sailed to England in September 1714 , and Caroline and two of her daughters followed in October . Her journey across the North Sea from The Hague to Margate was the only sea voyage she took in her life . Their young son , Prince Frederick , remained in Hanover for the rest of George I 's reign to be brought up by private tutors . On the accession of George I in 1714 , Caroline 's husband automatically became Duke of Cornwall and Duke of Rothesay . Shortly afterwards , he was invested as Prince of Wales , whereupon she became Princess of Wales . Caroline was the first woman to receive the title at the same time as her husband received his . She was the first Princess of Wales for over two hundred years , the last one being Catherine of Aragon . As George I had repudiated his wife Sophia Dorothea of Celle in 1694 prior to his becoming King of Great Britain , there was no queen consort , and Caroline was the highest @-@ ranking woman in the kingdom . George Augustus and Caroline made a concerted effort to " anglicise " by acquiring knowledge of England 's language , people , politics and customs . Two separate courts developed with strong contrasts ; the old king 's had German courtiers and government ministers , while the Wales 's court attracted English nobles out of favour with the King , and was considerably more popular with the British people . George Augustus and Caroline gradually became centres of the political opposition to the King . Two years after their arrival in England , Caroline suffered a stillbirth , which her friend the Countess of Bückeburg blamed on the incompetence of English doctors , but the following year she had another son , Prince George William . At the baptism in November 1717 , her husband fell out with his father over the choice of godparents , leading to the couple 's placement under house arrest at St. James 's Palace prior to their banishment from court . Caroline was originally allowed to stay with their children , but refused as she believed her place was with her husband . She and her husband moved into Leicester House , while their children remained in the care of the King . Caroline fell sick with worry , and fainted during a secret visit to her children made without the King 's approval . By January , the King had relented and allowed Caroline unrestricted access . In February , Prince George William fell ill , and the King allowed both George Augustus and Caroline to see him at Kensington Palace without any conditions . When the baby died , a post @-@ mortem was conducted to prove that the cause of death was disease ( a polyp on the heart ) rather than the separation from his mother . Further tragedy occurred in 1718 , when Caroline miscarried at Richmond Lodge , her country residence . Over the next few years , Caroline had three more children : William , Mary and Louise . Leicester House became a frequent meeting place for the ministry 's political opponents . Caroline struck up a friendship with politician Sir Robert Walpole , a former minister in the Whig government who led a disgruntled faction of the party . In April 1720 , Walpole 's wing of the Whig party reconciled with the governing wing , and Walpole and Caroline helped to effect a reconciliation between the King and her husband for the sake of public unity . Caroline wanted to regain her three eldest daughters , who remained in the care of the King , and thought the reconciliation would lead to their return , but negotiations came to nothing . George Augustus came to believe that Walpole had tricked him into the reconciliation as part of a scheme to gain power . The prince was isolated politically when Walpole 's Whigs joined the government , and Leicester House played host to literary figures and wits , such as John Arbuthnot and Jonathan Swift , rather than politicians . Arbuthnot told Swift that Caroline had enjoyed his Gulliver 's Travels , particularly the tale of the crown prince who wore one high @-@ heel and one low @-@ heel in a country where the King and his party wore low heels , and the opposition wore high ones : a barely veiled reference to the political leanings of the Prince of Wales . Caroline 's intellect far outstripped her husband 's , and she read avidly . She established an extensive library at St. James 's Palace . As a young woman , she corresponded with Gottfried Leibniz , the intellectual colossus who was courtier and factotum to the House of Hanover . She later facilitated the Leibniz @-@ Clarke correspondence , arguably the most important philosophy of physics discussion of the 18th century . She helped to popularise the practice of variolation ( an early type of immunisation ) , which had been witnessed by Lady Mary Wortley Montagu and Charles Maitland in Constantinople . At the direction of Caroline , six condemned prisoners were offered the chance to undergo variolation instead of execution : they all survived , as did six orphan children given the same treatment as a further test . Convinced of its medical value , Caroline had her children Amelia , Caroline and Frederick inoculated against smallpox in the same manner . In praising her support for smallpox inoculation , Voltaire wrote of her , " I must say that despite all her titles and crowns , this princess was born to encourage the arts and the well @-@ being of mankind ; even on the throne she is a benevolent philosopher ; and she has never lost an opportunity to learn or to manifest her generosity . " = = Queen and regent = = Caroline became queen consort on the death of her father @-@ in @-@ law in 1727 , and she was crowned alongside her husband at Westminster Abbey on 11 October that year . She was the first queen consort to be crowned since Anne of Denmark in 1603 . Though George II denounced Walpole as a " rogue and rascal " over the terms of the reconciliation with his father , Caroline advised her husband to retain Walpole as the leading minister . Walpole commanded a substantial majority in Parliament and George II had little choice but to accept him or risk ministerial instability . Walpole secured a civil list payment of £ 100 @,@ 000 a year for Caroline , and she was given both Somerset House and Richmond Lodge . Courtier Lord Hervey called Walpole " the Queen 's minister " in recognition of their close relationship . For the next ten years , Caroline had immense influence . She persuaded the King to adopt policies at the behest of Walpole , and persuaded Walpole against taking inflammatory actions . Caroline had absorbed the liberal opinions of her mentor , Queen Sophia Charlotte of Prussia , and supported clemency for the Jacobites ( supporters of the rival Stuart claim to the throne ) , freedom of the press , and freedom of speech in Parliament . Over the next few years , she and her husband fought a constant battle against their eldest son , Frederick , Prince of Wales , who had been left behind in Germany when they came to England . He joined the family in 1728 , by which time he was an adult , had mistresses and debts , and was fond of gambling and practical jokes . He opposed his father 's political beliefs , and complained of his lack of influence in government . The Regency Act 1728 made Caroline rather than Frederick regent when her husband was in Hanover for five months from May 1729 . During her regency , a diplomatic incident with Portugal ( where a British ship had been seized on the Tagus ) was defused , and the negotiation of the Treaty of Seville between Britain and Spain was concluded . From May 1732 , she was regent for four months while George II was again away in Hanover . An investigation into the penal system uncovered widespread abuses , including cruel treatment and conspiracy in the escape of wealthy convicts . Caroline pressed Walpole for reform , largely unsuccessfully . In March 1733 , Walpole introduced an unpopular excise bill to parliament , which the Queen supported , but it gathered such strong opposition that it was eventually dropped . Caroline 's entire life in Britain was spent in the South @-@ East of England in or around London . As queen , she continued to surround herself with artists , writers and intellectuals . She collected jewellery , especially cameos and intaglios , acquired important portraits and miniatures , and enjoyed the visual arts . She commissioned works such as terracotta busts of the kings and queens of England from Michael Rysbrack , and supervised a more naturalistic design of the royal gardens by William Kent and Charles Bridgeman . In 1728 , she rediscovered sets of sketches by Leonardo da Vinci and Hans Holbein that had been hidden in a drawer since the reign of William III . Caroline 's eldest daughter Anne married William IV of Orange in 1734 , and moved with her husband to the Netherlands . Caroline wrote to her daughter of her " indescribable " sadness at the parting . Anne soon felt homesick , and travelled back to England when her husband went on campaign . Eventually , her husband and father commanded her to return to Holland . = = Final years = = In mid @-@ 1735 , Frederick , Prince of Wales , was further dismayed when Caroline , rather than himself , again acted as regent while the King was absent in Hanover . The King and Queen arranged Frederick 's marriage , in 1736 , to Princess Augusta of Saxe @-@ Gotha . Shortly after the wedding , George went to Hanover , and Caroline resumed her role as " Protector of the Realm " . As regent , Caroline considered the reprieve of Captain John Porteous , who had been convicted of murder in Edinburgh . Before she could act , a mob stormed the jail where he was held and killed him . Caroline was appalled . The King 's absences abroad were leading to unpopularity , and in late 1736 he made plans to return , but his ship was caught in poor weather , and it was rumoured that he had been lost at sea . Caroline was devastated , and disgusted by the insensitivity of her son , who hosted a grand dinner while the gale was blowing . During her regency , the Prince of Wales attempted to start a number of quarrels with his mother , whom he saw as a useful proxy to irritate the King . George eventually returned in January 1737 . Frederick applied to Parliament unsuccessfully for an increased financial allowance that had hitherto been denied him by the King , and public disagreement over the money drove a further wedge between parents and son . On the advice of Walpole , Frederick 's allowance was raised in an attempt to mitigate further conflict , but by less than he had asked . In June 1737 , Frederick informed his parents that Augusta was pregnant , and due to give birth in October . In fact , Augusta 's due date was earlier and a peculiar episode followed in July in which the prince , on discovering that his wife had gone into labour , sneaked her out of Hampton Court Palace in the middle of the night , to ensure that the King and Queen could not be present at the birth . George and Caroline were horrified . Traditionally , royal births were witnessed by members of the family and senior courtiers to guard against supposititious children , and Augusta had been forced by her husband to ride in a rattling carriage for an hour and a half while heavily pregnant and in pain . With a party including two of her daughters and Lord Hervey , the Queen raced over to St. James 's Palace , where Frederick had taken Augusta . Caroline was relieved to discover that Augusta had given birth to a " poor , ugly little she @-@ mouse " rather than a " large , fat , healthy boy " as the pitiful nature of the baby made a supposititious child unlikely . The circumstances of the birth deepened the estrangement between mother and son . According to Lord Hervey , she once remarked after seeing Frederick , " Look , there he goes — that wretch ! — that villain ! — I wish the ground would open this moment and sink the monster to the lowest hole in hell ! " In the final years of her life , Caroline was troubled by gout in her feet , but more seriously she had suffered an umbilical hernia at the birth of her final child in 1724 . On 9 November 1737 , she felt an intense pain and , after struggling through a formal reception , took to her bed . Her womb had ruptured . Over the next few days she was bled , purged , and operated on , without anaesthetic , but there was no improvement in her condition . The King refused Frederick permission to see his mother , a decision with which she complied ; she sent her son a message of forgiveness through Walpole . She asked her husband to remarry after her death , which he rejected saying he would take only mistresses ; she replied " Ah , mon Dieu , cela n 'empêche pas " ( " My God , that doesn 't prevent it " ) . On 17 November , her strangulated bowel burst . She died on 20 November 1737 at St. James 's Palace . She was buried in Westminster Abbey on 17 December . Frederick was not invited to the funeral . George Frideric Handel composed an anthem for the occasion , The Ways of Zion Do Mourn / Funeral Anthem for Queen Caroline . The King arranged for a pair of matching coffins with removable sides , so that when he followed her to the grave ( 23 years later ) , they could lie together again . = = Legacy = = Caroline was widely mourned . The Protestants lauded her moral example , and even the Jacobites acknowledged her compassion , and her intervention on the side of mercy for their compatriots . During her lifetime her refusal to convert when offered the hand of Archduke Charles was used to portray her as a strong adherent to Protestantism . For example , John Gay wrote of Caroline in A Letter to A Lady ( 1714 ) : The pomp of titles easy faith might shake , She scorn 'd an empire for religion 's sake : For this , on earth , the British crown is giv 'n , And an immortal crown decreed in heav 'n . She was widely seen by both the public and the court as having great influence over her husband . A satirical verse of the period went : You may strut , dapper George , but ' twill all be in vain , We all know ' tis Queen Caroline , not you , that reign – You govern no more than Don Philip of Spain . Then if you would have us fall down and adore you , Lock up your fat spouse , as your dad did before you . The memoirs of the eighteenth century , particularly those of John , Lord Hervey , fed perceptions that Caroline and Walpole governed her husband . Peter Quennell wrote that Hervey was the " chronicler of this remarkable coalition " and that she was Hervey 's " heroine " . Using such sources , biographers of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries credit her with aiding the establishment of the House of Hanover in Britain , in the face of Jacobite opposition . R. L. Arkell wrote " by her acumen and geniality , [ Caroline ] ensured the dynasty 's rooting itself in England " , and W. H. Wilkins said her " gracious and dignified personality , her lofty ideals and pure life did much to counteract the unpopularity of her husband and father @-@ in @-@ law , and redeem the early Georgian era from utter grossness . " Although modern historians tend to believe that Hervey , Wilkins and Arkell have overestimated her importance , it is nevertheless probable that Caroline of Ansbach was one of the most influential consorts in British history . = = Titles , styles , honours and arms = = = = = Titles and styles = = = 1683 – 1705 : Her Serene Highness Princess Caroline of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach 1705 – 1714 : Her Serene Highness The Electoral Princess of Hanover 1714 – 1727 : Her Royal Highness The Princess of Wales 1727 – 1737 : Her Majesty The Queen = = = Honours = = = Caroline County in the British Colony of Virginia was named in her honour when it was formed in 1727 . = = = Arms = = = The royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom are impaled with those of her father , John Frederick , Margrave of Brandenburg @-@ Ansbach . The arms of her father were quarterly of fifteen , 1st , per fess gules and argent , within a bordure counter @-@ changed of the same ( for Magdeburg ) ; 2nd , argent , an eagle displayed sable , crowned or ; 3rd , or , a griffin segreant gules , crowned ; 4th and 5th , argent , a griffin segreant gules ; 6th , or , a griffin segreant sable ; 7th , argent , an eagle displayed sable ( for Crossen ) ; 8th , per pale argent and gules within a bordure counter @-@ changed of the same ( for Halberstadt ) ; 9th , argent , an eagle displayed sable ; 10th , or , a lion rampant sable , crowned , within a bordure goboné argent and gules ( for Nuremberg ) ; 11th , gules , two keys in saltire or ( for Minden ) ; 12th , quarterly argent and sable ( for Hohenzollern ) ; 13th , the field gules , the figure argent ; 14th , per fess gules and argent ; 15th , plain field of gules ( for right of regalia ) ; overall an inescutcheon , argent , an eagle displayed gules ( for Brandenburg ) . = = Issue = = Caroline 's ten pregnancies resulted in eight live births , of whom one died in infancy , and seven lived to adulthood . = = Ancestry = = = HMS Empress ( 1914 ) = HMS Empress was a seaplane carrier of the Royal Navy ( RN ) that served during World War I. Converted from the Cross @-@ Channel packet ship Empress , the ship 's aircraft conducted aerial reconnaissance , observation and bombing missions in the North Sea and Eastern Mediterranean . During the last year of the war , she conducted anti @-@ submarine patrols in the Mediterranean . Empress was returned to her owners in 1919 and was then sold to a French company in 1923 . She was scrapped in 1933 . = = Description = = Empress had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 41 feet ( 12 @.@ 5 m ) , and a draught of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 540 long tons ( 2 @,@ 580 t ) and was rated at 1 @,@ 694 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Each of the ship 's three sets of direct @-@ drive steam turbines drove one propeller shaft . The ship 's six boilers generated enough steam to produce 8 @,@ 800 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 600 kW ) from the turbines . The ship had a designed speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) , but she made a speed of 22 @.@ 26 knots ( 41 @.@ 23 km / h ; 25 @.@ 62 mph ) during her sea trials with 8 @,@ 872 shaft horsepower ( 6 @,@ 616 kW ) . Empress carried 425 tonnes ( 418 long tons ) of coal , enough to give her a range of 1 @,@ 355 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 509 km ; 1 @,@ 559 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . = = Service = = Built as a fast packet for the South East and Chatham Railway Co . , Empress was requisitioned for service during World War I by the Admiralty on 11 August 1914 , and was commissioned on 25 August . During that month , the ship transported equipment for the Eastchurch Squadron of the Royal Naval Air Service to Ostend , Belgium . Beginning on 30 August , she was converted by Chatham Dockyard to carry and operate three seaplanes . One aircraft was stowed forward and two aft , housed in canvas hangars , and handled with newly fitted cargo booms . During her career with the RN , the ship operated Fairey Hamble Baby , Short Admiralty Type 74 , Short Type 184 , Sopwith Schneider and Baby floatplanes . Two or three quick @-@ firing ( QF ) two @-@ pounder guns also were fitted at this time . Upon completion of the modifications on 30 September , Empress was assigned to the Harwich Force along with Engadine and Riviera . On Christmas Day 1914 , nine aircraft from all three ships took part in the Cuxhaven Raid on hangars housing Zeppelin airships . Seven of the nine seaplanes successfully took off for the attack , but they inflicted little damage . Only three of the aircraft returned to be recovered , but the crews of the other three ditched safely and were recovered by a British submarine and the Dutch trawler Marta van Hattem . From 9 May to 18 July 1915 , the ship was modified by Cunard at Liverpool with a permanent , four @-@ aircraft , hangar in the rear superstructure and a pair of cranes were mounted at the rear of the hangar to hoist the seaplanes in and out of the water . The 2 @-@ pounders were apparently removed during this refit and four QF 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt guns , each with 130 rounds , and two Vickers QF 3 @-@ pounder anti @-@ aircraft guns , each with 65 rounds , were fitted . Empress was transferred afterwards to Queenstown for the rest of the year , before moving to the Mediterranean . She arrived there in January 1916 and was assigned to the East Indies and Egypt Seaplane Squadron with the carriers Raven II , Anne , and Ben @-@ my @-@ Chree . The squadron was under the command of the General Officer Commanding , Egypt and its primary duty was watch and to attack Turkish positions and movements in southern Palestine and the Sinai in early 1916 . In April , Empress was detached from the squadron to support operations off the Aegean coast of Bulgaria , where her aircraft observed for several naval bombardments . After a refit at Genoa , the ship rejoined the squadron and supported operations off the Syrian and Palestinian coasts until November . In January 1918 , she was assigned anti @-@ submarine duties , first at Port Said and later at Gibraltar . She was returned to her owners in November 1919 and was sold to the Société Anoynyme de Gérance et d 'Armament of France in 1923 . On 12 January 1926 , Empress collided with the British schooner John Gibson in the English Channel and sank her . Empress was scrapped in France in 1933 . = The Boat Race 1926 = The 78th Boat Race took place on 27 March 1926 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won by five lengths in a time of 19 minutes 29 seconds in the largest winning margin since 1912 . It was Cambridge 's third consecutive victory and took the overall record in the event to 40 – 37 in Oxford 's favour . = = Background = = The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1925 race as Oxford became waterlogged , with Oxford leading overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 36 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) . Oxford 's coaches were H. R. Baker ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1908 and 1909 races ) , G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , and A. V. Douglas ( who took part in the 1922 and 1925 races ) . Cambridge were coached by William Dudley Ward ( who had rowed in 1897 , 1899 and 1900 races ) , Francis Escombe , David Alexander	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
259 . Miller had taken 2 / 36 , and enforced the follow @-@ on , which was questioned as paceman Ron Archer had broken down . With Australia two bowlers short , the West Indies moved to 1 / 114 . When Weekes arrived at the crease , Miller unsettled him with delaying tactics , and he was out for one . He then placed two silly points and two silly mid @-@ ons in an attempt to unsettle Walcott , who fell to Lindwall soon after . Miller then took two wickets and the hosts had lost three wickets in as many overs . The West Indies were bowled out and Australia won by nine wickets . Miller had taken 3 / 62 in the second innings . Johnson resumed the leadership on the field in the Second Test at Queen 's Park Oval in Trinidad . The match was a high @-@ scoring draw , but Miller scored only three and took match figures of 1 / 148 . In the Third Test at Georgetown , Guyana , Miller removed both openers in the first innings and then scored 33 as Australia by eight wickets . He took 3 / 51 for the match . In the Fourth Test at Bridgetown , Barbados , Miller came to the wicket with Australia at 3 / 226 on the first day . The tourists lost two more wickets to be 5 / 233 . Miller and Archer launched a counter @-@ attacking partnership of 206 . Miller reached 137 and then walked after edging a ball , even though none of the opposition had appealed . Australia reached 668 and the West Indies were struggling at 6 / 147 , with Miller having dismissed Weekes and Collie Smith in the same over . At the time , Miller was bowling at medium pace , but Johnson felt that the new batsmen Denis Atkinson and Clairmonte Depeiaza were vulnerable to express pace . Johnson ordered Miller to bowl fast , but was turned down . Johnson replaced Miller with Lindwall , who was tired and was hit around the ground . The pair seized the initiative and compiled a world Test record of 347 for the seventh wicket and the Australians were tired after failing to break the partnership . Miller attacked Johnson in front of the other players , saying " You couldn 't captain a bunch of bloody schoolboys ! " Johnson then offered to resolve the dispute " out the back " , implying a fisticuffs . Miller declined the offer and stopped . The match resumed the next day and the West Indies were eventually bowled out 158 behind . Miller had been punished by the batsmen , taking 2 / 113 from 22 overs . Miller scored 10 and took 1 / 66 in the second innings as the match ended in a high @-@ scoring draw . Miller then took 6 / 107 in the first innings of the Fifth Test in Jamaica . He removed John Holt , Walcott and Smith , before taking three tail @-@ end wickets as the home team were bowled out for 357 . When Australia batted , Miller arrived at the crease to join Harvey with the score at 3 / 302 . He added his third century of the series and ended with 109 as Australia reached 8 / 758 . He took 2 / 58 in the second innings as Australia completed a 3 – 0 win . It was Miller 's most statistically successful series , with 439 runs at 73 @.@ 17 and the 20 wickets at 32 @.@ 05 made him the equal leading wicket @-@ taker along with Lindwall . = = = Final domestic season = = = Miller started the 1955 – 56 season , which was purely domestic , with 164 against Queensland in Brisbane . On the final day , Miller set the hosts 275 for victory in three hours . He lengthened the innings break by seven minutes , by remonstrating with officials to pause the match for the running of the Melbourne Cup . They agreed and the match was stopped for 13 minutes for the race . Queensland lost seven wickets but held on for a draw , aided by the 20 minutes lost by Miller 's love of horseracing . The next match was against South Australia in Sydney . New South Wales had declared at 8 / 215 and the visitors were 0 / 2 at stumps on the first day . Miller 's wife gave birth to their fourth child , and Miller was drinking into the next morning . He then arrived at the SCG , having forgotten to pick up team @-@ mate Peter Philpott as arranged , so he had to rush back and the pair arrived late for the day 's play . Miller was still in a tuxedo as play was about to start . Miller completed the unfinished over from the previous night and felt that the pitch did not offer any assistance . He then told Alan Davidson to bowl the next over from his end . However , as Davidson was about to bowl , Miller changed his mind and took over . Miller bowled Les Favell in the over . He kept on bowling and finished with 7 / 12 from 7 @.@ 3 overs , clean bowling five of his victims . The visitors had been levelled for 27 , the lowest score in the history of the Sheffield Shield . Miller then asked South Australia to follow @-@ on , but showed little interest in bowling again , delivering only six overs despite the bowler @-@ friendly conditions . Philpott said that " this was typical Miller . He was never an accumulator of records , not particularly concerned with figures . " In another incident , Miller had been making a speech at a civic reception for the New South Wales team in the town of Maitland . In front of the mayor at the town hall , he praised the hospitality , before turning around to his players and asking what the name of the town was . Miller then turned up late to a coaching clinic the next day and instead of teaching , he made a speech , advising the children to play tennis as there was more money on offer . In January 1956 , Miller injured his back in a match against Queensland . He suffered spasms that forced him to miss the rest of the season . He had scored 403 runs at 80 @.@ 60 and taken 19 wickets at 14 @.@ 94 . New South Wales again won the Sheffield Shield . = = = Final Ashes tour = = = Miller was selected for the 1956 Ashes tour , but could not bowl for a month because of a back injury from the first match . Miller captained the Australians against Leicester . Coming in at 3 / 175 , Miller made his highest first @-@ class score of 281 not out , striking 35 fours in six and a half hours . A tougher fight awaited against Surrey at The Oval , who had England 's Test spin combination of Laker and Tony Lock . Miller came in at 3 / 124 and struggled , scoring 18 runs in his first 120 minutes , his slowest two hours of scoring in his career . As his partners continued to fall Miller ended unbeaten on 57 as Australia were bowled out for 259 ; Laker taking all ten wickets . Australia lost by ten wickets , its first loss to a county since 1912 . As a result , sections of the Australian media began campaigning for Miller to replace Johnson as captain . By the First Test at Trent Bridge , Miller was shouldering most of the bowling load . He sent down 52 overs in a rain @-@ affected match , taking match figures of 6 / 127 . He struggled with the bat , making a duck and four . The teams headed to Lord 's where Miller had to carry the pace attack without the injured Davidson and Lindwall . Crawford and Ken Mackay were called in to make their debut and support Miller with the pace duties . Australia batted first and Miller managed 28 . Australia managed only 285 and Crawford injured himself , exacerbating the burden on Miller . Miller had Peter Richardson and then bowled Tom Graveney with an outswinger . England were 2 / 32 and their captain Peter May received an inswinger from Miller first ball , which he inside edged onto his stumps , but the bail was not dislodged . The next day , Miller beat May four times and then had Watson caught in the gully in his third over . He then removed Bailey and Trueman . Miller 's 5 / 72 was largely responsible for England falling for 171 . Australia was in difficulty at 3 / 69 when Miller came to bat , hitting a counterattacking 30 . Australia set England 371 to win . Miller removed Graveney at the start of the run chase . Resuming the next morning , he bowled Watson , and had May and Evans both caught behind . He bowled Johnny Wardle and took his only ten @-@ wicket match haul in Tests . Australia won by 185 runs and Miller had bowled 70 @.@ 1 overs for the match . His knee had taken a heavy toll and Miller was given an extended break had to play purely as a batsman in the Third Test at Headingley . Australia were caught on a wet wicket in response to England 's 325 , and Miller top @-@ scored with 41 and Australia were forced to follow on . He had attempted to keep Laker and Lock at bay with his pads . In the second innings , Miller fell for 26 to Laker . Australia lost by an innings , for the first time in a Test in 18 years . The Australian press attacked the team , and called for changes , including the omission of the captain , Johnson . Johnson , Miller and Gil Langley were the tour selectors . Langley and Miller were willing to omit Johnson only if the captain volunteered to stand aside . Johnson did not volunteer , so the others did not discuss the topic . Miller and Johnson had both been appointed as Members of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) in the 1956 New Year Honours , and between the Tests they attended their formal investiture . The curator at Old Trafford had been ordered to prepare a dusty , spinning pitch for the Fourth Test . A win for England would see them retain the Ashes . Miller bowled 21 wicketless overs as England amassed 459 . Miller was out for six and a duck and fell twice to Laker , who took a world record 19 wickets as Australia lost by an innings . Wisden reported that the Australians were said " to be extremely bitter over the condition of the pitch " . Miller then took 5 / 84 against Surrey , before leading the team against Warwickshire . He had received death threats in the lead @-@ up to the game , ordering him to lose . He scored 46 not out and took 2 / 13 as Australia won by an innings . He then took 5 / 29 in the second innings against Lancashire and made 50 and took match figures of 5 / 78 against Essex . On the eve of the Fifth Test at The Oval , Miller announced that the tour would be his last , so that he would retire from cricket after the tour of the Indian subcontinent on the return voyage . In his final Test on English soil , he took 4 / 91 in the first innings . Miller came in to bat at 5 / 47 and helped Australia recover to 202 , top @-@ scoring with 61 . He took another one wicket in the second innings and was unbeaten on seven when stumps were drawn in the second innings . The series ended 1 – 2 . He ended the series with 199 runs at 28 @.@ 43 and topped the bowling with 21 wickets at 22 @.@ 23 . He topped the first @-@ class bowling for the Australians with 50 wickets at 19 @.@ 60 . Australia played Pakistan at Karachi in the first Test between the two countries on a matting pitch , rather than the more familiar grass pitch . Miller top @-@ scored in the first innings with 21 , as Australia fell for 80 . He took 2 / 40 and then scored 11 in the second innings as Australia fell to defeat . It was the last Test of his career , as his knee injury deteriorated to the point that he could not play in the three Tests against India , and retired upon his return to Australia . = = Style and personality = = Miller combined classy strokeplay with big hitting , his front foot play especially devastating . He had a rifle like straight drive , played pull and sweep shots with a minimum of effort and was able to cut elegantly . He combined this elegance with unorthodoxy , hitting two sixes over square leg with a backhand tennis shot and once beginning the day 's play in a Test match with a six . One straight six that he hit at the Sydney Cricket Ground was still rising when it hit the first deck of the M.A. Noble Stand . Len Hutton said he was " the most unpredictable cricketer I have played against " . As a bowler , Miller had a classically high arm action , moving the ball sharply either way and able to make the ball rise from a good length . His action caused opposition batsmen to perceive that his deliveries were gaining pace after pitching . He was often able to generate more pace than his new ball partner , Lindwall . He was always willing to try something new if the batsman were set , varying his approach from fifteen paces to five and vice versa . A round arm delivery often managed to capture a wicket , surprising the batsman . Compton said that Miller " often had no preconceived idea what he intended to bowl even as he turned to start his run " . Miller often mixed slow leg breaks when he was bowling off a run . He once bowled English opening batsman David Sheppard with a googly during a Test . Hutton opined that Miller was the bowler who was least concerned with the position of his bowling mark , and said that he " never felt physically safe against him " . His use of bouncers at Trent Bridge during the 1948 tour was seen as excessive by the English crowd , who booed him . Miller simply sat down until the barracking had subsided . He was often required to bowl through pain , pressing a disk into place at the base of his spine before sending down the next delivery . Miller and Lindwall formed an opening partnership that was regarded as one of the greatest of all time . Hutton said that the pair was the most hostile that he faced during his career . Alan Davidson , a bowling all rounder who supported Lindwall and Miller for New South Wales and Australia , said that " Ray Lindwall was the best bowler I ever saw of any type ; his control was just perfect . At the other end you had Miller , who was unpredictable ... It really was a perfect team . " He was an acrobatic slips fielder , who would take freakish catches with nonchalant ease , often immediately returning to his discussion with those around him as if nothing was unusual . Miller often required a contest to retain interest in the game . He deplored Bradman 's ruthless attitude towards annihilating the opposition and sometimes refused to try when Australia was in an unassailable position . At Southend in 1948 , as the Australians scored a world record 721 runs in a single day against Essex , Miller , coming in to bat when the score was 2 / 364 , allowed himself to be bowled first ball . Indeed , he " turned to the wicketkeeper and said : " Thank God that 's over " . " His teammate Sid Barnes said that if Miller " had the same outlook as Bradman or Ponsford he would have made colossal scores " and become " the statisticians ' greatest customer " . Miller never captained Australia in a Test , as his attitude to the game tended to alarm the authorities . About Miller , Ashley Mallett wrote , " He loved tradition , but hated convention . His unstructured way of playing and living would be anathema to cricketers now ... He played as he fought the war , by impulse and mood . " He sometimes set his field by saying to his players : " scatter " . On another occasion , he is reported turned to his players , after being told that NSW was taking the field with one player too many , and asked for one player to volunteer to " piss off " . A larger than life character , Miller is the subject of many stories , often apocryphal . One story had Don Bradman answering a knock on the door late one night to see Miller dressed in a dinner suit . Miller advised Bradman that , as demanded , he was in bed at curfew and was now going out . His relationship with Bradman was one riddled with friction and mutual antipathy , " ... one a roundhead of massive influence , the other a cavalier and maverick " . As Bradman moved from batting hero and team captain to selector and administrator , his influence grew ; this " ... almost certainly cost Miller any chance of captaining his country " . One night , following a duel with Messerschmitts in his Mosquito , he made an unauthorised detour over Bonn because it was Beethoven 's birthplace and he was a lover of the classics . Despite his fame , Miller remained a humble man ; when asked his favourite cricketing memory , he would recall no incident concerning himself , but " a South Australian team @-@ mate walking onto Lord 's to a thunderous ovation a few weeks after his release from a POW camp " . The cricket broadcaster , John Arlott said " that for all the glamour that attached to Miller , he was staunch and unaffected as a friend " . When asked how he managed to take seven wickets for just 12 runs against South Australia , Miller replied : There 's three reasons , First , I bowled bloody well . Second , I , errr ... second ... " [ pause ] . " You can forget about the other two reasons . " = = Later life = = After retirement , Miller remained in the public eye , augmented by persistent " unsubstantiated rumours of an affair with Princess Margaret " . He made a living as a journalist and columnist , employed by the Daily Express as a " special cricket writer " for twenty years . As during his career , Miller was a proponent of attacking and bright play . He praised the aggressive leadership of his protege Richie Benaud but criticised the style of play pursued by Australia under Benaud 's successors Bob Simpson and Bill Lawry . In the mid @-@ 1980s , when Australia was struggling , Miller called for the removal of Allan Border , an obdurate and defensive batsman , from the captaincy . He later worked for Vernons Pools , owned by the millionaire horseracing entrepreneur , Robert Sangster . However , Miller " was happiest at the cricket or at the races " . He also worked as the head of a lobby group in promoting Australian rules football in his adopted New South Wales in the 1980s . At the time , the VFL was the dominant league and there were no top @-@ flight teams in his adopted state or Queensland . Miller 's later life was plagued by ill health . In November 1991 , he was hospitalised with a stroke , and soon after fell over and broke his hip , necessitating two further operations . He had skin cancer , caused by his insistence on always displaying his mop of hair and not wearing a hat . He accepted these vicissitudes equably . " Some grieved to see him reduced , but not him ; these were life 's deliveries . He knew only that one would get him out eventually . " He had an earlobe removed . The cancer also attacked his legs , and coupled with his hip injury , severely curtailed his mobility , forcing him to use walking frames and wheelchairs . Asked at 75 about death , he said : " Never think about it . No regrets . I 've had a hell of a good life . Been damned lucky . " Despite his illnesses , he continued to travel to England in the 1990s to watch cricket and meet up with Compton , Edrich and other war and cricket colleagues on an annual basis , although he became increasingly isolated as he outlasted his friends , both English and Australian . In late 2002 , Miller divorced his wife Peg , with whom he had four sons . He did so to marry his long @-@ term mistress Marie Challman , with whom he had been living since 1999 . Challman was a hospital receptionist and Miller reasoned that he would receive more effective medical treatment by moving to Melbourne to live with her , as his specialist doctors also lived there . He had other long @-@ term mistresses , including an Australian beauty queen with whom he was photographed in public . During his later years , his illness contributed to what his family felt was a deteriorating attitude and he fell out with his sons , but they were reconciled shortly before his death . Miller died in October 2004 after being in persistent poor health . He was given a state funeral by the Government of Victoria , which saw hundreds of mourners stand outside the packed cathedral , and was broadcast across the nation on ABC Radio . = = Legacy and statistical analysis = = Miller 's achievements were recognised by a host of awards during his lifetime and posthumously . Miller was one of the ten inaugural inductees into the Australian Cricket Hall of Fame in 1996 . In 2000 , he was named in the Australian Cricket Board Team of the Century as its vice @-@ captain . In January 2010 , Miller was inducted into the ICC Cricket Hall of Fame . He is also one of only four Australian cricketers , ( the others being Bradman , Victor Trumper and Shane Warne ) to be honoured with a portrait in the Long Room at Lord 's in London . Miller is one of only three men ( the others being M.H. " Vinoo " Mankad and G.StA. " Garry " Sobers ) to have his name on both the batting and bowling honours boards in the visitors ' dressing @-@ room there , for scoring both a century and for taking five wickets in a test at the ground . Miller 's abilities as an all @-@ rounder led to enormous success as both batsman and bowler . The ICC player rankings have been applied retrospectively to cricket history and Miller achieved top ten rankings with both bat and ball . As a batsman , he peaked at ninth in the world in 1952 , and was a top @-@ 20 player from shortly after his début and for the rest of the duration of his career . Miller 's bowling abilities led to even greater success . By the end of 1946 , he was already ranked sixth in the world and thereafter never slipped lower than ninth ; for much of his career , he was the second @-@ best bowler in the world according to the ratings , remarkably , for a 36 @-@ year @-@ old , peaking at the number 1 slot for a few months in 1956 . As an all @-@ rounder , therefore , it is unsurprising to find that he was peerless for most of his career , ranked as number one in the world for most of his career , including an unbroken eight @-@ year run from June 1948 until his retirement . Miller 's statistics are an inexact measure of his worth to the side . Many of the Australia teams he played in featured very strong batting line @-@ ups , restricting his opportunities as a middle @-@ order player . His verve and enthusiasm were also important contributors to Australian success , as was his ability to produce the unexpected ( particularly with the ball ) and help break partnerships . It is for this reason that he is remembered for his personality and his one @-@ off feats , more than statistical accomplishment ; in Ian Chappell 's words " People who saw it still talk of Keith Miller 's monster shot that hit the Members Stand clock at the SCG in the 1950s " . = = Honours and awards = = Member of the Order of Australia ( AM ) : Awarded 26 January 2005 for service to sport , particularly cricket as a player , journalist and commentator Member of the Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) : Awarded 2 January 1956 for services to cricket 1939 – 1945 Star Air Crew Europe Star Defence Medal War Medal 1939 – 1945 Australia Service Medal 1939 – 45 Centenary Medal = = Test match performance = = = GoldenEye = GoldenEye ( 1995 ) is the seventeenth spy film in the James Bond series , and the first to star Pierce Brosnan as the fictional MI6 officer James Bond . The film was directed by Martin Campbell and is the first film in the series not to take story elements from the works of novelist Ian Fleming . The story was conceived and written by Michael France , with later collaboration by other writers . In the film , Bond fights to prevent an ex @-@ MI6 agent , gone rogue , from using a satellite against London to cause global financial meltdown . GoldenEye was released in 1995 after a six @-@ year hiatus in the series caused by legal disputes , during which Timothy Dalton resigned from the role of James Bond and was replaced by Pierce Brosnan . M was also recast , with actress Judi Dench becoming the first woman to portray the character , replacing Robert Brown . The role of Miss Moneypenny was also recast , with Caroline Bliss being replaced by Samantha Bond and Desmond Llewelyn was the only actor to reprise the role of Q. GoldenEye was the first Bond film made after the dissolution of the Soviet Union and the end of the Cold War , which provided a background for the plot . The film accumulated a worldwide gross of US $ 350 @.@ 7 million , considerably better than Dalton 's films , without taking inflation into account . The film received positive reviews , with critics viewing Brosnan as a definite improvement over his predecessor . The film also received award nominations for " Best Achievement in Special Effects " and " Best Sound " from the British Academy of Film and Television Arts . The name " GoldenEye " pays homage to James Bond 's creator , Ian Fleming . While working for British Naval Intelligence as a lieutenant commander , Ian Fleming liaised with the American OSS to monitor developments in Spain after the Spanish Civil War in an operation codenamed Operation Goldeneye . Fleming used the name of his operation for his estate in Oracabessa , Jamaica . = = Plot = = MI6 agents James Bond and Alec Trevelyan infiltrate a Soviet chemical weapons facility in Arkhangelsk and plant explosives . Trevelyan is captured and shot by Colonel Arkady Ourumov , but Bond flees as the facility explodes . Nine years later , in Monte Carlo Bond follows Xenia Onatopp , a member of the Janus crime syndicate , who has formed a suspicious relationship with a Royal Canadian Navy admiral . Onatopp kills the admiral by crushing his ribs with her thighs during sex , to allow now @-@ General Ourumov to steal his identity and use it to steal a Eurocopter Tiger helicopter . They fly it to a bunker in Severnaya , Siberia , where they massacre the staff and steal the control disk for GoldenEye , an electromagnetic Soviet weapon from the Cold War . They program the GoldenEye satellite to destroy the complex , and escape with programmer Boris Grishenko . Natalya Simonova , the lone survivor , contacts Grishenko and arranges to meet him in St. Petersburg , where he betrays her to Janus . In London , M assigns Bond to investigate the attack . He flies to St. Petersburg to meet CIA officer Jack Wade . Jack suggests that Bond meet with Valentin Zukovsky , a former KGB agent and business rival of Janus . Zukovsky arranges a meeting between Bond and Janus . Onatopp meets Bond at the Grand Hotel Europe and attempts to kill him , but he overpowers her and she takes him to Janus . Bond meets Janus , who reveals himself as Trevelyan , who faked his death but was badly scarred from the explosion at Arkhangelsk . A descendant of the Cossack clans who collaborated with the Nazi forces in the Second World War , Trevelyan had vowed revenge against Britain after they betrayed the Cossacks , which drove his father to kill Trevelyan 's mother and himself . Just as Bond is about to shoot Trevelyan , Bond is shot with a tranquiliser dart . Bond awakens , tied up with Natalya in the helicopter programmed to self @-@ destruct , but they escape . They are captured and brought to the military archives , where Russian Minister of Defence Dimitri Mishkin interrogates them . As Natalya reveals the existence of a second satellite and Ourumov 's involvement in the massacre in Siberia , Ourumov arrives and kills Mishkin , intending to frame Bond for the murder , then calls for his guards , but Bond escapes as a firefight ensues and Natalya is captured . Bond steals a tank and pursues Ourumov through St. Petersburg to Trevelyan 's train , where he kills Ourumov . Trevelyan escapes and locks Bond in the train with Natalya , setting it to self @-@ destruct . Bond cuts through the floor with his laser watch while Simonova locates Boris ' satellite dish in Cuba . The two escape just before the train explodes . Bond and Natalya , now lovers , meet Jack in Cuba and borrow his aeroplane , but they are shot down while searching for GoldenEye 's satellite dish . Onatopp rappels down from a helicopter and attacks Bond . After a struggle , Bond shoots down the helicopter , which snares Onatopp and crushes her to death against a tree . Bond and Simonova watch a lake being drained of water , uncovering the satellite dish . They infiltrate the control station , where Bond is captured . Trevelyan reveals his plan to rob the Bank of England before erasing all of its financial records with GoldenEye , concealing the theft and destroying Britain 's economy . Natalya programs the satellite to initiate atmospheric re @-@ entry and destroy itself . As Trevelyan captures Natalya and orders Grishenko to save the satellite , Grishenko triggers an explosion with Bond 's pen grenade ( received earlier from Q ) which allows Bond to escape to the antenna cradle . Bond then sabotages the antenna , preventing Grishenko from regaining control of the satellite . He and Trevelyan fight on the antenna 's suspended platform , which ends with Bond kicking Trevelyan off the platform and reflexively grabbing his foot . Bond releases Trevelyan and he falls to the bottom of the radio dish , where he is crushed by the falling cradle . Grishenko survives , but is immediately frozen and killed by liquid nitrogen . Natalya commandeers a helicopter and rescues Bond . It drops them in a field , where the couple is rescued by Jack and a team of Marines . = = Cast = = Pierce Brosnan as James Bond ( 007 ) : An MI6 officer assigned to stop the Janus crime syndicate from acquiring " GoldenEye , " a clandestine satellite weapon designed and launched by the Soviets during the Cold War . Sean Bean as Alec Trevelyan ( 006 ) / Janus : Initially another 00 officer and Bond 's friend , he fakes his death at Arkhangelsk and then establishes the Janus crime syndicate in the following nine years . Izabella Scorupco as Natalya Simonova : The only survivor and eyewitness of the attack of GoldenEye on its own control centre at Severnaya . A skilled programmer , she helps Bond in his mission . Famke Janssen as Xenia Onatopp : A Georgian lust murderer and Trevelyan 's henchwoman . A sadist , she enjoys torturing her enemies by crushing them between her thighs . Joe Don Baker as Jack Wade : A veteran CIA officer on the same mission as Bond . Judi Dench as M : The head of MI6 and Bond 's superior . Gottfried John as General Arkady Grigorovich Ourumov : Commander of Russia 's Space Division , secretly an agent of Janus who nefariously misuses his authority and position to assist Janus to gain access to the GoldenEye . Robbie Coltrane as Valentin Dmitrovich Zukovsky : A Russian gangster and ex @-@ KGB officer through whom Bond arranges a meeting with Janus ( Trevelyan ) . Alan Cumming as Boris Grishenko : A computer programmer at Severnaya secretly affiliated to Janus . Tchéky Karyo as Russian Defence Minister Dmitri Mishkin Desmond Llewelyn as Q : The head of Q Branch ( research and development division of the British Secret Service ) . Llewelyn and Joe Don Baker were the only actors to appear in a previous Bond film , Baker appearing in The Living Daylights and Llewelyn appearing as Q throughout the series until his death . Samantha Bond as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary . Samantha Bond made her first of four appearances as Moneypenny . Michael Kitchen as Bill Tanner : M 's Chief of Staff . Minnie Driver as Irina : A Russian nightclub singer and mistress of Valentin Dmitrovich Zukovsky . Serena Gordon as Caroline , an MI6 psychological and psychiatric evaluator whom Bond seduces . = = Production = = = = = Prelude = = = Following the release of the previous Bond film , Licence to Kill which was released in July 1989 , pre @-@ production work for the third James Bond film starring Timothy Dalton , fulfilling his three @-@ film contract , began in May 1990 . A poster for the then @-@ upcoming movie was even featured on the Carlton Hotel during the 1990 Cannes Film Festival . On August , The Sunday Times reported that producer Albert R. Broccoli had parted company with writer Richard Maibaum , who had worked on the scripts of all but three Bond films so far , and director John Glen , responsible for the previous five instalments of the series . Broccoli listed among the possible directors John Landis , Ted Kotcheff , and John Byrum . Broccoli 's stepson Michael G. Wilson contributed a script , and Wiseguy co @-@ producer Alfonse Ruggiero Jr. was hired to rewrite . Production was set to start in 1990 in Hong Kong for a release in late 1991 . Dalton would declare in a 2010 interview that the script was ready and " we were talking directors " before the project entered development hell caused by legal problems between Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer , parent company of the series ' distributor United Artists , and Broccoli 's Danjaq , owners of the Bond film rights . In 1990 , as MGM / UA was purchased by French @-@ Italian broadcasting group Pathé , Pathé CEO Giancarlo Parretti intended to sell off the distribution rights of the studio 's catalogue so he could collect advance payments to finance the buyout . This included international broadcasting rights to the 007 library at cut @-@ rate prices , leading Danjaq to sue , alleging the licensing violated the Bond distribution agreements the company made with United Artists in 1962 , while negating Danjaq a share of the profits . The lawsuits were only settled in 1992 , while Dalton 's original contract with Danjaq expired in 1990 . = = = Pre @-@ production and writing = = = In May 1993 , MGM announced a seventeenth James Bond film was back in the works , to be based on a screenplay by Michael France . With Broccoli 's health deteriorating ( he died seven months after the release of GoldenEye ) , his daughter Barbara Broccoli described him as taking " a bit of a back seat " in film 's production . Barbara and Michael G. Wilson took the lead roles in production while Albert Broccoli oversaw the production of GoldenEye as a consulting producer , credited as " presenter " . In an interview in 1993 , Dalton said that Michael France was writing the screenplay , due to be completed in January or February 1994 . Despite France 's screenplay being completed by that January , in April 1994 Dalton officially resigned from the role . After Michael France delivered the original screenplay , Jeffrey Caine was brought in to rewrite it . Caine kept many of France 's ideas but added the prologue prior to the credits . Kevin Wade polished the script and Bruce Feirstein added the finishing touches . In the film , the writing credit was shared by Caine and Feirstein , while France was credited with only the story , an arrangement he felt was unfair , particularly as he believed the additions made were not an improvement on his original version . Wade did not receive an official credit , but was acknowledged in the naming of Jack Wade , the CIA character he created . To replace Dalton , the producers cast Irish actor Pierce Brosnan , who had been prevented from succeeding Roger Moore in 1986 because of his contract to star in the Remington Steele television series . Before negotiating with Brosnan , Mel Gibson and Liam Neeson passed on the role . Brosnan was paid $ 1 @.@ 2 million for the film , out of a total budget of $ 60 million . Judi Dench , an English actress , was cast as M replacing Robert Brown , making GoldenEye the first film of the series featuring a female M. The decision is widely believed to be inspired by Stella Rimington becoming head of MI5 in 1992 . John Woo was approached as the director , and turned down the opportunity , but said he was honoured by the offer . The producers then chose New Zealander Martin Campbell as the director . Brosnan later described Campbell as " warrior @-@ like in his take on the piece " and that " there was a huge passion there on both our parts " . While the story was not based on a work by Ian Fleming , the title GoldenEye traces its origins to the name of Fleming 's Jamaican estate where he wrote the Bond novels . Fleming gave a number of origins for the name of his estate , including Carson McCullers ' Reflections in a Golden Eye and Operation Goldeneye , a contingency plan Fleming himself developed during World War II in case of a Nazi invasion through Spain . Although only six years since the release of Licence to Kill , world politics had changed dramatically in the interim . GoldenEye was the first James Bond film to be produced since the fall of the Berlin Wall , the collapse of the Soviet Union , and the end of the Cold War , and therefore it was doubtful whether the character was still relevant in the modern world . Some in the film industry felt it would be " futile " for the Bond series to make a comeback , and that it was best left as " an icon of the past " . The producers even thought of new concepts for the series , such as a period piece set in the 1960s , a female 007 , or a Black James Bond . Ultimately , they chose to return to the basics of the series , not following the sensitive and caring Bond of the Dalton films or the political correctness that started to permeate the decade . However , when released , the film was viewed as a successful revitalisation , and it effectively adapted the series for the 1990s . One of GoldenEye 's innovations was the casting of a female M. In the film , the new M quickly establishes her authority , remarking that Bond is a " sexist , misogynist dinosaur " and a " relic of the Cold War " . This is an early indication that Bond is portrayed as far less tempestuous than Timothy Dalton 's Bond from 1989 . = = = Filming = = = Principal photography for the film began on 16 January 1995 and continued until 2 June . The producers were unable to film at Pinewood Studios , the usual location for Bond films , because it had been reserved for First Knight . Instead , an old Rolls @-@ Royce factory at Leavesden Aerodrome in Hertfordshire was converted into a new studio , dubbed Leavesden Studios . This process is shown on the 2006 DVD 's special features . Members of the production crew , duly impressed by the enormous size of the filmmaking complex they suddenly had to themselves , jokingly called Leavesden Cubbywood after Eon 's long serving producer Albert R. ' Cubby ' Broccoli . The bungee jump was filmed at the Contra Dam ( also known as the Verzasca or Locarno Dam ) in Ticino , Switzerland . The film 's casino scenes and the Tiger helicopter 's demonstration were shot in Monte Carlo . Reference footage for the tank chase was shot on location in St. Petersburg and matched to the studio at Leavesden . The climactic scenes on the satellite dish were shot at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico . The actual MI6 headquarters were used for external views of M 's office . Some of the scenes in St. Petersburg were actually shot in London – the Epsom Downs Racecourse doubled as the airport – to reduce expenses and security concerns , as the second unit sent to Russia required bodyguards . The French Navy provided full use of the frigate FS La Fayette and their newest helicopter , the Eurocopter Tiger to the film 's production team . The French government also allowed the use of Navy logos as part of the promotional campaign for the film . However , the producers had a dispute with the French Ministry of Defence over Brosnan 's opposition to French nuclear weapons testing and his involvement with Greenpeace ; as a result , the French premiere of the film was cancelled . The sequences involving the armoured train were filmed on the Nene Valley Railway , near Peterborough in the UK . The train was composed of a British Rail Class 20 diesel @-@ electric locomotive and a pair of BR Mk 1 coaches , all three heavily disguised to resemble a Soviet armoured train . = = = Effects = = = GoldenEye was the last film of special effects supervisor Derek Meddings , to whom the film was dedicated . Meddings ' major contribution was miniatures . It was also the first Bond film to use computer generated imagery . Among the model effects are most external shots of Severnaya , the scene where Janus ' train crashes into the tank , and the lake which hides the satellite dish , since the producers could not find a round lake in Puerto Rico . The climax in the satellite dish used scenes in Arecibo , a model built by Meddings ' team and scenes shot with stuntmen in England . Stunt car coordinator Rémy Julienne described the car chase between the Aston Martin DB5 and the Ferrari F355 as between " a perfectly shaped , old and vulnerable vehicle and a racecar . " The stunt had to be meticulously planned as the cars are vastly different . Nails had to be attached to the F355 tyres to make it skid , and during one take of the sliding vehicles , both cars collided . The largest stunt sequence in the film was the tank chase , which took around six weeks to film , partly on location in St. Petersburg and partly at Leavesden . A Russian T @-@ 54 / 55 tank , on loan from the East England Military Museum , was modified with the addition of fake explosive reactive armour panels . To avoid destroying the pavement on the city streets of St. Petersburg , the steel off @-@ road tracks of the T @-@ 54 / 55 were replaced with the rubber @-@ shoed tracks from a British Chieftain tank . The T @-@ 55 Tank used in the film is now on permanent display at Old Buckenham Airport where the East England Military Museum is based . For the confrontation between Bond and Trevelyan inside the antenna cradle , director Campbell decided to take inspiration from Bond 's fight with Red Grant in From Russia with Love . Pierce Brosnan and Sean Bean did all the stunts themselves , except for one take where one is thrown against the wall . Brosnan injured his hand while filming the extending ladder sequence , making producers delay his scenes and film the ones in Severnaya earlier . The opening 220 m ( 720 ft ) bungee jump at Archangel , shot at the Verzasca Dam in Switzerland and performed by Wayne Michaels , was voted the best movie stunt of all time in a 2002 Sky Movies poll , and set a record for the highest bungee jump off a fixed structure . The ending of the pre @-@ credits sequence with Bond jumping after the aeroplane features Jacques ' Zoo ' Malnuit riding the motorcycle to the edge and jumping , and B.J. Worth diving after the plane – which was a working aircraft , with Worth adding that part of the difficulty of the stunt was the kerosene flying on his face . The fall of Communism in Russia is the main focus of the opening titles , designed by Daniel Kleinman ( who took over from Maurice Binder after his death in 1991 ) . They show the collapse and destruction of several structures associated with the Soviet Union , such as the red star , statues of Communist leaders — notably Joseph Stalin — and the hammer and sickle . In an interview , Kleinman said they were meant to be " a kind of story telling sequence " showing that " what was happening in Communist countries was Communism was falling down " . According to producer Michael G. Wilson , some Communist parties protested against " Socialist symbols being destroyed not by governments , but by bikini @-@ clad women " , especially certain Indian Communist parties , which threatened to boycott the film . = = = Product placement = = = GoldenEye was the first film bound by BMW 's three picture deal , so the producers were offered BMW 's latest roadster , the BMW Z3 . It was featured in the film months before its release , and a limited edition " 007 model " sold out within a day of being available to order . As part of the car 's marketing strategy , several Z3 's were used to drive journalists from a complimentary meal at the Rainbow Room restaurant to GoldenEye 's premiere at Radio City Music Hall . For the film , a convertible Z3 is equipped with the usual Q refinements , including a self @-@ destruct feature and Stinger missiles behind the headlights . The Z3 does not have much screen time and none of the gadgets are used , which Martin Campbell attributed to the deal with BMW coming in the last stages of production . The Z3 's appearance in GoldenEye is thought to be the most successful promotion through product placement in 1995 . Ten years later , The Hollywood Reporter listed it as one of the most successful product placements in recent years . The article quoted Mary Lou Galician , head of media analysis and criticism at Arizona State University 's Walter Cronkite School of Journalism and Mass Communication , as saying that the news coverage of Bond 's switch from Aston Martin to BMW " generated hundreds of millions of dollars of media exposure for the movie and all of its marketing partners . " In addition , all computers in the film were provided by IBM , and in some scenes ( such as the pen grenade scene towards the end ) , the OS / 2 Warp splash screen can be seen on computer monitors . A modified Omega Seamaster Quartz Professional watch features as a major plot device several times in the film . It is shown to contain a remote detonator and a laser . This was the first time James Bond was shown to be wearing a watch by Omega , and the character has since worn Omega watches in every subsequent production . = = = Music = = = The theme song , " GoldenEye " , was written by Bono and the Edge , and was performed by Tina Turner . As the producers did not collaborate with Bono or the Edge , the film score did not incorporate any of the theme song 's melodies , as was the case in previous James Bond films . Swedish group Ace of Base had also written a proposed theme song , but label Arista Records pulled the band out of the project fearing the negative impact in case the film flopped . The song was then re @-@ written as their single " The Juvenile " . The soundtrack to GoldenEye was composed and performed by Éric Serra . Prolific Bond composer John Barry said that despite an offer by Barbara Broccoli , he turned it down . Serra 's score has been heavily criticised : Richard von Busack , in Metro , wrote that it was " more appropriate for a ride on an elevator than a ride on a roller coaster " , and Filmtracks said Serra " failed completely in his attempt to tie Goldeneye to the franchise 's past . " The end credits song , Serra 's " The Experience of Love " , was based on a short cue Serra had originally written for Luc Besson 's Léon one year earlier . Later John Altman provided the music for the tank chase in St. Petersburg . Serra 's original track for that sequence can still be found on the soundtrack as " A Pleasant Drive in St. Petersburg " . Serra composed and performed a number of synthesiser tracks , including the version of the James Bond Theme that plays during the gun barrel sequence , while Altman and David Arch provided the more traditional symphonic music . = = Release and reception = = GoldenEye premiered on 13 November 1995 , at the Radio City Music Hall in New York City , and went on general release in the USA on 17 November 1995 . The UK premiere , attended by Prince Charles , followed on 22 November at the Odeon Leicester Square , with general release two days later . Brosnan boycotted the French premiere to support Greenpeace 's protest against the French nuclear testing program . The film earned over $ 26 million during its opening across 2 @,@ 667 cinemas in the USA . Its worldwide sales were around the equivalent of $ 350 million . It had the fourth @-@ highest worldwide gross of all films in 1995 and was the most successful Bond film since Moonraker , taking inflation into account . GoldenEye was edited to be guaranteed a PG @-@ 13 rating from the MPAA and a 12 rating from the BBFC . The cuts included the visible bullet impact to Trevelyan 's head when he is shot in the prologue , several additional deaths during the sequence in which Onatopp guns down the workers at the Severnaya station , more explicit footage and violent behaviour in the Admiral 's death , extra footage of Onatopp 's death , and Bond giving her a rabbit punch in the car . In 2006 , the film was re @-@ mastered and re @-@ edited for the James Bond Ultimate Edition DVD in which the BBFC cuts were restored , causing the rating to be changed to 15 . However , the original MPAA edits still remain . = = = Reviews = = = The critical reception of the film was mostly positive . Film review collection website Rotten Tomatoes holds it at a 78 % approval rating , while a similar site , Metacritic , holds it at 65 % . In the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , Roger Ebert gave the film 3 stars out of 4 , and said Brosnan 's Bond was " somehow more sensitive , more vulnerable , more psychologically complete " than the previous ones , also commenting on Bond 's " loss of innocence " since previous films . James Berardinelli described Brosnan as " a decided improvement over his immediate predecessor " with a " flair for wit to go along with his natural charm " , but added that " fully one @-@ quarter of Goldeneye is momentum @-@ killing padding . " Several reviewers lauded M 's appraisal of Bond as a " sexist , misogynist dinosaur " , with Todd McCarthy in Variety saying GoldenEye " breathes fresh creative and commercial life " into the series . John Puccio of DVD Town said that GoldenEye was " an eye and ear @-@ pleasing , action @-@ packed entry in the Bond series " and that the film gave Bond " a bit of humanity , too " . Ian Nathan of Empire said that GoldenEye " revamps that indomitable British spirit " and that the Die Hard movies " don 't even come close to 007 " . Tom Sonne of the Sunday Times considered GoldenEye the best Bond film since The Spy Who Loved Me . Jose Arroyo of Sight & Sound considered the greatest success of the film was in modernising the series . GoldenEye was also ranked high in Bond @-@ related lists . IGN chose it as the fifth @-@ best movie , while Entertainment Weekly ranked it eighth , and Norman Wilner of MSN as ninth . ET also voted Xenia Onatopp as the sixth @-@ most memorable Bond Girl , while IGN ranked Natalya as seventh in a similar list . However , the film received several negative reviews . Richard Schickel of Time wrote that after " a third of a century 's hard use " , Bond 's conventions survived on " wobbly knees " , while in Entertainment Weekly , Owen Gleiberman thought the series had " entered a near @-@ terminal state of exhaustion . " Dragan Antulov said that GoldenEye had a predictable series of scenes , and Kenneth Turan of the Los Angeles Times said that the film was " a middle @-@ aged entity anxious to appear trendy at all costs " . David Eimer of Premiere wrote that " the trademark humour is in short supply " and that " Goldeneye isn 't classic Bond by any stretch of the imagination . " Madeleine Williams said that " there are plenty of stunts and explosions to take your mind off the plot . " = = = Awards = = = GoldenEye was nominated for two BAFTAs , Best Sound and Special Effects , but lost to Braveheart and Apollo 13 , respectively . Éric Serra won a BMI Film Award for the soundtrack and the film also earned nominations for Best Action Film and Actor at the Saturn Awards and Best Fight Scene at the MTV Movie Awards . = = Appearances in other media = = GoldenEye was the second and final Bond film to be adapted to a novel by novelist John Gardner . The book closely follows the film 's storyline , but Gardner added a violent sequence prior to the opening bungee jump in which Bond kills a group of Russian guards , a change that the video game GoldenEye 007 retained . In late 1995 , Topps Comics began publishing a three @-@ issue comic book adaptation of GoldenEye . The script was adapted by Don McGregor with art by Rick Magyar . The first issue carried a January 1996 cover date . For unknown reasons , Topps cancelled the entire adaptation after the first issue had been published , and to date the adaptation has never been released in its entirety . The film was the basis for GoldenEye 007 , a video game for the Nintendo 64 developed by Rare ( known at the time as Rareware ) and published by Nintendo . The game was praised by critics and in January 2000 , readers of the British video game magazine Computer and Video Games listed GoldenEye 007 in first place in a list of " the hundred greatest video games " . In Edge 's 10th anniversary issue in 2003 , the game was included as one of their top ten shooters of all time . It is based upon the film , but many of the missions were extended or modified . GoldenEye 007 was modified into a racing game intended to be released for the Virtual Boy console . However , the game was cancelled before release . In 2004 , Electronic Arts released GoldenEye : Rogue Agent , the first game of the James Bond series in which the player does not take on the role of Bond . Instead , the protagonist is an aspiring Double @-@ 0 agent Jonathan Hunter , known by his codename " GoldenEye " recruited by a villain of the Bond universe , Auric Goldfinger . Except for the appearance of Xenia Onatopp , the game was unrelated to the film , and was released to mediocre reviews . It was excoriated by several critics including Eric Qualls for using the name " GoldenEye " as an attempt to ride on the success of Rare 's game . In 2010 , an independent development team released GoldenEye : Source , a multiplayer only total conversion mod developed using Valve 's Source engine . Nintendo announced a remake of the original GoldenEye 007 game at their E3 press conference on 15 June 2010 . The game is a modernised retelling of the original movie 's story , with Daniel Craig playing the role of Bond . Bruce Feirstein returned to write a modernised version of the script , while Nicole Scherzinger covered Tina Turner 's theme song . The game was developed by Eurocom and published by Activision for the Wii and Nintendo DS and was released in November 2010 . Both Wii and DS versions bear little to no resemblance to the locations and weapons of the original N64 release . In 2011 the game was ported to PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 under the name GoldenEye 007 : Reloaded . = Joint Tribal Council of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton = Joint a Tribal Council , of the Passamaquoddy Tribe v. Morton , 528 F.2d 370 ( 1st Cir . 1975 ) , was a landmark decision regarding aboriginal title in the United States . The United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit held that the Nonintercourse Act applied to the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot , non @-@ federally @-@ recognized Indian tribes , and established a trust relationship between those tribes and the federal government that the state of Maine could not terminate . By upholding a declaratory judgement of the United States District Court for the District of Maine , the First Circuit cleared the way for the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot to oblige the federal government to bring a land claim on their behalf for approximately 60 % of Maine , an area populated by 350 @,@ 000 non @-@ Indians . According to the Department of Justice , the suit was " potentially the most complex litigation ever brought in the federal courts with social and economic impacts without precedent and incredible potential litigation costs to all parties . " The decision led to the passage of the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act in 1980 , allocating $ 81 @.@ 5 million for the benefit of the tribes , in part to allow them to purchase lands in Maine , and extinguishing all aboriginal title in Maine . The settlement was reached " after more than a decade of enormously complex litigation and negotiation . " The Passamaquoddy claim was " one of the first of a series of eastern Indian land claims to be prosecuted " and " the first successful suit for the return of any significant amount of land . " Compared to the $ 81 @.@ 5 million compensation in the Passamaquoddy case , the financial compensation of other Indian Land Claims Settlements has been " inconsequential . " = = Background = = = = = The transactions = = = Indigenous populations have been present in modern @-@ day Maine for 11 @,@ 000 years , with year @-@ round occupation for 6 @,@ 000 years . Burial sites associated with an Algonquian @-@ speaking culture date back 5 @,@ 000 years . The Wabanaki Confederacy , which included the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes , also pre @-@ dates European contact in the region . The Passamaquoddy may have had contact with Giovanni da Verrazzano in 1524 , but their first extended contact with Europeans would have been with a short @-@ lived settlement built on Dochet Island by Samuel de Champlain and Pierre Dugua , Sieur de Mons in 1604 – 1605 . Research by Emerson Baker in 1989 uncovered over 70 extant deeds documenting private purchases of land from indigenous peoples by English @-@ speaking settlers , the earliest dating to 1639 . But , most Passamaquoddy lands " remained beyond the reach of English settlers " until the mid @-@ 18th century . A few years prior to the end of the French and Indian Wars in 1763 , the Province of Massachusetts Bay had taken possession of all Penobscot land " below the head of the tide " of the Penobscot River ( near present @-@ day Bangor ) . During the Revolutionary War , both the Penobscot and Passamaquoddy , having been solicited by Superintendent John Allan , were allied with the colonies and fought against the British . After the war , Allan urged the Continental Congress to follow through on various promises made to the tribes ; Congress took no action and revoked Allan 's appointment . In 1794 , Allan — now as Commissioner for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts — negotiated a treaty with the Passamaquoddy that alienated most of the aboriginal lands at issue in the later litigation . The treaty reserved 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 93 km2 ) for the tribe . In 1796 , the Penobscot ceded 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 km2 ) in the Penobscot River basin . In 1818 , the Penobscot ceded all their remaining land , save some islands in the Penobscot River and four six @-@ mile @-@ square townships . Maine gained statehood in 1820 and assumed Massachusetts ' obligations under these treaties . The " final big grab " happened in 1833 , when Maine purchased the four townships , relegating the Penobscot to Indian Island . None of the land cessions occurred pursuant to a federally ratified treaty . According to Kempers : Since the beginning of this country 's history , most American Indian tribes have been subject to federal authority and jurisdiction . In Maine , however , indigenous populations lived on reservations that were exclusively and completely administered by the state . This unique arrangement shaped tribal life in Maine , and proved to be a crucial issue in the development and resolution of the tribe 's land claim . In the late 19th century , the Maine Supreme Court had held that the Passamaquoddy were not a tribe and had no aboriginal rights . = = = The dispute = = = In the 1950s , the Penobscot Nation had hired a lawyer to research the possibility of a land claim . In light of the Eisenhower administration 's Indian termination policy , counsel opined that " obtaining a fair hearing of their claim would be virtually impossible . " Up until the 1960s , Maine continued to fulfill certain provisions of the 1794 treaty , including the periodic provision of 150 yards of blue cloth , 400 pounds of powder , 100 bushels of salt , 36 hats , and a barrel of rum . By 1964 , of the 23 @,@ 000 acres ( 93 km2 ) reservation , 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) had been diverted to other purposes and only 17 @,@ 000 acres ( 69 km2 ) remained under tribal control . In February 1964 , the tribal council of the Passamaquoddy Indian Township Reservation requested a meeting with Maine 's governor and attorney general to discuss a land dispute related to construction by non @-@ Indians on lands claimed by the tribe . The Passamaquoddy representatives were kept waiting for 5 hours after their scheduled meeting time with the governor , and the attorney general " smiled and wished them well if they ever took their claim to court . " Soon after the meeting , pursuant to a vote of the Passamaquoddy tribal council , 75 members protested against the construction project along Route 1 , resulting in 10 arrests . Charged with disorderly conduct and trespassing , they hired attorney Don Gellers to defend them . While these charges were still pending , Gellers began to prepare a land claim on behalf of the tribe . = = = Attorneys = = = Gellers ' theory was that Maine had violated the 1794 treaty by selling 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) of land . Because Maine had made no provision for a waiver of its sovereign immunity ( for example , in a state claims court ) , Gellers ' strategy was to sue Massachusetts , hoping that Massachusetts would in turn sue Maine . On March 8 , 1968 , Gellers — affiliating with Massachusetts attorney John Bottomly — filed a suit in Suffolk Superior Court in Boston , seeking $ 150 million in damages . This initial claim involved land in and around the Indian Township Reservation . Three days later , Maine narcotics officers raided Gellers ' home and arrested him for possession of marijuana . Gellers was eventually convicted and , on bail , fled to Israel ; the lawsuit that he started was never prosecuted . Gellers was representing the Passamaquoddy pursuant to a 10 % contingency fee agreement . Gellers , in turn , had assigned 40 % of his fee to Bottomly . As the negotiations of the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act were reaching a close in May 1978 , even though neither Gellers nor Bottomly had performed any further work for the tribes , Bottomly filed suit in the District of Maine claiming he was entitled to a portion of any eventual settlement . On October 10 , Judge Gignoux dismissed Bottomly 's suit on the grounds of tribal sovereign immunity . When Bottomly 's appeal came before the First Circuit in 1979 , Maine filed an amicus brief arguing that the tribe was entitled to no such immunity . The First Circuit rejected this argument . A similar suit by Gellers — who had since been disbarred and changed his name to Tuvia Ben Shmuel Yosef — was thrown out in 1989 . Tom Tureen — who had worked as a summer law clerk for Gellers in the summer of 1967 — joined the Indian Legal Services Unit of Pine Tree Legal Services ( funded by the Office of Economic Opportunity to provide legal services to indigent clients ) after his graduation in June 1969 . For the remainder of the year , Tureen assisted Passamaquoddy members in " petty disputes " such as divorce and bill collection . In early 1970 , Tureen began assisting the tribe in an effort to receive federal grants . In 1971 , Tureen co @-@ wrote an article with Francis J. O 'Toole , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Maine Law Review , arguing that Maine 's tribes should fall under federal , not state , jurisdiction . O 'Toole and Tureen noted that : " There is no evidence that the treaty was 1794 was made in compliance with the Non @-@ Intercourse Act . " The Passamaquoddy tribal council fired Gellers and asked Tureen to take over . Fearing that his federally funded legal aid employer could not withstand the political pressure that the suit would inevitably provoke , in 1971 , Tureen asked the Native American Rights Fund ( NARF ) to act as co @-@ counsel . Tureen himself would eventually move to NARF during the course of the litigation . Tureen attempted to persuade a large law firm to join the case pro bono . Among those who turned him down were Arthur Lazarus , Jr. of Frank , Harris , Shriver & Kampelman , who had litigated many claims in front of the Indian Claims Commission . Based on the acreage involved , Lazarus pointed out that the claim would net only $ 300 @,@ 000 before the Commission , which would be less than the cost of litigation . When Tureen said , " Mr. Lazarus , this is not an Indian Claims Commission case , this is a Nonintercourse Act claim , " Lazarus shook his head and told Tureen he was dreaming . Tureen was able to recruit Barry Margolin , David Crosby , and Stuart Ross of Hogan & Hartson . The other members of the team were Robert Pelcyger of NARF and Robert Mittel of Pine Tree Legal Assistance . = = = Prelude and petition = = = Tureen was critical of Gellers ' strategy because it required suing in state court ( which he believed would be biased against any such claim ) , because it limited the claim to the 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 24 km2 ) promised by the 1794 treaty , and because it would leave the tribes under state jurisdiction and ineligible for federal benefits . One theory that Tureen considered in order to overcome Maine 's sovereign immunity was to rely on United States v. Lee ( 1882 ) , which had permitted a land claim by the heirs of Robert E. Lee against the federal government . Tureen also feared that a federal court would find that it lacked subject @-@ matter jurisdiction for an ejectment action due to the well @-@ pleaded complaint rule , although the Supreme Court held otherwise in Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida ( 1974 ) — decided three years after the Passamaquoddy complaint was filed . Tureen also worried about the delay @-@ related defenses of laches , adverse possession , and statute of limitations . Tureen 's team discovered the six @-@ year federal statute of limitations for actions by the federal government for money damages related to Indian lands , 28 U.S.C. § 2415 ( b ) — which treated prior claims as arising on the date of its passage , July 18 , 1966 — a mere eighteen months before the it was due to expire on July 18 , 1972 . Although Tureen 's team had come up with alternate theories to overcome Maine 's sovereign immunity , the well @-@ pleaded complaint rule , and delay @-@ based defenses , it was " clearly established " that none of those weaknesses would apply to a Nonintercourse Act suit by the federal government . Tureen recommended that the tribe argue that the entire treaty was void and ask the federal government to seek possession of the entire 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) on their behalf . The Passamaquoddy tribal council unanimously approved Tureen 's strategy . The Passamaquoddy also had grievances about the management of the tribal trust fund , tribal hunting and fishing rights , and the disfranchisement of tribal members from 1924 to 1967 . Later , in April , Tureen was approached by the Penobscot whose land claim concerned 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 km2 ) . On February 22 , 1972 , the governors of the Passamaquoddy tribes at Indian Township and Pleasant Point wrote a letter to Louis R. Bruce , the Commissioner of the Bureau of Indian Affairs , asking him to initiate such a lawsuit before the July 18th deadline . In early March , Bruce sent a letter to the Department of the Interior recommending that the tribes ' request be granted . No reply was forthcoming before April 1 . Tureen met with William Gershuny , the Associate Solicitor for Indian Affairs , who said more time was needed . On mid @-@ May , Tureen persuaded Governor Kenneth Curtis to issue a public statement saying that the Passamaquoddy deserved their date in court . Senators Margaret Chase Smith ( R @-@ ME ) and Edmund S. Muskie ( D @-@ ME ) and Representatives William Hathaway ( D @-@ ME ) and Peter Kyros ( D @-@ ME ) also issued similar statements of support . Gershuny advised Interior to take no action , noting that " no court had ever ordered the federal government to file a lawsuit on behalf of anyone , much less a multi @-@ million dollar lawsuit on behalf of a powerless and virtually penniless Indian tribe . " While Tureen and his colleagues agreed that a court would be hesitant to order such litigation due to the doctrine of prosecutorial discretion , they believed that , in light of the impending statute of limitations , a court might order the federal government to simply file the lawsuit as an exercise of the court 's common law power to preserve its jurisdiction . = = District of Maine decision = = The tribes ' complaint was filed in the United States District Court for the District of Maine on June 2 , 1972 . The tribes asked for a declaratory judgment and a preliminary injunction requiring the Interior Department to file suit for $ 25 billion in damages and 12 @.@ 5 acres ( 51 @,@ 000 m2 ) of land . Tureen 's appearance before Judge Edward Thaxter Gignoux — two weeks after filing the complaint , at the first of two hearings — was his first ever appearance in court . Tureen relied on a provision of the Administrative Procedure Act , 5 U.S.C. § 706 ( 1 ) , which permits a review court to " compel agency action unlawfully withheld or unreasonably delayed . " Justice Department lawyer Dennis Wittman represented the Secretary . Judge Gignoux gave the Secretary one week to either voluntarily file the suit or report its reasons for not doing so to him . At the second hearing , on June 23 , the Secretary took the position that the Nonintercourse Act did apply to the Maine ( and the original states ) , but that it only applied to federally recognized tribes . The Secretary also argued that filing a lawsuit would damage relations between the federal government and the state of Maine . When Judge Gignoux pointed out that Maine 's governor and entire Congressional delegation had called on the Secretary to bring suit , U.S. Attorney for Maine Peter Mills ( who was with Wittman at the counsel 's table ) declared that " he , too , wanted the government to bring suit " — causing laughter in the courtroom . After a recess , Judge Gignoux issued a preliminary order requiring the Secretary to file the lawsuit . The Secretary filed a suit — United States v. Maine — for $ 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 in damages on behalf of the Passamaquoddy on July 1 , 1972 . The Penobscot Tribe voted to join the lawsuit late June , and the Secretary filed a second lawsuit , for the same amount , on behalf of the Penobscot on July 17 — one day before the statute of limitations would have expired . A few hours before the statutory period was due to expire the next day , Congress extended it for 90 days — the first of a series of such extensions . United States v. Maine was stayed , pending the resolution of Passamaquoddy v. Morton . Further , proceedings in the district court were put on hold until the First Circuit dismissed the Secretary 's interlocutory appeal from Judge Gignoux 's preliminary order in 1973 . The tribe amended their complaint , abandoning their request for injunctive relief and instead asking only for a declaratory judgment . Judge Gignoux allowed the state of Maine to intervene . Judge Gignoux 's ruling was issued on January 20 , 1975 , eighteen months after the oral arguments concluded . Judge Gignoux ruled in the tribe 's favor on the first two questions , and thus did not reach the third : whether the Nonintercourse Act applies to the Passamaquoddy Tribe ; whether the Act establishes a trust relationship between the United States and the Tribe ; whether the United States may deny plaintiffs ' request for litigation on the sole ground that there is no trust relationship = = First Circuit opinion = = The defendants appealed to the United States Court of Appeals for the First Circuit . On December 23 , 1973 , Judge Levin H. Campbell , for the unanimous panel , affirmed . Because the trust relationship was found , the First Circuit did not reach the third issue . = = = Applicability of Nonintercourse Act = = = The First Circuit held that the plain meaning of the Act applied to " any tribe , " whether federally recognized or not : Congress is not prevented from legislating as to tribes generally ; and this appears to be what it has done in successive versions of the Nonintercourse Act . There is nothing in the Act to suggest that ‘ tribe ’ is to be read to exclude a bona fide tribe not otherwise federally recognized . Nor , as the district court found , is there evidence of congressional intent or legislative history squaring with appellants ' interpretation . Rather we find an inclusive reading consonant with the policy and purpose of the Act . The Circuit acknowledged that its holding had great relevance to the tribe 's ultimate land claim : Before turning to the district court 's rulings , we must acknowledge a certain awkwardness in deciding whether the Act encompasses the Tribe without considering at the same time whether the Act encompasses the controverted land transactions with Maine . Whether the Tribe is a tribe within the Act would best be decided , under ordinary circumstances , along with the Tribe 's specific land claims , for the Act only speaks of tribes in the context of their land dealings . However , the Circuit did not wish to foreclose the result of that potential future lawsuit : [ W ] e are not to be deemed as settling , by implication or otherwise , whether the Act affords relief from , or even extends to , the Tribe 's land transactions with Maine . When and if the specific transactions are litigated , new facts and legal and equitable considerations may well appear , and Maine should be free in any such future litigation to defend broadly , even to the extent of arguing positions and theories which overlap considerably those treated here . = = = Existence of trust relationship = = = Campbell acknowledged that federal dealings with the Passamaquoddy had been sparse : [ T ] he federal government 's dealings with the Tribe have been few . It has never , since 1789 , entered into a treaty with the Tribe , nor has Congress ever enacted any legislation mentioning the Tribe . However , the Circuit held that the Nonintercourse Act alone was sufficient to create the trust relationship , even in the absence of federal recognition or a treaty : [ T ] he Nonintercourse Act imposes upon the federal government a fiduciary 's role with respect to protection of the lands of a tribe covered by the Act seems to us beyond question , both from the history , wording and structure of the Act and from the cases cited above and in the district court 's opinion . The purpose of the Act has been held to acknowledge and guarantee the Indian tribes ' right of occupancy . . . and clearly there can be no meaningful guarantee without a corresponding federal duty to investigate and take such action as may be warranted in the circumstances . Having found that the trust relationship existed , the Circuit rejected the remainder of Maine 's arguments on the grounds that " Congress alone has the right to determine when its guardianship shall cease . " However , the Circuit noted that " we do not foreclose later consideration of whether Congress or the Tribe should be deemed in some manner to have acquiesced in , or Congress to have ratified , the Tribe 's land transactions with Maine . " = = Settlement negotiations = = = = = During the Ford Administration = = = The defendants did not appeal to the U.S. Supreme Court , and the time for filing such an appeal lapsed on March 22 , 1976 . After Judge Gignoux 's decision became final , the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot gained federal recognition in 1976 , thus becoming eligible for $ 5 million / year in housing , education , health care , and other social services from the Bureau of Indian Affairs . Further , the Interior Department 's Solicitors Office began looking into whether and how it should proceed in United States v. Maine . Afterward , Tom Tureen ( the tribes ' lawyer ) tried to negotiate a cash settlement . At first Maine 's governor , James B. Longley , Maine 's attorney general , Joseph Brennan , and the Great Northern Nekoosa Corporation , the largest landowner in the state , were unwilling to discuss a settlement . With no one to negotiate with , Tureen devoted his energy to assisting the Solicitors Office in researching the legal and historical basis of the claim . In September 1976 , Boston law firm Ropes & Gray opined that the state 's $ 27 million municipal bond issue could not go forward using property within the claim area as collateral . On September 29 , Governor Longley flew to Washington , and Maine 's delegtion introduced legislation directing the federal courts not to hear the tribe 's claim ; Congress adjourned before the bills could be considered . Bradley H. Patterson , Jr . , a member of the Ford administration , evaluated the tribe 's claim and concluded that " Maine 's tribes stood to gain a sizeable portion of that state " if the federal government went forward and litigated the dispute on behalf of the tribe , to which the court had declared the tribe was entitled . Patterson evaluated various other options , and recommended a land and cash settlement ; however , in December 1976 , Ford decided to pass this issue to the next administration : that of President Jimmy Carter . = = = Interior memo = = = On January 11 , 1977 , prior to Carter 's inauguration , the Interior Department sent the Justice Department a litigation report on the merits of the claim , recommending that ejectment be sought against the landowners in the 1 @,@ 250 @,@ 000 acres ( 5 @,@ 100 km2 ) claim area populated by 350 @,@ 000 people . In response , Governor Longley called on the tribes to limit their claim to the value of the land as of 1796 , without interest ( the valuation method used in Indian Claims Commission cases ) , and called on Congress to pass legislation forcing the tribes to so limit their claim . Interior 's memo reached Peter Taft — the grandson of President Taft , and the head of the Justice Department 's Land and Natural Resources Division — who wrote to Judge Gignoux , declaring his intention to litigate test cases concerning 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 – 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 @,@ 000 – 32 @,@ 000 km2 ) of forests ( mostly owned by large forestry companies ) within the claim area on June 1 , unless a settlement was reached . On March 1 , 1977 , the Maine delegation introduced bills to extinguish all aboriginal title in Maine without compensation . Senator James Abourezk ( D @-@ SD ) , the Chairman of the Senate 's Indian Affairs Committee , denounced the legislation as " one @-@ sided " and declined to hold hearings . = = = First task force = = = Soon after , Carter created a special White House task force to investigate the claims . Carter named retiring judge William B. Gunter , of the state Supreme Court of Georgia , to mediate the dispute . Archibald Cox — a professor at Harvard and the former Watergate special prosecutor — joined the tribes ' legal team pro bono . In response , Governor Longley hired Edward Bennett Williams , the named partner of Williams & Connolly , to represent the state . Three months of presentations to Judge Gunter ensued . On July 15 , 1977 , in a four @-@ page memorandum to President Carter , Gunter announced his proposed solution : $ 25 million from the federal treasury , 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 400 km2 ) from the disputed area to be assembled by the state and conveyed to the federal government in trust ( 20 % of the state 's holdings within the claim area ) , and the option to purchase 400 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 km2 ) at fair market value as negotiated by the Interior Secretary . If the tribes rejected the settlement , Gunter proposed that Congress extinguish all aboriginal title to privately held lands ( more than 95 % of the claim area ) , and allow the tribes to litigate their claims only to 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 20 km2 ) owned by the state of Maine . = = = Second task force = = = Both the tribes and the state rejected Gunter 's solution . In October 1977 , Carter appointed a new three @-@ member task force ( the " White House Work Group " ) , consisting of Eliot Cutler , a former legislative assistant to Senator Muskie and staffer at OMB , Leo M. Krulitz , the Interior Solicitor , and A. Stevens Clay , a partner at Judge Gunter 's law firm . Over a period of months , the task force facilitated negotiations over a settlement that would include portions of cash , land , and BIA services . A memorandum of understanding was signed in early February 1978 . The memorandum called for 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) , with the additional land coming from the paper and timber companies , and a $ 25 million trust fund for the tribes . In return , the tribes would agree to the extinguishment of their aboriginal title as against all titleholders with 50 @,@ 000 acres ( 200 km2 ) or less ; this would have cleared title to more than 9 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km2 ) , leaving only the tribe 's claims against the state and fourteen private landowners such as the Great Northern Nekoosa Paper Corporation , the International Paper Company , the Boise Cascade Corporation , the Georgia @-@ Pacific Corporation , the Diamond International Corporation , the Scott Paper Company , and the St. Regis Paper Company . Further , the tribes would agree to dismiss their claims against the state for $ 1 @.@ 7 million in appropriations per year for 15 years and all claims against the private landowners for 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) and an option to buy 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 810 km2 ) more at fair market value . Congress was to appropriate $ 1 @.@ 5 million to compensate the contributing private landowners and $ 3 @.@ 5 million to assist the tribes in exercising the option . = = = Final negotiations = = = On April 26 , Governor Longley and Attorney General Brennan finally sat down with Tureen and the tribal negotiating committee . Negotiations broke down over the issue of state taxation as well as civil and criminal jurisdiction . In response , in June , Attorney General Griffin Bell threatened to commence the first phase of the litigation against the state for 350 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 400 km2 ) and $ 300 million . In August , however , Bell informed Judge Gignoux that he would not proceed against the fourteen large private landowners . And , in September , Bell asked for a six @-@ month delay before prosecuting the claim against the state . Meanwhile , Representative William Cohen ( R @-@ ME ) was running against Senator William Hathaway ( D @-@ ME ) — the tribe 's main ally in Congress — in the 1978 election with TV advertisements criticizing Hathaway 's role in the land claim . After the public announcement of a new plan negotiated by Hathaway , Cohen defeated Hathaway in a landslide , while Brennan replaced Longley in the gubernatorial election . Although the tribes made progress in implementing the Hathaway plans with the paper and timber companies , Krulitz ceased to support the proposal when the full extent of the required federal appropriations became clear . Krulitz was replaced with Eric Jankel — assistant for intergovernmental affairs to Interior Secretary Cecil Andrus — with whom Tureen had previously negotiated the settlement to the Narragansett land claim in Rhode Island . Tureen and Jankel — along with Donald Perkins , a lawyer for the paper and timber companies — negotiated a solution whereby $ 30 million of the settlement funds would come from various programs in the federal budget . That settlement was presented to the Maine congressional delegation in August 1979 , but they refusal to endorse it until the Maine legislature had approved it . Governor Langley , in turn , refused to accept any deal that would limit the state 's jurisdiction over the tribes . Several legal developments occurred on the eve of the settlement . First , the First Circuit held in Bottomly v. Passamaquoddy Tribe ( 1979 ) that the Passamaquoddy were entitled to tribal sovereign immunity ( see supra ) . Second , the Maine Supreme Judicial Court held in State v. Dana ( 1979 ) that the state had no jurisdiction to punish on @-@ reservation arson because of the federal Major Crimes Act . Third , in Wilson v. Omaha Indian Tribe ( 1979 ) , the U.S. Supreme Court held that the provision of the Nonintercourse Act placing the burden of proof in land claims on non @-@ Indians did not apply to U.S. state defendants ( but did apply to corporate defendants ) ; further , language in Wilson threatened to confine the applicability of the Act to Indian country . The tribes persuaded the U.S. Solicitor General to file a motion asking the Court to delete that language from its opinion . The Court denied the motion . Maine unsuccessfully sought certiorari in Dana on the basis of Wilson . = = = Maine Implementing Act = = = Maine 's new attorney general , Richard S. Cohen ( no relation to the senator ) took over negotiations for the state ; soon , each side made new concessions . In March 1980 , draft legislation was approved by the tribes ' joint negotiating committee and ratified by an advisory referendum of the tribes ' membership . This vote also permitted the inclusion of the Houlton Band of Maliseet Indians in the settlement . The Maine state legislature passed the Maine Implementing Act ( MIA ) , a statute enabling the settlement , on April 3 , 1980 . = = Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act = = Several political changes preceded the passage of the settlement act . First , Senator Edmund Muskie ( D @-@ ME ) — who previously seemed supportive of a settlement , but was gaining national prominence on the issue of fiscal responsibility prior to the 1980 Democratic primary — gave up his seat as Chairman of the Senate Budget Committee to accept President Carter 's nomination for Secretary of State . Second , Governor Brennan 's choice to replace Muskie ( and thus inherit his predecessor 's committee assignments ) was George Mitchell ( D @-@ ME ) — who had supported the land claim as U.S. Attorney and possessed legal gravitas due to his tenure as a District Judge . Another factor affecting the final push for the settlement was the fear that , if Ronald Reagan won the 1980 presidential election , he would veto any settlement favorable toward the tribes . On June 12 , 1980 , Senators Mitchell and William Cohen ( R @-@ ME ) introduced the settlement act in the Senate . The House passed the Maine Indian Claims Settlement Act ( MICSA ) on September 22 , the Senate on September 23 , and President Carter signed it on October 10 . The appropriation bill funding the settlement was approved on December 12 . MICSA extinguished all aboriginal title in Maine . In return , the Act allocated $ 81 @.@ 5 million . $ 27 million was placed in trust for the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot tribes , and the remaining $ 55 million was allocated towards the tribes ' purchase of up to 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of land . The land acquisition funds were divided such : $ 900 @,@ 000 for the Houlton Maliseet ; $ 26 @.@ 8 million for the Passamaquoddy ; and $ 26 @.@ 8 million for the Penobscot . Further , the Houlton Maliseet gained federal recognition ( which the Passamaquoddy and Penobscot had possessed since 1976 ) . Altogether , the Passamaquoddy , Penobscot , and Houlton tribes " received the equivalent of $ 25 @,@ 000 and 275 acres per capita . " = = Aftermath = = As of August 1982 , the Passamaquoddy had acquired approximately 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km2 ) and the Penobscots approximately 150 @,@ 000 acres ( 610 km2 ) . As of January 1987 , the Passamaquoddy had acquired 115 @,@ 000 acres ( 470 km2 ) ; the Penobscot , 143 @,@ 685 acres ( 581 @.@ 47 km2 ) ( not including the 4 @,@ 841 acres ( 19 @.@ 59 km2 ) reservation ) ; and the Houlton had not yet acquired any . MICSA was subsequently amended to provide additional compensation to the Houlton and the Aroostook Band of Micmacs . The settlement acts created " unique jurisdictional relationships between the State of Maine and the tribes . " MICSA provided that the " Passamaquoddy Tribe , the Penobscot Nation , and their members , and the land and natural resources owned by , or held in trust [ for them ] . . . shall be subject to the jurisdiction of the State of Maine to the extent and in the manner provided in the Maine Implementing Act . . . . ” MIA provided that the tribes and their lands " shall be subject to the laws of the State and to the civil and criminal jurisdiction of the courts of the State to the same extent as any other person . . . or natural resources therein . " Outside of Maine , the federal government and tribal governments generally share concurrent civil and criminal jurisdiction in Indian country , and the state governments possess no jurisdiction unless granted by Congress . The First Circuit has interpreted the settlement acts to limit the authority of the Maine tribes relative to other federally recognized tribes . Under the settlement acts , federal law governs only " internal tribal matters . " Lawyer Nicole Friederichs argues that the " narrow interpretation of those statutes makes it difficult for tribal governments to serve and protect their peoples , lands , and culture " and that the result is incompatible with the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples . = = As a precedent = = The Passamaquoddy decision is binding only in the First Circuit , which includes the U.S. states of Maine , New Hampshire , Massachusetts , and Rhode Island , and the settlement act extinguished any further aboriginal title litigation in Maine . The Narragansetts were an early beneficiary of the Passamaquoddy precedent . In an opinion striking all the defendants ' affirmative defenses against the Narragansett land claim , the Rhode Island district court noted that " [ our ] task has been greatly simplified by the First Circuit 's analysis of the [ Nonintercourse ] Act in " Passamaquoddy . Citing Passamaquoddy , that court held that neither Rhode Island 's unilateral attempt to disband the Narragansett tribe nor its provision of services to the tribe " could operate to terminate the trust relationship . " Instead , the court held that the Narragansett need only establish that they were a tribe " racially and culturally " to come within the protection of the Act . The Narragansett claim was settled by legislation in 1978 . In Mashpee Tribe v. New Seabury Corp. ( 1979 ) , the First Circuit confronted a land claim by a non @-@ federally recognized tribe in Massachusetts . This time , because the tribe sought damages rather than a declaratory judgment , the question of tribal status went to a jury . And , the First Circuit affirmed the jury 's finding that the Mashpee had ceased to be a tribe . Mashpee cited Passamaquoddy for the principle that " courts will accord substantial weight to federal recognition of a tribe . " Although Passamaquoddy held that only Congress could terminate the trust relationship , Mashpee noted that " [ t ] he establishment of a trust relationship with tribes generally , however , did not guarantee the perpetual existence of any particular tribe . Plaintiff here must still prove that it was a tribe at the relevant times before it can claim the benefit of a trust relationship . " And , the First Circuit has held that only tribes , and not individual Indians , may bring Nonintercourse Act claims . In Mashpee , the First Circuit rejected the Mashpee 's attempt to stay the litigation until the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) could adjudicate the tribe 's petition for federal recognition . The court noted : " The Department has never formally passed on the tribal status of the Mashpees or , so far as the record shows , any other group whose status was disputed . Therefore , the Department does not yet have prescribed procedures and has not been called on to develop special expertise in distinguishing tribes from other groups of Indians . " Yet , in 1978 , the BIA had promulgated regulations establishing the criteria for federal recognition of tribes . In light of these new regulations , and their later use , the Second Circuit has held that the BIA retains " primary jurisdiction " over tribal recognition . In other words , Nonintercourse Act claims by unrecognized tribes must be stayed until the BIA is given a timely opportunity to adjudicate the tribe 's petition for recognition . If the BIA rejects a tribe 's petition , the tribe 's Nonintercourse Act claim may be barred by collateral estoppel . = = Commentary = = In 1979 , John M.R. Paterson and David Roseman — who , as Deputy and Assistant Attorneys General for the State of Maine , respectively , were involved in the litigation — published a law review article criticizing the	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
and the C & SLR was reconstructed and extended to Camden Town between 1922 and 1924 . Finance for the latter two extensions was obtained through the government 's 1921 Trade Facilities Act which underwrote loans for public works as a means of alleviating unemployment . For new lines , Pick first considered extending Underground services to the north @-@ east of London where the mainline suburban services of the Great Northern Railway ( GNR ) and Great Eastern Railway ( GER ) were poor and unreliable . Studies were carried out for an extension of the Piccadilly tube on GNR tracks to New Barnet and Enfield or on a new route to Wood Green and plans were developed for an extension of the CLR along GER tracks to Chingford and Ongar , but both mainline companies strongly opposed the Underground 's encroachment into their territories . Wanting to make maximum use of the government 's financial backing , which was only available for a limited period , Pick did not have time to press the Underground 's case for these extensions . Instead he developed a plan for an extension of the C & SLR south @-@ west from Clapham Common to Sutton in Surrey . Pick still faced strong opposition from the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway and the London and South Western Railway which operated in the area , but the Underground had the advantage of already having an approval for the last few miles of the route as part of an unused pre @-@ war permission for a new line from Wimbledon to Sutton . The railway companies challenged the need for a new service , claiming it would simply drain passengers from their own trains and that any extension should only run as far as Tooting , but Pick was able to counter their arguments and negotiated a compromise settlement to extend the C & SLR as far as Morden . Even before the C & SLR extension had been completed in 1926 , possibilities for the northward extension of the Piccadilly tube began to reappear . From 1922 , a series of press campaigns called for the improvement of services at the GNR 's Finsbury Park station where interchanges between tube lines , mainline trains , buses and trams were notoriously bad . In June 1923 , a petition from 30 @,@ 000 local residents was submitted to parliament , and , in 1925 , the government called a public inquiry to review options . Pick presented plans to relieve the congestion at Finsbury Park by extending the Piccadilly tube north to Southgate . Opposition from the London and North Eastern Railway ( successor to the GNR following the 1923 grouping of railway companies ) was again considerable and based on claims that the new Underground line would take passengers from the mainline services . Using data from the Bakerloo tube , Hampstead tube and C & SLR extensions , Pick demonstrated that the route planned for the new line would stimulate new residential development and increase passenger numbers for all rail operators in the area , increasing those on the Piccadilly tube by 50 million per year . Parliamentary approval was granted in 1930 to extend the Piccadilly tube north beyond Southgate to a terminus at Cockfosters . The approval also included complementary extensions of the Piccadilly tube from its western terminus at Hammersmith to supplement District Railway services to Hounslow and South Harrow . The development was again financed with government backed loans , this time through the 1929 Development ( Loan Guarantees and Grants ) Act . To ensure the most efficient integration between the new tube line and the UERL 's bus and tram operations , the stations were located further apart than in central areas and where road transport services could be arranged to deliver and collect the most passengers . At Manor House , the station was designed with subway exits directly on to pedestrian islands in the road served by the local trams . = = = Design – a new architecture = = = In 1924 , with plans for the C & SLR extension under development , Pick commissioned Charles Holden to design the station buildings in a new style . The designs replaced a set by the Underground 's own architect , Stanley Heaps , which Pick had found unsatisfactory . Pick had first met Holden at the Design and Industries Association ( DIA ) in 1915 , and he saw the modernist architect as one he could work with to define what Pick called " a new architectural idiom " . Pick wanted to streamline and simplify the design of the stations to make them welcoming , brightly lit and efficient with large , uncluttered ticket halls for the rapid sale of tickets and quick access to the trains via escalators . At these new stations , tickets were issued from a number of " passimeters " , glazed booths in the centre of the ticket hall , rather than the traditional ticket office windows set to one side . Pick was pleased with the results and at a DIA dinner in 1926 proclaimed " that a new style of architectural decoration will arise " leading to a " Modern London – modern not garbled classic or Renaissance . " Amongst Pick 's next commissions for Holden were the redesign of Piccadilly Circus station ( 1925 – 28 ) , where a wide subterranean concourse and ticket hall were built beneath the road junction , and the Underground Group 's new headquarters building at 55 Broadway , St James 's ( 1925 – 1929 ) . The new headquarters building was on an awkwardly shaped site , partly over the platforms and tracks of St. James 's Park station . Although Holden 's practice had not designed such a large office building , it did have experience of large hospital design , which Pick saw as complementary to the design of a modern office building . When completed , the twelve @-@ storey , 176 @-@ foot ( 54 m ) high cruciform building was the tallest in London and the tower dominated the skyline . The building was well received by architectural critics and won Holden the RIBA 's London Architecture Medal for 1929 . Two sculptures commissioned for the building were less well received , generating considerable controversy in the media . The nudity and primitive carving of Day and Night by Jacob Epstein led to calls for them to be removed from the building and the board of the Underground Group considered replacing them with new sculptures by another artist . Although he privately admitted later that the sculptures were not to his taste , Pick publicly supported Holden 's selection of Epstein as sculptor and offered to resign over the matter . The crisis was averted when Epstein was persuaded to reduce the length of the penis of one of the figures and the sculptures remained in place . Pick wanted a new type of building for the more open sites of the stations on the Piccadilly line 's extensions . To decide what this new type should look like , he and Holden made a short tour of Germany , Denmark , Sweden and the Netherlands in July and August 1930 to see the latest developments in modern architecture . Pick was disappointed with much of the new architecture that he saw in Germany and Sweden , considering it either too extreme or unsatisfactorily experimental . The architecture in the Netherlands was much more to his liking , particularly buildings by Willem Marinus Dudok in Hilversum . Although the architecture in Denmark was not considered remarkable , Pick was impressed with the way in which designers there were often responsible for all elements of a building including the interior fixtures and fittings . The designs Pick commissioned from Holden ( 1931 – 33 ) established a new standard for the Underground , with the prototype station at Sudbury Town being described by architectural historian Nikolaus Pevsner as a " landmark " and the start of " the ' classic ' phase of Underground architecture " . To ensure that the new stations achieved the complete and coherent design that he wanted , Pick instructed the engineering departments to provide Holden with full details of all equipment needed for the stations . After late equipment changes by the engineers at the first few new stations compromised the integrated design , Pick took personal charge of the coordination of the architectural and engineering elements . In the mid @-@ 1930s when the introduction of trolleybuses to replace trams required the installation of new street poles to support overhead wiring , Pick was keenly interested that the design of the poles was coordinated to accommodate all of the possible equipment and signage that might be needed . He also oversaw the designs of the new bus stops and bus shelters that were installed when specified stopping points were introduced for bus services . As part of the Transported by Design programme of activities , on 15 October 2015 , after two months of public voting , the work of Frank Pick was elected by Londoners as one of the 10 favourite transport design icons . = = = London Passenger Transport Board – bringing it all together = = = At the beginning of the 1920s , with vehicle numbers depleted by wartime service in France and Belgium , the Underground Group 's bus operations began to experience a surge in competition from a large number of new independent bus operators . These small operators were unregulated and preyed on the group 's most profitable routes taking away a large number of its passengers and a large amount of its income . Albert Stanley ( ennobled as Lord Ashfield in 1920 ) and Pick fought back by calling on parliament to regulate bus operations in the capital . The London Traffic Act 1924 granted their request by establishing the London Traffic Area to regulate road passenger traffic within London and the surrounding districts . Throughout the 1920s , Pick led the Underground Group 's efforts to coordinate its services with the municipal tram operators , the Metropolitan Railway and the suburban mainline rail services . The aim was to achieve a pooling of income between all of the operators and remove wasteful competition . At the end of 1930 , a solution was announced in a bill for the formation of the London Passenger Transport Board ( LPTB ) , a public corporation which was to take control of the Underground Group , the Metropolitan Railway and the majority of the bus and tram operators within an area designated as the London Passenger Transport Area covering the County of London and Middlesex and parts of Buckinghamshire , Essex , Hertfordshire , Kent , Surrey and Sussex . Pick had become joint managing director of the Underground Group in 1928 , and when , on 1 July 1933 , the group was taken over by the LPTB , he became chief executive officer and vice @-@ chairman , on an annual salary of £ 10 @,@ 000 ( approximately equivalent to £ 640 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Ashfield was chairman . Pick led the board 's negotiations on the compensation to be paid to the owners and shareholders of each of the transport operations being taken over . With the majority of London 's transport operations now under the control of a single organisation , Pick was able to commence the next round of improvements . On the Metropolitan Railway ( renamed the Metropolitan line ) , Pick and Ashfield began to rationalise services . The barely used and loss @-@ making Brill and Verney Junction branches beyond Aylesbury were closed in 1935 and 1936 . Freight services were reduced and electrification of the remaining steam operated sections of the line was planned . In 1935 , the availability of government @-@ backed loans to stimulate the flagging economy allowed Pick to promote system @-@ wide improvements under the New Works Programme for 1935 – 1940 , including the transfer of the Metropolitan line 's Stanmore services to the Bakerloo line in 1939 , the Northern line 's Northern Heights project and extension of the Central line to Ongar in Essex and Denham in Buckinghamshire . During 1938 and 1939 , with war anticipated , an increasing part of Pick 's time was spent in planning for the approaching conflict . The Railway Executive Committee was reconstituted in 1938 to act as a central coordinating body for the country 's railways with Pick as the LPTB 's representative . This role absorbed most of his time after the committee took over control of the railways on 1 September 1939 . Following a disagreement with other members of the LPTB board over the government 's proposals to limit the dividend that it could pay to its shareholders , Pick stated his intention to retire from the board at the end of his seven @-@ year appointment in May 1940 . Pick had previously suggested a reorganisation of the LPTB 's senior management structure and hoped to be able to continue with the organisation in some sort of joint general manager position . Ashfield chose not to find such a continuing role for Pick and , on 18 May 1940 , to the surprise of many within the organisation , Pick retired from the LPTB board , officially due to failing health . Pick 's post of chief executive was abolished and replaced with a group of six heads of department . = = Other activities = = Pick 's interest in design led to his involvement in the founding , in 1915 , of the Design and Industries Association . The organisation aimed to bring manufacturers and designers together to improve the quality of industrial design . Through his improvements in the UERL 's advertising and branding , Pick was considered by many of its members to be taking a practical lead in achieving the organisation 's aims and he was soon lecturing on the subject , giving talks during 1916 and 1917 at the Art Workers Guild in London , at the Royal Scottish Academy in Edinburgh and elsewhere . After the First World War , Pick continued to give talks regularly and published articles on design . He also began to set out his ideas on reconstruction and town planning , an area of design he became interested in through its connection to transport planning . He wrote and lectured extensively on this subject during the 1920s and 1930s including presenting a 14 @,@ 000 word paper to the Institute of Transport in 1927 and addressing the International Housing and Town Planning Congress in 1939 . Concerned about the uncontrolled and unchecked growth of London , partly facilitated by the new lines that London Underground was building , Pick was a strong supporter of the need for a green belt around the capital to maintain open space within reach of urban areas . In 1922 , he wrote and published privately a pamphlet This is the World that Man Made , or The New Creation that was influenced by the rationalist writing of Ray Lankester . In it Pick was pessimistic that mankind was not achieving its creative potential . He returned to the subject in lectures he gave in the 1930s when he outlined his concern that at some not too distant point progress in civilisation would come to a natural end and a stable condition would arise where , he believed , it would be hard to maintain creativity and an entropic decline would follow . Later , in the last year of his life and with the Second World War under way , he published two booklets on post war reconstruction , Britain Must Rebuild and Paths to Peace . Pick wrote the introduction to the English translation of Walter Gropius 's The New Architecture and the Bauhaus published in 1935 . Beside his positions at the UERL and LPTB , Pick held a number of industrial administrative and advisory positions . In 1917 , during the First World War , Pick was appointed to be head of the Mines Directorate 's Household Fuel and Lighting Department at the Board of Trade where Albert Stanley was the President . Pick was responsible for the control of the rationing and distribution of domestic fuel supplies . He remained in this position until June 1919 . In 1928 , he was appointed as a member of the Royal Commission On Police Powers and Procedure . He also served as a member of the London and Home Counties Traffic Advisory Committee and as a member of the Crown Lands Advisory Committee . Pick was President of the Institute of Transport for 1931 / 32 . He was President of the Design and Industries Association from 1932 to 1934 and the chairman of the Board of Trade 's Council for Art and Industry from 1934 to 1939 . During 1938 , the government appointed Pick to plan the transport operations for the evacuation of civilians from London . Initially scheduled for 30 September 1938 , the plans were cancelled when Neville Chamberlain 's Munich conference with Adolf Hitler averted war that year , but were activated a year later at the beginning of September 1939 on the declaration of war with Germany . After leaving the LPTB , Pick visited British ports for the Ministry of Transport to prepare a report on methods of improving port operations and cargo handling . In August 1940 , he reluctantly accepted the position of director @-@ general of the Ministry of Information . His time at the Ministry of Information was short and unhappy and he left after four months and returned to the Ministry of Transport , where he carried out studies on improvements in the use of Britain 's canals and rivers . = = Personality = = Biographers have characterised Pick as being " very shy " , and " brilliant but lonely " . Christian Barman described him as a person who inspired conflicting opinions about his personality and his actions : " a man about whom so many people held so many different views " . Pick acknowledged that he could be difficult to work with : " I have always kept in mind my own frailties – a short temper . Impatience with fools , quickness rather than thoroughness . I am a bad hand at the gracious word or casual congratulation . " His moralistic character led to friends giving him the nickname " Jonah " . Pick valued criticism and savoured challenging debate , though he complained that he found it difficult to get people to stand up to him . UERL board member Sir Ernest Clark considered Pick to be perhaps too efficient and unable to fully delegate and relinquish responsibility : " his own efficiency has a bad effect on the efficiency of others ... How can the housemaid take pride in a job to which the mistress will insist on putting the finishing touch ? " Pick 's friend Noel Carrington thought that his attention to detail made him the " ideal inspector general . " Pick ran his office on a fortnightly cycle and his workload was prodigious . Barman described Pick 's office as a training school for future managers , with a regular turnover of staff who would go on to management positions when Pick thought them ready . Ashfield considered that Pick possessed " a sterling character and steadfast loyalty " , and " an administrative ability which was outstanding " , with " a keen analytical mind which was able to seize upon essentials and then drive his way through to his goal , always strengthened by a sure knowledge of the problem and confidence in himself . " Charles Holden described Pick 's management of meetings : " Here his decisions were those of a benevolent dictator , and the members left the meeting with a clear sense of a task to be performed , difficult , perhaps , and sometimes impossible , as might subsequently prove to be , but usually well worth exploring if only in producing convincing proof of obstacles . Out of these exploratory methods there often emerged new and most interesting solutions , which Pick was quick to appreciate , and to adopt in substitution for his own proposals . " Disliking honours , Pick declined offers of a knighthood and a peerage . He did accept , in 1932 , the Soviet Union 's Honorary Badge of Merit for his advice on the construction of the Moscow Metro . He was an honorary member of the Royal Institute of British Architects . = = Influences = = Pick was widely read and was influenced by many writers on scientific , sociological and social matters including works by Alfred North Whitehead , Leonard Hobhouse , Edwin Lankester , Arthur Eddington and John Ruskin . On design , he was influenced by D 'Arcy Wentworth Thompson 's description of design in nature in On Growth and Form and by architect William Lethaby . His admiration for William Morris led him to adopt Morris 's favourite colour of green as his own , using green ink for the majority of his correspondence . = = Legacy = = Pick had not been well for some years . The stresses of his war work took a further toll on his health and he lost two stone during his travels around the country to research his report on the canal industry . Although exhausted at the end of the tour , he wrote to friends that he was struggling with the idleness and was hoping for something new to do . He died at his home , 15 Wildwood Road , Golders Green , on 7 November 1941 from a cerebral haemorrhage . His funeral was held at Golders Green Crematorium on 11 November 1941 and a memorial service was held at St Peter 's Church , Eaton Square on 13 November 1941 . Working with Ashfield , Pick 's impact on London 's transport system was considerable . Transport historian Christian Wolmar considers it " almost impossible to exaggerate the high regard in which [ London Transport ] was held during its all too brief heyday , attracting official visitors from around the world eager to learn the lessons of its success and apply them in their own countries " and that " it represented the apogee of a type of confident public administration ... with a reputation that any state organisation today would envy ... only made possible by the brilliance of its two famous leaders , Ashfield and Pick . " In his obituary of Pick , Charles Holden described him as " the Maecenas of our time . " Writing in 1968 , Nikolaus Pevsner described Pick as " the greatest patron of the arts whom this century has so far produced in England , and indeed the ideal patron of our age . " Considering Pick 's public statements on art and life , art historian Kenneth Clark suggested that " in a different age he might have become a sort of Thomas Aquinas " . Historian Michael Saler compared Pick 's influence on London Transport to that of Lord Reith on the BBC 's development during the same inter @-@ war period . Urban planner Sir Peter Hall suggested that Pick " had as much influence on London 's development in the twentieth century as Haussmann had on that of Paris in the nineteenth " , and historian Anthony Sutcliffe compared him to Robert Moses , the city planner responsible for many urban infrastructure projects in New York . Pick 's will was probated at £ 36 @,@ 433 12s 9d ( approximately £ 1 @.@ 53 million in present @-@ day terms ) . In his will he bequeathed a Francis Dodd painting , Ely , to the Tate Gallery . He is commemorated with a memorial plaque at St Peter 's School , York , unveiled in 1953 by Lord Latham , and a blue plaque was erected at his Golders Green home in 1981 . A building at London Underground 's Acton Works is named Frank Pick House in his honour . It stands on the north side of the Piccadilly and District line railway tracks to the east of Acton Town station . Transport for London and the London Transport Museum maintain archives of Pick 's business and personal papers . = Sandra Morgan = Sandra Anne Morgan ( born 6 June 1942 ) , also known by her married name Sandra Beavis , is an Australian former freestyle swimmer , who won gold in the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay at the 1956 Summer Olympics in Melbourne . At the age of 14 years and 6 months , she became the youngest Australian to win an Olympic gold medal , a record that still stands . Morgan began serious training in early 1956 and won Olympic selection for the relay team as well as the 400 @-@ metre freestyle . Morgan 's selection in the final quartet raised controversy because of her inexperience in top @-@ level racing and her history of false starts . During the final , she lifted her head out of the water and saw her American opponent ahead of her , prompting her to regain the lead with a late burst in the third leg . Australia went on to win the relay in world record time . In her only individual event , Morgan came sixth in the 400 @-@ metre freestyle . In 1957 , she won the 110- , 220- , and 440 @-@ yard treble at the Australian Championships in the absence of her main rivals , but from that point on her career was plagued by illness and weight problems . She was selected in the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games purely as a relay swimmer , winning gold in the event . At her second 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome , she only competed in the relay heats ; her teammates went on to win silver in the final . She retired from competitive swimming following the Rome Olympics . In retirement , she has continued her involvement in swimming and the Olympics by teaching disabled children to swim and participating in Olympic educational programs and torch relays . She is also an ambassador for Australia Day and has appeared on television as part of her work with Christian groups . = = Early years = = Morgan was born in the north @-@ western New South Wales city of Tamworth , before growing up in Punchbowl , a suburb in western Sydney . Morgan was the oldest of four children , with two sisters and a brother . Her father Barrington , a plumber , had success as a swimmer in his childhood , but a lack of facilities in rural Australia curtailed his career . As a result , he vowed that his daughter would become a national champion . Morgan said her father " became my driving and inspirational force . I not only fulfilled his ambition , but surpassed it by becoming an Olympic champion ! " Morgan also cited her meetings with Frederick Lane — Australia 's first Olympic gold medallist in swimming — and the Olympic athletics champion Marjorie Jackson @-@ Nelson as key inspirational moments in her career . Morgan learned to swim at Bankstown at the age of 7 . She was initially slow to learn and her coach used a long pole attached to a rope and belt to maintain her safety . This allowed him to fish her out of the water if she fell into difficulty . Due to her slow learning , Morgan was given twice the number of lessons as the other students . At the age of eight , she won the district championship and in 1953 , aged 11 , she won the New South Wales ( NSW ) Primary School Championships . In February 1956 , aged 13 , she was taken for serious training . Her father transferred her to the tutelage of Frank Guthrie in Enfield . At the time , Guthrie was regarded as one of the best coaches in the state ; his students included Gary Chapman , Kevin O 'Halloran and Lorraine Crapp . All three would win Olympic medals at the 1956 Summer Olympics ; Crapp won an individual gold medal . Her mother had to drive her to Enfield , as her father was busy with the plumbing business . = = National selection = = Under Guthrie 's coaching , Morgan quickly became one of the fastest junior swimmers in the state , winning the under @-@ 14 110 @-@ yard and 55 @-@ yard freestyle , as well as the 110 @-@ yard butterfly at the New South Wales Championships in 1956 . She went on to win the junior 110 @-@ yard freestyle at the Australian Championships , despite causing two false starts . After the national titles , she represented Marrickville Junior Girls ' High School and won the State Combined High School Championship in the 110 @-@ yard freestyle . Although her times were among the fastest in the country , Morgan 's youth prevented selection for the Olympic training squad . However , the Australian Swimming Union allowed her to join the squad for training in Townsville at her own expense . Her family was unable to meet these costs , but a fundraising campaign by the Bankstown community allowed her to make the trip . Training in the Tobruk Memorial Baths alongside swimmers such as Crapp , Alva Colquhoun , Faith Leech and Dawn Fraser , Morgan 's times steadily improved . The team were expected to swim three times a day , totalling more than 16 km ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) . However , Morgan was not regarded as a likely selection in the final team . Following the training camp , a series of selection trials were held in Brisbane and Melbourne . In three 100 @-@ metre races , Morgan came third , fifth and fourth respectively , with a best time of 1 minute 7 @.@ 3 seconds . She recorded a best performance of third in a time of 5 minutes 10 @.@ 0 seconds in the 400 @-@ metre freestyle behind Crapp and Fraser . Australia was entitled to three representatives in each individual event , thus allowing Morgan to compete in her first Olympics . Morgan missed out in the 100 @-@ metre freestyle as Fraser , Crapp and Leech were selected , but she gained an individual berth in the 400 @-@ metre along with Fraser and Crapp . She was one of six swimmers selected for the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay squad , the first from Australia to compete at Olympic level . Morgan was placed under substantial pressure by media commentary that regarded her as the weak link in the relay team . = = 1956 Summer Olympics = = Arriving in Melbourne for the Olympics , Morgan was not assured of a place in the final relay quartet . Fraser and Crapp were rested in the heats on 4 December while the remaining four swimmers qualified the team . Morgan swam the second leg in 1 minute 5 @.@ 4 seconds , the fastest of the Australians , securing her position in the final four along with Leech . Australia qualified quickest for the final , winning the second heat by 3 @.@ 1 seconds . They were 1 @.@ 8 and 2 @.@ 3 seconds faster than the South Africans and Americans , respectively , both of which swam in the first heat . The selection of Leech and Morgan for the 6 December final generated controversy , as they were the two youngest swimmers in the squad and lacked experience at open level competition . Both had competed only once at senior Australian level ; Morgan had twice false started at the 1956 Australian Championships , while Leech had been too ill to compete . Australia was the favourite for the relay , having swept the medals in the individual 100 @-@ metre event ; Fraser , Crapp and Leech finished first , second and third . The favouritism was even more marked because Fraser and Crapp were three seconds faster than everyone else in the world . The Australian team made a poor start in the final after Fraser almost stopped during the first leg , believing that a false start had occurred after mistakenly hearing a second gunshot . She finished her leg in 1 minute 4 @.@ 0 seconds , almost two seconds slower than her personal best , but enough for a 2 @.@ 3 @-@ second lead over the United States ' Sylvia Ruuska . Swimming the second leg , Leech maintained the lead in the first 50 metres but faded in the second half and finished with a split of 1 minute 5 @.@ 1 seconds ; the Australian lead was thus cut to 0 @.@ 9 s . Morgan dived in for the third leg and was then overhauled and passed by American Nancy Simons . With 25 metres left , Morgan took her head out of the water — a fundamental error — and seeing the American a body length in front , responded with a surge to regain a 0 @.@ 7 @-@ second lead heading into the final changeover . Crapp then extended the margin to 2 @.@ 2 seconds to secure an Australian victory in a world record time of 4 minutes 17 @.@ 1 seconds . The victory was the first time that Australia had swept the 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay and individual events for both men and women . The only other time that this has been achieved was by the Americans in 1920 in Antwerp . The win would be Australia 's only triumph in a female swimming relay at the Olympics until the 2004 games in Athens . The victory made Morgan Australia 's youngest ever gold medallist ; this record still stands . Morgan 's individual event was the 400 @-@ metre freestyle . She reduced her personal best by 2 @.@ 3 seconds in recording a time of 5 minutes 7 @.@ 8 seconds in the heats , just 0 @.@ 2 of a second behind Marley Shriver of the United States , who set a new Olympic record . The mark was surpassed in later heats by Fraser and Crapp , but Morgan nevertheless qualified fourth fastest for the final , almost seven seconds faster than the cutoff . The final was held the day after the relay final . Morgan was unable to repeat her heat performance , finishing sixth in a time of 5 minutes 14 @.@ 3 seconds , far outside her personal best . Had she repeated her heat swim , she would have placed fourth , just 0 @.@ 7 of a second from the bronze medal . Nevertheless , she noted that " I was so happy that I had made the final in an individual event in the Olympic Games , for this was my first appearance in a senior competition " . Upon her return to Bankstown , Morgan was honoured with a civic reception and presented with a gold watch and life membership of the Bankstown Pool . However , her stay at the Olympic Village had given rise to a new problem . She enjoyed the food so much that she had gained 9 @.@ 5 kilograms ( 21 lb ) in weight , and now stood at 170 centimetres ( 5 ft 7 in ) and weighed 76 @.@ 2 kilograms ( 168 lb ) . This heralded the start of a continual weight problem . = = Later career = = After the Olympics , Crapp and Fraser took a break from competitive swimming , while Leech retired . This allowed Morgan an opening , and she won both the junior and open sprint titles at the 1957 New South Wales Championships . She followed this by winning three individual titles at the Australian championships in Canberra : the 110- , 220- and 440 @-@ yard freestyle , in times of 1 minute 7 @.@ 8 seconds ; 2 minutes 29 @.@ 3 seconds ; and 5 minutes 21 @.@ 6 seconds , respectively . Her times were slower than her bests in 1956 . She was part of the New South Wales team that won the 4 × 100 @-@ yard freestyle and medley relays , anchoring both quartets . In 1958 , Crapp and Fraser returned to the pool , while Ilsa Konrads emerged as a leading swimmer . At the Australian Championships , Morgan came third in both the 110 @-@ yard and 440 @-@ yard freestyle events ; Fraser won both and Crapp and Konrads placed second in the 110 @-@ yard and 440 @-@ yard freestyle respectively . Morgan was selected for the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff , Wales , but only in the 4 × 110 @-@ yard freestyle relay . Along with Fraser , Crapp and Konrads , she broke the world record for the event in March in Sydney with a time of 4 minutes 18 @.@ 9 seconds . At the Empire Games , Fraser , Crapp , Morgan and Colquhuon lowered the world record to a time of 4 minutes 17 @.@ 4 seconds to win gold . After the Empire Games , the Australian team returned home via France , Austria , Germany , Netherlands , Italy and Singapore for a series of competitions . Morgan 's best performances were at the Dutch and French Championships , where she came third in the 400 @-@ metre events . In 1959 , she placed third in both the 440 @-@ yard and 880 @-@ yard freestyle events at the Australian Championships . Her swimming career was then interrupted by bronchitis , which developed into bronchial pneumonia . The illness forced her to take an extended break . Her chest problems persisted when she returned to competition at the 1960 Australian championships , placing third in the 220 @-@ yard and 440 @-@ yard freestyle and fifth in the 110 @-@ yard freestyle . She gained selection for the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome as a member of the 4 × 100 @-@ metre freestyle relay squad . She swam the first leg in the heats , posting a time of 1 minute 5 @.@ 5 seconds , giving Australia a 1 @.@ 0 @-@ second lead . Australia led at every change and went on to win its heat by five seconds , qualifying fastest for the final . However , Morgan posted the slowest leg of the Australian quartet and was dropped when Fraser and Konrads were brought into the team for the final , in which Australia won silver . Under the rules of the time , heat swimmers were not awarded medals if the final quartet placed in the top three positions . Suffering from periodic chest pain , Morgan retired from competitive swimming in December 1960 . = = After swimming = = Morgan married George Beavis in 1965 and had three daughters , all of whom enjoyed swimming victories at school and district level . After her marriage , she lived in the outback towns of Griffith and Orange for six years before returning to Sydney . She experimented with coaching , but found the competition unappealing and became a schoolteacher . In 1978 , she began teaching handicapped children to swim in her backyard pool , and was given a government grant to continue her work . She then ran a swimming school at Bonnet Bay for 15 years and worked at the Bates Drive Special School , receiving a grant to teach preschool handicapped children swimming . In later life , Morgan successfully fought a life @-@ threatening battle against lupus , and she now lives in Sutherland Shire in southern Sydney . A committed Christian , Morgan currently works as a public speaker at functions for Seasons Christian Women 's Conference . From January 1996 to mid @-@ 1999 , she lived in Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia , along with her husband , who was posted there by his employer . During that time , Morgan worked as a Bible teacher. in St Andrew 's Presbyterian Church , Kuala Lumpur . She has also appeared on Face to Face , a Christian television talk show that screens on the Ten Network . In 1995 , Morgan was inducted into the Hall of Champions at the State Sports Centre and the Path of Champions at the Sydney Olympic Park Aquatic Centre . She has been involved in educational programs aimed at promoting the Olympic movement in schools and helps to raise funds for the Australian Olympic Committee . In 2000 , Morgan was awarded the Australian Government 's Australian Sports Medal for her contributions to the 2000 Summer Olympics held in Sydney and her achievements as a competitor . She has been awarded the honour of carrying the Olympic torch during its passage through Australia in both 2000 and 2004 . Morgan is an Australia Day ambassador , and travels to regional towns promoting the annual celebrations . = Oliver Cromwell 's head = Following the death of Oliver Cromwell on 2 September 1658 , he was given a public funeral at Westminster Abbey , equal to those of monarchs before him . After the defeat of King Charles I in the English Civil War and Charles ' subsequent beheading , Cromwell had become Lord Protector and ruler of the English Commonwealth . His legacy passed to his son Richard , who was overthrown by the army in 1659 , after which monarchy was re @-@ established and King Charles II , who was living in exile , was recalled . Charles ' new parliament ordered the disinterment of Cromwell 's body from Westminster Abbey and the disinterment of other regicides John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton , for a posthumous execution at Tyburn . After hanging " from morning till four in the afternoon " , the bodies were cut down and the heads placed on a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) spike above Westminster Hall ( the location of the trial of Charles I ) . In 1685 a storm broke the pole upon which Cromwell 's head stood , throwing it to the ground ( although other sources put the date anywhere between 1672 and 1703 ) , after which it was in the hands of private collectors and museum owners until 25 March 1960 , when it was buried at Sidney Sussex College in Cambridge . The symbolic value of the head changed over time . While it was spiked on a pole above the London skyline , it gave a potent warning to spectators . In the 18th century , the head became a curiosity and a relic . The head has been admired , reviled , and dismissed as a fake throughout the centuries . After Thomas Carlyle dismissed the head as " fraudulent moonshine " , and after the emergence of a rival claimant to the true head of Oliver Cromwell , scientific and archaeological analysis was carried out to prove the identity . Inconclusive tests culminated in a detailed scientific study by Karl Pearson and Geoffrey Morant , which concluded , based on a study of the head and other evidence , that there was a " moral certainty " that the head belonged to Oliver Cromwell . = = Background = = Oliver Cromwell ( born in April 1599 ) led England into a republic , abolishing the monarchy and the House of Lords , after the execution of King Charles I in January 1649 . However , Cromwell 's rule as Lord Protector ( beginning in December 1653 ) was not dissimilar to the Personal Rule of his royal predecessors . He maintained sole , unrestricted power , and lived in the many royal palaces . In 1657 he was formally offered the title of King , but after an “ agony of mind and conscience ” turned it down . Throughout 1658 , Cromwell suffered illness and family tragedy , and died on the afternoon of 3 September 1658 ( Old Style ) . His death and funeral were treated with the same respect afforded to English monarchs before him . On 20 September , his body was moved to Somerset House to lie in state , which was opened to the public on 18 October . The body had been embalmed , shrouded and sealed in a lead coffin , which in turn was placed in a wooden decorated coffin , placed next to a life @-@ like effigy . The effigy was decorated with the royal symbols , including : " a rich Suit of uncut Velvet ... laced with a rich gold lace , and furr 'd with [ sic ] Ermins ; upon the Kirtle is the Royal large Robe of the like Purple Velvet laced , and fur 'd with Ermins , with rich strings , and tassels of gold ... upon his head , the Cap of Regality of Purple Velvet , furr 'd with Ermins ... upon the Cushion of the Chair stands the Imperial Crown set with stones . " The elaborate funeral procession , delayed twice by hesitant preparations , made its way through London on 23 November 1658 . The body itself had already been buried at Westminster Abbey two weeks earlier due to its fast decay ( by the time of the funeral procession , he had been dead over two months ) . A catafalque had been erected to receive his coffin which was similar to that of King James I , only " much more stately and expensive " . Cromwell 's body lay undisturbed at Westminster until the restoration of the Stuart monarchy under Charles 's son , King Charles II , in 1660 . After their trial , conviction and sentencing , twelve surviving regicides ( those who had participated in the trial and execution of Charles I ) were hanged , drawn and quartered — that is , dragged through the streets on an unwheeled sledge or hurdle , hanged by the neck and cut down live , disembowelled while alive , beheaded and dismembered ( cut into four quarters ) . In addition , the recalled parliament ordered the posthumous execution of the deceased regicides Oliver Cromwell , John Bradshaw and Henry Ireton . The laws of treason placed a traitor 's remains at the King 's disposal . Traitors ' heads were often displayed on bridges , the Tower of London and other conspicuous points in London , while the quarters were sometimes distributed for similar display in leading provincial cities . Cromwell 's body , hidden in the wall of the middle aisle of Henry VII Lady Chapel , took effort to exhume because the wood and cloth were difficult to shift . On 28 January 1661 , the bodies of Cromwell and Ireton were taken to the Red Lion Inn in Holborn , joined the following day by the body of John Bradshaw , before being taken to Tyburn for execution . On the morning of 30 January 1661 , the anniversary of the execution of King Charles I , the shrouded bodies in open coffins were dragged on a sledge through the streets of London to the gallows , where each body was hanged in full public view until around four o 'clock that afternoon . After being taken down , Cromwell 's head was severed with eight blows , placed on a wooden spike on a 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) pole , and raised above Westminster Hall . Various conspiracy theories exist as to what happened to the body , including a rumour that Cromwell 's daughter Mary had it rescued from the pit and interred at her husband 's home at Newburgh Priory . A sealed stone vault was claimed to contain the remains of the headless Cromwell , but generations of the family have refused requests , including one from King Edward VII , to open it . Biographer John Morrill stated that it was more likely that Cromwell 's body was thrown into the pit at Tyburn , where it remained . = = Journey = = = = = Westminster Hall to Du Puys = = = Cromwell 's head remained on a spike above Westminster Hall until the late 1680s , not counting a temporary removal for roof maintenance in 1681 . The position of the head , in relation to the heads of Bradshaw and Ireton , was called into question . Pearson and Morant argued in the 1930s that the originally understood position — traditionally , Bradshaw 's head was in the middle , with Cromwell to the right and Ireton to the left — could be disputed , as they reveal in their study . Although they upheld the originally understood position through careful analysis of contemporary poems and plans , the circumstances in which it came into private ownership are rumoured to be tied with a great storm towards the end of James II 's reign ( 1685 – 1689 ) , which broke the pole bearing the head , throwing it to the ground . A sentinel guarding the Exchequer 's Office came across it , after which he hid it under his cloak and stored it , hidden , in the chimney of his house . The loss of the head was still significant in London at the time , and many searched for it , hoping to claim the “ considerable reward ” being offered for its safe return . The guard , however , after seeing “ the placards which ordered any one possessing it to take it to a certain office ... was afraid to divulge the secret ” . However , only circumstantial evidence has been established for the whereabouts of the head following its fall from Westminster Hall until 1710 , when it was in the possession of Claudius Du Puy , a Swiss @-@ French collector of curiosities , who displayed it in his private museum in London . According to Fitzgibbons , Du Puy 's museum was internationally famous and ranked among the top attractions in London at the time , attracting visitors such as a traveller named Zacharias Conrad von Uffenbach , who was not impressed by what he saw . After hearing Du Puys boast that he could sell the head for as much as 60 guineas ( £ 63 , or the equivalent of about £ 5000 in today 's British money ) , Uffenbach exclaimed his surprise that " this monstrous head could still be so dear and worthy to the English " . = = = Russell and Cox = = = By Du Puy 's death in 1738 , the head had shifted in importance and status . When it was atop Westminster Hall high above the London skyline , it gave a sinister and potent warning to spectators . By the 18th century , it had become a curiosity and an attraction , and it had lost its original sinister message . The head fell out of prominence until the late 18th century , when it was in the possession of a failed comic actor and drunkard named Samuel Russell . Russell was rumoured to be a relative of Cromwell , which is plausible ; the Cromwells intermarried with the Russells in a number of alliances . It is also possible that the head was sold to the Russell family after Du Puy 's death as an easy target for a sale . However , it was spotted by the prominent goldsmith , clockmaker and toyman James Cox , who was “ convinced by all the circumstances that it was the identical head of Oliver Cromwell ” . Cox offered £ 100 ( about £ 5 @,@ 600 in today 's money ) , but “ poor as he was , and considerably in debt , Russell refused to part with it , so dear to him was that which he knew to be the sacred relic of his great ancestor . ” Russell did not take the correct care with the head , however ; in drunken gatherings , he passed the head around , leading to “ irreparable erosion of its features ” . Russell possibly had some connections with Sidney Sussex College , as he offered the head to the Master of the College . However , the Master was not interested , and Cox connived to get the head using a different approach . He offered Russell small sums of money , gradually reaching the total of just over £ 100 , and Russell could not pay when the loan was recalled . Thus his only option was to give up the head . However , as Fitzgibbons 2008 , pearson and Morant argued , Cox 's pursuit of the head appears to be for retail investment . By the time of his acquisition , he was a rich jeweller and no longer owned his museum , so display was not his intention . Cox sold the head in 1799 for £ 230 ( about £ 7 @,@ 400 in today 's money ) to three brothers named Hughes . Interested in starting their own display in Bond Street , the brothers acquired the head as part of other Cromwell @-@ related items . Thousands of posters were produced for the event , but the exhibit was marred by doubtful provenance . The Hughes brothers and their publicist , John Cranch , wrote Cox to ask about the gaps in the journey , but Cox was evasive , leading to concerns that he had sold them a fake . Indeed , Cranch could not come up with a documentary history of how the head came into their hands , so improvised a story that Cromwell 's head was “ the only instance of a head cut off and spiked that had before been embalmed ; which is precisely the case with respect to the head in question ” . Although Henry Ireton had also been embalmed before being beheaded , the story stuck , but it was in vain . The exhibition was a failure . The entrance fee was high ( two shillings and sixpence , about the equivalent of £ 5 ) and rumours that the head was a fake were prevalent . = = = 19th and 20th centuries = = = Despite the failure of the Hughes brothers ' exhibition , a Hughes daughter continued showing the head to anyone who wanted to see it . An offer was made to Sir Joseph Banks , but “ he desired to be excused from seeing the remains of the old Villanous [ sic ] Republican , the mention of whose very name made his blood boil with indignation ” . William Bullock , considering a purchase , wrote to Lord Liverpool , who stated “ the strong objection which would naturally arise to the exhibition of human remains at a Public Museum frequented by Persons of both Sexes and of all ages ” . Failure to sell to public museums forced the daughter to sell it privately , and in 1815 it was sold to Josiah Henry Wilkinson , in whose family it would remain until its burial . Maria Edgeworth , attending breakfast with Wilkinson in 1822 , was shown the head , and she wrote with great surprise that she had seen “ Oliver Cromwell 's head — not his picture — not his bust — nothing of stone or marble or plaister [ sic ] of Paris , but his real head ” . Coinciding with the release of his Letters and Speeches of Oliver Cromwell in 1845 , Thomas Carlyle was asked to view the head . However , he did not , and on the basis of a friend 's visit , wrote a scathing dismissal of the authenticity of the head : “ it has hair , flesh and beard , a written history bearing that it was procured for £ 100 ( I think of bad debt ) about 50 years ago ... the whole affair appears to be fraudulent moonshine , an element not pleasant even to glance into , especially in a case like Oliver 's . ” Fitzgibbons 2008 , pearson and Morant agree that Carlyle 's dismissal was not based on any historical or scientific fact . Although Carlyle conceded that it was “ the head of some decapitated man of distinction ” , the only other known man of distinction to be embalmed and then decapitated in such a manner over the previous 200 years was Henry Ireton . George Rolleston had conducted an examination on another skull — called the Ashmolean skull — after claims that it was Cromwell 's head . Rolleston was unconvinced by the skull 's supposed history , and visited Wilkinson 's home to see the skull shortly afterwards . After an examination , he dismissed the Ashmolean skull as a fake and declared that the Wilkinson head was the real head of Cromwell . After another full examination in 1911 , with comparisons to the Ashmolean head , archaeologists dismissed the Ashmolean head as a fake . However , the absence of firm evidence of the whereabouts of Cromwell 's head between 1684 and 1787 made them wary about declaring the head genuine . They concluded their study unable to verify or refute the head 's identity . The uncertainty increased public demand for a full scientific examination , and Wilkinson reluctantly allowed the head to be taken for examination by the eugenicist Karl Pearson and the anthropologist Geoffrey Morant . Their 109 @-@ page report concluded that there was a “ moral certainty ” that the Wilkinson head was that of Oliver Cromwell . Horace Wilkinson died in 1957 , bequeathing the head to his son , also called Horace . However , Horace Wilkinson wished to organise a proper burial for the head rather than a public display , so he contacted Sidney Sussex College , which welcomed the burial . There it was interred on 25 March 1960 , in a secret location near the antechapel , preserved in the oak box in which the Wilkinson family had kept the head since 1815 . The box was placed into an airtight container and buried with only a few witnesses , including family and representatives of the college . The secret burial was not announced until October 1962 . = = Authenticity = = = = = Body = = = The authenticity of the head has long been debated , and has resulted in a number of scientific analyses . The most notable and detailed of these was Karl Pearson and Geoffrey Morant 's study conducted in the 1930s , which concluded that the Wilkinson head was that of Cromwell . However , rumours and conspiracy theories have circulated since Cromwell 's head fell from Westminster Hall . According to Fitzgibbons , the rumours surrounding Cromwell 's body immediately after his death are “ merely good yarns born out of over @-@ active imaginations ” . One legend claims that he was conveyed secretly to Naseby , the site of his “ greatest victory and glory ” , for a midnight burial . The field was then ploughed over to hide evidence of the burial . Another legend , written in the 1730s by a John Oldmixon , claims that “ a reliable Gentlewoman who attended Cromwell in his last sickness ” had said the coffin was sunk in the deepest part of the River Thames the night following Cromwell 's death . Fearful of royalists , “ it was consulted how to dispose of his Corpse . They could not pretend to keep it for the Pomp of a publick [ sic ] burial ... and to prevent its falling into barbarous hands , it was resolved to wrap it up in lead , to put it aboard a Barge , and sink it in the deepest part of the Thames , which was done the night following Cromwell 's death . ” In 1664 , Samuel Pepys wrote of a story he had heard in which “ Cromwell did , in his life , transpose many of the bodies of the Kings of England from one grave to another , and by that means it is not known certainly whether the head that is now set upon a post be that of Cromwell , or one of the Kings ” . If this story had any accuracy , Fitzgibbons suggests the irony would be that the posthumous act was possibly carried out on an English monarch rather than Cromwell himself . Another story even suggested that Cromwell 's body was substituted for Charles I , adding what Fitzgibbons describes as “ an even greater mockery of the events of 30 January 1649 ” . However , this story is known to be false ; Charles ' tomb was opened in 1813 , and his remains , including the cut that severed his head , remained as they were in 1649 . Fitzgibbons argues that it was not impossible for Cromwell 's body to have been substituted before his posthumous execution . One proposition is that Sergeant Norfolke , who exhumed the bodies from the abbey , found the tombs of Cromwell and Ireton empty , prompting the government to sanction an exhumation of two other graves . This has been put forward because Bradshaw 's body arrived at the Red Lion Inn at Holborn a day after Cromwell and Ireton , prompting rumour that he was the only real body to be hanged at Tyburn . An alternative theory is that Cromwell 's friends bribed the guards attending Cromwell 's body , “ privately interring him in a small paddock near Holborn ” , so that when the sledges dragged the bodies to the gallows , Cromwell 's body was already buried . However , the faces on the three bodies , although heavily shrouded , were clearly visible ; and since no witnesses expressed any doubt that the bodies were those of Cromwell and Ireton , there is no evidence supporting this theory . = = = Head = = = The authenticity of the head itself has been called into question on a number of occasions . The Hughes brothers ' failure to piece together a solid history of the head was possibly partly responsible for its failure to attract visitors . The discovery of the Ashmolean skull reputed to be that of Cromwell was the head 's first rival claim , but the events did not add up . The story of the head was : In 1672 , Oliver 's skull was blown off the north side of Westminster Hall down into the leads of the same and taken thence by Mr. John Moore ... Sometime after this he gave it to Mr. Warner , apothecary , living in King Street , Westminster . Mr. Warner sold it for 20 broad pieces of gold to Humphrey Dove , Esq ... This skull was taken out of Mr. Dove 's chest at his death in 1921 . However , the head was conclusively seen on Westminster Hall as late as 1684 , and it was on the south side of the Hall . Archaeological evidence also disproved its authenticity . The skull was pierced from the top , not from the bottom ; and the skull had no trace of skin or hair , showing it had never been embalmed . = Sale el Sol = Sale el Sol ( English : The Sun Comes Out ) is the ninth studio album by Colombian singer @-@ songwriter Shakira , released on 19 October 2010 , by Epic Records . The album marks a musical return to Shakira 's " roots " after the electropop record She Wolf ( 2009 ) . The singer split the album into three " directions " : a romantic side , a " rock and roll " side , and a " Latino , tropical " side . The latter two " directions " experiment with rock and merengue music , respectively . As co @-@ producer , Shakira enlisted collaborators including Josh Abraham , El Cata , Gustavo Cerati , John Hill , Lester Mendez , and Residente Calle 13 . Five singles were released from Sale el Sol . The lead single " Loca " topped the charts of Italy , Spain , and Switzerland . The title track , " Sale el Sol " , was released as the second single . The third single " Rabiosa " reached top ten positions in Austria , Belgium , Italy and Spain . " Antes de las Seis " was released as the fourth single . " Addicted to You " was released as the fifth single . In the United States , " Loca " topped the Billboard Hot Latin Songs , Latin Pop Airplay , and Tropical Songs charts . Shakira embarked on The Sun Comes Out World Tour in late @-@ 2010 to promote the album . At the 2011 Latin Grammy Awards ceremony , Sale el Sol won the award for " Best Female Pop Vocal Album " . A success throughout Europe and Latin America , Sale el Sol peaked atop the charts of countries Belgium , Croatia , France , Mexico , Portugal and Spain . In the United States , it debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 chart and at number one on both the Top Latin Albums and Latin Pop Albums charts , achieving strong digital sales in the region . Sale el Sol attained numerous record certifications in several regions across the globe , including multi @-@ platinum certifications in Spain and Switzerland , and diamond certifications in France and Colombia . = = Background = = In October 2009 , Shakira released her eighth studio album , She Wolf . The composition of the record shifted from her more traditional Latin pop and pop rock styles , and was primarily an electropop album with combined elements of world and dancehall . The album was positively received by most music critics and was praised for its distinguished nature and Shakira 's experimentation with electropop . Commercially , She Wolf was a success and topped charts and attained gold and platinum certifications in several South American and European territories . However , it performed poorly in the United States and became Shakira 's first studio album since Dónde Están los Ladrones ? ( 1998 ) to miss peaking inside the top 10 after it debuted at number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 200 chart . In May 2010 , she wrote and recorded " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , the official song of the 2010 FIFA World Cup , which became a worldwide hit . = = Production = = Following the worldwide success of " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " , Shakira soon began work on her ninth studio album Sale el Sol . She decided to experiment with merengue music on the album , saying " I grew up listening to merengue — that was a big part of my life , and I was missing it . " Merengue is recognized as the national music of the Dominican Republic and the singer travelled to the country to work with Dominican songwriter and record producer El Cata , resulting in songs like " Loca " and " Rabiosa " . Shakira said that the recording of the two songs took place in " this tiny studio in the middle of nowhere " , and that " it wasn 't planned , I was just following my instincts . So this album is very genuine , and very personal as well " . Other collaborators on the album include American rapper and songwriter Armando Pérez , better known by his stage name Pitbull , Shakira 's friend and frequent collaborator Luis Fernando Ochoa , René Pérez Joglar , better known by his stage name " Residente Calle 13 " , John Hill , Lester Mendez , Albert Menéndez , Tim Mitchell and Jorge Drexler . Shakira co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced every track on the album , with the exception of " Islands " . The recording of the album took place at locations such as The Bahamas , London , Barcelona and the Dominican Republic . Armando Pérez , who co @-@ wrote the tracks " Loca " and " Rabiosa " , talked about Shakira 's previous album She Wolf , saying " on the last album they tried to Americanize Shakira by giving her the big producers . Not that it was necessarily a bad thing , but it ’ s just not her " . Talking about his collaboration with Shakira , El Cata revealed that she told him " You have something that makes me move " . Cata responded by telling Shakira that " it was the percussion " and " Those sounds that you want , I have them in my studio . " , which led to a recording session between the two . He appears as a featured artist on the Spanish version of " Loca " . René Pérez Joglar , who performs as the lead singer of Puerto Rican alternative hip hop band under the name of Residente , appears as a featured artist on the track " Gordita " . He explained the conception of the song , in which he raps about the fact that " he liked Shakira better when — early in her career : she was chubbier , had dark hair and was a rock chick " , by saying that " I told her ( Shakira ) it was a good idea to make fun of yourself . That way the haters can 't say anything , because you already said it " . British rapper Dizzee Rascal appears as a featured artist on the English version of " Loca " . He said that he felt " honoured " that Shakira chose him for the song , by saying that " She 's a bit of a trendsetter -- she does loads of different things on a major scale . You 'd expect her to use an American rapper ( for the song ) , but she chose me . It meant a lot " . = = Music and lyrics = = Sale el Sol is considered to be Shakira 's return to her " roots " and is a " fusion between rock and pop heavily influenced from Latino and Colombian music " . Shakira said there are three " directions " of Sale el Sol : a romantic one , a " very rock and roll " one , and a " Latino , tropical " one . Explaining the romantic " direction " of the album , she said that it was something " which I hadn 't tapped into for the past three years , but it suddenly came to me and I couldn 't hold it back . So it ’ s [ the album has ] got songs that are very intense , very romantic [ sic ] " . Examples include ballads like " Antes de las Seis " ( " Before Six O 'Clock " ) and " Lo Que Mas " ( " The Most " ) ; in the former Shakira delivers " sad , emotional , and heartfelt vocals , " while in the latter she sings over a piano and string @-@ supplemented melody . About the rock and roll " direction " of the album , Shakira said " I started my career as a rock artist and then I kind of crossed over into pop , so it ’ s been fun to re @-@ encounter that side of my artistic personality " . The title track is an acoustic guitar @-@ driven alternative rock and Latin pop @-@ infused song , while " Devoción " ( " Devotion " ) is a techno @-@ influenced alternative rock track in which Shakira " beats all U2 @-@ inspired arena rockers at their own game , " according to AllMusic critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine . The " sultry , energetic , bass @-@ laden " " Tu Boca " ( " Your Mouth " ) finds influences from new wave music . " Islands " is a cover of the original song of the same name by English indie pop band The xx . Shakira adds a few house music elements to the original art pop song . The " Latino " and tropical side of the album is prominently influenced by merengue music . The genre is characterized by the use of the accordion and the percussion instrument tambora . " Loca " ( " Crazy " ) , is Shakira 's interpretation of El Cata 's song " Loca Con Su Tiguere " , and is composed of horn @-@ heavy merengue beats set over techno dance percussion beats . Similarly , " Rabiosa " ( " Rabid " ) is Shakira 's interpretation of El Cata 's song " La Rabiosa " , and is a fast @-@ paced merengue @-@ influenced dance track . In addition to merengue , songs like " Addicted to You " , which features " bilingual lyrics , a very 70 's chorus and Copacabana sounds " , are influenced by reggaeton music . " Gordita " ( " Chubby " ) , a duet between Residente Calle 13 and Shakira , is a cumbia and Latin rap hybrid . Talking about the album 's lyrical content , Shakira said that there are some songs " that are just to dance to in a club , that don ’ t have a big transcendence " . In " Rabiosa " , Shakira sings about her partner 's sex appeal . " Loca " expresses Shakira 's erratic and obsessive behaviour towards her lover , more so than his other leading lady . However , Shakira also said that there are some songs which " will remain in people ’ s hearts and people ’ s consciousness , sometimes forever " . She described these tracks as " songs that have the power to feed people ’ s relationships and states of mind and states of spirit " . According to Billboard , the title track is composed of " evocative and hopeful " lyrics which are dedicated to Argentine singer @-@ songwriter and Shakira 's friend Gustavo Cerati , who had been in a coma around the time of the release of the album . " Antes de las Seis " deals with issues of longing , regrets and loneliness . Shakira said these songs are written " in such a personal and intimate way that at that moment . I 'm not really thinking much . I 'm just letting it all out " . = = Release and promotion = = Sale el Sol was released worldwide on 19 October 2010 . The album was made available for digital downloading on the iTunes Store on the same day . An English titled version of the album , The Sun Comes Out , was also released and contains exactly the same tracklist ; the only difference being in the running order as the Spanish versions of " Loca " and " Rabiosa " , featuring El Cata , are included as bonus tracks , while the English versions , featuring Dizzee Rascal and Pitbull , respectively , are included on the main tracklist . = = = Singles = = = " Loca " was chosen as the lead single from the album ; the Spanish version , featuring El Cata , was released on 10 September 2010 , while the English version , featuring Dizzee Rascal , was released on 13 September 2010 . It became an international success . It peaked atop the charts of countries like France , Italy , Spain and Switzerland . In the United States , the song peaked at number 32 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , and also topped the Hot Latin Songs , Latin Pop Airplay , and Tropical Songs charts . " Loca " was certified double @-@ platinum in Mexico and Spain by the Mexican Association of Phonograph Producers and the Producers of Spanish Music . In Shakira 's native country Colombia , it was certified diamond by the Colombian Association of Phonograph Producers . It also attained platinum certifications in Italy and Switzerland . The accompanying music video for " Loca " , directed by Jaume de Laiguana , was filmed in Barcelona , Spain , and features Shakira interacting with a beach crowd , and dancing in front of the sea wearing a golden bikini . " Sale el Sol " , the title track of the album , was released as the second single on 4 January 2011 . The song charted very limitedly but managed to perform well in Mexico and Spain , peaking at numbers one and eight on the Monitor Latino and Spanish Singles Chart , respectively . It was certified gold in both countries . " Sale el Sol " peaked at numbers 10 and two on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs and Latin Pop Airplay charts , respectively . The accompanying music video was directed by Jaume de Laiguana , and contains scenes of Shakira finding her way out of large maze and finally emerging outside to a sunny garden . " Rabiosa " was chosen to be the third single off the album ; both the Spanish and English versions of the song , featuring El Cata and Pitbull , respectively , were released on 8 April 2011 . A commercial success , it topped the chart of Spain , and reached top ten positions in countries like Austria , Belgium , and Italy . A success on the Latin record charts in the United States , it peaked at number eight on both the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart and Latin Pop Airplay chart , and also peaked at number 13 on the Tropical Songs chart . The song was certified double @-@ platinum in Mexico , and platinum in Spain and Italy . The accompanying music video for the single , directed by Jaume De Laiguana , features Shakira enjoying an underground party while sporting a brown bob @-@ cut wig ; it also contains scenes of her poledancing while sporting her normal long blonde hair . " Antes de las Seis " was released as the fourth single on 21 October 2011 . It wasn 't successful on singles chart but performed moderately well on airplay charts , topping the airplay chart in Spain and peaking at number four on the US Billboard Latin Pop Airplay chart . It is the only song from the album to miss the top 10 of the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . In 2013 , " Antes de las Seis " was certified gold in Mexico . The live recording of Shakira 's performance of the song during the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy concert show of The Sun Comes Out World Tour , taken from the live album Live from Paris , served as the accompanying music video for the single . " Addicted to You " was released as the fifth and final single off Sale el Sol , on 13 March 2012 . It became a success in Mexico , where it received a platinum certification , and Poland , where it topped the airplay chart . In the United States , it peaked at number nine on the US Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart , and at number three on both the Latin Pop Airplay and Tropical Songs charts . The accompanying music video for " Addicted to You " was directed by Anthony Mandler , and features Shakira dancing in various locations , such as an " old Spanish style " town , a cathedral @-@ like room , and a bathtub , while sporting different " high fashion " outfits . = = = Tour = = = To promote Sale el Sol , as well as She Wolf , Shakira embarked on The Sun Comes Out World Tour in late @-@ 2010 . Shakira 's official website first announced the three initial venues of the North American leg of the tour , on 3 May 2010 , < and subsequently 22 more venues were listed . After a special tour preview show held in Montreal , Canada , on 15 September 2010 , the North American leg of the tour commenced at Uncasville , Connecticut , on 17 September , and closed at Rosemont , Illinois , on 29 October 2010 . The initial dates for the European leg of the tour were announced on 28 June 2010 , and subsequently 22 more shows were listed . The European leg of the tour was planned to commence at Lyon , France , on 16 November , and end in London , England , on 20 December 2010 . The tickets for the initial dates of the European leg were soon sold out , and Shakira extended the tour into 2011 , beginning by announcing a show at Paris , France ; venues at countries such as Croatia , Russia , Spain and Switzerland were soon added . The Latin American leg of the tour was a part of the Pop Festival , which was heralded as an initiative to bring international music stars to Latin America . Initial tour dates for the leg were announced on 3 December 2010 , and soon venues at countries like Argentina , Brazil , Colombia and Mexico were added to the tour dates . The setlist of the tour was primarily composed of songs from Sale el Sol : " Antes de las Seis " , " Gordita " , " Loca " , " Sale el Sol " and " Waka Waka ( This Time for Africa ) " . The stage was shaped like the letter " T " to enable maximum amount of viewers to see Shakira easily . A large screen was set behind the stage , on which various visuals , designed by entertainment branding agency Loyalkaspar , were projected . For the performances , Shakira mainly wore a mesh gold crop top coupled with skin @-@ tight leather pants . Other attires Shakira wore during the concert shows included a hooded pink gown , a flamenco @-@ skirt , and a feathery blue dress . The concert shows were well @-@ received by critics , many of whom praised the charisma Shakira displayed during the performances . Commercially , the tour was a success . It ranked at number 40 on Pollstar 's 2010 year @-@ end " Top 50 North American Tours " list as it grossed a total of $ 16 @.@ 9 million in the continent , with total ticket sales amounting up to 524 @,@ 723 . In North America , the tour sold an average of 9 @,@ 335 tickets , and a total of 205 @,@ 271 tickets . The tour was a bigger success worldwide , ranking at number 20 on Pollstar 's 2011 " Top 25 Worldwide Tours " . Its total gross during its worldwide dates was of $ 53 @.@ 2 million and ticket sales amounted up to 692 @,@ 064 . A live album of the show held at the Palais Omnisports de Paris @-@ Bercy in Paris , France , was released as Shakira : Live from Paris , on 5 December 2011 . = = Critical reception = = At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , Sale el Sol received an average score of 89 based on 5 reviews , indicating " universal acclaim " . Carlos Quintana from About.com praised Shakira 's experimentation with merengue and rock sounds on the album , noting that her " never ending innovative style giving us an indication of her artistic evolution and current musical interests " , and that Sale el Sol " shows again why Shakira is one of the top Latin Pop artists in the world " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic gave it a very positive review , complimenting Shakira 's versatility in her " pan @-@ global approach " , and praising the album 's simple and " breezy " nature , saying it " never once sounds disparate or overworked -- it 's sunny and easy , its natural buoyancy disguising Shakira 's range and skill -- but listen closely and it becomes apparent that nobody makes better pop records in the new millennium than she does " . The Billboard review of the album was also extremely positive , noting that its composition is " infinitely more memorable and unique than the singer 's baffling 2009 set , She Wolf " , and that it " manages to bridge the divide between the old and new Shakira with a spark that keeps you listening to the very end " . Michelle Morgante from Boston.com chose the merengue @-@ influenced songs of Sale el Sol as " some of its strongest moments " , and noted that the album is a " truer representation of the Shakira who has excited Latin America and propelled her onto the world stage " . James Reed from The Boston Globe felt that while Sale el Sol " isn 't as heady as She Wolf " , it proves to be " another step forward for an artist who rarely looks back " . Mikael Good from Entertainment Weekly termed Sale el Sol as a demonstration of " Shakira 's boldly global mindset " and awarded it a perfect " A " grade . Jesus Yanez @-@ Reyes from Northern Arizona News favoured the album 's rock @-@ influenced tracks and concluding that Sale el Sol " is one of Shakira ’ s best releases , with songs sure to become classics within the next year " . Mikel Toombs from Seattle Post @-@ Intelligencer said that the album features Shakira " at her most upbeat " . Jennifer Schaffer from Stanford Daily called Sale el Sol a " fantastically diverse album with some awesome collaborations and a truly impressive range of emotions " , and commended Shakira 's vocal delivery , saying " the sheer power of Shakira 's vocal chords is clearly the focus of the album " . Allison Stewart felt the album was a showcase for Shakira 's " remarkable " voice , and concluded that while Sale el Sol is not " necessarily adventurous " , it " provides a better showcase for Shakira 's countless charms than its predecessors ever did " . Carlos Macias from Terra USA , however , gave the album a mixed review and said it " delivers half the goods " . = = = Accolades and recognition = = = Sale el Sol was included in AllMusic 's " Favorite Albums of 2010 " and " Favorite Latin Albums of 2010 " year @-@ end lists . At the 2011 Latin Grammy Awards ceremony , Sale el Sol was nominated for " Album of the Year " and " Best Female Pop Vocal Album " , winning the award in the latter category . At the 2011 Billboard Music Awards Sale el Sol was nominated for " Top Latin Album " , but lost it to Spanish singer @-@ songwriter Enrique Iglesias 's album Euphoria . At the 2011 Latin Billboard Music Awards , the album won the award for " Latin Digital Album of the Year " , and Shakira won the award for " Top Latin Albums Artist of the Year , Female " . At the 2011 Premios Juventud awards ceremony , the album was nominated for " Lo Toco Todo . CD Favorito " ( " Your Favorite CD " ) . At the 2011 Premios Shock awards ceremony , it was nominated Album of the Year . At the 2012 Premios Lo Nuestro awards ceremony , Sale el Sol won the award for " Pop Album of the Year " . At the 2012 Premios Oye ! awards ceremony , it was nominated for " Spanish Album of the Year " . At the 2012 Premios Nuestra Tierra award ceremony , it was nominated " Best Album of the Year " . = = Commercial performance = = The album was a success in Europe . In Austria , Sale el Sol entered and peaked at number three on the Austrian Albums Chart , spending a total of 44 weeks on the chart . In this region , it was certified platinum by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry ( IFPI ) for selling 20 @,@ 000 units . The album debuted at number 15 on the Ultratop chart in the Dutch @-@ speaking Flanders region of Belgium and jumped to its peak position of number eight the following week . It entered the chart at the same debut position in the French @-@ speaking Wallonia region of the country but saw more success as it later peaked at number one , displacing French pop rock duo AaRON 's album Birds in the Storm from the top spot . Sale el Sol became Shakira 's first studio album to reach at number one in the region . In Flanders and Wallonia , the album charted for 55 and 54 weeks , respectively . The Belgian Entertainment Association ( BEA ) certified the album platinum for sales of 20 @,@ 000 units . After entering the French Albums Chart at number two , Sale el Sol peaked at number one for two consecutive weeks , propelled by the success of the lead single " Loca " in the country . It spent 17 consecutive weeks inside the top 10 and 113 weeks in the top 20 , making it Shakira 's longest charting album in the country . It finished as the 13th best @-@ selling album of 2010 in France , with sales of 236 @,@ 616 units . The album further sold 198 @,@ 000 units in 2011 , appearing at number 10 on the year @-@ end chart and bringing its total sales to 425 @,@ 000 units . In addition to being her first album to top the French Albums chart , Sale el Sol is also Shakira 's highest @-@ certified album in the country as it was certified diamond by the Syndicat National de l 'Édition Phonographique ( SNEP ) for sales of 500 @,@ 000 units . It is one of the best @-@ selling albums in France of all time . By contrast , Sale el Sol became the singer 's lowest charting studio @-@ album in Germany , peaking at number six on the Media Control Charts . However , it achieved high sales in the country and was certified platinum by The Federal Association of Music Industry ( BVMI ) for having shipped 200 @,@ 000 units in Germany . The album peaked at number four on the Hungarian Albums Chart and was certified platinum by the Association of Hungarian Record Companies for selling 10 @,@ 000 units . In Italy , it debuted at number three on the FIMI Albums chart and ascended to number one the following week . Sale el Sol was Shakira 's second consecutive album to peak atop the Italian albums chart , after She Wolf topped the chart in 2009 . Its stay inside the top 20 lasted for 19 weeks . The Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana ( FIMI ) certified the album platinum for sales of 60 @,@ 000 units . Sale el Sol debuted atop the Portuguese Albums Chart — Shakira 's first album to accomplish the feat in the country — and spent two weeks at number one . It was able to stay within the top 10 for 23 consecutive weeks . It was certified platinum by the Associação Fonográfica Portuguesa ( AFP ) for selling 15 @,@ 000 units in Portugal . Sale el Sol was Shakira 's first studio album since Fijación Oral , Vol . 1 ( 2005 ) to peak at number one on the Spanish Albums chart after it debuted at the top position . It spent a total of 63 weeks on the chart and was certified double @-@ platinum by the Producers of Spanish Music ( PROMUSICAE ) for shipments of 80 @,@ 000 units . Sale el Sol entered and peaked at number two on the Swiss Albums Chart and was kept from attaining the top position by American rock band Kings of Leon 's album Come Around Sundown , which debuted at number one . It charted for 49 weeks in total . In Switzerland , it was certified double @-@ platinum by IFPI for selling 40 @,@ 000 units . The album also enjoyed high @-@ sales in South America . In Shakira 's native country Colombia , it sold in excess of 200 @,@ 000 units and was certified diamond by the Colombian Association of Phonograph Producers ( ASINCOL ) . In Mexico , Sale el Sol debuted at number one on the Mexican Albums Chart , becoming the singer 's second consecutive studio album to enter the chart at the top position . It also became her longest @-@ charting album in the country , spending a total of 50 weeks . In this region , it was certified platinum and gold by the Mexican Association of Phonograph Producers ( AMPROFON ) for shipments of 90 @,@ 000 units . In Canada , the album peaked at number 11 on the Canadian Albums Chart , spending a total of two weeks on the chart . In the United States , Sale el Sol debuted and peaked at number seven on the US Billboard 200 chart on the chart date of 6 November 2010 . On the Latin Albums chart , Sale el Sol debuted at number one with first @-@ week sales amounting up to 46 @,@ 000 units , as compiled by Nielson SoundScan . It marked the highest	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
II , King of Spain , in 1559 . Claude ( 12 November 1547 – 21 February 1575 ) . Married Charles III , Duke of Lorraine , in 1559 . Louis , Duke of Orléans ( 3 February 1549 – 24 October 1550 ) . Died in infancy . Charles IX , King of France ( 27 June 1550 – 30 May 1574 ) . Married Elizabeth of Austria in 1570 . Henry III , King of France ( 19 September 1551 – 2 August 1589 ) . Married Louise of Lorraine in 1575 . Margaret ( 14 May 1553 – 27 March 1615 ) . Married Henry , King of Navarre , the future Henry IV of France , in 1572 . Francis , Duke of Anjou ( 18 March 1555 – 19 June 1584 ) . Victoria ( 24 June 1556 – August 1556 ) . Twin of Joan . Died in infancy . Joan ( 24 June 1556 – 24 June 1556 ) . Twin of Victoria . Died in utero . = = Ancestry = = = = In popular culture = = = = = Film = = = Josephine Crowell – Intolerance ( 1916 ) Marguerite Moreno – Pearls of the Crown ( 1937 ) Françoise Rosay – La Reine Margot ( 1954 ) Marisa Pavan – Diane ( 1956 ) Isa Miranda – Hardi Pardaillan ! ( 1964 ) Virna Lisi – La Reine Margot ( 1994 ) Evelina Meghnagi – The Princess of Montpensier ( 2010 ) Amanda Plummer – Nostradamus ( 1994 ) = = = Television = = = Alice Sapritch – la Reine Margot ( television film , 1961 ) Joan Young – The Massacre of St Bartholomew 's Eve ( episode of Doctor Who , 1966 ) Maria Meriko – La Dame de Monsoreau ( mini @-@ series , 1971 ) Margaretta Scott – Elizabeth R ( mini @-@ series , 1971 ) Dominique Blanchar – Le Chevalier de Pardaillan ( series , 1988 ) Alice Sapritch – Catherine de Médicis : Le Tocsin de la révolution ( television film , 1989 ) Marie @-@ Christine Barrault – Saint @-@ Germain ou la Négociation ( television film , 2003 ) Megan Follows – Reign ( series , 2013 ) = = = Gaming = = = Catherine de ' Medici will lead France in Civilization VI . = Hanging by a Moment = " Hanging by a Moment " is a song by American alternative band Lifehouse . It was the first single released from their debut studio album , No Name Face ( 2000 ) . The track was written by lead singer Jason Wade , who said that he wrote the song in about five minutes without thinking about what would happen to it . It was produced by American record producer Ron Aniello and was mixed by Brendan O 'Brien . Musically , " Hanging by a Moment " is a post @-@ grunge song that contains influences of alternative rock . The song was first released in the United States on April 24 , 2001 by DreamWorks Records . The song received positive reviews from critics , who applauded its instrumentation . It became a commercial success , charting in the top ten in the United States and Australia , and also charting in the Netherlands , United Kingdom , and New Zealand . In 2001 , the song was certified 2x Platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) and also became the most played radio track of that year in the United States . The official music video for the song premiered on Vh1.com on December 7 , 2000 . In the video , Wade is seen singing the lyrics of the song in many locations around a town . The band went on tours with Matchbox Twenty and 3 Doors Down as an opening act before going on their first headline tour that featured American rock band The Calling and American singer Michelle Branch . = = Background and composition = = The song was written by Lifehouse lead singer Jason Wade . It was produced by American record producer Ron Aniello and was mixed by Brendan O 'Brien . When asked about the song in an interview with Billboard , Wade said , " It was the most uptempo , radio @-@ friendly song . We all decided it was the right choice to release it as the first single . " He went on to describe his expectations when writing songs , saying , " My ultimate goal in writing songs is to connect with people . In the lyrics , you don 't tell the whole picture : You give a road to start on that people can relate to . We 're honest , nice guys and I hope that comes across in everything we do . " After being asked how he wrote the song in an interview with Launch , Wade explained , " I wrote that song without thinking about what was gonna happen to it and then it just kinda took over from there . " He also said in the interview that he wrote " Hanging by a Moment " in about five minutes . " Hanging by a Moment " was described as a post @-@ grunge and alternative rock song that contains a strong melody . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a " moderate rock " tempo of 124 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of D @-@ flat major . In an interview with Billboard , lead singer and guitarist of Lifehouse , Jason Wade , described the song as an " uptempo , radio @-@ friendly song " . Bill Lamb of About.com called the song " one of the biggest rock hits ever by a Contemporary Christian band crossing over into the mainstream . The song was the biggest hit of summer 2001 and was eventually named the most played song of the year on the radio . " The song was described by John DiBiase of Jesus Freak Hideout as " a song [ that is ] clearly a cry out to God " . Sean Rizzo of Sputnikmusic says that the song " presents one of the best with the guitar ’ s plucking during the verses and a chorus infectious enough to infiltrate your brain for a few days . " = = Chart performance = = " Hanging by a Moment " debuted at number 76 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week of February 10 , 2001 . It gradually ascended on the chart and eventually peaked at number two on June 16 , 2001 , just behind the 2001 cover version of " Lady Marmalade " by Christina Aguilera , Pink , Lil ' Kim , and Mýa . After its peak , it gradually descended and left the chart after 54 consecutive weeks . The song was also a huge hit on rock radio holding number one for three weeks beginning on January 27 , 2001 . On the Billboard Alternative Songs chart , the song debuted at number 36 for the week of October 28 , 2000 and eventually peaked at number one after it stayed on the chart for 36 non @-@ consecutive weeks . The song debuted at number 32 on the Billboard Pop Songs chart during the week of March 3 , 2001 . After moving around the chart for 37 consecutive weeks , the song managed to peak at number two on May 19 , 2001 . On the Billboard Radio Songs chart , " Hanging by a Moment " debuted at number 70 for the week of February 10 , 2001 . After moving around the chart for 55 consecutive weeks , the song eventually peaked at number one on July 14 , 2001 . The song debuted at number 37 on the Billboard Adult Pop Songs chart for the week of February 24 , 2001 . It eventually peaked at number one on June 23 , 2001 after it spent 74 consecutive weeks on the chart . " Hanging by a Moment " became the most played song of 2001 and made Lifehouse the first male rock group to make the annual recap since Chicago did in 1989 with " Look Away . " The song also achieved international success . In Australia , the song debuted at number 36 on the ARIA Charts during the week of June 17 , 2001 . It has since peaked at number one , after being on the chart for 24 consecutive weeks . Because of its success in Australia , " Hanging by a Moment " was certified 2x Platinum by the ARIA in 2001 . It debuted on The Netherlands ' Mega Single Top 100 chart at number 95 for the week of June 9 , 2001 . The song has since peaked at number 31 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Hanging by a Moment " debuted at number 48 for the week of March 11 , 2001 . After being on the chart for 31 consecutive weeks , it eventually peaked at number six . The song debuted at number 25 on the UK Singles Chart for the week of September 8 , 2001 , which became its peak position after it spent one week on the chart . = = Music video = = The music video , directed by Gavin Bowden , was first released December 7 , 2000 on Vh1.com. It served as an official video for the song , after an unofficial version was released by DreamWorks as a " temporary video " that was played on MTV2 . In an interview with MTV Radio , Wade explained the process of making the music video , and said , " We shot the video at this really cool place in Crenshaw , in L.A. , that was a bowling alley upstairs and a roller rink downstairs . It had this really weird , retro vibe to it . When they were setting up the different sets , we 'd have to stop every 10 seconds because a bowling league would walk in . It was the coolest thing . At night , we got all of our friends to come down . " The video begins with Wade singing and playing his guitar in a hotel room . While singing , Wade is seen packing his clothes into a suit case in separate camera shots . He then leaves the hotel room and it shows a time @-@ lapse scene of a car going down a highway . Then , the video cuts to a restaurant , where Wade is seen lying on a restaurant booth and singing the lyrics of the song . After this , Wade is seen with the rest of Lifehouse in a concert setting in a restaurant . It then splits to shots of Wade singing the lyrics of the song to the camera . Toward the end of the video , it switches to Lifehouse playing the song in front of a crowd while showing shots of Wade in a car going down a highway . It ends with the scene of Lifehouse in a restaurant and then switches to a camera shot of all of the band members with the video fading out on Wade . = = Promotion = = On January 10 , 2001 , MTV confirmed that Lifehouse would serve as an opening act on a fourteen @-@ day tour for Matchbox Twenty , who were promoting their album Mad Season ( 2000 ) . The tour started February 27 , 2001 in Minneapolis and ended on March 29 , 2001 in Universal City . While on tour with Matchbox Twenty , Lifehouse went on The Tonight Show with Jay Leno for the first time and performed " Hanging by a Moment " on March 28 , 2001 . Several months later , the band performed the song at the River Rave Festival in Foxboro Stadium on May 26 , 2001 . In July 2001 , Lifehouse went on tour with 3 Doors Down as an opening act on twelve select dates , and performed songs from No Name Face , including " Hanging by a Moment " . = = Credits and personnel = = Songwriting – Jason Wade Production – Ron Aniello Mixing – Brendan O 'Brien Engineering – Bob Kearny , Marc Green , Paul Hayden Credits and personnel adapted from Allmusic . = = Track listing = = = = Charts and certifications = = = = Release history = = = Battles of Saratoga = The Battles of Saratoga ( September 19 and October 7 , 1777 ) marked the climax of the Saratoga campaign giving a decisive victory to the Americans over the British in the American Revolutionary War . British General John Burgoyne led a large invasion army up the Champlain Valley from Canada , hoping to meet a similar force marching northward from New York City ; the southern force never arrived , and Burgoyne was surrounded by American forces in upstate New York . Burgoyne fought two small battles to break out . They took place eighteen days apart on the same ground , 9 miles ( 14 km ) south of Saratoga , New York . They both failed . Trapped by superior American forces , with no relief in sight , Burgoyne surrendered his entire army on October 17 . His surrender , says historian Edmund Morgan , " was a great turning point of the war , because it won for Americans the foreign assistance which was the last element needed for victory . Burgoyne 's strategy to divide New England from the southern colonies had started well , but slowed due to logistical problems . He won a small tactical victory over General Horatio Gates and the Continental Army in the September 19 Battle of Freeman 's Farm at the cost of significant casualties . His gains were erased when he again attacked the Americans in the October 7 Battle of Bemis Heights and the Americans captured a portion of the British defenses . Burgoyne was therefore compelled to retreat , and his army was surrounded by the much larger American force at Saratoga , forcing him to surrender on October 17 . News of Burgoyne 's surrender was instrumental in formally bringing France into the war as an American ally , although it had previously given supplies , ammunition , and guns , notably the de Valliere cannon , which played an important role in Saratoga . This battle also resulted in Spain joining France in the war against Britain . The first battle , on September 19 , began when Burgoyne moved some of his troops in an attempt to flank the entrenched American position on Bemis Heights . Benedict Arnold , anticipating the maneuver , placed significant forces in his way . While Burgoyne did gain control of Freeman 's Farm , it came at the cost of significant casualties . Skirmishing continued in the days following the battle , while Burgoyne waited in the hope that reinforcements would arrive from New York City . Militia forces continued to arrive , swelling the size of the American army . Disputes within the American camp led Gates to strip Arnold of his command . British General Sir Henry Clinton , moving up from New York City , attempted to divert American attention by capturing two forts in the Hudson River highlands on October 6 ; his efforts were too late to help Burgoyne . Burgoyne attacked Bemis Heights again on October 7 after it became apparent he would not receive relieving aid in time . In heavy fighting , marked by Arnold 's spirited rallying of the American troops , Burgoyne 's forces were thrown back to the positions they held before the September 19 battle and the Americans captured a portion of the entrenched British defenses . = = Background = = When the American Revolutionary War approached the two @-@ year point , the British changed their plans . Giving up on the rebellious New England colonies , they decided to split the Thirteen Colonies and isolate New England from what the British believed to be the more loyal middle and southern colonies . The British command devised a grand plan to divide the colonies via a three @-@ way pincer movement in 1777 . The western pincer , under the command of Barry St. Leger , was to progress from what is now Ontario through western New York , following the Mohawk River , and the southern pincer was to progress up the Hudson River valley from New York City . The northern pincer was to proceed southward from Montreal , and the three forces were to meet in the vicinity of Albany , New York , severing New England from the other colonies . = = = British situation = = = In June 1777 British General John Burgoyne , known as " Gentleman Johnny " for his manners , moved south from the province of Quebec to gain control of the upper Hudson River valley . After his early capture of Fort Ticonderoga , his campaign had become bogged down in difficulties . Elements of the army had reached the upper Hudson as early as the end of July , but logistical and supply difficulties delayed the main army at Fort Edward . One attempt to alleviate these difficulties failed when nearly 1 @,@ 000 men were killed or captured at the August 16 Battle of Bennington . Furthermore , news reached Burgoyne on August 28 that St. Leger 's expedition down the Mohawk River valley had turned back after the failed Siege of Fort Stanwix . Combined with earlier news that General William Howe had sailed his army from New York City on a campaign to capture Philadelphia instead of moving north to meet Burgoyne , and the departure of most of his Native American support following the loss at Bennington , Burgoyne 's situation was becoming difficult . Faced with the need to reach defensible winter quarters , which would require either retreat back to Ticonderoga or advance to Albany , he decided on the latter . Consequent to this decision he made two further crucial decisions . He decided to deliberately cut communications to the north , so that he would not need to maintain a chain of heavily fortified outposts between his position and Ticonderoga , and he decided to cross the Hudson River while he was in a relatively strong position . He therefore ordered Baron Riedesel , who commanded the rear of the army , to abandon outposts from Skenesboro south , and then had the army cross the Hudson just north of Saratoga between September 13 and 15 . = = = American situation = = = The Continental Army had been in a slow steady state of retreat ever since Burgoyne 's capture of Ticonderoga early in July . By mid @-@ August the army , then under the command of Major General Philip Schuyler , was encamped south of Stillwater , New York . On August 19 , Major General Horatio Gates assumed command from Schuyler , whose political fortunes had fallen over the loss of Ticonderoga and the ensuing retreat . Gates and Schuyler , who were from very different backgrounds , did not get along with each other , and had previously argued over command issues in the army 's Northern Department . Gates became the beneficiary of an army that was growing in size as a result of increased militia turnout following calls by state governors , the success at Bennington , and widespread outrage over the slaying of Jane McCrea , the fiancée of a Loyalist in Burgoyne 's army , by Native Americans in Burgoyne 's command . Strategic decisions by the American commander in chief , General George Washington also improved the situation for Gates 's army . Washington was most concerned about the movements of General Howe , and what his goal was . Aware that Burgoyne was also moving , he took some risks in July and sent aid north in the form of Major General Benedict Arnold , his most aggressive field commander , and Major General Benjamin Lincoln , a Massachusetts man noted for his influence with the New England militia . In August , before he was certain that Howe had indeed sailed south , he ordered 750 men from Israel Putnam 's forces defending the New York highlands to join Gates ' army , and also sent some of the best forces from his own army : Colonel Daniel Morgan and the newly formed Provisional Rifle Corps , which comprised about 500 specially selected riflemen from Pennsylvania , Maryland , and Virginia , chosen for their sharpshooting ability . This unit came to be known as Morgan 's Riflemen . On September 7 , Gates ordered his army to march north . A site known as Bemis Heights , just north of Stillwater and about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of Saratoga , was selected for its defensive potential , and the army spent about a week constructing defensive works designed by Polish engineer Tadeusz Kościuszko . The heights had a commanding view of the area and commanded the only road to Albany , where it passed through a defile between the heights and the Hudson . To the west of the heights lay more heavily forested bluffs that would present a significant challenge to any heavily equipped army . = = First Saratoga : Battle of Freeman 's Farm ( September 19 ) = = = = = Prelude = = = Moving cautiously , since the departure of his Native American support had deprived him of reliable reports on the American position , Burgoyne advanced to the south after crossing the Hudson . On September 18 the vanguard of his army had reached a position just north of Saratoga , about 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) from the American defensive line , and skirmishes occurred between American scouting parties and the leading elements of his army . The American camp had become a bed of festering intrigue ever since Arnold 's return from Fort Stanwix . While he and Gates had previously been on reasonably good terms in spite of their prickly egos , Arnold managed to turn Gates against him by taking on as staff officers friendly to Schuyler , dragging him into the ongoing feud between the two . These conditions had not yet reached a boil on September 19 , but the day 's events contributed to the situation . Gates had assigned the left wing of the defenses to Arnold , and assumed command himself of the right , which was nominally assigned to General Lincoln , whom Gates had detached in August with some troops to harass the British positions behind Burgoyne 's army . Both Burgoyne and Arnold understood the importance of the American left , and the need to control the heights there . After the morning fog lifted around 10 am , Burgoyne ordered the army to advance in three columns . Baron Riedesel led the left column , consisting of the German troops and the 47th Foot , on the river road , bringing the main artillery and guarding supplies and the boats on the river . General James Inglis Hamilton commanded the center column , consisting of the 9th , 20th , 21st , and 62nd regiments , which would attack the heights , and General Simon Fraser led the right wing with the 24th Regiment and the light infantry and grenadier companies , to turn the American left flank by negotiating the heavily wooded high ground north and west of Bemis Heights . Arnold also realized such a flanking maneuver was likely , and petitioned Gates for permission to move his forces from the heights to meet potential movements , where the American skill at woodlands combat would be at an advantage . Gates , whose preferred strategy was to sit and wait for the expected frontal assault , grudgingly permitted a reconnaissance in force consisting of Daniel Morgan 's men and Henry Dearborn 's light infantry . When Morgan 's men reached an open field northwest of Bemis Heights belonging to Loyalist John Freeman , they spotted British advance troops in the field . Fraser 's column was slightly delayed and had not yet reached the field , while Hamilton 's column had also made its way across a ravine and was approaching the field from the east through dense forest and difficult terrain . Riedesel 's force , while it was on the road , was delayed by obstacles thrown down by the Americans . The sound of gunfire to the west prompted Riedesel to send some of his artillery down a track in that direction . The troops Morgan 's men saw were an advance company from Hamilton 's column . = = = Battle = = = Morgan placed marksmen at strategic positions , who then picked off virtually every officer in the advance company . Morgan and his men then charged , unaware that they were headed directly for Burgoyne 's main army . While they succeeded in driving back the advance company , Fraser 's leading edge arrived just in time to attack Morgan 's left , scattering his men back into the woods . James Wilkinson , who had ridden forward to observe the fire , returned to the American camp for reinforcements . As the British company fell back toward the main column , the leading edge of that column opened fire , killing a number of their own men . There was then a lull in the fighting around 1 : 00 pm as Hamilton 's men began to form up on the north side of the field , and American reinforcements began to arrive from the south . Learning that Morgan was in trouble , Gates ordered out two more regiments ( 1st and 3rd New Hampshire ) to support him , with additional regiments ( 2nd New York , 4th New York , the 1st Canadian , and Connecticut militia ) from the brigade of Enoch Poor to follow . Burgoyne arrayed Hamilton 's men with the 21st on the right , the 20th on the left , and the 62nd in the center , with the 9th held in reserve . The battle then went through phases alternating between intense fighting and breaks in the action . Morgan 's men had regrouped in the woods , and picked off officers and artillerymen . They were so effective at reducing the latter that the Americans several times gained brief control of British field pieces , only to lose them in the next British charge . At one point it was believed that Burgoyne himself had been taken down by a sharpshooter ; it was instead one of Burgoyne 's aides , riding a richly dressed horse , who was the victim . The center of the British line was very nearly broken at one point , and only the intervention of General Phillips , leading the 20th , made it possible for the 62nd to reform . The final stroke of the battle belonged to the British . Around 3 pm , Riedesel sent a messenger to Burgoyne for instructions . He returned two hours later with orders to guard the baggage train , but also to send as many men as he could spare toward the American right flank . In a calculated risk , Riedesel left 500 men to guard the vital supply train and marched off toward the action with the rest of his column . Two of his companies advanced on the double and opened vicious fire on the American right , and Fraser 's force threatened to turn the American left flank . In response to the latter threat , Arnold requested more forces , and Gates allowed him to dispatch Ebenezer Learned 's brigade ( 2nd , 8th and 9th Massachusetts ) . ( If Arnold had been on the field , these forces might have instead faced the larger danger posed by Riedesel 's force . ) Fortunately for the American right , darkness set in , bringing an end to the battle . The Americans retreated back to their defenses , leaving the British on the field . Burgoyne had gained the field of battle , but suffered nearly 600 casualties . Most of these were to Hamilton 's center column , where the 62nd was reduced to the size of a single company , and three quarters of the artillery men were killed or wounded . American losses were nearly 300 killed and seriously wounded . It has been widely recounted in histories of this battle that General Arnold was on the field , directing some of the action . However , John Luzader , a former park historian at the Saratoga National Historical Park , carefully documents the evolution of this story and believes it is without foundation in contemporary materials , and that Arnold remained at Gates ' headquarters , receiving news and dispatching orders through messengers . Arnold biographer James Kirby Martin , however , disagrees with Luzader , arguing that Arnold played a more active role at Freeman 's Farm by directing patriot troops into position and possibly leading some charges before being ordered back to headquarters by Gates . = = Interlude = = Burgoyne 's council discussed whether to attack the next day , and a decision was reached to delay further action at least one day , to September 21 . The army moved to consolidate the position closer to the American line while some men collected their dead . The attack on the 21st was called off when Burgoyne received a letter dated September 12 from Henry Clinton , who was commanding the British garrison in New York City . Clinton suggested that he could " make a push at [ Fort ] Montgomery in about ten days . " ( Fort Montgomery was an American post on the Hudson River , in the New York Highlands south of West Point ) . If Clinton left New York on September 22 , " about ten days " after he wrote the letter , he still could not hope to arrive in the vicinity of Saratoga before the end of the month . Burgoyne , running low on men and food , was still in a very difficult position , but he decided to wait in the hope that Clinton would arrive to save his army . Burgoyne wrote to Clinton on September 23 , requesting some sort of assistance or diversion to draw Gates ' army away . Clinton sailed from New York on October 3 , and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton on October 6 . The furthest north any of his troops reached was Clermont , where they raided the estate of the prominent Patriot Livingston family on October 16 . Unknown to either side at Saratoga , General Lincoln and Colonel John Brown had staged an attack against the British position at Fort Ticonderoga . Lincoln had collected 2 @,@ 000 men at Bennington by early September . Brown and a detachment of 500 men captured poorly defended positions between Ticonderoga and Lake George , and then spent several days ineffectually bombarding the fort . These men , and some of the prisoners they freed along the way , were back in the American camp by September 29 . In the American camp the mutual resentment between Horatio Gates and Benedict Arnold finally exploded into open hostility . Gates quickly reported the action of September 19 to the Congress and Governor George Clinton of New York , but he failed to mention Arnold at all . The field commanders and men universally credited Arnold for their success . Almost all the troops involved were from Arnold 's command and Arnold was the one directing the battle while Gates sat in his tent . Arnold protested , and the dispute escalated into a shouting match that ended with Gates relieving Arnold of his command and giving it to Benjamin Lincoln . Arnold asked for a transfer to Washington 's command , which Gates granted , but instead of leaving he remained in his tent . There is no documentary evidence for a commonly recounted anecdote that a petition signed by line officers convinced Arnold to stay in camp . During this period there were almost daily clashes between pickets and patrols of the two armies . Morgan 's sharpshooters , familiar with the strategy and tactics of woodland warfare , constantly harassed British patrols on the western flank . As September passed into October it became clear that Clinton was not coming to help Burgoyne , who put the army on short rations on October 3 . The next day , Burgoyne called a war council in which several options were discussed , but no conclusive decisions were made . When the council resumed the next day , Riedesel proposed retreat , in which he was supported by Fraser . Burgoyne refused to consider it , insisting that retreat would be disgraceful . They finally agreed to conduct an assault on the American left flank with two thousand men , more than one third of the army , on October 7 . The army he was attacking , however , had grown in the interval . In addition to the return of Lincoln 's detachment , militiamen and supplies continued to pour into the American camp , including critical increases in ammunition , which had been severely depleted in the first battle . The army Burgoyne faced on October 7 was more than 12 @,@ 000 men strong and was led by a man who knew how much trouble Burgoyne was in . Gates had received consistent intelligence from the stream of deserters leaving the British lines , and had also intercepted Clinton 's response to Burgoyne 's plea for help . = = Second Saratoga : Battle of Bemis Heights ( October 7 ) = = = = = British foray = = = While Burgoyne 's troop strength was nominally higher , he likely had only about 5 @,@ 000 effective , battle @-@ ready troops on October 7 , as losses from the earlier battles in the campaign and desertions following the September 19 battle had reduced his forces . General Riedesel advised that the army retreat . Burgoyne decided to reconnoiter the American left flank to see if an attack was possible . As escort the generals took Fraser 's Advanced Corps , with light troops and the 24th Foot on the right and the combined British grenadiers on the left , and a force drawn from all the German regiments in the army in the center . There were 8 British cannon under Major Williams and 2 Hesse @-@ Hanau cannon under Captain Pausch . Leaving their camp between 10 and 11 am , they advanced about three quarters of a mile ( 1 km ) to Barber 's wheat field on a rise above Mill Brook , where they stopped to observe the American position . While the field afforded some room for artillery to work , the flanks were dangerously close to the surrounding woods . Gates , following the removal of Arnold from the field command , assumed command of the American left and gave the right to General Lincoln . When American scouts brought news of Burgoyne 's movement to Gates , he ordered Morgan 's riflemen out to the far left , with Poor 's men ( 1st , 2nd , and 3rd New Hampshire on the left ; the 2nd and 4th New York Regiments ) on the right , and Learned 's ( 1st New York , 1st Canadian , 2nd , 8th and 9th Massachusetts Regiments , plus militia companies ) in the center . A force of 1 @,@ 200 New York militia under Brigadier General Abraham Ten Broeck was held in reserve behind Learned 's line . In all , more than 8 @,@ 000 Americans took the field that day , including about 1 @,@ 400 men from Lincoln 's command that were deployed when the action became particularly fierce . The opening fire came between 2 and 2 : 30 pm from the British grenadiers . Poor 's men held their fire , and the terrain made the British shooting largely ineffective . When Major Acland led the British grenadiers in a bayonet charge , the Americans finally began shooting at close range . Acland fell , shot in both legs , and many of the grenadiers also went down . Their column was in a total rout , and Poor 's men advanced to take Acland and Williams prisoner and capture their artillery . On the American left , things were also not going well for the British . Morgan 's men swept aside the Canadians and Native Americans to engage Fraser 's regulars . Although slightly outnumbered , Morgan managed to break up several British attempts to move west . While General Fraser was mortally wounded in this phase of the battle , a frequently told story claiming it to be the work of Timothy Murphy , one of Morgan 's men , appears to be a 19th @-@ century fabrication . The felling of Fraser and the arrival of Ten Broeck 's large militia brigade ( which roughly equalled the entire British reconnaissance force in size ) , broke the British will , and they began a disorganized retreat toward their entrenchments . Burgoyne was also very nearly killed by one of Morgan 's marksmen ; three shots hit his horse , hat and waistcoat . The first phase of the battle lasted about one hour , and cost Burgoyne nearly 400 men , including the capture of most of the grenadiers ' command , and six of the ten field pieces brought to the action . = = = American attack = = = At this point , the Americans were joined by an unexpected participant . General Arnold , who was " betraying great agitation and wrath " in the American camp , and may have been drinking , rode out to join the action . Gates immediately sent Major Armstrong after him with orders to return ; Armstrong did not catch up with Arnold until the action was effectively over . ( A letter , written by a witness to proceedings in the camp , suggests that Arnold did in fact have authorization from Gates to engage in this action . ) The defenses on the right side of the British camp were anchored by two redoubts . The outermost one was defended by about 300 men under the command of the Hessian Heinrich von Breymann , while the other was under the command of Lord Balcarres . A small contingent of Canadians occupied the ground between these two fortifications . Most of the retreating force headed for Balcarres ' position , as Breymann 's was slightly north and further away from the early action . Arnold led the American chase , and then led Poor 's men in an attack on the Balcarres redoubt . Balcarres had set up his defenses well , and the redoubt was held , in action so fierce that Burgoyne afterwards wrote , " A more determined perseverance than they showed … is not in any officer 's experience " . Seeing that the advance was checked , and that Learned was preparing to attack the Breymann redoubt , Arnold moved toward that action , recklessly riding between the lines and remarkably emerging unhurt . He led the charge of Learned 's men through the gap between the redoubts , which exposed the rear of Breymann 's position , where Morgan 's men had circled around from the far side . In furious battle , the redoubt was taken and Breymann was killed . Arnold 's horse was hit in one of the final volleys , and Arnold 's leg was broken by both shot and the falling horse . Major Armstrong finally caught up with Arnold to officially order him back to headquarters ; he was carried back in a litter . The capture of Breymann 's redoubt exposed the British camp , but darkness was setting in . An attempt by some Germans to retake the redoubt ended in capture as darkness fell and an unreliable guide led them to the American line . = = Aftermath = = Burgoyne 's failed campaign , as may be seen by the titles of some of the books that cover it in detail , marked a major turning point in the war . After the battle , he withdrew his men 10 – 15 miles north , near present @-@ day Schuylerville , New York . General Burgoyne returned to England and was never given another commanding position in the British Army . = = = Armies and casualties = = = Burgoyne lost 1 @,@ 000 men in the two battles , leaving him outnumbered by roughly 3 to 1 ; American losses came to about 500 killed and wounded . Burgoyne had lost several of his most effective leaders , his attempts to capture the American position had failed , and his forward line was now breached . That night he lit fires at his remaining forward positions and withdrew under the cover of darkness . On the morning of October 8 , he was back in the fortified positions he had held on September 16 . By October 13 he was surrounded at Saratoga , and on October 17 he surrendered his army . The remnants of his expedition retreated from Ticonderoga back to Quebec . The British learned that the Americans would fight bravely and effectively . Said one British officer : " The courage and obstinacy with which the Americans fought were the astonishment of everyone , and we now became fully convinced that they are not that contemptible enemy we had hitherto imagined them , incapable of standing a regular engagement , and that they would only fight behind strong and powerful works . " In recognition of his contribution to the battles at Saratoga , General Arnold had his seniority restored ( he had lost it after being passed over for promotion earlier in 1777 ) . His leg wound left Arnold bedridden for five months . Later , while still unfit for field service but serving as military governor of Philadelphia , Arnold entered into treasonous correspondence with the British . He received command of the fort at West Point and plotted to hand it over to the British , only to flee into the British lines when the capture of his contact John Andre led to exposure of the plot . Arnold went on to serve under William Phillips , the commander of Burgoyne 's right wing , in a 1781 expedition into Virginia . Although he left the direction of the battle to subordinates , General Gates received a great deal of credit as the commanding general for the greatest American victory of the war to date . He may have conspired with others to replace George Washington as the commander @-@ in @-@ chief . Instead he received the command of the main American army in the South . He led it to a disastrous defeat at the 1780 Battle of Camden , where he was at the forefront of a panicked retreat . Gates never commanded troops in the field again . In response to Burgoyne 's surrender , Congress declared December 18 , 1777 , as a national day " for solemn Thanksgiving and praise " ; it was the nation 's first official observance of a holiday with that name . = = = French aid = = = Once news of Burgoyne 's surrender reached France , King Louis XVI decided to enter into negotiations with the Americans that resulted in a formal Franco @-@ American alliance and French entry into the war . This moved the conflict onto a global stage . As a consequence , Britain was forced to divert resources used to fight the war in North America to theaters in the West Indies and Europe , and rely on what turned out to be the chimera of Loyalist support in its North American operations . Being defeated by the British in the French and Indian War more than a decade earlier , France found an opportunity of revenge by aiding the colonists throughout the Revolutionary War . Prior to the Battle of Saratoga , France didn 't fully aid the colonists . However , after the Battles of Saratoga were conclusively won by the colonists , France realized that the Americans had hope of winning the war , and began fully aiding the colonists by sending soldiers , donations , loans , military arms , and supplies . = = Legacy = = The battlefield and the site of Burgoyne 's surrender have been preserved , and are now administered by the National Park Service as the Saratoga National Historical Park , which was listed in the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 . The park preserves a number of the buildings in the area , and contains a variety of monuments . The Saratoga Monument obelisk has four niches , three of which hold statues of American generals : Gates and Schuyler and of Colonel Daniel Morgan . The fourth niche , where Arnold 's statue would go , is empty . A more dramatic memorial to Arnold 's heroism , that does not name him , is the Boot Monument . Donated by Civil War General John Watts de Peyster , it shows a boot with spurs and the stars of a major general . It stands at the spot where Arnold was shot on October 7 charging Breymann 's redoubt , and is dedicated to " the most brilliant soldier of the Continental Army " . Six Army National Guard units ( 101st Eng Bn , 102nd Inf , 125th QM Co , 181st Inf , 182nd Inf and 192nd MP Bn ) are derived from American units that participated in the Battle of Saratoga . There are now only thirty units in the U.S. Army with lineages that go back to the colonial era . There are a number of ships named after the battles including USS Saratoga ( 1842 ) , USS Saratoga ( CV @-@ 3 ) , and USS Saratoga ( CV @-@ 60 ) = Hesketh Hesketh @-@ Prichard = Major Hesketh Vernon Prichard , later Hesketh @-@ Prichard , DSO , MC , FRGS , FZS ( 17 November 1876 – 14 June 1922 ) was an explorer , adventurer , big @-@ game hunter and marksman who made a significant contribution to sniping practice within the British Army during the First World War . Concerned not only with improving the quality of marksmanship , the measures he introduced to counter the threat of German snipers were credited by a contemporary with saving the lives of over 3 @,@ 500 Allied soldiers . During his lifetime , he also explored territory never seen before by white man , played cricket at first @-@ class level , including on overseas tours , wrote short stories and novels ( one of which was turned into a Douglas Fairbanks film ) and was a successful newspaper correspondent and travel writer . His many activities brought him into the highest social and professional circles . Like other turn of the century hunters such as Teddy Roosevelt , he was an active campaigner for animal welfare and succeeded in seeing legal measures introduced for their protection . = = Early life = = Hesketh @-@ Prichard was born an only child on 17 November 1876 in Jhansi , in the state of Uttar Pradesh , India . His father Hesketh Brodrick Prichard , an officer in the King 's Own Scottish Borderers , died from typhoid six weeks before he was born , leading him to be raised alone by his mother , Kate O 'Brien Ryall Prichard . She herself had come from a military family , her father being Major @-@ General Browne William Ryall . Hesketh @-@ Prichard and his mother returned to Great Britain soon after , and lived for a while at her parents ' house , before moving to St Helier on Jersey for several years . His nickname was " Hex " , which he would bear throughout his life . They returned to the mainland that the boy might be educated at a prep school in Rugby . In 1887 he won a scholarship to Fettes College , Edinburgh ; his entrance paper was an essay on " Summer Sports " . He excelled at sports there , particularly cricket , at which the school magazine described him as " the best bowler we have had for a long time " . He was invited to play for Scotland against South Africa , but declined as he would have been unable to play against Fette 's rival Loretto School . After school , he studied law privately in Horsham , West Sussex . He passed the preliminary exam , though he would never practice as a solicitor . = = Writing and exploration = = = = = First publications = = = He wrote his first story " Tammer 's Duel " in the summer of 1896 , which his mother helped him refine , and was sold soon after to Pall Mall Magazine for a guinea . That year he abandoned a career in law and spent the summer travelling around southern Europe and North Africa . He spent the sea @-@ time on the trip writing or planning plots . When back in London , he and his mother wrote together under the pseudonyms " H. Heron " and " E. Heron " , and saw publication in several journals , including Cornhill Magazine . Hesketh @-@ Prichard 's circle of literary friends widened and he became acquainted with the likes of Arthur Conan Doyle and J. M. Barrie . In 1897 Barrie introduced him to the press baron Cyril Arthur Pearson , who suggested he write a series of ghost stories for his monthly Pearson 's Magazine . Hesketh @-@ Prichard and his mother created a series of stories around the character " Flaxman Low " ' , the first psychic detective of fiction , though they were disconcerted to find the tales promoted by Pearson as " real " . The collected work was published as The Experiences of Flaxman Low in 1899 . In 1897 , he and his mother worked on the plot of A Modern Mercenary , the stories of Captain Rallywood , a dashing diplomat in Germany . It was published by Smith and Elder the following year . He travelled to South America in February 1898 , seeing the construction work for the Panama Canal , but returned after developing malaria while in the Caribbean . = = = Commissioned trips = = = In 1899 Pearson chose Hesketh @-@ Prichard to explore and report on the relatively unknown republic of Haiti , wanting something dramatic with which to launch his forthcoming Daily Express . His mother accompanied him as far as Jamaica ; in later years she would often travel with him to remote destinations in a time when it was uncommon for a woman of her age to do so . Hesketh @-@ Prichard travelled extensively into the uncharted interior of Haiti , narrowly avoiding death on one occasion when someone tried to poison him . No white man was believed to have crossed the island since 1803 , and his trip provided the first written description of some of the secret practices of " vaudoux " ( voodoo ) . He later wrote a vivid account of his travels in the popular book Where Black Rules White : A Journey Across and About Hayti . Pearson welcomed his reports , and on his return immediately commissioned him to travel to Patagonia to investigate dramatic rumours of a hairy beast roaming the land . The animal was conjectured by Natural History Museum director Ray Lankester to be a living example of the long @-@ extinct giant ground sloth . Hesketh @-@ Prichard 's talent for descriptive narration enthralled the readers of the Daily Express . He explored the area surrounding Lake Argentino , finding one of its feeder lakes , naming it Lake Pearson after his patron , and their connecting river Caterina after his mother . Lake Pearson was subsequently renamed Lake Anita , but the Río Caterina , known for its salmon , retains the name Hesketh @-@ Prichard gave it . The surrounding area is now part of Los Glaciares National Park . Although he found no traces of the creature after a year overseas and 10 @,@ 000 miles ( 16 @,@ 000 km ) of travel , he did provide compelling descriptions of unknown areas of the country , its fauna and inhabitants . He acquired the pelt of an unknown subspecies of puma , naming it Felis concolor pearsoni . ( The puma is now considered to be a variety of the southern South American cougar Puma concolor concolor . ) The grass species Poa prichardii was named after Hesketh @-@ Prichard after he brought back a specimen . He compiled the story of his travels in the well @-@ received Through the Heart of Patagonia . In 2000 , on the hundredth anniversary of both Hesketh @-@ Prichard 's trip and the newspaper 's founding , the Daily Express despatched his great @-@ grandson Charlie Jacoby to retrace his footsteps . = = = Labrador = = = Hesketh @-@ Prichard first visited Atlantic Canada in August 1903 , travelling up the coasts of Labrador and Newfoundland , and donating the heads of stags he had shot to the Newfoundland Exhibition then in London . He returned in October 1904 , this time with his mother , and the cricketer Teddy Wynyard . His most ambitious trip to the region was however in July 1910 , when he undertook to explore the interior of Labrador , saying " it seemed to us a pity that such a terra incognita should continue to exist under the British flag " . This same territory had claimed the life of writer Leonidas Hubbard a few years earlier . He described his journey up the Fraser River to access Indian House Lake on George River in the popular Through Trackless Labrador in 1911 . His reputation was such that former president Theodore Roosevelt , a fellow writer , explorer and hunter , wrote to him , commending him on his latest book , which he described as the best that season , and asking to meet him . = = = Further writing = = = In 1904 , the mother @-@ and @-@ son writing team produced The Chronicles of Don Q. , a collection of short stories featuring the fictional rogue Don Quebranta Huesos , a Spanish Robin Hood @-@ like figure who was fierce to the evil rich but kind @-@ hearted to the virtuous poor . A second collection , The New Chronicles of Don Q. followed in 1906 . The pair produced a full @-@ length novel , Don Q. ' s Love Story , in 1909 . Don Q. was brought to the stage in 1921 when it was performed at the Apollo Theatre , London . In 1925 , the book was reworked as a Zorro vehicle by screenwriters Jack Cunningham and Lotta Woods ; the United Artists silent film Don Q , Son of Zorro was produced by Douglas Fairbanks , who also starred as its lead character . The New York Times rated the film one of its top ten movies of the year . In 1913 , writing on his own , Hesketh @-@ Prichard created the crime @-@ fighting figure November Joe , a hunter and backwoodsman from the Canadian wilderness . It was broadcast as a radio play by the BBC on 23 September 1970 . Despite his reputation as a hunter , he campaigned to end the clubbing of grey seals around the coast . Aided by his friend Charles Lyell MP , he was successful in seeing the Grey Seals ( Protection ) Act passed unopposed in 1914 , Britain 's first legal protection for non @-@ game mammals . His article " Slaughtered for Fashion " in the March 1914 Pearson 's Magazine argued to protect birds from slaughter for their feathers for hats , the so @-@ called plume hunting . = = Cricket = = Hesketh @-@ Prichard was a talented cricketer , and played for a number of teams , including Hampshire , London County , and Marylebone Cricket Club . A right @-@ arm fast bowler , he made his début in the first class game when he played for Hampshire against Somerset in the 1900 County Championship . He was not however a strong batsman , and would typically play in the tail of the batting order . He joined the short @-@ lived London County in 1902 , where he was a teammate of W. G. Grace . In 1903 he played his first of several games for The Gentlemen v The Players at Lords . He would be selected for The Gentleman three years in succession . In 1904 , he joined the MCC , and took part in Lord Brackley 's XI 's tour of the West Indies in the 1904 / 5 season . In 1907 , he toured the United States with the MCC . A tall man , he was able to use his height and reach to his advantage when bowling . In a first @-@ class career that lasted from 1900 to 1913 , he took 339 wickets for a total of 7 @,@ 586 runs . A career best was 8 / 32 for Hampshire against Derbyshire in July 1905 . = = Military service = = At the outbreak of the First World War , Hesketh @-@ Prichard tried for a commission in the Black Watch and Guards , but both turned him down because of his age , then 37 . He was eventually successful obtaining a post as Assistant Press Officer at the War Office , and first sent to the front lines in France in February 1915 as an " eyewitness officer " in charge of war correspondents . By this time , open warfare on the front had ceased , and had stagnated into the trench warfare that characterised much of the conflict . He witnessed there the victims of gas attack . Hesketh @-@ Prichard was shocked to learn of the high attrition rate due to well @-@ trained German snipers . It was common for British regiments to lose five men a day to snipers ; he learned that one battalion lost eighteen in a single day . The German snipers could not be located , leaving them free to continue shooting from their place of concealment . He was also dismayed by the poor quality of marksmanship amongst the British troops . He set about improving the quality of marksmanship , calibrating and correcting the few telescopic sights that the army already possessed . He borrowed more sights and hunting rifles from friends and famous hunters back home , and funded the acquisition of others from his own pocket , or donations he solicited . To investigate the quality of German armour plate , he retrieved a sample from a German trench . He discovered that their armour could only be penetrated by a heavy cartridge such as Jeffery 333 , while British plate could be easily defeated by a much smaller gun such as a Mauser . = = = Innovations = = = He recognised German skill in constructing trench parapets : by making use of an irregular top and face to the parapet , and constructing it from material of varying composition , the presence of a sniper or an observer poking his head up became much less conspicuous . In contrast , British trench practice had been to give a military @-@ straight neat edge to the parapet top , making any movement or protrusion immediately obvious . An observer was vulnerable to an enemy sniper firing a bullet through his loophole , but Hesketh @-@ Prichard devised a metal @-@ armoured double loophole that would protect him . The front loophole was fixed , but the rear was housed in a metal shutter sliding in grooves . Only when the two loopholes were lined up — a one @-@ to @-@ twenty chance — could an enemy shoot between them . Another innovation was the use of a dummy head to find the location of an enemy sniper . The tempting target of a realistic papier @-@ mâché head was raised above the parapet on a stick running in a groove on a fixed board . To increase the realism , a lit cigarette could be inserted into the dummy 's mouth and be smoked by a soldier via a rubber tube . If the head was shot , it was dropped rapidly , simulating a casualty . The sniper 's bullet would have made a hole in the front and back of the dummy 's head . The head was then raised in the groove again , but lower than before by the vertical distance between the glasses of a trench periscope . If the lower glass of a periscope was placed before the front bullet hole , its upper glass would be at exactly the same height as the bullet had been . By looking through the rear hole in the head , through the front hole and up through the periscope , the soldier would be looking exactly along the line the bullet had taken , and so would be looking directly at the sniper , revealing his position . = = = Training snipers = = = Hesketh @-@ Prichard was eventually successful in gaining official support for his campaign , and in August 1915 was given permission to proceed with formalised sniper training . By November of that year , his reputation was such that he was in high demand from many units . In December he was ordered on General Allenby 's request to the Third Army School of Instruction and was made a general staff officer with the rank of captain . He was Mentioned in Despatches on 1 January 1916 . In August 1916 , he founded the First Army School of Sniping in the village of Linghem , Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . Starting with a first class of only six , in time he was able to lecture to large numbers of soldiers from different Allied nations , proudly proclaiming in a letter that his school was turning out snipers at three times the rate of any such other school in the world . In October of that year he was awarded the Military Cross , the citation of which read : " For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . He has instructed snipers in the trenches on many occasions , and in most dangerous Circumstances , with great skill and determination . He has , directly and indirectly , inflicted enormous casualties on the enemy . " His friend George Gray , himself a champion shooter , told him that he had reduced sniping casualties from five a week per battalion to forty @-@ four in three months in sixty battalions ; by his reckoning , this meant that Hesketh @-@ Prichard had saved over 3 @,@ 500 lives . He was promoted to major in November 1916 . By this time in the war , his contributions to sniping had been such that the former German superiority in the practice had now been reversed . = = = Later war years = = = Hesketh @-@ Prichard was taken ill with an undetermined infection in late 1917 and was granted leave . His health remained poor for the rest of his life , and he spent much of it convalescing . It was during this period of leave that he learned that he had been awarded the Distinguished Service Order , for his work with the First Army School of Sniping , Observation , and Scouting . For his wartime work with the Portuguese Expeditionary Corps , he was appointed a Commander of the Military Order of Avis . He continued to write and hunt when his health permitted him . In 1920 , he wrote his account of his war time activities in the critically acclaimed Sniping in France ( full @-@ text available on Wikisource and as a PDF document ) , which is still referenced by modern authors on the subject . The following year he wrote Sport in Wildest Britain , in which he shared his experiences of bird shooting , particularly in the Outer Hebrides . = = Family life = = In 1908 , Hesketh Hesketh @-@ Prichard married Lady Elizabeth Grimston , the daughter of James Grimston , 3rd Earl of Verulam , whom he had met through friends . They had three children : Michael ( 19 February 1909 – September 1988 ) , Diana ( 26 March 1912 – 1970 ) , and Alfred Cecil Giles ( 1916 – 1944 ) , known as " Alfgar " . Alfgar was recruited to the Special Operations Executive during the Second World War , where he became the first head of its Czech Section , training agents to conduct the assassination of Reinhard Heydrich . Alfgar Hesketh @-@ Prichard died on service in Austria on 3 December 1944 , for which he was posthumously awarded the MC . = = = Later years = = = In July 1919 , Hesketh @-@ Prichard was elected Chairman of the Society of Authors , of which he had been a member for many years . Poor health forced him to resign in the following January . Hesketh @-@ Prichard died from sepsis on 14 June 1922 , at the ancestral home of his wife at Gorhambury , Hertfordshire , England . His obituarists ascribed this to an obscure form of blood poisoning brought on by gassing in the trenches during his war service . However , his ailments , including fatigue , heart – digestive – neurological disorders , appendicitis , cognitive problems , depression , anxiety — are today recognised as differential symptoms of malaria . Left untreated they sometimes lead to organ failure and death . His body was cremated and the ashes interred in the family vault at St Michael 's Church , St Albans . His mother survived him for some years , dying in 1935 . His wife Elizabeth , later becoming Woman of the Bedchamber to Queen Mary , lived until 1975 . Hesketh @-@ Prichard 's biography was written two years after his death by his friend Eric Parker , who encapsulated his many accomplishments within its title : Hesketh Prichard D.S.O. , M.C. : Explorer , Naturalist , Cricketer , Author , Soldier . = Kepler @-@ 4b = Kepler @-@ 4b , initially known as KOI 7 @.@ 01 , is an extrasolar planet first detected as a transit by the Kepler spacecraft . Its radius and mass are similar to that of Neptune ; however , due to its proximity to its host star , it is substantially hotter than any planet in the Solar System . The planet 's discovery was announced on January 4 , 2010 in Washington , D.C. along with four other planets that were initially detected by the Kepler spacecraft and subsequently confirmed by telescopes at the W.M. Keck Observatory . = = Nomenclature and history = = Kepler @-@ 4b was named because it was the first planet discovered in the orbit of its star , Kepler @-@ 4 . The star was , in turn , named for the Kepler Mission , a NASA satellite whose purpose is to discover Earth @-@ like planets in a section of the sky between constellations Cygnus and Lyra using the transit method . Using this method , Kepler notes small and steady decreases in a star 's brightness that are measured as a planet crosses in front of it . Initially , Kepler @-@ 4b was detected as a transit event by the Kepler telescope and considered a Kepler Object of Interest with the designation KOI 7 @.@ 01 . Subsequent radial velocity measurements by the High Resolution Echelle Spectrometer on the telescopes of W.M. Keck Observatory confirmed the planetary nature of the transit event and established a mass estimate for the planet . The planet 's existence was announced on January 4 , 2010 along with four other planets detected by Kepler : Kepler @-@ 5b , 6b , 7b and 8b at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. = = Host star = = Kepler @-@ 4 is located within the Draco constellation on the sky , and is approximately 550 parsecs from the Solar System . It has an effective temperature almost identical to the Sun at 5857 Kelvin , but a mass and radius that are somewhat larger than the sun : respectively , 1 @.@ 092 <formula> and 1 @.@ 533 <formula> . The star is thought to be around 4 @.@ 5 billion years old , and at or very near the end of its main @-@ sequence hydrogen burning phase . In several tens of millions of years it will likely become a subgiant star . = = Characteristics = = Kepler @-@ 4b orbits its host star in 3 @.@ 213 days at a distance of 0 @.@ 046 AU . This places it almost 10 times closer to its star than Mercury is to the Sun . Consequently , Kepler @-@ 4b is thought to be extremely hot , with an equilibrium temperature greater than 1700 Kelvin ( 2600 Fahrenheit ) . The planet is estimated to be 25 times more massive than the Earth with a radius that is 4 times greater than the Earth . This makes it similar to Neptune in terms of size and mass , but with a temperature that is not comparable to any planet in the Solar System ( Venus , the hottest planet , is only 735 Kelvin ) . Kepler @-@ 4b 's eccentricity was assumed to be 0 , however an independent reanalysis of the discovery data found a value of 0 @.@ 25 ± 0 @.@ 12 . = M @-@ 45 ( Michigan highway ) = M @-@ 45 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan that is also called Lake Michigan Drive . The highway runs from Agnew near Lake Michigan to the west side of Grand Rapids in the western Lower Peninsula . Lake Michigan Drive continues in each direction from M @-@ 45 's termini , extending west of US Highway 31 ( US 31 ) and east of Interstate 196 ( I @-@ 196 ) . In between , the road runs through rural and suburban areas of Ottawa and Kent counties , including the main campus of Grand Valley State University in Allendale . Lake Michigan Drive was originally part of M @-@ 50 until the mid @-@ 1960s . Previously in the 1920s and 1930s , the M @-@ 45 number was designated along a highway in the Upper Peninsula ( UP ) . = = Route description = = Lake Michigan Drive starts near Lake Michigan at an intersection with Lakeshore Drive near the Grand Rapids water filtration plant . The road runs east to an intersection with US 31 in Agnew , where the M @-@ 45 designation begins . The area is marked by a mix of woodland and agricultural properties . The road runs through rural Ottawa County to Allendale . Through town , Lake Michigan Drive widens to a four @-@ lane divided boulevard with a median . East of the main part of town , M @-@ 45 passes the main campus of Grand Valley State University before crossing the Grand River . At 24th Avenue , the highway loses its median and gains a central turn lane . The landscape becomes more suburban as the highway crosses into Kent County near the M @-@ 11 intersection in Walker . From here east to the terminus in Grand Rapids , the road is lined with residential subdivisions and commercial properties . At Bridge Street , Lake Michigan Drive turns to the southeast and approaches John Ball Zoological Garden . M @-@ 45 ends at the interchange with I @-@ 196 . Lake Michigan Drive continues east to its end where it becomes Pearl Street near the Grand River downtown . The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 45 like all other parts of the state trunkline highway system . As part of these responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of the traffic using its roadways which is expressed using a metric called average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a calculation of the traffic levels for a segment of roadway for any average day of the year . In 2009 , 4 @,@ 910 vehicles used the section of M @-@ 45 near the western terminus daily . Near the interchange with I @-@ 196 , 32 @,@ 376 vehicles were observed along Lake Michigan Drive each day . No segment of the highway is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility . = = History = = = = = Previous designation = = = M @-@ 45 was originally designated in the UP on what is now M @-@ 95 by July 1 , 1919 . The highway ran between M @-@ 12 in Sagola and M @-@ 15 in Humboldt Township . When the United States Numbered Highway System was created on November 11 , 1926 , US 2 replaced most of M @-@ 12 through the UP . M @-@ 45 was extended south of Sagola to the north side of Iron Mountain . Along with this change , M @-@ 69 replaced another previous section of M @-@ 12 and all of M @-@ 90 . M @-@ 69 ran concurrently with M @-@ 45 between Sagola and Randville to connect these two highway segments . By 1933 , M @-@ 45 was extended concurrently along US 2 / US 141 into Iron Mountain and then as an independent routing through Kingsford to the Wisconsin state line . Before the next year , the M @-@ 95 replaced M @-@ 45 in the UP . = = = Current designation = = = The current designation of M @-@ 45 dates back to 1964 . M @-@ 50 was truncated to end near Lowell at I @-@ 96 . The remainder of M @-@ 50 on Cascade Road , Fulton Street and Lake Michigan Drive was redesignated as M @-@ 45 . The eastern section from Business US 131 ( Division Avenue ) to I @-@ 96 was turned over to local control in 1972 , shortening the route . The east end would be shortened again by 1995 , removing the M @-@ 45 designation east of I @-@ 196 . Jurisdiction was only transferred to the City of Grand Rapids on the portion from Division Avenue west to the Grand River , leaving part of West Fulton Street under state maintenance as an unsigned trunkline . M @-@ 45 was upgraded to a four @-@ lane divided highway in 2001 – 02 between Walker and the Grand Valley State campus in Allendale . The new alignment bypassed a section of road between 24th and 40th avenues . That section was renamed River Hill Drive , but retained as an unsigned state trunkline ( Old M @-@ 45 ) . = = Major intersections = = = Tatsu = Tatsu is a steel flying roller coaster designed by Bolliger & Mabillard at the Six Flags Magic Mountain amusement park located in Valencia , California . Announced on November 17 , 2005 , the roller coaster opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 as the park 's seventeenth roller coaster . Tatsu reaches a height of 170 feet ( 52 m ) and speeds up to 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . The ride 's name comes from Japanese mythology and means Flying Beast in Japanese . The roller coaster is also the world 's tallest and fastest flying coaster ; is the only flying roller coaster to feature a zero @-@ gravity roll ; and has the world 's highest pretzel loop . It was the world 's longest flying coaster until The Flying Dinosaur surpassed it . In the roller coaster 's opening year , it was named the 40th best roller coaster in the world in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards ; in Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , the roller coaster placed at the 34 position . = = History = = Rumors of a new roller coaster being built at Six Flags Magic Mountain first emerged in the summer of 2004 . Land clearing began in mid @-@ 2005 around the Samurai Summit area of the park with track for the new roller coaster soon later beginning arriving from Ohio . Construction permits filed by Six Flags Magic Mountain and a trademark for the name Tatsu ( filed on August 23 , 2005 ) were later found by the public . Tatsu was officially announced to the public on November 17 , 2005 . Both Revolution and Roaring Rapids were temporarily closed in order for the roller coaster to be built . After construction and testing was complete , Tatsu opened to the public on May 13 , 2006 . Tatsu broke several records upon its opening . The roller coaster is the world 's tallest , fastest , and longest flying roller coaster . The roller coaster also holds the record for the highest pretzel loop which is 124 feet ( 38 m ) high and is currently the only Flying roller coaster to have a zero @-@ gravity roll . = = Ride experience = = After the train has been moved into the horizontal position and is dispatched from the station , depending on which station the train is in ( Tatsu has two stations ) , the train will either make a left or right s @-@ bend towards the 170 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) lift hill . Once at the top , the train makes a sharp 111 @-@ foot ( 34 m ) downward right turn reaching a maximum speed of 62 miles per hour ( 100 km / h ) . After the train makes it to the bottom of the drop , the train makes an upward right turn leading into the first inversion , a 103 @-@ foot ( 31 m ) tall corkscrew . Next , the train makes a downward left turn immediately followed by an upward left turn into a 96 @-@ foot ( 29 m ) zero @-@ gravity roll . After the train exits the roll , it drops back down before going through a 84 @-@ foot ( 26 m ) horseshoe . Following a left turn , the train then enters the record @-@ breaking 124 @-@ foot ( 38 m ) pretzel loop . Upon exiting the pretzel loop , the train makes a slight left turn before going through an inline twist . The train then makes a 135 degree downward right turn before rising back up slightly and going through the mid @-@ course brake run . After exiting the brake run , the train makes a slight downward and upward left turn leading into the final brake run . The train then enters one of the two stations where the trains are put back into the vertical position for the riders to load and unload . One cycle of the ride lasts about two minutes . = = Characteristics = = = = = Trains = = = Tatsu operates with three steel and fiberglass trains . Each train has eight cars that can seat four riders in a single row for a total of 32 riders per train . Each seat has its own over @-@ the @-@ shoulder @-@ restraint and a pair of ankle restraints to hold the riders ' feet in place . The trains are painted green , yellow , orange , and red . In the station , the trains are oriented in a vertical position in order to allow riders to board . Once the restraints are locked , the train seats are rotated forward 90 degrees into a horizontal position and the train is then dispatched from the station . When the train returns to the station , the seats rotate back down and the riders disembark for the next guests . = = = Track = = = The steel track of Tatsu is approximately 3 @,@ 602 feet ( 1 @,@ 098 m ) long and the height of the lift is approximately 170 feet ( 52 m ) . To slow the train down , air brakes are attached to the track throughout the two brake runs . The track was fabricated by Clermont Steel Fabricators in Batavia , Ohio , which manufactures Bolliger & Mabillard 's roller coasters . The track is colored red and yellow while the supports are orange . = = Reception = = Joel Bullock from The Coaster Critic gave Tatsu a nine out of ten for its close @-@ to @-@ the @-@ ground approaches and intense pretzel loop at the bottom of the element . Justice from Park Thoughts also gave the roller coaster a nine out of ten saying that , " The lift hill is one of the most suspenseful I have ever experienced . " Justice also praises the ride 's intense g @-@ forces experienced throughout the layout of Tatsu . In 2006 , Discovery Channel 's Mega Builders aired an episode which followed the construction of Tatsu . The episode showed how the coaster was assembled and the problems construction crews had to overcome . In Tatsu 's opening year , it was named the 40th best steel roller coaster in the world in Amusement Today 's Golden Ticket Awards ; tied with Talon at Dorney Park . It peaked at 28th place in 2012 . In Mitch Hawker 's Best Steel Roller Coaster Poll , the roller coaster placed 34th in its opening year and peaked at 30th place in 2008 . = 1946 Atlantic hurricane season = The 1946 Atlantic hurricane season resulted in no fatalities in the United States . The season officially began on June 16 , 1946 , and lasted until November 15 , 1946 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the first storm , developed in the Gulf of Mexico on June 13 , while the final system dissipated just offshore Florida on November 3 . There were seven tropical storm ; three of them attained hurricane status , while none intensified into major hurricanes , which are Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . This had not occurred since 1940 and would not again until 1968 . Operationally , the fifth tropical storm , which existed near the Azores in early October , was not considered a tropical cyclone , but was added to HURDAT in 2014 . Although every tropical storm impacted land , effects overall were light , with less than $ 10 million ( 1946 USD ) in damage and no deaths in the United States throughout the season . The season 's most intense cyclone was the fourth hurricane . While the storm was moving northeastward offshore the East Coast of the United States , the Norwegian tanker Maril II was destroyed at sea , causing 16 drownings ; the incident could not be directly attributed to the hurricane . The second storm brought relatively minor damage to the Cape Fear region of North Carolina after striking the state early in its duration . While an extratropical cyclone , the remnants of the fifth cyclone devastated a few islands of the Azores and left 120 fishermen missing . The Florida hurricane severely damaged sugar cane in western Cuba and caused five deaths in the island nation . Additionally , the storm left $ 5 @.@ 2 million in damage in Florida , mostly inflicting citrus crops . The final storm caused several millions of dollars in damage to crops near Lake Okeechobee . = = Season summary = = The Atlantic hurricane season officially began on June 16 , 1946 . However , tropical cyclogenesis began on June 13 , three days before the official start of the season . There was a total of seven tropical storms , slightly below the contemporaneous 20 @-@ year average of 8 @.@ 5 per season . Three of those strengthened into hurricanes , while none reached major hurricane status – Category 3 or higher on the modern @-@ day Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale – for the first time since 1940 and it was a phenomenon that would not occur again until 1968 . One hurricane made landfall in the United States , while the two other storms with winds of at least 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) remained at sea during their strongest intensities . Overall in the United States , the season resulted in less than $ 10 million in damage and no deaths . Collectively , the storms of the season left at least $ 5 @.@ 2 million in damage . The final cyclone of the season dissipated on November 3 , 12 days before the official end of the season on November 15 , 1946 . Tropical cyclogenesis began with the development of a tropical storm over the Gulf of Mexico on June 13 . The next system formed offshore the Southeastern United States on July 5 . Activity then ceased for nearly seven weeks , until August 25 , when the third storm originated in the Bay of Campeche . Although September is the climatological peak of hurricane season , there was only one tropical cyclone that strengthened to tropical storm status that month . The season 's most intense storm developed on September 12 and later peaked as a Category 2 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a lowest known barometric pressure of 975 millibars ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Additionally , a tropical depression briefly existed near Central America . October was the most active month of the season , with three tropical cyclones . The third storm in October , which was the last system of the season , lasted until November 3 . The season 's activity was reflected with an accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 20 , the lowest total since 1925 and until 1983 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . It is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) , which is tropical storm strength . = = Storms = = = = = Tropical Storm One = = = A disturbance accompanied by a small area of convection developed into a tropical depression about 165 miles ( 265 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cape San Blas , Florida , at 12 : 00 UTC on June 13 . Moving slowly northwestward , the depression intensified into a tropical storm early on the next day . The storm did not deepen beyond maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , while historical weather maps indicated a barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 014 millibars ( 29 @.@ 9 inHg ) on June 15 , the lowest in relation to the storm . Later that day , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression offshore Louisiana . The storm made landfall just east of the Louisiana – Texas border on June 16 and rapidly dissipated . It may have remained a tropical depression throughout its lifespan but data was inconclusive . Winds of 36 mph ( 58 km / h ) were observed at Grand Isle , Louisiana , while winds of " gentle to moderate force " occurred in Texas . = = = Hurricane Two = = = The interaction between a frontal boundary and a tropical wave resulted in the development of an extratropical cyclone on July 5 offshore the Southeastern United States . Throughout the day , the storm acquired tropical characteristics . Around 00 : 00 UTC on July 6 , the system transitioned into a tropical storm while located about 35 mi ( 55 km ) south @-@ southeast of Myrtle Beach , South Carolina . The cyclone moved northeastward and made landfall near Oak Island , North Carolina , around 08 : 00 UTC with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) . In the state , Carolina Beach and Wrightsville Beach observed sustained winds of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) and gusts of 50 – 60 mph ( 80 – 97 km / h ) . In the Wilmington area , winds damaged plate @-@ glass windows and caused brief disruptions to electricity and communication services . Further inland , heavy rainfall , including 7 @.@ 84 in ( 199 mm ) in less than 24 hours in Manteo , resulted in considerable loss to crops , with 15 % -20 % damaged in some areas . That was the heaviest 24 @-@ hour precipitation total recorded in Manteo since observations began in 1905 . The storm moved northeastward and reemerged into the Atlantic Ocean near the southern end of Bodie Island early on July 7 . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone began strengthening and became a Category 1 hurricane by 12 : 00 UTC . After slightly further intensification , the hurricane reached peak intensity at 18 : 00 UTC on July 7 with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . It then curved eastward and began losing tropical characteristics . At 00 : 00 UTC on July 9 , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while located about 390 mi ( 630 km ) south @-@ southeast of Cape Sable Island , Nova Scotia . The extratropical remnants gradually curved northeastward and then north @-@ northeastward while slowly weakening . Late on July 10 , the extratropical storm dissipated near Cape Race , Newfoundland . = = = Tropical Storm Three = = = In late August , a disturbance was monitored moving over the western Caribbean Sea near Great Swan Island . Despite favorable conditions , further development did not occur until after the it reached the Bay of Campeche . Early on August 25 , it is estimated that a tropical storm developed after a reconnaissance aircraft flight reported that the system acquired a well @-@ defined circulation . Peaking with maximum sustained winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) , the storm moved quickly west @-@ northwestward and made near Tampico , Tamaulipas , at 19 : 00 UTC . By early the next day , the cyclone weakened to a tropical depression and dissipated . A wind gust of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) was observed in Tampico . = = = Tropical depression = = = A tropical wave over the western Caribbean Sea developed into a tropical depression about 40 mi ( 65 km ) north of the Swan Islands on September 9 . However , by the following day , historical weather maps no longer indicated a tropical depression . It is uncertain whether the system dissipated or made landfall in Central America . = = = Hurricane Four = = = Early on September 12 , the northern portion of a tropical wave spawned a tropical storm about 75 mi ( 120 km ) east Andros Island . The storm strengthened while moving northeastward into the northern Bahamas , striking Andros Island later that day with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Late on September 12 , the cyclone strengthened into a hurricane before making landfall on South Abaco with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . The hurricane intensified further after entering the open Atlantic , becoming on September 13 . Shortly thereafter , it peaked with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 975 mbar ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) , both of which were observed during a reconnaissance aircraft flight . The storm accelerated and weakened due to cooler sea surface temperatures , falling to tropical storm status early on September 15 . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone became extratropical about 170 mi ( 270 km ) south of Cape Sable Island . The extratropical remnants moved across Newfoundland and the northern Atlantic , until dissipating well north of the Azores on September 17 . In the Bahamas , Hope Town observed sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and stronger gusts , as well as a barometric pressure of 995 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) . The Norwegian tanker Maril II sank after splitting into , drowning sixteen people . However , because the Maril II was over 300 mi ( 480 km ) away from the storm at the time , the incident could not be directly attributed to the hurricane . Some areas of Nova Scotia experienced strong winds , with sustained winds up to 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) observed throughout the province and a gust of 71 mph ( 114 km / h ) recorded at Sable Island . Heavy rain was also reported , with 2 @.@ 9 in ( 74 mm ) measured in Halifax . High seas during the Royal Nova Scotia Yacht Squadron race " The Hood Cup " forced the yachts to return to port . When the radar image was taken , it was only the third time in history that a hurricane passed close enough to a radar site to reveal its structure . = = = Tropical Storm Five = = = A low pressure area initially associated with two frontal systems developed into a tropical depression about 560 mi ( 900 km ) southwest of Flores Island in the Azores at 12 : 00 UTC on October 1 . After six hours , the depression intensified into a tropical storm . It intensified further while moving east @-@ northeastward . On October 2 , the system peaked with maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) , both of which were observed by ships . The storm then began losing tropical characteristics and merged with a frontal boundary around 12 : 00 UTC on October 3 while situated about 275 mi ( 445 km ) south @-@ southwest of Pico Island in the Azores . This storm was not included in HURDAT until 2014 . Although the system became extratropical , it continued to deepen further , with sustained winds reaching 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) late on October 4 . Additionally , it expanded significantly in size , reaching a diameter of about 1 @,@ 035 mi ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) on October 5 . Around that time , the storm passed through the Azores near Faial Island , before weakening and dissipating north of the island chain on October 6 . Rough seas at Santa Maria Island left 120 fishermen missing , while 12 fishing vessels , 2 tugboats , and several launches were destroyed . Four fishing boats were also missing . Strong wind gusts up to 98 mph ( 158 km / h ) caused " catastrophic " damage on Santa Maria and São Miguel islands . Homes , crops , and pineapple greenhouses were demolished , while communications were knocked out . Additionally , Lajes Field on Terceira Island was " practically destroyed " . = = = Hurricane Six = = = A disturbance from the Intertropical Convergence Zone developed into a tropical storm late on October 5 , while located over the western Caribbean Sea near the Belize – Mexico border . It moved northeastward and strengthened , reaching Category 1 hurricane status the next day . At 04 : 00 UTC on October 7 , the storm made landfall in western Cuba near Boca de Galafre , Pinar del Río Province , with winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . A barometric pressure of 977 mbar ( 28 @.@ 9 inHg ) was observed , the lowest in relation to the system . Additionally , a station recorded a wind gust of 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) . Several sugar cane fields were flattened , with millions of tons of the crop destroyed . In many towns , telephone and telegraphic communications were cutoff . Five deaths occurred in Cuba . After emerging into the Gulf of Mexico on October 7 , the storm curved north @-@ northeastward and strengthened to a Category 2 , peaking with maximum sustained winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) . After becoming a Category 2 hurricane on October 7 , the cyclone weakened to a Category 1 just six hours later . Around 04 : 00 UTC on the following day , it made another landfall near Bradenton Beach , Florida , with winds of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . In Florida , the gusty winds and rainfall produced by the storm inflicted damage mostly on crops . About 2 % of the state 's total citrus crop was lost , with damage totaling $ 5 million . Only about $ 200 @,@ 000 in property damage occurred , which was mostly due to coastal flooding in cities such as Everglades , Fort Myers , and Punta Gorda . Moving inland , the hurricane weakened to a tropical storm later on October 8 . Early on October 9 , the system became extratropical over South Carolina . However , the extratropical remnants persisted for several days , moving in a semicircular path over the eastern Atlantic until dissipating well north of Hispaniola on October 14 . = = = Tropical Storm Seven = = = A tropical wave developed into a tropical depression late on October 31 over the Bahamas about halfway between Acklins and Little Inagua . The depression strengthened into a tropical storm early on November 1 and moved northwestward , striking several islands , including Acklins , Long Island , Exuma , and Andros . Late on November 1 , the storm peaked with maximum sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1 @,@ 002 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) . The system then made landfall near Lake Worth , Florida , at the same intensity around 22 : 00 UTC . Early on November 2 , the storm weakened to a tropical depression and recurved northeastward over Central Florida . Shortly after reemerging into the Atlantic Ocean near Ponte Vedra Beach early on November 3 , the depression dissipated about 45 mi ( 75 km ) east @-@ northeast of Fernandina Beach . Due to the weak nature of the storm , no wind damage occurred . However , flooding occurred around Lake Okeechobee due to rainfall reaching 6 in ( 150 mm ) . Along main highways , several cars stalled , while a number of canal overflowed . Between 50 % -70 % of early fall crops in the area were damaged , with as much as 60 % of snap bean crops lost . Damage was in the several millions range . = = Season effects = = = Aspasia = Aspasia ( / æˈspeɪʒiə , æˈspeɪziə , æˈspeɪʒə , æˈspeɪʃə / ; Greek : Ἀσπασία ; c . 470 BC – c . 400 BC ) was an influential immigrant to Classical @-@ era Athens who was the lover and partner of the statesman Pericles . The couple had a son , Pericles the Younger , but the full details of the couple 's marital status are unknown . According to Plutarch , her house became an intellectual centre in Athens , attracting the most prominent writers and thinkers , including the philosopher Socrates . It has also been suggested that the teachings of Aspasia influenced Socrates . Aspasia was mentioned in the writing of philosophers Plato , Aristophanes , Xenophon , and	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
of RecA plus AddAB for efficient gastric colonization suggests , in the stomach , H. pylori is either exposed to double @-@ strand DNA damage that must be repaired or requires some other recombination @-@ mediated event . In particular , natural transformation is increased by DNA damage in H. pylori , and a connection exists between the DNA damage response and DNA uptake in H. pylori , suggesting natural competence contributes to persistence of H. pylori in its human host and explains the retention of competence in most clinical isolates . RuvC protein is essential to the process of recombinational repair , since it resolves intermediates in this process termed Holliday junctions . H. pylori mutants that are defective in RuvC have increased sensitivity to DNA @-@ damaging agents and to oxidative stress , exhibit reduced survival within macrophages , and are unable to establish successful infection in a mouse model . Similarly , RecN protein plays an important role in DSB repair in H. pylori . An H. pylori recN mutant displays an attenuated ability to colonize mouse stomachs , highlighting the importance of recombinational DNA repair in survival of H. pylori within its host . = = Diagnosis = = Colonization with H. pylori is not a disease in and of itself , but a condition associated with a number of disorders of the upper gastrointestinal tract . Testing for H. pylori is recommended if peptic ulcer disease or low @-@ grade gastric MALT lymphoma is present , after endoscopic resection of early gastric cancer , first @-@ degree relatives h gastric cancer , and in certain cases of dyspepsia , not routinely . Several ways of testing exist . One can test noninvasively for H. pylori infection with a blood antibody test , stool antigen test , or with the carbon urea breath test ( in which the patient drinks 14C — or 13C @-@ labelled urea , which the bacterium metabolizes , producing labelled carbon dioxide that can be detected in the breath ) . Also , a urine ELISA test with a 96 % sensitivity and 79 % specificity is available . None of the test methods is completely failsafe . Even biopsy is dependent on the location of the biopsy . Blood antibody tests , for example , range from 76 % to 84 % sensitivity . Some drugs can affect H. pylori urease activity and give false negatives with the urea @-@ based tests . The most accurate method for detecting H. pylori infection is with a histological examination from two sites after endoscopic biopsy , combined with either a rapid urease test or microbial culture . = = Prevention = = H. pylori is a major cause of certain diseases of the upper gastrointestinal tract . Rising antibiotic resistance increases the need to search for new therapeutic strategies ; this might include prevention in form of vaccination . Much work has been done on developing viable vaccines aimed at providing an alternative strategy to control H. pylori infection and related diseases , including stomach cancer . Researchers are studying different adjuvants , antigens , and routes of immunization to ascertain the most appropriate system of immune protection ; however , most of the research only recently moved from animal to human trials . An economic evaluation of the use of a potential H. pylori vaccine in babies found its introduction could , at least in the Netherlands , prove cost @-@ effective for the prevention of peptic ulcer and stomach cancer . A similar approach has also been studied for the United States . The presence of bacteria in the stomach may be beneficial , reducing the prevalence of asthma , rhinitis , dermatitis , inflammatory bowel disease , gastroesophageal reflux disease , and esophageal cancer by influencing systemic immune responses . Recent evidence suggests that nonpathogenic strains of H. pylori may be beneficial , e.g. , by normalizing stomach acid secretion , and may play a role in regulating appetite , since its presence in the stomach results in a persistent but reversible reduction in the level of ghrelin . = = Treatment = = Once H. pylori is detected in a person with a peptic ulcer , the normal procedure is to eradicate it and allow the ulcer to heal . The standard first @-@ line therapy is a one @-@ week " triple therapy " consisting of proton pump inhibitors such as omeprazole and the antibiotics clarithromycin and amoxicillin . Variations of the triple therapy have been developed over the years , such as using a different proton pump inhibitor , as with pantoprazole or rabeprazole , or replacing amoxicillin with metronidazole for people who are allergic to penicillin . Such a therapy has revolutionized the treatment of peptic ulcers and has made a cure to the disease possible . Previously , the only option was symptom control using antacids , H2 @-@ antagonists or proton pump inhibitors alone . An increasing number of infected individuals are found to harbor antibiotic @-@ resistant bacteria . This results in initial treatment failure and requires additional rounds of antibiotic therapy or alternative strategies , such as a quadruple therapy , which adds a bismuth colloid , such as bismuth subsalicylate . For the treatment of clarithromycin @-@ resistant strains of H. pylori , the use of levofloxacin as part of the therapy has been suggested . Ingesting lactic acid bacteria exerts a suppressive effect on H. pylori infection in both animals and humans , and supplementing with Lactobacillus- and Bifidobacterium @-@ containing yogurt improved the rates of eradication of H. pylori in humans . Symbiotic butyrate @-@ producing bacteria which are normally present in the intestine are sometimes used as probiotics to help suppress H. pylori infections as an adjunct to antibiotic therapy . Butyrate itself is an antimicrobial which destroys the cell envelope of H. pylori by inducing regulatory T cell expression ( specifically , FOXP3 ) and synthesis of an antimicrobial peptide called LL @-@ 37 , which arises through its action as a histone deacetylase inhibitor . The substance sulforaphane , which occurs in broccoli and cauliflower , has been proposed as a treatment . Periodontal therapy or scaling and root planing has also been suggested as an additional treatment . = = Prognosis = = H. pylori colonizes the stomach and induces chronic gastritis , a long @-@ lasting inflammation of the stomach . The bacterium persists in the stomach for decades in most people . Most individuals infected by H. pylori will never experience clinical symptoms despite having chronic gastritis . About 10 – 20 % of those colonized by H. pylori will ultimately develop gastric and duodenal ulcers . H. pylori infection is also associated with a 1 – 2 % lifetime risk of stomach cancer and a less than 1 % risk of gastric MALT lymphoma . In the absence of treatment , H. pylori infection — once established in its gastric niche — is widely believed to persist for life . In the elderly , however , infection likely can disappear as the stomach 's mucosa becomes increasingly atrophic and inhospitable to colonization . The proportion of acute infections that persist is not known , but several studies that followed the natural history in populations have reported apparent spontaneous elimination . Mounting evidence suggests H. pylori has an important role in protection from some diseases . The incidence of acid reflux disease , Barrett 's esophagus , and esophageal cancer have been rising dramatically at the same time as H. pylori 's presence decreases . In 1996 , Martin J. Blaser advanced the hypothesis that H. pylori has a beneficial effect : by regulating the acidity of the stomach contents . The hypothesis is not universally accepted as several randomized controlled trials failed to demonstrate worsening of acid reflux disease symptoms following eradication of H. pylori . Nevertheless , Blaser has reasserted his view that H. pylori is a member of the normal flora of the stomach . He postulates that the changes in gastric physiology caused by the loss of H. pylori account for the recent increase in incidence of several diseases , including type 2 diabetes , obesity , and asthma . His group has recently shown that H. pylori colonization is associated with a lower incidence of childhood asthma . = = Epidemiology = = At least half the world 's population is infected by the bacterium , making it the most widespread infection in the world . Actual infection rates vary from nation to nation ; the developing world has much higher infection rates than the West ( Western Europe , North America , Australasia ) , where rates are estimated to be around 25 % . The age at which this bacterium is acquired seems to influence the possible pathologic outcome of the infection ; people infected with it at an early age are likely to develop more intense inflammation that may be followed by atrophic gastritis with a higher subsequent risk of gastric ulcer , gastric cancer , or both . Acquisition at an older age brings different gastric changes more likely to lead to duodenal ulcer . Infections are usually acquired in early childhood in all countries . However , the infection rate of children in developing nations is higher than in industrialized nations , probably due to poor sanitary conditions , perhaps combined with lower antibiotics usage for unrelated pathologies . In developed nations , it is currently uncommon to find infected children , but the percentage of infected people increases with age , with about 50 % infected for those over the age of 60 compared with around 10 % between 18 and 30 years . The higher prevalence among the elderly reflects higher infection rates in the past when the individuals were children rather than more recent infection at a later age of the individual . In the United States , prevalence appears to be higher in African @-@ American and Hispanic populations , most likely due to socioeconomic factors . The lower rate of infection in the West is largely attributed to higher hygiene standards and widespread use of antibiotics . Despite high rates of infection in certain areas of the world , the overall frequency of H. pylori infection is declining . However , antibiotic resistance is appearing in H. pylori ; many metronidazole- and clarithromycin @-@ resistant strains are found in most parts of the world . H. pylori is contagious , although the exact route of transmission is not known . Person @-@ to @-@ person transmission by either the oral @-@ oral or fecal @-@ oral route is most likely . Consistent with these transmission routes , the bacteria have been isolated from feces , saliva , and dental plaque of some infected people . Findings suggest H. pylori is more easily transmitted by gastric mucus than saliva . Transmission occurs mainly within families in developed nations , yet can also be acquired from the community in developing countries . H. pylori may also be transmitted orally by means of fecal matter through the ingestion of waste @-@ tainted water , so a hygienic environment could help decrease the risk of H. pylori infection . = = Evolution = = H. pylori migrated out of Africa along with its human host circa 60 @,@ 000 years ago . Its subsequent evolution created seven prototypes — Europe ( isolated from Europe , the Middle East , India , and Iran ) , NE Africa ( from northeast Africa ) , Africa1 ( from countries in Western Africa and South Africa ) , Africa2 ( from South Africa ) , Asia2 ( from Northern India and among isolates from Bangladesh , Thailand , and Malaysia ) , Sahul ( from Australian Aboriginals and Papua New Guineans ) and East Asia with the subpopulations E Asia ( from East Asians ) , Maori ( from Taiwanese Aboriginals , Melanesians and Polynesians ) and Amerind ( Native Americans ) . The precursors of these prototypes have been named ancestral Europe1 , ancestral Europe2 , ancestral East Asia , ancestral Africa1 , ancestral Africa2 , and ancestral Sahul . These ancestral prototypes appear to have originated in Africa and Central and East Asia . European and African strains were introduced into the Americas along with its colonisation — both thousands of years ago and more recently in the slave trade . Recent research states that genetic diversity in H. pylori , like that of its host , decreases with geographic distance from East Africa . Using the genetic diversity data , researchers have created simulations that indicate the bacteria seem to have spread from East Africa around 58 @,@ 000 years ago . Their results indicate modern humans were already infected by H. pylori before their migrations out of Africa , and it has remained associated with human hosts since that time . = = History = = H. pylori was first discovered in the stomachs of patients with gastritis and ulcers in 1982 by Drs. Barry Marshall and Robin Warren of Perth , Australia . At the time , the conventional thinking was that no bacterium could live in the acid environment of the human stomach . In recognition of their discovery , Marshall and Warren were awarded the 2005 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine . Before the research of Marshall and Warren , German scientists found spiral @-@ shaped bacteria in the lining of the human stomach in 1875 , but they were unable to culture them , and the results were eventually forgotten . The Italian researcher Giulio Bizzozero described similarly shaped bacteria living in the acidic environment of the stomach of dogs in 1893 . Professor Walery Jaworski of the Jagiellonian University in Kraków investigated sediments of gastric washings obtained by lavage from humans in 1899 . Among some rod @-@ like bacteria , he also found bacteria with a characteristic spiral shape , which he called Vibrio rugula . He was the first to suggest a possible role of this organism in the pathogenesis of gastric diseases . His work was included in the Handbook of Gastric Diseases , but it had little impact , as it was written in Polish . Several small studies conducted in the early 20th century demonstrated the presence of curved rods in the stomachs of many people with peptic ulcers and stomach cancers . Interest in the bacteria waned , however , when an American study published in 1954 failed to observe the bacteria in 1180 stomach biopsies . Interest in understanding the role of bacteria in stomach diseases was rekindled in the 1970s , with the visualization of bacteria in the stomachs of people with gastric ulcers . The bacteria had also been observed in 1979 , by Robin Warren , who researched it further with Barry Marshall from 1981 . After unsuccessful attempts at culturing the bacteria from the stomach , they finally succeeded in visualizing colonies in 1982 , when they unintentionally left their Petri dishes incubating for five days over the Easter weekend . In their original paper , Warren and Marshall contended that most stomach ulcers and gastritis were caused by bacterial infection and not by stress or spicy food , as had been assumed before . Some skepticism was expressed initially , but within a few years multiple research groups had verified the association of H. pylori with gastritis and , to a lesser extent , ulcers . To demonstrate H. pylori caused gastritis and was not merely a bystander , Marshall drank a beaker of H. pylori culture . He became ill with nausea and vomiting several days later . An endoscopy 10 days after inoculation revealed signs of gastritis and the presence of H. pylori . These results suggested H. pylori was the causative agent . Marshall and Warren went on to demonstrate antibiotics are effective in the treatment of many cases of gastritis . In 1987 , the Sydney gastroenterologist Thomas Borody invented the first triple therapy for the treatment of duodenal ulcers . In 1994 , the National Institutes of Health stated most recurrent duodenal and gastric ulcers were caused by H. pylori , and recommended antibiotics be included in the treatment regimen . The bacterium was initially named Campylobacter pyloridis , then renamed C. pylori ( pylori being the genitive of pylorus , the circular opening leading from the stomach into the duodenum , from the Ancient Greek word πυλωρός , which means gatekeeper . ) . When 16S ribosomal RNA gene sequencing and other research showed in 1989 that the bacterium did not belong in the genus Campylobacter , it was placed in its own genus , Helicobacter from the ancient Greek hělix / έλιξ " spiral " or " coil " . In October 1987 , a group of experts met in Copenhagen to found the European Helicobacter Study Group ( EHSG ) , an international multidisciplinary research group and the only institution focused on H. pylori . The Group is involved with the Annual International Workshop on Helicobacter and Related Bacteria , the Maastricht Consensus Reports ( European Consensus on the management of H. pylori ) , and other educational and research projects , including two international long @-@ term projects : European Registry on H. pylori Management ( Hp @-@ EuReg ) – a database systematically registering the routine clinical practice of European gastroenterologists Optimal H. pylori management in primary care ( OptiCare ) – a long @-@ term educational project aiming to disseminate the evidence based recommendations of the Maastricht IV Consensus to primary care physicians in Europe , funded by an educational grant from United European Gastroenterology = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E ( 2008 ) = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E was a tropical depression which made landfall along the south @-@ western Mexican coastline in July 2008 . It was the fifth tropical cyclone of the 2008 Pacific hurricane season . The depression developed out of a weak tropical wave which formed off the coast of Africa on June 23 . The wave remained poorly organized throughout its journey through the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea . The wave entered the Eastern Pacific on July 2 after passing through Central America . The wave developed into an area of low pressure that afternoon . The low moved towards the northwest , paralleling the coastline . Continued development led to the eventual upgrade of the low to Tropical Depression Five @-@ E on July 5 . It was initially thought that the depression would become a tropical storm before landfall but the winds failed to increase above 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . The depression made a turn towards the north @-@ northwest and made landfall on July 7 . It dissipated shortly after landfall due to the mountainous terrain . The depression produced heavy rainfall in parts of southwestern Mexico , peaking at 12 @.@ 99 in ( 330 mm ) . These rains triggered flooding that killed two people and left roughly MXN 30 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) in damages . = = Meteorological history = = Tropical Depression Five @-@ E formed out of a weak tropical wave , associated with scattered convection , which formed off the coast of Africa on June 23 . The wave was moving towards the west at the rate of 23 mph ( 37 km / h ) , due to an area of high pressure located over the north @-@ central Atlantic Ocean leading to a prevailing easterly flow . Some cyclonic turning was noted and convection was on either side of the axis — the center of the storm — but was mainly in association with the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) . The wave remained very close to the intertropical convergence zone for the next several days without any further development . On June 26 , a small burst of moisture in the system was noted in the area of the wave , but no other notable development occurred . On July 2 , the wave moved over Central America and produced scattered areas of strong convection off the coast of Honduras . Later in the day , the center of the wave became elongated as determined by a QuikSCAT satellite pass . By the afternoon , the wave developed into an area of low pressure and a tropical cyclone formation alert was issued as the possibility of a tropical cyclone developing within 48 hours was present . Not long after the alert was issued , deep convection disappeared from the low while located 400 mi ( 645 km ) . Convection was anticipated to redeveloped later that night or early the next morning . The low was moving slowly towards the northwest due to a deep trough located over the Gulf of Mexico and a ridge of high pressure located over western Mexico . By the morning of July 3 , convection had redeveloped near the low and its forward motion quickly increased to 11 mph ( 18 km / h ) . The low remained disorganized for the next two days as it steadily moved towards the northwest . During the morning of July 5 , deep convection rapidly increased and banding features formed despite strong easterly wind shear . The convection persisted into the afternoon and the low was upgraded to Tropical Depression Five @-@ E accordingly . Weak steering currents persisted as the depression moved towards the northwest at 4 mph ( 6 km / h ) to 5 mph ( 8 km / h ) . Following the storm 's upgrade , further development did not occur as the system tracked steadily towards the north @-@ northwest . Early on July 7 , the depression made landfall near Lazaro Cardenas with winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) . Rapid weakening followed shortly after landfall and the storm dissipated several hours later over the mountains of Mexico . = = Preparations and impact = = As Tropical Depression Five @-@ E approached Mexico , the country 's government released tropical storm watches and warnings for certain parts of the coastline . When the tropical depression formed on July 5 , the government issued a tropical storm warning from Acapulco to Zihuatanejo . Other interests in the Pacific Ocean were asked to keep an eye on the developing depression . The morning of July 6 , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for Zihuatanejo to Manzanillo . The earlier tropical storm warning remained in effect , for another six hours , when the warning was demoted into a tropical storm watch . On the afternoon of July 6 , the government discontinued the tropical storm watch up to Acapulco . The remaining tropical storm watch was discontinued on July 7 , after the tropical depression had made landfall and began to weaken . The government 's weather center also released thirteen tropical cyclone bulletins and four warnings for personal caution . The tropical depression produced 5 @.@ 11 inches ( 130 mm ) of rain in Manzanillo , with other locations also experiencing isolated rainfall . Cerro de Ortega , Colima reported 12 @.@ 99 inches ( 330 mm ) of rain in a 24 @-@ hour period . The community of Ometepec reported 7 @.@ 88 inches ( 200 mm ) . Other locations reported moderate rainfall , ranging around 5 – 7 inches ( 130 – 180 mm ) . One person was swept away by flood waters , reaching 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in depth . Heavy rains from the depression resulted in a traffic accident that killed one person and injured two others . In all , damages from the storm amounted to MXN 30 million ( $ 2 @.@ 2 million ) . = Reflektor ( song ) = " Reflektor " is a song by Canadian indie rock band Arcade Fire . It was released on September 9 , 2013 , as the first single from the band 's fourth studio album , Reflektor ( 2013 ) . Produced by James Murphy , Markus Dravs and the band itself , the song features a guest vocal appearance by David Bowie and was released on a limited edition 12 " vinyl credited to the fictional band , The Reflektors . Two music videos were made for the song , one regular and one interactive , both being released on the day of the song 's release . " Reflektor " was met with positive reviews , with critics often complimenting its musical approach . It also came second in NME 's list of best singles of 2013 . The song had a positive commercial performance , charting in several countries . = = Background and composition = = The band began working on the track in 2011 , with vocalist and guitarist Win Butler noting , " We recorded a little bit in Louisiana with the Haitian percussionists [ Willinson Duprate and Verrieux Zile ] and we kind of lived with that . It 's an incredibly long process . " Regular Arcade Fire collaborators Owen Pallett and Colin Stetson provided instrumental parts , alongside English musician David Bowie who provided vocals for the song . Regarding Bowie 's guest appearance on the track , multi @-@ instrumentalist Richard Reed Parry noted , " It was just after The Next Day had come out . He basically just came by the studio in New York while we were mixing , just to have a listen to the stuff we were doing . He offered to lend us his services because he really liked the song . In fact , he basically threatened us – he was like , ' If you don 't hurry up and mix this song , I might just steal it from you ! ' So we thought , well why don 't we go one better , why don 't you sing on our version ? Thankfully he obliged , and we were really happy about that . " " Reflektor " is a dance @-@ rock , indie rock , and disco song . The track 's lyrical content is , in part , influenced by the differences between Haitian life and that of the Western world , with vocalist and guitarist Win Butler noting , " I think that life [ in Haiti ] is incredibly difficult and it 's more amazing to see people that don 't have access to food or clean water throw a party . It 's not like I 'm trying to sing about their experiences . I was more learning from what I saw and applying it to my own life , lyrically . I 'm not trying to tell other people 's stories . We 're just trying to allow an experience to change you . " = = Critical reception = = " Reflektor " received critical acclaim from critics . Paste awarded the song a 9 @.@ 1 / 10 rating , commenting that the song " pretty much kicks ass " . Pitchfork awarded the song the " Best New Track " tag , labeling the song a " sleek , dark disco epic that doesn 't belong to the 1970s , ' 80s , ' 90s-- or any decade " . Rolling Stone praised it , saying " Arcade Fire are the most important band of the last decade , and the music lives up to their universe @-@ affirming mandate . " Reflektor " turns a shared sense of isolation into communion with a sleek , surging track that seamlessly integrates arty rock and diagonal funk , breaking down [ Arcade Fire ] ' s epic sound without scrimping on its essential cathartic thrust . " American Songwriter also praised the song saying " All seven @-@ plus minutes of the song feel absolutely vital , even if the arrangement suggests something more hedonistic . It 's a neat trick they pulled there . " NME placed the song at number two on their " 50 Best Tracks of 2013 " list , with only Daft Punk 's " Get Lucky " finishing above it . = = Music video = = A music video for " Reflektor " was released on September 9 , 2013 through YouTube . It was directed by Anton Corbijn , with art direction done by Anastasia Masaro . The video won the Best Art Direction award at the 2014 MTV Video Music Awards . Katie Hasty of HitFix summarized the video , stating that " Corbijn 's black @-@ and @-@ white version of the " Reflektor " experience has its own quirks , too , as the band dons oversized papier mache heads like puppet versions of themselves , hunting down the Disco Ball Man and putting the doll versions of themselves in a shiny coffin . " An interactive music video was also made available to the public , which was directed by Vincent Morisset . However , it was made only accessible through the web browser Google Chrome . For this video , the user oversees dancer Axelle Munezero 's journey through the streets of Haiti . = = Packaging = = = = = Artwork = = = The single 's cover artwork makes no mention of the band 's name , and is instead credited to the fictional band , The Reflektors . The front cover features a silhouette image band 's core members . The album 's back cover features a woman touching one of the band 's Haitian veve images , used previously in a guerrilla marketing to promote Reflektor 's forthcoming release . = = = Fictional track listing = = = The remainder of the 12 " vinyl 's artwork suggests that it is a full @-@ length album by The Reflektors . A fictional album track listing , inspired by the song 's lyrical content , is featured on its back cover . = = Track listing = = Merge / Sonovox — MRG484 = = Credits and personnel = = Personnel adapted from the single 's liner notes . = = Charts = = = = = Chart performance = = = " Reflektor " charted in several countries , peaking within the top 20 in Canada and Ireland . The song was the band 's highest @-@ charting song in Canada , their home country , and their first song in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart ( excluding " Ready to Start " which peaked while in the Bubbling Under Hot 100 chart ) , where it peaked at number 99 . = The Coral Island = The Coral Island : A Tale of the Pacific Ocean ( 1858 ) is a novel written by Scottish author R. M. Ballantyne . One of the first works of juvenile fiction to feature exclusively juvenile heroes , the story relates the adventures of three boys marooned on a South Pacific island , the only survivors of a shipwreck . A typical Robinsonade – a genre of fiction inspired by Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe – and one of the most popular of its type , the book first went on sale in late 1857 and has never been out of print . Among the novel 's major themes are the civilising effect of Christianity , 19th @-@ century British imperialism in the South Pacific , and the importance of hierarchy and leadership . It was the inspiration for William Golding 's dystopian novel Lord of the Flies ( 1954 ) , which inverted the morality of The Coral Island ; in Ballantyne 's story the children encounter evil , but in Lord of the Flies evil is within them . In the early 20th century , the novel was considered a classic for primary school children in the UK , and in the United States it was a staple of high @-@ school suggested reading lists . Modern critics consider the book 's worldview to be dated and imperialist , but although less popular today , The Coral Island was adapted into a four @-@ part children 's television drama broadcast by ITV in 2000 . = = Background = = = = = Biographical background and publication = = = Born in Edinburgh in 1825 , and raised there , Ballantyne was the ninth of ten children and the youngest son . Tutored by his mother and sisters , his only formal education was a brief period at Edinburgh Academy in 1835 – 37 . At the age of 16 he travelled to Canada , where he spent five years working for the Hudson 's Bay Company , trading with the Native Americans for furs . He returned to Scotland in 1847 and for some years worked for the publisher Messrs Constable , first as a clerk and then as a partner in the business . During his time in Canada he had helped to pass the time by writing long letters to his mother – to which he attributed " whatever small amount of facility in composition [ he ] may have acquired " – and began his first book . Ballantyne 's Canadian experiences formed the basis of his first novel , The Young Fur Traders , published in 1856 , the year he decided to become a full @-@ time writer and embarked on the adventure stories for the young with which his name is popularly associated . Ballantyne never visited the coral islands of the South Pacific , relying instead on the accounts of others that were then beginning to emerge in Britain , which he exaggerated for theatrical effect by including " plenty of gore and violence meant to titillate his juvenile readership " . His ignorance of the South Pacific caused him to erroneously describe coconuts as being soft and easily opened ; a stickler for accuracy he resolved that in future , whenever possible , he would write only about things he had personal experience of . Ballantyne wrote The Coral Island while staying in a house on the Burntisland seafront opposite Edinburgh on the Firth of Forth in Fife . According to Ballantyne biographer Eric Quayle he borrowed extensively from an 1852 novel by the American author James F. Bowman , The Island Home . He also borrowed from John Williams ' Narrative of Missionary Enterprises ( 1837 ) , to the extent that cultural historian Rod Edmond has suggested that Ballantyne must have written one chapter of The Coral Island with Williams ' book open in front of him , so similar is the text . Edmond describes the novel as " a fruit cocktail of other writing about the Pacific " , adding that " by modern standards Ballantyne 's plagiarism in The Coral Island is startling " . Although the first edition is dated 1858 it was on sale in bookshops from early December 1857 ; dating books forward was a common practice at the time , especially during the Christmas period , to " preserve their newness " into the new year . The Coral Island is Ballantyne 's second novel , and has never been out of print . He was an exceedingly prolific author who wrote more than 100 books in his 40 @-@ year career . According to professor and author John Rennie Short , Ballantyne had a " deep religious conviction " , and felt it his duty to educate Victorian middle @-@ class boys – his target audience – in " codes of honour , decency , and religiosity " . The first edition of The Coral Island was published by T. Nelson & Sons , who in common with many other publishers of the time had a policy when accepting a manuscript of buying the copyright from the author rather than paying royalties ; as a result , authors generally did not receive any income from the sale of subsequent editions . Ballantyne received between £ 50 and £ 60 , equivalent to about £ 5800 as of 2012 , but when the novel 's popularity became evident and the number of editions increased he tried unsuccessfully to buy back the copyright . He wrote bitterly to Nelsons in 1893 about the copyrights they held on his books while he had earned nothing : " for thirty @-@ eight years [ you have ] reaped the whole profits " . The Coral Island – still considered a classic – was republished by Penguin Books in 1995 , in their Popular Classics series . = = = Literary and historical context = = = Published during the " first golden age of children 's fiction " , The Coral Island began a trend in boys ' fiction by using boys as the main characters , a device now commonplace in the genre . It preserves , according to literary critic Minnie Singh , the moralizing aspects of didactic texts , but does so ( and in this regard it is a " founding text " ) by the " congruence of subject and implied reader " : the story is about boys and written retrospectively as though by a boy , for an audience of boys . According to literary critic Frank Kermode , The Coral Island " could be used as a document in the history of ideas " . A scientific and social background for the novel is found in Darwinism , of the natural and the social kind . For instance , Charles Darwin 's 1842 The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs was one of the best @-@ known contemporary accounts of the growth of coral . Published a year before Darwin 's Origin of Species ( whose ideas were already being circulated and discussed widely ) , The Coral Island reflects the then prevalent view of evolutionary theory ; the Victorian age based its imperialist ideology in part on the idea that evolution had resulted in " white , English superiority that was anchored in the notion of a civilized nation elected by God to rule inferior peoples . " Ballantyne had been reading books by Darwin and by his rival Alfred Russel Wallace ; in later publications he also acknowledged the naturalist Henry Ogg Forbes . The interest in evolutionary theory was reflected in much contemporary popular literature , and social Darwinism was an important factor contributing to the world view of the Victorians and their empire building . = = Plot summary = = The story is written as a first person narrative from the perspective of 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ralph Rover , one of three boys shipwrecked on the coral reef of a large but uninhabited Polynesian island . Ralph tells the story retrospectively , looking back on his boyhood adventure : " I was a boy when I went through the wonderful adventures herein set down . With the memory of my boyish feelings strong upon me , I present my book specially to boys , in the earnest hope that they may derive valuable information , much pleasure , great profit , and unbounded amusement from its pages . " The account starts briskly ; only four pages are devoted to Ralph 's early life and a further fourteen to his voyage to the Pacific Ocean on board the Arrow . He and his two companions – 18 @-@ year @-@ old Jack Martin and 13 @-@ year @-@ old Peterkin Gay – are the sole survivors of the shipwreck . The narrative is in two parts . The first describes how the boys feed themselves , what they drink , the clothing and shelter they fashion , and how they cope with having to rely on their own resources . The second half of the novel is more action @-@ packed , featuring conflicts with pirates , fighting between the native Polynesians , and the conversion efforts of Christian missionaries . Fruit , fish and wild pigs provide plentiful food , and at first the boys ' life on the island is idyllic . They build a shelter and construct a small boat using their only possessions : a broken telescope , an iron @-@ bound oar , and a small axe . Their first contact with other humans comes after several months when they observe two large outrigger canoes in the distance , one pursued by the other . The two groups of Polynesians disembark on the beach and engage in battle ; the victors take fifteen prisoners , and kill and eat one immediately . But when they threaten to kill one of the three women captured , along with two children , the boys intervene to defeat the pursuers , earning them the gratitude of the chief , Tararo . The next morning they prevent another act of cannibalism . The natives leave , and the boys are alone once more . More unwelcome visitors then arrive in the shape of British pirates , who make a living by trading or stealing sandalwood . The three boys hide in a cave , but Ralph is captured when he ventures out to see if the intruders have left , and is taken on board the pirate schooner . He strikes up a friendship with one of the crew , Bloody Bill , and when the ship calls at the island of Emo to trade for more wood Ralph experiences many facets of the island 's culture : the popular sport of surfing , the sacrificing of babies to eel gods , rape , and cannibalism . Rising tensions result in the inhabitants attacking the pirates , leaving only Ralph and Bloody Bill alive . The pair succeed in making their escape in the schooner , but Bill is mortally wounded . He makes a death @-@ bed repentance for his evil life , leaving Ralph to sail back to the Coral Island alone , where he is reunited with his friends . The three boys sail to the island of Mango , where a missionary has converted some of the population to Christianity . There they once again meet Tararo , whose daughter Avatea wishes to become a Christian against her father 's wishes . The boys attempt to take Avatea in a small boat to a nearby island the chief of which has been converted , but en route they are overtaken by one of Tararo 's war canoes and taken prisoner . They are released a month later after the arrival of another missionary , and Tararo 's conversion to Christianity . The " false gods " of Mango are consigned to the flames , and the boys set sail for home , older and wiser . They return as adults for another adventure in Ballantyne 's 1861 novel The Gorilla Hunters , a sequel to The Coral Island . = = Genre and style = = All Ballantyne 's novels are , in his own words , " adventure stories for young folks " , and The Coral Island is no exception . It is a Robinsonade , a genre of fiction inspired by Daniel Defoe 's Robinson Crusoe ( 1719 ) , one of the most popular of its type , and one of the first works of juvenile fiction to feature exclusively juvenile heroes . Susan Maher , professor of English , notes that in comparison to Robinson Crusoe such books generally replaced some of the original 's romance with a " pedestrian realism " , exemplified by works such as The Coral Island and Frederick Marryat 's 1841 novel Masterman Ready , or the Wreck of the Pacific . Romance , with its attention to character development , was only restored to the genre of boys ' fiction with Robert Louis Stevenson 's Treasure Island argues literary critic Lisa Honaker . The Coral Island , for all its adventure , is greatly occupied with the realism of domestic fiction ( the domain of the realist novel ) ; Ballantyne devotes about a third of the book to descriptions of the boys ' living arrangements . The book exhibits a " light @-@ hearted confidence " in its description of an adventure that was above all fun . As Ralph says in his preface : " If there is any boy or man who loves to be melancholy and morose , and who cannot enter with kindly sympathy into the regions of fun , let me seriously advise him to shut my book and put it away . It is not meant for him . " Professor of English M. Daphne Kutzer has observed that " the swift movement of the story from coastal England to exotic Pacific island is similar to the swift movement from the real world to the fantastic in children 's fantasy " . To a modern reader Ballantyne 's books can seem overly concerned with accounts of flora and fauna , an " ethnographic gloss " intended to suggest that their settings are real places offering adventures to those who can reach them . They can also seem " obtrusively pious " , but according to John Rennie Short , the moral tone of Ballantyne 's writing is compensated for by his ability to tell a " cracking good yarn in an accessible and well @-@ fashioned prose style " . = = Themes = = The major themes of the novel revolve around the influence of Christianity , the importance of social hierarchies , and the inherent superiority of civilised Europeans over the South Sea islanders ; Martine Dutheil , professor of English , considers the novel " a key text mapping out colonial relations in the Victorian period " . The basic subject of the novel is popular and widespread : " castaway children assuming adult responsibilities without adult supervision " , and The Coral Island is considered the classic example of such a book . The supposed civilising influence of missionaries in spreading Christianity among the natives of the South Seas is an important theme of the second half of the story ; as Jack remarks to Peterkin , " all the natives of the South Sea Islands are fierce cannibals , and they have little respect for strangers " . Modern critics view this aspect of the novel less benevolently ; Jerry Phillips , in a 1995 article , sees in The Coral Island the " perfect realiz [ ation ] " of " the official discourse of 19th century Pacific imperialism " , which he argues was " obsessed with the purity of God , Trade , and the Nation . " The importance of hierarchy and leadership is also a significant element . The overarching hierarchy of race is informed by Victorian concepts , influenced by the new theories of evolution proposed by Darwin and others . In morals and culture , the natives are placed lower on the evolutionary ladder than are Europeans , as is evidenced in the battle over the native woman Avatea , which pits " the forces of civilization versus the forces of cannibalism " . Another hierarchy is seen in the organisation of the boys . Although Jack , Ralph and Peterkin each have a say in how they should organise themselves , ultimately the younger boys defer to Jack , " a natural leader " , particularly in a crisis , forming a natural hierarchy . The pirates also have a hierarchy , but one without democracy , and as a consequence are wiped out . The hierarchy of the natives is imposed by savagery . Ballantyne 's message is that leaders should be respected by those they lead , and govern with their consent . This educational message is especially appropriate considering Ballantyne 's adolescent audience , " the future rulers of the world " . Modern critics find darker undertones in the novel . In an essay published in College English in 2001 , Martine Dutheil states that The Coral Island can be thought of as epitomising a move away from " the confidence and optimism of the early Victorian proponents of British imperialism " toward " self @-@ consciousness and anxiety about colonial domination " . She locates this anxiety in what she calls the " rhetoric of excess " that features in the descriptions of cannibalism , and especially in the accounts of Fijian savagery provided by Bloody Bill ( most notably that of the sacrifice of children to the eel gods ) and the missionary , a representative of the London Missionary Society , an " emblematic figure of colonial fiction " . Others have also linked popular boys ' fiction of the period with imperialism ; Joseph Bristow 's Empire Boys ( 1991 ) claimed to see an " ' imperialist manhood , ' which shaped British attitudes towards empire and masculinity . " The novel 's portrayal of Pacific culture and the effects of colonisation are analyzed in studies such as Brian Street 's The Savage in Literature : Representations of ' Primitive ' Society in English Fiction ( 1975 ) and Rod Edmond 's Representing the South Pacific : Colonial Discourse from Cook to Gauguin ( 1998 ) . The domination imposed by " geographical mapping of a territory and policing of its native inhabitants " is an important theme in the novel both specifically and in general , in the topography of the island as mapped by the boys and the South Pacific 's " eventual subjugation and conversion to Christianity " , a topic continued in Stevenson 's Treasure Island . The exploration of the relationship between nature and evangelical Christianity is another typically Victorian theme . Coral connects the two ideas . Literary critic Katharine Anderson explains that coral jewellery , popular in the period , had a " pious significance " . The " enchanted garden " of coral the boys discover at the bottom of their island 's lagoon is suggestive of " missionary encounters with the societies of the Pacific Island " . In Victorian society coral had been given an " evangelical framing " , and the little " coral insect " responsible for building coral reefs mirrored the " child reader 's productive capacity as a fundraiser for the missionary cause " ; literary critic Michelle Elleray discusses numerous children 's books from the early to mid @-@ 19th century , including The Coral Island , in which coral plays such an educational role . The novel 's setting provides the backdrop for a meditation in the style of Jean @-@ Jacques Rousseau , who promoted an educational setting in which lessons are provided by direct interactions with the natural world rather than by books and coercive teachers . Singh points out that Rousseau , in Emile , or On Education , promotes the reading and even imitation of Robinson Crusoe ; literary critic Fiona McCulloch argues that the unmediated knowledge the boys gain on their coral island resembles the " direct language for children " Rousseau advocates in Emile . = = Critical reception = = The Coral Island was an almost instant success , and was translated into almost every European language within fifty years of its publication . It was widely admired by its contemporary readers , although modern critics view the text as featuring " dated colonialist themes and arguably racist undertones " . Ballantyne 's blend of blood @-@ thirsty adventure and pious imperialism appealed not just to his target juvenile audience but also to their parents and teachers . He is today mainly remembered for The Coral Island , to the exclusion of much of his other work . The novel was still considered a classic for English primary school children in the early 20th century . In the United States it was long a staple of suggested reading lists for high @-@ school students ; such a list , discussed in a 1915 article in The English Journal , recommends the novel in the category " Stories for Boys in Easy Style " . A simplified adaptation of the book was recommended in the 1950s for American 12 – 14 year olds . Although mostly neglected by modern scholars and generally considered to be dated in many aspects , in 2006 it was voted one of the top twenty Scottish novels at the 15th International World Wide Web Conference . = = Influence = = Robert Louis Stevenson 's 1882 novel Treasure Island was in part inspired by The Coral Island , which he admired for its " better qualities " , as was J. M. Barrie 's character Peter Pan ; both Stevenson and Barrie had been " fervent boy readers " of the novel . Novelist G. A. Henty was also influenced by Ballantyne 's audience @-@ friendly method of didactism . William Golding 's 1954 novel Lord of the Flies was written as a counterpoint to ( or even a parody of ) The Coral Island , and Golding makes explicit references to it . At the end of the novel , for instance , one of the naval officers who rescues the children mentions the book , commenting on the hunt for one of their number , Ralph , as a " jolly good show . Like the Coral Island " . Jack also makes an appearance in Lord of the Flies as Jack Merridew , representing the irrational nature of the boys . Indeed , Golding 's three central characters – Ralph , Piggy and Jack – are caricatures of Ballantyne 's heroes . Despite having enjoyed The Coral Island many times as a child , Golding strongly disagreed with the views that it espoused , and in contrast Lord of the Flies depicts the English boys as savages themselves , who forget more than they learn , unlike Ballantyne 's boys . Golding described the relationship between the two books by saying that The Coral Island " rotted to compost " in his mind , and in the compost " a new myth put down roots " . Neither is the idyllic nature of Ballantyne 's coral island to be found on Stevenson 's treasure island , which is unsuitable for settlement " but exists merely as a site from which to excavate treasure , a view consistent with the late @-@ Victorian imperial mission " according to Honaker . = = Television adaptations = = The Coral Island was adapted into a children 's television series in a joint venture between Thames Television and the Australian Broadcasting Corporation in 1980 , first shown on Australian and British television in 1983 . It was also adapted into a four @-@ part children 's television drama by Zenith Productions , broadcast by ITV in 2000 . = Rudolf Wanderone = Rudolf Walter Wanderone Jr . ( January 19 , 1913 – January 15 , 1996 ; originally spelled Wanderon ) was an American professional pocket billiards player , also known as " Minnesota Fats " . Though he never won a major pool tournament as " Fats " , he was perhaps the most publicly recognized pool player in the United States – not only as a player , but also as an entertainer . Wanderone was inducted in 1984 into the Billiard Congress of America Hall of Fame for his decades @-@ long public promotion of pool . Wanderone began playing at a young age in New York City . As a teenager , he became a traveling pool hustler . Later , in his 30s , he moved to southern Illinois where he met and married his first wife , Evelyn . During World War II , he hustled servicemen in Norfolk , Virginia . With the end of the war , Wanderone returned to Illinois and entered semi @-@ retirement . Wanderone adopted the nickname " Minnesota Fats " from a character in the 1961 film The Hustler , claiming that the character was based upon him . He parlayed the association with the film into his own book deals and television appearances , including a series of matches with rival Willie Mosconi . Later in life , Wanderone divorced Evelyn and moved to Nashville , Tennessee , where he married his second wife , Theresa , with whom he remained until his death . = = Early life and career = = Rudolf Walter Wanderon Jr. was born in New York City to Rosa and Rudolf Wanderon , Swiss immigrants . He was born in 1913 but sometimes hinted he was born earlier , even as early as 1900 . The surname was later changed to Wanderone . Known as " Rudy " to friends and family , Wanderone started playing pool as a child while living in Washington Heights , Manhattan . In 1923 , he traveled to Europe with his father where he received training from German balkline billiards champion Erich Hagenlocher . His first prominent match was in 1926 when he competed against former nine @-@ ball champion " Cowboy " Weston ( Wanderone won , handily ) . Wanderone left school in the eighth grade and became a traveling pool hustler , spending much of the 1920s playing at a pool hall called Cranfield 's in New York City , where Wanderone received his first nickname after beating another hustler known as " Smart Henry " . The intensity of their competition led Wanderone 's friend , Titanic Thompson , to dub Wanderone " Double @-@ Smart " . By the mid @-@ 1930s , during the Great Depression , Wanderone had become a manager of a pool hall , owned by a friend , in Anacostia , southeast Washington , D.C. He had acquired more notoriety and nicknames , including " Triple @-@ Smart Fats " , " New York Fats " , " Broadway Fats " , and " Chicago Fats " , attracting action from other hustlers , including the then unknown Luther " Wimpy " Lassiter . In 1941 , Wanderone and friend Jimmy Castras arrived in southern Illinois — major hustling center on a fast track to televised tournament play — and settled in Du Quoin , Illinois , where he continued hustling . Eventually he met Evelyn Inez Graff ; they married two months to the day later , on May 7 , 1941 . Following their wedding , the Wanderones settled in Dowell , Illinois . In 1942 , the couple moved to Norfolk , Virginia . Norfolk had become a key mustering point for US soldiers , as well as a shipbuilding center . The growing population led to an enormous interest in gambling ; Wanderone , in partnership with fellow hustler Lassiter , quickly recognized the financial possibilities . Following World War II , however , the action " dried up " soon , and the Wanderones returned to Little Egypt . For a period throughout the 1950s , Wanderone entered semi @-@ retirement , making only occasional hustling trips to New York City . = = " Minnesota Fats " = = In 1961 , the film version of Walter Tevis ' novel The Hustler was released . The film tells the story of a pool shark named " Fast Eddie " Felson and his quest to beat the greatest pool player in America , " Minnesota Fats " . World Champion Willie Mosconi served as a technical advisor and trick shot stunt man for the film . Wanderone almost immediately dropped his " New York Fats " nickname , adopted the name " Minnesota Fats " and began spreading the story that the character was based on him . Tevis denied this for the rest of his life . Wanderone 's notoriety as " Minnesota Fats " led to a job as executive vice @-@ president of billiard table manufacturer Rozel Industries , playing exhibition matches and giving demonstrations . Rozel , in 1965 , published Wanderone 's first book : Minnesota " Fats " Book of Billiards . On January 17 , 1965 , he appeared on the television game show What 's My Line , successfully stumping the panel . In 1966 , he wrote his autobiography , The Bank Shot , and Other Great Robberies , with Sports Illustrated journalist , Tom Fox . His first TV game show , Minnesota Fats Hustles the Pros , debuted in 1967 , featuring " Fats " playing against other pro players . In 1967 he completed and published an instructional paperback , Minnesota Fats on Pool , which was reprinted through 1976 in large @-@ quantity editions , then reissued as a hardcover in 1993 , and remains to this day commonly available . The next year , on January 24 , 1968 , Wanderone was a guest on The Joey Bishop Show . By 1970 , Celebrity Billiards with Minnesota Fats , another short @-@ lived TV game show series , featured Wanderone playing against celebrity guests such as Sid Caesar . In a feature film , The Player ( produced in December 1970 , in Baton Rouge , Louisiana ) , Wanderone played himself as " Minnesota Fats " and was featured prominently on the promotional poster . The screenplay was written and directed by Thomas DeMartini , also starred pool pro Jack Colavita , and had a limited release in 1971 by International Cinema . That same year Wanderone was a guest on both The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson ( September 21 , 1971 ) , on which he hustled Carson out of US $ 1 , and the British David Frost Show ( October 13 , 1971 ) . His fame as " Fats " had already made it difficult for Wanderone to hustle effectively , so he relied more and more on exhibition games for income . By 1979 , Wanderone was well @-@ known enough to be playing himself as a celebrity guest star on a Season 2 episode of the popular TV detective drama Vega $ , titled " the Usurper " , the episode featured " Fats " and pro Jimmy Mataya playing one another in a game of pool . In 1980 , while visiting a one @-@ mile stretch of St. Louis , Wanderone had to double his order of autographed pictures after he was stopped thirty @-@ seven times . During this trip he was beaten by Michael Boulton 4 out of 10 times in games of pool . = = Rivalry with Willie Mosconi = = Wanderone enjoyed promoting a feud with world champion Mosconi over how to present pool – either as a rough @-@ and @-@ tumble gambling game ( Wanderone ) or as a genteel pastime and art form ( Mosconi ) . Mosconi 's widow , Flora , said of the rivalry , " My husband hated Minnesota Fats because he felt that [ Wanderone ] was always hurting the image of the game instead of helping it . " Wanderone would state smugly , " I may have ' given away ' a few games to deserving competitors , but I have never lost a real money game since I was old enough to spell ' Weeli Mesconi ' . " The two competed on Valentine 's Day ( February 14 ) , 1978 in a televised match on ABC 's Wide World of Sports . With almost 11 million viewers , the game was the second @-@ highest rated episode of the show for that year , behind only the Muhammad Ali vs. Leon Spinks rematch . The game was held at New York 's Waldorf Astoria Hotel , and was announced by Howard Cosell . Although Wanderone lost the game , he won the audience with his banter , and with his joking manner . Mosconi on the other hand was reportedly perceived as cold . " Fats " lost a number of rematches to Mosconi in the following years . However , in the nationally @-@ broadcast Resorts International Shoot @-@ Out of October 1984 – Wanderone 's last notable TV appearance – he finally turned the tables on his rival . The event began with a trick shot competition between four players : Wanderone , Mosconi , Steve Mizerak , and Allen Hopkins . Next , Hopkins and Fats played against Mosconi and Mizerak in doubles seven @-@ ball , then nine @-@ ball . Wanderone and Mosconi ultimately played a one @-@ on @-@ one game of seven @-@ ball ; Wanderone won the match . During the exhibition , a very quiet and genteel Mosconi blocked Wanderone 's rough @-@ and @-@ tumble banter by wearing ear plugs ; yet that failed to stop Wanderone from putting on a show for his fans . In an interview , Wanderone was asked about his strategy to defeat Mosconi , and replied that he had thought to himself , " I 'll make [ the 7 ball ] on the break and end it ... then I 'll help carry Willie out on a stretcher . " = = Later life = = The Billiard Congress of America in 1984 inducted Wanderone into its Hall of Fame for " Meritorious Service " in recognition of his contributions to helping popularize the game of pool . In 1984 , Wanderone abandoned his wife , Evelyn ; they divorced a year later . Wanderone moved into the Hermitage Hotel in downtown Nashville , Tennessee in 1985 , remaining there for several years . In 1992 , while undergoing surgery for a knee injury , he suffered a massive heart attack , but survived . In 1993 , he met and married his second wife , Theresa Ward Bell . He lived in Bell 's Nashville house until his death on January 15 , 1996 , four days shy of his 83rd birthday ( although some sources , including The New York Times , erroneously gave the date of his death on January 18 ) . Wanderone had no known children . Singer Etta James said she believed that he was her biological father , having reportedly been told this by her mother , as well as by others who knew her mother and whom James described as " people who were there and should know " . However , there is no published evidence of such a relationship . James and Wanderone are only known to have met once , in 1987 . In her autobiography , Rage to Survive , James recounted their meeting , writing that Wanderone neither confirmed nor denied his paternity . According to James , he told her that he did not recall the details of his life at the time of her conception well enough to know whether he could have been the father . The epitaph on his tombstone reads : " Beat every living creature on Earth . ' St. Peter , rack ' em up . – Fats ' " . = = Personal character = = Wanderone was known for ostentation , self @-@ aggrandizement , tall tales , fast @-@ talk , and entertaining banter . He was even publicly recognized by famed boaster Muhammad Ali as better at boasting . His critical biographer , R. A. Dyer , documents that Wanderone completely fabricated a " here @-@ by @-@ fate " tale about a car wreck which brought the player to Little Egypt ; it was a tale that Wanderone encouraged to spread and further embellished in his autobiography , to lend an air of the mystical to his public persona . He made false claims about beating Willie Mosconi so frequently that Mosconi filed a slander lawsuit , to little avail . According to Dyer , Wanderone was notorious for non @-@ stop chatter on subjects about which he knew little , or stories about himself . At the beginning of his first TV match against Mosconi , Wanderone claimed " I 've never lost [ a game ] for money in my life ; beat everyone that ever lived . " Yet , as Dyer concedes , " Pool hustlers are , by nature , liars . And by this measure , Minnesota Fats was just a very , very good pool hustler . " Wanderone was a lover of animals , and was reported to have had dozens of cats and dogs simultaneously , and to have devoted a lot of time to finding homes for strays . " I 'm crazy about every living creature " , he wrote in The Bank Shot . " It doesn 't matter what it happens to be . I even love insects ; in fact , I wouldn 't swat a fly or a mosquito for a whole barrel of gold . " Remembered well for his turns of phrase and his puns , Wanderone once wrote , " If you happened to drive from Mobile to Dowell [ Illinois ] with a carload of pool hustlers , you would get bit so hard and so often that you would need a malaria vaccine and a new bankroll as well " , a reference not only to the area 's notorious mosquitos but also the predatory nature of hustlers . Wanderone is remembered for saying on his way out a pool room door , " Boys , the only difference between me and everybody else is that everybody else drives around in a Volkswagen , and Minnesota Fats drives around in a Duesenberg . " Wanderone would go virtually anywhere to help promote the game , and he was a crowd @-@ pleaser . Wanderone owned various limousines throughout his career . He once toured the country in a colorful Lincoln limo , with his extended moniker painted along the side panels in translucent paint , changing colors as it moved with the reflections from the sun : " Minnesota Fats , King of Pool " . His 1980 Cadillac Fleetwood limo was later in the Nashville auto museum , until the facility closed . Wanderone was notorious for his spontaneous wit . When he was named the " uncrowned king " of pool because he never got actively involved in tournament circles ( due to being too busy hustling ) , his reply : " You judge a king by the size of his wallet and his palace . You can leave the crown in the toilet . " = Itchy & Scratchy Land = " Itchy & Scratchy Land " is the fourth episode of The Simpsons ' sixth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on October 2 , 1994 . Wanting a perfect family vacation , the Simpson family visits Itchy & Scratchy Land , dubbed " The Violentest Place On Earth " ( a direct reference to Disneyland 's self @-@ description as " The Happiest Place On Earth " ) . The trip starts out great , but things take a turn for the worse when a horde of Itchy and Scratchy robots go on a murderous rampage . It was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Wes Archer . = = Plot = = Bart and Lisa see a commercial for an amusement park named Itchy & Scratchy Land , and immediately want to visit it . Marge has already booked a family vacation to a bird sanctuary , but after revealing that the theme park has a place for adults , Bart and Lisa win their parents over , on the condition that they will not embarrass Marge as on previous holidays . After a long car journey , they reach the Itchy & Scratchy Land parking lot , where they are then flown to the park by a helicopter and told by the pilot that nothing can " possibly " ( he pronounces it " possi @-@ bligh , " then hastily corrects himself ) go wrong . Marge is slightly uneasy with the many references to violence at the park , but has an enjoyable time visiting the various violent attractions , which include a parade filled with Itchy and Scratchy robots . Homer and Marge eventually tire out and spend time away from the kids at the nearby " Parents Island " as Bart and Lisa continue having fun . Bart and Lisa also visit a movie theater , where a documentary about the history of Itchy & Scratchy is being presented , including clips of the old Itchy & Scratchy films " Scratchtasia " and " Pinnitchio " . Although going well , the family 's vacation is ruined when Bart launches a stink bomb into an actor 's Itchy suit and is arrested by park security . When Bart arrives in a cell , he finds Homer , who is in there for kicking another Itchy character " in the butt . " Marge is informed of her son 's and husband 's transgressions through the park 's public address system and is immediately embarrassed . Meanwhile , Professor Frink , chief of the animatronic robots in the park parades , tells the other staff that ( according to chaos theory ) all the Itchy & Scratchy robots will turn on their masters ; this happens seconds after he makes the announcement . Bart and Homer are released and just as Marge is lecturing them , all power is cut and a horde of Itchy and Scratchy robots advance towards them . One of the park staff refuses to let them escape on the helicopter with them due to Homer and Bart 's misdeeds at the park . Homer frantically throws everything he can at them and discovers that the flash of a camera short circuits the robots ' systems . The Simpsons then grab dozens of cameras from a closed gift shop and defeat the entire Itchy & Scratchy army . The family is thanked for saving the park and agree that it was their best vacation ever . Regardless , Marge demands that they never speak of the trip again , as she is still embarrassed by the actions of Homer and Bart. = = Production = = " Itchy & Scratchy Land " , written by the entire writing team but credited to John Swartzwelder , was a very difficult episode to produce . It involved creating an entirely new environment , which meant large amount of writing and all new sets . At the time that the episode was produced , new , more stringent censorship laws had been put in place . As a result , the Fox network tried to stop the writers from including Itchy & Scratchy cartoons in episodes . In response , the writers created this episode , which they decided would be as violent as possible . The network threatened that if the episode was produced , they would cut the Itchy & Scratchy parts out themselves , but relented when showrunner David Mirkin threatened to tell the media . The writers nevertheless promised to try not to overdo the violence and in some scenes the violence was cut . Although the episode was quite difficult to animate , " Itchy & Scratchy Land " was " a dream come true " for the animators , as they enjoyed animating scenes filled with violence . = = Cultural references = = Much of Itchy & Scratchy Land parodies Disneyland , such as the electric light parade . Euro Itchy & Scratchy Land is a parody of Disneyland Resort Paris , then known as EuroDisney , which at the time was failing . Several scenes , such as the helicopter ride , the logo visible on the helicopter 's side , and certain story elements parody the Michael Crichton book and film Jurassic Park . Other parts of the episode , such as the park 's claim to be the " theme park of the future , " and the plot of the robots at the park rebelling are based on another Crichton story , Westworld . " Scratchtasia " is a reference to the Sorcerer 's Apprentice segment of the Disney film Fantasia , with several shots and the music parodying it exactly . The parody segment is also one of the few moments in the show where Scratchy actually defeats Itchy ( chopping him up like Mickey Mouse chopped up the Broom from the original Fantasia segment ) , although Itchy immediately retaliates and wins yet again . " Pinnitchio " is a parody of the 1940 Disney film Pinocchio . T.G.I. McScratchy 's , " where it 's constantly New Year 's Eve , " is a parody of Pleasure Island , a former nightclub section of Walt Disney World 's Downtown Disney , where New Year 's Eve was celebrated every night at midnight . Hans Moleman being attacked by predatory birds while in the phone booth is a spoof of the 1963 Alfred Hitchcock film The Birds . Walt Disney 's alleged antisemitism is spoofed in the character of Roger Meyers , Sr. in his cartoon Nazi Supermen Are Our Superiors . The sound made by the vehicle which takes Bart to the detention facility resembles the one made by the ground shuttles carrying the fighter pilots inside the Rebel Base in Star Wars Episode 4 : A New Hope . Marge 's Amish flashback recalls Peter Weir 's 1985 film Witness , while that involving Homer and Bart unintentionally scaring swimmers on a beach recalls Steven Spielberg 's Jaws . The episode of Itchy and Scratchy that Bart and Lisa watch is called " The Last Traction Hero " , a parody of the 1993 film Last Action Hero . The Simpson Family 's journey to Itchy and Scratchy Land parodies the film , National Lampoon 's Vacation , in such scenes as when Bart asks to stop at a nearby restaurant and Homer replies ' No ' , Homer nearly falling asleep at the wheel , and the rest of the events following until they reach the park . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Itchy & Scratchy Land " finished 67th in ratings for the week of September 26 — October 2 , 1994 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 0 , equivalent to approximately 8 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following Beverly Hills , 90210 , The X @-@ Files and tied with Melrose Place . Itchy and Scratchy Land has met with positive reviews . " Scratchtasia " is one of David Mirkin 's favorite Itchy & Scratchy cartoons . The episode placed seventh in a 2003 Entertainment Weekly list of the top 25 episodes , the authors remarking that , " When the animatronics attack , the showdown between man and machine — okay , Homer and a giant robot mouse — is an uproarious rebuttal to capitalism run amok . " Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood called it " an untypical episode , with an especially thin plot . But anyone that 's been to Disneyland will get the point . " The episode is number six on MSNBC 's top ten The Simpsons episodes list , compiled in 2007 . In 2014 , The Simpsons writers picked " Scratchtasia " from this episode as one of their nine favorite " Itchy & Scratchy " episodes of all time . = Bart 's Inner Child = " Bart 's Inner Child " is the seventh episode of The Simpsons ' fifth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on November 11 , 1993 . In the episode , Marge finally realizes that she 's no fun due to her excessive nagging and seeks help from the self @-@ help guru , Brad Goodman , who uses Bart 's irreverent attitude as a new example of how people should behave . The entire town of Springfield begins to act like Bart , who at first enjoys things but begins to feel that his role as a troublemaker is usurped . During the inaugural " Do What You Feel " festival , several things go wrong and the town decides to stop acting like Bart. The episode was written by George Meyer and was the first episode of the show to be directed by Bob Anderson . Actor Albert Brooks guest stars in the episode as Brad Goodman , a self @-@ help guru modelled after John Bradshaw . It was Brooks ' third of five appearances on the show . Singer James Brown guest stars as himself ; he sings his 1965 song " I Got You ( I Feel Good ) " . In 2006 , Brooks was named the best Simpsons guest star by IGN , while Brown 's appearance has been described as " hilariously over @-@ the @-@ top " . The episode features cultural references to several films , television shows , and songs , including the 1939 film Gone with the Wind , Scott Joplin 's piano rag " The Entertainer " , and the Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner cartoons . In its original broadcast , " Bart 's Inner Child " finished 40th in the weekly ratings with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 8 , and was viewed in 11 @.@ 12 million households . = = Plot = = Homer sees an advertisement in the newspaper for a free trampoline . He rushes to the address from the advertisement , where Krusty the Clown is giving it away , and brings it home . While Bart and Lisa are thrilled by it , Marge is concerned about the potential dangers . Homer brushes her worries aside ; he has plans of turning their backyard into a theme park , and decides to charge a fee to use the trampoline . Inevitably , however , people start getting hurt , and Homer finally takes Marge 's advice to get rid of the trampoline . After failing at his various attempts to do so , Bart steps in to help Homer . They chain the trampoline to a pole using a bike lock and wait for Snake Jailbird to steal it . Homer and Marge argue later that night . Homer admits that while Marge was right that getting the trampoline was a mistake , he adds that he 's at least willing to go out and try new things while she 's bossy , boring and just nags all the time . Marge , of course , disagrees with this , but after asking Bart and Lisa what they think , she discovers that they agree with their father 's assessment about her . Marge becomes offended that people see her that way and goes to her sisters ' apartment . While at Patty and Selma 's apartment , the twins introduce her to an infomercial featuring self @-@ help guru , Brad Goodman , who can supposedly help people like Marge with their chronic nagging . After Marge encourages Homer to watch a Brad Goodman video with her , she becomes more tolerant and the two start getting along better . After seeing how out of control Bart is , the family goes to see Brad Goodman 's live lecture in the hopes that it will change him . Bart interrupts the lecture , but Brad Goodman encourages the town to follow Bart 's spontaneous attitude . Soon , the whole town starts acting like Bart , who at first enjoys things , but eventually becomes upset by it . Lisa explains that it 's because he 's lost his unique identity as a rebel with everyone else in town acting like him . To celebrate their new @-@ found attitude , the town holds a " Do What You Feel " festival . However , the festival soon goes awry because those responsible for building the stages and maintaining the rides " didn ’ t feel like " doing a thorough job , resulting in a runaway Ferris wheel causing chaos . Arguments begin , as everybody has been encouraged to always say exactly what is on their mind , and a riot soon breaks out . Bart is quickly blamed for starting the whole " do as you feel " trend , even with Reverend Lovejoy pointing out that Brad Goodman was the one who encouraged them to act like Bart in the first place . The town chases after him , prompting Homer to save Bart by driving in a float . Despite the very slow speed of the float , the town gives up the chase and goes to the old mill to get some cider . The Simpson family returns home , where they try to figure out what the lesson of the episode was . Homer claims that Bart should have been a better role model , but Marge comes to Bart 's defense by saying that self @-@ improvement is best left to people who live in big cities . But then Lisa says that self @-@ improvement can be accomplished , but through hard work and not a quick fix . Homer concludes that they 're all fine the way they are and the family starts to watch TV . = = Production = = " Bart 's Inner Child " was written by George Meyer and directed by Bob Anderson . It was Anderson 's directorial debut on The Simpsons . Meyer 's inspiration for the episode came from the fact that he was going through therapy at the time and he thought it would be a good idea " to send up these self @-@ help gurus " . Actor Albert Brooks guest starred in the episode as Brad Goodman . It was Brooks ' third appearance on the show after playing Jacques in " Life on the Fast Lane " and Cowboy Bob in " The Call of the Simpsons " . He would later guest star as Hank Scorpio in " You Only Move Twice " , Tab Spangler in " The Heartbroke Kid " , and Russ Cargill in The Simpsons Movie . Executive producer David Mirkin describes Brooks as " really weird to direct " because " almost every one of his takes is flawless , but each one has different material . He makes up the stuff as he goes . " He uses a combination of the jokes in the script and his own material and because many of his takes are different , it is difficult for the producers to decide which lines to use . Goodman was based on the American self @-@ help author John Bradshaw , who popularized such psychological ideas as the " wounded inner child " and the dysfunctional family . Singer James Brown guest stars as himself . Brown makes an appearance at the " Do What You Feel " festival , during which he sings his 1965 song " I Got You ( I Feel Good ) " . After a bandstand collapses , he proclaims " Hey , wait a minute , hold on here ! This bandstand wasn 't double @-@ bolted ! " He described the experience as " good , clean , and humorous . And we need more of that around . " According to Mirkin , the writers like to give guest stars awkward lines which then sound funny coming from them . They knew Brown would not be " the greatest actor in the world " but still " gave him these incredibly hilarious , stiff lines that killed . " Mirkin described Brown 's line as " horrible " but because of Brown 's reading , " you have something that just sounds perfectly wrong and it makes it funny . " In his book Planet Simpson , Chris Turner describes James Brown 's performance as " hilariously over @-@ the @-@ top " and uses it as an example of how the early seasons of the show would include celebrity cameos and not point out the " enormity of their fame " . = = Cultural references = = The episode features cultural references to several films , television shows , and songs . The scene with a field full of injured children from the trampoline is a reference to the field of injured soldiers shot in the film Gone with the Wind . There is a sequence of Homer trying to push the trampoline off of a cliff , but once he pushes it over the edge , it lands on a pillar of rock and bounces back up . This is a reference to the Chuck Jones @-@ directed Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner Looney Tunes cartoons . The background imitates the desert landscape from the cartoons . At church , Reverend Lovejoy plays the classic rag " The Entertainer " by Scott Joplin on the organ . = = Reception = = In its original broadcast , " Bart 's Inner Child " finished 40th in the weekly ratings during the week of November 8 – 14 , 1993 with a Nielsen rating of 11 @.@ 8 , and was viewed in 11 @.@ 12 million households . It was the highest rated show on Fox that week . In 2006 , Albert Brooks was named the best Simpsons guest star by IGN , who said he " captivate [ s ] the audience with his unique characters " . In Planet Simpson , Chris Turner also praised Brooks ' performance , writing that " Brooks went for a subtle , slow @-@ burn lampoon rather than broad caricature : his Goodman doesn 't ooze insincerity , he just lightly dribbles it . [ ... ] Through a dozen little touches , Brooks created a timeless Simpsons character . " MSNBC 's Patrick Enwright listed the episode as his ninth favorite in the show in 2007 , saying it " brilliantly skewers new @-@ agey self @-@ help gurus " and adding that " it 's also noteworthy for clever pop @-@ cultural references . " The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , described it as " A very bizarre episode in which everyone just has a good time . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson wrote : " A certified classic , ' Child ' mocks the self @-@ help field and makes a good point along the way . Of course , it does all this with scads of clever moments and becomes a great show . As one who works in psychology , it 's hard to resist this program 's spoofery . " Patrick Bromley of DVD Verdict gave the episode a grade of B + and described Homer 's escapades with the trampoline as " the episode 's brightest spot . " Turner described the Wile E. Coyote and Road Runner homage as " one of the show 's most overt and inspired tributes to the Warner cartoons . " Bill Gibron of DVD Talk gave the episode a score of 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 . = Haunting Ground = Haunting Ground , known in Japan as Demento ( デメント ) , is a survival horror video game developed and published by Capcom for the PlayStation 2 in 2005 . The story follows Fiona Belli , a young girl who wakes up in the dungeon of a castle after being involved in a car accident . She quickly befriends Hewie , a White Shepherd roaming the castle . With his aid , Fiona seeks to escape the castle and unravel the mysteries of it and its inhabitants . The game shares many similarities with Capcom 's earlier survival horror title Clock Tower 3 , and has been described as a spiritual successor to the Clock Tower series . The player controls Fiona as they explore the environment , evade and hide from enemy pursuers , and occasionally fight against the castle 's inhabitants . Hewie is a central part to the gameplay , and accompanies Fiona throughout the game . He can be given orders to explore the environment , attack enemies , and otherwise aid in Fiona 's survival . Haunting Ground was first revealed in September 2004 . Capcom added the dog mechanic during development thinking retailers and players alike would not enjoy a survival horror title with a lone female protagonist . The game was released in April of next year garnering mixed to average reviews . The graphics and presentation were praised , as well as the sexual overtones which were described as " disturbing " and " off @-@ putting . " Hewie was credited for giving the game a unique feel . However , the story was found to be cliché , and some of the gameplay was noted as predictable and dated . Haunting Ground was re @-@ released digitally in Japan for the PlayStation 3 in 2015 . = = Gameplay = = Haunting Ground is a survival horror game with similar gameplay elements to Clock Tower 3 . The player controls Fiona Belli directly and gives commands to her canine companion , Hewie . Fiona can run and perform a backstep maneuver , both of which reduce stamina . She can also crouch down to hide from enemy pursuers . Fiona can kick and tackle enemies as well , but tackling also reduces stamina . Losing too much stamina will result in Fiona becoming exhausted , causing her movements to slow down or possibly stop altogether . Exhaustion can be revived with certain items or with time . Fiona can interact with the environment by checking items , opening doors , and climbing ladders . The player can utilize hiding spots to evade pursuers . Other areas act as retaliation points that allow Fiona to use her environment to counterattack against her enemy , although some of these locations can only be used once . Commanding Hewie is an integral part of Haunting Ground 's gameplay . At the beginning of the game , he won 't be completely friendly and obey all of Fiona 's commands . The player will have to build a friendship and gain his trust in order to survive the game . Hewie can be told to sniff out items , check suspicious areas or items , attack an enemy , or called back to Fiona 's side . The player can praise Hewie by petting and feeding him , both which can heal his vitality . Likewise , he can be scolded when he won 't listen to commands . He can be told to " stand ready " before attacking , which will increase his attack power . Enemies can hear footsteps and other sounds . When Fiona is in a dangerous situation , she may fall into a panic . During panic mode , visibility gets worse , the menu can 't be opened , and she will begin running on her own , tripping and falling into walls . Panic mode will elapse after some time , or certain items can be used to calm her down . If Fiona sustains a significant amount of damage , she will slow down and become unable to backstep . If she receives too much damage she can die . Damage heals with time or items can be used to bring her vitality back to normal . While some items are used to heal Fiona and Hewie , others are used to damage enemies . Some can be thrown while others are set like traps for the enemy to walk over . Some items are found by searching while others can be crafted in refining rooms . = = Plot = = Fiona Belli is an 18 @-@ year @-@ old girl who recently moved to college . While visiting her parents , she is involved in a car accident , and awakens in a cage in the dungeon of a castle . Her memories of the incident are hazy . Noting that the cage that keeps her prisoner has been left unlocked , she steps out , but is startled by a large , fierce animal that runs past her . She quickly begins searching for answers and a way out of the castle . Soon , she befriends the animal that initially frightened her , a White Shepherd named Hewie . As Fiona begins to unravel the mystery in which she finds herself , she learns that she is the carrier of the Azoth , which , for unknown reasons , is sought after by Riccardo , the castle 's keeper . The first enemy Fiona encounters is Debilitas , a large , mentally disabled groundskeeper who thinks of Fiona as one of his dolls . Fiona then makes contact with a mysterious man named Lorenzo , who seems to want to help her escape . He tells her that to do so , she needs a staff from the chapel . However , upon taking the staff , Debilitas corners Fiona and Hewie , forcing a confrontation . After eliminating Debilitas , Fiona soon finds her next enemy , Daniella , the icy maid . Daniella covets Fiona 's ability to smell , taste , touch , feel , and " experience pleasure . " She is especially jealous that Fiona can create life ( via a fertile womb ) . Daniella is defeated when she is impaled with a shard of broken glass from a ceiling window . The third villain is Riccardo , who wields a flintlock pistol . For the majority of the game , Riccardo keeps his face hidden under a hood . Upon revealing himself however , Fiona is shocked to see her dead father 's face . Riccardo reveals that he and her father , Ugo , are clones . He murdered Ugo in the car accident as revenge for leaving the castle and marrying Fiona 's mother . He plans to use Fiona ( by means of her womb and use of her Azoth ) to bring about his own rebirth , so that he may live forever . As they fight atop a water tower , Hewie rescues Fiona by attacking Riccardo , causing him to fall from the summit . The final enemy is Lorenzo , who seemed to be an ally , but who now menaces Fiona in several different forms . Fiona first meets him as an old , crippled man . He tells Fiona that Riccardo was always the problem child , and that he created both Riccardo and Ugo in an attempt to find a body with an Azoth which he could use to gain immortality . Ugo had the Azoth , but left the castle to marry Ayla . Now with Riccardo dead , Lorenzo believes that Fiona is his , so he can take the Azoth she inherited from her father . He chases after Fiona , but she is able to crush him in a rock press . However , she soon encounters a resurrected , youthful Lorenzo ; the life energy he acquired from Riccardo 's body has allowed him mastery over his own aging process . With the help of Hewie , Fiona causes Lorenzo to fall into a pit of lava . At this point , the castle begins to shake and collapse , and Lorenzo returns as a flaming skeleton . He chases Fiona as she heads for the exit , and attempts to block her escape , but as they reach the door , he finally dies , and Fiona and Hewie eventually leave the castle . = = Development and release = = Capcom began development knowing they wanted to make a survival horror game with a lead female character . Believing that the female lead would not bode well with retailers and players alike , they added in a dog partner that could attack enemies . After this change , they further designed the gameplay around this partner mechanic . On September 24 , 2004 , Capcom debuted Haunting Ground under its Japanese name Demento at the Tokyo Game Show after launching a teaser page on their official website two days prior . While the text was in Japanese only , the English translation of the teaser page read : " One person awakes / Continuation of a nightmare / An unknown place / Fraught with insanity . " Capcom released the game in Japan on April 21 , 2005 , in Europe and Australia on April 29 , 2005 , and in North America on May 10 , 2005 . Critics have described the game as a spiritual successor to the Clock Tower series , although it has never been officially declared as such . In July 2012 , Haunting Ground appeared to be slated for a PlayStation 3 re @-@ release as a " PS2 Classic " , having been rated by the ESRB with Sony Computer Entertainment named as the publisher . On April 21 , 2015 , it was re @-@ released for the PlayStation 3 via the PlayStation Store exclusively in Japan . = = Reception = = Haunting Ground received " average " reviews according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . The game 's sexuality was noted as a positive point by critics . IGN wrote , " Haunting Ground 's combination of high @-@ end presentation , disturbing sexuality , and psychological mindjobbing makes it one of the most interesting games of the last couple of months , " and selected it as the " Game of the Month " for May 2005 . They described it as an " interesting horror experience " that would appeal to " old @-@ school adventure fans " , although they found weakness in the narrative , calling it " clichéd " storytelling . GameSetWatch also felt the sexuality of the game was a positive ; " Disparaging Haunting Ground for its copious objectification of women is a facile task , and so is discrediting its storytelling for the gratuitous exposure . Easy , easy , to fetishize a horny maid , a half @-@ naked young blonde in dire straits and at the mercy of grasping , perverted men . But it 's precisely that off @-@ putting sexuality that makes Daniella terrifying , that makes Fiona 's circumstances so explicitly repugnant , that sharpens Haunting Ground 's fear factor to a knife in the gut . " 1UP.com praised the graphics , character models and environments , arguing that the game featured " some of the most detailed , lavish 3D environments Capcom has ever produced . " They did however feel the game was dated compared to the newly released Resident Evil 4 , stating it " isn 't without merit , it 's just that the merits are buried deep in an occasionally thrilling , mostly ' been there , done that ' game of indistinct origin . " GamePro stated that " despite a few fresh ideas , Haunting Ground is no classic . The thin story relies too often on cliché and titillation , the villains aren 't terribly frightening , and the gameplay becomes too predictable too quickly . Ultimately , this is Resident Evil Lite with a dog . " Despite this , they praised the cinematic presentation and found the visuals as " stark but appealing . " GameSpot noted that Hewie , despite being well @-@ trained , occasionally did not obey orders , adding realism to the game . They found the relationship between Fiona and Hewie and its gameplay mechanics give Haunting Ground " its own special place in the horror genre " . They believed the gameplay to have flaws , " but if you 're a big horror fan and don 't mind something different , Haunting Ground is worth a look . " Other critics also praised the use of Hewie . Just Adventure called him " adorable " and " an asset of the utmost value , " whilst 1UP.com named him " one of the best @-@ implemented efforts " of a dog in video gaming . In a retrospective analysis , Kill Screen 's Zach Budgor compared Haunting Ground 's " psychological landscape " to Dario Argento 's 1977 film Suspiria . He commended the game for making symbolic choices in its design , over more literal and sensible choices , creating a dreamlike atmosphere . The game 's grotesque expressionism was also highlighted . Budgor found that removing the player 's control at critical points highlights Fiona 's subjectivity , with the sounds and images expressing ideas of " violation , transgression , and bodily autonomy . " He also found the drive for the enemies to kill Fiona creates a continuous tension , as its unclear nature lends to an uncomfortable confusion for both Fiona and the player . = Lepidoptera = The Lepidoptera ( / ˌlɛpᵻˈdɒptərə / lep @-@ i @-@ DOP @-@ tər @-@ ə ) is an order of insects that includes moths and butterflies ( both called lepidopterans ) . 180 @,@ 000 species of Lepidoptera are described , in 126 families and 46 superfamilies , 10 % of the total described species of living organisms . It is one of the most widespread and widely recognizable insect orders in the world , encompassing moths and the three superfamilies of butterflies , skipper butterflies , and moth @-@ butterflies . The term was coined by Linnaeus in 1735 and is derived from Ancient Greek λεπίδος ( scale ) and πτερόν ( wing ) . The Lepidoptera show many variations of the basic body structure that have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution . Recent estimates suggest the order may have more species than earlier thought , and is among the four most speciose orders , along with the Hymenoptera , Diptera , and Coleoptera . Lepidopteran species are characterized by more than three derived features , some of the most apparent being the scales covering their bodies and wings , and a proboscis . The scales are modified , flattened " hairs " , and give butterflies and moths their extraordinary variety of colors and patterns . Almost all species have some form of membranous wings , except for a few that have reduced wings or are wingless . Like most other insects , butterflies and moths are holometabolous , meaning they undergo complete metamorphosis . Mating and the laying of eggs are carried out by adults , normally near or on host plants for the larvae . The larvae are commonly called caterpillars , and are completely different from their adult moth or butterfly forms , having a cylindrical body with a well @-@ developed head , mandible mouth parts , three pairs of thoracic legs and from none up to five pairs of prolegs . As they grow , these larvae change in appearance , going through a series of stages called instars . Once fully matured , the larva develops into a pupa , referred to as a chrysalis in the case of butterflies and a cocoon in the case of moths . A few butterflies and many moth species spin a silk case or cocoon prior to pupating , while others do not , instead going underground . The Lepidoptera have , over millions of years , evolved a wide range of wing patterns and coloration ranging from drab moths akin to the related order Trichoptera , to the brightly colored and complex @-@ patterned butterflies . Accordingly , this is the most recognized and popular of insect orders with many people involved in the observation , study , collection , rearing of , and commerce in these insects . A person who collects or studies this order is referred to as a lepidopterist . Butterflies and moths play an important role in the natural ecosystem as pollinators and as food in the food chain ; conversely , their larvae are considered very problematic to vegetation in agriculture , as their main source of food is often live plant matter . In many species , the female may produce from 200 to 600 eggs , while in others , the number may approach 30 @,@ 000 eggs in one day . The caterpillars hatching from these eggs can cause damage to large quantities of crops . Many moth and butterfly species are of economic interest by virtue of their role as pollinators , the silk they produce , or as pest species . = = Etymology = = The word Lepidoptera comes from the Latin word for " scaly wing " , from the Ancient Greek λεπίς ( lepis ) meaning scale and πτερόν ( pteron ) meaning wing . Sometimes , the term Rhopalocera is used to group the species that are butterflies , derived from the Ancient Greek ῥόπαλον ( rhopalon ) and κέρας ( kæras ) meaning " club " and " horn " , respectively , coming from the shape of the antennae of butterflies . The origins of the common names " butterfly " and " moth " are varied and often obscure . The English word butterfly is from Old English buttorfleoge , with many variations in spelling . Other than that , the origin is unknown , although it could be derived from the pale yellow color of many species ' wings suggesting the color of butter . The species of Heterocera are commonly called moths . The origins of the English word moth are more clear , deriving from the Old English moððe " ( cf . Northumbrian dialect mohðe ) from Common Germanic ( compare Old Norse motti , Dutch mot and German Motte all meaning " moth " ) . Perhaps its origins are related to Old English maða meaning " maggot " or from the root of " midge " , which until the 16th century was used mostly to indicate the larva , usually in reference to devouring clothes . The etymological origins of the word " caterpillar " , the larval form of butterflies and moths , are from the early 16th century , from Middle English catirpel , catirpeller , probably an alteration of Old North French catepelose : cate , cat ( from Latin cattus ) + pelose , hairy ( from Latin pilōsus ) . = = Distribution and diversity = = The Lepidoptera are among the most successful groups of insects . They are found on all continents , except Antarctica , and inhabit all terrestrial habitats ranging from desert to rainforest , from lowland grasslands to montane plateaus , but almost always associated with higher plants , especially angiosperms ( flowering plants ) . Among the most northern dwelling species of butterflies and moths is the Arctic Apollo ( Parnassius arcticus ) , which is found in the Arctic Circle in northeastern Yakutia , at an altitude of 1500 meters above sea level . In the Himalayas , various Apollo species such as Parnassius epaphus have been recorded to occur up to an altitude of 6 @,@ 000 m above sea level . Some lepidopteran species exhibit symbiotic , phoretic , or parasitic lifestyles , inhabiting the bodies of organisms rather than the environment . Coprophagous pyralid moth species , called sloth moths , such as Bradipodicola hahneli and Cryptoses choloepi , are unusual in that they are exclusively found inhabiting the fur of sloths , mammals found in Central and South America . Two species of Tinea moths have been recorded as feeding on horny tissue and have been bred from the horns of cattle . The larva of Zenodochium coccivorella is an internal parasite of the coccid Kermes species . Many species have been recorded as breeding in natural materials or refuse such as owl pellets , bat caves , honeycombs or diseased fruit . As of 2007 , there was roughly 174 @,@ 250 lepidopteran species described , with butterflies and skippers estimated to comprise around 17 @,@ 950 , and moths making up the rest . The vast majority of Lepidoptera are to be found in the tropics , but substantial diversity exists on most continents . North America has over 700 species of butterflies and over 11 @,@ 000 species of moths , while about 400 species of butterflies and 14 @,@ 000 species of moths are reported from Australia . The diversity of Lepidoptera in each faunal region has been estimated by John Heppner in 1991 based partly on actual counts from the literature , partly on the card indices in the Natural History Museum ( London ) and the National Museum of Natural History ( Washington ) , and partly on estimates : = = External morphology = = Lepidoptera are morphologically distinguished from other orders principally by the presence of scales on the external parts of the body and appendages , especially the wings . Butterflies and moths vary in size from microlepidoptera only a few millimeters long , to conspicuous animals with a wingspan greater than 25 centimetres , such as the Monarch butterfly and Atlas moth . Lepidopterans undergo a four @-@ stage lifecycle : egg ; larva or caterpillar ; pupa or chrysalis ; and imago ( plural : imagines ) / adult and show many variations of the basic body structure , which have evolved to gain advantages in lifestyle and distribution . = = = Head = = = The head is where many sensing organs and the mouth parts are found . Like the adult , the larva also has a toughened , or sclerotized head capsule . Here , two compound eyes , and chaetosema , raised spots or clusters of sensory bristles unique to Lepidoptera , occur , though many taxa have lost one or both of these spots . The antennae have a wide variation in form among species and even between different sexes . The antennae of butterflies are usually filiform and shaped like clubs , those of the skippers are hooked , while those of moths have flagellar segments variously enlarged or branched . Some moths have enlarged antennae or ones that are tapered and hooked at the ends . The maxillary galeae are modified and form an elongated proboscis . The proboscis consists of one to five segments , usually kept coiled up under the head by small muscles when it is not being used to suck up nectar from flowers or other liquids . Some basal moths still have mandibles , or separate moving jaws , like their ancestors , and these form the family Micropterigidae . The larvae , called caterpillars , have a toughened head capsule . Caterpillars lack the proboscis and have separate chewing mouthparts . These mouthparts , called mandibles , are used to chew up the plant matter that the larvae eat . The lower jaw , or labium , is weak , but may carry a spinneret , an organ used to create silk . The head is made of large lateral lobes , each having an ellipse of up to six simple eyes . = = = Thorax = = = The thorax is made of three fused segments , the prothorax , mesothorax , and metathorax , each with a pair of legs . The first segment contains the first pair of legs . In some males of the butterfly family Nymphalidae , the fore legs are greatly reduced and are not used for walking or perching . The three pairs of legs are covered with scales . Lepidoptera also have olfactory organs on their feet , which aid the butterfly in " tasting " or " smelling " out its food . In the larval form there are 3 pairs of true legs , with up to 11 pairs of abdominal legs ( usually eight ) and hooklets , called apical crochets . The two pairs of wings are found on the middle and third segments , or mesothorax and metathorax , respectively . In the more recent genera , the wings of the second segment are much more pronounced , although some more primitive forms have similarly sized wings of both segments . The wings are covered in scales arranged like shingles , which form an extraordinary variety of colors and patterns . The mesothorax is designed to have more powerful muscles to propel the moth or butterfly through the air , with the wing of this segment ( fore wing ) having a stronger vein structure . The largest superfamily , the Noctuidae , has their wings modified to act as tympanal or hearing organs . The caterpillar has an elongated , soft body that may have hair @-@ like or other projections , three pairs of true legs , with none to 11 pairs of abdominal legs ( usually eight ) and hooklets , called apical crochets . The thorax usually has a pair of legs on each segment . The thorax is also lined with many spiracles on both the mesothorax and metathorax , except for a few aquatic species , which instead have a form of gills . = = = Abdomen = = = The abdomen , which is less sclerotized than the thorax , consists of 10 segments with membranes in between , allowing for articulated movement . The sternum , on the first segment , is small in some families and is completely absent in others . The last two or three segments form the external parts of the species ' sex organs . The genitalia of Lepidoptera are highly varied and are often the only means of differentiating between species . Male genitals include a valva , which is usually large , as it is used to grasp the female during mating . Female genitalia include three distinct sections . The females of basal moths have only one sex organ , which is used for copulation and as an ovipositor , or egg @-@ laying organ . About 98 % of moth species have a separate organ for mating , and an external duct that carries the sperm from the male . The abdomen of the caterpillar has four pairs of prolegs , normally located on the third to sixth segments of the abdomen , and a separate pair of prolegs by the anus , which have a pair of tiny hooks called crotchets . These aid in gripping and walking , especially in species that lack many prolegs ( e. g. larvae of Geometridae ) . In some basal moths , these prolegs may be on every segment of the body , while prolegs may be lost completely in other groups , which are more adapted to boring and living in sand ( e. g . , Prodoxidae and Nepticulidae , respectively ) . = = = Scales = = = The wings , head , and parts of the thorax and abdomen of Lepidoptera are covered with minute scales , a feature from which the order derives its name . Most scales are lamellar , or blade @-@ like and attached with a pedicel , while other forms may be hair @-@ like or specialized as secondary sexual characteristics . The lumen or surface of the lamella has a complex structure . It gives color either by colored pigments it contains , or through structural coloration with mechanisms that include photonic crystals and diffraction gratings . Scales function in insulation , thermoregulation , producing pheromones ( in males only ) , and aiding gliding flight , but the most important is the large diversity of vivid or indistinct patterns they provide , which help the organism protect itself by camouflage or mimicry , and which act as signals to other animals including rivals and potential mates . = = Internal morphology = = = = = Reproductive system = = = In the reproductive system of butterflies and moths , the male genitalia are complex and unclear . In females the three types of genitalia are based on the relating taxa : ' monotrysian ' , ' exoporian ' , and ' ditrysian ' . In the monotrysian type is an opening on the fused segments of the sterna 9 and 10 , which act as insemination and oviposition . In the exoporian type ( in Hepaloidae and Mnesarchaeoidea ) are two separate places for insemination and oviposition , both occurring on the same sterna as the monotrysian type , i.e. 9 and 10 . The ditrysian groups have an internal duct that carries sperm , with separate openings for copulation and egg @-@ laying . In most species , the genitalia are flanked by two soft lobes , although they may be specialized and sclerotized in some species for ovipositing in area such as crevices and inside plant tissue . Hormones and the glands that produce them run the development of butterflies and moths as they go through their lifecycles , called the endocrine system . The first insect hormone prothoracicotropic hormone ( PTTH ) operates the species lifecycle and diapause . This hormone is produced by corpora allata and corpora cardiaca , where it is also stored . Some glands are specialized to perform certain task such as producing silk or producing saliva in the palpi . While the corpora cardiaca produce PTTH , the corpora allata also produces juvenile hormones , and the prothorocic glands produce moulting hormones . = = = Digestive system = = = In the digestive system , the anterior region of the foregut has been modified to form a pharyngeal sucking pump as they need it for the food they eat , which are for the most part liquids . An esophagus follows and leads to the posterior of the pharynx and in some species forms a form of crop . The midgut is short and straight , with the hindgut being longer and coiled . Ancestors of lepidopteran species , stemming from Hymenoptera , had midgut ceca , although this is lost in current butterflies and moths . Instead , all the digestive enzymes , other than initial digestion , are immobilized at the surface of the midgut cells . In larvae , long @-@ necked and stalked goblet cells are found in the anterior and posterior midgut regions , respectively . In insects , the goblet cells excrete positive potassium ions , which are absorbed from leaves ingested by the larvae . Most butterflies and moths display the usual digestive cycle , but species with different diets require adaptations to meet these new demands . = = = Circulatory system = = = In the circulatory system , hemolymph , or insect blood , is used to circulate heat in a form of thermoregulation , where muscles contraction produces heat , which is transferred to the rest of the body when conditions are unfavorable . In lepidopteran species , hemolymph is circulated through the veins in the wings by some form of pulsating organ , either by the heart or by the intake of air into the trachea . = = = Respiratory system = = = Air is taken in through spiracles along the sides of the abdomen and thorax supplying the trachea with oxygen as it goes through the lepidopteran 's respiratory system . Three different tracheaes supply and diffuse oxygen throughout the species ' bodies . The dorsal tracheae supply oxygen to the dorsal musculature and vessels , while the ventral tracheae supply the ventral musculature and nerve cord , and the visceral tracheae supply the guts , fat bodies , and gonads . = = Polymorphism = = Polymorphism is the appearance of forms or " morphs " , which differ in color and number of attributes within a single species . In Lepidoptera , polymorphism can be seen not only between individuals in a population , but also between the sexes as sexual dimorphism , between geographically separated populations in geographical polymorphism , and between generations flying at different seasons of the year ( seasonal polymorphism or polyphenism ) . In some species , the polymorphism is limited to one sex , typically the female . This often includes the phenomenon of mimicry when mimetic morphs fly alongside nonmimetic morphs in a population of a particular species . Polymorphism occurs both at specific level with heritable variation in the overall morphological design of individuals , as well as in certain specific morphological or physiological traits within a species . Environmental polymorphism , in which traits are not inherited , is often termed as polyphenism , which in Lepidoptera is commonly seen in the form of seasonal morphs , especially in the butterfly families of Nymphalidae and Pieridae . An Old World pierid butterfly , the common grass yellow ( Eurema hecabe ) has a darker summer adult morph , triggered by a long day exceeding 13 hours in duration , while the shorter diurnal period of 12 hours or less induces a paler morph in the postmonsoon period . Polyphenism also occurs in caterpillars , an example being the peppered moth , Biston betularia . Geographical isolation causes a divergence of a species into different morphs . A good example is the Indian white admiral Limenitis procris , which has five forms , each geographically separated from the other by large mountain ranges . An even more dramatic showcase of geographical polymorphism is the Apollo butterfly ( Parnassius apollo ) . Because the Apollos live in small local populations , thus having no contact with each other , coupled with their strong stenotopic nature and weak migration ability , interbreeding between populations of one species practically does not occur ; by this , they form over 600 different morphs , with the size of spots on the wings of which varies greatly . Sexual dimorphism is the occurrence of differences between males and females in a species . In Lepidoptera , it is widespread and almost completely set by genetic determination . Sexual dimorphism is present in all families of the Papilionoidea and more prominent in the Lycaenidae , Pieridae , and certain taxa of the Nymphalidae . Apart from color variation , which may differ from slight to completely different color @-@ pattern combinations , secondary sexual characteristics may also be present . Different genotypes maintained by natural selection may also be expressed at the same time . Polymorphic and / or mimetic females occur in the case of some taxa in the Papilionidae primarily to obtain a level of protection not available to the male of their species . The most distinct case of sexual dimorphism is that of adult females of many Psychidae species which have only vestigial wings , legs , and mouthparts as compared to the adult males that are strong fliers with well @-@ developed wings and feathery antennae . = = Reproduction and development = = Species of Lepidoptera undergo holometabolism or " complete metamorphosis " . Their lifecycle normally consists of an egg , a larva , a pupa , and an imago or adult . The larvae are commonly called caterpillars , and the pupae of moths encapsulated in silk are called cocoons , while the uncovered pupae of butterflies are called chrysalides . = = = Lepidopterans in diapause = = = Unless the species reproduces year @-@ round , a butterfly or moth may enter diapause , a state of dormancy that allows the insect to survive unfavorable environmental conditions . = = = Mating = = = Males usually start eclosion ( emergence ) earlier than females and peak in numbers before females . Both of the sexes are sexually mature by the time of eclosion . Butterflies and moths normally do not associate with each other , except for migrating species , staying relatively asocial . Mating begins with an adult ( female or male ) attracting a mate , normally using visual stimuli , especially in diurnal species like most butterflies . However , the females of most nocturnal species , including almost all moth species , use pheromones to attract males , sometimes from long distances . Some species engage in a form of acoustic courtship , or attract mates using sound or vibration such as the polka @-@ dot wasp moth , Syntomeida epilais . Adaptations include undergoing one seasonal generation , two or even more , called voltinism ( Univoltism , bivoltism , and multivism , respectively ) . Most lepidopterans in temperate climates are univoltine , while in tropical climates most have two seasonal broods . Some others may take advantage of any opportunity they can get , and mate continuously throughout the year . These seasonal adaptations are controlled by hormones , and these delays in reproduction are called diapause . Many lepidopteran species , after mating and laying their eggs , die shortly afterwards , having only lived for a few days after eclosion . Others may still be active for several weeks and then overwinter and become sexually active again when the weather becomes more favorable , or diapause . The sperm of the male that mated most recently with the female is most likely to have fertilized the eggs , but the sperm from a prior mating may still prevail . = = = Lifecycle = = = = = = = Eggs = = = = Lepidoptera usually reproduce sexually and are oviparous ( egg @-@	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
laying ) , though some species exhibit live birth in a process called ovoviviparity . A variety of differences in egg @-@ laying and the number of eggs laid occur . Some species simply drop their eggs in flight ( these species normally have polyphagous larvae , meaning they eat a variety of plants e. g . , hepialids and some nymphalids ) while most lay their eggs near or on the host plant on which the larvae feed . The number of eggs laid may vary from only a few to several thousand . The females of both butterflies and moths select the host plant instinctively , and primarily , by chemical cues . The eggs are derived from materials ingested as a larvae and in some species , from the spermataphores received from males during mating . An egg can only be 1 / 1000 the mass of the female , yet she may lay up to her own mass in eggs . Females lay smaller eggs as they age . Larger Females lay larger eggs . The egg is covered by a hard @-@ ridged protective outer layer of shell , called the chorion . It is lined with a thin coating of wax , which prevents the egg from drying out . Each egg contains a number of micropyles , or tiny funnel @-@ shaped openings at one end , the purpose of which is to allow sperm to enter and fertilize the egg . Butterfly and moth eggs vary greatly in size between species , but they are all either spherical or ovate . The egg stage lasts a few weeks in most butterflies , but eggs laid prior to winter , especially in temperate regions , go through diapause , and hatching may be delayed until spring . Other butterflies may lay their eggs in the spring and have them hatch in the summer . These butterflies are usually temperate species ( e. g . Nymphalis antiopa ) . = = = = Larvae = = = = The larvae or caterpillars are the first stage in the lifecycle after hatching . Caterpillars , are " characteristic polypod larvae with cylindrical bodies , short thoracic legs , and abdominal prolegs ( pseudopods ) " . They have a toughened ( sclerotised ) head capsule with an adfrontal suture formed by medial fusion of the sclerites , mandibles ( mouthparts ) for chewing , and a soft tubular , segmented body , that may have hair @-@ like or other projections , three pairs of true legs , and additional prolegs ( up to five pairs ) . The body consists of thirteen segments , of which three are thoracic and ten are abdominal . Most larvae are herbivores , but a few are carnivores ( some eat ants or other caterpillars ) and detritivores . Different herbivorous species have adapted to feed on every part of the plant and are normally considered pests to their host plants ; some species have been found to lay their eggs on the fruit and other species lay their eggs on clothing or fur ( e. g . , Tineola bisselliella , the common clothes moth ) . Some species are carnivorous and others are even parasitic . Some lycaenid species such as Maculinea rebeli are social parasites of Myrmica ants nests . A species of Geometridae from Hawaii has carnivorous larvae that catch and eat flies . Some pyralid caterpillars are aquatic . The larvae develop rapidly with several generations in a year ; however , some species may take up to 3 years to develop , and exceptional examples like Gynaephora groenlandica take as long as seven years . The larval stage is where the feeding and growing stages occur , and the larvae periodically undergo hormone @-@ induced ecdysis , developing further with each instar , until they undergo the final larval @-@ pupal molt . The lepidopteran pupa , known as a chrysalis in the case of butterflies , has functional mandibles with appendages fused or glued to the body in most species , while the pupal mandibles are not functional in others . The larvae of both butterflies and moths exhibit mimicry to deter potential predators . Some caterpillars have the ability to inflate parts of their heads to appear snake @-@ like . Many have false eye @-@ spots to enhance this effect . Some caterpillars have special structures called osmeteria ( family Papilionidae ) , which are exposed to produce smelly chemicals used in defense . Host plants often have toxic substances in them and caterpillars are able to sequester these substances and retain them into the adult stage . This helps make them unpalatable to birds and other predators . Such unpalatability is advertised using bright red , orange , black , or white warning colors . The toxic chemicals in plants are often evolved specifically to prevent them from being eaten by insects . Insects , in turn , develop countermeasures or make use of these toxins for their own survival . This " arms race " has led to the coevolution of insects and their host plants . = = = = Wing development = = = = No form of wing is externally visible on the larva , but when larvae are dissected , developing wings can be seen as disks , which can be found on the second and third thoracic segments , in place of the spiracles that are apparent on abdominal segments . Wing disks develop in association with a trachea that runs along the base of the wing , and are surrounded by a thin peripodial membrane , which is linked to the outer epidermis of the larva by a tiny duct . Wing disks are very small until the last larval instar , when they increase dramatically in size , are invaded by branching tracheae from the wing base that precede the formation of the wing veins , and begin to develop patterns associated with several landmarks of the wing . Near pupation , the wings are forced outside the epidermis under pressure from the hemolymph , and although they are initially quite flexible and fragile , by the time the pupa breaks free of the larval cuticle , they have adhered tightly to the outer cuticle of the pupa ( in obtect pupae ) . Within hours , the wings form a cuticle so hard and well @-@ joined to the body that pupae can be picked up and handled without damage to the wings . = = = = Pupa = = = = After about five to seven instars , or molts , certain hormones , like PTTH , stimulate the production of ecdysone , which initiates insect molting . Then , the larva puparium , a sclerotized or hardened cuticle of the last larval instar , develops into the pupa . Depending on the species , the pupa may be covered in silk and attached to many different types of debris , or may not be covered at all . The pupa stays attached to the leaf by silk spun by the caterpillar before it spins the silk for the full pupa . Features of the imago are externally recognizable in the pupa . All the appendages on the adult head and thorax are found cased inside the cuticle ( antennae , mouthparts , etc . ) , with the wings wrapped around , adjacent to the antennae . While encased , some of the lower segments are not fused , and are able to move using small muscles found in between the membrane . Moving may help the pupa , for example , escape the sun , which would otherwise kill it . The pupa of the Mexican jumping bean moth ( Cydia deshaisiana ) does this . The larvae cut a trapdoor in the bean ( species of Sebastiania ) and use the bean as a shelter . With a sudden rise in temperature , the pupa inside twitches and jerks , pulling on the threads inside . Wiggling may also help to deter parasitoid wasps from laying eggs on the pupa . Other species of moths are able to make clicks to deter predators . The length of time before the pupa ecloses ( emerges ) varies greatly . The monarch butterfly may stay in its chrysalis for two weeks , while other species may need to stay for more than 10 months in diapause . The adult emerges from the pupa either by using abdominal hooks or from projections located on the head . The mandibles found in the most primitive moth families are used to escape from their cocoon ( e. g . , Micropterigoidea ) . = = = = Adult = = = = Most lepidopteran species do not live long after eclosion , only needing a few days to find a mate and then lay their eggs . Others may remain active for a longer period ( from one to several weeks ) , or go through diapause and overwintering as monarch butterflies do , or waiting out environmental stress . Some adult species of Microlepidoptera go through a stage where no reproductive @-@ related activity occurs , lasting through summer and winter , followed by mating and oviposition in the early spring . While most butterflies and moths are terrestrial , many species of Pyralidae are truly aquatic with all stages except the adult occurring in water . Many species from other families such as Arctiidae , Nepticulidae , Cosmopterygidae , Tortricidae , Olethreutidae , Noctuidae , Cossidae , and Sphingidae are aquatic or semiaquatic . = = Behavior = = = = = Flight = = = Flight is an important aspect of the lives of butterflies and moths , and is used for evading predators , searching for food , and finding mates in a timely manner , as lepidopteran species do not live long after eclosion . It is the main form of locomotion in most species . In Lepidoptera , the fore wings and hind wings are mechanically coupled and flap in synchrony . Flight is anteromotoric , or being driven primarily by action of the fore wings . Although lepidopteran species reportedly can still fly when their hind wings are cut off , it reduces their linear flight and turning capabilities . Lepidopteran species have to be warm , about 77 to 79 ° F ( 25 to 26 ° C ) , to fly . They depend on their body temperature being sufficiently high and since they cannot regulate it themselves , this is dependent on their environment . Butterflies living in cooler climates may use their wings to warm their bodies . They will bask in the sun , spreading out their wings so that they get maximum exposure to the sunlight . In hotter climates butterflies can easily overheat , so they are usually active only during the cooler parts of the day , early morning , late afternoon or early evening . During the heat of the day , they rest in the shade . Some larger thick @-@ bodied moths ( e.g. Sphingidae ) can generate their own heat to a limited degree by vibrating their wings . The heat generated by the flight muscles warms the thorax while the temperature of the abdomen is unimportant for flight . To avoid overheating , some moths rely on hairy scales , internal air sacs , and other structures to separate the thorax and abdomen and keep the abdomen cooler . Some species of butterflies can reach fast speeds , such as the southern dart , which can go as fast as 48 @.@ 4 km / h . Sphingids are some of the fastest flying insects , some are capable of flying at over 50 km / h ( 30 mi / h ) , having a wingspan of 35 – 150 mm . In some species , sometimes a gliding component to their flight exists . Flight occurs either as hovering , or as forward or backward motion . In butterfly and moth species , such as hawk moths , hovering is important as they need to maintain a certain stability over flowers when feeding on the nectar . = = = = Navigation = = = = Navigation is important to lepidoptera species , especially for those that migrate . Butterflies , which have more species that migrate , have been shown to navigate using time @-@ compensated sun compasses . They can see polarized light , so can orient even in cloudy conditions . The polarized light in the region close to the ultraviolet spectrum is suggested to be particularly important . Most migratory butterflies are those that live in semiarid areas where breeding seasons are short . The life histories of their host plants also influence the strategies of the butterflies . Other theories include the use of landscapes . Lepidoptera may use coastal lines , mountains , and even roads to orient themselves . Above sea , the flight direction is much more accurate if the coast is still visible . Many studies have also shown that moths navigate . One study showed that many moths may use the Earth 's magnetic field to navigate , as a study of the moth heart and dart suggests . Another study , of the migratory behavior of the silver Y , showed , even at high altitudes , the species can correct its course with changing winds , and prefers flying with favourable winds , suggesting a great sense of direction . Aphrissa statira in Panama loses its navigational capacity when exposed to a magnetic field , suggesting it uses the Earth 's magnetic field . Moths exhibit a tendency to circle artificial lights repeatedly . This suggests they use a technique of celestial navigation called transverse orientation . By maintaining a constant angular relationship to a bright celestial light , such as the Moon , they can fly in a straight line . Celestial objects are so far away , even after traveling great distances , the change in angle between the moth and the light source is negligible ; further , the moon will always be in the upper part of the visual field or on the horizon . When a moth encounters a much closer artificial light and uses it for navigation , the angle changes noticeably after only a short distance , in addition to being often below the horizon . The moth instinctively attempts to correct by turning toward the light , causing airborne moths to come plummeting downwards , and at close range , which results in a spiral flight path that gets closer and closer to the light source . Other explanations have been suggested , such as the idea that moths may be impaired with a visual distortion called a Mach band by Henry Hsiao in 1972 . He stated that they fly towards the darkest part of the sky in pursuit of safety , thus are inclined to circle ambient objects in the Mach band region . = = = = Migration = = = = Lepidopteran migration is typically seasonal , as the insects moving to escape dry seasons or other disadvantageous conditions . Most lepidopterans that migrate are butterflies , and the distance travelled varies . Some butterflies that migrate include the mourning cloak , painted lady , American lady , red admiral , and the common buckeye . The most well @-@ known migrations are those of the eastern population of the monarch butterfly from Mexico to northern United States and southern Canada , a distance of about 4 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 800 km ( 2 @,@ 500 – 3 @,@ 000 mi ) . Other well @-@ known migratory species include the painted lady and several of the danaine butterflies . Spectacular and large @-@ scale migrations associated with the monsoons are seen in peninsular India . Migrations have been studied in more recent times using wing tags and stable hydrogen isotopes . Moths also undertake migrations , an example being the uraniids . Urania fulgens undergoes population explosions and massive migrations that may be not surpassed by any other insect in the Neotropics . In Costa Rica and Panama , the first population movements may begin in July and early August and depending on the year , may be very massive , continuing unabated for as long as five months . = = = Communication = = = Pheromones are commonly involved in mating rituals among species , especially moths , but they are also an important aspect of other forms of communication . Usually , the pheromones are produced by either the male or the female and detected by members of the opposite sex with their antennae . In many species , a gland between the eighth and ninth segments under the abdomen in the female produces the pheromones . Communication can also occur through stridulation , or producing sounds by rubbing various parts of the body together . Moths are known to engage in acoustic forms of communication , most often as courtship , attracting mates using sound or vibration . Like most other insects , moths pick up these sounds using tympanic membranes in their abdomens . An example is that of the polka @-@ dot wasp moth ( Syntomeida epilais ) , which produces sounds with a frequency above that normally detectable by humans ( about 20 kHz ) . These sounds also function as tactile communication , or communication through touch , as they stridulate , or vibrate a substrate like leaves and stems . Most moths lack bright colors , as many species use coloration as camouflage , but butterflies engage in visual communication . Female cabbage butterflies , for example , use ultraviolet light to communicate , with scales colored in this range on the dorsal wing surface . When they fly , each down stroke of the wing creates a brief flash of ultraviolet light which the males apparently recognize as the flight signature of a potential mate . These flashes from the wings may attract several males that engage in aerial courtship displays . = = Ecology = = Moths and butterflies are important in the natural ecosystem . They are integral participants in the food chain ; having co @-@ evolved with flowering plants and predators , lepidopteran species have formed a network of trophic relationships between autotrophs and heterotrophs , which are included in the stages of Lepidoptera larvae , pupae , and adults . Larvae and pupae are links in the diets of birds and parasitic entomophagous insects . The adults are included in food webs in a much broader range of consumers ( including birds , small mammals , reptiles , etc . ) . = = = Defense and predation = = = Lepidopteran species are soft bodied , fragile , and almost defenseless , while the immature stages move slowly or are immobile , hence all stages are exposed to predation . Adult butterflies and moths are preyed upon by birds , lizards , amphibians , dragonflies , and spiders . Caterpillars and pupae fall prey not only to birds , but also to invertebrate predators and small mammals , as well as fungi and bacteria . Parasitoid and parasitic wasps and flies may lay eggs in the caterpillar , which eventually kill it as they hatch inside its body and eat its tissues . Insect @-@ eating birds are probably the largest predators . Lepidoptera , especially the immature stages , are an ecologically important food to many insectivorous birds , such as the great tit in Europe . An " evolutionary arms race " can be seen between predator and prey species . The Lepidoptera have developed a number of strategies for defense and protection , including evolution of morphological characters and changes in ecological lifestyles and behaviors . These include aposematism , mimicry , camouflage , and development of threat patterns and displays . Only a few birds , such as the nightjars , hunt nocturnal lepidopterans . Their main predators are bats . Again , an " evolutionary race " exists , which has led to numerous evolutionary adaptations of moths to escape from their main predators , such as the ability to hear ultrasonic sounds , or even to emit sounds in some cases . Lepidopteran eggs are also preyed upon . Some caterpillars , such as the zebra swallowtail butterfly larvae , are cannibalistic . Some species of Lepidoptera are poisonous to predators , such as the monarch butterfly in the Americas , Atrophaneura species ( roses , windmills , etc . ) in Asia , as well as Papilio antimachus , and the birdwings , the largest butterflies in Africa and Asia , respectively . They obtain their toxicity by sequestering the chemicals from the plants they eat into their own tissues . Some Lepidoptera manufacture their own toxins . Predators that eat poisonous butterflies and moths may become sick and vomit violently , learning not to eat those species . A predator which has previously eaten a poisonous lepidopteran may avoid other species with similar markings in the future , thus saving many other species , as well . Toxic butterflies and larvae tend to develop bright colors and striking patterns as an indicator to predators about their toxicity . This phenomenon is known as aposematism . Some caterpillars , especially members of Papilionidae , contain an osmeterium , a Y @-@ shaped protrusible gland found in the prothoracic segment of the larvae . When threatened , the caterpillar emits unpleasant smells from the organ to ward off the predators . Camouflage is also an important defense strategy , which involves the use of coloration or shape to blend into the surrounding environment . Some lepidopteran species blend with their surroundings , making them difficult to spot by predators . Caterpillars can exhibit shades of green that match its host plant . Others look like inedible objects , such as twigs or leaves . For instance , the mourning cloak fades into the backdrop of trees when it folds its wings back . The larvae of some species , such as the common Mormon ( Papilio polytes ) and the western tiger swallowtail look like bird droppings . For example , adult Sesiidae species ( also known as clearwing moths ) have a general appearance sufficiently similar to a wasp or hornet to make it likely the moths gain a reduction in predation by Batesian mimicry . Eyespots are a type of automimicry used by some butterflies and moths . In butterflies , the spots are composed of concentric rings of scales in different colors . The proposed role of the eyespots is to deflect attention of predators . Their resemblance to eyes provokes the predator 's instinct to attack these wing patterns . Batesian and Müllerian mimicry complexes are commonly found in Lepidoptera . Genetic polymorphism and natural selection give rise to otherwise edible species ( the mimic ) gaining a survival advantage by resembling inedible species ( the model ) . Such a mimicry complex is referred to as Batesian and is most commonly known in the example between the limenitidine viceroy butterfly in relation to the inedible danaine monarch . The viceroy is , in fact , more toxic than the monarch and this resemblance should be considered as a case of Müllerian mimicry . In Müllerian mimicry , inedible species , usually within a taxonomic order , find it advantageous to resemble each other so as to reduce the sampling rate by predators that need to learn about the insects ' inedibility . Taxa from the toxic genus Heliconius form one of the most well @-@ known Müllerian complexes . The adults of the various species now resemble each other so well , the species cannot be distinguished without close morphological observation and , in some cases , dissection or genetic analysis . Moths evidently are able to hear the range emitted by bat ] s , which in effect causes flying moths to make evasive maneuvers because bats are a main predator of moths . Ultrasonic frequencies trigger a reflex action in the noctuid moth that cause it to drop a few inches in its flight to evade attack . Tiger moths in a defense emit clicks within the same range of the bats , which interfere with the bats and foil their attempts to echolocate it . = = = Pollination = = = Most species of Lepidoptera engage in some form of entomophily ( more specifically psychophily and phalaenophily for butterflies and moths , respectively ) , or the pollination of flowers . Most adult butterflies and moths feed on the nectar inside flowers , using their probosces to reach the nectar hidden at the base of the petals . In the process , the adults brush against the flowers ' stamens , on which the reproductive pollen is made and stored . The pollen is transferred on appendages on the adults , which fly to the next flower to feed and unwittingly deposit the pollen on the stigma of the next flower , where the pollen germinates and fertilizes the seeds . Flowers pollinated by butterflies tend to be large and flamboyant , pink or lavender in color , frequently having a landing area , and usually scented , as butterflies are typically day @-@ flying . Since butterflies do not digest pollen ( except for heliconid species , ) more nectar is offered than pollen . The flowers have simple nectar guides , with the nectaries usually hidden in narrow tubes or spurs , reached by the long " tongue " of the butterflies . Butterflies such as Thymelicus flavus have been observed to engage in flower constancy , which means they are more likely to transfer pollen to other conspecific plants . This can be beneficial for the plants being pollinated , as flower constancy prevents the loss of pollen during different flights and the pollinators from clogging stigmas with pollen of other flower species . Among the more important moth pollinator groups are the hawk moths of the family Sphingidae . Their behavior is similar to hummingbirds , i.e. , using rapid wing beats to hover in front of flowers . Most hawk moths are nocturnal or crepuscular , so moth @-@ pollinated flowers ( e.g. , Silene latifolia ) tend to be white , night @-@ opening , large , and showy with tubular corollae and a strong , sweet scent produced in the evening , night , or early morning . A lot of nectar is produced to fuel the high metabolic rates needed to power their flight . Other moths ( e.g. , noctuids , geometrids , pyralids ) fly slowly and settle on the flower . They do not require as much nectar as the fast @-@ flying hawk moths , and the flowers tend to be small ( though they may be aggregated in heads ) . = = = Mutualism = = = Mutualism is a form of biological interaction wherein each individual involved benefits in some way . An example of a mutualistic relationship would be that shared by yucca moths ( Tegeculidae ) and their host , yucca flowers ( Liliaceae ) . Female yucca moths enter the host flowers , collect the pollen into a ball using specialized maxillary palps , then move to the apex of the pistil , where pollen is deposited on the stigma , and lay eggs into the base of the pistil where seeds will develop . The larvae develop in the fruit pod and feed on a portion of the seeds . Thus , both insect and plant benefit , forming a highly mutualistic relationship . Another form of mutualism occurs between some larvae of butterflies and certain species of ants ( e. g . Lycaenidae ) . The larvae communicate with the ants using vibrations transmitted through a substrate , such as the wood of a tree or stems , as well as using chemical signals . The ants provide some degree of protection to these larvae and they in turn gather honeydew secretions . = = = Parasitism = = = Only 41 species of parasitoid lepidopterans are known ( 1 @-@ Pyralidae ; 40 @-@ Epipyropidae ) . The larvae of the greater and lesser wax moths feed on the honeycomb inside bee nests and may become pests ; they are also found in bumblebee and wasp nests , albeit to a lesser extent . In northern Europe , the wax moth is regarded as the most serious parasitoid of the bumblebee , and is found only in bumblebee nests . In some areas in southern England , as much as 80 % of nests can be destroyed . Other parasitic larvae are known to prey upon cicadas and leaf hoppers . In reverse , moths and butterflies may be subject to parasitic wasps and flies , which may lay eggs on the caterpillars , which hatch and feed inside its body , resulting in death . Although , in a form of parasitism called idiobiont , the adult paralyzes the host , so as not to kill it but for it to live as long as possible , for the parasitic larvae to benefit the most . In another form of parasitism , koinobiont , the species live off their hosts while inside ( endoparasitic ) . These parasites live inside the host caterpillar throughout its lifecycle , or may affect it later on as an adult . In other orders , koinobionts include flies , a majority of coleopteran , and many hymenopteran parasitoids . Some species may be subject to a variety of parasites , such as the gypsy moth ( Lymantaria dispar ) , which is attacked by a series of 13 species , in six different taxa throughout its lifecycle . In response to a parsitoid egg or larva in the caterpillar 's body , the plasmatocytes , or simply the host 's cells can form a multilayered capsule that eventually causes the endoparasite to asphyxiate . The process , called encapsulation , is one of the caterpillar 's only means of defense against parasitoids . = = = Other biological interactions = = = A few species of Lepidoptera are secondary consumers , or predators . These species typically prey upon the eggs of other insects , aphids , scale insects , or ant larvae . Some caterpillars are cannibals , and others prey on caterpillars of other species ( e. g . Hawaiian Eupithecia ) . Those of the 15 species in Eupithecia that mirror inchworms , are the only known species of butterflies and moths that are ambush predators . Four species are known to eat snails . For example , the Hawaiian caterpillar , ( H. molluscivora ) , uses silk traps , in a manner similar to that of spiders , to capture certain species of snails ( typically Tornatellides ) . Larvae of some species of moths in the Tineidae , Gelechioidae , and Noctuidae ( family / superfamily / families , respectively ) , besides others , feed on detritus , or dead organic material , such as fallen leaves and fruit , fungi , and animal products , and turn it into humus . Well @-@ known species include the cloth moths ( Tineola bisselliella , T. pellionella , and T. tapetzella ) , which feed on detritus containing keratin , including hair , feathers , cobwebs , bird nests ( particularly of domestic pigeons , Columba livia domestica ) and fruits or vegetables . These species are important to ecosystems as they remove substances that would otherwise take a long time to decompose . In 2015 it was reported that wasp bracovirus DNA was present in Lepidoptera such as Monarch butterflies , silkworms and moths . These were described in some newspaper articles as examples of a naturally occurring genetically engineered insects . = = Evolution and systematics = = = = = History of study = = = Linnaeus in Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) recognized three divisions of the Lepidoptera : Papilio , Sphinx and Phalaena , with seven subgroups in Phalaena . These persist today as 9 of the superfamilies of Lepidoptera . Other works on classification followed including those by Michael Denis & Ignaz Schiffermüller ( 1775 ) , Johan Christian Fabricius ( 1775 ) and Pierre André Latreille ( 1796 ) . Jacob Hübner described many genera , and the Lepidopteran genera were catalogued by Ferdinand Ochsenheimer and Georg Friedrich Treitschke in a series of volumes on the Lepidopteran fauna of Europe published between 1807 and 1835 . Gottlieb August Wilhelm Herrich @-@ Schäffer ( several volumes , 1843 – 1856 ) , and Edward Meyrick ( 1895 ) based their classifications primarily on wing venation . Sir George Francis Hampson worked on the ' Microlepidoptera ' during this period and Philipp Christoph Zeller published The Natural History of the Tineinae also on Microlepidoptera ( 1855 ) . Among the first entomologists to study fossil insects and their evolution was Samuel Hubbard Scudder ( 1837 – 1911 ) , who worked on butterflies . He published a study of the Florissant deposits of Colorado , including the exceptionally preserved Prodryas persephone . Andreas V. Martynov ( 1879 – 1938 ) recognized the close relationship between Lepidoptera and Trichoptera in his studies on phylogeny . Major contributions in the 20th century included the creation of the monotrysia and ditrysia ( based on female genital structure ) by Borner in 1925 and 1939 . Willi Hennig ( 1913 – 1976 ) developed the cladistic methodology and applied it to insect phylogeny . Niels P. Kristensen , E. S. Nielsen and D. R. Davis studied the relationships among monotrysian families and Kristensen worked more generally on insect phylogeny and higher Lepidoptera too . While it is often found that DNA @-@ based phylogenies differ from those based on morphology , this has not been the case for the Lepidoptera ; DNA phylogenies correspond to a large extent to morphology @-@ based phylogenies . Many attempts have been made to group the superfamilies of the Lepidoptera into natural groups , most of which fail because one of the two groups is not monophyletic : Microlepidotera and Macrolepidoptera , Heterocera and Rhopalocera , Jugatae and Frenatae , Monotrysia and Ditrysia . = = = Fossil record = = = The fossil record for Lepidoptera is lacking in comparison to other winged species , and tending not to be as common as some other insects in the habitats that are most conducive to fossilization , such as lakes and ponds , and their juvenile stage has only the head capsule as a hard part that might be preserved . The location and abundance of the most common moth species are indicative that mass migrations of moths occurred over the Palaeogene North Sea , which is why there is a serious lack of moth fossils . Yet there are fossils , some preserved in amber and some in very fine sediments . Leaf mines are also seen in fossil leaves , although the interpretation of them is tricky . Putative fossil stem group representatives of Amphiesmenoptera ( the clade comprising Trichoptera and Lepidoptera ) are known from the Triassic . The earliest known fossil lepidopteran is Archaeolepis mane from the Jurassic , about 190 million years ago in Dorset , UK . The fossil belongs to a small primitive moth @-@ like species , and its wings are showing scales with parallel grooves under a scanning electron microscope and a characteristic wing venation pattern shared with Trichoptera ( Caddisflies ) . Only two more sets of Jurassic lepidopteran fossils have been found , as well as 13 sets from the Cretaceous , which all belong to primitive moth @-@ like families . Many more fossils are found from the Tertiary , and particularly the Eocene Baltic amber . The oldest genuine butterflies of the superfamily Papilionoidea have been found in the Paleocene MoClay or Fur Formation of Denmark . The best preserved fossil lepidopteran is the Eocene Prodryas persephone from the Florissant Fossil Beds . = = = Phylogeny = = = Lepidoptera and Trichoptera ( caddisflies ) are more closely related to each other than to any other insect order , sharing many similarities that are lacking in others ; for example the females of both orders are heterogametic , meaning they have two different sex chromosomes , whereas in most species the males are heterogametic and the females have two identical sex chromosomes . The adults in both orders display a particular wing venation pattern on their forewings . The larvae of both orders have mouth structures and gland with which they make and manipulate silk . Willi Hennig grouped the two sister orders into the Amphiesmenoptera superorder . This group probably evolved in the Jurassic , having split from the now extinct order Necrotaulidae . Lepidoptera descend from a diurnal moth @-@ like common ancestor that either fed on dead or living plants . Micropterigidae , Agathiphagidae and Heterobathmiidae are the oldest and most basal lineages of Lepidoptera . The adults of these families do not have the curled tongue or proboscis , that are found in most members order , but instead have chewing mandibles adapted for a special diet . Micropterigidae larvae feed on leaves , fungi , or liverworts ( much like the Trichoptera ) . Adult Micropterigidae chew the pollen or spores of ferns . In the Agathiphagidae , larvae live inside kauri pines and feed on seeds . In Heterobathmiidae the larvae feed on the leaves of Nothofagus , the southern beech tree . These families also have mandibles in the pupal stage , which help the pupa emerge from the seed or cocoon after metamorphosis . The Eriocraniidae have a short coiled proboscis in the adult stage , and though they retain their pupal mandibles with which they escaped the cocoon , their mandibles are non @-@ functional thereafter . Most of these non @-@ ditrysian families , are primarily leaf miners in the larval stage . In addition to the proboscis , there is a change in the scales among these basal lineages , with later lineages showing more complex perforated scales . With the evolution of the Ditrysia in the mid @-@ Cretaceous , there was a major reproductive change . The Ditrysia , which comprise 98 % of the Lepidoptera , have two separate openings for reproduction in the females ( as well as a third opening for excretion ) , one for mating , and one for laying eggs . The two are linked internally by a seminal duct . ( In more basal lineages there is one cloaca , or later , two openings and an external sperm canal . ) Of the early lineages of Ditrysia , Gracillarioidea and Gelechioidea are mostly leaf miners , but more recent lineages feed externally . In the Tineoidea , most species feed on plant and animal detritus and fungi , and build shelters in the larval stage . The Yponomeutoidea is the first group to have significant numbers of species whose larvae feed on herbaceous plants , as opposed to woody plants . They evolved about the time that flowering plants underwent an expansive adaptive radiation in the mid @-@ Cretaceous , and the Gelechioidea that evolved at this time also have great diversity . Whether the processes involved coevolution or sequential evolution , the diversity of the Lepidoptera and the angiosperms increased together . In the so @-@ called " Macrolepidoptera " , which constitutes about 60 % of lepidopteran species , there was a general increase in size , better flying ability ( via changes in wing shape and linkage of the forewings and hindwings ) , reduction in the adult mandibles , and a change in the arrangement of the crochets ( hooks ) on the larval prolegs , perhaps to improve the grip on the host plant . Many also have tympanal organs , that allow them to hear . These organs evolved eight times , at least , because they occur on different body parts and have structural differences . The main lineages in the Macrolepidoptera are the Noctuoidea , Bombycoidea , Lasiocampidae , Mimallonoidea , Geometroidea and Rhopalocera . Bombycoidea plus Lasiocampidae plus Mimallonoidea may be a monophyletic group . The Rhopalocera , comprising the Papilionoidea ( butterflies ) , Hesperioidea ( skippers ) , and the Hedyloidea ( moth @-@ butterflies ) , are the most recently evolved . There is quite a good fossil record for this group , with the oldest skipper dating from 56 million years ago . = = = Taxonomy = = = Taxonomy is the classification of species in selected taxa , the process of naming being called nomenclature . There are over 120 families in lepidoptera , in 45 to 48 superfamilies . Lepidoptera have always been , historically , classified in five suborders , one of which is of primitive moths that never lost the morphological features of its ancestors . The rest of the moths and butterflies make up ninety @-@ eight percent of the other taxa , making Ditrysia . More recently , findings of new taxa , larvae and pupa have aided in detailing the relationships of primitive taxa , phylogenetic analysis showing the primitive lineages to be paraphyletic compared to the rest of Lepidoptera lineages . Recently lepidopterists have abandoned clades like suborders , and those between orders and superfamilies . Zeugloptera is a clade with Micropterigoidea being its only superfamily , containing the single family Micropterigidae . Species of Micropterigoidea are practically living fossils , being one of the most primitive lepidopteran groups , still retaining chewing mouthparts ( mandibles ) in adults , unlike other clades of butterflies and moths . About 120 species are known worldwide , with more than half the species in the genus Micropteryx in the Paleartic region . There are only 2 known in North America ( Epimartyria ) , with many more being found Asia and the southwest Pacific , particularly New Zealand with about 50 species . Glossata contains a majority of the species , with the most obvious difference is non @-@ functioning mandibles , and elongated maxillary galeae or the proboscis . The basal clades still retaining some of the ancestral features of the wings such as similarly shaped fore- and hindwings with relatively complete venation . Glossata also contains the division Ditrysia , which contains 98 % of all described species in Lepidoptera . Aglossata it is the second most primitive lineage of lepidoptera ; being first described in 1952 by Lionel Jack Dumbleton . Agathiphagidae and Heterobathmiidae are the only families in Aglossata . Agathiphagidae only contains about 2 species in its genus Agathiphaga . Agathiphaga queenslandensis and Agathiphaga vitiensis , being found along the north @-@ eastern coast of Queensland , Australia , and in Fiji to Vanuatu and the Solomon Islands , respectively . Heterobathmiina was first described by Kristensen and Nielsen in 1979 . There are about 10 species , which are day @-@ flying , metallic moths , confined to southern South America , the adults eat the pollen of Nothofagus or Southern Beech and the larvae mine the leaves . = = Relationship to people = = = = = Culture = = = Artistic depictions of butterflies have been used in many cultures including as early as 3500 years ago , in Egyptian hieroglyphs . Today , butterflies are widely used in various objects of art and jewelry : mounted in frames , embedded in resin , displayed in bottles , laminated in paper , and in some mixed media artworks and furnishings . Butterflies have also inspired the " butterfly fairy " as an art and fictional character . In many cultures the soul of a dead person is associated with the butterfly , for example in Ancient Greece , where the word for butterfly ψυχή ( psyche ) also means soul and breath . In Latin , as in Ancient Greece , the word for " butterfly " papilio was associated with the soul of the dead . The skull @-@ like marking on the thorax of the Death 's @-@ head Hawkmoth has helped these moths , particularly A. atropos , earn a negative reputation , such as associations with the supernatural and evil . The moth has been prominently featured in art and movies such as Un Chien Andalou ( by Buñuel and Dalí ) and The Silence of the Lambs , and in the artwork of the Japanese metal band Sigh 's album Hail Horror Hail . According to Kwaidan : Stories and Studies of Strange Things , by Lafcadio Hearn , a butterfly was seen in Japan as the personification of a person 's soul ; whether they be living , dying , or already dead . One Japanese superstition says that if a butterfly enters your guestroom and perches behind the bamboo screen , the person whom you most love is coming to see you . However , large numbers of butterflies are viewed as bad omens . When Taira no Masakado was secretly preparing for his famous revolt , there appeared in Kyoto so vast a swarm of butterflies that the people were frightened — thinking the apparition to be a portent of coming evil . In the ancient Mesoamerican city of Teotihuacan , the brilliantly colored image of the butterfly was carved into many temples , buildings , jewelry , and emblazoned on incense burners in particular . The butterfly was sometimes depicted with the maw of a jaguar and some species were considered to be the reincarnations of the souls of dead warriors . The close association of butterflies to fire and warfare persisted through to the Aztec civilization and evidence of similar jaguar @-@ butterfly images has been found among the Zapotec , and Maya civilizations . = = = Pests = = = The larvae of many Lepidopteran species are major pests in agriculture . Some of the major pests include Tortricidae , Noctuidae , and Pyralidae . The larvae of the Noctuidae genus Spodoptera ( armyworms ) , Helicoverpa ( corn earworm ) , or Pieris brassicae can cause extensive damage to certain crops . Helicoverpa zea larvae ( cotton bollworms or tomato fruitworms ) are polyphagous , meaning they eat a variety of crops , including tomatoes and cotton . Butterflies and moths are one of the largest taxa to solely feed and be dependent on living plants , in terms of the number of species , and they are in many ecosystems , making up the largest biomass to do so . In many species , the female may produce anywhere from 200 to 600 eggs , while in some others it may go as high as 30 @,@ 000 eggs in one day . This can create many problems for agriculture , where many caterpillars can affect acres of vegetation . Some reports estimate that there have been over 80 @,@ 000 caterpillars of several different taxa feeding on a single oak tree . In some cases , phytophagous larvae can lead to the destruction of entire trees in relatively short periods of time . Ecological ways of removing pest lepidoptera species are becoming more economically viable , as research has shown ways like introducing parasitic wasp and flies . For example , Sarcophaga aldrichi , a fly which deposited larvae feed upon the pupae of the Forest Tent Caterpillar Moth . Pesticides can affect other species other than the species they are targeted to eliminate , damaging the natural ecosystem . Another good biological pest control method is the use of pheromone traps . A pheromone trap is a type of insect trap that uses pheromones to lure insects . Sex pheromones and aggregating pheromones are the most common types used . A pheromone @-@ impregnated lure is encased in a conventional trap such as a Delta trap , water @-@ pan trap , or funnel trap . Species of moths that are detritivores would naturally eat detritus containing keratin , such as hairs or feathers . Well known species are cloth moths ( T. bisselliella , T. pellionella , and T. tapetzella ) , feeding on foodstuffs that people find economically important , such as cotton , linen , silk and wool fabrics as well as furs ; furthermore they have been found on shed feathers and hair , bran , semolina and flour ( possibly preferring wheat flour ) , biscuits , casein , and insect specimens in museums . = = = Beneficial insects = = = Even though most butterflies and moths affect the economy negatively , some species are a valuable economic resource . The most prominent example is that of the Domesticated silkworm moth ( Bombyx mori ) , the larvae of which make their cocoons out of silk , which can be spun into cloth . Silk is and has been an important economic resource throughout history . The species Bombyx mori has been domesticated to the point where it is completely dependent on mankind for survival . A number of wild moths such as Bombyx mandarina , and Antheraea species , besides others , provide commercially important silks . The preference of the larvae of most Lepidopteran species to feed on a single species or limited range of plants is used as a mechanism for biological control of weeds in place of herbicides . The pyralid cactus moth was introduced from Argentina to Australia , where it successfully suppressed millions of acres of Prickly pear cactus . Another species of the Pyralidae , called the alligator weed stem borer ( Arcola malloi ) , was used to control the aquatic plant known as alligator weed ( Alternanthera philoxeroides ) in conjunction with the alligator weed flea beetle ; in this case , the two insects work in synergy and the weed rarely recovers . Breeding butterflies and moths , or butterfly gardening / rearing , has become an ecologically viable process of introducing species into the ecosystem to benefit it . Butterfly ranching in Papua New Guinea permits nationals of that country to " farm " economically valuable insect species for the collectors market in an ecologically sustainable manner . = = = Food = = = Lepidoptera feature prominently in entomophagy as food items on almost every continent . While in most cases , adults , larvae or pupae are eaten as staples by indigenous people , beondegi or silkworm pupae are eaten as a snack in Korean cuisine while Maguey worm is considered a delicacy in Mexico . In the Carnia region of Italy , children catch and eat ingluvies of the toxic Zygaena moths in early summer . The ingluvies , despite having a very low cyanogenic content , serve as a convenient , supplementary source of sugar to the children who can include this resource as a seasonal delicacy at minimum risk . = = = Health = = = Some larvae of both moths and butterflies have a form of hair that has been known to be a cause of human health problems . Caterpillar hairs sometimes have toxins in them and species from approximately 12 families of moths or butterflies worldwide can inflict serious human injuries ( Urticarial dermatitis and atopic asthma to osteochondritis , consumption coagulopathy , renal failure , and intracerebral hemorrhage ) . Skin rashes are the most common , but there have been fatalities . Lonomia is a frequent cause of envenomation in humans in Brazil , with 354 cases reported between 1989 and 2005 . Lethality ranging up to 20 % with death caused most often by intracranial hemorrhage . These hairs have also been known to cause kerato @-@ conjunctivitis . The sharp barbs on the end of caterpillar hairs can get lodged in soft tissues and mucous membranes such as the eyes . Once they enter such tissues , they can be difficult to extract , often exacerbating the problem as they migrate across the membrane . This becomes a particular problem in an indoor setting . The hairs easily enter buildings through ventilation systems and accumulate in indoor environments because of their small size , which makes it difficult for them to be vented out . This accumulation increases the risk of human contact in indoor environments . = = = Lists = = = List of butterflies of Australia List of butterflies of Canada List of butterflies of Great Britain List of butterflies of India List of butterflies of Minorca List of butterflies of North America List of butterflies of Taiwan List of butterflies of Tobago List of fritillaries ( butterflies ) List of moths = Pleione ( star ) = Pleione ( 28 Tauri , BU Tauri ) is a binary star in the Pleiades star cluster ( M45 ) , located roughly 390 light years away in the constellation of Taurus . Pleione was not given a Bayer designation , but did receive a Flamsteed number — hence its designation 28 Tauri . Since the star is located close to Atlas , it 's difficult for stargazers to distinguish with the naked eye , even though it 's a hot type B star 190 times more luminous than the Sun . Pleione rotates even faster than Achernar on its axis , close to its breakup velocity . The brighter star of the binary pair , component A , is a classical Be star with certain distinguishing traits : periodic phase changes and a complex circumstellar environment composed of two gaseous disks at different angles to each other . Although some research on the system has been performed , stellar characteristics of the orbiting B component are not well known . Pleione is the seventh brightest star in the Pleiades , after Taygeta . = = Visibility = = With an apparent magnitude of + 5 @.@ 05 in V , the star is rather difficult to make out with the naked eye , especially since its close neighbour Atlas is 3 @.@ 7 times brighter and located less than 5 arcminutes away . Beginning in October of each year , Pleione along with the rest of the cluster can be seen rising in the east in the early morning before dawn . To see it after sunset , one will need to wait until December . By mid @-@ February , the star is visible to virtually every inhabited region of the globe , with only those south of 66 ° unable to see it . Even in cities like Cape Town , South Africa , at the tip of the African continent , the star rises almost 32 ° above the horizon . Due to its declination of roughly + 24 ° , Pleione is circumpolar in the northern hemisphere at latitudes greater than 66 ° North . Once late April arrives , the cluster can be spotted briefly in the deepening twilight of the western horizon , soon to disappear with the other setting stars . Pleione is classified as a Gamma Cassiopeiae type variable star , with brightness fluctuations that range between a 4 @.@ 8 and 5 @.@ 5 visual magnitude . Its variable star designation is BU Tauri . The SIMBAD astronomical database lists its spectral class as B8IVev , although the current classification recognized by many researchers is B8IVpe . The suffix " ev " stands for " Spectral emission that exhibits variability " whilst the suffix " pe " refers to " Emission lines with peculiarity " . In the case of Pleione , the " peculiar " emissions come from gaseous circumstellar disks formed of material being ejected from the star . There has been significant debate as to the star 's actual distance from Earth . The debate revolves around the different methodologies to measure distance — parallax being the most central , but photometric and spectroscopic observations yielding valuable insights as well . Before the Hipparcos mission , the estimated distance for the Pleiades star cluster was around 135 parsecs or 440 light years . However , when the Hipparcos Catalogue was published in 1997 , the new parallax measurement indicated a much closer distance of about 119 ± 1 @.@ 0 pc ( 388 ± 3 @.@ 2 ly ) , triggering substantial controversy among astronomers . If the Hipparcos estimate were accurate , some astronomers contend , then stars in the cluster would have to be fainter than Sun @-@ like stars — a notion that would challenge some of the fundamental precepts of stellar structure . Interferometric measurements taken in 2004 by the Hubble Telescope 's Fine Guidance Sensors and corroborated by studies from Caltech and NASA 's Jet Propulsion Laboratory showed the original estimate of 135 pc or 440 ly to be the correct figure . However a recent study published in 2009 has argued otherwise , publishing a new parallax measurement of 8 @.@ 32 mas with a very tight error factor of 0 @.@ 13 mas yielding a distance of 120 @.@ 2 ± 1 @.@ 9 pc or 392 @.@ 0 ± 6 @.@ 0 ly . Which distance estimate future astrometric calculations will corroborate remains to be seen , although the upcoming Gaia mission with its expected launch in late 2012 could well prove to be the ultimate arbiter in this debate . = = Properties = = In 1942 Otto Struve , one of the early researchers of Be Stars , stated that Pleione is " the most interesting member of the Pleiades cluster " . Like many of the stars in the cluster , Pleione is a blue @-@ white B @-@ type main sequence dwarf star with a temperature of about 12 @,@ 000 Kelvin . It has a bolometric luminosity of 190 L ☉ assuming a distance of roughly 120 pc . With a radius of 3 @.@ 2 R ☉ and mass that is 3 @.@ 4 M ☉ , Pleione is considerably smaller than the brightest stars in the Pleiades . Alcyone for instance has a radius that is 10 R ☉ with a luminosity 2 @,@ 400 L ☉ , making it roughly 30 times more voluminous than Pleione and about 13 times brighter . = = = Be star = = = Pleione is a classical Be star , often referred to as an " active hot star " . Classical Be stars are B @-@ type stars close to the main sequence with an " e " added on , signifying that Pleione exhibits emission lines in its spectrum rather than absorption lines , which is what stars usually show . Emission lines usually indicate that a star is surrounded by gas . In the case of a Be star , the gas is typically in the form of an equatorial disk , resulting in electromagnetic radiation that emanates not just from the photosphere , but from the disk as well . The geometry and kinematics of this gaseous circumstellar environment are therefore best explained by a " Keplerian " disk — one that is supported against gravity by rotation rather than gas or radiation pressure . Circumstellar disks like this are sometimes referred to as " decretion disks " , which is material being actively ejected by the star as opposed to " accretion disks " which involves material falling toward the star . Be Stars are fast rotators ( > 200 km / s ) with a large stellar wind and high mass loss rate , hence the causative factors behind these gaseous rings . Due to its apparent brightness , the star most recognized for its fast rotation is Achernar , a phenomenon which causes it to be highly oblate . Its rotational velocity , however , of 251 km / s is considerably slower than Pleione 's 329 km / s . As a result , Pleione actually revolves on its axis once every 11 @.@ 8 hours compared to Achernar 's 48 @.@ 4 hours . The Sun by comparison takes 25 @.@ 3 days to turn on its axis . Pleione is spinning so fast that it is close to the estimated breakup velocity for a B8V star of about 370 – 390 km / s . Another Be star whose rotational velocity is extremely fast is Alpha Arae at 470 km / s — a speed so extreme that it is on the verge of exploding . What makes Pleione particularly unique is that it alternates between three different phases : 1 ) normal B star , 2 ) Be star and 3 ) Be shell star . The cause is likely the surrounding gaseous disk which in many Be stars will appear , then disappear , possibly reforming at a later time . Material in the disc is attracted back towards the star by the pull of gravity , but if it has enough energy it can escape into space , contributing to the stellar wind . Sometimes , Be stars will form multiple gas rings or " decretion disks " , each with its own evolution , creating complex circumstellar dynamics . As a result of such dynamics , Pleione exhibits prominent long @-@ term photometric and spectroscopic variations encompassing a period of about 35 years . In fact , during the last 100 years , Pleione has demonstrated notable phase changes — as a Be phase until 1903 , a B phase ( 1905 – 1936 ) , a B @-@ shell phase ( 1938 – 1954 ) , and another Be phase ( 1955 – 1972 ) . It then entered a Be @-@ shell phase in 1972 . Then , the star developed many shell absorption lines in its spectrum . At the same time , the star showed a decrease in brightness , beginning at the end of 1971 . After reaching the minimum brightness in late 1973 , the star gradually brightened . In 1989 , Pleione entered a Be phase and stayed as a Be star until the summer of 2005 . The most recent disk responsible for these phase changes was formed in 1972 . What 's intriguing , however , is that Pleione 's long @-@ term polarimetric observations show the intrinsic polarization angle has changed , providing direct evidence for a spatial motion of the disk axis . Because Pleione has a stellar companion with a relatively close orbit , the shift in the polarization angle has been attributed to the companion causing a precession ( wobble ) of the disk , with a precession period of roughly 81 years . Recent photometric and spectroscopic observations from 2005 to 2007 indicate that a new disk has formed around the equator — thus constituting a double disk phenomenon with disks at different angles . The inclination angle of the new disk is estimated at 60 ° whereas the previous disk was inclined at around 30 ° . Such a misaligned double @-@ disk structure has never been observed before among Be stars . Thus , Pleione provides a rare opportunity to investigate the forming process of a new disk and the consequent interaction between the two . = = Star system = = Pleione is known to be a speckle binary , although its orbital parameters have yet to be fully established . In 1996 a group of Japanese and French astronomers discovered that Pleione is a single @-@ lined spectroscopic binary with an orbital period of 218 @.@ 0 days and a large eccentricity of 0 @.@ 6 . The Washington Double Star Catalogue lists an angular separation between the two components of 0 @.@ 2 arcseconds — an angle which equates to a distance of about 24 AU , assuming a distance of 120 parsecs . = = Ethnological influences = = = = = Mythology = = = Pleione was an Oceanid nymph of Mount Kyllene in Arkadia ( southern Greece ) , one of the three thousand daughters of the Titans Oceanus and Tethys . The nymphs in Greek mythology were the spirits of nature ; oceanids , spirits of the sea . Though considered lesser divinities , they were still very much venerated as the protectors of the natural world . Each oceanid was thence a patroness of a particular body of water — be it ocean , river , lake , spring or even cloud — and by extension activities related thereto . The sea @-@ nymph , Pleione , was the consort of Atlas , the Titan , and mother of the Hyas , Hyades and Pleiades . = = = Etymology = = = When names were assigned to the stars in the Pleiades cluster , the bright pair of stars in the East of the cluster were named Atlas and Pleione , while the seven other bright stars were named after the mythological Pleiades ( the ' Seven Sisters ' ) . The term " Pleiades " was used by Valerius Flaccus to apply to the cluster as a whole , and Riccioli called the star Mater Pleione . There is some diversity of opinion as to the origin of the names Pleione and Pleiades . There are three possible derivations of note . Foremost is that both names come from the Greek word πλεῖν , ( pr. ple ' -ō ) , meaning " to sail " . This is particularly plausible given that ancient Greece was a seafaring culture and because of Pleione 's mythical status as an Oceanid nymph . Pleione , as a result , is sometimes referred to as the " sailing queen " while her daughters the " sailing ones " . Also , the appearance of these stars coincided with the sailing season in antiquity ; sailors were well advised to set sail only when the Pleiades were visible at night , lest they meet with misfortune . Another derivation of the name is the Greek word Πλειόνη ( pr. plêionê ) , meaning " more " , " plenty " , or " full " — a lexeme with many English derivatives like pleiotropy , pleomorphism , pleonasm , pleonexia , plethora and Pliocene . This meaning also coincides with the biblical Kīmāh and the Arabic word for the Pleiades — Al Thurayya . In fact , Pleione may have been numbered amongst the Epimelides ( nymphs of meadows and pastures ) and presided over the multiplication of the animals , as her name means " to increase in number " . Finally , the last comes from Peleiades ( Greek : Πελειάδες , " doves " ) , a reference to the sisters ' mythical transformation by Zeus into a flock of doves following their pursuit by Orion , the giant huntsman , across the heavens . = = = Modern legacy = = = In the best @-@ selling 1955 nature book published by Time @-@ Life called The World We Live In , there is an artist 's impression of Pleione entitled Purple Pleione . The illustration is from the famed space artist Chesley Bonestell and carries the caption : " Purple Pleione , a star of the familiar Pleiades cluster , rotates so rapidly that it has flattened into a flying saucer and hurled forth a dark red ring of hydrogen . Where the excited gas crosses Pleione 's equator , it obscures her violet light . " Given its mythical connection with sailing and orchids , the name Pleione is often associated with grace , speed and elegance . Some of the finest designs in racing yachts have the name Pleione , and the recent Shanghai Oriental Art Center draws its inspiration from an orchid . Fat Jon in his new album Hundred Eight Stars has a prismatic track dedicated to 28 Tauri . = So Amazin ' = So Amazin ' is the third studio album by American singer Christina Milian . The album , her first studio release since 2004 's It 's About Time , was released by Island Records on May 16 , 2006 in the United States . Unlike previous records , which had contributions from many producers , Milian wrote and produced So Amazin ' primarily with hip hop producers Cool & Dre . During production , Milian was mentored by L.A. Reid and executive producer Jay @-@ Z of Def Jam Recordings . The album 's musical style is primarily urban and R & B , in contrast to the pop sounds of Milian 's previous albums , a change suggested by Island Def Jam . Following criticism over her previous albums for a lack of consistency , Milian had ten of the album 's tracks produced by Cool & Dre . Lyrically , the album was inspired by Milian 's breakup with Nick Cannon . So Amazin ' was completed within a three @-@ month period , and Milian received writing credit for nine of the album 's songs . The album debuted and peaked at number 11 on the U.S. Billboard 200 , and sold a total of 163 @,@ 000 copies . Internationally , the album charted in the United Kingdom , France and Switzerland . The album 's only single , " Say I " , featuring rapper Jeezy , saw peak positions of number four in the UK , and number 21 in the United States . The critical response to So Amazin ' was mixed . The album 's production and " Say I " were generally praised , while several critics did not feel that the album showcased Milian 's personality . One week after the release of So Amazin ' , Milian was dropped from Island Records . = = Background = = Milian 's previous release , It 's About Time ( 2004 ) , was her second studio album , but served as her debut in the US . The critical response to the album was mixed to generally negative . The club tracks , most notably lead single " Dip It Low " , were praised ; however , the ballads were said to be disappointing . The album only performed modestly commercially ; it debuted and peaked at number 14 on the Billboard 200 album chart , selling a total of 382 @,@ 000 copies , but managed to achieve Silver certification in the UK by the British Phonographic Industry . The album received a Grammy Award nomination for " Best Contemporary R & B Album " in 2005 . Following the album 's release , Milian was cast in a lead role in the horror film Pulse , starring alongside Kristen Bell and Ian Somerhalder . Milian traveled to Romania for filming , and later discovered that her then @-@ boyfriend Nick Cannon had cheated on her while she was away . Milian said in an interview , " it was heartbreaking for me . I was a good girl , a really loyal girl – and I got beat real . " Whereas Milian 's previous albums had pop and R & B stylings , she was encouraged by Island Def Jam to target a new audience and release an urban record . Explaining the change , Milian said that one of her main problems was that previous releases would often find mainstream success , but would be relatively unsuccessful on urban radio . As an R & B artist , she wanted to build her core audience – a true fan base that would support her through time – to increase her career 's longevity . The main purpose of her genre change was to go back to the streets and add to her core audience . = = Production = = To create a more urban record , Milian had a list of producers that she wanted to work with for So Amazin ' . She said that in most cases , even when she had R & B producers , most songs would end up being pop instead of R & B. L.A. Reid suggested to Milian that she should work with Cool & Dre , with whom she ended up working with as the first people to start off the album . Although Milian was originally supposed to work with several different music producers , she felt that the chemistry they had in the first week was so " instant and real " that she felt she could not get a better " vibe " with anybody else other than them . Together , they produced four songs in the first few days , which prompted Milian to ask her label if she could continue working with the duo . At the same time , Cool & Dre called their managers to ask if they could continue working with Milian . Milian felt that it was " just the perfect connection " , and that working with them " just felt so original " . The singer described Cool & Dre as " beat makers " , rather than just hip @-@ hop producers , and believed that she was really able to express herself lyrically through their music . Milian ended up working with Cool & Dre on the majority of the production of the album , producing ten of the album 's eleven tracks together . Milian also wrote the track " Y 'all Ain 't Nothin ' " with Ne @-@ Yo , which was produced by The Heavyweights . Features on the album include Three 6 Mafia , Young Jeezy , and Dre of Cool & Dre . While working on the song , " Who 's Gonna Ride " , Dre ran into Three 6 Mafia at the studio and they agreed to feature on the song . The album completed within a three @-@ month period , whereas Milian 's previous albums would take six months to a year . Milian received writing credit for nine songs on the album . Milian did not try to write mainstream records for the radio ; rather , she wrote about " everything , about your life and concentrate on you doing you . " For previous albums , Milian wrote about things that had happened in the past , whereas for So Amazin ' , she focused on the present . She compared the writing process to writing a diary ; whenever she would experience something that she thought would be important , she would write it down for future reference . Milian felt that by writing down true experiences , her songs were like " captured emotion " . When writing songs , Milian said that the amount of time it took to write varied . It would depend on what she was writing about , what was going on in her life , and if it pertained to that exact moment . Sometimes the process was quick , but other times it could take several hours to write an entire song . Although Milian was a songwriter since her teenagers years , she only felt real growth during the production sessions when Dre told her , " there are no rules " . Previously , Milian would write songs that followed rules , where she would have a hook , a verse , and another verse with similar sound and melody . For So Amazin , she wrote with a " no rules theory " , which was her biggest obstacle while recording the album . She said , " It was just , you know what ? I can change up the melody I can do different things . Sometimes I might get stuck but wait half an hour and it 'll come to you and end up being hot . So that 's probably my biggest obstacle , just stepping away from doing the usual that I know and stepping into something new . Once I got past all that , it was just easy . With flying colors , I started writing all the records . " = = Composition = = Milian described So Amazin ' as a " consistent , very real and personal album " . A problem Milian had with her previous album , It 's About Time , was that it did not flow . The various pop and urban influences in that album confused the audience , and Milian wanted So Amazin ' to paint a picture ; " you get led down the whole way , you kinda get to see my growth through one album " . Wanting a more consistent approach for her new album , Milian collaborated with only one team of producers , which made for a greater representation of a " more mature , settled " Milian . The purpose of the album was to record an album that had more realness , so that female fans could relate to what she was singing about . Milian felt that Cool & Dre brought their own style of beats to the album , giving it a " raw feel " and " street credibility " . Marcello " Cool " Valenzano of Cool & Dre said that " we come from an R & B background , and we bringing [ sic ] something new to the table , a style we think is hot . " For So Amazin ' , Milian knew that she needed to record material that had a " realness " . She wanted to make dance tracks , but also wanted to express more of herself at the same time . Milian found the album to be " so much more real and urban and street " than her previous albums . The single , " Say I " , is an inspirational and motivational record ; Milian wanted to make a record that would be an inspiration to both her and her fans . Focusing on an urban audience , Milian said the record was " way more an urban record than anything I 've ever done . " The singer felt it was necessary to have Young Jeezy feature because he spoke for the streets , and thought his rap was " a very real message . It pertained to his life . " The track , " Twisted " , was one of the first songs recorded for the album . Lyrically , the song is about liking someone so much that you " can 't even go about [ your ] day in a normal way " . Milian compared the urban vibe of both tracks and said they were huge records , " where the music is just big and the hook is just big and you can ’ t help but sing [ along ] . " Dre features on two tracks , " So Amazing " and " Hot Boy " , which both have a club vibe . Milian thought " So Amazing " had a similar vibe to several performance records she had done in the past . Milian raps in the track and described it as being " really street and sexy " . She also said " Hot Boy " is a " hot one for the streets and for the club and for performance . " " Foolin ' " was written when Milian heard an old record and sampled the line , " if you 're foolin , only foolin " . Hearing the original track , Milian knew she needed to write something original , and wrote about an ex @-@ boyfriend , whom she nicknamed " Mr. Big " , that was still interested in Milian but had a new girlfriend . The album 's final track , " She Don 't Know " , has a Latin vibe and features a Spanish guitar . Being Cuban , Milian wanted to incorporate a Spanish record on the album , and sings in English and Spanish in the song . Taking inspiration from Latin soap operas , Milian wanted to portray a very " dramatic feel " in the song . Lyrically , the song is about two people falling in love ; however , the man has a girlfriend who does not know about the new relationship or that he has moved on . Milian wrote So Amazin ' based on her own life , and each record pertained to a different aspect , especially focused on relationships . During early production of the album , Milian was dealing with her break @-@ up with actor Nick Cannon and wrote several records based on that . While writing the mid @-@ tempo track " My Lovin ' Goes " , Milian felt she turned a new leaf . She said , " you see the change in So Amazin ' where life was just really coming into place . I was finally becoming the woman that I feel that I am right now . Also , I was leaving old love behind and learning about new types of love . Which is great , whether it be life , and also the dating scene is really nice . " Two tracks which Milian wrote about Cannon were " Gonna Tell Everybody " and " Who 's Gonna Ride " . When Milian and Cool & Dre had discussions , her break @-@ up with Cannon was regularly mentioned . Milian felt a need to express herself , and writing became therapeutic for Milian ; she was able to get through the break @-@ up by writing songs . The production by Cool & Dre also inspired Milian to write the tracks , as she felt comfortable with them and was able to be open . Milian wrote the hip @-@ hop ballad " Gonna Tell Everybody " about " thinking that I had something good , what happens when it 's over , and going forward with my life . " The track was one of the final songs that Milian wrote about the break @-@ up as it " helped me get it all out " . While the record is about a break @-@ up , it focuses more on closure and moving past it . Milian and Cool & Dre used the melody of the Bone Thugs @-@ n @-@ Harmony song " Tha Crossroads " and changed the lyrics " and I 'm gonna miss everybody " to " and I 'm gonna tell everybody " . The other song , " Who 's Gonna Ride " , has a more street and gangster vibe , and contain more raw lyrics . Milian wrote the track with Dre , which she said helped because hip hop artists write about real things in their lives and are not afraid to say anything . While writing the track , Milian let her guard down and wrote what she was feeling and tried to be real . Lyrically , the song also deals with " the girls that come around and try to take your man . Or the groupie girls that are around , paying attention to the guys on TV that only hang out with them for those reasons . " Milian also said " Who 's Gonna Ride " was the hardest song to write because it was not safe , unlike previous songs she had written . The singer explained writing the lyrics was not hard , but the difficulty came from being real and actually writing about her true feelings . When writing the lyrics , Milian removed several lines that she thought were too harsh . = = Commercial performance = = So Amazin ' debuted and peaked at number 11 on the Billboard 200 , selling 54 @,@ 000 copies in its first week and 163 @,@ 000 copies in total . Internationally , the album peaked at number 55 on the Swiss Albums Chart , 67 on the UK Albums Chart , and 139 on the France Albums Chart . The album 's lead single , " Say I " , featured rapper Young Jeezy and had a music video , directed by Ray Kay . The single peaked at number four in the UK , and number 21 in the United States . In June 2006 , Milian 's representative confirmed that she had left Island Def Jam . Although she was dropped from the label , Milian continued to promote the album through live appearances , performing on Power 106 's Summer Splash . Milian hoped to take " Gonna Tell Everybody " , the proposed second single , to another label and shoot a video , but was not able to . Milian revealed in an interview with Rap @-@ Up that she was dropped a week after the release of her album . Milian stated that before the release of So Amazin ' , the label and L.A. Reid knew that the album would not have immediate large sales , since she was targeting a new urban audience , but promised to support her . However , after a week , L.A. Reid called to notify Milian that she had been dropped . The singer believed that it was a budget cut , and the label opted to spend money on Rihanna instead . Milian also dispelled rumors that she was originally offered Rihanna 's song " SOS " . = = Critical reception = = The critical response to So Amazin ' was mixed . Metacritic gave the album a Metascore — a weighted average based on the impressions of a select 12 critical reviews — of 59 , signifying mixed or average reviews . David Peisner of Maxim gave the album three out of five stars and said that Milian 's " talent is real " , and commended her " silky and sassy " voice . He praised Cool & Dre 's " badass " production , as well as " intoxicating " lead single " Say I " . Clover Hope of Billboard wrote that Milian tried to transform from " sweet pop sweetheart " to " peppy urban soulstress " , but the album could not " pinpoint her true identity " and could " only [ scratch ] the surface of who she really is . " Hope praised lead single , " Say I " , describing it as " instantly rousing " . Dan Gennoe of Yahoo ! Music UK said that the production by Cool & Dre ensured for " a cohesive whole , with a clear , unmistakable identity " . He praised single " Say I " , saying it " shimmies to a feisty ghetto strut and Shaft @-@ sized orchestrals " , as well as " Twisted " , " Hot Boy " and " Just A Little Bit " . He described So Amazin ' as " almost the perfect R & B album " , only missing " a couple of killer singles " . Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine wrote that while Milian claimed that she was " proudly displaying the various sides of her multifaceted personality " , he felt that " only personality displayed on So Amazin ' is that of her contemporaries and predecessors " . He felt that contrary to the album 's title , " So Amazin ' proves to be anything but " . Andy Kellman , of review website Allmusic , felt that So Amazin ' was " Milian 's strongest album yet , if only by a narrow margin " . He said that the album was short on ideas , with Cool & Dre using beats from some of their recent hits . He felt that Milian 's weakness was ballads , which were " more like placeholders that merely apply some forced variety to the album " ; but described the club tracks as " perfectly functional and appealing " . Spence Dookey of IGN gave the album a 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 and said that " Milian glistens most brightly on the tracks that are the most stripped down , such as ' Gonna Tell Everybody ' " . He said given the nature of the style of music Milian was practicing , " there 's a fair share of rump shaking club jams offsetting the more slow tempo fare " . Dookey described single " Say I " as " a poundingly theatrical ditty " , and " Foolin ' " as one of the " few tracks that genuinely attempts to lift Milian up from the generic R & B / club stylings " . The reviewer found the overall sound was the album 's biggest flaw ; " the production rings with a sense of detached hollowness ... The result is an album severely lacking any of the warmth that usually accompanies R & B. Milian 's hauntingly beautiful voice deserves to be wrapped in a sunny glow of organic vibes . " Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters praised the album , " despite a few lyrical hiccups , a couple of lackluster hooks , and some obvious influences . " = = Track listing = = " Say I " ( featuring Jeezy ) ( Bunny Sigler , Jay Jenkins , Phil Hurtt , Andre Lyon , Marcello Valenzano , Jazmine Sullivan ) – 3 : 33 " Twisted " ( Lyon , Sullivan , Valenzano , Leon Ware ) – 4 : 00 " Gonna Tell Everybody " ( Anthony Henderson , Steven Howse , Ernie Isley , Marvin Isley , O 'Kelly Isley , Jr . , Ronald Isley , Lyon , Milian , Eddie Montilla , Valenzano ) – 4 : 20 " Who 's Gonna Ride " ( featuring Three 6 Mafia ) ( Paul Beauregard , Albert Bouchard , Jordan Houston , Lyon , Milian , David Roter , Valenzano ) – 4 : 10 " So Amazing " ( featuring Dre ) ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 3 : 20 " Hot Boy " ( featuring Dre ) ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 3 : 53 " Foolin ' " ( Lyon , Milian , Pam Sawyer , Valenzano , Ware ) – 4 : 05 " My Lovin ' Goes " ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 4 : 00 " Just a Little Bit " ( Vinnie Barrett , Bobby Eli , John Freeman Jr . , Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 3 : 05 " Y 'all Ain 't Nothin ' " ( Milian , Ne @-@ Yo , Melvin Sparkman ) – 4 : 18 " She Don 't Know " ( Jeff Barnell , Bernard Dahan , Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) – 4 : 35 Bonus tracks " Wind You Up " ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) ( Japanese bonus track ) – 3 : 42 " Tonight " ( Lyon , Milian , Valenzano ) ( UK / Japanese bonus track ) – 3 : 40 = = Personnel = = = = Charts = = = Lotus ( Christina Aguilera album ) = Lotus is the seventh studio album by American recording artist Christina Aguilera , released on November 9 , 2012 by RCA Records . Its music incorporates pop styles with elements of dance @-@ pop , rock in the form of upbeat songs and piano @-@ driven ballads . Aguilera described the album as a " rebirth " , drawing inspiration from events in her life , her appearance on The Voice , and her divorce . The album was recorded at Aguilera 's home studio . As executive producer , she collaborated with a wide range of producers , including new partners Alex da Kid , Max Martin , Lucas Secon and Tracklacers . Upon its release , Lotus received generally mixed reviews from music critics , who were ambivalent towards its lyrics and found its music conventional . It debuted at number seven on the US Billboard 200 , with first @-@ week sales of 73 @,@ 408 units . Internationally , the album charted moderately , but obtained higher positions in Canada and Russia where the album reached the top 10 . Two singles were released from the album in North America . The first single " Your Body " charted within the top 40 of most countries . The second one , " Just a Fool " , was a duet with fellow The Voice coach Blake Shelton and peaked at number 71 on the Billboard Hot 100 . Though not released as a single , " Let There Be Love " topped the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart at number 1 . In August 2013 , along with a letter to her fans , Aguilera released a music video for the song . = = Background = = After the release of Aguilera 's sixth studio album , Bionic ( 2010 ) , which failed to generate her usual sales , she divorced from her husband Jordan Bratman , starred in a film called Burlesque , and recorded its accompanying soundtrack . The singer then became a coach on NBC 's singing contest show The Voice and appeared as a guest vocalist on Maroon 5 's single " Moves Like Jagger " ( 2011 ) , which spent four weeks atop the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Following these events , Aguilera announced that she wanted to record her seventh album , stating that she wanted high @-@ quality and personal songs to record . She stated that the album would be a " culmination of everything I 've experienced up until this point ... I 've been through a lot since the release of my last album , being on ( The Voice ) , having had a divorce ... This is all sort of a free rebirth for me . " She went on to say that " I 'm embracing many different things , but it 's all feel @-@ good , super @-@ expressive [ and ] super @-@ vulnerable . " She further expressed that the album would be about " self @-@ expression and freedom " because of the personal struggles she had overcome during the last couple of years . On The Tonight Show with Jay Leno in 2012 , Aguilera revealed that the album was taking a while to record because " I don 't like to just get songs from producers . I like them to come from a personal place ... I 'm very excited . It 's fun , exciting , introspective , it 's going to be great " . In an interview with Rolling Stone , Aguilera said that the album was a " very multi @-@ layered , very heartfelt record " reflecting different sides of her personality . On Lotus , Aguilera worked with new producers , notably Alex da Kid and Max Martin . Alex da Kid , who first teamed with Aguilera in the song " Castle Walls " from T.I. ' s No Mercy ( 2010 ) , commented about Aguilera 's approach in recording Lotus , " She definitely had a strong opinion , but she 'll go with the best idea in the room . That 's really rare for someone that 's had so much success . " Speaking about working with Max Martin , Aguilera said , " Max is legendary in the business . He 's known about me but we haven 't crossed paths . [ ... ] It 's taken us a decade in the same business and watching each other from a distance , so for us to now come together and respect each other 's work ethic and how we like to be heard and making a marriage out of it , I think ' Your Body ' is the best culmination of that . " Aguilera announced via Twitter on September 12 , 2012 that the album would be titled Lotus . The album artwork was shot by fashion photographer Enrique Badulescu . Aguilera unveiled the cover on October 5 , where she is shown nude with her long , blonde hair covering her nipples , while her vulva is shaded by a white light ; she extends her arms emerging from a lotus flower . It received a generally positive response from critics ; Tiffany Lee from Yahoo ! Music complimented Aguilera 's figure , while Sam Lansky from Idolator drew comparisons to the cover of her fourth studio album , Stripped ( 2002 ) . Lotus was released on November 13 , 2012 by RCA Records , but was leaked online on November 5 . = = Composition = = Lotus incorporates pop styles with elements of dance @-@ pop , rock in the form of upbeat songs and piano @-@ driven ballads . It opens with the track " Lotus Intro " , which was inspired by Aguilera 's passion for " chill @-@ out " electronica . The song has a " hypnotic " yet " dark , serious " tone that develops and matures as it progresses , depicting Aguilera 's rebirth , similar to the life cycle of a lotus flower . " Army of Me " is a dance @-@ pop and euro @-@ dance empowerment anthem , with a pounding drum beat and rock guitars . Aguilera described the song as an update version of her 2003 hit " Fighter " , describing it as a " Fighter 2 @.@ 0 " . The up @-@ tempo track " Red Hot Kinda Love " combines a variety of genres , including dance and disco , " subtle " tones of Latin , hip hop , and pop . " Make the World Move " , featuring Cee Lo Green , is a track which incorporates dance , R & B and soul genres . The next track and first single from Lotus is " Your Body " . It incorporates electropop and R & B genres and has a trace of dubstep in the middle eight . Lyrically , it discusses anonymous sex with a random man . " Let There Be Love " features dance @-@ pop , electronic dance music and pop genres with elements from electronica and trance . The power ballad " Sing for Me " tells how Aguilera was born to sing . " Blank Page " is a piano @-@ driven ballad about apologies , regrets , closure , and making peace . " Cease Fire " is a rock @-@ tinged track that features electronic and dubstep infusion . Lyrically , it is a plea to her partner to stop the fighting for the greater good of their relationship . " Around the World " has a ragga influence and refers to Aguilera 's 2001 hit " Lady Marmalade " as she whispers " Voulez @-@ vous coucher avec moi , ce soir ? " . The pop track " Circles " is an anti @-@ haters song and is influenced by the alternative rock genre . " Best of Me " is a power ballad about a failed relationship and how to not let others knock you down . " Just a Fool " , the last track of Lotus and its second single , is a duet with Blake Shelton . The song is a country pop ballad about the pain of a break @-@ up . = = Promotion = = = = = Singles = = = To promote Lotus , two singles were released from the album . " Your Body " was released on September 17 , 2012 as Lotus 's lead single . The song received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised Aguilera 's vocals and the collaboration with Max Martin . It debuted and peaked at number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 27 , 2012 , becoming the highest @-@ debut single during that week . Internationally , " Your Body " was a moderate success , peaking within the top 40 of most countries . The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Melina Matsoukas ; it portrays Ag	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
ness and death = = Then under house arrest , in May 2000 al @-@ Jamri suffered a heart attack . He was taken to the Bahrain Defence Force Hospital , where he underwent surgery . During his stay at the hospital , he was visited by the King and Prime Minister . In May 2002 , al @-@ Jamri traveled to Germany for spinal surgery . While undergoing medical checkups , it was discovered he had a thrombus behind his eye , which had developed when he was in prison . Following the surgery he suffered a stroke , also developing kidney problems and a blood infection , soon falling into a coma . He woke from the coma on 30 June , but shortly after suffered a second stroke , resulting in internal bleeding , and incapacitating him for the rest of his life . On 27 January 2003 , al @-@ Jamri was transferred from Germany to Sultan bin Abdulaziz Humanitarian City in Saudi Arabia , where his medical condition improved slightly . He returned to Bahrain on 12 July and was welcomed by hundreds of his supporters . His medical condition deteriorated again as he suffered from repeated respiratory problems and another stroke , and in the end he lost the ability to speak . In the early morning of 18 December 2006 , al @-@ Jamri was rushed by ambulance from his home to Salmaniya Medical Complex , where he was announced dead . The cause of death was heart and kidney failure . = = Aftermath = = = = = Funeral = = = Although al @-@ Jamri 's death was announced in the morning , the mourning processions only began after the sunset Maghrib prayer . The funeral course was changed several times . Ultimately , it began at 6 : 00 in Muqsha village before moving along the west side of Budaiya highway to Bani Jamra , where al @-@ Jamri was buried at 10 : 00 . The weather was extremely cold for Bahrain , yet thousands showed up wearing black mourning clothes and carrying black flags . According to a number of Al @-@ Wasat writers , the funeral was the largest in the modern history of Bahrain . = = = Successor = = = Following the 2002 deterioration of his health , al @-@ Jamri 's position as a political and religious leader of Bahrain 's Shia opposition was taken over by his lifelong friend , Ayatollah Isa Qassim . Qassim was less revolutionary than al @-@ Jamri , having opposed the 1992 and 1994 petitions , but his views were kept private , in part as a sign of respect for al @-@ Jamri . Al @-@ Jamri 's role as leader of the opposition remained empty , as the opposition became fragmented . = = Publications = = Al @-@ Jamri wrote several books and poems ( in Arabic ) . He kept writing poems even when he became bedridden . His books include : Women in Islam . Islamic Duties . Islamic Teachings . The story of my life . = Hualālai = Hualālai ( pronounced [ huwəˈlaːlɐi ] in Hawaiian ) is an active volcano on the island of Hawaiʻi in the Hawaiian Islands . It is the westernmost , third @-@ youngest and the third most active of the five shield volcanoes that form the island of Hawaiʻi , following Kīlauea and the much larger Mauna Loa . Its peak stands 8 @,@ 271 feet ( 2 @,@ 521 m ) above sea level . Hualālai is estimated to have risen above sea level about 300 @,@ 000 years ago . Despite maintaining a very low level of activity since its last eruption in 1801 , Hualālai is still considered active , and is expected to erupt again some time within the next century . The relative unpreparedness of the residents in the area caused by the lull in activity would worsen the consequences of such an event . The area near the volcano has been inhabited for centuries by Hawaiian natives , dating back to before recorded history . The coast west of Hualālai in particular had several royal complexes . The volcano is also important ecologically , is home to many rare species and several nature reserves near the summit , and is a popular hiking attraction . Today the coast near Hualālai is dotted by vacation resorts , some built on historic flows , and a National Historical Park . = = Geology = = = = = Structural features = = = Hualālai stands at 8 @,@ 271 ft ( 2 @,@ 521 m ) with a prominence of 3 @,@ 071 ft ( 936 m ) . It is the westernmost of the five major volcanoes which form the island of Hawaiʻi . Being in the post @-@ shield stage of development , Hualālai is overall much rougher in shape and structure than the more youthful Mauna Loa and Kīlauea . Hualālai 's structure is denoted by three rift zones : a well @-@ developed one approximately 50 ° to the northwest , a moderately developed one to the southeast , and a poorly developed one trending northwards about 3 mi ( 5 km ) east of the summit . There are over 100 cinder and spatter cones arranged along these rift zones . Hualālai has no summit caldera , although there is a collapse crater about 0 @.@ 3 mi ( 0 @.@ 48 km ) across atop a small lava shield . Much of the southern slope ( above the modern town of Kailua @-@ Kona ) consists of lava flows covered by a layer of volcanic ash from 10 to 100 cm ( 4 to 39 in ) thick . In comparison with the other volcanoes of the island of Hawaiʻi , it is the third tallest , third oldest , third most active , and second smallest , making up just 7 % of the island . A major subfeature of Hualālai is Puʻu Waʻawaʻa , Hawaiian for " many @-@ furrowed hill " , a volcanic cone standing 372 m ( 1 @,@ 220 ft ) tall and measuring over 1 @.@ 6 km ( 1 mi ) in diameter . It extends for 9 km ( 6 mi ) , and has a prominence of 275 m ( 902 ft ) , north of the summit at 19 ° 46 ′ 15 ″ N 155 ° 49 ′ 56 ″ W. The cone is constructed of trachyte , a type of volcanic lava that exists at no other volcano on Hawaiʻi . Trachyte flows move more slowly than the typically " runny " Hawaiian lavas , a characteristic caused by its high ( over 62 % ) silica composition ( typical basalt is only 50 % silica ) . Geologists hypothesize that Puʻu Waʻawaʻa originally formed during a pumice eruption a little over 100 @,@ 000 years ago , and has continued to build itself since then , with at least three distinct trachyte flows recognized . The eruptions , although partially covered by flows from Hualālai and Mauna Loa , have built a distinctive structure known as the Puʻu Anahulu ridge . The westward @-@ facing flank of Hualālai forms a large underwater slump known as the North Kona slump . An area of about 1 @,@ 000 km2 ( 390 sq mi ) , the slump consists of an intricate formation of beaches and scarps 2 @,@ 000 to 4 @,@ 500 m ( 6 @,@ 600 to 14 @,@ 800 ft ) below the waterline . This area was explored more closely in a 2001 joint Japan @-@ United States project to explore the volcano 's flanks , utilizing the Remotely operated vehicle ROV Kaikō . Data collected showed that the lava flows there originated in shallow water 500 to 1 @,@ 000 m ( 1 @,@ 600 to 3 @,@ 300 ft ) deep , and that unlike similar slumps at other volcanoes , the slump at Hualālai formed gradually . Haulālai is a known source for xenoliths , rock from the Earth 's mantle that have been brought up in lava flows . Many prehistoric deposits , as well as those from the 1801 event , contain xenoliths of large size and abundant quantity . = = = History = = = Lava attributed to a shield @-@ stage Hualālai has been found just offshore of the volcano 's northwest rift zone . Tholeiitic basalt , indicative of the submarine subphase of the volcano 's construction , has been found in wells driven into the volcano at a depth of 75 ft ( 23 m ) . These lavas persisted until an estimated 130 @,@ 000 years ago . Hualālai entered the post @-@ shield stage , the stage it is presently in , about 100 @,@ 000 years ago . Pumice and trachyte eruptions at Puʻu Waʻawaʻa may be a sign of this change . Geological mapping of the volcano has indicated that as much as 80 % of the volcano 's surface has been topped by lava flows during the last 5 @,@ 000 years , entirely composed of shield alkalic basalt . More than half of this is under 3 @,@ 000 years old , and about 12 % is less than 1 @,@ 000 years of age . Between the years 1700 and 2016 , eruptions originated from six vents ; four of these lava flows poured into the sea to the west coast . = = Eruptive history = = Hualālai is the third most active volcano making up the island of Hawaiʻi , behind Kīlauea and Mauna Loa . Although the two larger volcanos have each erupted over 150 times in the last 1 @,@ 000 years , Hualālai has done so but 3 times . The recurrence of activity at the volcano seems to be every 200 to 300 years . A recent calm period , with almost no earthquake or magmatic activity at Hualālai , has seen the growth of homes , businesses , and resorts on the mountain 's flanks . The most recent major activity at the volcano was in 1929 , when an intense earthquake swarm rocked Hualālai , most likely caused by magmatic action near the volcano 's peak . Although it has been relatively placid in the recent past , Hualālai is still potentially active , and is expected to erupt again within the next 100 years . = = = Lava stratigraphy = = = The USGS has divided the exposed lava flows and tephra erupted by Hualālai volcano during the last 112 @,@ 000 years into 419 rock units of 8 chronostratigraphic age groups . These are summarized in the table below : = = = 1800 – 1801 eruption = = = Hualālai last erupted in 1800 – 1801 . This eruption produced very fluid alkalic basalt lava flows that entered the ocean off the western tip of Hawaiʻi island . Although five vents were active at the time , only two produced flows that eventually reached the ocean . The total output volume of the flow is estimated at over 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m3 ( 0 @.@ 072 cu mi ) . One volcanic vent , situated high on the slope , produced a large a 'a flow , dubbed the Kaʻūpūlehu flow , that reached the ocean as two distinct lobes . On its way down , it overran a village and a valuable 3 mi ( 5 km ) fishing pond . There is a local legend that after the failure of several offerings of animals and other items to the gods , the flow was finally stopped when Kamehameha I threw a lock of his own hair into the fire . The Ka 'ūpūlehu flow is also known for the particularly large quantity of mafic and ultramafic xenoliths that came up with it . The other major outflow from the event reached the sea south of Kiholo Bay , destroying the village of Kaʻūpūlehu . This 1801 flow , known as the Huʻehuʻe flow , formed Keahole Point where Kona International Airport is now located , 11 km ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) north of Kailua @-@ Kona . The eruption at Hualālai was concurrent with an eruption at the nearby Mauna Loa . It is theorized that , in the near past , Hualālai has had synchronous eruptions with both Mauna Loa and Kilauea . = = = Recent activity = = = Hualālai last erupted in 1801 . A severe earthquake swarm shook the volcano in 1929 , lasting about a month . This caused $ 100 @,@ 000 worth of damage to the Kona district ( $ 1 @.@ 2 million as of 2010 ) , and two earthquakes with magnitudes of 5 @.@ 5 and 6 @.@ 5 were felt as far away as Honolulu . This was probably caused by magma movement near the surface , but there was no surface activity or eruption . The 2006 Hawaii earthquake , with epicenter just to the north in Kiholo Bay near Māhukona , caused much damage in the area . = = = Future monitoring = = = Although Hualālai last erupted over 200 years ago , it will erupt again in the near future , as a 200 – 300 year estimated pause in activity is coming to an end . It presents a distinct hazard to the communities around it as well ; for example , in the event of an eruption similar to the 1801 event , Kailua @-@ Kona , which is 15 mi ( 24 km ) from the volcano 's summit , could be covered completely in a matter of hours . According to the USGS Lava Flow Hazard Zones , on a scale of 5 to 9 , all of Hualālai is listed as threat level 4 . For comparison , almost all of Kīlauea and Mauna Loa is listed as threat levels 1 through 3 . The flanks of the volcano do not pose a lower threat to the population than the area near the rift zones because the distance is short and the slopes are steep ; lava poses as much of a threat as it does near its source . Since 1991 , the Hawaiian Volcano Observatory ( HVO ) has maintained a seismic recording station 3 km ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) east of Hualālai 's summit to monitor the volcano . During this time , not a single earthquake swarm or harmonic tremor , indicative of activity at the volcano , has occurred . Although Hualālai does experience several magnitude 4 earthquakes per year , these are attributed to a deep source off the coast of the north @-@ western rift zone and are not related to the movement of magma . The USGS is currently in the process of upgrading its aging monitoring and telemetry equipment , using American Recovery and Reinvestment Act funds . The agency plans to add another seismometer and three more sensors to help monitor activity . In addition , the HVO uses GPS to measure slight changes in tilt and slope of Hualālai , indicative of magmatic movement . A survey has been conducted every two years since 1986 , but as of 2010 changes have been recorded . = = Human history = = Hualālai has been a home to native people since ancient times . Centuries ago , the Ahu A Umi Heiau was built on the dry plateau east of the mountain . The Kaloko @-@ Honokōhau National Historic Park lies on the shore west of Hualālai , over the site of an ancient Hawaiian settlement . Although it is called kekaha ʻaʻole wai ( lands without water ) , the rugged volcanic terrain attracted much sea life , making it an appealing place to settle . There are two main attractions within the park : the Kaloko fishpond , an area of loko kuapa ( rockwall fishponds ) constructed of interlocking rocks across a natural embayment on the coast , and Honokōhau , a former extensive settlement on the south side of the park . Kamakahonu , Holualoa Bay , and Keauhou Bay were favored retreats of Hawaiian royalty long before the westernization of Hawaii . It was here that Kamehameha I rested after his eight @-@ year campaign to unite the Hawaiian isles . His death in 1819 triggered social chaos . Mokuaikaua Church , built for missionaries in 1837 of lava rock and crushed coral , still stands today . Huliheʻe Palace , where many of Hawaii 's last kings spent their time , has been maintained as a museum since 1927 . Today , the coast west of Hualālai is a popular location for vacation resorts , since the rain shadow of the mountain causes many sunny days . The first , Kona Village resort , was built in 1961 . Since then the Four Seasons Resort and the Kūkiʻo golf course and vacation home complex have also been built on the 1800 flow . Both the Kona Village Resort and the Four Seasons Resort were damaged by the tsunami generated by the 2011 Sendai earthquake . The Hawaii Belt Road traverses the western slopes with an upper route called the Mamalahoa Highway and lower route named for Queen Kaʻahumanu . Much of the Kona coffee crop grows on Hualālai 's western slope near the town of Holualoa . The family of early coffee merchant Henry Nicholas Greenwell owned a large ranch on the western side of the volcano . The road from Kailua @-@ Kona up the slopes of Hualālai is named for Frank " Palani " Greenwell . Hawaii Route 200 known as the Saddle Road , crosses the plateau north of Hualālai , where the Pohakuloa Training Area provides a remote training ground for the United States Army and United States Marine Corps . = = Recreational significance = = Hualālai 's many interesting features , most especially its volcanic cones , make it a popular destination for hikers . Although it is relatively easy to climb , much of the land at and around the summit of the volcano is owned by Kamehameha Schools , which routinely denies access to hikers attempting to climb it . As most , if not all , routes up to Hualālai pass through the estate , hiking on Hualālai is more or less illegal . However , the laws are not stringently enforced , and many hikers slip through anyway . One of the most popular mountaineering features is Luamakami and its sister Puhia Pele , two pit craters on Hualālai that are the deepest on the island . Puhia Pele , also known as " Pele 's Pit " , has been explored to a depth of 862 ft ( 263 m ) , and Luamakami is known to be even deeper . The walls are scalable with the proper technical equipment . = = Ecology and environment = = Although some of Hualālai is bare volcanic rock , most of it is covered by some form of vegetation . Bushes , ferns , and grass are common , and even a few ōhiʻa lehua trees ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) grow along the summit . Many of the collapse craters in particular have vegetation , and a few even have respectably @-@ sized " vertical forests " inside , including several Eucalyptus tree groves . The volcano is populated by many birds and animals ; the coast in particular attracts many fish and sea @-@ dependent animals , such as the green sea turtle ( Chelonia mydas ) and the black @-@ winged stilt ( Himantopus himantopus ) . Hualālai averages 18 @.@ 27 in ( 46 cm ) of rainfall per year . The summit gets more rain than the coast and is typically obscured in heavy cloud cover and vog . Several ecological reserves lie on the flanks of Hualālai . The Puʻu Waʻa Waʻa forest sanctuary was established in 1992 ( along with the Laupahoehoe sister reserve on Mauna Kea ) as a testbed for long term ecological research about Hawaiian moist forest and dry forest biomes , and lies within a mile of the volcano 's summit on its northwestern flank . Elevation differs from sea level near the coastal edge to 6 @,@ 300 ft ( 1 @,@ 920 m ) near the summit . Median annual rainfall is about 46 @.@ 7 in ( 119 cm ) . Plentiful lava flows from the 19th century provide unique niches for vegetative and soil growth in the region . The southern section of the reserve , closest to the summit , has been split into a bird sanctuary . The Honuaula forest reserve on the southwestern flank of the volcano at 19 ° 30 ′ 25 ″ N 155 ° 54 ′ 41 ″ W , preserves an extensive koa ( Acacia koa ) forest stand , with smaller Naio ( Myoporum sandwicense ) and Māmane ( Sophora chrysophylla ) trees and an undergrowth of ʻĀkala ( Rubus hawaiensis ) and various ferns . The reserve measures 655 acres ( 265 ha ) and protects an ecosystem that has since been largely deforested in the surrounding area . The Wai Aha spring reserve on the lower slopes of the mountain is somewhat swampy and is home to the flowering evergreen ōhiʻa ( Metrosideros polymorpha ) , the woody climber ʻIeʻie ( Freycinetia arborea ) , and a dense undergrowth of ʻAmaʻu ( Sadleria cyatheoides ) . = WhiteWater World = WhiteWater World is a water park situated in the suburb of Coomera on the Gold Coast , Australia . It is owned and operated by Ardent Leisure . After years of planning and a year of construction , WhiteWater World opened to the public on 8 December 2006 . The ten Australian beach culture themed attractions cost approximately A $ 56 million . These included The Green Room , Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , The Rip , The BRO , Temple of Huey , Cave of Waves , Wiggle Bay , and Pipeline Plunge . Since then , four additional water slides : two called Little Rippers , one called The Wedgie and one called the Triple Vortex , have been added . WhiteWater World was designed to be very efficient in its water use . Since opening , the quantity of visitors has consistently been above expectations . Ardent Leisure has submitted a development application for the expansion of the water park and plans to add five new attractions . = = History = = = = = Development = = = In 2004 , Macquarie Leisure began planning a water park to be located next to the company 's existing Dreamworld theme park . Dreamworld 's Chief Executive Officer Stephen Gregg and General Manager of Special Projects Bob Tan visited water parks around the world to discover the most thrilling and cutting @-@ edge water rides available . Later Tan was quoted saying " ... the drawing board for the new park was a restaurant napkin in a little cafe in the US " . On 28 November 2005 , Macquarie Leisure announced it would invest $ 56 million on the Dreamworld Water Park project , with construction commencing shortly there @-@ after . The existing Dreamworld car park was redesigned to accommodate more cars and the addition of a water park in the southern portion . Construction of the water park began in January 2006 . In June , two of the three slide towers were complete , with several slides in the early phases of construction . One month later , several attractions were announced by the park with others being speculated upon . Some attractions were nearing completion in September and all the planned attractions had been revealed by October . WhiteWater World opened three weeks ahead of schedule on 8 December 2006 after a week of previews . The park opened with ten attractions , including The Green Room , The Rip , Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , The BRO , The Temple of Huey ( 3 individual slides ) , Pipeline Plunge , Wiggle Bay and the Cave of Waves . At this time , the park featured many Australian and world firsts : The Rip and Super Tubes Hydrocoaster were both Australian firsts ; The BRO was a world first ; and The Green Room was Australia 's biggest Tornado slide . After six months of operation Macquarie Leisure announced that WhiteWater World attracted 247 @,@ 360 visitors , producing a revenue of $ 8 @.@ 7 million and a profit of $ 4 million . = = = Performance = = = WhiteWater World performed above expectations after opening with approximately 23 @,@ 000 guests between 8 December and 31 December 2006 . WhiteWater World continued to exceed Macquarie Leisure 's expectations during its first year of operation . The first year saw 493 @,@ 227 guests , exceeding the 450 @,@ 000 estimate , earning the park over $ 8 @.@ 4 million in revenue . The park continued to perform well in subsequent years with an 18 @.@ 4 % increase in attendance in 2008 . In June 2009 , Macquarie Leisure was renamed to Ardent Leisure as part of a corporate repositioning which saw the company split from Macquarie . In August 2010 , Ardent Leisure announced a decline in revenue and profits in its theme park division . It stated that a capital expenditure plan had been endorsed which would " ... strengthen ride inventory and consumer appeal " . WhiteWaterWorld is currently ranked as one of the world 's most water efficient parks because of its sustainable water management and environmentally friendly technology . = = = Expansion = = = In September 2007 , the park added two attractions : a pair of ProSlide Cannon Bowls called The Little Rippers and an events venue called The Shell . A month later , WhiteWater World submitted a development application to the Gold Coast City Council to extend the water park . The main feature of the application was a 25 @-@ metre ( 82 ft ) tower featuring three new water slides : two Mammoth slides and a Tornado Tantrum Alley . The expansion proposal also featured a lazy river and a large water play area . After two years , the application was approved by the council . The expansion plans have been delayed due to the 2007 @-@ 2010 financial crisis . In December 2009 , it was reported that WhiteWater World planned to add a WhiteWater West AquaLoop . However Village Roadshow Theme Parks , owner of competitor Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast , attempted to negotiate an exclusivity agreement with the manufacturer . Three months later in February 2010 , it was announced that WhiteWater World would build an alternative attraction built by ProSlide before the April school holidays . The Wedgie , a ProSlide Superloop , opened on 1 April 2011 . It was the first ride in Australia to feature a trap door release and was marketed as Australia 's first looping water slide . In 2011 , WhiteWater World 's contract with Nickelodeon was terminated and Nickelodeon 's Pipeline Plunge was renamed Pipeline Plunge . In September 2014 , the park added ' Triple Vortex ' , a two @-@ person tube slide by ProSlide . = = Attractions = = WhiteWater World features several water slide attractions ( all built by ProSlide ) , a large wave pool and separate children and toddler areas . There are food and beverage outlets , retail stores , a surf school , a function area and numerous shaded areas with seating . The park features three water slide towers , each featuring a collection of slides grouped by the level of thrill . The park also features three family @-@ oriented water attractions separate from the towers . All of the park 's attractions have an Australian beach culture theme . The slide tower near the entrance contains the park 's main thrill slides . The Wedgie is a body slide featuring a trap @-@ door release into a near @-@ vertical 17 @-@ metre ( 56 ft ) drop . Riders then enter a fast , downward @-@ spiralling turn and reach speeds of nearly 45 kilometres per hour ( 28 mph ) before they are slowed in a run @-@ out chute . The ride was the first ProSlide SuperLOOP in the world . The Green Room consists of four people boarding a cloverleaf @-@ shaped tube in which they traverse a 66 @-@ metre ( 217 ft ) long tunnel followed by a 17 @-@ metre ( 56 ft ) drop into a funnel . Within the funnel , riders oscillate back and forth up the walls at the side and drop into a splash pool . Since its opening , The Green Room has been Australia 's largest ProSlide Tornado beating Wet 'n'Wild Water World 's Tornado in height and tunnel length . On the Super Tubes Hydrocoaster , three people sit on a 45 @-@ kilogram ( 99 lb ) raft , whose weight is mainly attributable to a large magnet on its underside . Riders experience several steep drops followed by magnet @-@ powered inclines , ending with a splashdown in a small pool . The Super Tubes Hydrocoaster was the second ProSlide Hydro Magnetic Rocket Slide in the world and continues to be Australia 's only water coaster . The second slide tower , along the park 's southern border , features two rides with more moderate thrill ratings . On The Rip , riders hop into a four @-@ person , cloverleaf @-@ shaped tube . They descend a dark tunnel before entering a large , open bowl . The raft circles the centre of the bowl then exits down through the centre and into a splashdown pool . The Rip is the first and currently the only ProSlide Behemoth Bowl in Australia . The BRO ( Blue Ringed Octopus ) is a water slide consisting of eight 120 @-@ metre ( 390 ft ) long lanes . From a height of 16 metres ( 52 ft ) , riders mount a personal mat and slide head first down an enclosed spiral tunnel before merging into open , parallel lanes to the finish . In 24 seconds , riders can reach speeds of up to 50 kilometres per hour ( 31 mph ) . The BRO has a capacity of 1000 riders per hour . When The BRO opened in 2006 , it was the largest ProSlide Octopus Racer in the world and is the only one in Australia . A third slide , Triple Vortex , was added to the tower in late 2014 . Pairs of riders will slide down an enclosed tube slide with three funnels , similar to miniature versions of the park 's Green Room funnel . The slide tower in the southeast corner of the park contains five slides designed for those who desire a mild thrill . Some of the slides on this tower interact with Dreamworld 's Cyclone roller coaster . The Little Rippers are two ProSlide duelling cannon bowl slides . The slides can accommodate guests riding in either one or two person tubes . Riders begin in one of two parallel chutes before entering tunnels and splitting off in opposite directions . Each tunnel has a steep drop into the bowl element of the ride , after which the raft drops down through the centre and into a run @-@ out chute . The other three slides on this tower are collectively known as The Temple of Huey . Guests can ride in a single or double tube . All three slides are ProSlide Pipelines . The three slides are individually named Broken Headz , Cut Snake and Screamin Right Handers and are 99 , 104 and 88 metres ( 325 , 341 and 289 feet ) long respectively . Broken Headz and Cut Snake are enclosed and Screamin Right Handers is an open flume . Three family @-@ oriented attractions are located on the ground level , detached from the three slide towers . Two of these are children 's areas and the third is a wave pool . Pipeline Plunge is a children 's area with four flume slides and hundreds of water activities . The area , originally called Nickelodeon 's Pipeline Plunge , is a large , multi @-@ level water play structure featuring an 1 @,@ 000 @-@ litre ( 220 imp gal ; 260 US gal ) tipping bucket which dumps water on guests every few minutes . It played host to two " Slime Fest " events in 2009 that included several live shows , a dunking chair and " Australia 's biggest sliming " where 1 @,@ 000 litres ( 220 imp gal ; 260 US gal ) of slime was dumped on park guests using green coloured water in the giant tipping bucket twice daily . The mass sliming returned in the 2010 / 2011 summer holidays as part of the Summer Funomenon . Pipeline Plunge is a WhiteWater West Aqua Play area . Wiggle Bay is a Wiggles themed toddler area featuring musical and interactive water play activities , a shallow pool and four Wiggles @-@ coloured water slides , located at the back of the area. these were manufactured by ProSlide . The interactive features are manufactured by WaterPlay . The Cave of Waves is a themed 2 @,@ 685 @-@ square @-@ metre ( 28 @,@ 900 sq ft ) wave pool which can generate waves of up to 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) high . Built by Murphy 's Waves of Scotland , the pool has a constant temperature of 26 degrees Celsius . The Get Wet Surf School makes use of the pool for its lessons outside of normal park operating hours . = = Other facilities = = In addition to its lineup of attractions , WhiteWater World also has a retail outlet , an events venue , cabanas , and several food and beverage outlets . The Beyond the Beach shop , located near the park 's entrance , sells surf and WhiteWater World branded merchandise . The shop contains a Kodak photo centre that allows guests to purchase on @-@ ride photos taken on the Super Tubes Hydrocoaster and photographs taken inside the park . Beyond the Beach also serves as the exit gates for the park . WhiteWater World operates three dining outlets in the peak holiday seasons : Bite Me Cafe , Sandman 's Cafe and Bar and Salty 's Kiosk . The widest range of meals is available from the Bite Me Cafe which operates all year round . Sandman 's Cafe and Bar is a licensed bar where guests can purchase alcoholic drinks and food options including Eagle Boys pizza . It is located on the park 's western border between the Cave of Waves and the splashdown of The Wedgie . Salty 's Kiosk is located next to The BRO and sells slushies , ice creams and other snack foods . Since September 2007 , WhiteWater World has hosted an undercover events venue , the largest at an Australian theme park , The Shell . The venue can cater for up to 2000 guests and is located on the southeast corner of WhiteWater World . From April 2011 , WhiteWater World has offered guests the hire of 12 luxury cabanas , located around the park . Each cabana is designed for up to four guests , who have access to deck chairs , couches , a coffee table , an iPod dock , towels and a mini refrigerator . = = Reception = = Prior to opening , WhiteWater World was criticised for being built during one of Australia 's worst droughts and in an area on Level 5 water restrictions . When designing WhiteWater World , Macquarie Leisure implemented measures to ensure that the park was one of the most water efficient water parks in the world through the minimisation of water loss . In October 2008 , staff at WhiteWater World stopped Paralympian Steve Simmonds from riding the slides . Simmonds was angry and stated that he felt like he was discriminated against . WhiteWater World cited manufacturer guidelines and safety concerns as the reasons behind the restrictions . During the first full year of operation , WhiteWater World attracted more visitors than the expected 450 @,@ 000 guests . Attendance records show close to 500 @,@ 000 guests attended the park during that period . In a review of several Australian entertainment attractions for The Australian , Scott Podmore rated WhiteWater World 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , outranking its main competitors Wet 'n'Wild Gold Coast and Sea World also on the Gold Coast and UnderWater World on the Sunshine Coast . Podmore stated that " WhiteWater World is a wonderful , diverse park offering something for everyone . " and that " WhiteWater World is fantastic for a splash , some R & R or some slippery big rides " . Podmore highlighted The Rip , The BRO , Little Rippers and Temple of Huey as the park 's top attractions . Before The Wedgie opened in April 2010 , several media reporters experienced the ride . Tanya Westthorp of the Gold Coast Bulletin described the ride as " ... not for the faint @-@ hearted " . She also stated that " ... disorientation prevails for a large chunk of the ride , but the thrill is unparalleled to any other waterslide " . Phil Lutton of the Brisbane Times wrote that the ride " ... is not only the fastest , most exhilarating water ride I 've ever tried but it lives up to its name in spades " . = Europa Barbarorum = Europa Barbarorum ( Latin : Europe of the Barbarians ) , or EB , is a modification of the PC game Rome : Total War ( RTW ) based on the desire to provide Rome : Total War players with a more historically accurate game experience . The basic gameplay mechanics of the original game remain the same . The player controls an empire with the goal of conquering as much territory as possible and eliminating rival factions , which are controlled by the computer , or AI . The main campaign is split between two gameplay modes : a turn @-@ based strategy map for moving whole armies and managing the empire , and a real @-@ time battle map for fighting battles on the ground between two or more armies . The two game modes are linked , with success or failure in one game mode influencing the chances of success or failure in the other . Although set in a similar historical period and geographical area to the unmodified game ( covering a timespan of 272 BC to 14 AD , compared to the original game 's 270 BC to 14 AD ) , Europa Barbarorum is a total conversion modification as it replaces all the aspects of the original Rome : Total War game that can be replaced , such as unit models , statistics and the musical score . The modification has received favourable reviews in a number of computer gaming magazines . PC Gamer magazine ranks Europa Barbarorum as the best mod for any of the seven Total War games released for the PC at that time . = = Gameplay = = In the original Rome : Total War the player took control of an empire , or " faction " , of classical Europe , North Africa or the Middle East , with the aim of expanding their faction 's territory and eliminating rival empires through military conquest and city @-@ building . Europa Barbarorum retains this basic gameplay mechanic and sets itself in a similar time period and geographical area to the original game . However , as a total conversion the mod replaces the particular factions , military units , buildings , and other elements present in the original game , and adds a new soundtrack and several brand @-@ new gameplay mechanics not present in the original , such as the installation of puppet rulers . The modification 's development team 's stated aim in making the changes that they have to Rome : Total War is to make the player 's experience of the ancient world more historically accurate . For this reason , numerous parameters of the game at the start of the campaign in 272 BC , such as generals ' names , the diplomatic relations between factions , and the particular understanding of the outside world that each faction has , have been set to correspond to the actual political situation in that year . Also for reasons of historical verisimilitude , factions , provinces on the campaign map and factions ' family members have been given vernacular names in Europa Barbarorum , rather than having Latinised or Anglicised ones , as in Rome : Total War . So , for instance , the original game 's Armenia faction is known as Hayasdan in Europa Barbarorum , and Germania as the Sweboz . Instead of having to play one 's first campaign as a Roman faction and only subsequently unlock playable campaigns as non @-@ Romans by defeating them in the Roman campaign , all twenty of Europa Barbarorum 's playable factions can be accessed by the player from the start . Furthermore , the one unplayable and three playable Roman factions of the original have been combined into a single playable faction in Europa Barbarorum , the Romani . Dissatisfied with the homogeneity of the factions of the original Rome : Total War , the Europa Barbarorum development team have sought to differentiate the playing experiences of the game 's different factions . So , for example , Rome : Total War 's trait @-@ acquisition system , where the player 's faction 's family members acquire certain characteristics and talents which make them more or less adept at certain tasks such as city management or military leadership , has been made more faction @-@ specific in Europa Barbarorum , with Hellenic characters ' traits , for instance , being based on Theophrastos ' Characters and Aristotle 's teachings on the Golden Mean , and Romans ' traits being partially based on the moral tales of Valerius Maximus . There are sometimes additional requirements for a family member to be able to gain a new trait : in order for them to compete in one of the Panhellenic Games , for instance , the player must ensure that they are stationed in the appropriate city on the campaign map in the year that the competition is scheduled to take place . One reviewer has commented that Europa Barbarorum 's expansions upon the original Rome : Total War 's trait system have served to add a role @-@ playing element to the game . = = = Campaign = = = As in the original Rome : Total War , Europa Barbarorum 's strategic campaign sees the player take control of a particular faction and then compete for territory and resources against all the other factions , which are controlled by the game 's artificial intelligence . The player is presented with a map of Europe , North Africa and the Near East in which territory is divided into 200 provinces , each of which contains a province capital , which will at any given point be controlled either by the player 's faction , a rival playable faction , or the non @-@ playable Eleutheroi faction , which represents the world 's minor kingdoms , regional powers and rebel states . If a faction should at any point find itself not in control of any provinces , it is eliminated from the game . Gameplay is turn @-@ based , each turn representing the passage of three months on the campaign map ( unlike the six months of the original Rome : Total War ) and alternating between the player managing their empire and the artificial intelligence making all the other factions ' moves . A key game mechanic of the campaign map is the annexation of territory , which is done province @-@ by @-@ province , either by successfully besieging the province capital , or by acquiring it from another faction through diplomacy . Once a faction has acquired a province , they may construct buildings in the province capital which either enable the recruitment of certain military units or grant various bonuses to the city such as greater resilience during a siege or a decreased likelihood of the province rebelling . Provided the city contains the appropriate buildings , the player may recruit military units in the city at the same time as undertaking construction projects . The aim of the game is to acquire a specified number of provinces and / or eliminate specified rival factions ( in Europa Barbarorum particular victory conditions differ for each faction ) , whilst avoiding being eliminated by the other factions . The campaign map itself of Europa Barbarorum covers a wider geographical area than that of Rome : Total War , expanding into areas such as the Arabian Peninsula , India , Central Asia , and Scandinavia . Relief , province boundaries , snow boundaries , vegetation types , coastlines and areas prone to natural disaster in 272 BC have all been researched and implemented into the campaign map . The Nile – Red Sea canal linking the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea has been added to the map , as have the great trade routes of the ancient world , such as the Amber and Silk Roads , which can be captured and exploited by the player or by the artificial intelligence . The selection of factions present in the original Rome : Total War has been overhauled in Europa Barbarorum . The original game 's Gaul faction has been replaced with two new factions , the Aedui and the Arverni . The Scythia faction has been replaced by the Sauromatae , and the Greek Cities faction ( which included various city @-@ states ) has been replaced by the Koinon Hellenon ( Ancient Greek : League of the Greeks ) , a faction which represents the Chremonidean League of Athens , Sparta and Rhodes . Entirely new factions include Baktria , a Central Asian Hellenic empire , and Epeiros , a western Greek faction famous for producing Pyrrhos of Epiros . On the other hand , the Numidia faction of Rome : Total War was removed entirely . The way in which factions enhance the provinces they own through the construction of new buildings in their province capitals has changed in Europa Barbarorum . The process of assimilating a newly conquered province into one 's empire has become more differentiated in the modification than it was in the original game through the introduction of so @-@ called " government buildings " and military – industrial complexes . Government buildings represent different degrees of central State intervention in a province , and range from a homeland government , which can only be built in a faction 's traditional ethnic homeland and represents the highest possible degree of central State control , to an allied state government , which makes the province in question semi @-@ autonomous and installs a puppet ruler to govern it on the controlling faction 's behalf . The choice of government building in a province affects what other buildings can be constructed there : the greater the degree of autonomy granted to a province , the greater the shift in the make @-@ up of the pool of buildings available for construction from the controlling faction 's own buildings to native buildings ; that is , buildings which are more closely associated with the faction that would make its traditional home in the province in question , rather than the one currently occupying it . Nomadic , desert- and steppe @-@ dwelling factions have their own government buildings , which some say has helped differentiate between Europa Barbarorum 's factions and make the differences between Europa Barbarorum and the original Rome : Total War more than just cosmetic . These government buildings also affect unit recruitment options in a province , through the mod 's introduction of military – industrial complex ( " MIC " ) buildings . The original Rome : Total War 's system of constructing and subsequently upgrading different types of building in order to recruit different types of soldier ( stables for horses , ranges for archers , and so on ) has been replaced in Europa Barbarorum by the " factional MIC " , which enables the recruitment of all the province @-@ controlling faction 's units , and the " regional MIC " , which enables the recruitment of native types of soldier . How far the two types of complexes can be upgraded depends on the government of the province : the greater the autonomy of the province , the more the native MIC may be upgraded , and the less the factional MIC may be upgraded ; and vice versa . In addition to buildings which can be constructed by the player , Europa Barbarorum also introduces a number of unique buildings or " wonders " which can either be man @-@ made structures or features of the landscape and which provide unique bonuses to the province . = = = Warfare = = = If , during their turn on the campaign map , the player should engage one of their armies in combat with another faction 's army , or if their troops should be engaged by another faction during the AI 's turn , the player then has the option of fighting a real @-@ time battle or siege . In this gameplay mode , the player directs the troops they had brought with them on the campaign map to the engagement , ordering them to manoeuvre and attack the enemy 's troops on a three @-@ dimensional battlefield . Troops can either be killed outright on the battlefield or made to rout and flee the field if their morale falls below a certain threshold . Reviewers have noted of Rome : Total War that , during a battle , troop numbers do not outweigh all other considerations ; other factors such as individual unit types ' strengths and soldiers ' morale and fatigue at the point of fighting are also taken into account . A battle is won when one side kills or routs the entire enemy army ; a siege may be won by the attacking side through either dispatching the opposing forces or gaining control of the besieged city 's central plaza for a certain number of minutes , and by the defending side either by killing the attackers or by destroying their siege equipment before they have managed to breach the city 's defences . The make @-@ up of the game 's units is one of the areas in which the most change can be seen going from the original game to the mod . Reviewers have commented that the differences between Europa Barbarorum and its parent game are " immediate " and " striking " and that the modification is different from its parent game " in look and in play " . Another reviewer described the mod as having a more " gritty , realistic look " than the original Rome : Total War . All the units that were present in the original game have been removed and replaced in Europa Barbarorum . Specific examples include the removal of several units that the Europa Barbarorum team considered to be historically doubtful or only marginally used in warfare , such as Arcani , incendiary pigs and Celtic head @-@ hurlers from the original Rome : Total War . Nor was the modding team happy with the way more conventional forces were portrayed in the original game , for instance calling Rome : Total War 's Egyptian soldiers " Mummy Returns Egyptians " and hence creating a new unit roster for the Egyptian faction in the game ( named Egypt in the original Rome : Total War and the Ptolemaioi in Europa Barbarorum ) , in order to better correspond with the Ptolemaic period of history . The mod also features new custom battle formations in order to encourage more realistic behaviour from the AI . = = Audio = = Europa Barbarorum features its own soundtrack , distinct from that of Rome : Total War . Some of its tracks were composed especially by Morgan Casey and Nick Wylie ; others are examples of authentic music , the Celtic factions ' tracks , for example , having been recorded by early music ensemble Prehistoric Music Ireland . Europa Barbarorum also includes its own " voicemod " , an attempt by the developers to replace the English cries of Rome : Total War 's soldiers with ones in their native languages , which include classical Latin , Celtic , and ancient Greek . = = Development = = The Europa Barbarorum project began in January 2004 , eight months before Rome : Total War 's release , when the Europa Barbarorum development team who were following the game 's development became concerned that its " barbarian " factions such as the Gauls were being portrayed inaccurately . The Europa Barbarorum team felt that such factions ' representations in Rome : Total War conformed more to a Hollywood stereotype than to historical fact , and wished to see a more realistic portrayal of such factions in the game . The modding team tried to convince the Creative Assembly ( CA ) , the developers of Rome : Total War , to alter their depiction of the period in line with the team 's research , but the developers failed to take them up on their offer . Having exhausted this avenue for change , the Europa Barbarorum members then resolved to modify the game themselves upon its release . = = Release = = Europa Barbarorum was first released to the public as an open beta in December 2005 . After several more minor releases throughout 2006 which mostly fixed bugs and made small adjustments to the modification , the next major release of Europa Barbarorum was version 0 @.@ 80 in December 2006 . Its changes included the addition of the Sabaean faction , new music , and the inclusion of a new military – industrial complex system . There were three more 0 @.@ 8 @-@ series releases during the first half of 2007 which primarily made minor adjustments to the modification and fixed bugs . In total , over 135 @,@ 000 downloads of the 0 @.@ 80 – 0 @.@ 81 versions were tracked . The next major release was version 1 @.@ 0 , which was released in October 2007 and included new units , new government options for the Pahlava and Hayasdan factions , the addition of a new type of wall to the battle map and new music from prehistoric music group Prehistoric Music Ireland . The 1 @.@ 0 version was downloaded over 90 @,@ 000 times in the six months following its release . This was followed by version 1 @.@ 1 , which was released in April 2008 and included new battle map landscapes , new units , the addition of the Pahlavi voicemod and the inclusion of an introduction video for the Saka Rauka faction . The current release is version 1 @.@ 2 , which contains the addition of the Punic voicemod and bug fixes ; the development team had previously stated that future releases of Europa Barbarorum for the Rome : Total War engine will not include any major gameplay changes . Europa Barbarorum has seen some significant changes to its campaign over the course of its development . The Yuezhi faction , included in early releases of the modification , was subsequently dropped . Earlier releases of Europa Barbarorum also featured player alerts representing the major stages of the breakup of the Seleukid faction , if that collapse occurred in the game . However , such features became impossible to implement after the SPQR faction of the original game , used in Europa Barbarorum for scripting purposes , was removed from the mod in exchange for the kingdom of Saba . Following the main modification 's release , a number of customisations of Europa Barbarorum have been created , such as porting it to run using the Rome : Total War : Barbarian Invasion executable , or Feral Interactive 's Mac OS X version of Rome : Total War . There had been plans to release a version of the mod for the PC game Europa Universalis : Rome , but no Europa Barbarorum mod has yet been released for the strategy title . = = = Europa Barbarorum II = = = The Europa Barbarorum development team also developed a new version of the modification for the Medieval II : Total War : Kingdoms engine which was named Europa Barbarorum II . The modification was designed to take advantage of the improved graphics of Medieval II : Total War and of its engine 's additional features , such as the possibility for different soldiers within the same unit to have different appearances , as opposed to the " clones " criticised by some reviewers of Rome : Total War . Europa Barbarorum II includes new government , unit recruitment and trait systems , and new playable factions such as the kingdom of Gandhara , which has its own Sanskrit voicemod . An initial version of Europa Barbarorum II v2.0 was released on August 25 , 2014 , with a second version ( v2.01 ) released on September 12 , 2014 . On December 21 , 2015 a third version ( 2.1b ) was released and provided a number of improvements , such as remodelled battle map settlements , battle map vegetation , and new units with military reforms for various factions . = = Reception = = Europa Barbarorum was featured and reviewed in a number of video game magazines . It has been reviewed in PC Gamer ( UK ) twice , in March 2005 and February 2008 . The 2008 review was overwhelmingly positive , saying that " EB feels like a whole new Total War game " , and going on to praise the modification 's " stunning " scope and the " striking " extent of the differences between it and Rome : Total War . The review was somewhat critical of the modification 's graphical user interfaces which " [ occasionally ] " had a " home @-@ made " feel to them , as well as its lack of accessibility and steep learning curve , although it adds that the second point is not a large problem as the modification is largely a " master 's challenge for accomplished Rome players " . The review finished on a positive note , summing Europa Barbarorum up as a " superior game " . In 2010 the same magazine 's website named Europa Barbarorum the best mod of any Total War game . A number of non @-@ English language magazines have also reviewed Europa Barbarorum . The Italian PC Gaming magazine Giochi per il mio computer reviewed the modification in April 2005 and March 2008 . The 2005 review reported that the modification , whose development team included two historians , was to replace the " economic system , [ soldiers ' ] equipment and the provinces " of Rome : Total War ; the latter review praised the mod for having " altered and deepened " the gameplay of the original title , and wrote that Europa Barbarorum was the best substitute for a Rome 2 : Total War game prior to the actual release of such a title . Dutch magazine PC Gameplay , reviewing the mod in March 2008 , also wrote that the mod was " perhaps the best candidate for the title Rome : Total War II " " until the official announcement " and went on to note that the list of changes that the modification had made to the original game almost constituted " a history book of its own " . The German magazine GameStar wrote in April 2007 that the Europa Barbarorum team had " banned all historical mistakes from the game " ; in January 2011 , another German publication , PC Games , also noted the mod 's historical accuracy , singling out its " more realistic , more [ challenging ] " battles for praise , although it did note that the mod was squarely aimed at experienced Rome : Total War players . Reviewing version 0 @.@ 74 of the mod in November 2006 , Romanian publication LeveL concurred that the mod was aimed at experienced players , adding that the modified version of the game put greater demands on the player 's computer than the original Rome : Total War , requiring 512 MB of RAM , up from the original 's 256 . Despite this , the reviewer praised the mod 's complexity , the " painstaking detail " that went into making the units and the mod 's soundtrack . Europa Barbarorum has also received several online reviews . The modification received a review early into its development process on gaming website HeavenGames , which said that it was an " ambitious " project and praised its commitment to historical accuracy , even stating that the Europa Barbarorum development team was going to use satellite imagery and climate change statistics to accurately portray the world as it was in 272 BC . Later , in 2008 , the modification has been reviewed on Boomtown , which praised the modification 's " incredibly well @-@ researched and -devised " unit stats system , as well as its " legion of historians " . The modification has sometimes been mentioned as a recommended complement to Rome : Total War in reviews of the original title – for instance , by Norwegian gaming website Gamereactor in 2007 . In addition , Europa Barbarorum was singled out for praise by the Creative Assembly themselves in 2011 , when they called the mod " breathtaking " in an official statement . = Harriet Arbuthnot = Harriet Arbuthnot ( 10 September 1793 – 2 August 1834 ) was an early 19th @-@ century English diarist , social observer and political hostess on behalf of the Tory party . During the 1820s she was the " closest woman friend " of the hero of Waterloo and British Prime Minister , the 1st Duke of Wellington . She maintained a long correspondence and association with the Duke , all of which she recorded in her diaries , which are consequently extensively used in all authoritative biographies of the Duke of Wellington . Born into the periphery of the British aristocracy and married to a politician and member of the establishment , she was perfectly placed to meet all the key figures of the Regency and late Napoleonic eras . Recording meetings and conversations often verbatim , she has today become the " Mrs. Arbuthnot " quoted in many biographies and histories of the era . Her observations and memories of life within the British establishment are not confined to individuals but document politics , great events and daily life with an equal attention to detail , providing historians with a clear picture of the events described . Her diaries were themselves finally published in 1950 as The Journal of Mrs Arbuthnot . = = Early life = = Harriet Arbuthnot was born Harriet Fane , the daughter of the Hon. Henry Fane , second son of Thomas Fane , 8th Earl of Westmorland . As a young man , Henry Fane had been described as " very idle and careless and spending much time in the country " . However , he found time to be the Member of Parliament for Lyme and in 1772 was appointed Keeper of the King 's Private Roads . In 1778 , he married Arbuthnot 's mother , Anne Batson , an heiress , the daughter of Edward Buckley Batson . The couple had 14 children : nine sons and five daughters . The young Harriet spent much of her childhood at the family home at Fulbeck Hall in Lincolnshire , sited high on the limestone hills above Grantham . The house , which had been given to Henry Fane by his father , was a not over @-@ large modern mansion at the time of Arbuthnot 's childhood . It was rebuilt following a fire in 1733 , and further extended and modernised in 1784 by Henry Fane . At Fulbeck Harriet and her 13 siblings enjoyed a comfortable and reasonably affluent rural childhood . Harriet Fane 's father died when she was nine years old , but the family fortunes improved considerably in 1810 when her mother inherited the Avon Tyrrell estate in Hampshire and the Upwood Estate in Dorset . This yielded the widowed Mrs Fane an income of £ 6 @,@ 000 per annum ( £ 380 @,@ 000 per year as of 2016 ) , a large income by the standards of the day . With 14 children and a position in society to maintain , however , the money was fully utilised . = = Marriage = = Harriet Fane married Rt Hon Charles Arbuthnot , member of Parliament , at Fulbeck on 31 January 1814 . Born in 1767 , her husband was 26 years older than she was , an age difference which had initially caused her family to object to the marriage . Another of the principal obstacles to finalising the arrangements for the marriage was financial . Her widowed mother delegated the arrangements for the marriage of her 20 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to her elder son Vere , a 46 @-@ year @-@ old widower who was considered qualified in these matters as he worked at Child 's Bank . It seems that Vere Fane and his mother were not initially prepared to settle enough money on his sister to satisfy her future husband , causing the prospective bridegroom to write to his fiancée : " How can you and I live upon £ 1000 or £ 1200 and Fane [ her mother ] finds it so impossible to live upon her £ 6000 that she can offer you no assistance whatsoever ? " Charles Arbuthnot was a widower with four children ; his son Charles was a mere nine years junior to his new wife . His first wife Marcia , a lady in waiting to the notorious Princess of Wales , had died in 1806 . Like the other two men his second wife so admired , Viscount Castlereagh and Wellington , Charles Arbuthnot was a member of the Anglo @-@ Irish aristocracy . He had been a member of parliament since 1795 , when he became the member for East Looe . At the time of his marriage to Fane , he was the member for St Germans . He had briefly interrupted his political career to become Ambassador Extraordinary to the Ottoman Empire between 1804 and 1807 . Marriage to such a pillar of the establishment as Charles Arbuthnot opened all doors to his young new wife , who , as one of the 14 children of a younger son of an aristocratic family possessed of no great fortune , would otherwise have been on the periphery of the highest society . However , as the debate and wrangling over her dowry proved , money was tight . Throughout her marriage , Mrs Arbuthnot , the former Harriet Fane , formed close friendships with powerful older men . She described Castlereagh as her " dearest and best friend " until his death in 1822 , when she transferred her affections to the other great 19th @-@ century Anglo @-@ Irish peer , the Duke of Wellington . All social commentators of the time , however , agree that her marriage was happy ; indeed , her husband was as close a friend of Wellington 's as was his wife . Married to a politician , she was fascinated by politics and enjoyed success as a political hostess while exerting her energies to promote Tory causes . However , while she was the dominant partner , her conservative outlook ensured her continued favour among her elderly Tory admirers . During the early part of her marriage , her husband served as an Under @-@ Secretary at the Treasury . Later , in 1823 , he was given the Department of Woods and Forests , a position which gave him charge of the Royal parks and gardens . The subsequent access to the Royal family this allowed increased not only his status but also that of his wife . When remarking in her diaries on other women who shared their affections with great men of the day , Arbuthnot displayed a sharp , ironic wit . Of Wellington 's one @-@ time mistress Princess Dorothea Lieven , wife to the Imperial Russian ambassador to London from 1812 to 1834 , she wrote " It is curious that the loves and intrigues of a femme galante should have such influence over the affairs of Europe . " Arbuthnot obviously failed to realise she was regarded by some in London society as a femme galante in a similar situation herself . Her political observations are clearly written from her own Tory viewpoint . However , her detailed description of the rivalry for power between the Tories and Liberals which took place between 1822 and 1830 is one of the most authoritative accounts of this struggle . = = Relationship with Wellington = = It is likely that Arbuthnot first came to the attention of Wellington during 1814 in the re @-@ opened salons of Paris following the exile of Napoleon to Elba . Wellington had been appointed the British Ambassador to the Court of the Tuileries , and the city was crowded with English visitors anxious to travel on the continent and socialise after the Napoleonic Wars . Amongst those sampling the rounds of entertainment in this lively environment were the newly married Arbuthnots . Charles Arbuthnot was known to Wellington , as he had been a strong supporter of Wellington 's younger brother Henry during his divorce , and it is possible Wellington had met , or at least heard of , Mrs Arbuthnot — she was a first cousin to his favourites the Burghersh family . However , it was only after the death of Castlereagh in 1822 that the Wellington – Arbuthnot friendship blossomed . It is unlikely any close friendship developed before this time . Wellington , ensconced in the Hotel de Charost ( recently vacated by Napoleon 's sister Princess Pauline Borghese ) and fêted by the whole of Restoration Paris , had already found himself a close female companion , Giuseppina Grassini . This woman , known , due to her close friendship with Napoleon as " La Chanteuse de l 'Empereur " , scandalised Parisian society both English and French by appearing on Wellington 's arm , especially after the arrival in Paris of the Duchess of Wellington . The story of a " ménage à trois " between Mrs Arbuthnot , her husband Charles , and Wellington , widely speculated upon , has been rejected by some biographers . However , it has been said that the unhappily married Duke enjoyed his relationship with Mrs Arbuthnot because he found in her company " the comfort and happiness his wife could not give him . " Arbuthnot was certainly the Duke 's confidante in all matters , especially that of his marriage . He confided to her that he only married his wife because " they asked me to do it " and that he was " not the least in love with her . " In fact , Wellington had not seen his wife for ten years before their wedding day . Following the marriage , the bride and groom found they had little if anything in common . Despite producing two sons , they led mostly separate lives until the death of the Duchess of Wellington in 1831 . Harriet had a rather poor opinion of the Duchess , although she disagreed with Wellington when he said that his wife cared nothing for his comfort : in Harriet 's view the Duchess longed to make her husband happy , but had no idea how to go about the task . As a consequence of his unsatisfactory marriage , Wellington formed relationships with other women , but it was for Arbuthnot that " he reserved his deepest affection . " Her husband at this time was working at The Treasury and Arbuthnot in effect became what would today be termed Wellington 's social secretary during his first term of premiership between January 1828 and November 1830 . It has been suggested that the Duke of Wellington allowed her " almost unrestricted access to the secrets of the cabinet " . Whatever her knowledge and access , however , it appears she was unable to influence the Duke , but even his refusal to bring her husband into the Cabinet in January 1828 failed to shake the intimacy of the trio . Wellington made no attempts to conceal his friendship with Arbuthnot . An indication that their relationship was platonic and accepted as such in the highest echelons of society can be drawn from the Duchess of Kent permitting Wellington to present Arbuthnot to her infant daughter , the future Queen Victoria , in 1828 . Arbuthnot noted that the young princess was " the most charming child I ever saw " and that " the Duchess of Kent is a very sensible person , who educates her ( Victoria ) remarkably well . " Arbuthnot 's impressions of the Duchess were less than candid , and not shared by Wellington and other establishment figures . However , had Arbuthnot 's own character not been judged respectable an audience with the infant princess would not have been permitted . Many references in Arbuthnot 's diary , however , are less respectful than those she accorded to the Duchess of Kent . Wellington and Arbuthnot often travelled together , and a visit to Blenheim Palace they shared in 1824 provoked a scathing entry in her journal concerning Wellington 's fellow duke the 5th Duke of Marlborough , of whom she wrote : " The family of the great General is , however , gone sadly to decay , and are but a disgrace to the illustrious name of Churchill , which they have chosen this moment to resume . The present Duke is overloaded with debt , is very little better than a common swindler " . When Wellington and the Tories fell from power in November 1830 , Arbuthnot lost interest in her diary , writing : " I shall write very seldom now , I dare say , in my book , for , except the Duke , none of the public men interest me . " Her account of the break @-@ up of the Tory party is a thoroughly partisan narration , accurate as to happenings outside the Tory inner circle , but on a broader scale and not so completely political as that of Henry Hobhouse . = = Legacy = = Arbuthnot died suddenly of cholera at a farmhouse near the Arbuthnots ' seat , Woodford House , near Kettering in Northamptonshire , in the summer of 1834 . Immediately after her death an express message was sent to Apsley House . The messenger , however , had to divert to Hatfield House where Wellington was dining with the Marquess and Marchioness of Salisbury . After her death , it was revealed she had been on a civil list pension of £ 936 per annum ( £ 76 @,@ 000 per year as of 2016 ) since January 1823 . The exact nature of Arbuthnot 's relationship with Wellington has always been a subject for conjecture . Fuel was added to the speculations when Wellington was immediately pursued by female admirers following her death . One was a Miss Jenkins who , from the moment of Arbuthnot 's death , pursued him " body and soul . " Another , who resurfaced from his past , was Arbuthnot 's own cousin , the eccentric Lady Georgiana Fane , who constantly pestered Wellington with threats to publish intimate letters he had once sent her , and to sue him for , allegedly , reneging on a promise to marry her . It seems most likely that in addition to assisting Wellington with his social life , Harriet 's presence at his side protected him from the advances of other women . The Duke certainly kept mistresses during the period he knew Arbuthnot , but it has never been proven that Harriet was one of them . The tour at Apsley House , the Duke 's London residence , asserts that she merely served as his hostess at political dinners . After her death , Charles left Woodford House and lived with his close friend Wellington . Charles died at Apsley House in 1850 , aged 83 . During their time together the two elderly men mourned the loss of Arbuthnot and bemoaned the splits developing within the Tory party . Wellington lived on for another two years and was buried with due pomp and circumstance in St Paul 's Cathedral . Harriet Arbuthnot had been buried with the Fane family at St Nicholas ' parish church , Fulbeck . = Battle of Iron Works Hill = The Battle of Iron Works Hill , also known as the Battle of Mount Holly , was a series of minor skirmishes that took place on December 22 and 23 , 1776 , during the American War of Independence . They took place in Mount Holly , New Jersey , between an American force mostly composed of colonial militia under Colonel Samuel Griffin and a force of 2 @,@ 000 Hessians and British regulars under Carl von Donop . While the American force of 600 was eventually forced from their positions by the larger Hessian force , the action prevented von Donop from being in his assigned base at Bordentown , New Jersey and in a position to assist Johann Rall 's brigade in Trenton , New Jersey when it was attacked and defeated by George Washington after his troops crossed the Delaware on the night of December 25 – 26 . = = Background = = In July 1776 forces of Great Britain under the command of General William Howe landed on Staten Island . Over the next several months , Howe 's forces , which were British Army regulars and auxiliary German troops usually referred to as Hessian , chased George Washington 's Continental Army out of New York City and across New Jersey . Washington 's army , which was shrinking in size due to expiring enlistments , and desertions due to poor morale , took refuge in Pennsylvania on the western shore of the Delaware River in November , removing all the available watercraft to deny the British any opportunity to cross the wide river . General Howe established a chain of outposts across New Jersey , and ordered his troops into winter quarters . The southernmost outposts were located at Trenton and Bordentown . The Trenton outpost was manned by about 1 @,@ 500 men of a Hessian brigade under the command of Johann Rall , and the Bordentown outpost was manned by Hessians and the British 42nd Regiment contingents , about 2 @,@ 000 troops in all , under the command of the Hessian Colonel Carl von Donop . Bordentown itself was not large enough to house all of von Donop 's force . While he had hoped to quarter some troops even further south at Burlington , where there was strong Loyalist support , floating gun batteries from the Pennsylvania Navy threatened the town , and Donop , rather than expose Loyalist allies to their fire , was forced to scatter his troops throughout the surrounding countryside . As the troops of von Donop and Rall occupied the last outposts , they were often exposed to the actions of rebel raids and the actions of Patriot militia forces that either arose spontaneously or were recruited by Army regulars . These actions frayed the nerves of the troops , as the uncertainty of when and where such attacks would take place , and by what size force , put the men and their commanders on edge , leading them to jump up to investigate every rumored movement . Rall went so far as to order his men to sleep " fully dressed like [ they were ] on watch . " One militia force that rose in December 1776 was a company under the command of Virginia Colonel Samuel Griffin . Griffin ( whose name is sometimes misspelled " Griffith " ) was the adjutant to General Israel Putnam , who was responsible for the defense of Philadelphia . Griffin 's force , whose exact composition is uncertain , probably included some Virginia artillerymen , Pennsylvania infantry , and New Jersey militia , and numbered five to six hundred . By mid @-@ December he had reached Moorestown , about ten miles southwest of Mount Holly . By December 21 , Griffin had advanced to Mount Holly and established a rough fortification atop a hill near an iron works , south of the Rancocas Creek and the village center . Von Donop sent a Loyalist to investigate , who reported a force of " not above eight hundred , nearly one half boys , and all of them Militia a very few from Pennsylvania excepted " . Thomas Stirling , who commanded a contingent of the 42nd positioned about seven miles north of Mount Holly at Blackhorse ( present @-@ day Columbus ) , heard rumors that there were 1 @,@ 000 rebels at Mount Holly and " 2 @,@ 000 more were in the rear to support them " . When von Donop asked Stirling for advice , he replied , " You sir , with the troops at Bordentown , should come here and attack . I am confident we are a match for them . " = = Battle = = On December 21 , about 600 of Griffin 's troops overwhelmed a guard outpost of the 42nd located about one mile south of Blackhorse at Petticoat Bridge . On the evening of December 22 , Washington 's adjutant , Joseph Reed , went to Mount Holly and met with Griffin . Griffin had written to Reed , requesting small field pieces to assist in their actions , and Reed , who had been discussing a planned attack on Rall 's men in Trenton with Washington , wanted to see if Griffin 's company could participate in some sort of diversionary attack . Griffin was ill , and his men poorly equipped for significant action , but they apparently agreed to some sort of actions the next day . On the morning of December 23 , von Donop brought about 3 @,@ 000 troops ( the 42nd British ( Highland ) Regiment and the Hessian Grenadier battalions Block and Linsing ) to Petticoat Bridge where they overwhelmed Griffin 's men . Griffin 's troops retreated to Mount Holly where von Donop reported scattering about 1 @,@ 000 men near the town 's meeting house . Jäger Captain Johann Ewald reported that " some 100 men " were posted on a hill " near the church " , who " retired quickly " after a few rounds of artillery were fired . Griffin , whose troops had occupied Mount Holly , slowly retreated to their fortified position on the hill , following which the two sides engaged in ineffectual long @-@ range fire . = = Aftermath = = Von Donop 's forces bivouacked in Mount Holly on the night of December 23 , where , according to Ewald , they plundered the town , breaking into alcohol stores of abandoned houses and getting drunk . Von Donop himself took quarters in the house that Ewald described as belonging to an " exceedingly beautiful widow of a doctor " , whose identity is uncertain . The next day , December 24 , they moved in force to drive the militia from the hill , but Griffin and his men had retreated to Moorestown during the night . For whatever reason , von Donop and his contingents remained in Mount Holly , 18 miles ( 29 km ) and a full day 's march from Trenton , until a messenger arrived on December 26 , bringing the news of Rall 's defeat by Washington that morning . News of the skirmishes at Mount Holly was often exaggerated . Published accounts of the day varied , including among participants in the battle . One Pennsylvanian claimed that sixteen of the enemy were killed , while a New Jersey militiaman reported seven enemy killed . Both Donop and Ewald specifically denied any British or German casualties occurred during the first skirmish on December 22 , while the Pennsylvania Evening Post reported " several " enemy casualties with " two killed and seven or eight wounded " of the militia through the whole action . Some reporters , including Loyalist Joseph Galloway , assumed that Griffin had been specifically sent to draw von Donop away from Bordentown , but von Donop 's decision to attack in force was apparently made prior to Reed 's arrival . Reed noted in his journal that " this manouver [ sic ] , though perfectly accidental , had a happy effect as it drew off Count Donop .... " The planning for Washington 's crossing of the Delaware did include sending a militia force to Griffin in an attack on von Donop at Mount Holly ; this company failed to cross the river . = = Legacy = = The hill that Griffin 's militia occupied is located at Iron Works Park in Mount Holly . The battle is reenacted annually . = Bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum ( Caluromys philander ) is an opossum from South America . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in 1758 . The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a gray head , brown to gray coat , orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail . It is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) and solitary ; there is hardly any social interaction except between mother and juveniles and in mating pairs . The opossum constructs nests in tree cavities , and its litter size ranges from one to seven . Gestation lasts 25 days , and the juveniles exit the pouch after three months ; weaning occurs a month later . The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests , rainforests , secondary forests and plantations ; its range extends from northern Venezuela to northeastern and southcentral Brazil . The IUCN classfies this opossum as least concern . = = Taxonomy = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is one of the three members of Caluromys , and is placed in the family Didelphidae in the marsupial order Didelphimorphia . It was first described by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus as Didelphis philander in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae ( 1758 ) . It was given its present binomial name , Caluromys philander , by American zoologist Joel Asaph Allen in 1900 . A 1955 revision of marsupial phylogeny grouped Caluromys , Caluromysiops , Dromiciops ( monito del monte ) and Glironia ( bushy @-@ tailed opossum ) under a single subfamily , Microbiotheriinae , noting the dental similarities among these . A 1977 study argued that these similarities are the result of convergent evolution , and placed Caluromys , Caluromysiops and Glironia in a new subfamily , Caluromyinae . In another similar revision in 2009 , the bushy @-@ tailed opossum was placed in its own subfamily , Glironiinae . The following four subspecies are recognized : C. p. affinis Wagner , 1842 : Occurs in Mato Grosso ( Brazil ) and Bolivia . C. p. dichurus Wagner , 1842 : Occurs in eastern and southeastern Brazil . C. p. philander Linnaeus , 1758 : Occurs to the east of Rio Negro in Brazil , the Guianas , and to the south of the Orinoco River in Venezuela . C. p. trinitatis Thomas , 1894 : Occurs in Trinidad and to the north of the Orinoco River in Venezuela . The cladogram below , based on a 2016 study , shows the phylogenetic relationships of the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum . = = Description = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is characterized by a brown to gray coat , gray head , orange to gray underside and a partially naked tail furry at the base . A distinctive , narrow dark brown stripe runs between the eyes and the ears , from the tip of the nose to the back of the ears . Similar but broad streaks run from brown rings around either eye . Grayish fur separates these stripes from one another . Ears are large and almost always hairless . The coat is thick , soft and woolly ; the flanks may be grayer than the back . The dorsal hairs continue up to 5 – 7 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 – 2 @.@ 8 in ) onto the tail , after which it is naked , as the name suggests . The tail is dark brown towards the end , spotted with white and dark brown , terminating in a white or yellowish white tip . The size appears to decrease from Venezuela to Suriname ; the mean weight is 170 grams ( 6 @.@ 0 oz ) in Venezuela and 250 grams ( 8 @.@ 8 oz ) in Suriname . The head @-@ and @-@ body length is typically between 16 and 26 centimetres ( 6 @.@ 3 and 10 @.@ 2 in ) . The ears measure 3 to 3 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 1 @.@ 4 in ) , the tail 25 to 36 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 8 to 14 @.@ 2 in ) and the hind feet 3 @.@ 2 to 3 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 3 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) . The dental formula is 5 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 44 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 @.@ 4 – typical of didelphids . = = Ecology and behavior = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum is nocturnal ( active mainly at night ) , and thus difficult to observe or capture . Nevertheless , it is one of the very few opossums that have been successfully studied in detail . A study showed that activity of bare @-@ tailed woolly opossums can be affected by the extent of moonlight . While activity in males dropped from new moon to full moon ( that is , with increasing exposure to moonlight ) , activity in females remained largely unaffected . The opossum is arboreal ( tree @-@ living ) and a good climber . A study showed that the tail , being prehensile , can act as an additional limb for locomotion , avoiding falls and carrying leaves to build nests . It builds nests with dry leaves in tree cavities . Individuals tend to be aggressive to one another ; hisses , grunts and even distress calls accompany agonistic behavior . Largely solitary , the only interactions observed are between mother and juveniles and in a mating pair . In a primary forest of French Guiana , the mean home range size was calculated as 3 hectares ( 0 @.@ 012 sq mi ) . Ranges of both sexes overlapped extensively . The size of home ranges is influenced by environmental factors such as forage availability and individual needs . ' Click 's are a common vocalization , produced by the young as well as adults . Bare @-@ tailed woolly opossums , like other Caluromys species , will bite on being handled or to escape predators . Predators include the jaguarundi and margay . = = = Diet = = = An omnivore , the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum feeds on fruits , vegetables , gum , nectar , small birds and reptiles . A study of the foraging behavior of the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum and the sympatric kinkajou showed that both feed on a variety of plants , choose plants by their abundance , show similar preferences , and favor certain plant parts at certain times of the year . A notable difference between the two was that while the kinkajou focused on plants with a wide distribution , the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum also fed on less common plants . = = = Reproduction = = = In French Guiana , females mate successfully after they are a year old . Females can have three litters a year , unless food is scarce . Gestation lasts 25 days – the longest among didelphomorphs ; the young come out of the pouch at three months and weaning occurs at four months . A study in French Guiana showed that development of the offspring is slow for the first 40 days , and then accelerates during the last 40 days . The litter size ranges from one to seven . Newborn weigh 200 milligrams ( 0 @.@ 0071 oz ) , and their weight increases to 11 grams ( 0 @.@ 39 oz ) after weaning . After exiting the pouch , offspring are sheltered in nests , where the mother regularly visits them for nursing . = = Distribution and status = = The bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum inhabits subtropical forests , rainforests , secondary forests and plantations ; it prefers dense cover , though it can be seen on canopies as well . It can occur up to an altitude of 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 800 metres ( 3 @,@ 900 – 5 @,@ 900 ft ) above the sea level . The range extends from northern Venezuela eastward to northeastern and southcentral Brazil , and includes Guiana , French Guiana , Margarita Island , Trinidad , and Suriname . The IUCN classifies the bare @-@ tailed woolly opossum as least concern , due to its wide distribution and presumably large population . The survival of this opossum is threatened by deforestation and habitat loss . = Dark Magus = Dark Magus is a live double album by American jazz composer and trumpeter Miles Davis . It was recorded on March 30 , 1974 , at Carnegie Hall in New York City . Davis ' group at the time included bassist Michael Henderson , drummer Al Foster , percussionist James Mtume , saxophonist Dave Liebman , and guitarists Pete Cosey and Reggie Lucas . He also used the show to audition saxophonist Azar Lawrence and guitarist Dominique Gaumont . Dark Magus was produced by Teo Macero and featured four two @-@ part recordings titled after Swahili names for the numbers one through four . Dark Magus was released after Davis ' 1975 retirement , upon which his label , Columbia Records , issued several albums of various outtakes . After releasing the live recordings Agharta ( 1975 ) and Pangaea ( 1976 ) , Columbia decided that they did not approve of the albums and released Dark Magus only in Japan . It was issued in 1977 by CBS @-@ Sony . The label 's A & R executive Tatsu Nosaki suggested the album 's title , which referred to the Magus from the Zoroastrian religion . Along with Davis ' other records during the 1970s , Dark Magus was received ambivalently by contemporary music critics , but it inspired noise rock acts during the late 1970s and the experimental funk artists of the 1980s . The album was not released in the United States until July 1997 , when it was reissued by Sony Records and Legacy Records . In retrospective reviews , critics praised	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
994 ) . Thai @-@ ka Loi Hok Hak @-@ fa ( Everybody Learn Hakka ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 017 @-@ 0 . Phang Tet @-@ siu ( 1996 ) . Hak @-@ ka @-@ fa Fat @-@ yim Sṳ @-@ tien ( Hakka Pronunciation Dictionary ) . Taipei : Southern Materials Center . ISBN 957 @-@ 638 @-@ 359 @-@ 5 . Hak @-@ ka Sṳn @-@ sṳ ( Hakka Hymns ) . Tainan : PCT Press . 1999 . ISBN 957 @-@ 8349 @-@ 75 @-@ 0 . A modified version of POJ has also been created for Teochew . = = Current status = = Most native Southern Min speakers in Taiwan are unfamiliar with POJ or any other writing system for the variety , commonly asserting that " Taiwanese has no writing " , or , if they are made aware of POJ , considering romanization as the " low " form of writing , in contrast with the " high " form ( Chinese characters ) . For those who are introduced to POJ alongside Han @-@ lo and completely Chinese character @-@ based systems , a clear preference has been shown for all @-@ character systems , with all @-@ romanization systems at the bottom of the preference list , likely because of the preexisting familiarity of readers with Chinese characters . POJ remains the Taiwanese orthography " with the richest inventory of written work , including dictionaries , textbooks , literature [ ... ] and other publications in many areas " . A 1999 estimate put the number of literate POJ users at around 100 @,@ 000 , and secular organizations have been formed to promote the use of romanization among Taiwanese speakers . Outside Taiwan , POJ is rarely used . For example , in Fujian , Xiamen University uses a romanization known as Bbánlám pìngyīm , based on Pinyin . In other areas where Hokkien is spoken , such as Singapore , the Speak Mandarin Campaign is underway to actively discourage people from speaking Hokkien or other non @-@ Mandarin varieties in favour of switching to Mandarin instead . In 2006 , Taiwan 's Ministry of Education chose an official romanization for use in teaching Southern Min in the state school system . POJ was one of the candidate systems , along with Daighi tongiong pingim , but a compromise system , the Taiwanese Romanization System or Tâi @-@ Lô , was chosen in the end . Tâi @-@ Lô retains most of the orthographic standards of POJ , including the tone marks , while changing the troublesome 〈 o ͘ 〉 character for 〈 oo 〉 , swapping 〈 ts 〉 for 〈 ch 〉 , and replacing 〈 o 〉 in diphthongs with 〈 u 〉 . Supporters of Taiwanese writing are in general deeply suspicious of government involvement , given the history of official suppression of native languages , making it unclear whether Tâi @-@ Lô or POJ will become the dominant system in the future . = Homs = Homs ( / hɔːms / ; Arabic : حمص / ALA @-@ LC : Ḥimṣ ) , previously known as Emesa ( Greek : Ἔμεσα Emesa ) , is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate . It is 501 metres ( 1 @,@ 644 ft ) above sea level and is located 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) north of Damascus . Located on the Orontes River , Homs is also the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast . Before the Syrian war , Homs was a major industrial centre , and with a population of at least 652 @,@ 609 people in 2004 , it was the third largest city in Syria after Aleppo to the north and the capital Damascus to the south . Its population reflects Syria 's general religious diversity , composed of Sunni and Alawite and Christian . There are a number of historic mosques and churches in the city , and it is close to the Krak des Chevaliers castle , a world heritage site . Homs did not emerge into the historical record until the 1st century BCE at the time of the Seleucids . It later became the capital of a kingdom ruled by the Emesani dynasty who gave the city its name . Originally a center of worship for the sun god El @-@ Gabal , it later gained importance in Christianity under the Byzantines . Homs was conquered by the Muslims in the 7th century and made capital of a district that bore its current name . Throughout the Islamic era , Muslim dynasties contending for control of Syria sought after Homs due to the city 's strategic position in the area . Homs began to decline under the Ottomans and only in the 19th century did the city regain its economic importance when its cotton industry boomed . During French Mandate rule , the city became a center of insurrection and , after independence in 1946 , a center of Baathist resistance to the first Syrian governments . In the ongoing Syrian civil war , Homs became an opposition stronghold and the Syrian government launched a military assault against the city in May 2011 . The fighting left much of the city completely destroyed and thousands dead . = = Etymology = = The origin of the city 's modern name is that it is an Arabic form of the city 's Latin name " Emesus " , derived from the Greek " Emesa " or " Emesos " . The name " Emesa " seems to derive from the nomadic Arab tribe , called Emesenoi by the Greeks and the Romans , that inhabited the region prior to Roman influence in the area . " Emesa " was shortened to " Homs " or " Hims " by its Arab inhabitants , many of whom settled there prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria . This name has been preserved throughout the period of Islamic rule continuing to the present day . It was known as " la Chamelle " by the Crusaders , although they never ruled the city . = = History = = For approximately 2 @,@ 000 years , Homs has served as a key agricultural market , production site and trade center for the villages of northern Syria . It has also provided security services to the hinterland of Syria , protecting it from invading forces . Excavations at the Citadel of Homs indicate that the earliest settlement at the site dates back to around 2300 BCE . Biblical scholars have identified the city with Zobah mentioned in the Bible . In 1274 BCE , a battle took place between the forces of the Egyptian Empire under Ramesses II and the Hittite Empire under Muwatalli II at the city of Kadesh on the Orontes River near Homs . It was possibly the largest chariot battle ever fought , involving perhaps 5 @,@ 000 – 6 @,@ 000 chariots . = = = Emesani dynasty and Roman rule = = = Homs itself may have been founded by Seleucus I Nicator who established the Seleucid Empire upon the death of Alexander the Great , although the city did not emerge in the light of history until the 1st @-@ century BCE . At this time , Greek philosopher Strabo spoke of a tent @-@ dwelling tribe called the " Emesani " living in the area around the Orontes and south of the Apamea region . They were an Arab tribe in the area and settled in Emesa — which derived its name from them . Upon Pompey 's incorporation of the Seleucid state of Syria into the Roman Empire in 64 BCE , the Emesani dynasty were confirmed in their rule as client kings of the Romans for aiding their troops in various wars . Their chief at the time , Sampsiceramus I , gained the status as King of Emesa , but their capital was at Arethusa , a city north of Emesa , also along the Orontes River . At its greatest extent , the kingdom 's boundaries extended from the Bekaa Valley in the west to the border with Palmyra in the east , and from Yabrud in the south to al @-@ Rastan ( Arethusa ) in the north . The kingdom of Sampsiceramus I , was the first of Rome 's Arab clients on the desert fringes . The city of Emesa grew to prominence after the new @-@ found wealth of the Emesani dynasty , governed first by one of the sons of Sampsiceramus I , Iamblichus I who made it the kingdom 's capital . The Emesani proved their loyalty to Rome once more when they aided Gaius Julius Caesar in his siege of Alexandria in 48 BCE , by sending him army detachments . Subsequently , they became embroiled in the Roman Civil War between the rebelling Mark Antony and the pro @-@ Caesar Octavian . Iamblichus I took the side of Octavian , and so upon encouragement from Antony , Iamblichus 's brother Alexio I usurped the throne and put Iamblichus I to death in 31 BCE . Octavian 's forces prevailed in the war , however , and as a result the kingdom 's throne was reverted to Iamblichus II ( the son of Iamblichus I ) after Alexio I was executed for treason . Under the stable rule of Iamblichus II , emerged a new era of peace from 20 BCE to 14 , known as Emesa 's " Golden Age . " In 32 , Heliopolis and the Beqaa Valley came under the kingdom 's control . Relations with the Roman government grew closer when King Sohaemus inherited the kingship . Under him , Emesa sent the Roman military a regular levy of archers and assisted them in their siege of Jerusalem in 70 . Sohaemus had died in 73 and was succeeded by his son , Alexio II . Despite the fact that the Emesani dynasty were loyal allies to Rome , for unknown reasons the Roman state reduced the autonomous rule of the Emesani dynasty . Alexio II and his priest king successors had only ceremonial authority . It remains unclear why this occurred to the Emesani dynasty . Alexio II died in 78 and he was succeeded by his son Sampsiceramus III . The generations after Alexio II , are not recorded sufficiently to accurately present a pedigree . The integration of client states was actively pursued under the Flavians . Perhaps as early as 72 , but certainly before 78 , Sampsigeramus of Emesa was deposed and his principality incorporated into the province . Under the Romans , Emesa began to show attributes of a Greek city @-@ state and traces of Roman town planning still remain . Its transformation into a major city was completed under the reign of Emperor Antoninus Pius ( 138 – 161 ) when Emesa began to mint coins . By the 3rd @-@ century , it grew prosperous and well integrated into the Roman Orient . This was partly due to the marriage of Emperor Lucius Septimius Severus to a woman from a family of notables based in Emesa . It attained the coveted status as a Roman colonia by Severus , and two other emperors of Severan Dynasty were raised in Emesa . One of them was Elagabalus who served as the high priest at the Temple of El @-@ Gebal , the local sun god . He brought the image of this god , a conical black stone , to the Elagabalium in Rome . Emesa also grew wealthy because it formed a link in the eastern trade funneled through Palmyra , however , this dependence also caused the city 's downfall when Palmyra sank to insignificance in the 4th @-@ century . Nonetheless , Emesa at this time had grown to rank with the important cities of Tyre , Sidon , Beirut , and Damascus . It also continued to retain local significance , because it was the market center for the surrounding villages . The city remained a strong center of paganism , because of the Temple of El @-@ Gabal . After one of his victories over Zenobia , Emperor Aurelian visited the city to pay thanks to the deity . Due to the strength of the pagan sun cult in Emesa , Christians initially did not settle in the city . Eusebius writes that Silvanus , the city 's first bishop , had no jurisdiction over the city , but the surrounding villages . He was executed by Emperor Julian and succeeded by Bishop Antonius — the first bishop to settle Emesa . By the 5th @-@ century , Christianity was well established under the Byzantine Empire ; however , few ancient Christian inscriptions exist in Homs today . Under the Byzantines , the city became an important center for Eastern Christianity . Initially a diocese , Homs was given the status of ecclesiastical metropolis after the discovery of John the Baptist 's head in a nearby area in 452 . = = = Arab Caliphate = = = Prior to the Muslim conquest of Syria , Arab tribes , particularly the Banu Kalb settled around Emesa , ensuring its position as an important Yamani center . The Byzantine emperor Heraclius abandoned the city — which served as his headquarters — after the his army 's defeat by the Rashidun Muslims under Caliph Umar ibn al @-@ Khattab during the Battle of Yarmouk in southern Syria . In 637 CE , the Rashidun army led by Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid captured Emesa peacefully because its inhabitants agreed to pay a substantial ransom of 71 @,@ 000 to 170 @,@ 000 dinars . The caliph Umar established Homs as the capital of Jund Hims , a district of the province of Bilad al @-@ Sham , encompassing the towns of Latakia , Jableh , and Tartus along the coast , Palmyra in the Syrian Desert and the territory in between , including the town of Hama . Homs was likely the first city in Syria to have a substantial Muslim population . The Muslims transformed half of St. John 's Church into the city 's Friday Mosque ( Great Mosque of al @-@ Nuri ) and Homs soon became a centre of Islamic piety since some 500 companions of Muhammad settled there after its conquest . The tombs of Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , his son Abd al @-@ Rahman , and Ubaid Allah , the son of Caliph Umar are located in the city . During the conflict between the Umayyads and Ali , the inhabitants of Homs allied themselves with Ali and when the latter was defeated , the Umayyad caliph Mu 'awiyah hived the northern half of Jund Hims to form a separate district , Jund Qinnasrin , apparently as punishment . Ali 's oratory ( mash @-@ had ' Ali ) was located in the city , and Islamic tradition claims his fingerprints are engraved on it . Despite repression by the Umayyads , Homs remained a center of Shia Islam for a while longer . As a stronghold of the Banu Kalb , the city became involved in the latter 's conflicts with the Qais tribal faction . The last Umayyad caliph , Marwan II , enjoyed the support of the Qais and subsequently razed the city walls in response to a rebellion by the Banu Kalb . In 750 the Abbasids wrested control of Syria , including Homs , from the Umayyads , and the Arab tribes revolted . Despite the prosperity Homs experienced during this era , Abbasid rule was generally not welcomed nevertheless . During and after the reign of caliph Harun al @-@ Rashid ( 796 @-@ 809 ) , the Abbasid authorities sent numerous punitive expeditions against Homs . Under the reign of al @-@ Mutawakkil , in October 855 , the Christian population revolted in response to additional taxation . The caliph put down the revolt by expelling Christians from the city , burning down their churches and executing members of their leadership . With Abbasid rule over the Caliphate weakening in the mid 9th @-@ century , Homs became sought after by rebel dynasties contending for control of Syria due to the city 's strategic position . Initially , the Egypt @-@ based Tulunids came into control of it , but they were forced out by the Aleppo @-@ based Hamdanids who were briefly succeeded by the Qarmatians , after their Turkish rebel ally Aftakin invaded northern Syria and established Homs as his base . In 891 Muslim geographer al @-@ Yaqubi noted that Homs was situated along a broad river which served as a source of drinking water for the inhabitants . It was one of the largest cities in Syria and had several smaller districts surrounding it . In 944 the Hamdanids took definitive control of the city , dominating it until 1016 . Arab geographer al @-@ Mas 'udi claimed in the early 10th @-@ century that Homs was " noted for the personal beauty of its inhabitants . " In 985 al @-@ Muqaddasi noted that Homs was the largest city in all of Syria , but it had suffered " great misfortunes " and was " threatened with ruin . " He stated that when the city was conquered by the Muslims they turned half of its church into a mosque . For around thirty years during the 10th @-@ century , Homs was raided by the Byzantines and its inhabitants were subject to slaughter and plunder while the city 's mosque was briefly restored as a church . Throughout most of the 11th @-@ century , the Byzantine raids receded greatly and the Mirdasids of the Banu Kalb tribe ruled over Homs , replacing the Hamdanids . Inclined towards Shia Islam , they did not oppose the Shia Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt which was aiming to extend its rule into northern Syria and Iraq at the time . This precipitated a Sunni Muslim reaction led by the Seljuk Turks who occupied Homs under the leadership of Aq Sunqur al @-@ Hajib in 1090 . = = = Seljuk , Ayyubid , and Mamluk rule = = = The First Crusade was launched in 1096 , and in 1098 , the Crusaders captured Antioch to the northwest , looted Ma 'arat al @-@ Numan , and finally besieged Homs itself . Although they managed to cut the city off from its main port Tartus , they failed in taking the city . Soon after , Homs came under the control of the Seljuk ruler of Damascus who transformed it into a large , fortified camp and key fortress effectively preventing the Crusaders from penetrating deeper into Muslim territory . Immune from attack , Homs became a point where the Muslims could marshal their forces and launch raids against Crusader holdings along the Mediterranean coast . In the early 12th @-@ century , the Seljuks engaged in internal fighting , during which Homs was often a prize . In 1149 the Mosul @-@ based Zengids under Nur al @-@ Din captured the city . Muslim geographer Al @-@ Idrisi noted in 1154 that Homs was populous , had paved streets , possessed one of the largest mosques in Syria , contained open markets , and was frequented by travelers attracted to its " products and rarities of all kinds . " He also reported that its residents were " pleasant ; living with them is easy , and their manners are agreeable . The women are beautiful and are celebrated for their fine skin . " A series of earthquakes in 1157 inflicted heavy damage upon Homs and its fortress , then in 1170 , a minor quake finished off the latter . However , because of its strategic importance , being opposite of the Crusader County of Tripoli , the city and its fortifications were soon restored . In 1164 Nur al @-@ Din awarded Homs to Asad ad @-@ Din Shirkuh as a fief , but reclaimed it five years later following Shirkuh 's death . The latter 's nephew , Saladin , gained control of the city in 1175 and in 1179 , after reorganizing his territories in northern Syria , restored the fief to his Ayyubid dynasty . Shirkuh 's descendants retained Homs for nearly a century until 1262 with the death of al @-@ Ashraf Musa . In 1225 Arab geographer Yaqut al @-@ Hamawi mentioned that Homs was large , celebrated and walled , having a strongly fortified castle on its southern hill . Towards the end of Ayyubid rule , Homs remained a centrepiece of the wars between them and the Crusaders , as well as internecine conflicts with the Mongol Empire and the Mamluks . The first battle between the Mongols and the Mamluks took place on December 10 , 1260 , ending in a decisive Mamluk victory . A second battle was fought on October 29 , 1281 , also ending in a Mamluk victory . The Mamluks were finally defeated in the Battle of Wadi al @-@ Khazandar , also known as the " Third Battle of Homs , " in 1299 . Homs declined politically after falling to the Mamluks under Baibars because their campaigns effectively drove out the Crusaders and the Mongols from the entirety of Syria . At the beginning of the 14th @-@ century , the city was merely the capital of the smallest province of Syria and was often attached to the province of Damascus . Ibn Batuta visited Homs in 1355 , writing that it had fine trees , good markets , and a " fine Friday Mosque , " noting that all of its inhabitants were Arabs . Timur seized the city in 1400 , and later in the 15th @-@ century as Mamluk weakness had brought insecurity to the countryside , Homs was ravaged by Bedouin raids ; In 1510 a powerful tribe led by al @-@ Fadl bin Nu 'ayr was sent on an expedition by the governor of Damascus to loot the city markets as Homs had failed to pay compensation for his " services . " = = = Ottoman rule = = = In 1516 Homs was incorporated into the Ottoman Empire and consequently suffered a greater political eclipse , but it continued to thrive as an economic center , processing the agricultural and pastoral products that flowed to it from surrounding districts . Homs was particularly well known for silk and wool weaving , especially the alaja , which was mottled muslin run through with gold threads and used in feminine apparel . This silk was exported as far as the Ottoman capital Istanbul . In addition to weaving industries , there were olive oil presses and water mills for wheat and sesame , while grapes and rice , grown in the surrounding marshlands from the 16th @-@ century , were found in abundance in the city 's markets . Moreover , the markets of Homs were the center of a trade in livestock , where flocks of sheep and goats coming from Aleppo met camels and cattle moving north from Damascus . The coming of the Ottomans brought administrative changes to Homs , as it became the capital city of sanjak ( " district " ) of Homs , attached to the eyalet ( " province " ) of Tripoli — its old rival . At this time , a French visitor noted that the city walls and citadel were in good repair , but all within was in decay and only its covered markets " retained their beauty . " In 1785 French traveler , Volney wrote of the city 's once great importance and its current " miserable " condition . He described it as a large , but ruined village administratively dependent on Damascus . The Ottomans did little to revitalize Homs or ensure its security against Bedouin raids . Tribal unrest throughout the 17th and 18th centuries resulted in the sacking of its markets on several occasions . Security was even more hampered , when in the 18th @-@ century , the Ottomans tore down the gates of the city 's walls . The countryside of Homs saw an increase in Bedouin raids in the first half of the 19th @-@ century , interrupted by its occupation by Muhammad Ali 's Egypt led by Ibrahim Pasha between 1832 and 1840 . The city rebelled against Egyptian rule and consequently , the citadel was destroyed when the Egyptians suppressed the revolt . Ottoman rule was soon restored and up to the 1860s , Homs was large enough to form a discrete economic unit of trade and processing of agricultural products from its satellite villages and the neighboring Bedouin tribes . The local economy was stimulated when the Ottoman government extended security to the city and its surrounding areas ; new villages were established and old ones were resettled . However , Homs found itself faced with European economic competition since Ottoman rule was restored . Homs ' economic importance was boosted again during the depression of the 1870s , as its cotton industry boomed due to a decline European textile production . The quality and design of cotton goods from Homs satisfied both the lower and upper classes of the local , Ottoman , and foreign markets . There were around 5 @,@ 000 looms in Homs and nearby Hama , and one British consul referred to Homs as the " Manchester of Syria . " = = = Modern era = = = Throughout the 20th @-@ century Homs held high political importance in the country and was home to several heads of state and other high @-@ ranking government officials . During the French mandate , Homs was part of the State of Damascus . In Autumn 1925 , the city joined Damascus and the southern Druze chieftains in a full @-@ blown revolt against French rule . In 1932 the French moved their military academy from Damascus to Homs , and it remained the only military academy in Syria until 1967 . The French authorities had created a unit of Special Forces in which the Alawites were given privileged positions . The military academy in Homs served as a stronghold for these Special Forces . The Homs Military Academy played a major role in the years following Syria 's independence , as many of its graduates went on to become high @-@ ranking officers in the Syrian Army , many of them taking part in the series of coup d 'états that were to follow . An important example was Hafez al @-@ Assad who became the president of Syria from 1971 until his death in 2000 . An oil pipeline between Tripoli and Kirkuk was built in Homs in the early 1930s and it followed an ancient caravan route between Palmyra and the Mediterranean . In 1959 , an oil refinery was built to process some of this oil for domestic consumption . The city 's oil refinery was bombed by the Israeli Air Force ( IAF ) during the 1973 Yom Kippur War . = = = = Syrian civil war = = = = Homs is one of many cities in Syria where large anti @-@ government demonstrations have been held , part of the wider Syrian civil war . It has been referred to as the " Capital of the revolution . " Thousands to tens of thousands gathered in the city 's main square on 17 – 18 April 2011 in a sit @-@ in protesting the government of current president Bashar al @-@ Assad . At least 62 people were killed by government security forces in armed clashes against local anti @-@ government militants . Starting on 6 May 2011 , the city has been under siege by the Syrian Army and security forces . The Syrian government claims it is targeting " armed gangs " and " terrorists " in the area . According to the Syrian opposition , Homs has since become a " blighted city , " where authorities regularly block deliveries of medicine , food and fuel to the inhabitants of certain districts . By June , there were near @-@ daily confrontations between protesting residents and Syrian forces . As a result of these circumstances , there have been more deaths in Homs and its vicinity than in other areas of Syria . Homs was the first Syrian city where images of al @-@ Assad and his family were routinely torn down or defaced and the first place where Syrian forces used artillery during the uprising . The Center for Documenting Violations in Syria claims that at least 1 @,@ 770 people have been killed in Homs since the uprising began . In February 2012 , Syrian Armed Forces carried out a major attack on Homs to regain control over the city which was turned into an operation center for the Free Syrian Army , a collection of anti @-@ government fighters and army defectors . Ten days of operations resulted in the deaths of about 700 people in the city according to the Local Coordination Committees . On 1 March 2012 , the Syrian Army had gained control over the Baba Amr district while lesser clashes continued in other neighborhoods . On 9 December 2015 , under a UN @-@ negotiated deal , the remnants of anti @-@ government forces and their families , that had been under siege the al @-@ Wair district for three years , began to evacuate from the city . = = Geography = = The Governorate of Homs is the largest in Syria . Homs , the governorate 's capital , is located in central western Syria , situated along the east bank of the Orontes River in a particularly fertile area . The city is in between the southern outliers of the Coastal Mountain Range located to the west and Mount Lebanon , overlooking the Homs Gap . Because of the gap , the area around Homs receives much more rainfall than interior regions to its north and south . To the east of Homs , is the Syrian Desert . Lake Homs , impounded by a huge dam of Roman origins , is to the southwest , lying some 125 kilometers ( 78 mi ) south of Aleppo and 34 kilometers ( 21 mi ) south of Hama , halfway on the road between the capital Damascus and Aleppo . The Orontes River splits the city into two main sections : To the east , on a flat land lies the city center and the main neighborhoods ; to the west , lies the more recent and modern suburb of al @-@ Waer . The city spans an area of 4 @,@ 800 hectares ( 19 sq mi ) . Homs is located 162 kilometres ( 101 mi ) north of Damascus , 193 kilometres ( 120 mi ) south of Aleppo , 47 kilometres ( 29 mi ) south of Hama , and 186 kilometres ( 116 mi ) southeast of Latakia on the Mediterranean coast . Nearby towns and villages include al @-@ Rayyan to the southeast , Maskanah , al @-@ Nuqayrah , Abil and Kafr Aya to the south , al @-@ Qusayr , Qattinah and al @-@ Buwaydah al @-@ Sharqiyah to the southwest , Khirbet Tin Nur to the west , al @-@ Dar al @-@ Kabirah to the northwest , al @-@ Ghantu , Teir Maalah , al @-@ Mukhtariyah and Talbiseh to the north , al @-@ Mishirfeh to the northeast and Fairouzeh and Zaidal to the east . = = = Old City and subdivisions = = = The Old City is the most condensed area of Homs , and it includes the neighborhoods of Bab Tadmur , Bab al @-@ Dreib , Bab Hud and the immediate vicinity of the citadel , covering an area of 1 @.@ 2 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 46 sq mi ) . Little remains of the Old City ; its walls and gates were demolished in the Ottoman era , but a short section of fortified wall with a circular corner tower still exists . Half a kilometer to the south , a large earth mound marks the site where the citadel once stood . To the north of the citadel lies the Christian Quarter , known as " al @-@ Hamidiyah " . This neighborhood is one of the few areas of Homs that retains its older look , with most of the alternating black @-@ and @-@ white stone buildings dating from the Mamluk era . They are still used as shops and dwellings , and there has been recent renovation . At the time of the Abbasids , Homs was known for its seven gates . They were Bab al @-@ Souq ( Gate of the Market ) , Bab Tadmur ( Gate of Palmyra ) , Bab al @-@ Dreib ( or Bab al @-@ Deir ) , Bab al @-@ Sebaa ( Gate of the Lions ) , Bab al @-@ Turkman ( Gate of the Turkmen ) , Bab al @-@ Masdoud ( Closed Door ) , and Bab Hud ( The Gate of Hud ) . Only two gates — Bab Tadmor and Bab al @-@ Dreib — remain today . The oldest of Homs ' mosques and churches are located in the Old City . Homs consists of several subdivisions outside the Old City . The large neighbourhood of Khaldiyah spreads along its northern edge , while the more modern neighbourhoods of al @-@ Sabil , al @-@ Zahra , and Jub al @-@ Jandali are situated to the east of the Old City . South of it are the neighborhoods of Bab al @-@ Sebaa , al @-@ Mreijeh , al @-@ Nezha , Akrama and beyond them lay the Karm al @-@ Zaytoun and Karm al @-@ Loz neighbourhoods . The modern commercial centre lies to the west in the neighbourhood of Jouret al @-@ Shayyah , and further west are the upscale neighbourhoods of Qusoor , al @-@ Mahatta and al @-@ Ghouta . The suburb of al @-@ Waer is located even further west , separated from the city by areas of farmland called al @-@ Basatin and the Orontes River forming a green belt where it is forbidden to build anything . The Baath University complex and dormitories are located on the western @-@ southern edge of the city next to the neighborhood of Akrama . = = = Climate = = = Homs ' location ensures that it receives softening influences and breezes from the Mediterranean . As a result , the city has a much milder climate than nearby Hama , with higher average rainfall of 18 inches ( 460 mm ) instead of 14 inches ( 360 mm ) , but it also experiences greater winds . = = Demographics = = Homs was one of the largest cities in Syria in the 12th @-@ century with a population of 7 @,@ 000 . In 1785 , the inhabitants of Homs numbered more than 2 @,@ 000 and the population was divided almost evenly between Eastern Orthodox Christians and Muslims . The 1860s saw a rise in the population to 15 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 . By 1907 , Homs had roughly 65 @,@ 000 inhabitants , of which two thirds were Muslims and the remainder Christians . In the 1981 census , the population stood at 346 @,@ 871 , rising to 540 @,@ 133 in 1994 . According to the 2004 census by Syria 's Central Bureau of Statistics , Homs had a population of 652 @,@ 609 of which 51 @.@ 5 % were male and 48 @.@ 5 % female . In an independent 2005 estimate the city had 750 @,@ 000 residents , and as of 2008 the population was estimated at about 823 @,@ 000 . Today , Homs ' population reflects Syria 's general religious diversity , and is made up primarily of Sunni Muslims , with minorities of Alawite Muslims , Eastern Orthodox Christians and Syriac Orthodox Christians . In addition to Catholics , Evangelists and Maronites . In the 1880s , the Survey of Western Palestine noted that there were 5 @,@ 500 Greek Orthodox Christians and 1 @,@ 500 Syriac Orthodox Christians . The Syriac Patriarchate was transferred to Homs from Mardin in 1933 , but relocated once more to Damascus in 1959 . During the Armenian Genocide in the early 20th @-@ century , about 20 @,@ 000 Armenians immigrated to Homs and the surrounding villages . A small Greek community also exists in the city . = = Economy = = After long periods of stagnation under Ottoman rule , Homs started to flourish again in the 20th @-@ century . Its geographic and strategic location has made it a centre of agriculture and industry . The " Homs Irrigation Scheme " , the first of its kind in modern Syria , brought prosperity to cultivators and the long @-@ established enterprises involved in the processing of agricultural and pastoral products . Crops grown in Homs include , wheat , barley , lentils , sugar beets , cotton , and vines , as well as serving as a point of exchange between the sedentary zone and the desert . Moreover , because of easy access to the Mediterranean , Homs has attracted overland trade from the Persian Gulf and Iraq . Homs is also home to several large public heavy industries , such as the oil refinery west of the city which opened in 1959 . A fertilizer plant was built in 1971 to process phosphates from their deposits near Palmyra ; the fertilizer is for domestic consumption and export . A growing private industrial sector has flourished in the past decade and many small to medium @-@ sized enterprises occupy the industrial zones northwest and south of the city . A new sugar refinery is being built by a Brazilian company , and an automobile plant is under construction by Iran Khodro . Also a new phosphate plant and oil refinery are being built east of the city . Homs is also the hub of an important road and rail network , it is the central link between the interior cities and the Mediterranean coast . A major industrial project was the establishment of a new industrial city in Hisyah , 47 kilometers ( 29 mi ) south of the city of Homs . Spreading across some 2 @,@ 500 hectares ( 25 km2 ) , the city covers four main industrial sectors : textiles , food , chemical , engineering and vocational . In all , the facilities are designed to accommodate up to 66 @,@ 000 workers and their families . Moreover , a free zone has been established within the city . The hinterland of Homs is well known for its grapes which are used in Syria 's liqueur industry , particularly in producing arak , nectar wine , and red wine . The city is considered a good base for day trips and excursions to the many historical and touristic sights nearby . Popular destinations include Krak des Chevaliers , Qatna , Talkalakh and Marmarita . Homs has several hotels ; Safir Hotel is considered one of Syria 's best five @-@ star hotels and the only one of that status in the city . An @-@ Nasr al @-@ Jedid Hotel is built in a 100 @-@ year @-@ old mansion and is labeled by tour guides as the " best budget hotel in Homs " . Other hotels include Hotel al @-@ Mimas , Ghazi Hotel , and Hotel Khayyam . = = Culture = = = = = Cuisine = = = Although people in Homs eat the same foods common in Levantine cuisine , the city is well known throughout Syria for its own cuisine . A prominent dish is Batarsh , a type of baba ghanouj made with yogurt and garlic instead of tahini . Homs is also home to a variety of kibbeh mishwiyyeh or " grilled kibbeh " . It consists of two pancakes of kibbeh stuffed with ground lamb , cooked with lamb fat and various spices . Batata mahshi ( " stuffed potatoes " ) is native dish in Homs and is made of baby potatoes stuffed with minced lamb , pine nuts and pomegranate molasses . The city specializes in cooking a type of okra meal , known as bamya bi @-@ l zayt ( " okra with olive oil " ) . Homs has an array of restaurants , some of the most highly acclaimed are those within the Safir Hotel : Mamma Mia and Mersia . The former specializes in Italian cuisine , while the latter serves Arabic food . For the local population , popular restaurants include Prince Restaurant which acts as a type of fast @-@ food place , serving shawarma , grilled chicken , and other common Syrian foods , as well as homemade juices . In the Old City , low @-@ price restaurants are grouped together along Shoukri al @-@ Quwatly Street and sell similar foods , such as hummus , falafel , various salads ( mezze ) , shish kebab and chicken dishes . Restaurants and coffeehouses typically offer hookahs and are a common place for men to gather and smoke . Other notable restaurants include Broasted Kreish , a local favorite for shish taouk and shawarma on the Korniche St just south of the Ghouta ; the Rawda , a garden lounge located by the New Clock Tower which is known by locals for its Homsi @-@ style fatteh and for the atmosphere created by its divided men and family areas , providing an area for men to gather to play cards , smoke and watch soccer games and for families to have a drink and dessert on late downtime . Homs also recently emerged as the restaurant scene in pre @-@ civil @-@ war Syria after completing its Malab St. Hamra development . The Hamra Street in the Malab area was home to a strip of highly rated restaurants including La Luna , a shisha lounge ; Chez Moi , serving a few French dishes along with the typical local food ; Mia Casa , an Italian restaurant ; Troy , an American @-@ Latin @-@ Syrian mashup ; and Quattro , another Italian restaurant . Like in Damascus and Aleppo , many houses in the Old City of Homs have been renovated and transformed into restaurants specializing in Levantine cuisine . Most notable of these is Beit al @-@ Agha restaurant , situated in a renovated palace that dates back to the mid 19th @-@ century with Ottoman and Mamluk architecture , and Julia Dumna Restaurant , which has been described as the best example of traditional Homsi houses , with its white and black stones . = = = Museums = = = There are two main museums in Homs , both located in the central part of the city . Azze Hrawe Palace , a former Mamluk @-@ era palace belonging to Ali ibn Abi al @-@ Fadl al @-@ Azzhari , a subordinate of Baibars , the Mamluk sultan , is now the National Folklore Museum . Outside the building is a courtyard , occupied on one side by a large terraced liwan with a conch shell semi @-@ dome . In the opposite wall , there is a carving of two lions , a symbol of Baibars . The first museum built in the city is located along Shoukri al @-@ Quwatly Street and contains a selection of artifacts from the Homs region , covering the time between the prehistoric and Islamic eras . = = = Festivals = = = Homs has several festivals , and the city annually co @-@ hosts the Desert Folk Festival and the Al @-@ Badiya Festival with Palmyra . The Desert Folk Festival is an annual festival of the ancient traditions and costumes of the Badiya ( Syrian Desert ) and it includes exhibitions and concerts between Homs and Palmyra . The festival is held in the first week of May . The Al @-@ Badiya Festival , which is held mainly in Palmyra with some events in Homs , draws approximately 60 @,@ 000 tourists during the last week of May . Activities include horse , camel and car races , horse contests , music and theatre shows , antique exhibitions and a crafts market . Other festivals include the al @-@ Nasarah Festival and the Festival of Krak des Chevaliers and the Valley . An annual festival is held at the Church of Saint Elian , attracting large numbers of pilgrims . = = = Sports = = = Homs is home to two football clubs . The Al @-@ Karamah Sports Club was founded in 1928 and is one of the oldest sports clubs in Syria . Al @-@ Karamah is widely acclaimed on the regional and national levels , having won eight Syrian League titles , and eight Syrian Cup titles . Al @-@ Karamah was a runner @-@ up in the 2006 AFC Champions League . The second sports club of the city is Al @-@ Wathba Sports Club , which was founded in 1937 . The Khaled Ibn Al Walid Stadium has a 35 @,@ 000 @-@ person capacity and is home to both football clubs . Homs has produced a number of well @-@ known sportsmen , including footballers Firas Al Khatib and Jehad Al Hussain . = = Government = = Homs is the capital of the Homs District , and the capital of the Homs Governorate — the largest governorate in Syria , and houses the seat of its governor , appointed by the president . The city of Homs is governed by a city council and is home to the Executive Office . The latter consists of nine elected members , in addition to the president of the city council . The Office aids the Governor in making management decisions related to the Governorate , while the city council is responsible for decisions specific to the city of Homs . It is headed by a president , Nadia Kseibi , and is responsible for the day @-@ to @-@ day management of the city . The council 's organizational structure is composed of the top leadership , consisting of the president , vice president , and secretary , and the lower leadership , made up of the directors of seventeen city branches : Administrative Affairs , Finance , Technical Affairs , Health Affairs , Legal Affairs , the Fire Department , Mechanisms , Parks , Hygiene , Property , Provisional Register , Services and Maintenance , Works , IT , Planning and Statistics , Culture , and Internal Oversight Service . = = Education = = Homs is home to the Al @-@ Baath University , one of four major universities in Syria was founded in 1979 . A specialist engineering foundation , the university has one of the largest student bodies . It houses several faculties including medicine , engineering , liberal arts , and sciences and a number of two @-@ year career ( vocational ) institutions . It is the only university in the country to have departments in petroleum engineering and veterinary medicine . The German University at Wadi al @-@ Nasarah opened in 2004 and is located 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) west of the city . In 2005 , the International School of Choueifat opened a school outside the city . Al @-@ Andalus University for Medical Sciences was established in 2005 near Homs , and is constructing one of its University Hospitals in the city . There are 1 @,@ 727 schools and 15 @,@ 000 kindergartens in the Homs Governorate , most of which are public facilities . In 2007 , 375 @,@ 000 students in the governorate were enrolled in elementary schools ( 6 – 15 years ) , 36 @,@ 000 in high schools ( 15 – 18 years ) , and around 12 @,@ 000 in vocational training schools . = = Local infrastructure = = = = = Transportation = = = Homs is considered a transportation hub in Syria , by virtue of its central location between the coastal cities and the interior . The main bus terminal is Karnak , situated along Hama Street , 1 @.@ 5 kilometers ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) north of the city centre on the outskirts . The terminal offers connections to most Syrian cities and Beirut , Lebanon . It also has international bus connections to Lebanon , Jordan , Saudi Arabia and Turkey . A second " luxury " bus station is located a little further north . Minibuses operate from Karnak station with destinations to Tartus , Palmyra , and Hama in northern Syria , as well as Baalbek , Tripoli , and Beirut in Lebanon . Newer microbuses that mostly travel to Hama are also based in Karnak and are mostly used for quick transportation . Homs has a large railway station , with two Chemins de Fer Syriens operated daily departures to Damascus and Aleppo . The nearest airports are Bassel Al @-@ Assad International Airport in Latakia to the west , Damascus International Airport to the south , Aleppo International Airport to the north , and Palmyra Airport in the Syrian Desert to the east . Hama Street starts at the Old Clock Square in the city center and crosses Homs from south to north , where it continues along the neighborhood of al @-@ Khaldiyah on to the Karnak station , and turns into the Homs @-@ Hama @-@ Aleppo highway . Quwatli Street , named after former president Shukri al @-@ Quwatli , is a short but vital street that connects the Old Clock Square and Quwatli Square in Downtown Homs . It branches into several smaller streets on its western end , one of which is al @-@ Dablan Street which is the main commercial block in the city , and the other continues west to connect with the Homs @-@ Tripoli highway . On the eastern end , al @-@ Quwatli street continues as al @-@ Hamidiyah Street which crosses the old Christian quarter and continues to the eastern edge of the city . The Homs @-@ Damascus highway crosses the city from the south and reaches the city center in Quwatli Square . = = = Landmarks = = = The city itself is famous its historic mosques and churches . It is also well recognized by its twin clock towers . The older one , facing al @-@ Hamidiya Street , was built by the French in the early 1930s , and the newer one in al @-@ Quwatli Square facing al @-@ Dablan street . Homs is well known for its historical roofed souks . These consist of a complex maze of narrow streets and covered commercial alleys extending from the south and east from the Great Mosque towards the ancient citadel . The souks — lined with grocery and clothing stores , and workshops for carpenters , artisans , cobblers , metalworkers and knife @-@ sharpeners — are busiest in the evening . Homs and the surrounding countryside bear many landmarks , including a world heritage site , the Krak des Chevaliers and Citadel of Salah Ed @-@ Din . Other landmarks include the Great Mosque of al @-@ Nuri . Originally a pagan temple dedicated to El @-@ Gabal , it was consecrated as the Church of Saint John the Baptist under the Byzantines . Later , it was established as a Friday mosque during the Islamic Arab rule of Homs . The Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid Mosque has been considered " the only edifice of any real note " in Homs , and was built in the last few years of Ottoman rule in Syria during the 1900s . The mosque is named after early Arab general Khalid ibn al @-@ Walid , whose tomb is located within the building . The Um al @-@ Zennar Church ( " Church of the Virgin 's Girdle " ) was built in 1852 atop an earlier church dating back to the 4th @-@ century , and perhaps 59 CE . The other prominent church in Homs is the 5th @-@ century Church of Saint Elian , built in honor of Christian martyr Saint Elian , whose tomb is located in the crypt . The Citadel of Homs is situated on one of the largest urban tells of Syria . It has been archaeologically neglected because of military occupation until recent years . The tell dates back at least to the Early Bronze Age . The extant Islamic @-@ style walls were built during the Ayyubid period and the Mamluk sultan Baybars subsequently carried out restorations . All of this work is testified by inscriptions although without exception , they are lost . In 1994 , a joint Syrian @-@ British team studied the Citadel of Homs , recording the remains of the walls and towers . = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = Belo Horizonte , Brazil ( 2001 ) Kayseri , Turkey Yazd , Iran = = Gallery = = = Romblon = Romblon ( / rɒmˈbloʊn / rom @-@ BLOHN ) is an archipelagic province of the Philippines located in the Mimaropa region . Its main islands include Tablas , the largest , which covers nine municipalities , Sibuyan with its three towns , as well as the smaller island municipalities of Corcuera , Banton , Concepcion , San Jose , and Romblon , the provincial capital . The province lies south of Marinduque and Quezon , east of Oriental Mindoro , north of Aklan and Capiz , and west of Masbate . According to the 2015 census , it has a total population of 292 @,@ 781 . Romblon has been inhabited by aboriginal Filipinos prior to the arrival of the Spanish in 1569 . Archaeological artifacts recovered by the National Museum in 1936 indicate that the aborigines of Romblon already have a rich and advanced culture . Under Spanish colonial rule , Romblon was initially administered under the newly established province of Arevalo , until 1716 , when it was transferred to the jurisdiction of the newly created province of Capiz . With arrival of the Americans in 1901 , Romblon was declared a province and placed under civilian rule . It lost its provincial status for a short while between 1907 and 1945 , but regained it in 1946 , just after World War II . The inhabitants of Romblon are divided into three ethnolinguistic groups : Romblomanon , Onhan and Asi . These groups occupy specific islands in the province and have their own language and customs . Romblomanon is mainly spoken in the town of Romblon , in all of three towns of Sibuyan Island , and the towns of San Andres and San Agustin in Tablas Island . Onhan is mainly spoken in the municipalities in the southern part of Tablas Island ( Alcantara , Looc , Ferrol , Santa Fe and Santa Maria ) well as in the island municipality of San Jose . The northwestern part of Tablas Island ( in Odiongan and Calatrava , as well as the islands municipalities of Corcuera , Banton , and Concepcion , speak the Asi language . Currently , the province relies on agriculture , particularly rice and copra farming as well as fishing , for its livelihood . It also has a lucrative marble industry due to an abundance of Italian @-@ quality marble , hence , its moniker as the " Marble Capital of the Philippines . " In recent years , the province has also become an ecotourism destination , with several white sand beaches , diving spots , mountains and rainforests that tourists visit annually . = = Etymology = = According to legend , the name " Romblon " was derived from the Romblomanon word Nagalumyom , which pertains to a chicken in the act of sitting on its eggs on a nest . This eventually evolved to Lomlom , and later on to Donblon , the name reported by Spanish chronicler Miguel de Loarca in his book Relacion de las Islas Filipinas in 1582 , before finally evolving to Romblon . Meanwhile , local historians Roland Madeja and Evelyn Reyes relate the origin of the name " Romblon " to the shape of Romblon Island . Madeja claims that the name was derived from the Spanish word ronblon , another term for tornillo , meaning " screw . " According to him , the Spanish claimed to have observed the screw @-@ like shape of Romblon Island . Meanwhile , Reyes claims Romblon originated from " doubloon " , which refers to the Spanish coin used by Moro pirates in paying dowries for their brides @-@ to @-@ be . The Spanish might have named the island after the shape of the coin . = = History = = = = = Early history = = = Romblon 's aboriginal inhabitants were the Negritos from Panay and Mangyans from Mindoro , who settled in the islands during the precolonial period . Ancient wooden coffins discovered in the Guyangan Cave System of Banton Island in 1936 signify a rich ancient civilization and culture in the province before the arrival of the Spaniards in 1569 . These artifacts are currently on display at the National Museum in Manila . Remnants of Negrito and Mangyan aborigines now live in the mountains of Tablas and Sibuyan after they were displaced by the influx of Hiligaynon , Aklanon , Bicolano and Tagalog migrants as early as 1870 . = = = Spanish period = = = According to historians Emma Helen Blair and James Alexander Robertson , the Spanish arrived in Romblon in 1569 led by conquistador Martin de Goiti who was dispatched by Miguel López de Legazpi to explore the western and northern portion of the Visayas region including Romblon and Mindoro . The islands were later organized into three encomiendas and were administered from Arevalo . De Loarca visited Romblon in 1582 and conducted the first census of the islands . In 1635 , Recollect missionaries arrived in Romblon to establish Catholic missions and settlements . They helped the Spanish authorities establish peace and order in the islands . In 1637 , they established seven missionary centers at Romblon , Badajoz ( San Agustin ) , Cajidiocan , Banton , Looc , Odiongan and Magallanes ( Magdiwang ) . They also built massive forts , churches and watchtowers in the province , such as Fort San Jose in Banton and Fort San Andres in Romblon , following a Dutch attack in 1646 which destroyed the capital town and to repulse recurring Moro raids . Romblon was separated from the jurisdiction of Arevalo and annexed to Capiz , when the province was created in 1716 . More than a century later in 1850 , the inhabitants of the province began using Spanish family names after governor @-@ general Narciso Clavería decreed on 21 November 1849 the use of surnames from the Catálogo alfabético de apellidos . Asi @-@ speaking natives were assigned the letter F , Romblomanon speakers were assigned the letter M , speakers of the Sibuyanon style of Romblomanon were assigned the letter R , while Onhan @-@ speaking natives were assigned the letter G. In 1853 , the islands were organized into a politico @-@ military commandancia ( " sub @-@ province " in English ) administered from Capiz and continued to be so until the end of the Spanish rule in 1898 . As a sub @-@ province , Romblon was under an army officer with the rank of captain . The town of Romblon was its capital and the other municipalities were Azagra , Badajos ( now San Agustin ) , Banton , Cajidiocan , Corcuera , Looc , Magallanes ( now Magdiwang ) , Odiongan , Despujols ( now San Andres ) and Santa Fe . = = = Revolutionary period = = = In 1898 , amid the Philippine Revolution , Katipunan leader Emilio Aguinaldo sent his generals to several provinces in the Visayas to expand the recognition of his revolutionary government in the central and southern Philippines . The Katipunan general Mariano Riego de Dios and his forces liberated Romblon , while generals Ananias Diocno and Leandro Fullon proceeded to Panay . On 25 July the same year , Riego de Dios took the Romblon capital and captured Spanish officials . Four days later , the Spanish politico @-@ military governor Don Carlos Mendoza formally signed the surrender of Romblon ’ s district government , ending more than three hundred years of Spanish rule in the archipelagic province . Later , Don Wenceslao Molo , a local from Romblon town , was appointed governor and became responsible for the collection of a total amount of ₱ 22 @,@ 765 @.@ 21 , Romblon ’ s share to the war expenditures of the Revolutionary Government from 31 May 1898 to 28 February 1899 . A local election was also held in Romblon town for its ministers of justice and barrio officials . However , Molo ’ s term was a brief transition to another era as the Americans arrived in the province a few months later . = = = American period = = = Upon the restoration of peace and order in the province following the Philippine @-@ American War , the Americans established civilian government in the islands on 16 March 1901 . Romblon was created as a regular province in the same year but due to insufficient income , it became a sub @-@ province of Capiz again in 1907 until 7 December 1917 when Act No. 2724 reestablished the province . Under Commonwealth Act No. 581 , enacted without executive approval on June 8 , 1940 , the province was reorganized with four towns or municipalities , namely : Tablas ( embracing Odiongan as the seat and center of the special municipality during which the municipalities of Ferrol and San Andres ( Despujol ) were still part of ; Looc during which Santa Fe , San Jose and Alcantara were still part of ; and Badajos during which Calatrava and Santa Maria were still part of ) , Romblon ( comprising Logbon , Cobrador and Alad ) , Banton ( involving Banton , Simara , and Maestre de Campo also known as Sibale ) , and Sibuyan ( with the towns of Cajidiocan , Magdiwang and San Fernando ) . = = = Japanese period = = = During World War II , the Japanese Imperial Forces established a garrison in Romblon on 21 March 1942 which they maintained until the end of the war . The islands became one of the centers of resistance movement against the Japanese . The movement was led by the Free Panay Guerilla Forces composed of members from the 6th Military District under the direction of Col. Macario Peralta , Jr . One of the major naval engagements during the Battle of Leyte Gulf , the Battle of Sibuyan Sea , happened off the waters of Romblon on 23 – 24 October 1944 between Japanese Admiral Kurita ’ s fleet from Singapore and Admiral Halsey 's carrier planes from the US Third Fleet then stationed east of the Philippines . Units from Company C of the 19th Infantry Regiment , 24th Infantry Division landed on Sawang , Romblon on the night 11 March 1945 . By 18 March , the province was liberated from Japanese forces . = = = Modern period = = = On 1 October 1946 , Romblon regained her provincial status through the passage of Republic Act No. 38 , sponsored by Cong . Modesto Formilleza . In the decades that followed , the province saw the creation of new municipalities , such as Alcantara ( 1961 ) from Looc , Calatrava ( 1969 ) from San Agustin , Ferrol ( 1978 ) from Odiongan , and Santa Maria ( 1984 ) from San Agustin . = = Geography = = Romblon is strategically situated at the center of the Philippine archipelago . It is composed of three major islands ( Tablas , Sibuyan and Romblon ) and 17 smaller islands . It is surrounded by deep waters , and is bounded by Masbate in the east , Mindoro in the west , Marinduque in the north and Panay in the south . It is approximately 187 nautical miles ( 346 km ) and 169 miles ( 272 km ) south of Manila . The islands are dispersed and accessible only via sea transportation except for Tablas Island where a domestic airport is located in the municipality of Alcantara . = = = Topography = = = The province has a total land area of approximately 1 @,@ 533 @.@ 45 square kilometres ( 592 sq mi ) representing about 5 @.@ 3 percent of the total land area of Region IV @-@ B ( MIMAROPA ) . It is generally mountainous with about 40 percent of its land area having an inclination of more than 50 percent . Only four percent of the total area has an inclination of three to eight percent , while a sparse 10 percent has an inclination of three to zero percent . Narrow strips of coastal lowlands , low hills and plains typify the topography of some of the islands . Romblon Island is hilly with a maximum elevation of about 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) above sea level . Tablas Island shows varied relief characteristics . The western coastal areas are level to undulating while the eastern coastal areas are rough to rugged . The southern section covering Santa Fe and the mid @-@ western portion maybe described as having rolling to rough terrain . Extremely rugged areas can be found in the central section of the island . The highest elevation is almost 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) above sea level . Sibuyan Island is a thickly forested mountain mass . The western portion of the island maybe characterized as extensively rugged , having ascents of 60 percent or more while the eastern section is relatively undulating to rolling . The highest elevation , the peak of Mt . Guiting @-@ Guiting , reaches about 2 @,@ 058 meters ( 6 @,@ 750 feet ) above sea level . The major areas that are highly productive and buildable are basically in Tablas and Sibuyan . These include Odiongan , San Andres , Looc and Santa Fe in Tablas Island . All three municipalities in Sibuyan Island , on the other hand , have substantial level to gently sloping lands . Overall , good developable lands represent about 13 percent of the province ’ s total area . = = = Flora and fauna = = = Romblon , particularly Sibuyan Island , is among the few places in the Philippines with a well @-@ preserved natural environment . Uninterrupted rainforest covers 75 percent of the island . It is also home to the country 's cleanest inland body of water , the Cantigas River , as well as 34 waterfalls . Sibuyan is commonly known the country as the " Galapagos of Asia " because of its many endemic plant and animal species , some of which have just been discovered recently . Among these endemic species are nine mammals , seven lizards , two amphibians , three birds and 112 vascular plants , such as the Nepenthes argentii , Nepenthes sibuyanensis , Nepenthes armin , Sibuyan striped shrew rat , Sibuyan shrew , Philippine tube @-@ nosed fruit bat , indigo @-@ banded kingfisher , and the Romblon hawk @-@ owl . In Tablas Island , at least two endemic bird species can be found : the Tablas drongo and Tablas fantail . = = = Administrative divisions = = = Romblon comprises 17 municipalities . Of these , nine are located in Tablas Island ( San Agustin , Calatrava , San Andres , Odiongan , Ferrol , Santa Fe , Looc , Alcantara and Santa Maria ) , three in Sibuyan Island ( Magdiwang , Cajidiocan and San Fernando ) and five ( Romblon , San Jose , Banton , Concepcion and Corcuera ) are island municipalities . † Provincial capital = = = Climate = = = Romblon falls under Type III of the Corona climatic classification system which was devised in 1920 . It is characterized by no pronounced wet and dry seasons . Generally , the wet season is from June to November and sometimes extends up to December when the southwest monsoon is predominant . The dry season is from January to May but is sometimes interrupted by erratic rainfall . The annual mean temperature is 27 ° C ( 81 ° F ) , with February as the coldest month with temperatures dropping to 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) , and May as the warmest month with temperatures reaching up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) . Habagat monsoon winds pass through the province from June to October while northeasterly winds or Amihan blows through the islands from December to February . = = Demographics = = The population of Romblon in the 2015 census was 292 @,@ 781 people , with a density of 190 inhabitants per square kilometre or 490 inhabitants per square mile . It ranks fourth among the five provinces of the MIMAROPA Region in terms of population and represents 9 @.@ 9 percent of the region ’ s population . San Jose and Romblon are the two most @-@ densely populated municipalities in the province at 490 / km2 and 450 / km2 , respectively . Cajidiocan is the least densely populated municipality at 110 / km2 . Males outnumber females in the province with a sex ratio of 102 : 100 according to the 2010 census . Of the province ’ s 283 @,@ 482 household population , males accounted for 144 @,@ 091 or 50 @.@ 8 percent while females comprised 139 @,@ 391 or 49 @.@ 2 percent . The voting @-@ age population ( 18 years old and over ) accounted for 56 @.@ 6 percent of the household population of the province in 2010 , up from 52 @.@ 7 percent in 2000 . There were more females ( 50 @.@ 2 percent ) than males ( 49 @.@ 8 percent ) among the voting age population . = = = Language = = = The languages of Romblon , as well as all languages native to the Philippines , belong to the Austronesian language family , the second largest language family in the world with 1 @,@ 257 known languages , second only to the Niger @-@ Congo family 's 1 @,@ 538 languages . All of the languages of the Philippines , except Samalan , are classified as Philippine languages under the Western Malayo @-@ Polynesian branch of Austronesian . The Philippine language group has three main branches : Northern , Southern and Central , the latter of which is composed of the Visayan , Bikol and Tagalog languages . Unlike other islands or provinces in the Philippines where all local languages are classifiable under the same subgroup of languages , each of the three languages of Romblon — Romblomanon , Onhan and Asi — actually belongs to a different subgroup of the Visayan language group . Romblomanon belongs to the Central Visayan subgroup , which spans from Waray @-@ Waray in Samar and Leyte , through Masbatenyo and Bisakol , and as far west as Hiligaynon and Capiznon on Panay . It is spoken in Romblon and Sibuyan Islands , as well as in San Agustin town in Tablas Island . Onhan , on the other hand , belongs to the Western Visayan subgroup , which includes Kinaray @-@ a and Aklanon as well as several minor languages spoken on Mindoro , Palawan , and some small islands in between . Its speakers are mainly from the southern portion of Tablas Island , in the municipalities of San Andres , Santa Maria , Alcantara , Ferrol , Looc , and Santa Fe , as well as in the municipality of San Jose in Carabao Island . Finally , Asi is not classified under any specific subgroup of Visayan , and instead makes up its own immediate branch of Visayan . David Paul Zorc , a linguist from the Australian National University whose expertise is on Philippine languages , notes that Asi speakers may have been the first Visayan speakers in the region . He also suggests that Asi may have a Cebuano substratum and that many of its words may have been influenced by the later influx of other languages such as Romblomanon . It is spoken in the island municipalities of Banton , Corcuera and Concepcion , as well as in Odiongan and Calatrava in Tablas . = = = Religion = = = The people of the province are predominantly Roman Catholic . In 2012 , the UP School of Economics reported that in recent years , at least 75 percent were Catholics , around five to nine percent were Muslims , and around three to five percent belonged to Iglesia ni Cristo . = = Economy = = = = = Agriculture = = = Agriculture is the main industry in Romblon . Coconut is the most cultivated crop with a total planted area of 58 @,@ 270 @.@ 44 hectares ( 224 @.@ 9834 sq mi ) . San Agustin has the most extensive area with coconut plants followed by Romblon and Cajidiocan . Rice is the next crop , cultivated particularly in Odiongan , Looc , Cajidiocan and Santa Fe . Other crops grown include root crops , vegetables and fruits . Odiongan , Banton and Magdiwang have the greatest areas planted with root crops and correspondingly , have the highest volume of production . Vegetable production is mostly for home consumption and grown in small scale . Livestock development and poultry production is a viable small scale enterprise for farmers in the province . The provincial government maintains breeding facilities in strategic locations province @-@ wide to encourage farmers to engage in livestock and poultry production to augment their income . Livestock and poultry management training and seminars is provided to interested clients . Due to the geographical condition of the province , crops and livestock production is generally deficient as compared to the food requirements of Romblon population . To meet the rice requirements , Romblon relies on imports from the neighboring provinces while vegetables , poultry meat , vegetables and fruits are supplied mostly by Luzon . = = = Marine resources = = = Fishing industry is a major enterprise as Romblon is surrounded by water on all sides . The fishing grounds of Romblon are a migratory path of fish from Sulu and Visayan Seas passing Tablas Strait , Sibuyan Sea and Romblon Pass . The waters also abound with demersal fish due to the coral reefs surrounding the islands . Because the province has a great potential for aqua @-@ marine development , the province implemented a coastal and resource management program . Each municipality established a fish sanctuary and passed laws on fishery . The use of air compressors in the municipal waters was regulated and banned altogether in some municipalities . = = = Mineral resources = = = Marble is the most significant mineral deposit of Romblon and is the most renowned product of the province . Based on statistics , Romblon is the second biggest provincial marble producer of the country next to Bulacan . Romblon marble is of very high quality and comes in shades of white , green , pink , red and black . The Mines and Geosciences Bureau has estimated that Romblon is endowed with about 150 million metric tons of marble . At current rates of extraction , the supply may last for three more centuries . Tablas Island is also believed to have vast reserves of marble . Marble quarrying and processing are major activities in Romblon . Among the most common marble products are categorized into the following : novelty items ( gifts , ashtray , table bars ) , furniture ( dining tables , baptismal fonts ) and construction materials ( tiles , balusters , marble chips ) . Other mineral resources with considerable quantity include nickel ore and gold mostly to be found in Sibuyan Island . Gold panning and small @-@ scale mining is a lucrative undertaking in Magdiwang . = = Tourism = = = = = Natural attractions = = = Being an archipelago , Romblon has several beaches and dive sites . Among its best white sand beaches are Bonbon , Cobrador and Tiamban Beach in Romblon , Macat @-@ ang , Tabunan and Tambak Beach in Banton , Lunas and Bignay Beach in San Jose , and Cresta del Gallo in San Fernando . The sea surrounding Cresta del Gallo is a famous diving site teeming with marine life . Romblon is also home to the only known blue hole in the Philippines in the town of San Agustin . The entrance to the blue hole is a 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) wide volcanic chimney , which drops for 20 metres ( 66 ft ) before opening up into the massive chamber below with a total depth of 32 to 40 metres ( 105 – 131 ft ) . Mount Guiting @-@ Guiting in Sibuyan , the province 's tallest mountain , is considered as one of the most difficult climbs in the Philippines , and is thus a major destination of local mountain climbers because of its steep and jagged summit . Another a suitable place for hiking and trekking is Mount Payaopao is Tablas . Meanwhile , Banton 's Guyangan Cave System , an Important Cultural Treasure , is where the Banton Cloth — the earliest known warp ikat textile in Southeast Asia — was found in 1936 . = = = Heritage sites = = = Aside from the precolonial Guyangan Cave System in Banton , the province also has several heritage sites built during the Spanish colonial period . In Romblon town , the forts of San Andres and Santiago served as fortifications against Muslim pirates in the 17th century , while the St. Joseph Cathedral and Belfry houses a centuries @-@ old image of the Santo Niño de Cebú or the Holy Child . Both heritage sites were declared National Cultural Treasures by the National Museum . The town also has two Spanish @-@ era bridges that were declared Important Cultural Treasures . A similar fort in Banton , the centuries @-@ old Fort San Jose and Banton Church , were built in the 1600s and was also used as defenses against Muslim pirates . = = = Festivals = = = Every second week of January , Romblon town celebrates the feast of the Santo Niño de Cebú , also known as the Biniray Festival . In that week , a fluvial parade featuring the image of the Santo Niño goes around Romblon Bay in order to bring good luck to the villages . A mardi gras is also held in the town with various street dancing , food , drinks and music . A similar Biniray Festival also occurs in Banton every 10 September in commemoration of the island 's patron , San Nicolas de Tolentino . Other festivals include the Saginyogan Festival in Alcantara , the Sanrokan Festival in Banton , and the Talabukon Festival in Looc . = = Government = = = = = Executive = = = Just like any other province in the Philippines , Romblon ’ s chief executive and head is the provincial governor . Elected to a term of three years and limited to three consecutive terms , he or she appoints the directors of each provincial department , which include the office of administration , engineering office , information office , legal office , and treasury office . As of April 2016 , the incumbent governor of Romblon is Eduardo C. Firmalo , from the Liberal Party . He first assumed office on 30 June 2010 , following his victory in the May 2010 gubernatorial elections . He was reelected in 2013 for a second term which will expire in 2016 . The provincial vice governor performs duties as acting governor in the absence of the provincial governor . He or she also automatically succeeds as governor upon the death of the provincial governor . The provincial vice governor also convenes the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan , the provincial legislative body . The incumbent provincial vice governor of Romblon is Jose Riano from the Liberal Party . He first assumed office on 30 June 2013 after defeating former vice governor Manuel Madrid . = = = Legislative = = = The province , which is a lone congressional district , is represented in the Philippine House of Representatives by longtime congressman Eleandro Jesus " Budoy " Madrona from the Nacionalista Party . He first assumed office from 1992 to 2001 , serving three terms . Following two terms wherein Perpetuo Ylagan and Eduardo Firmalo respectively represented the district in Congress , Madrona ran and won again in 2007 . His third and last term will expire in 2016 . Within the province , the Provincial Board or Sangguniang Panlalawigan crafts all provincial ordinances , performs appropriation of provincial funds , issues franchises and permits , impose fees on provincial services , and exercise other duties and powers as stipulated by the Local Government Code of 1991 . Romblon , being a third @-@ class province in terms of income , is entitled to a Provincial Board composed of eight members , four each from the province ’ s two board districts . As of 2013 , the incumbent board members from the province ’ s two districts are : ( First District ) Samuel Romero , Anthony Rugas , Abner Perez , Nelson Lim ; ( Second District ) Felix Ylagan , Juliet Fiel , Venizar Maravilla , and Andres Fondevilla . = = Infrastructure = = = = = Transportation = = = Romblon province is connected by a network of national and provincial roads . National roads form much of this network , with a total length of 311 @.@ 046 kilometres ( 193 @.@ 275 mi ) . Provincial roads , meanwhile , total 239 @.@ 005 kilometres ( 148 @.@ 511 mi ) in length . Municipal and barangay roads in far @-@ flung villages and island municipalities are not part of these figures . The primary modes of land transportation in the province are jeepneys , passenger motorcycles , minibuses and tricycles that serve inter @-@ municipal movements and linkages . Sea transportation is the primary mode of transportation linking Romblon with Luzon and islands in the Visayas . Inter @-@ island ferries , RORO , and cargo ships from Manila , the southern Luzon ports of Batangas City , Lucena City in Quezon province , Roxas , Oriental Mindoro , and Roxas City in Capiz province are the primary modes of transportation linking the province to the rest of the country . Montenegro Lines , 2GO , and Romblon Shipping Lines all have ferry service from Manila to the main ports of entry of Odiongan and the capital town of Romblon and vice versa . From Romblon , Montenegro also serves Magdiwang in Sibuyan , while Romblon Shipping Lines also serves Cajidiocan . Pump boats and wooden launches also link the province to the towns of Buenavista , Marinduque and Pinamalayan , Oriental Mindoro . These pump boats are also used in going to barangays where there are no existing road networks or between municipalities in the province that do not have existing ferry service . Tugdan Airport in Alcantara is the only airport in the province and is less than an hour away from Metro Manila via flights thrice a week ( Sunday , Wednesday and Friday as of December 2015 on PR2077 / 2078 ) by PAL Express . There is also a small airstrip in Barangay Azagra , San Fernando in Sibuyan Island that caters to tourism and general aviation . = = = Electricity = = = Power supply in Romblon is generated by the National Power Corporation ( NPC ) and serviced by two electric cooperatives . Tablas Island Electric Cooperatives ( TIELCO ) serves the power needs of Tablas Island including San Jose . It operates a 5 @.@ 070 MW diesel power plant in Odiongan and 1 @.@ 740 MW power barge in San Agustin . The electric cooperative serves a total of 21 @,@ 097 house connections . Romblon Electric Cooperative ( ROMELCO ) supplies the capital town of Romblon through a 1 @.@ 720 MW diesel power plant and a 1 @.@ 30 MW power barge . It also serves Sibuyan Island using a 3 @.@ 006 MW diesel power plant in San Fernando . ROMELCO has 5 @,@ 288 house connections in Romblon and 5 @,@ 150 house connections in the three municipalities located in Sibuyan Island or a total of 10 @,@ 438 house connections in their franchise area . Additionally , ROMELCO installed in 2010 a mini hydro power plant in Cantigas , San Fernando , producing 900 kW of power . Meanwhile , Banton , Concepcion and Corcuera are attended to by the National Power Corporation ( NPC ) thru their municipal governments . = = = Water supply = = = Out of 17 municipalities , 14 have Level III water supply systems serving 18 @,@ 590 households or about 32 @.@ 57 percent of the total provincial households . Level III has a reservoir with house @-@ to @-@ house connections . 5 @,@ 252 households were serviced by Level II water systems and 24 @,@ 700 households by Level I water system . Level I category is a common facility where the community members get their water supply from deep wells and shallow wells , while Level II has a reservoir with communal faucet . Based on the report from the Provincial Health Office in 2007 , a total of 48 @,@ 542 households out of the 57 @,@ 079 or 85 @.@ 04 percent have access to safe drinking water . = = = Telecommunications = = = The province has several operating telecommunication exchanges , namely Kayumanggi , Romblontel , Odiongan Telephone Corporation ( OTELCO ) , the Telecommunication Office ( TELOF ) , telegram system , Liberty Telecom , public calling stations under the DOTC and the Provincial Communication System ( PCS ) radio transceivers and receivers . Smart Communications , Sun Cellular and Globe Telecom already have relay stations in Romblon , Odiongan and Cajidiocan , enabling most areas province @-@ wide connected through cellphones , except on some area where the signal is weak or non @-@ existent because of mountains that block the signal . The Triple Peak in Santa Maria has a relay station for PLDT and Liberty Telecom . = = Media = = There are three radio stations in the province , two of which are operated by the Radyo Natin Network and the other , Charm FM 100 @.@ 5 MHz , by the Polytechnic Foundation of Cotabato and Asia . Radyo Natin Network operates the call sign DZRH at 91 @.@ 3 MHz on AM radio from Looc , as well as the call sign DZVG 101 @.@ 3 MHz on FM radio from Odiongan . As for print media , Romblon Text and Romblon Sun are the two major newspapers circulating in the province , aside from broadsheet and tabloid newspapers from Manila . Romblon News , meanwhile , provides provincial and national news and information via the web and social media . A relay station for GMA Network in Santa Maria allows the province to access television shows broadcast by the network from Manila . There are also existing cable providers and local cable stations operating in several municipalities in the province , namely Romblon Cable Corporation ( Romblon ) , Accutronics System Inc . ( Odiongan ) , San Agustin Cable Antenna Corp. ( San Agustin ) , Countryside Satellite Television System Inc . ( Looc ) , Gateway Cable TV Network ( Calatrava ) , San Andres CATV Service Coop . ( San Andres ) , Josefa J. Martinez CATV Services ( Alcantara ) , Magdiwang Cable Television ( Magdiwang ) , and Sibuyan Cable TV ( San Fernando and Cajidiocan ) . Aside from these cable stations , there are also distributors of direct @-@ to @-@ home ( DTH ) satellite TV such as Cignal Digital TV , Dream Satellite TV , and G Sat who provide television services for its subscribers . = = Education = = The Division of Romblon of the Department of Education ( DepEd ) supervises and oversees the delivery of education and operations of public schools in the province . It is composed of 13 districts , where there are 228 elementary schools , 216 of which are public and 12 are private . Of the 216 public elementary schools , 162 offer preschool education , while 20 of the private schools have the same offering . There are also 10 private preschools offering pre @-@ elementary . For secondary level , a total of 44 schools offer secondary education , of which 37 are public schools and seven are private institutions . There are 13 vocational schools in the province , while tertiary education is offered by privately owned Romblon College and the Romblon State University ( RSU ) , one of the oldest state universities in the Philippines . RSU , which was founded in 1915 , is the oldest agricultural university in the Philippines and has campuses in Romblon , Odiongan , Cajidiocan , Calatrava , San Agustin , San Andres , San Fernando , Santa Fe , and Santa Maria . = = Notable people = = Florante Condes , Filipino professional boxer and a former IBF Minimumweight World Champion . Jose Dalisay , Jr . , writer , poet , playwright and screenwriter who won 16 Palanca Awards Gabriel Fabella , co @-@ founder and first president of the Philippine Historical Association ; Father of June 12 Independence Day ; and sole representative of Romblon in the First National Assembly ( 1935 – 1938 ) . Ephraim Fajutagana , current Obispo Máximo or Supreme Bishop of the Philippine Independent Church . Nicon Fameronag , current undersecretary of the Department of Labor and Employment . Julius Fortuna , student leader and political prisoner in ' 70s during the Marcos regime ; journalist for the Philippine Daily Globe , The Manila Chronicle , The Philippine Post , People 's Journal and The Manila Times . Roilo Golez , member of the Philippine House of Representatives representing the Second District of Parañaque City . N. V. M. Gonzalez , writer , Palanca Award winner , and National Artist for Literature . Elma Muros @-@ Posadas , former track and field athlete who specialized in long jump and won a total of 15 gold medals in several Southeast Asian Games . Rodne Galicha , environmentalist , recipient of national individual award called Gawad Bayani Kalikasan given by the Center for Environmental Concerns and Department of Environment and Natural Resources , currently Philippine country manager of The Climate Reality Project . Nene Tamayo , grand winner of ABS @-@ CBN 's Pinoy Big Brother ( season 1 ) . = Thelephora palmata = Thelephora palmata ( commonly known as the stinking earthfan or the fetid false coral ) is a species of clavarioid fungus in the family Thelephoraceae . The fruit bodies are leathery and coral @-@ like , with branches that are narrow at the base before widening out like a fan and splitting into numerous flattened prongs . The wedge @-@ like tips are whitish when young , but darken as the fungus matures . The common names of the fungus refers to its pungent odor , likened to fetid garlic . A widely distributed but uncommon species , it is found in Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America , where it fruits on the ground in both coniferous and mixed forest . = = Taxonomy = = The species was first described in 1772 by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli , as Clavaria palmata . Elias Fries transferred it to the genus Thelephora in 1821 . The species has several synonyms , resulting from several generic transfers in its taxonomic history , including Ramaria by Johan Theodor Holmskjold in 1790 , Merisma by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1822 , and Phylacteria by Narcisse Théophile Patouillard in 1887 . Other historical synonyms are Merisma foetidum , published by Christian Hendrik Persoon in 1797 , and Pier Andrea Saccardo 's 1888 Clavaria schaefferi . Persoon also published a species with the name Thelephora palmata in 1822 , but because the name was already in use , it is an illegitimate homonym ; this species is now known as Thelephora anthocephala . Despite its coral @-@ like appearance , Thelephora palmata is closely related to some fungi with a distinctly bracket @-@ like appearance , such as T. terrestris and T. caryophyllea . The specific epithet palmata is derived from Latin , and means " having the shape of a hand " . It is known by the common names " stinking earthfan " and " fetid false coral " . Samuel Frederick Gray called it the " stinking branch @-@ ear " in his 1821 work A Natural Arrangement of British Plants . = = Description = = The fruit body of T. palmata is a coral @-@ like tuft that is repeatedly branched from a central stalk , reaching dimensions of 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 – 2 @.@ 6 in ) tall . The branches of the fruit body end in spoon- to fan @-@ shaped tips that are frequently fringed or grooved . The branches of the fruit body are initially whitish in color , but gradually turn gray to lilac @-@ brown in maturity ; the tips , however , remain whitish , or paler than the lower parts . The flesh is tough and leathery . The hymenium ( fertile , spore @-@ bearing tissue ) is amphigenous , that is , it occurs on all surfaces of the fruit body . The odor of the fruit body is quite unpleasant , resembling fetid garlic , " old cabbage water " , or " overripe cheese " . It has been called " a candidate for stinkiest fungus in the forest " . The unpleasant odor intensifies after drying . Fruit bodies are not edible . In deposit , the spores are purple @-@ brown to brown . Viewed with a microscopic , the spores appear purple , angular with lobes , and warted , with fine spines measuring 0 @.@ 5 – 1 @.@ 5 µm long ; the overall dimensions of the elliptic spores are 8 – 12 by 7 – 9 µm . They contain one or two oil drops . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) measure 70 – 100 by 9 – 12 µm , and have sterigmata that are 2 – 4 µm thick by 7 – 12 µm long . The flesh stains deep blue when a drop of potassium hydroxide solution is applied . The fungus contains the pigment thelephoric acid . Thelephora anthocephala is somewhat similar in appearance , but can be distinguished by branches that taper upward , branch tips that are flattened ( instead of spoon @-@ like ) , and the lack of a fetid odor . The North American species T. vialis has smaller spores and a more variable color . Darker Ramaria species are distinguished by their non @-@ leathery flesh texture and pointy branch tips . = = Habitat and distribution = = Thelephora palmata is an ectomycorrhizal species , forming mutualistic associations with conifers . Fruit bodies grow singly , scattered , or in groups on the ground in both coniferous and mixed forest and grassy fields . A preference has been noted for moist ground , and locations along woodland paths . An uncommon species , fruit bodies can be difficult to see because they blend well into their surroundings . The species is found in Asia ( including China , Iran , Japan , Siberia Turkey , and Vietnam ) , Europe , North America , and South America ( Brazil and Colombia ) . It has also been recorded from Australia and Fiji . Fruit bodies are consumed by the springtail species Ceratophysella denisana . = = Uses = = Fruit bodies of Thelephora palmata can be used for mushroom dyeing . Depending on the mordant used , colors ranging from blackish @-@ brown to dark grayish @-@ green to greenish @-@ brown can be obtained from the dyeing process ; without a mordant , a light brown color is produced . = Lutetium = Lutetium is a chemical element with symbol Lu and atomic number 71 . It is a silvery white metal , which resists corrosion in dry , but not in moist air . It is considered the first element of the 6th @-@ period transition metals and the last element in the lanthanide series , and is traditionally counted among the rare earths . Lutetium was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James . All of these men found lutetium as an impurity in the mineral ytterbia , which was previously thought to consist entirely of ytterbium . The dispute on the priority of the discovery occurred shortly after , with Urbain and Welsbach accusing each other of publishing results influenced by the published research of the other ; the naming honor went to Urbain , as he had published his results earlier . He chose the name lutecium for the new element , but in 1949 the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . In 1909 , the priority was finally granted to Urbain and his names were adopted as official ones ; however , the name cassiopeium ( or later cassiopium ) for element 71 proposed by Welsbach was used by many German scientists until the 1950s . Lutetium is not a particularly abundant element , though significantly more common than silver in the earth 's crust ; it has few specific uses . Lutetium @-@ 176 is a relatively abundant ( 2 @.@ 5 % ) radioactive isotope with a half @-@ life of about 38 billion years , and so used to determine the age of meteorites . Lutetium usually occurs in association with the element yttrium and is sometimes used in metal alloys and as a catalyst in various chemical reactions . 177Lu @-@ DOTA @-@ TATE is used for radionuclide therapy ( see Nuclear medicine ) on neuroendocrine tumours . Lutetium has the highest Brinell hardness of any lanthanide , at 890 – 1300 MPa . = = Characteristics = = = = = Physical properties = = = A lutetium atom has 71 electrons , arranged in the configuration [ Xe ] 4f145d16s2 . When entering a chemical reaction , the atom loses its two outermost electrons and the single 5d @-@ electron ; this is unusual since reactions of the other lanthanides invariably involve f @-@ shell electrons . The lutetium atom is the smallest among the lanthanide atoms , due to the lanthanide contraction , and as a result lutetium has the highest density , melting point , and hardness of the lanthanides . Some of these properties can be explained by its position in the d @-@ block , which gives the metal properties of some heavier transition metals . Occasionally , lutetium is classified as a transition metal on this basis , although the IUPAC classifies it as a lanthanide . = = = Chemical properties and compounds = = = Lutetium 's compounds always contain the element in the oxidation state + 3 . Aqueous solutions of most lutetium salts are colorless and form white crystalline solids upon drying , with the common exception of the iodide . The soluble salts , such as nitrate , sulfate and acetate form hydrates upon crystallization . The oxide , hydroxide , fluoride , carbonate , phosphate and oxalate are insoluble in water . Lutetium metal is slightly unstable in air at standard conditions , but it burns readily at 150 ° C to form lutetium oxide . The resulting compound is known to absorb water and carbon dioxide , and may be used to remove vapors of these compounds from closed atmospheres . Similar observations are made during reaction between lutetium and water ( slow when cold and fast when hot ) ; lutetium hydroxide is formed in the reaction . Lutetium metal is known to react with the four lightest halogens to form trihalides ; all of them ( except the fluoride ) are soluble in water . Lutetium dissolves readily in weak acids and dilute sulfuric acid to form solutions containing the colorless lutetium ions , which are coordinated by between seven and nine water molecules , the average being [ Lu ( H2O ) 8 @.@ 2 ] 3 + . 2 Lu + 3 H2SO4 → 2 Lu3 + + 3 SO2 – 4 + 3 H2 ↑ = = = Isotopes = = = Lutetium occurs on the Earth in form of two isotopes : lutetium @-@ 175 and lutetium @-@ 176 . Out of these two , only the former is stable , making the element monoisotopic . The latter one , lutetium @-@ 176 , decays via beta decay with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 78 × 1010 years ; it makes up about 2 @.@ 5 % of natural lutetium . To date , 32 synthetic radioisotopes of the element have been characterized , ranging in mass from 149 @.@ 973 ( lutetium @-@ 150 ) to 183 @.@ 961 ( lutetium @-@ 184 ) ; the most stable such isotopes are lutetium @-@ 174 with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 31 years , and lutetium @-@ 173 with a half @-@ life of 1 @.@ 37 years . All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives that are less than 9 days , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives that are less than half an hour . Isotopes lighter than the stable lutetium @-@ 175 decay via electron capture ( to produce isotopes of ytterbium ) , with some alpha and positron emission ; the heavier isotopes decay primarily via beta decay , producing hafnium isotopes . The element also has 42 nuclear isomers , with masses of 150 , 151 , 153 – 162 , 166 – 180 ( not every mass number corresponds to only one isomer ) . The most stable of them are lutetium @-@ 177m , with half @-@ life of 160 @.@ 4 days and lutetium @-@ 174m , with half @-@ life of 142 days ; this is longer than half @-@ lives of the ground states of all radioactive lutetium isotopes , except only for lutetium @-@ 173 , 174 , and 176 . = = History = = Lutetium , derived from the Latin Lutetia ( Paris ) , was independently discovered in 1907 by French scientist Georges Urbain , Austrian mineralogist Baron Carl Auer von Welsbach , and American chemist Charles James . They found it as an impurity in ytterbia , which was thought by Swiss chemist Jean Charles Galissard de Marignac to consist entirely of ytterbium . The scientists proposed different names for the elements : Urbain chose neoytterbium and lutecium , whereas Welsbach chose aldebaranium and cassiopeium ( after Aldebaran and Cassiopeia ) . Both of these articles accused the other man of publishing results based on those of the author . The International Commission on Atomic Weights , which was then responsible for the attribution of new element names , settled the dispute in 1909 by granting priority to Urbain and adopting his names as official ones , based on the fact that the separation of lutetium from Marignac 's ytterbium was first described by Urbain ; after Urbain 's names were recognized , neoytterbium was reverted to ytterbium . Until the 1950s , some German @-@ speaking chemists called lutetium by Welsbach 's name , cassiopeium ; in 1949 , the spelling of element 71 was changed to lutetium . However , Welsbach 's 1907 samples of lutetium had been pure , while Urbain 's 1907 samples only contained traces of lutetium . This later misled Urbain into thinking that he had discovered element 72 , which he named celtium , which was actually very pure lutetium . Charles James , who stayed out of the priority argument , worked on a much larger scale and possessed the largest supply of lutetium at the time . Pure lutetium metal was first produced in 1953 . = = Occurrence and production = = Found with almost all other rare @-@ earth metals but never by itself , lutetium is very difficult to separate from other elements . The principal commercially viable ore of lutetium is the rare earth phosphate mineral monazite : ( Ce , La , etc . ) PO4 which contains 0 @.@ 0001 % of the element . The abundance of lutetium in the Earth crust is only about 0 @.@ 5 mg / kg . The main mining areas are China , United States , Brazil , India , Sri Lanka and Australia . The world production of lutetium ( in the form of oxide ) is about 10 tonnes per year . Pure lutetium metal is very difficult to prepare . It is one of the rarest and most expensive of the rare earth metals with the price about US $ 10 @,@ 000 per kilogram , or about one @-@ fourth that of gold . Crushed minerals are treated with hot concentrated sulfuric acid to produce water @-@ soluble sulfates of rare earths . Thorium precipitates out of solution as hydroxide and is removed . After that the solution is treated with ammonium oxalate to convert rare earths into their insoluble oxalates . The oxalates are converted to oxides by annealing . The oxides are dissolved in nitric acid that excludes one of the main components , cerium , whose oxide is insoluble in HNO3 . Several rare earth metals , including lutetium , are separated as a double salt with ammonium nitrate by crystallization . Lutetium is separated by ion exchange . In this process , rare @-@ earth ions are sorbed onto suitable ion @-@ exchange resin by exchange with hydrogen , ammonium or cupric ions present in the resin . Lutetium salts are then selectively washed out by suitable complexing agent . Lutetium metal is then obtained by reduction of anhydrous LuCl3 or LuF3 by either an alkali metal or alkaline earth metal . 2 LuCl3 + 3 Ca → 2 Lu + 3 CaCl2 = = Applications = = Because of the rarity and high price , lutetium has very few commercial uses . However , stable lutetium can be used as catalysts in petroleum cracking in refineries and can also be used in alkylation , hydrogenation , and polymerization applications . Lutetium aluminium garnet ( Al5Lu3O12 ) has been proposed for use as a lens material in high refractive index immersion lithography . Additionally , a tiny amount of lutetium is added as a dopant to gadolinium gallium garnet ( GGG ) , which is used in magnetic bubble memory devices . Cerium @-@ doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate ( LSO ) is currently the preferred compound for detectors in positron emission tomography ( PET ) . Lutetium is used as a phosphor in LED light bulbs . Aside from stable lutetium , its radioactive isotopes have several specific uses . The suitable half @-@ life and decay mode made lutetium @-@ 176 used as a pure beta emitter , using lutetium which has been exposed to neutron activation , and in lutetium – hafnium dating to date meteorites . The synthetic isotope lutetium @-@ 177 bound to octreotate ( a somatostatin analogue ) , is used experimentally in targeted radionuclide therapy for neuroendocrine tumors . Indeed , lutetium @-@ 177 is seeing increasing use as a radionuclide , in neuroendrocine tumor therapy and bone pain palliation . Lutetium tantalate ( LuTaO4 ) is the densest known stable white material ( density 9 @.@ 81 g / cm3 ) and therefore is an ideal host for X @-@ ray phosphors . The only denser white material is thorium dioxide , with density of 10 g / cm3 , but the thorium it contains is radioactive . = = Precautions = = Like other rare @-@ earth metals , lutetium is regarded as having a low degree of toxicity , but its compounds should be handled with care nonetheless : for example , lutetium fluoride inhalation is dangerous and the compound irritates skin . Lutetium nitrate may be dangerous as it may explode and burn once heated . Lutetium oxide powder is toxic as well if inhaled or ingested . Similarly to other group 3 elements and lanthanides , lutetium has no known biological role , but it is found even in humans , concentrating in bones , and to a lesser extent in the liver and kidneys . Lutetium salts are known to occur together with other lanthanide salts in nature ; the element is the least abundant in the human body of all lanthanides . Human diets have not been monitored for lutetium content , so it is not known how much the average human takes in , but estimations show the amount is only about several micrograms per year , all coming from tiny amounts taken by plants . Soluble lutetium salts are mildly toxic , but insoluble ones are not . = Tropical Storm Rachel ( 1990 ) = Tropical Storm Rachel was the only tropical cyclone to make landfall during the 1990 Pacific hurricane season . The twenty @-@ fourth tropical depression and eighteenth named storm , Rachel developed on September 27 from a tropical wave southwest of mainland Mexico . After becoming a tropical depression , the system tracked slowly southwestward and eventually curved northwestward . The depression intensified into a tropical storm after three days and was named Rachel by the National Hurricane Center . Rachel continued to steadily strengthen , and peaked as a strong 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) tropical storm on October 2 . After attaining peak intensity , Rachel re @-@ curved to make a landfall in southern Baja California Sur and again in the Mexican Mainland on October 3 . The storm produced heavy rainfall across northern Mexico and the Southwestern United States . Thousands of people were left homeless and 18 fatalities were reported . = = Meteorological history = = The origins of Rachel can be traced back to a tropical wave that moved off the west coast Africa in mid @-@ September 1990 . It moved westward into the Caribbean Sea without significant development . Poorly organized , the wave entered the Eastern Pacific on overnight September 22 . The thunderstorm activity became more concentrated two days later . Dvorak classifications , a technique used to estimate a tropical cyclone 's intensity , began late September 25 . Early on September 27 , the twenty @-@ fourth tropical depression of the season had developed ; however , operationally it was not warned upon until the system was located 540 mi ( 870 km ) south of Baja California Sur on September 30 . Post @-@ analysis later confirm that Rachel was already a minimal tropical storm by that time . Although convection initially remained displaced from the center , Rachel steadily intensified . Early on September 30 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) operationally upgraded the depression into Tropical Storm Rachel . While intensifying , an upper @-@ level trough over California allowed Rachel to re @-@ curve towards Mexico . On October 2 , it reached its peak intensity of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 994 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 35 inHg ) . After maintaining its intensity for 24 hours , Rachel made landfall at peak intensity near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Strong wind shear prevented additional intensification , despite moving into the warm waters of the Gulf of California . After weakening slightly , Rachel made a second landfall midway between Las Mochis and Culiacán . Upon moving inland , the system rapidly weakened as the forward speed increased . Rachel dissipated several hours later on October 3 . By that time , the winds had decreased to 30 mph ( 45 km / h ) . The remnants of Rachel entered the United States , and were last noted over Texas . = = Preparations and impact = = Prior to the arrival of Rachel , the Mexican government issued a tropical storm watch for southern Baja California Sur , encompassing areas south of La Paz on October 1 . As Rachel moved closer to the area , the watch was replaced with a tropical storm warning . In the mainland , a tropical storm watch was issued for the state of Sinaloa south of Los Mmochis . Six hours later , the watches was replaced with a tropical storm warning . By the end of October 2 , all the watches and warnings were discontinued . The two highest rainfall totals were 9 @.@ 85 in ( 250 mm ) and 6 @.@ 5 in ( 170 mm ) at Santa Anita and San Jose Del Cobe , near the southern tip of Baja California Sur . Two weather stations in Mexico reported barometric pressure of 1005 and 1006 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 68 and 29 @.@ 71 inHg ) during the passage of Rachel . In all , precipitation was measured at 996 different places across the country . Throughout northern Mexico , significant flooding was reported with the worst effects felt in the states of Nuevo Leon , Coahuila and Durango . Thousands were homeless , and 18 people died . In Monterrey , rescue workers freed dozens of trapped people . The moisture associated with the Rachel and a cold front produced rainfall in Arizona , New Mexico , and western Texas , while it was located southwest of Baja California Sur . After Rachel had dropped heavy rains , a flash flood watch was issued for several counties in New Mexico on October 1 , where rainfall had reportedly been 2 in ( 51 mm ) since the last day of September . The remnants of the storm produced additional precipitation across the state . Heavy rains fell on almost all of western Texas , and a flash flood warning had been issued after some areas experienced rainfall over 1 in ( 25 mm ) . With heavy rains falling in the western portion of Texas , some roads were washed out , especially in Big Bend National Park and Lubbock ; several car accidents were also reported on the roads . Several locations in Texas measured at least 0 @.@ 5 in ( 13 mm ) of rain , and the highest amount of rainfall was 1 @.@ 5 in ( 38 mm ) in Lubbock . = Batman Returns = Batman Returns is a 1992 American superhero film , directed and produced by Tim Burton , based on the DC Comics character Batman . It is the second installment of Warner Bros. ' initial Batman film series , with Michael Keaton reprising the title role of Bruce Wayne / Batman . The film introduces the characters of Max Shreck ( Christopher Walken ) , a business tycoon who teams up with the Penguin ( Danny DeVito ) to take over Gotham City , as well as the character of Catwoman ( Michelle Pfeiffer ) . Burton originally did not want to direct another Batman film because of his mixed emotions toward the previous film in 1989 . Warner Bros. developed a script with writer Sam Hamm which had the Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure . Burton agreed to return after they granted him more creative control and replaced Hamm with Daniel Waters . Wesley Strick did an uncredited rewrite , removing the characters of Harvey Dent and Robin and rewriting the climax . Annette Bening was originally cast as Catwoman but became pregnant and was replaced with Pfeiffer . Filming for Batman Returns started in June 1991 at Warner Bros. Studios in Burbank , California . Batman Returns was released on June 19 , 1992 . The film was nominated for Academy Awards for Best Visual Effects and Best Makeup , as well as two BAFTA awards . Batman Returns 's budget was an estimated $ 65 million , grossing $ 266 @,@ 822 @,@ 354 worldwide , making the film a financial success . Warner Bros. , however , was disappointed as it was still substantially less than the first film . Burton was asked to restrict himself to the role of producer for the third film , Batman Forever , which led to Keaton vacating the role of Batman . = = Plot = = Tucker and Esther Cobblepot throw their deformed infant child into Gotham River , fearing he would become a menace to society after attacking their pet cat . The child 's crib floats to an abandoned zoo and is found by a flock of penguins who raise him as one of their own . 33 years later , during the lighting of Gotham City 's Christmas tree , a villainous gang of carnival performers stage a riot . While Batman subdues the criminals , corrupt businessman Max Shreck is abducted and brought to the underground lair of the grotesque crime boss known as The Penguin . A former sideshow freak , The Penguin explains his desire to become a respected citizen of Gotham and blackmails Shreck into helping him . Meanwhile , Shreck 's mousy secretary , Selina Kyle , inadvertently discovers her boss 's plan to illegally monopolize Gotham 's supply of electricity . To protect his secrets , Shreck pushes her out of his office window . Falling through several canopies , Selina miraculously survives but lies unconscious in an alley . A group of cats swarm around her , and while attempting to eat her , they revive her . Traumatized , Selina develops dissociative identity disorder and , after trashing her apartment , she fashions a black vinyl costume and whip , becoming the formidable Catwoman . Shreck arranges for one of Penguin 's men to kidnap the Mayor 's infant son , allowing the Penguin to " rescue " him . As a reward , the Penguin is given access to the Gotham City Archives , where he learns his real name , Oswald Cobblepot , and that he is the last surviving member of his family . Meanwhile , the Mayor , persuaded by billionaire Bruce Wayne , refuses to give Shreck a construction permit for his power plant . The Penguin orders his gang to attack downtown Gotham , ruining the Mayor 's reputation and giving Shreck the opportunity to propose Penguin as a replacement . Batman confronts the Penguin , but Catwoman appears while firebombing Shreck 's department store , and Penguin escapes . After a fight in which Batman knocks her off a building , Catwoman survives by landing in a sand truck . Catwoman agrees to help Penguin with a plan to discredit Batman by framing him for the abduction of Gotham 's " Ice Princess " beauty queen . Distracted by Catwoman , Batman is unable to stop Penguin from murdering the Princess using a swarm of captive bats . When Catwoman rejects the Penguin 's amorous advances , he tries to kill her using his motorized helicopter umbrella . As the umbrella takes her up into the sky , Catwoman narrowly cheats death again as she falls into a rooftop greenhouse . Fleeing from the police , Batman realizes that the Penguin is remotely controlling the Batmobile , taking it on a rampage through Gotham . Batman disables the control device , but not before recording the Penguin 's mocking insults about how gullible the people of Gotham are . At a press conference for Penguin organized by Shreck , Batman broadcasts the recording , destroying the Penguin 's public image . Enraged , the Penguin flees to the sewers and orders his gang to kidnap all of the first born sons of Gotham 's citizens . At a masquerade ball hosted by Shreck , Bruce and Selina deduce each other 's secret identities . The Penguin invades the party and reveals his intention to drown the kidnapped children , including Shreck 's son Chip , prompting Shreck to offer himself instead . Batman defeats the kidnappers , forcing Penguin to unleash an army of penguin soldiers to destroy Gotham with missiles . Piloting the Batboat through the sewers , Batman redirects the penguins to instead fire on Penguin 's hideout . The Penguin attacks Batman in a rage , but ends up falling through the ceiling of his lair . Catwoman ambushes Shreck to kill him , but Batman stops her and unmasks himself . Before Bruce can reason with her , Shreck shoots him and Selina , but runs out of bullets . Putting a taser to her lips , she kisses Shreck while grabbing hold of an exposed power cable , causing a fiery explosion . Bruce digs though the rubble but finds only Shreck 's charred corpse . Mortally injured , the Penguin tries to take his umbrella to kill Batman , but collapses dead before he can finish . His penguin family carries out a makeshift funeral , pushing his body into the water . Afterwards , as Alfred drives Bruce home , Bruce spots a shadow outside . He finds a stray black cat and decides to take it home . As he leaves , the Bat @-@ Signal lights up in the night sky as Catwoman watches from afar . = = Cast = = Michael Keaton as Batman / Bruce Wayne Danny DeVito as The Penguin / Oswald Cobblepot Michelle Pfeiffer as Catwoman / Selina Kyle Christopher Walken as Max Shreck Michael Gough as Alfred Pennyworth Pat Hingle as Commissioner James Gordon Michael Murphy as Mayor of Gotham City Vincent Schiavelli as The Organ Grinder Andrew Bryniarski as Chip Shreck Cristi Conaway as The Ice Princess Rick Zumwalt as The Tattooed Strongman Anna Katarina as The Poodle Lady Paul Reubens as Tucker Cobblepot ( Penguin 's Father ) Diane Salinger as Esther Cobblepot ( Penguin 's Mother ) = = Production = = = = = Development = = = After the success of Batman , Warner Bros. was hoping for a sequel to start filming in May 1990 at Pinewood Studios . They spent $ 250 @,@ 000 storing the sets from the first film . Tim Burton had mixed emotions about directing another film in the franchise after his experiences with the previous film . " I will return if the sequel offers something new and exciting " , he said in 1989 . " Otherwise it 's a most @-@ dumbfounded idea . " Burton decided to direct Edward Scissorhands for 20th Century Fox . Meanwhile , Sam Hamm from the previous film delivered the first two drafts of the script , while Bob Kane was brought back as a creative consultant . Hamm 's script had Penguin and Catwoman going after hidden treasure . Burton was impressed with Daniel Waters ' work on Heathers ; Burton originally brought Waters aboard on a sequel to Beetlejuice . Warner Bros. then granted Burton a large amount of creative control , demoting producers Jon Peters and Peter Guber to executive producers . Dissatisfied with the Hamm script , Burton commissioned a rewrite from Waters . Waters " came up with a social satire that had an evil mogul backing a bid for the Mayor 's office by the Penguin " , Waters reported . " I wanted to show that the true villains of our world don 't necessarily wear costumes . " The subplot of Penguin running for Mayor came from the 1960s TV series episodes " Hizzoner the Penguin " and " Dizzoner the Penguin " . Waters wrote a total of five drafts . On the characterization of Catwoman , Waters explained " Sam Hamm went back	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt
reaches the community of Yorklyn , where it turns southwest briefly . After making a turn to the northwest to continue on Creek Road , DE 82 continues north alongside the Red Clay Creek with the Wilmington and Western Railroad heading to the southwest . A short distance past Yorklyn , the route reaches the Pennsylvania border , where it becomes PA 82 and continues toward Kennett Square , Pennsylvania . The entire length of DE 82 is a part of the Red Clay Scenic Byway , a designation given to several roads in the Red Clay Creek valley . The Red Clay Scenic Byway is a part of the Delaware Byways system . DE 82 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 4 @,@ 682 vehicles at the southern terminus at DE 52 to a low of 197 vehicles at Mt . Cuba Road . None of DE 82 is part of the National Highway System . = = History = = When Delaware started numbering state highways in the 1930s , what is now DE 82 was originally an unnumbered road . By 1952 , DE 82 was created on its current alignment to connect PA 82 to DE 52 near Greenville . DE 82 was incorporated into the Red Clay Scenic Byway , the second scenic byway in Delaware , in 2005 . In 2010 , DelDOT considered removing the DE 82 designation in order to preserve the route as a scenic byway . After a public workshop on the proposed designation removal was held , DelDOT decided in April 2010 to keep the DE 82 designation due to strong opposition from area residents on the plan . = = Major intersections = = Mileposts run from north to south . The entire route is in New Castle County . = Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( West Virginia lawyer ) = Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy ( January 17 , 1886 – May 17 , 1961 ) was an American lawyer and politician in the U.S. state of West Virginia . He was a prominent lawyer in Charleston , where he practiced law for over 50 years . Born in Romney in 1886 , Flournoy was the son of West Virginia State Senator Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . Flournoy was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White . He was also a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . Flournoy relocated with his family to Charleston in 1890 during his father 's second West Virginia Senate term . Flournoy was educated at Fishburne Military School , Hampden – Sydney College , and West Virginia University College of Law . He was admitted to the Kanawha County bar in 1911 and at various times during his law career , Flournoy was appointed special master , arbitrator , or commissioner for several high @-@ profile court cases . In 1935 , Flournoy was an unsuccessful Democratic candidate for an at @-@ large seat on the Charleston City Council . In 1937 , Flournoy was selected by Governor Homer A. Holt as a member of the Charleston Civil Service Board , which regulated the appointments of police and fire personnel . Flournoy served as an incorporator of the New Homes Corporation of Charleston in 1931 and was later president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation . He was involved in the establishment of a local mortgage business association in 1952 . Flournoy died in Charleston in 1961 . = = Early life and education = = Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy was born on January 7 , 1886 , in Romney , West Virginia . He was the son of West Virginia State Senator Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy and his wife Frances " Fannie " Ann Armstrong White . Through his mother , Flournoy was a grandson of Hampshire County Clerk of Court John Baker White and a nephew of West Virginia Attorney General Robert White and West Virginia Fish Commission President Christian Streit White . Through his father , he was a relative of Thomas Flournoy , United States Representative from Virginia . Flournoy was of English and French ancestry through his father , and of Scottish and Swiss ancestry through his mother . In 1890 , during his father 's second term in the West Virginia Senate , Flournoy and his family relocated from Romney to Charleston , where his father continued practicing law after his resignation from the senate . Flournoy received his primary education at Fishburne Military School in Waynesboro , Virginia . Following his graduation from the military school , he received his secondary education at his father 's alma mater Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , and went on to study jurisprudence at the West Virginia University College of Law in Morgantown , West Virginia . Flournoy was a member of the Chi Phi fraternity . = = Career = = = = = Law career = = = Flournoy became a member of the Kanawha County bar in 1911 and commenced the practice of law in Charleston . Flournoy was a partner in the Charleston law firm of Flournoy and Porter , where he practiced law for over 50 years . At various times during his law career , Flournoy was appointed special master , arbitrator , or commissioner for several high @-@ profile court cases . In 1932 , Flournoy was appointed special master in a suit involving the estate of Mercy J. Keller , the widow of Benjamin Franklin Keller , a judge for the United States District Court for the Southern District of West Virginia . Flournoy authored a report allowing for the distribution of funds to Keller 's heirs and beneficiaries from Charleston National Bank . In December 1932 , Flournoy provided mediation for several business and home owners who sued the city of Charleston over the widening of Virginia Street between Summers and Capitol Streets . He was unable to attend one of the lawsuit mediation conferences due to an ankle injury . In addition to his role as a special master and mediator , Flournoy was also selected to serve as a special commissioner in several Charleston lawsuits . Flournoy continued to expand his law practice by winning large contracts . In March 1933 , he offered the lowest bid of $ 3 @,@ 745 for a contract that supplied certificates of land title in Kanawha and Fayette counties within the Huntington federal engineering district . The lands within the federal engineering district were to be utilized by the Federal government for river work . = = = Political career = = = In 1935 , Flournoy was a West Virginia Democratic Party candidate for an at @-@ large seat on the Charleston City Council . Flournoy actively campaigned for the at @-@ large seat , and spoke to several local organizations , including the First Ward Negro Democratic Club and Beck 's Mission on Charleston 's West Side . Flournoy was ultimately unsuccessful in his bid for election to the at @-@ large city council seat . During a controversial re @-@ indexing of Kanawha County records by Works Progress Administration officials in 1935 and 1936 , Flournoy served as chairman of the Charleston Bar Association 's Re @-@ Indexing Committee , which completed an independent investigation of the re @-@ indexing progress , as ordered by the bar association 's executive committee . Under Flournoy 's leadership , the committee completed its review in January 1936 . In 1937 , Flournoy was appointed by West Virginia Governor Homer A. Holt as an at @-@ large member of Charleston 's Civil Service Board , which had been empowered by an act of the West Virginia Legislature to regulate the appointment of police and fire personnel in Charleston . While serving on the board , Flournoy was its president and spokesperson . = = = Business career = = = On July 14 , 1931 , Flournoy was an incorporator of the New Homes Corporation of Charleston , a building and construction firm , which was headquartered in the Davidson Building and was chartered with a capital stock value of $ 50 @,@ 000 . Flournoy was later president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation of Charleston . In his role as president of the Mortgage Exchange Corporation , Flournoy was involved in the establishment of a local association of mortgage businesspeople in February 1952 . Flournoy was named by the association as one of three men appointed to the by @-@ laws committee . = = Later life and death = = At the time of his appointment to the Charleston Civil Services Board , Flournoy resided at 8 California Avenue near the West Virginia Capitol Complex in Charleston . He later relocated to 4100 Kanawha Avenue SE in Charleston 's Kanawha City neighborhood , where he resided at the time of his death . Flournoy died of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis at the age of 75 on May 17 , 1961 , at Kanawha Valley Memorial Hospital in Charleston following a prolonged illness . He was survived by his wife , his son , and his sister Frances Flournoy Preston . Flournoy 's funeral services were held at the Barlow @-@ Bonsall Funeral Home and his family requested that memorial donations be made to Marmet Hospital in his honor . He was interred at Spring Hill Cemetery in Charleston on May 19 , 1961 . At the opening of the September 1961 term of the Kanawha County Circuit Court , Flournoy was eulogized by Kanawha County Bar Association member Roy M. Sams . = = Personal life = = Flournoy married Sarah Katharine Cotton in Charleston in 1913 . He and Katharine had two children , one son and one daughter : Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy , Jr . ( March 23 , 1924 – December 27 , 2014 ) , married Virginia McManaway Cox of Thaxton , Virginia on June 14 , 1964 Nancy Margaret Cotton Flournoy Moore , married Webster Hamilton Moore of Greensboro , North Carolina , on December 3 , 1949 Flournoy was a practicing Presbyterian and was a member of the Ruffner Memorial Presbyterian Church in Charleston . = History of cardistry = Cardistry is a portmanteau of cards and artistry . The art form of card flourishing , commonly referred to as cardistry , grew out of simple flourishes used in close @-@ up magic by magicians in the 1990s to early 2000s . Chris Kenner 's notable two @-@ handed Sybil cut from his 1992 publication Totally Out of Control has carried great influence and gave birth to a series of advanced flourishes which today represents the foundation of the performance art . Sleight of hand pioneers Dan and Dave popularized cardistry on the world stage with their instructional DVD releases from 2004 and 2007 . Journalist Kevin Pang of Vanity Fair characterized the art of card flourishing as , " It 's yo @-@ yo tricks performed by cardsharps with the street cred of a Parkour video . There 's a name for it : cardistry . " = = Roots in magic = = When conjuring tricks with playing cards became popular around the 19th century , magicians would often include card flourishes in their performances to demonstrate their sleight of hand abilities . Unlike tricks , flourishes were intended to be visually impressive and appear difficult to perform . Some of the first flourishes to be documented include the Charlier Cut , Riffle Shuffle and Thumb Fan . Several sleight of hand bestsellers , such as S. W. Erdnase 's The Expert at the Card Table from 1902 ( which shared roots in gambling and cheating at cards ) , emphasized the importance of incorporating flourishes into tricks . Up until the 2000s , card flourishing were considered a mere subsection of close @-@ up magic and not an independent performance art . Cardistry is a portmanteau of " card " and " artistry " . It involves the use of hands to create cuts , displays , fans , patterns and sequences through the use of playing cards . Various armspreads , cuts , shuffles and springs can be used . The intent is to create a captivating motion and beautiful display . The effects are limited only by the types of cars used , the imagination , and the degree of manual dexterity of the performer . The presentation is typically neither " illusionary " nor purportedly " magic " . At least in part , the color and form of cards affect visual perceptions of the act . The visual style of the art form is often associated or compared to juggling , hackey @-@ sack , mimes and even skateboarding . = = Five Faces of Sybil = = In 1992 , American magician and David Copperfield producer Chris Kenner published Totally Out of Control , a successful instructional book explaining magic effects with playing cards and other household objects . Among the many sleights featured was a two @-@ handed card flourish on page 125 called " The Five Faces of Sybil " . Using all fingers , Sybil ends with the deck divided into five distinct packets . Kenner himself describes Sybil in his book as " a quick cut flourish to demonstrate skill and dexterity " . The flourish spawned a cycle of two @-@ handed cut creations and formed the cornerstone of what is now known as cardistry . Journalist Kevin Pang of Vanity Fair magazine noted that " every cardist can deftly perform Sybil the way guitarists can run through a blues progression " . = = An art form = = Los Angeles @-@ based magician Brian Tudor was one of many performers heavily influenced by Sybil . In 1997 , he released a three @-@ volume VHS tape dubbed Show Off , one of the first instructional products made by a known magician to only feature flourishes . Tudor 's tape was well received , with some critics describing the flourishes and cuts taught as " eye @-@ popping " . The most notable invention from Show Off was the one @-@ handed Revolution Cut , a variation of the common Charlier , where the top packet spins an additional 180 degrees . In 2001 , twin brothers and Sybil enthusiast Daniel and David Buck ( known as Dan and Dave ) released Pasteboard Animations , another flourish @-@ only instructional VHS tape . Although produced as a low @-@ fi home video and relatively short compared to Show Off , it sold hundreds of copies at hotel lobbies and magic conventions at a cost of $ 25 . In a Genii magazine review of the Magic Live convention in August 2001 , the twins flourishes and Pasteboard Animations tape received mixed responses . Renowned magic historian Jamy Ian Swiss remarked : " It was an excellent show , though opinion was definitely mixed about the Buck boys , who sat and stared at their hands while oddly racing through flourishes . It serves no function except as eye candy . It 's juggling , and juggling and magic are two separate things . Nevertheless , it 's fucking cool to watch . Cool is cool is cool , capital C cool . And magic is traditionally uncool . It 's always been the geeky kids . " In spite of the mixed responses from the traditional magic scene , Dan and Dave continued with their cardistry creations . In 2004 , with the help of Kenner , the twins released an instructional DVD on cardistry named The Dan and Dave System . The System is perceived as having officially separated advanced card flourishing from card magic and defined the style of cardistry . Filmed with digital movie cameras at film studios and professional edited , the critically praised $ 30 DVD inspired thousands of sleight of hand artists all over the world to embark on cardistry . Four years later , the twins released a three @-@ disc DVD set known as The Trilogy , showcasing some of the most comprehensive and difficult flourishes ever created . Retailing at $ 85 per copy , The Trilogy is the bestselling cardistry release of all time , having sold more than 25 @,@ 000 units . Pang wrote that just about every cardist lists either the System or The Trilogy as the reason they got into card flourishing . In a 2015 interview , Singaporean cardist Kevin Ho mentioned that cardistry grew in popularity during the 2000s because of promotion through social media and journalistic coverage . Another cardist from Singapore , Huron Low , explained : " A lot of new doors are opening . Earphone companies and watch companies want to see product placements [ in our videos ] . And there 's a lot of focus now on cardistry as a lifestyle brand — caps , T @-@ shirts . " = = Cardistry convention = = In response to the growing cardistry community , Dan and Dave organized the first cardistry convention and interactive conference to promote the performance art in 2014 , called Cardistry @-@ Con. The convention saw interviews , panel discussions , live performances , exclusive video screenings , workshops , contests and giveaways . The 2015 convention was attended by journalists from magazines such as Vanity Fair and Wired as well as television stations , all of which helped further popularize cardistry as an art . Its growth has been associated with its availability with the availability of videos , lessons and podcasts , which tend to make the art more transparent and available to all who are interested . = = Tools = = Decks of playing cards are an essential part of the cardist 's tools . Ordinary playing cards will do . However , they are not fungible goods ; and some have the opinion that those chosen should be particularly adapted to the task , even though they can be rare and relatively expensive – flexibility , stickiness , colors and decorations ( both front and back ) vary . However , older grimier cards , sometimes called " poop decks " , are preferred by others . = = Gender imbalance = = It is no secret that cardistry , like magic generally , is populated mainly by males . Some have observed that the split is roughly 9 to 1 , male @-@ to @-@ female . The reasons and remedies , if any , are subject to dispute . = = List of notable practitioners or creators = = = Zero Patience = Zero Patience is a 1993 Canadian musical film written and directed by John Greyson . The film examines and refutes the urban legend of the alleged introduction of HIV to North America by a single individual , Gaëtan Dugas . Dugas , better known as Patient Zero , was tagged in the popular imagination with the blame in large measure because of Randy Shilts 's history of the early days of the AIDS epidemic , And the Band Played On . The film tells its story against the backdrop of a romance between a time @-@ displaced Sir Richard Francis Burton and the ghost of " Zero " ( the character is not identified by Dugas ' name ) . Produced in partnership with the Canadian Film Centre , the Canada Council , Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation , Zero Patience opened to mixed reviews but went on to win a number of prestigious Canadian film awards . The film has been the subject of critical attention in the context of both film theory and queer theory and is considered part of the informal New Queer Cinema movement . = = Plot summary = = Victorian adventurer and sexologist Sir Richard Francis Burton ( John Robinson ) , following an " unfortunate encounter " with the Fountain of Youth in 1892 , is 170 years old and living in Toronto , Canada . Burton , now living and working as the chief taxidermist at a Museum of Natural History , is searching for a centerpiece display for an exhibit in his Hall of Contagion . He comes up with the idea of featuring AIDS and the Patient Zero hypothesis . Accepting the popular belief that Zero introduced the virus to North America , Burton sets out to collect video footage from those who knew Zero to support the hypothesis . When Zero 's doctor ( Brenda Kamino ) , mother ( Charlotte Boisjoli ) and former airline colleague Mary ( Dianne Heatherington ) , who is now with ACT UP , all refuse to demonize Zero , Burton manipulates the footage to make it appear as if they do and includes doctored photographs of Zero showing signs of Kaposi 's sarcoma . He presents this preliminary version to the press . The ghost of Zero ( Normand Fauteux ) materializes at a local gay bathhouse . No one can see or hear him , until Zero runs into Burton while Burton is spying on Zero 's friend George . Zero realizes that Burton can see him , although Zero does not show up on Burton 's video camera . The two strike a deal ; Zero agrees to help Burton with his Patient Zero exhibit if Burton finds a way to make Zero appear . The two return to the museum where Burton makes a ridiculous attempt to seduce Zero to ensure his participation . Rejecting his advances , Zero examines some of the other exhibits ( including displays on Typhoid Mary and the Tuskegee syphilis study ) before finding an African green monkey , another suspected early AIDS vector . The monkey ( Marla Lukofsky ) angrily denounces Zero for scapegoating her just as he has been scapegoated . Zero turns to Burton and they make love . Under pressure from his director and the exhibit 's drug manufacturer sponsor , Burton steals Zero 's medical records in hopes of discovering new information . Zero and Burton examine an old blood sample of Zero 's under a microscope and discover Miss HIV ( Michael Callen ) , who points out that the original study that was used to label Patient Zero as the first person to bring HIV to North America did not prove any such thing , but instead helped prove that HIV was sexually transmitted , leading to the development of safer sex practices . Under this interpretation , Zero could be lauded as a hero for his candor in participating in that original study . As Burton ponders this , an unknown fluid squirts from the eye pieces of the microscope , drenching Zero and making him appear on video . He joyously declares his innocence on tape but the effect only lasts five minutes before he fades away again . Zero angrily accuses Burton of not caring for him at all and only wanting to use him for the exhibit , then storms out . Burton fails to complete the revised Patient Zero exhibit before its scheduled opening date . The museum curator substitutes the original presentation instead over Burton 's protests , leading to a renewed rush of press scapegoating Zero . The night after the exhibit opens , Mary and other ACT UP members break into the Hall of Contagion and trash the exhibit . Zero returns and Burton explains that he tried to stop the exhibit . Zero forgives Burton but says he wants to disappear again completely . Zero merges with his disfigured video image and , smoking a cigarette inside the video , sets off the fire alarm . The sprinklers destroy the video player and Zero vanishes . A major subplot involves George ( Richardo Keens @-@ Douglas ) , a French teacher and former intimate of Zero 's . George is losing his sight to cytomegalovirus and is taking a drug that is manufactured by a company that , as a member of ACT UP , George is protesting . George struggles through the film to resolve his conflicted feelings over this , his guilt over abandoning Zero during the final days of his illness and his fear that the same thing will happen to him . = = Cast = = John Robinson as Sir Richard Burton Normand Fauteux as Zero Dianne Heatherington as Mary Richardo Keens @-@ Douglas as George Charlotte Boisjoli as Maman , Zero 's mother Brenda Kamino as Dr. Cheng , Zero 's doctor Michael Callen as Miss HIV Marla Lukofsky as African Green Monkey Von Flores as Ray ( ACT UP member ) Scott Hurst as Michael ( ACT UP member ) Duncan McIntosh as Ross ( ACT UP member ) Real @-@ life television journalist Ann Medina has a brief role as a television reporter . Co @-@ producer Louise Garfield makes a cameo appearance playing a virus , co @-@ producer Anna Stratton appears as a drug company executive and composer Glenn Schellenberg plays a bathhouse attendant . = = Production = = John Greyson became interested in offering a counterpoint to the Patient Zero story as early as 1987 , when the Patient Zero meme began entering the public consciousness following the publication of Randy Shilts 's book And the Band Played On . The book described the cluster study which led to the popular identification of flight attendant Gaëtan Dugas as the vector through which HIV was first brought to North America . It should be noted , however , that Shilts himself never claimed that Dugas was the first . In early 1991 Greyson was given a development grant for the script from the Canadian Film Centre , of which Greyson is an alumnus . Over the next year Greyson , in collaboration with Film Centre partners Louise Garfield and Anna Stratton , continued to develop the script , eventually presenting it with producer Alexandra Raffé in a workshop format . During the first half of 1992 , the production team secured additional development funding from the Canada Council , Telefilm Canada and the Ontario Film Development Corporation . By June of that year the script and the songs were completed and that autumn , with funds from the Telefilm Canada and OFDC grants along with revenue from the sale of British broadcast rights to Channel 4 , pre @-@ production and casting got underway . Principal photography began in November 1992 and wrapped after five weeks . Sneak previews took place at the Seattle International Film Festival and a number of LGBT film festivals across the United States before its official debut in September 1993 at Toronto 's Festival of Festivals . In dedicating the film 's soundtrack album to performer and AIDS activist Michael Callen and other friends they had lost to the disease , Greyson , composer Glenn Schellenberg and producers Garfield and Stratton explained their reasons for making the film . " We wanted to explode the opportunistic myth of Patient Zero .... More importantly , we wanted to celebrate the courage and sass of an international AIDS activist movement that has tirelessly fought for the rights of people living with AIDS . " = = Critical reception = = Zero Patience garnered mixed critical reaction . The mainstream Austin Chronicle cited a " murky plot , frequently weak acting and often mediocre music " while still praising the film 's " spunk , humor , enthusiasm and wit . " The Washington Post compared Zero Patience unfavorably to Hollywood 's big @-@ budget , big @-@ star AIDS @-@ themed film , Philadelphia , claiming that the latter 's protagonist , Andrew Beckett , " looked sick , dealt with his illness and allowed the audience to sympathize , " unlike the " healthy hoofers " of the musical who , because they didn 't look sick enough , " [ seem ] to deny some of the grim realities " of the disease . In a contrary favorable opinion , London 's Time Out Film Guide praised the film for " slyly inverting popular wisdom " to " offer a sassy commentary on the epidemic of blame " and calling Zero Patience " a film which engages your mind as much as your heart , and leaves you laughing . " Similarly , The New York Times lauded the film 's " loopy buoyancy , " praising the songs as a " bouncy stylistic hybrid of Gilbert and Sullivan , Ringo Starr , The Kinks and the Pet Shop Boys . " Zero Patience was honored as the Best Canadian Film and Best Ontario Feature at the 1993 Cinéfest and was awarded a Special Jury Citation as Best Canadian Feature Film at the 1993 Festival of Festivals . Greyson dedicated his award to the memory of Jay Scott , the influential film critic who had died of AIDS a few months earlier . Director Greyson and composer Glenn Schellenberg were nominated for a 1993 Genie Award for Best Original Song for the film 's theme song , " Zero Patience . " = = = Queer theory = = = In examining the film from a queer theory perspective , author Michele Aaron cites Zero Patience as definitional of one of the New Queer Cinema 's central attitudes , the " def [ iance ] of cinematic convention in terms of form , content and genre . " Aaron goes on to cite the film 's musical format as " further subvert [ ing ] the ways we might expect to be ' entertained ' by such serious matters as AIDS , media representation , and the legacy of moralism and sexuality . " Feminist academic and AIDS video producer Alexandra Juhasz puts forth the film as " an effective critique of the silly sensationalism used in much reportage of AIDS science [ that ] fights melodrama and tabloid journalism -- with melodrama and tabloid journalism . " Not all such critical commentary has been positive , with openly gay film scholar Robin Wood ( who saw the film when someone very close to him was in the final stages of AIDS ) calling the film " misguided on the levels both of conception and execution . " = = Soundtrack = = The Zero Patience soundtrack was released in 1994 . Produced by John Switzer , it includes all of the songs and several pieces of incidental music , along with two remixes of the film 's title song . = = = Track listing = = = Zero Patience [ Moulton Lava Club Remix ] Arabian Nights - Instrumental Just Like Scheherazade - Zero Culture of Certainty - Richard Burton Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner - Bathhouse trio Control - Mary and ACT UP George 's Theme - Instrumental Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner [ Reprise # 1 ] - Bathhouse trio Butthole Duet - Richard Burton and Zero Positive - George and schoolchildren Drowning Sailors ' Theme - Instrumental Love Theme - Instrumental Contagious - African Green Monkey Pop @-@ A @-@ Boner [ Reprise # 2 ] - Bathhouse trio Scheherazade ( Miss HIV ) - Miss HIV Six or Seven Things - Richard Burton and Zero Zero Patience - Principal cast Scheherazade ( Tell a Story ) - Principal cast Zero Patience [ Extended Burn Remix ] = Cat Daddy = " Cat Daddy " is a 2011 song by American Hip hop group The Rej3ctz . It is based on a dance of the same name and is from the 2010 mixtape TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback . " Cat Daddy " was a MTV Jams " Jam Of The Week " in January 2011 . It was released for digital download on February 16 , 2011 on iTunes and subsequently charted on several Billboard charts , including the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart , where it spent fourteen weeks and eventually peaked at number 77 , after being re @-@ released on June 27 , 2011 . Chris Brown performed the Cat Daddy dance during the 106 & Park 10th Anniversary special in October 2010 . Brown was the featured dance performer on the song 's official video , which as of November 12 , 2015 has over 99 million YouTube views . A Cat Daddy 2 @.@ 0 video by Mario Van Peebles preceded the re @-@ release of the song and was associated with the movie We the Party . Several notable celebrities have been filmed doing the dance , including Justin Bieber and Selena Gomez . The dance is described as a combination of buckling a seatbelt and rolling a wheelchair . The song and dance became a viral video in May 2012 when then @-@ current Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue cover model Kate Upton posted a video of her bikini @-@ clad rendition of the dance on YouTube , causing YouTube to temporarily ban the video . The propriety of the YouTube ban was hotly debated with articles in many top @-@ tier publications including the Los Angeles Times , The Washington Post and the Daily News as well as leading news services such as ABC News and Fox News . Her video has about 25 @.@ 7 million YouTube views , as of November 12 , 2015 . = = Release = = The " Cat Daddy " dance was originated by The Rej3ctz group member Reject Sam before the group linked it to the song . The song came from a 2010 mixtape entitled TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback , which is sometimes just referred to as The FUNKtion . In late 2010 and 2011 , Chris Brown popularized the Cat Daddy dance after performing it in the official video . On October 6 , 2010 , Brown performed the Cat Daddy on 106 & Park for their 10 @-@ year anniversary show . Then , the Rej3ctz released a video of the song , featuring Brown dancing , that was produced at Venice Beach on or before August 2010 . The song was released February 16 , 2011 as a music download on iTunes . According to Thomas Clayton of The Daily Rind , the song had 14 @,@ 000 downloads on iTunes in its first week and the video had 9 million pageviews at the time . By April 20 , 2011 , the official video had 21 million pageviews . As of November 12 , 2015 the original December 2 , 2010 upload of the official video has over 81 @.@ 9 million YouTube views , while an alternate March 9 , 2011 upload of the video has an additional 17 @.@ 4 million plus views . In April 2011 , Mario Van Peebles produced a " Cat Daddy 2 @.@ 0 " video that included appearances of several artist playing parody roles of themselves like actor and singer Quincy , rapper YG and entertainer Carlos Olivero . The video was associated with the release of Van Peebles ' movie We the Party and the story behind The Rej3ctz ' audition for it . The video shows how The Rej3ctz anticipated succeeding in their auditions , but realized that the competition was stiffer than expected . They were rejected until Van Peebles ' kids got Mario to ask them to perform their song and dance . The video was Van Peebles ' first music video . The song was re @-@ released on iTunes on June 27 , 2011 . = = = Reception = = = Billboard described the song as a " low @-@ slung " . MostlyJunkFood.com described the song and video as " another one of those weak on lyrical content , but making up for it with a bangin beat and some standard Chris Breezy dancin ’ abouts " . In January 2011 , the song was recognized by MTV Jams as the " Jam Of The Week " . Although the song only spent one week on the Billboard Hot 100 , peaking at number 97 on June 18 , 2011 , it spent fourteen weeks on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart peaking at 77 on July 16 , 2011 and was listed on the Top Heatseekers list for eleven weeks , peaking at number 12 on June 18 , 2011 . = = = Production background = = = The original video was directed by Alex Nazari . TheFUNKtion vs theKICKback mixtape that included " Cat Daddy " was produced by JHawk . = = Kate Upton videos = = Kate Upton , who in February 2012 was the cover model for the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue , recorded a video of the Dougie that went viral and garnered over 5 million hits in April 2011 . She announced her intention to release a video performance of the Cat Daddy when she served as grand marshal for the 2012 Daytona 500 . The video of Upton dancing on a break between photo shots was posted online on April 30 . After garnering close to 1 million hits in the first 24 hours , YouTube banned Kate Upton 's version of the dance from their site for being too risqué . After some deliberation about whether it " violated the website ’ s rules on nudity and sexual content " the video was restored to their website . Upton 's Cat Daddy video clip was a part of Terry Richardson 's vlog . Richardson has a reputation for " raunchy " artwork . According to the Los Angeles Times the video was removed on May 1 , 2012 while the Daily News reported its removal was May 2 . Both agree that the video was restored late on May 2 , although Fox News reports that it was initially restored with an age restriction . During the YouTube ban , Upton 's Cat Daddy gained exposure at Vimeo when Richardson uploaded it there in response to the ban . As of November 12 , 2015 , her version of the dance has received about 25 @.@ 7 million YouTube views . Following Upton 's April 30 rendition , The Rej3ctz were impressed enough with Upton that they attempted to contact her regarding future collaboration ( s ) . On the June 21 , 2012 edition of Late Night with Jimmy Fallon she performed a fully clothed rendition of the " Cat Daddy " alongside Fallon . Prior to performing the dance she described the movements of the dance as buckling a seatbelt and rolling a wheelchair . YouTube now hosts videos of numerous celebrities doing the Cat Daddy including Selena Gomez and Justin Bieber . = = Track listing = = = = Chart performance = = = = Release history = = = Siege of Szigetvár = The Siege of Szigetvár or Battle of Szigeth ( pronunciation : [ ˈsiɡɛtvaːr ] Hungarian : Szigetvár ostroma , Croatian : Bitka kod Sigeta or Sigetska bitka , Turkish : Zigetvar Kuşatması ) was a siege of the fortress of Szigetvár , Kingdom of Hungary , that blocked Suleiman 's line of advance towards Vienna in 1566 AD . The battle was fought between the defending forces of the Habsburg Monarchy under the leadership of Nikola Šubić Zrinski ( Hungarian : Zrínyi Miklós ) , former Ban of Croatia , and the invading Ottoman army under the nominal command of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent ( Ottoman Turkish : سليمان Süleymān ) . After the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary , Ferdinand I was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia . This was followed by a series of conflicts with the Habsburgs and their allies , fighting against the Ottoman Empire . In the Little War in Hungary both sides exhausted themselves after sustaining heavy casualties . The Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased until the offensive against Szigetvár . In January 1566 Suleiman went to war for the last time . The siege of Szigetvár was fought from 5 August to 8 September 1566 and , though it resulted in an Ottoman victory , there were heavy losses on both sides . Both commanders died during the battle — Zrinski in the final charge and Suleiman in his tent from natural causes . More than 20 @,@ 000 Turks had fallen during the attacks and almost all of Zrinski 's 2 @,@ 300 man garrison was killed , with most of the final 600 men killed on the last day . Although the battle was an Ottoman victory , it stopped the Ottoman push to Vienna that year . Vienna was not threatened again until the Battle of Vienna in 1683 . The importance of the battle was considered so great that the French clergyman and statesman Cardinal Richelieu was reported to have described it as " the battle that saved civilization . " The battle is still famous in Croatia and Hungary and inspired both the Hungarian epic poem The Siege of Sziget and the Croatian opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski . = = Background = = On 29 August 1526 the forces of the Kingdom of Hungary led by King Louis II were defeated at the Battle of Mohács by Ottoman forces led by Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent . Louis died in the battle which resulted in the end of the independent Kingdom of Hungary , as he died without an heir . Both Hungary and Croatia became disputed territories with claims from both the Habsburg and Ottoman empires . Ferdinand I from the House of Habsburg , brother of Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , married the sister of Louis II and was elected King by the nobles of both Hungary and Croatia . The throne of Hungary became the subject of a dynastic dispute between Ferdinand and John Zápolya from Transylvania . Suleiman had promised to make Zápolya the ruler of all Hungary . Ferdinand set out to enforce his claim on Hungary and captured Buda from John Zápolya in 1527 , only to relinquish his hold on it in 1529 when an Ottoman counter @-@ attack stripped Ferdinand of all his territorial gains during 1527 and 1528 . The Siege of Vienna in 1529 was the first attempt by Suleiman the Magnificent to capture the Austrian capital . This siege signalled the pinnacle of Ottoman power and the maximum extent of Ottoman expansion in central Europe . = = = Little War = = = The years from 1529 to 1552 were known as the " Little War " . Following Suleiman 's unsuccessful siege of Vienna in 1529 Ferdinand launched a counter @-@ attack in 1530 to regain the initiative . An assault on Buda was driven off by John Zápolya , although Ferdinand was successful elsewhere — capturing Gran ( Esztergom ) and other forts along the Danube river , a vital strategic frontier . Suleiman 's response came in 1532 when he led a massive army of over 120 @,@ 000 troops to besiege Vienna again . Ferdinand withdrew his army , leaving only 700 men with no cannons and a few guns to defend Güns ( Koszeg ) although Ibrahim Pasha , the Grand Vizier of the Ottomans , did not realize how poorly defended Koszeg was . Suleiman came to join him shortly after the siege had started . For more than twenty five days Croatian captain Nikola Jurišić and his garrison of 800 Croats held out against nineteen full @-@ scale assaults and an incessant bombardment by the Ottomans . As a result , the city was offered a surrender on favourable terms and , although the offer was rejected , the Ottomans retreated leading to a peace treaty between Ferdinand and Suleiman . John Zápolya was recognized as the King of Hungary by the Habsburgs , although as an Ottoman vassal . The treaty did not satisfy either John Zápolya or Ferdinand and their armies began skirmishes along the borders . In 1537 Ferdinand attacked John ’ s forces at Osijek in violation of the treaty . The siege was a disaster of similar magnitude to that of Mohács , with an Ottoman relief army smashing the Austrians . Rather than attack Vienna again Suleiman attacked Otranto in southern Italy . Nonetheless , an Ottoman victory at the naval Battle of Preveza ( 1538 ) gave the Habsburg @-@ led coalition another defeat . John Zápolya died in 1540 and was succeeded by his infant son John II Sigismund Zápolya . For much of his reign the country was governed by his mother Isabella Jagiellon , with continued support from Suleiman . John II remained as nominal King of Hungary until he abdicated in 1570 and returned the country to Habsburg rule . A further humiliating defeat was inflicted on the Habsburgs in the Siege of Buda ( 1541 ) when the Ottomans responded to a request for help from Isabella Jagiellon . In April 1543 Suleiman launched another campaign in Hungary , taking back Bran and other forts so that much of Hungary returned to Ottoman control . In August 1543 the Ottomans succeeded in the Siege of Esztergom ( 1543 ) which was followed by the capture of three Hungarian cities : Székesfehérvár , Siklós and Szeged , offering better security for Buda . Another peace agreement between the Habsburgs and the Ottomans lasted until 1552 when Suleiman decided to attack Eger . The siege proved futile and the Habsburg victory reversed a period of territorial losses in Hungary . The survival of Eger gave the Austrians good reason to believe that Hungary was still a contested ground and the Ottoman campaign in Hungary ceased , until its revival in 1566 . = = Campaign of 1566 = = In January 1566 Sultan Suleiman I had ruled the Ottoman Empire for 46 years and went to war for the last time . He was 72 years old and , although having gout to the extent that he was carried on a litter , he nominally commanded his thirteenth military campaign . On 1 May 1566 the Sultan left Constantinople at the head of one of the largest armies he had ever commanded . His opposite number , Count Nikola Šubić Zrinski , was one of the largest landholders in the Kingdom of Croatia , a seasoned veteran of border warfare , and a Ban ( Croatian royal representative ) from 1542 to 1556 . In his early life he distinguished himself in the Siege of Vienna and pursued a successful military career . Suleiman 's forces reached Belgrade on 27 June after a forty @-@ nine @-@ day march . Here he met with John II Sigismund Zápolya who he earlier promised to make the ruler of all Hungary . Learning of the Zrinski 's success in an attack upon a Turkish encampment at Siklós , Suleiman decided to postpone his attack on Eger ( German : Erlau ) and instead attack Zrinski 's fortress at Szigetvár to eliminate him as a threat . = = = Siege = = = The advanced guard of the Turks arrived at on 2 August 1566 and the defenders made several successful sorties causing considerable loss to the Turks . The Sultan arrived with the main force on 5 August and his big war tent was erected on the Similehov hill , giving him a view of the battle . The Sultan had to stay in his camp where he received verbal battle progress reports from his Grand Vizier Sokollu Mehmed Pasha , the real operational commander of the Ottoman forces . Count Zrinski found himself besieged by a hostile army of at least 150 @,@ 000 soldiers with powerful artillery . Zrinski had assembled a force of around 2 @,@ 300 Croatian and Hungarian soldiers prior to the siege . These consisted of his personal forces and those of his friends and allies . The majority of the defenders were Croatian , with a significant Hungarian contingent represented in both the men @-@ at @-@ arms and the leadership . Szigetvár was divided into three sections divided by water : the old town , the new town and the castle — each of which was linked to the next by bridges and to the land by causeways . Although it was not built on particularly high ground the inner castle , which occupied much of the area of today 's castle , was not directly accessible to the attackers . This was because two other baileys had to be taken and secured before a final assault on the inner castle could be launched . When the Sultan appeared before the Fortress he saw the walls hung with red cloth , as though for a festive reception , and a single great cannon thundered once to greet the mighty warrior monarch . The siege began on 6 August when Suleiman ordered a general assault on the ramparts , although the attack was successfully repulsed . Despite being undermanned , and greatly outnumbered , the defenders were sent no reinforcements from Vienna by the imperial army . After over a month of exhausting and bloody struggle the few remaining defenders retreated into the old town for their last stand . The Sultan tried to entice Zrinski to surrender , ultimately offering him leadership of Croatia under Ottoman influence , Count Zrinski did not reply and continued to fight . The fall of the castle appeared inevitable but the Ottoman high command hesitated . On 6 September Suleiman died in his tent and his death was kept secret at great effort with only the Sultan 's innermost circle knowing of his demise . This was because the Ottomans feared that their soldiers would give up the battle if they knew that their leader died , so his death was kept secret for 48 days . A courier was dispatched from the camp with a message for Suleiman 's successor , Selim . The courier may not even have known the content of the message he delivered to distant Asia Minor within a mere eight days . = = = Final battle = = = The final battle began on 7 September , the day after Suleiman 's demise . By this time , the fortress walls had been reduced to rubble by mining with explosives and wood fueled fires at the corners of the walls . In the morning an all @-@ out attack began with fusillades from small arms , " Greek fire " , and a concentrated cannonade . Soon the castle , the last stronghold within Szigetvár , was set ablaze and cinders fell into the apartments of the count . The Ottoman army swarmed through the city , drumming and yelling . Zrinski prepared for a last charge addressing his troops : Zrinski did not allow the final assault to break into the castle . As the Turks were pressing forwards along a narrow bridge the defenders suddenly flung open the gate and fired a large mortar loaded with broken iron , killing 600 attackers . Zrinski then ordered a charge and led his remaining 600 troops out of the castle . He received two musket wounds in his chest and was killed shortly afterwards by an arrow to the head . Some of his force retired into the castle . The Turks took the castle and most of the defenders were slain . A few of the captured defenders were spared by Janissaries who had admired their courage , with only seven defenders managing to escape through the Ottoman lines . Zrinski 's corpse was beheaded and his head taken to the new Sultan while his body received an honourable burial by a Turk who had been his prisoner , and well treated by him . = = = Powder magazine explosion = = = Before leading the final sortie by the castle garrison , Zrinski ordered a fuse be lit to the powder magazine . After cutting down the last of the defenders the besiegers poured into the fortress . The Ottoman Army entered the remains of Szigetvár and fell into the booby trap , thousands perished in the blast when the castle 's magazine exploded . The Vizier Ibrahim 's life was saved by one of Zrinski 's household who warned him of the trap when the Vizier and his troops searched for treasure and interrogated the survivors . While inquiring about treasure the prisoner replied that it had been long expended , but that 3 @,@ 000 lbs of powder were under their feet to which a slow match had been attached . The Vizier and his mounted officers had just enough time to escape but 3 @,@ 000 Turks perished in the explosion . = = Aftermath = = Almost all of Zrinski 's garrison was wiped out after the final battle . Ottoman casualties were also heavy . Three pashas , 7 @,@ 000 Janissaries and 28 @,@ 000 other soldiers are said to have perished . Sources vary on the exact number with estimates ranging from 20 @,@ 000 – 35 @,@ 000 . After the battle the Grand Vizier forged bulletins in the Sultan 's name , proclaiming victory . These announced that the Sultan regretted that his current state of health prevented him from continuing with the successful campaign . His body was returned to Constantinople while the inner circle of officials pretended to keep up communication with him . Turkish sources state that the illusion was maintained for three weeks and that even the Sultan 's personal physician was strangled as a precaution . It is likely that the long journey and the siege had a detrimental effect on the Sultan 's health . His death meant that any advances were postponed as the Grand Vizier had to return to Constantinople for the succession of the new Sultan , Selim II . Even if Suleiman had lived his army could not have achieved much in the short time that remained between the fall of Szigeth and the onset of winter . The prolonged resistance at Szigeth delayed the Ottoman push to Vienna . Two ambasadors were sent by Emperor Maximilian : Croatian Antun Vrančić and Styrian Christoph Teuffenbach . They arrived in Istanbul on 26 August 1567 and were well received by Sultan Selim II . An agreement ending the war between the Austrian and Ottoman empires was reached on 17 February 1568 , after five months of negotiations with Sokollu Mehmed Pasha ( also known as Mehmed @-@ paša Sokolović , being originally from Bosnia ) . The Treaty of Adrianople was signed on 21 February 1568 . Sultan Selim II agreed to an eight @-@ year truce , although the agreement brought 25 years of ( relative ) peace between the Empires until the Long War . The truce was conditional and Maximilian agreed to pay an annual tribute of 30 @,@ 000 ducats . = = Depictions in art = = The Croatian Renaissance poet and writer Brne Karnarutić , from Zadar , wrote The Conquest of the City of Sziget ( Croatian : Vazetje Sigeta grada ) sometime before 1573 . His work was posthumously published in 1584 in Venice . This is the first Croatian historical epic dealing with national history and the Battle of Szigetvár . It was inspired by Marko Marulić 's Judita . The battle was also immortalized in the Hungarian epic poem Szigeti Veszedelem ( " Peril of Sziget " ) , written in fifteen parts by Zrinski 's great @-@ grandson Nicholas VII of Zrin ( also a Ban of Croatia ) in 1647 and published in 1651 . This was one of the first such epics in the Hungarian language and was also inspired by Marulić 's Judita . Kenneth Clark 's renowned history Civilisation lists the Szigeti Veszedelem as one of the major literary achievements of the 17th century . In spite of the author and other members of Zrinski family being fierce enemies of the Turks , the poem never demonizes them . The Turks are portrayed as human beings and a love story between Deliman the Tatar and the Sultan 's daughter Cumilla is interwoven into the main plot . Petar Zrinski ( Hungarian : Zrínyi Péter ) , the brother of Nikola VII Zrinski , published Opsida Sigecka ( 1647 / 8 ) in the Croatian language — not surprising since the Zrinski family were bilingual . Another Croatian nobleman warrior @-@ poet Pavao Ritter Vitezović ( 1652 – 1713 ) wrote about the battle . His poem Odiljenje sigetsko ( " The Sziget Farewell " ) , first published in 1684 , reminisces about the event without rancour or crying for revenge . The last of the four cantos is titled " Tombstones " and consists of epitaphs for the Croatian and Turkish warriors who died during the siege , paying equal respect to both . Ivan Zajc 's 1876 opera Nikola Šubić Zrinski is his most famous and popular work in Croatia . This recounts the heroic defiance of the Croats towards the Turks , as a metaphor for their later nationalist impulses within the Habsburg monarchy . Zrinski is depicted in the plot as a 16th @-@ century Croatian hero who defeated the Turks a couple of times before perishing sacrificially , along with his family and close supporters , in the siege of Szigeth castle . The opera is patriotic with a famous aria " U boj , u boj " . = Tiberius Julius Alexander = Tiberius Julius Alexander ( fl . 1st century ) was an equestrian governor and general in the Roman Empire . Born into a wealthy Jewish family of Alexandria but abandoning or neglecting the Jewish religion , he rose to become procurator of Judea ( c . 46 – 48 ) under Claudius . While Prefect of Egypt ( 66 – 69 ) , he employed his legions against the Alexandrian Jews in a brutal response to ethnic violence , and was instrumental in the Emperor Vespasian 's rise to power . In 70 , he participated in the Siege of Jerusalem as Titus ' second @-@ in @-@ command . = = Early life = = Tiberius Julius Alexander was probably born early in the reign of the Emperor Tiberius ( 14 – 37 ) . His father was Alexander , an Alexandrian Jew who held the office of Alabarch ; the exact meaning of this term is debated , but it may have denoted a senior customs official . The older Alexander enjoyed Roman citizenship , a rare privilege among the Jews of Alexandria , and therefore passed it to his sons . He also had business connections both with Agrippa , grandson of Herod the Great , and with Antonia , mother of the emperor Claudius . Another prominent member of Tiberius Alexander 's family was his uncle , the philosopher Philo . Tiberius ' younger brother Marcus Julius Alexander would follow their father into business , becoming a partner in an import @-@ export firm . Marcus Julius Alexander was the first husband of Herodian Princess Berenice . Marcus died in 43 or 44 , leaving no children . Tiberius himself decided differently , setting out upon a military and administrative career in the service of the Roman Empire . When introducing Tiberius , the Jewish historian Josephus condemns him for his impiety and explains that he " did not remain in his ancestral customs " . This has traditionally been taken to mean that he became an apostate from Judaism at an early age , a view which finds some support in his appearance as a character in two of Philo 's philosophical dialogues , making arguments against divine providence which Philo attempts to refute . However , some more recent scholars believe that Josephus is criticizing Alexander simply for his decision to take up the service of Rome , placing the interests of the Empire above the Jewish religion . He nevertheless continued to benefit from his family 's connections , which were enhanced after the Emperor Claudius came to power in 41 . Agrippa had helped to secure Claudius ' accession after the assassination of Caligula , and was appointed king of Judea . Tiberius ' father , who had been imprisoned by Caligula , was released on Claudius ' orders , and his younger brother Marcus became first husband to Agrippa 's daughter Berenice . = = Career until 63 = = Despite the disadvantages posed by his Alexandrian and Jewish origin , Tiberius Alexander was evidently well enough connected for an equestrian career in Roman public life . The first position he is known to have held , beginning in about 42 , was that of epistrategus of the Thebaid , one of the three regions into which the Roman province of Egypt was divided . This was an administrative and judicial post involving no military command . He could have maintained contact with his brother Marcus , who was trading in the same area until his premature death in 43 or 44 . A promotion came in c . 46 , when Alexander was appointed procurator of Judea by Claudius . The province had returned to direct Roman rule only after the death of Agrippa in 44 , and the tenure of Alexander 's predecessor Cuspius Fadus had been marked by unrest , so Alexander 's Jewish background may have marked him as a more acceptable governor . Less trouble is attested during his office , although he did condemn James and Simon , sons of an earlier rebel named Judas of Galilee , to crucifixion . It was also at this time that Judea was afflicted by a severe famine . In 48 he was succeeded by Ventidius Cumanus . Alexander 's subsequent activities are unknown until the reign of Nero , when he served as a staff officer under the prominent general Gnaeus Domitius Corbulo during campaigns against Parthia . In 63 he was dispatched along with Corbulo 's son @-@ in @-@ law to escort the Armenian king Tiridates to the Roman camp , on the first stage of his journey to receive the status of client king from Nero . = = Prefecture of Egypt = = In May 66 , Nero appointed Alexander as Prefect of Egypt , one of the two most prestigious posts available to an equestrian along with Prefect of the Praetorian Guard . He may have benefitted from a philhellenic tendency in equestrian appointments under Nero , but his experience of Egypt must also have commended him . However , any hope that he would be able to quell the recurring conflicts in his province between Greek and Jewish populations proved to be short @-@ lived . The year he assumed office saw the outbreak of the First Jewish @-@ Roman War in Judea , and aggression inevitably spilled over into the large Jewish community of Alexandria . An outbreak of ethnic violence during a Greek assembly escalated when the Greeks took prisoners , leading the Jewish side to threaten to burn the assembled Greeks to death . Alexander sent mediators to calm the Jews , warning he would have to use the Roman legions if violence continued . The threat was ineffective , and Josephus describes the outcome : A less violent side to Alexander 's government is demonstrated by other evidence . Over a century after his time , his administrative decisions were still being cited as precedents . Some of these are known from a surviving edict issued on July 6 , 68 , less than a month after Nero 's death . This denounces , and introduces measures against , a variety of abuses including inaccurate tax assessments , malicious prosecutions and the imprisonment of debtors by private creditors . The edict 's only allusion to the chaotic political situation comes as a call for trust in the benevolence of the new Emperor , Galba , and his ability to put right the wrongs of the past . Alexander was making representations to Galba on behalf of the provincials , presumably representing the desired reforms as the price of loyalty from this vital grain @-@ producing province . Neither Galba nor his successor Otho survived long in office . In April 69 , Vitellius was recognized as Emperor by the Roman Senate , but his opponents were beginning to rally behind Vespasian , commander of the Roman forces conducting the war in Judea . The loyalties of Alexander , who commanded two legions and had control of the grain shipments from Alexandria to Rome , were of crucial importance . Fortunately for Vespasian , Alexander was willing to correspond with him secretly ; go @-@ betweens suspected by modern historians include Berenice ( soon to be lover of Vespasian 's son Titus ) , and an Egyptian official named Basilides . On July 1 Alexander became the first to make a decisive move against Vitellius : on receipt of a letter from Vespasian , he instructed his forces to take the oath of allegiance to Vespasian as Emperor . His lead was followed by legions throughout the eastern Empire , and the anniversary of Vespasian 's accession was later celebrated on this date . = = Siege of Jerusalem = = Vespasian moved rapidly to Egypt , leaving the Jewish war under the command of Titus . At the same time Alexander , as a proven commander with experience of Jewish affairs , was sent by Vespasian to join Titus as his chief of staff and adviser , second only to Titus himself . By April 70 , Jerusalem was under siege by four legions , and even after the city walls were overcome , the defenders held out in the Temple . Alexander , the offspring of a pious Jewish family , whose own father had donated the gold and silver for the Temple gates , now found himself in a position of command against his former brothers in that very sanctuary . Despairing of any siege operation against the Temple 's massive walls , Titus had the gates burnt down . At the ensuing council of war , when it was debated whether to destroy the entire Temple , Alexander voted with the majority who favored preservation . In the event , this made no difference ; as the fighting raged on the following day , a Roman soldier hurled a burning brand into a chamber of the Temple itself . The Temple was consumed by the flames . = = Later career = = By this time , Vespasian 's position in Rome was secure . The details of Alexander 's career under the new emperor remain unclear . A damaged papyrus refers to Alexander as holding the position of " Praetorian Prefect " , which is open to two interpretations . It could indicate his rank during Titus ' campaign in 70 , which would mean that he held his own independent imperium ( commanding authority ) . According to another view , it means that he became Prefect of the Praetorian Guard at Rome , which in later years became a common position for former Prefects of Egypt . In either case , Alexander attained a position in the Roman Empire that was unparalleled for a man of Jewish birth , not to mention one who suffered from the further stigma of an Egyptian origin . The xenophobic speaker of Juvenal 's first Satire , composed in the late 1st or early in the 2nd century AD , complains of passing the Forum 's triumphal statues , " where some Egyptian Arabarch 's had the nerve to set up his titles . At his image it 's right to do more than piss ! " This is very likely a reference to Alexander . = = = Ancient = = = = = = Modern = = = = Japanese battleship Kashima = Kashima ( 鹿島 ( 戦艦 ) , Kashima ( senkan ) ) was the second ship of the two Katori @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the first decade of the 20th century , the last to be built by British shipyards . Ordered just before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 05 , the ship was completed a year after its end . She saw no combat during World War I , although the ship was present when Japan joined the Siberian Intervention in 1918 . Kashima was disarmed and scrapped in 1923 – 24 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty of 1922 . = = Design and description = = The Katori @-@ class ships were ordered just before the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War in 1904 as improved versions of the Royal Navy ’ s King Edward VII @-@ class battleships . Kashima was 473 feet 7 inches ( 144 @.@ 3 m ) long overall and had a beam of 78 feet 2 inches ( 23 @.@ 8 m ) . She had a full @-@ load draught of 26 feet 4 inches ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) and normally displaced 16 @,@ 400 long tons ( 16 @,@ 700 t ) and had a crew of 864 officers and enlisted men . The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by 20 Niclausse boilers . The engines were rated at 15 @,@ 800 indicated horsepower ( 11 @,@ 800 kW ) , using forced draught , and were designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 knots ( 34 @.@ 3 km / h ; 21 @.@ 3 mph ) . Kashima , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 24 knots ( 35 @.@ 63 km / h ; 22 @.@ 14 mph ) from 17 @,@ 280 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 890 kW ) on her sea trials on 4 April 1906 . She carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 200 long tons ( 2 @,@ 200 t ) of coal and 750 long tons ( 760 t ) of fuel oil which was sprayed on the coal to increase their power . This allowed her to steam for 12 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 22 @,@ 000 km ; 14 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 11 knots ( 20 km / h ; 13 mph ) . The ship 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary armament consisted of four 10 @-@ inch guns mounted in four single @-@ gun turrets positioned on each side of the superstructure . Katori also carried 12 quick @-@ firing ( QF ) six @-@ inch guns , mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and in the superstructure . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included a dozen QF 12 @-@ pounder guns and three 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns . She was also armed with five submerged 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes , two on each broadside and one in the stern . Kashima 's waterline armour belt consisted of Krupp cemented armour and was 3 @.@ 5 – 9 inches ( 89 – 229 mm ) thick . The armour of her main gun turrets had a maximum thickness of 9 in ( 229 mm ) and her deck ranged from 2 to 3 inches ( 51 to 76 mm ) in thickness . = = Construction and career = = Kashima , named for a Shinto shrine in Kashima , Ibaraki , was ordered in January 1904 from Armstrong Whitworth . The ship was laid down at their Elswick shipyard on 29 February 1904 as yard number 755 . She was launched on 22 March 1905 , and completed on 23 May 1906 . Kashima departed Britain on 31 May on her maiden voyage and shakedown cruise and arrived at Yokosuka on 4 August 1906 . Whilst conducting gunnery training in Hiroshima Bay on 16 September 1907 , brown powder propellant in Kashima 's starboard rear 10 @-@ inch ( 250 mm ) gun mount ignited when it came in contact with burning residue from the previous shot . The fire killed seven officers and 27 enlisted men and wounded two officers and six enlisted men . When World War I began , Kashima was in a refit at Maizuru Naval Arsenal that lasted until March 1915 . The ship was assigned to the 2nd Battleship Squadron when her refit was completed and became the squadron 's flagship in 1916 . Kashima joined her sister ship Katori in the 5th Battleship Squadron as its flagship in 1918 and both ships covered the landing of Japanese troops in Siberia in August of that year as Japan intervened in the Russian Civil War . On 3 March 1921 , Katori , escorted by Kashima , departed Yokohama bound for Great Britain carrying Crown Prince Hirohito , the first Japanese crown prince to travel abroad . The ships arrived at Portsmouth on 9 May and Hirohito disembarked to tour Europe ; they returned home several months later . To comply with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty the ship was disarmed in April 1922 , stricken from the Navy List on 20 September 1923 and the removal of her armor was completed by February 1924 . Mitsubishi won the public auction conducted 26 – 27 April with a price of 238 @,@ 900 yen and had to pay an additional 35 @,@ 000 yen to have her towed to Nagasaki for scrapping . The company finished the job on 24 November . Kashima 's main gun turrets were re @-@ used in coastal artillery batteries around Tokyo Bay and on Iki Island in the Strait of Tsushima . = Objections to evolution = Scholars , theologians and lay @-@ people have raised objections to evolution since evolutionary ideas came to prominence in the 19th century . When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , his theory of evolution ( the idea that species arose through descent with modification from a single common ancestor in a process driven by natural selection ) initially met opposition from scientists with different theories , but eventually came to receive overwhelming acceptance in the scientific community . The observation of evolutionary processes occurring ( as well as the modern evolutionary synthesis explaining that evidence ) has been uncontroversial among mainstream biologists since the 1940s . Since then , most criticisms and denials of evolution have come from religious sources , rather than from the scientific community . Although many religions , such as those advocating theistic evolution , have accepted the occurrence of evolution , some religious beliefs reject evolutionary explanations in favor of creationism ( the belief that a deity created the universe and life through the application of supernatural processes ) . The resultant U.S.-centered creation – evolution controversy has become a focal point of recent perceived conflict between religion and science . Modern creationism features movements such as creation science , neo @-@ creationism , and intelligent design , which argue that the idea of life being directly designed by a god or intelligence is at least as scientific as evolutionary theory , and should therefore be taught in public education . Such arguments against evolution have become widespread and include objections to evolution 's evidence , methodology , plausibility , morality , and scientific acceptance . The scientific community , however , does not recognize such objections as valid , citing detractors ' misinterpretations of such things as the scientific method , evidence , and basic physical laws . = = History = = Various evolutionary ideas came to prominence around the start of the 19th century , in particular the transmutation of species theory put forward by Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck . These were opposed on scientific grounds , most notably by Georges Cuvier , as well as encountering political and religious objections . These ideas that natural laws controlled the development of nature and society gained vast popular audiences with George Combe 's The Constitution of Man of 1828 and the anonymous Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation of 1844 . When Charles Darwin published his 1859 book On the Origin of Species , he convinced most of the scientific community that new species arose through descent through modification in a branching pattern of divergence from common ancestors , but while most scientists accepted that natural selection was a valid and empirically testable hypothesis , Darwin 's view that it was the primary mechanism of evolution was generally rejected . The earliest objections to Darwinian evolution were both scientific and religious . Darwin 's contemporaries eventually came to accept the transmutation of species based upon fossil evidence ; the X Club was formed to defend evolution against the church and wealthy amateurs , although the specific evolutionary mechanism which Darwin provided — natural selection — was actively disputed in favour of alternative theories such as Lamarckism and orthogenesis . Darwin 's gradualistic account was also opposed by saltationism and catastrophism . Lord Kelvin led scientific opposition to gradualism on the basis of his thermodynamic calculations that the Earth was between 24 and 400 million years old , an estimate strongly disputed by geologists . These figures were corrected in 1907 when radioactive dating of rocks showed that the Earth was billions of years old . Kelvin 's own views favoured a version of theistic evolution accelerated by divine guidance . The specific hereditary mechanism Darwin provided , pangenesis , lacked any supporting evidence . Although evolution was unchallenged , uncertainties about the mechanism in the eclipse of Darwinism persisted from the 1880s until the 1930s inclusion of Mendelian inheritance and the rise of the modern evolutionary synthesis . The modern synthesis rose to universal acceptance among biologists with the help of new evidence , such as genetics , which confirmed Darwin 's predictions and refuted the competing theories . Protestantism , especially in America , broke out in " acrid polemics " and argument about evolution from 1860 to the 1870s — with the turning point possibly marked by the death of Louis Agassiz in 1873 — and by 1880 a form of " Christian evolution " was becoming the consensus . In Britain , while publication of The Descent of Man by Darwin in 1871 reinvigorated debate from the previous decade , Sir Henry Chadwick notes a steady acceptance of evolution " among more educated Christians " between 1860 and 1885 . As a result , evolutionary theory was " both permissible and respectable " by 1876 . Frederick Temple 's lectures on The Relations between Religion and Science ( 1884 ) on how evolution was not " antagonistic " to religion highlighted this trend . Temple 's appointment as Archbishop of Canterbury in 1896 demonstrated the broad acceptance of evolution within the church hierarchy . For decades the Roman Catholic Church avoided official refutation of evolution . However , it would rein in Catholics who proposed that evolution could be reconciled with the Bible , as this conflicted with the First Vatican Council 's ( 1869 – 70 ) finding that everything was created out of nothing by God , and to deny that finding could lead to excommunication . In 1950 , the encyclical Humani generis of Pope Pius XII first mentioned evolution directly and officially . It allowed one to enquire into the concept of humans coming from pre @-@ existing living matter , but not to question Adam and Eve or the creation of the soul . In 1996 , Pope John Paul II said that evolution was " more than a hypothesis " and acknowledged the large body of work accumulated in its support , but reiterated that any attempt to give a material explanation of the human soul was " incompatible with the truth about man . " Muslim reaction ranged from those believing in literal creation from the Quran to many educated Muslims who subscribed to a version of theistic or guided evolution in which the Quran reinforced rather than contradicted mainstream science . This occurred relatively early , as medieval madrasahs taught the ideas of Al @-@ Jahiz , a Muslim scholar from the 9th century , who proposed concepts similar to natural selection . However , acceptance of evolution remains low in the Muslim world , as prominent figures reject evolution 's underpinning philosophy of materialism as unsound to human origins and a denial of Allah . Further objections by Muslim authors and writers largely reflect those put forward in the Western world . Regardless of acceptance from major religious hierarchies , early religious objections to Darwin 's theory are still used in opposition to evolution . The ideas that species change over time through natural processes and that different species share common ancestors seemed to contradict the Genesis account of Creation . Believers in Biblical infallibility attacked Darwinism as heretical . The natural theology of the early 19th century was typified by William Paley 's watchmaker analogy , an argument from design still used by the creationist movement . Natural theology included a range of ideas and arguments from the outset , and when Darwin 's theory was published , ideas of theistic evolution were presented in which evolution is accepted as a secondary cause open to scientific investigation , while still holding belief in God as a first cause with a non @-@ specified role in guiding evolution and creating humans . This position has been adopted by denominations of Christianity and Judaism in line with modernist theology which views the Bible and Torah as allegorical , thus removing the conflict between evolution and religion . However , in the 1920s Christian fundamentalists in the United States developed their literalist arguments against modernist theology into opposition to the teaching of evolution , with fears that Darwinism had led to German militarism and was a threat to religion and morality . This opposition developed into the creation – evolution controversy involving Christian literalists in the United States objecting to the teaching of evolution in public schools . Although early objectors dismissed evolution as contradicting their interpretation of the Bible , this argument was legally invalidated when the Supreme Court ruled in Epperson v. Arkansas in 1968 that forbidding the teaching of evolution on religious grounds violated the Establishment Clause . Since then creationists have developed more nuanced objections to evolution , alleging variously that it is unscientific , infringes on creationists ' religious freedoms or that the acceptance of evolution is a religious stance . Creationists have appealed to democratic principles of fairness , arguing that evolution is controversial , and that science classrooms should therefore " Teach the Controversy . " These objections to evolution culminated in the intelligent design movement in the 1990s and early 2000s that unsuccessfully attempted to present itself as a scientific alternative to evolution . = = Defining evolution = = One of the main sources of confusion and ambiguity in the creation – evolution debate is the definition of evolution itself . In the context of biology , evolution is genetic changes in populations of organisms over successive generations . However , the word has a number of different meanings in different fields , from evolutionary computation to molecular evolution to sociocultural evolution to stellar and galactic evolution . It can even refer to metaphysical evolution , spiritual evolution , or any of a number of evolutionist philosophies . When biological evolution is conflated with other evolutionary processes , this can cause errors such as the claim that modern evolutionary theory says anything about abiogenesis or the Big Bang . In colloquial contexts , evolution can refer to any sort of progressive development or gradual improvement , and evolution is understood as a process that results in greater quality or complexity . When misapplied to biological evolution this common meaning leads to frequent misunderstandings . For example , the idea of devolution ( " backwards " evolution ) is a result of erroneously assuming that evolution is directional or has a specific goal in mind ( cf. orthogenesis ) . In reality , the evolution of an organism has no " objective " and is only showing increasing ability of successive generations to survive and reproduce in its environment ; and increased suitability is only defined in relation to this environment . Biologists do not consider any one species , such as humans , to be more highly evolved or advanced than another . Certain sources have been criticized for indicating otherwise due to a tendency to evaluate nonhuman organisms according to anthropocentric standards rather than more objective ones . Evolution also does not require that organisms become more complex . Although the history of life shows an apparent trend towards the evolution of biological complexity ; there is a question if this appearance of increased complexity is real , or if this conclusion comes from neglecting the fact that the majority of life on Earth has always consisted of prokaryotes . In this view , complexity is not a necessary consequence of evolution ; rather , it is a consequence of the specific circumstances of evolution on Earth , which frequently made greater complexity advantageous , and thus naturally selected for . Depending on the situation , organisms ' complexity can either increase , decrease , or stay the same , and all three of these trends have been observed in evolution . Creationist sources frequently define evolution according to a colloquial , rather than scientific , meaning . As a result , many attempts to rebut evolution do not address the findings of evolutionary biology ( see straw man argument ) . This also means that advocates of creationism and evolutionary biologists often simply speak past each other . = = Scientific acceptance = = Recent objections to evolutionary theory have focused on its scientific validity , or attempting to come up with alternative ideas such as creationism to debate its findings . = = = Status as a theory = = = Critics of evolution assert that evolution is " just a theory , " which emphasizes that scientific theories are never absolute , or misleadingly presents it as a matter of opinion rather than of fact or evidence . This reflects a difference of the meaning of theory in a scientific context : whereas in colloquial speech a theory is a conjecture or guess , in science a theory is an explanation whose predictions have been verified by experiments or other evidence . Evolutionary theory refers to an explanation for the diversity of species and their ancestry which has met extremely high standards of scientific evidence . An example of evolution as theory is the modern synthesis of Darwinian natural selection and Mendelian inheritance . As with any scientific theory , the modern synthesis is constantly debated , tested , and refined by scientists , but there is an overwhelming consensus in the scientific community that it remains the only robust model that accounts for the known facts concerning evolution . Critics also state that evolution is not a fact . In science , a fact is a verified empirical observation ; in colloquial contexts , however , a fact can simply refer to anything for which there is overwhelming evidence . For example , in common usage theories such as " the Earth revolves around the Sun " and " objects fall due to gravity " may be referred to as " facts , " even though they are purely theoretical . From a scientific standpoint , therefore , evolution may be called a " fact " for the same reason that gravity can : under the scientific definition , evolution is an observable process that occurs whenever a population of organisms genetically changes over time . Under the colloquial definition , the theory of evolution can also be called a fact , referring to this theory 's well @-@ established nature . Thus , evolution is widely considered both a theory and a fact by scientists . Similar confusion is involved in objections that evolution is " unproven , " since no theory in science is known to be absolutely true , only verified by empirical evidence . This distinction is an important one in philosophy of science , as it relates to the lack of absolute certainty in all empirical claims , not just evolution . Strict proof is possible only in formal sciences such as logic and mathematics , not natural sciences ( where terms such as " validated " or " corroborated " are more appropriate ) . Thus , to say that evolution is not proven is trivially true , but no more an indictment of evolution than calling it a " theory . " The confusion arises , however , in that the colloquial meaning of proof is simply " compelling evidence , " in which case scientists would indeed consider evolution " proven . " = = = Degree of acceptance = = = An objection is often made in the teaching of evolution that evolution is controversial or contentious . Unlike past creationist arguments which sought to abolish the teaching of evolution altogether , this argument makes the weaker claim that evolution should be presented alongside alternative views since it is controversial , and students should be allowed to evaluate and choose between the options on their own . This objection forms the basis of the " Teach the Controversy " campaign by the Discovery Institute , a think tank based in Seattle , Washington , to promote the teaching of intelligent design in U.S. public schools . This goal was a part of the Institute 's " wedge strategy , " an attempt to gradually undermine evolution and ultimately to " reverse the stifling dominance of the materialist worldview , and to replace it with a science consonant with Christian and theistic convictions . " Several subsequent attempts were made to insert intelligent design or creationism into the U.S. public school curriculum , including the failed Santorum Amendment in 2001 . Scientists and U.S. courts have rejected this objection on the grounds that science is not based on appeals to popularity , but on evidence . The scientific consensus of biologists , not popular opinion or fairness , determines what is considered acceptable science , and although evolution is controversial in the public arena , it is entirely uncontroversial among experts in the field . In response , creationists have disputed the level of scientific support for evolution . The Discovery Institute has gathered over 761 scientists as of August 2008 to sign A Scientific Dissent From Darwinism in order to show that there are a number of scientists who dispute what they refer to as " Darwinian evolution . " This statement did not profess outright disbelief in evolution , but expressed skepticism as to the ability of " random mutation and natural selection to account for the complexity of life . " Several counter @-@ petitions have been launched in turn , including A Scientific Support for Darwinism , which gathered over 7 @,@ 000 signatures in four days , and Project Steve , a tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek petition that has gathered the signatures of 1 @,@ 393 ( as of May 24 , 2016 ) evolution @-@ supporting scientists named " Steve " ( or any similar variation thereof — Stephen , Stephanie , Esteban , etc . ) . Creationists have argued for over a century that evolution is a " theory in crisis " that will soon be overturned , based on objections that it lacks reliable evidence or violates natural laws . These objections have been rejected by most scientists , as have claims that intelligent design , or any other creationist explanation , meets the basic scientific standards that would be required to make them scientific alternatives to evolution . It is also argued that even if evidence against evolution exists , it is a false dilemma to characterize this as evidence for intelligent design . A similar objection to evolution is that certain scientific authorities — mainly pre @-@ modern ones — have doubted or rejected evolution . Most commonly , it is argued that Darwin " recanted " on his deathbed , a false anecdote originating from Lady Hope 's story . These objections are generally rejected as appeals to authority . = = Scientific status = = A common neo @-@ creationist objection to evolution is that evolution does not adhere to normal scientific standards — that it is not genuinely scientific . It is argued that evolutionary biology does not follow the scientific method and therefore should not be taught in science classes , or at least should be taught alongside other views ( i.e. , creationism ) . These objections often deal with the very nature of evolutionary theory , the scientific method , and philosophy of science . = = = Religious nature = = = Creationists commonly argue against evolution on the grounds that " evolution is a religion ; it is not a science . " The purpose of this criticism is to undermine the higher ground biologists claim in debating creationists , and to reframe the debate from being between science ( evolution ) and religion ( creationism ) to being between two equally religious beliefs — or even to argue that evolution is religious while intelligent design is not . Those that oppose evolution frequently refer to supporters of evolution as " evolutionists " or " Darwinists . " The arguments for evolution being a religion generally amount to arguments by analogy : it is argued that evolution and religion have one or more things in common , and that therefore evolution is a religion . Examples of claims made in such arguments are statements that evolution is based on faith , that supporters of evolution revere Darwin as a prophet , and that supporters of evolution dogmatically reject alternative suggestions out @-@ of @-@ hand . These claims have become more popular in recent years as the neo @-@ creationist movement has sought to distance itself from religion , thus giving it more reason to make use of a seemingly anti @-@ religious analogy . In response , supporters of evolution have argued that no scientist 's claims , including Darwin 's , are treated as sacrosanct , as shown by the aspects of Darwin 's theory that have been rejected or revised by scientists over the years , to form first neo @-@ Darwinism and later the modern evolutionary synthesis . The claim that evolution relies on faith , often based on the creationist belief that evolution has never been observed , is likewise rejected on the grounds that evolution has strong supporting evidence , and therefore does not require faith . In general , the argument that evolution is religious has been rejected on the grounds that religion is not defined by how dogmatic or zealous its adherents are , but by its spiritual or supernatural beliefs . Evolutionary supporters point out evolution is neither dogmatic nor based on faith , and they accuse creationists of equivocating between the strict definition of religion and its colloquial usage to refer to anything that is enthusiastically or dogmatically engaged in . United States courts have also rejected this objection : Assuming for the purposes of argument , however , that evolution is a religion or religious tenet , the remedy is to stop the teaching of evolution , not establish another religion in opposition to it . Yet it is clearly established in the case law , and perhaps also in common sense , that evolution is not a religion and that teaching evolution does not violate the Establishment Clause . A related claim is that evolution is atheistic ( see the Atheism section below ) ; creationists sometimes merge the two claims and describe evolution as an " atheistic religion " ( cf. humanism ) . This argument against evolution is also frequently generalized into a criticism of all science ; it is argued that " science is an atheistic religion , " on the grounds that its methodological naturalism is as unproven , and thus as " faith @-@ based , " as the supernatural and theistic beliefs of creationism . = = = Unfalsifiability = = = A statement is considered falsifiable if there is an observation or a test that could be made that would demonstrate that the statement is false . Statements that are not falsifiable cannot be examined by scientific investigation since they permit no tests that evaluate their accuracy . Creationists such as Henry M. Morris have claimed that any observation can be fitted into the evolutionary framework , so it is impossible to demonstrate that evolution is wrong and therefore evolution is non @-@ scientific . However , evolution is considered falsifiable because it can make predictions that , were they contradicted by the evidence , would falsify evolution . Several kinds of evidence could falsify evolution , such as the fossil record showing no change over time , confirmation that mutations are prevented from accumulating , or observations showing organisms being created supernaturally or spontaneously . Many of Darwin 's ideas and assertions of fact have been falsified as evolutionary science has developed and has continued to confirm his central concepts . Despite this , creationism consists largely of unsubstantiated claims that evolution has been falsified . In contrast , creationist explanations involving the direct intervention of the supernatural in the physical world are not falsifiable , because any result of an experiment or investigation could be the unpredictable action of an omnipotent deity . In 1976 , the philosopher Karl Popper said that " Darwinism is not a testable scientific theory but a metaphysical research programme . " He later changed his mind and argued that Darwin 's " theory of natural selection is difficult to test " with respect to other areas of science . The most direct evidence that evolutionary theory is falsifiable may be the original words of Charles Darwin who , in chapter 6 of On the Origin of Species wrote : " If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed , which could not possibly have been formed by numerous , successive , slight modifications , my theory would absolutely break down . " If empirical evidence supported this instance , it would be affirmation of the creationist argument in favor of irreducible complexity . In response to the unfalsifiability criticism of evolutionary theory , numerous examples of potential ways to falsify evolution have been proposed . J. B. S. Haldane , when asked what hypothetical evidence could disprove evolution , replied " fossil rabbits in the Precambrian era . " Numerous other potential ways to falsify evolution have also been proposed . For example , the fact that humans have one fewer pair of chromosomes than the great apes offered a testable hypothesis involving the fusion or splitting of chromosomes from a common ancestor . The fusion hypothesis was confirmed in 2005 by discovery that human chromosome 2 is homologous with a fusion of two chromosomes that remain separate in other primates . Extra , inactive telomeres and centromeres remain on human chromosome 2 as a result of the fusion . The assertion of common descent could also have been disproven with the invention of DNA sequencing methods . If true , human DNA should be far more similar to chimpanzees and other great apes , than to other mammals . If not , then common descent is falsified . DNA analysis has shown that humans and chimpanzees share a large percentage of their DNA ( between 95 % to 99 @.@ 4 % depending on the measure ) . Also , the evolution of chimpanzees and humans from a common ancestor predicts a ( geologically ) recent common ancestor . Numerous transitional fossils have since been found . Hence , human evolution has passed several falsifiable tests . A related claim is that natural selection is tautological . Specifically , it is often argued that the phrase " survival of the fittest " is a tautology , in that fitness is defined as ability to survive and reproduce . However , this phrase , first used by Herbert Spencer in 1864 , is rarely used by biologists . Additionally , fitness is more accurately defined as the state of possessing traits that make survival more likely ; this definition , unlike simple " survivability , " avoids being trivially true . Similarly , it is argued that evolutionary theory is circular reasoning , in that evidence is interpreted as supporting evolution , but evolution is required to interpret the evidence . An example of this is the claim that geological strata are dated through the fossils they hold , but that fossils are in turn dated by the strata they are in . However , in most cases strata are not dated by their fossils , but by their position relative to other strata and by radiometric dating , and most strata were dated before the theory of evolution was formulated . In his 1982 book , Abusing Science : The Case Against Creationism , philosopher of science Philip Kitcher specifically addresses the " falsifiability " question by taking into account notable philosophical critiques of Popper by Carl Gustav Hempel and Willard Van Orman Quine that reject his definition of theory as a set of falsifiable statements . As Kitcher points out , if one took a strictly Popperian view of " theory , " observations of Uranus when first discovered in 1781 would have " falsified " Isaac Newton 's celestial mechanics . Rather , people suggested that another planet influenced Uranus ' orbit — and this prediction was indeed eventually confirmed . Kitcher agrees with Popper that " there is surely something right in the idea that a science can succeed only if it can fail . " But he insists that we view scientific theories as consisting of an " elaborate collection of statements , " some of which are not falsifiable , and others — what he calls " auxiliary hypotheses , " which are . According to Kitcher , good scientific theories must have three features — unity , fecundity , and independent testability of auxiliary hypotheses : Unity " A science should be unified .... Good theories consist of just one problem @-@ solving strategy , or a small family of problem @-@ solving strategies , that can be applied to a wide range of problems " ( 1982 : 47 ) . Fecundity " A great scientific theory , like Newton 's , opens up new areas of research ... Because a theory presents a new way of looking at the world , it can lead us to ask new questions , and so to embark on new and fruitful lines of inquiry ... Typically , a flourishing science is incomplete . At any time , it raises more questions than it can currently answer . But incompleteness is no vice . On the contrary , incompleteness is the mother of fecundity ... A good theory should be productive ; it should raise new questions and presume that those questions can be answered without giving up its problem @-@ solving strategies " ( 1982 : 47 – 48 ) . Auxiliary hypotheses that are independently testable " An auxiliary hypothesis ought to be testable independently of the particular problem it is introduced to solve , independently of the theory it is designed to save " ( 1982 : 46 ) ( e.g. the evidence for the existence of Neptune is independent of the anomalies in Uranus 's orbit ) . Like other definitions of theories , including Popper 's , Kitcher makes it clear that a good theory includes statements that have ( in his terms ) " observational consequences . " But , like the observation of irregularities in Uranus 's orbit , falsification is only one possible consequence of an observation . The production of new hypotheses is another possible — and equally important — observational consequence . Kitcher 's account of a good theory is based not only on his understanding of how physical sciences work . He is also taking into account the way the life sciences work . From Kitcher 's point of view , Darwinian theory not only meets the three conditions for a good scientific theory ; it is without question an extraordinarily successful theory : The heart of Darwinian evolutionary theory is a family of problem @-@ solving strategies , related by their common employment of a particular style of historical narrative . A Darwinian history is a piece of reasoning of the following general form . The first step consists in a description of an ancestral population of organisms . The reasoning proceeds by tracing the modification of the population through subsequent generations , showing how characteristics were selected , inherited , and became prevalent . Reasoning like this can be used to answer a host of biological questions . The same kind of story can be told again and again to answer all sorts of questions about all sorts of living things . Evolutionary theory is unified because so many diverse questions ... can be addressed by advancing Darwinian histories . Moreover , these narratives constantly make claims that are subject to independent check . Darwin not only provided a scheme for unifying the diversity of life . He also gave a structure to our ignorance . After Darwin , it was important to resolve general issues about the presuppositions of Darwinian histories . The way in which biology should proceed had been made admirably plain , and it was clear that biologists had to tackle questions for which they had , as yet , no answers . = = Evidence = = Objections to the evidence that evolution occurs tend to be more concrete and specific , often involving direct analysis of evolutionary biology 's methods and claims . = = = Lack of observation = = = A common claim of creationists is that evolution has never been observed . Challenges to such objections often come down to debates over how evolution is defined ( see the Defining evolution section above ) . Under the conventional biological definition of evolution , it is a simple matter to observe evolution occurring . Evolutionary processes , in the form of populations changing their genetic composition from generation to generation , have been observed in different scientific contexts , including the evolution of fruit flies , mice , and bacteria in the laboratory , and of tilapia in the field . Such studies on experimental evolution , particularly those using microorganisms , are now providing important insights into how evolution occurs , especially in the case of antibiotic resistance . In response to such examples , creationists specify that they are objecting only to macroevolution , not microevolution : most creationist organizations do not dispute the occurrence of short @-@ term , relatively minor evolutionary changes , such as that observed even in dog breeding . Rather , they dispute the occurrence of major evolutionary changes over long periods of time , which by definition cannot be directly observed , only inferred from microevolutionary processes and the traces of macroevolutionary ones . However , as biologists define macroevolution , both microevolution and macroevolution have been observed . Speciations , for example , have been directly observed many times , despite popular misconceptions to the contrary . Additionally , the modern evolutionary synthesis draws no distinction in the processes described by the theory of evolution when considering macroevolution and microevolution as the former is simply at the species level or above and the latter is below the species level . An example of this is ring species . Additionally , past macroevolution can be inferred from historical traces . Transitional fossils , for example , provide plausible links between several different groups of organisms , such as Archaeopteryx linking birds and dinosaurs , or the recently discovered Tiktaalik linking fish and limbed amphibians . Creationists dispute such examples , from asserting that such fossils are hoaxes or that they belong exclusively to one group or the other , to asserting that there should be far more evidence of obvious transitional species . Darwin himself found the paucity of transitional species to be one of the greatest weaknesses of his theory : Why then is not every geological formation and every stratum full of such intermediate links ? Geology assuredly does not reveal any such finely graduated organic chain ; and this , perhaps , is the most obvious and gravest objection which can be urged against my theory . The explanation lies , as I believe , in the extreme imperfection of the geological record . Darwin appealed to the limited collections then available , the extreme lengths of time involved , and different rates of change with some living species differing very little from fossils of the Silurian period . In later editions he added " that the periods during which species have been undergoing modification , though very long as measured by years , have probably been short in comparison with the periods during which these same species remained without undergoing any change . " The number of clear transitional fossils has increased enormously since Darwin 's day , and this problem has been largely resolved with the advent of the theory of punctuated equilibrium , which predicts a primarily stable fossil record broken up by occasional major speciations . As more and more compelling direct evidence for inter @-@ species and species @-@ to @-@ species evolution has been gathered , creationists have redefined their understanding of what amounts to a " created kinds , " and have continued to insist that more dramatic demonstrations of evolution be experimentally produced . One version of this objection is " Were you there ? , " popularized by young Earth creationist Ken Ham . It argues that because no one except God could directly observe events in the distant past , scientific claims are just speculation or " story @-@ telling . " DNA sequences of the genomes of organisms allow an independent test of their predicted relationships , since species which diverged more recently will be more closely related genetically than species which are more distantly related ; such phylogenetic trees show a hierarchical organization within the tree of life , as predicted by common descent . In fields such as astrophysics or meteorology , where direct observation or laboratory experiments are difficult or impossible , the scientific method instead relies on observation and logical inference . In such fields , the test of falsifiability is satisfied when a theory is used to predict the results of new observations . When such observations contradict a theory 's predictions , it may be revised or discarded if an alternative better explains the observed facts . For example , Newton 's theory of gravitation was replaced by Albert Einstein 's theory of general relativity when the latter was observed to more precisely predict the orbit of Mercury . = = = Unreliable evidence = = = A related objection is that evolution is based on unreliable evidence . This objection goes further than the less substantial " evolution isn 't proven " arguments , claiming that evolution isn 't even well @-@ evidenced . Typically , this is either based on the argument that evolution 's evidence is full of frauds and hoaxes , that current evidence for evolution is likely to be overturned as some past evidence has been , or that certain types of evidence are inconsistent and dubious . Arguments against evolution 's reliability are thus often based on analyzing the history of evolutionary thought or the history of science in general . Creationists point out that in the past , major scientific revolutions have overturned theories that were at the time considered near @-@ certain . They thus claim that current evolutionary theory is likely to undergo such a revolution in the future , on the basis that it is a " theory in crisis " for one reason or another . Critics of evolution commonly appeal to past scientific hoaxes such as the Piltdown Man forgery . It is argued that because scientists have been mistaken and deceived in the past about evidence for various aspects of evolution the current evidence for evolution is likely to also be based on fraud and error . Much of the evidence for evolution has been accused of being fraudulent at various times , including Archaeopteryx , peppered moth melanism , and Darwin 's finches ; these claims have been subsequently refuted . It has also been claimed that certain former pieces of evidence for evolution which are now considered out @-@ of @-@ date and erroneous , such as Ernst Haeckel 's 19th @-@ century comparative drawings of embryos , used to illustrate his recapitulation theory ( " ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny " ) , were not merely errors but frauds . Molecular biologist Jonathan Wells criticizes biology textbooks by alleging that they continue to reproduce such evidence after it has been debunked . In response , the National Center for Science Education notes that none of the textbooks reviewed by Wells makes the claimed error , as Haeckel 's drawings are shown in a historical context with discussion about why they are wrong , and the accurate modern drawings and photos used in the textbooks are misrepresented by Wells . = = = Unreliable chronology = = = Creationists claim that evolution relies on certain types of evidence that do not give reliable information about the past . For example , it is argued that radiometric dating technique of evaluating a material 's age based on the radioactive decay rates of certain isotopes generates inconsistent and thus unreliable results . Radiocarbon dating based on the carbon @-@ 14 isotope has been particularly criticized . It is argued that radiometric decay relies on a number of unwarranted assumptions such as the principle of uniformitarianism , consistent decay rates , or rocks acting as closed systems . Such arguments have been dismissed by scientists on the grounds that independent methods have confirmed the reliability of radiometric dating as a whole ; additionally , different radiometric dating methods and techniques have independently confirmed each other 's results . Another form of this objection is that fossil evidence is not reliable . This is based on a much wider range of claims . These include that there are too many " gaps " in the fossil record , that fossil @-@ dating is circular ( see the Unfalsifiability section above ) , or that certain fossils , such as polystrate fossils , are seemingly " out of place . " Examination by geologists have found polystrate fossils to be consistent with in situ formation . It is argued that certain features of evolution support creationism 's catastrophism ( cf . Great Flood ) , rather than evolution 's gradualistic punctuated equilibrium , which some assert is an ad hoc theory to explain the fossil gaps . = = Plausibility = = Some of the oldest and most common objections to evolution dispute whether evolution can truly account for all the apparent complexity and order in the natural world . It is argued that evolution is too unlikely or otherwise lacking to account for various aspects of life , and therefore that an intelligence , such as God of the Abrahamic religions , must at the very least be appealed to for those specific features . = = = Improbability = = = A common objection to evolution is that it is simply too unlikely for life , in its complexity and apparent " design , " to have arisen " by chance . " It is argued that the odds of life having arisen without a deliberate intelligence guiding it are so astronomically low that it is unreasonable not to infer an intelligent designer from the natural world , and specifically from the diversity of life . A more extreme version of this argument is that evolution cannot create complex structures ( see the Creation of complex structures section below ) . The idea that it is simply too implausible for life to have evolved is often wrongly encapsulated with a quotation that the " probability of life originating on Earth is no greater than the chance that a hurricane , sweeping through a scrapyard , would have the luck to assemble a Boeing 747 " — a claim attributed to astrophysicist Fred Hoyle and known as Hoyle 's fallacy . Hoyle was a Darwinist , atheist and anti @-@ theist , but advocated the theory of panspermia , in which abiogenesis begins in outer space and primitive life on Earth is held to have arrived via natural dispersion . Views superficially similar , but unrelated to Hoyle 's , are thus invariably justified with arguments from analogy . The basic idea of this argument for a designer is the teleological argument , an argument for the existence of God based on the perceived order or purposefulness of the universe . A common way of using this as an objection to evolution is by appealing to the 18th @-@ century philosopher William Paley 's watchmaker analogy , which argues that certain natural phenomena are analogical to a watch ( in that they are ordered , or complex , or purposeful ) , which means that , like a watch , they must have been designed by a " watchmaker " — an intelligent agent . This argument forms the core of intelligent design , a neo @-@ creationist movement seeking to establish certain variants of the design argument as legitimate science , rather than as philosophy or theology , and have them be taught alongside evolution . This objection is fundamentally an argument by lack of imagination , or argument from incredulity : a certain explanation is seen as being counterintuitive , and therefore an alternate , more intuitive explanation is appealed to instead . Supporters of evolution generally respond by arguing that evolution is not based on " chance , " but on predictable chemical interactions : natural processes , rather than supernatural beings , are the " designer . " Although the process involves some random elements , it is the non @-@ random selection of survival @-@ enhancing genes that drives evolution along an ordered trajectory . The fact that the results are ordered and seem " designed " is no more evidence for a supernatural intelligence than the appearance of complex natural phenomena ( e.g. snowflakes ) . It is also argued that there is insufficient evidence to make statements about the plausibility or implausibility of abiogenesis , that certain structures demonstrate poor design , and that the implausibility of life evolving exactly as it did is no more evidence for an intelligence than the implausibility of a deck of cards being shuffled and dealt in a certain random order . It has also been noted that arguments against some form of life arising " by chance " are really objections to nontheistic abiogenesis , not to evolution . Indeed , arguments against " evolution " are based on the misconception that abiogenesis is a component of , or necessary precursor to , evolution . Similar objections sometimes conflate the Big Bang with evolution . Christian apologist and philosopher Alvin Plantinga , a supporter of intelligent design , has formalized and revised the improbability argument as the evolutionary argument against naturalism , which asserts that it is irrational to reject a supernatural , intelligent creator because the apparent probability of certain faculties evolving is so low . Specifically , Plantinga claims that evolution cannot account for the rise of reliable reasoning faculties . Plantinga argues that whereas a God would be expected to create beings with reliable reasoning faculties , evolution would be just as likely to lead to unreliable ones , meaning that if evolution is true , it is irrational to trust whatever reasoning one relies on to conclude that it is true . This novel epistemological argument has been criticized similarly to other probabilistic design arguments . It has also been argued that rationality , if conducive to survival , is more likely to be selected for than irrationality , making the natural development of reliable cognitive faculties more likely than unreliable ones . = = = Unexplained aspects of the natural world = = = Biochemist Michael Behe has argued that current evolutionary theory cannot account for certain complex structures , particularly in microbiology . On this basis , Behe argues that such structures were " purposely arranged by an intelligent agent . " In addition to complex structures and systems , among the phenomena that critics variously claim evolution cannot explain are consciousness , hominid intelligence , instincts , emotions , metamorphosis , photosynthesis , homosexuality , music , language , religion , morality , and altruism ( see altruism in animals ) . Most of these , such as hominid intelligence , instinct , emotion , photosynthesis , language , and altruism , have been well @-@ explained by evolution , while others remain mysterious , or only have preliminary explanations . However , supporters of evolution contend that no alternative explanation has been able to adequately explain the biological origin of these phenomena either . Creationists argue against evolution on the grounds that it cannot explain certain non @-@ evolutionary processes , such as abiogenesis , the Big Bang , or the meaning of life . In such instances , evolution is being redefined to refer to the entire history of the universe , and it is argued that if one aspect of the universe is seemingly inexplicable , the entire body of scientific theories must be baseless . At this point , objections leave the arena of evolutionary biology and become general scientific or philosophical disputes . Astronomers Fred Hoyle and Chandra Wickramasinghe have argued in favor of cosmic ancestry , and against abiogenesis and evolution . = = Impossibility = = This class of objections is more radical than the above , claiming that a major aspect of evolution is not merely unscientific or implausible , but rather impossible , because it contradicts some other law of nature or is constrained in such a way that it cannot produce the biological diversity of the world . = = = Creation of complex structures = = = Living things have fantastically intricate features — at the anatomical , cellular and molecular level — that could not function if they were any less complex or sophisticated . The only prudent conclusion is that they are the products of intelligent design , not evolution . Modern evolutionary theory posits that all biological systems must have evolved incrementally , through a combination of natural selection and genetic drift . Both Darwin and his early detractors recognized the potential problems that could arise for his theory of natural selection if the lineage of organs and other biological features could not be accounted for by gradual , step @-@ by @-@ step changes over successive generations ; if all the intermediary stages between an initial organ and the organ it will become are not all improvements upon the original , it will be impossible for the later organ to develop by the process of natural selection alone . Complex organs such as the eye had been presented by William Paley as exemplifying the need for design by God , and anticipating early criticisms that the evolution of the eye and other complex organs seemed impossible , Darwin noted that : [ R ] eason tells me , that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple , each grade being useful to its possessor , can be shown to exist ; if further , the eye does vary ever so slightly , and the variations be inherited , which is certainly the case ; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life , then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection , though insuperable by our imagination , can hardly be considered real . Similarly , ethologist and evolutionary biologist Richard Dawkins said on the topic of the evolution of the feather in an interview for the television program The Atheism Tapes : There 's got to be a series of advantages all the way in the feather . If you can 't think of one , then that 's your problem not natural selection 's problem ... It 's perfectly possible feathers began as fluffy extensions of reptilian scales to act as insulators ... The earliest feathers might have been a different approach to hairiness among reptiles keeping warm . Creationist arguments have been made such as " What use is half an eye ? " and " What use is half a wing ? " . Research has confirmed that the natural evolution of the eye and other intricate organs is entirely feasible . Creationist claims have persisted that such complexity evolving without a designer is inconceivable , however , and this objection to evolution has been refined in recent years as the more sophisticated irreducible complexity argument of the intelligent design movement , formulated by Michael Behe . Irreducible complexity is the idea that certain biological systems cannot be broken down into their constituent parts and remain functional , and therefore that they could not have evolved naturally from less complex or complete systems . Whereas past arguments of this nature generally relied on macroscopic organs , Behe 's primary examples of irreducible complexity have been cellular and biochemical in nature . He has argued that the components of systems such as the blood clotting cascade , the immune system , and the bacterial flagellum are so complex and interdependent that they could not have evolved from simpler systems . In fact , my argument for intelligent design is open to direct experimental rebuttal . Here is a thought experiment that makes the point clear . In Darwin 's Black Box ( Behe 1996 ) I claimed that the bacterial flagellum was irreducibly complex and so required deliberate intelligent design . The flip side of this claim is that the flagellum can 't be produced by natural selection acting on random mutation , or any other unintelligent process . To falsify such a claim , a scientist could go into the laboratory , place a bacterial species lacking a flagellum under some selective pressure ( for mobility , say ) , grow it for ten thousand generations , and see if a flagellum--or any equally complex system--was produced . If that happened , my claims would be neatly disproven . In the years since Behe proposed irreducible complexity , new developments and advances in biology , such as an improved understanding of the evolution of flagella , have already undermined these arguments . The idea that seemingly irreducibly complex systems cannot evolve has been refuted through evolutionary mechanisms , such as exaptation ( the adaptation of organs for entirely new functions ) and the use of " scaffolding , " which are initially necessary features of a system that later degenerate when they are no longer required . Potential evolutionary pathways have been provided for all of the systems Behe used as examples of irreducible complexity . = = = = Cambrian explosion complexity argument = = = = The Cambrian explosion was the relatively rapid appearance around 542 million years ago of most major animal phyla as demonstrated in the fossil record , and many more phyla now extinct . This was accompanied by major diversification of other organisms . Prior to the Cambrian explosion most organisms were simple , composed of individual cells occasionally organized into colonies . Over the following 70 or 80 million years , the rate of diversification accelerated by an order of magnitude and the diversity of life began to resemble that of today , although they did not resemble the species of today . The basic problem with this is that natural selection calls for the slow accumulation of changes , where a new phyla would take longer than a new class which would take longer than a new order , which would take longer than a new family , which would take longer than a new genus would take longer than emergence of a new species but the apparent occurrence of high @-@ level taxa without precedents is perhaps implying unusual evolutionary mechanisms . There is general consensus that many factors helped trigger the Cambrian explosion , but there is no generally accepted consensus about the combination and the Cambrian explosion continues to be an area of controversy and research over why so rapid , why at the phylum level , why so many phyla then and none since , and even if the apparent fossil record is accurate . An example of opinions involving the commonly cited rise in oxygen Great Oxidation Event from biologist PZ Myers summarizes : " What it was was environmental changes , in particular the bioturbation revolution caused by the evolution of worms that released buried nutrients , and the steadily increasing oxygen content of the atmosphere that allowed those nutrients to fuel growth ; ecological competition , or a kind of arms race , that gave a distinct selective advantage to novelties that allowed species to occupy new niches ; and the evolution of developmental mechanisms that enabled multicellular organisms to generate new morphotypes readily . " The increase in molecular oxygen ( O2 ) also may have allowed the formation of the protective ozone layer ( O3 ) that helps shield Earth from lethal UV radiation from the Sun . = = = Creation of information = = = Another new , and increasingly common , objection of creationists to evolution is that evolutionary mechanisms such as mutation cannot generate new information . Creationists such as William A. Dembski , Werner Gitt , and Lee Spetner have attempted to use information theory to dispute evolution . Dembski has argued that life demonstrates specified complexity , and that evolution without an intelligent agent cannot account for the generation of information that would be required to produce specified complexity . These claims have been widely rejected by the scientific community ; new information is regularly generated in evolution , whenever a novel mutation or gene duplication arises . Dramatic examples of entirely new , unique traits arising through mutation have been observed in recent years , such as the evolution of nylon @-@ eating bacteria , which developed new enzymes to efficiently digest a material that never existed before the modern era . In fact , when an organism is considered together with the environment it evolved in , there is no need to account for the creation of information . The information in the genome forms a record of how it was possible to survive in a particular environment . It is not created , but rather gathered from the environment through research — by trial and error , as mutating organisms either reproduce or fail . A related argument against evolution is that most mutations are harmful . However , the vast majority of mutations are neutral , and the minority of mutations which are beneficial or harmful are often situational ; a mutation that is harmful in one environment may be helpful in another . = = = Violation of the second law of thermodynamics = = = Another objection is that evolution violates the second law of thermodynamics . Though the law applies to all systems , in the case of a closed one it states , " the entropy of an isolated system not in equilibrium will tend to increase over time , approaching a maximum value at equilibrium " . In other words , an ideal isolated system 's entropy ( a measure of the dispersal of energy in a physical system so that it is not available to do mechanical work ) will tend to increase or stay the same , not decrease . Creationists argue that evolution violates this physical law by requiring a decrease in entropy , or disorder , over time . This claim is based on a manifestation of the law only applicable to isolated systems , which do not exchange matter or energy with their surroundings . Organisms , in contrast , are open systems , as they constantly exchange energy and matter with their environment : for example animals eat food and excrete waste , and radiate and absorb heat . Similarly , the Earth absorbs energy from the Sun and emits energy back into space . The Sun @-@ Earth @-@ space system does not violate the second law , because the enormous increase in entropy due to the Sun and Earth radiating into space dwarfs the local decrease in entropy caused by the existence and evolution of self @-@ organizing life . Since the second law of thermodynamics has a precise mathematical definition , this argument can be analyzed quantitatively . This was done by physicist Daniel F. Styer , who concluded : " Quantitative estimates of the entropy involved in biological evolution demonstrate that there is no conflict between evolution and the second law of thermodynamics . " In a published letter to the editor of The Mathematical Intelligencer titled " How anti @-@ evolutionists abuse mathematics , " mathematician Jason Rosenhouse stated : The fact is that natural forces routinely lead to local decreases in entropy . Water freezes into ice and fertilised eggs turn into babies . Plants use sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen , but [ we do ] not invoke divine intervention to explain the process [ ... ] thermodynamics offers nothing to dampen our confidence in Darwinism . = = Moral implications = = Other common objections to evolution allege that evolution leads to objectionable results , including bad beliefs , behaviors , and events . It is argued that the teaching of evolution degrades values , undermines morals , and fosters irreligion or atheism . These may be considered appeals to consequences ( a form of logical fallacy ) , as the potential ramifications of belief in evolutionary theory have nothing to do with its objective empirical reality . = = = Humans as animals = = = In biological classification humans are animals , a basic point which has been known for more than 2 @,@ 000 years . The creationist J. Rendle @-@ Short asserted in Creation magazine that if people are taught evolution they can be expected to behave like animals : since animals behave in all sorts of different ways , this is meaningless . In evolutionary terms , humans are able to acquire knowledge and change their behaviour to meet social standards , so humans behave in the manner of other humans . = = = Social effects = = = In 1917 , Vernon Kellogg published Headquarters Nights : A Record of Conversations and Experiences at the Headquarters of the German Army in France and Belgium , which asserted that German intellectuals were totally committed to might @-@ makes @-@ right due to " whole @-@ hearted acceptance of the worst of Neo @-@ Darwinism , the Allmacht of natural selection applied rigorously to human life and society and Kultur . " This strongly influenced the politician William Jennings Bryan , who saw Darwinism as a moral threat to America and campaigned against evolutionary theory ; his campaign culminated in the Scopes Trial , which effectively prevented teaching of evolution in most public schools until the 1950s . Some creationists claim that perceived social ills like crime , teenage pregnancies , homosexuality , abortion , immorality , wars , and genocide are caused by a belief in evolution . R. Albert Mohler , Jr . , president of the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary in Louisville , Kentucky , wrote August 8 , 2005 , in NPR 's Taking Issue essay series , that " Debates over education , abortion , environmentalism , homosexuality and a host of other issues are really debates about the origin — and thus the meaning — of human life . ... evolutionary theory stands at the base of moral relativism and the rejection of traditional morality . " Henry M. Morris , engineering professor and founder of the Creation Research Society and the Institute of Creation Research , claims that evolution was part of a pagan religion that emerged after the Tower of Babel , was part of Plato 's and Aristotle 's philosophies , and was responsible for everything from war to pornography to the breakup of the nuclear family . Rev. D. James Kennedy of The Center for Reclaiming America for Christ and Coral Ridge Ministries claims that Darwin was responsible for Adolf Hitler 's atrocities . In Kennedy 's documentary , and the accompanying pamphlet with the same title , Darwin 's Deadly Legacy , Kennedy states that " To put it simply , no Darwin , no Hitler . " In his efforts to expose the " harmful effects that evolution is still having on our nation , our children , and our world , " Kennedy also states that , " We have had 150 years of the theory of Darwinian evolution , and what has it brought us ? Whether Darwin intended it or not , millions of deaths , the destruction of those deemed inferior , the devaluing of human life , increasing hopelessness . " The Discovery Institute 's Center for Science and Culture fellow Richard Weikart has made similar claims , as have other creationists . The claim was central to the documentary film Expelled : No Intelligence Allowed ( 2008 ) promoting intelligent design creationism . The Anti @-@ Defamation League describes such claims as outrageous misuse of the Holocaust and its imagery , and as trivializing the " ... many complex factors that led to the mass extermination of European Jewry . Hitler did not need Darwin or evolution to devise his heinous plan to exterminate the Jewish people , and Darwin and evolutionary theory cannot explain Hitler 's genocidal madness . Moreover , anti @-@ Semitism existed long before Darwin ever wrote a word . " Young Earth creationist Kent Hovind blames communism , socialism , World War I , World War II , racism , the Holocaust , Stalin 's war crimes , the Vietnam War , and Pol Pot 's Killing Fields on evolution , as well as the increase in crime , unwed mothers , and other social ills . Hovind 's son Eric Hovind claims that evolution is responsible for tattoos , body piercing , premarital sex , unwed births , sexually transmitted diseases ( STDs ) , divorce , and child abuse . Supporters of evolution dismiss such criticisms as counterfactual , and some argue that the opposite seems to be the case . A study published by the author and illustrator Gregory S. Paul found that religious beliefs , including belief in creationism and disbelief in evolution , are positively correlated with social ills like crime . The Barna Group surveys find that Christians and non @-@ Christians in the U.S. have similar divorce rates , and the highest divorce rates in the U.S. are among Baptists and Pentecostals , both sects which reject evolution and embrace creationism . Michael Shermer argued in Scientific American in October 2006 that evolution supports concepts like family values , avoiding lies , fidelity , moral codes and the rule of law . He goes on to suggest that evolution gives more support to the notion of an omnipotent creator , rather than a tinkerer with limitations based on a human model , the more common image subscribed to by creationists . Careful analysis of the creationist charges that evolution has led to moral relativism and the Holocaust yields the conclusion that these charges appear to be highly suspect . Such analyses conclude that the origins of the Holocaust are more likely to be found in historical Christian anti @-@ Semitism than in evolution . Evolution has been used to justify Social Darwinism , the exploitation of " lesser breeds without the law " by " superior races , " particularly in the nineteenth century . Strong , typically European , nations successfully expanded their empires , and as such , these strong nations could be said to have " survived " in the struggle for dominance . With this attitude , Europeans , with the exception of Christian missionaries , seldom adopted the customs and languages of local people under their empires . = = = Atheism = = = Another charge leveled at evolutionary theory by creationists is that belief in evolution is either tantamount to atheism , or conducive to atheism . It is commonly claimed that all proponents of evolutionary theory are " materialistic atheists . " On the other hand , Davis A. Young argues that creation science itself is harmful to Christianity because its bad science will turn more away than it recruits . Young asks , " Can we seriously expect non @-@ Christians to develop a respect for Christianity if we insist on teaching the brand of science that creationism brings with it ? " However , evolution neither requires nor rules out the existence of a supernatural being . Philosopher Robert T. Pennock makes the comparison that evolution is no more atheistic than plumbing . H. Allen Orr , professor of biology at University of Rochester , notes that : Of the five founding fathers of twentieth @-@ century evolutionary biology — Ronald Fisher , Sewall Wright , J. B. S. Haldane , Ernst Mayr , and Theodosius Dobzhansky — one was a devout Anglican who preached sermons and published articles in church magazines , one a practicing Unitarian , one a dabbler in Eastern mysticism , one an apparent atheist , and one a member of the Russian Orthodox Church and the author of a book on religion and science . In addition , a wide range of religions have reconciled a belief in a supernatural being with evolution . Molleen Matsumura of the National Center for Science Education found that " of Americans in the twelve largest Christian denominations , 89 @.@ 6 % belong to churches that support evolution education . " These churches include the " United Methodist Church , National Baptist Convention USA , Evangelical Lutheran Church in America , Presbyterian Church ( USA ) , National Baptist Convention of America , African Methodist Episcopal Church , the Roman Catholic Church , the Episcopal Church , and others . " A poll in 2000 done for People for the American Way found that 70 % of the American public felt that evolution was compatible with a belief in God . Only 48 % of the people polled could choose the correct definition of evolution from a list , however . One poll reported in the journal Nature showed that among American scientists ( across various disciplines ) , about 40 percent believe in both evolution and an active deity ( theistic evolution ) . This is similar to the results reported for surveys of the general American public . Also , about 40 percent of the scientists polled believe in a God that answers prayers , and believe in immortality . While about 55 % of scientists surveyed were atheists , agnostics , or nonreligious theists , atheism is far from universal among scientists who support evolution , or among the general public that supports evolution . Very similar results were reported from a 1997 Gallup Poll of the American public and scientists . Traditionalists still object to the idea that diversity in life , including human beings , arose through natural processes without a need for supernatural intervention , and they argue against evolution on the basis that it contradicts their literal interpretation of creation myths about separate " kinds . " However , many religions , such as Catholicism , have reconciled their beliefs with evolution through theistic evolution . = I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret ( album ) = I 'm Going to Tell You a Secret is the first live album by American singer @-@ songwriter Madonna , containing songs from the documentary of same name . The film chronicled the behind @-@ the @-@ scenes of Madonna 's Re @-@ Invention World Tour ( 2004 ) , and was directed by Jonas Åkerlund . The album was released on June 20 , 2006 , in a two @-@ disc format , a CD with 13 songs from the show plus a demo from her tenth studio album Confessions on a Dance Floor ( 2005 ) , and a DVD with the documentary film . The documentary and the album were also released as digital download to the iTunes Store . The live CD consisted of two pre @-@ recorded tracks , " The Beast Within " and " Hollywood " while extras on the DVD included 12 deleted scenes from the documentary . The release received positive response from critics and was nominated for a Grammy Award at the 2007 show in the category of Best Long Form Music Video . It peaked within the top @-@ ten of the album charts in Belgium , Canada , France , Germany , Italy and Switzerland , while the DVD topped the video charts in Australia , Spain and the United States . = = Background and release = = The Re @-@ Invention World Tour was the sixth concert tour by Madonna . It supported her ninth studio album American Life , and visited North America and Europe . Madonna was inspired to create the tour , after taking part in an art installation called X @-@ STaTIC PRo = CeSS , directed by photographer Steven Klein . She incorporated the images from the installation in the tour , whose name was in reality a dig at Madonna 's critics . A number of songs were rehearsed for the tour , with twenty	Very Long	wikitext-103-excerpt

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